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A PRACTICAL TREATISE

ON THB

MEDICAL & SURGICAL USES

ELECTRICITY.

including:

Localized and General Faradization ; Localized and Central

Galvanization; Electrolysis and Galvano-Cauterv.

GEO. M. BEARD, A.M., M.D.,

MEMBBR or THB NEW YORK BOCnCTT OT KRCnOLOOT Ain> ELRCTROLOQT : rRLLOW OV TUB SKW
TOBK ACAOIOIY OF HKDICiyB ; UKMBKR OP THK NEW TOKK COUNTY MKUICAIi

socibty; phyhjcian to demilt dispbssaby, riEPARTMKirr of

BLWnnO-TBJUAPBDTICS AKD HKBVOUS niMHAHitg, JSIO.
AND

A. D. ROCKWELL, A.M., M.D.,

or THB HKW YORK SOCIETY Or VEOROLOflY AND KLKCTROIXXTY : rELLOW Or TU KKW
YORK ACAOKBfY Or HRDICINB: MEMBER OP THE SEW YORK OOUNTT HBDHJAL
SOCUCnr; BLBOTRO-THERAPETmirr to the woman's BOflPITAIi
or THB 8IATB Or HBW TOBK.

Second Edition^ Revised^ Enlarged^ and mostly Re-written,
WITH NEARLY T-WO HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS.

NEW YORK:
WILLIAM WOOD & CO., 27 GREAT JONES ST.

1878.

WILLIAM WOOD & Ca

., ,•••••• • •« • . > .

Ttow*s

FanrmtG amd BooKantonia Obh«

■09413 Emtt tUk St^

JOHN T. METCALFE, M D.,

PROFESSOR OF CLINICAL MEDICINE IN THE COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS
AND SURGEONS, NEW YORK,

T/fis Work is Dedicated,

WITH THE GRATEFUL ESTEEM

THE AUTHORS

,vi PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

this source flow at least half the blunders, discouragements, and ill

success that novices in this branch so painfully experience. The undu

latory theory of the electrical force that is adopted in this edition is, so

far as can now be seen, consistent and harmonious, and it explains

better than any other theory the varied and complex phenomena of

electro-physiology and electro-therapeutics.

The chemistry of the batteries, it will be seen, is explained in full
detail, and in accordance with recent chemical facts and nomenclature.

To Ohm's Law, at once so important and so difficult, a separate and
special chapter has been assigned ; and no effort has been spared to
make it clear in all its practical relations to all trained minds who will
give it close and careful attention.

In the preparation of the section on Electro-physics we have beenr
favored with the advice and suggestions of a number of our most dis-
tinguished physicists and mathematicians ; and especially are we indebt-
ed to Prof. Henry T. Eddy, of Cincinnati, who has interested himself in
the attempt here made to put the most recent theories and facts of
electro-physics in a shape at once clear, compact, and trustworthy.

The need of a section of this kind has been most urgent, for the
treatises on the physics of electricity that have been most accessible
are either far behind the time or have been expressed so blindly
as to be of little value to electro-therapeutists. Even the best of the
more recent writers on the physics of electricity, as Fleming Jenkins,
and Latimer Clarke, have not adapted their works to the wants of those
who use electricity in therapeutics.

Electro-physiology is largely rewritten and considerably enlarged
It includes a large number of our own experiments, mostly made dur-
ing the past three years, as well as a compact r6suni6 of all the more
recent studies in this branch by European and American observers.
The general relation of electro-physiology to electro-therapeutics has
been brought into prominence at every point.

The method of central galvanization that we have systematized and
introduced to the profession since the publication of the first edition is
here described and illustrated in full detail. The great practical
advantages of this method of galvanization over localized galvanization
of the nerve-centres — and in many cases over general faradization — are
already well understood by many of our leading electro-therapeutists.

There are now introduced into science, six methods of using electri-
city for the treatment of disease : localized faradization and localized
galvanization, general faradization, central galvanization, and, in electro-
surgery, electrolysis and galvano-cautery.

Viii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

its purely diagnostic and therapeutic relations ; for all such this edi
tion is designed to be a work of exhaustive reference. Those, how
ever, whose aims are lower will here find the purely practical and
clinical department clearly presented by a large variety of illustrations of
the various methods of application, and by details of more than two
hundred cases, including every type of medical and surgical disease, for
which electricity by any method of application has been used with any
encouraging results.

To those who, since the first edition of this work was out of press,
have grown weary in waiting for the long-promised appearance of the
second edition, we may express the hope that they will find in the
present treatise sufficient evidences of original experience and research
to fiilly account for, if not to justify the annoying delay.

GEO. M. BEARD, A. D. ROCKWELL,

53 West 33d Street, N. Y. 122 Madison Avenue, N. Y.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

The object of this work is to present, in a compact, practical form,
all that is now known on the application of electricity to the treatment
of disease. The aim of the authors has been to combine their own
extensive and varied researches with localized and general electriza-
tion, and the labors of all other recent explorers in electro-therapeutics,
in a summary which should be at once practical and exhaustive, and
which should represent with strict impartiality all that has beeu really ^
accomplished in this department by every school, in every country, and
by all methods.

For this undertaking the authors have been prepared by an experi-

, ence acquired in more than 10,000 applications of electricity in a wide

variety of morbid conditions, and by personal observation of the

methods and the results of the recognized leaders in this important

field of science.

For convenience of reference, and in order to avoid repetition and
confusion, the work is divided into Eifctro-PhysUs, Electro-Physiology^
Electro-Therapeutics^ and Electro-Surgery. It is believed that by this
arrangement the work will be more acceptable both to the majority
who seek to consult the distinctively practical portions, and to the few
who may desire also to investigate the subject of electricity in its
ph)'sical and physiological relations.

General electrization, which the authors were the first in the profes-
sion to systematically investigate, is here, for the first tiu^e, described
and illustrated in systematic detail of its modus operandi and its very
remarkable effects in conditions of debility.

The general differential indications for the use of the two cur-
rents and for the use of localized and general applications, we have
sought to distinguish and elucidate by logical deductions from the
kno%m principles of electro-therapeutics, and, above all, from extend-
ed experimental conjparison. The knowledge of electro-therapeutical
anatomy, which is so essential for an intelligent electro-diagnosis in
iherapcittics, we have endeavored to facilitate by concise and explicit
Jllustralions. The drawings for ilUistralions of the different methods
of electrisation were made from photographs taken during the applica-
tions.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITICN.

In the selection and detailed description of apparatus, both the tastd
of the specialist and the imperative needs of the general practitioner
have been constantly borne in mind ; and while nearly all the most im-
proved forms of machines for both currents have received notice,
minute description and ilUistraiion have been reserved only for those
that experience has shown unite in the highest degree the qualities of
convenience and compactness, with accessibility and uniformity of ac-
tion. When we began our experiments in this department, there \va«
in this country no satisfactory apparatus either for the faradic or the
galvanic current, and for this reason our early observations were made
under exceeding disadvantages.

The ditficulty has for a number of years been partly met by the
electro-magnetic apparatus of Kidder, which, for all the essential qual-
ities required, is as yet unsurpassed. We early became convinced that
scientific electrotherapeutics required also a galvanic apparatus which
should be at least more compact and more portable than those which
had been usually employed, and that to be forced to depend on appa-
ratus of foreign construction would both retard the progress and prac-
tically prohibit the popularization of electro-therapeutics. Amid many
discouragements which only those who have pursued similar investiga-
tions can well appreciate, we have striven to overcome this serious evil
and lo prepare a galvanic apparatus which should be both simple and
enduring, and which could be used at the bedside as well as in the
hospital or consulting-room. Through the skill and intelligence of the
mechanician above-mentioned, we are now able to present an appa-
ratus for the galvanic current which, if not on the one hand so com-
]uct, or on the other so elaborate as others to which we have called
attention, is yet, in the wide variety of size and shape of which it is
capable, in the simplicity of its construction, and the ease of its man-
agement, perhaps even better fitted to supply the general want.

EUctro'Surgery^ though a young and as yet but little developed
branch of electro-therapeutics, is yet of such intrinsic importance and
interest, and so fruitful in promise for the future, diat it has been
deemed worthy o{ separate and special consideration.

In the preparation of the detailed and statistical reports of cases, we
have sought to give a picture tliat shall be so accurate, and so tme to
experience, that it may be unfailingly recognized by all those who pur-
sue a similar line of experiment. The somewhat deserved reproach
against electro-therapeutists, that they publish only their most fortunate
results, we have endeavored to avert by giving prominence to failures
as well as to successes ; by Doting relapses as well as pennanent re

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

covenes. We have been not unmindful of the fact thai statistical re-
ports of the results of any method of treatment, however conscien-
tiously prepared, must be at best incomplete, and to a certain extent
illusory. Therapeutics is always a subject of vast complications. It
is probable that in some of the cases reported as absolute or approxi-
mate recoveries, nature and time, and in a few instances, perhaps,
other medicinal or hygienic treatment bore as large a share as the ai>-
plications themselves. We have, however, endeavored to make* all
proper allowances for the influence of these various factors ; and in
the few exceptional cases where medicinal has been combined wth
electrical treatment, the fact has been mentioned, and cases of posi-
tive doubt have been excluded from consideration. For the study of
the special effects of electrical treatment, when used alone, we have
been peculiarly fortunate, since the vast majority of our cases had
abandoned medication before they were referred to our care. On the
other band, it is indisputably true that some of the cases reported as
solute failures, or as but slightly benefited, were kept from perfect

ecovery by the indulgence of evil habits of hygiene ; and it is fully
probable tliat some of them, as well as of those reported as unknown,
appreciated the after results of the treatment and went on to recovery.
Still further, it is in every way probable that some of the failures might,
by greater perseverance on the part of the patients, have been trans-
formed into perfect successes.

It is believed that these various errors to a certain extent counter-
^balance each other, and that on the whole our statistical reports fairly

tpresent, so far as they go, the legitimate results of the electrical

treatment. And yet it should be considered that the majority of the

es represented in our statistics were both Tong-standing and pecu-

arly obstinate, and there is ground for the belief that those who treat
milder and tnore recent cases by the same methods, wll obtain a larger
percentage of success.

It will be observed that throughout the work these leading ideas are
kept constantly in the foreground as the foundation principles on which
must rc&l the science of electro-therapeutics : — •

1. That electrization, besides being merely a local stimulant, also
KCTciscs an influence over general and local nutrition, at once unique
nd unrivalled, and that entitles it to the highest rank among constitu-
tional tonics.

2. That the accepted system of making the applications exclusively
local is both illogical and inconsistent ; that in the use of electricity,
as of every other remedy, constitutional diseases should be treated
constitutionally.

Xll

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

3. That the best method of bringing the whole system under th«
direct influence of the current is by general electrization as here de*
scribed ; and that by the use of this method the success of electro-
thcrapeuiics is materially enhanced, and its sphere very gieatly widened,
so as to include a variety of frequent and distressing constitutional
morbid conditions, for which merely localized electri^ation is but im-
perfectly indicated-

4. That, in determining the influence of the electrical aj)plication9
on conditions of disease the last appeal must be made, not to physics
nor to physiology, nor to pathology, nor to any ti/nVr reasoning what-
ever, but solely and alone to clinical experience.

To those who adhere to the Iong-accei>ted theory that electricity is
m^ely a means for local stimulation, and, as such, chiefly indicated in
the severe or incurable conditions of paralysis or chronic rheumatism,
or who hope to reduce electro-therapeutics to an exact science on the
basis of a complete physiology and pathology, the above propositions
must seem both radical and erroneous, and especially so if they have
studied the action of electricity on the body merely by localized appli-
cations.

Therefore with all the greater interest and pleasure have wc ob-
served that, during the last few years, there has been in electro-thera-
peutical literature a manifest and increasing tendency to abandon the
narrow doctrines of merely local stimulation, to accept the fact which
experience everywhere confirms, that in electricity we have an unsur-
passed means of improving the general nutrition in the immense va-
riety of chronic morbid conditions where such results are cliielly indi-
cated ; and we express the confident hope ihat the abundant and varied
evidence with which in the present work we have been enabled to for-
tify these propositions, increased and enriched as it may be by the ex-
perience of the future, and harmonizing as it surely must with the gen-
eral progress of science, will materially aid in bringing nearer the day
of their universal acceptance.

AlthotJgh this work is not intended to be in any sense a complete
guide to the study of chronic diseases of the nei*\'ous system, yet some
general remarks on the nature, causation, and the diagnosis of the
princii'al of these diseases have been deemed both a|>propriate and
necessary, for the twofold reason that such knowledge is necessary for
an intelligent appreciation of the directions for the treatment, and also
because very many of the diseases here mentioned — such as nervou»
dyspepsia, spinal irritation, neurasthenia, hypochondriasis, insomniity
locomotor ataxy, muscular atrophy, sj>inal and infantile paralysis, m
well as some of the varieties of neuralgia — have not received in any

PREFACE TO TFIE FIRST EDITION.

XIII

popular text-book the practical attention which their vast importance
in electro-therapeutics requires.

Scientific electro therapeutics requires scientific diagnosis. He who
only knows how to apply electricity is not fit to do even that. Suc-
cessful results in electro-therapeutics can be and are obtained by the
most ignorant of charlatans, but to intelligently report these successes
or make them of value to science requires the best skill of the physi-
cian. Mere hand-books of electrical applications cannot be otherwise
tliaa injurious to science. Other conditions being the same, the value
of reports of cases in electro-therapeutics is in direct proportion to the
accuracy and completeness of the di.agnosis. For this reason it is that
electro therapeutics is the most exacting and laborious of all the
special departments, for in a certain sense it trenches on and necessi-
tates a knowledge of all other departments.

In tile strict sense of the word, therefore, the electro-therapeutist is
no specialist, since his idea! — which of course he can but imperfectly
fulfil — must be to know something of every department with which
electro therapeutics brings him into relation. His ambition, hke that
of Bacon, must be " to make all knowledge his province."

Besides a thorough familiarity with the department of nervous dis-
$, and especially with the recent methods of studying them by the
jcsthesiometer, the ophthalmoscope, and by electricity, it is necessary
(or the electro- therapeutist to avail himself of all the advances that are
made in the special departments of gynaecology, ophthalmology, otol-
ogy, laryngology, and dermatology, as well as general medicine and
surgery.

In respect to diagnosis we have ourselves been exceptionally fa-
vored, since the majorit}' of our cases have obtained the oi>inion of one
or more acknowledged authorities in their respective departtnents.

That all the special views on the nature and treatment of the dis-
cs here mentioned should meet with universal acceptance, is more
ban can be expected. Everywhere we tread on debatable ground.
In regard to the nature, the causation, the symptoms, the general treat-
ment, the divisions and the terminology of diseases, the choice of cur-
rents, the methods of applications, the relative merits of rival appa-
ratus, — -in these and in many other subjects there is room for the
widest possible divergence of honest opinion among those whose abili-
ties and opportunities entitle their opinions to the highest respect.
On all tliese controverted themes we present nothing as a finality, noth-
ing which we shall not readily modify in the light of sufficient inductive
evidence.

X!V

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

More than almost any other department, electro-therapeutics has
suffered from its terminology. So large is the number of synonpns,
and so indefinite the meaning of many of the words and phrases
wliich have come into use, that intelligent conversation on the subject
has been well-nigh impossible. This crying evil, from the 1 rst, we
have sought to rectify, and with this view we have resolutely ai d uni-
formly distinguished the two currents as farad'u and galvanic^ d scard-
ing entirely their various and complex synonyms. It is believec' that
this and other changes which we have made are in the direction of
simplicity, and thai they will shorten the labors of the student, anc wili
serve to recommend rather than repel the earnest inquirer.

It will be observed that in this work the future as well as the past
has been regarded, and that a number of diseases are mentioned, for
the sake chiefly of the promise and the hope which they offer for elec-
tro-therapeutics. The object of such mention is to inspire authoritica
in the several departments to co-operate with electro-therapeutists in
the important and difficult task of submitting these diseases to faithful
and rigid experiment, and to those who may be induced to do so we
beg leave to oSTcr these suggestions v —

Fint. That they do not suffer themselves to be misled or in any
tray controlled by theoretical reasoning. Already the advance of elec-
tricity into the domain of medicine has been retarded, at least a quar<
ter of a century, by erroneous or undemonstrable theories concerning
the action of electricity or the nature of diseases, or more recently by
futile attempts to make electro-physiology a sufficient basis for electro-
therapeutics. It cannot be too often repeated, that the essence of
eUctrotherapeut'us is clinical experience. Electro- physiology is a
science at once noble, interesting, and suggestive, but in its relations
to electro-therapeutics, with very few limitations indeed, it should fol-
low rather than precede, should explain rather than guide.

Secondly. That they do not confine their attention too exclusively to
diseases which have a merely pathological interest. We but represent
the growing sentiment of tlie ablest medical thinkers of our time, when
we assert that in recent days, in nearly all departments, therapeutics
has been sacrificed to pathology, and that diseases, however prevalenti
and however painful, which offer no interesting pathological history,
are practically neglected. Now it is safe to assert that in this country
at least, there is immeasurably more suffering in the higher walks of life
frura the somewhat indefinite condition known as nervous dyspepsia
than from all forms of paralysis combined ; and any remedy which,
Uke general electrization, promises almost sure relief for this condilioui

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

and which at the same time, by its powerful effects over nutrition,
tends to jirevent or delay the visitation of incurable central lesions, is
surely worthy of careful study. It is especially unfortunate for the stu-
dent of chronic diseases of the nervous system that nearly all the
works on practical medicine have been of foreign authorship, and have
been based on hospital ratlier than on private practice ; for the types
of disease are modified by social position and occupation as much as
by race or climate, and the nameless symptoms associated with chronic
nervous exhaustion which are found in every family among the higher
walks of American society, and in greater variety and severity than in
any other country, should receive the earnest attention of all practi-
tioners, if necessary even to the exclusion of the rare and exceptional
pathological cases to be found in our public institutions, however inter-
esting or suggestive they may be. As wiU be seen in the course of the
present work, this class of cases are, of all others, the most amenable
to electrical treatment, and therefore demand the special study of the
electro- therapeutist. Withal it should be remembered that electro-
therapeutics has not been entirely useless to pathology, since, in ob-
scure cases, the locality if not the precise nature of the disease, is in-
dicated by the results of treatment.

Thirdly. That unfavorable as well as favorable results be accurately
reported. Every failure which is published in detail is, in one way, as
much a fact for science as a success, since it reduces and guides the
labors of future experimenters. In our estimate of any remedy, it is im-
portant that we should know its weakness as well as its strength.
Those who know the roost of electricity in its relations to medicine will
be the last to regard it as an unfailing specihc.

If investigations are everywhere pursued in this spirit and by those

Dst competent to make them, the reproach of Mr. Lecky, that '* The
medical powers of electricity, which of all kno>vn agencies bears most
resemblance to life, are unexplored," will cease to be deserved.

To all who for the first time enter upon the study of this branch of
science, we cannot too strongly recommend the practice of self-experi-
mfniaiion. Better than any experiments on animals, better even, in
many features, than extended investigations in the treatment of dis-
ease, is tlie precise and peculiar knowledge of the modus operandi of
the applications, and the sensations which they produce, which is ob-
tained through personal experience.

Compared with internal remedies, electricity has the great disadvan
tage that, on account of the necessary mechanical and technical diffi
culties in the way of its successful employment, it cannot be rapidly

X%1

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

pOiHiUritcd. Drugs for internal administrarion^ like bromide of potas-
uuin autl hydrate of chloral, can spread over the earth in less time than
it rrviuircd even for the specialist to master the elements of electro- 1
^CTKpeiitics. There is little doubt that if electricity could be given in I
IIm fonii of pills or powders as successfidly as it is now employed, its
Hit would be increased one thousand-fold.

Contidering all the technical difficulties in the way of the rapid pop-
ttlMIAAtion of electro-therapeutics, its recent progress is something un-
IMtftllelcd in the history of science ; the dark days of its history are
OTCt, »nd ihcy can never return.

That an agent which, by the almost unanimous consent of the pro-
l^tajon, was resigned to outsiders and to those who were always igno-
ItMt and usually unscrupulous ; which in textbooks and lecture-rooms
WM wcuiioncd only in tones of warning or disrespect; and which in
iKIi country, but a very few years since, was sunk so low that he who
attempted to raise it was believed thereby to imperil his professional
and HKial position— should, in so short a time, and against such in-
herent Icchnical difficulties, assume a jwjsition side by side with its
Ki«i< * tifs, where it should be taught in our schools, incorporated
in I K . of general and special medicine^ should occupy the at-

Uhtlun of fiome of the ablest leaders of modern thought, and should
attHitc the (Milhuiwiasin of all ranks of the profession as no other special
ijopmtment hus ever done, might well have seemed past belief, even
to thoip who had the strongest faith in the Hberality and activity of
<Mlf tltn«u

Thff lioncficenl results of this progress will not be confined to elec-
tro thrrwpeutic^ ; they will react favorably on all departments, and cs-
(ifdttlly t»n general therapeutics, by diffusing a wider liberality and a
UrOAdwr ipiril of inductive investigation. The paths of all future ex-
uliuvrn In the ncicntific treatment of disease will have been made
Mtit^i «nd fcftfcr by the toils and the triumphs of this one department.
Hviu'tciriirth I he cause will need not so much energy as guidance; not
■o iiuu h oulhuniaim as wisdom.

Wr trtkc lhi« occasion to express our thanks to the very many able
mm in tlio prufeiiion who, in ways innumerable, and from the outset
at our invrftlignlioni, have so warmly co-operated in our labors, and
whuMt inlclhgirnt sympathy and substantial encouragement for a cause
that Wfu yrl on it* trial in America, have largely contributed to what-
•Vot Uph'**^ ^^ huccets we have been enabled to achieve.

G. M. R AND A. D. R.

CONTENTS.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

CHAPTER L

A KNOWLBDGS OF THS PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-PHYSICS NECESSARY TO

THE ELECTRO-THERAPEUTIST— Definition of electricity— Mao-
NBTISM. Polarity of magnets— Magnetic induction— Physical effects
of magnetization — Magnetic poles — Variations of the needle — Solar
origin of magnetism. I.13

CHAPTER II.
Frictionai, or staticai, or Franxlinian electricity. Statical in-
doction— Distribution of electricity — Holtz's machine— Electrophoros
— Gold-leaf electroscope — heydea jar. , , 14-24

CHAPTER III.
Galvanism, or voltaic electricity. Chemistry of the battery— Sim-
ple galvanic circles — Polarity of the circuit— Electro-chemical series —
Amalgamation — Polarity of electricity — Derived or branch currents —
Polarization of electrodes — Daniell*s and Grove's batteries — Zinc-car-
boa batteries — Smee's battery — Galvanometers— Vol ta's researches. . . 25-53

CHAPTER IV.

Elbctroi.tsis(xlxctro-chsmistry). Laws of electrolyas— Theory of

dectrolysis 5^-58

CHAPTER V.

Induced electricity— ^Current and magneto induction— Electro-
magnetism. Ampere's theory of magnetism — Electro-magnetic helix
— Induction coils — RuhmkorflTs coil — Magneto-electricity — History of
induction 59-7'

CHAPTER VI.
Thermo-electricity. Thermo-multiplier — Thermo-electric batteries. . . 72-76

CHAPTER VIL
Ohm's Law and its practical application to electro-therapeu-
tics. Electro-motive force — Tension or potential — Reastance —
Qoantity or strength of current— Large cells vs. small cells 77-95

XVllI

CONTENTS.

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.

Relation of electro-physiology to elkct»o-theiiapeutics — Ani-
mal ELECTRICITY. Electric fishes— Galvani and Volta— Humboldt's
and Aldini's researches — Du Bois- Reyinond^s discoveries — Expeii*
mcDts of Trowbridge. 99~li

CHAPTER II.

Electrotonos, anelectrotonos, ani> catelectrotonos. Du Boi»-
Reymond's inoleciillar theory of anelectrotonos — Effects of electrotonos
— PflOger's contraction law , Ill-fl

CHAPTER in.

Action of electricity on the skjn. Action of the faradic current —

Of the galvanic current — Electro-anaesthesia I l7->iai

CHAPTER IV.

Action of electricity on the brain and spinal cord. Galvanization

of the brain — Experiments of Hitzig, Ferrier, and others. 124-127

CHAPTER V.

Action of blectricitv on the sympathetic and pneumogasteic.

Experiments with sphygmograph. 128- 139

CHAPTER VI.

Action of electricity on the nerves of special sense. Action on
the optic ncr\'e — On the auditory nerve — Brenner's researches — Action
00 the gustatory nerve. 140-1 j

CHAPTER VII.

Action of ELECTRictr^* on motor and sensory nerves and volitm-
TARY MlJSCLES. Elcctro-muscular contractility — and electro-mus-
cular sensibility— Increase of temperature after muscular contraction
—Electro- physiological anatomy. '5^lC

CHAPTER VIII.
Action of electkicity on involitntaey muscles. Exper'nnents n>-*ll

CHAPTER IX.
Action or KLECTEicmr ON THE blood. Experiments..... 176-179

CONTENTS. XIX

CHAPTER X.
ELEcrao-coNDUcnvmr of the human body. Modified by age and

temperament 180-187

CHAPTER XI.
Thb effect of electricity on nutrition. Mechanical, phyacal,
chemical, and physiological effects — Electrical endosmo^ after physical
effects — Electrolysis of living substance — Circulation — Secretion — Ex-
cretion — ^Absorption — Effects produced by bcrease in size and weight
— Reflex action— Experiments 188-306

CHAPTER XII.
Relation of electricity to ufe. Electricity vs. nervous force— The-
ory of correlation of physical and vital forces — Electricity of plants. . . . 207-aiI

ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

CHAPTER I.
History of electro-therapeutics. Era of Franklinic electricity— Era
of galvanization— -Era of faradization — Localized faradization and gal-
vanization — General faradization — Central galvanization— General re-
marks — Popularity of electro-therapeutics— Rapid progress of electro-
therapeutics in America 214-252

CHAPTER II.
General therapeutical action of electricity. Electricity a stimu-
lating sedative tonic — Is electricity transformed into nerve force ? — El-
ectricity compared with other tonics — Rationale of electrization. 253-261

CHAPTER III.
General suggestions in regard to the use of electricity as a
THERAPEUTIC AGENT. Stage of disease when indicated — Differential
action of poles and of current direction — Both seat of disease and effects
to be treated— Healthy parts may be benefited — Dose of electricity^—
Mild Currents — Care in details of application — Time, frequency, and
regularity of applications — Combination of methods — How to judge
of effects— Good effects— Bad effects— R^;ard for age— After effects-
Use of electricity by the laity — Abbreviations used in electro-therapeu-
tics 262-296

CHAPTER IV.
Comparative value of the galvanic and faradic cuerbkts.— Ad-
vantages of galvanic over faradic— Advantages of finuUc ovar gihanie
— •Galvano-iaradintion •• ...^.r •^03

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V.

The PRiNcrPLRs of electro-diacwosis {elkctro-patuolocy).— Modi-
fications of electro-sensibility — Electro-muscular sensibility and con-
tractility — Galvano vs. Farado-muscular conlractility — Abnormal reflex
irritability — Diplcgic contractions — Elcctro-bioscopy 304-313

CHAPTER VI.
Electro-therapeutical anatomy. Motor points— Electro-sensibility

of surface of the body 3i9-3>^

CHAPTER VH.
Apparatus for electro-therapeutics. Single and separate coil ma-
chines — Faradic apparatus — Rules for its use — Galvanic apparatus-
Directions for use — Cabinet battery — Rheostates — Galvanometers and
electrodes — Care of electrodes — European batteries 327-366

CHAPTER IX.
Localized electrization. Dry faradization — Electric moxa — Electriza-
tion with moistened electrodes — Direct and indirect electrization — Dcfi-
nitioD of tertns^Delails of applications — Electrisation of the brain,
^IDC, cervical sympathetic, plexuses, nerves, muscles — Effects 3^7~38s

CHAPTER X.

General faradization. Object proposed — Position of patient — Of
operator — Application to head and neck — Use of hand as an electrode —
Special rule* observed — Persistence in treatment — Effects — Rationale of
effects 3S3-407

CHAPTER XI.
Bifferentl/^l indications for the use of localized and gener-
al faradization. Cause of failures in electro-therapeutics — Com-
bination of the methods 40ft-4ii

CHAPTER Xir.
Central galvanization. Method— Details of the applications— Theoiy
of the method — -Compared with localized galvanization^ With general
Cuadiuktion — Objections answered. 4x2-435

CHAPTER XIII.
TKE USB OF statical ELECTRICITY (FrANKUNIZATION). Methods—

Shocks from Leyden jar — Apparatus 426-430

CHAPTER XIV.
Electric baths. Method of giving — Effects — Rules for giving them. , . . 431-434

CHAPTER XV.
Hysteria and allied affections. Electro-diagnosis — Cases of hys-
teria — Hjrpochondriasis — Cases — Neurasthenia — Spinal irritation— Dif-
ferential diagnosis — Insomnia — Astraphobia (fear of lightning) 435-457

CONTENTS. xxi

CHAPTER XVI.
iNSANmr. Methods used— Cases 45S-469

CHAPTER XVII.
Ckrkbkal and spinal congestion. Prognoas and txeatment — Cases. . 463-467

CHAPTER XVIII.
Chronic alcohousm. Cases 46Sn469

CHAPTER XIX.
NXURALGIA. Methods of treatment — General prc^osis — Cephalalgia —
Cases — Sick headache (migraine) — Facial neuralgia — Gastralgia — Scia-
tica — Reflex neuralgia — Galvanic belts and disks 470-491

CHAPTER XX.
An.SSTHESIA» Different kinds of sensibility— Farado-sensibility— Electro-
diagnosis — Prognosis — Cases 49»-497

CHAPTER XXI.
Paralysis. Paralysis from opium — Syphilitic paralysis — Lead paralyas —
Hysterical paralysis — Cases — Hemiplegia, treatment and accessories —
Cases of hemipl^;ia — Glosso-laryngeal paralysis — Paraplegia — Facial
paralysis — ^Paralysis from pressure and cold — Reflex paralysis 498-536

CHAPTER XXII.
Locomotor ataxia (posterior spinal sclerosis). Causes of the disease

— Electro-diagnosis — Prognosis — Treatment — Cases 5*7-535

CHAPTER XXm.
Progressivx muscular atrophy. Prognosis and treatment — Cases —

Progressive myo-sderotis paralysis (Pseudo-hypertrophic paralysb) 536-540

CHAPTER XXIV.
Rheumatism and gout. Treatment— Prognosis— Cases— Myalgia-
Lumbago— Pleurodynia — Rheumatic gout 541-547

CHAPTER XXV.
Spasmodic diseases. Writer's cramp — Torticollis— Cases— Paralysis-

Agitans — Asthma — Facial spasm — Hydrophobia — Epilepsy — Cases.... 548-559

CHAPTER XXVL
Diseases of the skin. General considerations — Methods of application —
Central galvanization — Eczema — Prurigo— Uchen — Anaesthesia — Acne
— ^Acne rosacea — Psoriaas pityria^s — Herpes — Herpes frontalis — Ring-
worm — Scleroderma — Melanodema — Elephantiasis — Case— Alopecia —
Permanence of results 560-574

XXII

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXVII.
DiSSASES OF THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION. Electro-diagnosis— General
principles of treatment — Dyspepsia— Cases — Constipation— Chronic
diarrhoea — Jaundice — Ileus (invagination) — Regurgitation (vomiting)—
Flatulence. -Sea sickness S7S-S86

CHAPTER XXVII I.
Diseases of women. Amenorrhcea—DyMnenorrhoea— Menorrhagia—
Leucorrhcra — Method* of treatment, external and iAtemal — General
and central treatment— Franklinization— Prognosis — Cases — Atrophy
and di^acement of the uterus — Congestion and enlargement — Irrita-
Uon and congestion of ovaries — Inlra-uterine galvanic pe&iaries -587-602

CHAPTER XXIX.
^SKS or CMU.DHEN. Chorea — Marasmus and Whooping-cough— In-
continence of urine — Vomiting and cholcra-infantum — Paralysis — Mi-
croKopic txamtnatioQ of mosdes — Treatmeot — Cases 603-616

CHAPTER XXX.
0» THE CKKlTO-URiNARY ORGANS. Elcctro -diagnosis snd
Ml of impotence — Aspermatism — Spermalorrhcca — Cascfr— -Pft-
pArmlyds of the bladder — Orchitis— Enlargement of the pros-
|.|M» ■ I Volapw •nl— Prolapsus of the sphincter— Hemorrhoids 6l7-6aS

CHAPTER XXXI.
(faVMX. Anemia— Aphonia — Tretttroent— Oue»—

Icrvouf cough — Hyperesthesia — Anaesthesu 609-638

CHAPTER XXXH.

>• W* *T«, Qeneral con « derations — Pareab and paralysis of
•XitW«i«|4ft~Ambtyopia and amaurosis— Spasm of the lid
"^ «l ««l«Ma and vitreous humor— Ptosis and mydriasis —
V«a«.««tliiilU —Strabismus ,,., 639-647,

iMIAPTER XXXIII.
•■ ** r./'urtal considerations and methods of applica*
,'*» *.>i>X'^'^ r**ftn»ii»— rjcneral results — Subacute and chronic
W «aliA« Mtr— Tinnitus aurium— Hysterical deafne

tlftlM middle ear.

648-660

^ii;»t4JL>u

CHAPTER XXXIV

^ inrrtia uteri — Post-p.irtnm hemorrhage —
<»»¥l»»w>~Soni nipples 661-663

vMAPTKR XXXV.

V •kkCmilATION IN CAsrS OF APPARENT

^ wa H'rFocATiow through poiscnous

UiVAMTS. 664.666

CONTENTS. xxiif

CHAPTER XXXVL
DisxASXS OF THX HEAKT AND LUNGS. Palpitation of the heart— Angina

pectoris— Connunption 667-671

CHAPTER XXXVII.
MiscsLLANEOUS MEDICAL DISEASES. Sequelae of cerebro-spinal and ther-
mic fever — Cases — Intermittent fever — Addison's disease — Case — Dia-
betes — Exophthalmic goitre — ^Dropsical effusions — Bright' s disease —
Suppresaon of orine — Diabetes — Graves' disease — Chronic rhinitis —
Catanrh of nose — Anosmia — Toothache — Ozone and ozonized OTygeor—
Hay fever — Fever and convalescence — Obeaty — Cirrhoas of the
Uver 67>-689

ELECTRO-SURGERY.

CHAPTER I.
HiSTOKT OF ELECTRO-SUEGERY. Early history— Later history— Stugical

and medical electricity compared 691-698

CHAPTER II.
Elsctkolysis. Its nature and general methods — Method of introdndng the
needles — Eledrolyzing the base — Method of operating — Instnmients —
Theory of the method — Its advantages and disadvantages 699-710

CHAPTER III.
Galtano-CAUTERY. Advantages over actual cautery — Apparatus, handles, ■
burner^ loops for Galvano-cautery — Care of batteries — Uses and advan-
tages of the galvano-cautery — Rules for use of galvano-cautery, and
adaptation to yarious departments — Statistics of cases 711-733

CHAPTER IV.
Benign and malignant tumors. Naevi (erectile tumors) — Goitres-
Benign cystic tumors — Malignant cystic tumors — Hydatids of the liver
— ^Fibroids — Fibroids of uterus — Lipomata (fotty) tumors — Adenitis
— Ovarian tnmors — Polypi — Epithelioma — Scirrhus and other malignant
growths — Cases — Relief of pain of cancer by galvanization— Illus-
trative cases 7*4-753

CHAPTER V.
ANBtrausMS AND VARICOSE VEINS. Method of operatii^ — Statistics of

aneurisms treated by dectridty — Varicose vans. 754-75^

CHAPTER VI.
Strictures. Stricture of the urethra — Experiments and cases — Stricture

of the oesophagus 759-7^3

xxiv CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII.
Ulckrs, nsTDLiV AMD siNUSKS. Ulcers—Bed-iores— Method of tremt-

ment— Galvano-ozonization 764-766

CHAPTER VIII.

MiscBiXANKOUS ST7KOICAL DISEASES. Sttunps after ampatation— Hse-
mateode— Gangrene— Carbondea — Fnnmdes— Bums — Frost-bite (diil-
blains) — Sjmovitis — Hydrocde — Sprains — Strains of moades — Spondjr-
litis (Pott's disease) — Spinal curvature — Psendo-arthrosis (ununited
fracture) — Hernia — Morbus coxarius (disease of the hip-joint) — Qub-
foot (talipes) — Warts— Dissolution of calculi in the bladder — Electric
explorer or probfr— Extraction of foreign bodies by the dectro-magnet
— Electro-chemical baths — Removal of poisonous metals from the body
— Faradic anscsthesiap— Hydro-dectrization — Electro-medication — Po*
dalgia 7^-77*

COOPER JJIl^mOAlj Ov/^-....,

SAN FRANCISCO. CAL

a^d ifi not to &<? retnox'^-d from the
I'lorc.'-;} r .r"n hy o.ny person or
V. :ihr a.. J .., cxt wJiatever,

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

rAci

I — Magnetic Tone, illostrated 3

a— " Polarity, illustrated 4

3 — " Annature 6

4 — Insulated Conductor 16

5 — Brass Hemispheres 17

6 — Insulated Cylinder 18

7 — Cylinder Electrical Machine 19

S^Holtz's Machine 30

9— Bennett's Electroscope 31

10 — Leyden Jar 33

II — Simple Galvanic Circle 38

13 — Compound Galvanic Circle 34

ij^Branch Current, illustrated. 35

14— Voltaic PUe. 36

15— Daniell's Battery 38

16— Grove* s Battery 40

17— Bunsen's Nitric-Acid Battery 40

18— Smee's Battery 43

19— Voltameter 46

30— Astatic Galvanometer 47

31 — Galvanic Frog. 49

33 — Phenomena of Electrolysis. 58

33 — Electro-magnetic Helix 61

34 — Electro-magnet 61

35 — Current Induction, illustrated. 4 63

36 — ^Induction, illustrated 63

37 — Current-interrupter. 64

38 — Ruhmkorffs Coil 66

39 — Horse-shoe Magnet 69

30 — Thermo-electricity, illustrated 73

31 — Thermo-mnltiplier 75

33 — Farmer's Thermo-electric Battery 76

33— Electrotonos, illustrated II3

34 — ^Andectrotonos and Catelectrotonos, illustrated 113

35-43 — Sphygmc^;raphic Tracings. 137

54 — £kctro*thierapeutical Anatomy of the Human Body — anterior view 33a

MOB

JJ — Klectro-lherapeutical Anatomy of the Hnman Body— posterior view ja j

56— Kuldcr's Faradic Machine 33I

$7— Faradic Machine (Gal vano- Faradic Manufacturing Co.) 335

5H-~ " " without the box. 336

$9— *• " (Thoma&Hall) 337

60— JSinc-carbon Battery, 32 cells 339

6|— Galvanic Battery, 16 cells 34©

6a— Two Zinc-carbon Batteries, united, 18 cells. 34O

■ 6|— Galvanic Battery, 36 cells 341

■ 64— Kidder's Zinc-carbon Battery, x8 cell* 34a

65 — Cabinet Battery (Gal vano- Faradic Manufacturing Co.) 345

66— Portable Galvanic Battery (Drescher) 349

67 — Golvano-Faradic Machine, '• 35©

6&— Portable Bcclr-Lechancht Battery 351

69<~Brenner*s Apparatus <Galvano-Faradic Manufacturing Co.) 35*

170— Galvarometcr used by the Authora (Chester & Co.) 35»

71— Siemens' Stoppcr-rheostaL 3S3

7a — Hydro-rheostat (Galvano-Faradic Manufacturing Co.). 354

7J— Universal Handles for Electrodes 355

74— " " ** " with Interrupter, insulated 355

^75_Long Sponge Electrode 356

76— Electrodes of various sires to be attached to Universal Handles. 356

||— Hard Rubber Handle and Electrode 356

l^-Sfwnge-holder, with sponge attached 356

y^— .Small Sponge Pllectrode 356

lO^Duchenne's Electrode , 356

81^ Rockwell's Brass Ball Electrode for General Faradiiation 356

%t — llcard's Stationary Electrode 357

Ij— Adjustable Electrode, with band 357

l^—Bcard'a Adjustable Electrode, with flannel cover 358

|||,-Klaanel Cover for Electrode 358

fl— Adjustable Electrode, with sponge 359

l7-4^»binnK Adjustable Electrode 359

►Metallic Brush 359

*• •* with brush pushed within the cylinder 359

^5— Spinal Electrode 359

A|-.B*»rd*» Currcnt-rcverser 360

yi— Meyer St Mclticr's Faradic Machine. 363

Qj_|'oveau«'ii portable Galvanic Battery 365

-Meyer & Melt wr's Portable Apparatus 366

|«» Galvanlralion of the Cervical Sympathetic. , , 37*

^^ ♦• •• •• " including the Pneumogastric. . 373

yj^Fannlimion of Facial Nerve and Muscles 375

oft— MuKular Fara<iicalion, with Metallic Electrodes 375

99— ForadlxAtloii of muscles of thigh. 37*

IOO_ " •• Popliteal Nerve and Peroneal Muscles 376

101— Splnal-cofd-bfai-hlal plexus current •••» 37*

tot— Spfaul-cord-mcdium nerve current ••••••••■■•• 37^

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxvii

PACK

103 — General Faradization, application to head 385

104— " »' «• "spine. 387

105 — General Galvano-faradization, application to spine by sponge-holder. 390

106 — General Faradization, application to stomach 394

X07— " «• " " lower extremities 395

108 — Central Galvanization, first stage 412

109— " " second stage 413

Xio— " " third stage 4x4

III — " " fourth stage 415

Xia — Method of Franklinization 430

X13�� Electric Bath. 43a

X14 — Circle Disk. 544

XIS— Oblong Button Disk 544

1 16 — ^Elephantiasis of legs, before treatment by electricity 573

X17— Rectal Electrode, non-insulated 581

Ii8_ «« «« insuUted 581

XI9— Double Rectal Electrode 581

X20— Faradization of the Uterus 588

X2I — Uterine Electrode. 589

123 — Beard's Intra-uterine Electrode 589

123 — Double Intra-uterine Electrode 589

X24 — Duchenne's Double-uterine Electrode, open 590

X2S— " " " " closed. 590

126 — Vaginal Electrode 591

X27 — Intra-uterine Galvanic Peaaary 601

X28 — Dnchenne's Trocar. 610

X29 — Noeggerath's Trocar 610

130-131-132 — Normal Fibre, first degree 611

133-134 — Normal Fibre, second degree 611

135-X36— " " third degree. 6i3

X37-138-139— Normal Fibre, fourth degrtc 6ia

140— Insulated Catheter Electrode 621

141-142 — Double Vesical Electrode, dosed and open 625

X43 — Laryngeal Electrode and Necklet 632

X44 — Internal Electrization of Ear. 649

145 — Murray's Galvanic Nipple-shield 663

146— Naad Electrode 684

147 — Conductor for Ellectrolysis 702

148 — Bayonet-pointed Needles for Electrolysis. 703

149 — Rockwell's Long Needle for Electrolysis of Uterus 703

150— Rockwell's Needle Holders with Needles for Electrolysis. 704

151— Beard's Long-cutting Needles for Electrolysis of the base 704

152 — ^Electrolysis of Base in scirrhus of breast 706

153— " " " " " •« " after removal of tumor 707

154 — Byrnes' Multiple-element Battery 712

155 — ^Zinc-carbon Galvano-cautery Battery (Drescher & Co.). 713

156— «• " " (Kidder) 713

157-. M M f* (Galvano-Faradic Manuring Co.). 714

XXviil LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

fAoa

158 — Galyano-cautery Battery (Meyer flt Mdtzer, London) 715

159-189 — Accompanying Appliances, — Handles, Burners, or Canterizers, Loops,

Knives, etc., for Galvano-cautery 716-718

190 — ) Galvano-cautery Operating Case and Loop (Galvano-Faradic Manufac-

191— J turing Co.) 718

192 — Ben^ Cystic treated by ordinary Electrolysis. 732

193 — Electrolysis of base of malignant cystic tumor. 735

194, — Removal of Epithelioma by Electrolysis of base 740

195 — ) Epithelioma of Vagina and Vulva before and after operations by Elec-

196—) trolysis 743

197 — Scirrhus of Breast treated by ordinary electrolysis 747

198— Troave's Electric Explorer 773

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

CHAPTER I.

A KNOWLEDGE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-PHYSICS NECESSARY
TO THE ELECTRO-THERAPEUTIST — DEFINITION OF ELECTRICnY —
MAGNETISM.

Etectro-physics is the science which treats of electricity in its physical
relations.

No one can be a master in electro-therapeutics without also being a
master in electro-physics. Hence it becomes necessary, in a systema-
tic treatise on electro-therapeutics, to present the leading principles of
electro-physics, and to point out their practical bearings botli on
clectro-ph^'siology and electro-therapeutics. This necessity is all the
greater because electro-physics is the branch of electrology that electro-
therapeutists are most of all disposed to neglect ; and ignorance of this
department has retarded, and still retards, the scientific advance of
electro-therapeutics both medical and surgical. It is possible to make
ha)}py hits in electro-therapeutics without knowing anything of electro-
physics or electro-physiology ; but on the average, and in the long run,
the best results will be obtained by tliose who to purely practical know-
ledge add a thorough mastery of the scientific relations of the subject

IVhy discussed in a Practical Treatise like this. — The necessity of pre-
senting the leading principles of electro-physics in a practical treatise
like this is the more imperative from the fact that, until quite recently
at least, all, or nearly all, the text-books on physics in use in schools
and colleges have failed to represent the advanced researches and
generalizations of modern scientists in the department of electricity.
The old h)'potl»cses, that electricity is a single or double fluid, still linger
in our centres of education, or yield the ground but slowly ; and even in
those works that are fully up to the times on this subject, the special
I

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

and practical bearings of electro-physical principles on electro-phys-
iology and electro-therapeutics are of course not considered.

To this should be added the consideration that any science, however
well acquired^ if it be not kept before the mind by teaching or writing,
or by practical application, soon fades from the memory, or becomes a
mass of half-truths and uncertainties. We are therefore justified in
assuming that not one in a hundred of those who will consult this book
as a guide in electro-therapeutics will be so thoroughly and accurately
informed on the principles of electro-physics as not to need, on this
subject, some compact treatise which shall serve as a guide and reminder
of the leading facts and principles of the science. To supply this need
k the object of this division of our treatise.

W Elfrtrif

KATURE AND DEFWITION Or EL^CTRICITTf.

Electricity is now regarded as a force correlated to the otfur great
forces of nature — heat^ H^ht, etc-^Hind^ like them^ is simply a mode of
motion y — a form of vibration.

Although the precise nature of these vibrations have not yet been
mathematically demonstrated, as in the case of light and heat, yet the
theory that the phenomena of electricity are the result of vibrations has
much in its favor, and it is by no means impossible that in the future the
nature of these vibrations will be well understood.

In the present treatise, as in all works on physics, various terras, as
** current," ** flows," " runs," etc., that took their origin when the fluid
theory prevailed, are retained for the sake of convenience of description.
With this understanding there is no objection to their use.

Electricity is manifested in three general forms : Magnetism ; Stati-
cal or Frictional or Franklinic Electricity ; and Galvanism^ or Voltaic
or Dynamical Electricity.

MAGNETISM.

Magnetism. — In order to understand electricity in general it is neces-
sary to understand magnetism, which is one of its manifestations.
Magnetism, defined by its phenomena, is the power which certain bodits
possess of attracting iron. The bodies which are observed to have this
power are called magnets, and are divided into two classes — natural and
artificial. Natural magnets consist of iron ore or loadstone. Load*

MAGNETISM— POLARITY OF MAGNETS. J

stone was first discovered in Magnesia, in Asia Minor, and hence the
name magnet was derived The compass was introduced into Europe in
the twelfth century; but the Chinese are said to have been acquainted
with it in the fourth century.

Artificial magnets are usually made of steel that has been magnetized
by the galvanic current or by other magnets. Steel bars that have
been thus magnetized may be either straight or bent For convenience*
sake, they are usually bent in the form of a horseshoe.

All substances are more or less susceptible to magnetic influence, but
iron is more affected by it than others. Experiments illustrative of the
effects and power of artificial magnets are so familiar that they need not
be cited.

Polarity of Magnets, — The polarity of a magnet is that peculiar pro-
perty by which it manifests two opposite kinds of magnetism, that are
termed, relatively to each other, the north and the south pole. When a
magnetic needle is so suspended that it can move unimpeded in any
direction, one end points to the north, and the other to the south. If
the magnet be disturbed in any way, and forced temporarily out of
position, it at once and uniformly returns.

Polarity is a quality that belongs not only to magnetism, but also to
other forms of electricity, and to light and the other great forces.

The poles of a magnet are always at its ends, for here the attractive
power is greatest This can be demonstrated by a very simple experi-
inenL If a magnetic bar be rolled in a pile of iron-filings, it will be
found that these adhere to the bar most firmly and in the greatest
quantity at and near its poles. The quantity that adheres is less as we
approach the middle of the bar.

Neutral Line. — In long bars there is always a place at the middle,
or near to it, where no filings are attracted. This space is variously
termed the neutral or magnetic zone^ or magnetic equator, or point of
if^differenee.

Fig. I.

Another familiar experiment is to pass an iron ball, suspended by a
string or thread, near to a magnet firom end to end. It is observed
that the ball is attracted very little, or not at all, in the nuddle, but

4 ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

that the attractive power is increased as we bring it towards either end.
If any substance be placed between the ball and the magnet, the at-
traction is just as marked, unless the interposed substance itself con-
tains iron. Nearly aU substances that are not themselves magnetic
are capable of transmitting the magnetic influence.

Another feature of magnetic polarity is, that like poles repel, and
unlike poles attract, each other. If one magnetic bar be suspended
freely in the air, and another be brought near to it, it will be found
that the north pole of one is attracted by the south pole of the other,
and via vcrsd — in short, that the like poles repel, while the unlike
attract.

Fid

Magnetism of Broken Magnets, — If a bar that has been magnetized
be broken in the middle, eacli half will have two poles and a neutral
point in the centre. If one of these halves is broken in the middle,
each half will be found to have two poles and a neutral line. If one
of these parts in turn be broken, each half will again be found to be a
complete magnet, with two poles and a neutral line, and so on as long
as we can carry the division.

Coulomb* s Theory of Magnetism. — A theory of magnetism ad-
vanced by Coulomb is, that magnetic substances consist of particles^
each one of whieh is a magnet. These particles have their poles turned
m different directions, so as to neutralize each other.

Magnetization brings these particles round so iVotXthey lie in the same
direction. This theory brings magnetism very close to statical electri-
city, and would naturally be adopted by those who believe all mag-
netic phenomena result from electricity in magnetic bodies*

6 ELECTRO -PHYSICS.

Soft iron, when adulterated with sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic, oi
charcoal, or if it is even twisted or bent, may exhibit a slight degree
of coercitive force. Soft iron that is perfectly pure possesses no coer-
citive force whatever.

The law of the distribution of magnetism in a bar of iron, and the
law of magnetic attraction and repulsion were discovered by Coulomb
in 1789.

Shape of Magnets — Magnetic y€r»»i7/wr<rx.— Artificial magnets are
cither composed of straight bars, or are bent in the shape of a horse-
shoe. The horseshoe form is used mainly for the sake of conveni-
ence. It enables us to apply both poles simultaneously and uniformly
to the object tliat is to be magnetized. Very powerful magnets may
be made of a number of thin steel bars placed side by side, their poles
being situated homonymously, that is, lying in the same direction. A
number of bundles of bars of steel arranged in this way is called a
'•^magnetic magazine^ or battery"

Magnetic armatures are pieces of soft iron that are placed at the ends
of magnets, to keep their magnetic power. This bar, or armature, not
only receives magnetism from the magnet, but acts upon it in return,
and thus helps to preserve its magnetic power. Magnets that are not
provided with an armature gradually lose their attractive power by the
disturbing influence of the magnetism of the earth. The magnetic
power of magnets is apt to be impaired by letting them fall on a hard
surface, or by suddenly striking them with a solid body.

Fig. 3.

Magnetisation. — It is possible to communicate magnetism to
that can retain it in several ditferent ways :

1. By single Touch. — The bar which wc wish to magnetize is laid
on a table, and the pole of a magnet is rubbed along its surface firoiu
end to end for a number of times,

2. By double Touch. — The bar that is to be magnetized is placed on
a piece of wood, the ends of which are placed against two strong mag-
nets. Two magnets for rubbing are placed on the bar to be magnet-
ized, making an angle with the bar of from 15* to 20®. A small piece
of wood is placed between the extremities of these two magnets, to
prevent their touching. They are then rubbed along the bar that is to
be magnetized, from the middle towards the end, and back again, and

MAGNETIC INDUCTION.

►

raised from the magnetized bar again at the middle. This method
communicates a strong, though sometimes irregular magnetism ; it wai
invented by Mitchell, and perfected by Epinus in 1758.

3. By separate Touch, — This method consists in putting two opposite
poles of two magnets of the same force in the middle of the bar that is
to be magnetized, and moving each of them at the same time toward
the opposite end of the bar. This operation is repeated several times
on both sides until the bar is magnetized-

The magnets may be held vertically or may be inclined.
The vertical method was first used by Knight in 1745.

4. By the Galvanic Current. — The bar to be magnetized is placed
inside a coil of msulated wire through which a galvanic current is run.
ning, and is then moved backward and fonvard, as in the method by
the double touch.

5. By the Earth. — It is clear that the earth is itself a magnet, for il
manifests strong inductive power. A steel rod becomes permanently
magnetic when it is held parallel to a dipping-needle. If a bar of soft
iron is held in the same position it also becomes magnetic, and much
more rapidly than the steel bar, but does not so long retain its magnet-
ism. If a soft iron bar, held in this position, is struck a few times by a
hammer, its magnetism, which was before temporary, becomes per-
manent. The blows of the hammer seem to impart in some mys-
terious way a coercitivc force to the temporary magnet.

I^arge masses of iron, when kept in a stationary position for any
length of time, always give proofs of having been magnetized by the
earth. Tools in workshops are apt to become permanently magnetic
from the repeated hammering to which they are subjected. The mag-
netism of the loadstone is due to the silent but continuous inductive
action of the earth.*

Saturation Point of Afagnetism, — ^The limit of the amount of mag-
netism that a magnet can permanently retain is called the /<?/«/ of satu-
ration. If any magnet receives more of magnetism than it can perma-
nently retain, it gradually loses it or throws it off until it falls to the
point of saturation, when it ceases to lose any more. The saturativc
point of any magnet depends on its temper and coercitive force. Mag-
nets will retain dieir magnetism at the point of saturation for years if
they are not seriously disturbed.

Magnetism is very markedly influenced by temperature. When a

• On this subject we may refer to the able pamphlet of Prof. Mayer on Tfu EartA
t greot Magntt,

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

magnet is healed it loses its magnetic power in proportion as its tern
perature rises ; when it is cooled, it regains more or less of what it has
lost. But if any magnet is subjected to a heating process for a number
of times, it becomes less sensitive to the changes of temperature. All
evidence of magnetism is driven out of a magnet at white heat, but it
regains its capacity of magnetization after it has been tempered and
magnetized.

Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism.—'Whtn a rod of iron or a needle
is suspended between the poles of a magnet, it is attracted by these
poles, and keeps a position of rest between them, in a line joining the
two poles.

Substances which behave in this way are called paramagnetic^ and
they are said to place themselves axiaUy between the poles. WTien a
rod of some other substance, as bismuth, is suspended between the poles
of a magnet, it is repelled by them, and keeps a position of rest in a lint
of right angles to the two poles. Substances which behave in this way
are called diamagnetic^ and they are said to place themselves equatori-
ally between the poles. The representative of paramagnetic bodies is
iron. The representative of diamagnetic bodies is bismuth. The para-
magnetism of iron, nickel, and cobalt is manifested before magriets of
average strength ; but the majority of substances exhibit diamagnetic
traits only in the presence of the strongest magnets.

Experiments in this department are usually conducted with electro-
magnets, since they are much stronger than permanent magnets.

Paramagnetism and Diamagneiism of Liquids^ Flames^ and Gases,—'
To study the magnetic properties of liquids, they are placed in long
tubes of thin glass and hung like rods of solid substances between the
poles of a magnet It is found that some arrange themselves axially
and others eqtiatorially.

A paramagnetic liquid becomes heaped up at the poles and depress-
ed between them^ A diamagnetic liquid is depressed at the poles and
heaped up in the centre. The flame of a candle is repelled by the
poles of a magnet and brought into an equatorial position ; it is there-
fore a diamagnetic. The magnetism of gases is studied by sending
ihcra through glass tubes between the poles, or by inflating soap bub-
bles with them. The nature and degree of the magnetism which bodies
exhibit is modified by the nature of the medium in which they are
examined. A glass tube filled with a solution of protosulphate of
iron is paramagnetic when suspended in air, in pure water, or in a
m&rt dilute solution of proto-sulphate of iron ; in a sohition of the
tame strength it is indifferent ; in a stronger solution it is diamagnetic*

PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF MAGNETIZATION. 9

Then, according to the medium, a substance may be paramagnetic,
diamagnetic, or indifferent. The general law is, that a substance is in-
different toward a substance of equal magnetism, paramagnetic toward
one of less magnetism, and diamagnetic toward one of greater mag
netism than itself.

INKTIC SCTBSTAKCES.

DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES.

Iron*

Bismuth,

Nickel,

Antimony,

Cobalt,

Zinc,

Manganese,

Tin,

Chromium,

Cadmium,

Titanium,

Sodium,

Palladium,

Mercury,

Paper,

Lead,

Sealing-wax,

Silver,

Peroxide of Lead,

Copper,

Plumbago,

Gold,

Red Lead,

Arsenic,

Sulphate of Zinc,

Alum,

Shellac,

Glass,

Vermilion,

Sulphur,

Charcoal,

Sugar,

Oxygen,

Alcohol,

Air,

Water,

Salts of Manganese,

Caoutchouc,

Proto and per Salts of Iron.

Hydrogen,

Nitrogen,

Carbonic acid.

Brugman discovered in 1778 that bismuth was repelled and cobalt
was attracted by the poles of a magnet. Diamagnetism was discov-
ered and worked up by Faraday in 1845. In 1855 and subsequently the
subject has been variously investigated by Tyndall.

Physical Effects of Magnetization, — Magnetization produces two
remarkable effects — sound and elongation. When a good ear is placed
near an iron core, just as the current is being established around it, a
click is heard. The same sound is heard when the current is broken.
Place a rod of soft iron in an electro-magnetic helix, with its ends rest-
ing on two trays, and musical sounds may be produced. Elongation of
a bar when magnetized is thus explained. The bar may be supposed

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

to be made up of particles united by cohesion but capable of re-
moval.

When the bar is magnetized these particles put their longest
diameters lengthwise to the bar, or tend in that direction. That sound
is an effect of magnetization was discovered by Page. The elongation
of a bar by magnetization was discovered by Joule, of Manchester, one
of the [>ioncers of the doctrine of the correlation and conservation of
forces. Grove has also shown that iron filings, suspended in a cylinder
around which the current runs, attach themselves end to end

Terrestrial Magnetism. — When a needle is so placed that it can
move freely in a horizontal direction, it always assumes a north and
south position. When a needle is so placed that it can move freely in
a vertical plane, it inclines more or less toward the earth.

These positions of a suspended needle are directed by the magnetism
of the earth, — terrestrial magnetism^ — and are respectively termed its
declination and inclination.

Terrestrial magnetism is composed of three elements — declination^
inclination^ and intensity.

Declination. — The declination of the magnetic needle does not
always coincide with the north and south points of the horizon, but as
a rule only approximates to them.

The magnetic meridian is a vertical plane passing through the
horizon at tJie points indicated by the needle.

The astronomical meridian is a vertical plane passing through the
horizon at the north and south points. The angle between these merid-
ians is called the variation of the needle.

Inclination or Dip. — When the magnetic needle is free to move in
a vertical direction, it inclines from the horizontal position. The angle
between the needle thus Inclined and the horizon is called the dip or
inclination. The dip is greatest in the polar regions, and diminishes
toward the equator, where at certain points it is zero. This discovery
was made by Robert Norman, an instrument-maker, of London, in
1576.

Magnetic Poles. — ^Those places where the dipping-needle is vertical,
that is, where the inclination is 90*, are called magnetic poles.

In 1830 Sir James Ross found that the north magnetic pole was 96*
43' west longitude, and 70° north latitude. The probability is that the
•outh magnetic pole is about 154° east longitude and 75I' south
latitude.

Intensity. — The magnetic force of the earth which brings the sus-
pended needle to the magnetic position, after it has been driven frots

VARIATIONS OF THE NEEDLE.

it, Is called intensity. The needle may be regarded as a magnetic
pendulum, with magnetism instead of gravity acting on it.

Halley, the astronomer royal, published the first magnetic charts ia
1 701.

Variations of the Needle. — The magnetic elements — inclination, de«
clination, and intensity — vary at different places. These variations
are called secular^ annual^ and diurnal.

Secular Variaiions are those which take place in the lapse of
centuries. In every place the magnetic elements vary with exceeding
slowness from year to year, completing cycles of change in the course
of ages.

Annual Variations are observed from month to month. The west-
ern declination, for instance, decreases between April and July, and
increases during the remainder of the year.

Diurnal Variations. — The needle has a mean daily position, from
which it regularly deflects eastward or westward at certain hours of the
day. At midnight the needle is i^' east of this mean daily position.
It reaches its furthest east point at eight o'clock in the morning. At one
o'clock in the afternoon it reaches to 10' west It remains west of the
mean until midnight. The needle is at the mean position a little after
ten in the morning and a little before seven in the evening. But the
daily range of the needle varies in the different seasons of the year. In
llie month of May the average daily range between the eastern and
western extremes is 12'. This is its maximum range for the year. In
December the average daily range is 5' 28", which is the minimum for
the year. Diurnal variations were discovered by Graham, an instru-
ment-maker, of London, in 1722.

The diurnal variations of the range are not uniform in all parts of the
world. Near the magnetic equator it amounts to very little or to noth-
ing at all, but increases toward the north.

Oceasional Variations. — The daily course of the needle is liable to
be quite materially altered by the various changes and disturbances of
the earth and atmosphere. Sometimes these changes thus produced
amount to one or two degrees.

It b very well known that the phenomena of the " northern lights **
we accompanied by greater or less magnetic variations. Earthquakes,
volcanoes, thunder storms, whirlwinds, and indeed all forms of disturb-
ances and warring of the elements, are liable to be associated with
greater or less variations of the terrestrial magnetism. These disturb-
ances have been termed by Humboldt " magnetic storms," and are
known as such among telegraph operators and marmen.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

The magnetism of the earth is indeed in a state of constant fluctua-
tion, like the waves of the ocean. It has been found by the observa-
tions of Sabine and others that there is a certain periodicity to these
storms, and Schwabe and others have shown that the spots on the sun
vary continuaUy and reach their maximum every ten years, and at a
corresponding time. Hanstien published a work on the magnetism of
the earth, in 1817, and in 1826 published the first iso-dynamic charts.
Magnetic stations were first established in Europe in 1835, and in 1836
observations were pubhshed by Gauss and Weber. Between 1840 and
1854 observations were made by British officers throughout the empire
under the directions of Colonel Sabine.

Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism. — The theory of magnetism, which
we hold in common with many philosophers, is, that magnetism is gene-
rated in the earth by the heat of the sun, and that the currents thus
produced are continually traversing the surface.

Prof. Chas. Yoimg, the distinguished spectroscopic astronomer, in-
forms us that while making observations at Shenuan, on the Rocky
Mountains, the magnetic needle was disturbed very s-nsibly (2/ the very
moment that disturbances were taking place on the sun. If these
observations should be conftrmed, it would seem to suggest the theory
that magnetism travels from the sun through the ether with the rapidity
of light.

Still further, it has been shown by a powerful array of comparative
observations, extending through many years, that the appearances of
the aurora borealis, the magnetic storms, and variations in the solax
spots, correspond both in their maxima and their minima. This corre-
spondence is so complete as to give convincing probability to the the-
ory that our sim is the grand source of magnetism, and that the aurora
and all other magnetic disturbances are direct resultants of a solar
influence.*

The acceptance of the theory that there is one mighty and widely
pervading force in nature, that in some substances and under certain
conditions manifests itself as magnetism, and in other substances and
under different conditions manifests itself as statical or dynamical or
animal electricity, and that the differences of rapidity with which these
forces travel, and the various and distinctive peculiarities by which they
manifest themselves, depend on the medium tiirough which they are
propagated and the circumstances under which they are developed,

* This fubject Udisctissed in a valu&ble paper b the Amtriean Joitrnat of S<itiue$^
April, 1S73, by ProC Eliu Loomis, of Yale Collq^

SOLAR ORIGIN OF MAGNETISM. 1 3

has the advantage of simplicity, and may perhaps help us to compre-
hend the action of magnetism and electricity on the human body in
health and disease. In this view a proper understanding of the lawf
of magnetism becomes essential to the electro-physiologist and the elec*
tro-therapeutist

CHAPTER II.

FRICTTIONAL, OR STATICAL, OR FRANKLINIC ELECTRICnY.

When glass is rubbed with silk it acquires the power of attracting
any light substance, such as a pith-ball. By a short contact this prop-
erty is also communicated to the pilh-ball, and it then repels the glass
instead of being attracted.

These phenomena are explained by the existence of a force which ii^
termed Electricity. That which exists in the glass is called vitreous^ <
positive, or + electricity. If a piece of sealing-wax be rubbed with '
flannel it will attract the pith-ball, which is repelled by the glass. This
phenomenon is due to the existence of resinous, or negative^ or — elec-
tricity in the sealing-wax.

The name electricity is derived from the Greek word yikna-pov, mean-
ing amber, because, as the story goes, Thales of Miletus, one of the
seven sages of Greece, first discovered the manifestations of this myste-
rious force by rubbing a piece of amber with a dry cloth.

The science of electricity dates from 1600, when Dn Gilbert, of Col-
chester, physician to Queen Elizabeth, published a work on magnetism,
entitled Tractatus de Magnete. He first used the word electricity. He
showed that not only amber, but other bodies, as sulphur, wax, etc.,
develop electricity. lie first used the term poles in magnetism, and
announced the first theory of terrestrial magnetism. Not only sealing-
wax and glass, but all bodies contain more or less of electricity that may
be thus developed by some kind of friction.

Conductors and Nonconductors. — All bodies are electrically divided
into three classes: Conductors, semi-conductors, and non-conductors.
Under the first class— conductors — are included water and all saline
solutions, the metals, the earths and stones, the structures of plants and
animals, etc, etc. Under the second class — semi-conductors — arc in-
cluded ether, alcohol, dry wood, marble, paper, straw, etc., at ^2^ F.
Under the third class — non-conductors, or insulators — are included glass,
sealing-wax, porcelain, resins, sulphur, wax, dry metallic oxides, fatty
oils, etc, at — xj^F.; phosphorus, india-rubber, gutta-percha, col-

FRICTIONAL OR FRANKLINIC ELECTRICITY.

I
I

lodion, wool, dry hair, silk, shellac, ebonite, amber, feathers, chalk,
linic, dry gases, and aqueous vapor in a dry state.

The conducting power of metals may be lessened by heating them.
In nearly all other substances heat increases the conducting power.
Certain substances, such as feathers, wool, hair, and the atmosphere,
which in a dry slate are non-conductors, become, when thoroughly
moistened, the best of conductors.

In tliis classification of all substances into conductors, semi-conduc-
tors, and non-conduQtors, reference is had only to frictional electricity.
Substances that are semi-conductors for frictional electricity are non-
conductors for galvanic electricity.

Frictional electricity may be obtained not only by rubbing, but also
by cleavage and pressure. When a piece of mica is cleaved, the two
plates which are separated exhibit opposite electricities, and a faint
light is observed when the cleavage is made in the dark. The light
that is seen when sugar candy or loaf-sugar is broken, is accounted for
by the development of electricity through cleavage.

When a thin piece of cork is pressed against a slice of orange,
by insulating handles, one assumes a positive and the other a negative
electricity. The same phenomena may be obtained by cleavage and
pressure of very many other substances, and under diverse condi-
tions.

A conductor is said to be insulated when it is placed on some non-
conducting substance, so that the electricity communicated to it is pre-
vented from passing into the ground. Glass is one of the best non-
conductors, and is the insulating material usually employed in the con-
struction of electrical apparatus. It is hard, durable, and easily ob-
tained, and, could its surface be kept always dry, would be surpassed as
an insulator by no material. In frosty and dry weather it acts very well ;
but when the atmosphere is at all damp, it becomes coated with a layer
of moisture, which very much impairs its insulating power.

A much superior insulator to glass is ebonite, a preparation of vulcan-
ized india-rubber, that of late has been much used.

Discovery of Electric Conduction. — Electric conduction was discov-
ered by Stephen Grey in 1729. He found that when a wire 700 feet
long, and hung on loops of silk, was connected at one end with a glass
tube, and the tube was rubbed, the other end of the wire was electri-
fied and attracted light bodies. When wire-loops were substituted for
tlie silk-loops, the electricity passed off through the wire. Hence origi-
nated the distinction between insulators and conductors.

Loss of Electricity, — All electrified bodies lose electricity more or lessj

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

however carefully they may be insulated. Tnere are two reasons for
this:—

First No instilalors are perfect. The best insulators, as glass and
rubber, conduct somewhat.

Secondly. The air is a conductor ; its conductive capacity depends
upon the amount of moisture in it.

In vacuo^ also, electrified bodies lose their electricity more rapidly
than in air, on account of the diminution of the pressure on the insulat-
ing surface.

The human body, as will be shown under Electro-physiology, is
charged with electricity, which is conducted away by the air, and noC
unlikely by other conductors.

Statical Induction. — An insulated conductor y when charged with eilhrr

positive or negative electricity^ acts on bodies placed near to it just as the

magnet acts on soft iron ; it attracts the opposite

^ _ ^^^ and repels the same kind of electricity. This may

CSj^S^ JJ^B be shown in the following manner : A brass cylin*

l\ J i V jT^ der {Fig. 4), rounded at either extremity, is
I I insulated by means of a glass rod. Two pith-

I B balls are suspended by cotton thread from each

^^^ Jb^ ^"^- If ^"> insulated ball charged wiih positive
Pic 4, electricity be brought in close proximity to the

brass cylinder, the pith-balls will diverge, show-
ing a disturbance of the electrical equilibrium in the cylinder. So soon
as ihe charged ball is withdrawn, the pith-balls hang down as before,
showing that the electrical disturbance in the cylinder depended on the
presence of the charged ball, and was merely temporary.

If a small disk of insulated gilt paper be brought in contact with
the end of the cylinder next the charged ball, and then approached
toward an electrometer, the needle will indicate that the disk has re-
ceived — electricity.

If the experiment be tried with the opposite end, -f electricity will
be transmitted to the gilt disk.

It is thus seen that + electricity of the charged ball causes the near
end of the cylinder to assume a — condition ; while, according to a
universal law, that no — electricity can be excited without an equal
amount of positive electricity, the opposite extremity becomes +. The
phenomenon thus described is called induction^ or influence ; and while
in this peculiar electrical condition the cylinder is said to he polar^
ized.

Induction and Conduction compared. — ^Wc ha.c seen that a body voxy

be charged with el«clricily both by conduction — actual contact — and
by Induction at a distance. In conduction, the first body loses a part
of its electricity ; in induction it does not. In conduction, the eiec-
tridty given to the body is the same as that which gives it ; in induc-
tion, it is of the opposite kind. In order to impart electricity by con-
duction^ the body must be insulated ; to impart electricity by induction,
the body must be for the time in connection with the earth. Bnd con
ductors are acted on by induction slowly^ but retain their electricity
longer ; just as steel which is slowly magnetized becomes z. permanent
magnet, while soft iron, which is rapidly magnetized, soon loses its
magnetism. There is a limit to the comluctive capacity of every elec-
trified body ; when this limit is reached, it ceases to have any effect on
the second body.

Distribution of Electricity. — It is evident that the greater the surface
over which electricity is diffused, the less is its power f>r intensity at any
given point.

Electricity does not penetrate to the interior of metallic conductors^ but
diffuses itself o^^er the surface.

Experiment proves this. Let a brass ball be charged with electricity,

Fic 5.

^nd suspended by a silk thread, and then covered with two hemispheri-
cal surfaces of brass, which exactly fit it. When the hemispheres are
withdrawn, it will be found that they are charged with electricity, which
has been entirely taken from the brass ball

Faraday illustrated this truth by a beautiful and original experiment
with a conical bag of cotton gauze, around the opening of which an in-
talated ring was attached. The bag was held distended by means of a
silk thread attached to the apex, and then charged. By the proof-plane,
he found that the charge was wholly on the outside. The bag was
then turned inside out by pulling the thread the other way, when it was

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

found that the electricity had changed sides, and \a.y u/i^//y on the
outside.

Density.— The quantity of electricity on a given surface at any montcni
is called electric density y or thickness.

The shape of a body has an influence in the distribution of electricity
over it.

In an elli])soid, for example, the density is greatest at the small end
and least at the middle space.

Fio. 6.

On an insulated cylinder, with the two hemispheres at the ends, the
density of the electricity is greatest at the ends. On a circular disk,
the density is greatest at the edges. The tendency is for electrieity ic
accumulate at points. On a sphere the density is uniform ; the further
removed a body is from a sphere the more irregular the distribution.

In all pointed rods the electricity accumulates at the pointed ex-
tremities ; hence lightning rods are made to terminate at sharp points.
In electro-physiology and electro-therapeutics it is found that small,
pointed electrodes cause much more pain, the strength of the current
being the same, than large, broad electrodes. Hence, except in those
cases where it is desired to confine the action of the current to a very
limited surface, electrodes of pretty good surface are desirable.

Electric Machines. — This term is exceedingly vague. It is applied
to any and all forms of electrical apparatus. The first electric machine
was made in 1672, by Otto von Guericke, of Magdeburg.' It consisted
of a globe of sulphur, turned on its axis by one hand and pressed against

* Pxperimenta Nova. Magdcburgiciu

HOLTZ'S MACHLVE. ig

the other hand. Afterward a glass cylinder was used instead of
sulphur.

In 1740 Winckler substituted cushions of horse-hair as rubbers. In
1760 Ramsien substituted a circular glass plate for the glass cylinder.
The forms of electric machines now used are modifications of Rams*
den's. This is one of the fomis of apparatus from which we obtain
statical electricity. Fig. 7 represents the common cylinder electrical
machine, for developing electridly by friction.

Fio. 7.

ffotlis Elcctrophorus Machine. — ^The best and most recent form of
apparatus for statical electricity is the electrophorus machine that was
invented by Holti,* of Berlin, in 1865. In tliis machine the electricity
is generated not by friction, but, as in the electrophorus, by inductivi
tulion. The machme consists of two glass disks and paper coatings,
with a number of conductors. One of the disks revolves on its axis ;
the other remains immovable. The disks and paper coatings are cov.
ercd with sealing-wax.

The metallic conductors are made in a comb-shape. An incision in
the immovable disk, Avith the paper coating and metallic conductor, is
called an elemenL The machine may have two, four, six, or eight of
these elements. When rotated, the paper coating becomes charged with
negative electricity : the corresponding part o{ the movable disk be-
conies charged with positive electricity. The conductor corresponds
to the finger of the experimenter. The length of the spark produced

* A iinuUr machine was oonstmcted about the latne time by Topier.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

by the raachine depends on the size of the disk, which may be 12, 21,
or 30 inches in diameter. These machines are also called rotation
multipliers, because by their rotary motion they multiply by successive'
transmissions the charge of electricity that they communicate.

FlO. S.

Electric Spark. — An interesting phenomenon connected Mrith the
electrical raachine is the electric spark which is drawn from the con-
ductor when the finger is presented to it.

The positive electricity of the conductor decomposes the electricity
of the body, attracting the negative and repelling the positive, and, when
the tension is great enough, these opposite electricities overcome the
resistance of the air and rccombine, with a spark and crackling sound.
The spark is accompanied by a prickly sensation. When the spark is
short it is straight ; beyond two or three inches in length it becomes
curved or zigzag, like the lightning in the sky.

ELECTROSCOPE.

:2T

The hama.n body may be charged with electricity by sitting on an
insulating stool and touching the conductor of an electrical machine.

When the body is thus charged, the hair diverges, a peculiar sensa-
tion is felt in the face, and if any other person standing on the ground
touches one so charged, he receives a spark, with a crackling sound
and a pricking sensation.

EUeirophorus. — The electrophorus, invented by Volta, in 1775, con-
sists of a metallic mould, filled with a mixture of shellac and turpentine,
and a movable metallic cover that is provided with a glass handle.
The surface of the shellac is negatively electrified by beating it with a
caf s fur or fox-tail. The cover is then put on, and by contact be-
comes negatively electrified, and gives to the finger a slight spark of
negative electricity. If the cover be now removed by its insulating
handle, it gives positive electricity to whatever touches it. This posi-
tive electricity it acquires not directly from the shellac, but by inductivi
acii^n through the air.

Gold-Liaf Electroscope. — By this instrument we are enabled not
only to detect the presence, but to determine the kind, of electricity
that may exist in any body.

Fig. 9 represents Bennett's electroscope. B is a tubulated glass

Fic. 9.

diade, enclosed at its lower end by a metallic cover, by means of which
it communicates with the ground. A metal rod, fitting in the tubule of
the diade, terminates at its upper extremity in a knob, C, and at its
lower extremity it holds two narrow strips of gold leaf. On the inside
of the shade arc two strips of gold leaf reaching to the metal cover.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

If a body charged with either kind of electricity is brought in contact
with the knob, the gold leaves diverge,

Thomsofi's Quadrant Electrometer. — A far superior instrument for
all delicate researches is the quadrant eketrometer of Sir Williani
Thomson. This instrument is quite complex, and only in a general
way shall we attempt to describe it. A delicate aluminum needle,
two inches long, is hung by two cocoon threads in a glass jar, whicli is
one sixth filled with sulphuric acid. From the needle a delicate thread
of platinum drops into the acid. The needle is thus free to swing hori-
contally a little distance, or until the torsion of one of the threads by
which it is hung forces it back to its original position. Above the
needle a very delicate mirror is suspended. When the ahiminum needle
is charged with electricity, which is conducted through the sulphuric
acid and carried up the platinum wire, the needle is repelled or at-
tracted according as the electricity is positive or negative. Behind a
screen, at some little distance, is placed a lamp, the light of which
reaches the needle through a slit in the screen. On the screen is a
•cale ; a very slight movement of the needle is reflected by the mirror
above it on the scale. An exceedingly slight displacement of the needle

Fig. lo.

. ^^ \u^ displacement of the image reflected on the
-p..«^iMtit>ment is of great value in very delicate researches.
-. _^f^>c Lcyden jar is made of glass, with a coating of tin-
" "^^■IL aBt »«^^^ *"*^ ^'^^^ extending to within a few inches of
^ y^^ IWaadh ayamished wooden cover a wire, having a knob
if^" - ^ extends to the inside coating. Now, when either
V. dectricity is communicated to the knob at the
. ^jgsiaA over the whole inside coaling ; and by its
^ll^j coating takes on the opposite kind.

LEYDEN JAR. 23

When in this state, — the two coalings being oppositely electrified, —
llie jar is said to be charged ; and a discharge takes place when a com-
munication is established between the knob and the outside coating,
ihe equilibrium being restored with a bright tiash of light and a sharp

the human system is a good conductor, this discharge may take
place through it, by grasping the outside coating with one hand, and
touching the knob at the top with the other ; or several persons may
form a line by grasping hands, the one at one extreme touching tlie
outside coating, while the one at the other extreme touches the knob.
All i^nll feel the shock, as it is called, at the same instant While the
jar is receiving the charge, it must not be insulated ; that is, the outside
must communicate with the earth. As the positive fluid collects on

Pthe inside, the outside becomes negative by the expulsion of the posi-
tive fluid naturally in it, and the accumulation of tlie negative fluid in
its stead, drawn from the earth. But if the outside is insulated, these
transfers to and from it cj^nnot take place, and therefore the jar cannot
become charged.

A submarine cable is really a vast Leyden jar. The wire constitutes
the interior coating, the water the exterior coating, and the gutta-
percha the insulator between them. On this account the passage of
an electric current through a submarine cable is greatly retarded.

History cf th^ Leyden Jar. — In October, 1745, a bishop of Cammin,
in Pomcrania, Von Kleist by name, passed through a cork in the neck
of a flask an iron nail connected with an electrical machine. The flask
contained mercury or alcohol. On touching the nail, Von Kleist re-
ceived a severe shock. In January, 1746, Cuneus^ Al!aniand, and
Musschenbroek passed a wire from an electrical machine into a flask
filled with water. Musschenbroek held the flask in his right hand, and
when a turn was given to the machine, he received a spark from the
conductor with his left hand.

The spark was so terrible that he declared he would not receive
another like it for the French crown. He observed what Kleist did
not, that only the person who held the jar received the shock. In this
experiment the hand of the observer corresponded to the outer coating
of the ordinary Leyden jar. He was the most scientific of the three
Leyden philosophers who have given the name to the Leyden jar.

The theory of the Leyden jar, and apparatus similar to it, was given
by Franklin in i747- in the same year Watson, Bishop of Llandaff,
sent a discharge from a Leyden jar through 2,800 feet, and subsequently
through xo,6oo feet of wire.

24 ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Experiments like these were also made by Franklin across the SchuyU
kilL

For a long time Franklinic electricity was the only form nsed in electro*
therapeutics. At present it is but little used except in certain hos-
pitals and public institutions. Its value as a therapeutic agent is,
however, unquestioned, and now that some (^ the inconveniences
attending its use have been removed by Holtz's machine, it is just that
it should have a fair and careful trial at the hands of modem electro*
therapeutists.

CHAPTER IIL

GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC ELECTRICITV.

Under the general term Dynamical Electricity is included the elec*
tricity which arises, firsts from chemical action — especially from tha;
attending the dissolution of metals— called galvanism or voltaic elec-
tricity ; secondly^ from induction by currents or magnets, called
induced electricity^ electro-magnetism^ or magneto-electricity ; thirdly ^
from heat, called thermo-electricUy. These varieties arc called dynam-
ical eleotricily, signifying electricity in motion as distinguished from
frictional or statical electricity, which denotes the electrical condition
of bodies in which electricity remains insulated or stationary. Strictly
speaking, these terms — dynamical and statical — are applicable to both
branches of the science ; for if the poles of a series of galvanic batteries
are insulated, they manifest, before the current begins, the electric
tension of a friction machine. Again, the characteristics of the gal-
vanic current are manifested slightly in the series of discharges which
are transmitted in a wire connecting the prime conductor of a machine
in action with the ground or other negative conductor.

Nature and Definition of Force and its Relation to Matter. — Force is
that which produces motion. It is itself a primary motion and cannot
be defined. Matter is a collection of centres of force called atoms.
Molecules are collections of atoms. A molecule is the smallest particle
into which a body can be divided without losing its identity.

The molecules of a gas are in rapid and continuous motion, and the
relative velocities in different gases has easily been determined. These
motions and velocities are the result of the forces of which matter con-
sists. It must be similarly true of liquids and solids : force and motion
9re the bases of their constitution. Indeed, without force matter would
oot ejtist at all, for matter is simply an aggregation of centres of force.

Ponderable Matter is a form of force which our senses recognize.
Ether pervades all matter and all space, but it is not recognized by
sense, and yet it is none the less a manifestation of centres of force.

Electricity compared with other Forces. — If force be added to mattci

ELECTRO-PHYSICS,

the equilibrium of that point is disturbed, and the disturbance is ]
gated from molecule to molecule, through matter» or ether, or both.
Heat by conduction and mass-motion are of matter only. Heat by
radialion and light are of the ether only. Electricity is now regarded
as a movement of the ether, and of the body in which it circulates.
Chemical action is a rearrangement of atoms. After this action the
sum of the activities of the molecules of the resulting product is dif- 1
ferent from that which its factors previously had. This difference is
force, and appears sometimes as light, and under certain conditions as
electricity, but it is rarely or never confined to one mode of manifes-
tation. The condition for the generation of electricity by chemical aciion
appears to be that this action takes place at the surface of a conductor
through which a current (so called) can circulate. Since the current is
made of motion of the molecules of the conductor through which it
passes, and of the ether, the nature of the conductor must modify the
current itself. It is known that the current through a telegraph- wire
500 miles long meets the greater part of its resistance in the first 100
miles. The current is modified by the material and length and size of
the wire.

The differential physiological effects of induction-coils of different
lengths and fineness may thus be in part explained. These differential
effects will be spoken of in the electro-therapeutical portion of this
work.

The Chemistry of the Battery not yet Exact. — Chemistry can never
be an exact science until temperature, specific heat, and matter are all
considered, and justly estimated in all reactions. This has not yet bcea
accomplished.

We are unable to state a priori what must be the electro-motive force
of the different batteries in use, since that, as we have seen, depends
on data hereafter to be determined. Frequently, however, we are able
to state which of two reactions must evolve the greater force, and so,
under like circumstances, the stronger electric current. This is done by
inspection of the electro-chemical series of elements. That series, how-
ever, must vary with the temperature, so that it is no sure guide.

Ojfice of the Water in the Battery.— T\\q. water used in all common
batteries serves as a solvent of the salt formed in the reaction. When
the water used becomes saturated by this salt the current stops, and it
declines in power as the solution approaches saturation.

OJice of the Metals in the Battery.— Oi the two metals in any
battery one only enters into the reaction. Zinc has generally filled that
place in all the best-known batteries, because it is nearer the negative

CHEMISTRY OF THE BATTERY.

end of the electro-chemical series than any other common and conve-
nicot raetah Potassiiini or sodium would be the beau ideal of the negative
metal, but they are not convenient or practicable. Any metal or con-
ductor which is not acted on by the fluid in which it is immersed may
occupy the other place in the couple.

All modern research tends toward the conclusion that the different
fonns of electricity which we variously distinguish as magnetism., Frank-
Itnism^ gaivanism^ electro-magnetism, are but expressions of one force,
which force is, as we have seen, but a mode of motion of the universal
etber. Very recently a European physicist has estimated the electro-
motive force of Holtz's machine, and has expressed it in a mathematical
form, so that it may be compared with the ordinary galvanic batteries.

In the present chapter we shall speak of the form of electricity thai
is generated by chemical action — galvanism or voltaism. Analogy and
experience make it more than probable that all chemical action whatso-
ever is attended with the ei'oliition of electricity ; and reasoning still
further we may believe that all molecular disturbance, however excited,
must give rise to electrical disturbance. The play and interplay of
electrical phenomena are incessant and infinite ; electrical force, like
light and gravity, is everywhere being generated and everj'where acting.
If we are unable to detect the electricity generated by chemical action
only under certain conditions, or when generated in comparatively
large quantities, it is because of the imperfections of our knowledge and
the want of sufficient refinement in our apparatus for collecting and
measuring electricity.

As a matter of experience it is found that chemical electricity is most
conveniently generated by the reactions that take place between two
metals and some acid solution, and as a matter of convenience and
economy zinc is the metal at tl^e expense of which the electrical force
is evolved, the other metals acting merely as conductors ; but the
combinations that are actually employed by physicists are but a fraction
of those that are possible and conceivable.

Every year new batteries and modifications of old batteries are de
vised, but all of them are based on the general principle that chemical
action of any sort whatsoever is attended by the evolution of electri-

city.

We present below brief descriptions of some of the principal batteries
that are now in use. All, or nearly all of them, in their original shape,
or under various modifications, are used in electro-therapeutics. We
•hall not attempt to exhaust the list, but to illustrate tliose that are best
known, most useful, and are most thoroughly representative. Those

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

who understand the principle on which these batteries are construct
will not find it difficult to understand any new modification of them I
may arise.

Here let us interpose the remark, that the time and energy that
devoted to the study of the chemistry of batteries will not be w
time — will indeed be spent most wisely — for half the annoyances
young and old electro-therapeutists comes from the difficulty of keeping
their batteries in order. This difficulty will be diminished one-half and
more when we really understand the mechanism of batteries and the
Laws that govern their action.

Simpie Galvanic Circles. — In the formation of a simple galvanii
circle there are usually metals and a liquid.

Fig. 1 1 constitutes such a circle.

CLet C and Z represent respectively plates
fp^*"^ of copper and zinc introduced into dilute j

J g^ acid, and connected by a wire. An elcctri»fl

^^■^^■^^ cal disturbance takes place over all th«^

I^^^^^HK surface of the zinc covered by the liquid.

HTi^^^^^l Positive electricity is generated at the zinc

Hli^B^^^HB clement, and flows througli the liquid to the

copper^ and thus a constant current is es>
tablished over the wires, as shown by the
arrows.

So far as the galvanic action is concerned,
it matters not whether the plates touch each other or are connected by
wires, as in the figure. A current is formed, whether contact is made
between the plates either above or below the liquid. In every instance,
however, a «>^«// must be formed, around which the electricity may flow.
The electricity may traverse the circuit either in a single current or
in a number of partial currents, into which it may divide itself when
the plates are brought in contact along their whole surfaces. When
the plates, or the wires which connect them, are in contact, the circuit
is said to be closed ; when they are separated, it is said to be broken^ or
open. The electricity is generated wholly by the chemical action of
the acid upon the zinc, and, other things being equal, the quantity of
electricity set in motion will be proportional to the extent of zinc sur«

• face exposed to the acid.
The terms EUctrey-positive and Electro-negative. — Both in simple
and compound circles the electricity always moves in the liquid of tha
battery from the zinc to the copper ; and out of the liquid, from the
copper to the zinc This should be remembered, since th« zinc U
^

rio. tx.

POLARITY OF THE CIRCUIT.

talUd the cltcirO'posiiive element^ aithangh out of the liquid it is nega*
Hot; and, consequently, in the decomposition that occurs in the
hattcry, that element which goes to the zinc pole is called the electro-
positive clement, being attracted by its opposite force ; while the
elcmeDt going to the copper is called, for the same reason, the electro-
negative — a current from two liquids and one metal.

Two liquids and one metal can also produce a circuit as well as one
liquid and two metals. Bccquerel's oxygen battery (pile a oxyg^ne) is
one of the best arrangements of this kind. The current is produced by
the action of caustic potash on nitric acid, platimim fomiing the con*
ducting arc

HfimogfHtity of the Galvanic Circuit, — In frictional electricity there
are points which form the seat of -f- or — electricity. On the con-
trary, in a wire where a galvanic current is circulating, there are no
such i^>oints. It has no power, like frictional electricity, lo attract or
repel objects. The wire feels and behaves no differently when the
carreot is passing than when it is not. The wire conducts so much
belter than the air ihat the current follows it. Its force is the same at
every point, in the battery or in the circuit. Making interruptions in
it at different points, and sending currents through solutions of siilphatc
of copper, the same amount of copper is deposited at each of the
places where the interruption is made. If we connect the several
breaks by pieces of platinum wire, each wire will be heated to the
same temperature.

In shorty the magnetic-heating and chemical and other effects of the
rent are the same at every point in the circuit.
*lariiy of the Circuit. — If the wire in which the current runs be
at or broken at any point in the circuit, the current ceases to flow —
that is» ceases to be dynamic, but at the t\»o cut ends there is statical
tUeirieity, One end of the cut wire will be charged with + and the
other with — electricity. The amount of this statical electricity will
depend on the original strength of the current before the interruption
iras made.

By the condensing electroscope it can be shown that each end of
the cut wire is c-harged with an opposite electricity, and the amount of
this can be estimated. If we take away any part of the wire entirely
Croin the circuit, the piece of wire taken away is out of the circuit en-
tirely ; bot if the ends of the wires at each point of interruption be
dipped in a fluid that is decomposed by the current, the circuit will be
again completed, and it will be found that the part of the wire that is
taken away has opposite electricities at the ends.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Similarly, also, the solution in the battery and the metals thcraselvd,
like the connecting wire, are + at one end and — at the other. The
circuit throughout consists of .-|- following — and — following +, It
appears to be electrically the same throughout,

EUctrical Relations of the Elements. — In the galvanic cell, by the
deconiposilion of the water, oxygen arises at the positive pole and
hyilrogcn al the negative.

The mclats assume opposite electricities, the linc being positive and
the copper negative.

Since electricities that attract each other are opposite to each otheri
the suhRtanccs that are liberated at the positive pole are called eUctrth-
ni£tiiV(t and the sitbstances liberated at the negative pole are called
fisitive. Thus, in the decomposition of the battery, oxygen
which is liberated at the zinc is electro-negative, while hydrogen which
U UlxTAlcd at the copper or platinum is electro-positive.

The elements have been arranged as to their electro-chemical re-
^ Utionn when associated in pairs in the galvanic cell. According to
iy«i>nt chcminlry, atotns are arranged in two classes, according to their

libukin^ power. Positive atoms are those which are attracted to the
kw electrode in electrolysis, and whose hydrates are bases.
Atoms are those that are attracted to the positive pole in
^)v^MA»t)<iiA, and whose hydrates are acids. The electro-chemical series

\ |^v«<^utuU below :

Electro-Chemical Series,

^'U^w end

Silicon.

Zinc.

Hydrogen.

Manganese.

Gold.

Lanthanum.

Osmium.

Didymium.

Iridium.

Cerium.

Platinum.

Thorium.

Rhodium.

Zirconium.

Ruthenium.

Aluminum.

Palladium.

Erbium.

Mercury.

Yttrium.

Silver.

Glucinum.

Copper.

Magnesium.

Uranium.

Calcium-

BUmuth.

Strontium.

ELECTRO-CHEMICAL SERIES— AMALGAMATION.

3»

Tungsten.

Tin.

Barium.

Boron.

Indium.

Lithium.

Carbon,

Lead.

Sodium.

Antimony.

Cadroiura.

Potassium.

Tellurium.

Thallium.

Rubidium.

Tantatum.

Cobalt.

Caesium.

Columbiura.

Nickel

Positive end +•

Titanium.

Iron.

Each atom of any of the substances in this list is positive to any
atom of any substance above it, and negative to any one below it
These distinctions are therefore purely relative.

Thus, for example, copper, when associated in a galvanic pair in the
proper fluid with any one of the elements below it, generates positive
electricity and becomes electro-positive, but when associated with any
one of the elements above it, becomes electro-negative.

The more electronegative any one of the elements in this scries is
to a given element, the more intense will be the current generated
when they are united in a galvanic pair. For example, the current
generated by zinc and copper is feebler than that obtained from zinc
and platinum, and the current is less when carbon is substituted for
the platinum. The order in the above arrangement is, however, by no
means absolute. The relative position of the metals depends fre-
quently on the liquid in which they are immersed. Thus silver is —
toward lead in a solution of dilute sulphuric acid, while in a solution

[cyanide of potassium it is -f toward it.
imaJgamatioru — If pure zinc is immersed in dilute sulphuric acid

I change is manifest, while ordinary commercial zinc is quickly dis-
solved by it The action of the dilute acid or zinc is due to the im-
purities of iron or lead which it contains- These impurities are electro-
negative toward zinc, and they cause heal currents of electrieity.
When the battery is closed, these local currents interfere with the
action that produces llie main current ; when the current is open, they
may still keep up their action, as is evidenced by the bubbling up of
the gases, and thus the zinc may be in time destroyed.

Now, local action in a single battery cell, arising from the above
cause, not only consumes the power of that member, but reduces the
energy of the whole series. In order to avoid this evil, resulting from
local action, it is necessary that the zinc plates be amalgamated with
mercury. The amalgamated surfaces are reduced to one uniform
dectrical condition, like pure sine, and will remain in the fluid for any

length of time unacted on, until connected with the electro-negativa
clement.

At the present time all improved batteries are constructed with amal*
gamated zinc

■ How to amalgamate Zinc. — To amalgamate zinc, first immerse it in a

■ solution of dilute sulphuric acid of almost any strength, so as to clean
the surface ; then dip it in mercury, or pour mercury over it, and rub
it on with a brush or sponge or cloth. The mercury will spread very
rapidly over the surface of the zinc, and give it a bright, mercury-like
appearance.

The art of amalgamating zinc is of great practical importance to the
ekctro-therapeutist, since nearly all the batteries in common use have
tine for one of the metals. Amalgamated zinc was first used for gal-
vanic batteries by Kemp, in 1826.

Chemical Action the Origin of the Current. — ^\^len the electrically
opposite metals — zinc and platinum, for example — are dipped in acido"
lated water and united at their ends, either directly or by a wire, the
zinc has so strong an attraction for the oxygen of the water that it unites
with it and forms the oxide of zinc. This oxide of zinc combines with
the sulphuric acid and forms sulphate of zinc. The hydrogen of the
water escapes tn the form of gas at the platinum. The result of thit
chemical action is a current of electricity. The zinc (the electro-
negative element) dissolves, and the quantity of electricity generated
is proportioned exactly to the quantity of zinc dissolved.

It had been supposed by Volta and his followers that simple contact
of the metals was all that was necessary to excite the current ; but
Faraday showed, by two very beautiful experiments, that mere contact
was not sufficient — that there must be chemical action in tlie cell in
order to obtain a current, ll is possible that all chemical actions are
attended with the generation of electricity ; but only under certain con-

»ditions, or when the amount is considerable, are wc able to detect it
In xvhatway does Chemical Action generate the Current i — In science
it often happens that the simplest and easiest questions are the hardest
to answer. Just how the current is excited by chemical action we do
not fully know. We know that when the different metals touch eadi
other, the positive electricity will go to one metal and the negative to
the other. This disturbance, however, is only momentary, and equiii-
bnum is at once restored, and no current continues.

■ Now we may regard the atoms of oxygen and hydrogen that make
P up a molecule of water as charged with opposite electricities, like two

different metals. \VheD xinc and platinum are dipped in water, th«

ELECTRICITY AS RELATED TO OTHER FORCES.

positively charged atom will turn toward one metal and the negative
toward the other ; but as long as the metals do not touch each other
the equilibrium is at once restored, and there is no current The free
ends of the metals are in a state of electric tension, and are capable
of discharging themselves into a condenser or Leyden jar. When the
metals are made to touch each other^ or are connected by wires, they are
relieved of their charge, and again become charged ; then again relieve
themselves, and so on indefinitely. There is no equilibrium established,
but a constant effort to establish it, which never succeeds. This con-
stant effort to establish an equilibrium keeps up the current.

EUciricity a Mode of Motion. — AUhougli, for llie sake of conve-
nience, we speak of electricity as a current flowing in certain direc-
tions, after the manner of a river, yet, as we have already said, we
should not thereby be led into the error of supposing that the elec-
tricity is a real fluid flowing through different substances, or from one
substance to another.

Electricity is a disturbance propagated in the Molecules of a body,
and at the same time in the Ether pervading that body. — The theory that
light was caused by the emission of particles from the sun was aban-
doned long ago ; and now the theory that light consists of undulations
Qf ether is considered to be as impregnable as the theory of gravitation.
Similarly we may believe that electricity consists of movements of a
different kind from those of light, but which is variously modified in its
manifestations by the substances through which it circulates.

The impulse or movement that constitutes what we call the current
may be regarded as simply a mode of motion.

Polarity of Electricity. — Polar Uy, ox properties in opposite directions.,
b not peculiar to electricity. Light and heat may also be polarized,
and chemical attractions and repulsions are likewise manifestations of
the polar qualities of atoms. We may gather a definite idea of the
nature of electricity and the character of the so-called "current" by the
following illustradon : Let a tube be filled with balls, all of which are
attracted to each other. If the first ball is turned round on its centre,

will turn in a similar way the next ball, and so on through the whole

' :s. There is here no progress of a material current, but simply a
mclion.

If the motion is rapidly repeated through the attempt of electricity to
find an equilibrium, we have what we call an electrical cm rent.

Electrieiiy convertible into tlu other Great Forces. — We sec in this
section on electro-physics many illustrations of the transformation of
force into another. If we start with heat, we find that it pro-

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

duces electricity, and through electricity produces chemical actia

magnetism, and light. If we start with magnetism, we find that H
produces electricity, and through electricity heat, chemical action, and
light. If we start with chemical action, we find that it produces heal,
light, and electricity. If we start with electricity, we find that it
duces magnetism, heat, Hght, chemical action, and motion.

Conversion of Electricity into Heat. The Electric Light. — By i
law of the correlation of forces the electricity generated in a 1
may be converted into heat. This heat may remain in the bat;
be transferred to any part of the circuit. In order to convert the eleo
tricity into heat it must pass through some poor conductor that resists
its passage, and thus compels it to appear as heat. With ordinarr
thick copper wire there is but little sensible heat in the passage of \
current, because copper wire is a good conductor ; but when platinum
wire, which is a poor conductor, is used, it is raised under a strong
current to white-heat. This has been utilized in galvano-cautery.

In the electric light the heat is transferred to carbon points mterposed
in the circuit Particles of carbon become incandescent, and are volatil'
ized and transported from the positive to the negative pole. A metal
' or other substance may give an electric light, but carbon, on account of
its friability, gives a better and stronger light than any other substance.
The electric light was invented by Sir Humphry Davy in 1813.

Compound Galvanic Circles, — The compound galvanic circle, or galx

Fic. 13.

vakflc battery, is composed of two or more simple galvanic circles.

arc so connected together that the copper of one battery is joined to

I the line of the next, and so on throughout the series. By combining

together a number of cups, such as are represented in Fig. 12, we for

DERIVED OR BRANCH CURRENTS.

an excellent compound circuit Each cup contains a zinc and a copper
plate, which are connected together as described above. By exajuining
this arrangement, it will be seen that one extreme of the series is coj>-
per and the other nnc. If these two extremes or poles are connected
by a copper wire, the current will flow in the direction of the arrows,
both through the series and over the wires.

Derivtd^ or Portia/, or Branch Currents. —When a current in its
passage through any conductor meets with different qualities of resist-
ance, it subdivides into various branch currents. In Fig. 13 the cur-
rent goes from the elements through the wire f, g, p^ n,m; but if a

Ftc. t3.

second wire, «, x, g be interposed, the current will divide at g^ n,
part going by way of g and part around through jr, n. The divided
currents which go through the wires are called derived or partial cur-
rents. If, instead of one or two wires, a large number were interposed,
the current would subdivide itself as many times as there were wires,
part going through each wire.

In thus dividing into derived or partial currents, two laws arc
obeyed :

I St TAf sttm of the strength of the divided turreni is efual to the
strength of the principal current If (in the figure) the strength of the
current g, /, n is 40, and g, x, n is 60, then the strength of the prin-
cipal current in r, g^ before division, is 100.

ad. The strength of the currents in the divided parts is inversely
as the resistance in those parts. This law supplements the first. Re-
sistance is directly as the length and inversely as the diameter.

If the derived wires are of the same length and diameter as the prin-
cipal wire, then the current will divide into equal parts between them.
If the derived wires arc of the same length as the principal wire, but
of unequal diameters, the current will divide unequally, according to
the diameter of each wire. The law may be illustrated by thinking of
the course that rivers pursue when they arc subdivided or split up into

ELECTRO-PJIVSICS.

deltas. The quantity of water that flows through all the subdivisions
or deltas would be equal to the quantity that flowed through the main
stream before the divisions took place. If the subdivisions are of dif-
ferent sizes, the deepest and widest will convey
the most water.

When electricity passes through the human
body it encounters tissues that differ considerably
in their conductivity, and hence it subdivides into
an infinite number of derived or partial currents,
the strength of which varies with the nature and
length of the tissues. This point will be further
illustrated in electro-physiology and electro-thera-
peutics.

Vtscription of Galvanic Batteries. — Under this
head may properly be included, first, a description
of the voltaic pile, which was constructed by Volt*
in 1799, and became known in England in iSoow
The apparatus consists of a number of disks piled
one above the other. The arrangement is in the
following order : A disk of copper is placed on a
frame of wood ; a disk of cloth, moistened by
acidulated water, is then placed on the copper,
and then a disk of zinc on the cloth completes
what is called the voltaic couple. A series of
such couples constitutes a voltaic pile — the ler*
minal copper being the positive and the terminal
zinc the negative pole.
This apparatus is inconstant and unreliable, easily corrodes, has
many inconveniences, and is now but little used. Various modifications
of the voltaic pile have been devised, but all of them are too inconstant
for electro-therapeutical purposes, or indeed for any sustained use
whatsoever.

Polarization in Batteries. — When two metals, as zinc and platinum,
are placed in acidulated water, the platinum plate becomes covered
with a film of hydrogen. This hydrogen is electro-positive, like zinc,
and so when the platinum becomes well covered we have electroposi'"
tive rinc opposed to electro-positive hydrogen, and thus the current bc»
comes enfeebled, if not destroyed. This polaiization in batteries is pre-
vented in two ways :

ist By keeping the liquids in constant agitation. Blowing into the
liquid with a bellows, or stirring the liquid by any mechanical arrange'

Fic. 14.

POLARIZATION OF ELECTRODES.

ment, keeps the surface of the platinum or carbon free from hydrogen,
and thus prevents the weakening of the current

Dr. B>Tnc in his galvano-cautery battery (to be described in the sec*
tion on Electro-surgery), has availed himself of this depolarizing power
of mechanical agitation, and has thus succeeded in obtaining a great and
enduring quantity of electricity from a comparatively small surface.

On the same principle we explain the fact that lifting the metals out
of the liquid for a moment or two at once increases (he strength of the
current. \Vhile in action, the hydrogen accumulates on the platinum ;
by removing the metals from the liquid an instant, the hydrogen escapes
aod the battery is as good as ever,

2d. By the use of two liquids- The cells of Gro\-e, Daniells, and
Bunsen, to be hereafter explained, are constructed so as to avoid polari>
ration of the metals.

Polarisation of Electrodes and Currents of Polarization.- — The elec-
trodes that convey the current through acidulated water also become
polarized

Oxygen covers the positive and hydrogen the negative electrode.
Hydrogen being electropositive, and oxygen electro-negative, tliese
two gases act like two metals, and if the current of the battery be bro-
ken and the two films of oxygen and hydrogen are connected metalli-
cally, an electric current is obtained, just as a current is obtained
between zinc and platinum. In the liquid the current flows from the
film of hydrogen to the film of oxygen. Two electrodes covered in
Ibis way with films of gas are called polarized^ and the currents gene-
rated by these are called the currents of polarization. These currents
of polarization are always in a direction opposite to the main current,
and tend to interfere with and weaken it This polarization of the
electrodes takes place more or less in all applications of the galvanic
current. One evidence of this is the discoloration of the electrodes
that are employed in electrization after long use. To meet this difficulty
unpolarisable electrodes have been devised. These will be described
under Electro-therapeutics.

Setondary Piles and Gas- Batteries, — If a series of plates of plati-
mini, with moistened cloths between them, be connected with the poles
of a. battery, the gases (oxygen and hydrogen) resulting from the decom-
position of the water accumulate in films on the platinum. If now the
series be separated from the battery, it will itself, through the action
between these films of gases, generate a current. A pile thus formed
is called a seconilary pile. It was discovered by Ritter. The gas-
battery of Giove is constructed on the same principle. The gases are

•IP ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

collected in glass tubes, oxygen in one and hydrogen in the other, and

in each tube is fastened a platinum electrode. The tubes are inverted
over sulphuric acid. When the electrodes are connected with a gal-
vanometer a current is indicated, the direction of which is from oxygen
to hydrogen.

There are two general varieties of batteries, double and single celL
Double-cell Constant Batteries, — The current produced by elements
with a single liquid becomes rapidly enfeebled, because of the polariza-
tion. This polarization is prevented in the double-cell batteries
of Daniell, Grove, and Bunsen, by placing the electro-negative de-
ment in a liquid that is acted upon chemically
by the deposited hydrogen. Currents from
these two-cell batteries are called constant^
because they do not weaken so rapidly as
currents from single-cell batteries, and the
metals can be allowed to stand all the time
in the solution.

The term constant is now applied to the
galvanic current, however generated, as
distinguished from the induced or faradic
current.

Darnell's Battery. — Fig. 15 represents a
single cell. V is a glass or porcelain vessel
nearly filled with a saturated solution of
sulphate of copper. C is a cylinder of cop-
per, open at both ends and perforated by a number of holes. G,
which is also perforated by holes, is an annular shelf at the upper por-
tion of the zinc cylinder, upon which crystals of suli)hate of copper may
be placed to supply the waste in the cell caused by the electrical action.
P is a thin porous vessel of unglazed earthenware, containing the
amalgamated cylinder of zinc Z, and a solution either of common salt
or dilute sulphuric acid. The elements are connected in series by
strips of copper, / and n^ which are fixed to the copper and zinc by
means of binding-screws. When the circuit in the battery just de-
scribed is closed, an atom of zinc replaces and liberates from the nitric
tcid two atoms of hydrogen, thus producing sulphate of zinc. The
liberated Iiydrogen replaces one atom of copper in the sulphate of
copper, which by electrolytic action is deposited on the copper element,
or sometimes on the porous cup. Polarization is the resistance to the
passage of the current produced by a deposit (such as hydrogen) on

Fig. 15.

DANIELL'S AND GROVE'S BATTERIES. 39

either of the elements. No such deposit occurs in this battery, hence
the current is constant.

Order of the parts in Darnell's sulphate of copper battery : ist, zinc ;
ad, sulphuric acid; 3d, porous cup; 4th, sulphate of copper; 5th,
copper.

Eeaciion.
2n + H. SO^ + Cu SO, = Zn SO, + H, SO, + Cu

The current obtained from this battery will flow with undiminished
strength for hours, and, in fact, is superior to all its fellows in con-
stancy. Daniell's battery was invented in 1836. The modifications
of Daniell's battery are quite numerous ; among them we may men-
tion those of Hill, Siemens-Halske, and Muirhead.

Groves Battery. — ^This battery differs from Daniell's mainly in the
substitution of a nitric-acid for a sulphate-of-copper solution, and pla-
tinum for copper, by which increased electro-motive force is obtained.
In Fig. 16, A represents a glass vessel containing dilute sulphuric acid,
Z a cylinder of zinc open at both ends, and V a porous pipe-clay vessel
partially filled with nitric acid- P is a plate of platinum, with a cover,
C, which rests on the porous vessel when the platinum is immersed in
the nitric-acid solution ; b and a are binding-screws, which connect re-
spectively with the platinum and zinc

In this arrangement a double reaction occurs between the zinc, sul-
phuric acid and nitric acid, giving as a result, sulphate of zinc, water and
nitrogen dioxide, which is disengaged, and by contact with the air be-
comes nitrogen tetroxide. The reaction in Grove's nitric-acid battery
b as follows: ist, zinc; 2d, sulphuric acid; 3d, porous cup; 4th, nitric
acid ; 5th, platinum.

Zn, -I- (H^O,), -H (HNO3). = (Zn SO,), + N.O. + (H. O), .

ilso N, O. 4- O, = N, O, by contact with the atmosphere. Force
just be lost by the evolution of these nitrous fumes. Profl Wolcott
Gibbs, of Cambridge, has discovered that a small quantity of bichromate
of potash in the nitric-acid cup of Grove's battery acts as a deodorizer
by taking up the disagreeable nitrous acid fumes. Thus one of the
most serious objections to the use of this battery is removed.
Grove's battery was invented in 1839. It is very powerful, and is

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

much used in telegraphy. It has also been employed in galvaao*
cautery.

-5- a^

mtyi

Fic xfiu

Bunseris Double-cell Nitric Acid Battery. — This batterj' is very
similar to Grove's. It differs from it only in the substitution of carbon
for platinum. The letter P in Fig. 1 7 represents a single element, as
it appears when ready for use.

Fic. 17.

F is a vessel of glass containing dilute sulphuric acid. Z, a cylinder
of amalgamated zinc. V, a porous vessel partly filled with ordinary
nitric acid ; and C, a bar of carbon or coke. The zinc is first placed
in the vessel F, after which the porous vessel V, into the nitric-acid
solution of which the carbon C has been immersed, is inserted into the
zinc cylinder. The binding-screws m and n are respectively the jjosi-
tive and negative poles. The elements are arranged in the form of a

BUNSEN'S AND WALKER'S ZINC-CARBON BATTERIES. 41

compound battery, by means of the clamp m n, and a rod connecting

the carbon of one cell with the zinc of the following.

^u ft sen's Bichromate Battery.— In tliis battery a solution of bichro-

mate of potash— on^ part to twelve parts of water — is placed in the

porous cup.

The order of the parts in Bunsen's Bichromate Battery is as follows :
I St, zinc J id, sulphuric acid ; 3d, porous cup \ 4th, sulph. acid and

bichromate of potash ; 5th, carbon.

Reaction.

Zn, + (H. SO,), -H K, Cr. O, + (H. SO,),

= (Zn SO,)3 + K, Cr. (SO,), + (H. O),

Chrome-alum^ sulphate of zine^ and water ^ are the products. The office
of the porous cup is to keep the bichromate of potash from the surface
of the zinc, and thus more uniformity and constancy of action is attained.

While the action of Bunsen's battery is the most energetic of all the
constant batteries, and while the first cost is less than Grove's, it is yet
more expensive to work and more inconvenient to manipulate. Bun-
sen's battery was invented in 1843.

Walker's Sin^i^le-cell Zinc-carbon Battery. — In this battery carbon
is substituted for the platinum of the Smee batter}', and the solution
used is composed of bichromate of potash, sulphuric acid, and water,
the same as in Bunsen's battery. The carbon is usually the pressed
and baked graphite of the gas-works. There is considerable differ-
ence in the quality of the carbon as sold in the market ; the more
thoroughly it is pressed and baked, the better it will be. Carbons that
are poorly prepared, or that contain impurities, easily become soaked
with fluid and the salts of the solutions, and also generate local currents
that interfere with the main current. Sometimes the carbons are
platinized, that is, covered with finely-divided platinum, as is the silver
in the Smee battery. The proportion of the solution used in Walker's
battery is as follows :

Sulphuric acid.

Bichromate of potash, 22 §1.

Water 5 xij.

The reaction is the same as in Bunsen's Bichromate Battery just de-
scribed.

To prepare this mixture, add the sulphuric acid to the water, and
when this is cool^ add the bichromate of potash well pulverised. Do
DOt immerse the elements in the fluid until it is perfectly cool^ for when

hot the fluid saturates the carbons and removes the amalgam from
dDC, and thus injures very seriously the working power of the bati
The proportions of sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash above gi
i«ay be varied more or less as may be desired. Mathematical accu-
racy is not required. If, however, the solution is excessively strong,
if the proportion of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid is too
great, say two or three times what is here given, the battery will wear
away very rapidly and a greenish-black deposit will be found in the
bottom of the cells. This deposit, which sometimes fomis very hard,
and is difficult to remove without breaking the glasses, is the chrome-
alum, and is a result of the decomposition of the salts and acids that
takes place while the battery is in action. Like the Sraee battery, the
zinc-carbon battery will need to be occasionally amalgamated, but, un-
like the Smee battery, it does not require any mercury in each cell, and
the presence of mercury will give rise to local action. We speak thitl
particularly of the simple zinc-carbon battery, because it is one very
widely used in electro- therapeutics, and it is important that its manage-
ment should be well understood. The galvanic batteries of Stohrer, of
the Galvano-faradic Manufacturing Company, and of Kidder, are mostly
of single-cell zinc-carbon elements. The zinc-carbon batter)', like
Smee'sw to be hereafter described, is not constant. If the metals are kept
long immersed in the solution, the power rapidly goes down. It is
necessary, therefore, to keep the metals out of the solution^ except when
the battery is in use. In this respect the battery differs very much from
the batteries of Grove, Bunsen, and Lechanch^, where the metals are
never removed from the solution except to be cleaned and repaired.

Stne^s Battery. — This battery, invented in 1840, is very economical,
convenient, and easy to manage, and on that account has been con-
siderably employed in electro-magnetic apparatus. It consists of a
plate of corrugated platimun, or silver covered with fineiy-divided plati-
num, between the two plates of zinc, in a solution of sulphuric acid and
water (one part to ten or twelve).

The order of the parts in Smee's Sulphuric Acid Battery is as follows :

ist, zinc J 2d, sulphuric acid; 3d, platinum.

Reaction.
Zn + H. SO, = Zn SO, + H,

• It is well known tliat when sulphuric acid and water are mixed, the solution be-
comes vwj hot. The explanation of this is, that in mixing, the atoms of the w.itcr are
attracted to tlie atoms of the sulphuric acid ; in other words, ntork is done. The vol-
ume it diminished 8 per cent., and the heat that appears is a result of the work thus
performed.

SBfEE'S AND LECHANCHE'S BATTERIES.

I
I

The chemical action of this battery is more rapid than that of the sul
phate of copper battery, because platinum is more positive than copper,
whose place it occupies in the sxilphate of copper battery. The dis-
engagement of the hydrogen is effected by mechanical means, but there
must be a large loss of force in changing hydrogen to a gaseous state,
precisely as force is lost in changing water to steam.

The object of corrugating the platinum plate, or making it into folds
or furrows, is to give greater surface. The object in covering it with
finely-divided platinum is to roughen the surface so tliat the hydrogen
will not adhere. It is customary in using the battery to keep about
half a tablespoonful of mercury in the bottom of the cup, in order that
the zincs may be all the lime well amalgamated. Care should be taken,
in the preparation of this battery, to prevent
the mercury from collecting on the platinum
plate. If by any carelessness it does get
on the platinum plate, it will turn it to the
color of mercury, and will weaken or destroy
the foice of die battery. In this battery
more or less action goes on even when the
connections are not made ; this is evidenced
by the formation of sulphate of zinc at the top
of the metals after they have been long im-
mersed. It is therefore an advantage in using
the battery to keep the elements out of the so-
lution when not needed. If kept constantly
immersed, like Daniell's battery, it very soon
loses its power and becomes thoroughly incnisted with sulphate of zinc.

Ltckanche s Battery. — During the past few years, this battery has
attracted great attention in Europe, both among telegraphists and elec-
tro-therapeutists. The great advantage that is claimed for it, where it
ts not used too long at a time, is that it is far more constant than any
other battery yet invented. The battery was devised by Lechanch^, a
Frenchman, in 1868, and bears his name. A Lcchanch6 cell consists
of, I St, a cylinder of zinc in a concentrated solution of chloride of am-
monium ; ad, a rod of carbon, packed with powdered carbon and na-
tive peroxide of manganese in a porous cell. The whole is closed with
a cover. The chemical changes that take place in a Lechanch^ bat-
toy are these : Chloride of ammonium is decomposed, chlorine com-
ig with the zinc, hydrogen being absorbed by the oxygen of the
xide of manganese, and ammonia being liberated. The ammonia
is absorbed by the water, but in process of time the water becomes

Fig. 18.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Mturttcd, then the ammonia escapes through the opening In the]
coyer.

Th« chemical formula is as follows :

Zn + (CI NHJ, + (Mn O.), = Zn CI. + H. O + (NH,). f Mn. i

Lechanch^'s battery was first arranged for electro-therapeutics b>
Caiff<6, an instrument-maker of Paris. It has been modified by Tripier,
the well-known French electro-therapeutist, by Keyser and Schmidt,
of Berlin, and a portable form has been devised by Beetz, of Munich.
Lechancht's battery has one great advantage and some disadvantages.
Its advantage lies in its power of endurance. If not overworked it
will stand for months and years, and yet retain sufficient power to be
quite useful in electro-therapeutics. This is not true of any other
battery; even Daniell's, the most constant of all, and as variously
modified, requires replenishing or cleaning every few months, else tt
goes down to nothing.

Its disadvantages are these :

I St. It rapidly /(?/ar/3(rj, and so generates a secondary current that
weakens the main current. This polarization only takes place when
the battery is in action ; if, therefore, the battery is but little used, or
only occasionally, this disadvantage does not appear.

2d. The free ammonJa that escapes after the water becomes satu-
rated is annoying.

On account of these disadvantages, Lechanche's battery has not been
as popular among telegraphers as was at one time expected it would be
Among European electro therapeutists, however, it is considerably used.
It is sometimes employed in electro-magnetic or induction machines,

Callan's Iron-sine Battery. — In this battery the positive plate is
jtinc in dilute sulphuric acid ; the negative plate is iron in strong
nitric acid. The great practical difficulty with this battery is, that
under certain conditions it may suddenly and rapidly evolve nitrous
fumes. This complaint has been made even by those who have adopted
this form of battery in electro-surgical practice. The common explana-
tion that the phenomena displayed by this battery are due to the pas-
sivity of iron, is not in accordance with the more recent doctrines of
|ihyucs. Tins fact is a serious objection to the use of these batteries
In electro- therapeutics. They have been employed, however, for the
pun>o&e of galvano-cautery.

WoUaston't Zine-copper Battery. — This form of battery, devised by
WollAitoo in 1801, is now pretty well displaced by modern improve

ZINC-COPPER BATTERY — WATER BATTERY. 45

ments. It consists of a copper vessel, enclosing a solurion of sulphate

of copper, a zinc plate, or a sheet of copper folded over a piece of

j:inc, so as to have bothfa^ts of the zinc exposed to chemical action,

and so increase the quantity of electricity. The two objections to the

baliery are, that it is not constant, and the metals must be kept out of

the solution except when in actual use, and that the zinc becomes

I rapidly corroded with a deposition that weakens the force of the bat-

I teiy. This deposition must be constantly cleared and scraped off, if

I we would keep up the strength of the current.

The order of the parts in the sulphate of copper battery, single cell,
is as follows : ist, rinc j 2d, sulphate of copper; 3d, copper.

Reaction.
Zn + Cu SO^ ^ Zn So^ -f Cu

In this battery any local action on the zinc will deposit metallic
Icopper in the form of a black powder upon the zinc, or an oxide of
[copper, which forms a covering on the surface of the zinc.

For this reason the zinc must be amalgamated or else frequently

I tleaned. Sulphate of copper must be frequently added, so that the

[battery shall be charged with a saturated solution of that salt ; but care

must be taken that the solution of sulphate of zinc does not approach

\ saturation.

The necessity of frequently cleaning and scraping the zinc in this
I battery is a most serious disadvantage, and on that account mainly it is
'not to be recommended to the electro- therapeutist.

Water Battery. — If a large number of cylinders of zinc and copper
[be immersed in water in glass jars, and are properly protected from
I Bgjit and dust, a current of electricity will be produced. A battery
[of 130 pairs causes the gold leaves of the electroscope to diverge, and
i 1,200 pairs gives a strong shock. A battery of 2,000 or 3,000 pairs is
very powerful. Batteries of this kind have been constructed by Crosse,
,2<foad, and Gassiot

These water batteries will keep their power for years, provided water

supplied to them to make up for the loss from evaporation. They

cc up a large space, and, on account of the great resistance of the

T, give but a small quantity of electricity. For these two reasons

fiey offer no advantage for medical use.

Marine Battery. — A sea-water or marine battery has been constructed

Duchemin, of France. A cylinder of carbon and zinc, attached

put into the sea, and connected with the shore by con*

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

ducting wires. As the ocean furnishes the exciting fluid, it needs no
replenishirg. It was hoped that a battery of this kind might be of
suflicient strength to furnish an electric light for light-houses. Thk
hope, so far as we know, has not been realized.

Dry Pile. — Dry piles have, instead of liquids, some solid hygrometric
substances, as paper or leather. There are many varieties of diy
piles. Tliose of Zamboni, which are best known, are composed of
tin or silver and binoxide of manganese. A piece of paper is tinned
or silvered on one side, and the other side is covered with powdered
binoxide of manganese. These sheets are cut into disks, about one
inch in diameter, and arranged so that tlie tin or silver of each disk is
in contact with the manganese of the next in the series. A Zamboni
pile of 200 couples is very feeble and slow in its action, but it can
charge a Leyden jar, and it is quite permanent.

Itistrtimcttts for Measuring Electricity. — The instruments for mea-
suring electricity are quite numerous, and some of them arc very
delicate. It is necessary here to describe only a sufficient number to
illustrate the principles involved

The Voltameter. — The voltameter is an instrument devised by Fara-
day to measure the strength of the galvanic current. It is a graduated
tube that receives and accurately measures the quantity of gas that is
generated by the decomposition of water by the current in a given
time.

In Fig. 19 the platinum needles connected with the poles of the bat-
tery are inserted through the cork, at the end of the tube. The gases
that result from the electrolysis rise to the top, as the tube is held up-
right, and repel the water through a hole in the cork.

:t;:t:t::!:::f!T!r..:t::!;;^;:1;::i:i;tMrxx»:t:tJ;::i::«

Fio. 19.

This is a very trustworthy method of measuring currents and of
comparing batteries. If we wish to ascertain how one battery com-
pares with another in strength, or whether a battery has weakened by
use or long standing, or whether the strength is sufficient for a power-
ful electrolytic operation, the voltameter will give us precisely the infor-
mation we seek.

Galvanometers. — A galvanometer is an instrument for indicating the
presence and direction of a current, and for measuring its strength.
There are several varieties of galvanometers, but all are constructed on

GALVANOMETERS.

the same general principle— a magnet freely hung so as to be deflected bj
the passage of a current through a coil of insulated wire. Galvanom
eters with a long coil— sometimes called ^'tension*' galvanometers-
are used to measure circuits oi large resistance. Galvanometers with a
short coil— sometimes called «* quantity " galvanometers— are used to
measure circuits of small resistance. The explanation of this difference
will appear in the chapter on Ohm's Law.

FiC. ao.

Astatic Galvanometer. — This form of galvanometer is used either to
detect the simple presence of a current, or to measure the strength of a
weak current. Let A and B, Fig. 20, represent two needles of about
equal strength, having the same axis, and having their poles reversed
in reference to each other. The needles will settle a very little in the
meridian, from the fact that one of them is very slightly more highly
magnetized than the other.

C is an insulated wire, bent around the lower needle several times-
Wlicn a current is passed through this wire, the needles will be influ-
enced to turn in the same direction. In this way the passage of the
most feeble current may be detected. In connection with a thermo-
electric pile, this instrument is capable of indicating a change of tem-
perature of only a very small fi-action of a degree. Galvanometers
which have a long resistance coil, and in which a branch resistance coil,
or " shunt," as it is called, is interposed, may be used to measure
strong currents (see chapter on Ohm's Law), and are therefore con-
venient in comparing batteries. A galvanometer of this kind that we
employ will be described under electro-therapeutics.

Thomson's Reflecting Galvanometer. — Six William Thomson has done
much to advance the science of electrology by the construction of
his reflecting or mirror galvanometer, which will indicate the presence
of very slight currents. This instrument consists of the coils of a gal-
vanometer, between which are suspended, by a single silk fibre, a
mirror and magnet, which, when it moves under the intluencc of a cur-

48 ELECTRO-PHYSICS,

rtnt, is reflectei through a lens on a graduated scaU placed at a little
distance in front of it. A lamp is placed behind the screen, which
contains a slit, through which the light passes to the mirror, from
which it is reflected back on the graduated scale. When the magnet
is deflected by the passage of a current through the coil, the image
moves to the right or left along the scale, the angle made by the re-
tlecled image being twice the angle through which the mirror and
magnet are deflected. A very small ddfiection of the magnet prO'
duces a very great displacement of the reflected image on the screen^ and
thus a very slight current can be detected.

This instrument, as that of Wiedinann, of Germany, is much used
in delicate electro-physiological researches.

Rheostates : Instruments for Measuring Resistance. — The rheostat,
an instrument invented by Wlieatstone, \yas originally designed lo
ascertain the relative amount of resistance of different conductors. In
electro-therapeutics it is employed to interpose resistances in the circuit,
etc, so as to delicately modify the strength of the current within small
fractions of the strength of an element.

In electro-physiological investigations, as also in certain branches of
electro-therapeutics — particularly in applications to the ear — rheostates
have been used. The form employed by Brenner and others, and also
the water-rheostat, will be described in electro therapeutics.

Early History of Galvanism. — In the year 1786, while Galvani, Pro-
fessor at Bologna, was experimenting with an old-fashioned electrical
machine that lay near a dish of frogs that had been prepared, it is
stated, for his sick wife, he noticed that the frogs Jumped whenever a
spark was drawn from the conductor of the machine. On observing
this, it occurred to hiui that perhaps he had found a means of detect-
ing atmospheric electricity more delicate than he had previously em-
ployed. In order to test this, Galvani took the dish of frogs, and, with
his neighbor Caraillo, went out on the terrace of his house.* It was
ft dear evening in the early part of September, and no marked elec-
tric phenomena were apparent in the air. Fixing an iron hook in the
■pine of each frog, he suspended it from the iron railing.

Behold spontaneous movements appeared in the frogs, various in
thtir character and quite frequent !

That moment was the birth of the science of Galvanism. At once
Ihero flaihcd on the mind of Galvani the query. What causes these cffn»

* At No. 96. In Strado S. Felice, Bologna, the boiur where Gftlvani lived, witll
tMt*c« ind riiUni.'S l» uUl shown to traveUera.

EARLY HISTORY OF GALVANISM.

tractions f There were no electric disturbances in the air ; the electric
machine was far away in<ide the house. Could there be electricity in the
frogs themselves ? In the history of science it often happens that a
theory partly false guides us into facts that are wholly true. Thus it
happened to Galvani.

From that moment until he died, he lived in an atmosphere of ex-
perirnent. Frogs without number were slaughtered, and all for the
purpose of proving to himself and others that it was animal electricity
tha.t caused these contractions.

Galvani's researches, as soon as they were made public, in 1791, ex«

cited great interest among scientific men, and inspired him to make
another attempt to master the mysteries of electricity. At the time
when Galvani made his discovery, the interest excited by the discovery
of the Leyden jar and Franklin's kite, about forty years ])rcviously,
had died out I'hilosophers had followed the vein thus opened, about
as far as it seemed to lead. They supposed that the battles of elec-
tricity were all fought our, and so they were laying aside their armor.
On the announcement of Galvani's discovery, his experiments were re-
peated all over Europe, and the theory that the contractions of the mus-
cles of the frog were due to animal electricity was universally adopted.
Volta's Researches : The Theory of Contact and Chemical Action.-^
Among those who were stimulated by the discovery of Galvani, was

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Volta, Professor of Physics in Pavia, Italy, who had already been lo
distinguished as an electrical experimenter, and who, in the knowle
of this special branchy was far superior to Galvani.

At first Volta accepted Galvani's theory of anitnai electricity^ '
subsequent research caused him to doubt its truth. He observed thi
it was only by means of heterogeneous metals that muscular conlractioB
could invariably be produced, and hence he denied the existence
animal electricity, explaining the phenomenon of muscular conttactic
through the intluencc of the artificial electricity excited by a heterog
neous metallic combinaHon.*

Galvani then not onl) demonstrated that contractions could readily"
be caused by exactly homogeneous metals, but that the phenomenoa
was produced by the simple contact of nerve and muscle. His manns
of experimenting was as follows : The leg of a frog, denuded of its skin
had its sciatic nerves cut at their exit from the vertebral column,
nerves thus denuded were taken gently up by some non-conductor ;
made to touch one of the muscles, when the leg would immedialel|
become convulsed. Volta endeavored to prove that the concussxA
caused by the contact of ncr>'e and muscle was the cause of the elect
current thus produced ; but Galvani conclusively demonstrated that sue
could not be the case, by placing a non conductor between the two i
sues, when no action could be excited in the leg. He went furthe
and at last succeeded in producing muscular contractions when only i
nerves of non-prepared legs were brought in contact.

The discovery of the Voltaic pile, which excited great interest in*
men of science, seemed to decide the battle for Volta, and all the
efforts of Galvani to convince philosophers of the existence of animal
electricity were in vain. Galvani's first observations on frogs dates back
as far is 1780. He first published his researches in 1791.

Volta did not undertaker the investigation of the subject until 1792,
the year following the publication of the rese.arches of Galvani. And
yet Volta has almost equal claim to be the founder of the science of
galvanism ; for while Galvani discovered the new manifestation of
electricity, he failed to comprehend its true value, while Volta, by the
discovery of the pile which bears his name, demonstrated what Galvani
would never believe, but which Prof. Fabroni, of Florence, had in 1791
suggested, that chemical action was the source of the electricity in Gal-
vani's experiments.

• Th« theory Ihjit th« experimcm of Gidvam could be explained by chemicd Mtioa
WM first suggested by Prof. Fftbroni, of Florence, in 179a.

COMPARATIVE MERITS OF GALVANI AND VOLTA.

5»

Thus Volta made the scieoce of Galvanism or Voltaism a possi-
biltty.

Terminology cf Dynamical Eleciricity. — The terms galvanism and
voltaism are both employed to define electricity generated by chemiciJ
action. Among physicists of recent times the preference is given to
Volta, and the terms voltaism, voltaic eUctruity^ eUciro-voltai^ battery,
are faking the place of galvanism, galvanic electricity, and electro^al-
{jnuiic battery that were formerly employed, and which among the people
we yet the most familiar. The grounds for thus giving the preference
to Volta are these :

First He was a more profound and philosophical observer than
Galvani, although he did not make the experiments with the frog until
his attention had been called to the experiments of Galvani Yet for
thirty years, from the age of eighteen, he had been studying the phe-
nomena of electricity. He was an excellent physicist, and had invented
the eUctrcphorus and eUctrical condauer.

Secondly. He^ame nearer than Galvani to the true interpretation
of the phenomenon of the convulsions in the frog. His contact theory,
which so long guided the scientific world, though now known to be
only a t>axtial truth, was yet a great step in advance of Galvani It ia
now known that both contact between dissimilar substances and chemi-
cal action are necessary to generate the current*

Thirdly. He invented the pile which bears his name, and thus pre-
pared the way for the numerous electro-chemical batteries now in use,
and in tict for the whole science of Voltaism or Galvanism, wlili all its
inaziy practical applications. But for Volta the science of galvanism
iD^t never have existed. Volta during his lifetime was far more hon-
ofied dun Galvani. He was called to Paris by Napoleon, invited to
perform his experiments, and was invested with titles and emolu-
ments ; while Galvani died unhonored, neglected, and comparatively
obscure.

Although for these three reasons physidsts have consciously or un-
coosdously been led to give Volta the preference over Galvani in their
nocnenclaturc, there are yet two opposing reasons that will probably
make it impossible to carry this preference into the domain of electro*
atics.

tst. Galraofs experiments really gave the impulse to those invesd-
gatioos that led to the discovery of animal eUctrieUy^ the study of which
has become to naposiant a feature of electro-physiology.

2d. The tenw galvanise and galvanization have become permanently
inoorporated into the nomenclature of electro-physiology and thera

52 ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

peutics. No physiologist or electro-therapeutist thinks of using the terms
voltaize, voltaization, and it would be useless to attempt to compel
them to adopt them.

For the sake, therefore, of clearness and consistency we shall,
throughout this work, in all the departments, rigidly adhere to the
nomenclature derived from GalvanL

CHAPTER IV.

BLECTROLYStS (ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY).

Electrolysis, Jerived from ^Xticrpov and Xwo, through Awns, disen-
gaging, is the act or process of decomposing a compound substance by
electricity.

Electro-chemical decomposirion takes place at both poles, but with
different products and manifestations, according to the strength of the
current, the nature of the substances acted upon, and the material of
which the electrodes are composed.

History of Electrolysis. — The chemical effects of statical electricity
were first investigated by Drs. Priestley and Cavendish, in x 784, The
decomposition of water by passing through it a succession of discharges
of statical electricity was first discovered, in 1789, by Messrs. Dieman,
Paetz, Van Troostwyck, and Cuthbertson. The power of the galvanic
current to decompose water was discovered and first described by
Messrs. Nicholson and Carlisle, in iSoo. They experimented with the
voltaic pile, which had then just been discovered. These experiments
ers also decomposed other substances by the galvanic current. On
Nov. 20, 1806, Sir Humphry Davy presented to the Royal Society a
lecture " On some Chemical Agencies of Electricity," and in the fol-
lowing year he announced his discovery of the decomposition of the
fixed alkalies. Between 1831 and 1840 F'araday published his '*^ Ex-
perimental Researches in Electricity*' in one of the most remarkable
series of scientific essays that ever proceeded from the pen of man.

Terminology of Electrolysis. — With the aid of two friends, Faraday
prepared the following terminology of electrolysis, which is now gener-
ally adopted. The poles where the electricity passes in and out of tlie

dy that is undergoing decomposition are called electrodes (i7A«icTpof,

Dd 6So«, way). The surface where the current enters the decompos-

"Itjg body is called the anode (ora, upward, and oSds, way) ; the surface

where the current leaves the decomposing body is called the caihodt

(koto, downward, and o8d«, way). The anode is in contact with the

positive pole and the cathode with the negative.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

IVaclically, anode is used as synonymous with posirive pole, and
cathode with negative, although, strictly speaking, anode and cathode
refer to the points of the decomposing body^ and positive and negative
to the pcies of the battery that are in contact with these.

Compound substances that are dicectly decomposable by the current
we called electrolytes {^XiKrpov^ and Xwd, decompose). To electrolyze
a body is to chemically decompose it by the current. The act of pro-
ducing electrolysis is called electrolyzation.

The elements of an electrolyte are tenned ions, (cZ^k, participle of
the verb J/u, to go). Those ions that appear at the anode are termed
vnions, those which appear at the cathode are termed cations. For-
merly anions were termed electronegative, and cations the electro-posi-
tive elements of the compound. Water, for example, is an electrolyte
that evolves two ions — oxygen and hydrogen ; oxygen goes to the
anode and is the anion \ hydrogen goes to the cathode and is the
cation.

No substance can be an electrolyte which is not a conductor ; but
tn the readiness with which they are deconjposed substances widely
vary. Every electrolyte must contain more or less of water. Pure
water, though an electrolyte, is yet decomposed only with great diffi-
culty ; but by adding to it a little sulphuric acid, or certain salts, it verj'
easily undergoes electrolysis. It is furthermore believed that no fluid
can be a conductor without also being an electrolyte; that is, more or
less electro-chemical decomposition must take place when the galvanic
current passes through any fluid. Substances that are found to be ready
electrolytes arc chloride of sodium, muriatic acid, and iodide of potas-
sium.

Laws of Electrolysis. — Although electrolysis, like all other phe-
nomena connected with atomic changes, is but imperfectly understood,
yet some of the general laws of its operation have been already well
ascert.ained.

Among the more important of these laws the following may be ena-
meratcd :

X. Definite Electro-chemical Action.— \\ has been found that when
leveral substances are simultaneously decomposed by the current, the
elements that arc evolved arc definite in quantity and are electro-
chemical equivalents of each other. This law, which was discovered by
I'araday, may be thus illustrated. Let the current be sent successively
through a scries of cells filled with oxide of lead, chioride of lead, and
chloride of silver. The different substances would combine in the fol-
lowing proportions :

LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS.

At the PoaittTe Pole.

Water. 8 grs. oxygen.

Oxide of lead 8

Chloride of lead. . . 35.5 grs. chlorine.
Iodide of lead. .... 127 grs. iodine.
Chloride of silver. . 35.5 grs. chlorine.

At the N^;atire Polfe
I gr. hydrogen.
113.5 grs. lead.

1035 *•
108 grs. silver.

These numbers, it will be seen, represent the combining proportions
of these substances.

Substances combine in equivalent proportions ; they are decomposed
in the same equivalent proportions.

2. Primary and Secondary Results, — ^The results of electrolytic action
are distmguished as primary and secondary. The results are called pri-^
mnry when the elements that are decomposed appear at the electrodes
unchanged and uncombined ; the results are called secondary when
the elements that are decomposed are changed or recombined when they
appear at the electrodes. The secondary results are favored by the
nascent condition of the elements that are decomposed. The secondary
results are caused by the action of the decomposed elements on the sub-
stance of the electrode, or on the substance itself that is undergoing
decomposition. Even the decomposition of water, when diluted with sul-
phuric acid, is really a secondar)' result. Perfectly pure distilled water
does not perceptibly decompose even under quite a strong current. If a
few drops of sulphuric gases are added, the acids are freely disengaged.
The sulphuric acid H^O, is disengaged by the current into H, at the
negative and SO^ at the positive pole ; the former H, is liberated,
and the latter SO^ at the positive pole acts on the water and forms
sulphuric acid again. Secondary decomposition is modified by the
material of which each electrode is composed. Thus in decomposing
sulphuric acid, when the positive electrode is made of carbon, the oxy-
gen decomposed acts on the carbon, forming carbonic acid and carbonic
oxide. Klectro-chemical action continued for weeks, months, and years,
as was done by that ver>^ laborious experimenter, Mr. Crosse, of Broom-
6eld» may produce as secondary results interesting minerals, such as
quartz, arragonite, malachite. During these experiments in electro-
crystallization Mr. Crosse discovered that remarkable insect, the
tuarus, which appeared in electrized solutions of sulphate of iron,
sulphate of zinc, and nitrate and sulphate of copper. It was supposed
that the acari arose from ox-a deposited by insects floating in the at-
mospbere, and that they might possibly be hatched by electric action.
As a reward for this discover)', which now seems to be almost forgotten,

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Mr. Crosse was subjected to absurd and outrageous abuse, as thougb
he were infringing on the prerogatives of the Creator. Mr Weekcs, of
Sandwich, in Kent, subsequently repeated tlie experiments of Crosse by
passing electrical currents through silicate of potash in glass receivers
over mercury. All possible care was taken to keep out foreign matter.
After a constant action of a year, insects appeared, entirely similar to
those obtained by Mr. Crosse. The metallic deposits in electro -metal-
lizing are the secondary results of the electro-chemical decomposition.
Water is electrolyzed, hydrogen is disengaged at the cathode, and oxy-
gen at the anode; but the hydrogen reacts on the metallic solution,
combines with its oxygen, and frees th& metal. The oxygen also com-
bines with an element at the anode. In the section on Electro-Suigery
it will be found that the secondary decomposition is utilized in the selec-
tion of the material used for needles in galvano-puncture.

3. The Difftrential Action of the Poles. — Different elements go to the
anode and the cathode, according to the nature of the substance de-
composed and the material of which the electrode is made.

Ptatinum-wit'e makes the best electrode for electrolytic experiments
on various substances, because platinum is not acted on. Copper and
silver wire may be used, but the secondary action which they cause
greatly complicates the experiment

To distinguish the precise character of the changes that take place in
the electrolysis of many substances is frequently difficult, and sometimes
impossible. It is difficult to decide whether any of the elements of the
electrolyte, besides water, undergo decomposition ; and wliether the
changes are of a primary or secondary character.

Among the substances that are most readily decomposed by the elec-
tric current are the following :

Iodide of Potassium. — This decomposes under a very feeble current,
the iodide and oxygen going to the positive and the hydrogen and al-
kali to the negative. Thus the decomposition of iodide of potassiua»
by electricity affords a very good means of distinguishing the poles.
The brown color of the iodine always appears at the positive pole. The
whole solution soon presents the color of iodine.

Chloride of Sodium. — A solution of common salt decomposes quite
readily, chlorine appearing at the positive and hydrogen and oxide ^
sodium at the negative f>ole. If the positive needle is platinum, the
odor of chlorine is at once detected ; if it is of copper, the chlorine
unites with the copper, nraking the solution turbid.

Acetate of Lead. — This salt in solution decomposes with comparative
slownois by secondary action, peroxide of lead appearing at the post

THEORY OF ELECTROLYSIS.

dvc pole» and hanging from it in light threads or masses. The water
[ frequently decomposes before the lead yields at all.

Nobilis Iris-Rings. — It is by the electrolysis of lead that the beau-
tiful iris-rings are produced. A polished steel plate is put in a dilute
solution of acetate of lead. The steel plate is connected with the
positive pole of a galvanic battery, while a wire, connected with the
negative pole, is put in the solution. Peroxide of lead is at once libe-
rated on the steel beneath the wire, and a film extends outward, but
growing thinner and thinner. Thus a series of concentric circles is
formed exhibiting bright iris colors.

Nitric Acid. — Strong nitric acid conducts well and decomposes, oxy-
gen appearing at the positive pole, nitrous acid and nitric oxyd at the
negative pole. Dissolution takes place, and the water becomes yellow.

Nitrate of Potash. — This is a good conductor, and yields secondary
results.

Sulphurous Acid. — This, when diluted, yields oxygen at the positive
pole, and hydrogen and sulphur at the negative.

Sulphuric .»4n</.— This yields sulphur at the negative pole, and pio-
duces secondar}' results.

Muriatic Acid. — A strong solution of this yields hydrogen at the
negarive pole, and chlorine at the positive pole.

EUctro-metallurgy. — Electro-metallurgy, or the art of precipitating
metals from their solutions by the galvanic current, is a result of the
discovery of electrolysis — is indeeti itself simply an electrolytic pro-
cess. There are two divisions of this art — elecirotyping and electro-
plating. The art of electro metallurgy was discovered, independently,
by Spencer, in England, and Jacobi, in Petersburg, in 1837. Electro-
gilding was discovered by Brugnatelli, a pupil of Volta, but was first
used by M. de la Rive.

Theory of Electrolysis. — The theory of electrolysis at present accepted
is the following : In every compound one of the elements is electro-
positive, the other, electro negative. Under the influence of the
opposing electricities from the electrodes, decomposition and recompo.
sition go on from one pole to the other. But tliese decompositions and
recompositions are seen only at the electrodes.

This may be illustrated by the electrolysis of water. Water is com-
posed of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. Oxygen is
electronegative and hydrogen is electro-positive.

When, now, the electrodes are dipped in water, the electro-negative
oxygen of the molecule a {Fig. 22) is attracted to the positive pole, and
the electro negative hydrogen is repelled.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

9,* ^j, O . .. . .♦ _.♦

*•» °^ °^ °. *". ".

FtG. la.

The oxygen is then given off at the positive pole, while the libe
hydrogen unites itself with the next atom of oxygen of the mole

bj while the original atom of ]
drogen is expelled.

This atom of hydrogen unit
with the oxygen of the molec
<:, drives out the hydrogen will
which that atom had been pr
viously combined, and so on through the whole series of molecule
until the negative pole is reached. Here the hydrogen has no i
oxygen to combine with, so it is liberated as gas.

The electrolysis of all other electrolytes is similarly explained. This]
fciinplc and ingenious theory was devised by Grotthilss.

ly f composed Elements appear only at fhi Eiectrodes.-^l'a electroly
the elements decomposed appear only at the electrodes ; the inte
diftte region presents no change, although, of course, it must be trar*'
«r»cd by the decompositions that occur. This is illustrated by tll8
following experiment of Davy : Three vessels are connected by a <
lt»n wick thoroughly moistened. In one vessel is placed an alkaline sal^l
ftiuj in Ihe other two, water. The liquid of all three vessels is colored^
wllh »ynip of violets. When the galvanic current is made to pass through
Ihr vesacla. the liquid at the negative pole becomes greeru, and the
\ix\K\k\ Rt the positive becomes red^ demonstrating that the acid goes to
Ihc positive and the alkaline base to the negative pole. The fluid in
the middle vessel suffered no change of color, although it must have
be<n Iravcrsed by the acid in the solution.

EiU<trolysis compared with the Reactions in ihe Batteries.— Ityriii be
vbacrved that the chemical action that takes place in the fluids of any

Uery Is similar to electrolysis. The two are, indeed, facts of prc^

^y the same nature. The action in the battery is accompanied by

Mootric current ; the action in electrolysis occurs as a result of the
y^* ' current.

' ■ 'ion on Electro Surgery it will be shown that all these phy-

iMMht Uw« of electrolysis hav; a direct and necessary bearing on the ust
'IfWvUolyiag in »urgciy.

CHAPTER

rUUCED ELECTRICmr — CURRENT AND MAGNETO-INDUCTION — ELECTRO-
MAGNETISM.

Induced Electricity^ or Electro-Magnetism : Electro-dynamical Induc-
m. — Wc have seen that induction means the action that electrified
odies exert on other bodies at a distance. Electro-statical induction
as ah-eady been treated ot We have now to speak of the induction
f current-electricity.
Prof. Oersted, of Copenhagen, first observed that the electric oir-
»nt, brought near a magnetic needle, caused it to deflect. This was
le earliest observation in electro-magnetism.

Philosophers at once set themselves at work to explain this phenome-,
on. The discovery was not an accidental one on the part of Oersted,
'or years he had been occupied with the study of electro-physics, and
I early as 1807 he had published a work in which he stated that he
urposed to ascertain whether electricity in its most latent state had
Dy ffftci on the magnet. His first discovery that the needle had a
tndency to place itself at right angles to the wire in which a current was
assing, was a natural sequence and confirmation of his early researches.
Ills discovery by Oersted formed another era in the science of elec-
icily ; for in 1820 the enthusiasm caused by the discoveries of Galvani
nd Volta had subsided, just as the endiusiasm caused by the Leyden
«- and Franklin's pile had died away when Galvani made his renowned
jsperimenL

Amperis Theory of Magnetism. — Among the many scientists who
aght to explain and unfold the phenomena of electro-magnetism as
iscovercd by Oersted, it was reserved for Ampere to achieve the
ghrst success- This theorj', which was developed by rigid mathemat-
al demonstrations, was, that each molecule oj a magnetic body is trav-
'scd iy closed electric currents. These currents arc free to move
)oul llieir centres of gravity, but the coercitive force ^ which is weak in
ift iron but great in steel, tends to keep them in position.

K thr

^L UK

Before a magneric body is magnetked these molecular current*, or
rings of electricity, by their mutual attraction neutralize each other,
»o that their combined action on any other substance is nothing.

When a body is magnetized^ these mohcular currents assume a ^aral-
Ul direction. The more complete the magnetization, the more nearly
imrallcl ihey become. When they are completely parallel, the limit of
magnetization is reached. Ampere further supposes that all tliesc mo-
lecular currents are equivalent to a single current circulating round the
magnet. Still further, and in consonance with his theory. Ampere sup.
poBcd that terrestrial magnetic effects were due to magnetic currents
that circulate round the earth from east to west, perpendicular to the
magnetic meridian. The resultant of these currents is a single cur«
rent going from east to west. These currents, which are supposed
to be due to the action of the sun, deflect magnetic needles, magne*
tize iron, etc

The Electric Current acts as a Magnet : Solenoids. — In confinzUii
tion of Ampere's theory of magnetism, it is found that when a helix, Of
•pirals of covered wire, coated in such a way that one of the wires pASses
through the axis (solenoid, as it is called), is suspended Into cups of
mercury, and traversed by a current, it will act like a magnetic nttdU

d point from north to south. Ampere gave the following rule by
hich the directions of the needle under the current can be and
stood ; Let the observer imagine himself placed in tlie wire, so that ;
current enters at his feet and leaves at his head, while his face is I
toward the needle ; the pole will always be deflected toward tkt ,
qJ the observer.

Helix. — In a helix of a copper wire through which a current cir
Utes, each convolution of the spiral may be regarded as one of the litt]
magnets of Ampere's theory. The ends of the spiral, when the ciu
passes through it, act on a magnetic needle like the poles of a magnc
Ampere's theory explains two important magnetic phenomena.

I St. Why like poles repel and unlike attract.

Two north poles of a magnet side by side have opposite at
fvnti »nd repel each other. Similarly with two south poles. But]
nmlh and south have currents in the some direction and attract eaci

III. Why a magnetic needle places itself north and south.
IMincI can conic to rest only when the current below it, nearest
^hH. U jiaraUel to the earth-current. The magnetic needle turns
llw \\\\\\\\ (o allow the currents below it to become parallel to the i

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC HELIX.

EU<tro»tagneiic Helix. — Magnetism is induced in a bar of soft iron

' the simple passage of a current near it, in a direction at right angles
the bar. If, however, the wire (Fig. 2-^ encircles the iron many
imes, this effect will be much in-
rcased. Let a current be passed

er the wire in the direction of the
rrows, and the iron within will be-
ome strongly magnetic, with its

lies as shown by the letters S and
i. If the enclosed iron be not too

ravy, it will be drawn to the centre ^^^- =J-

id held suspended there.

When the current is broken, the iron ceases to be magnetic ; while,

a bar of hardened steel be substituted for the iron, it will retain its
nagnetisra permanently. Such a coil of wire is called a helix, from
\kti^ a winding, and a magnet formed in the manner described is termed

1 eUcifo-magnet.

Fig. 24 represents the general form of an electro-magnet It is com-

(sed of a bar of soft iron, bent into the
Dim of a horseshoe. An insulated wire is
oiled round its extremities. When a cur-

nt of electricity is passed through the coil,
he horseshoe-bar becomes magnetic, and

tracts the armature. If the current is
»roken, the bar becomes demagnetized and
he armature falls to the ground. Perma-
icnt magnets possess much less power than
Jectro-magnets,

If the iron bar within the helix be more
ban a third of an inch in thickness, and the
airrent be of moderate strength, the mag- fva. m.

dsm induced is in proportion to the
itrength of the current, and of the number of turns in the coil. Ad-
litional coils of the wire give no increased magnetism, if the bar is
hinner than one-third of an inch. In this case maximum is soon
eached. Again, if the circuit is made very long, thus reducing the
Itrength of the current, the advantage usually gained by the thick bar,

id by increasing the number of coils, may be lost. The iron bar
ibould be perfectly pure and well annealed, in order that the electro-
magnet may quickly acquire and as quickly lose its magnetism on
losing and breaking tlie circuit*

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

DirtctioH of the Induced Current. — If a current of electricity is \

tlirough any conductor, it will

Fic. »$.

duce a current in the opposite dir^
tion in a second conductor situated]
parallel to the first. Let A B, Fig.!
2$, be a wire connected at eiti
extremity with the poles of a gaL^
vanic battery, and M N a second wire parallel and near to the
As soon as the circuit is formed and a current passes from + to — , ;
secondary current is induced in the second wire, but in an opposite
direction.

This current is, however, but for an instant. As soon as die ■
is broken, an instantaneous current, with its direction reversed, is agaifl
established in the second wire.

Different Orders of Induced Currents. — Induced or secondary \
rents have themselves the power of producing induced currents in ot]
adjacent circuits. Currents thus induced from secondary indue
currents are called tertiary induced currents. These tertiary indue
currents have also the power of producing induced currents in an
jacent circuit, and so for a long series.

Currents produced in this way are in opposite directions alternately^
and their strength diminishes the higher they ascend

As a secondary current flovra in a direction opposite to that of
battery current, so the tertiary flows in a direction opposite to
secondary. This law holds good throughout the whole scries,-
strength of the current diminishing as the distance from the bati
increases.

The manifestation of electrical action in the secondary coil, upoal
closing and breaking the circuit, is called the electric throbs while the|
passive condition of the wire while under induction has been descrit
by Faraday as eiectrotonic.

If the primary coil be movable, so that it can be brought in clo
proximity to the secondary coil while the current is passing, an inverse]
current is produced at the moment of its approach, the same as whenj
the circuit is closed. If now the primary coil be withdrawn, a dir
current is produced, the same as when the circuit is broken. As longi
as the primary coil remains ia one position, all evidence of electiicityl
in the secondary wire disappears. If, however, while in this posiuoiv|
the strength of the primary current be increased or diminished, n»o
mentary currents are established in the secondary coil ; the invc
following the increase, and the direct current following the decrease tl

DIFFERENT ORDERS OF INDUCED CURRENTS.

Strength of the primary current. In thus experimenting, it is much
more convenient to wind the wires on separate bobbins, so that one
may be placed within the other, as represented in Fig. 26.

Let A represent the primary coil, which is composed of wool-covered
wire ^ of an inch in diameter; and B the secondary coil, of silk-
covered wire, much longer than the other, and about ^ of an inch in
diameter. Now let the secondary coil be connected with the galvan-
ometer, G, by means of the two binding-screws, while the primary coil,
by two loose and flexible wires, is placed in the circuit of a galvanic
celL As soon as A is inserted into B, a momentary inverse current is
indicated. If it be withdrawn, the galvanometer indicates a momen-
tary direct current While the primary coil remains in the secondary,
the needle announces the induction of currents according to the prin-
ciples stated above, whenever the strength of the primary current is
increased or diminished.

TTu Conditions under which Induction takes place. — To sum up iu
brief. Induction takes place from one circuit into an adjacent circuit,
ist. At the moment when the current is closed. 2d. The moment
when the current is opened. 3d. While the current is increasing or
diminishing in strength. 4th. While the current is brought near to or
removed from the adjacent circuit A current that doses or increases

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

in strength, or is brought near to an adjacent circuit, induces an invern
momentary current in that circuit A current that opens or diminishes
in strength, or is removed from an adjacent circuit, induces a dired
momentary current in that circuit. It will be seen, therefore, that in-
duction takes place only when there is some change in the condition 9J
the inducing current. It must be closed or opened, increased or dimin-
ished in strength, brought near to or removed from the adjacent circuit
In the ordinary electro-magnetic machines these changes arc made
by a rheotome^ or current-interrapter, and the strength of the current
is modified by withdrawing or removing a metallic cylinder enclosing
the coils, or by withdrawing or removing the core of iron needles.

Induction of a Current on Itself : Extra Current. — The extra cor-
rent is that which is induced by the current in each coil, or winding of
the primary coil on the other adjacent windings.

The windings act inductively on each other both at the opening and
closing of the circuit. Thus we have a direct and an inverse extra cur-
rent The direct extra current gives shocks and sparks, decomposes
water, magnetizes steel, and melts platinum-wire. The electromotive
force of the extra current bears a uniform relation to the intensity of
the primary or inducing current When the secondary coil is c/osed,
the extra current does not appear in the primary coil» but by what k
called reaction it is formed in the secondary coil itself, and becomes
an ordinary induced current.

It is called the extra current only so long as it remains in the pri-
mary coil I it so remains onty when the secondary coil is open,

Rheotome^ or Current-interrupter. — Anoong
the different contrivances for producing these
changes in the primary current that arc neces-
sary for induction, the most convenient is the
Rheotome, or Current-interrupter.

This, when placed in the circuit of the pri-
mary coitf alternately closes and opens the cut'
renty and thus causes induced currents in the
secondary coiL

Fig. 27 represents a current-interrupter.
Into the iron covering A are fastened the
ends of the iron wires of the core within the
r»«. •/. coil.

The hammer H is attached to a spring D,
which is in the primary circuit ; / is a projection tipped with pLati-
nuni» because that metal does not corrode ; / , connected with the

INDUCTION COILS.

«s

screw, is also tipped with platinum. When the circuit is closed, the
core of iron-wire A becomes magnetic, and draws H away from /',
against which it naturally rests. This breaks the current, for the circuit
is coropleled through the connection of / and p\ As the current is
broken, A of course loses its magnetism, and no longer has power to
attract H ; therefore the spring D brings H back to /', where it natur-
ally rests. This completes the circuit, and again A becomes magnetic,
and again it attracts H, and thus H is kepi rapidly vibrating with a
buzzing sound between A and/'. These constant interruptions keep
op an induced current in the secondary coiL The screw b gives the
necessary stiffness to D.

Object of the Iron Core in tht Primary Coil. — The inductive power
of the prijnary current is very greatly increased by putting a bar of soft
iron or a bundle of iron wires in the heart of the primary coil The
iron core strengthens the current in this way. It becomes magnetic by
the action of the current, and this magnetism disappears when the cur-
rent opens. The disappearance of the magnetism induces a current in
the same direction as the disappearing primary current, and thus
strengthens it. In electro-magnetic machines, as used for electro-
therapeutics, this iron core is a very convenient means for modifying
the current Pushing it in the coil increases the current, withdrawing
it diminishes the current.

A bundle of wires is preferable to a single bar of soft iron, for in the
latter, currents are formed which impede the sudden cessation of the
primary current, while in the former these cannot be formed.

Thickness and Length of the Outer and Inner Wires. — It is a law of
clectro-physic3 that wires of a large diameter conduct electricity better
than wires of a small diameter. It is necessary that the primary cur-
rent should be strong, since its principal object is to excite magnetism
in the core ; consequently the coil is made of thick wire and of moderate
length. The secondary coil, however, is made of very thin wire, and
cf great length, so that as many turns as possible may be brought
within the influence of the core and of the primary coil, and thus pro-
duce a secondary current. As with the galvanic or inducing current,
the electro-motive force of the battery is proportionate to the num-
ber of cells ; so with the induced or secondary current, the electro-
motive force of the coil is proportionate to the number of turns or coils
in it.

Induction Coils and Electro-magnetic Machines. — An induction coil
for philosophical or electro-therapeutical purposes consists usually of
two htlitts or coils of wire enclosing a bar of soft iron or a bundle of

€5

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

iron wires.* The inner coil is connected with the poles of a batteiy,
and there is some arrangement for breaking the current. The ianef ^
coil is composed of tolerably coarse wire, and is comparatively short
The current that runs through it is calletl the primary^ or sometimef
the inducing, current. The outer coil is in no way connected with
the inner coil, but receives by induction a current from the current of
the inner coil as it is alternately broken and closed. The oui^
coil is composed oi fine wire, and it is very much longer than the
inner coil.

The finer and longer the wire, the greater the tension of the current
The current that comes through the outer coil is called the secondary
current, in distinction from that which comes from the inner coil, which
is called the primary. In both coils the iron is insulated with silk cover- ,
ing.

Ruhmkorff's Coil — The most powerful of all coils, and the one best j
adapted for philosophical experiments, is that of Ruhmkorff, of Paris. [
It is about T4 inches in length. The inner coil is of copper, is about I
a mm. in diameter, and 4 or 5 yards long. It is coiled on a cylinder 1
of card-board, and is enclosed in an insulating cyUnder of glass or j
rubber.

ric. .8.

The wire of the outer coil is of copper, from \ to \ mm. in diameter,
and from thirty to sixty miles in length. The distinctive features of
this coil are these ;

ist It is coiled in sections so as to avoid the induction of the outer
coil on itself, which is liable to take place when it is very long and the
tension is high, however thorough the insulation.

* In the machine of Kidder, to be deKxibed under Electro-Therapeatlcs, the IteUs ,
is composed of three or more coils of wire, not distinct, but connected.

RUHMKORFF S COII-

ad. The insulation is very complete. The wire is covered with silk,
and each winding is separated from the others by a layer of shellac
In the larger coils of Ruhmkorff the induced currents are thousands of
times stronger than tlie primary current that excites them.

The Condenser of Ruhmkorff' s Coil. — The intensity of the current of
tiie secondary coil is increased by interposing a condenser in the circuit.
In Ruhmkorff s coil the condenser consists of 150 sheets of tin-foil 18
inches square, and with a surface of about 75 square yards. These
sheets arc coiled around insulating oiled silk, and around each other, so
as to form two armatures, and the whole is placed below the helix in
iJic base of the apparatus.

Being introduced into the circuit, it receives the extra current and
increases its tension. It stores up and utilizes force that would other-
wise be wasted in the form of sparks at the interrupter.

Effects produced by Ruhmkorff' s Coil. — -The tension of Ruhmkorff 's
coil is enormous, and for the reasons above given — the length and fine-
ness of the secondary wire and the power of the condenser. It i)Ossesses
all the properties of statical as well as dynamical electricity. It is
capable of giving a shock so violent as to prostrate a man, and if a
sufficient number of elements are connected with it, it could kill as by
a stroke of lightning. When two couples are connected with it, it will
kill a rabbit. It causes fine iron wire to melt and burn with a bright
light It can rapidly decompose water, or produce luminous effects in
the water without decomposition.

It decomposes and combines gases. Passed through a hermetically
sealed tube containing air, it forms nitrous acid from the nitrogen and
oxygen. It can produce a spark eighteen inches in length in the air.

In vacuo it produces most remarkable effects. In the so-called
e!e<tri4 egg^ a luminous trail is observed between the poles. At the
positive pole the light is red and brilliant ; at the negative, feeble and
violet. If vapor of alcohol, or turpentine, or bisulphide of carbon, be
introduced into the vessel, it appears in the form of alternate light and
dark zones or strata. The tints vary with tlie natiu^e of the vapor.
The same phenomena are obtained by the ordinary galvanic current
from a large number of cells. The luminous effects of the coil are as
great from a single cell as from a large number.

Id electro-therapeutics a wide variety of electro-magnetic machines
have been devised. Most of them are run by one or two cells, like
Smee's or Walker's, and the current generated is just sufficient for ap-
plication to the human body, and are but little adapted for the philo-
sopliical room.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

The largest induction coil of which we have any knowledge is that of
Apps, in London, It is nine feet ten inches long, and its diameter is
two feet. The soft-iron core is five feet long, four inches in diameter,
and weighs 125 pounds. The length of the primary coil is 3,770 yards
while that of the secondary coil is one hundred and fifty miles. This
battery is excited by 48 large Bunsen cells. It gives a flash twenty-
nine inches long that will perforate five inches of solid plate-glass. At
the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, there is also an induc-
tion coil of great power.

Properties of Induced Currents. — Induced currents have in differcat
degrees all the properties of the ordinary galvanic current. They pro-
duce chemical, thermic, luminous, and physiological effects. They
deflect the magnetic needle, magnetize steel, and are capable of them-
selves exciting induced currents. There is a difference, however, be-
tween the effects of the direct induced and inverse induced. The
direct gives a powerful shock, the inverse a mild shock.

The direct magnetizes to the point of saturation, the inverse does
not magnetize.

In their action on the galvanometer they are about equal In quan-
tity, the direct and inverse induced currents are about the same ; but
the tension of the direct induced is greater than that of the invecse
induced.

Comparative Chemical Effects of the Galvanic and Induced Currents.
— ^That the chemical character of currents of induction is distinctive from
the galvanic is proved by the following experiment : When the platinum
poles connected with an induced current are placed in water, water is
decomposed and oxygen produces oxidation of platinum, which is re-
duced to metallic platinum by the recombination of the hydrogen with
the oxygen. This process takes place at both poles, so that both
become covered with a powder of platinum.

If a solution of iodide of potassium and starch is brought into the
circuit, the blue color appears at both poles. When the galvanic cur-
rent is used, the blue color appears only at the positive pole. When
the induced current is sent through water it decomposes it, just as the
galvanic current does the oxygen and hydrogen, both appearing at
both poles; but they recombine, and thus the water does not appear
to be decomposed at all.

It is of the first importance to the electro-therapeutist to understand
eleclro-magnetisra, for it is the form of electricity most used in electro-
therapeutics.

Magneto-electricity, — Magneto-electric induction is the induction of

MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINES.

electric currents by magnetism. It is, as the term implies, the reverse
of electro-magnetic induction. There are two forms of magneto-elec-
tric induction.

The first and most familiar form is when a current is induced in a
coil of insulated wire. The second form is when a current is induced in
conducting plates.

Under electro-magnetic induction we have seen that the coil of
wire in which a current circulates produces a contrary induced cur-
rent in an adjacent coil whenever a change is made in the current by
opening, closing, withdra\^nng, or approaching it. The strength of the
induced current is proportioned to the amount and suddenness of these
changes. If now we substitute for the primary or inducing coil a per-
manent bar magnet^ and cause it to approach or withdraw from the ad-
jacent coil, it induces a current in that coil. This principle is the
basis of all the magneto-electric machines that are so familiar to stu-
dents of philosophy, and that were once so much used in electro-ther^
peutics.

The development of magneto-electricity is shown in a very simple
manner by the common horseshoe magnet, its annature,
and a copper wire. Let the armature A B be encircled
by the wire C, one end of which is flattened and amal-
gamated ^nth nitrate of mercury, and the other filed to
a point. Wlien the armature is placed upon the magnet,
the moment of contact, when it is withdrawn, and the
act of withdrawal, will each be marked by a spark of
electricity at C, where the two extremities of the wire
meet.

The electric current flows in one direction at the in-
stant magnetism is induced in the soft iron which is
enclosed by the coil of wire, and in the opposite direc-
tion when its magnetism is destroyed.

In the electro-magnetic machines in ordinary use a soft-iron arma-
ture covered with wire is made to rotate in front of the poles of a per-
manent horseshoe magnet. As the armature rotates, its two ends are,
of course, alternately brought near to and removed from the bars of the
magnet, and thus two currents are induced in the wires that cover the
armature. E^ch current lasts half of a revolution, and if the rotation
be rapidly kept up, a current is produced which may be perceived when
the ends of the wires are joined.

A Continuous Current from Magneto-tUctric Machines. — When the
armatures of the magneto-electric machine are made to revolve with

Ftc. 19.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

sufficient rapidity, a continuous current is produced which has all the
properties of the galvanic ctirrent. Magneto-electric currents aie^
therefore, extensively used in electrolytic experiments and in electro
plating. It is possible that some of these may be utilized in electro-
therapeutics.

Currents induced by Magnetism in Conducting-plates : Magnetism
of Rotation. — In 1824-5 Arago discovered that when a copper disk re-
volved with great rapidity under a needle resting on a disk above the
disk, the needle deflected in the direction of the motion of the disk.
After a time, if the movement be sufficiently rapid, the needle refuses
to remain fixed, and turns around after the disk. The explanation of
this phenomenon was given by Faraday in 1831. He showed that it
arose from the reaction of the currents induced in the plate by the u)ag>
net. The magnetism of rotation is only one of the many phenomena
connected with induction. All these phenomena — induction by currents
of magnetism and by rotation — are explained by the theory of Ampere
before cited. They are at once in harmony with that theory and coH'
firmatory of it.

History of Induction. — The discovery that electric currents of mag-
netism can induce currents in neighboring circuits was made by Faraday
in 1830. His researches on the subject were published in the Philo-
sophical Transactions in 1851 and 1S32.

This discovery of Faraday, like that of Oersted, was the result, not
of accident, but of long and laborious experimentation. As early as
1825 Faraday bad sought to make a wire, through which the galvanic
current was passing, induce a current in a neighboring wire, just as a
conductor charged with Franklinic electricity would have done. Not
until 1831 did he find out that the current must be broken or closed,
or approached or withdrawn, before it could induce a current in a
neighboring wire.

In 1832 Prof. Henry, then of New Jersey, now of the Smithsonian
Institute, Washington, observed phenomena which, in 1834, Faraday
showed were due to the extra current. In 1837 Bachhoffner and
Sturgeon showed that a bundle of wire was better in an induction appa-
ratus than a rod of soft iron.

In 1 84 1 Prof. Henry studied the inductive action of currents on
currents. In 1850 or 1851 Ruhmkorff constructed the induction-coil,
and in 1853 Fizeau greatly increased its ijower by adding to it a con-
denser. The discovery that discharges of the Leyden jar made a
primary spiral induce a current in a secondary spiral, and that currents
of the third} fourth, and fifth order can be thus produced, and of su&

HISTORY OF INDUCTION. /I

dent strength to give shocks, burn, etc, was made simultaneously by
Profs. Henry, of Washington, and Riess, of Berlin.

The first magneto-electric machine was made by Faraday in 1831.
The first machine of the style now used was made by Fixii in 1832.
Improvements have been since made by Saxton (1833), Clarke (1836),
Petrine (1844), Stdhrer (1844), Siemens, Halske, Duchenne, and
others.

CHAPTER VI,

THERMO-ELECTRICITy,

Thermo-electricity is that form of electricity that arises from the heai-
ing of two heterogeneous conductors at their junction. The two most
important methods of generating thermal currents arc, ist, with two
portions of the same metal ; and id, with two different kinds of metaL

Tliermo-elcctricity generated by One Metal, — If a copper wire be
cut into two pieces, and one of the ends be heated to redness and
pressed against the end of the other piece, a current of electricity is
produced. This is demonstrated by the galvanometer.

When different portions of the same metal have different structures,
a current is obtained when the point where both structures come
together is heated.

If, for example, a platinum-wire be twisted or bent on itself, this
twisting so changes the structure of the wire that a current is generated
by heating the point of union between the twisted and non-twisted
portion.

Thermo-electricity generated hy Two Metals. — Let A and B (Fig. 30)
be respectively bars of antimony and bismuth, soldered to-
gether, while G represents a galvanometer connected by two
wires -with the free extremities of the metals.

When the junction S of the metals is heated, a current o!
electricity is generated, which flows from the bismuth to the
antimony, as shown by the arrow. If the junction S is chilled
by applying ice, a current is also produced, but in the oppo-
site direction. This combination constitutes a thermo-electric
pair.

The following is the thermo-elecLnc classification of the
metals. The arrows show the direction of the current, accord-
ing as the junction is influenced by heat or cold. The relative elec-
tro-motive force of the metals is indicated by the numbers.

M6AT
Fig. 3a

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

exceeds 300", the direction of the current is changed and it goes frooi
iron to copper.

Thermo-dcctric Force influenced by Crystallisation. — ^It is a fact of
interest that the thermo-electric force is influenced by crystailLzailon.

Metals which have a crystalline structure are best suited for a thermo-
electric pair.

It has been noticed, also, that when the cleavage of bismuth is par-
allel to the face of junction, the electro-motive force is greater than
when both are at right angles ; with antimony the reverse is true. The
difference is so great that it is possible to construct a thermo-electric
element of two pieces of bismuth by making the cleavage in one parallel
to the fiice of the junction, and the other at right angles to it The
same can be done with antimony.

General Properties of Thermo-electric Currents. — Thermo-electric
currents have to a less degree all the properties of the galvanic battery.
They can be kept very constant, for by the use of ice and boiling
water the junction of the metals tliat give rise to them can easily be
kept at a tlefinite temperature.

P'or this reason (their constancy) Ohm used them in the experimental
establishment of his great law.

Electro-motive Force of Thermo-electric Currents. — As compaied
with the currents generated by chemical action — hydro-electric currents
— the thermo electric currents have a very feeble electro-motive force.
According to Wheatstone, the electro-motive force of a bismuth-copper
element, with a difference of 100 C. in the temperature of their junctions,
is -jiy that of a Daniell element. Other observers have estunated the
electro-motive force of thermo-electric currents still less. According
to Kohlrausch, the electro-motive force of an iron-silver couple with
10° or 15° difference of temperature at their junction is xh^ tliat of a
Daniell element.

Origin of the Current in a Thermo-electric Battery. — We hav«
shown that in the galvanic battery the origin of the current is chemical
action. In the thermo-electric battery chemical action will not explain
the existence of the currents, for they are formed in hydrogen and in
vacuo. They are not caused by contact, for they can arise from a
single metal.

It has been supposed that thermo-electric currents are due to the
unequal propagation of heat. In a homogeneous circuit no current is
produced, for the heat extends equally in all directions.

Ther mo-multiplier. — The chief use of thcnno-electricity is to measure
exceedingly feeble changes of temperature. The thenno-electric pile

THERMO-MULTIPLIER.

^Ottiwcled with the galvanometer is incomparably more delicate than
any thermometer. The arrangement used by Melloni is represented in
the cut.

FlG. 31.

On a wooden base a graduated copper tube, about a yard long, is
placed. On this are placed a lamp, a, the screws F and E, a sup-
port for the bodies to be experimented on, and the thermo-electric
pile m. Near by is the galvanometer D, which has only a few turns
of thick wire. Such a galvanometer is called a ther mo-multiplier.
It is so very delicate that the heat of the hand, at a distance of three
feet, will generate electricity in tlie pile sufficient to deflect the needle.
If the face of die pile be breathed upon, the needle will swing around
to 90*. The thermo-multiplier is a powerful illustration of the great
law of the correlation and conservation of forces. As electricity pro-
duces heat, so in the thermo-electric pile heat produces electricity.

In the thermo-multiplier heat produces electricity ; this electricity
produces magnetism, is converted into mechanical motion, and not
until it has gone through all these transformations can a very delicate
axnount of heat be detected. The thermo-mulriplier is used in physio-
logical researches.

Thermc electric Batteries. — A number of thermo-electric couples
soldered together so that the copper or antimony of one is soldered
to the bismuth of the other, and so on, is called a thermo-electric bat-
ifry* The current is generated by heating one row of the soldered
faces, or, as the current depends on the difference of temperature of
the two sides, by applying ice to one side and heat to the other.

The accompanying cut represents Farmer's thermo-electric battery,

CHAPTER VII.

bsif's LAW AND ITS PRACTICAL APPUCATION TO ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

The basis of all electrical measurement is Ohm's law, which is, that
the ^entity of tUctricity passing through any point in a circuit
paries directly as the electro-motive force^ and inversely as the resistance,
I Putting Qfor quantity, E for electro-motive force, and Rfor resistance,
Ihe law is thus expressed : Q = |.

This law was discovered by Prof Ohm, of Nuremberg, in 1827, and
lor a long time was neglected- It is the north-star of dynamical elec-
tricity. Those who can keep this always in sight need never lose their
way, however long or intricate the explorations they may make in this
important and fascinating reahu. Although originally nothing but a
theof)', yet it has been powerfully confirmed by the mathematical calcu-
lations of Fechner, Pouillet, Kohlrausch, Daniell, De la Rive, and
Wlieatstone, and has proved itself competent to explain all the phe-
Domena with which it has to do. Just as the strength of the theory of
gravitation consists in its power to accoimt for the movements of the
Bolar system, just as the strength of the undulatory theory consists in
its power to explain the complex phenomena of light, so the strength
cf Ohm's law consists in its power to account for the phenomena of dy-
namical electricity. As no one can be master in astronomy without
understanding gravitation, or in optics without understanding the undu-
latory theory, so no one can be master in electricity without under-
Standing Ohm's law.

We shall endeavor to make this law and its application as clear as
Ihc nature of the subject will allow. It is necessary to define certain
terms that are not very familiar ; first of all, units of measurement.

A unit is an abstract term to express any determined quantity, by the
repetition of which any other quantity of the same kind can be measured.

An ohm is a unit of resbtance ; one million ohms = one megohm ;
ime millionth of an ohm = one microhm.

A number of units of resistance have been proposed — among others,

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

definite lengths of wires of a definite thickness j but wire is rarely pvat^
and the different specimens widely vary.

In 1864 the British Association, acting on the suggestion of Web
decided that electrical resistance could be expressed as an absolute "
locity, without any reference to the substance that conducts. This unit,
which expresses a velocity of 10,000,000 metres of a second, is called i
A ^., or British Association, unit.

Previous to this action of the Association the best known units verel
those of Siemen and Varley. Siemen's unit is a column of purej
mercury, one metre long and one square millimetre in sections at o* C I
Varleyh unit was one mile of ordinary copper-wire, No. 16, ^ of Ml
inch in diameter at 60" F. The B. A. unit of the British Association if {
embodied in an alloy of platinum and silver. This alloy has the ad-j
vantage of German silver, that its conducting pOAVcr does not changej
with long use.

The unit of electro-motive force is called a volt. A volt is equal to|
*bout the force of a Daniell cell, or the decimal '9268.

The unit of quantity is a farad. In other words, a farad is
quantity of electricltj' which, with a certain electro-motive force, floi
through a certain resistance.

The terminology of electricity in general has been atrociously difl
cull and obscure, but nowhere has there been deeper obscurity aiKl|
grosser misunderstanding and inconsistency than in the application of ■
the terms resistance, quantity, tension, and electromotive force.

Electromotive Force. — The electro-motive force is the force that urgt^
forward the current.

It is the origin of tension, to be hereafter defined. This force
modified —

xst By the nature of the plates of which the element is composed-
ad. By tlie nature and strength of the acid solution.

3d. By the number of elements in the solution.

Substances that stand at or near the two extremes of the electro-
positive and electro-negative series, generate a stronger electro motive
force than substances that stand near each other.

Zinc and platinum or zinc and carbon give more electromotive
force than zinc and copper, because the difference in their oxidability
is greater, and they stand farther apart in the electro-positive and
electro-negative scries.

Plates that are imperfect in their structure, or which contain irapufi-
ties that generate currents in opposition to the main current, or plates
that are worn out, or are encrusted with the products of chemical

H that ai

ohm's law— electro-motive force.

decomposition, give less electromotive force than plates that are per-
fect, fresb, and clean.

Similarly also the electro-motive force is diminished by the polarising
action of the current in the cell. Thus, in the Smee cell, the hydrogen
that gathers on the platinum-plate and the oxygen that gathers on the
zinc, generate a current that is opposite in direction to the main cur-
rent, and enfeebles it ; and for this reason, lifting the plates out of the
liquid a moment to allow the gases that form on tiiera to escape, or
vigorously agitating the liquid, at once increases the electro-motive
force. Strong acids which excite vigorous clieniical action give more
electromotive force than weak acids, and therefore it is that sulphuric
and nitric and chromic acids arc so much used in batteries.

When the proportion of acid in the solution is large, electro motive
force IS greater than when it is small. Strong solutions, however, con-
sume the plates faster, and the electro motive force will be reduced
thereby sooner, other conditions being the same, than when weak solu-
tions are used.

The electromotive force is exactly proportioned to the number of
ei^mcntSy without regard to their size. Two elements give twice as
much electro-motive force as one element, and one hundred elements
give one hundred times as much as one element of a similar character.
This can be proved by a galvanometer, with a long resistance-coil,
where the deflection of the needle will be in pretty exact proportion to
the number of cells brought into the circuit. The exactness of this
proportion is of course modified by the imperfections of individual ele-
ments, or by variation in the quantity and strength of solution in each
cell ; but the law always holds good.

As with the long-coil galvanometer, so with the human body, or any
other powerful resistance whatsoever, the electro-motive force that passes
through it will be — all other conditions being the same — proportioned
to the number of elements and without regard to their size. If a series
of very large elements are opposed to an equal series of very small
elements of similar construction, no current will pass; they will neu-
tralize each other. If both be tested by the galvanometer with a long
jeststance, they will cause similar deflections of the needle.

Tke quantity of electricity that passes through a circuit is directly pro-
portioned to the electro-motive force. If there were no resistance in the
circuit, quantity and electro-motive force would be the same : Q = E.
But there can be no circuit without some resistance, therefore Q never
equals E.

Electro-motive force of diflferent batteries, approximately :

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Grove loo

Biuisen , 98

Daniell 56

Smee (when not in action) .,., 57

" (when in action) 25

Wollaston (cojiper and zinc) 46

Mari6 Davy (sulphate of mercury aiid graphite). 76

Chloride of silver 62

Chloride of lead 30

These estimates are the mean of a very large number of obsemb-
tions by Latitner Clark, taken on a sine galvanometer. The electro-
motive force 15 somewhat modified by various imdetermined causes.

Tension^ or Potential. — Tension is that qualify of electrieity by which
it overcomes resistance. This definition is practical rather than stiiclly
scientific, and can only be understood by explanation.

Tension is a result of the electro-motive force, and is dependent on it,
and by mistake the two are often confounded. The sum and the diffe-
rences of electro-motive force are always equal to the sum and differ
fences of tension, but they are differently distributed in the cucuit.
By mathematicians the term potential^ suggested by Green, is preferred
to tension. The term is a relative one, and no body or part of a body
can be said to have an absolute tension or potential. The potential of
a body is really the difference between its potential and that of the
earth, which is assumed to be zero. Electricity flows from a body or
part of a body at a higher potential, to a body or part of a body at a
lower potential, and the work which it does measures its amouaL
Differences of potential may be compared to differences of level for
water. As water tends to flow from a higher level to a lower level an»
til all is of a uniform height, so electricity tends to flow from a higher
to a lower potential until the potential of all parts of the conductor \%
tlie same, and ceases to flow. An instance of extreme tension is found
in lightning, where it is caused by the differences in the electro-motive
forces between two clouds, or between the clouds and tlie earth.

The tension of the frictional machine is very great, for the reason
that it is not at all influenced by the resistance of the circuit, which
la the galvanic battery is very great. If the current of the galvanic
battery encountered no resistance in the circuit, or was not aifecled by
resistance, its tension would be enormous.

The terra intensity has long been used as synonymous with tension ;
but, strictly speaking, mtensity is derived from the French itUcttsiti,

OHM S LAW— TENSION, OR POTENTIAL.

which has been translated intensity, but which really n^eans quantity.
It is better to dispense entirely with the terra intensity, and we hava
done so in the present work.

Our definition of tension may be thus illustrated : Let a battery of loo
cells be joined in tlic ordinary tension arrangement, zinc united with
carbon and so on. Place the battery on an insulated stand, and connect
the zinc or negative pole with the earth, leaving the other free. Regard-
ing the earth, for convenience' sake, as zero, the copper pole will have
a tension of o, while the free end will have a tension of loo positive.
If a wire be connected with the free end, a current would Ao^ from it
to the earth. If now we reverse the position of the poles, connecting
the carbon pole with the earth, and leaving the other free, the carbon
end will be o, and the zinc end will be loo negative, and if it be con-
nected with the earth a current will flow from the earth to it. In both
of these cases the tension is the same \ in one case it is positive, in the
other negative. Take the same battery, with the zinc pole connected
with the earth, and join the carbon and zinc ends by a short, thick wire,
and a strong current will flow through the wire. But here conies in the
difference between tension and electro-motive force, for it can be ascer-
tained by proper tests that the electromotive force of the battery is the
same as it was before the ends were joined, but the tension has changed.

I Before, it was loo positive at the carbon end, now it is almost o.

If, instead of a short, thick wire, a long, fine wire that oflFers greater

j resistance be used to connect the poles, the tension at the carbon end
will rise with the increase in resistance in the wire. When the resist-
ance becomes infinitely great, the tension becomes loo again, but it
can never exceed too, for the tension can never exceed the electro-

I motive force at any point, although it may fall very much below it.
These two general laws in regard to tension should be reraem-

Ibered:

ist- It rises with the distance from the zero end of the circuit.

2d. The quantity of electricity passing between any two points is

I always proportioned to the difference of tension between tliese points.

I The actual tension may be high or low, positive or negative, but there
can be no current without differences of tension.*

The arrangement in series (or, as it is erroneously called, " intensity
arrangement"), is when the electro-positive element of one cell is united
to the electro-negative element of the next cell, and so on. The " quan-

\ lity arrangement," or "multiple arc" is when all the electro positive ele-

• Om Electriml Measurement. By Latimer Clark. London, 1868, p. 17,

ments are united to all the electro-negative elements so as to make i
large element. The arrangement in series, or a " tension arrangeroea j
is used for all ordinary galvanization and electrolyzation. The multi|
arc, or *' quantity arrangement," is used in galvano-cautery. The phia^^
"joined for tension," or •* intensity," and ** joined for quantity,"
relics of old and exploded theories of electricity. For convenieotf
sake they are still used ; but those who understand Ohm's law net
not be deceived by them.

Resistance. — Resistance is that quality of a conductor that im^
the passage of a circuit.

There are two kinds of resistance in any circuit :

1st. That of the battery itself {Internal Resistance).

2d. That of the connecting wires (circuit outside of the battery),
galvanometer, the human body, or other substance introduced into 1
circuit {External Resistance).

Hotv Resistance is Modified, — Resistance is modified in three ways: •

ist. By the nature of the substance, whether Uquid or solid, or by J
special chemical composition.

2d. By the form of tlic substance, whether long or short, of small
large diameter.

3d. By the temperature.

It is proved by experiment that the resistances of wires of the
material and of the same thickness are directly proportioned to th
lengthy and inversely proportioned to the squares of their diameters,

A wire one mile in length gives twice the resistance of a wire half 1
mile long, and four times the resistance of a wire one-fourth of a
long. On the other hand, wires of the same metal, but of diamete
which stand to each other in the relation i, 2, 3, offer a resistance '
stand to each other as i, ^, \. In other words, the longer the wire th^
greater the resistance, the thicker the wire the less the resistance- The
same law, but less exactly, applies to liquids, and for this reason large
elements give less resistance than small elements. The relative specific
resistances of a number of metals at a temperature of 54° F. arc as
follows :

Copper 1 Iron* 7.5

Gold , 1.4 Lead,. 11

Zinc* 3.7 Pla*mum 11.3

Mercury (at 57*) 50.7.

The converse of resistance is conduction.

The following table of the relative conductibility of metals at 32** F

OHM'S LAW— RESISTANCE.

«3

I Is taken from Latimer Clark, It will be perceived that it varies some,
what from the above table of relative resistances :

Silver loo

Copper (pure). 99.9

** selected (commer-
cial) 85 to 95

Copper, ordinary (commer -

cial) 40 to 70

Brass ao

Gold 78

Zinc 39

Steel 16

Iron 15

German silver 12 to 15

Tin r2.4

Lead 8.3

Platinum 6.9

Mercury ♦. . 1.6

It will be seen that both estimates agree in making copper and silver
the best conductors, and for that reason copper-wu-e is so much used
in making battery connections. In both tables platinum stands low in
conductibility, and for that reason platinum-wire is used when, as in
galvano-cautery, it is required to generate heat by passing the current
through a resisting medium. If mercury could be made in the form
of a wire it would of course be better than platinum, since its resist-
ance is somewhat greater. Bismuth, graphite, and coke rank still lower
in conducting power tlian mercury. The resistance of liquids is enor-
mous. Thus, taking copper-wire at 32** F. as r, the resistance of a
saturated solution of sulphate of copper at 48° F. is 16.885.520; ditto
of chloride of sodium at 56° F., 2.903.538; ditto of sulphate of zinc,
15.861.267; sulphuric acid diluted to ^ at 68° F., 1.033.020; nitric
acid at 55° F., 976.000; distilled water at 59° F., 6.734.208.000.

It has been estimated that the human body, by virtue of the salts
which it contains, conducts 15 <3r 20 times bdter than water ^ provided
the skin be fully moistened ; and that cupper conducts from three to
four hundred million limes better than the human body.

Effects of Temperature Oft Resistance, — Resistance is more or less
modified by temperature.

Between i* and 100^ C. the relative conducting power of the metals
remains the same ; at loo'^ metals lose about 30 per cent, of their
conductibility as compared with 0° C. ; but this varies with ditferent
metals. Conductivity is increased by annealing. Non-metallic sub-
stances increase in conductivity as they rise in temperature. Water,
for example, when heated conducts better than water cold. When a
current passes from a liquid to a solid, or vice versdj the resistance is
VCT)* great-

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

All Resistance relative. — No substances absolutely resist the paiiAg^l
of electricity ; even resin, glass, and sulphur, the worst conductors, dc
conduct a slight current, as can be proved by a very delicate galvano-
meter.

No perfect Conductor. — Even the best conductors, as copper and
silver and gold, are imperfectly so ; they all resist the current more or
less.

This can be shovra with the galvanometer, which, when brought di-
rectly into the circuit, shows a deflection of the needle. When short
wires of copper or silver are interposed the deflection is lessened.

If we now comprehend the terms ekctto- motive force and resistance^
we shall have no difficulty in comprehending the term quantity, for,
according to Ohm's law, the quantity varies directly as the electro-mo-
tive force and inversely as the resistance.

The quantity of electricity is the amount which passes thr(ntgh the
circuit in any given time.

This depends, according to Ohm's law, on two factors — the electro-
motive force and the resistance. The quantity varies directly as the
electro-motive force ; and if there were no resistance, quantity would
be precisel}' the same as electro-motive force. But the quantity varies
inversely as the resistance, and therefore, to find out what the quantity
of any current is, we divide the electro-motive force by the resistance
The fraction thus formed is the quantity or the strength of the current,
as we commonly call it. There are, as we have seen, two kinds of
resistance, that in the battery and that in the circuit outside of the bat-
tery ; both of these must be taken into account in estimating the relation
of the different kinds of batteries, and in selecting batteries for special
kinds of work. Let E be the electro-motive force, R the resistance
of the circuit outside of the battery, r the resistance in the battery ;

then = Q, the quantity or strength of the current — the number

R*r

farads or measures of electricity that flow through the circuit in a gi^
time. The correctness of this mathematical conclusion may be dem^
strated on a galvanometer that has only a short resisting wire ; one cetf
will deflect the needle nearly as much as one hundred cells. Again,
when any number of cells are joined together with great external resist^
ance, such as is offered by a long^ fine wire, or by the whole human body^
for example^ the quantity of electricity that flows through the eircuii
will increase with the increase in the number of celts.

There is no inconsistency between these phenomena. It is indeed a
part of and a conclusion from Ohm's law. Everything depends on the

ohm's law— quantity or strength of current. 8s

ixiemal resistance. Altliough in this case, as in the other, each added
cell brings in its own internal resistance that counterbalances the elec-
tro-motive force, yet the internal resistance bears so small a proportion
to the large external resistance that the quantity of electricity flowing
through the circuit will be pretty directly proportioned to the number
of cells.

Stili keeping Ohm's law before us, we can demonstrate this mathe-
matically.

Let the electro-motive force of any cell be ro volts, and the internal
resistance be 20 ohms, and the e.xternal resistance afforded by the
human body 10,000 ohms. The quantity of a single cell could be thus
represented :

10 electro- motive (bcre

wa itttcnisd raistanoe, and io,cao ottcmal resUunce ro,o90

gain, we may illustrate this as follows :
One hundred cells are joined together and the ends are connected
by a short wire. Let the electro-motive force of one cell be 10 volts
or units of electro-raotive force, then the electro-motive force of 100
ccUs will be 1,000 volts. Let the resistance in each cell be 5 ohms^ or
units of resistance, then the resistance in the 100 cells will be 500
ohms. Let the resistance of the short connecting wires be io,ooc
ohms : now, in order to find the number of farads of electricity — that
is» the quantity or strength of the current that flows through the con-
necting wire — divide the electro-motive force by the resistance^ and we
have this fraction :

1,000 dectro-inotive foixfl

n^eeotcMaluceorwuc, and 509 raUiaoce of battery ~ 10,500

This fraction reduced = ^ a little more than -^^ which fraction rep-
resents the quantity of electricity that flows through the wire.

We may illustrate this law by supposing a current of water passed
through an ordinary syringe. The quantity of water that flows through
the tube will be directly proportioned to the force with which it is
oiged forward by the piston ; this force would correspond to electro-
motive force. The friction will correspond to the internal and ex-
ternal resistance of the battery. Now if we divide the one by the
other, we have the quantity of water which in a given time flows
through the tube, or the strength of the current In this way we can
find the number of cubic inches of water that flow through the tube in
a second of time, just as we can And the number of farads, or units of

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

quantity of electricity, that flow through a circuit. It follows from all
this, of course, that if the electro-tnotive force be very greatly in-
creased, the resistance being the same, the quantity must be increased j
but if the resistance be increased in proportion to the increase of the
electro-motive force, the quantity will not be any greater.

Absolute Quantity and Actual Quantity. — It also follows that the
absolute quantity of any battery — the amount that it is capable of
generating — may be very much greater than the actual quantity that
it sends through a circuit. Everything depends u|>on the resisUmtt^
whether it be small or great.

Relation of Quantity to Electro-therapeutics. — It is important to know
how to ascertain the quantity of electricity, for nearly all of the lead-
ing actions of electricity depend on quantity. It is quantity that
deflects the needle of the galvanometer, and quite accurately mea-
sures the current that passes tlirough the wires that surround the
needle. It is quantity that decomposes chemical substances, as watett
salts, the human body, etc. Hence, electrolytic operations largely
depend on the quantity of electricity that flows through the tissues
acted on. It is quantity that accomplishes much of the therapeutical
effect of tlie different forms of electrization — although tension alone,
with very small quantity, may, as in the case of frictional or frank-
linic electricity, be capable of therapeutical effects. Franklinic clcc- i
tricily, however, relieves and cures disease by changing the electrical
condition of the patient, by giving a positive or a negative charge,
more than by the passage of the current through the body, and the
consec[uent electro-tonic and chemical changes. Ordinary faradic or
galvanic electricity, on the other hand, does not, as many supiwsc,
charge ihe patient with electricity, and does not, by its direct action,
leave any more electricity in the body than it finds there. If they
increase or diminish the natural electricity of the body, it is indirectly
through the effect of quantitj- of electricity passing through the tissues
and improving nutrition.

Under this head come these important practical conclusions:

First, If any large number of cells every way similar are joined in
a SHORT CIRCUIT by large connecting wires^ and witlwut any other ex*
ternal resistance^ there will be no more quantity of electricity ftomimg
than if a small number of similar cells were so joined.

Although each additional cell increases the electro-motive force, yet
it also increases the resistance, as we have already seen, and this in-
crease of resistance will counterbalance the increase of electro-motive
force, so that the quantity of electricity that flows through the circuit

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

By a law previously explained, the nsistance varus inversely as tit
square of the section. For convenience sake, we will suppose the re»
sistance of the large cell to be -^ that of the small ones — that is 2—
and Ohm's law will give us the following fraction :

100 X 10 «s 1000 (clectro-qiQtiyc (oree) _ looo _ lo
io,ow> (cjttenial mutiuKe) too h a = »oo ~ loaoo ~ to*

— a fraction that is, it is true, a little larger than -j*,, but not enough
be worth considering.

The same truth may be shown by a galvanometer that has a long
resistance-coil. If the iluid be raised just a little, so that elements arc
just immersed and the poles are connected with such a galvanometer,
a certain deflection of the needles will take place, accordmg to the
number of cells ; if now we raise the fluid still higher, so that all th€
elements are immersed, and four or five times as much surface is
brought into action in each cell, the needles will not be mucli more
deflected, but will remain at nearly the same point where it was when
the elements were first immersed. This is an experiment that we
have made repeatedly.

For the galvanometer substitute the human body from the hand to
the legs, and we can understand the great fact that large cells do nH
send more quantity of electricity through the body than small celts 0/
similar character.

From all these demonstrations we see that it is with electricity as
with money — the absolute quantity that any man may give may be a
very small fraction of the actual quantity that he can be made to give.
A millionaire has a far greater quantity of money than one who has
only a thousand dollars, but the one may not give a dollar any easier
than the other. Under great pressure the nnllionaire may give a
thousand times more than the poor man, jijsl as a battery of large cells
may, before small resistance, send a very much larger quantity of elec-
tricity than a sinular battery of small cells ; bat when there is great
resistance it may send very little, if any, more.

In electro-therapeutics, as in telegraphy, electro-metallurgy, and
other uses, large cells have this advantage, that they last longer and
do not require so frequent cleaning and filling.

Although they cannot in a given time send through the human bod> .
Or tong lines of wires, any more quantity of electricity than small cells,
yet their reserve quantity is much greater, and in proportion lo their
site they will hold out longer and keep up a more uniform current.
The poor man may give five dollars as easily as the millionaire, but

OHM*S LAW — LARGE CELLS W, SMALL CELLS.

r great pressure the millionaire can keep on giving out five dollars
after the resources of the poor man are exhausted
Lrge cells may, for electro-therapeutical puq>oses, have the advan-
of steadiness of current ; there w^ould appear to be less jfucfua/ion'
e strength of the current from moment to moment than when the
are smalL

small cells the degree of the internal resistance and the extent of
:hcmical action may vary more or less from moment to moment,
g to the polarization of the elements and the deposition of the

in the solution. This fluctuation is most marked in batteries

B the action is very energetic. Small single cells, especially the

carbon batteries, lose much of their power during a long opera-

Tfie popular notion that large cells have a therapeutic advan-

PCr small cells by sending a larger quantity of electricity through
)f is, in the light of Ohm's law, as well as in the light of expe-
trroneous.
)n^ly^ For the electro-chemical decomposition of water, salts, and
BvA body {electrolysis), a considerable number of cells of medium
Imther very large nor very small, and in which the chemical action
Wfrful, are required.

le resistance of the limited portion of the human body usually
itted to electrolytic operation is great, though not so great as that
e whole body ; and as we have seen, before a great resistance,
large cells give no greater quantity in a given time than cells of
jiate size. If the cells are too small, however, they will soon
me exhausted. For electrolytic operations, the ordinary zinc-car-
M" Walker's batteries, as manufactured in this country by the Gal-
4aradic Manufacturing Co., Kidder and others, answer very ex-
Btly most of the purposes of electrolysis. They have more electro-
re force than Smee's elements, and although not as enduring, they
^vc a greater quantity of electricity for a short time, which is of
« the great requisite in electrolytic operations. The resistance
^cin is very great, but in electrolysis the needles go beneath the
Hd are placed near each other. The resistance is very much
EiD in external applications when the electrodes are far apart ;
p it is an advantage in electrolysis to have cells of good size,
^ not of tlie largest.

mrthly. IVhcn a short platinum-wire in a short circuit is to be
^t<tt in galvano-cautery operations, a very few large cells or a
Bft^ large cell is preferable to a large number of small cells.
I^ict has long been practically recognized, and all the batteries

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

for galvano-cautery operations are constructed on this principle,
reason for this is not so well understood ; Ohm's law gives us the
planation.

Platinum-Mrire, though it resists the current very powerfully as <
pared with silver or copper wire, yet offers a very small resistance
compared with water or the human body, or vtry long; wire of any kii
Hence, in the galvano-cautery instruments, the external resistance
small, being not very much greater than the internal resistance of I
batteries, perhaps not so great Now, before a large external re
ancc — the human body, or very long coils of wires — the surface (
elements is used at the best advantage when cut up into small i
before a small resistance, the surface of the elements is used at
best advantage when cut up into a few large cells, or, if the extc
resistance be very slight indeed, a single large cell will be better;
we have previously shown that, in a short circuit, one cell gives
much quantity of electricity as one hundred, or, indeed, any nmnber (
cells.

Let us suppose loo small cells; let each cell have an clectromotif
force of lo volts and a resistance of 20 ohms. Let there be cnclc
in a circuit the human body, or a very long coil of fine wire, that giv
a resistance of 10,000 ohms. Then, according to Ohm's law, we have
the following fraction :

IPO « 10 = fooo dectrft-mouve force t

lo^oao extenul reatMauioe too tt.^*»— aooo intcnul rMwtaitc* %-m

which represents the quantity of electricity that flows through the
circuit Suppose now one cell of the same character, but very much
larger, sends a current in a short circuit — through a short platinum^
wire, such as is used in the galvano-cautery for cauterizing surfaces*
Suppose the external resistance of this short circuit be 9 ohms. The
electro-motive force of the large cell is no more than that of the small
cell ; the internal resistance of the battery is very much less, for, as we
have seen, the resistance diminishes as the surface increases. For
convenience sake, we will suppose the internal resistance of the large
to be ^ that of the small cell — that is, i. Now, dividing llic clectro-
niotive force by the resistance, according to Ohm's law we have this
result :

»o rf«ctro-rnotiv» force lO _

; : 1 ; : « — »t

9 extrmal ruuunoc ♦ i tntenuU reu^Bncv to

the quantity of electricity that flows through the circuit, or twelve timet
u much as with xoo small cells.

by the resistance, we have —

ID dcctn^Tnouvc force

19 external resistance ■•■ i internal resistance so a

r, one-half the quantity of electricity that there was when a short
um-wire was in the circuit. Very likely this would not be
h to heat the wire and keep it hot during a long operation.
law comes to our rescue, and helps us out of this as of so many
difficulties. Cut up the one large cell into two cells, and inter-
he long fine platinum-wire in the circuit The electro-motive
will be doubled, the external resistance will be the same ; but
temal resistance will be greater because the surface is diminished,
iding the electro-motive force by the resistance, our fraction
thus:

90 electfo-Biotive force ao

19 external resistance -f 4 internal resistance aj

is nearly double the quantity of electricity sent through the long

y a single cell. Thus is explained the fact that the best galvano-

y batteries are arranged so as to be thrown into one large cell,

: up into several cells, according as a short or long wire is to be

as been found by experiment that the heat developed by the current

• wire is proportioned to the squares of the quantity of electricity

9ws through it.

I is demonstrated by passing a current through platinum-wires m

le of alcohol. The heat is communicated to the alcohol, and the

wneter shows the temperature. It is found if a current of a cer-

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

of electricity constant at a fixed point, and then inserting platiDU
wires of different lengths into the bottle.

From all this it follows that batteries for galvano-cautery
have large surfaces and a small number of cells, and that they sho
be arranged so that the surface may be used as one or two cells i
cut up into four or six, according as short or long wires are to
heated.

Fifthly. It follows thai the dose of an electrical apf>lication cantifit\
be accurately described by stating the number of cells and the length »f
the sitting.

This conclusion is an important one, and for want of a knowledg
it electro-therapeutists continually blunder.

Supposing now that we are treating a patient locally or centrally bf
the galvanic current, and we desire to transfer the patient to another j
physician. We inform the physician to whom the transfer is made, th
we are treating the patient with ten cells for ten minutes, and we desife|
that he should continue to give the same dose. In the light of Ohm't
law, let us see what such instructions are really worth. The quartti^
of electricity that passes through the patient in a minute is equivalenti
to the electro-motive force divided by the resistance ; multiply the quo»l
tient thus obtained by ten, and we have the dose of electricity that I
patient receives in ten minutes. If, now, all the factors that deterrnioel
the electro-motive force and the external and internal resistance wereJ
constant and were accurately known, and if they were the same for alll
batteries and all modes of application, then the dose thus ordered]
would be a mathematical one, and could be mathematically followed.!
No forms of error are so erroneous or so illusorj-as those that approach!
us under cover of facts and figures. In our very attempt to be accurAtel
we stumble into gross inaccuracy. Had we left the whole matter to thcl
judgment of the physician, with some general suggestions as to the su9*|
ceplibility of the patient, we should have come far nearer the truth, as !
will be apparent by the following considerations.

The electro motive force varies in different batteries, and in the same
battery at different times. Grove's battery, for example, has four timet
the electro motive force of Smee's battery in action, and twice the dec-
tro-molive force of zinc and copper, or DanicU's battery. Then, again,
the electro-motive force will, in some batteries, as Smee's or Walker's,
fall off during an application j and in all batteries, however constnictcd,
the electromotive force varies at different times, from causes not yet
determined.

But the clectro-niotive force is constancy itself in comparison with

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

wet sponge is lightly pressed it conducts but little, and its conduciintf
increases with ihe pressure. Firm pressure moistens the skin mm
thoroughly, and thus increases its conductivity, and at the same timtil
brings into coaptation all parts of the sponge, so that it becomes ttfl
saturated.

5 th. The position and extent of the body included between the
trodes. This factor is a most important one, and it has been uiafr
countably overlooked in all discussions on this subject The '
in the conductivity of the bones a.nd soft tissues is all the
between twenty and one, and in all parts the conductivity is
by age, by temperament, and by disease. The resistance of the
body, from one hand to the other through the shoulders, is about seta
or eight times the resistance of the Atlantic cable, and the re^
the whole length of the body, from the head and shoulders to
is probably greater than that But the resistance of any limited poftMH
of the body, as the head, or spine, or cervical sympathetic
mogastric, or individual muscles or nerves, must be only a
part of the resistance of the whole body. Other conditions being Of
same, the nearer the electrodes are to each other the less the resJsJinct
This may be illustrated by an experiment that we have frequently ad
If one electrode be put in the vagina and the other in the rectum, aciil<
rent of but two or four cells may be painfully felt; but if one of ibe
electrodes is placed externally on the back or hy])ogastrium, a ciinert
of a dozen or more cells may be scarcely perceived. The same cxpco*
ment may be tried on the back ; placing one pole on the nape uf tis
neck and the other at the lower end of the spine, a current that is jn*
perceptible at first, as the electrodes approach each other bccomci
positively unbearable.

6lh. The length of the application. When the galvanic cnrrcol i»'
first applied to the body by wet sponges, but little sensation la e;
enced on the skin ; but in the course of a few seconds a burning
felt, that increases with the length of the application. This is exj:
in part by the chemical changes that take place, and in part by the
that as the skin becomes more and more moistened by the pre&saie
the wet sponge, and the skin under the electrode becomes more aaii
more congested, the resistance is diminished. Consequently, IoiobI
the close of even a ver)' short apphcation, more electricity passes,
other conditions being the same, than at the beginning. On
account it frequently becomes necessary to reduce the number of
during the silting, especially when the electrodes are kept all the
on one spot Thus it becomes clear that any attempt to prescribe

ohm's law— applied to electro-therapeutics. 95

dose of electricity by the number of cells, in ordinary external applica*
tions to the body, must fail of its object. In electrolysis, where the
, needles are always united, near to each other and under the skin, the
chances for error are not so great, since there is much less variation in
tile resistance. If, in describing an electrolytic operation, we specify
tfie kind and number of cells used, and the mode and length of opera-
tk>ii, we convey a tolerably correct idea of what was really done. The
time may come in the advance of science, after physiology shall have
found its Newton to reduce its present chaos to order and law, when
it shall be possible to prescribe so many farads of electricity, repeated
tiiree times a week, as we now prescribe so many grains of bromide of
potassium, or so many drops of laudanum, repeated three times a day ;
but for the present we can rest assured that when we describe the cur-
rent that we employ as miidy or medium^ or strongs and have stated the
method and length and frequency of application, we have attained all
tiie accuracy that science will allow.

Although the above statements have reference only to the galvanic
coxrent, they just as truly apply to the faradic ; for induced as well as
galvanic electricity is subject to the law of Ohm. One diflference, bow-
ever, should be noted, that on account of the slighter chemical action
of the faradic current the resistance of the skin beneath the electrodes
does not diminish with the length of the application. For the above
reasons the graduated scales that accompany some of the faradic
machines for electro-therapeutics are of but little practical value.

Finally, Ohm's law explains the fact of observation, that when the
poles of a galvanic battery are metallically connected, the chemical
action in the battery is greatly increased and the plates rapidly de-
stroyed. The metals being better conductors than the body, conduct
a much greater quantity of electricity ; and as the potential quantity of
electricity that any battery is capable of generating is limited, then
iHien the resistance between the poles is least, the action. must be
Itrongest, and the metals the most rapidly consumed. Neglect in this
negard causes the premature destruction of many batteries.

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAPTER L

RELATION OF ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY TO ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS—
ANIMAL ELECTRICITY.

JEUctro-physiology is the science which treats both of the taws of

timal electricity, and also of the phenomena produced by the action of
iectricity on the body in health. We propose to present this subject
compactly as possible, and consequenily shall speak only of those
lets that are necessary for a true appreciation of the science, and
hiefly of those that, directly or indirectly, have a practical bearing on
Icctro-lherapeutics.

Impvrtartce of a Knowledge of Electro-physiology to the Electro-thero'
\€uiist. — It is of course possible to use electricity successfully in thera-
leutics without any thought of its physiological action, and thousands
lave so used it It is possible to relieve pain of almost ever)' variety,
iod to cure any of the curable forms of paralysis, without understanding
^u^bing of the action of electricity on nutrition or on tlie normal mus-
^^m Any old country granny, the stupidest of nurses, an infant even,
bold two sponges on a part of the surface of the body, and let the
torrent run. Those who aim no higher than this — the indiscriminate

»lding of electrodes on patients — need give no thought to electro-
bysiotogy ; need, indeed, waste no time on this or on any other work of
lectro-therapeutica : they do not even need to trouble themselves with
le details of the applications, but have simply to delegate them, with-
felt reserve, to the nearest nurse or clodhopper. Those, we assert, who
m no higher than this will fall short of even that : their success in
ilie^ing symptoms by electrization will be so capricious and illusory,
bU, in time, they will abandon the attempt, allow their battery to grow
fcsty in the garret, and thenceforth they will condemn and despise sci-

itific and successful electro-therapeutists.

The electro-therapeutist, above all others, should start out under the
isptration of the motto of the late President D wight : " Aim high, for
ou will be sure to come short of your aim." To apply electricity after
lanoer of nurses and " rubbing doctors," is not using it, but abus^
it.

100

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Those who aspire to mastership in electro-theraiJeutlcs will not be c
tent with the mere attempt to relieve symptoms ; they will seek to s^
those most complex and subtle diseases for the treatment of which c)e
tricty is indicated ; they will resort to this force for diagnostic as well i
therapeutic aid ; they will strive to know not only how to use it, but, wh
is more difficult, how not to use it He only can reap the full and i
harvest of electro-therapeutical science and art who sows beside
waters ; he must become more or less proficient in neurology, in elect!
physics, and in electro-physiology. He who has a knowledge of
laws of animal electricity, and the actions and reactions of franklir
galvanic, and faradic electricity on the brain, spinal cord, and syuif
thetic ; on the nerves of motion and of common and special sense ; (
voluntar)' and involuntary muscles ; on the skin, and on all tlie va
passages and organs o( the body in health, and also oi the electro
ductivily of the body, will find the paths of electro-diagnosis and of elc
tro-therapeutics illumined at every step by such knowledge, and will,
the end, make more correct interpretations of disease tlian he wlj
merely holds electrodes on patients without any higher aim ; and i
tlian that, he will be introduced into a field of thought and experiment-
a field surpassingly rich and fruitful, and l)ing in close relation to
departments of physiology, of pathology, and of biology, where he i
study science for its own sake, without regard to its immediate practic
value.

In the above remarks we do not wish to be understood as sul
ing to the notion, quite popular among some, that electro-lherapeulk
must be based on electro-physiology ; very far from it ; the two scienc
are closely related and are of reciprocal assistance, but one is not bu
up on the other. Neither are exact sciences, and may never becc
such. Pathology, though it is but " the shady side of physiology/*
so complicates tlierapeutics that electro-physiology cannot become
reliable basis for electrotherapeutics. The two sciences are pursue
mainly by different methods : electro-physiology is a science of cxp
ment; electro-therapeutics is a science of experience.

Electro physiology largely Studied by Experiments on the Living i
man Subject. — An advantage of great import to electro-physiolog)*, i
one that especially commends it to the electro-therapeutist, is that it]
largely based on experiments made on the living human subject. Tr
enough, thousands of frogs have given up their lives in the elcctro-pbjf
ological laboratory, and dogs and cats, rabbits and guinea-pigs, rats, :
monkeys even, have been subjected to electric tests while living, in 1
and uninjured, while dying, and when dead ; but some of the m^

ANIMAL ELECTRICITY.

lOI

I interesting and suggestive phenomena of this science, those which have
' the nearest practical relation to electro-therapeutics, can be best studied
[ on the living human subject, and without injuring the subject experi-
mented on. This is the supreme advantage of the study of the
I physiological action of electricity over the study of the physiological
tion of the majority of drugs. The objection so often made against
periments made with medicines on inferior animals, that they do not
* teach the action of such medicines on the human body in disease,
cannot* therefore, apply to electro-physiology, except to a limited
degree.

Not a few of the physiological reactions of the human body to elec-
f tricity can be studied while making therapeutical applications. The
' reaction of voluntary muscles, of the motor and sensory nerves, of
some of the nerves of special sense, to electricity, and the general effects
of electricity on nutrition, are taught us every time we electrize a patient
by any of the familiar methods of application. Electro-physiology and
electro-therapeutics thus go hand in hand.

The Localization of Eledricity in the Body an Advantage in Studying
its Physiological Effect. — The drugs with which we experiment on ani-
■ mals, in order to learn their physiological action, are usually absorbed
and carried through the whole system ; to confine their action to any
part or member is impossible. If they select any organ on which to
expend their force in preference to other parts, it is by virtue of their in-
I herent affinity for such organ, and not from any power in the experimenter
to confine thcra there. But electricity can, to a certain extent, be local-
ized in a muscle or nerve, or in some special organ ; thus its effects can
be studied with greater precision and certainty than the effects of drugs
tatexTially administered. Thus the physiological action oi electricity has
[ a specially practical bearing on its therapeutical action.

Animal Electricity is the Electricity that exists in Animal Bodies.

I Electric Fishes, — The most remarkable display of animal electricity

' appears in certain varieties of fishes. At a very early period it was

known that a certain flat fish had not only the power, when touched, to

give forth shocks, but could impart to other bodies, for some distance

I through the water, a benumbing influence. This phenomenon was first

' proved by actual experiment to be of an electrical nature as early as

1773 ; and soon after, by means of a number of Leydt^n jars, connect-

I ing with a disk of leather or wood, either side of which was covered by

I tinfoil, an artificial loq^edo was constructed. The subject of animal

electricity is one of great scientific interest, and may in time become

I of direct practical value lo electro-therapeutics. This peculiar power

iMi ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

itk possessed only by a small number of fishes, the best known of whidi
4M tlie torpedo or electric ray, the gymnotus or electric eely and tht
titctru shad.

This development of electricity does not take place in all parts of
ike fish, but is confined to a peculiar expansion of the nervous sy5tell^
called the electrical organ. The nerves constituting the electrical or-
gans of the torpedo and gymnotus are of great size. Those of the for-
mer consist of three principal trunks, and arise from the cerebro-spinal
SjTStem ; while the nerves composing the electrical organs of the latter
are derived from the spinal cord alone. As stated above, the phenom-
ena produced by these fishes are similar to those which are obtained
from electricity that is artificially generated.

If electric fishes are touched with the hand, a shock is perceived, whUe
if glass, resin, or any other non-conductor is intervened, no effect is
produced.

Sparks may be drai^-n from them in the same way that they are drawn
from other bodies that are artificially charged with electricity. The
current obtained from them will magnetize steel needles, decompose
water, and if the needle of a galvanometer be brought into the circuit it
will immediately suffer deflection, so that the direction of the current
may be readily determined.

The electric force of the fish is much weakened after it has exerted
its power a number of times in quick succession, and it requires rest
and nourishment to enable it to recover its normal vigor.

History of the Discovery of Electricity in the Body of Man ana other
Animals. — We have already seen (Electro -Physics, p. 4S) that Galvam
discovered in 1786 that muscular contraction follows the contact of the
nerves and muscles of a frog with a heterogeneous metallic arc. From
this observation, and from subsequent study of the subject, Galvani was
inclined to believe and to declare that in the tissues of animals there
exists a special independent electricity, which he called animal eltC'
trifily* Although Galvani's conclusions were, as we now know, not en-
lifely logical, yet he stumbled on an important discovery that was des-
llBCd tp be demonstrated and confirmed by other and later observers.
* Tbwo it such a force as animal electricity, but the experiments of
r ■ i are explained by contact of dissimilar substances and by the
A action of the fluids of the bo<iy on the metals, and not by the
electricity of the body.

fW/toV Rf searches have already been given in Electro-Physics (p. 50),

HumMdfs Researches. — In 1 799 Humboldt published a work contain-
ing the result of many and curious experiments, the object of which was

ANIMAL ELECTRICITY.

103

I
I

to show that both Volta and Galvani were right and both wrong ; that
there was such a thing as animal electricity ; that Galvani was in error
in regarding it as the only form of electricity that appeared in his ex-
periments ; and that Volta was in error in refusing to admit its exist-
ence.

Aiding s and Nobilf $ Researches. — In 1803 a nephew of Galvani,
Aldini, published experiments that went to demonstrate the existence
of animal electricity. The voltaic pile, however, was a stronger argu-
ment against the existence of animal electricity than any experiments
could be in its favor, and for these reasons animal electricity was for-
gotten.

In 1827 M. Nobili, having constructed a very sensitive galvanome-
ter, was enabled, as he supposed, to detect, without doubt, the exist-
ence of an electric current in the frog. He observed that when the
needle was placed in the circuit it deviated some 30*.

Researehes pf Matteutci and Du Bois-Rtymond. — A few years subse-
quently, Matteucci turned his attention to this subject ; but it was re-
gfcnred for Du Bois-Reymond to investigate most clearly and most

ly, if not most conclusively, the electric properties of the nerves and

iBcles.

By these two observers it is believed to have been shown, ist. That
currents in ever>- respect like the frog-current of Nobili, are not peculiar
to the frog, but are inherent in all animals, warm and coldblooded —
in toads, salamanders, fi-esh-water crabs, adders, lizards, glow-worms,
and tortoises, as well as rabbits, guinea-pigs, mice, pigeons, and spar-
FOws> (Du Bois-Reymond.)

3d. That currents are found in nerves as well as muscles, and that
both are subject to the same laws. (Du Bois-Reymond.)

3d. That the current usually observed is a muscular current that is
produced by the muscles, the nerves acting only as inactive conduc
tors. (Du Bois-Reymond.)

4th. That this muscular current may be upward or downward, and
that the current of the whole limb is the resultant of the partial cur-
rents of each muscle. (Du Bois-Reymond.)

5 th. That these currents do not depend on tlie contact of hete-
rogeneous tissues, as Volta had believed, for the nerves, muscles, and
tendons in their electrical relations are homogeneous. (Du Bois-Rey-
mond.)

6th. That electricity is found not only in the muscles and nerves,
but also in the brain, spinal cord, and sympathetic — ^in motor, sensory, and
mixed nerves — in a minute section as well as in a large mass of nervous

E04

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

substances — ^in a small fibril as well as iu a large muscle — in the skioi
sipleen, testicles, kidneys, liver, lungs, and tendons - but not in fascix,
sheaths of nerves, and sinews.

7th. That animal electricity is capable of decomposing iodide of
potassium, and of deflecting the needle of the galvanometer, (\fat-
teucci.)

8th. In the muscles and nerves electricity b in the condition of a
closed circuit.

9th. That contraction of muscle is accompanied by an electric dh'
charge resembling that of a torpedo. (Matteucci.)

It was the perusal of the essay of Matteucci that inspired Du Bois-
Reymond to undertake those magniiicent researches that have given,
him a name and a fame in the realm of electrology. ^^H

He devised special apparatuses for his researches, and handled dwV
with great skill and patience.

Even if many of the conclusions presented arc erroneous, they are
none the less interesting suggestions, and have prepared the way for
those who are now earnestly seeking to discredit his experiments and
disprove his statements.

The above conclusions of Du Bois-Re)anond were derived fix)m oi-
periments on the nerves of frogs, but electricity is not confined lo the
lower forms of life, either dead or dying.

Electricity in the Living Man. — In the living man it is believed
tliat cutaneous currents are found, Tlie hand is negative to the elbow,
and the palm of the hand is negative to the back. The foot is negative
to the chest, and the sole of the foot is negative to the back. The elbow
is slightly i>ositive to the chest, and the hand is sometimes negative to
the foot, and sometimes the reverse.

These cutaneous currents are quite strong and uniform. They are
to be distinguished from the thermo-electric currents that are observed
when two symmetrical parts are heated.

A finger at the temperature of 3a'* is positive to one at 90®, and a
finger at 60° is feebly positive to one at So'', and strongly positive to
one at 180°. The cutaneous currents are aUso to be distinguished from
currents that arise from dissimilar immersion, dissimilar sweating and
shielding of tlie body.

Currents of electricity have been found in the urethra and bladder
of the rabbit, the intestines, the spleen, the testicles, the tendons, and
the oviduct of the frog, and the iris of birds.

All these currents resemble the ordinary muscular currents, in thai
the outer and inner surfaces have opposite electricities.

ANIMAL ELECTRICITY.

105

The currents of the nerves and muscles are very much stronger than
hose of other tissues.*
Dr. C. B. Radcliffe takes a radically different view of aninml elec-
Itriclly. His conclusions, briefly summarized, are as follows:

1. The sheaths of the fibres of nerve and muscle during rest are
ged with electricity like Leyden jars. He believes it probable,

liough not entirely demonstrable, tliat the sheaths of the fibres con-
3uct electricity so feebly that they are practically non-conductors and
[arc di-electric.

This charge is brought about by the development of electricity, either

'positive or negative, through oxidation, or some form of chemical action,

on the outside of the sheaths of the fibres, which electricity induces

brough the di-electric sheath, an opposite electricity from the inside of

|the sheaths, after the manner of the Leyden jar. Electricity which exists

the ner\'es and muscles during rest is in a statical condition, and not

in dynamic or current state.

The nerve-current and muscle-current are purely incidental phenom-
lena, resulting from applying the electrodes to points of unequal elec-
ic tension.

2. That the passage of a nerve or muscle from a state of rest to a state
action is accompanied by a discharge similar to that of a torpedo.

be arguments in favor of this view are, that the anatomical and physio-
ogical apparatus of the torpedo closely resembles the muscular appara-
tus of all animals ; that the nerve-current nearly disappears from the
serve, and the muscle-current from the muscle, when nerve and muscle
ss from rest into action ; and, finally, that the phenomena of induced
secondary contraction cannot otherwise be explained.
This discharge takes place between the sheaths of the fibres, which are
cry elastic, and are capable of being elongated during rest by the mu-
[ attraction of the opposite electricities with which they are charged,

3. That when a nerve or muscle passes from action to rest it resumes
condition of charge. Elongation, therefore, is the result of charge,

ad contraction of discharge.

This point is illustrated by the following experiment :

A narrow band of rubber is wound on both surfaces very near the edge

•ith gold-leaf, so that it can be charged or discharged with electricity

like a Leyden jar. By a simple arrangement of a grooved wheel and an

Apparatus that multiplies and records the movements, it can be shown

It when the band is charged by a few turns of a frictional machine, it

• Dynamici of Ntrvex aud Mustfes. London, 187 1.

io6

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

elongates, and when the charge is discharged it contracts. It is bclierd
that the muscle behaves in precisely this manner- If nerves arc o«
affected in the same way, it is because their fibres are not sufiiciecrJj
elastic.

4. That the blood keeps up the natural charge of electricity in ncnt
and muscle.

The acceptance of this view explains many interesting facts m
palliology. It explains the fact that diseases that are accoin}\ "
a deSciency in the nerve-currents, as neuralgia, spinal irritation,
tetanus, epilepsy, usually manifest themselves by morbid act .1
increased and unnatural movements of muscles and nerves.

Active inflammations, when there is increase of blood, are not osmD/
accompanied by excessive muscular or nervous action.

Apparatus for Studying Animal Electricity. — In a practical workdf
this kind it is not necessary nor proper to enter into elaborate d€td
of all the experimental premises by which Matteucci, Du Bois-R«t'
niond, PflUger, and others have made their discoveries. A very brief
description of the apparatus of Du Bois-Reymond may possibly be of
interest.

He employed a very delicate galvanometer, the distinctive i*
tares of which were, firsts the astatic needles were constructed aai
arranged with great care j and, sicondly^ the wire around them was vny
long, and of from 4,000 to 24,000 convolutions. A multiplier of thil
sort will indicate the presence of exceedingly feeble currents- The
wires of the multiplier are connected with carefully cleaned and pre-
pared flat new plates dipped in vessels of 7:inc, containing sulphate oC
zinc to prevent polarization. Two cushions, as they are called,
made of layers of blotting-paper soaked in a solution of sulpliaic of
zinc, are laid in the edge of each vessel, with their ends in the liquii
The whole is enclosed in a moist chamber. In order to protect Uf
tissue, it is placed in connection with the two cushions in various posi-
tions ; then, if there be any current, the deflection is seen in the needlft
of the multiplier.

When two symmetrical parts of the longitudinal or transverse seclioB
of a nerve are applied to the cushions, no deflection is seen ; when t«^
dissymmetrical parts of the longitudinal section are placed on til*
cushions, the needle deflects 6** or 7°. When the longitudinal sectico
of the nerve on one side touches one cushion, and the transverse yd>
tion touches the other side, the needle deflects 15° to 30*'.

Instead of the galvanometer multiplier we may use the rheoscopie
frog, which may give some results ; but it has the disadvantage that >^

oents cm whicfi Ws conclusions are based.
• done this in justice to a nanie that is greatly honoretl ill
if justice to the name that has made an era in physiology, and
«re the student for an intelligent understanding of the experi-
that seem to overthrow these views of Du Bois-Reyraond that
Ben so widely accepted.

IS always appeared to os that in the experiments of all electro-
ogists, the later as well as the earlier school, there were chances
at error, and have been surprised that their conclusions have
ccepted with so little reservation,

ing in mind that all chemical action, however slight, is probably
Mnied by the generation of electricity, it is surely not irrational
l€Ct that the conclusions from careful experiments of Du Bois-
nd and others might be in some, if not in all cases, modified by
»/ action between the animal tissues and the cushions of the gal-
tttr, however skilfully these were protected.
dig the physicists at least, the theories of Du Bois-Reymond have
m the whole, losing ground during the past ten years, and pro-
Hi account of the considerations that are above presented.

John Trowbridge, of Har\'ard College, has recently made a
^f researches that seem to cast grave doubts on the interesting
herto accepted conclusions of Du Bois-Reymond in regard to
electricity.

physicist, starting out on the face of the accepted fact that
mids of dissimilar chemical character^ separated hy a poroui
w, give rise to a current of electricity^ has made experiments
a apparatus similar to that employed by Du Bois-Reymond in
BBTches on animal electricity. Instead, however, of placing a
■pscle or nerve on the cushions, he used a series of artificial
^^These aiti&cial musdcs were made of glass-tubes covered by

zo8

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGV.

Placing the artificial muscle thus prepared in the position where tSt
natural muscle is placed in Du Bois-Reymond's experiments, he lead
that each liquid caused a deflection of the needle of the galvancftuicr

There is no question, in the opinion of Prof. Trowbridge, thai
currents that caused these deflections of the needle arose from i^
actions of the fluids in the tubes on the saline solution of the cushion ai
the protecting guard. This view is confirmed by the fact that »ba
the artificial muscles were, filled with distilled ^-aX^x^ there was no (fc-
flection of the needle observed ; but when undistilled w^ater or 4«
other fluids mentioned were used, the needle of the galvanometer ik-
fleeted so far as in some cases to throw the spot of light off the sale.*
Prof Trowbridge exercised the same precautions as are found necesMf
by electro-physiologists in obtaining the so-called muscular cmrenbi
He argues that the behavior of the artificial muscle must be similar tfl
that of a natural muscle placed on the cushions ; and he stales furtber,
that when we use the natural muscle, containing fresh and ci
active blood, separated by its sheath from the clay guards of the -w...^..;,..,
an electrical action must take place between the fluids of the muidt mk
the saline solutions in the connecting apparatus^ whuh cution ctntk
well be distinguished from the so-called muscular current*^

In order to avoid every possible source of error in these eipai-
ments, Prof. Trowbridge not only tried distilled water in the
muscles, instead of undistilled water and the different solutions, but
tried the mere contact of the bladder membrane-partition without
fluid, and in neither case was any current produced. He employed •
vessel shaped like the letter IT, opened at the bend, and coverrtl at th*
ends by a membrane. Into the two limbs of the tube he
fluids of different kinds. When the vessel was filled with a ii.
was homogeneous, and the ends of the tube brought in contact iriAJ
the cushions, the needle of the galvanometer was deflected. \V
points of contact were reversed, the direction of the needle
versed. That mere contact of the tube with the cushions did not
the deflection of the needle, was shown by the fact that when no Uai^
were in the tube there was no deflection. That the direction of thf
current was through the U-shaped tube, and not from its extremitiato
the galvanometer and back, was proved by the fact that when tbc
section of one of the limbs of the U-shaped tube was constricted, ibc

* Thomson's reflectbg ^vunometer and new quadrant -electrometer were
these experiments.

f On the Electro-motive Action of Liquids separated by Membranes. Amvii^ \
fifurnai 0/ Science and Arts, voL iii., May, l87at

EXPERIMENTS OF TROWBRIDGE.

109

1 of the needle was reduced, and when the constriction was

there was no deflection,
^conclusion to which Prof. Trowbridge arrives frotn these ex-
rnts, which have been repeated at various times, is, ♦•//w/ -wh^n the
M 0/ the galvanometer are connected by a membranous sac con-
^Jiuids, or animal tissue saturated with fluid., an endosmotic action
pittce^ accompanied by galvanic action ; and thai this galvanit
is determined by the difference of endosmotic action at various
of the enclosing membrane y *

•n, therefore, a muscle is placed on the cushions of the galvanoni-
ll transverse section on one pad and its longitudinal section
pother, endosraose takes place, which is different at diflferent
and the galvanic current that appears is probably caused by
fcrcnce of endosmotic action and not by the so-called muscular
t. Then granting that a muscular current exists, it must suffer
ant modifications in strength and direction through this endos-
action. If the muscular current does not exist^ this endosmotic
mfith the accompanying galvanic action^ will account for the de-
^Of the needle of the galvanometer that had been supposed to be
the muscular current.

fctter received by Dr. Beard from Prof. Trowbridge, under date
B, 1873, nearly one year later than the date of the publication of
■arches of which the above is an abstract, he says that *• later
lOents have convinced me that there are no such currents as mus-
Upents, properly so called. I think that the phenomena noticed
B|ois>Reymond arise from differences in the chemical nature of
Bt portions of the muscle. Du Bois Reymond contends that
bemical difference does not exist, and that the tissue is homo»
P from a chemical point of view. It must be remembered.
It, that a delicate galvanometer can detect differences in chenii-
mjosilion which cannot be detected except by tljc most refined
%L I should therefore make my assertions stronger than I have
pthe accompanying papers, in view of subsequent experiment."
■Trowbridge has also made expcrimen ts that seem to cast grave
on tJie conclusions of Du Bois-Reymond in regard to electrical
ts in the arms. Du Bois-Reymond in his experiment connects
minals of a galvanometer in separate vessels by a siphon-tube
ling the same liquid as the vessel. The ends of tlic tube are
\ with a porous preparation.

I of ihe American Academy of Arts and Sciences, January 9, 187a.

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Placing a forefinger in each vessel and violently contractiog d^
arm, he observed that the needle of the galvanometer was deflected ,co
contracting the other ann» the needle deflected in the opposite direc-
tion. Du Bois-Reymond explained this phenomena by the thcotj
that electrical currents circulate in the arm distinct from and co-cxiil-
mg with the muscular and nerve-currents. It is not difficult to cob-
ceive that in an experiment of this kind there would be chances far
error sufficient to make us very cautious in accepting any immediatt
conclusions in regard to iL In order to test the validity of this con-
clusion, Prof- Trowbridge prepared a vessel with two limbs, which bf
substituted for the human finger. Du Bois-Reymond's experiroeai
vessel was filled with a solution of salt, and the end of the limbs ««
covered with prepared membrane- The resistance of the drtoil
through both limbs and the vessel was about that of the human hoif
from the forefinger of one hand to the forefinger of the other — tint B,
about seven or eight times the resistance of the Atlantic cable. Tk
ends of the limbs or tubes were immersed in the fluid of the vessel C8»
nected with the galvanometer. As soon as they touched the licjuii
the needle of the galvanometer was deflected, and on reversii^ iki
limbs the needle was deflected in the opposite direction.

When the flexible portion of one of tlie limbs was pinched so as ta
diminish the diameter, the deflection was also diminished. When •
trifling change was made in //u chemical character of the JiuUs in At
two limbs, and one of the limbj was slightly contracted^ ifu dirertm ^
the needle was reversed.

Prof. Trowbridge is disposed to believe that the deflection of ^
needle caused by the contraction of the muscles of the arm, ''is
duced cither by the temperature or by the change in the flow of
blood," It has been established, that the electromotive force betwta
venous and arterial blood is about one-thirtieth that of a Danii
cell; and as muscular contractions change the chemical character cf-
the blood, and as by very slight chemical difference between two floJA
separated by a membrane, like the skin, is sufficient to create a ga^
ranic current, it is not improbable that the conclusion of Du Boifr
Reymond in regard to the existence of a separate electrical corrtil
in the arm is erroneous

CHAPTER IL

ELECTROTONOS, ANELECTEOTONOS, AliD CATELECTROTONOS.

£Uctrotonos u the peculiar modification of irriiability that mrvis

\d muscles undergo when acted upon by a galvanic current.

While the nerve is in the electrotonic state, that part of it not in-

luded between the poles will deflect the needle of a delicate galvano-
;tcr ; and that the deflection then caused is not due to the natural

crve-current, is proved by the fact that it appears when only the sur-
; of the nerve is connected with the galvanometer. It is therefore
electric condition of the nerve caused by tlie passage of the current
it that deflects tlie needle. The electrotonic condition not only
is so long as the galvanic current continues to pass, but, if the
nt be sufficiently powerful, it remains for a limited time after the

lirrent ceases to pass.
The electrotonos is more noticed the larger the extent of nerve

cted upon, provided the current be sufficiently increased to overcome
ic increased resistance.

In nerves that are dead, or have lost their irritability, electrotonos
mnot be excited at all, or only feebly, and the same is true when the
!Tve is cut across or tightly bound with a ligature.
TTic change in the nerve-current depends on the direction of the
Jvanic current. When the galvanic current flows in the same direc-
>n with the nerve-current, the strength of the nerve-current is in-

Neased ; when the galvanic current flows in a contrary direction, the

reogth of the nerve-current is diminished.

Electrotonos is greater when the galvanic current flows lengthwise
an when it flows across the nerve. It increases, within certain limits,

Ith the increase in the intensity of the current.
J^olecular Theory of Anelectrotonos . — Du Bois-Reyraond has sug-

isted a theory to account for the phenojuena of electrotonos, which
% been generally accepted- It is analogous to the theory of mag-
•tism suggested by Coulomb. He supposes that muscles and nerves
insist of electric molecules, which have one positive equatorial zone

112

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

and two negative polax zones, whose axes are parallel to each other;;
that is, two molecules make one molecule. This is called the
arrangement In a magnet, each individual molecule man
same phenomena as the entire magnet : each molecule is indeed
magnet in miniature. In like manner, each molecule of the nerne or
muscle manifests the same phenomena as the entire nerve or inusck.
These peri polar molecules are enclosed by a moist covering.

Du BoisReyraond further supposes that each peri- polar molecjilc
may be divided into a group of di-polar molecules — where the posin«

Fig. 33.

Peri-polar Arrangement of Electro-motor Molecules.

L S — Longitudinal Section- T S^Transvcrsc SectloD.

P — Farclectronomic Layer,

hemispheres are turned toward each other — without changing tha
electrical properties. This is called the dipolar arrangement H*
number of such molecules are brought under tlie influence of a galvaoc
current, their positive zones will turn toward the negative pole, and ik
negative toward the positive ; one of the molecules (3) turning iJ«*
on its axis. The arrangement will be as above. From its reserabbiff
to the voltaic pile it is called the pile-like arrangement

This pile -like arrangement of the molecules not only takes pllflJ
between the electrodes, but also beyond them into the extn-pohK
region.

Du Bois-Reymond has illustrated these phenomena on molecules
made of zinc and copper.

From these experiments Du Bois-Reymond concluded, first, that ft<
nerve is always in the condition of a closed circuit, since electric c»f
rents are produced by the connection of layers surrounding the tuote
cules with their molecules ; and secondly, that the current obtiine^
from an animal, as indicated by the galvanometer, is only a small ^
tion of the entire current

ANELECTROTONOS AND CATELECTROTONOS.

113

he galvanic current that produces the electrotonic condition is called

^ Hie polarising airrent The portion between the poles is called intra-

\ polar ; beyond and outside of the poles, extra-polar. Electrotonos is

ascemling when it proceeds from the muscle to the nerve ; descending

' when it proceeds from the nerve to the muscle.

Anelectrotonos and Catelectrotonos. — Antlectrotonos is a condition of
, diminished irritability which takes place at the positive electrode. Cate-
lettrotonos is a condition of increased irritability which takes place at the

L S

'liH

^jQlJffl

L S^Longitudinal Section. T S — Transverse Section.

1. Peri-polar arrangement of eleclro-raotor molecules.

2. Dipolar arrangement of electro-motor molecules.
y Pile-like arrangement of electro-motor molecules, caused by the action of

the galvanic current.

egative electrode. At some point between the electrodes the irritability
the nerve is unchanged. The conditions of anelectrotonos and
lelectrolonos are found not only between the poles, but also in the
3thcr portions of the nerve, in the extra-polar portion.

The portion between the poles and near the negative pole, together
ith the portion beyond the negative pole, is in a state of catelectro-
tonos, with increased irritability. The portion between the poles and
"jcar the positive pole, together with ihe portion beyond the positive
>lc, is in a state of anelectrotonos, with diminished irritability.
The extra-polar catelectrotonos depends on the length of the nerve be-
rccn the poles, and the strength of the current, up to a certain limit.
»c strength of the extra-polar anelectrotonos is proportioned to its
8

114

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

distance from the poles, being greatest near the intia-poUr portkiL

The extra-polar catelectrotonos, botli ascending and descending, is la
a state of increased irritability. The extra-polar anelectrotonos, ho^^
ascending and descending, is in a state of diminished irritability.

Neutral Point. — Between the poles there is a point where the irriti'
bihty is not changed ; there anelectrotonos meets catelectrotonos. Tbs
is called the neutral point. The relative position of this de^iends on
the strength of the polarizing current Where the strength of the cur*
rent is medium, the neutral point is about midway between the polti
Where the current is weak, the neutral point is nearer the positi«t
pole. Where it is strong, it is near the negative pole.

Negative Variation. — VVhen a current frequently intemipled is
applied to an irritable nerve, it causes the nerve-current to diminish iM
strength, and finally utterly destroys it. This fact is demonstrated br
the galvanometer.

The same phenomena is caused to a less degree by chemical Of
mechanical stimulation of nerve. Negative variation has been expkinai
by the theory that the peri-polar molecules in the nerve change their
arrangement, so that their electro-motor power is diminished. The ncf-
ative variation of the current has been studied by Bernstein. He re«
gards all the electric phenomena of the nerve as undulatory movements,
and has mathematically estimated the length of the waves in nerve an(*
muscle. Cyon, in confirmation, has shown that the degree of tlie
variation is directly proportioned to the number of interruptions in the
exciting current.

Effects of Electroionos in Diminished Conductivity. — ^The power of%
nerve to conduct irritability is more or less modified by the condition ti
electrotonos. The portion of the nerve near the positive pole, which u
in a condition of anelectrotonos, has its conductibility diminished; the
portion of the nerve near the negative pole, which is in a condition of'
catelectrotonos, has its conductibility increased. If the current be snt
ficiently strong, the power of the nerve to conduct impressions may be
nearly or entirely destroyed.

Effects of Electrotonos after the breaking of the Galvanic {polarism^
Current. — One of the effects of the electrotonos is the irritation which i»
caused by the passing away of the anelectrotonos. This irritation,
which appears at the positive pole, is shown either by a contraction or
by a tetanic condition.

Positive Modification and Negative Modification, — ^The nerve whicbiJ
in a condition of catelectrotonos at the negative pole is greatly
modified by the breaking of the polarizing current. Its irritability ii

ANELECTROTONOS AND CATELECTROTONOS.

riS

> dirainishcA This diminution of irritability is called the " nega-

iifiiation." At the positive pole in the catelectrotonic region, an

of irritability, ox positive modijication^ appears on breaking the

This increase and diminution of irritability continue for sonic

er the polarizing current is broken.

' of a Change in the Direction of the Current. — Another effect of
ioionos is the change of irritability which is caused by a change in
lirection of the current. If a nerve is subjected for some time to
jiHuence of a galvanic current in a certain direction, il loses some
Kritability, which i\ regains when the current is reversed.
fthfraiion of Irritability. — A very important effect of electrotonoa
restoration of irritability in a nerve. It has been proved, both by
iricnce and by experiments, that nerves, which from any cause have
their irritability to the faradic current, sometimes regain it after an
ication of the galvanic. It has been shown by the experience of
ral writers on electrotherapeutics, and of ourselves, that, in cases
mlysis, when the faradic current at first fails to produce contrac-
Hle application of the gadvanic tnay not only readily produce con-
Kks. but may also produce such a change in the irritability of the

Ki parts as to cause than to regain their lost irritability to the
current. (See Electro-Therapeutics.)
otonos of Muscle. — A muscle^ like a nerve, may be put in the
ition of electrotonos ; the changes of irritability that accompany
condition are confined to the portion of muscle through which
rent flows. The subsequent effects, after the polarizing current is
, are also limited to the portion through which the current passes,
logically probable, also, that not only the motor nerves, but also
I of the nervous system — central and peripheral^are capable of
Dg the phenomena of modified irritability under the galvanic

\eory of Anelecirotonos and Catelectrotonos. — That the galvanic
•nt in its passage through the nerve diminishes the irritability of that
^D the region of the positive pole, and increases its irritability in
HU>n of the negative pole, may be explained by the purely physical
S^of the currents in the tissue.

ave seen that in electrolysis acids go to the positive and

\ to the negative pole ; now it is a fact of physiology that acids

the irritability of nerves, while alkalies increase it, Anelec-

and catelectrotonos may therefore be caused by acids at the

I and alkalies at the negative pole.

explanation is rendered probable by two facts : firsts that

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

atneiectrotonos and catelectrotonos are not produced by the secom
faradic current, which has no marked chemical action j and secondlyy
that very feeble and instantaneous passages of the galvanic current
duce electrolytic effects.

P/lugei^s Contract lOfi'Law.-^'ThQ law of contraction, as derived
Pfliiger from experiments on the frog, is thus formulated : T/te nerve
excited by the appearance of catelectrotonos^ and the disappearance Oj
aneUctrotonos^ but not by the appearance of anelectrotonos or the dis—^
appearance of catelectrotonos. This law is considered of great scientific?;
as well as practical value.

Electrotonos in the Living Man. — The subject of electrotonos in the
living man has been studied by Eulenburg, Samt, Von Bezold^ Brenner,
Erb, BrOckner, Runge, and Filehne, but most successfully by Cyon.

Cyon,* by a series of elaborate and careful experiments, has shown
that the contraction -law of Pfliiger, as established on the frog prepara-
tion, applies also to the living human subject.

He has shown that, after closing the circuit, the irritability is in-
creased near the negative pole ; that this condition of catelectrotonos
increases as the current runs up to a certain point ; that on breaking
the current the negative modification^ or condition of diminished irrita-
bility, appears for a moment, and then disappears.

Near the positive pole, on the other hand, the irritabilit)' is diminished
at and after closing the current. On breaking the current there is
an increase of irritability, or positive modification^ which appears to be
greater when the current has been allowed to run a long time.

The experiments from which Cyon derived these conclusions were
made on the ulnar nerve, and with great care to avoid error. It will
be seen that the results correspond with the results of Pfliiger's expcri-
menls on the fi-og, and confirm them. Cyon found, however, that these
results were not uniform in all persons, but were modified more or less
by temperament and disease.

Practical Bearings of the Laws of Electrotonos. — The laws of electro-
tonos do not by any means explain all the therapeutical action of the
galvanic current on the body; but so far as they go they are of great
value, and should be considered by those who study the therapeutics of
galvanism. The calming effects of the positive pole, and the irritating
effects of the negative pole, as well as the exact effects of strong und
interrupted currents, may in these laws find their partial if not complcle
explanation.

• Frincipet d^Elettrothhrapit. Paris, I S 73, pi 130 </ stq*

CHAPTER III.

ACTION OF ELECTRICITY ON THB SKIN.

In regard to the study of the action of electricity on the body in
icallh, it is necessary to make the preliminary remark that many of
he experiments that have been made and published, and widely quoted
this department, have but little scientific value, and cannot be re-
[orded as in any sense authoritative. The reason for the uncertainty
Xrrtaining to the reported experiments are manifold :

1 . The distinction between the currents has not been observed. Not
)nly have the faradic and the galvanic currents been constantly con-

unded, but the subdivisions of the faradic current — the electro mag-
leiic and magneto-electric — have been vaguely commingled. Many
ibservers speak of galvanization when they mean faradization, and vice
}er*dt and not a few apply both terms to the use of the same current.

2. Allowance has not been made far the differential action of strongs
udium^ and feeble currents, or of long and short applications. The
ifierence in the physiological effect of a large and small dose of opium,
trychnine, belladonna, or ergot, or any other powerful remedy whatso-

T, is enormous. When a small dose has no perceptible effect, a large
pse may throw into profound sleep, or into violent convulsions, that lead

death. In speaking of the physiological action of drugs of any kind,
ic dose is always mentioned, and any experiment with drugs, on man

animals, when the dose is not known or mentioned, has little value in

acnce. Similarly also in electro-therapeutics, we find in every-day

ijtperience that the difference in the effects of a mild and short, and a

•verc and long, application, is only the difference between making a

Btsient infinitely better or infinitely worse.

When, therefore, we read that galvanization of the sympathetic or
peumogastric produces such and such effects, we really get no precise
Dowledge whatsoever.

3. The differential susceptibility of man and animals has not been duly
fttsidered. Experiments with electricity performed on the lower ani
fial5, as frogs, dogs, cats, horses, rabbits, cows, guinea-pigs, etc., do not

Ii8

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

always afford a safe basis for generalization in regard to the effects rf
electricity on man, and especially on man in a state of civilization, b
their susceptibility to the electrical stimulus, and in the length of tiine
that they retain their irritability after death, there is a great diffcrenct
in aninials ; between animals and civilized man this difference uiti»t be
very great.

In proportion as the organization of man is more complex ihao Ak
of the lower animals, in that proportion will the physiological i
of the human body to the electric current, or indeed to any •
fluence, be more complex and uncertain, and more liable to dcvUtiou
and modifications than the physiological reactions of the inferior form*
of life to which we are supposed to be related. Conclusions in cleciro-
physiology, derived solely from experiments on animals, have the grot
merit of simplicity; but when ajiplied to the far higher and more coib*
plex organization of man, and especially of civilized man, witli his Or
cessively sensitive system of nerves, they are apt to lead into serious
error.

4. Individual idiosyncrasies have not been properly considered, Jht
action of medicines varies with the temperament to such a degree M»
make necessary great caution in rushing to generalizations ftotn exp*-
riraents on one or two persons. Applications of electricity, iandk
or galvanic, to the cervical sympathetic, similar in length and >fr '
may cause in one individual symptoms of cerebral congestion, in .
symptoms of cerebral anremia, and in another its effects may bepnreljF
negative. In one individual the effects of such application may beWl
at once, in another an hour or two after the application, in another ooJ
until the following day.

There is a great difference in the average susceptibility of differ*
nationalities and of the higher and lower orders of society, with 00*
sional exceptions both ways; tlie tough, coarse-fibred laboring:
are much less susceptible to electricity, just as they are much \x-
ceptible to drugs, than the delicate, finely organized, braio-worlu^
classes,

5. The action of electricity on the body in health may be /ranud,if^
fart at least, by studying its action in disease.

"Pathology," AUbutt well says, *'is but the shady side of physiologj.'
To draw the line precisely where health ends and disease begin*,*
oftentimes beyond the power of mortal man. Of the deep darknc»rf
the midnight-hour any child is conscious, and even tlie birds discern ik»
approach of evening ; but what physicist so keen as to tell the pr<c«
moment when the late afternoon begins to fade into the early twiligftJ?

ACTION OF FARADIC CURRENT ON THE SKIN.

iiy

It is because physiology and patholog>- thus run into each other, that
obs»»rvationson pathological states may be of great service to physiologj'.
Experiments made with electricity on patients more or less diseased
hAve helped, as we shall see, to solve some of the problems of electro-
physiology. Ccriam pathological states render the nerves unusually
impressible to electricity in degree, though in the same way as in
health, and thus are of great value to the electro-physiological experi-
menter.

The above considerations explain in part the opposite and inconsistent
as well as fragmentary character of electro-physiological researches, and
they should be borne constantly in mind by those who study this and
the following chapters, devoted to the action of electricity on the human
body in health.

Action of Franklinic FMctrUity, — When the sparks of frictional
electricity are applied to the skin they produce a sensation of pricking,
And if the sparks are large the skin becomes red and a papular eruption
appears. Applied to the scalp, it causes the hair to stand on end.

Action of the Faradic Current. — If any dry artificial electrode is
pressed against the dry skin while a faradic current is passing, the elec-
tricity will penetrate but slightly to the deeper tissues, unless the current
is very intense, because of the great resistance offered by the skin.

One cflfect of the farailic current on the skin in this way is to cause a
change in the cireulation. The change may be either aniemia or hyper-
aemia. At first there is anaemia. The calibre of the blood-vessels is
narrowed, through the action of the current on the vasomotor nerves.
This contraction with anaemia is spasmodic in its character ; it lasts
but for a time, and in the course of two or three minutes it gives way
to hyperaemia. The skin becomes red, and remains so for a short or
long time, from several minutes to several hours, according to the
strength of the current, the length of the application, and the temperOr
ment of the individual.

Another effect of faradizing the skin in this way is pain. This pain is
caused by the irritation of the e.\tremities of the sensory nerves.

When the dry hand is substituted for the dry artificial electrode, the
surfa.ce can be faradized without producing pain. During the latter
Operation the electricity, acting upon the dry surface of the skin, pro-
duces a peculiar cracking or humming sound that may be heard several
fecL

An application of a faradic current of ordinary strength is followed
by the most marked effects on the skin when it is dry, from the fact
the electricity is mostly confined to the surface of the tissue. A

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGV.

very fine, or, in other words, a rapidly interrupted, faradic current, htft-
a more markt^d effect on the sensory nerves than a coarse, or slowly in^*^
terrupted, current, and in the treatment of the more common fonns of
anaesthesia and neuralgia this fact must be considered. The negative'
pole has a much stronger effect both on the sensory and motor nerves
than the positive. Any one can readily distinguish the poles ^ when held
in the hand^ by the stronger sensation and more violent muscular em-
traction which is felt at the negative.

Some parts of the skin are more sensitive to the current than others,
from the fact that they are more richly supplied with nerves. The face
is especially sensitive at the points where the various branches of
the trigeminus issue, and at the line of demarcation of the skin and
mucous membrane of the nose and mouth. The relative sensitivenea
of different parts of the surface of the body to the faradic current will
be discussed in detail in a chapter devoted to that subject in the section
on Electro-Therapeulics. A faradic current of moderate strength, when
applied to bones that lie very near the surface, produces considerable
pain of a peculiar character. This pain is caused on account of the
irritation of the sentient nerves of the periosteum. The forehead and
the region of tlie scapula and tibia are especially sensitive to elcctriza-
tion.

It is not supposed that the bone is specifically affected by the electric
current. Both the periosteum and the bone, however, may have an
increased amount of blood attracted to them by the electric current.
Acting in this manner, electrization has been known to reunite an old
fracture. (See Electro-Surgery.)

The great and peculiar sensitiveness of the skin to electricity is ex-
plained in part by the fact that the epidermis as a whole is so poor a con-
ductor, and the electricity enters it by points through the sudoriferous and
sebaceous glands, and the smaller the diameter of the point at which the
electricity enters a body the greater the density, the strength of the
current being constant. When now an electrode is applied to the body,
the entire current, instead of diffusing itself over the whole surface,
enters at the glands, where there is best conduction, and consequently
excites pain. For the same reason, to a greater degree, electricity
applied by means of a metallic brush is far more painful than when
applied with a broad metal or si>onge.

For the same reason a wet sponge electrode, when liglitly toudied to
the surface of the body, causes more pain than when firmly pressed on
the skin.

Oneeflect offaradizing the skin is the phenomenon of ** goose-flesh,^

ICTION OF GALVANIC CURRENT ON THE SKIN.

121

\y so called. This is noticed not only where the electrodes are
, and between them, but at a distance. It is more observed in the
i and feeble than in the hardy and strong. It may be excited bj
Lirrents of momentary duration. In some persons it cannot be

at all.

m of the Galvanic Current. — The effects of the galvanic current
skin differ somewhat from those of the faradic. At both poles

a ^i/r«//i^ sensation, which increases in intensity with the strength
mrent and the length of the application. The sensation, when
Bnt is closed, is like that of a mustard-plaster, or, with a very
ffirrcnt, that of a hot iron pressed on the skin. The ''goose-
ouietimes appears as under the faradic current, but it lasts longer.
■s only around the poles, and not beneath them, at the points of
■ At \he positive pole, in some cases, there appears under the
^ at first, a shallow depression, and the skin is pale, but soon
mia appears, and many little elevations here and there. When
5 current is used an ischaemic appearance is presented beneath
Strode, and a red areola extends for some distance around.
tie negative pole substantially the same phenomena appear, but
Upemia arises more rapidly, and is more intense and extended.
Btneral sensation caused by the galvanic current is then, in
5r, substantially the same at both poles. In dt^ree of action
I a certain difference, since the change at the negative develops
pidly and powerfully.

above phenomena we have repeatedly demonstrated on a variety
»eraments. We have observed that the rapidity and strength of
ion are considerably modified by the individual. Soft, thin, and
^kins appreciate the burning feeling and the various stages of
Ha more quickly than skins which are coarse, thick, and hard,
tsscn, who has carefully studied this subject, states that unpo-
U electrodes are necessary in order to obtain the complete
with certainty. The advantage of unpolarizable electrodes is,
•y are not so painful, and so a current of from thirty to sixty
Is can be borne for a long time, say from ten to thirty minutes,
rdinary electrodes such a current would for most persons be un-
Ijle after the second minute.

ileal Effects of the Galvanic Current on the Skin. — The chemical
the galvanic current on the skin differ not only in degree but
Jnder the negative pole — when metallic electrodes of moderate

^are applied on the skin, slightly moistened — ^there appc«ir small,
that are transparent and are not raised much above the

122

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

skin. This phe'jomena is produced by a current that causes a stntf
burning sensation. These vesicles contain fluid and layers of epideni
The fluid is alkaline, WTien the strength oi the current is increased
fluid becomes of a brownish color, and blisters arc formed and i
areola appears. The serum that comes out on the skin i* aflatiK
These blisters, and all the other phenomena, as has been c
demonstrated, appear more rapidly on delicate than on thick skini^
when fully formed they are a long time in healing, and for days
weeks a yellowish and brownish discoloration may be observed At ^
points where the skin was acted on.

If the application be still more protracted little ulcers arie forsie^^
are also slow to perfectly heal, but are not painful, and cause no »
noyaiice.

At the positive pole, when a strong current is used for sonne dn^*
blister appears, accompanying the other symptoms of **goostte^
ischcemia. The blister is colored in its centre a yellowish
The serous fluid that comes from the blisters is acid. The D)etallic<
trode becomes black through oxidation. In order to demonsi
action of the positive pole, it is better to have the connection
negative pole established by means of a broad, soft, and well-nn
sponge.

Ziemssen states that by this experiment, made with tiieraioiDCiia
no elevation of temperature takes place either at the positive or
tive pole.

In all these chemical actions of the galvanic current on the bodr,B
probable that more or less ozone is produced, and it is not itnpo
that the o^one thus produced may in some way modify the cfo*|
(See section on Ozone and Ulcers^ in Electro-Therapeutics.)

Electro-an(Zsthesia. — It has for some time been a matter of
whether a slight anaesdiesia can be produced by the electric ci
It is well known that for a number of years some dentists have
accustomed to connect the forceps for extracting teeth with one
of an electro-magnetic apparatus while the patient rested his foot oo
other pole, so that as soon as the forceps seized hold of the tooth a
rent is established- Although this method of producing anresthesii is
now received with favor, there is no question that the electric ci
do have a slight benumbing effect. The results of various expcrii
that we have from time to time performed in this department scctt
be conclusive. We have had teeth extracted while a strong
current was passing through the jaw, and feel assured from this \c\-

itKetic or slightly paralyzing effect, from experiments on
unks, as the ulnar and sciatic. His method of operating
to place the positive pole over some point where the nerve was
facial, and the negative over some one of the terminal branches,
[iig up the action of the current for fifteen minutes, with the result
oducing a feeling of numbness, and less sensitiveness to the cur-

Pnorr, of Munich, has availed himself of the anaesthetic effects
ration for opening felons and buboes.
vc also experimented on inllamed and frritated mucous mem-
In rhinitis, pharyngitis, and laryngitis, we have for three years
accustomed continually to make use of the benumbing effects of
raation.

has a ver}' slight anaesthetic effect on irritated and inflamed mucous
brane, and those on whom it has been employed desire to have the
flitions repeated. Our custom has been, in some cases, to use local
ization after the application of caustics and other irritants, in order
tlieve the very annoying pain that they so often cause, or in any
ble condition of the parts.

French physician, M. Victor Revillout, has obtained similar results
applications of the faradic current to the uterus after cauteriza*

• Mtdkal Eleciricity. i860, pp. 166, 167.

f Artkwa Giniraies de Afedtcine. September, 1868. p. 356.

ACTION OF El.ECTRiaTY ON THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORDt

Dtrfit Application. — It has been shown by Fritsch and HiUig
in the cerebral convolutions there are centres for the production
W^utury muscular movements in various parts of the body,
phytiologists took off the upper part of the skull of a dog,
mttai of weak galvanic currents excited the cx^iosed brain, looiniig
llHt current, as far as j>ossibIe, in stnall portions. They found thai
when certain definite portions of the anterior convolutions were excited,
m^trmm/s wa-g caused in certain groups of muscles on the opposite sUt
ff iAi ^&4fy. Continuing their researches, they showed that there are
dvAnite nerve-centres for the nerves that preside over the muscles of
the neck, the foott and the face, for the extensor and adductor muscles
of the forearm, and for the flexor and rotator muscles of the arm-
Prof. Fcrrier, of King's College, London, has made similar researches
with xUxc/aradic current, and with it has investigated the brains of fish,
hog%t dogs, cats, rabbits, guinea-pigs, and monkeys. He has studied
not only the cerebrum, but the cerebellum, the corpora quadrigemina,
and other portions of the brain. Electrization of the optic thalami
lMX)duccd no result. Eteclrization of the corpora striata caused the
iiiub» to be flexed. Electrization of the anterior tubercles of the corpora
quadrigemina caused dilatation of the pupils and opisthotonus ; while
eJtctri*ation of the posterior tubercles caused the animal to make all
tort* of noises. Electrization of the cerebellum caused movements of
Um Cjrtballs. Dr. Beard * has carefully studied this subject on the braiiM
of doffi, rabbits, cats, and pigeons. He used both currents, mild» me-
duuu and strong, and studied also the question of diflusion of currents.
Hit |>roviKional conclusions were, that the surface of the brain was
plrctrically excitable ; that the theory advanced by Dupuy and other
Krrnch observers, that the excitation was due to the diffusion of the cur-
I, MiH to ih.- cruii;il ganglia, was not tenable. Dr. Bartholowf had made

« .\tdiivct ut Electrology and Neurology. Msy, 1874. f Ibid.

ndency to vertigo. When a current of even feeble tension
fOm temple to temple, or from one mastoid bone to its fellow,
td dizziness is at once perceived, which continues during the
3f the current, and becomes most decidedly manifested at the
le circuit is broken.

the passage of the current there is a very marked and quite
tendency to lean toward the positive pole, while objects in
to move in the same direction. When the circuit is opened
cversal in the direction of the seeming movements, and the
ter instantly bends in the opposite direction toward the nega.

H^enoraena an ingenious and plausible explanation is given
When the current passes from the forehead to the occiput,
nd left lobes of the brain and all that pertains to them are
symmetrically influenced, and little if any dizziness is per-
*lace, however, the anode upon one tem[>le and the cathode
ther, and mark the readiness with which dizziness is produced.
»peration the brain is no longer symmetrically affected. One
b IS in a condition of anelectrotonos, or diminished irritability,
rther is in a condition of catelectrotonos, or increasefl irrita-
iS it is expressed there is a falsincation of the muscular sense,
ice of the equilibrium, and the apparently involuntary incli-
ard the anode is in reality a voluntary effort to restore the
loss of balance.

ndicates several degrees of galvanic giddiness.
tre seme of fulness in the head. This feeling is caused by a
nt when broken, but not usually when the current is running,
rkgdiy when the current_is_dose4_Certain_temjiemm

126

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

3. Siaggering. This is produced by stronger currents. In imp
ibie temperaments very mild currents may produce it.

Movements of the Eyes. — Movements of the eyeballs have also beflll
observed by Hitzig during the second and third stages of di/ziuesi F
When a strong current goes transversely through the head, and itl j
direction is changed, movements of the eye, resembling nystagrau%
appear. There is a jerk, and then a further movement If the positrte
pole be in the right mastoid, and the negative in the left, both eyes ait
jerked toward the left, and kept there, provided the ciurent be suffi*
ciently strong.

There are anatomical reasons for supposing that the brain can be
more easily affected in ihe mastoid and occipital regions than in the
anterior portion. A large vein connects the transverse sinus with the
posterior auricular veins, and witli the posterior meningeal artery into
the skull through the mastoid foramen. In the occipital region a vda
connects the transverse sinus with the vena cervicalis profujida ihrou^
the posterior condyloid foramen.*

SPINAL CORB.

Rigid cramps of all the muscles of the tnmk and extremities folloff
electrization of the spinal cord when an electrode is placed at eitb»
extremity of the cord. Cramps of the same character are also pro-
duced when one electrode is applied to the anterior and the other to
the posterior column, either at their upper or lower extremities.

If the spinal cord be divided at about its centre and the lower half
electrized, only the muscles of the lower or hinder limbs will contract
If the upper half be electrized, only the muscles of the fore hmbs will
enter into contraction. The results will be the same, whether the cut
extremities are separated or brought in close contact, in which latter
condition no impediment is ofifered to the passage of the ciirrenL
The above researches of Weber have been confirmed by Dr. Beard's
experiments on dogs and rabbits. The effects are produced by botk
currents.

Inhibitory Effects. — At tlic moment of closing and breaking a gal*'
vanic current its action upon the cord is manifest by the contraction of
the muscles of the body and limbs ; but during the passage of the cof •

• Quoted from Luwhka and Anatomie its Mentcken^ toI. iii., a, jk 154, \rf
AllUu*. TUiidedhion, p. 139.

ACTION OF ELECTRICITY ON THE SYMPATHETIC AND PNEUM<

In order to intelligently appreciate the experiments that have been
made to determine the action of electricJiy on the S}Tnpaihciic and
pneumogastric, it is necessary to keep constantly before the mind the
following considerations :

1. The action of electricity on the sympathetic and pneumogastite
must be modified by the kind of electricity employed, by the strengdv
of the current and length of the applications, and by the condition Ifll
temperament of the subject in which the experiment is made.

To say that galvanizing the sympathetic produces such and sudk
effects is really to give no information whatsoever, for at once the
inquiring soul raises the questions, How strong were the currents uscdf
How long were the applications? Were men or animals subjected to
the experiment? Were they intact or injured ? If animals, what kind^
and were the results the same on several animals of the same kind ?

2. These nerves can be affected both by external and internal apptt
cations of electricity.

The fact that external electrization affects these nerves, which has fa
some been disputed^ is fully apparent from what is known in geni
of the electro-conductivity of the body, is confirmed by special cxpeH
ments, and is demonstrated by observations in physiological and patbo
logical cases. This is true not only of the cervical sympathetic gangls
but of all the ganglia of the body. Known facts in regard to the eld
tro-conductivity of the body show that none of the ganglia of Ul
sympathetic can escape the electric influence when the current is »p
plied over the surface of the body.

3. The effects of external application through the skin on these n(
ctnnot be expected to be identical in kind and degree with the eflfed
of direct application to the nerves themselves. Although the ccrvia
ganglia of the sympathetic and the pneumogastric nerve are traversed
ihc currents of electricity when the electrodes are placed on the skin i
•ucha position that the current in passing from one to the other finds thi

SYMPATHETIC AND PNEUMOGASTRIC.

129

their pathway, yet on physical or physiological principles we
mot expect the same results as when the one or both poles are di-
tly applied to the nerves. In external applications it is the derwed
rents that pass through the nerves, and direct polar effect is not
tied. When we consider that the currents in passing from one pole
She other diffuse themselves into nninbcrless undulatorj', diverse cur-
ts, it is easy to see that only a small part of the electric influence
I be appreciated by such small nerves as the sympathetic ganglia or
! pneumogastric. In the body between the electrodes the currents
like diffused light ; at the electrodes the currents act like light con
ttxated to a focus. If currents of sufficient power could be borne
Isfnally, it is possible that by single external applications there could
btoduced all the effects that are obtained by direct applications to

nerves themselves j but this is hardly probable, for the twofold rea-
i that the differential polar effect could not be obtained, and that

great stimulation of each of the electrodes on the surface would
nplicate the experiment. These considerations, as it seems to us,
pciently explain what to many has been regarded as a great diffi-
Ity — that the ordinary therapeutical measures for electrizing the sym-
petic do not produce the same effects as direct applications to the

That the sympathetic and the pneumogastric are traversed by the cur-
It when the electrodes are placed on the surface of the neck, is suffi-
blly probable from the known laws of electric conduction. When
^ electrode is placed at the nape of the neck, and the other at
anterior border of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, the current,
Mher faradic or galvanic, however widely it may radiate, and however
Cfcerous the branch-currents may be, must by physical necessity trav-
) the sympathetic and pneumogastric There is no more prob-
ity that it will go out of its way, in violation of physical laws, and
these nerves, than that a storm sweeping between New York and
>klyn will take a circuitous march and avoid the East River.
3csc nerves — the sympathetic and pneumogastric — and the tissues
khich they are surrounded, are good conductors, very much superior
anductivity to the skin, and of almost the same conductivity as the
and even if some branch or derived currents pass through
tissues, as unquestionably is the case, these ner\'es cannot be
' avoided, and when the electrodes are in central positions they
probably the highway through which nearly the entire charge

^t stronger than the analogies of electro-physics, and more con*
9

I30

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Vtncing than experiments on the dead subject, are the observed
of electrization of the neck in physiological and pathological
These effects, which will be detailed further on, harmonize so
with all our knowledge of nervo-physiology, and accord so exacdywi
ivilhologicaj observation, as to demonstrate beyond doubt, and withj
emphasis by which those who observe cannot fail to be impressed, thi
iIk* sympathetic and pneuniogastric can be affected by external faraij

ion or galvanization of the neck. M

' 4. It is difficult, if not impossible, to aflfect the cervical sympaM|
or the pneumogastricby external ap|)hcations, without at the same tiffll
Affecting the depressor nerve, the spinal cord, or the brain, and espcclllj
difficult is it to limit the action to the pneuraogastric without atJ
tame time affecting the sympathetic, and vke versa. ■

This conclusion follows as a logical result from the anatomical m
tJon of the parts and from what is known of the electro-conductiviljM
the body, and is pretty distinctly demonstrated by the physiologia
llicrapeutical action of the current when externally applied. In
ever jiHtsition we place the electrodes, the derived currents, in p)
from one electrode to the other, must traverse some portion of both
great nerves. The base of the brain and the region of the neck cons
ihe most important part of the central nervous system. So far
can be said to have any centre, it is here, where the pneumogastrt
phrenic, and the other great nei-ves take their origin. Directly
rvctly, by the actual passage of the current, or by reflex action, an]
of ihis important region is liable to be affected in the applicatioi
ployed in the so-called galvanization of the cervical sympathetic

It is partly on account of this difficulty of limiting the action 1
current to one or other of these great nerves that we treated Ihca
umlct the same chapter. When operating on these nerves, e
And laid bare and isolated, the action of the current can, of coui^
limited pretty exclusively to the nerve operated on. The c<
laii^Ud of the sympathetic receive the chief attention in all the;
WVrttii»n», because they are pronjinenl and accessible and L
IH^Wf lUd ttini recognized influence over the cerebral circulation
k\i (he ganglia of the sympathetic are accessible to the electrical

A<H*n «f RUctricity on the Cranial Portion of the Sympatkeiity
l|l| M. l*ourfour du Petit discovered that the following sympti
^i 1 1 i»f the cervical filaments of the sympathetic vm

the pupil, redness and injection of the conjunct]

AUwl fl.UI«>nU\g of the cornea; the eyelids approach each

SYMPATHETIC AND PNEUMOGASTRIC.

13T

ting membrane becomes more prominent, the secretion from the
cous surfaces of the eye is increased, and the eyeball is drawn fur*
r into the orbit. In addition to these symptoms, the ears and
brils also become red and injected, and the head hotter and more
utive.

laude Bernard observed that not only did all these phenomena dis-
ear when the cranial portion of the nerve was submitted to electri-
E>n, but that quite reverse phenomena appeared. The pupil bc-
ic larger than natural ; the conjunctiva, the ears, and the nostrils be-

Kuite pale ; the eyeball protruded from its orbit ; the mucous
I became drier, and the head cooler and less sensitive ; but as
i electrization was discontinued, all the phenomena caused by
section of the nerve again appeared.

lectrization of the great sympathetic before it is divided produces
Dst precisely the same results as after division. It has been ob-
by Weber, that if either the inferior cervical ganglia of the
betic nen'e or its cardiac branches are submitted to electrization,
>n of the heart is accelerated.

\ of Electricity on the Cephalic^ Thoracic^ and Abdominal Gan-
ection of the sympathetic causes 3.s we have seen, increase of
|fc to the ear.

jlow if the cephalic end of the divided sympathetic is electrified, the
leased temperature of the part is lowered ; but if the electric current
passed through the large diameter of the ear, the temperature is further
tased. On the other hand, if there has been no division of the
pathetic, and the ear is electrified, the heat in that part is lessened.
Valentin found that the galvanization of the superior thoracic gan-
Tevived the pulsation of the heart after it had ceased, and increased
frequency of the beats when already in action. Mild galvanization
be splanchnic nerves that arise from the six lower dorsal ganglia
be sympathetic increases, while strong galvanization diminishes,
bnistaltic action.

^pef of direct EUctritaiion of the Pneumogastric and on the Respi-
mt — MM. Arloing and Tripier have shown that section of the
Umogastric below the medulla oblongata so far modifies its irrita-
^■hat the action of the heart is not arrested, or but for a short time,
HPferadization of the distal end of the cut pneumogastric.
lie same authors believe that weak faradic currents cause a slight
lease in the rapidity of the beats of the heart and elevation of the
kl-ptessure in the arteries.
%ipf found that the right pneumogastric has a more powerful influ

cnce over the heart than the left. Faradization of the fieripherall
of the divided pneumogaslric causes arrest of the action of the
sudden irregularities of its rhythm, and some diminution of
Faradization of the central end causes retarded and diminished

sure.

According to MM. Arloing and Tripier, faradization of the i
pneumogaslric with /^fi-W^f currents does not accelerate respiration ; fan-
dilation with medium currents causes sudden inspiration and foroed
expiration ; faradization with strong and powerful currents causes I^
flex coughing and vomiting. The same observers found that the left
pneumogastric has a more powerful influence over respiration than the
right.

The discovery that the right pneumogastric has a greater powcrortf
the heart than the left, was made by Masoin, of Belgium, about thcsaae
time as it was made by Arloing and Tripier. Masoin found the mow
ments of the heart were stopped by the galvanization of the left pneuiwv
gastric. It was possible to restore the movements by a mechanical ex-
citation, such as striking the heart with the finger ; but after the morfr
ments were stopped by galvanization of the right pneumogastric, it fll«
not possible to restore them in that way.

Dr. Brown-Sdquard * states that he has found the same differeoce* to
exist in men as in animals, judging from experiments made not by electti"
city, but by pressing on the nerves near the angle of the jaw.

Arrest of Respiration by Galvanization of the Laryngeal and ctitf
Branehes of the Pneumogastric— \i has been shown by Brown-Stqiurdf
that electrization of the upper or the lower lar)Tigeal nerves cattses
arrest of the respiration, and Bidder has shown that a reflex spasm of
the glottis may be caused in the same way. Electrization of dw
CESophagus and pharynx may sometimes produce the same effect If
the upper laryngeal nerve is electrized after the chest is opened, ihc
arrest of the respiration docs not take place as easily as when the
chest is not open. The respiration, when thus arrested, usually re*
turns in the course of a quarter or half a minute, whether the clectriz»'
tion is continued or not.

The effect of electrizing the pneumogastric on the respiratioo it
modified by two factors — the portion of the nerve that is electrized
and the strength of the current Mild galvanization of the pneumogM.
trie in the lower part of the neck may increase the respiratory morc-

• Arekivtt <•/ ScitiUifis and Practical Medicint Janxiary, 1873, p. 9a..
f Ldc cit, p. 96.

134

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

large variety of individuals of different ages and by different metbodici
application. One of the electrodes is placed in the mastoid (o-^-^ : '
the other over the seventh cervical vertebra, or at the top of tlicr c.-vi_
Both directions of the current are used. We used in these cxperiniiafi
a zinc carbon, or the Sraee's battery, of from 5 to 30 cells, from i to J
or 10 minutes.

The general results of our researches may be thus summed up :

1. A slight feeling of drowsiness. This sometimes began to be pa*-
ceptible shortly after the electrodes were applied, increased up to \
certain point, and continued for some little time after ^h^ sianctm
over. In many cases it is not observed until the lapse of five or ta
minutes after the siance. The feeling, which was by no means cob-
stant, was usually so slight that it might not have been observed, bd
we not in our experiments kept closely on the watch for every sca»
tion experienced during or just after the application.

Some individuals are amazingly susceptible to this soporitii:
galvanization of the neck. A young lady whom we were trc
facial acne by central galvanization, was frequently put right to iecf
within one minute after the application began. Her eyes would cJosb
and her head would droop and nod ; and when the electrode* wot
removed she would awake but slowly, and with a vacant look ui
drowsy feeling, such as we all experience when we are suddenly
from a nap. This effect followed any sort of application arouadi
neck with either pole and in any direction.

On the accepted theory tliat a state of cerebral an;emia predispoiff
to sleep, we should reason, d priori^ that electrization of the sraj*-]
thetic ought to induce a feeling of drowsiness, since on some r
uals it unquestionably diminishes the current of blood in tlie bf
experimentally we have found that it does thus induce a s!i.
temporary disposition to sleep, although this result is probably i^^ '"
marked than it would be if, without injury to the living subjrt't'*'
application could be made directly to the ganglia, and this effe^i
no means uniform, but varies with tlie strength of the curreiib ^"
with the temperament of the individual.

2. A feeling of warmth through the system with sensible persp'--^
This was not a constant symptom, though it was oftentim^
decided. To produce sensible perspiration usually requires a -^
current and a long application. The extent to which this was ' '
manifestly dependent on the strength of the current and the k
the application- It was usually felt but a short time after iht
was completed. We have observed this effect more frequcnii) -^

LlLECTRO-PHYSIOLOGV.

many variations, according to the strength, length, and locality dl
applications. If an electrode is placed in the auricwlo-maxillary f<
of each side, the changes in the pupil occur on both sides, but are looT^
marked on the side on which is the negative pole. The same applied
tion, continued for some time with a strong current, reduced the norin»l
pulse from 4 to i6 beats a minute and the pathological pulse ctrtH
more, diminished the tension in the carotid and vertebral arteries, aod
markedly altered their sphygraographic tracings. The same observers
found that galvanization of the spine also diminished the beats of the
pulse.

Effect of External Eleciritation through the neck on the J^etimit
Circulation. — In order to determine the effect of external appliai-
tions of electricity through the neck on the retinal circulation, we have
made many experiments with the aid of a number of leading ophthal-
mologists.

Thess experiments, which have been frequently repeated with dif-
ferent individuals, with different strengths of current, and with different
batteries, seem to us to demonstrate the following pro|X>sitions : ♦

I. Galvanizing or faradizing the region of the cervical sympathetic
has a marked temporary infiuence over the retinal circulation. It mfty
cause contraction of the arteries or dilatation of the veins.

3. The faradic current produces precisely the same effects on the
retinal circulation as the galvanic, only more slowly. The physiological
difference between the currents in this respect is therefore a difference
of degree and not of kind.

3. Mild currents and short applications caused contraction of the
blood-vessel of the retina, white strong currents and long applications
caused dilatation. Much seemed to depend on the temperamcni and
condition of the individual. Uluit would cause contraction in 0nt
would in the other cause dilatation.^ These var)ing effects correspond
with clinical experience.

4. When the patient on whom the experiment is made is in an
excited or irritable condition from any cause, or from previous electri-
zation, even a mild current will sometimes cause dilatation at once,
without any early contraction.

• The ophthalmologists who observed the retina ta these experiments were Drs^
Roosa, Hackley, Loring, Matthewson, Prout, and Newion, to ail of whom we deur*
to return our acknowledgments.

\ The opposite and contradictory results obtained by diflerent observers who har«
studied the elTtfcts of chloral, bromide of potawiun, etc., on the retinal drculatioo,
may be similarly explained.

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE SPHYGMOGRAPH.

137

The contraction which takes place is sometimes followed, a few
ites after the close of the siance^ by dilatation which is greater than
lal.

The dilatation which takes place is sometimes followed by con-
JM after the close of the siance.

|bme of the experiments no effect on the retina could be detected.
'essible and nervous temperaments seem to exhibit changes in the
1^ condition of the retina much more readily than cold and phleg-
Bemperaments.

te question now arises. Whether these changes in the retinal circu-
» were due to the effect of the current on the sympathetic or on
Jticumogastric, or did they take place through the spinal cord or
jflex action ?

Its question is answered by comparing the results of these experi-
:s with the result of experiments made by Duchenne and Prof,
eois, of Paris. These gentlemen laid bare the cervical sympathetic

rabbit, and electrized it with both currents in the same manner
nc electrized the necks of the individuals on whom we experimented-
BKults on the cirailaiion in the rabbit's ear were in every distinc-
ftture identical with the results on the retina when the galvanic
(ftl was passed through the neck of the living human subject.
le other effects of galvanizing the region of the cervical sympathetic
(position to sleep, sweating, increased circulation in tlae extremities,
-seem to confirm these physiological observations.
icse experiments have been partially conftrmed by Oniraus, who
ibown that the circulation of the retina may be influenced by
LDization of the cenical sympathetic. He observed hyperaemia,
his, as we have shown, is not a constant effect.
xperiments with the Sphygmograph. — We have made experifuents
H^ sphygraograph, with the assistance of Dr. L. De Forest Wood-

Assistance in the study of sphygmography we are under obligationi
lB.oger S. Tracy. A few samples of the observations are repre*
d in the cuts.

ig, soporific influence is very frequently produced by general
ion, and the eflfect on the pulse harmonizes with this obser-

ese efifects on the pulse gradually pass away, but are distinctly
» for a number of minutes after the electrodes are removed,
jffect of the current thus applied on the circulation is pro-
complex resultant of the eflfect of the electricity on the
gastric, the sympathetic, the depressor and the spinal cord,
rendate these efifects is manifesdy impossible.

CHAPTER VI.

ACriOK OF ELECTRICnr ON THE NERVES OF SPECIAL SENSK.

Action of the Galvanic Current on the Optic Nerve. — The galvanic
current, when a^jplied to the eye, causes ho^Jlashes of tight and per-
ception of color.

If one electrode is placed on the tongue, or on any part of the
mucous surface of the mouth or nose, and the other on any part of
Ihc surface of the body, the flash is readtJy perceived.

The character of these flashes is variously modified by the strength
of the current and the suddenness of the interruption. The tempenu
uiciit of the patient also modifies the reaction, and the effect of the two
poles is usually quite different.

We have studied this subject with various strengths of current, and
•ubjecls of both sexes differing widely in age and temperament.

In one subject — a young man of nervous temperament — the positive
|4i>lc placed over the eye, with a medium current from ten zinc-carbon
C«n«i caused a white central spot, with a light areola. The white
central spot varied in shape between that of a quarter or half to a full
luoon. When the negative pole was placed over the eye, the central
sj^ot appeared of a bluish or purplish color, and the areola was the same
ii4 under the positive pole. In both cases the areola seemed to consist
4*i waves of light radiating from the centre toward the periphery.

lu making tliese experiments, the pole that is placed over the eye it
(Miued with a soft sponge, and is pressed firmly on the closed lid, while
Iho uthcr iti applied at the back of the neck, or is held in the hand of
Iho lubjcct.

\\\ rtuolht'r subject, a young physician of good health, and nervo-
iiU||iun«' U'iii]>crament, the positive pole from a current of six cells caused
i CtfiUUvkl ♦Siik of a pink color, and from this spot violet waves radiated
,»...,.. I, ,1,^ areola. The pink disk appeared when the current was
^Kf. violet areola flashed out when the current was broken. The
luHrttivt' pole produced reactions every way similar. This subject
vimUv) Uvit b<^^»r v'lv ntroog currents.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE EYE.

141

everal other physicians on whom we experimented could not di»
nguish any central disk, but all could readily see the light areola.
The conclusions from the above, and numerous similar experiments
I made in different individuals, are as follows :

I. A mild as well as a strong galvanic current applied to the eye, and
Jintemipted, causes a flash or glimmer of light to appear.

a. A medium or strong galvanic current causes, in addition to the
of light, a distinct central spot of varying shape, and both the
entral spot and the areola may be of various colors, as pink, purple,
fellowish, and violet.

3. With some individuals, though not with all, the colors of the central
3t and of the areola, and their relative arrangement, appear dif-

erently under the two poles, and also differently at the closing and
Dpening of the circuit.

4. All those reactions, like all other electro-physiological reactions,
r variously modified by the temperament of the individual operated on

ad by the strength of the current.

The above conclusions, as uill be seen, differ somewhat from those
Helmholtz and others who have studied this subject. The differ-
|enlial action of the ascending and descending currents we have not
en able to demonstrate, and see no way of demonstrating. We be-
that here, as in so many other electro physiological and electro-
berapeutical procedures, the differential polar action has been con-
inded with the dififerential action of the ascending and descending
rents.

Although the above reactions in their full degree can be most con-

Pveniently obtained by placing one electrode over the closed eye, and

jlhc other in the hand or at the back of the neck, yet the general re-

laction of the glimmering flash of light can be obtained by placing one

|clectrode in the vicinity of the eye, or on any part of the face or beard,

in the mouth. In susceptible persons the flash comes from intcr-

apted galvanization of the neck or spine.

Faradic Current. — The current from the primary or secondary coil

the ordinary faradic machines has little or no perceptible effect on

he retina, as we have demonstrated by various experiments. We

avc found, however, by repeated observations, that the current from

; long coils of the electro-magnetic machine manufactured by Kiddet

a most decided action on tlie retina. The peculiar construction of

be coil of this machine will be described in the chapter devoted to

pparatus for electro-therapeutics. It is sufficient here to say that it is

omposed of three or four or more coils of insulated copper-wire, the

r42

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

inward coil being short and thick, and the others gradually increasmg
in the length of the wires. These coils are not separate and distinct, as
in ordinary machines, but connected, and arc, so to speak, tapped at the
points of union, so as to obtain a number of currents varjnng in
quantity, tension, and physiological power. It is from the fourth and
fifth coils, which are not furnished to the majority of his smaller maiChtnes^
that wc obtain the reaction of the retina that we are now to describe.
The reaction is best obtained by placing a medium-sized sponge
electrode, welt moistened, over the closed eye, or very near to the eye,
while the other electrode is held in the hand or applied to some
indifferent point, as the back of the neck^ or arms, or feet With a
current of moderate strength thus applied, a circle felled with wavy,
undulating light, or whitish spots or figures, appears. It is difficult to
convey in language a precise description of this appearance. If snow-
flakes could be elongated somewhat, and made to coil about in various
directions, they would give a good idea of this reaction. If we look
through a window at a thick, driving snow-storm, mth large flakes, wc
can get a not very incorrect notion of the reactlcn, as we have over
and over again demonstrated on ourselves and others. So far as we
have been able to see, bright or variegated colors do not appear, except
from the current of ihc fifth coil. The negative pole gives a stronger
reaction than the positive ; but not api^ireciably different in character.
This reaction of the fourth coil of this machine is utterly unlike diat
which is obtained from either pole of the galvanic current Thb efifect
has long been shown by the inventor of this machine, and has been
illustrated by him. We were induced to question his assertions until
we had first made experiments of our own with the different coils of
the machine.

The Effect of Electrical Irritation compared with Mechanical Trrit^
Hon of the Eye. — It is interesting to compare the reaction produced
by the galvanic and faradic currents on the retina to the effects of
mechanical irritation. We have found by experiment on ourselves
that rubbing the eyes when closed, or partially closed, causes various
and oftentimes beautiful appearances. Very frequently a central spot
will appear, varying in shape and color, and changing in shape and
color during the irritation. All conceivable shapes, and every grade
of color, we have seen in this way over and over repeated ; sometimes
a mere circle of light shading off into darkness, and again a definite and
well-formed object, brilliant in color, standing forth clear and beautiful
against the dark background. Forms resembling a bouquet of flowers,
or a cluster of stars, or various shapes of crystals, appear with such

AUDITORY NERVE.

|wadness that we love to prolong the experiment. Simple pressure on
he side of the eyeball will cause reactions somewhat similar in kind
(chough less in degree) to those produced by the faradic current.

These reactions, however, are not constant ; they vary greatly with
individual, and with the same individual at different times. In
to obtain the most beautiful appearances, it is necessary to first
pook for a moment on bright tight, or to have the eyes open in the full
light. It would seem that the retina must first become sensitive,
Ibjr cxposxjre to strong light, before the reactions can appear in their full
|«xtent.

Action of Electricity on the Auditory Nerve ; Action of the Faradie
\Current, — The faradic current, when applied to the ear, or in the
ricinity of the ear, causes a ringing, or humming, or rumbling sound,
ling to the method of application and the strength of the current.
bese sounds are due, in part, to the susurri of the muscles.
Action of the Galvanic Current. — To the galvanic current the audi-
Itory reacts by certain fixed laws.
This normal formula is as follows :
. S Kl, distinct accented sound.
La D Kl >, sound disappearing by degrees.
Ka O — , no sensation of sound.
^n S -,

D -, "

in O Kl, weak and short sound, similar in character to Ka S.
tn the above formula, Ka = Kathode (negative pole), An = Anode
(positive pole), S = closing (schliesung), O = opening (oeffnung), D
^ duration of current
Pf = whistling sound.
Kl = ringing "
r= hissing *•

tie sensations with Ka S appear sooner and stronger than with
O.
This formula, it will be observed, hannonizes with the law of elec-
nos (seep, iii), and Pfliiger's contraction law — that "a nen>e is
stimulated by the appearance of catelectrotonos and the disappearance of
anfUcfrotonos ; not^ however, by the disappearance of catelectrotonos and
th4 appearance of anelectrotonos. (See p. 116).

Although the character of sounds varies with the strength and contin-
[ oaoce of the current and with the individual, yet in the healthy ear the
pclar effects never vary.

144

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Tliere is never any sensation of sound with the dosing of the
(An S), except in pathological conditions.

The polar effect is therefore the leading effect, and the directton oi
the current through the auditory nerve appears to have no demonstja*
ble influence.

The use of the rheostat and the changes in the reactions that are
made by interposing the various grades of resistances in the circuit *re
represented in the following experiments of Brenner : *

The experiment was performed on a healthy ear that had been cured
a short time before of a catarrh of the middle ear. The number of
elements is in Romany the number of resistances in Arabic.

XX 10-80 gave no reaction.
XX 90-120 KaS — ^Buziing of flies
very short

KaD

KaO

AnS

An D —

An O

XX 130-170 Ka S — Stronger buzz-
ing.

Ka D — Same,

KaO

AnS

AnD

An O

XX 13&-350 Ka S — Distant rum-
bling of wag-
ons.

Ka D— Same.

Ka O

AnS

An D

An O — B 11 z 2 i D g of
flies.

XX 260-400 Ka S — Rumbling
cannon.
Ka D— Same >

KaO

AnS

AnD

An O — Rumbling
wagons,
XX 410-550 Ka S— Striking of me-
tallic plate.

Ka D— Same >

KaO

AnS

An D

An O — Rumbling.

Ka S — Sharp ring Uke
a silver table
belL

Ka D— Same >

KaO

AnS

An D

An O — Weaker and

XX s6o~

shorter ring
ing.

Erb f gives the following result of experiments on himself:

• Op. dl., Band L, p. 105.

f Arthiv Ofkthalmolcgy und Otatag.

VoL I, No, I, p. fl46L

1-0

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

thoroughly agree with Brenner and Erb that these reactions of the a4l(&
tor)' nerve are oblained by the direct action of the current on the nerf«^
and not by njiix action through the trigeminus. This view is proved
by the general fact of the conductibiUty of the tissues of the brain (see
chapter on that subject), by the fact that even when the trigeminus M
paralyzed the reaction may yet occur,* and by the fact that when the
electrode is placed in a condition favorable for the entrance of the
current into the ear, the reaction is more decided than when the elee»
trode is placed in a condition favorable for the excitement of the trig©,
minus, but unfavorable for the direct entrance of the current, as has
been conclusively shown by Erbf and by ourselves.J We have removed
the pole from the iragus to ihe maiar bone and the cheek, both of vtn
points are highly favorable for the excitation of the trigeminus^
have found that with removal the reaction diminished or disappeared.

In order to obtain that normal formula, the following conditions aie
necessary : —

1 . Convenient galvanic apparatus.
A very powerful galvanic battery is not needed. The range of

ments to which the auditory nerve sensibly reacts is between 2 to 30^ J%i
some cases quite strong currents are necessary. The galvanic batteries
and electrodes described in this work are adapted for these invcstiga*
tions. There should be a current reverser ; and a rheostat, though ooi
exactly indispensable, is yet very convenient.

2. A right method of application, and practice in using it.

On the whole, the best method of application to produce these reac-
tions is the external arrangement, in which one pole is firmly pressed
on the tragus (the ear external auditory canal having been previously
filled widi warm salt water), while the other is held in or fastened on
tlie hand on the opposite side. Any convenient electrodes may be
used for these purposes. So long as the pole whose specific effect we
desire to produce is on the right place in the ear or on the tragus, the
position of the other electrode is not absolutely essential, provuJctl it
is somewhere on the opposite side^ so as to allow the eurreni to pa$$
through the auditory nerve. It is difficult or impossible to gel the
reaction while the pole is on the mastoid process of the same side. It

♦ Vide Moo^ case, above quoted in Archlv Ophth. imd OtoL , toI. i. , Now a, |^
♦82.

f Archiv Opiilh. und Otol., vol. 1., No. i,, p. 261 et soq,

X For a detailed discussion of tbii subject, see Brenner's work. Band L, 1 Abth.4
p.94,etfeq.

Dvesdgatiog electro-muscula-r sensibility, it is necessary

entirely on the statements of the patient for our information.

e strong-minded and intelligent are sometimes so distressed by

n produced by the applications, or so distracted by the sensa-

tiis:iness, and the contractions of the faciai muscles^ that they

to rightly inter^jret their subjective sensations in the car.

ary that the experiments should be made on a number of
^wi order to obtain the variety of reactions above described,
best also to make the first experiment on patients who have
I ears, for it is as true of the auditory as of the nasal passages
J sometimes become less sensitive when diseased- This is to
lined partly by the manipulations and treatment to which such
\ become accustomed, and partly by tlie fact that tiie morbid
itself produces callousness of the parts.

operator should proceed calmly and with self-command. After
lent is in position, with his head inclined on the back of Ihe
r lounge, and one of the electrodes fastened to or held in the
|>posite the ear to be experimented on, a little warm salt water
be dropped in (which can be very conveniently done by squeez-
small quantity necessary to fill the external auditory canal from
sponge or from a teasjioon or funnel-shaped glass *) and the
lectrode firmly pressed on the tragus. It is well to begin with
number of elements, and gradually increase until a reaction is
iL The reaction will usually appear when the current is strong

§ produce contractions of the facial muscles. The patient
the time be continually and repeatedly questioned in regard
sensations experienced, especially if he is unaccustomed to the
■rtL for at 6rst he rna-r be so distracted by the Hashes of iiirkt

148

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

If the battery is provided with a commutator^ for increasing
diminishing the number of elements brought into requisition, a currt^
rn'tncr for changing the direction of the current without removing (he
poles, and a rheostat for introducing resistances into the circuit, liie
labor of the operator will be materially lightened ; but such appltanm
are not indispensable.

The operator should remember that the reactions are modified bf die
experiment itself, {a.) Ka.S is most effectual after An.S. Thercfoie
the use of voltaic alternatives is of service.

{b.) The excitabiUty of the ner\e is increased by long closure of atl^
ode (Ka.S.).

(f.) The excitement of An.O. increases with the strength of the
rent and the length of closure.

It should be remembered also that Ka.S. is stronger and qui
th.an An.O.

Jiulgins; from our own researches in this department these three
ing .statements of Brenner — that the auditory nerve reacts to thf nf(trt\
electrode in a regular manner, that in health sounds of some kind atc
|>rO(luccd at the closing and in the duration of the cathode, and ihatift
puthological cases a part of the normal fornviila is more or less < ■
—are capable of sufficient and easy deu^onstration to those w
thoroughly familiar with electro-therapeutical experimentation.

On the other hand, some of the specia! features of Brenner's s;
iift'et ditlicullies in the way of their successful and uniform demonstr*'
tiv>n that can only be overcome by careful practice in this special dfr
|)Mrtment. To catch the sounds which in health are heard at the opeo*
lug t>f the anode ; to distinguish between the noise caused by the agiti*
lion of the water in the ear, and the subjective sounds that are so fire*
quciuly tije symptoms of disease of Uic auditory apparatus and the gcim^
iUtt reaction of the auditory nerve ; to obtain the complete normal
((Uituda in health, and to satisfactorily discriminate between the varioui
llbiMUiiiiit reaciions of disease — the first attempt to fully corroborate all
llu^ l^u^rtiont in these particulars will usually result in complete or puv
^|4 (allur*!, enpecially to those who are unfamiliar with the use of gaU
Vanu tp|iar.iiiis.

.M <»/ Irritability. — Brenner distinguishes three different dc»
Muv« *»! uiitability of the auditory nerve, according to the number of
vlviuviiu ihiU it lakes to excite the reaction. The degrees of irritability
Ukj^v U« thrtu^id during the sitting by the effect of the current OD
^^ -v Aud cipccmlly by the voltaic alternatives.

it A\ the beginning of the sitting the nerve reacted to i6 e)»>

OBJECTIONS ANSWERED.

149

Bcnts, but to no number less than that, these t6 elements would repre
iwt the prinuiy irritability of that nerve.

I/bv various alternations of the current the nerve is brought into a
coiHfiiion that it reacts to 12 elements, these 12 elements represent the
mmdary irritabtlity of that nerve.

IC by still farther excitation, the ner\'e is made to react to 10 ele-
ments, these 10 elements represent the tertiary excitability of that nerve.
In opposition to the above conclusions Dr. Wreden, of St. Peters-
hlTg, has made a number of experiments which seem to him to establish
ibi the sounds heard during galvanization of the ear are due not to
the reaction of the auditory nerve, but to the contraction of the small
wuda »f the middle ear. In his experiments he electrized the Eusta-
dian tube, through the catheter, and also the middle ear, by means of
wall delicate, and finely graduated sounds insulated to their points.
He tKrlieves that by this method he causes contraction of the tensor
tf»fan\ and of the stapedius, through irritation of the fifth and seventh
ntrres.*

Wreden asserts that during electrization by these methods the mem-
haa tympani is retracted, and believes that this retraction is caused
ly Ac contraction of the muscles. This, however, has been denied by
Poortcn. To settle this question, Lowenberg devised a manometer^
•Inch consists in a bit of cork or rubber fitted into the external meatus
hermetically, and receiving hermetically a capillary glass tube whicji
coBiains a drop of colored liquid. The external meatus is filled with
»«er, which is connected with one of the poles of a faradic machine,
»hile the other is applied to the skin by a sponge or through the Eiista-
dxiin tube. When the membrana tympani is retracted by the action
i Ae current, tlie drop of colored water indicates this retraction by
llitog, when it is pushed outward, by rising.

Admitting to the fiill all that has been claimed by Wreden and Low-

we do not sec that it proves that the supposed complex reac-

ihc auditory nerve to electricity are nothing more than muscu-

contraciions. Admitting that in some cases where the membrana

li is gone, tlie reactions are not obtained, still the following con-

tjons arc, to our mind, convincing :

Tlie reactions of the galvanic current, when apt^lied to the ear, are
■ntly similar to some of the sounds of tinnitus annum. Ihey are
ic3 so much alike that they cannot be distinguished.

[• Ar^som^of this subject is presented m Dr. Roosa's work on Dueaset of thi
r, IT. 493-495-

ISO

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

2 The differential polar effects of the galvanic current on the
wnich are very easy of demonstration, cannot be explained by
^theory of muscular contraction.

3. Some of the reactions are produced by the steady action of I
ilvanic current, without any interruption, and with a strength not 1

^cient to produce muscular contraction ; while it is tnie that ce
reactions in some cases require strong and interrupted currents, il is I
true of all of d>em.

4. A reaction of the auditory nerve similar to some forms of tinnlli
can be obtained in some sensitive cases, not only by galvanization *
the ear, but of the other parts of the head, and even the trunk.

We have had a patient who complained every time we galw
the spine that buzzing, hissing sounds were excited in his ear.
Ur sounds arc produced by galvanization of the ear. The effect n
this case was probably reflex.

AH these considerations convince us that the variety of sounds pJO
dMccd by galvanization of the ear is due to the excitation of the
diti':y nerve, and that this excitation may be bodi direct and reft
Wc arc fully aware, however, that for the present this fact has agrc
interest for the electro-physiologist than for the electro-thcrapcutisL
Ol/a:K'>rv Nen>e. — We have observed in frequent experimenung
o&i-^v the negative pole of a strong galvanic current applied t

the N an membrane caused, in certain sensitive localities, an c

wax^ch resembling sulphuretted hydrogen. The odor observed in the i
borhocH.) o>i docks will perhaps suggest the peculiar character of this I
action nv»ce than any formal description. This reaction is obtained on
«^n a |*o«»>erf»iI current is used. It is obtained at the opening of I
Mit» irhilc the circuit is closed and for some little time after the cin
l^*cfKNV Wc have foimd that this peculiar reaction varies much '
' iirt>kl(\KKvAU *nd with the same individual at different times. A )
K^v-^ .V or« AU wlc-rated condition of the mucous membrane

*ii* it. Although we are frequently treating cases of rhini^
LhVmil>)by internal galvanization with metallic electrotles, yet<
t^V*^ vj'^Mk of this peculiar odor. The niucous merabr
vcs is ver)' sensitive, and in ordinary thcrapeutid
!!f currents will be borne, whereas this rcaciioil|
iiiands powerful and painful currents.
xNKtion of the positive and the negative pole of 1
v<M,Kng currents that were long ago claimed by
•* %XJie to confirm. 7 he phcnonjenon of snecziTig^J
•4--4Jn»<ft%^ «f which Ritter spoke, is due, not to any

ACTION ON THE GUSTATORY NERVE.

151

m of the olfactory nerve, but to the mechanical irritation of the sen
ly nerves by the electrode. Snee/ing, as all aiirlsts know, is called
irih by a single introduction of the Eustachian catheter, and Ave observe
continually in introducing the nasal electrode. It is observed most,
iwever, just as the electrode is being inserted ; and when the current is
nniiig, the symptom does not usually annoy us. The action of a gentle
rrent on the sensory nerves of the nasal passages seems rather to have
^iative effect, and in a measure counteracts the tendency to sneeze
Bit is excited by the mechanical irritation of the electrode.
Schonbein suggests that the peculiar smell experienced from the pas-
ge of the electric current through the olfactory nerve is caused by
»nc that is gcncrated.

This peculiar odor, observed in powerful galvanization of the nasal
kssage, is unquestionably due to the reaction of the nerve to the elec-
1 stimulus, and corresponds to the effects produced by the same
[ent on the nerves of seeing, hearing, and tasting.

Franklinic electricity, electro-magnetism, magneto-electricity, are
liable, in any strength that can be endured by a person in health, to
idtc the peculiar reaction of the olfactory nerve.

Ai'/ton of Electricity on the Gustatory Nerve — Action of the Galvanic

trrent. — In 1754, long before the discovery of galvanism, it was
by M. Sulzer that lead and silver, when connected and then
;ht in contact with the tongue, gave rise to a peculiar taste similar

Xhat produced by vitriol of iron. If we apply a piece of zinc to the
', and one of silver to the lower part of the tongue, a powerful acid
will be experienced under the zinc pbte, and a slight alkaline

l:e under the silver plate. These sensations are perceived as long

the circuit is closed ; but if the plate or the tongue be warmer or

dcr than natural, or very much benumbed by acids or other irritating
stances, very little, if any, sensation is produced. If the tension ol
current be much increased, by using several pairs, the tongue be-
K^es convulsed and a flash of light is perceived. When neither of the

<:lro<les touches the tongue, a metallic instead of an acid or alkaline

<e js produced.
*^1ie peculiar reaction of the gustatory nerve to the current is gen-
tly descnbcd by those on whom we have experimented as " cop-
*^," or ''sour," or "metallic," or "bitter." Sour or coppery are, we
lieve, the designations most frequently employed by those persons

o experience the sensation for the first time, and who have no
t&OTies in the matter to prove or disprove, and who therefore are
^x^y to give their real impressions. If we ask them whether they have

152

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

a taste in the mouth while the current is passing, they usually reply i
the taste is sour or •' coppery/' and soraetiiues they may call it " bitter.'
If we ask them whether the taste Is " metallic," they usually reply in :
afiinnative. Our observations on this subject have been very nu
ous, and they have been niade with both currents. It is not neccs
to send the galvanic current through the tongue or through the chon
tympani nerve, or through the face even ; for galvanization of the nedt j
in the anterior and posterior regions, and of the head in ahnost any
direction, and of the spine — the lower as well as the upper region — wK/
be felt in the gustator)' nerve.

This metallic taste is felt almost as soon as the galvanic current a
cilosed, grows stronger while the current runs up to a certain point, and if
sometimes felt for several minutes after the electrodes are removed

kXn some temperaments on which we have experimented, the metallic
Caste remains on the tongue for several hours, and even all day, lad
Xonger,

In susceptible temperaments the faradic current produces in i\t*
<5egree this metallic taste, and that, too, not only when applied to tl»
•tongue, but also the head, neck, and spine. In the operations of c«fl-
-fcral galvanization this reaction of the gustatory nerve becomes of con*
^derable value in showing us that the current is passing as we wish il»
^i.nd that the patient is receiving all that is well for him. The gustaioty
^-eaction tlnis answers the ]^urpose of a galvanometer, showing that the
^^urrent is passing, and to a certain degree regulating the dose.

There is little doubt that this metallic taste, caused by electriiatioo»

L$ due to a peculiar excitation of the properties of the gustatory nerves

-f^y the stimulus of the current.

The theory that it might be of an electrolytic character, and therefgwj
^^^plained by the products of decomposition at the i>oIes — acid at
sitive, and alkalies at the negative— Rosenthal, by a variety of
Qts, has shown to be untenable.

RO-PHYSTOLOGY.

• t»i

i can be mide to contract under electric
e ■afior nenres, and {2) by acting on the mu
: av however, this interesting and important

tbe motor ner\'es and the muscles, 1
an the muscles supplied by them <
ks are electrized, only that muscle to ^
i4l or that part of the muscle between
What dvect applications to the muscle 1
IHodncetl by putting one electrode^
contractioos produced by directly
tkeeackalioo of the muscle, and aliO<
The most powerful muscular cont
b|r ptw i ^g one deccrode on the muscle, and I
hiBBt ibe MOlor aerre tiiat supplies it is most :

Aiwa 4fl%titi»€ mmd Negative P9U in Producing
mkf s litare a. ifiiKeretkce in the degree in the

o£ tlie £uradic current, but there is also a
\ irf'ihe pofes in |iraducing contractions. When
, as in dK aaionty of machines, the muscle
mt^ afl the process ^ lengthening and sh<
: of die cnrreot to and fro, and consequi
«£ tooac co«umctioa above described JC
«i 3oaK tafifiefent point, while the other
pat «» te acted on, it will be found that the
M|f« uitiactk wis than the positive.

^«Mde, and it is not diliicult to demonstrate
ractioo of the negative pole in producing mO-^
mukf iadepet>dent of the direction of the currcr^
^ftct. We have already seen that on setistF
- oaoce powerfully felt than the positive.
j>i>mrt ef Current sujficient to Produce C^ ^^
^■•■■icular contractions, it is not necrssai"^^^
■» M w i or dosed. A moderate variation in th ^^
•^ as is obtained by adding one or *WW'"'^^
i independent current in the circuit, ^>^^\m
se current from the circuit — will caus^^^
^ ^-vMtractions produced in this way are^-"
. iinr |»*wluccd in closing and o|>ening ih^^^
: lit the vigor of the contraciion'i \^^
,:< dosing or opening the cucuiL

ECTRO-PHYSIOLOGT.

electrodes on the skin, the current of the primary coil (extra-anrenf^
exercises a retarding influence on the secondary current, and then th^ \
closing contraction is rendered niore gradual and gentle frora nothing
to the maxiniuni.

When the current of the secondary coil is opened, the current of tli«
primary coil (extra-current) does not exist (see Electro-Physics, p. 64)^
and consequently the current of the secondary coil is not retarded and
goes rapidly from its maximum to nothing.

Differential Aetion of Primary and Secondary Coils. — Duchenne I
stated with a measure of truth that the current of tlie primary coil (ti
tra-current) of his apparatus has a more powerful effect on the scosi'
bility and contractility of the organs beneath the skin, while the currenl
of the secondary coil acts more powerfully on the retina and on the
skin. The primary coil is composed of thick, short wire.

The secondary coil is composed of long and thin wire with many
windings.

The differential action of the primary and secondary currents on th«
skin, muscles, and optic nerve is due to these two causes :

1. The primary current, circulating through a short thick wire, haS ]
less tension than the secondary current that circulates through a long]
thin \^^re, because tension is dcveloi)ed only in the presence of resist-
ance. Since, now, the skin offers greater resistance than the muscle*,
the secondary current, by virtue of its greater tension, is able to peoe^j
trate it, and also to penetrate the brain and affect the optic nenrc. '
But the primary current, having less tension, passes through the skin,
circulating in it but slightly, and goes to the muscles beneath, which are
good conductors, and on these it spends its force. In other words, a j
currenl of low tension selects the best conductors, avoiding the poor j
conductors so far as is possible, while the current of high tenstoa |
traverses also poor conductors.

2. The primary current moves in one direction, and has a mild cleC^j
trolytic power, while the secondary current moves to and fro so rapidlf ]
that it cannot perform electrolysis.

Action of the Galvanic Current. — The interrupted galvanic current
of moderate strength, if applied to a motor nerve, causes all the mut> j
cles supplied by that nerve to contract.

If the current be intemi|>te(l slowly, the contractions wiirbe chnie^ if
rapidly interrupted, the contractions will be tonic. The violent contrae-j
tions that occtir at the moment of closing and opening the circuit otJ
an intense current may be avoided if we begin with an extremely mild 1
current and slowly and gradually increase its tension. B) this method |

VOLUNTARY MUSCLES.

157

\ enabled to pass tlirough his own person, without experienc-
I the dosing or opening shock, the enormous current gener-
bi battery of two hundred elements.

w-fonic Contractions, — When very powerful currents are
Intinuously to the nerves, tonic contractions are produced dur-
lole time that the circuit is closed. Contractions thus pro-
re called by K.emak galvano touii contractions. They are
yt^uo-tonic contractions to distinguish them from the clonic
ps produced by the faradic current. When the galvanic cur*
l^lied continuously to the surface of the body, by means of
knges, ihe galvano-tonic contractions increase in vigor, up to
Ipoint, the longer the electrodes are kept in position. This
Ion is explained mainly by the fact that the skin b(!Comes more
fwell as hypersemic (p. 121) by the effect of the current, and
bjes a better conductor for the electricity. With tJie faradic
pis increase of eflfect is not so observable. The current
yo produce galvano-tonic contractions is quite powerful and
fl'he strength of current required will depend on the position
tvc acted on, the length of nerve included between tlie eke-
pd the individual experiuiented on.

contractions in Antagonistic Muscles. — Remak states that when
feurrents of great power are used, certain nervous tonic con-
appear in antagonistic muscles. Thus, for example, when
p nerve is subjected to the continuous action of a powerful

rrent, contractions appear in the common extension of the
so that the fingers are raised. It is probable tJiat this phe-

due to refiex action,

the Will in opposing and aiding Contractions produced by
f. — The contractions produced by electricity can be materially
Apposed by effort of the will of the person operated on. If a
lose muscles are being electrized concentrate his mind on the
fit is subjected to the influence of the current, and sunuhane-

the closing of the circuit, wills to contract the muscle, the

will be more vigorous and complete than when the elec-
t so aided. The will co-operates with the electricity, and the

reinforce each other, and thus accomplisli more than would

for either alone. This can be very conveniently demon-
ihe communis extensor of the forearm. In electro-therapeu-

operation of the force of will and electricity becomes of
tical value. It has long been known that paralytic patients

even those of a cerebral chronic incurable character, can be

IS8

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

greatly benefited by slightly concentrating the mind on the pak
moved y as the fingers or toes^ and resolutely willing to mm^e thewti

In practice it has been found that such treatment is of posit
permanent service.

The cotnbination of the force of will with electricity is vcJ
more efficacious than either when used alone. When a muscle b
so diseased that the will is powerless to remove it, the cl<
may contract it with ease. Where electricity alone causes fa
imperfect contraction, electricity, co-operating wiih the will, ma
the contraction vigorous and complete. In order to make expe
of this kind fully successful, it is necessary that the will and forcfl
be concentrated simultaneously with the closing of the circui
yet experience shows that the effect of the electrization, if i
long continued, is to give tone of the muscle, so that it respon<
readily to the will for several minutes, or even hours, after be«
jccted to the electrization. This is especially observed in muse
are in a condition of paresis. In all these experiments much i
on the organic energy and grit of the patient. Co:..\ersely, it I
that by an effort of will the contraction of muscles induced by
city can be within a certain limit, successfully opposed. The
menl can be made on the communis extensor of the forearm
difficulty. A feeble current will cause this muscle to contract !
bring up the hand and fingers ; by an effort of the will this
resisted so that the hand remains on a level, or nearly so. Wh
strong currents are used the will is completely overborne, and
effect whatever.

Extent of Shortening of Muscle during a Contraction. — In the
of contraction muscles shorten in proportion to their length
greatest possible shortening is obtained during tetanic or con
contraction, and not during a momentary contraction. The mi
of shortening is reached, not suddenly, but gradually, and it di
long remain at the maxintum even when the electrization is coi
but begins to lengthen at first rapidly and then more slowly.

The greatest amount of shortening possible to a muscle is ihr\
ters or two thirds of its length.

In contraction the muscle becomes a little smaller in bulk
cause of this is not fully understood.*

Immediate Strengthening or Restorative Effect of Electrittk

• Eltctro- Physiology and EUetro-Therapeuiia. By C E. MorgM^ j
York, 1868. p. 573.

VOLUNTARY MUSCLES.

159

chs. — One very interesting effect of eleclri/ation on
uscles is to increase their power of doing work. This effect,
led by Heidenhain and Rcraak restorative^ can be demon-
irious ways. The capacity of walking, in cases of paralysis
limbs, is sometimes increased at once after electrization ;
steps across the tioor easier and more firmly and rapidly,

k further; or he can raise his leg higher and with less
ine case of paralysis of the tibialis anlicus muscle there
M>nse to the mil until a current of medium strength had
I, when it contracted without much difficulty. Dr. Poore *
lacing a weight of 1 7 oz. in the hand of a man holding his
ight angles with his body, that in four minutes the pain was
ihe could not go on ; applying now a mild current through

tt arm, the strength returned. Another man could hold
\ minutes when the current was applied, but only 6
lout the current

mometer is a good means of studying this subject. In one
ore found that eight successive squeezes of the dynauiome-
plriratjon gave 477 lbs. ; without electrization, 388 lbs.; a
[89 lbs. In another experiment made, when the hand was
^ previous experimenting, the difference was even more
Dg a gain of 153 in six squeezes of the dynamometer.
Fatigue of Muscles on the Contractility. — When a striped
>mes very much weakened or fatigued it behaves under elcc-
ch like the smooth muscle. Dr. Beard has demonstrated this
ng rabbits and dogs. Beginning the electrization just as
open, the striped muscles react vigorously and normally to
; but as the animal dies the character of the contraction
coming slower and more deliberate. If, now, the current
atcrrupted, no contraction occurs, for there is not lime for
to respond. If, now, weak currents arc used, the muscle
ly much after the manner of unstriped muscle — that is, with
ing rather than a rapid and vigorous action.
Muscular Tension and Relaxation on Muscular Contrac-
Vm. R. Fisher, of New York, has called attention to the
iUSdes contract more easily when somewhat relaxed than
•nsc condition. This experiment can be tried very easily on
I extensor of the forearm or on the peronei muscles of the
icl is of practical importance in the treatment of paralysis.

The Practitictttr, Jaa., 1873.

i6o

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Ziemssen,* on experimenting with iinpolarizable electrode
grarlually increasing the strength by the acid of the rhjostat, obta
the following results :

1. With the weakest current that caused muscular contraction
was opening contraction at the cathode.

2. With a current a little stronger there was strong closing eon
tion at the negative pole, and weak opening contraction at the pcsififfeX

3. With still stronger current there was also weak contraction ^ i
opening of the positive pole.

4. With still stronger currents there was a tonic contraction aithe nt^
five pole, continuing for some time after the contraction at the cIosu|

5. With a much stronger current the Ionic contraction was
vigorous; the other contractions are also increased in strength, and I
appeared a contraction at the opening of the negative pole.

6. With the strongest current that can be borne, all the other conU
tions were increased in strength, and there appeared, besides,
tonic contractions at the positive pole.

The above results can be verified only when unj)olarijjable elccti
are used, for with ordinary electrodes the pain would be far too
to be endured. The opening and closing of the current must be in*
in the metallic part of the connection, in order to give it the greatci
possible suddenness. Ziemssen suggests for these ex|>crimenis
median and ulnar nerves at a point a little above the wrist. At t
point the epidermis is quite thin and the nerves superficial. Judgi^
from our observations, it is impossible to reduce this subject to a 1
mathematical law. The words '• strong " and " weak," as appHe<Jl|
currents, are quite indefinite, and the irritability of nerves varies in (
ferent individuals at different times. It is for these reasons thai ob
ers differ in the results of their experiments.

Electro-muscular Contractility and Electro-muscular Sensibility}^
The susceptibility of the muscle to contract under the influence of i
electric current is called electro muscular contractility. The sens
that accompanies this contraction of the muscles under the ele
influence is cd\\c6 electro-muscular sensil'ility. Electro muscular
tractility and electro- muscular sensibility vary in different indtvidu
and in different parts of the body. They are greatly modified by <
ease. This fact is of great importance in diagnosis of paralytic
tions.

In using the terms electromuscular sensibility and electro-muscti
contractility, we do not wish to convey the idea that they represent

• Op. ch., p. 80.

I62

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

more or less elevation of the temperature of the body. This u
demonstrated by the sensations of the patient^* and by the thennoiiK
eter.

It has been shown by Brown-S6quard and Lombard that excitatioa
of the nerves of the skin causes an increase of temperature in the,
limb.f

The development of heat is not aided by increasing the strength,
of the current above the degree necessary to produce a full contrac>
lion. It has been demonstrated that, in patients afflicted with trau-
matic tetanus, there is a great increase of temperature that remaios
for some time after death.

Investigations on the effect of muscular contraction on temperatnie
should be made by delicate surface thermometers. Some of the super*
ficial muscles of the forearm offer a good surface for this expcrinieut
The thermometer must be kept firmly and imiformly pressed on the
skin, and the modifying effect of currents of cold air should be guarded
against. The thermometer should be kept in situ about fifteen minutel
before beginning electrization, so as to get accurately the normal tem-
perature. Then the nerve that supplies the muscle or muscles to be
tested should be faradized.

The following investigation is from Ziemssen.J The patient wasi
strong man, who was suffering from complete paralysis of the extensor
muscles of the hand and ftnger from nerve injury. This fact accouDU
for the low temperature before faradization.

Temperature on the forearm, between the extensor digit coniia.
and exten. cari?. radi. brev. :

The skin uncovered 34.7*' Co>^

After 4 minutes' faradization through the radial nerve :

At opening of current 34.S

X minute after opening the current 35.3

5 minutes " " 35.7

'o " " " 3535

" " " " 353

In the 13th minute faradization was renewed for 1 minute:

Temperature at opening the current 34.7

I minute after opening the current 35.1

4 minutes " *• , . 35.45

• EledrUitm in dtr Medtcin,, 1866, p. 29.

f Arthivts de Pkyshtfgie^ NoTcmber and December, 1S68. % Op. dt., p. \

INCREASE OF TEMPERATURE AFTER FARADIZATION. 163

I the 6th minute faradization was renewed for i minute :

Temperature at opening the current 35.1

I minute after opening the current 35.3

5 minutes '♦ " 35.6

he general results of all the investigations that have been made m

department by Becquerel, Breschet, Helmholtz, Ziemssen, Althaus,

ourselves are these :

Kben muscles are made to contract under faradization of the mus.
t supply them their temperature rises.
U This elevation of temperature is not necessarily accompanied by

trase in size of the vessels, although faradization usually increases
and appearance of the vessels more or less.
|. The more \igorous the contraction and the longer it is continued,
higher the temperature rises.

^ if the faradization be continued long enough the temperature will
so much increased that it can be detected without difficulty by the
id, and by the sensations of the person operated on.
{. When all the superficial muscles of the body are faradized, as in the
Ihod of general faradization, the teuijierature not only of individual
scles, here and there, but also of the whole body, rises. This fact we
'C repeated and demonstrated by observations made on many varie-
i of temperament.

\ more accurate method of investigating this subject is by means
the thermo-electric pile (see Electro-Physics, p. 75). This instru-
M is capable of measuring a small variation in temperature, and

E" ates the variations much more quickly than the thermora
e thermo-electric pile is connected with a reflecting galva
,see Electro-Physics, p. 47). Ziemssen gives the following ob
ration made on the extensors of the forearm :

^BiB or FAaADiZATiON. Deflection of the Nekolb

^^bfinu/ej. Seconds, OF THE GalvanomRTSR.

W o IS - i.s

o 30 + 2.3

^ o 45 + 50

■ I — - 7.2

■ % — +190

■ 3 — +3ai

4 — +40 a

t will be observed that with the increase in the time of the faradiza-
\ there is greater and greater deflection of the needle, just as there
rise of the mercury in the ordinary thermometer.

*64

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Source of Heat in Muscular Contraction. — According to Henna
who has specially studied the chemistry of the development of 1
' during rausculao- contraction, muscular work is the result of the de*
* position of nitrogenous substances. Among the products of this
composition are d. fixed acid^ carbonic acid, and myosine. Of these 1
j^carbonic acid leaves the body, while the fixed acid and the myosine j
nain and are worked over again in the organism. The muscles grou
the same time that they work and develop heat, and urea and cread
are found in the residuum. The muscle is restored by the actioti j
oxygen, an albuminoid, and a non-nitrogenous substance in the bio

All these complex chemical changes that are excited during aiUH
\d,x zow\xzji\\ow give rise to heat. If the muscle is prevented, byi
chanical means, from contracting, the heat develops in it more
than when it is free. This follows frorn the recognized law of the
relation and conservation of forces. The force that does not appear I
work appears as heat.

Duration of Eiectro-muscular Contractility after Death. — T
^muscles retain their contractility under electricity several hours
death. The length of time that the electro-muscular contractility |
preserved varies with different muscles, with different animals,
probably, also, with the mode of death. In order to determine i
question, Dr. Beard has made experiments on dogs and rabbits.
OnimnSjt of Paris, has experimented on the body of a murderer wh
had been guillotined. He found that the muscles of the tongue and (
Lphragm were the first to lose their electro-muscular contractihty. Nci
^Can»e the muscles of the face, among which the masscter retains ils«
citability the longest. Two and a half hours after death the cle
muscular contractility was lost in all these muscles.

In the limbs the extensor muscles first lose their electro-mu
contractility, and in about an hour the flexors foHowcd. The raua
of the trunk responded ^zr or six hours after death, and the abdotnioi
muscles longer still.

Onimns observed on the criminal what Dr. Beard has observed on (
and rabbits, that when the muscle is dying it contracts most noticcal
at the point where the electrodes are placed, and very slowly at a <
lance from the electrodes ; and that the muscles resjwnd to di«
electri/.aiion with needles after they have ceased to respond to the *
rent when applied through the sKin.

• MorgAn, op. cit., p. 582 et acq.

\ Lt ilouvement Midieate^ Feb., tSjJ.

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

165

rJously, in January and February, 1802, Aldini, a nephew of
ajii, obtained permission from the government to experiment or

Kninals who were executed at Boulogne. Immediately after
c bodies were submitted to powerful galvanic excitation. The
les of the face contracted vigorously in such grimaces as to frighten
Lssistants, The limbs were violently convulsed, and the bodies
t ms though they would rise again to life.

sgow, Ure made similar experiments on the body of a crimi-
t had been on the gallows one hour. The applications were made
e spinal marrow, the phrenic nerves, and the intercostal muscles.
Tding to the position of the electrodes the body was bent forcibly
9 the chest rose and fell as in the act of breathing, and the various
ions of rage, terror, despair, were depicted on the countenance.
of the spectators fainted, and several were obliged to leave the

i-O'Physiological Anatomy. — Electro-physiological anatomy treats
fhysiological action of muscles under the influence of the electric
\ apf'lied in such a way as to produce contractions.
bontraction observed in an individual muscle, when submitted to
ffttence of the electric current, closely resembles the contraction
e same muscle when under the influence of the will,
.ichenne was the first to investigate this subject systematically, and
^searches have done much to modify the accepted views concerning
Unctions of certain muscles. Those who desire a more complete
Of his views than is given in the following brief resume, we refer to
Ti tings.*

uscles of the Face — Electro-physiognomy, — This name has been
ied to the study of character and expression, through locali/;cd
Ration of the muscles of the face. By means of small electrodes
Bpent can be localized so as to produce contractions even in the
Best muscles. For these experiments a recently dead subject has
advantage over the living man, that in the case of the latter con-
Hons produced by the current would be complicated and interfered
I by involuntary movements.
GCOrding to Duchenne, who has chiefly investigated this subject, the

^^lectrintion

Localise et de son Application i la Pathologic et k la Thira-
Ijae. Paris, 1861. Also, Mechaninme de la Physionomie Humaine, ou Analyse
ro-physiologique de 1' Expression d« Passions applicable \ la Pratique des Arts
iq«e& Paris, 1S62. This work, contains photographic representations of the
» appearances of the face unilcr electrization of ihc different muscles. These
igraphf are frequently referred to by Darwin in his work on Expression,

i66

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

frontalis muscle, when a little contracted, expresses pleasure ;
more contracted, astonishment or doubt; when strongly con
with other muscles, terror.

Contraction of the pyramidalis nasi expresses sadness ; of the
rugaior superciUi^ contemplation; of the orbicvlaris palbebrarum^
tempt. Contraction of these two, united with the pyramid '
gives a hateful, malicious expression. Contraction of the tria
nasi expresses lust ; of the zygomaticus major, various degrees of njirth;
of tlie zygomaticus minor^ melancholy ; of the plaiysma myoides, hy|K>»
critical laughter; o{ iht plaJysnta myoides^ pain. Contraction oftte
platysma myoides 3.x\^ frontalis gives an expression of terror. Contrac-
tion of the platysma myoides and pyramidalis expresses rage. United
contraction of the zygomaticus major and frontalis produces an efr
pression of agreeable surprise. Contraction of the buccinator indii
age, by making furrows in the cheek.

Contraction of the ItvtUcr alae and labii superioris causes an
pleasant expression, such as a child exhibits when about to cry ; r '
tion of the triangularis oris gives an expression of sadness or u

Contraction of the external fibres of the orbicularis oris gives «fl«
lips a position of whistling or kissing; contraction of the internal iibrcS
of the s.irae muscle compresses the lips against the teeth.

Muscks of the Upper Extremity ,-^'\\\^ contractions resulting fro*
electrization of the extensors of the fingers give to the hand a pcculitf
appearance.

The first phalanges not only become extended, but are spread ap»rt»
while the last two phalanges become (lexed.

The metacaqius forms an angle with the forearm, and in this confr
tion the hand resemble?, to a certain extent, a bird's claw.

Electrization of the extensor digiti minimi proprius separates the to»
tie finger from its neighbor, while contraction of the extensor indidi
proprius brings the index and middle finger together. By the method
of localized electrization the adductors and abductors of the t'lngcfft,
and the intcrossei and Uunbricales, are found to act not only in draw-
ing these members together and separating them, but also in extendin((
Ibe second phalanx of the thumb and the second and third of the other
fingers.

The flexor poUicis brevis is concerned in extending the
phalanx of the thumb, as well as in flexing the first.

So long as the arm is in its natural position, the supinator iongus
tto function to perform \ it is only when the forearm is prone tbali
peculiar action is manifest.

alysis of any one of the above muscles, it is readily seen tlial
rvation made concerning their function is correct,
example : if the adductor longus and extensor brevis poUicis be-
paralyzed, the metacarpal bone of the thumb is adducted. If the
lor longus poUicis is paralyzed, the thumb is inclined towards the
Irpus, although its movements are not markedly impaired if the
Dr brevis and adductor longus are strong.

ttrtzation of the deltoid not only raises the upper arm, but also
Perceptibly changes the position of the scapula. The external
of the shoulder blade becomes depressed, the internal angle is
ed, while the distance between its posterior spinal border and the
'slightly increased. In paralysis of the deltoid the arm hangs by
■e almost completely helpless. The muscle is composed of three
t groups of fibres, and the degree of paralysis depends upon the
jr of groups or special group involved.

I pectoralis major and iatissimus dorsi muscles, although situated
t most part on the trunk of the body, are especially useful in
Hg in the movements of the arm.

^Us of the Trunk. — When all of the fibres of the trapezius arc
tted to electric excitation, the shoulder-blade becomes elevated,
Interior border approaches the median line, the shoulders are
backward, and the head is thrown slightly forward and toward
x>site side. Like the deltoid, the trapezius is made up of diree
fibres,

tn the superior set is electrized the head turns toward the side
id, and the face looks toward the opposite side.
middle set of fibres elevates the shoulder-blade, while by the
of the lower set its inner angle is depressed, and its posterior
is drawTi toward the median line. In complete paralysis of the
ius the following symptoms are manifest : The back is rendered
, on account of the scapula removing slightly from the spinous
es ; the shoulder becomes depressed, and, on account of the
r of steady suppK>rt for the ann, its movements are rendered difii-
Electrization of the rhomboideus major and minor muscles ele-
hc scapula and slightly turns it on its outer angle.
ic current be sufficiently intense, the lower angle of the scapula
iches nearer to the spinous processes than the inner.

rhomboideus muscles are paralyzed, the scapula removes itself
bat from the waJb of the thorax, the skin between the shoulder-
md the spine appears in folds, and the lower angle of the bone is
forward and outward, on account of the action of the serratud

i68

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

amicus major. By excitation of the serratus anticus major the :
is drawn forward and outward, so thai tlie space between its posterioc
border and the spine is doubled. The i)Ostcrior border is pressctJ
against the ribs, while the anterior border is markedly removed from
them,

When the muscle is paralyzed the shoulder-blade sinks but hitle, «o
long as the arm hangs motionless by the side ; but as soon a* it A^
moved from the body the posterior border and under angle of
scapula are lifted from the thorax, while the anterior approaches it i
closely. In complete paralysis of the serratus anticus the raoven
of the arm are much impaired.

A single external intercostal muscle may be electrized by ]
small electrode against the lower border of one of the upper ribs, i
the origin of the serratus niagnus muscle.

The individual abdominal muscles are readily influenced bv electric
excitation.

Electrization of the rectus muscle so stretches and draws it in^inl
tliat the abdominal wall becomes flat. Irritation of the external oblique
expands the abdomen laterally.

If we electrize the transverse abdominal, powerful transverse cott-
tractions of the abdomen follow. When both phrenic nerves are sub*
mitted to electric excitation, powerful and frequent contractions of d»
diaphragm are produced. An increased amount of air rushes into the
lungs, on account of the capacity of the thorax enlarging through the
descent of the diaphragm^ and the moving outward of the false n\A
Atrophy of the diaphragm causes, during ins[)iration, a depression ol|
the epigastrium and abdominal walls, while the thorax expands
usual.

Musdes of the Lower Extremities. — Electric excitation reveals the!
fact that flexion and extension of the foot cannot be produced by the]
flexor or extensor muscles alone, since these muscles tend to abdu
and adduct as well as flex and extend. The flexors and extens
cause direct flexion and extension only when they act in conjuQCtioiL|
with certain other muscles.

Tlie movements of the foot arc controlled by four sets of
These arc :

The tibialis anticus, which at the same time flexes and adducts th
foot — the flexor adductor muscle, the extensor digitorum conimun
longus and extensor hallucis, which flex and abduct the foot — tj
flexor abductor.

The gastrocnemius solius and tibialis posticus, which eztend

CHAPTER VIII.

ACTION OF ELECTRICITY ON INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES.

Contractions are produced in a voluntary mtisclc the instant
poles of a galvanic battery, or of an electromagnetic machine in
ation, are applied to it. The contraction of the muscle coni
during the passage of the faradic current, but when the galvanic *
is used quickly relaxes after the first shock. When, however, thi.
tines, the stomach, the oesophagus, and other parts which are coniposol
oi involuntary muscular fibre, are subjected to the electric current, mov^
ments are not induced in them until a certain time after the tissue has Ni»
acted upon. The movements thus excited eontinue for a time after ike ctS'
sation of the current, and do not, as in the case of voluntary muscles, ^
ance return to their normal condition.

Iris. — Faradization of the iris, with a \^ry gentle current in a room
that is moderately darkened, causes it to be constricted or dilated, ac-
cording to the position of the electrodes.

Stomach. — Faradization or galvanization of the stomach can-
dual shortening of the transverse and longitudinal fibres in lh<-
tion from the cardiac to the pyloric orifice. Dr. Rockwell, in die V^^
ment of paralysis of the oesophagus associated with a sort of atony "
the stomach, has frequently had occasion to observe the readines* i^''^
which this phenomenon is demonstrated in the living man by appl*^
tions directly to the mucous surfaces of the parts.

Intestines.— It finely pointed electrodes or needles, connected .itb^
with a faradic or galvanic ajiparatus, be applied to the intestine ^
a living or recently killed animal, steady and firm contraction tak**
place at the points where the electrodes are applied. Under *
mild current the contraction is slow, steady, and gradual. The into
tines are <lrawn up after the manner of a woman's work-bag. Thii
contraction, though most marked just at the point where the needles
touch the intestines, is also observed a little distance between
the outer side of the needles. Under strong currents this con>:
takes place very rapidly, and goes on until the calibre of the intestinci

INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES.

171

Wy closed. When the electrodes are removed this constriction
y disappears. These phenomena are seen both in the large and
i intestines and in the rectum. The duodenum responds most read-
^ rectum and colon less so. These phenomena are more or les£
■d by the condition of the animal, whether living or dead, and
wr recently or long killed. This fact of electro-physiology, which
9cen frequently demonstrated on animals, is very suggestive in a
point of view. The value of electricity in constipation is, in
f these observations, partially explained.

V. — When the spleen of certain animals, living or recently killed,
\ dog, is submitted to the action of a tolerably strong current,
adic or galvanic, a visible drawing and Qontraciion ihrough-
; entire extent of the organ, not only where the electrodes are
9, but between them and beyond them, in every direction, there is
fcst shnnking of the tissues, with change of color. This fact, which
■p disputed by some physiologists, we have demonstrated in a vari>
ff experiments. The phenomenon is not so noticeable in the
tt of the rabbit as in that of a dog, and in order that it may
■ftpidly and be easily seen, the current used nmst be of consider-
ftengtb. The shortening and discoloration of the spleen under
lation appears to be more or less permanent. This physio-
tt] fact suggests tlie query, whether the enlarged spleen of inter*
'tkver might not be treated by electricity.
l/^^^ — When the filled or emptied bladder of a living or recently
animal is acted on by either current, of moderate strength, a
Rawing and contraction lake place in various directions. The
conies firmer and harder, the cavity diminishes, and if it con«
[ine a portion of it is expelled. This electro-physiological fact

in cases of paresis and i>aralysis of the bladder.
.f, — The uterus of animals and of the human being contracts
; manner of the intestines, bladder, and other involuntary muscles.
lever pole is used, or in whatever direction the current be applied,
Ition takes place whenever the current is ai>plied, whether the
> or is not in a gravid condition. Both faradization and galvani-
ave this slow contracting influence on the uterus.

chapter on Diseases of Women, the very interesting and im-
practical applications of this physiological fact will be pointed
IdctaiL It applies especially to the electrical treatment of me-
i uterine engorgements.

rx. — The ureters are constricted and shortened by electrization,
the case of the uterus, the intestines, and the spleen, the con-

172

ELECTRO-PHVSIOLOGY.

tractions take place, according to the law of tlieir physiological actiotL
from the kidneys toward the bladder, and the contractions continue and
the electrodes are removed.

Fas Dejerens^ Epididymus., and Tunica Vaginalis. — ^When the eleanf
current is applied to the vas deferens, the epididymus, or the saoflnn
they likewise contract after the manner of the intestines, uteras, indll
forth. The scrotum contracts rapidly, almost instantaneously, und«f •
strong current, and remains contracted for some time, as we hut
demonstrated on rabbits and dogs, and on the living human being.

Gall-bladder. — When a current of considerable strength is api'!:eUK>
the gall-bladder by pointed electrodes, constriction takes place aJ tk
points of application, and the whole bladder tends to contract, ta4
like the urinary bladder, to discharge its contents. It is not imposs2fc
that a powerful current sent through the liver of the livin^^
by external applications, may cause contraction of the galib.^.
and in this way we may in part explain the value of electrical treat
ment in jaundice.

(Esophagus. — in rodents the oesophagus consists of striped
only ; in birds it consists of unstriped muscle, and in man of a
bination of both striped and unstriped muscle. Both sets of
longitudinal and circular, contract under the current, not only at tt
points where the electrodes are applied, but through the whole leag*
downward toward the stoinach. In the treatment of dysphagia il*
fact may well be considered,

Iliart. — The effect of electrization of the pneuniogastric and ofte
nerves that supply the heart has already been considered. The clFcrf
of direct electrization of the tissue of the heart itself is not witbo^
interest. Galvanization, witli currents of moderate strength
heart of an animal that has stopped beating, may cause a retui
rhythmical action. It has been sometimes observed that the contofr
lions return more vigorously in the right than in the left side. Accoi-
ing to our observation, In the hearts of dogs and rabbits much depeiA
on the strength of the current used. If a strong current were dircdJ
through pointed electrodes to the substance of a heart of :• '''■**
animal, the pulsations are in part arrested, but they recur a--
this current is broken. These conclusions are based on a large nui
of observations. When the heart has fully stopped it may be re
by a weak current, and again arrested by a strong current.

Bhwd-vessels. — The stnall arteries that contain considerable n '
muscle contract under the current, after tlie manner of the intL
that is, the contraction does not appear instantaneously, but a

;S— EXPERIME>

after the needles are applied it goes on slowly, and after the

»»jecdk's are removed they gradually return to their normal condition. In
the larger arteries this contraction is not so marked.
It will be observed that electricity acts on unstriped muscular fibre,
in this respect at least, very much like ergot. The power of ergot to
constringe the blood-vessels is the explanation of its great value as a
remedy in sjnnal and cerebral congestion. The efficacy of electri;cation
in the same affections, as well as in sprains and various local inflamma-
tions, may be in part ex]>Iained by the same theory. This subject will
t>e discussed in the chapters devoted to the Influence of Electricity on
Nutrition and Spinal Congestion.

The above conclusions are based largely on our own experiments,

* although many of the observations had been previously made by various
j>hysiologists.
There were, however, certain queries in regard to the differential
station of the poles, and of the two currents, and of weak and strong,
On involuntary muscle, that had not been answered. These queries
jave aimed to solve by a large number of experiments on animals.
le records of one set of these experiments, noted at the time by our
friend Dr. John Van Bibber, of Baltimore, are herewith presented. It
be observed that the chemical and other effects of the current,
ides the contracting influence, are noted.
JExpcrimcnt i. — The abdominal cavity of a good-sized rabbit was
^apenedf and a medium faradic current, with needle electrodes, was
applied to the upper part of the small intestines. Contraction produced
%3iost vigorous at the jjositive. A vermicular motion was also observed not
anly in the part within the circuit, but extending some distance beyond
pole. The rabbit was fully under ether, and the only other mus-
cular movements were cardiac and respiratory. The color of intes-
jcs was normal and healthy, and was undisturbed during this operation.
\£xp€rimfnt 2. — A galvanic current, sixteen cells, was now applied,
needle electrodes, a little below point of first experiment. There
^was an immediate change in the circulation of the part. It became
^:3arker and venous in its appearance, presenting the appearance of a
ioL The intestines, before so flaccid as to render the insertion of a
eedle difficult, became very full and hard. The negative pole was
in the tissues, with bubbles of hydrogen generated around it, and,
the other hand, the positive pole became very firm in its insertion,
rith evident constriction of muscular fibre around it.
The first effect, therefore, seemed to be congestion, and afterward,
jlatioii.

174

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Experiment 3. — On stomach, with galvanic current, slxte<
In region of positive pole the circular fibres arc much contrac
the same disintegrating effects of negative pole were observed.

BxperimeHt 4. — Faradic current on large intestine. Contra
muscular fibres was observed, and thought to be greater at
pole.

Experiment 5. — Faradic current on spleen. The snoooth sv
that organ was soon corrugated, tending to show that the tissi
contracting under its influence.

Experiment 6. — Galvanic current on spleen. Generation
gen at negative pole, also congested appearance, and after r
needle very dark spot at negative pole.

Experiment 7. — Faradic current on bladder. The bladder
tially filled with urine, and when the current was applied ll
great and immediate contraction of muscular fibres and expu
urine.

Experiment 8. — On left kidney, faradic current. Muse
tracted, and seemed to be permanently so, at least during obs<

Right kidney, galvanic current. Same effect at negative p<
congested spot ; but daring passage of current the bladder, w
been much contracted by faradic current, seemed to fill up.

Experiment 9. — On liver. No action. The rabbit seemed
remarkable vitality, and it was necessary to renew ether very fr<
It was determined then that the electricity seemed to prolong I
after it had been so taxed by anatomical mtitiladon.

The conclusions from a large variety of experiments, of w
above is a fair illustration, are these :

I. Both currents— faradic and galvanic — cause an unstripei
to contract in accordance with the law of its physiological ac
remains contracted, and after the breaking of the current |
returns to its normal condition.

a. The time when the contraction begins, and the vigor wi
it continues, and the rapidity with which it returns to its norm
tion, after the breaking of the current, varies with the organ i
with Ihe strength of the current, and with the condition of Ih
acted on, whether living, dying, recently or long dead.

3. The positive pole has a more powerful contracting infli
unstriped muscles than the negative. The differential actic
poles is seen in both currents, but is more decided with the |
This fact we were, \ve believe, the first to discover. This fa
more pott*nt action of the positive pole on unstriped muscle i

INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES— EXPERIMENTS.

I7S

ble signification in the treatment of engorgements of the uterus,
Etc. It will be discussed in the chapter on Diseases of Women.

4. Unstriped muscles can also be made to contract by faradization
tf galvanization of the nerves and nerve-plexuses that supply them —
ndirect electrization.

5. The behavior of the different organs that are supplied with un-
biped muscles under electrization depends on the relative amount of
KBcle in their tissues. The intestines, the scrotum, contract rapidly

figorously ; the spleen and arteries less perceptibly and more slowly,
r liver and lungs do not apparently contract under either current,
electrolytic action of the current is observed in these organs, as
a tit other tissues.

6t The differential reaction of voluntary and involuntary muscle to
lunrent is mainly a matter of degree. Both kinds of muscle con-
V io accordance with the law of their physiological action, under
iD(l» currents, and both return to their normal condition ; but invohm-
toy muscle returns very slowly, while voluntary muscle returns rapidly;
lltoOst instantaneously. When voluntary nuiscles have become greatly
uluiusicd through fatigue or death, they behave very much like invol*
r muscles.

CHAPTER IX.

ACTION OF ELECTRICIXy ON THE BLOOD.

The action of the gahanic current on the blood is a 5ubje<
which we have given at different times considerable attention,
coagulates so quickly after leaving the living body, that the actii
electricity upon it can only be studied with satisfaction when the
trodes are placed withiu an artery or vein, or in a current of hi
it flows from the wounded blood-vessels before the process of
lion has set in. We have experimented on blood with tlie
vanic current in both ways.

When the needles connected with the poles of a galvanic battery
inserted into the feebly flowing blood of a wounded animal, el
sis at once takes place with differential polar action of a striking
acter. At the positive pole a small, firm, and dark clot forms,
adheres closely to the needle, especially if it be steel that is readily
dized. At the negative pole a larger, softer, lighter, yellowish
forms, with a mixture of foam or froth from the bubbles of hydrogi

If the current be strong, and the operation protracted, the posil
steel needle will become either destroyed by oxidization or
reduced in size.

From the above it will be seen that the action of electricity 00
blood is mainly, if not entirely, of a c/iemical character — in a
electrolysis^ or electro-chemical decomposition. Golubew and Bur^^*"
Sanderson have studied the effect of faradization on the blood-corpus*^^**
under the microscope, and RoUet and Neuman have studied the s^'^
under the influence of the galvanic current. It has been shown ^^
the red corpuscles of the blood are discolored by the alkalies of *°^
negative pole, and caused to shrink by the acids at the positive |.><''f
Under the discharges of the Leyden jar the red corpuscles change tl*^
shape and lose their color.

March 12th and 24th, 1871, Dr. Beard made, with Dr. E. L.
a number of experiments on dogs, in order to determine the di
tial action of the poles in producing a clot. One method

ACTION OF ELECTRICITY ON THE BLOOD. 1 7/

aling was to etherize the animal, open the abdomen tlirough
, altia, and expose the aorta, into which needles, insulated with
bber up near to ihcir points, and connected with both poles,
duced. In some cases the artery was constricted, in others
ITe condense the record of the experiments from the published
tnts of Dr. Keyes,* based mainly on notes made at the time
le physicians who co-operated with us.

tPERiMENT L — March 17th. A small dog was etherized, the
men laid open through the linca alba, and tlie aorta exposed,
live ajid negative needles, insulated (imperfectly) with hard rubber,
fctroduced into the aorta about one inch apart. Both needles
^f stec), gold plated at the points. The negative needle was acci-
Uly run through the artery, and emerged into the muscle beneath,
current from sixteen cells of a Stohrer's battery was passed for ten
The artery was not compressed. Blood dowcd tliruugh it at

y. — Bloody foam surrounded the negative needle, the blood
^g from the artery. Needle loose. It dropped out, the blood

ve needle adherent to artery, requiring a little force to pull it

[ Artery was cut, before the needle was removed, to look for

•lo clot discovered in the vessel. A Uttle black material was

dhereni to the wall of the artery, and to the positive needle at

K)int o^ entrance. The lining membrane of the artery was altered

ered, wherever either needle had touched it, over a space
uid a half line in diameter.
ENT IV. — Medium-siied dog etherized. Positive needle
^. insulated with hard nibber, was placed in the artery. Nega-
j^edle (platinum), insulated with shellac, in muscles near the spine.
H|b cells Stohrer. Time, ten minutes. Current of blood about
Sroonhs, arrested through the arter)-, by compression with thumb
fingers, one inch above and below the needle.
fsuit — Firm black clot outside of the vessel at point of the en-
» of needle, and where the opposite wall was touched by the
jc's point. Inside — fimi, black clot, adherent to the wall, but not
augh to obliterate the vessel,

membrane of artery blue-black, and coats of vessel adherent

densed at point of entrance of needles, and where opposite wall

touched. Needle not much acted upon. A little flake of

I Electro-Therapettlics, New York MedicAl yattrnal, December, 1871,
fa

178

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

bard nibber came r ff, and was left attached to the clot. A few bub
of oxygen escaped from the vessel alongside the needle.

Experiment VI L — Positive needle gold, non-insulated. Ne
needle steel, non-insulated. Both in vessel. Sixteen cells,
ten minutes.

JifSttU. — Clot same at the positive pole as in Experiment IV., 1
action on lining membrane was much less than in that exp
Ga.s escaped at negative needle. No clot at negative needle,
compressed only below, circulation arrested.

E.KPKR1.MENT XI. — Renal artery of dog was cut, and blood allow
flow into peritoneal cavity. As it flowed, negative and positive sU
non insulated needles, connected with eighteen cells, were dipped ^j
it. Action commenced at once. A dark, clot formed about posi
needle, and a light foam around negative. At the end of one miajj
at the positive needle, a black clot had formed, a quarter of an in
diameter, dense enough to be lifted out of the fluid on the point of ^
needle, and to sustain its own weight. At negative needle there '
64)umous yellow mass, which could be lifted in part from the blood |
the needle's point, but which had no consistence whatever.

The cxiieriments were cojitinued with Dr. Keyes, at the slaiij
House, tile needles being placed in the wanii blood, as it flowed i
the arteries of dying animals. These experiments were jwrfon
under great difficukies, and at some risk of being kicked by the cxpifl
bullocks, and did not therefore lead to any important results.

lUood coagulates so quickly after it leaves the body that when]
w»vh tvi ik-terniine the chemical action of the electric current on it,i
«ece4s;iry to introduce the needles into the vessels of the living anin
CW i«\to the blood, just as it is flowing from the vessels.

Dining the winter of 1875 Dr. Beard made, with the assistance of I
J 11, Raymond, similar experiments on dogs and rabbits. The animi
W*MC ctheri/cd, cut open, and the needles (platinum) inserted in^*
<hll«rtnt arteries and veins. In some cases also the arteries were n»^
lUH'd, 4ud the needles were introduced into the pool of blood befonfi
kukd (Mue to coagulate. V

'l^p coiU*lu»ions in regard to the electro-coagulability of the blood#
V)> Whu h wc have been led by these repeated experiments on animil*
A4Ul un Uieu iire Uiese :

I. \\\A\\ pole« of the galvanic current cause a clot in blood, cither
lttiuUnj{ \\\ AW artery or vein, or freshly drawn, and stationary.

*. Iho positive clot is black, hard, and small ; the negative
b IXfMi «oi(« and bulky.

CHAPTER X

ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVITY OF THE HUMAN BODY.

The chief constituent in the human body is water, which is aboul
three-fourths of its average weight.* The saline constituents which dje
water holds in solution vary in quantity and quality in the different
tissues and the different parts and organs of the body.

The conductibility of the body, as a whole, may be best und^r r -l
by regarding it as a mass of water and saline ingredients, wiih ^ 1
tissue interspersed. The degree of resistance to the current that difa^
ent [larts of the body offer will therefore depend on dieir sinic:iin
Those parts which, like the bones and epidermis, contain little « u:^',
will offer a much greater resistance, and be poorer conductors, fhia
those parts which, like the muscles, nerves and tendons, and
lages, contain a large percentage of water. Soft parts, like the >i
intestines, and mucous membranes in general, offer compannwiT
little resistance, because they contain so large a percentage of saliar
solutions. Saline solutions conduct better than simple water, ioi
warm saline solutions conduct better than those which are cold.

The human body, as a whole, conducts electricity fifteen to tVB^ti
times better than pure cold water, provided the skin is thoroughly row**
ened. It owes this superior conductibility to the warm saline ^
which it contains. According to recent experiments by Ricr
the blood is the best conducting material of the body.

Percentage of Water in the Tissues. — To ascertain the relai
portion of water in the different tissues of the body is a suliji
has occupied a number of observers. The results of the different inrt*-
ligations do not agree mathematically, for the reason, partly, that \^
viduals differ in the water-holding capacity of their tissues^ as in J
other respects.

The following table f gives at a glance the results of the difftre**
investigators r

• Pcrcira, Food and Diet, Am. ed., p. 39,

f Ziemssen, Die Electricitdt in der Median, vicrtc gam umgeaLfbeitcte Kd^
Ersle Halftc, p. 18. 1872.

PERCENTAGE OF WATER IS THE TISSUES OF THE HUMAN BODY.

Cray matla of the braia,
Vfhitt •♦ •• '• " .
Oraiy matter of spinal cord
"White " " •* "
^erve nutter

80. 5
(E. Bischoflf)

85.0
(Lassaig)

730
(Lassaig)

7t.o
(Li Herit)

65.0
(Von Bibn)

77.0
(Ranke)

Muscle 81.2-84.8

(Ranke)
Liver

£Iastic tisBoe

! cornea . .
skin.. ...
Udtrhaut

Bones — oa parietAl

76.1

(Von Bibra)

70.4

(Schulcze)

80.9

(Ranke)

75.8

(His)

SIS' 791

(WicnboU) (Ranke)

14-16 l8-2Q

(Friedleben) (Friedleben)

An examination of the above table shows dearly these two facts :

1. The percentage of water in the different tissues of the human
K>dy, excepting tlie skin and bones, is almost unifortn — ranging be-
tween 70 and 90. The percentage of water in the skin is almost two-
thirds as great as in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. In the bones
the percentage of water is one-fifth that of the soft tissues.

2. There appears to be more water in the tissues of new-born chil-
dren than in adults. The difference, however, is but trifling.

Investigations of a similar character have been made on the tissues of
;cn, dogs, frogs, cats, hares, and rabbits ; the results do not differ mate-
rially from those obtained on the tissues of human beings.

Compared with a number of metallic substances, the human body
an exceedingly poor conductor. Thus it has been estuiiated that
copper is several thousand million times a better conductor than the
human body.

Dr. C. B. Radcliffe made three experiments, in which he measured the
resistance of nerve, tendon, and muscle, as nearly of the same shape
mnd size as possible. The pieces were taken from the sciatic nerve,
the tendo-Achillis, and the adductor longus of a recently killed rabbit-
He fotmd the mean resistance of one inch of the sciatic nerve to be

l82

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

40,000 units (see p. 77) — that is, about eight times the reststaxicej
Atlantic cable ; of the tendon, 38,000 units; and of the muscle, ;
units.*

Bones and Skin poor Conductors, — It should never be forgotten .
the epidermis, in a dry state, is a poor conductor. In practic
resistance of the epidermis is overcome by thoroughly inoisteny
The hair and nails are also poor conductojs. In making applicatifl^
the top of the head it is necessary to thoroughly moisten the hair,
bones contain less water than the soft parts, and are consequently |
conductors. Soft parts which are thus enclosed in a bony cover^
less powerfully affected than soft parts which are not so enclosed j

The Current tends to take the shortest Way bettceen the Electro
The electric current always takes the shortest and most direct oounr]
from one pole to the other, provided the media intervening bet
electrodes is of a uniform conductibility. When, therefore, th^
electrode is applied to one part of the body, and the negative t(^
other, the current would diffuse itself uniformly between the
provided the structures of the body between tliem were uniform,
as has been seen, the different parts of the body vary widely in \
to their conductibility, — those which contain a large quantity of 1
solutions being good conductors, and, vice versA^ those which i
a small quantity being poor conductors, — the difference of conduci
between muscle and bone being nearly twenty to one.

The current does not affect all parts alike. The extent to wliic
part is directly reached, wben the current is applied over the si
will depend both on its structure and its situation.

Soft parts, which contain a large amount of water, like the
spinal cord, and abdominal viscera, are good conductors, and
their situation is unfavorable, they are directly and powerfally \
by the current, when applied to the surface by means of moist 1
ors. On the other hand, bone, which contains a much less |)crc
of water than the muscles and soft parts, is comparatively a po ^ rv fl
ductor. Accordingly, soft parts which arc partially or entirely ei
by bone are much less readily affected by external application^
would be the case if they were exposed.

Another legitimate inference from (he accepted theories of the i
of electricity, and from what we know of the relative conductiviifl
the different tissues of the body is, that when electrodes are pliCfllf
the surface of the body the current moves between them in a kiaii

• Dynamics 9/ Nerw and MuHltf p. 19,

I ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVITY OF THE HUMAN BODY.

183

lative or wave-like manner, extending on both sides of the median
>etween them for a considerable distance.

lal these theories, in regard to the electro-conductivity of the body,
ound, is proved in three ways :
Ry experiment on the living subject.

By direct experiment with the galvanoscopic frog and reflecting
inometer on the dead subject
By the evidence of pathological cases.

lat the tendency of electricity is to take the shortest road between
lectrodes, is proved by the following experiment : The two fore-
are crossed so that they touch each other a little distance above
"•rist. Placing now one electrode on the outer surface of each arm,
etting the galvanic current nm, a feeling of heat and pricking is
ipt only beneath the electrodes, but also, to a less degree, at the
mur/af^s of the forearms where they touch each other. On reraov-
Se electrodes it is observed that not only the spots beneath the
todes, but also the spots where the arms touched, have become
cned.

Jis shows that a portion of the current takes the shortest way from
flcctrode to the other, although that road lies tlirough two layers
''dermis, which is a very bad conductor.

HjTtion of the current, in this experiment, goes up the arm, across
kiy, and down the other arm.

der to ascertain what proportion of the current took the route

the arms, Zicmssen* made the following experiment: Putting

eamj over the other, as in Erb's experiment, he placed between

plates of zinc, connected with a delicate reflecting galvanom-

f Electro-Physics, page 47). The result of the experiment, when

Bents were directed across the arms, was a deflection of the
&'36.3°. The same arrangement made on the dead body gave,
o elements, a deflection of 8.5° ; with 15 elements, a deflection of
■ -with 20 elements, 28.2**. On separating the forearm, so that
nolc current must run around through the arms and body, he

that with 10 elements there was a deflection of 15.9"; with 15
?nts, a deflection of 31.7* ; with 20 elements, a deflection of 48.5°.
Conclusion was that in each experiment one-half of the current
across through the forearms, and the other half up and down the
and through the body.

of Pathological Cases. — ^When the spinal cord is in a condi*

• Op. dt., p. J2.

1 84

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY,

don of health, a powerful current may be applied down the back \
out discomfort ; but in cases of myelitis, spinal congestion, and od
morbid states, very marked and peculiar symptoms are sometimes <
served. We have seen a case of myelitis when even a very mild i
current over the spine, near the supposed seat of the disease, caui
severe pain in the right leg that continued for several hours. SudkJ
phenomenon is never observed in health. The fact that it does (
especially when the electrodes are not placed near any prorain
nerves, shows very clearly that the current affects the spinal cord it]
more direct way than by mere reflex action.

The sensations of the patient, and the results of treatment, also !
that the stomach, liver, spleen, intestines, and the genital orgins j
both sexes, are traversed by the current in external applications of i
current.

Experiments on Dead Subject with a Fro^ Preparation. — Erb op
the skull of a dead body, took out the brain, and covered the i
side of the skull with pieces of muscle about three quarters of |
inch thick. Over the muscle pieces of skin were placed, and "
the skin the electrodes. The skull was then filled with the brain«J
such a way as to avoid any direct connection with the muscle,
skull was thoroughly dried, and a prepared frog placed on tlie cerd
nutter. A very gentle current was then let on, and both on open
and closing the frog contracted energetically, showing that a portion^
the eleclricity at least passed through the brain. Branch currents may"
also have gone around through the layer of muscular tissue ; but ibc
important points that some of the electricity took the short way direct
through the skull and brain, was in this experiment conclusively shown.

The same experiment wJtli the faradic current showed the sanM

rettiU.

Similar experiments on the spinal cord showed that the current pcne-
tv«teil the vcrtcbne as readily as through tlie skull

A<tuitl Experiment 7cnth a Reflecting Galvanometer. — The evidences
alivmly given are sufficient, with corroboration, to establish the fact,
that ihe electricity, when applied to the surface of the body, goes
ihuumh ihc tissues lying between the electrodes, and that all the in-
Iciual or|;ai»s may be thus acted on by the current. The mathcmaticaJ
lIvCttiMUllAtionft of this fact that have been recently made by Burchardt);
iod tftrr him by Zicmssen, are, however, none the less interesting.
J^m^nS uulhod of investigation was to insert two platinum needles,
III their points, into the organ to be experimented on, as thfl

t4,nu, »^>u.»l 4:ord, sympathetic, lungs, liver, etc., and connect them with

1 86

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

No. of dements.

Needles in posterior

poles in direct line

of current.

Needles in anterior
poles out of
direct line.

Ncedl

tubei

qaadnn

1-5"

o.6»

2.1"

1-7'*

a.1

3-S
4J

In the above observation, which may be regarded as a crucial
convincing one, these three points are distinctly proved :

J^irsfy That the current passes from one electrode to the
through bone and biain.

Second^ That most of the derived currents take the direct route tl
axis between the electrodes, and that the strength of the derived
the conductivity of the parts being the same, diminishes in pi
to their distances from the axis.

Third, That the tubercula quadrigemina, by virtue of their
structure, conduct electricity better than the after parts of the

Fourth, That the strength of the currents sent through the
proportioned with considerable exactness to the strength of the
emjiloyed in the application.

The laws of conductivity of the body, as here demonstrated ti
brain, have also been similarly demonstrated in the spinal cord
all the organs of the thorax and abdomen.

The grand conclusion from all these experiments, and from
experience, is that the ehctro-conductivlty of the human body is
explained, mainly, by the ordinary physical laws of eUciro-condk
and only to a very limited extent by physiology.

Physiology and pathology inay come in to modify, to a slight e;
the conductivity of the body ; for, as we have seen, individuals dil
their conductivity. Increase in the quantity of blood or salts in the
increases the conductivity, and diminutioit of blood or of the
takes place in some diseases, diminishes the conductivity. But
these varying factors have caused only a very slight perturbation of ib^
[>hysical laws of electro-conductivity.

There is some difference in the conductivity of the living and dc*
body, but this dift'erence can mostly be explained by /^jx/Vrt/ principle
It may well be questioned whether the principle of life, whatever thi
may be, exerts any very important influence on electro-conductivii
Burchardt found that when more saline solutions were injected into
dead body the electro conductivity was increased. This is just

'RO-CONDUCTIVITY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 18/

ect on physical principles, because warm saline solutions
uctors of electricity in the body or out of it.
o Ranke, living muscle conducts much worse than dead
roportion being as loo to 56. Living muscle conducts
imes, and dead muscle 64,400,000 times worse than
d muscle conducts better than living, on account of the

and chemical changes that take place after death, and
iccount of the accumulation of lactic acid.
luctivity modified by Age and Temperament. — ^Young peo-
tx resistance than old people, for the probable reason that
he old contain more of the salts than those of the young.

those who labor with muscle, and whose epidermis is
ned, offer greater resistance than the hands of those who
alone. The right hand, being more used than the left,
jpidermis, and therefore presents a greater resistance,
dividuals of the same age and condition differ in their
n a manner that cannot be fully explained. When
a battery, or faradic machine, or Leyden jar are sent
nber of persons in a row, some will feel it slightly, others
perhaps one or more may be almost if not quite pros-
fact may explain some of the freaks of lightning, for it
known that when a number of persons are standing near
may be struck down and others unharmed. Some Indians
t is said, can take hold of the electric eel without receiving

ndividual may conduct differently at different times. As
(erpetually changing, as it varies in its intimate constitu-
from year to year, but from day to day, and from moment
is easy to understand why it should vary in its suscep-
tricity, just as it varies in its susceptibility to the articles
od, to stimulants and narcotics, and to internal medi-

CHAPTER XI.

THE EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON NDTI mON.

It is not a little surprising that electricity should have been i
a therapeutic agent for more than a century before it ^' ^ -^ '
recognized among scientific men as a powerful means of
tion. In 1867, after a scries of preliminary experiments, nuu^i
ducted by Dr. Rockwell, we ascertained that electTization wasi;
of most remarkable efficacy ; that its permanent tonic cficcts wfl
deed, far more wonderful, as well as more valuable, than itsM
stimulating effects. When we announced this discovery to S
fession, in our Treatise on the Medical Use of Electricityj the 5Ut«
was received by many, and especially by those accastoraed M
familiar with other electro-ph3'siological and electro- therapcu
searches, with incredulity and surprise.

The attention of observers has been so exclusively dire
primary stinnilaiing effects of electricity, that they have ne
pursue the subject further, and to study its permanent effects on nai

The effects of the passage of electricity through the body >
fourfold character :

1. Afechanica!

2. Physical.

3. Chemical.

4. Phpiologieal.
Inasmuch as the effect of electricity on nutrition is a

all these four orders of effects, it is necessary to speak of|
some detail.

The mechanical^ physical^ and chemical effects of electric
body are similar in character to the same effects of clectricitj
substance whatever ; the physiological effects are those
place in virtue of the vital properties of the tissues. The 1
effects of electricity on the body are most markedly apprcciAt<
the faradic current. The reason is clear from the nature of tli
current. It is a current of alternation, of to-and-fro motio
Want closing and breaking (see Electro-Physics, p. 64).

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITV ON NUTRITION.

189

rough the body, even when it produces no muscular contrac-
ts very much in the same way as gentle tapping, or pound*
bbing on tlie tissues ; and lliis gives passive exercises to all
ir lying as well as the superficial tissues. We may believe
bnoiccules of the tissues are agitated by the passage of the
s the particles of a bar of iron are moved by the influence of
Ltion (see p. 9), or as bodies are expanded by heat. The
branch currents going to and fro act as so many shuttlecocks,
fcry atom in incessant disturbance. That the simple process
on the surface of the bod>-, by means of the vibratiotts that
has a positively beneficial effect in certain chronic affec-
long been recognized. It is reasonable to suppose that this
effect is in part due to the increase of endosmotic action.
U Effects. — The physical effects of the passage of electricity
ic body are heat, and the modification of endosmose and exoS'
the iransferrence oi substances from one pole to the other.
t excited in the body by the simple pas.sagc of a weak cur-
causes no muscular contraction, is small ; but there is little
hat heat is thus excited, although it is difficult or impossible
re it by the thermometer. The main arguments in favor of
are (1), that all conductors of electricity become heated
less in proportion to their resistance — the body offers great
and more or less of the electric force must be converted
; aod (2), powerful currents, either galvanic or faradic,
not used so as to excite n)uscular contractions, cause in-
heai in the track of its passage, so marked as to be easily
>y the touch. No thermometer is necessary to show that in
operations, where strong currents are used, the tissues near
ies, and between them, become intensely heated, so that to
Dger on them almost causes pain. This fact we have demon-
"fer and over again in various parts of the body. It is equally
the faradic current, even when not very powerful, raises tlie
ire of the parts through which it passes. The sensation of
,t and palpation by the operator demonstrate this beyond
!old extremities are warmed sensibly and quite rapidly by
)D or galvanization, even when no sensible muscular contrac-
>roduccdby the current. It is logical to infer that very weak
ither faradic or galvanic, cause a slight increase of heat by
the passage of the current, and as a physical effect of such
ithout reference to the physiological phenomenon that must
ly the physical phenomena, which must probably also cause

190

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

a rise of the temperature. Schiff declares, as a result of his
lions, that a nerve is warmed by an almost momentary passage
car rent

A second important physical effect of the passage of an eled
rent through the body is the transference of substances from
to the other. This physical effect of the current has long been
nized. In the electric light, for example, the particles of cai
from the positive to the negative pole, and to so marked a dcgi
the positive carbon is quite rapidly worn away. A very real
illustration of this transference of matter in the track of clectrid
times occurs in lightning stroke. Trustworthy cases are repo
individuals who have been found struck dead by lightning, and
on their bodies distinct images or impressions of some object, as
or house, near which they stood when they fell.

In 1864, at Nibelle, in France, three men who were galherin(
were struck by lightning. One was killed at once. The othi
thrown to the ground unconscious, and one of these, when taken
was found to have on his breast a "distinct daguerreotype of the

In i860 a woman of Sisonne, in France, who was struck by lig
carried on her back a complete image of a tree^trunk, branch(
leaves— that was near the place where she fell. A similar ca
conlcd by Franklin.*

The explanation of all these cases is the same. The partidi
tree, reduced to great fineness by the electricity, arc mechanical!
ported and burned in the skin. The process is therefore not d
Uit mechanical and thermic.

Ilodics have been literally tattooed in this way. Transference
stances is a part and result of the electrolysis in organic sub
already described (Electro-Physics, p. 58), and also of the cl©
of organic bodies to be hereafter described.

The electric currents also exercise a positive and very intere!

iluence over cndosmose. By the passage of a galvanic current thfl

rootic phenomena may be both siinnilated or reversed. This it

in the following experiment of Dutrochet : A tube containin

is closed at one of its ends by animal membrane and di(

a vessel containing common water. By the ordinary operation

)t^ of endosmosis the gum-water rises in the tube on account

of soniC of the ordinary water through the membr

*«-4WWli!h«oitHJ.by M. Dr. Fcdet (Clermont Ferrand), Cati/U

192

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY,

tinned. On this subject we shall speak in more detail in thes
Electro-Therapeutics.

Chemical Effects. — The chemical effects of the current are OTiiJ
an elcctrolylic character. They consist of an eleciro-cliemjcai ctiul
tion of tlie fluids of which the body is composed. The geucfj)^
and phenomena of electrolysis in its relation to inorganic sah
have aheady been set forth in the chapter on that subject in
Physics. It remains for us here to speak of electrolysis, in i« 1
tion to organic life. At the outset we may remark that there i^
e/idence that organization^ as such, seriously modifies electron
decomposition. The fluids of the body decompose undLTthein
of the current, just as the same combination of fluids with tissue'
decompose if not endowed Nvith life. If the results of the elei
of the dead body are different from the results of the elcctwlTS
the living body, it is because of the cliemical changes that lake j
the body after life has departed.

The human body is composed of fourteen different chemicjll
stances, many of which are singly capable of decomposing un
current, and in their various combinations are capable of many^
positions and recompositions, with secondary results tliat cannoli
estimated.

The general facts of the electrolysis of inorganic substanc
pearance of oxygen and acids at the positive pole, and by
alkalies at the negative pole, apply also to the electrolysis of I
body. The great law aiTived at by Faraday, that in
substances are decomposed in equivalent proportions (see
Physics, p. 54), also finds no exception or interference ifl
structures.

Somt of the Phenomena of Electrolysis of Living and Dead \
In order to determine the electrolytic effect of the current on organil
stances we have made a wide variety of experiments on both liVJi^
dead tissues, fluid and solid, in a normal as well as pathologicili
tion, on animals and men. Wc have tried the galvanic current (
voluntary and involuntary iiiusclcs ; on the mucous and scrott>I
branes ; on brain, spinal, and nerve matter; on the lungs, the I
liver, spleen, stomach, intestines, bladder, uterus ; on the salivas
urine ; on the cartilage and on bones. The general concla
whi;h we have arrived from these experiments are these :

i. All these animal tissues, living or dead, decompose, so for I
be seen, like inorganic substances, and by uniform laws.

2. The fact most patent to superficial observation is that the 1

194

EI.ECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

EUctrolysis of the Aqueous and Vitreous Humors of the Eye.—\
plalinum needles connected with a galvanic current are inserted I
the aqueous and vitreous humors of the eye of a dead or dying i
rapid eltrctrolysis takes place at both poles, with evolution of ga
albuminous envelopes. A cloud resembling cataract is speedily fo
over the inipil, and in a few moments, if the current be of
strength, the covering of the eye will be ruptured, with a violent (
of albumen-envelo[ied gases. This process, which Dr. Beard )us i
quentiy studied in the eyes of rabbits and dogs, is similar to that y
takes place in the electrolysis of hydrocele and of certain cystic I

EUctrolysis of Beef. — It is possible to gain a measurably correct l|
of what changes take place during and after electrolysis of the
body, in health or disease, by studying the phenomena titat
during electrolysis of dead tissue. If a piece of beefsteak, for i
be subjected to the action of the galvanic current by needles conno
with the positive and negative poles, a process somewhat resea
frying can be distinctly seen and heard and felt ; more specifi
bubbles of hydrogen appear at the negative pole, and a kind of hisi
sound is heard, even when the ear is at some little distance, and a]
five sensation of heat is felt when the tinger is pressed over the |
that is being electrolyzed. Under the microscope this process (
more closely studied. Chemical examination sliows that o\
and albumen go to the positive pole, while hydrogen, .
coloring matter go to the negative, and the action at the negative |
is much greater than at the positive. Under this process the beef]
comes gradually dried and changed in color, owing to the disapiici
of the watery constituents and the other electrolytic action;
proportion as ihc beef grows drier and the fibres begin to lose their J
herence and fall apart, the electrolytic process becomes less and^^
active, because there is less fluid on which to act.

For some hours after the needles are removed, the process of (
and disintegration and decoloration goes on, until the portion thu|
between and near the poles shrivels, contracts, and crumbles un^
resembles the burnt corners of a jiicce of roast beef.

Electrolysis of Fruits and Vegetables. — We have experimented (
variety of fruits and vegetables — as oranges, lemons, apples,
peachcii, jxit.itoes, turnips, etc. The effects of the electrolytic
M they appear to the eye and the car, though consistent with the
general laws of electrolysis of inorganic substances, yet are more orJ
mcuUftcd by the varieties oX structure. When a sound apple is dc
ly«eit, tho p&rt around the negative needle changes in color and 1

t96

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

There are in general /«?«r ways in which electricity applied .0 dlt|
sues modifies their physiological functions :—

X. It may increase them.

2. It may diminish them.

3. It may arrest them.

4. It may modify their quality.

Some of the more important illustrations of their effects hi»e(
already discussed.

We have seen that electricity, according to the kind that 1$ em|>l
and according to the method and strength and length of the :
tion, causes various phenomena on the skin, contracts votuntiryl
involuntary muscles when applied either to the muscles tlicmselirt
to the nerves that supply them, and increases the process of oxid
and raises the temperature, excites the nerves of common ami '.
sense so as to cause pain, (lashes before the eyes, noises in thccirvl
a peculiar taste and odor. When applied to the pneumo
increases, diminishes, or arrests the action of the heart.

It remains here to speak of the following physiological effects of I
tricity : —

1. On the circulation.

2. On secretion and excretion.

3. On absorption.

The effect of electricity on the circulation is somewh.it cotnjil*
includes the effect on the heart and on the unstriped musculirfib
the arteries, as well as on the central and peripheral nervous sw
general, since the flow of blood in the arteries, veins, and cap
influenced by the quality and quantity of innervation that thcyi
We have to sjieak merely of the direct effect of electricity
lary circulation. It has been shown already that eleclrii
cervical sym|)athetic may have the directly opposite effect of <
or dilating the vessels of the retina. That the same opp
may follow electrization of any part or organ, depending
perament of the ])atient, the quality of current, and the Ir
strength of the application, is also demonstrable. One effect i
fitant under all conditions, and that is, that the circulation is j
in one or the other, or in both ways. The average ultima
to increase the Jfaicf of blood, raise the temperature^ and diloi
Dilatation of the veins, after prolonged electrization, ts a
that can be demonstrated widi ease on any part of the bod/ \

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON NUTRITION.

197

are prominent. The back of the hand is the best place to study
►hcnomenon, and faradization illustrates it most distinctly,
is enlargement of the veins is accompanied by a rise in tempera-
;hat is appreciated by the subject, and if the muscles have been
l^ht into vigorous contraction, by the thermometer, as we have al-
jtapen {p. ). Under general faradization the hands and feet be-
Plftrmer during the sitting, and may remain warmer for hours. Cen-
galvanization, or galvanization of the cervical sympathetic, also
\s the peri]>hery.

p Secrftion and Excretion. — The secreting power of the secreting
IS of the body is very markedly influenced by electrization. The
yjfiect is to increase their activity ; but when very mild currents
Hit such effect is not always observed, and it is probable, from our
TTTJcnts, that very strong currents may produce a reverse effect
I the lachrymal glands the action of the current is not so easily
b, because strong currents are not well borne on the face or head,
he glands themselves are not directly accessible. It is difficult to
■e whether the flow of tears that accompanies strong electrization

^face is the result of the mechanical irritation or the physio-
ction of the current on the lachrynial glands or the nerves that
y them.

le secretion in mtuous membranes is quickly increased by cleciriza-
ttLcan be demonstrated most easily on the Schneiderian membrane
Bns of metallic electrodes introduced in the nasal passages.
Set becomes of practical importance in the treatment of the so-
I "dry catarrh," and also in exhausting diseases, associated with
!ss of the mucous membranes.

I the salivary secretion the effect of the current is very easy of de-
Uation. That application of the current, both galvanic and faradic,
Bease the secretion of the salivary glands, is very easily demon-
^ We have shown this at various times during the past five years,
tiizing or faradizing the tragus of the ear, with either pole, or against
nembrana tympani. This effect is due to the excitation of the
b^ynipani nerve» some of the fibres of which go to the submaxillary
■^ This increase of saliva is sometimes so great that, while the
HU flowing, continual swallowing is necessary.
Hisitive persons the same effect follows, by reflex action, electri-
I in almost any part of the neck or face. In certain pathological
, as Addison's disease, Dr. Rockwell* has found the annoying dry-

liese results are aMuded to in the recent edition of Dr. FUnt's work on the
jM of Medicine.

198

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

ness of the mouth greatly relieved by electmariou, and in paiholi
cases of the severe character, as in diabetes, when the salivary t
may be greatly increased, we have found central galvaniz
diminish the secretion quite rapidly.

On the biliary secretion the action of the current is less easy of i
niatical demonstration. The results of external electiiration in]
logical cases seem to prove that the quantity of the bile may be incrcaidi
Whether this increase is due to the action of the current on llic so^
stance of the liver, or the nerves that supply it, wc are not ab
state.

The secretion o{ gastric juice, and of the intestinal fiuid, is in all i
ability increased by external electiiiation. Analogy would shovr theic.
fluids ought to be secreted in greater abundance under the influence ^
the current, and the results of treatment in pathological cases
probability something of the force of certainly. Api)etite is si.
digestion is quickened, and constipation relieved, both by local and I
general electrical treatment, so rapidly and so decidedly as to make!
pretty evident that the gastric and intestinal fluids are made to !
more liberally by the action of the current on the nerves that
these organs than on the tissues of the organs themselves.

An excellent means of studying the variations in the nutrition ii
found in the elimination of the urine. This is believeil to be a rc«lt
of oxidation processes that may take place either in the kidneys or in
the tissues, or in both.

Legros and Onimus have studied the effects of electrization (
epine on the elimination of urine.

Their conclusions, derived from more than 250 analyses, 1
the urine of rabbits and of iheniselves, are these : —

I. Interrupted currents diminish the quantity of urine and of a

a. Centrifugal galvanic currents increase the quantity of llie '
and diminish that of the urea.

3. That continuous centripetal currents increase the quantity di\
without increasing the quantity of urine.

On the urinary secretion the effect of electrization can be
strated in pathological cases without difficulty. In cases of diab«W^
insipidus and mellitus, local and general treatment may cause great «■
niinution in the discharge, while in dropsy and in rheumatism wc h»»^
known the kidneys to be stimulated as much as by jwwerful diureticSiJ

On the average man in health there is considerable difficulty in dd
mating a moderate increase of the urinar}' secretion under clcctlill
tion, for the sufficiently apparent reason that the quantity of \

200

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

have seen individuals -whom a few minutes of general faradization
feeble currents brought out large drops of sweat on the forehead,
made the hands as moist as though they had been dli>pe<l in waicr.

On Absorption. — 'I'he action of electricity on the absorbents is btt
studied in pathological cases, such as hypertrophies, effusions,
morbid growths.

In thickening of the skin that appears in some cutaneous affection
in corneal opacities, in enlarged jointSi in pleuritic effusions, in hydro*
cele, in dropsy of various parts, in passive oedema, and in enlarged
glands, in tumors of nearly every variety, can be demonstrated the powei'
of electricity to i)roduce absorption. Reasoning backward from path*
logy to i^hysiology, we justly infer that the same effect takes place, more
or less, in all applications of electricity to the body, but that the dcgrrt
of it is modified by the condition of the part to which the applicjUiflB
is made. The effect on secretion is apparent at once to the eye or tbt
sensation ; the effect of absorption is apparent only to the eye, lad
then only when there is a visible excess of fluid or solid in the part 10
whidi the application is made. This part of our subject will be pnfr
tically illustrated in various chapters both in Medical and Surgicd
Electricity.

Effects of Electricity produced by Reflex as wetl as by Direct AdtM.
—The reflex effects of electricity seem not to have been fully rv '

by electro-therapeutists. There is considerable difficulty in ast'
the precise reflex effects of electricity on animals. The effects as WJ
show themselves on man are largely sensory, not motor ; the siimuUr
tion of the circulation of absorption and of secretion that might iM
probably does take place, reflexly as well as directly, is too niinutCW
be readily observed. We are justified in believing that electricity »c<*
in absorption, secretion, and exertion by reflex as well as by direct acti«V
from the fact that in irritable constitutions sensory effects on tli
tion and on circulation, of a marked character, are produced b)
irritation- Thus, for example, when the hands or the feet arc Invent
by strong currents^ either continuously or in sudden shocks, pain *>*
disagreeable sensations may be fell in the liands and feet, of the oppo-
site side, or in the back, or stomach, or side. These reflex effects a^
not constant, and when we look for them we may not find them. TbeJ
can be best studied in persons who are susceptible to electricity, f^
whose spinal cords are weak and irritable. In some pathological caSC*
also, such as chronic myelitis of the anterior column (anterior spin*-
sclerosis), the reflex action of electricity is illustrated with great dil^
tinctne5& Localized faradization, or galvanization of the lower limfal

202

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Iirough those parts where the optic nerves originate, and also I
ss through the labyrinth and act directly on the auditory nerve. J
In reference to the reflex effects of electricity tliese two con
tions are of importance : —

1. The galvanic currents operate much more powerfully by !
action than the faradic. The partial explanation of this fact whid
offer is that the greater chemical power of the galvanic current, i
its acting always in one direction, causes it to operate more di*
on the nerves than the faradic current. This fact of the superior l
capacity of the galvanic current is one of high practical import I
treatment of disease, and explains in part, if not entirely, the dang
or at least unpleasant, effects that sometimes follow careless orig
galvanization in cerebral hemorrhages and other irritable conditio
tlie central nervous system.

Althaus has recorded a case of aniesthesia of the fifth pair of (
nerves of a most profound character, in which there wus a con
absence of cerebral symptoms — dizziness, flashes of light, anJ galVI
taste — whenever a galvanic current of twenty cells was ap[>Iicd 1*1
face. A current from thirty cells, which on a person in hcahhi
cause powerful flashes, a hissing sound in the ears, feeling of heal,
perhaps [)ers[>iration, caused in this patient only a slight sensatif
giddiness and metallic taste and phos[)horic odor.

This remarkable case is a strong argument in favor of the opbl
that the results of electrization of the head and the results of cx0
ments like those of Ivrb are due in part, if not entirely, to reflex ;

It is possible that in the above case the portion of the brain '
the optic nerve originates was also diseased so as to render it i
to electric excitation.

2. These rctlex effects occur in all the applications of decc
either form, and complicate the direct effects. The physiological]
therapeutical effects o( electrization of the brain, the eye, the ea
cervical symj>aihetic, the spine, the trunk, and the periphery, ti
where are a complex resultant of both direct and reflex electrical
tion. Localized electrization, strictly speaking, is an impossibility, bc^
ever closely together the electrodes may be placed, and however (^
tant from the great nerve tracts and nerve centres the spinal ctird m«^
take cognizance of the impression m.idc by the current on the sen
nerves, anil other parts and organs must share in the effects, fa
ter or for worse. It is for this reason that caution is requisite ev
fwadizutg the [laralyzed muscles in recent hemiplegias ajid in activ
elitit.

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON NUTRITION,

203

► very remarkable results that follow general firaduation — a
i to be subsequently described — are to be accounted for in part
ex actions, which are continually taking place during all stages of
;>Ucation.

tuai Appluailan of these Physiological Principles to Electro^
lutics, — With the above facts and reasonings before us we are
to intelligently appreciate tlie effect of electricity on nutrition.
not profcsi to have exhausted the rationale of the complex action
icily on the tissues, but to have indicated the leading ]jnnciplc8
iftue of which it affects tlie nutrition of the animal body. Many dis-
1 may yet be in store for us in this department ; it may e shown
Dne is generated in the tissues with e\try passage of the current,
; this ozone is taken into the circulation ; the subtle and intri-
emislry of electrolysis of living tissues in their secondary and
, as well as their primary changes, may be unfolded to the vision
future, and what we now see in a glass darkly posterity may
face to face ; but sufficient is known to explain in a most in-
^ing way the unrivalled effect of electricity on the nutrition.

objection sometimes brought ajjainst electricity is that we do not
ind its action ; and yet in Uie whole round of stimulating tojiics
but few whose action can be so well explained as that
icity. Who knows how arsenic feeds tlic nervous system or
jnine breaks an attack of chills and fever ? Why does oxide of
with magic force in chronic alcoholism ? How does opium
me sleep and relieve pain; and who has entered into the niyste-
of anieslhesia ?

tiimal nutrition is a process of enormous complications, There is
jle chemical change at which one can point and declare that
plains the growth and sustenance of tlie body ; but there are
an<l numberless jjhenomcna every moment going on in the
issues, and as a result of all these, in their infinite play and com-
tion, the body lives, moves, and has its being. Electricity in pass-
ihrough the body modifies many or all of these processes, and thus
ifies nutrition. As a resultant of the complex physical, chemical,
physiological action of electricity on the tissues, there is increased
nf and growth-

fntal and Clinical Proofs of the Effect of Electricity on Nutri-
— ^We have studied the effect of electricity in great detail on animals
on man. On animals our experiments have been contined to the
:ts of general faradization ; on n\M\ we have studied tl»e effects of
, localixed and general treatment.

204 ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Of a litter of four puppies, Dr. Beard submitted two to gencrall
dizalion every other day, for eight minutes each, and two were
treated, all having an ecjual chance at their mother's breast and no
besides. All the puppies were carefully weighed at the beginning!
at the end of the treatment, which lasted for four weeks. It was I
that both of the pups that had been electrized weighed more
puppies that had not been electrized ; all had, of course, incrca
weight, but of those electrized one had increased y<7//r ounces !
other ten ounces more than his fellows that had not been clecO
The difference of size in favor of the puppies that were electiiecdl
so marked and so easy to see, ihat without great difficulty one who!
never seen them succeeded in picking out, from ocular inspcctioili j
those that had been treated, and that too in the evening, and in \ 1
gas-light It was observed during the treatment that the puppies \
were electrized became ravenous, and sucked with greater energy (
their less-favored companions.

The method of treating the pups, we may remark, was to put I
on a sheet of co)jper, while the hand of the operator or a
electrode was rubbed all over the surface of the body, previously i
ened.

The details of the experiments, prepared by our assistant, Df. J*j
Sterling, who made the applications, are as follows •

July I, 1871. — Weight of 4 pups, lo days old r

2 black pups (weiglit each) i lb. 6 oz.

2 yflU>w pups, weight of one. . , i lb. 3+ or. ; other, t lb. a| <

July, I, 1S71. — CoTomenced geaeral faradization, each application about 8 1
Applied It to oae of tbe black pups, weight 1 lb. 6 oz., and the lightest of I
low pups, weight i lb. z\ oz.

CofUiuued the applications four weeks, making three each week.
July aS, 1871.— Wcigticd the pups after twelve applications.

t black pup (general faradiralion) 3 Ite^ 7 oc^

1 black pup (no faradization) a *' 13 *'

I yellow pup (general faradization) 3 " o '*

I yellow pup (no faradization) 2 " jj •*

I
Making a dear gain for the eltctriud pup (black) of 10 ot, for the yellow decuM
pup, 4 oz. JH

This we believe, was the first comparative experiment of this kW
made with the faradic current. Subsequently, Dr. Beard repeated
experiment on a litter of three rabbits. Two were faradized every ol]
day ; to the other no treatment was given. At the end of six '

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON NUTRITION.

205

treated wus visibly larger ihan cither of those that were treated-
ilained this unexpected result by the theory that the current had
used too strong and too long for the young and delicate animals.
t exjieriment was carried on while we were in the country, and the
■ils were intrusted to those who were utterly incompetent for their
1«8. The directions given were to ])ul the feet of the rabbits in a
\Ti of tepid water, and after well moistening the back of the neck to
the current tl»ro«gh for ten minutes; on account of the non con-
%'ity of the dry hair of the rabbit, general faradization was almost
ible.

egros and Oninius electiized with the galvanic current some pup-
for a quarter of an hour every day, by placing one of the fore-paws
one of the hinder paws in tepid water connected with the elec-
s. At the end of six weeks those that had been eleclriied weighed
than the same lot that had not been electrized ; and this dit^'cr-
was perceptible to simple ins])ection ; one was galvanized with the
iding, and the other with the descending current.

cflfect of faradization on nutrition is powerfully illustrated by

tperience of those who habitually or frequently apply general fara-

through their own persons, taking an electrode in one hand,

plying the other to the body of the patient. In this method the

t passes through both arms, and vigorously contracts the muscles.

LC permanent effects of the current on the person of the operator

To cause very marked and sometimes rapid growth of the muscles
arms.
le explanation of this phenomenon is sufficiently easy. The mus-
contractions that are produced by the current in its passage
igh the arras cause increase of the local processes of waste and
ir, and accordingly the muscles increase in size, just as they natu-
do under the influence of any other form of active or passive exer
?. This mechanical explanation would be of itself sufficient, but, in
ition, it is entirely probable that the electric current exercises a
ct and specific influence on the nerve-branches, which effect is ex
by the increased size and vigor of the muscles through which
nerves ramify.

^3r. Rockwell, during his first experimental attempts in the Ireatmenl
disease by general electrization, observed a decided increase in the
clopment of the muscles of the arm. It began to force itself on his
smion a few weeks after he commenced to give special attention to
^ral electrization, and at the present time it is fully as marked as

2o6

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

ever. Both arms of each one of us have not only increased i
size by actual measurement, but also correspondingly in
hardness. This effect is obsei-ved in the arm and forearm, buti
decidedly in the muscles which, from their position or nen'c iii^
contract most readily and vigorously when the current passes 1
hand to hand, such as the deltoid, brachialis amicus, bicejw, .
flexors and extensors of the forearm. This same effect has beeo do
to a greater or less degree, by our students, and, so far as wf [
been able to ascertain, by others, who have employed electricirj" li
their own persons for any considerable period. This developrocnl c
arms seems to progress up to a certain limit, at which it reniaiitt

2. A very gradual but decided ionic injluence on the systm.

This effect is so exceedingly slight, that in a very hardy and t
person it would not be recognized. That the current, in poising I
hand to hand, so frequently and so long, should, in the course of «
mildly affect the general system, is entirely probable. Like tmt
muscular exercise of the arms — gymnastics and the use of thcJ
its influence, so far as it goes, must be positively touiug and
to the constitution.

Still further, there is no doubt that even the faradic current, i
diflfused and weakened as it must be when it reaches the neck^
shoulders, nffects iiii a very gentle manner, and to a limited cictctitJ
portion of the sympathethic and central nervous s^'stem through '
it must pass.

On infants we have used the same treatment that appeared to ^
successful on the puppies, and with satisfactory results. An opport
for a comparison of the nutrition of faradized and non-faradiied id
has never been presented to us, and on account of the rarity oft
and twins, we fear that it would be difficult to find such an opuori
But infants who are in a condition more or less pathological,
''Icbilitatcd and marasmic, appreciate the tonic effects of gencrtll
dization so markedly as to nurse with greater liveliness and '
grow apparently with greater rapidity than when electricity is not!

The practical application of these physiological truths will apix
the section on Electro-Therapeutics, and especially ia the use of j
fa»adi2ation, and in diseases of children.

208

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Baxt have estimated that m the hjman subject the rate of ihf
force, in motor nerves, is £ni€ hundred and eleven fitt per stiM.

Hirsh anc'i Schelske have shown that the rate of condiiciiou ii
nerves is ahiiost tJie same as in motor nerves — thai is, not far
hundred feet per second; and for the present we must accept
an approximately correct estimate of the rapidity of oer\'Oos con(
in motor and sensory nerves in the human subject.

Further than this, endeavors have been made by Helniln '
Donders, and others, to ascertain the time required for the ixr
to generate the operations within the brain and spinal cord ;
n>ates that have been made in this direction are merely appro]
and may be radically revised by future invesiigators. Dondci
tained, by experiments on himself, tliat the act of volition
^ of a second, and the act of receiving and appreciating any distiotfi
pression about ^ of a second. The general estimate is that in the
acts of the spinal cord the conduction is twelve times slcwtr
the transmission of impressions through the nerves, it hasalw
estimated that the brain is about ^ of a second in distingutjihinj
signalling the difference between two colors, and about the same
distinguishing between the two vowels as they are uttered. As coi
with light and electricity, nervous force is exceedingly slow.

It has been ascertained, furthermore, that the velocity oi m;
contraction is about -^^ that of nervous force in the nerves.

The velocity of nerve transmission is considerably modified by
ature. Observations made in the summer give different rcsiilfi
observations made in the winter, and s];ow very clearly that hight
pcrature accelerates, and low temperature retards, the velocity of
nervous force. By the observations of Helmholtz the teinperaniit
the frog has a very great influence over the rapidity with which ni
force is tran*^milted. At 32*' it moves not more than -j^ as rajridljr
a temperature of 60" or jo*'.

It has also been establislied that different parts of tlie UTjnk<
nerve conduct with different degrees of rai)idity.

It has also been noticed by Marey that the rate of Iran;
is somewhat reduced by fatigue of the muscles.

The velocity of the nervous force is still further lessoned by
action of the curare poison, or by disease, — such, for example, as
tenor spinal sclerosis.

This argument from the greater speed of electricity is to be qtUiS
by the coDsidcratiou that the velocity is not absolute, but relative,

? C&rretaiion of the Physical and VlU
Iricity and magnetism to life may perhaps be explained by
)f the Correlation and Conservation of Forces. May not
intain a number of distinct forces — electricitj', magnetism,
HjJTvous force, or life? If light, and heat, and motion, and
Btnutually convertible, may not the nervous force also be
Hth electricity and magnetism? It is certainly probable
rapeutic results of electrization are partly due to the increase
^force by the molecular changes produced by the action of
^kthe tissues.

Hr/riVy in the Body, — The subject of free electricity in the
L various times attracted the attention of observers. Hera-

tjardini, in 1793, made a large number of experiments
ascertain the general electrical condition of the human
jir conclusions were that there is electricity in the body,
positive, sometimes negative — that it was variously modified
06 of health and disease. In 2,422 trials on hiuiself, Hem-
a positive charge 1,252 times, a negative 771 times, and
399 times. He concluded that the natural electricity of the
ositivc ; that this was modified by physical or mental exer-
ten, in 1800, Ahrens and Pfaff, in 1812, and Nasse, in 1834,
1 the same subject, and concluded that free electricity was
fest in the enthusiastic and excitable than the cold and
, that it was greatest in the evening, that it was increased
Its, and diminished by cold. Ahrens and Pfaff stated that
ity of the body disappeared during attacks of rheumatism,
ared on recovery. Nasse found positive electricity in every

210

ELECTRO-PHYSIOI OGY.

[jetism is not demonstrated by any known fads. The cxce
mysterious and suggestive character of the phenomena, which i
to be connected with some unknown force in the body, has in
spirit o( inquiry, which, in lieu of positive knowledge, has been (
to content itself with speculations. The most noteworthy '
this subject is that of Reichenbach,* in which the author accoufl
the strange phenomena attributed to animal magnetism by the4
ence o( odylUc (all-penetrating) force^ which he claims to havcl
discovered.

The excitement produced on the first publication of the work I
now died away, and the science is now waiting for more accurate!
vcstigations to provide suitable data before attempting any fui
speculations on this dark and difficult question.

Electricity in Plants and Fruits. — Electrical currents have Uco
found in pears, api>les, peaches, and plums. It has been asccrtuiucd
by Donne and Du Bois-Reymond that in apples and pears the <
flow from the peduncle to die bud, but in fruits with stones, as |
*4>ricolji, and plums, from the bud to the peduncle. When the ;

Vd in a line at nght angles with the long axis, and tlie juH
; ,^.:. o.'cd out of the two halves in vessels connected with a galvano
tw, then, on completing the circuit, the current is observed.

It i* claimed that the roots and all parts of the interior of pU
(Ucd with sap are negative, while the humid or moistened interior (
^ green twigs, leaves, flowers, and fruit, are positive. £xperif)
IfUQMtly made show that in lemons, turnips, gooseberries, and
tidl in r:»w potatoes^ the current is from the centre to the skin.

■ > Ihirdon-Sanderson has recently made experiments on pla
« •• vr-ztncd to show that they possess definite currents of electric

\ .alidity and value of all these experiments in animal and vc
a icity much doubt is thrown by the researches of Trowbrid
> rtcorded.

\ctricityon the Growth of Plants. — The influence of eh
growth of plants has recently been studied by Mr. H-
of Norwich, England. On a plate of glass three toe
^«V^ Mrips of sheet-tin are laid, so as to ahnost touch in 1
s^ thU glfts^ ^>^(^ o^cr t^c tin strips, is spread a piece of (
^ fttin water. On its dampened surface, cress-seeds

' Rtiearchts on iht Dynamicx of Mugnetism^ .

ELECTRICITY OF PLANTS. 2U

dy strewed. The tin plates are connected with the poles of a weak
inic battery ; the result is that one half of the felt is charged with
nve and the other half with negative electricity. At the side of
plate is a second plate, which has connection with the battery, and
1 which the seeds grow, subjected to no artificial conditions. After
days the seeds on the opposite side of the first piece of felting gave
B of germination, and the hulls were shrivelling up and becoming
k. On the negative side of the felting the seeds were swollen, and
hulls, which retained their natural color, were beginning to burst.
he end of six days the first shoots made their appearance. Several
. later the first shoots appeared upon the second plate. A strange
.t of this trial was, thit while on the negative pole, where there was
y sign of stronger development, the root-sprout sank downward into
moist felting, the roots from the positive side rose upward firom the
kened and dried-up seeds.

iCTROTHERAPEUTICS.

CHAPTER I,

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

Electro-Therapeutics is the science that treats of the study of
city in its relation to disease.

It includes both Electro-Medicine and Electro-Surgery, or
are itiore commonly termed, Medical and Surgical Electricity.
Medical Ekclricity axe mcXyx^Gd Elcctro-Diagnosisy or Electro-Pai
as it is sometimes termed, and Electro-Therapeutical Anatomy.

The earliest history of electro-therapeutics, as of many other
meats of medicine, is shrouded in obscurity. It dates back to a
cal and legendary age, before mankind had been trained to ha
scientific criticism, while yet history was a mass of traditions, and
was a substitute for truth.

It is said that centuries ago the negresses of West Africa were
toined to dip their sick children in water where lay the electric fish
the torpedo. The remedial powers of electricity were also referrei
Pliny and Dioscorides. Scribonius Largus, a physician of the
Tiberius, was accustomed to prescribe the same remedy in tii<
mentofgout. As long ago as the days of Pliny, necklaces of
were worn by women and cliildren for the sake of tlicir supposed
dial powers.

The mysterious power of the magnet was known to the ancient'
but we have no reason to believe that it was ever extensively re
to by them for the cure of disease. In Europe, during the iniddlf
the loadstone was used in the treatment of disease, and althoi
iuccesses were trilling it aroused the professional attention and r^
extravagant praise from the distinguished Paracelsus. About th
die of the eighteenth century, Maximilian Hehl, of Vienna, and <
excited a new and more successful interest in the use of magnel
disease by the manufacture and employment of artificial magnets

The real history of electrotherapeutics may be divided into
eras : the Era of FranUinic Electricity, including the early and
experiments with the frictional machines and the Leyden jar ; t]|

2l6

ERA OF FRANKLINIZAFION,

of the right arm, resulting from injury, by electric sparks- The
was brought about in two or three months, and may perhaps
garded as the first decided and unquestioned result of the kind ll)
obtained in the early days of electro- therapeutics.

1750 Nebel showed that contraction of the muscular tissue wis;
duced by electrization.

Bohadtch, of Bohemia, also recommended electricity,
the treatment of hemiplegia.

In 1753 Lindhult, a Swedish physician, reported a cure of
by electricity.

In 1754 Sulzer made his famous experiment on the tongue with:
and copper jjlates. (See Electro-Physiolog)). He did not, h<
pursue his experiments, and it was reserved for Galvani and Vol
discover galvanism.

In 1755 De Haen reported a large number of electrical
paralysis, spasmodic ajid other ner\'Ous aflfeciions, and also of soj
sion of the menses, and St. Guy's dance. About this lime,
Schaeffer and Nebel published cures of rheumatism, toothache,
chondria, paralysis of the optic nerve, and of intermittent fcvcf
neuralgic pains. Between 1750 and 1757, cures of paralysis wrte!
ported by Brjdone, Bertholon, Sauvages of Montpelier, and SprjTt'
latter of whom cured a case of lockjaw and paralysis.

The position that electro-therapeutics held at that time, 8od
hopes that were entertained of it, is ver>' well represented in a
treatise by the eminent divine, Rev, John Wesley, entitled, The
eratum ; or. Electricity Made Plain and Useful, by a Lover of Afa
and of Common Sense. \ 759.*

In this treatise the author anticipates, in a sort of theoretical
ver) much that has since been demonstrated, both in electro-physics 1
electrotherapeutics, and with surprising accuracy. In the preface'
acknowledges his indebtedness " to Mr. Franklin for the syeculati'fC
part, and to Mr. Lovett for the practical." He also mentions as authofr
ties, Dr. Haadley, Mr. Wilson, Watson, Freke, Martin, Watkins, W^
the Monthly Mai^asine, whence we may conclude that even at thit
early day the subject was exciting much interest, but more among ih*
laity than in the profession.

From the tone of the book it is clear that die Faculty, as Wc^
calls the profession^ were disposed to despise clectro-therapctttifl

* This treatise hai been recently repobllsbed by BoiUiire, Tladall & Cox. Looitf^
S871.

HISTORY

ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

its claims, as they have been ever since, until within a few
msequently they suffered what was realJy valuable in inedi-
inopoliied by the laity.

pf Mr. Wcdcy, as the world knows, was of the practical
lis treatise he does not suffer himself to be carried away
fperbole or serious untruth. He expressly disclaims any
ding electricity as a panacea, but says what we now know

t it is indicated in a wide range of disorders ; but that if

should ever become a panacea, electricit)- stood the best
ing that agent.

gnorant of Franklin's invention of lightning-rods, in 1775,
lat bu ildings and ships might be saved from the effects of

upright rods of iron, made sharp as needles and gilded to
Ig," and connected with the earth. He further suggests,

m lights are of electrical origin.

following h'st of diseases in which electricity is of service,

of illustrative cases, most of which are very imperfectly
will be observed that most of these diseases are still treat-
\ and with greater or less success. It seeras from the list
itraent of diseases of the skin by electricity is simply
[ipt to effect what was accomplished with success more
y ago.

nclusions of Wesley and his contemporaries were, hovr-
on experiments made y,iih franklinic electricity. The
irait fort}'-one years for the Voltaic pile, and seventy-two
iday to discover induction.

Anthonj-'s Fire ; Blindness, even from a Gutta Serena ; Blood Extra-
ocele; Chlorosis; Coldness in the Feet ; Consumption ; Contraction
, Deafness ; Dropsy ; Epilepsy ; Feet violently disordered ;
nalis; Goat; Gravel; H cad -ache ; Hysterics; Inflamma-
iril ; Knots in the Flesh ; LAtneness ; Leprosy ; Mortification ; Pain
the Stomach; Palpitations of the Heart; Palsy; Pleurisy; Rheu-
; Sciatica ; Shingles ; Sprain ; Sore Feet ; Swellings of all
Toe hurt ; Tooth-ache ; Wen. "

son cured a case of general tetanus in a young girl of
.Although the fame of the cures wrought by electricity

rds of invalids, yet by the ignorant and superstitious it
d with witchcraft, and the aid of the priest was invokeiJ

from its baneful influence.*

fm Medical EUctridty^ Tktorttkist and Practieal By J. AJthaus,
384.

2l8

CRUDENESS OF THE EARLY EXPERIMENTS.

Abbd Sans published a work on the medical use of elcctridr
recorded important cures. According to this authority, there
seven different methods of employing static electricity — "an
bath, drawing sparks, by irroration, friction, insufflation, exhatistioiv^
commotion." Injurious and negative as well as favorable results!
sometimes reported. Thus Dr. Hart brought on paralysis in * ]
and Abb6 Madras excited epilepsy in one of his patients. Bcujj
Franklin failed to cure the invalids that flocked to him after his |
discovery, and Abbe NoUet, after many years' experience, was i
pelled to admit that he had seen but little permanent benefit f
electricity.

Symptoms only treated in these early Experiments. — In these (
and many of the later experiments, not disease, but the rcsalt8|
disease, were both studied and treated. W'hen electricity was applio
was to the symptoms and not to the pathological condition ; henoe.|
enormous blunders and frequent failures of the early clectro-thc
tists. The symptoms most treated, and in the treatment of which j
greatest hopes were entertained, were blindness, deafness, paraly
motion, symptoms which are now known to depend, in very manf
stances, on pathological states, which are in their ver)' nature as inc
as death itself. Still further, the apjjlications were made to the s
the symptoms exclusively, instead of to the seat of the disease, andi
mistake helped to swell the number of the failures.

Physiology and pathology had not yet reached that degree of sli
and breadth of soreness to furnish good foundation on which to
the science of electro-therapeutics, and withal the a|)pliances for \
rating electricity were bulky and untrustworthy.

Electrotherapeutics was therefore bailed in its first atteroptfll
growth, through lack of needful support from allied and fiind
sciences ; it must wait for physics, for physiolog)-, for pathology tO<
to its rescue, which in due time they have clone and arc now doing.

In 1773 and 1778 Maduyt presented memoirs ♦ f on the sul?
in which he affirmed in his report that electricity was a remedy off
and varied powers ; that it had a jjositive and very beneficial influ
over nutrition ; and that it equalized the circulation, materially \
tlie pulse, the perspiration, and the secretions ; and was sur

• Mem. sor les effets gencfraux, la nature et t'osoge du fluidc rflcctrlque ^
romme mpdicamcnt. Lu en dccembre, 1778, i la Soci^ti royalc de mcdccine.

f Mem. sur les differentes muni^rcs d'administrer rrfleclriciU>, et ol>servatio
les eJTets que ces divers moycns oot produha. La en dccembre, 1783. i^ U
nt)'a1e de tnrdeciac.

220

ERA OF GALVANIZATION.

In 1792, Behrend, Creve, and Klein suggested the use of gal»|
as a means of distinguishing real from apparent death. Tbe'J
attempts to make galvanism of practical service in the treatme
disease were made by Professor Loder, of Jena. The resulls
experiments were unsatisfactory.

In 1793 Hufeland and Reil advised the use of galv
paralysis.

In 1796 Pfafif advised the same remedy for amaiu-osis. No
these authorities spoke from much personal experience.*

In 1797, Alexander von Humboldt f suggested, on
grounds, the use of galvanism in paralysis, rheumatic pains, and |
eases of the eyes.

Valli actually restored to life, by galvanism, frogs and fowls
been nearly suffocated.^

The voltaic pile, invented in 1800, marked an era in the medic
of the galvanic current, because, with all its imperfections, it was 1
superior, for therapeutic purposes, to the metallic plates that hadj
viously been employed during the period which had elapsed sine
discover}' of Galvani. It was at once employed by I.oder, in Je
Grapengiesser,§ Bischoff, and Lichtensteinij in Berlin, and by
in Paris, chiefly in cases of paralysis.

In 1 80 1, Aiigustin, of Berlin, published a treatise on galva
which he reported results of treatment of paralysis by applyin
negative pole to the central end the nerve, and the jwsitivc
peripheral. Prof. Scliwab experimented with the voltaic pile in <
deaf-rautelsm. In 1802 Sigaud de la Fond published a work in 1
he recommended franklintc electricity for nearly every form of «
In 1804, Aldini, a pupil of Galvani, published a treatise on galvH
in which he theoretically recommended it for deafness, inaanit]f|J
amaurosis, and also to produce artiticial respiration. [[

Even during this era, and for many years after the invention (
voltaic pile, frankJinic electricity was still employed.

In 1817 Dr. Thomas Brown, of Albany, published a work entitki
" TAf Ethereal Physician" in which he recommended franklinic dccfc*]
city for paralysis, tic-douloureux, cpUep^, chorea, and in a lai]ge
of disorders.

• Tripier, op. dt., p. 26^

f Vctsuch iibcr die gerctzte Miiskel and Nervenfaser. Berlin, 1797.
X Experience sur le galvanistne, tradttit par Jadelot. Paris, 1799.
g Versucbe den Golvinifimas air Hetlung einiger Krankhciten
Berlin, tSoi, I Essal thtforique ct experimental sur le gilvaoisnie.

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

)r. Everett, of New York, published something on the use
y in medicine that was based on experience that he had de-
|k apparatus of Dr. Brown.

f all these endeavors on the part of scientific men to give
ind dignity to the cause of electro-therapeutics, it failed to

vagant expectations that had been formed of it ; a reaction
it fell into disrepute. Electricity had been tried for a
of diseases, but partly on account of the inconstancy of the
and partly through the ignorance of the operators, it was
& most uncertain remedy. It was confounded with mes-

:h at this period came into notoriety, and for a time it
te.

!/■ eariy Experiments made by the Laity. — It wiU be seen by
the above-mentioned names that the earliest experiments
crapeutics were made by the laity. A science that now
omc of the best brains of civilixation was bom among the

the lowly. It was cradled in ignorance and reared and
^ose who, however eminent in other walks, knew little or
iedicine. Chembts, physicists, priests and paupers, monks
Winks, were in the eighteenth century the leading authorities

apeutics. If there were those at this time who had faith
Ig of a better day, when electro-therapeutics should be a
md permanent part of the medical science, it was their mis-
ie without the sight. Not until the close of the eighteenth
fe the great discoveries of Galvani and Volta revealed to the

was to work and wait for at least half a century before it
iven the beginning of the fulfilment of its hopes. Some of

Knees, like some of the great religions, have had the huro-

•ly history of electro-physics, WheweUl • thus remarks : —
period a large and popular circle of spectators and ama-
icmselves nearly upon a level in the value of their trials
tions with the more profound thinkers ; at a later period,
tbject Is becoming a science, that is, a study in which all
far behind who do not come to it with disciplined, informed,
minds, the cultivators are far more few, and the share of
5 tumultuous and less loud Electricity, to be now studied
i be reasoned uix)n mathematically. "
fceweU here says of electro-physics may just as truly be
ctro-therapeutics,
ofj of the Inductive Scieaces, ad ed,, vol. ii, p. 200.

222

CHARACTER OF THE EARLY EXPERIMENTERS.

In the earlier experiments, the phflosopher and the fool were |
nearly on the same level in their knowledge of the applicaboncfl
subtle force to the treatment of diseases, with this advantage oadicfi
of tlie fool, that through the very excess of his ignorance he liwc^l
ventured where the philosopher knew just enough to fear to tread

It was, as we shall see, a long time before electro-therapeulicii
be gradually developed into a science of suflicient positivcnesstofl
mand llie attention of men of science for its own sake, and toexcdel
despair of the ignorant.

Here, as in all other reahns of investigation, the dcvelopractttisi
simplicity towards complexity, from generals to specials, andfroDC
ihjt are common to all classes, to truths that only a few spedil
thoroughly master. We are reminded here of the bcautifal I
of Thoreau. When reproached for his exclusiveness and love of s
he replied, *' It is not so much that I love to be alone, as that lli
soar, and the higher I ascend, the company grows thiimer aod tl
until at last I am left almost alone,"

Strikingly this principle has been illustrated even in the otoitii
history of electro-therapeutics, both in Europe and Amenca. Alj
now occupied by some of the ablest scientists of Gerniaru . En;!ifi4l
France, was formerly crowded with lawless intruders.

When we began to write on this subject in 1866, aude'il
quiries at once set in upon us, from all parts of the counti^.
authors of these letters, with some few exceptions, we have nevfll
but, judging from the style of composition and the character^
quiries, they were as a rule comparatively ignorant, and
the lower strata of the profession. Letters that we receive
cently during the past three years, evidently come from nunyrfl
best men in the profession. As the science develops, brains a^\
ture are attracted to it. In our large cities, those who arc sn
subject are among the most promising names in science.

In 1825, Sarlandi^re proposed the employment of
needles in galvanization, so that the current could be more i
and definitely localiised on the desired nerve or organ. This I
of treatment was called electro-puncture.* He used for this ]
franklinic electricity. Subsequently Magendie successfully exp
with galvano-puncture in neuralgia, paralysis, and other nervoai|
eases.

The discovery of electro -puncture was the beginning of ibei

• M^m. BUT r^lcctro-puncture. Paris, 18*5.

224

LOCALIZED FARADIZATION.

Even as early as 1843 locaXiieA faradisation was used in this (
side by side with general faradization, though, like the latter, it I
ceived no distinct nomenclature, and was indiscriminately rccon
and unscientifically applied.* The two methods, localized and gc
were frequently confounded, and both were known under the
term, " electrifying," Duchenne's earliest attempt to call the at(
of the profession to this subject is thus recorded in his own words]

" De I'art de limiter Texcitation 61ectrique dans les organe« I
piquer ni inciser la peau, nouvclle m6thode d' Electrisation appelfc^
trisaiion iocalisee, et donl les principes, r4sum€s dans une note ;
en 1847 & r Academic des Sciences, onl et6 developpes et publics ^
les archives gtnirales de Medicine en juillet et aout 1850, el fcv
mars 185 1." In 1855 he published his chief work, " De rElecti
Localis^e, et de son Application A la Physiologic, 4 la Pathologic, k
la Thcrapeutique,"

This work became known to the profession in Germany througil|
abridged translation of Dr. Erdmann,

The leading idt;a of the method of localized faradization of]
chenne was, that the current can be localized over a fixed point \
the skin if well-moistened conductors are strongly pressed upon thii

He observed — what is perfectly familiar to all experiuieoters in 1
tro-therapeulics — that when dry electrodes are applied to the dry 1
sparks with a crackling sound are produced, but no sens;Uion
muscular contraction. He observed that when the electrodes arej
moistened, contractions are excited in the muscles, with the j
of sensation.

He recommended three forms of electrodes — solid metallic
trodes, metallic brushes, and tlie hand.

On these observations and experiments Duchenne based a s
electro-therapeutics and electro-diagnosis which, as since refine
veloped, and modified by himself and by numerous other labor
various countries, has now grown into a permanent deparuoc
science.

Localized faradization was appreciated by electro-therapeutists 1
rapidly tlian some of the other methods of using electricity, as eU
lyzation, general faradization, galvano-cautery, and central i.
non, for the reason that it is the easiest learned of aU the mei.

• In Pike's Catalogue of Matliematical, Optical, and PliUosophScal Inslr
1848, there is a cut of the rxrodic apparatus that had been in ase for fivcyeuttl
these early expenrnenters. The sante wurk also contains a cut iliastmliag I' '
method jf localised faradixation of the leg.

226

LOCALIZED GALVANIZATION.

gant, but that both of ihein, by their experiments and labors, '
positive service to science, and made the way «asicr and safer i
who have since followed them in the depau'tment of localized <
tion.

Reraak, shortly before his deaths published a work entitled
cation du Courant constant au Traitement des Nexrcscs^* Paris, zM
which coLtained the leading ideas of his system, and has been the mesl
of stimulating many other experimenters in this difficult dcpajimcot

Remak did more than merely introduce the galvanic current la A
profession — he discovered and recommended special applicationt ^
the current, and suggested the Iheorj' of its catalytic action. HeU
the first to scientifically investigate localised galvanization of the ol
vical sympathetic, of the brain and spinal cord, and thereby gre*!
widened the sphere of electro-therapeutics. Although at drjl 1
theories were scouted^ and his statements discredited, yet
death they have, in the main, been strikingly confirmed, and
regarded as accepted facts in science.

Even during this last era, franklinic electricity has been]
means laid aside. In 1847, Dr. Golding Bird publishe
remarkable results obtained in the treatment of amenor
static electricity, in Guy's Hospital. He made use of a Lcyd
jar. Franklinic electricity has been successfully used by Drs. Gl
and Clement. It has, fur a number of years, been succcssW
emiiloyed by Dr. Radcliflfe and others, in the London Hospital for ij
Paralyijed and Epileptic. Quite recently Prof. Schwanda, of Vieail
has reported suggestive results from franklinic electricity generated]
Holtz's clectrophorus machine. Dr. Arthius, of Paris, has neccntly|
Lshed a work on the subject ; this has been translated by Dr. Let
of Chicago.

Within the past fifteen years localized faradization and gaU'a
has been developed and improved in France, in Germany, in
and America, by a number of abie and laborious men of
Among the voluminous authors in this department may be menlkj
the names of Meyer,* Becquerel,f Baierlacher.J Althaus,§ 'I'ripitfi

• Die Eleclricitat in ihrer Anwenduog auf praktische Medicin. Berlin, 1854'^
186S. Translalcci by Dr. Hammond.

f Trait6 des applications dc I'elcctricitrf & la TWrapculique. Paris, 1857.

% Die tnductions-Electricitat ia physiologisch-therapeutischer Betiebuni;. ))iij
oerg, 1 85 7.

g Treatise on Medical Electricity. London, 1859. Latest edition, 1S7
nuiism in Paralysis, Neuralgia, etc., 1866.

I Manuel d'Eleclrotbcrapie. Paris, i86t.

228

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

bled upon or discovered- In the history of therapeutics it
been the fortune of the ignorant and the lowly to hit by
some great fact for which the wisdom of the ages has sought
Says Dr. Stills, *' Nearly every medicine has become a popular
before being adopted or even tried by physiciaifs ; "* and
Pereira, nux vomica is one of the few remedies the discovery
is not the effect of mere chance, f

Impartial history must, we think, record that, before Dud
Remak were known on either side of the Atlantic, before
recent clcctro-thcrapeutists had commenced their professional lal
studies, there were in this land not a few empirics who, by
of general or localized faradization, or both combined, or by rai
various and inconsistent, and in spite of their own ignorance <
were achieving successes in the treatment of disease which, in
features, even the most advanced physicians of our day have
surpassed. If they did not belong to the chosen ranks of Che
sion, it is none the less true that the results which they secui
oftentimes such as the ablest leaders in science might well
If their methods were empirical, their empiricism was often jastificdl)
its success. If their nomenclature was imperfect and confuse^ i
their diagnosis erroneous, yet their confusion and errors were not a
tie redeemed by the skill with which they met emergencies when Cb
therapeutist was far more needed than the pathologist or the diagnoid
cian. T/tc great defect of these empirics was not in their results^
oftentimes ivere tritty remarkable^ but in the fact thai their p
ignorance^ and especially their ignorance of medicine^ rendered it i
sible for t/iem to discriminate in their cases or their methods^ or t9
ligently communicate their experience to others^ or in any way to
of permanent value to science. They treated all cases about al3t(|
without reference to the pathological condition, and in spite of all
successes frequently failed where, with better knowledge^ they
have succeeded.

In Europe, so far as we can ascertain from the published ^>
the subject, or from our own personal observation, the method v. ^
faradization^ as described in this work, has not been used or ri
mended, at least by men of science. In i85i»

• Thcrnpeutics, vol. i., p. 31, The same author stntes that ••byfcrl
greater number [of mctiicine^i] were first employed in countries which v
■re now in a stale of scientific ignortuicc."

+ Materia Medica, vol ii., p. 336. Hydrate of Chloral xaaj now be 1
this Ibt. X Etudes sur r£leciHctt& Taru^ tSs^i

230

CENTRAL GALVANIZATION

4th. To have discovered in our experiments witn this method, that
electrization was a tonic of great and varied efficacy, and therefore
indicated in a large range of conditions of debility, and to have forced
this fact on the professional mind until it has become widely accepted,
and has become the basis for the use of electricity in the treatment
of medical diseases.

The length of time required to make a thorough application of general
faradisation, and the amount of practice necessary to acquire skill and
facility in its employment, have interfered somewhat with its populariza-
tion among specialists in electro- therapeutics ; but in spite of these
difficulties the method is now used with tlie highest success by hundreds
of physicians, specialists and general practitioners, &c., and its popular-
ity is very rapidly increasing.

In Germany the method has been from the first received, in part
through the careful r6sum6 of Prof. Erb, of Heidelberg, with greater
interest and appreciation and with more favorable consideration than
in any other country, excepting perhaps the United States. Dr. R.
Vater, of the University of Prague, in his preface to the German
translation of the first edition of this work, has warmly recommended
the method, basing his recommendation on his own personal experience ;
and more recently, Benedict of Vienna, in the latest edition of his work,
has given the method intelligent and appreciative consideration.

History of Central Galvanization. — The method of central galvan-
ization, as has been described in our published papers (Electricity and
the Sphygmograph, N. Y. Medical Record^ December 15, 187 1 ; also,
Recent Researches in Electro-Therapeutics, October, 1872, by Dr.
Beard ; Central Galvanization, N. Y, Med, Journal^ May, 1872, by
Dr. Rockwell), consisted in placing the negative pole at the epigast-
rium^ while the positive was applied over certain portions of the heady
over the sympathetic and pneuttic gastric in the neck, and down the
whole length of the spine from the first to the last vertebra. At that
time we had used the method with the highest success, in hysteria, in-
sanity, neurasthenia, gastralgia, dyspepsia, and certain diseases of the
skin, and since that time this method has been extended to a wide
variety of affections. In some diseases it has supplemented, in others it
has supplanted, general faradization and galvanization of the cervical
sympathetic.

The full method of central galvanization, as it will be described in
this edition of the present treatise, was not stumbled upon by accident,
but is the result of a long period of experimenting. When we began to
use the galvanic current, we sometimes treated gastralgia and dyspcp

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-'* HERAPEtmCS,

231

sia by placing one pole, usually the negative, in the epigastric region,
and the positive on the nape of the neck at about tlie sixth cervical vcr^
tebra. Gradually we extended the domain of the application so as to
include the mastoid fossa and the anterior border of the sterno-cleido-
mastoid muscle, down' to the sternum on both sides. Afterwards wt
resolved to apply the positive electrode to llie forehead, still keeping
the negative on the epigastrium-

Inliuenced by the fact of observation, that the lop of the head be-
tween the cars was frequently tender and painful in hysteria and ncur»
asthenia, in bodi sexes, it occurred to us that this might be a good
place to plant the electrode so as to affect the brain. Another consid-
eration of practical moment was, that this place tn both sexes is quite
accessible, even with the present methods of arranging the hair. Look*
lag at the subject from the standpoint of anatomy, physiology, and
pathology, also, it was sufficiently clear that in galvanising the brain,
the object should be, not so much to affect the anterior lobes as the
base and posterior portion, where originates the great cranial nerves.
\Vc soon found by clinical observation, that little dizziness was caused
when the electrode was placed in this position, and that a stable current
of a number of cells could be borne without unpleasantness, and that
oftentimes a peculiar sensation was experienced, very different from the
stinging and pricking sensations that are felt when the electrode is
placed on the forehead- Last of all we extended the application, so as
to include the whole length of the spinal column, passing the electrode
beneath the clothes of the patient, loosened and pulled up for that pur-
pose. Since the first publication of this method of central galvaniza-
lion, we have modified it by changing the position of the negative pole,
up and down the breast and abdomen, so as to avoid over-irritating the
stomach.

Some of the processes of central galvanization had been used by
other physicians, long before w^e worked up the complete method as he
described. Dr. Althaus writes us, that several years since he had em-
ployed the first step in the process — one pole at the epigastrium and
the other at the back of the neck, but becoming alarmed by unpleasant
symptoms, had abandoned it ; and Dr. Meredith Clyroer, of this city,
informs us that during the past three or four years he has independently
used the processes of central galvanization with tonic results that have
been most pleasing.

The ill fortune of Dr. Althaus was due, we suspect, to the fact that
he used powerful or interrupted currents — a mistake that we repeatedly
made during our earlier experiments, a mistake that is frequently made
by those beginning any new method of electrization.

2S2

DEPENDENT ON OTHER SCIENCES.

The method of central galvanization is not yet as extensively i
general faradization, for the twofold reason that very many el<
therapeutists have no galvanic apparatus, and the full descriptioa <
method has been only a short time before the profession.

In reviewing the above history of electro-therapeutics and o
ing it with the history of electro-physics and electro-physiology, «t
are impressed with several important lessons. These have important
practical as well as scientific bearings, and are of interest not only
to electro-therapeutists, but to physicians and scientists in gencrt^
and are rich in instruction and suggestion for every thoughtful mini
We shall therefore make no apology for considering them in detail
We believe tliat a thorough general study of the history of electro-
thera[)eutics in all its relations will do much toward dissipatiiig tauft^
widely jirevalent errors both in theory and practice.

I. T/i^ progress of Electro-Therapeutics has been dipendcnt on tk
progress of other scicrues.

In the advance of science it has often happened that one divisioo
has been arrested in its march and forced to wait for other and alli<d
divisions to come up and support iL No science stands alone. In the
genesis of knowledge, each specialty is evolved from and with other
and more general specialties, and without which it could have no cxis^
ence. Between all the sciences there is a consensus or hannony ; all
act and react upon each other, and as Spencer well says, *' in tljc prt*
gress of the world the sciences may become arts to each other.*' Tht
speculations of Copernicus were merely speculations until optics aiU
vanced and reduced them to a science. It is impossible to ascertain
the position of a star in the sky, without making use of the recent ad-
vances in optics, in themiology, in barology, and in hygrometr)'. Sfr
ilarly also, all or nearly all great discoveries and pioneers in
would have been impossible had not other discoveries and pio.
the same or alHed departments, preceded them. It was the careAi*
observations of Tycho Brahe that made it possible for Kepler to dtf*
cover his great laws.

Not until the telescope was discovered could the present tlicory »
the universe be established.

Newton had abandoned his theory of gravitation, when Picart's act*"
rate measurement of a degree of the surface of the earth enabled la*
to demonstrate the correctness of his theory. Before Newton coow
work out his theory of gravitation at all, it was necessary for Galileo W
reveal the laws of falling bodies and the composition of forces; W^

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

233

restrial physics must precede physics celestial. Before Young could
work out his undulatory theory of light, he must be preceded by
Huyghens and Newton, and before Darwin could announce his theory
of evolution there must be a Lyell to make a.n era in geology. The
gtand hypothesis of the conser\'ation of forces results through a com-
bination of all the physical sciences of the world. Science is system-
atized knowledge. In order to reduce any form of knowledge to a science,
there must be some method of measurement. We measure space, and
so we have the science of geometry. We measure force and space, and
so we have the science of statics. We measure time, force, and space,
and so we have the science of dynamics. Measurement need not ne-
^ cessarily be mathematically accurate — there may be some indefinite and
even ^-arjnng standard by which we estimate our ideas on various sub-
jects ; — in this way geology, physiology, theology, metaphysics, and soci-
ology are admitted among the sciences, although none of them are exact
Wc have no science of smells and tastes, because we have no way
of measuring them. Formerly our knowledge of the great forces of
natore was just as indefinite as our knowledge of smell and taste, until
the invention of the thermometer, dynamometer, barometer, etc Now
ihii necessity of obtaining some method of measurement or comparison,
in order to develop the sciences, makes them more or less depend-
ent on each other. Invention must precede discovery, and discoveries
in one science prepare the way for greater discoveries in the future.
The first steps in measurement are qualitative merely ; the quantitative
^ stage is usually reached but slowly, and after long experimenting.*

Wbtle soane sciences are in the quantitative stage, others are in qual«
itattre merely ; but these latter may be raised to the condition of the
quantitative stage by the aid of the former.

TfaiBS it is tliat one science may be blufied and baffled in its advance,
. until some other science, that may perhaps be in no way allied to it,
I oomes to tibe rescue, and proves a mutual relationship that had not be-
Ibre been suspected.

Tins the progress of the science of acoustics was saspettded until
I fbeuuulumr came to the front and carried it forward. The alraospherie
^ lefiractioo of ttf^ and the rate of density of the atmosphere, were not
k undentood ontil Bojrie and Marriott discovered the relation between
f tiie densitf of gases and pressixre : tbos w« see that optics and astro-
\ Hony were dependent on barology.

The Bessemer process, that has made an era in applied scieiices,
♦ For nae id ifce «*»•« fcg,, ,^ ««^^ta*s we 1»^ *««» fadeb<ol to the

234

THE GENESIS OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTI IS.

is in a measure dependent on the spectroscope, which in its turn
dependent on the experiments of Sir Isaac Newton ; and Newton
would have been an impossibility had not Kepler, Galileo, Di
and other great discoverers preceded him. The discovery of A;
and all the countless results that are flowing from it, was made A
sibility only by the discovery of the mariner's compass.

Watt, in his pamphlet on the steam engine, acknowledges his i
edness to an earlier experimenter, and without Watt there could
been no Fulton. The discovery of oxygen by Priestley paved the
for BerzeUus and Lavoisier, with all the nomenclature and compli
of modern chemistry, scientific and applied. In 1807 chemistry
halting, wearied with its march, when electrolysis, made |>ossibU!
the discovery of the Voltaic pile, seven years before, in the hands
Davy, gave it a new impulse.

The new metals, as thallium, etc., that have been recently added
chemistry, are the offspring of the spectroscope, discovered in 1859.

The history of ekctrology, in all its departments, illustrates, in t
most interesting manner, the great laws by which science and art in
developed. The discovery of zinc by Paracelsus, several ccntiirirt
ago, placed at ready command a metal which is now used in rcirlv
every form of electric battery.

The discovery of ihe Leyden jar, in 1746, stimulated Franklin to
demonstrate the identity of lightning and electricity ; and the experi-
ments of Galvani, ill directed and mistaken as they were, inspired Volll
to the construction of tlie pile that is bearing his name to the futiire.
Here electrical science long halted, and both franklinic and gaivanic
electricity had fallen into comparative disuse, when the discovery of
electro-magnetism by Oersted ap])eared just in time for Farailay to nukt
his immortal researches on induction, which have placed at tlie disposJ
of electro-thera|Tieutists a vast variety of faradic machines, as well «•
created our enormous system of land and ocean telegraphy. Tht
machines constructed under the impulse of Faraday's researches *«**
ready just in season for Masson and Duchenne to apply them to ckC-
tro-physiology and therapeutics. Fifteen years earher faradic w*^
chines were unknown, and faradization would have been impossible
The invention of the galvanometer in 1825, caused Nobili, in 1827, W
make researches in animal electricity, which were subsequently carrico
to greater perfection, with more refined apparatus, by Du Bois-Kef*
niond and his disciples.

The invention of the batteries of Smec, Darnell, Bunsen, and Gro**i
based on die law of Ohm, announced in 1S27, prepared the vvf^

mSTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

235

Remak to introduce the galvanic current to medicine, which with the
inconstant and inconvenient Voltaic pile would have been impossible;
and also opened the door for Crussel to pioneer electrolysis, and for
Middeldorpff to develop the surgical uses of the galvano-cautery. Foi
general faraiization as well as localized, we are first, of course, indebted
to Faraday , and central galvanization, though it might have been de-
vised immediately after the invention of the Voltaic pile, could only be
Itopularized in the profession after batteries had been made that were
cheap, constant, and convenient. Physiology and pathology have both
come in to guide, to stimulate, and to sustain electro-therapeutics, for
the method of apphcation, and the kind of current employed, must vary
with the real or supposed pathological condition in the disease we treat.
The more accurate diagnosis that follows in the wake of the ophthalmo-
scope, the otoscope, the laryngoscope, the endoscope, the stethoscope,
the eslhesiometer, and of electricity itself, and the better knowledge of
the body in health and disease that comes from ptost-mortem examina*
tionSf and experiments on animals, have made all our electrical appH'
cations more intelligent and more successful. They have not only
adde<1 new territory to electro-therapeutics, but they have helped to
subjugate that which was already acquired. The discovery of the
pathology of locomotor ataxy made an era in the method of using elec
tricity in that disease.

The old notion that dyspepsia was always a purely local disease,
would never have suggested its treatment by general faradization or
central galvanization ; and if hysteria were a disease of the womb, and
insanity were a spiritual and not a physical symptom, Uieir treatment
by galvanization of the brain and spine, and ccrt-ical sympathetic and
general faxaduation, would seem utterly out of place. Had we ad-
hered to the dogma that diabetes was a disease of the kidneys or
Ihrer, we should nerer have thought of treating it by galvanization of
the brain, and neck, and spine. The suspicion, amounting well-nigb to
a positive ootmction, that certain <fiseases of the skin, that had usnally
, been claaed as local or peripheral, were really dqicndent on the cen-
tral oenrcMS tystem, first induced us U> treat them by central galvani-
zation, and with a «coes» that has been anuzing. The growing belief
that maiignanff taawn ate originally local in their character, has en-
ItemngtiA ckctro-thcr ap c a tisU to treat them If variow nwthodiof
> mmg dectridty, and with a certain degree of ukkcu. The idea dbat
Hvalgja is a central and not a per i pheral disease, haa teiroiatioiiixed
in electrical treainkcuL In the present volume we hope to be ^ile to
jbov dhoc ail or nearly all the fitnrtinml dtaeases alhcd to hj«c»^

236

OPPOSITION TO ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

have in general a conunon pathology, and demand a similar treatment
by electricity. Conversely, it has been shown in the department of
modern oiihthalniology and otology, that the symptoms of blindness,
and deafness, for which electricity was so freely used a century or more
Ago, depend on pathological conditions that are in their very nature
incurable, and that the time and force spent in treating them by elec-
tricity aie wasted.

The same is true of certain forms of paralysis and some painful
nerve affections.

2. The introduction of Electro-Therapeutics into the profession has
been accomplished only with great dijiculty. — This fact is not peculiar
to electro-therapeutics : it applies equally to the history of every radical
and revolutionary branch of medicine. There is among some friends
of electro-therapeutics a shadowy suspicion tliat their specialty has had
an exceptional history ; that it has been despised and rejected by science
and left to the mercies of charlatans more than any other great depart*
ment of therapeutics. This misconception arises from the recentness
of the subject of electro-therapeutics, and from the fact that its early
history and struggles are personally and painfully familiar to this genera-
tion. But the experience of electro-therapeutics is the experience of
every advance in the medical art, and even of the science of medicine
itself. In every land, and in all recorded times, tlie profession of
medicine has been a despised profession. For five hundred years
Rome was without regular physicians, and when at last they were re-
cognized as a needful body, they were forced to take the lowest seat
in the social circle. When tlie Roman grandee was sick nigh unto
death, he summoned in consultation a medical adviser, for whom he
had about as much respect as we have for tlie i;ienial who blacks our
boots or polishes our knives. For ages the ensign of medicine was
borne by the most ignorant of slaves, and was then transferred to the
hands of monks and charlatans, from whom it was with great difficulty
wrested.

If any branch of medicine is honored to-day, it is general surgery ; but
for centuries the profession of barber and surgeon were one, and only
by painful and slow degrees have the surgeons obtained their present
eminence.

As with general medicine and surgery, so with all the special
branches — the uniform history is one of growth out of early struggle!
and despising. One of the very best tests of medical skill and genius is
midwifery, and yet we have to go back but a short time to see obstet-
rics the exclusive art of the most degraded and despised. Ophthalmo*

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

237

logy and otology, now refined and developed into exalted and exacting
sciences, wherein learned practitioners and professors find material for
life-long thought and toil, with liberal honors and rewards, were, even in
the memory of the youngest of us, so largely the province of pretenders,
that few would be willing to be called an oculist or aurist. Laryngol-
og)', g)T3ecolog)% syphilography, neurology, and electro-therapeutics, all
speak the same history, and in all, the laws of growth and development
have been substantially the same. First, new instruments, or modes
of using instruments, are devised (usually by sdentific men), skill in the
management of which requires a knowledge and patience that transcends
the capacity of the average charlatan or of the laity in general. With
the use of new apparatus, arrives a more accurate and refined pathology
and a more discriminating and successful therapeutics, all of which
scientific advantages are in time appreciated by the profession and ulti-
mately by the people, who slowly rcali2e the fact that it is possible
even for scientific men to cure disease ; and thus it happens that char-
latans fall back in the race and give way to scholarly and obser\'ant
men, for the same reason that stages give way to railways, and canal'
boats to steamships.*

The history not only of electro-therapeutics in general, but of all the
special branches and advances in electro-therapeutics, is the history of
persecution. First, localized electrization with the faradic current, then
localized electrization with the galvanic current, must fight their weary
battles ; then electrolysis and galvano-cautery ; then general faradization
comes in to be at first despised and rejected ; and last of all, central gal-
vanization has sought for a recognition amid the same jeers and deri-
sion that greeted all its sisters in art. In the portals of science, every
new-comer is at first unwelcome, and is received with a frown, a kick,
or a sneer, to be afterwards greeted with warm and loving embraces.
In the histor)' of the application of electricity to the various diseases,
the same principles are illustrated : those who believe or tliink they
believe in electricity as a therapeutic agent in general, begin to bristle
and howl as soon as it is recommended for any disease for which it had
not previously been used, and thus it is that the value of this powerful
and protean agent to nervous dyspepsia, to neurasthenia, to hysteria
and insanity, and to general debility, has been admitted only after bitter
stniggles.

• MewrsL Tiemann & Co., tlie well-known uistmmnit-TnAlcen:, inform us, that sinc«
ophthiUmology, otology, tnd gynecology have been recogni/cd in the profession and
^thfuily studied by specialists, there has been little sale of imtromcots for these depart
ments to chaiUtann

238

PERSECUTIONS AND STRUGGLES.

The leading and basic idea of electro-medicine, that electri;
a tonic as well as a stimulant, although now generally received
by some of the French writers, was rejected without exaniii
especially by those who were supposed to have some knowle<
electro- therapeutics. And here we may remark that the most vi
opposers of any new fact are usually those to whose specially it]
longs. Before a new idea can enter the brain of a specialist in
branch, it must first displace some old idea, and thus a double
laid upon it. Thus is explained the historic fact, thac localized cl
zation and general faradisation were in successful use among the
long before they were introduced to the profession. These men
in some instances aroused the interest as well as the op|)osili<
the profession, and have inspired able men lo investigate the
for themselves. The opposition and persecution to which
electro-therapeutics has been subjected at the hands of their brcl
in the profession, have redounded to the glory of the cause. Vft
has stimulated inquiry, and sneers and gibes have fed the flame
they were designed to extinguish. The sorrows of the pioneers
been the seeds of science. Opposition has called forth latent fo
in the ranks of electro-therapeutists, which they dreamed not ifalt
they possessed, for they have been enabled to transcend themselva,
and to attain a success that has surpassed their most sanguine expec-
tation.

In obedience to this inevitable law, electricity has fought its way into
neurology, ophthalmology, and otology, into gynecology and lar>'ngology,
and into surgery, where it has become an essential adjunct. Oneoftbft
most recent and important advances of electrotherapeutics is its ap-
plication to diseases of the skin, in which, as will appear in the course
of the present volume, we have obtained some remarkable and sugges-
tive results. This statement has been met by the majority of derma-
tologists with doubt, derision, and neglect.* Physicians who art
excellent friends of ourselves and of electro-therapeutics, have expressed
sincere regret that we should attempt to treat diseases of the^kiftbT
electricity, and have consoled themselves with the hope that oui €«fc
thusiasm would be cured by time and experience.

• Shortly after wc had accomplished some of our early experiments with
gaJvani/ation and localized electrization in eczema, prurigo, nod other cutaneoMll
ea«>es, we wrote to an acquaintance who is one of the very ablest of Europe«a<
therapetulsts, and rc<iuc*tcd him to repeat our experiments. He wrote in n^i
he would be thought insane if be khould make such an attempt

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEU'nCS. 239

It is but six or seven years ago that our statements in regard to the
tonic powers of electrization and its application to a large variety of
diseases of debility were similarly received. The conclusion of the
whole matter is, that electro-therapeutics, in the neglect and insult

Ltnd persecution through which it has passed, has only worked out

'■the general law of development of all original thought ever)'wherc.
Every ascent of the heights of knowledge bristles with obstructions,
staring upon us like the guns of a fortress. Science advances only at

l-the expense of old faiths that struggle hard for life, and with every
step in its progress some loved idol of the w^orld is crushed beneath its
feet

No man who is afraid of neglect and scorn ought to attcmjii any

^original thinking, for as it has ever been, so must it ever be of those
who would advance knowledge, as of those who would " live godly "
in the world, that they "must suffer persecution." The first revelations
of nature's laws are made only to those who have the calm courage that
can face a frowning world. So high an honor as that of making a dis-
covery in science is not allowed, except to those who above the cross
can see the crown, and beyond the silence of the present can hear the
plaudits of the future.*

3. In ehctrO'therapeutks as in all othtr scunea^ mast of the important
discmferies, invmiions^ and advances have been made not by aeeideptt,
but as a direct result of patient research. — Those who will study the

■ admirable treatise of Whcwcll, on the Ilislcry of the Inductive Sciences^
will be surprised to find how utterly erroneous is the common idea tJiat
the discoveries and inventions of the world have been made by chance.
Accident alone does not advance humanity. In the realm of scien*
lific discovery, as everywhere, force answers to force, and if one man
accomplishes more than another in any direction, it is because he has
greater force in that direction and uses it to better advantage. Accident
may be the incidental contingencies of discovery, but they arc not Uic
discoveries, and of thenisclves, tmaidcd by previous thought and labor,
would come to naught The accident of the convulniunsi of the frog's
leg did not immortalize Gah'ani, but the long series of research that fol'

flowed the accident. The accident of the deflection of the needle under

' Morton, one of Uk dkoofvefs of anotliciis, thsi «klljr writa: ** It were better
Ibr ne, koSmAeij bettor bv mo sad my wifie mA ehOdren^ better for mc ood tliem la
I revecti^ if I hod borkd X\tm iccfct of the rictorj over pain ia my titci«i forcw,
laad wdfcrad eortarioi to cUfwe brfurc il came forth to tJie kaowteJec of tbe worid by
BOtlMr Imad^tlma to ilo M I dld--4ia«<n 10 make b kaovn by oU (braift aadmodm
TipaKfc, aa4 at crcrj ridk of healcl^ proapcrity« uA even Ut,**

240

ADVANCES MADE BY SPECIALISTS.

the electric current would have been nothing to Oersted, had he
fifteen years been deepiy engaged in the study of electrical phenoi
and especially in the solution of the very question that the acci
observation helped to solve. Similarly also the various batteries
appliances used in electricity, from the first frictional machim
the pile of Volta down to the beautiful reflecting galvanonici
Thomson, and all the wide variety of apparatus for electro-thi
tics, are the products of toil and experiment, the sifted results oi
less failures.

None of the important methods of using electricity in the
of disease have been stumbled upon. Localized faradization and
vanization, general faradization, electrolyzation, galvano-cauteh.
and central galvanization, each represent years of experiment oo;
part of some one or of many physicians and surgeons.

4. T/ie advances in EUctro-Therapeutics have been made
entirely by so-callrd specialists.

Until quite recently, it had been the fashion in modem times, and
ticularly in America, where all other terms of abuse have been pri
inadequate to express contempt for any man, to call him a specia'
The inappropriateness of this designation becomes quickly apparent in
the light of the history not only of electro-therapeutics, but of cnof
branch of modern knowledge. In the days of Plato and Aristoti€
philosophers could rarely be specialists, for the reason that there «i|
nothing to specialize upon j there was little to be known in any OOC
branch or in all branches of human acquirement.

Past history was a blank or a myth, and future history no one conld
predict. The sciences, save astronouiy, were not born ; yet even io
that childhood of the world, nearly all who became eminent in Grecian
history — artists, poets, statesmen, orators, and generals — were speciaJisttJ
and if Aristotle encompassed all knowledge, it was because there ws*
so little existing knowledge to compass.

In the larger sense of the word, all scholars must be specialists. Tlui
necessity of giving special attention to any department in order to
attain mastership in that department, becomes more imperative as the
evolution of humanity goes on. Although the capacity of the humtf
brain has increased in important percentage during the past fe*
thousand years, yet it has in no way kept pace with the advance ^
knowledge. To master any one of the special divisions of niodtf*
thought costs more of brain force than was required in the day» of
Aristotle to traverse the whole field of knowledge. Hence it is tW
all the great advances that have been made by the human race hfttt

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

241

been organized by men who have given special attention to some
special line of thought or action, on which they have concentrated most
\j£ not all of their mental forces. Civilization is the product of
cialization. Eliminate from human society the labors of specialists
nd their results, and we put the human race back thousands of years.
It is only in rude and savage communities that some one man or some
few men as chiefs or leaders are expected to know cverj-thing and
decide all questions. The first sign that a tribe is beginning to rise in
the social scale, is the birth of a specialist who commands influence
and leads bis people in advance of their previous state by virtue of his
L special investigations. Those philosophers who, like Cotnte and Spencer,
fill and Hamilton, survey the whole area of the sciences, do not profess
to acquire mastership in any one : they are not regarded as authorities
in any one branch, and are known and recognized as generalizers
from the labors of others.

Every medical man in our time, be he general practitioner or not, be
he [ihysician or surgeon, whatever he may be called, is a specialist

There have been men, and the history of mc<licine gives examples*
who, after rambling amid various realms, have at last settled down in
. some field and cultivated thai exclusively, thus obtaining distinction ;
bough no specialists all their lives, they were so at the time that they
de their discoveries. The histories of vaccination, of anesthesia, of
Many physiological discoveries, illustrate this fact. The history of
dectrology includes a large namber of the greatest names of modem
sdence ; philosophers who have acquired fame in various walks of
learning have helped to hasten the march of electricity.

Galvani, Volta, Franklin, Oersted, Arago, Ampere, Davy, Faraday,
^Tyndalh would have been more or leu illustrious, even had they ne^er
Dtified themselves with ihe history of electricity. Siroilariy, it may
be said of Duchenne, Reroak, Althaiu* and other autiiorities in electro-
therapeutics, that they have cultiirated with SBOOCSS other departments
of science.

5. 7>/<r I i^n (trance and prrjudice of men in the proftssi&n and cut of
it have helped to advance the cause of Etectra-Therapeutics.

In the grand evoktion of science, the eiril as well as the good
qualities of men have a glorious part to perfona. With high wtsdom
Dr. Holmes has said, '*The ^[nonmce of people is as modi their
possession as their £uuily Bible," and should be respected accordingly.
An opmion may be false, may be ottciij iklse— nay cootaio not
even a shadow of truth — awl yet be coovenieoC, aecesaary, and even a.
dispensable for the human race at certain stages of its derelopineBL
f6

242

ADVANCES MADE BY YOUNG MEN.

Prejudice even, and narrowness and superstition, may be divini--ly ap. ^
pointed means for the reformation of the world.

In the hisTory of deciro-lheraiieutics, it has been shown over and'
over again, that the laity have been emboldened by their very igno-
rance to make experiments from which the true scientist would have
recoiled. Such experiments have been of service, although they have
subsequently needed the aid of science to perfect, expound, develop, and
systeniize these results and make them of genuine service to the
world.

Most of the pioneer experiments in this branch, especially during i
last part of the last century, were made by monks, priests, physicists,
and natural philosophers, as Hehl, Kleist, Volta, Franklin, etc., in
short by almost every class except physicians and surgeons ;* and in
our day, and especially in this country, the banner of electro-therapeu*
tics is still borne from town to town and from city to city by an
innumerable army of clergymen and teachers — professors so called —
clairvoyants, and by every other sort of "what is it " conceivable.

6. 77/^" Advances in Electro-thtrapcutics /tare been made mostly by
Young Men. — This fact also is not peculiar to the history of electro-thera-
peutics. In ever)' sj)here and in all recorded times, the original thoughts
and deeds of the world have been the work of youth and middle life.

The golden decade for original pioneering — creative work that leads
humanity and raises it to a higher plane — is from 30 to 40, the silver
decade from 40 to 50, the brazen decade from 20 to 30, the iron
decade from 50 to 60 ; and so on. Strikingly this is illustrated in the
hi.stor>' of medicine cver)'\vhere. For the discoveries of vaccination
and the circulation of the blood we are indebted to the earlier decades,
and so of nearly all the leading advances in science and art. Con-
cerning the merits of the rival claimants for the discovery of an-
assthesia there has been much dispute, but one fact is undisputed — that
Wells, Morton, and Simpson were all young at the time that they made
the experiments that have immortalized their names.

In electro-therapeutics as in all other branches of practical medicine,
special and general, the aged are loo much occupied with the details
of practice to engage in original research — even when they have the
ability and disposition to do so. \

♦ Otologists will recall the fact that the Eustachian catheter was first ased by ■
layman, a postmasler in France.

f The general suV>ject of the rchition of age to •stMrk has been discussed by Dr.
Beard in a recently published treatise, and will be discassed in greater detail w 1
larger work now in preparation.

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS,

243

7. EUttro4herap€uti<s has not been dn'elopfd exclusively by any §n*
nation, but is indebted to all the leading nations of cix'iliseftiom.—^
France and Italy, Germany and Russia, Great Britnin ami ihe United
States, have all contributed to swell the march of this important
branch of science. It is interesting to note, that Italy, the land
of Galvani and Volta, and which may be said to have been the
birth-place of electrology, has dropped far behind, and in recent limes
has done but little in the way of original research or poinilari/alion ;
in this as in every otJier branch of science Uie land of Galileo has
foUeo from her ancient glory. France, which was at one time In
advance of all other European nations in eleciro-thorapcutic*i, i* now,
excepting Tripicr, Onimus, and the lamented Legros, as behindhand in
this as in nearly every department of modern science. Here as every-
where, Germany during the last ten years has led tlie science of the
Continent.

Duchenne at one time stood not only in the advance of the electro-
therapeutists, but almost alone ; and during the last ten years the
writers of Germany, England, America, and even Russia, have punhed
on far in advance of him and left him far out of sight. Even the latest
editions of his work arc at least ten years behind the times, and give
but a very narrow and imperfect idea of electrotherapeutics. The
writings of the English and Americans arc broader, more generous, and
on the whole more true as well as more [>hj!osoi)hical, than the writings
of the Continental authoriries, not exce]>ling even the Germans.

Rapid Progress of Electro-therapeutics in America.— \h\x'\r\g the
past few years America has contributed more to clcctrcj-thcraf»cutic8
than any other nation, if not indeed more than all others combined.
Of the six principal methods of using electricity in the treatment of
disease, two— general faradization and central galvant/ation>-arc pureljr
American ; and both in medical and surgical , and in many of

the special diseases included under them, ' r. M-arch has been

bolder and more successful than in any other ctjimtry.

The progress of elcctro-thcraiMrutict in the United States during the
past five years is a £u:t unpnr:il!eled in tlur history of medicine. Those
who have entered the pr vithin the pa*t two or three yeara,

would credit only with gK<:«i utuit^lty a detailed history of our earlier \
experiences in intrododag ifaia department. Wtlb aonac (cw execpdoM^ j
elsewhere noticed, ihose who need eicctrtcily half a dozen years %fp^
were the refose of sodety ; when you had seen an "eiectridan,'* as they
were called, yoo haii toocbed botton ; whatetrer of vguatuyoc «ras below
that lerel was a dark aa ! deep mkoows, where 00 explorer woald

244

POPULARITY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

presume to venture. Ignorance seemed, in short, to be drawn
electro-therapeutics, as particles of iron are drawn towards a
Electro-therapeutics was allied with spiritualism, mesmerism, phrei
and we know not how many other absurdities.

This period was shortly after Duchenne had published
edition of his work on localized electrization ; but there is no
to believe that tlie teachings of that work were at that time
familiar to the majority of the self-styled " electricians "
country. They used various modifications of the method of
and general faradization blindly and recklessly, though oftentii
brilliant success. Their perfoninances, however, seemed to re
than invite the profession, and when we sought for scientific insi
on this subject there were scarcely any that could give it. f i
reason we closely studied the clinical experience of those who
the last degree ignorant, and the assistance thus obtained we are I
to acknowledge. With much of error there was mingled mi
truth, that we have sought to sift and purify and bring forth to tl
light of science. When in xS66 we began together to work
subject, the difficulties in our way were more than appalling ;
who were very near to us, and whose judgment we most highly
warned us that to touch electricity was to touch pollution,
therapeutics was believed to be fit only for those who were
nothing else. To apply or even suggest the application nf plr,
was a folly if not a crime.

" Well enough for a plaything," "good for nothing except in
lysis," "a good thing to humbug people with," *'a quack
" the moral effect is all there is in it," — in some such compl
phrases as these were the profession accustomed, even as late
early part of the present decade, to express their opinion of the t.
of electricity as a therapeutic agent.*

One would as soon look for a spectroscope in the office of a
cian as for an electric battery, and those who professed in certain caid
to employ electricity, depended in most part on old and >ron»-ort
magneto-electric niacliines, that half the time would not go, and tlX
other half went only to do evil. The machines in the market wett
mostly to the laity, who, ignorant as they might be, were on this subj^

• It is but three or four years since a medical friend of our« in a ncij:
a geiitlcnun of liberal education, who hod given attention to eiectm-
began to treat some of the patients of his doss, in a dispensary of that dtjr. bf^
tricity. He was notified that ?uch treatment was displeasing to the manafED*
tonscquenlly he resigned.

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

245

better informed than their doctors. Although every fool was not ao
electrician, yet every electrician \i2i& prima facie a fool.

The revolution was as rapid as it was decided. TTie first formal pre-
sentations of the subject, superficial as they necessarily were, before
societies and in medical journals, brought to light a latent interest, and
longing for knowledge on that subject, that we did not believe existed ;
from every part of the land came letters of encouragement and in-
quiry.

The ablest minds in the profession promised to co-operate by every
possible method in the attempt to raise electro-therapeutics to a
science ; and most faithfully and beyond our most sanguine hopes they
kept that promise, and some of them have made and are making origi-
nal researches in this departmenL

All the prominent medical journals, with but few exceptions, were
glad to publish articles on electro- therapeutics ; and reviews of
works on this subject manifested the same fairness as that which
governed the consideration of any other special branch of science.
Science is not a matter of geography : it knows no destination of
language and no boundaries of race ; higher than the mountains and
deeper than the sea, it embraces all its disciples in one common
brotherhood. It is not for America to boast of her scientific achieve-
ments as a nation, but only as a part of the great world of science ; but
this thought we may surely entertain, that it is eminently fitting that
the nation which first brought lightning from the sky, and tlien utilized
it as the fleet messenger of civilization, should also be the foremost in
popidarizing electricity as a remedy in disease. In no other land had
electrotherapeutics sunk so low as here ; in no other land does it seem
destined to rise so high and spread so far. What but a few years ago
was sown in weakness^ has been raised in power. The stone which
the builders rejected, the same is becoming the head of the comer in
the temple of science.

This progress is due partly to the enthusiasm and patience of the
pioneers in this department, who have left no stone onturned to force
electro-therapeutics on the attention of men of science, partly to the skill
and enter]>rise of the mechanicians, who now furnish us with apparatus
which for convenience and for perfection of workmanship are unrivalled,
and not a little to the harmonious co operation of general practitioners
with specialiits, both in original researches wth a view to discovery,
and in the popularization of what has been discovered. From the out-
set of our electro-therapeutical experience, we saw that the value of
electrO'therapeiiticf to science would depend on the extent to which it

246 SCIENTIFIC ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS NEGLECTED. !

could be popularized in the profession, and to that end neither
toil have been spared ; for, while it is true here as everj'whcre
secret of the highest success lies in concentration, and that those
expend their entire force in this single direction should attain
exceptional confidence and skill, yet to confine the department
scattered few, and to surround it with an atmosphere of niysli
wonder, would be a crime against science. Therefore it is that il
simplification of apparatus and in the directions for using them,
the clear and intelligent study of the diseases for which electrici
indicated, it has been sought in recent times to make clectio-
tics the common property of all practitioners everywhere
the mountains and on the prairies equally with the great cenl
science ; at the bedside as well as in the consulting room. la
uniting their forces and dividing their labors, general practitioncil
specialists have done wisely and well ; for they are like musicians
ing the same air, though on different instruments, and if th*rc
cord it is because one or the other strikes a false note.

The profession in America are in taste and in talent int<
distinctively iirat:tica!, and consequently they have entered the
nient of elcctrulogy from its practical side ; they have entered it
eagerness and enthusiasm, because it vastly increases their po«tfi
disease. On the other hand, the distinctively scientific rel
electrology have been, and still are, altogether too much ncgl
America. Electro-physics and electro-physiolog)', and the
study of the obscure diseases for which eleclricit)' is used, are
considered. The history just detailed has shown that the scicntii
the practical branches of this department must to a certain exti
studied together and in their relations to each other, and that fr
earliest era of electro-tlierapeutics until now, the advance of the
tical part of electricity has been in a measure dependent
advance in the scientific part.

8. Many of the important deductions of recent experiments in
physiolo;^}' had been empirically anticipated.

Duchenne discovered that irritation of the skin produced sptA^
crackling, and a burning sensation, and that electro -muscular coB
tractiliiy and electro-muscular sensibility were producetl by irritation 01
the nerves and muscles, by experiments on wounded patients ; but '^
electric currents had been used to irritate the skin and produce nund
lar contractions long before his time. His earliest work on loailii0
electrization was presented to the Academy in 1847. bat the eleoli
current from a faradic apparatus had been used m various wa>^ fil

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

247

the treatment of diseases, many years before ; and sparks from frictional
apparatus, as has been shown, had been more or less employed by a
large number of observers, both in this country and in Europe, for over
half a century. Many of these experimenters were empirics in the
worst sense of the word ; but many of them also, with all tlieir mani-
fest ignorance, were, as has been said, not uiifrequently successful in
tlie treatment of disease.

During the last century there have been a large number of experi-
menters in electrotherapeutics who in all their lives never contributed
a line to the literature of the subject, and did little or nothing to en-
courage or inspire others to prosecute the same studies, and who yet
not only achieved most decided dierapeutical results, but also empiri-
cally anticipated the deductions of the ablest electro-physiologists of
our time.

Very many of our so-called discoveries in this, as in so many other
branches of science, are but revivifications of ancient theories and
practices, refined, modified, and developed by modem research.

It is quite recently that it has been established by the observations
of ourselves and others in pathological cases, and by the experiments of
Erb, Biirchardt, and Zierassen on the dead subject, that the electric
currents, when applied over the head and back, passed through and di-
rectly affect the brain and spinal cord ; but the theory that ihey do thus
affect the central nervous system had been received for years, and has
led to successful results in practice.

The proposition of Du Bois-Re>^nond, that the electric current, after
penetrating the tissues beneath the epidermis, diffuses itself through the
tissues in various directions, according to the conductibility of the parts.
I was probably antidpated at the earliest dawn of electro-therapeutic*.
It was certainly received and acted upon by numerous experimenters long
prior to the elaborate researches of Du Bois-Reymond, and in America,
and unquestionably also in Europe, has been for years the empirical
basis of electro-therapeutics.

Electro-physiology has but very recently demonstrated tliat the audi-
tory nerve could react to the galvanic current ; yet galvanism, almost
from its discovery, has been used for diseases of the auditory nerve,
and in occasional instances with success. So also the recent deduc-
tions of physiology concerning the changes of irritabilit)' that take ])lace
when a nerve is subjected to the action of the galvanic current, have
been vaguely and unscientifically anticipated in therapeutics for more
tlian a quarter of a centur)'. Not until recently was it demonstrated
that the sympathetic could be directly affected by external i

248

IN ADVANCE OF ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

and yet the sympathetic had been directly affected, for good or ill, by
all who had prev^iously made applications of electricity over the head,
neck, and spine. Very recently, indeed, has it been demonstrated by
physiological experiments of ourselves and others that electrization has
a marked influence over nutrition, but improvement in nutrition was
one of the earliest as it has been one of the most constant effects thai
have been obtained from electrical applications.

That so many of tlie recent deductions of physiologists had been
anticipated by empirics in no way derogates from the honor and the
gratitude that science owes to its latest discoverers. Reckless and
misgm'ded empiricism alone would not have raised electro-therapeutics
to a science. It was necessary that scientific physicians should take
electro therapeutics from the hands of the ignorant, reduce it to order
and system before it could be entitled to a place among the sciences.

The efforts of the laity alone could never have made clectrothera-
peutics popular. The difficulties and disappointments in its use were
great ; left to the ignorant alone, it would have died a natural
death.

9, Electro-therapeutics has been in advance of electro physiology.
Starting with some electro-physiological assumption, or, more frequently,
widiout any theories whatever, men have blindly and empirically resorted
to electricity as a panacea for an immense variety of diseases, and,
ajnid many blunders and absurdities, have stumbled on many impor-
tant results. The truth is, that among the advanced minds of our day
the conviction is ever deepening and strengthening tliat therapeu-
tics is not yet, and may never be, an exact science ; that the time may
indeed never come when it shall be possible to treat any disease by the
rule of three. So profound is our ignorance of the chemical constitution
of the body ; of the molecular and other changes that incessantly take
place in health and disease ; of the modifications which these changes
undergo by the infinite and varying inllucnces of climate, temperament,
diet and mode of life ; and so limited and uncertain is our knowledge of
the nature and action of medicines, that we may well resign the hope
of reducing therapeutics to an exact science to distant generations.
The number of those in the profession who will sub.scribc to the em-
phatic words of Niemeyer, " It is idle to hope for a time when a medi-
cal prescription should be a simple resultant of a computation of known
quantities," is rather increasing than diminishing with the advance of
science, and the belief is extending that therapeutics is largely a matter
of empiricism \ that, while we are waiting and toiling to perfect out
knowledge of pathology, and determine it' relation to therapeutics^

250

PRESENT PERIL OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUf ICS,

which for many years was only disturbed by the birth of
puncture and by experiments in electro-surgery. The discovi
induction, in 1851-32, and the modem improvcnjent in
batteries, have inaugurated a new revival of electro- thcrapcai
which the enthusiasm of the profession, rendered skeptical by
histoiy, but now convinced by unequivocal demonstration, has I
slowly and reluctantly enlisted. This last revival, it is safe to
will be as much more extensive and permanent than any of its
cessors, as its growth has been more gradual and more scientific.

The history of electro-therapeutics, with its varied aJtcrnatii
failure and success, and its ultimate triumph, may not inapdy be 1
pared to the incoming of the tide upon the shore, where, all
each successive wave apparently recedes as far as it advances, ft
level of the waters is ever gradually rising, with a force at once
and irresistible.

Prcsnit popularity and peril of Electro-Therapeutics. — To
who, like ourselves, espoused the cause of electro-therapcut;
humble, and early shared its wretched crust, its present ixjpul
as surprising as it is satisfactory. Both by general practitioners
specialists, electric treatment is prescribed as regularly as opii
quinine.

In city and in country this once despised agent has become \
ionable, that the laity ask for it and expect it as they ask and
pills and powders.

This popularity of electro-therapeutics is complicated with 01
back ; there is danger that it will be studied too much as an art
little as a science, and that it will be made too common, in the bad
of that word, and be thought so easy that the wayfaring man, though *
fool, may not err therein. There is danger that now, as of old, the detail*
of the applications will be entrusted too much to the patients th
or their friends or servants, or, what is but little better, to physi*
know nothing of electro-therapeutics as a science or as an art. !*•
prevailing impression that it requires no brains to apply electricity is lb*
curse of electro-therapeutics. Any idiot or mere infant can hold
sponges on the body while the current is passing, and if that were ill rf
electricity in medicine, writers on this subject would be needless. -A
dose of quinine or opium any fool can give or take, but to know iHieSif
give these drugs, htnv to give, and when not to give, requires ofteoUOtf
the best skill and experience. Similarly with electricity. To koowlhf
management of the apparatus so as to keep them always in worldoi
order ; to know the diagnosis and pathology of subtle and obscmt A

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

251

tases ; what fbnn of applkadoo each disease requires ; to know
to asc iocalixed (aradlxation, when localized galvanixatiozv when general
faraditaxioo, wbea central galvanizatioa, when electrol]rsis and
galv:uio-<aaterj, and bow and when to combine two or more of
methods, and bow to vary them with the changes in the patient's <
tioo ; to know wben to modify the strength of the cunent according 1
the wants of each case — all this know]ed|ge oocnes caHy bf <
and hard stndj, and much experience. Books alone wiU noC leach it,
and genins will not supply its place. The present dai^^ b that the
Ist)les5»on and the laity may become disheartened by the Cultures that
oocar throo£^ the excess of their ignorance, and kick out of
the remedy that tfaey are wdcoming with open arms. This eril te
deac^ nnst be counteracted on the part of specialists^ at least ; and <
fOOBg pnctitMnexs who can command the leisure, by carefol and cos
■dcptio qa study of the science as well as the art of electnxtl
pcotics.

They most not be content with a little success in applying dectrkityj.
to certain cases, bat must rise to that higher level where their eyes (
take in the whole field of electrology. Let them aim to be maste
in dectro-physics and electro-physiology, as in the art of applying (
tricity. Let them master neurology in all its branches, and become
experts in all the branches of modem diagnosis.

Under the direction of a physician who thoroughly knows what he ts
' about, a patient, or the friends of a patient, may make a portion of I
applkalioas, in cases of local paralysis or rheumatism, or some 1
aiecdoos where merely routine treatment is required ; but in our i
e x perience nearly all attempts of this sort are more or less unsatis
tory.

In diseases of any moment, little dependence can be placed on wh
tfie patients do fior Ibeimehres, or in their own households. They per-
haps begin well, make or try to make a few applications, then the
apparatns gets out of order, and they know not how to repair it, or are
too iskdolent to make the attempt, and the treatment is
Thb has been onr experience so often, eren in dealing with inti
gent patients, that we now advise doing nothing whatever, to any 1
scientifir dabbling as domestic electro4herapex>tics. ^Vben we
sider that there are six difierent methods of using clectiicity — lo
6a&Eation, localized gahranization, general faradization, central
« vamxatioQ, electrolysis, and galvano-cautery, and eaah one of these ;
qotre kxig and patient study, arvd an extended experience, before its
deoAs can be masUnd; that some morbid condidoos are beneEted by

252

PRESENT PERIL OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

one method and injured by another, and that some are best treated by
a number of tbero combined ; that the methods must frequently be variedJ
during a course of treatment ; and ^ally, when we consider that tbel
scientific and succeSvsful use of any one of these methods requires an
intiiuate knowledge of the most complex and obscure diseases known
to medicine, and that a certain proponion of temperaments, whether
healthy or diseased* will not bear electricity at all, however administered,
— when w^e consider all these facts, we see the absurdity, if not crimi-
nality, of prescribing electricity as a domestic remedy.

Those physicians and surgeons who recklessly and indiscriminatel|
recommend patients to purchase batteries and have the applicatior
made by themselves or their friends, or their servants, do injury in vari-
ous ways. As a rule, their i>atients receive no benefit from an
which righdy used might have done them good. This is a negative tiv?!
Jurj'» so called, but none the less real They injure themselves by failing
to help their patient ; they injure the profession by makii^ it appear that
the medical use of electricity is a simple and triiling thing, and there-
fore the peculiar province of ignorance and charlatanism.

Afanufacturers of instruments, who were formerly dependent solely <
mainly on the patronage of the laity, are reminded of the tuX, wfa
we are in a position to state with authority, that the present positioa <
medical and surgical electricity, and the present demand for :
is due entirely to the efforts of scientific men, working by sdent
methods, and for scientific purposes. Left to the people aloofe, tius i
partment would never have achieved popularity, aiKl if crcr
men should desert it and it should be relegated to the laity, it will
serve to die, and it will die ; the demand for machines will sink to
minimum, and the manufacturers will find their occupation gone.

ITie duty of the profession in regard to this matter is toj t
They should familiarize themselves with electro-therapeutics, so as I
make the appUcations themselves, or through trained asststantSy
they should send the patients to those who are masters of liie nib^actj
or, in case neither of these courses is practical)le, they afaoold
rule not attempt to have electricity used at all, or should coo&ae I
selves mainly to its use as a palliative, and with the oadeiaiaofillg 1
Xhty are submitting to a necessarj' eviL

CHAPTER II.

GENERAL THERAPEUTICAL ACTION OF ELECIRiaTV.

Electricity in its Medical Relations is a Stimulating Sedative Tonic. —
The cause of medical electricity has been, and still is, greatly re-
larded by vague and incorrect notions of the position of electricity in
the materia medica. It has been classed as a stimulant, and up to the
time when we began to write on the subject, in 1866, nearly all the
writers on the subject had assumed without question or discussion that
the stimulating action was the main if not the only action of electricity.
The idea that it was also a tonic was not even discussed. The first
formal presentation of the use of electricity by the method of general
faradization appeared in a paper by Dr. Rockwell, based on consid*
erable experience and many experiments, and entitled " Electricity in
the Treatment of Rheumatic Affections," and published in the Afedical
Record in 1866. In this and subsequent papers by both the authors
of this treatise, the tonic effects of electricity were fully demonstrated.
Those few in the profession who used electricity at all had gone no
further than Duchenne, and supposed that when they had used this
agent to kick up palsied muscles, they had exhausted its therapeutic
indications. In obedience to the same narrow and exclusive dogma,
electricity was supposed to be exclusively contraindicated in febrile and
inflammatory affections, and was supposed to be of value only in a
very limited range of subacute and chronic diseases. The acceptance
of the view that electricity is a tontc has wrought a revolution in
electro-therapeutics. An agent which was formerly used mainly if
not exclusively in paralysis and rheumatism, is now used, and with far
more brilliant success, in hysteria and affections allied to it, in insanity,
anemia, neurasthenia, in nervous dyspepsia, neuralgia, chorea, in the
convalescence fiom fevers, and all forms of pain and debility whalso-
ever.

It is necessary to state, at the outset, that in classing electricity as a
ttimulating sedative tonic, we use the words in the sense in which tl»ey
are ordinarily understood and employed when applied to other reme-
dies and systems of treatment, and without any reference to the mere

254

STIMULANTS VS. TONICS.

verbal distinctions that may be or have been made in the classfiaooi
of materia medica.

Stimtilanfs are usually understood to be those agents which quulfy
excite the system, and temporarily arouse its activity. The)' arc liki
the goad, which forces the exhausted beast to draw the bu-
does nothing to increase his strength; or bke the blast of ...
nace, which increases the combustion, but adds no fueU We do
accept this definition, but would prefer to regard stimulants '"
agents that correct, intensify or economise the forces of the ->

Sedatives may be severally defined as those agents that allay tntO'l
bility and pain and induce natural repose.

Tonics are ordinarily understood to be those agents which
improve nutrition, restore enfeebled functions, invigorate the
and permanently increase its capacity for labor.

It is because electrization is capable of producing at once the
which are ascribed to all these classes of agents, that we have
it a stimulating sedative tonic.

These various effects are not always matheraatical'.y distinct, bat ill
into each other. The stimulant eflrct may at once lead to seJatioa,
and the permanent improvement to mntiilion follows afier a Icn:: 'mie,
and is in part a result of both stimulation and sedation.

Of these three orders of effects, stimulation, sedation and imi^ow
ment in nutrition, stimulation is the one that is of the least impOftanflV
and yet it is the one that first strikes the observation, and tlie one wliicb
until ver)' recently has been regarded as the exclusive test for tlie u*
of electricity in medicine. If electricity were merely a stimulant i
would scarcely pay to use it in the treatment of disease, for its nifC
would be so narrow, and the result of its use even in that narrow ranjl
so temporary and unsatisfactory, that physicians would not find it M^
their advantage to spend time and labor in making the ap: '

The ill success of all previous attempts to popularize ■ '^^

peutics is to be explained in part by the fact that those who cxpenmeDtw
with it looked upon it as a simple stimulant and nothing more, »»
recommended it accordingly. If it depended on its stimulating actiott
only, the cause of electro-therapeutics would have little vitality. Tl*
reason why electricity is now growing in popularity in the professioo*
because it is found to relieve all forms of pain, and to add lone to tfi
system and improve nutrition after ordinary sedatives or tonics hi**
(ailed.

Tonic Effects of Electricity best elicited by General Faraditatian tm
Central Galvanization. — Reasoning from analogy, as well as from exptfi^

GENERAL THERAPEUTICAL ACTION OF ELECTRICITY. 255

cncc, it would seem that the full effects of electricity on the human body
could only be obtained by making the api>lications all over the person and
on the central nervous system in such a way as to affect the whole system.
The influence of any drug or remedial agent on the constitution can
only be ascertained by bringing the 7ahole system under that influence.
A man who habitually washes one of his fingers in cold water ap.
predates the tonic effects of the cold only in that finger ; but a man
who habitually takes a shower-bath, or plunges into a tub of cold
water, realizes powerful tonic effects on his entire system. If a man
daily exposes one arm to the sunlight, while the rest of the body ia
enclosed in a dark cell, he receives direct tonic effects only in the
exposed member ; but he who walks fbrth and exposes his whole per-
son to the solar rays will in time experience the full tonic effect of suft-
light on his system. If one hand or one foot is vigorously and regu-
larly exercised, the muscles of that limb exliibit the tonic effects of the
exercise, and increase in hardness and perhaps in size ; but if all the
portions of the body are vigorously and regularly exercised, all the
principal muscles will increase in firmness and perhaps in size, and
tonic effects will be appreciated by the entire system.

Just so with all other tonic remedies and influences. If quinine,
strychnine, iron, arsenic, oU, etc., could be localized in a single limb,
only diat limb would be directly influenced by them. Their tonic
effect is only obtained by administering them in such a way tliat they
will penetrate Qwcry portion of the body.

Electricity is no exception to this law. In order to ascertain its full
effects on the system at large, and to determine its position among
remedies, the applications must be made in such a way that the whole
system shall, so far as possible, be directly or indirectly brought under
its influence. This is best accomplished by the methods of generat
faradisation and central galvanization that are hereafter to be ex-
plained in detail.

In making a detailed comparison, therefore, between the effects of
electrization and the effects of recognized tonics — quinine, iron, str>xh-
nine, physical exercise, sunlight, cold bathing, etc. — it is logically neces-
sary that the ap[)lications should be so given that the whole body
should be brought under the direct influence of the current, just as it is
brought under tlie influence of other recognized tonics as ordinarily ad-
ministered.

The immediate effects of an application of general faradization and
centra! galv^ization are often a feeling of enlivenment and exhilaration,
drowsiness, temporarj- relief of pain, and increased warmth of the body.

256

LIKE OTHER STIMULATING TONICS.

The same effects are notably observed after the shower-bath, a

in the siirf, a brisk walk in the open air, or from the administratiool

alcohol.

Like other stimulating tonics, general faradization and central 1
Vanization, when given in an overdose, or in too great strength for j
constitution of the patient or the condition of the system at the I
may be followed by second.ary or reactive effects that are both]
agreeable and positively alarming. The second or third day :
injudicious application, the patient, especially at the outset of I
ment, may experience soreness in the muscles, an indefinable fecUn
nervous exhaustion, irregularity of pulse, and sometimes exacerb
of special symptoms. It is well known that severe physical cxe
will produce all these unpleasant secondary effects, especially b ]
tients who are feeble and unaccustomed to muscular exertion. A (
bath, either in the surf or at home, that is too prolonged may give!
to all these sym]>toms the night or day following. Unpleasant 1
raay secondarily follow an overdose of our ordinary stiraulantSy^
alcohol, or from internal tonics, as iron, quinine, strychnine.

The permanent effects of general faradization and central galv
tion are as closely analogous to those whic^i come from other
remedies and systems of treatment as are the immediate and
aiy effects.

The very marked permanent effect of general faradization and <
galvanization is improvement in the sleep. Physical exercis
ing, boating, gymnastics, bowling — cold bathing, and the ordiil
internal tonics do the same, though not so markedly and with far 1
uniformity.

General faradization and central galvanization also permanently 1
prove the appetite and digestive capacity, and regulate the bon
Improvement in the various operations of digestiqn is one of the 1
uniform effects of our ordinary tonics, and it is for that purj>ose, 1
perhaps than for any other, that they are employed.

Like other tonics, general faradization and central galvani*
equalize the circulation. This effect, when it immediately follows 1
application, is nearly the temporary excitement, similar to what fd
a rapid walk, or gymnastics, or alcoholic stimulants, and soon
away. But when it becomes a permanent condition — when the
feels less annoyance from chilliness and cold extremities — it is a 1
ant of the (m|:rovement in nutrition.

Like other tonic n easures — gjnmastics, active games, and
amusements, etc., etc. —general faradization and central galvanic

GENERAL THERAPEUTICAL ACTION OF ELECTRICITY. 2 5/

cause the muscles to uc%'elop in size and hardness, And sometimes,
thougli by no means uniformly, produce imi^ortant und rapid increase in
the weight of the body, the result of the improvement in nutrition. In-
crease \n weight is familiarly observed after a trip of pleasure, a vaca-
tion in the countrj-, a voyage by sea, and very frequently indeed from
the use of cod-liver oil and strj'chninc. General faradization some-
times causes the patient to increase in weight from the very outset of
the treatment, and to an extent that is most surprising.

Like other tonics, general electrixation, faradivcation and central
galvanization, in their ultimate effects, increase the disposition and the
capacity for labor of the brain or of the muscles. This is indeed the
chief end to which all tonic treatment is directed, inasmuch as dunin-
ished capacity for labor is perhaps the condition for which tonics arc
most frequently advised, and it does not usually increase the capacity
for toil until it has first improved the sleep, the appetite, the digestion.
The same is true of many other, if not all, tonic remedies.

Experience shows that general faradization and central galvanization

arc usually contraindicated in those diseases and for those temperaments

bat will not bear any of the internal tonics. We find almost invariably

liat they must be used most cautiously, and meet with their worst failures

in cases where quinine, strychnine, iron and stimulants have proved to

be injurious.

Whatever difference of opinion there may be concerning the ration*
ale of electrization, or whatever dispute there may be concerning th€
use and the meaning of the words stimulant, sedative, and tonic, the
majority of advanced practical electro-therapeutists must substantially
endorse the emphatic words of Prof. Niemeyer : " /a the canshmt cur-
rent we have a means more powerful than any other of modifying the
nutritive conditions of parts that are deeply situated.^* *

Rationale of Electrization. — The stimulating, the sedative, and the
ionic effects of electrization are resultants of the various and diverse ac-
tion of the currents on the tissues. These effects have been defined as
mechanical^ physical^ catalytic (increase of circulation and absorption),
electrotonic (modit'ication of nerve), electrolytic (electro-chemical decom-
positioo), and clumicaJ. The mechanical effects are more markedly
observed from the faradic current, the other effects from the galvanic,
Tliese terms, considered as explanation^ of the action of electrization,
arc, it must be admitted, quite unsatisfactory, since they are incapable

• Text-Book of- Practical Medicine ; Translation of Drs. Humphreys and Hack*
ley, voL iL, p, 290.
17

258 IS ELECTRICITY TRANSFORMED INTO NERVE FORCE?

of exact and complete definition, and must, to a certain extent, include
each other. It is safe to say that we know as much of the raitonaU
of electrization as of most of our internal remedies. (See chapter on
the subject in Electro-Physiology.)

Js Elcdric'tty Transformed into Nerve Force 1 — ^Nearly all of the
earlier and very many of the latter experimenters in electro-thcrapeu-
tics assumed without argument, that electricity was identical with the
nerve force, or, at least, that it was directly transformed into it. Although
the weight of evidence is at present decidedly against the theory of the
identity of those forces (see Electro-Physiology, p. 207), yet the assump-
tion that they are identical or can be directly transformed into each
other, still lingers. The taking phrase, '* Electricity is Life," is con-
stantly used as the war-crj' of rival instrument makers, and as the
motto of travelling charlatans, on the street corners and at country
fairs. Whatever future science may unfold, we are now forced to say
that not only is there no evidence that electricity is identical with life,
but also that the theory that electricity, when applied to the body, is ever
directly transformed into nerve force has few if any facts or arguments
in its favor. That the body can be charged with electricity, and that
the normal electricity of the body can be changed in character is clear
enough ; but it does not follow that such changing of electrical condi-
tion has any ilirect influence on the quantity or quality of the nervous
force. Whether galvanic or faradic electricity charge the body to any
extent in passing through it may rightly be doubled ; if they leave
more electricity in the body than they found in it, it must be by virtue
of the direct influence of the current over the nutrition. Electricity
is no more life than light and heat are life. Like light and heat it may
sustain life, not by direct transformation, but indirectly through its in-
fluence over nutrition. When the light of the sun falls on a plant or
animal, when artificial heat is applied to a cold and paralyzed limb,
growth is stimulated and nutrition improved, but not, so far as can yet be
demon.strated, by any direct transformation of light or heat into nervous
force. Similarly, also, we have no sufficient evidence as yet that the
varied and marvellous improvement in nutrition that follows electriza-
tion is the result of anjlhing more than the indirect improvement in
nervous force, which is a part and result of the general improvement in
nutrition.

In the time and manner of their development the tonic effects of
general faradization and central galvanization resemble those of other
tonics in these hoo particulars.

1. They are De^)doped Slowly. — This slowness of development marks

GENERAL THERAPEUTICAL ACTION OF ELECTRICITY. 2S9l!I

a radical distinction between tonics and mere stimulants. The agreC'
able stimulating effects which immediately follow an application of
general faradization and central galvanization, just as they follow the use
of gymnastics, walking, active games, etc., soon pass off or merge into
the permanent or tonic effects that come more or less slowly, and
after repeated treatment.

2. Tliey are often Dn>elopedlong after the Treatment is Abandoned.^
Weeks and months after a patient has taken a course of general treat-
ment by general and central electrization he may continue to improve-
in his general condition, even though very little i^rogress may have
been made while the applications were being received. Just so the
tonic effects of a trip by land, of a sea voyage, of our ordinary summer
vacations, are sometimes not appreciated until after we have returned
home, and are again fully at work.

Why were not the Tonic Effects of Electricity sooner Discovered^ —
The inquiry now very naturally arises, why it is that the important fun-
damental fact — that electrization is a powerful means of improving
nutrition, and capable of producing effects on the constitution similar
to those which are familiarly obtained from the tonics in every-day use —
has escaped the observation of the very able writers who in different
lands have devoted themselves to electro- tlierapeu tics, until we called
attention to them.

The inquiry is thus answered : —

1. Ek:cause most of the recent scientific observers whose writings are
authorities in electro- therapeutics have used electricity locally, in some
form of "^localised electrization.'*

For obvious reasons, that have already been presented, localized elec-
trization must produce chiefly local effects, which although they are
tonic in their character, so far as tliey go, and reveal themselves by
marked injprovement in the local nutrition, would not ordinarily sug-
gest the powerful constitutional tonic powers of which electrization is
capable when applied all over the body» any more than the feeble
effects of waahing the hands, the face, or the feet, or any single member
or organ, would suggest or give any intimation of the well-known con-
stitutional effects of surf-bathing or the shower-bath.

Indirect constitutional effects result from localized electrization of the
central nervous system, and especially from galvanization of the brain,
ipine and cervical sympathetic, although, as will be seen, they are not
as marked as those which follow general faradization and central gal-
vanization.

It is a very tj.tcresting and significant fact, however, that since the

26o

TONIC EFFECTS RECENTLY DISCOVERED.

introduction into medical practice of the methods of localizing th<
galvanic current in the nervous centres first suggested by Remak, elec-
tro therapeutists have achieved success in a variety of diseases asso-
ciated with debility and impaired nutrition, where before electrical
treatment was supposed not to be indicated, at least by those who con-
fined themselves to localized electrization.* A suggestive fact relating
to this subject is that Gubler, who is one of the very few European
writers who had used faradization in such a way as to directly affect the
whole system, also remarked tonic effects in conditions of debility, even
from his very awkward and imperfect method. f

2. Because the immediate effects of electrization are so markedly
stimulating as to suggest the idea that it is simply and only a stimulant
or irritant. In some of the cases for which localized electrization are
used the stimulant are the effects which are chiefly desired. But, as
has already been shown, many of our ordinary tonics are primarily
stimulating, and so much so that they have been classed as stimtdating
tonics.

There is little question that if many tonics in ordinary use, had
been used only locally, as electricity has been used, they might have
been regarded merely as stimulants.

3. Because until quite recently most of the recognized authorities
and writers on electro-therapeutics of modern days have not used
electricity in those diseases and morbid conditions where tonics, par
excellence^ were demanded. They have used the agent mainly with a
view to stimulating effects, and in some form of localized electrization.
On this principle they have treated paralysis, rheumatism, neuralgia,
etc. As Ave shall demonstrate hereafter, besides those diseases in
which the efficacy of localized electrization is fully established, the
morbid conditions and symptoms for which electrization is most rapidly
and permanently successful, are precisely those in which we use our
ordinary tonics — such as dyspepsia, nervous exhaustion, insomnia,
hypochondriasis, hysteria, general neuralgia, chorea, spinal irritation,
and some forms of paralysis dependent on or associated with general
debility.

Furthermore, in prosecuting this inquiry we must not overlook two
important historical facts : —

I. In the latter part of the last and early part of the present

• fO./c the writings of Remak, Meyer, Benedikt, Niemcyer,

f De I'Electrizationg^n^nile consider^e comine agent tonique et stimulant dif.
fusUile. Buttetin de Thhrapeutique, Decembrc, 1863. (For description of hi»
method, see p. 246. )

GENERAL THERAPEUTICAL ACTION OF ELECTRICITY. 261

century franklinic electricity and the current of the voltaic pile were
used for a variety of diseases for which we now use tonics, and often-
times with some success. But the agent was used mostly empirically,
without any definite idea of its nature or the rationale of its operation
Partly on account of the inconstancy and uncertainty of the voltaic
pile, and partly on account of the many failures that were necessarily
inevitable with such poor apparatus and desultory experience, partly
also as a reaction from the extravagant hopes and promises of the
earlier experimenters, this system of treatment soon fell into disrepute.
2. Tonic effects have been obtained from various methods of em-
plopng electricity by non-professional men — charlatans and outsiders
— in the United States at least, for many years, although very few of
them have krown or suspected the nature of the agent they dealt
with, or of the diseases they have treated.

CHAPTER III.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS IN REGARD TO THE USE OF ELECTRICTTV
AS A THERAPEUTIC AGENT.

Before describing in detail the different methods of using elec-
tricity, it may be well to offer some suggestions of a general
character that will apply to all the different methods of electrization,
localized and general, with the faradic and with the galvanic currents.
It is of the first importance that those who are beginning to study and
practice electro- therapeutics should have correct notions not only of
the general therapeutical action of electricity — the principle on which
it is used — but, also, of the general laws of its aj>plication. Such
knowledge fits one to intelligently study the special methods of appli-
cation, and the treatment of the various diseases. A want of this knowl-
edge is a constant hindrance, and not unfrequenlly utleriy discourages
the beginner in tliis science.

General Judications for the Medical use of Electricity. — An error
that appears prominently in nearly all the works on medical electricity,
and one that seriously interferes with the progress of healthy and philo-
sophic electro-therapeutics, is the habit of treating the name of ihe
disease rather than the condition of the system of which the symptoms
are the result and expression. Men ask whether electricity is good for
this disease or that disease without any well-defined idea of the position
that this powerful agent occupies in the armory of therapeutics. It should
be understood tliat electricity is a powerful stimulating sedative tonic, and
as such is indic;itcd in any subacute or clironic disease, where stimulat-
ing, sedative or tonic effects are indicated, and without reference to the
name of the disease by which the condition expresses itself With this
general principle before us, we cease to wonder that electricity is used
and recommended in such a wide variety of diseases, many of them of
an apparently o[)posite character, and we see the injustice of that
criticism which condemns electricity because it is good for so many
different affections. Just as quinine, which is not a specific for any

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

263

disease — unless it be cliills and fever — is yet used freely as a tonic in
an indefiniie number of diseases where tonic effects are required, so
electricity, which is not a specific for any one disease, is yet used with
good results ill any number of diseases where local or general nutrition
is impaired and needs to be improved. The indications for the use of
electricity are wider than the indications for the use of quinine, for
the threefold reason tliat it has a powerful sedative action which
quinine, or indeed any other single tonic remedy does not have ;
that its stimulant and tonic effects are more decided, and that its
effects, sedative, siimuhiting or tonic, can be confined mainly to certain
organs, nerves or muscles, or be distributed through the whole body, as
may be thought necessary. When the propriety of using electricity in
any medical case is discussed, the first questions to be answered are :

1. Is there any pain to be relieved ?

2. Is tliere any need and chance for improvement in local or general
nutrition ?

If these questions can be answered in the affirmative, then electricity
in some mode of application may be administered. The result of the
treatment will depend on the skill with which it is conducted, on the nature
of the lesion and length of lime that it has existed, and on the agree-
ment or disagreement of the temperament of the patient with elec-
tricity.

Stage of Disease when Electrical Treatment is Indicated. — Electricity is
indicated mainly for subacute and chronic diseases; at least the best results
that come from the use of this remedy have thus far not been obtained in
the acute stages of disease. Aiid yet there is no question diat in the
acute stages of rheumatism faradization is of value, and there is reason
to believe that future experiments will show that relief of pain, of
sleeplessness, and of general nervousness— with perhaps permanent
benefit — may be obtained in the active stages of febrile and intlannnatory
affections. The chief theoretical objection to the employment of
electricity in acute diseases is the fact that the tonic effects of
electrical treatment require so much time that any disease that runs
but a limited period will not be able to appreciate them. This objec-
tion does not, however, apply to the stimulating or sedative effects :
these can be felt instantaneously or witliin a few hours after an application.
Electricity is certainly one of the most potent of sedatives, and in
very many acute affections sedatives are constantly indicated, j

The old notion that electricity wasmercly a stimulant aided in forming
in the professional mind another very gross error, that in active infl;im-
raations electricity is contra-indicated. Experience proves every day

264

DIFFERENTIAL ACTION OF THE POLES.

that the sedative effects of electricity are exceedingly gratefuJ ioi
the acute stages of sprains and diseased joints.

The dogma that in hemiplegia from cerebral effusion it is bctterl
wait for several months until all the active irritation has suhaidntj
before beginning electrical treatment — which error is yet maintained bf I
many of the ablest writers on medical electricity — -took its
the erroneous conception of the position of electricity in tin- ^
niedica.

It is difficult to conceive of any actively inflamed or febrile
where electricity, in the hands of one who knows how to use will
abusing it, may not be used without injury even if it does no gooij

Differential Action of the Poles ^ and of the Ascending and Descet
Currents. — This is a subject on which much has been thought andl
ten, and concerning which opinions have been expressed witbl
absoluteness not justified by experience. Almost the first question^
the beginner in electro-therapeutics asks, is, " Which pole shall It
as though that were the fundamental problem to be solved,
question thai is put in almost the same breath is, " Shall the ciu
be ascending or descending ? "

These queries seem to the novice to be of supereminent iii]j»ona
and he is annoyed that his instructor or text-book does not by (
such positive rules on the subject as to set his doubts at rest forever, J
after years, when he shall have had much experience, he will Icaxn (
two facts : Firsty that the question, which pole or which direction <
current to use in any given case, is one of various complexity, andc
not always be solved by a dictum. Secondly, he will learn that the |
tical therapeutical difference in the action of the pole or of the i
jng and descending currents, is much less demonstrable than he i
posed, and that the special directions for each disease are not at 1

The difference of the physiological action of the poles of thegal«i
current, when applied to the body, is, as we have shown under cl«
physiology, of a radical character. It has specially been shown
the anehitrotonic region at the positive pole is in a condition of i
ished, while the catelectrotonic region near the negative pole is i
condition of increased irritability. Moreover, it is easy of demofl
tion that the negative pole of both currents is more painful thaA'^
positive, and this fact, as we have seen, enables us to dislinguu
poles in cases of doubt, or when we do not understand the i
tion of the battery. Still further we have seen that on the nen4
special senses — notably on the optic and auditory nerves — the
have a differential action of a specific and demonstrable cbaractc

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

265

When now we leave physiology and enter into the complex reahn
of therapeutics, we find that it is usually better that irritable parts of
the surface of the body should be treated mainly by the positive pole-
This relative position of the electrodes is not usually departed from in
general faradization and central ga vani/;ation, for the reason that the
uiajority of cases that require these methods of treatment are abnor-
mally irritable.

The negative pole, being more irritating than the positive, is indicated
when it is desired to cause contraction in a paralyzed muscle, and the
difference between the i>oles in producing muscular contraction is chief-
ly a difference of degree only, since both poles cause coniraciion when
placed on the body of a muscle or over its motor point, but with the
same strength of current a more vigorous contraction will be produced
by the negative than by the ()ositive pole.

In regard to the ditfereniial action of the ascending and descending
currents there has been an almost infinite amount of shallow observation
and impulsive writing; for how the differential therapeutical or differ-
ential physiological action of the ascending and descending currents is
to be rightly discriminated from the action of the poles we cannot well
understand.

The object of applying electricity to the body in disease is to im-
prove nutrition, and nutrition is a process of infinite complexity ; in-
deed, the most complex and most mysterious of all the wondrous pro-
cesses of nature. He who solves it will become immortal, both as
the greatest scientist and the greatest theologian of history, leaving
Newton and Calvin far behind. The relief of pain, the reduction of
tumors, the increase in si?:e of muscles — all these everyday results of
electrization are signs of improvement in nutrition, and it is impossible
to exhaustively explain them by anything we now know of electro-phy-
siolog)'. Any man who attempts to base all his electro-therapeutical
procedures on the laws of elcctrotonos will find himself involved in com-
plications tiiat have no end.

The one practical rule in regard to the poles, which we have arrived
at, is that i\\c positive pole is the less irritating. In accordance with this
rule we place the negative pole at the feet or coccyx in general faradi-
zation, and at the pit of the stomach in central galvanization, so that
the head, neck, and spine, and other sensitive parts affected may be
under the influence of the positive pole.

That differential effects — physiological and therapeutical — may arise
from a difference of current direction is not at all improbable — cer-
tainly no one can well pro^e the negative — but we sec no way of

2^ DIFFERENTIAL EFFECT OF CURRENT DIRECTION.

demonstrating such differential effect. In every attempt that we make
the dificrential polar effect comes in to complicate^ and in our
judgment, to override any differential effect there may be in current
direction. Take the familiar experiment : an electrode in each hand j
in one arm the current will be ascending, in the other descending.
If now one arm were differently affected from the other, have we any
right to rush to the conclusion that such differential effect is due to the
fact, that in one arm the current is ascending, in the other descending M
Is it not far more piobable that such differential effect is due to the ■
fact that the positive pole is in owo, hand and the negative in the other ?
The diffcrenti;il effect of the poles can be demouslrated m various
ways, and our knowledge of it inftiiences our practice ; the differential
effect of current direction, if it be not entirely a myth, is to say the
least undemonstrated.

Take again, for illustration, the method of galvanizing the spine. If
the negative pole be placed at the nape of the neck, and the positive at
the lower end of the spine, the current is ascending, and if a certain
effect is produced, or believed to be produced, such effect is attributed
to the fact that the current is ascending. The upper part of the cord
is under the influence of the negative pole, and the lower part of the
cord is under tlie influence of the positive pole, and what evidence is
there that there rs any differential action of current direction aside from
the differcnlial polar action ?

Similar difficulties beset us when we place one pole, say the negative,
on some indifferent point, as the feet, or thigh, and pass the positive
up and down the spine. Have we any right to attribute the effect pro-
duced to the fact that the current is descending, when we know that the
positive pole has a very different physical, physiological and therapeuti-
cal effect from the negative pole, without any regard to current lUrec-
tion, while we, as yet, do not know that the ascending current has a
different effect from the descending current, without any regard to the
differential polar effect. One thing is clear and indisputable, and that
is that the differential effect of current direction, assuming that it
exists, is largely overborne by the differential polar effect. This is true
of both currents. A crucial experiment for determining the question of
the differential action of the ascending and descending currents, would
be to experiment on a piece of nerve in a physiological condition, all
parts of which give the same response to electrical excitation, and are
known to have the same function.

If such a nerve-piece could be supposed, and if the positive pole
could be placed on the middle of it, and the negative f )le at the peri^

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

pheral end, we should have a descending current ; the positive pole re-
maining at the middle and the negative transferred to the central end
of the nerve, would give the ascending current. If now the effect after
these procedures should be different, the strength of current, pressure
employed, and time of stimulation being \i\c same, and if the effect of
l)revious stimulation could be eliminated before the second part of the
experiment is made, we should have a conclusive demonstration of the
differential jihysiological effect of the current direction. But such an
experiment is ideal, and the complications are too great for science at
present to make it actual. In all physiological experiments of this kind
differential polar effect complicates, if it docs not neutralize, the dif-
ferential effect of current direction.

In therapeutics, the complications of the subject are all the greater,
because all the statements that have been and are made in regard to
the advantages or disadvantages of the ascending or descending cur-
rent in this or that direction are of little worth.

The practical rules on tliis subject to which experience, enlightened
and fortified by physics, physiology, and pathology, have led us, may be
thus recapitulated.

1. The stimulating, sedative and tonic effects of electricity, faradic
and galvanic, are obtained by either pole, or by both combined or in
alternation, the difference in their therapeutical action being merely
a difference of degree.

2. In cases where the sedative effects are more indicated than the
stimtilaling effects, the positive pole is preferable to the negative, since it
is less irritating, and with the uninterrupted galvanic current, produces
caielectrotonos, or a condition of diminished irritability.

In the great majority of the nervous cases, where general faradization
or central galvanization are used, sedation is more needed than stimula-
tion ; hence the general rule to use the positive pole in these methods.

3. In cases where the stimulating effects are more indicated than tho
sedative effects, the negative pole is preferable to the positive, since
it is more irritating, and with the galvanic current produces cat-

ectrotonos, or increased irritability.

For those temperaments, now and then met with, that are exceedingly
tolerant of electricity, who can bear it in any doses, however given, and
for cases of local or general anaesthesia and paralysis of motion, whatever
may be the pathological cause, stimulation is more needed than sedation ;
hence it is an advantage in such cases to use the negative pole, and in
some cases " voltaic alternatives," which are more irritating than eithei
pole when used alone.

2^58 SEAT OF DISEASE AND EFFECTS TO BE TREATED.

Inasmuch as we cannot tell the degree of electro-suscepti\ig
a patient until we have tested it, it is well always to begin
faradi/.alion and central galvanization with the positive pole. Thiii
is especially important in the United States, where the majority of {
patients of both sexes are susceptible ond nervous and require i
more than stimulation.

B0//1 thi Seat of th( Dismse and the Efftcis of the Disease i
Treated. — The query whether in localized electrization we should<]
tlie treatment mainly to the seat of the disease — the pathological la
or to the seat of the prominent symptoms — the effects of the Icsloo
given rise to some discussion.

It sounds very practical to advise the treatment of the symp
without regard to the seat of the lesion. It sounds very scieotifi
claim that the electricity should be confined to the exact seal of 1
disease. Now the wise physician is both scientific and practical,!
•keeping clearly before the mind this central thought, that the Ic
action of electricity is that of a stimulating tonic with a pen
sedative influence, we can readily discern the truth on this sub
Both the seat of the disease and the seat of the symptom shou
treated, for in both there is need of improvement in nutrition,
this view common sense and experience accord. In hemiplegia, 1
typical example, the lesion, the seat of the disease, is in thel
while the leading symptom is in one-half of the body, which is ]
lyzed. The muscles of that side become atrophied, and the nc
become anxsthetic. To restrict the electrization to the brain, and loi
side of it where the lesion is or is supposed to be^ is so imposing tfiv
scientific in theory that electro-therapeutists of limited cxp
might advise this treatment exclusively. To purify the stream, I
purify the fountain. Lay the axe at the root of tlie tree. All I
analogies arc beautiful, but they are fallacious. The symptoms of|
disease will not disappear when the disease disappears. The
remain after the clot is absorbed. In the larger number the ba
the body is as much the seat of the disease as the brain; fotj
several parts of this human machinery are all members one of ao
When one suffers all suffer. To confine the treatment to the panljl
muscles is also irrational, although the purely peripheral ireatmentl
far more successful tlian purely central. If we are to be exclusive \
one-sided and theoretical in our treatment, it is better lo cxclu
treat what are called the symptoms or effects of the disease, an
neglect the brain altogether. But it is the part of the higher wit
to use both methods — central and peripheral, to attack the seat <
lesion and the seat of the symptom.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

26g

The most satisfactory results in hemiplegia come from a combination
of peripheral and central treatment. Similarly with diseases of the
spinal cord, as congestion, sclerosis, resulting in paralysis of motion
or sensation. Purely central treatment — galvanization of the spinal
cord — is not sufficient j the symptom also, the paralysis, must be
treated directly in the muscles and nerves where it is most prominent.
In diseases of the spinal cord, treatment confined to the seat of the
disease does more good than in diseases of the brain, for the reason
that the cord is more accessible to the current, its surface being more
exposed, as it were, throughout its entire length. But those who
content themselves with treating diseases of the cord by simple galvani-
zaiion, to the exclusion of peripheral treatment, make a grave mistake ;
they fail where they ought to succeed, and they succeed only in a small
percentage when a large percentage was possible. Cases of ataxia,
as well as of motor-paralysis need peripheral treatment with the moist
sponge or wire brush, or both, as well as galvanization of the spine.
On the same principle our method of central galvanization is some-
times more effective in diseases of the cord and brain than localized
galvanization of these parts, as usually practised. In neuralgia also,
where the seat of the disease is in the nerve-centres, the application
should be made both to the tender and painful points, as well as over the
root of the nerve, and a very gooil method of application is to place
one pole over the origin of the painful nerve, as near as possible, and
the other over the tender point and along the whole course of the
nerve. Frequently neuralgia, as we shall see, yields to our method of
central galvanization — where not only the painful and diseased parts, but
also the whole central nervous system, whether healthy or not, is treated,
— when it does not yield, at least as rapidly or as surely, to local appli-
cations either central or peripheral.

Healthy parts may be benefited by Electrization, — There is a kind of
unconscious idea abroad among electro-therapeutists that in applying
electricity to the body it is necessary to avoid acting on healthy parts,
and that the direct effects of the current should, so far as possible, be
confined to the part that is supposed to be in a diseased condition.
This erroneous doctrine takes its origin, first, in the teaching of
Duchenne and other advocates of localized electrization, and, secondly,
in the narrow and incorrect ideas of the general physiological and thera-
peutical action of electricity.

Duchenne, by embodying the term " localized " in the title of his work,
has done much to popularize in the profession the notion that in elec-
trical applications the aim should be to concentrate the current on the

270

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

part where it is supposed to be needed, and to avoid affecting (
parts.

The idea that electricity is a mere stimulus, and only valuable^
means of exciting paralyzed muscles or waking up dormant ofl
would very naturally lead to the adoption of the view that it shou
used only in those parts that are in need of stimulation, and
healthy parts would be injured by it. The false ideas that hate^
vailed in regard to effect of stimuli, which we have elsewhere disc
have tended to increase this absurd dread of ajiplying electric
healthy parts. A little common sense appUed to tliis subject may |
hajjs help us to find the truth without great difficulty.

First of all, we must bear in mind always that the doctrine tau
the European writers, that electricity is a stimulus merely, is
and erroneous. Electricity, applied to the body, acts as a stimub
tonic with a powerful sedative influence. Then, again, stimulant!
something more tlian mere goads or spurs ; they correct and into
the forces of the body, and may be useful and as necessary in cond
that we call healtliy as in those that we call unhealthy. Stimuli
tonics, and sedatives are called for every day, and arc ever>- dayi
ployed by nearly every member of the human race, young or old, (
or well.*

Still further, pathology is not so much a special and separate <
tion as a degree of the normal condition of health. No one cia|
just where physiology ends and pathology begins. Reasoning frt
these considerations, it is clear not only that electricity need
confined to diseased parts, but that the parts that we call healthy 1
be benefited by it just as truly as those that we believe to l)« '
healthy, and the benefit they receive may react favorably on tlic (
eased parts, and thus aid the treatment

These views are enforced by analogy. Very few of our stimuli
tonic or sedative remedies are limited in their action to parts tlut|
diseased. The medicines that we give by the mouth or by the i
go whither they please, and if they sensibly affect some diseased (
it is not because their action is confined to that organ, but because!
organ, on account of its readier operation or of its disease, is more^
tive than other parts to the influence of remedies. Alcohol or opia
to the brain, lead affects the exterior muscles of the forearm, andi|
influence of chlorate of potash is quickly felt in the mucous nieuib

•This sabject is discussed in detail in Dr. Beard's work on "StimulMtt
Ktu-colics.*'

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

271

of the mouth ; but none of these remedies restrict themselves to the
parts that are the most perceptibly aflFected by tliem.

Indeed^ the fact that our most valued medicines are used for such a
variety of local and general aft'ections shows that their effects are not con
fined to separate parts of the body to the extent that has been supposed.

Electricity can be localized, in cases where it is desirable to do so,
better than almost any other remodyT and yet the most careful and suc-
cessful localization of the current is more or less im[3erfect. The re-
flex effect of electrization that always complicates the direct effects,
and which are sometimes of more value than the direct effects, cannot
be avoided. Then, again, the branch currents, which, as we have
seen, move in undulations not only directly between the electrodes, but
at a considerable distance on either side of the median line between
tliem, will be likely, in nearly all forms of application, to touch healthy
parts that do not stand in especial need of treatment. The most com-
plete form of localized electrization is electrolysis when the needles are
placed close together, but even here the reflex effect is most powerful,
and operates with a mild as well as with a strong current.

But fortunately it is never necessary to localize electricity, in the
Strict sense of the term. It is sometimes necessary, however, to avoid
producing too strong reflex effects, and in applications near sensitive
parts the possibility that the branch currents, if powerful currents are
used, may over-irritate, should ever be borne in mind. Experiment and
experience show that healthy animals and men can be electrized with
benefit all over the body, or in any part of it. In applying electricity
to any part of the body we improve the nutrition of that part ; in ap-
plying electricity to the whole body we improve the nutrition of the
whole body, or, at least, of those parts which are directly or indirectly
influenced by the current. Faradization of a healthy muscle makes
it grow faster than it would grow without faradization ; in other words,
it produces the same effect that it would if the muscle were paralyzed.
When a part is in a pathological condition — when, for example, a
muscle is atrophied — -any improvement in nutrition under electrization
is more quickly observed, and is probably more rapid and important
than when the same muscle is treated in a physiological condition ;
but the improvement of the healthy muscle is none the less real,
though it may be relatively less important than in the diseased muscle.

The tonic effects of general faradization and of central galvanization,
and, indeed, of many forms of localized electrization are due to the
direct or indirect action of the current, on parts which are more or less
healthy, or which, to say the least, are not in any recognizable patho-

DOSE OF ELECTRICITY.

logical state. The objection sometimes brought against these
that they do thus affect healthy parts, simply attempt* to prove
much. The same argument would banish all, or nearly all our
lants, tonics, and sedatives from our materia medica, and praci
discourage all attempts to relieve or cure chronic diseases of the
vous system.

Dose of EUetrk'ity. — Nearly all our medicines are prescribed
average standard dose. This average standard is derived from
ment and experience, and, wiih the majority of drugs, is a safe
in administration, although every judicious and thoughtful ph
studies each case by itself, and varies the dose according to the
parent indications.

In the case of electricity, when medically employed, the dose
in the present state of science, for obvious physical reasons, be
rily or mathematically stated.

The dose of an application of electricity consists of these facti

1. The strength of the current, or the quantity of eleclricily
flows in a given time.

2. The length of the application.
Both of these factors are so modified in various waj-s that ihey

not attain anything like mathematical precision. The strength of
current, or the quantity of electricity that flows through the circi
we are taught by Ohm's law, is the electro motive force divided by
resistance. We have previously shown (in Electro-Physics, cliapter
that both of these factors are susceptible of almost inftnitc v;
some of which are and others of which are not understood.

In the time of the application there is less vagueness, but
this factor the precision is more ai)parent than real ; for the cfftfd^
electricity depends so much on the manner in which appUc
made, whether with interruptions or without interruptions,
with large or stuall electrodes, etc. The method of the api i
whether local or general, and if local, to what part, and how directed
also modifies seriously the determination of the dose from lh<- ' "*"
of the application. Ten minutes of general faradization oi
galvanization will have a much more powerful general ctfect tim
ten or even twenty minutes of local electrization. Five minutes of
galvanization of the brain will accomplish more good or evil liiBI
fifteen minutes' faradiiition of the uterus, or of any one of the c.xtie«l»
ties.

The time may yet come, in the advance of science, when elccttidl
measurement will attain such a degree of precision that we shall be abk

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

273

to prescribe so many farads of electricity, as we now prescribe so manj
grains of quinine, or so many drops of laudanum ; but the day when
such exactness shall be possible in applications to the human body is
probably not very near. Our present method of measuring the gal-
vanic current by the number of degrees of deflection of the needle of a
galvanometer is very unsatisfactory, for the twofold reason that the de-
flection beyond a certain angle does not accurately represent the relative
strength of the current, and especially because when ap|)lied to the
body a different and varying resistance is encountered, which at once
destroys the value of the comparison. Electro-therapeutists have sonie>
times stated the amount of the deflection which the current caused
before being applied ; but all such statements are of little or no
value, and particularly when we do not know the construction of the
particular galvanometer which they employ. A further difficulty in
measuring electricity by the galvanometer, is that the strength of the car-
rent in most of the batteries in common use declines during the appli-
cations, so that a current which is powerful at first may iu the course of
ten or fifteen minutes be only medium.

The graduated scale on some of our faradic machines, and which in
dicates the number of inches that the rod or helix or tube is moved,
is also a practically useless guide, except as far as it may be resorted
to to encourage and amuse silly and weak-minded patients. In any
faradic machine the strength of the current m the cell, and consequent-
ly the strength of the induced current in the coil, varies from day to day,
and varies during the application ; and the amount that passes through
the patient is dependent on the size of the electrodes, and the amount
of moisture in them, and their relative position.

In default llierefore of any trustworthy means of prescribing electricity
by farads, or other definite measures, we are compelled in practice
to depend on these two indications :

I . T/ie sensaiions of the patient.

Very fortunately the sensation of the patient during the application
indicates wth considerable correctness whether the current is of the
proper strength. The rule is that where strong currents are borne
without discomfort strong currents are beneficial ; where only mild cur-
rents are borne only mild currents are indicated. The difference in the
natural sensitiveness of patients 10 electricity is very great. This dif-
ference is further modified by disease. In anesthesia local and general,
in sclerosis of the ner\'e centres, and certain local affections, very power-
ful currents cause but little pain. On the other hand in hyperesthesia,
in hy&teria and allied affections as a rule, and in acute and subacute
18

274

DOSE OF ELECTRICITY.

local inflammations, only mild currents can be borne. To disregard
the feelings of the patient and make the applications exceedingly pain-
ful will tend to produce the evil rather than the good effects of elec-
tricity. To give only mild applications when painful ones could be
well borne is to rob the patient of a part of the benefit to which he is
entitled.

To the rule that the sensations of the patient are the guide in elec-
trical applications there are some exceptions, just as there arc some
exceptions to the rule that the appetite is the guide in the quantity
of food that we eat. It is partly to guard against these exceptions, and
to keep on the safe side, that the first few applications on a new pa-
tient whom we have not before treated by electricity, should be mild and
short.

Not only do different individuals vary in their sensitiveness to electri-
city, but different parts of the surface of the body in the same individual
also vary, as we have seen through a considerable range ; and in the
cavities of the body and on the mucous surface the range of variation
in sensitiveness is yet greater. The mucous membrane of the mouth,
tongue, urethra, is very sensitive, and this sensitiveness should be re-
spected by the electro-therapeutist.

There are some quite rare cases of hysteria where the great sensi-
tiveness of the patient may be disregarded, or chloroform or ether may
be administered. The sensitiveness of the patient is a guide only or
mainly in regard to the strength of the current. In regard to the
length of the application we must be guided by —

2. The immediate, secondary, and remote effects. — This second guide
serves to correct the mistakes of the first. A meal that disagrees
with us may show its ill effects in a few minutes or hours, or the
following day. Similarly we should study the effects of electrical ap-
plicaiions. So far as any one or all of the good effects described in this
chapter follow an application, so far we may judge that the applica-
tion has done good ; so far as any or all of the evil effects described
in this chapter follow an application, we may judge that it has done
evil. The evil and the good effects may sometimes be associated.
To rightly interpret these effects, and to distinguish between those that
are produced by the applications and those that are produced by
moral, hygienic or medical causes is one of the severest tests of medi-
cal skill. There is less liability to deception in studying the immediate
effects, since there is less chance for other forces to complicate the
results. After a few hours, the complications of diet, exercise, weather,
medicine and so forth begin to appear, and obscure the effects of the

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

275

electricity. The secondary and remote effects can therefore only be
ascertained by repeated observations. A single application gives ua
little opportunity to answer the question whether electricity is really
the remedy that the case requires.

One caution must not be forgotten : the immediate and secondary
effects may bt €vil while the remote effccis may be good.

A long walk that much fatigues us is often beneficial, though the
benefit does not appear for several days. Those who take travelling
vacations to recruit exhausted energies, firequently feel worse while
they are travelling, but are stronger on their return and for months
following. The fatigue and soreness and stiffness that sometimes fol-
low skating and gymnastics, and other exercises, do not always indi-
cate that benefit has not been derived. The next day the appetite
and spirits may be better, sounder sleep may follow ; the evil and the
good effects contend for the mastery, and the good effects triumph.

The best remits of Electrical Treatment usually obtained with Mild
Currents. — For the average constitution, and with the exceptions that
come from certain idiosyncrasies and certain diseases, such as anaeslhesia,
the best results of electrical treatment are obtained by mild currents.

The temptation to disregard this rule and use painful currents is,
even for the experienced electro-therapeutist, very great, and sometimes
irresistible. The dogma, " no smart no cure," which has wrought so
much miser)' in the world, still lingers, even among the intelligent.

The descendants and near relatives of the man who growled at his
dentist for extracting his tooth without pain or bluster, because he
had been accustomed to being hauled all around the room during that
operation, are yet very numeroms. Even in culti?ated circles there
can be found those who have no faith in medicine unless it is bitter,
and no respect for the doctor unless he half kills them. Then again
some patients make a \nrtue of bearing pain, and will pretend that they
do not feel the current when they know they are suffering all the
horrors of the damned. Moreover, mercenary patients wish to get
their money's worth, and if they pay so many dollars for an application,
they want so many dollars' worth of agony. For all these reasons com-
bined, we are, in spite of our experience and caution, continually
making the blunder that we here warn against. Over the doors of the
electro-therapeutist, and in full view of the operating chair, we would
inscribe this motto, "Better give much too little than a little too
much."

The use of Salt on the Electrode, — A very good device to prevent using
too strong currents, particularly the galvanic current, is to saturate the

2/6

CARE IN DETAILS OF APPLICATION'S.

Sponges or cloths of the electrode with plenty of salt water. Salt
is a good conductor, much better than simple water, and will
the patient to sensitively feel a current, of which, if the sail
were not used, he would not be conscious.

With the same strength of current, a sponge or cloth cl
saturated with salt is more painful than a similar electrode w
saturated. The current when conducted though salt seems to
points from the electrode to the body just as when conducted th;
metal or the metallic brush. In a word, an electrode saturated vrttb
not only conducts a greater quantity of electricity, in accordance
Ohm's law, but conducts it more painfully than an electrode
with ordinary water.

Cctre in the Details of the Applications. — ^There is as much
ence between a skilful and an awkward application of elcctricil
there is between a skilful and an awkward operation in surgery,
those who desire to become experts in applying electricity, the
ing points should be considered :

I. To avoid suddenly internipting the currents in cases where
niptions are not required, and especially in applications on or near'
head. In the treatment of paralysis of motion and of sensation,
ruptions are required, but in the treatment of the brain, spinal
and sympathetic, and in very many peripheral applications sttMi
rents only are required. In all such cases the current should be
gradually and delicately, if possible by means of a rheostat of
kind, or by increasing or diminishing the pressure on the sponge of
electrode. Inteniiplions made in the metallic part of the cunrrrrt
always more sudden and violent than those made in the elcct^
the physical reason that the connection of the current is more *ji irj-^-
abrupt.

Delicate patients should be treated with delicacy. Those who •*
sensitive and apprehensive should never be annoyed by sudden bneiAl
in the current, except in those forms of disease where sudden bidkl^'
are required.

In presenting this caution we do not intend to endorse the notion Ail
serious pathological lesions are caused by interrupting the current, efd
on or near the brain. There is little or no evidence besides d»e dH
of Duchenne, that any serious injury to the retina, or to the atKJiiRIf
xvtTK^ or to any part of the brain, or S)Tnpathctic, or spinal cord, liA
been proeluced by faradization or galvanization with the strength of ai>
rent ordinarily employed in electro-medical apphcations. The dii^
ness, the sour taste in the mouth, the flashes of light before the tjC^

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

the shock or agitation produced by the sudden interruption of the
galvanic current, are annoying, and to the delicate patient unaccus-
tomed to them, sometiracs alarming, but with the batteries in ordinary
use, and with the strength of current that is, or ought to be employed
tlirough the head and neck, they are rarely if ever dangerous : they
we temporar)' eflects that soon pass away, and are forgotten. But
they are to be avoided in cases where they are not required, for the
three-fold reason that tliey do no positive good, that they may interfere
with the success of the treatment, and that they alann or annoy the
patient. We are to avoid worrying our patients in this way, for the
same reason that we are to avoid treading on tlieir corns, because it is
disagreeable and discourteous.

2. To avoid making the applications unnecessarily painful through
carelessness in the management of the electrodes. By the use of fine
and soft sponge — the best tJiat can be found in the shops — the smarting
and stinging pain of the applications can be much diminished. Aside
from the fact that, with some exceptions, less satisfactory results follow
I>ainful than pleasant currents, the feeling ^of pain should, so far as pos-
sible, be avoided. There are, as we have said, a certain number of pa-
tients who carry into medicine tlie same views that once dominated in
religion, and who desire to suffer, and have very little respect for any
treatment that does not cause more or less agony. Such patients will
sometimes find, after one or two severe and painful applications, thai
they are injured more than bene^ted, and will submit to the advice of
the physician and take the treatment that is best for theni.

3. To avoid surprising and startling t}^e^ patient by allowing the wires,
or the metallic portions of the electrodes, to touch any part of his ex-
posed body. If the connecting wires slip out of their connections with
the electrodes they are liable to fall on the exposed skin and give a
painful shock. If the edge of the electrode not covered with sponge
or cloth toudies the skin, it will give the patient sudden paw, and
annoy both him and the operator. Connecting wires that arc not pro-
tected by rubber arc liable to lose their silk or cotton coverings in
places, which when they touch the skin cause pain.

4. To be always and every moment sure that the current is running.
The batteries should be tested before the application, either by the
galvanouietcr or through the hand or person of the operator, that he
may be sure that it is in order, that the connections are properly made,
and that the electrodes are suflicicntly wet to conduct the current
When mild currents are used, salt may be added to the solution in
wiiich the electrode is dipped, so that a slight stinging sensation

278

DISROBING OF THE PATILNT.

beneath the electrode, may keep the patient assured that the
is passing.

Disrobing of the Patient. — The great majority of electrical ap
tions require, on the part of the patient, more or less loosen
removal of the dress. Not only is this necessary in general
tion and central galvanization, but in very many local applicatioo
the spine, abdomen, and upper and lower limbs, — excepting mcrelf |
face, head and hands. To know how to direct the patients to .
their clothing so as to give the operator sufficient and easy access to^
person, is a part of the art of practical electro-therapeutists, and
an art not to be despised. Male patients have less trouble in this^
gard than female patients, since their garments are fewer and i
but they are more annoyed by the little they have to do than wa
are by their vast paraphernalia. The art consists in loosating kv
ing up without entirely removiftg the underclothing^ thus ..
trouble^ exposure and waste of time. ,

Temperature of the Electrodes and of the Operating /^oom.—t^
question is often raised by patients whether there is any danger of tab
ing cold after an application of electricity. The answer is cI
the negative. The electricity, as such, so far as it goes, fori.. .> --
system against cold ; but, by careless exposure while undressed b I
cold room, it is possible to lake cold» just as by similar export
electricity is not used. It is also possible to make the a| ;
quite uncomfortable by using sponges moistened with cold instead of_
tepid water. Our aim should be to have the temperarure of
operating and dressing-room a little higher than is necessar)' for a
son fully dressed ; to moisten the sponges or electrode coven in I
or— in very cold weather — in hot water; and when the feet are placed |
a footplate of tin or copper, to have a warm soapstonc bencalh I
foot-plate to keep it always comfortable.

Time of day for the Application. — Applications of electricity maf
given with advantage at all hours of the day and night. In our<
ence, and probably in the experience of all electro-therapeutists, \
majority of the applications are given in ordinary business hours, iaj
forenoon and afternoon. We have never been able to see that anyd
was gained by giving any particular heed to the hours of eati'
before meals, and just after them, ordinary electrical treatmem
given with apparently as much benefit as two or three hours from*
meal. In some impressible temperaments, central galvanisation U*
general faradization temporarily increase appetite, and for such pciiool
tn application might very properly be given a little before meals, J**

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

279

those who suffer from dyspepsia, a seance pretty soon after dinner might
be of service in aiding digestion, but we cannot say that we have seen
any such results.

For all delicate, hysterical, sleepless patients, the evening is an excel*
lent time to receive electricity. The powerful sedative effects of central
and general electrization are in this class of patients most gratefully re-
alized a little before going to bed, or after they have already retired
For these reasons we have, for years, been accustomed to treat some of
our patients in the evening, before or shortly after retiring, and, were it
not for the inconvenience, we should do it more frequently.

Timi of Applications. — The time of an application is an element of
the dose of electricity that has not been sufficiently studied. Electro-
therapeutists have fallen into the conventional and routine habit of using
the current all the way from live to ten or fifteen minutes or so, at a
sitting, without sufficiently investigating the question whether the length
of the application ought not to be varied with studious care, in each
case, and varied during the course of treatn^ent.

For irritable, sensitive and impressible patients this law certainly
holds ; that long applications with mild currents are better than short
applications with strong currents. This law, which is the outcome of
all our observations in the department of electro-therapeutics, applies to
all modes of using electricity.

A sudden shock, or a series of shocks with a powerful current, may
injure, where a prolonged application with a gentle current may work
no harm and r»uch good. That this element of time becomes a practi-
cal difficulty in the use of electricity by overworked general practitioners,
must be admitted : but if it be a scientific fact — as it surely is — that
time is required to gain the choicest and best effects of electrical treat-
ment, then we must recognize and accept the fact, and treat our patients
accordingly, and expect them to reward us for oar labors more liberally
than for a mere prescription or suggestion.

We insist on this point, because we feel that through neglecting it
many mistakes have been made, and through a disposition to neglect it
there is danger that in some minds electro-therapeutics itself may fall
into disrepute. While many patients and many cases do well under five
or ten minutes of electrization, very many others, especially after they
have become accustomed to it, require at least double that time.

With all our might, we should avoid the error of supposing that the
best effects of electrical treatment will succeed by short applications
with strong currents. In this way we may both save time and lose our
patients.

28o

FREQUENCY OF THE APPLICATIONS.

Economy of this sort may prove to be the worst of extrav

Frequency of the Applications. — Ordinary stimulanting and tonkl
cines are given one, two, and usually three times a day. The i
electricity cannot usually be administered so frequently witbutit i
more evil than good. It seems essential to the electro-the
treatment, whatever the mode employed, — general and local fai
tion, central and local galvanization, and even electric baths iaA\
use of the body batteries, — that there should be a considerable pr
rest between the applications.

Electrization sets in motion forces that slowly act and react boon I
days after the electrization has ceased. The time required for
forces to operate to the best advantage varies with individuals, ]
all cases a certain period of rest is required, and if the a^
repeated before this period or some portion of it has elapse
fits of the previous application are more or less neutralized^ md <
patient may be weakened more than strengthened. This at least ap
to be the conclusion lliat long experience forces upon us. All \
way between every day or once a week the applications can be
with benefit. Three or four times a week is about as often as the )
age patient cares to make his visits, and it is safer to begin tre
with at least an interval of a day or two between sittings. Somej
tients require at the outset of a course of treatment, intervals of I
or four days. If by accident or intention, strong and long applic
arc made, unpleasant reactive effects may follow that at once !
the necessity of waiting for a day or two. Many a lime does it I
to MS to visit a patient, and, on learning the history of the syrop
to put off the ajjplication twenty four or forty-eight hours.

On the other hand, there are those who can take full applications <
day for a month in succession, and in some cases, as it appears to^
with greater benefit than would be derived from applications given (
other day. At the foimding of the Electro-Therapeutical Dc
of Demilt Dispensary, we received patients only twice a week, Kul j
results were obtained under that sj'stem, but wc afterwards found \\\
sirable to add another day. In private practice we make the i
tions more frequently than at first, and find an advantage in so (
for the reason, mainly^ that we use milder currents than foTrocrly, (
our patients can bear and be profited by more frequent sittings.

General and central applications require longer intervals than
and peripheral applications, for the patent reason that they
]X)werfully affect the whole system, and are more frequently foU
by reJ ctivc effects.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

281

In rare cases, — when the patient has but a short time to remain in town,
or when an intolerable pain is to be relieved, — we have given applica-
tions twice a day, but have not usually obtained any advantage thereby.
Chronic nervous diseases cannot be cured in a day ; time is as neces-
saiv as the electricity. Long standing pathological lesions are not to
be carried by assault, however bravely conducted ; they yield only to a
protracted siege.

Regularity of the Applications. — It is the custom with some electro-
therapeutists to insist on regularity in the days and hours of the
applications, and there are those who believe that the best effects
follow regular and methodical treatment. On this point we are in some
doubt. Patients who are methodical in their habits, and who are
regular in their visits, will be less likely to omit visits, and will be
more likely to persevere, and consequently will be more profited than
tliose who omit half of their visits and abandon treatment before it
is fully tried. There is no evidence that regularity, as such, is any
advantage ; although there is strong probability that for some constitu-
tions, and, perhaps, for diseases with periodic sympton»s, it might be
an advantage to give tlie applications at the same hour daily, or
every other day, as the case may Ije. Our own custom in this regard
varies. Practically we find it impossible to treat all patients with
absolute regularity, and in those cases where we are able to do so we have
not, thus far, been able to see any special therapeutic advantage.

Prolonged Applications. — .A. method of using electricity that has been
too little studied by the profession is that of prolonged applications
with mild currents.

In certain diseases, both medical and surgical, it is of advantage to
allow the current — galvanic or faradic — to nm for several hours — all
day or all night — as may be convenient.

We have become so accustomed to the use of short, or comparatively
short applications, that we forget that the current if sufficiently gentle
may be passed through the body, or part of the body for hours, if not
days consecutively, without injury, and with great benefit, provided
certain cautions are observed.

When the galvanic current is thus used, care must be taken not to
allow the sponges, or metals, or cloths, to remain too long in one
spot, since they will cause a disagreeable though not serious ulceration
of the skin, that may be some time in healing. In order to avoid this
ulceration, it is well to use sponges instead of metals, and to change
from lime to time the posi ion of the electrodes, so that they may not
act too long on one spot.

282

COMBINATION OF METHODS OF APPLICATION.

The details of this method of using electricity must be varied with
each case and the circumstances of the patient.

Intervals l/eiween tht Courses of Treatment.— \\\^ sometimes of ser\'ice
to suspend a course of treatment after it has been going on a number
of weeks, and to allow an interAal of one or more weeks, according to
circumstances. It is sometimes observed that patients improve as
much during the interval as during the treatment, and when the appli-
cations are renewed, they have greater force than at the close
the course of treatmetit. It is true of electricity, as of almost ever
other stimulant, tonic, sedative remedy, that after receiving it a certain
tinie the system becomes so accustomed to it as to tolerate it, and
then its full force is not appreciated. In cases where tliis toleration of
electricity is observed, when the improvement halts, so to speak, a
brief suspension of treatment may be indicated, and on renewing it,
all the benefit at first realized may be repeated.

On the other hand, there are patients who seem to prosper best under
steady, uninterrupted treatment.

Combination of Methods of Application. — Comparatively few diseases
are to be treated solely by any one method of application ; many of the
purely local aflfcctions ever }ield better to electrical procedure, when
the applications are varied, than when one mode only is persistently
used. Both currents, galvanic and faradic, may be tried in alternation
or succession, and both the direct and indirect methods may be em-
ployed at the same sitting or at different sittings. In all diseases where
the whole system is involved, the method of application may be yet
more varied. General faradization and central galvaniiation may be
used alternately, and the alternation may be by tlie day or week.
These methods may be varied witli galvanization of the brain in all
directions, galvaniiation of tlie pueumogastric and sympathetic and of
the spine. In some diseases, as notably in those where central le-
sions are accompanied by peripheral injury and general exhaustion, as
hemiplegia, ataxia, and so forth, all the methods of application may
be used, including faradization with the wire brush. We observe not
unfrequeutly that after one method of electrization has done all that
it is cajiable of doing, after it seems to have lost its power, another
method of electrization, or a mere modification of a method, may push
the improvement yet further, until it in time loses its force and the fresh
stimulus of another method is required.

In this respect the behavior of electricity is in no way peculiar; to
ill powerful remedies the system in time becomes so accustomed, as to
tolerate them without appreciating their remedial influence. In th«

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

283

administration of tonics in cases of debility, and of astringents in cases
of chronic diarrhoea, a necessity for frequent change of remedy is
generally recognized.

How to judge of the Effects of Eleetrieal Treatment. — It is of the first
importance for the electro-therapeutist to have a clear, just and sys-
tematic method of detennining the effects of electricity, both good and
evil. Much of the difference of opinion that prevails among those
who use electricity, as to its general and special value, and much of the
prejudice that exists against electro-therapeutics is the result of a want
of a knowledge of the tests by which *he action of electricity on patients

Lis to be determined.

When we give opium, we know very soon whether it relieves pain
and produces sleep, or, as not unfreqtiently happens, has effects pre-
cisely opposite. We learn to judge without great difficulty whether the
chloral and quinine are doing the work that we desire. W'ilh stinnilants

I and tonics, as used in the chronic affections, greater difficulty is ex-
perienced, but there are certain tests which we study and look for and
by which we aie guided. The effects of electricity should be similarly
studied.

The good effects of electrization arc in general as follows :

f . Relief of Pain and Disagreeable Sensations local and general.—^

jThis relief may appear shortly after the application is commenced,

Iter it has been continued for some minutes, or at its close. In some

cases there is no relief during or immediately after the sitting, but

several hours subsequently. We include painful sensations of every

^kind — the vague wandering pains of neurasthenia and hysteria, the
burning of inflammation as well as real neuralgia.

2. Improvement in the Pulse. — Where the pulse is abnormally slow
it may be quickened both during and for some time after the sitting.
Where it is abnormally rapid it may be lowered. The pulse, there-
fore, may be a guide in the administration of electricity, as it is a gm'de
in the administration of alcohol and various other forms of stimulants
and tonics. If the quiet pulse is made much quicker and so remains
for some time, we may suspect that the application has been too
strong or too long.

3. Improiiement in the Temperature of the Body, or of the part which is
treated. — Parts that are abnonnally warm are cooled, or as is more fre-
quently the case, parts that are abnormally cold are wanned, during and
subsequent to the operation. The temperature may be tested by the
sensations of the patient, by the touch of the operator, or by the ther-
mometer.

284

GOOD EFFECTS OF ELECTRIZATION.

4. General calming Tnfiuence and Disposition to Sleep, — Nervousness
is allayed, just after taking wine, or food, or a bath, or a drive by the
sea. The disposition to sleep comes on usually after the application,
in rare cases during the sitting, especially when the head or neck is
galvanized.

5. Mental Exhilaration. — The effect of sea-bathing, or the inhalation
of oxygen, is to exhilarate in a way that defies minute analysis. The
effect of electrization is similar. This effect is seen more strikingly
in hysteria and hypochondriasi.s.

6. Increase of Appetite and Improvement in Digestion, — In
instances the appetite is sharpened by a single sitting; the permanent'
improvement is, of course, a slower effect, and is only observed after a
number of applications.

7. Improvement in Local and General Nutrition. — To accomplish
improvement in nutrition is the great object of electrical treat-
ment. The relief of pain and of otlier special symptoms, during
a sitting, may justly be regarded as results and accompaniments of
improvement in nutrition. At a later stage of a course of treatment,
the iniprovenienl in nutrition may be seen and studied by the senses.
Improvement in local nutrition is produced by local electrization, im-
provement in general nutrition is produced by general or central elec-
trization. Peripheral local electrization, may, however, reflexly pro-
duce improvement in general nutririon, particularly when prominent
organs, as the uterus, the stomach, and Uver, are treated.

The evil effects of electrization, by the occurrence of which we may
suspect that the applications are too strong or too long, or improperly
given, or that wrong methods are used, or that the temperament and
disease of the patient centra-indicate electricity, are, in general, as
follows :

1. Headache and Backache. — Sudden shocks, or interruptions of the
current, may cause momentary headache that passes away as quickly
as it came. When the headache persists for a considerable time, one
may know that there has been somewhere a mistake in the applica*
tion. Backache follows as a rule only general or central treatment.

2. Irritability and Insomnia. — Patients may feel nervous, irritable,
and indefinably disagreeable after an application, and the ^lecp the
following night may be less sound and more disturbed by dreams than
usual. These are evil effects, and are to be gxiaided against.

3. General Malaise. — This symptom, which is the reverse of the
exhilarati jn spoken of among the good effects, appears not unfrcquentJy
after an over-dose, especially of general faradization. It sometime^

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

2S5

though less frequently, follows central galvanization, and there is no
form of local electrization, central or peripheral, tliat may not in some
temperamervts and conditions give rise to it.

4. Excitation or Pain, or Increase of Pain already existing, —
Neuralgia is sometimes increased on the application of the current, and
particularly when the currents are strong and interruptions arc made.
A harsh and rough faradic current, even when mild, may aggravate
pain. Sometimes there is no effect during or immediately following
the seance ; but in the course of a few hours, the pain is excited or

i aggravated.

Similarly the pains that accompany malignant tumors may be excited
when electricity is applied during an interval, or they may be increased
if treated during the paroxysm.

5. Oz'cr-Excited Pulse. — The pulse may indicate whether the appli-
cation has done good or harm, with some considerable certainty, pro-
vided the operator is sufficiently familiar with the normal pulse of the
patient. This familiarity can only come from previous acquaintance.
A stranger, seeing a patient for the first time, and treating him by
electricit)-, is quite likely to be deceived. The pulse may be over-excited
by the mere coming in of a new physician, or by the thought or dread
of electricity. Thus the value of the pulse as a means of detennining
the degree of the ill effects of an applicarion is much diminished. As a
test of the good effects of electricity, it is much more worthy of trust.

6. Chilliness and other Nervous Sensations. — An application which has
been made injudiciously may be followed almost immediatly by a feeling
of chilliness, as though the patient had taken cold. There may be also
a stiffness of the neck, and pain on turning the back, as though the
patient were rheumatic, and heat and burning in the spine, and crawling,
creeping, pricking, stinging, sensations in the face, down the back, and
on the limbs and other parts of the body.

These sensations arc not due to a cold, as is sometimes supposed, —
fiw, except through gross carelessness, patients do not take cold during
an application of electricity, — but they are merely nervous sensations, of
an hysterical character, precisely like the symptoms described under
[ hysteria and allied affections, and are due to over-irritation of the spinal
cord, and perhaps also of the sympathetic. They more frequently follow
feradization than galvanization, especiallv when a hard, rough, unpleasant
current is used. They appear only in the exhausted and neurasthe-
nic, and most frequently in women.

7. A feeling of Soreness^ Stiffness, and a dull Aching. — These &ensft.
tions are closely allied to those described in the preceding paragraph :— >

286

BAD EFFECTS OF ELECTRIZATION.

they are the result of over irritation of the nerve-centre ; the soreness
that is felt in the muscles after severe faradization is somewhat like that
which is experienced after violent exercise in the gymnasium, on skatec
or on horseback.

The dull, aching pain through the whole body is like the sensation
that is experienced after taking cold. It is a purely nervous sensation
and is caused by over-irritation of the spinal cord One patient whom we
treated for an exhausted and irritable condition of the cord, resulting
from cerebro-spinal fever, persisted that every application caused him
to " take cold."

8. Profuse Perspiration. — Gentle perspiration is one of the good effects
of electrization ; it is observed both after general and local treatment.
But profuse perspiration of any part, as the head, or one of the limbs,
or of one side of the body, or of the whole body, occurring during a
sdancc, or directly followiug it, is a bad symptom, and indicates over-
irritation. In some hyper-sensitive conditions profuse perspiration
may appear under a very mild current, and at the outset of the appli-
cation. We have known a paralyzed arm in hemiplegia break out with
abundant perspiration. In cases of cerebral and spinal irritation we
have known the forehead and the hands to perspire freely during
the application. Some constitutions are specially impressible in this
regard. We once treated a case of paralysis of the bladder by external
galvanization ; the patient was of the average strength and health, but in
less than five minutes his whole body was as freely perspiring as in the
hotest summer day. Nausea and faintness also came on and stopped
the application.

9. Prolonged Rear Hon of the N'en'es of Special Sense. — In the section
devoted to Electro- Physiology, we have seen that the nerves of special
sense, the auditory, the olfactory, the ophthalmic and the gustatory
nerves, all have their special and peculiar reactions to electricity.
These reactions are nonnal and physiological, but in degree and variety
they are greatly influenced by temperament. These reactions are, on
the part of the auditory nerve, hissing, rushing, boiling, seething sounds ;
on the part of ihe ophthahuic nerve and retina, flashes of light ; on the part
of the olfatory nerve, under a powerful and painful current, peculiar
phosphoric or ozonic odor ; on the part of the gustatory nerve, an acid
or coppery taste. For the great majority of temperaments in health or
disease, these reactions disappear with the cessation of the application ;
but where there is special susceptibility to the electricity, or when very
severe or prolonged applications have been made, sonic of these reactions
may continue for hours or days. Thus we have known patients to

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

287

complain of the peculiar taste in the mouth two or three days after an
application. The buzzing in the ears also does not always stop when
the current is opened, prolonged flashes before the eyes are sometimes
noticed, though but rarely. Prolonged reaction of the olfactory nerve
we have never observed.

We call these prolonged reactions evil effects, because they appear
in very susceptible patients, or after careless procedures, and are usu-
ally accompanied by other effects that are unmistakably evil.

Disturbances of the Nert'es of Motion and Common Sensation. — Undei
this head we include hj^ieraestlicsia, general or local^ that an overdose of
electrization sometimes produces in nervous and hysterical patients, or
the opposite condition of anaesthesia and muscular spasms, contractions
and rigidity. These phenomena are not frequent, but in rare instances
they have been observed ; muscular spasm, where it already exists, may
be aggravated temporarily by electricity.

Hygiene of Patients after the Applications.— Y^Ax^ni^ who are strong,
and are treated for purely local troubles, may be entirely indifferent in
regard to their behavior after electrical applications \ they may exercise
brain or muscle, or remain idle, as may be convenient, and the improve-
ment under the treatment will go on just the same. Eut delicate
patients who are treated for grave conditions of debility, and especially
females, do better to avoid exertion after an application : better for them
to sit awhile, or rest on a lounge, and if they are treated in bed to
remain there ; and this, we believe, is another advantage in treating such
cases just after retiring.

If any fancy they take cold as a result of ad application, it is a pure
fancy, or it is the nervous chill that sometimes follows over-electrization,
or it is the result of exposure in a cold room while undressing.

Cumulative action of Electricity. — It sometimes happens in the treat-
ment of a painful and tender nerve, that a sudden shock is felt, after
the electrodes have been a long time in position, even when the current
is very mild and is scarcely felt on the surface,

A medical friend, who by our suggestion treated a case of ulcer of
the stomach by the galvanic current, informed us that a very mild
current from a few zinc carbon cells, which gave no burning sensation
on tlie surface whatever, would, after the electrodes had been kept in
position a few minutes, one on the epigastric, and the other on the
back, cause all of a sudden and without any warning a painftil shock,
as though a strong current had been suddenly interrupted in the
metallic part of the circuit. This phenomenon occurred so often that
he abandoned the treatment.

288

THE TEMPERAMENT TO BE CONSIDERED,

We have occasionally made the same observation on other parts of th«
body. Thus, in a case of sciatica that we were treating by the galvanic
current — one pole on the course of the nerve below the trochanter,
and the other on the back — only a very slight sensation was felt for
two or three minutes, when all at once the patient gave a jump as
lliough shocked by a powerful current. A number of times during the
seance the experiment was repeated. Every pains was taken to avoid
error by assuring ourselves that the current was actually running all the
time, and that there was no actual interruption.

This cumulative action, if we may call it such — would seem to be
somewhat analogous to the cumulative action of strychnine and some
other remedies. The rationale of it is in the present state of oar
knowledge hard to determine. It may be that as the skin becomes
more and more moistened, its conductivity so increases that a portion
of the nerve is traversed by the current which at first was not touched,
and Uiat this physical explanation is sufficient. It may be that the
nerve, already in an iiTitable condition, may have its irritability so
greatly increased, that it deveIoi>s it suddenly under continued thotigh
mild stimulation. We have, as yet, no evidence that such shocks are
specially harmful, although they are unpleasant and startling. They
can be avoided as a rule by shifting the electrodes every moment, sa
as to avoid a long irritation of any one spot.

Increased Toleration of Electricity, — The system can become
habituated to electricity just as it becomes habituated to alcohol, or
opium, or any other potent remedy. After a long course of treat-
ment, extending over several months, nearly all patients bear very
much longer and stronger applications than at first. This is observed
in those whose sensitiveness to electricity is at first extreme. It is
not therefore necessarily a discouraging fact if at the outset of a
course of treatment very gentle currents and very short sittings are
required.

The Temperament^ as well as the £>isease^ to he considered in using
Electricity. — There are individuals whom electricity always injures, the
only difference in the effect on them between a mild and a severe
application being, that the former injures less than the latter. There
are patients upon whom all electro-therapeutical skill and experience
^e wasted ; their temperaments are not en rapport with electricity.

It matters not what may be the special disease or symptoms of
disease from which they suffer^paralysis, or neuralgia, or neurasthenia
or hysteria, or affections of special organs — the immediate and the per-
manent effects of galvanization or faradization, general or localized.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

289

are evil and only evil. We have not arrived at this opinion by theorizing ;
we have been driven to it by the accumulating and irresistible logic
of facts. The first query that arises, in the mind of the electro-thera-
peutist, when a case under his care responds badly, is, " Am T rightly
using this remedy ; am I making the application too long or too
severe, or by improper methods ? Would a change of current be de-
sirable?" But after we have tried all electrical applications ; after we
have gone from galvanism to faradism, from general to localised elec-
trization, from long and severe to short and gentle treatments ; after we
have rung the changes on all these, and yet persistently aggravate
rather than mollify the disease, and instead of strength and rehef, pro-
duce weakness and distress, and instead of calmness cause irritation, —
then we have only to make as graceful a retreat as possible, and put
that patient down as a case that was not bom to be treated by elec-
tricity. We have no explanation to offer of the phenomenon ; and the
popular belief or supposition, that the excess or deficiency of animal
electricity has something to do with these matters, is as undemonslrable
as it is plausible ; he who should attempt to prove or disprove it would
find he had undertaken anything but an easy task. It would seem to
come in the list of those strange but familiar likes and dislikes in regard
to certain articles of food or drink, or of certain sights or odors. We
know of no physiognomical or rather external appearances by which
to determine whether a patient does or does not belong to the unfor-
tunate few who can have no ]<Jt or share in eleciro-therapeutics. The
strongest equally with the weakest, the plethoric and the enervated,
are found among these Gentiles of science.

The reverse proposition, that there are certain constitutions for
which, by whatever form of chronic disease they may be afflicted, elec-
tricity is always indicated, is equally true. There are patients who
find in electrical treatment almost a specific. Whether they suffer from
dyspepsia or neurasthenia, from hysteria or diseases of special organs,
rheumatism or neuralgia, electrization always relieves them up to a
certain point, at least, if it does not positively cure, TA^ broad fact to
be understood is, that it is not so muck the disease or the symptoms, as
the temperament that indicates or contraindicates electrisation.

^Vhile some chronic diseases are more amenable to electricity than
others, among all patients there are individuals to whom it is a matter
of indifference what special affection they may suffer from ; so long as
improvement in local and general nutritiooi is indicated, they will be
benefited by electrical treatment.

To all this it should be added that some persons are indifferent to
«9

290

THE TEMPERAMENT TO BE CONSIDERED.

electricity — they can bear almost any strength of eitlier current rery
Crequently and for long applications, without experiencing any cff©
cither good or evil. Electricity may be poured over them in Untitle
measures ; they may be satiu-ated with it, and they may come out fn
the applications not a whit better or worse. Patients who are quite
delicate and sensitive exhibit this supreme and provoking indiftercuce
to electricity. We are inclined to believe also that patients vary in
their susceptibility to electricity at different times of life. Susceptibility
to stimulants and narcotics oftentimes undergoes strange modihcation
during the lifetime of an individual. Those who at one time cannot
drink coffee, sometimes find that a few years so modify the tempera-
ment that they can drink it with absolute freedom, and vice versa.
Similarly, also, alcoholic liquors act in a most capricious way, some-
times benefiting, at other times injuring even when nearly all tlie other
conditions except age are the same. Idiosyncrasies in regard to cer-
tain articles of food are by no means constant through life — they may
change either way, and that too in the course of a few years ; they
may be modified by febrile or other diseases that revohilionize the
system, or by residence in various climates, or by mere lapse of years.^
Analogy would lead us to suppose that susceptibility to electricity migh
also be tlius modified, and our observations seem to convince us that
sucli is the case.

We are further inclined to believe that susceptibility to electricity,
favorable and unfavorable, like all other constitutional tendencies, is
subject to the laws of hereditary descent, and runs in families. We
have treated by electricity three members of the family of a physician,
who are afflicted with quite diverse maladies, but all of whom not only
improved under the treatment, but can be electrized with great freedom
by either current ; and yet none of them are strong, and two of them
are delicate.

On the other hand, we have treated families where several of the
members are so susceptible to the electric current that the ap]ilicaiion
must be made with great care lest unpleasant results occur. We are fuUv
convinced also that the proportion of those who do not bear electricity
well is larger among the higher than among the lower classes ; in
hospital and dispensary practice, the number of patients who exhibit
excessive susceptibility to the electric treatment is quite limited, whereais
in private practice, among the intellectual classes, one out of five or
ten, take the cases as they run, must be treated with very considerable
caution, lest disagreeable symptoms arise.

Relation of Electr 7-susceptivity to Prognosis, — Between electro-suscep.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

291

tivity and prognosis there would appear to be no constant relation. One
patient may be extremely susceptible to electricity, and another capable
J of bearing it in large doses, and both shall be benefited- If there be
any law in the matter it is this, that those who occupy the medium
ground, who are neither specially sensitive nor the reverse — offer tht
best prognosis under electrical treatmenL It is equally sure, however,
that those who are exceedingly sensitive may become so tolerant of
the remedy as to derive great benefit frocn it. For this reason we
should not be discouraged, even by extreme electro-sensibility or
electro susceptibility in our patients.

The most provoking class are those who cannot be influenced in any
way by electricity, but who can even from the very first receive it
in enormous doses without showing or feeling any good or evil effect,
and yet even such cases may by protracted treatment be benefited.

Regard for Age. — In the apportioning of the dose of electricity the
only general rule to be considered is, that the extremes of life — the
very young and the very old — demand rather more caution than those
in youth and middle life. It is not however necessary to divide the
Joses of electricity for infants and children, as we divide the doses of
ordinary medicines ; childien from three years down to three months
and even younger may be treated by general faradization and central
galvanization almost as freely as .idults. On theoretical considerations,
and in order to be on the safe side, we do not usually treat very young
children as long, or with as strong currents as adults, nor quite so
frequently, but we have not often seem any especially bad results from
quite prolonged applications, provided mild currents are used. The
rule is to give the average baby about half as much treatment as the
SLverage adult. Children cry when the current hurts them, and this to
the merciful physician operates as a check against over-dosing them.

Very old patients — between seventy and ninety — need to be
treated with reasonable, but not extreme caution. The moderately
aged — between fifty and seventy — often bear electricity better than
those in the more active period — between twenty and fifty.

Regard for Sex. — As a rule females are somewhat more susceptible to
electricity than males, and require to be treated with greater caution ; not
that tliere is any difference of susceptibility of the sexes, but because in
civilization woman is more delicate than man, and more readily influenced
for good or evil, by all remedies and systems of treatment. But
although the law that woman is more impressible than man holds well
on the average, yet the individual exceptions are very numerous.
Some women — even iJiosc who are exquisitely delicate — can bear enor-

292

REGARD FOR METHOD OF APPLICATION.

nious doses of electricity, while some men who are very hardy can bear
none at all. The rule however, is constant enough to make it
advisable always to begin the treatment of delicate females vntii con-
siderable caution.

The higher susceptibility of women to electrical influence, makes
them yield more rapidly than men to the treatment, when it suits the
temperament and disease, and hence it is that many of the most delightful
results of general faradization and central galvanization, have been
obtained in neurasthenic, anemic, hysterical women.

The menstrual period in women does not contraindicate electrical
treatment at all, but on considerations of delicacy the operations of
general faradization and central galvanization cannot well be performed
at that time. Local applications to the periphery can be made without
regard to the menses.

Regard for the Method of Application and the Skill of the Electro-
therapeutist, — It is not electricity in the abstract, but electrization^ — that
is, electricit>- applied to the body — that cures disease. Everything, there-
fore, depends on the method of application. Patients frequently say ihat
they have " tried electricity" and it did no good. We have long since
ceased to pay any heed to such statements, or to allow them to influ-
ence our prognosis, unless it is expressly stated who gave the electrical
treatment, what methods were employed, and how faithfully the treat-
ment was carried out. Some of the best successes we have are gained
with patients who have "tried electricity** and found it wanting.
What should we think of a patient afflicted with a broken leg who
should &.ay that he had ** tried surgery," and it had failed to set the
bone? Would we not ask, "What surgeon? Was he a pretender, or a
man of science? And did he have a fair chance?" It is possible, even
if good treatment at the hands of good men failed some time ago, that
the conditions may now be so altered that the same or different treat-
ment will be successful.

It is not the remedy, it is the manner of using it that determines its
value. There is as much difference in electro-therajjculists as there is
in general surgeons, ophthalmolologists, or aurists, or gynecologists, or
obstetricians. In the ranks of those who use batteries are all grades
of genius, and lack of genius, especially the latter. In electro-thera-
peuiics two currents are used, and six different methods of application,
and these methods are all capable of indefinite variations, dependent
on the taste, skill or experience of the electro-therapeutist. When one
mode of application fails, another may succeed ; when one electro*
therapeutist fails with any mode of application, another with the same

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS,

293

mode of application may succeed. And yet, patients with some
obscure disease, that requires the best diagnostic as well as therapeutic
skill, who have had, perhaps, half a do^en applications of the magneto-
electric or rotary machines, at the hands of some stupid servant-girl,
declare that they have "tried electricity," As well might a sailor
whose broken bone had been badly set at sea by a comrade before the
mast, declare that he had '■ tried surgery."

Thf Differential Prognosis of Accidental and Hereditary Disease^
under Electrical Treatment. — The prognosis of any case under electrical
treatment depends more on the time that tlie disease has been existing
than on the nature of the disease itself. Very grave and severe symp-
toms of the most threatening character yield promptly, when they are
recent^ and, so to speak, accidental, while mild and nameless synjptoms,
that appear to be of the most trifling character, when long standing, and
especially when they are inherited, may be exceedingly obstinate. It
becomes therefore of the Jirst importance to inquire how long the mor-
bid symptoms, or other symptoms allied to them, have been existing in
the patient, before making a prognosis. This principle applies to all
diseases for which electricity is employed. It is illustrated in a most
interesting manner in hysteria and allied atfections. If two cases pre-
sent themselves, both suffering from symptoms of hysteria and neuras-
thenia, but in one case the symptoms are a life-long heritage, while in
the other tliey have arisen recently, and, so to speak, accidentally,
the prognosis in the latter case is, other conditions being the same, con-
sequently more favorable. Even if the symptoms in the recent case be
of a severer type, the prognosis may be much better than in the inher-
ited case. On this account it becomes necessary to inquire with dili-
gence, and repeatedly, of the patients and of their friends, in order to
see whether any allied symptoms have been their portion through life,
and whether the special disturbances for which they require treatment
are simply branches of a great tree of disease that has grown up in them
from the moment of their inception,

Wlien, for example, a patient appears with sciatica, or tic-douloareux,
it is not enough to learn how long that particular symptom has dis-
tressed him in the present attack. The questions to be asked are :
Has he ever at any period of his life had this or any other form of
neuralgia? Is he of the nervous diathesis ? Have his jiarcnts or any
of his near relations suffered from neuralgia, or from any disease, or
s>'mptoms of disease that are allied to it ? On the answers given to these
queries will depend our probable prognosis, not only as to the rapidity
of relief under electrical treatment, but also as to lis permaneney.

294

AFTER-EFFECTS OF ELECTRICAL TREATMENT.

Inherited diseases- are inclined to relapse : \he symptom ma/ give
ay, apparently, before the force of treatment, but may reappear as
sily as it disappeared, even while the treatment is continued,
Aftir-Effects of Electrical Treatment. — It is a fact well recognized
that the tonic efifects of a trip to Euroj^e, or to the mountains, or of
a short vacation anywhere, or at any season, are frequently but little
appreciated while the patient is travelling or recreating ; but appear
days, weeks, and months subsequently. A debilitalc-d man may receive
no strength while on the ocean, or at the hotel, or farm-house in tl>e
country, may, indeed, seem to grow weaker instead of stronger, and
may become disheartened thereby, but on his return to his duties, health
may gradually, perhaps imperceptibly, come to him, and he may experi-
ence a renovation and a recuperation that can only be explained as the
after effects of his vacation.

It is, perhaps, not so well recognized that tonic remedies, and systems
of treatment of various kinds, may act just in the same way. Not only
the evil but the good effects of medicines may be cumulative. We may
see this principle illustrated in the administration of quinine, strychnine,
arsenic, phosphorus, and iron.

Electricity obeys the same law, and in certain constitutions, and cer*
tain slates of the system, especially those of debility, it does little or
nothing that the patient can see or feel during the treatment itself^ —
but prepares the way for a perfect and permanent recovery. We have
seen this principle illustrated in a large variety 5f cases of chronic dis-
ease. The practical lesson that we are to derive from this is to en-
courage patients who do not feel fully satisfied «-ith the progress that
they make while under treatment, to watch closely, if possible, their
career long after treatment is abandoned.

Electrisation in its Relations to other Forms of Treatment, — ^The ques-
tion, so often asked, whether electrical treatment will interfere with
internal medication, or with gymnastics, the Russian, Turkish or other
baths, and so forth, is very easily answered. It harmonizes with all other
tonic remedies, and methods of treatment that are employed for the
common purpose of relieving pain, or building up broken-down consti-
tutions.

Except in cases where we wish to experiment and learn the therapeu-
tical value of electricity by itself alone, uncomplicated with other
healing factors, it is a positive advantage oftentimes to employ, at the
same time with electricity, external or internal medication of various
kinds. So far as we now know there is no medicine that is inconv
patible with electricity. There is no evidence that any remedy has any

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

295

specific reenforcing effect upon electricity, such, for example, ascertain
stimulants have on hycirate of chloral. Some of the best therapeutical
results are obtained from a combination of electrical with other
treatment.

On th€ Use of Ekcirie'tty by t/t^ Laity. — Even at this advanced stage
of electro-therapeutics, it seems to be necessary to constantly warn the
profession against indiscriminately intrusting the details of electrical
applications to the nurses, friends of patients, and the patients them-
selves. Having just rescued this department from the hands of the
laity, and given it a position among men of science, it seems strange
that those physicians who are familiar with the subject sliould even now
use their influence to return it to the people at whose hands it for-
merly suffered so much ; to restore it to the captivity of prejudice and
ignorance.

The temptation on the part of the people to use electricity them-
selves, and on the part of the profession to allow them to do so, is very
strong. The majority of physicians know little more of electro-thera-
peutics than their patients. Some have a theoretical, but not a practical
acquaintance with it Then there are those who are well practised in
tlie art, but are too closely occupied to employ it. They have no ap.
paratus, or if they have any it is very likely out of order. Perhaps no
specialist is accessible, or the patient is, or is supposed to be, too poor
to employ one. The physician, forgetting that it is not electricity, but
electrization that cures disease, forgetting that there are two kinds of
electricity in common use, and six different methods of application,
every one of which is capable of various modifications, forgetting that
there are certain temperaments that will not bear electricity, however
applied, and that there are others who must be treated at first with
great skill and caution, and on whom the currents and methods em-
ployed must be studiously varied during a course of treatment, in
short, forgetting that electro-therapeutics, considered as a science or an
ait, is wonderfully complex and exacting, orders the patient to " get a
battery and try electricity "

This prescription is usually carried out in the following manner : An
old magneto-electric machine (rotary) is trumped up from some neigh-
bor's garret, where, after having failed to cure any member of the family,
it has been rusting for years. If the patient be wealthy, perhaps a new
faradic machine is ordered, that gives a harsh, rough current, and when
applied, drives the patient to despair. The friends o{ the patient are
bored with the request of the patient to apply electricity, and only half
do their duty ; consequently the patient tries to make the application

296 ABBREVUTIONS USED IN ELECTRO-THERAPELTICS.

to himself, and, of necessity, makes awkward work. Pretty soon
metals become corroded, and the current ceases to flow, and the
is sooD consigned to the closet or garret, where it will do no
and probably as much good as in the hands of the patient.

This picture is not drawn from fancy ; it is a picture of genuine i
firequent experience.

Abbrex'iatiofts used in Electro-Therapeutics. — It is a decided
venicnce and saves much time in recording cases, in giving
instruction, in public lecturing, and in conversation, to describe
trical applications by abbreviations. About a year since wc <
the following abbreviations, which have been used with sati&faciM
giving private instruction and in conversation with our assistants
odiers who are familiar with it, and in records of cases from day to 1
We do not adopt it in the present treatise, for the reason ihat il is adftl
yet widely known, and might perplex and bewilder the reader :

L. F. Localized faradization.

L. G. " galvanizalion.

G. F. General faradization.

C. G. Central galvanization.

G. B. Galvanization of the brain.

G. C. S. " « sympathetic.

G. S. " « spine.

E. Electrolysis.

G. C. Galvano-cautery.

CHAPTER IV.

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE GALVANIC AND FARADIC CURRENTS.

Much of th* confusion that exists concerning the diflFerential indica.
tions for the use of the galvanic and faradic currents arises from an im-
perfect or erroneous or exaggerated conception of the distiiiction in
their physical and physiological effects. The general belief or supposi-
tion is, that there is between them a radical and important difference
in kind, as though they were two different agents or forces.

We can most intelligently compare the therapeutical effects of the two
currents, if we first compare their physical characteristics and their phy-
siological effects.

By referring to the section on electro- physics, it will be seen that both
currents — faradic and galvanic — are capable of producing chemical de-
composition, of deflecting the needle of the galvanometer, of producing
sparks, and of being changed into heat. Generally speaking, these
effects are produced more powerfully by the galvanic current ; but in
Gramme's machines we shall see that magneto-electricity is capable of
producing great heat and of electroplating on an enormous scale.

Both currents are obedient to the law of Ohm, with this qualification,
that the faradic current must be regarded as having passed through a
great resistance.

Faradic and galvanic electricity are therefore the same force — elec-
tricity, only each variety is modified by the nature of the substance
through which it circulates, as well as the manner of its production.

Light is light, whether its waves are shorter or longer, and in spite of
interference and polarization, and whatever may be the color that it ex-
cites in the retina ; sound is sound, whether its undulations move slowly
or rapidly. So electricity is electricity, however generated or however
modified by the medium through which it moves ; and all fonns of it,
magnetism, as well as frauklinism, galvanism, and the many .-arieties of
faradism, are merely different expressions of the one great force — elec-
tricity.

298 GALVANIC AND FARADIC CURRENTS COMPARED.

In their physiological effects the two currents approach each othet
even more closely. It is true that the phenomena of electrotonos have
only been demonstrated under the galvanic current ; but it is not proved
that similar phenomena, to a less degree, may not be caused by the faradic
current, and every -day experience in electro-therapeutics shows that with
the faradic current, as with the galvanic, the positive pole is the more
calming, and the negative the more irritating. Both currents act on the
skin so as to modify the circulation, the galvanic having a greater chemi-
cal eflfect and causing a fccHng of burning, while die faradic causes a feel-
ing of stinging and pricking. Both currents applied to the brain and
spinal cord excite contractions of peripheral muscles. Applied to the
sympathetic both currents, according to the degree of irritation, cause
contraction or dilatation of the cerebral vessels j the faradic producing
the same effect as the galvanic, only more slowly. Applied to the pneu-
mogastric, whether cut or injured, both currents produce about the sajne
effects on the heart. Even in tlieir action on the nerves of special sense
the currents approach each other far more closely than has been
supposed.

In temperaments of a high order of susceptibility the faradic current
may so excite the retina as to cause tlashes before the eyes, and may
produce a metallic taste in the mouth, and even the auditory nerve re-
sponds to the faradic current, though less distinctly than to the gal-
vanic current, and without the pecuHar differential action of the
poles.

Applied to motor and sensory nerve branches, both currents and both
poles cause sensations of pricking, tingling and numbness, and contrac-
tions of the muscles which the nerve supplies. Applied lo voluntary
muscles both currents cause contractions, the faradic more readily than
the galvanic ; applied to involuntary muscles both currents cause slow
contraction at both poles and in the intermediate region. The electro-
lytic action of the faradic current on the blood or on the tissues of tlie
body is but feeble as compared with that of the galvanic cmrent ; but
yet it exists, and from the inner, or primary coil, is easy of demonstration ;
and yet it must be confessed that in their chemical action the currents
diverge more widely than in any other physiological effect.

Over nutrition both currents and both poles have a powerful influence,
the faradic acting more prominently through the muscular, the galvanic
through the nervous system.

From the accumulating results of experiments and experience in
electro-diagnosis and therapeutics, we think that there is strong reason
for regarding the essential distinction in the effects of these currents on

ADVANTAGES OF GALVANIC OVER FARADIC.

299

the body as mainly of degree^ — practically amounting, it is true, to a
difference in kind, — and that this is the scientific basis for their differen-
tial employment.

In the form of localized electrization both can produce muscular
contractions in paraly/ed muscles, and relieve local neuralgias ; both
cause absorption of abnormal secretions ; and both can directly affect
the brain, spinal cord, sympathetic, and all the internal organs, pro-
ducing, in different degrees, the various therapeutic results that directly
and indirectly flow from electrical excitation of these parts. In the
fonii of general electrization both currents, besides producing most of
tlie other results of localized electrization, act as powerfully stimulating
tonics, and thus form most efficient aids in the relief and cure of nerv-
ous exhaustion, nervous dyspepsia, constitutional neuralgia, and of a
wide range of nervous diseases associated with or dependent on general
debility.

In electro-surgery both currents avail to discuss tumors, heal ulcers,
and hasten absorption, although for these purposes the galvanic is
incomparably the more effective.

And yet the difference in degree between the effects of the two cur-
rents is so marked and so clearly demonstrable, as to be practically
equivalent in certain instances to a difference in kind, and to give v^t^
important and remarkable advantages to one current or the other, ac*
cording to the indications required.

The advantages of the galvanic over the faradic are : —

1. A greatir power of ovcnomini!^ rtsistanee. It therefore affects the
brahi, spinal cord, and sympathetic more powerfully than the faradic,
since the anatomical position of these parts is such that considerable
resistance must be overcome in order to directly affect them. For the
same reason it is usually to be preferred when it is desired to affect the
middle and internal car, the retina, and the muscles of the eye.

2. A power of producing muscular eontracthm in cases where the
faradic fails. This peculiarity of the galvanic current has now bem
observed so frequently, and in such striking instances, that it has be-
come an accepted fact of electro-therapeutical science. Illustrative
examples will be given in the section 00 paralysis. After a certain
amount of treatment by the galvanic current the paralyzed muscles
frequently resume their susceptibility to the faradic.

3. A far more potent electrotonic^ electrolytic^ and thermic action,
> The chemical power of the galvanic current is most markedly seen

when used for the purposes of galvano-caulery or electrolysis. The
superior efficacy of the galvanic current to the faradic, so often

300 GALVANIC AND FARADIC CURRENTS COMPARED.

observed in the treatment of neuralgia, of atrophied muscles, ;
tism, is probably dwe to its greater " catalytic " action. It
induces more rapid and more important molecular and other <
the tissues. This superiority of the galvanic current is supposed (
due to its more continuous duration ; it moves constantly in one <
tion. and thus produces more powerful electrolytic effects than 1
radic current with its rapid interruptions can possibly produce.

The advantages of the faradic over the galvanic current are ;

I. By virtue of its frequent interruptions it more easily pr
muscular contractions when passed over the muscles or the nerra {
supply them. In order to produce full muscular contractions with a j
vanic current of moderate strength it is nccessar)' to interrupt the I
rent, and, unless it is quite powerful, to localize at least one of \
electrodes over the motor nerve by which the muscle is supplied-
is, over the so-called '* motor points." On the contj-ar)', the
current is in a condition of rapid interruption and produces conn
when indifferently passed over the surface of the muscle, as well as 1
localized on the main motor nerve that supplies it.

This advantage of the faradic current is best appreciated in go
faradization, the powerful tonic effects of which, as will be sees, I
partly and quite largely due to the passive exercise and con*
oxidation and other important changes of tissue that result from I
several thousand muscular contractions that take place during lO i
nary sitting. In localized electrization this advantage is not $o do
and strongly marked, since, in this method, by a proper knowlcdgel
electro-therapeutical anatomy and sufficient care, it is possible to c
one of the electrodes on the "motor points;" and yet eveD here i
faradic current is much more convenient, because its employmeotl
quires no arrangement for interruption, and less minuteness of atte
to the situation of the motor nerves. The exceptional cases of l
sis, where the muscles have lost their susceptibility to the faradic (
rent, do not interfere with the general rule.

a. It produces greater mechanical effects. These mechanical cffe(
of the faradic current are due to its rapid interruptions, which (
contractions not only of the muscles, but also of the contractile
cells, thus stimulating the circulation, and with it the procc»iC5 1
waste and repair. In this respect its action is similar to that off
bing, pounding, movements and vibrations. These mechanical (
are especially indicated in the treatment of diseases of the
viscera, which are supplied with contractile fibre-cells ; an£sthesii,|
general muscular debility.

ADVAITTAGES OF FARADIC OVER GALVANIC.

301

3. It is less Hkfly to produce unpleasant or harmful effects, when
incautiously used^ than the galvanic.

To confirm this statement we rest mainly on the evident results
of clinical observation. We may indeed refer to a number of cases of
severe constitutional neuralgia and excessive nervous exhaustion where
the faradic current invariably relieved, and where the galvanic current
as invariably aggravated, the symptoms. For this reason it is better to
begin the practice of electro-therapeutics with the faradic current, and
for those families who desire a scientific plaj'thing, the faradic machine
is safer than the galvanic apparatus.

In all applications to the head, neck, and spine especially, applica*
tions of the galvanic current can rarely be protracted without injury,
while in many cases the spine and neck may be faradized through very
prolonged sittings, with positive benefit to the patient. To the head,
also, a faradic current of a proper quality may be applied much longer
than a galvanic current, before unpleasant dizziness or headache is
excited. The belief, pretty generally entertained in Europe, that the
faradic current cannot be applied to the head without injury, is to be
accounted for by the fact that most of the electric machines there em-
ployed are separate coil machines, and do not furnish a current of suffi-
cient smoothness for faradization of the head. Most of those who at-
tempt this method of treatment use too small electrodes, and thus give
the current greater density than the brain can bear. Galvanization of tlie
eye or ear, or of the cervical sympathetic, must always be shorter than fara-
dization of the same parts. These considerations, however, need not inter-
fere with the use of the galvanic current to these parts, in all cases where
it offers a positive advantage over the faradic. There is no real danger
in using either current on any patient, provided it be used properly.

A consideration of some practical importance with general practi-
tioners is, that the faradic apparatus is more convenient, more portable,
than even the compactest galvanic apparatus that has yet been devised-
It is impossible, however, for any practitioner to realize anything like
the full benefit of electrization without apparatus for the galvanic as
well as the faradic current.

The general differential indications for the use of the two currents
may be thus summed up. The galvanic should be used —

1. To act ivith special electrotonic and electrolytic power on
the brain^ spinal cord^ sympathetic^ or any part of the central or per iph-
rral nervous system.

2. To produce contractions in paralyzed muscles that fail to respond
to the faradic. .

302 GALVANIC AND FARADIC CURRENTS COMPARED.

3. In eUctro-surgery^ to produce electrolysis or cauia-ization.
The faradic should be used —

1. To act MILDLY on the brain, spinal cord, sympathetic, or any pari
of the central or peripheral nervous system.

2. To excite muscular contractions wherever the muscles are not so
much diseased as to be unable to respond to it.

3. To produce strong mechanicaJ effects.

Both are essential in electro-diagnosis — the faradic especially for the
muscles, and the galvanic especially for the nervous system ; and both
are adapted for general as well as l(xalized electrization, although in
general electri/^aiion the faradic current is chiefly used. Jt logically
follows from what has been said that very many — perhaps the majority
— of diseases are best treated not by one current exclusively, but by
both currents, either in alternation or succession. Special indications
will be given under the special diseases.

The two currents compared to bromide of potassium and hydrate of
chloral.

We are accustomed to compare in a rough way the differential action
of the currents with the differential action of bromide of potassium and
hydrate of chloral, the faradic current being the bromide of potassium,
and the galvanic the hydrate of chloral.

Bromide of potassium is a safer remedy tlian hydrate of chlora
but there are very many cases where it is powerless, and the hydrate >
chloral acts as a specific ; so the faradic current is safer than the ga
vanic, and therefore better adapted for general use, and, for those whc
use but one current, fulfils a larger requirement ; and yet there arc
many cases where it fails and the more powerful galvanic is demanded.
Except for the cases where the galvanic current is dearly indicated, it
is well to begin with tlie faradic current, just as we use bromide of
potassium before resorting to hydrate of chloral.

A combination of bromide of potassium and hydrate of chloral is
frequently more effective in producing sleep and relieving pain than
either remedy when used alone : similarly the combined or alternate
use of the faradic or galvanic currents will sometimes accomplish mucij
more than either current used exclusively.

CALVANO-FARADIZATION.

In order to secure the advantages of both currents, and at th^ sani«
time to avoid the trouble and inconvenience of employing them in suc-
cession, or alternately, as is so frequently necessary, we have devised 1

GALVANO-FARADIZATION. 303

method of using them simultaneously. To this method we have given a
name which sufficiently expresses its character — galvano-faradization.
It may be either general or localized.

The method of general galvano-faradization requires a double
electrode, with one part for the galvanic and the other for the faradic
current. The copper plate may be connected at one part with the
pole of the faradic, and at another with that of the galvanic apparatus ;
thus the circuit is completed for both currents.

In localized galvano-faradization it is necessary to have in use two
double electrodes ; for this purpose the double excitors of Duchenne
answer very well. By a proper construction and adjustment of the
electrodes it is possible to localize the two currents very near to each
other. Whether any special therapeutical advantage arises from the
simultaneous use of the two currents, we are unable to state.

We allow the above description of galvano-faradization to stand just
as it appeared in the first edition.

Since we have used central galvanization — ^a method to be subse-
quently described — ^we have dispensed almost entirely witli general
cralvano-faradization.

CHAPTER V.

THE PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-DIAGNOSIS (eLECTRO-PATHOLOGV).

In this chapter we shall spealc only of the principles on which'
electricity is used as a means of diagnosis in medicine. The details
and special applications of these principles will appear under the vari-
ous diseases,

A history of the use of electricity as a means of diagnosis would very
likely be the history of electro-therapeutics itself As soon as men
began to use the voltaic pile in the treatment of paralysis and kindred
diseases, about the middle of the last century, just so soon, probably,
they began to test the power of the electric current to diagnosticate
disease. We logically infer that electrization was used as a means of
diagnosis much earlier than the published treatises on the subject would
show, from the fact that it has been so used— in a blind and empirical
way, it is true — in this country, for thirty or forty years. Mankind,
always and everj-where, are superstitious, credulous, ready to receive
whatever approaches them with an air of mystery, much more so in the
last century than in the present ; and it is certainly not unfair to sup-
pose that the earlier experimenters in this department consulted, to a
greater or less extent, the diagnostic or prophedc power of the subtle
agent — electricity. Their experiments, we may suppose, were unscien-
tific and unsatisfactory. They were probably neither based on any
well-defined principles, nor conducted by any intelligible system. Ac-
cordingly, they secured very few tangible, or at least communicable, re-
suits, and if scientific men had not espoused the cause of electro-thera-
peutics, the phrase electricity as a means of diagnosis, would never have
been known. Nearly all that has been accomplished in a scientific
way, in this department, is comparatively recent j though Marshall Hall
earnestly called the professional attention to the fact that Electricity
might assist us in differentially diagnosticating paralysis as far back as
1839.* Since that time the subject has been studied by neariy all the
prom nent workers in the department of electro-therapeutics.
• Mcdico-CWrurgical Transactions, 1839.

MODIFICATIONS OF ELECTRO-SENSIBILITY.

305

In order to be expert in electro-diagnosis, it is necessary to be
thoroughly familiar with the normal reaction of the different parts and
organs of the body to faradic and galvanic electricity. The founda-
tion princiijles, on which Electricity can be made a means of diagnosis
of disease, are simply these four : —

First. The fact that all the farts and organs 0/ the body are more or
less sensitive to the electric current^ and that this sensitiveness is modified
by disease. This electro-sensibility may be either increased or dimin-
ished.

If an electric current be passed through a boil, or irritable ulcer, or
the skin, like any other irritant, it excites more pain than when it is
applied ovcj the healthy skin ; and this pain which it causes usually
bears quite a direct proportion to the nature and condition of the
morbid process. This is so familiar and so apparent an example of in-
crease of electro-sensibility, that to state it is to demonstrate it. The
electric currents, during the various processes of electrization, penetrate
beneath the skin, and, as it has been experimentally and practically
demonstrated, traverse, to a greater or less extent, the principal vital
organs. It is evident, therefore, that those organs which are abnor-
mally sensitive, through disease of any kind, must feel the current much
more appreciably than when in a condition of health.

But the mechanical effects of the electric ciurents work both ways,
and organs which arc indurated or changed into an anaesthetic condi-
tion by disease are less sensitive than is normal to the electric curren(,
just as they are less sensitive to any other mechanical cause acting upon
them.

Accordingly, we find that when even powerful electric currents are
passed through an indurated joint, or an atrophied liver, or any part the
sensory nerves of which are paralyzed, they may produce little sensa-
tion.

Before making examinations to determine the sensitiveness of the
different parts of the surface of the body, it is necessary to know their
relative normal sensitiveness, as indicated and described in the chapter
on Electro-Therapeutical Anatomy.

No absolute Standard of Electro-sensibility, — We have no absolute
or mathematical standard of electro-sensibility by which to compare
the deviations that appear in disease. We can only compare the
sensitiveness of parts with the average sensitiveness of the same parts
in health. When half the body is diseased, as in hemiplegia, it may
readily be compared with the electro-sensibility of the healthy side.
In all these examinations into sensibility we are dependent on the
20

3o6

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-DIAGNOSIS.

statements of the patient, and the results will be influenced by I
telligence and honesty.

It need hardly be said that the diagnosis obtained by obscr\*in
increased or diminished sensitiveness, of any part or organ, must,«
cessity, be a very general one. It simply informs us of, and diri
attention to, the fact that such a part or organ is in some way <
The special nature of this disease must be determined by the
means of differential diagnosis at oar command.

This sensitiveness to the electric current is particularly marked i
the prominent nerve-tracts, and in those regions endowed irith |
tactile sensibility. If even a mild current be applied at those |
the upper or lower limbs where the prominent nerves are supcrl
feeling of tingling or numbness is felt through the branches
affected nerve ; and if the current is very much increased in \
a decidedly anesthetic effect is experienced. In paralysis of
tion, or anicsthesia, this feeling of tingling, thrill, aod numb
very much diminished under the influence of the electric currentfjj
entirely absent. It is on this principle that electricity becomes »(
vahiable means of diagnosis in the various stages of anacslhc
condition of anaesthesia or analgesia (loss of sense of pain) can i
be detected by the brass ball employed in general faradization, i
the metallic brush, or by any other form of electrode. To
analgesia the electrode should be moistened so that the currenfl
penetrate the epidermis.

General faradization is found to be of practical utility m aiding i
determine the locality of certain diseases, if not their precise
In dyspepsia, electrization often reveals great sensitiveness itti
epigastric region, and on the left side over the spleen. In
djrspepsia, accom[)anied by emaciation, a current is sometimes
fully transmitted from the middle of the back to the stomach, I
the solar plexus. A peculiar sinking sensation is sometimrs fell i
pit of the stomach when a strong current is applied over tlic i
cervical vertebra, or over the brachial plexus. All these syn
taken together, undoubtedly suggest an aggravated case of djr
and usually of the nervous variety. Congested or irritable states <
liver are revealed by an abnormal and peculiar sensitiveness \
current is applied over the right hypochondriac region. Cart t
taken, however, not to confound the normal sensitiveness of the su/>t\
nerves over the ribs, with an abnormal condition of th4 lit^r,
are certain diseases of this organ in which it is less sensitive than \
to electrization, ai d sometimes it appears to be decidedly ;

MODIFICATIONS OF ELECTRO-SENSIBILITY.

307

A lady patient of oars who had suffered for years from hepatic disor-
der was very sensitive to the current excepting over the right hypochon-
driac region, where she could bear the whole power of the apparatus
without any discomfort, except that which was necessarily caused by
the natural tenderness of the skin. The precise condition of the livci
at that time we were not able to ascertain. The evidence, however,
was sufficient to confirm our previous suspicions in regard to the exis-
tence of some afiection of that organ. It may be said in general,
that those diseases which cause the liver to be sensitive to external
I pressure, also cause it to be sensitive to electrisation. The same
[general principle will apply to the stomach, the spleen, the intestines,
and the ovaries. Our experience in the electrical treatment of diseases
of the lungs has not been large, but it has been sufficient to make it
quite probable that certain sensitive conditions of tuberculous deposit
' tnay be suggested by abnormal sensitiveness to the faradic current over
the apex of the chest.

Electro-diagnosis of the sensory nerves requires us to examine the
condition not only of the various portions of the skin, but also of the
nerve-branches, and the plexuses.

If in cutaneous anaesthesia we find normal sensitiveness on the nerve-
branches, we judge that the disease is confined to the nerve ramifica-
tions only.

If in complete anaesthesia of an extremity the nerve plexus exhibits a
ilormal reaction, we also judge that the disease is not central but peri-
pheral, including the nerve-branches.

J^or the purpose of testing the condition of sensation the faradic cur-
rent is usually to be preferred, for the reason that its mechanical effects
are greater than those of the galvanic.

The electro-sensibility may be normal or nearly so when ordinary
sensibility is much diminished. In some cases of posterior sjjinal scle-
rosis, for example, a moderate electric current may be fully perceptible
while a pin may be thrust into the flesh without causing any pain.

The Head. — In health the head is very sensitive both to galvaniza-
tion and faradization, in all parts except the posterior. This electro-
sensitiveness of the frontal and parietal regions of the head is due to
the superficial nerves, and not to the brain itself. In pathological cases
this sensitiveness may be either increased or diminished.

Spine. — In health the spine is but little sensitive to the current. In
pathological cases it may exhibit a sensitiveness to the electric current
that is not revealed by pressure or by any other method of irritation.
llus conditio » is found in neuralgia, spinal irritation, hysteria, etc It

3o8

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-DUGNOSIS.

is interesting, also, to know that electiic examination sometimes hadi*
cales abnormities in the sensitiveness of certain parts of tlie body that
exhibit no functional derangement.*

Sympathetic and Pncumogasirir. — The ganglia of the cervical Bym%
thetic and the pncumogastric may be examined electrically by the inner
border of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle. Somctijues there is abnor-
mal sensitiveness all along the bonier of the sterno-cleido-mastoicl
muscle in Uie track of tlie pncumogastric. This sensitiveness is found
in a large number of pathological conditions, locomotor ataxia, muscular
atrojihy, various cerebral affections, etc. We have observed it also in
spinal irritation, and during paroxysms of sick headache. This abnor-
mal sensitiveness may be frequently demonstrated by mechanical pres-
sure. We are disposed to regard this sensitiveness a8 due to the pneumo-
gastric more than to tlie sympathetic.

Electro-muscular Sensibility. — Electro-muscular sensibility includes a
feeling of pain and a feeling of contraction. The latter may exist with-
out the former.

Success in investigating electro-muscular sensibility depends on the
condition and intelligence of the patient

In conditions of cutaneous hyperiesthesia it is exceedingly difficult,
even for the most intelligent patient, to distinguish between the sensi-
tiveness of the skin and that of the muscle.

In paralysis electro muscular sensibility is frequently diminished,
together widi the electro-muscular contractility ; they often rise and
fall together. In hysteria, electro-muscular sensibility to pain is some-
times greatly increased. For remarks on the physiological nature of
electro-muscular sensibility, see Electro-Physiology, p. i6o.

Secondly, The fact that the electro-muscular contractility and irriia^
bility are more or less modified by disease.

Irritability strictly refers to the quivering which muscles exhibit
under mild currents ; contractility to the power of actually contracting
under whatever strength of current may be necessary. The two terms
ore very frequently used interchangeably.

That muscular contractions can be produced by the electric currents,
has been known since the period of the earliest investigations in the
department of electro physiology.

The first systematic attempts to make this a basis for establishing

differential diagnosis were made by Dr. Marshall Hall, and subsequently

by Dr. Todd. The conclusions of these distinguished experimenter*

are quite familiar, and as they were unsatisfactory and partly erroneoufti

* Benedikt op. dt., p. 6q,

SCTRO-MUSCULAR SENSIBILITY AND CONTRACTILITY. 309

l-nof necessary to present them in detail. More recent investiga-

t have established that tlie behavior of the deep-seated muscles, tn

to their contractility, is a much more complicated question than

I formerly supposed. The contractile power of a muscle is made up

factors, vir.: the excitability of the intramuscular nerve-fibre«,

the functional capacity or irritability of the muscular substance

When, therefore, the contractile power of a muscle differs in

' respect from the normal, this variation may be due to an abnormal

of either one or both of these factors. Still further, it is

that when the excitability of the intramuscular nerve-fibros and

initabihty of the muscular substance are increased, yet if tl

• has suffered more than the latter, the contractile power may

, and vue versd.
fpm/arifig healthy with diseased sides in paralysis^ it is necessary
r na only the same strength of current, but also the same relative
r and pressure 0/ the electrodes,
iThe general principles that have thus far been established, in regard
I Ibe relation of electro-muscular contractility to disease, are as fol-

• 1st In paralysis of motion, the electro-muscular oontractilttf t»
Dctimes normal, occasionally increased, and very i re qm efttly (fimin-

yrof electro-muscular contractility; or at \aA tA bricabffify, mtf
tobflcned in diseases of the brain, attended wiA iiiitaa re leatotu, \u
spasmodic and hysterical affectioo^ Jad •raMMtfOf ia loco.
r ataxia. Diminuiion of electro-mtaadbr tattUKCSbt^ H amaSy

in grave lesions of the anterior cdiammS/ 4d ike fpottl cord,
I motor tract of the brain, in rheumatic paolflii^ hiWlf liy» ■■ «eB*
kcd progressive muscular atrophy, ad is ^ovsffHi fw* it^Tf ^^

I in some part of its course.
x). In certain central diseases, the duM'j ujujiuijif
t first normal or diminished, and aftervaidf uiutxift Wi
flhe disease, until it becomes greater than nomiaL
The length of time that is necessaiy to illustrate these (ariJifciM de-
► on the nature of the dixaie. In chronic intlaxnraauam <34 A0
I cord, in effusions in die brain, causing hemiplegia, theie vaiis^
iBiay run through many weeks and months. In cases oCheaifile-
\ also, these different conditions of the electro-muscular ocntnaStkf
r ran in a circle; being sometimes normal, sometime*
socnetiroes diminished (Benedikt). All these cbaogg ^'^^
I course, to certaui changes in the pathological co«tf<i«» «C 1

310

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-DIAGNOSIS.

diseased brain. Just what this correspondence is in each case, cannot
in the present state of electro-pathological science, be well de terra in ed.

3d. The fact that certain forms of paralysis behave very differently
under die faradic and the galvanic current. Muscles over which a
faradic current can have no influence, may contract easily under a
railder galvanic current than is necessary to produce contractions of the
same muscles in health. Sometimes, as the paralyzed muscles recover,
they regain their power of contracting under the faradic current, at the
same time proportionately losing their contractility under the galvanic
current. This law is most readily demonstrated in peripheral facial
paralj'sis.

This fact, that in certain peripheral paralyses gahano-musailar ton-
tractility may remain after farado muscular contractility is wholly lost,
was first pointed out by Baierlacher in 1859. His observations have
since been confirmed by Schulz, Meyer,* Althaus, Hammond, Radcliffc,
Ziemssen.f Legros and Onimus,| ourselves, § and other observers. (Sec
section on peripheral paralysis.)

From the experiments of Neumann and Briickner, it would appear
that this difference in the action of the two currents is due to the longer
duration of the galvanic current, which allows it to produce an effect
on the diseased muscles which the faradic current, on account of the
rapidity of its interruption, could not produce. It was found by these
observers that, in cases of muscular degeneration, where contraction?
under the galvanic cuiTent were more readily excited than in the cor-
responding muscles of the healthy side, no effect was produced if tfu
current was very rapidly interrupted. The same phenomena were ol>
tained from experiments on the sciatic, crural, tibial, and peroneal
nerves. It has been suggested by Eulenburg that just as the sensory
nerves have several distinct functions, as touch, sensibility to pain,
temperature, pressure, — one or more of which may be abolished while
the rest are intact, — so the motor nerves may have three distinct
powers, — response to galvanization, to faradisation, and to the will, —
one or two of which may be separately injured or abolished by disease.

In regard to their irritability when in a pathological condition, mus-
cles and nerves are subject to different laws.

It has been shown by Erb,|| and corroborated by Ziemssen and

* Op. dt., p. 417.

f Electricilat in der Medicin, 1866, p. 76.

% Op. cit., p. 61.

§ New York Medical Record, 1868, p. 409.

I Deutsches Archlv fur klinische Medicin, Band iv., i866w

GALVANO- VS. FARADO-MUSCULAR CONTRACTILITY. 31I

Weiss,* that the motor nerves, when they have been so injured as to
lose their irritability to the faradic current, also lose their irritability to
the galvanic current, and that the increased irritability which is seen in
such cases under galvanisation is due to the viuscles.

After the nerve has been injured by actual division, by bruising, or
by rheumatic effusion, it at once begins to lose its irritability to both
galvanic and faradic currents.

This diminution of irritability advances from the centre towards the
periphery, and at the end of the second week both galvanic and faradic
irritability are destroyed. As the nerve recovers, irritabihty to the gal-
vanic and the faradic currents reappear together.

With the muscles, on the other hand, there is at first no lessening of
the irritability to either current until after a week. At this time the
faradic irritability begins to fall and the galvanic irritability begins to
rise. In a few days the galvanic irritability becomes so much increased
that the muscles respond to a much feebler current than usual. .\t this
stage there is a change in the character as well as in the degree of the
irritability of the muscles.

This change is twofold : —

1. The negative pole produces as great or greater effects on opening
than the positive : in a normal condition of the muscles the positive
produces greater effects on opening than the negative.

2. The positive pole produces a greater effect on closing than on
opening ; in a normal condition of the muscles the greater effect at the
closing is produced by the negative pole.

In about twelve weeks there is a renewed diminution of galvanic ir-
ritability ; this diminution goes on until twice as great a strength of
current is necessary to produce contractions as in tlie corresponding
muscles of the healthy side. Slight contractions may now be produced
by the faradic current.

These changes of irritability seem to bear no definite relation to the
volitional power.

Effects of Paralysis or Electric Reaction not always immediate. — It
should be remembered that the characteristic reaction of paralyzed
muscles to the electric influence is frequently not observable at the out-
set of the disease : sometimes several weeks elapse before there ap-
peals the diagnostic evidence of changed electro-muscular contractility
or sensibility. Especially is this the case in spinal paralysis, also in
rheumatic and facial paralyses, sometimes also in hemiplegia. Again,
it b necessar)*, in doubtful cases, not to depend on any single examina*
• Ibid., Band iv., 186S.

312

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-DIAGNOSIS.

tion, but to form an opinion from a number of examinations takea at
different times.

VoiUional Contractility may exist when EUctro-eontractility is du
minished, — ^The volitional power may remain when the electric contracd.
lity is diminished- If a muscle exhibits diminution of contractility under
electric irritation, but reacts normally to the will, the conclusion is that
the muscle is not injured, but that the abnormity is caused by change ii>
the irritability of the intra-muscular fibres. This is observed in certain
stages of traumatic and lead paralysis. We arrive at the same condtt-
sion in those cases where the muscles refuse to contract under direct,
but respond normally to indirect, electrization.

Muscles of the eye are an exception to this rule, since, from their
anatomical position, they cannot be made to contract by direct, but
only by indirect, retlex action from the fifth pair.

Cases where reaction is lost botli to the will and electricity indicate
actual injury of the muscle.

Fiu-thermore, it should be considered that the electro-muscular con-
tractility and sensibility of diseased muscles may be and are greatly
modified by the treatment, both permanently or temporarily. Modifi-
cation may take place even during the seance.

Thirdly. That the special physiological reactions of the central
and peripheral nervous systems to the galvanic current are essentially
chan,^ed when the nerve is in a pathological condition.

This is true of the spinal cord, the motor and sensory nerves, sp
cord and nerves of special sense, and of the s)-mpathetic. Accord
to Benedikt, if the negative pole is placed, for example, on the pero-
neal nex"ve, and tlie positive on the patella, uith an intemtpted current,
a weaker irritation appears than when the positive pole is placed on
the cervical or Imtibar vertebrae. The more the central parts arc in-
cluded in the circuit the greater the irritation. In paUiological con-
ditions this reaction is changed.

Opening contractions are regarded by Benedikt as characteristic
evidences of certain forms of locomotor ataxy. They are observed
also in neuritis and in chorea minor. They indicate a uwlecular dis-
turbance. They accompany both increased and diminished irritability,
usually the latter,*

Nerves of Special Sense. — ^The changes of the reaction of the nerwes o£
special sense to electric irritation may be both quantitative and qualitative,

• These views of Benedikt, concernin;j the jngnifjcance of " opening contractions,"
have been severely criticised by Brenner (" Untcrsuchungcn," &c., Bd. ii., 1869, {^
21$, elseq.).

ABNORMAL REFLEX IRRITABILITY.

313

' Nerve. — It has been shown that the reaction of the aadltory
nerve to galvanic irritation — the strong subjective sensations of sound
— is materially changed by disease ; and by this we judge of the
condition of the nerve. (See Diseases of the Ear,)

Optic Nerve. — The reaction of the optic nerve under the influ-
ence of the galvanic current, is attended with flashes of light. The
qualitative changes in reactions of the optic nerve to clcctriciil irrita-
tion are numerous. In certaui pathological cases, as we have observed,
flashes of light may be produced by the faratUc current, in other
pathological cases, as severe atrophy of the retina, the flashes of light
do not appear during galvanization, or only when a very strong current
is used. We have observed very marked differences in the reaction of
the optic nerve in the two eyes when one was diseased and the other
healthy. Flashes of light from galvanization of the lower part of the
spine are indicative of abnormal irritability or organic disease of the
spinal cord. They are observed in locomotor ataxia and spinal
irritation.

Olfadory and Gustatory Nerves. — ^The peculiar smell that is ex-
perienced on galvanization of the olfactory nerve may be either in-
creased or diminished by disease. It is absent in paralysis of the olfac-
tory nerve.

The peculiar metallic taste that follows galvanisation of the tongue,
or that is experienced by reflex action when the galvanic current is ap-
plied on the neck and upper part of the spine, is subject to various
modifications by disease. In irritable conditions of the cord we have
observed that this metallic taste will appear when the application is
made in the lower part of the spine. In two striking instances it was
experienced from faradization of the cilio-spinai region.

Fourth. The fact that in certain central diseases, and in conditions
of great irritability, as hysteria, the reflex effect of the current is so
exalted as to excite reactions that in a normal condition of the body never
appear. Thus, in a lady of middle life, who for several years had suf-
fered from all the symptoms of declared chronic myelitis, we were first
struck by the fact that even a very mild current over the upper portion
of the back was sensitively felt down the right leg. This symptom we
have never known to occur in a perfectly healthy condition of the
spinal cord. Afterwards we found that a very short as well as very
mild application of the current to one leg caused a disagreeable feeling
of pain and heaviness not only in this leg, but also in the other, for
several days following the application. In another case of general
r<a:'alysis dependent on hysteria, a v^xy feeble • ^ '•' '^^**

314

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-DIAGNOSIS.

hand, or in one foot, would be appreciably, and oftentimes |
felt through all the four extremities. The patient declared lhjit|
sensation was like that of "waves rolling through the body."

A still more marked illustration of this diagnostic power of eU
tion was the following :

In the case of a lady whose lower litnbs had been somewhatj
lyzed for two years, who presented no marked symptoms of
organic disease of the cord, we were inclined to suspect that her j
plegia might be due to nervous exhaustion, until this abnonnalj
sensitiveness to the electric current seemed to establish the
of myelitis, or at least meningitis. We first observed that a feebll
rent in the neck was felt down the spine, and subsequently the |
complained that a strong current down the lower extremities i
milted pain to the back. The occurrence of this abnormal sy
forced us to the imwilling conclusion that we were dealing wJtli &I
of organic disease of the spine. The subsequent history of i
has confirmed this diagnosis. It has been shown by Bcnediki,*
in certain morbid conditions, electrization of one extremity
contractions in the other. This phenomenon has been ob
progressive muscular atrophy, and in certain reflex neuroses. In sl
of rheumatic gout that we treated the application of the gal«4iii&l
rent to the left knee caused a sharp pain in the corresponding |
the right knee.

This fact enables us not only to make a diagnosis of central <
but in certain cases even to suspect the seat of the aflfeclion.

\Ve are confident that in all cases of crossed reflex cont
— ^just as in the cases of crossed reflex sensation above cilcd-
always some central disease. This symptom when it occurs maf
haps then be regarded as so far forth diagnostic.

Crossed reflex sensations and crossed reflex contractions mlfl
manifested simultaneously in a patient affected with organic di»
the spinal cord. This singular coincidence was observed in the '
above recorded of the lady who complained of waves of ser^
over the body when the current was applied to any one of ih
tremitics. These peculiar sensations were sometimes accompanied tf|
feeble and spasmodic muscular contractions.

General shaking and tremor of a limb, or of the whole body, !
electrization, is also diagnostic of central disease. We have obserre^ll
in one case of softening of the brain, and in a number of cases of kfl^J
plegia. This general or partial tremor does not appear unless & <
* Die Elektrotherftpie, p. 63.

DIPLEGIC CONTRACTIONS.

3tS

siderable strength of current has been employed, or the application has
been much prolonged.

DipUgic Contractions. — Remak,* of Berlin, was the first to note the
fact, that contraclions of the muscles of one or both of the upper extremi-
ties may sometimes be produced by placing the positire pole in the
auriculo-maxillary fossa, just ]>osterior to the ascending ramus of the lower
jaw, and the negative by the side of the sixth cervical vertebra. The
theory of Remak, that these contractions, to which he gave the name of
^^ diplegic*' were caused by irritation of the superior ganglia of the sym-
pathetic, was apparently confinned by Fieber.f by experiments on ani-
mals in whom the sympathetic was exposed, and subjected to the action
of the current.

Strong currents — from twenty to forty elements — are usually, though
not always, necessary to produce these contractions. The contractions
may be of various degrees, from mild drawing, with scarcely perceptible
oscillations, to violent movements resembling chorea. They may appear
in the interossei or in the muscles of the arm or forearm of one or both
sides. They may also appear in other positions of the electrode than
the one described. From one to five minutes are usually necessary to
excite them, and they may continue for a few moments after the appli-
cation has ceased.

That these so-called diplegic contractions are a reality and not a de-
lusion, as some have declared, we have demonstrated in a number of
cases, and especially in progressive muscular atrophy. The cases where
they are readily demonstrated, are, according to our observation, not
frequent, and we can easily see that one might practise electro therapeu-
tics for a long time without seeing any, especially as currents of con-
siderable strength, applied in a certain manner, are necessary' to pro-
duce them.

The evidence that these contractions occur exclusively through the
sympathetic is not to our view satisfactory, and there is stronger proba-
bility that the spinal cord is the centre, which in certain irritable con-
ditions exhibits these manifestations under strong electrical stimula-
tion. In none of the methods of application where these diplegic con-
tractions are called forth is it possible to localize the current in the
sympathetic The special diagnostic value of these contractions is not
great They occur not only in progressive muscular atrophy, but in
hysteria and hysteroid affections, and would appear to be pathogno-

* Application du courant constant au traiternent des neuroses. Paris, XS65.
f Die diplegischen Contractionen nach Versoct **i Uiv^

Berlin, 1866, pp. 21, 32, 23.

3i6

PRINCIPLES OF ELEGTRO-DIAGNOSIS.

tnonic of no one special disease, but rather of a condition of Irritabifit^

of ihe nerve-centres that may appear in many different diseases.

Fdgned Disias^es. — By the application of the principle* stated above
the electric currents may be of great service in helping us to distinguish
real from feigned disease. A case of pretended paralysis of motion oi
sensation can readily be settled by applying the current to the limb,
since no force of will can fully resist the energy of the contractions thai
electricity may excite in healthy muscles, or the pain that can be pro-
duced by strong faradization of the skin. The principle will work both
ways, and, if the electro -n>uscular contractility is diminished below the
normal standard, we may know that the disease is real. Where one
side or one limb only is affected, the comparison between the healthy
portions and those where disease is suspected can easily be made. Dr.
Russell Reynolds * mentions a patient with hemiplegia who was sup-
posed to be malingering. Electrization of the limbs on both sides
showed clearly a diminution of contractility on one side, as the patient
represented, and accordingly the case was pronounced to be one of real
hemiplegia.

Dr. Althaus f records a case of su9^)ected malingering that he studied
by the aid of electricity. A member of a workingmen's benefit soci-
ety professed that he had lost the use of his arm in consequence of an
accident — a fall — three years before. The question was whether the
society should give him the ji^ioo to which permanently incapacitated
members are entitled. The patient, though tall and strong, had done no
work since the accident, and professed to be unable to undress himself.

On examination with the faradic current, Dr. Althaus found tliat ail
the muscles of the arm responded without difficulty ; he therefore con-
eluded that the nerves and muscles were uninjured — in other words,
that there was no paralysis. He found, however, that when a ttsf
strong current was used the patient appeared to suffer, but the arm did
not execute the movements it should do when the muscles contract.
Accordingly, he had the patient anaesthetized by nitrous oxide gas» in
order to sec whether any anchylosis existed that might interfere with
the movements of tlie arm. It was found that no anchylosis existed*
Dr. Althaus gave a certificate that the patient had no paralysis and
no anchylosis or dislocation, but that tliere was a painful affection of
the joint which would yield to subcutaneous injections of morphia and
galvanism, and that the patient could use the arm if he wished tow
The claim for benefit money was disallowed.

Faradization as a mmns of distinguishing real from apparent deaths
* Lancet, April 16, 1S70. f Third fidiHon, p. 4S5.

ELECTRO-BIOSCOPy.

317

EUcirO'Bioscopy. — The use of electricity as a means of distinguishing
real from apparent death was suggested as long ago as 1792, by Drs.
Bchrend and Creve. Subsequently lk>er, of Vienna, used frankliuic
elrctricily on newly-born infants, and found that when musculai- con-
tractions still existed, then the child was not dead, but could be re-
stored.

In 1852, Dr. Crimotel, of Paris, wrote a memoir in which he stated
that when farado-contractility is gone, life is extinct. Ho slated fur-
thermore that farado-contractility gradually disajjpears after death, and
that after a period ranging between half an hour and two hours it en-
tirely disappears. He suggested the term ehctrohioscopy., and recom-
mended that those who are apparently dead from drowning, syncope,
apoplexy, freezing, hysteria, and the inhalation of poisonous gases,
should, before burial, be tested.

Rosenthal, of Vienna, has also studied the subject with much care,
le has found that both farado- and gal vano contractility gradually disap-

"pear after death. He agrees in the main with Crimotel in the follow-
ing general conclusions :

Electro-contractility disappears more rapidly after death from chronic
than acute diseases ; it persists longer in loell than in badly nourished
bodies, and it usually disappears within three hours.

Rosenthal found that in amputated limbs the farado- and galvano-con-
tractility were active the first hoiu-, and entirely disappeared in ninety
minutes. In case of drowning electro-contractility disappeared in three
hours and a quarter. In some cases where rigor mortis has not ap-
peared, where the temperature of the body is yet quite high, and where
the joints are flexible, the absence of electro-contractility yet proves
beyond question that the person is dead.

Rosenthal further records a very remarkable case of trance in a hys-

.terical woman, where it was declared and believed by the physician

I that the patient was dead. The skin was pale and cold; the pu-
pils contracted, and not sensitive to light ; no pulse could be felt ;
the extremities were relaxed ; melted sealing-wax dropped on the
skin caused no reflex movements, and no moisture appeared on a
mirror held before the mouth. Respiratory murmurs could not be heard,
but a feeble intennittent sound in the cardiac region was just percepti-
ble on auscultation. For thirty two hours the patient had been appar-
ently de.ad ; but on electric examination Rosenthal found farado-con-
tractility in the muscles both of the face and the extremities. He
liercforc urged the use of the faradic "store the patient.

'In twelve hours the patient recoven -nts.

3i8

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-DIAGNOSIS.

Two years afterwards she was alive and well, and informed Roseiilli^|
that she knew nothing about the commencement of the attack of tttl
trance, and that afterwards she heard people talk about her death, Im||
she was powerless to help hersel£

CHAPTER VI.

ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICAL ANATOMY.

Electro-therapeutical anatomy includes a description of the localities at
which the different nerves, muscles^ and organs can be best affected by
the electric currents, and also the relative electro-sensibility of the dif-
ferent parts of the body. It is therefore to electrotherapeutics what
surgical anatomy is to surgery.

Motor Points of Muscles, — The subject of the motor points was first
systematically studied by Zicmssen, who experimented on the recently
dead subject, and marked with nitrate of silver the points at which the
individual nerves and muscles most readily responded to faradization.
Many of these points can be easily and successfully studied on the living
human subject. Those which we have represented in the cuts are derived
mostly from numerous observations on persons in health. They have
been found to agree in the main with those of Zientssen, with which
they have been compared, and by which they have been made more
accurate and complete. Those who wish to examine the subject in
greater detail are referred to the work of Ziemssen.*

It will be found, however, that those which are here described are
sufficient for most of the purposes of electro-therapeutics.

The best method of verifying these points is to place one large
sponge electrode, well moistened, on some indifferent point, and to
firmly press a small negative f electrode, also well moistened, over the
spot where llie nerve or muscle should be affected. If the right place
is touched, and the strength of the current and the pressure be suffi-
cient, the normal physiological action of the part affected will at once
appear. In the case of muscles contraction will take place, accom-
panied with a feeling of contraction ; in the case of nerve-branches and
plexuses, there will be sensation more or less painful along the periphe-
ral ramifications of the nerves, and, if the excitation be sufficiently
strong, contraction of the muscles which they supply.

• Die Electricilat in der Medicin. Berlin, 1866. p. 1 54, ct seq.
f Tbe negative is to be preferred, because it is the stronger^ and acU more power*
fully in producing contractions.

320

ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICAL ANATOMY.

It is not to be understood that a studious regard for all of i
trie points is always necessary in making applications of elect
the normal condition most of the superficial and many of the
muscles and nerves are easily excited by ordinary labile applic
with large sponge electrodes. Some of the muscles have two or ;
motor points, and are therefore more readily affected by large i
small electrodes.

A large sponge electrode of from 3 to 6 or 8 inches in diameter, (
over a brass ball, such as is used in general faradization, — cau
contraction of a majority of the superficial and deep muscles when 1
passed up and down the limbs.

But when the muscles have become diseased, so that they 1
with dilBculty to the electric current, it becomes necessary to gjrei
cial heed to the situation of these motor points, in order to dc^
their actual electric condition, or to aid in restoring ihem to their {
mal condition by exciting artificial contraction.

It should be remarked furthermore, tliat these motor points
different individuals, just as the a^natomical relation of tlie nerretf
muscles varies, and that the representations of the cuts can be I
approximately correct.

The points at which the nerves and muscles of the eye, cflr«|
larynx can be best electrized, also the best method of eleclriiiugl
oesophagus, rectum, genital and abdominal organs, will be dcs
the chapters devoted to the diseases of those parts.

We present below a brief description of the points at which the ;
cipal nerves, plexuses, and branches caji be best excited clrcu
and also the physiological effect on the nerves and muscles pr
by such excitation.

Fa£ial — at its exit from the stylo-raastoid foramen, between the I
toid process and the angle of the lower jaw, or at the opening of J
external auditory canal

Pneumogastric — at the lower and anterior part of the neck, bctireei
•he common carotid artery and the jugular vein ; in/a-iar larymgn
between the oesophagus and the trachea of die ganglia of the
thetic.

The superior cen>ical ganglion of the sympathetic can be
the anterior maxillary fossa, just behind and below the Angle o(l
lower jaw ; the middle cervical^ by the side of the stcrno-( •
muscle, opposite the fifth cervical vertebra ; the inferior <
by the inner border of the sternocleido-mastoid muscle, opposite |
second cervical and first dorsal vertebrie.

MOTOR POINTS.

321

Accessory — at its exit from the stemo-cIeido-ma.jtoid muscle.

Hypoghssus — between the stylohyoid and hyoglossus muscles, under
the hyoid bone.

Phrenic— 2X the outer border of the stemo-cleido-mastoid muscle,
by the anterior border of the scalenus amicus, near the omohyoid mus-
cle. Excitation of tliis nerve causes strong movements of the chest.

Brachial plexus — in the supra-clavicular si)ace, posterior to the
outer border of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle. Excitation of this
plexus causes a feeling of tingling and numbness in the fingers and
down the arm, and, when the current is strong, flexion of the forearm
and fingers.

Dorsalis scapula— 2X the border of the trapezius, near the accessory.

Supra scapularis — ^just before its entrance into the scapula, and ex-
ternal to the omohyoid muscle.

Anterior thoracic — at the upper border of the pectoralis major, below
the clavicle.

Posterior thoracic — above the clavicle^ near the trapezius.

The thoracic nerves arc irregular in their distribution, and therefore
difficult to find.

Axillary — at the upper and posterior border of the axilla.

Musculo cutaneous — between the biceps and coraco-brachialis.

Median — in the lower third of the arm, at the point where it crosses
the brachial artery. Mild excitation of this nerve causes tingling in the
arm and fingers ; a strong excitation causes closure of the fingers and
pronation of the hand.

Ulnar — at the groove between the olecranon and the internal con-
dyle. Excitation of this nerve causes pain in the inner surface of the
forearm and contraction of the flexor carj>i ulnaris, flexor digitoruni
profundus, adductor pollicis lumbricalis, and interossei of the little
finger.

Radial — in the lower third of the arm, at the point of its emergence
from beneath the triceps. Excitation of this nerve causes tingling in the
outer part of the arm and forearm, and down to the wrist ; strong
excitation produces extension of the first phalanges of the fingers, ex-
tension of the hand and thumb and supination of the forearm, contrac-
tions of the extensor carpi radialis and ulnaris, extensor digitorum com-
munis, extensor minimi digiti, extensor indicis prop., extensor pollicis
longus and brevis, adductor pollicis.

Sciatic — in the thigh, posterior to the head of the femur, at the point
where the nerves issue from the pelvis, or in the pelvis, through the
posterior wall of the rectum. Electrization of this nerve causes sensa-
21

POSTERIOR VIEW OF HUMAN BODY.

323

Exiemal head triceps ,

Kadial nerve

Bracliialis internua

Supinator kmgus. ,

Radialis eztemus brerlt

Extensor diKitorum communis.

Extensor di^. min. prop

Extensor indicis propnus

Alxluctor pollicis lonfut

Extensor pollicik lon^us.... ~...

Sciatic nerve

Extensor poUicis longus

Abductor BhiiiBidiKiti

Inlerossens. I

InlenMKi.II^IIL,lV

Sciatic nerre. ,

Biceps, kmc head

Biceps, short head

Popliteal nerve.

Peroneal nerve.

Gastrocnemius ezterms.

Soleu* ^

Castrt>cnemius intenntt

Fta $5. Electro-thenpeotlad Ai
(For 09!

Posterior view

324

ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICAL ANATOM f .

tions of tingling in the leg below the knee, and foot, sidolar tc thos«
which we so often experience when we accidentally sit on :hc sciatic
nerve.

Crural — just after its exit from beneath Poupart's ligament, exterior
to the crural artery. Electrization of this nerve causes sensations in
those parts of the leg that are supplied by its branches.

06/urator~— on the horizontal branch of the pubic bone. If the ap-
plication is successful, and the current used suflSciently strong, the thigh
is abducted.

Popliteal — in the outer part of the popliteal space. Electrization of
this nerve causes vigorous contraction of the muscles that move the
foot upward and outward.

Peroneal — on the posterior border of the capitulum fibulae. Excita-
tion of this nerve causes contraction of the tibialis amicus, peronei
muscles, extensor digitornm conuntmis longus, extensor digitorum com-
munis brevis, and extensor halhicis lortgiis.

Tibial. — This can be reached on the middle and outer part of the knee.
When strongly electrized, contractions arise in the muscle of the pos-
terior part of the leg. The tibial nerve can more easily be reached in
the depression posterior to the internal malleus.

Farado-setisibilify of the Surface of the Body. — Very many muscles
have no accessible motor points, and must therefore be electrized intra*
muscularly. Practically this is done in the majority of cases. We pre-
sent in the accompanying cuts a bird's-eye view of the electric points of
the prominent nerves, plexuses, and muscles, and of the relative sen-
sitiveness of different parts of the surface of the body to the faradic cur-
rent.

The relative sensitiveness of the different parts of the surface of the
body to faradization, we have also ascertained by numerous compara
live observations on persons in health, with the moistened hand and
well-moistened sponge electrodes. The method of making these obser-
tions is to place the patient in the position for general faradization, with
his feet on the plate to which the negative pole is attached, while the
experimenter applies the positive all over the surface of the body.

Degrees of Farado-sensibility . — IVe have distinguishei five degrees
of sensitiveness, the highest being marked one. For all practical pur-
poses these are sufficient ; approximate accuracy is all that is attempted.
The sensitiveness of the body when irritated by the fara<lic current is
due partly to the quality and position of the sensory nervts, and partly
to the peculiar feeling that attends muscular contraction (electro-mus-
cular sensibility).

ELECTRO-SENSIBILITY OF SURFACE OF BODY,

32s

The feeling of muscular contraction amounts in some instances to
actual pain, so that a part which is not richly supplied with sensory
nerves may \el be very sensitive to the current This is especially the
case with the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, which on being touched
near its centre contracts with a painful jerk. The same is true, to a
less extent, of the trapezius, the flexors of the arm, and of the peronei
muscles. In all parts where no muscular contractions are produced,
the sensitiveness of the surface of the body depends on the quality and
position of the sensory nerves, and bears a pretty constant relation to
its sensitiveness to ordinary mechanical irritation.

Thus it will be observed that the parts which are most sensitive to a
blow or fall, or to any mechanical injury, — as the head, face, or surface
of the bones, clavicle, sternum, scapula, patella, etc., — are hkewise
marked highest in the scale of sensitiveness to the current.

To guard against error it is necessarj' —

1. To use always tlie same electrode and the same direction of the
current ; therefore the negative pole should be kept at the feet during
the entire sitting.

2. To make the pressure of the electrodes uniform, and to moisten
well all parts supplied with hair.

3. To use the moistened hand for the head and face. The head, es-
pecially, is so exceedingly sensitive to the faradic ciurent that it will
hardly bear a sufficient strength of current through a sponge to make a
comparative estimate.

It will be observed that only a few parts are marked 5 — the middle
of the back, the outer surface of the thigh, and the testicles. The peri-
najum, which cannot be represented in the cut, should also be marked
5. It will be observed that the points most highly sensitive are those
where very sensitive nerves pass over the surfaces of bones, as the head
iud jaws. Of the other parts not represented in the figures, the external
auditory canal should be marked i ; the middle of the stcrnocleido-mas-
toid muscle, 2 ; the axilla, 3 ; and the ends of all the fingers, 2 ; the
under side of the penis, 2 ; the point between the penis and scrotum, 4 ;
the under surface of the heel, the plantar arch, the ball of the foot, 4. If
the external auditory canal, drum of the ear, conjunctiva, nasa! mucous
membrane, tongue, and larynx were represented, they should be marked
a degree or two higher than i, since they are more sensitive than any
portion of the surface of the head. The best point to test a current of
extreme feebleness is the tip of the tongue.

T/i^ rectum^ urethra, and vagina are hut little sensitive to the current
in comparison with the mucous nw '*uth, except at theif

326

ELECTRO-TIIERAPEUTICAL ANATOMY.

external orifices. They might be marked 4 or 5. The os uteri and tlic
bladder would be marked 4, 5.

It should be distinctly understood that these remarks apply to the
applications of the faradic current with electrodes sutiticicntly moistened
to allow the current to pass readily through the epidermis. In dry
faradization the results are somewhat different, the pain at all parts be-
ing far less.

Fiirado-sensibility as compared with Galvano-sensibitity. — The gal-
vanic current causes a burning sensation wherever it is applied ; but this
is most sensitively felt at those parts that are abundantly supplied by
sensory nerves. This burning feeling increases with the length of time
that die current is applied.

The greater sensitiveness of the bones to the faradic current, as com-
pared with the galvanic current, is due to the greater mechanical action
of the former An interrupted galvanic current, of sufficient strength
to produce muscular contractions, produces the same sensations as the
faradic current, with the addition of the burning feeling at the surface
beneath the electrodes. The fact that the galvanic current is less pain-
ful to the surfaces of the bones gives it a certain advantage in making
apjjlications to the head, although the pain of the faradic current, when
applied to tlie head by the moistened hand, may be reduced to a mini-
mum.

A Knowledge of the Normal Electro-sensibility of the Body essential in
Electro-diagnosis and Electro-therapeutics, — A knowledge of the relative
sensitiveness of the different parts of the body to the electric current
is indispensable both in electro-diagnosis and electro-therapeutics. It is
at once obvious that to determine by the electric test the extent of anaes-
thesia, or loss of electro-muscular sensibility, in cases of paralysis, with-
out a previous knowledge of the normal sensitiveness of the parts to the
electric current and the normal feeling of electro-muscular sen.sibility in
the affected muscles, is simply impossible. From a want of this knowl*
edge very important mistakes are made in electro-diagnosis. In local
and general faradization a knowledge of the relative sensitiveness of all
the parts of the surface of the body enables one to make an application
which would otherwise be painful, and perhaps iojuricus, both painleis
ind refreshing.

CHAPTER VIL

PARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPIUTICS.

The general principles on which batteries are constructed, as wel
as minute description of some of the best known elements, have already
been presented in rhe section on electro-physics. In this chapter we pro-
pose to speak only of those combinations of elements that are used in
electro-therapeutics, and our descriptions will be of a general character,
having reference mainly to the practical use and care of them by the
electro-therapeutist.

Before entering on the description of apparatus a few general re-
marks may be appropriate.

1. A good battery is not all that is necessary to make a good electro-
therapeutist.

There exists an impression, quite widely prevailing m the profession,
that the beginning and the end of the great science of electro therapeu-
tics is to get a battery. This impression has WTOUght much evil. It
has been the means of leading physicians to invest time and patience
and money in a department for which they have no qualification. The
purchase of a battery is simply a first step in the right direction j
it is the beginning of a long road.

One who uses electricity in medicine requires good apparatus, just
as the surgeon requires good instruments and the carpenter good tools ;
but as tools cannot make a carpenter, nor instruments a surgeon, so a bat-
tery cannot make one skilful in the therapeutical use of electricity. It is
not the battery, it is the brains, that makes a good electro- therapeutist.

2. The best and most recent apparatus is not so simple as to entirely
dispense with the need of care and experience on the part of the physi-
cian.

The advance in the construction of apparatus for electro-therapeu-
tics has been very great, but not sufficient to make it possible for
faradic or galvanic apparatus to keep in order without attention.

Just as the fire in the grate goes out unless the coal is replenished,
)ust as the gas is extinguished when the supply is shut o% so electricity

328

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

generated in a battery ceases to flow unless the metals consumed in th«
chemical action are replaced or repaired.

The best and simplest of batteries wll sometimes get out of order.
Unexpected contingencies will arise that demand some knowledge of
applied electro-physics. The knowledge can be obtained only by study
and experience.

3. Whatever choice we make in our apparatus at the present day, we
shall probably not make any very serious mistake. A few years ago it was
impossible to get a really good apparatus for electro-therapeutics ; now
it is almost impossible to get a realty bad one.

4. An apparatus to which we are accustomed is much more tractable
in our hands than a far superior apparatus, the management of which is
new to us. It is with batteries as with babies — every man thinks his own
is tlie best. We see the same principle illustrated in instruments for
general and special surgerj'.

Coutinuous-coil and St'parate-coU Faradic Machints. — There are in the
market, and in coiivmon use among physicians, two quite different forms of
faradic apparatus. In one of these forms which we call the cofUinuous-<0U
machine, the helix is composed of one long win varying in thickmss^
tapped at different points, so as to obtain different qualities of currents
This wire may be wotmd in three, four, or more coils. The inner coil is
usually comparatively short, and is of thick wire ; the second coil is
longer, and of finer wire ; the third still longer and finer, and so on ;
but the metallic connection is complete, and it is all a continuous wire.

The machines of Kidder, Hall, and others are of tliis construction.

In the separate-coil machines the helix is composed of two entirely
separate and distinct wires ; the inner wire, which like that of the inner
coil of the continuous machine is short and thick, has no metallic con-
nection with the outer wire. The outer wire is longer and thinner than
the inner wire. The faradic machines of Stohrer, of Drescher, and of the
Galvano- Faradic Manufacturing Company are of this constniction.

The quality of the induced current generated by these two types of
machines are quite different. We have already seen (Electro- Physics,
p. 2) that electricity is a force — a mode of motion of the ether and of the
particles of die substance in which the force circulates. It follows from
this definition — if we accept it — that the quality of the current must be
modified by the nature of the substance through which it is conducted.
Every modification of the conductor, increase or diminution of its dia-
meter, increase or diminution of its length, or any change in its consti-
tution, must affect more or less the character of the current that flows
through it. Hence it is that the currents coming from the different poin|

SINGLE AND SEPARATE COIL MACHINES.

329

of the continuous-coil machine are somewhat,. though slightly, different
from each other in quality and in their physiological effects. Hence also
the current from the separate-coil machine is quite different from that
coming from the continuous-coil machine.*

Single-coil and SfparaU-coil Faradic Machines compared in their
Therapeutic Effects. — ^The conclusions at which we have arrived on this
question are formed from aver)- wide experience with single and separate
machines, in public and private practice as well as from conversation and
correspondence with many physicians who are using one or both varieties,
and whom we have requested to study their comparative effects. Our
conclusions may be thus stated :

I. For ner\'ou.s, hysterical, and greatly tlebilitated patients, and in
nearly all cases where general faradization is required, a single-coil ma-
chine is preferable.

This conclusion is based not on any physical, physiological, or theo
retical considerations, but simply on clinical experience. Again and again
have we attempted to treat nervous, delicate, and hysterical patients
with the separate-coil machine, and have been compelled by unpleasant
symptoms to return to the machine with a single coil. The reasons why
the current from the single-coil machine is less irritating and more agree-
able to delicate patients, are to be found in \he physical differences of the
currents already referred to. This conclusion is not peculiar to oiur-
selves ; it is held by many, though not by all, the electTO-lherapeutists
with whom we are acquainted.

It is not even necessary that the patient should be ver}' delicate in
order to test this difference ; any individual of average strength and
health will appreciate without difficulty the general fact, that the cur-
rent from the one machine is more agreeable and less harsh and weary-
ing than the current from the other.

That the tonic and sedative effects of general faradization can, how
ever, be obtained by separate-coil machines, is proved in Germany,
where the faradic machines in use are chiefly of the separate-coil variety,
and general faradization is used there continually by the highest authori-
ties in electrology, and with all the brilliant effects over nutrition thai
we have in our writings claimed for it.

It must, however, be admitted that the Germans are much less sensi-
tive and nervous than the Americans.

But the advantages of a smooth and pleasant current are not confined

* Oniams, of Paris, hu recently shown that helices fonned of copper, silver, uid
le«/l have a differential physiological action. — Jour, de rAnaiomie tt de la Physhlth
tf. Mars, 1S74.

330

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS,

to general faradization ; in localized faradization of the muscles of tha
legs, and arms, and in applications to special organs that are iriit
the current from the separate-coil machine is more irritating and a
pleasant than that of the single-coil machine. In children with ioi^
tile paralysis, and in delicate women who perhaps are afraid ofeleC'
tricity, this consideration becomes one of practical importance.

On the other hand, there are very many cases, especially b public [«v
tice, where it is a matter of ap|>arent indifference which current i^Sfl

2. For patients who from idiosyncrasy or from disease are greatp^
sensible to electricity, the separate-coil machine seems to be prefcnMc
to that of the single coil.

Cases are not very uncommon, even among the better classes, where
there is enormous and inexplicable tolerance of electricity. Power-
ful and protracted applications leave them as they find thcra ; thcr w
not painfully felt during tlie sitting, and they leave no apjjrcciabie
effects behind them. In the anaesthesia that accompanies postcrioi
spinal sclerosis and certain injuries of nerves, the harsh and iniu
current of the separate-coil machine is not disagreeable at all, i
pears to be, in our hands at least, more efficacious than the currenii
the single-coil machine. We are, we believe, the only obscncrti
have called attention to this fact Formerly we supposed that tbc (S*
ference in the quality of the current of different machines dtrix'ndal
mainly on tlie construction of the rheotome ; tliis view is not su>ui«»
by our more recent studies in the department. It is the coil more tl>i"
the rheotome, and more than the kind of cell, that dctermincij
quality of the current, although the frequency of the vibration*
termined by the rheotome has a decided influence.

The Comparative Value of Slow Interrupt to fts. — Tliere are * I _
number of physicians who find or think they find a great iherapeuiirw
advantage in slow interruptions to the treatment of paralysis. A l>ln><'
deference to authority has prevented a careful, original, and iaipiit'^'
investigation of this subject, and statements of European writers inJ ^
strument makers had been received without dispute, until wc inc
spoke of our experience in the matter less than two years ago.

IVitli a slow interruption a stronger eurrent ean be h&rnt than
a rapid interruption, and hence it sometimes happens that a ]>ara]
muscle will contract under the former when it will not under the 1
In occasional instances this advantage may be utilized for lhos<J
licians who have only the faradic and no galvanic apparatus.

For those who have a galvanic current of good strength Ujc do*'
terruption is unnecessary, even granted that it has some advantage o**

332

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

the rapid interruption in producing muscular contraction, for a strong
galvanic current interrupted will cause muscles to contract that will
not respond to tiie faradic current whether slowly or rapidly inter-
rupted.

In this battery the cell is placed on pivots so that it can be easily
turned over go". When upright, the metals are immersed; when turned
over, the metals are out of the solution. The stopper is of rubber,
and it is provided with a rubber funnel for the esca])e of the gases.
This arrangement is a very great advance on the old one, where each
time the machine was used, there would be pouring of the acid and
necessary spilling into and from a bottle.

For the past year we have used only this tip element, having dis-
carded entirely the old arrangement. It is not ornamental, but is very
convenient.

Smee's cell is a very convenient cell to take care of, and when not
kept too long immersed, or used with too strong solution, is very en-
during.

The current of Kidder's faradic machine is a very pleasant one, and
is especially adapted for iier\'ous and sensitive patients, on whom gen-
eral faradization is employed. The agreeable character of the currents
that come from it is to be explained in part by the fact that it is a
continuous- coil machine—all the different coils, from tliree to six in
number, being connected — and in part by the construction of the rheo-
tome; but mainly, we think, by the former, since, as has been stated,
all separate-coil machines, other conditions being the same, give a
pleasanter current than single-coil machines.

The character of the current is, as we have seen, modified by the length
and fineness of the wire in the different parts of the coil. The inner
coil (A B) is of thick wire and is short, and gives a very mild current ;
the second coil (B C) is of thinner wire, and is longer, and gives a
stronger current ; the third coil (C D) is still finer and longer, and gives
a still stronger current. The majority of these instruments have but
three coils ; but in some of the larger instruments one or more coils
'E and F) have been added. All these coils are metallically con-
nected, so that they really constitute one long coil, varying in diflerent
parts in the fineness of the wire.

All the currents that come from this battery (A B, B C, C D, D E,
A D, A E, etc.) may, therefore, be regarded as modifications of the
priuuiry current (see Electro -Physics, p. 62). Inasmuch as electricity
is modified by the nature of the substances through which it circulates,
it follows that coils of different length and fineness will give different

RULES FOR USE OF FARADIC API'ARATUS.

333

varieties of currents ; this is found to be the case with the battel y under
consideration. It is found that the currents vary not only in strength,
but in the nature of their effects, with the portion of the coil from which
they come; that they cause different sensations when applied to the
body. The differential therapeutic action of these currents is too coni«
plex to be readily or satisfactorily demonstrated.

RULES FOR THE USE AND CARE OF KIDDER's FARADIC APPARATUS.

The directions that we give under this head mil apply in general to
all, or nearly all, faradic machines, and, therefore, need not be repeated
m the descriptions of other machines that are illustrated in this
volume,

To prepare the Apparatus far Use.—Y'x^ the glass jar with a solution
of water and sulphuric acid — one part sulphuric acid to eight or twelve
parts water. It is not necessary to be rigidly mathematical in regard to
the quantity of the sulphuric acid. The average proportion is one-
tenth, but it may range between one-sixth and one-sixteenth. The jar
should be about two-thirds filled with the solution.

It is also necessary to put about a teaspoonful of quicksilver in the
cup. This touches the lower end of the xincs and keeps them con-
stantly amalgamated, (See Electro-Physics, p, 43.)

The quicksilver should not be allowed to touch the central plate of
platinum, as it may injure it. In some of the modifications of this
apparatus it is necessary to close the prongs between one of the brass
posts that is labelled and tlie one in the middle that has no label.

The apparatus is now ready for action. If the spring does not at
once vibrate, give it a slight stroke with the finger. If it still refuses to
vibrate, it may be necessary to readjust the screw. If the spring
vibrates, but irregularly or too slowly, the evil may usually be remedied
by readjusting the screw.

Now connect the strings attached to the electrodes with the lettered
posts. A is always the positive pole, and B, C, and D are always nega-
tive relatively to A.

To distinguish the Poles. — It is always possible to distinguish the
negative pole by holding the electrodes for a moment in the two hands;
the one in which the current is strongest felt is the negative pole.

If the apparatus refuses to go, or if it stops at any time while in use,
the cause may be looked for —

I. In the screw of the rheotome or current-breaker. This may not
be properly adjusted. The point may be too far from the spring, or too

334

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

closely pressed upon it. This want of proper adjustment of the screw
i< the most frequent cause of a stopping of the machine, and of the rew
fusal of the spring to vibrate. The spring may sometimes be corroded
at the point where the screw touches it.

2. Jn the connection of the wires. The wires that unite the zincs and
platinum may not be properly screwed at their point of connection, oc_
may be corroded.

3. Jn the battery itself. The battery — that is, the zinc and platinum,
with the solution in the glass jar — may get out of order in four ways.
FirsU the solution may lose its strength. This difficulty may be reme-
died either by pouring in some sulphuric acid or by making an entirely
new solution, or by simply adding more water. Secondly, the zincs may
become so corroded and incrusted as to become incapable of generating
a current. When the zincs have lost their amalgam, local action niaj^
take place ; this will be indicated by rapid evolution of hydrogeai^
J7iirdly, a portion of the mercury may have fallen on to the platinum,
and covered it. When this happens, little or no current can be obtamed.
When we have reason to suspect that such is the case we should clean
them with an old tooth-brush or cloth, or amalgamate them. Fourthly^
the platinum and the dncs will, in lime, by hard and long usage, wear
out, and will need to be replenished.

4. In the helix. It is very rarely indeed that the helix of this appar-
atus ever becomes so injured as to become incapable of service. If,
after we have properly adjusted the screw and spring, made sure of the
connections of the wires, replenished the solution and cleaned the zincs,
tlie apparatus persistently refuses to go, we have reason to suspect that
something may be wrong with the wires that compose the helix. If
such be the case the evil can be remedied only by the inventor himself,
or, at least, by some one practically familiar with the construction of
helices. But we should try very patiently and perseveringly before we
accept tiie conclusion that the helix is thus out of order, for it is an ac-
cident of extremely rare occurrence.

When no current is felt at the electrodes, although the apparatus acts
properly, we know that the connection is broken somewhere in the insw
lated conducting wires. Sometimes the union of the wires with the
electrodes is imperfect, and occasionally the wire in some part is broke
Finally, the electrodes themselves may become very much corrode
and may need cleaning before a good current can be obtained.

To take care of the apparatus. — When not in use, the element can
taken out of the solution. When the tip battery is used, all that is ne-
cessary is to merely turn over the jar. If the element remains too lonr

FARADIC APPARATUS.

335

a time in the jar an incrustation of salt will sometimes accumulate on
the top of the zincs which will need to be brushed or washed off. This
salt is the sulphate of zinc, resulting from the action of the sulphuric
acid on the zinc.

We may know that action is taking place in the battery when bub-
bles of hydrogen are rising up by the sides of the zinc.

Methods of modifying thi Current. — The strength of the current of
this machine may be modified in several ways, as follows ;

1. It maybe modified by withdrawing or pushing in the metallic tube
that covers the helix.

When this tube covers the helix an indefinite number of branch
currents are induced in it that interfere wnth the main current and
weaken it. In proportion as this is withdrawn, the induction of branch
currents, and the consequent interference with the main current, grows
less.

This method of modif)'ing the strength of the current must be used
continually both in general and localized faradization.

Fig, 57.

Faradic Machine, feparate coil, double cell, in box (Galvano-Fiiradic Munufftctnrtng
Co. ). F F arc the two elements of zinc-carbon ; A A the rods l)y wliicli the ;inc
is raised from, and lowered into, the solution ; D the hammer, and 4 the helix
partly drawn out. These machines are run by one or two zinc-carbon cells
(Walker's Battery, see p. 41, in Electro- Physics).

a. The current may be modified by increasing the quantity of the
solution, or of the sulphuric acid in it. This measure can be resorted

FARADIC APPARATUS.

337

The direction of the current can be changed, at any time, by revers-
ing the position of the electrodes, or by reversing the conducting wires
in the posts, or by the current-reverscr, when one is attached to the
machine.

The faradic machines of this Company, besides being of the separate-
coil variety, giving both the primary and the secondary current, have
also a very «onvenient conlrivance for producing slow or rapid inter-
ruptions.

^■' /

Faraulic Mnchme (continuous coit) (Thomas Hall).

The machine of Hall is a neat, compact arrangement, and gives a
very pleasant current. Chromated lead is used for the electro-nega-
tive element. One of the metals is raised out of the solution by a
very convenient spring, instead of the jointed-rod.

Magneto- Electric Machines. — The magneto-electric (or so-called rotary)
machines (see Electro-Physics, p. 69) are not much used iX the present
day, and arc not ordinarily to be recommended. They have been em-
ployed largely and indiscriminately, especially in this country, ond have
done the cause of electrotherapeutics much evil. Although the cur-
rent afforded by them is well adapted to produce muscular contractions,
and is frequently of service in the treatment of paralysis, rheumatism,
and kindred disorders, yet, for all the wide range of diseases in whitii

338

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

faradic electricity is indicated, it is neither siifliciently reliable nor suf-
ficiently effective. In most of the conditions of irritability, in which
general faradization is most effective, this form of electricity, as generated
by most of the machines, is contra-indicated, on account of the rough
and disagreeable quality of the current.

Another very prominent objection to most of the rotary machines in
this countr)' is, that they require the aid of an assistant, to turn the
crank. This objection may be met by clock-work attachment. An
arrangement of this kind is employed by Dr. Morell McKenzie, of
London, in the treatment of paralysis of the larynx ; but even for this
special purpose it would seem to have no advantages, but positive dis-
advantages, as compared with a compact, convenient, and reliable
electro- magnetic apparatus as described in the preceding pages.

M. Gramme * has made a magneto-electric machine which furnishes a
eoniinuous instead of an interrupted current, which in its etfects re-
sembles the ordinary galvanic current. The machine consists of three
rings of soft iron, around which is an endless coil of copper wire. Each
of these rings rotates between the poles of a powerful magnet, and the
arrangement is such that the opposite currents in the halves of each
ring form a single continuous current.

The machine is turned by hand, and in its large form generates a
large quantity of electricity. It can produce all the effects of the ordi-
nary galvanic current. It makes platinum wire red hot, fuses metals,
and is used in electroplating.

If this machine can be reduced in size, and modified in shape» it may
become of value in electro-medicine and electro-surgery.

Galvanic Apparatus. — The merit of placing in the market, in an
accessible form, convenient and reliable galvanic batteries, was in this
country ijionecred by the Galvano-Faradic Manufacturing Company.
Before the organization of tliis establishment the faradic machines of
Kidder and othcri had been long in use, but suitable galvanic machines
could not be obtained.

Hydrostai. — The hydrostat is an admirable contrivance for keeping
tlie fluid from spillitig when the battery is carried in a bugg)" or on s
long journey. It consists of a rubber covering accurately fitted on the
top of the cells, and we have found it a most Uustworthy arrangement.
A battery of sixteen cells, made by this company, we once took with
US charged three hundred miles into the country on a consultation, and
not a drop was spilled.

Althaus on Medical Electricity, third edition, 1874, p. SS^

DIRECTIONS FOR GALVANIC APPARATUS.

341

Practical Dirations for thi Use of Zinc-Carbon Galvanic BaiUrics.

The following directions will substantially apply to all or nearly all
forms of the zinc-carboa battery, by whomsoever inanafactured.

How the Battery is Constructed and Used. — ^These batteries are com-
posed of plates of zinc and carbon in a solution of bichromate of po-
tass, sulphuric acid, and water. The solution is contained in glass jars
that are raised up to the plates of zhic and carbon by the keys at the
ends of the box, or by a crank. When the jars are raised by the keys

Thirty*ax Iotec tine-carbon cell jjalvanic Ijattery, with circukr switch, revcrsser, and
inlCTTupto', for office or hospital use (KiJdcr).

to the top of the box, turn the keys at rijs^ht anj^les, or turn the crank,
and the jars will stay in jiosition, and the battery is ready for use, if the
jars are properly filled with the solution.

When the battery is not in use the jars shoidd be let down from the
l^lates by means of the keys. If allowed to remain immersed dav after
day the battery will rapidly lose its strength. (See Electro- Physics,
p. 42.)

Ifow to Change the Battery. — The solution is made in about the fol-
lowing proportions : sulphuric acid, x oz. ; bicliromate potass, i J^ or. ;

DIRECTIONS FOR GALVANIC APPARATUS.

343

water, lo oz. The best way to make the solution is to dissolve the bi-
chromate of potash in cold water and then add the sulphuric acid.
The mingling of the water and sulphuric acid causes great heat. Do not
usi the solution until it is cool. We had not been able to get any sat-
isfactory explanation of the fact that solutionis when hot injure the bat-
tery, until Prof. Brackelt, of Princeton, informed us that from experi-
ments he made several years ago he proved that when the bichro-
mate of potash solution is used hot a layer of ozone is formed on the
carbon ; this at once weakens the current.

Lift out the plates by the middle piece to which they are attached,
lift up the jars by the keys and fill each jar with two, or three, or three
and a half ounces of the solution. They should be hlled pretty uni-
formly, and care should be taken that no more should be put in than the
jars will hold after the plates are immersed.

How to cUan the Battery and Amalgamate the Zincs. — Every few
weeks oi months, according to the extent to which the battery is used,
it will be necessar) to wash the plates and scrape off the exudation and
renew the solution, or, at least, to add more acid or water, and amalga-
mate the zinc. The chrome alum tliat collects in the bottom of the jars
(see Electro- Physics, p. 42) and becomes very haid can be softened by
allowing warm water to stand in the jars for a time, and then loosening
the deposit with any shaq? instrument. A good way to amalgamate
the zincs is, take a strip of zinc, dip it in a solution of sulphuric acid
and water, then dip it in mercury ; the mercury will adhere to and nm
over it ; then rub up over the surface of the zincs of the battery until
ail are well covered with mercury. During the process of amalgama-
tion the zincs should be kept well moistened with a solution of sul-
phuric acid and water. (See Electro-Physics, p. 43.)

How to tell the Strength of the Current. — Those who have no galva-
nometer can tell whether the current is running and how strong it is by
putting one pole in the hollow of the hand and the other between the
thumb and forefinger. The poles should be wet with salt water or
simple warm water. Those who have been accustomed only to the
noisy and violent faradic (induced) current, will be disapi)ointed to f "id
that this galvanic current causes only a slight burning sensation^ with no
shocks except when interrupted. A current that is scarcely felt when
applied in the hand, may be too strong to apply lo the head, or face, or
neck. The greatest mistakes are made by using the galvanic current
too strong.

How to distinguish the Poles. — The current is felt strongest at the
ITEGATIVE POLE. VVTicD bolh polcs are dipped in a solution of iodide

344

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

of potassium, the brown color of the iodine appears at tb«

POLE.

Chromatid Lead as an EUctro-Ncgative EUment. — George Beailii
ley, of Brooklyn, has patented the discovery of chromated lead tf
substitute for carbon in the battery.

The recognized disadvantages of carbon are that it is easily
that it absorbs gases, and that it does not conduct as well as could
wished

The position of chromium in the series of elements would indicate
it would be a superior electro-negative, but pure chromium in the
lie state cannot be obtained- That lead makes a good dcci
tive has lung been known.

Mr, Beardsley covers lead with powdered chromium just as sil^
covered with powdered platinum. The result is a flexible, light,
not easily breakable electro-negative, which can be used as a su
for carbon^ for platinized silver or copper in the ordinary galvanic
teries.

Its apparent advantages, which experience must test, are these :

1. It conducts better than even the best carbon. Hence it
more electro-motive force.

2. It gives a steatUer and more enduring current, according to
eral Abbott, of West Point, who has experimented extensively with
and oilier elements, trying them by the most elaborate tests. The cur*
rent from a battery, of which the chromated lead is one of the clc
ments, not only maintains its strength, but actually increases in strength
during a pretty long use, while the ordinary Smec's and zinc-carbon
batteries diminish very markedly.

3. It is less friable than either platinized silver or carbon.
Platinized silver, as every one knows, is liable to be injured byd*

mercury in the Smee's cell. To these advantages it may be ad(fa4»
that chromated lead is quite inexpensive. It may be used irith sol'
phuric acid solution, wnth bichromate of potash solution, or with sil
ammoniac that is employed in Lechanch^'s battery.

The Cabinet Battery. — A little more than a year ago it «
gested to the Galvano-Faradic Manufacturing Company the po**-
biUty of arranging a combination of sixty or more Siemens Habkt
elements of moderate size, in such a way that all the cells and ill the
connections and appliances should be contained in a small inovaW«
desk or bureau. The suggestion was made in the belief that all '^
supposed or real advantages of the combinations of large cclU 4**
are usually placed in cellajs or basements, and connected by wires indi

THE CABINET BATTERY.

345

the operating room, could be secured at far less trouble by a simple,
convenient, and accessible arrangement, in which many of the difficulties
connected with removal, cleaning and overhauling should be reduced
to a minimuui.

In the roughest possible manner a general plan of a bureau wnth
drawers and cover was drawn and it was fiuther suggested that it would
be well to have a current selecter, current-reverser, rheostat, and gal-
vanometer interposed in the circuit, and that the appliances should all be
in a plane surface at the top ; and that the drawers containing the cells
should be so made that ihey could be easily taken out whenever neces-
sary to inspect and replenish the battery. We thought little more of
the matter until November last, when the Con) pany called our attention
to the fact that they had completed a battery which they called the
Cabinet battery, and which is represented in the accompanying cut.

'JJ

«ii

'^il

m:-

'ji,

Fig. 65.

The Cabinet battery is so simple that a very brief description of it
will be sufficient. The Siemens-Halske cell is merely a modification of

346

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

Danicll's cell. It consists of a small cylinder of glass, attachrtl at lb«
boltoni to a cylinder of [lorcelain. In this cylinder is placed a coil oi
ribbon of cop|>er, and a little water. Outside of this cylinder is a cylin-
der of zinc, and the s[iace between it and the outer glass jar is sawdust
on the top, and at the bottom powdered papier niach^ packed closely,
and wet with water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. The object
of the sawdust and papier-niacli6 is to hold the fluid and avoid spilliog
and to make the action of the battery gentle and uniform. A cork
is placed in the cylinder so as to prevent mingling of the tluids of the
outer and the inner cells.

These cells, like all modifications of Daniell's cell, are very con-
stant ; that is, they give a steady and uniform current, and can be used
for a long time without recharging. It is necessary, now and then, to
drop a Uttle water into the inner cylinder to make up for the loss by
evaporation » and to put in a few pieces of sulphate of copper ; this,
however, can be very easily done by pulling out the drawers and
remo\nng the corks. Each cell is about the si/e of an ordinary
tumbler. There are three drawers, each containing twenty cells.

The metallic connections of the cells arc made at the back part of
the drawer, and are completed when the drawer is well pushed iiu On
the top of the bureau are the current-selecter, by which one cell or
sixty cells can be brought into the circuit ; the current-reverser ; the
short-coil galvanometer for indicating the presence and direction of the
current merely, and the hydro- or water rheostat, for gradually increas-
ing or diminishing the strength of the current.

The water rheostat is the perfection oi neatness and convenience,
and is difi'crcntly arranged from any that we have seen. The water is
contained in a small case or cup, with a glass top. By turning a small
brass disk, connected with a brass lever, a small or large area of the
water can be brought into the cireuit. Beside all the appliances for
the galvanic current, this Cabinet battery also provides \.\\c faradic cur-
rent. Two Lechanche cells in the upper drawer are connected with a con-
tinuous coil and interrupter, on the right hand of the top of the bureau.
The faradic current can be increased or diminished by pulling out or
pushing in a metallic rod in front of the top piece.

The advantages of this Cabinet combination are these : —

I, // is ray easily moved and managed. The whole Cabinet, con-
taining sixty cells, the electrodes, connections, etc., for both currents,
and the cover to place over the lop, is but three feet high and seven-
teen inches broad. It is placed on castors, and can be easily moved
from one ward of a hospital to another ward, or about the room, by one

THE CABINET BATTERY.

347

person, as easily as an ordinary centre-table. The combinations of
Daniell's cells are generally placed in the cellar, and the apparatus
througlKjut is permanent, and when ihe physician wishes to move his
office the labor of reselling the baitcry is very great. This combina-
tion, widiout taking out the drawers, can be transported bodily from
one house to another as easily as any bureau the drawers of which
are filled with heavy goods.

Although the battery will probably go for years without thorough
overhauling, yet occasional inspection and refilling will be required,
and can be very easily performed.

2. // giT^es a constant^ uni/ttrm, and steady current ; and ;.r, therefore^
better adapted for the treatment of irritable and sensitive conditions than
the small cells of the ordinary portable batteries.

This advantage it shares with all modifiaitions of Daniell's battery.
The explanation of the constancy and steadiness of the current from
these combinations of Daniell's cells is found in the (act that on ac-
count of the feebleness of the solution, and the interposition of the
porous cell, the chemical action is slow and uniform, with no inter-
ruptions or even variations. In the single zinc-carbon cells the solution
is very strong, and the chemical action very vigorous ; the plates are
rapidly polari/ed : the density of the solution, and with it the inter-
nal resistance of the battery, is continually changing as a result of the
vigorous chemital action, and conse<piently the strength of the current
not only diminishrs after a protracted use of the battery, but it varies
from moment to moment.

The potential (juanlity of electricity may be the same in a combina-
tion of single zinc-carbon cells, as in a combination of sawdust Daniell's
cells, and may even be far greater ; but there is great tllfference in the
rapidity ^^ith which they evolve it. For sliort work, such as is required
in |>owerful electrolytic operations, the single zinc-carbon cell is far
preferable to the Daniell, for the reason that the quantity of electricity
that it generates in a short time, say half an hour, is very much greater
than a similar number of Daniell's cells would generate in the same
time. This Cabinet battery is therefore not a good battery for elec-
trolysis, and we never attempt to use it in any im|)ortant electrolytic
operations. In experimennng with it we tind that it causes but a very
Ifceble deco:nposition of iodide of potassium, or chloride of sodium.
It could not indeed be otherwise; in electrolysis, as everywhere, force
answers to force ; the amount of chemical action outside of the cell —
electrolysis — must be proportioned to the amount of chemical action
insuU of the ceil. In the Daniell's cell the chemical action is very slow

348

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

and feeble ; hence, the electrolysis it causes is slow and feeble, but U
is constant and steady ; it does not give out so much electricity in an
hour as the single zinc-carbon cell, but it continues to give it out long
after the zinc-carbon cell is exhausted.

Two men have each a thousand dollars ; one spends recklessly, rap-
idly^ and extravagantly, and in a few days is jjenniless : the other
spends regularly and slowly, and uniformly, one dollar each day, and
makes his thousand dollars last a thousand days. The single zinc-car-
bou cell makes an extravagant battery; but in electrolysis extravagance
is nee<leU, and besides the solution can be removed from the plates, so
that no action can take place when the battery is not needed. The
Danicll's cell makes an economical batter)^ since it spends slowly and
regidarly, even though it is kept constantly immersed. Hence its ad-
vantage in the treatment of the neuralgic, the hysterical, and the nerv-
ously exhausted, who in some cases, at least, require to be treated with
feeble, mild, steady, and painless currents. The current from these
Daniell's cells is less painful than the current from small and active
cells, for the reason mainly that it is more uniform.

The notion entertained by some that these large double-cell batter-
ies send a larger quantity of clcctricily through the body than small
cells, is at war with Ohm's law, and has no foundation in experience.
The resistance of the body is so great in comparison with the internal
resistance of the batteries, that it makes but little diftcrcnce in regard
to the quantity of electricity that flows through the body whether the
cells arc large or small. As a matter of fact, the small single zinc-car-
bon cells, or even the ordinary Smee's cell, give larger quantity of elec-
tricity for a short time tlian tlie large Daniell's cell. (See Electro-
Physics, pp. 77-95-)

The arrangement in Fig. 66, is very light, compact, and portable.
The cells are quite small, and of course need refilling more frequently
than larger cells. The cord spools (S S) are convenient contrivances
for winding up the cords when not in use.

These batteries are made also often, twenty four, and forty cells.

The combination in Fig. 67, embraces both tlie faradic and the gal-
vanic currents, forty zinc-carbou cells — and a rheostat. The same coil
that furnishes the faradic current can also be enclosed in the circuit
of the galvanic current so as to form a rheostat. Connected with the
apitaraius, on a board in front of it, is a current-reverser, a currt.ni-
intcnupter, and a galvanoscope.

The faradic current is supplied by a continuous coil with many wind-
ings, and gives a very pleasant current.

THE CABINET BATTERY.

349

These batteries (Fig. 68, p, 351) are of twelve, or tvfenty-four, or thirty-
six cells. The general construction of the Lechanchi cell has already
been described in Electro- Physics.

Curt W. Meyer also manufactures a combination of Lechanche's cells
that is conveniently portable, and is said to be quite enduring. These
small Lechanchc cells are not as enduring as those of a larger size, and
when frequently used must be frequently cleaned, like the zinc-carbon
batteries.

Kaifnts' Battery . — Prof. George W. Raines, of Augusta, Georgia, has
described ♦ a portable galvanic battery, composed of strips of zinc and

Fig. 66.
Portable galvanic battery, twenty zinc-carbon cells (Drescher).

platinum, united by copper strips in the shape of the letter V inverted.
These /inc and platinum strips thus united are passed through holes
made in a rubber plate, beneath which is a square trough of rubber, di-
vided into forty-nine compartments or cells. These cells contain the
acid solution, which can be raised to the metallic strips so as to immerse
them. Tlie whole battery is about the weight of a No. 4 faradic ma«
chine of the Galvano-Faradic Co.'s manufacture.

Galvanometers or Gahanoscopes . — The general principles on which
galvanometers are constructed have been already described (Electro-
l*hysics, p. 46).

A galvanometer which, by Dr. Rockwell's suggestion, was made by
Messrs. Chester & Co., is represented in the cut. It is of the long-coil
variety, and is provided with a " shunt," which has a resistance equiva-
lent to 1 50 miles of telegraph wire. This galvanometer measures with
• Siitnti/tc Amtrican^ September 28, 1873.

GALVANIC APPARATUS.

3SI

Fic. 68.
Portable B«U-Lechanch^ battery, twenty cells (T*homas Hall).

considerable accuracy the strength of the galvanic current, since the de-
flection of the needle is in tolerably exact proportion to the number of
cells introduced into the circuit. It is very useful, therefore, in compar-
ing different batteries, or the same battery at different times, in order to
determine how much power it has lost. When a thirly-two-cell zinc-
carbon battery is in perfect order it will deriect the needle of this gal-
vanometer from 40° upwards ; fifteen cells will cause a deflection of
about 20"* or 25°. The deflection of tlie latter part, when a large num-
ber of cells are introduced, is not exactly proi>ortional as in the first
part, but sufficiently so for all practical uses.

The ordinary " short-coil " galvanometers (galvano5copes)are so deli-
cate that one or two cells send the needle round to 90", and are there-
fore useful only to determine the presence and direction of the current.

3S2

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

-Ui

Fic. 69.

Brenner's Apparatus, including Stopper Rheostat, Galvanoscope, Faradic Con« etc
(GaJvano-Faradic Manufacturing Co.). This apparatus may be coauected witli
any desired number of large cells in the cellar,

Rheostates, — The general object and principle of the rheostat has
been already described {Electro- Physics, p. 48). It remains here toj
speak of Lhose forms that are best adapted for electro therapeutics.

Fic. 70.
Galvanometer used by the Authors. (Chester & Co.)

A form of rheostat, very well known to electro-physiologists liidl
electro-therapeutists, is that of Siemens, and introduced into electro- ]
therapeutics by Brenner in his researches on the ear. The unit of
Siemens is a column of mercury, one metre long, with a transverse scC^
tion of one square millimetre at 32° F. The rheostat may conuinl
1,110 or 2,100 units. The metallic blocks or pieces on the top are
attached to insulated coils of wire, which in their length correspond lo

RHEOSTATES.

353

^UmiH/ Stopptr-Rheoitat.—Qn the ciide B, the metallic disks are numbered by
ttnits from o to lo ; on the circle C, by tens, from o to loo ; on the circle D»
by hundreds, from o to 1,000. To use the rheostat, connect the wire A with
one of the poles of the battery, and the wire E with one of the electrodes: in
this way the resistances of the rheostat are included in the circuit, constituting
what is called a " secondary clojurt."

the numbers i, J, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, etc., 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, etc., 100,
200, 300, 400, etc., marked over them. At the centra.1 end of each divi-
sion of the star-shaped top-piece there is a hole for receiving the stop-
per. When all the stoppers are inserted in the division marked o,
there is no resistance in the rheostat, and the current goes directly
through it, and not at all through the body of the patient, for the rea-
son that metal conducts electricity very much better than the body, and
when it has a choice it will take the path throtigh the best conductor.

When new, the stoppers are inserted so that some of the coils of wire
connected with the divisions of the top piece, say those marked 5, 50
500, are brought into the circuit, the current will have to overcome not
only the resistance of the metallic connections, but also the resistance
of 550 Siemens' units, represented by corresponding lengths of copper
wire, and by preference much more of the current will pass through the
body. If all the resistances, 1,110 or 2,100 units, are interposed,
most of the current passes through the body. If all the stoppers are
removed, a part of the current goes through the rheostat.

Rheostat of Mayer ^ IVb/f.—UsLyer & Wolff, of Vienna, have
constructed a simple form of rheostat — a wooden box containing coils
of wire corresponding to 1,605 Siemens' units.

Hydro-rheostat {water rheostat, or liquid rheostat). — For all the prac-
tical purposes of electro-therapeutics, even for the most delicate appli-
cations to the most delicate organs, as the ear, eye, etc., the common
water rheostat — or, as it is sometimes called, hydro-rheostat, or liquid

354

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

rheostat — is sufficiently precise, and in convenience is incomparabljr
superior to the stopper rheostates.

The water rheostat, represented in the cut, is simply a column of
water, interposed in the circuit, and so arranged thai the distances be*
tween the extremities of the metals that close the circuit through the |
water can be increased or diminished at pleasure.

^^^^v

Hydro. Rheostat (G«lvano«Faradic Manufacturing Co.).

The precision that physiologists and physicians obtain by the use of
the stopper rheostat is more apparent than real. A study of Ohm's
law will show that the quantity of electricity that flows through the body
in any electrical application, depends not alone on the nature of the
conducting wire, and the number of cells employed, but also on the
nature of the electrodes, the quality and degree of moisture in them*
the amount of pressure used, their distance from each other, and the
part of the body that is treated. Those who are "particular to state the
number of cells employed, and the number of units interposed, are
tlierefore much less precise than they suppose ; for, besides all the qua-
lifications just given, the strength of even the most constant cells varies
more or less from time to time {see chapter on Ohm's Law, pp. 77-95.)
Reports, therefore, that contain in full detail the number of elements
employed, and the number of units interposed in the circuits, are appar-
ently but not really precise ; the careful physiological researches on defi.
nite and very limited portions of tissue, the statement of the kind of ceD
employed, and the number of them and the number of resistances of

ELECTRODES.

555

the rheostat interposed, may convey an approximate idea of the
strength of current, and thus may be of service to other investigators,
but in the very nature of things they cannot be accurate. In the ordi-
nary applications of electro-therapeutics, unless it be limited electroly-
sis, wc oftentimes state the number and kind of cells employed, but
always with the implied proviso that we are suggesting approximate and
not mathematical truth.

So far as producing delicate shades and grades of sensation is con-
cerned, the water rheostat, when properly constructed and adjusted, is
fully as trustworthy as the stopper rheostat, and far more convenient
for the operator. A rheostat of some form, though not indispensable
in electrical applications, is yet a great convenience, and, especially in
central galvanization and in local galvanization of the nerve-centres, a
very great convenience. In ordinary peripheral applications, unless it
be to very sensitive parts, the rheostat is not required.

Electrodes. — Of the many varieties of electrodes, we shall describe
those only that are practically useful.

Fig. 73.
Universal Handle for Electrodes, with Internipter (Galvano-Faradic Manufacturing

Co.).

Fig. 74-

Unlyersal Handles for Electrodes, with Intemipter— insulated (Galvano-Farodic Moa*

nfocturiag Co.).

The peculiarity of these handles (Fig. 74) is, that there is no exposed
metalUc surface, the connection being made at the closed ends. A dis-
advantage of these electrodes is that they can be used only with one
conducting wire, to which they arc nermanently attached.

356

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

•

Frc. 75.
Long Sponge Electrode.

Fig. 76.
Our electrodes of various sizes
in grailuntcfl scries, to be at-
tached to univer<.il handles
(Kidder and Galvano-Faradic
Manufacturing Co.).

Fic. 77.
Hard Rubber Handle
and Electrode, with
Interrupter (Kidder).

Fig. 7«,
Plain Wooden Sponge-holder,
wiih Sponge attached (Kidder).

F»o. 79,
Small Sponge Electrode (Kidder)L

K»^P

Fig. Eo.
Duchenne's Electrocie.

Fig. Rt.

Rock^reU's Brass BaU Electrode
General Faradization (Kidder).

A large, soft sponge, loosely folded about this ball, makes the most
convenient possible electrode for general faradization.

358

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

These adjustable electrodes, which are made of several diifcrent
sizes, have long been to us indispensable. They can be fastened by
means of a simple cloth band to any part of the body, and k.ept there
as long as may be necessary.

In diseases of the skin, in rheumatism, in spratns, and in tumors, and
in all cases where it is desired to keep the electrode long in one spot,
they are most convenient A second advantage which they have, is,
that they can be passed easily under the clothing, thus saving mtich
undressing on the part of the patient.

These adjustable electrodes can be covered with a sponge, which can
be sewed through the hole at the edge, or what is very much better,
with electrode covers, to be hereafter described.

We use these adjustable electrodes in central galvanization, galvan-
ization of the cer\ical sympathetic, and brain and spine, and in a large
variety of peripheral applications. In some applications, as in central
galvanization, one electrode is adjustable, while the other held by the
patient is of the ordinary form with a handle. We do not much use
the bands that accompany them, preferring to hold the electrode iu
position by allowing the clothing of the patient to rest against it, or
having the patient hold it^ by a little pressure.

In galvanization of the sympathetic, for example, the adjustable elec-
trode can be easily placed under the collar at the back of the neck,
and kept there by the pressure of the clothing.

^f€^^:^

Fig. 84.
Beard'i Adjustable Electrode — small
■use — with flannel cover.

Fig. «5.
Fliumel Cover for AdjustAble Elec-
trode — sauli size.

These flannel covers are provided with elastics in their edges so that
they remain in position when put on the electrode, and are easily slipped
off and on. They can be washed like towels, and the expense of mak-
ing them is so slight, that a large number can be kept constantly on
hand. Another advantage of these flannel covers is that the current is
more painfully felt through them than through sponges, and hence there
is, while using them, less liability to give too strong currents. We have
long been accustomed to use these covers in all central applications of
the galvanic current

S6o

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

pressure of the thumbs without the intervention of a slide, or any \
plex arrangement whatsoever.

The letter represents the button of the spring, by pressing whi|
the current is interrupted or reversed. Pressing it lightly, inta
the current ; pressing it firmly, reverses it.

-j;f ,M> v. !^Ci

Fig. 91.
Beard's Current- Reverscr, with flexible electrode*

In the vertical section of the hard rubber handle, A A is repreft
as springing up against the metallic plate on the upper and inner 1
face of the handle. Pressing this slightly down, metallic conncctioai|
broken and the current is interrupted ; pressing it fimily down, I
connection is made and reversed ^i B B, the metallic plate on -he In*
surface of the handle.

C represents the wires that connect with the battery, endosetli
rubber tubing E.

F and G are flexible wire electrodes armed with sponges ; ibey I
be separated several inches and kept there, or put close together i
represented in the cut. The advantages of this are these : — i-
many of the applications of localized electrization this neat and sin
arrangement saves considerable expenditure of muscle on the part i
the operator. One hand can be perfectly free while the other
and guides the electrode. In electrizing the muscles of the band \
ami, and of the face especially, it is far more convenient than to I
separate electrodes.

2. In cases of paralysis of motion and of sensation, where tdtof
alternatives are son>etimes indicated, this is the easiest conoci«6|*j
method of reversing the current. We find the arrangement of the 1

UNPOLARIZABLE ELECTRODES.

361

ble electrodes very convenient in external applications to tumors, rheu-
matic joints, and sprains.

The special electrodes that are needed for local applications to spe-
cial parts, as the eye, the ear, larynx, oesophagus, rectum, vagina, ute-
rus, bladder, urethra, and so forth, \vill be described in the chapters de-
voted to the electrical treatment of tliese organs. We propose here to
represent and describe only those that are of general use in all the or-
dinar)' apphcations, both of general and localized electrization.

The variety of shapes and modifications that may be given to elec-
trodes is limited only by tlie taste, inclinations, and peculiarities of the
operator. In describing those that we chiefly use and recommend, we
do not desire to give the impression that we regard them as better than
have been or may be devised by others ; but simply that they have
satisfactorily answered our purposes, and will, we belie^^e, in the main
be satisfactory to others.

UnpolarizabU Electrodes, — It is well known to electro-physiologists
that in consequence of the electrolytic changes that take place during
the passage of a current from the electrodes to the body, a change
takes place at the surface of the electrodes, by which a new electrical
action is set up that to a certain extent interferes with the main current
and also causes pain. Electrodes thus affected are calleil polarized.
(See Electro-Physics, p. 37.)

Dr. Hitzig,* of Berlin, has devised electrodes in which this secondary
electrical action at the surface does not take place ; to these he has
given the name unpolarizable electrodes. These are made unpolariza-
ble by a solution of sulphate of zinc. By the courtesy of Dr. Hitzig,
we were enabled to test them while in Berlin, and were favorably
impressed with their action. The pain produced by stable galvanization
is sometimes very disagreeable, and by these electrodes it was certainly
diminished. They can be used several hours without exhibiting any
polarization. The subject of unpolarizable electrodes had previously
received the attention of Regnauld, Matteucci, and Du Bois-Reymond

Rubber Covers for Conducting Wires, — The conducting wires con-
necting the electrodes with the apparatus are covered widi silk ; they
may be still further insulated by flexible rubber. We have long been
accustomed to use these rubber covers, and are much pleased with
them. If the rubber is properly prepared it will not injure the silk
covering beneath it Some electro-therapeutists have rubber coverings

• Ueber die Anwendung unpolorisirbarer Electroden in der Electrotherapie. Bcr
ioer KJinisdw Wochenschrift, 1867, No. 89,

362

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

of a different color for the two poles, thus affording a ready means o(
distinguishing them.

Care of Electrodes. — Electro-therapeutics is a scries of details ; and
among the more important of these details is the care of the electrodes.
The chemical action, even of the secondary coil and faradic current, is
sufficient to corrode any metal that is used, except platinum j and pUti-
num electrodes are rarely, if ever, used except in electrolytic operations.
The copper plates used at the feet in general faradization become more
or less corroded and require occasional cleaning, in order to keep them
bright. All the general and special electrodes of all kinds require oc-
casional polishing with sand-paper, eraory-paper, or whiting. It is an
advantage to have the electrodes, as well as the batteries, nickellzed,
so as to reduce corrosion to a minimum.

The sponges that are attached to the electrodes need to be frequently
washed in warm water, and those that are much used should be occa-
sionally disinfected with chlorinated solutions. It is better, however, to
make delicate and particular patients, especially ladies, supply their
own sponges. But a physician who has a large general or special
practice will find it very difficult, if not impossible, to keep a large as-
sortment of electrodes, sponges, and electrode covers always separate ;
and hence it becomes necessary to treat many of the patients with the
same electrode. To meet this difficulty we devised the electrode covers,
elsewhere described. These can be thrown off with every application
and washed weekly, like towels. The expense and labor of making
them is so slight that some electro-therapeutists, after using them a few
times, cast them aside entirely,

European Batteries. — For the sake of our European readers, wc give
very brief descriptions of a few of the batteries that are at the present
date most used by European electro-therapeutists. 'All who consult
this book — Americans as well as Europeans — may find it of interest to
compare the workmanship of the different (Countries. A fact which such
a comparison constantly suggests is, that all advanced and active electro.
logists in all countries have realized the same difficulties and wants of
the specialty, and have sought to overcome them by similar or nearly
similar methods, and nearly all have in a greater or less measure succeed-
ed. On the whole, with special advantages or disadvantages on both
sides, the American batteries for tJie faradic current, the galvanic cur*
rent, and for the galvano-cautery, are superior to the European.*

* For the clcctrotyj>es of the cuts that accompany these descriptions of the Engiisb
apparatus we arc indebted to the kindness of Dr. AUhaus. Tbe descriptioas wc cOB*
densed from the third edition of his treatise on Electricity.

EUROPEAN APPARATUS.

363

This is enclosed in a small mahogany box, six inches high, three and
a half inches deep, and six inches wide. It is run by a zinc-carbon cell.
The primary and secondary currents are obtained without shifting the
position of tlie wires.

Fic. 93.
Meyer and Mcltzer** Faradic Machine.

Stbhrer^s Faradic Machine. — This well-known separate-coil machine,
which is run by a zinc-carbon cell, is widely used in Europe.

Duckenn^s faradic apparatus is of the separate-coil variety ; it is
inferior in portability and convenience to many other European as well
as to the American machines. It is run by a Bunsen's cell.

Lcgendr^ s faradic apparatus is popular in France, on account of its
portability and cheapness.

Gaiffe s faradic apparatus is very portable, and gives a fair strength
of current. He has made two forms of faradic machines, one run by
a chloride of silver element, and the other by a sulphate of -aiercury
clement.

3^4

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

Du Bois-Reytmnd' s faradic apparatus, or •' sledge^' as it is called, »
nm by an element of Grove or Bunscn. It is provided with a **gal'
vanic key " for opening and closing the circuit at pleasure. The mat
chines of Benedict and of Siemens- Halske are modifications of that of
Du Bois-Reynjond.

Kriiger & Hirbchmann, of Berlin, have constructed a good faradlc
machine, which is run by a Lechanchd element. It is arranged for i.low'
or rapid interruptions.

So far as we are able to learn, none of these machines have any
special advantages over those of American manufacture previously
described, and some of them are much inferior to the most recent
American improvements.

Stohrer^s Zinc carbon Galvanic Battery. — Dr. Emil Slohrer, of
Dresden, is the pioneer in the art of making convenient and tnistworthy
galvanic apparatus for electro-therapeutists. He makes combinations
of zinc-carbon cells, both portable and non-portable. He was, we be-
lieve, the first to devise convenient and simple current-reversers and
current-seli-Liers. These batteries have the disadvantage of all zinc-
carbon batteries, that the carbons are friable. They also polarixe
rapidly, though not so rapidly as Sraee's cell, and if the plates are kept
long in die solution the current becomes very weak.

JFoveauj^s battery (Fig. 93), which is quite portable, consbts of frobi
twenty to fifty small Smee's cells. It is furnished with a switch, by
which any desired number of elements can be brought into the circuit
It is provided with a chal or current-selecler, for bringing any number
of cells into the circuit. The jars are made of hard rubber or porce-
lain. The tray containing the jars is lifted and let down at pleasure.
This battery is much used in England. It has, however, the disad-
vantage of all constructions of Smee's cells, that it rapidly polari/es
and weakens- We prefer similar combinations of zinc-carbon cells.

Becker-Muirkead or Siemens-Meulinger Stationary Galvanic Bat-
tery. — This battery, which is highly praised by Althaus, consists of
fifty modified Daniell's cells. No acid is used in it, but only water for
the zinc surface and sulphate of copper for the copper surface. The
cells, which are quite large, are kept down cellar, and contained in two
boxes. The advantages of this battery are, that on account of no add
being used the chemical action is very feeble, and polarization is rc-
dttced to a minimum ; and that, like the Cabinet battery, on account
of its steadiness of action, it is better adapted for nervous and irritable
patients than the small batteries.

366

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

good indeed, would appear to be inferior in convenience to the Ameri-
can Cabinet battery, previously described.

:^s

I'iC. 94.

Mayer & MelUer's Portable Galvano-Faradic Apparatus.

The idea of combining both currents in a single apparatus seems to
have occurred almost simultaneously to the electrologists and mecha-
nicians of Europe and America. The practical advantages of any
combination that has yet been offered are not, for portable use at least,
so great as was expected. The galvanic current which they give is apt
to be too feeble for all occasions, and the size of the apparatus is
much larger than is needed for the faradic current alone.

This apparatus of Meyer & Mehzer is provided with a galvanoscope,
current-selectcr and current-reverser. It is so arranged that the first
or the last portion of the cells may be used at pleasure, thus avoiding
the disproportionate use of the first portion. Zinc-carbon cells are
used, and they are raised and depressed as in the American zinc-
carbon batteries.

CHAPTER DC

LOCALIZED ELECTRIZATION.

The object of localized electrizMtion is to confine tht direct action of
the current^ so far as possible, to some particular part of the body.

This is accomplished by placing electrodes so that the current, in
passing from one to the other, shall chiefly traverse only that particular
pari that is to be affected.

Both currents may be localized in this way, hence the division of
localized electrization into localized faradkation and localized galvani-
zation.

The scientific use either of localized galvanitaiion or faraditation
requires as accurate as possible preliminary diagnosis of the disease.

In cases of doubt it is necessary to electrize in succession all the
suspected localities until the results of treatment show conclusively
that we have hit upon the seat of the disease. Accordingly, in obsti-
nate or doubtful cases the head, the cervical sympathetic, and the
spine, and in some instances the uterus or organs of the abdomen, arc
to be successively electrized.

In the very numerous cases of doubt also, when the locality of the
disease cannot be ascertained, as well as in condidous of irritation
where electrization of the seat of the disease will not be borne, peri-
pheral applications alone are frequently of decided service. For peri-
pheral applications both the galvanic and faradic currents are used ;
for central applications, chiefly the galvanic. In some diseases, as, for
example, locomotor ataxia, in certain stages it is better to treat the
prominent symptoms, as, for example, the ansesthesia, than the seat of
the disease in the spine.

Instruments for Localized Electrization. — In localized electrization
the same galvanic and faradic apparatus are used as in general electri-
zation. l"or localized electrization in all its modifications there are
needed a variety of electrodes of different shapes and sizes, to reach
the various localities and accomplish the different indications.

368

LOCALIZED ELECTRIZATION.

Of the electrodes there arc three general forms : the eUctrU hand ;
the metallic brush ; solid mefals and metals covered with sponge^
flannel^ linen, or chamois, thoroughly moistened.

Dry or Cutaneous Faradization. — ^To accomplish dry faradization
the portion of the skin over which the apphcation is to be made should
be wiped thoroughly dry, or, what is better still, sprinkled with soxne
absorbing powder, as the common nursery powder ; and llie applid-
tion may be made with the dry hand of the operator, or with metallic
electrodes.

In dry faradization with the hand there is heard a peculiar crackling
sound, which is caused by the sparks that take place as the current
passes from different points of the hand to the skin.

When the dry hand is used, the operator passes the current through
his own person, one of the electrodes applied to some near point by
an assistant, or held in the hand by the patient himself. Solid nietaJlic
electrodes of various shapes may be used for dry electri/alion.

Dry electrization by the metallic brush with a strong current, faradic
or galvanic, is a very painful method of application^ and is to be re-
sorted to only in those cases where there is profound cutaneous anaes-
thesia or in neuralgia. In all cases where there is great sensitiveoeo
the hand is to be preferred to any form of artificial electrodes.

Electric Moxa. — The so-called electric moxa is produced by usi
metallic brush, plate or j^oint, and one moistened electrode. The dry
electrode is rapidly touched to the surface where the moxa is to be
made, while the other is kept firmly applied to some near and in-
different point. The surface of the skin may previously be rubbed
very dry, or sprinkled with some absorbing powder.

The operation requires a current of some strength, and is exceed-
ingly painful. It is chiefly employed as a counter-irritant in neuralgia,
in which affection it is frequently successful. The electric moxa may
also be produced by means of two metallic brushes, one of which is
pressed on the skin.

Electrization with Moistened Electrodes, — When it is desired to ancci
the tissues lying beneath the epidermis, it is better to use electrodes
covered with sponge, chamois, or flannel, thoroughly moistened with
salt water or ordinary water.*

The size and shape of the electrode employed must be modified ac-
cording to the situation and sensitiveness of the part where the cunrceot

• In faradization we never or but rarely use salt in the watisr ; In ([alvaniattod
It is sometimes a great advatit.igc, because it makes the current more painfully fdl,
■nd thus prevents the use of too strong currents.

DEFINITION OF TERMS.

369

is to be localized, and also by the sensitiveness of the patient. As a
rule, small, finely-pointed electrodes are required for localized faradi-
zation of single muscles, larger electrodes for large muscles, or groups
of muscles, and those with the largest surface for galvanization, of the
sympathetic, brain and spine.

When the current is localized by means of moistened electrodes, it
diffuses itself through the body between the electrodes in various di-
rections. The extent of this diffusion will be variously modified by the
situation of the electrodes and the structure and relation of the parts
that lie between them (see Electro- Physiology). It is manifest also that
the density of the current, other conditions being the same, will be great-
est near the electrode and least at the farthest point between them. The
strength of the current being the same, small electrodes are more painful
than those with a broad surface, and metallic more than the wet sponge
or flannel. The least painful form of artificial electrode is a soft sponge,
with a broad surface, and well moistened.

Direct and Indirect Electrization. — Two general methods of localized
electrization are recognized — the direct and the indirect. In direct elec-
trization the application is made over the muscle to be excited. In in-
direct electrization the application is made to the nerve which supplies
the muscles. In the former method, large electrodes are preferred ; in
the latter, usually those which are small and pointed. The faradic cur-
rent is best indicated for direct electrization, and the galvanic for indirect.

The points where the motor nerves enter the muscles are called
" motor points." They have been carefully demonstrated and located
by Ziemssen and ourselves.

Definition of Terms. — In stable applications both electrodes are kept
in a fixed position.

In labile applications one of the electrodes is moved or glided over
the surface ; sometimes both of the electrodes are moved simultaneously.

A current is called continuous when it is allowed to flow in one direc-
tion without interruption. Only the galvanic current can b« continuous,
since the faradic is always in a condition of interruption.

A current is called interrupted when it is broken by removing one of
the electrodes, or by some form of current-breaker in the electrode, or
by any method of breaking the circuit. The faradic current is always
interrupted by its rheotome, but it may be still further interrupted by
removing one of the electrodes.

A current is called uniform when it remains of the same strength
during the applications of the electrodes.

A current is called by us increasing, when its strength is gradually

370

LOCALIZED ELECTRIZATION.

augmented during the applications. This method possesses a great ad.
vantage in treating conditions of irritation and inflammation. Ii ma/
be used with both galvanization and faradization. A much more pow-
erful current can be borne when its strength is gradually incnastd than
when it is suddenly let on in full force with the first closure of the cir-
cuit, as is usually the custom with the majority of electro-theraj)eutists.
A current which when suddenly closed may cause unbearable pain, and,
when applied near the nerve-centres, may induce dizziness and faintness,
may oftentimes be borne witliout discomfort and with positive advantage
if it is gradually increased from a very mild current. With the faradic
current a mild anaesthesia is produced.*

Increasing currents are indicated in applications to the brain, S}inpa-
thetic, s[)inal cord, the eye and ear, uretlira, inflamed joints, aod to fl
all conditions of great irritation in any part of the body. ■

The faradic current (of Kidder's apparatus) may be increased by
slowl)' withdrawing the metallic tube. To gradually increase the gal-
vanic current, a rheostat of some kind is needed. The galvanic current i
can also be increased by an arrangement that gradually adds to the quid- ■
ber of elements without interrupting the current, or when a sponge ^
electrode is used, by slowly increasing the pressure.

The term voltaic alUrnativts is applied to those applications in
which the direction of the current is reversed continually, while tlie J
electrodes are kept firm. The current-reverser is a very convenient
instrument for producing voltaic alternatives (see p. 360).

For electrization of muscles, labile or stable interrupted currents are
preferred. For electrization of the head, spinal cord, s}Tnpathetic, aod
nerve-tracts and plexuses, stable continuous currents are indicated, and
these again may be either uniform or increasing. Labile or stable in-
temipted currents are best adapted to produce muscular contractions,
and cause most potent physical and mechanical effects, while stable
continuous currents, whether uniform or increasing, produce the strong-
est electrolytic or catalytic action.

In cases where the electro-muscular contractility is not greatly ^
minished, it is an advantage to use electrodes with a broad surface,
since thereby several motor points may be influenced simultaneously,
together with a considerable extent of muscular tissue, and because
they are less painful than small electrodes. In such cases the faradic
current is preferable.

When the electro-muscular contractility is very greatly dimirushcd^ as

* S«e on artidc on Faradic Anxsthesia, by Dr. A. Tripier, of Paris, in Archn«»«f
Electrology aod Neurology, May, 1874.

DETAILS OF APPLICATIONS.

371

Itiently happens in paralysis, contractions are best produced by
finely pointed electrodes, applied at the motor points of the in-
muscles ; yet even here electrodes of moderate size are usually
Such cases often require the galvanic current.

JMaUs fif Appiuations of Lccalizfd EUciritation,

fixation of the Central Nervous System, — It is necessary to bear
I at the outset, that to produce powerful electrolytic effects on
efacun, spinal cord, and sympathetic, the galvanic current is prefer-
to the faradic, although the faradic current certainly affects the
c-ccntres.

nuation of the Head, — The head may be electrized in a variety

, according to the supposed seat of the disease. One pole may

^placed on the forehead and the other on the occiput ; or both poles

be placed over the ears, or on the mastoid processes. Another

bod which we frequently adopt is to place the positive pole on the

it, over the supposed organ of firmness, and the other at the oc-

, or under the chin.

► affect the base of the brain, the electrodes may be placed on or

the mastoid processes. To confine the action to one side of

\ brain, one electrode may be placed on the forehead, over the eye,

the other on the mastoid process of tlie same side. The patient

[rhold one of the poles m the hand. Still another method less used

place an electrode on each temple.

I diiiincss is caused \i the current is opened and closed with the

Blire than with the negative pole. It is well, therefore, to first apply

\ negative pole.

dizziness is caused when the current flows through one side of

kbead, or from the forehead to the occiput, than when it is sent from

side to the other, through the mastoid processes (see Electro-

P- 125)-

\ltse of some kind of a rheostat^ so as to avoid interrupting the eur-

' giving sudden " shceks " on dosing and openingy is almost indis-

Mabh in electrizing the brain and neck. With regard to the direction

'. current, it is usually better to place the negative pole nearest the

It, and the positive pole nearest the forehead. But this rule is liable

Imany exceptions, and each case must be studied by itself*

Kleclrization of the head produces flashes of light through irritation

of retina, and dizziness, which with many is disagreeable. If the ap-

• See remarks on polar effects, p. aSl.

37^

LOCALIZED ELECTRIZATION.

plication is too long continued, headache and insonvnia, and general]
malaise^ may result. Patients whom a short application through the j
head benefits, are sometimes injured when the stance is protracted.
Galvanization of the head should he made with broad electrodes, with
a stable current, which may be either uniform or increasing, znd should
not exceed from one-half a minute or three-quarters of a minute, to ;
five or ten minutes, and with a mild current.

To all these rules in regard to the strength of currents there are ex-
ceptions. There are cases of even very delicate patients tliat will bear '
almost any amount of clcctncity through the head and neck.

Galvanization of the Cenical Sympathetic. — The portion of the sym- ,
pathetic to which galvanization is chiefly directed for therapeutical pur-
poses is the cervical, although the cephalic, thoracic, and abdominal j
ganglia are miquL-stionably affected by it, though not with so specific,
demonstrable, and immediate results.

There are a number of methods by which the superior, middle, and
inferior cervical ganglia may be demonstrably affected by the galvanic
current

Fio. 9S.
Galvantzalion of the Cervical Sympathetic

1, Oue electrode with an oblong extremity is placed in tne auriculo*
maxillary fossa, while the other with a larger surface is applied orcr,
or by the side of the sixth and seventh cervical vertebrae (see Fig. 95).

The second electrode may also be applied at any point along the
spine, from the occiput to the coccyx. It is by tliis method that diplegic
Contractions are usually produced with most success.

GALVANIZATION OF CERVICAL SYMPATHETIC.

373

J. The first electrode being placed as before, in the auriculo-maxiUary
ssa, the other, with a surface of moderate diameter, is applied just
jove the manubrium sterni, by the side of the sterno-cleido-mastoid
(see Fig. 96).

Fig. 9^.

Galvanization of the Cervical Sympathetic, mduding the Pneamogastric.

I second electrode may also be applied higher up in the neck, op
J the middle cervical ganglion.

: above are the two methods which have been most frequently em-
Other methods are the following.
The first electrode being placed as before, the other may be ap-
l on the shoulder, elbow, or in the hand of the opposite side, or in
i axilla.

Both sides may be galvanized simultaneously, by placing an elec-
! over the mastoid processes.

One electrode is placed )ust above the manubrium sterni, and the
r at any point down the spine.

One electrode is placed over the sixth and seventh cervical verte-
, md the other over the brachial plexus, at the pit of the stomach,
\ above the manubrium sterni, in either hand, or at the feet.
jHfn all these methods either direction of the current may be used, ac-
^iOrding as calming or irritating effects are desired (see p. 281).
-Concerning the physiological effects of galvanization of the sympa-
itic see Electro- Physiology, p. 128.
IppIicatioGS to the sympathetic should be made from one to ten

374

LOCALIZED ELECTRIZATION.

minutes, and with from five to twenty-five cells. Several methods may
be tried at a single sitting in cases where the applications are well
borne.

Bearing in mind that in all such attempts to galvanize the certical
sympathetic, the pneumogastric and spine must be more or less influ-
enced, the general indications for the use of this method of treatment
to which experience would seem to point are these : —

1. Cerebral anosmia and hyperiemia. These conditions are associated
with and are a part of a large variety of diseases. Insomnia, hemiplegia,
tic douloureux, many diseases of the eye and ear, as neuro-retinitis, ner-
vous deafness and tinnitus aurium, are all more or less associated with
cerebral anreniia, hyperemia, and all have been treated by galvanization
of the cervical sympathetic, with more or less success.

2. Disorders of the vasomotor nerves. Under this head may be in-
cluded some cases of deficient circulation, cutaneous hyperaesthesia, and
certain diseases of the skin.

3. Functional diseases of the digestive and genital apparatus. Gal-
vanization of the sjnnpathetic in these conditions seems to work, partly
at least, by reflex action, and partly, also, by the influence which the
spinal cord and pneumogastric receive during the applications.

It is scarcely necessary to remark that the exclusive use of gatvanu
zafion of the cervical sympathetic is indicate// only in exceptional cases.
It is to be employed in connection or alternation with general faradisa-
tion and galvanization of the brain, spinal cord, and periphery. A note-
worthy advantage of this method of treatment in those cases for which
it is of service is the comparatively sliort time required for its employ-
ment.

The objection that galvaniration of the cervical sympathetic is x
dangerous procedure will be considered in the chapter on central gal-
vanization.

Galvanization of the Spine. — The spine maybe electrized by placing
one electrode at the occiput, atid the other at the coccyx- One of the
electrodes may be kept in situ, while the other is slowly passed up and
down the entire length of the cord. Either pole may be passed up and
down in this way according to the effect desired.

The current may also be localized in any part of the spine that may
be required, by giving the electrodes the proper position. The appli-
cations may be made with ten cells and upwards, and should not usually
exceed five or ten minutes. The applications should be sensitivcly
felt, like a gentle mustard plaster, but should not be excessively pain-
ful, like a blister.

PERIPHERAL FARADIZATION.

377

Etectr\%ati<m of Plexus es^ Nerves^ and Muscles. — Plexuses, nerves,
and muscles are treated by both currents (see chapter on differential
indications for the use of the galvanic and faradic currents).

One electrode may be applied lo a plexus and the other to one of its
branches, or to a muscle or group of muscles. Both electrodes may be
applied to the nerve, or one to the nerve and the other to a muscle ; or
both may be applied to a muscle or group of muscles. All these appli-
cations may be made either with or without regard to the direction of
the current, and different methods may be tried at the same s<^ance.

In all the positions described in the above cuts, contractions should
be produced with mild faradic currents, when the electrodes are in the
position represented. If very strong currents are necessary or no con-
tractions are possible y the muscles are in a condition of disease.

Peripheral applications are indicated where the disease is purely of a
peripheral character; the partly central applications are indicated where
the disease is of a central origin.

Labile internipted applications are indicated where it is desired to
produce mechanical effects or muscular contractions, as in anaesthesia
and paralysis.

Stable continuous applications are indicated where it is desired to
produce electrotonic, chemical, or catalytic effects, as in neuralgia.

Benedikt* makes the following somewhat over-refined subdivisions
of the methods oi galvanization of the centre and periphery ;

Spinal-cord current : both poles are placed on the spine, either near
together, or at some distance from each other.

Spinal-cord-root current : one pole is placed on the spine, and the
other is passed up and down by the sides of the vertebrae.

Spinal-cord plexus current.- one pole is placed on the spine, and the
other on a plexus of nerves.

Spinal-cordnerve current : one pole is placed on the spine, and the
other on a nerve.

Spinal-cord-muscle current: one pole is placed on the spine and the
other on a muscle.

Plexus-nerve current: one pole is placed on a plexus of nerves and
the other on a nerve.

Nerve-muscle current : one pole is placed on a nerve and the other
on a muscle.

These currents may be either stable or labilcy continuous or inter-
rupted^ uniform or increasing.

♦ Op. dt., p. 5fi.

EFFECTS.

379

Effect of Current modified by the Length of Application. — The sensa-
tions and the effects of electrical applications are considerably modified
by the length of time that the electrodes are kept in position. When the
faradic current is first applied to the skin, it causes a stinging, pricking
sensation, perceptibly strongest at the negative pole ; if the electrodes
are kept in position the sensation may gradually diminish, and the parts
will become very slightly benumljcd. and if now tlie strength of the cur-
rent be gradually increased, little or no additional pain is caused. If
the current is at first very strong, it cannot be borne long enough to pro-
duce this benumbing effect.

VVhen the galvanic current is first applied to the skin it causes no
sensation or scarcely any, unless it be very strong or is directed over or
near a motor nerve ; if the electrodes are kept in position for a few
seconds, a slight burning sensation is felt at both poles, but strongest at
the negative. This burning sensation increases quite rapidly until the
sensation it causes is like that of a strong mustard plaster, or hot iron, and
becomes unendurable. The benumbing effect of the faradic current is
not experienced. The fact that the galvanic current is but little felt at
first, leads those physicians who have not been accustomed to it to use
it altogether too strong. This increase of the pain under the galvanic
current is due to two causes — the moistening of the skin through the
moisture of the electrode, so that it becomes a better conductor of elec-
tricity, and the special chemical action of the poles (see Electro- Physi-
ology, p. 192). This increased conductivity of the skin is the partial if
not complete explanation of the fact that the muscles contract under a
feebler current after the electrodes have been some time in one place. It
is not impossible, however, that the nerves or muscles may be so slimu-
lated by the current as to contract more readily than before stimulation.

The reverse proposition, that strong currents used for a long time
enfeeble the nerves and muscles so that they respond less readily to the
current, is certainly true, and is easy of demonstration, especially in cases
of facial paralysis. For this reason, prolonged applications frequently
do more harm than good-

Effects of Locaiiicd Electrization, — Localized electrization has to a
limited extent the same direct effect on die part to which the applica-
tion is made that general electrization has on the whole body. It acts
as a locally stimulating tonic.

Improvement in Local Nutrition the leading effect of Localized Elec-
trization. — The leading and general effect of locaUzed electrization, and
one which is a complex result of the various special effects, is improve
junt in loceU nutrition .

•sfa

LOCALIZED ELECTRIZATION.

Localized electrization of an atrophied or poorly nourished muscle
causes that muscle to improve in size and strength ; localized electriza-
lion of an atropliied or poorly nourished organ, as the uterus, causes A
to increase in size and improve in functional activity.

Localized electrization of any part of the cerebro-spinal system im-
proves the nutrition of that part, and as a result the whole body, ovei
which the cerebro-spinal system presides, may improve in nutrition.
Thus localized may indirectly have some of the same effects as general
electrization. Similarly, also, as we descend from the centre toward the
periphery electrization of any ner/e branch or plexus improves the nu-
trition, not only of the nerve acted on, but also of its various branches,
and of the muscles and organs that it supplies.

M'^hen the nutrition of an atrophied part is improved it grows larger ;
when the nutrition of a hypertrophied part is improved it grows smaller.
The same treatment that makes a flabby muscle increase in size causes
a goitre to diminish in size. These opposite effects of the local use o!
electricity, though apparently inconsistent, are yet quite consistent (see
Electro-Physiology, p. 203 ; and Electro-Surgery, chapter on Tumors).

The special effects of localized, unlike those of general electrization,
cannot be broadly stated or classified, for the obvious reason that they
must so largely depend on the locality to which the application is maik.

Although applications to the central nervous system are sometimes
followed by mild and limited degrees of the primary, secondary, and
permanent effects that result from general faradization or central gal-
vanization ; yet the cases where the full order of these effects is so
marked and decided as to be observed are comparatively unfrequent.

Applications to the brain and sympathetic system may be followed
primarily by relief of pain, slight exhilaration, a feeling of warmth or
somnolence ; secondarily by fatigue, headache, or soreness of the
muscles, or exacerbation of the morbid symptoms ; and permanently by
improvement in sleep, strength, and capacity for labor.

But this order of effects from localized electrization is exceptional, cvea
from applications made to the head. More frequently the permanent
effects are experienced without the primary, or perhaps both the per-
manent and secondary, and sometimes only the latter.

Yet none of these constitutiona! effects, in whatever order they may
occur, are experienced to the extent that is derived from general fara-
dization.

The agreeable symptoms which are most frequently observed aftcf
localized applications to the nerve-centres are disposition to slup^ rttiej
of headache or other pain, and occasionally slight exhilaration.

ABSOLUTE LOCALIZATION IMPOSSIBLE.

381

Sometimes the beneficial results of electrization of paralyzed muscles
follow immediately after the application. The patient is conscious of
an ability to use the muscles treated with greater ease and freedom.
This improvement may be merely temporary, or, as is more frequently
the case, partial relapses occur, leaving a certain amount of permanent
benefit. Immediate relief of neuralgic pain, and of the reverse con-
dition, anaesthesia, may follow localized as well as general electrization.
The temporary relief of the neuralgia may be complete, while that of
anaesthesia is usually only partial and limited. In both conditions the
evil symptoms may recur, or a certain amount of permanent benetit
may remain.

Among the disagreeable symptoms are dizziness, heaviness, oppres-
sion, headache^ soreness in the muscles, exhaustion, and indefinable ner-
vousness.

These disagreeable sjinptoms are most likely to result from applica-
tions that have been either too severe or too protracted for the con-
dition of the patient ; and yet they should by no means excite alarm,
since they often accompany the most successful results. These un-
pleasant symptoms are more likely to follow the use of the galvanic
current than the faradic, especially when the applications are protracted.
The opinion that has been expressed by certain writers, that the head is
more likely to be unpleasantly affected by the faradic than the galvanic
current, is not sustained by experience. The phenomena of dizziness,
heaviness, etc., frequently experienced after even a very short applica-
tion to the head, are but rarely observed when the faradic current of a
continuous-coil apparatus is employed, with a large soft sponge, or the
hand of the operator.

Applications of localized electrization to individual muscles or groups
of muscles rarely give rise to any constitutional symptoms whatever,
unless the electrodes are placed on or near the head.

The special effects of localized electrization of special organs, as the
eye, car, lary-nx, stomach, liver, intestines, uterus, ovaries, bladder, etc.,
will be described in the chapters devoted to the treatment of the diseases
of these organs.

Absolute Localization of Electricity impossible. — It should be con-
sidered that exclusive and absolute localization of the effects of electriio-
tion is impossible. The effects of both currents extend, either directly
or by reflex action, to parts beyond the circuit This is demonstrated, not
only by physiological experiments, but by the observed facts of clinical
experience. Thus it is observed, in some irritable conditions, that
galvanization of the spine, and even of the extremities, causes a metallic

CHAPTER X.

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

The object proposed in general faradization is to bring every portion
of the body under the influence of the faradic current ^ so far as is pos-
sible, by external applications. This is best accomplished by placing
one pole {usually the negative) at the feet or the coccyx, while the other
is applied oi>er the surface of the body.

The faradic is the current which is almost exclusively employed in
general electrization, and, for that reason, the directions and explana-
tions given in this section, with the exceptions that will be noted, apply
mainly and specially to general faradization. Since the discovery of
central galvanization, to be hereafter described, we have discarded the
terra general electrization, and substituted ^^n^x7i\ faradization, for the
reason that the galvanic current is preferably used in the form of cen-
tral galvanization.

In the majority of cases it is more convenient and satisfactory to
have a sheet of copper at the feet. This position is indeed the rule in
general faradization. The broad, callous soles of the feet are but
slightly sensitive, and will bear a stronger current than any other por-
tion of the surface of the body. But the passage of electricity through
the ankles causes vigorous contractions of the flexors and extensors,
which, when the current is very strong, may be somewhat painful. Ac-
cordingly, when the patient is peculiarly nervous and sensitive, or when
a current of unusual strength is to be employed, and in all cases where
a stronger application is desired than can be borne through the ankles,
or when it is desired to save time or inconvenience, it is advisable to
have the patient sit on the plate, or a sponge electrode with a broad
surface may be applied to the coccyx.

In general faradization, as in localized, the currents may be stable
(stationary) or labile (moving), uniform or increasing.

Increasing currents are adapted for certain important centres, as the
head| spine, cervical sympathetic, and cilio-spinal and epigastric regions.

384

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

The advantage of this method of application is that it allows the nx
a stronger current than will otherwise be borne ; the strength
current may be so very gradually increased that the increaae
certain limits may be almost imperceptible to the patient. This
partly from the fact that the current has a slight benumbing or
effect (see Electro-Physiology, p. 122), and partly fjtxjm the fact
a gradual increase of the strength of the current the patient is
the shock that is ex^jericnced when a strong current is suddenly
through scns.itive portions of the body.

Labile and infrrrupf^d currents are adapted for the muscles,
of the extremities.

General faradization is very far from being so easy a process
might appear from this brief description. Its successful cuipl
requires, on the part of the operator, some mechanical dexterity,
familiarity with the instruments required, a complete knowledge
electro-therapeutical anatomy ; a personal acquaintance with ibr K»-
sations and behavior of all portions of the body under \hc different
electric currents ; close and patient study of the diseases and rootf
conditions in which it is indicated, and of their response to faradixniflft.
There are those who by long practice are enabled, when necessary, t»
readily manipulate any portion of the body with either hand, while ihtft
is passing tlirough them a current so powerful as to keep many of tl*
principal muscles of the anus in a state of contraction. This qualifio
tion, however, though convenient, is not indispensable.

On the side of the patient, success in the use of general bn&^^
tion requires something of the same patience and perseverance tW
are conceded to be necessary for success in the use of any other &»•
of electrical treatment.

Nothing is more difficult than to fully and accurately describe il
words an operation that in its very nature demands actual sight tfi
experience. The true method of learning the art of general \ax*&9f
tion is by repeated observations of its application to the lixin^ subject,
by personal experience of its sensations and results at the bands rf
practised adepts, and by long and various experimenting on drr«r>*
temperament, and in opposite states of disease. Wc dull tmV:^\'..r.
however, to present the best possible substitute for a course of jinviic
lessons or extended clinical observation in this department, by wii»*
ing in detail the practical questions that naturally present th'--;ti'.'l^T»
to one who approaches the subject ab initio, and who has no o|»txf'
tunity for personal interviews wiih tliose to whom the various steps rf
the operation lia> e become already familiar*

386

GENERAL FARADIZATION,

In such cases the sheet of copper may be placed upright against a
pillow, and the feet of the patient pressed against it, or an electrode
may be placed at the coccyx. Assistance will tlien be required to turn
the i)atient when the application is made to the back arid spine, but in
such cases partial applications are frequently all that are required.

Infants and very feeble or very timid children should be held in the
lap of the mother or nurse, while an assistant holds the sponge to the
coccyx.

While the application is being made to the lower limbs it is well for
the patient to stand, in order that the operator may have access to the
gluteal regions and the posterior and anterior surface of the thigh.

Position of the Operator. — While making applications to the trunks
the operator may either stand or sit by the side of the patient, conve-
niently near to the table, on which are placed the apparatus, electrodes,
sponges, bowl of water, and other appliances that may be called for
during the application.

While operating on patients taller than himself the operator will find
it easier to stand, especially while treating the head and upper [lortion
of the trunk. While treating short patients the operator will find it
less fatiguing to sit in a chair. Most operators will find it very conve-
nient to change their position from a sitting to a standing posture, or
from one side of the patient to the other, while making the applications
to the various parts of the trunk.

Minor Apparatus. — Electrodes, sponges, and copper plate.

The best electrode for the pole that is applied over the patient is a
brass ball uf about one inch in diameter.

Around this brass ball should be loosely folded a soft wet sponge,
of about six inches in diameter. This is found, by experience, to be
by far the most convenient form of artificial electrode that can be
devised. Next to the moistened hand of the operator it is the most
agreeable to the patient of any shape or quality of electrode. The
sponge can be pressed or folded over the brass ball so as to make A
comparatively small electrode, or its entire surface may be applied.

When the operator allows the current to pass through his oim
person, and uses his hand as an electrode, holding the sponge and ball
in his other hand, he can modify the application to any degree o(
strength or mildness that he may desire, by simply increasing or di-
minishing the pressure of his hand or fingers on the sponge. Used in
this way the sponge holding the water acts like a hydro rheostat (see
P- 354)* When it is necessarj that the application should be particularly
gentle and cautious, it is well to rest 1 e ball and sponge on the tabki

Fig. 104.

Cbtoal Faradization — application to the spine. The hand of the operator
en ike metallic tube, in a pobition to increase or dltoinish the current as may be

id to begin the treatment by first pressing one hand firmly over the
desired to be affected, and with the other lightly and delicately

Inching the sponge, at first M'lth one finger, then with two, three, and
successively, and finally with the whole hand, thus giving a very

■dually increasing current. Raines' electrode, which is a sponge

freied at the back with rubber, is very convenient for general farar

EBtion.
pit€e of copper plate is recommended for the negative electrode,

icause it is found b) experience to be, on the whole, more conve-

388

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

nient than any other arrangement that has yet been suggested. The
bowls of warm water, large sponges, etc, that have been suggested
are not only much less cleanly and convenient than the copper plate,
but are also much poorer conductors. Metallic slippers axe more
troublesome than the broad plate, though the'it appearance, perhaps
is more ornamental. It needs more care to put on the slippers, and
if the patient loses his self-control during any stage of the application,
and throws up his feet, it is somelhmg of a task to hnd the slippen
again and accurately adjust them.

In tlie use of the copper plate these details must not be forgotten:
First, to keep it well warmed, in cold weather, by a piece of heateil
soap-stone beneath it ; stcondly., to keep it slightly moistened with
warm water, in order to improve the connection.

If only one foot is applied to the copper plate, the j'am m the ankle,
during certain stages of strong applications, will be unendurable. In
mild applications it is sufficient to have one foot on the plate. It is
necessaiy ever to bear in mind the rule, that the pain of electrica]
applications, other conditions being equal, is in inverse proportion to
the surface of the electrode. The larger the surface of the electrode —
whether positive or negative — the less the pain. In this fact consists
the advantage of using large sponges.

In general faradi^ation the pain at tl\e negative pole is chiefly fell at
the ankles, and somewhat at the toes, but not on the bottom of the
feet The feeling of constriction in the ankles is caused by the rapid
and violent contractions of the muscles. If only one foot is applied to
the plate the entire force of the current must, of course, be borne by
that foot, and furthermore, the other limb will receive no direct bcoe&
from the treatment.

The trouble of removing the shoes and stockings may be obviated by
placing a large sponge connected with tlie negative pole at the coccjo,
or on the thighs.

Facility^ skill, and rsadiness in use of the various methods tj MMdSr*
fyins; the strength and quality of the eurrent is one very tmportani
of success in the use of general faradization. A skilful oferat&r
cause less discomfort with a strong current than one who is awt
will cause with a very weak current.

Details of the Applications to the Different Parts of the Body. — AJ
the various parts and organs of the body differ very widely in their suv
ceptibility to faradization, and in the effects which they receive from it,
it becomes necessary to explain the modus operandi of the appUcaiioos
with considerable fulness of detail.

APPLICATION TO HEAD AND NECK.

389

Applicati)ns to the Hccul. — The head, especially* the forehead, is, by
far, more sensitive lo tlie electric currents than any other portion of the
surface of the body. The two reasons for this are sufficiently obvious.
The surfaces of bones are always sensitive to Xhe/aradic current, as to
any other mechanical influence ; and the cranium is no exception lo
this Liw. Then, again, the fifth pair is an exceedingly sensitive nerve
in all its ramilications, and especially over the forehead.

There are many cases that do not bear even mild applications to the
front and top of the head, and who seem to be injured rather dun
benefited by it. With others, the effects are highly agreeable.

In treating the forehead the operator .should first press his moistened
hand firmly over the head, and then making the connection with his
other hand on the sponge and brass ball of the positive pole, should
allow the current to pass steadily, without interruption, for one or two
minutes. In Kidder's faradic apparatus, A B is the best current for
the forehead. The use of tlie hand as an electrode is particularly de-
sirable in making applications lo the forehead.

Moistening the Hair. — The dry hair is a non-conductor, and there-
fore it is always necessary to U'et it freely before electrizing any portion
of the head tliat is covered by it. It is not usually desirable to com-
pel lady patients to pull down their hair, or to thoroughly moisten it.
A very important centre for affecting the brain is the crown of the head,
between the ears, over the so-called organ of firmness, — the cranial cen-
tre. If the hair at this point be sufficiently moistened to admit the pas-
sage of a mild current with any convenient form of electrode, a peculiar
and slightly painful sensation is experienced.

In some exceptional cases of disease the head will bear currents of
considerable strength. The back of the head over the cerebellum will
usually bear quite strong applications. The current is felt through the
ramifications of the occipital nerves, giving rise oftentimes to sensa*
tionsnot only painless, but absolutely agreeable.

Applications to the Neck and Throat. — The back part of the head
and upper portion of the spine will usually bear powerful applications.
It is an interesting and important fact that very marked effects may be
produced by general faradization^ et'en when the applications are made
only to the back and sides of the neck.

X\\e rea,son for this will be clear when we come to study the electro-
therapeutical anatomy of the parts. From the upper portion of the
spine and base of the brain proceed the most important and most sen-
sitive nerves of the body — the pneumogastric, and the brachial plexus,
aud the phrenic nerves.

390

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

Furthermore, the sympathetic or ganglionic system runs close bjr t
spine, near to the carotid artery, and maybe reached and affected dec^j
trically by pressing firmly with the fingers, by the anterior border of j
the slemo-cleido-mastoid muscle, at those points where the pressure of j
the carotid is most readily felt.

Pic 105.

Ceneral Galvano-FaraDIZATION. — Applicalion to the spine by a sponge holJtf.
A double electrode is used, one part of which is connected with the gairanic Bid
the other with the faradic apparatus. The copper plate is also connected with
both currents. Gaivano-faradization we do not now employ, but ihc cut fll»'
trates perfectly one of the steps Ln general faradization.

If the sponge be pressed firmly on the cilio-spinal centre, over the
sixth and the seventh cervical vertebrae, and moved sh'ghlly on either

APPLICATION TO NECK.

391

side of the spine, while a powerful current is passing, the electric influ-
ence may be perceptibly communicated, not only to the spine but
also to the larynx through the laryngeal nerves ; to the stomach
through the pneumogastric ; to the lungs through the phrenic; to both
arms and hands through the brachial plexuses and their branches — in
shorty to the most important nerves and organs of the body. The syin-
paliietic is also directly affected at this point.

There is no other single place on the surface of the body where the
electrical intluence can be communicated to so many hn[X)rtant nerves
as at the cilio-si)Lnal centre. In order^ however, to affect all these
nerves and organs above mentioned by faradization it is necessary to
use a powerful current, and to press the sponge very firmly against the
skin.

In very fleshy patients it is sometimes quite difficult to affect the
brachial plexuses and their branches in the arms and hands without
using a stronger current than can well be borne through the feet and
ankles at the negative pole. This application, so far from being pain-
ful, is to many positively agreeable. The thrill which it conimunicates
to the nerves and vital organs is often so delightful that the patient re-
quests to have the application jjrolonged. In patients who can bear it,
this application at the cilio-spinal centre may be varied by suddenly
interrupting the current

This application is a very imjx>rlant factor in general faradization, and
will achieve decided tonic effects on the system, even when no other
portion of the body is touched by the current. The immediate sensa-
tions which it produces, however, are by no means uniform. Some pa-
tients, through the irritation of the laryngeal nerves, cough spasmodi-
cally, and even violently, under the excitation even of a comparatively
mild current ; with others, even the most powerful currents, and the
firmest possible pressure of the sponge, fail to produce any such effect.
In ncr\'uus and sensitive patients this application often causes a pecul-
iar and decided sensation in the stomach, through the pneumogastric
nerve ; the strong and vigorous rarely experience any such sensation,
even under currents of great power.

Another important locality in the electro-therapeutical anatomy of
the neck is in the posterior triangle, just by the posterior border of the
stemo-cleido-mastoid muscle. If the fingers of the operator, with a
current of considerable strength, or the sponge with a current compara-
tively mild, be pressed firmly on this space until the posterior border
of the scalenus anticus is reached, the patient will at once experience a
tingling or pricking sensation in the arm and hand on that side, caused

392

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

by the excitation of the brachial plexus, and in some cases a thrill k
communicated by means of the pneumogastric to the stomadi, and bf
tlie phrenic nerve to the diaphragm.

AppUcaiions to the Upper Extremities, — It is not always necessaiy
to go to the trouble of faradi/ing the extremities^ but in many cases it
is a decided advantage to do so. In faradization over the extremities,
the sponge, or the hand of the operator, should be passed thoroughly
over the surface of the hands and arms, and with sufficient force to pro-
duce agreeable contractions of all the superficial muscles. Except in
infants and corpulent females, contractions of the superficial muscles
of the arm are obtained with a mild current.

Applications to the Spine. — Stronger currents of electricity may be
borne over the middle of the spine than perhaps over any other portion
of the body. There are no very sensitive peripheral nerves in the back,
and the spinal cord is so thoroughly protected by its bony covering that
the currents are never felt in it painfully, except when it is greatly ex-
hausted or organically diseased. The nerves that issue from the s^\sa^
cord are more or less affected by powerful applications to the back, aod
through them the various parts and organs which they supply are con-
siderably influenced.

The best method of electrizing the back is to pass the sponge down
its entire length beneath the under-clothing, in case it is not removed,
from the first cervical vertebra to the cauda equina^ carefully avoiding
the prominences of the sca]nila and the ossa innominata. Below the
inferior angle of the scajiula the sponge may be moved from side to side
over the region of the kidneys, liver, and spleen.

If a strong current be applied over the lower portion of the spine,
between the upper borders of the ossa innominata, a slight sensation is
sometimes, though by no means uniformly, communicated to the rectum
and the male genital apparatus, the penis and the testicles, throtlgt
their spinal nerve supply.

In view of these considerations it is manifest that in the emp/oymmi
of general faradization particular attention should be given to the spifu,
even at the expense of nt'^lecting other portions of the body.

That the lungs and heart are less influenced by electrization than other
important organs, is chiefly accounted for by the anatomical slnicture of
the chest. The ribs, with the intercostal muscles and ligaments, form
an unyielding wall Furthermore, the pleura and pericardium arc not
closely adherent to the inner wall of the chest, but lie loosely over the
lungs and heart. These organs, therefore, are best aflfected electrically
by applications above the steraunij around the neck, and over tlic uppei

APPLICATION TO ABDOMEN.

393

half of the spine, whence the nerve-supply of the viscera proceeds, and
by direct electrizalion of the vagus in the neck.

Applications over the chest are, however, of positive and permanent
service, by developing the thoracic and intercostal muscles, and for this
reason, if for no other, they should not be neglected. But it shoakl not
be forgotten that the surfaces of the ribs, like the surfaces of all other
bones, are sensitive to electrization, and that therefore the chest will
not bear as severe applications as the spine, neck, or abdominal re-
gions. This sensitiveness is, of course, more in the thin and nervous
than in the cor|mIent and phlegmatic. It is usually most marked on
the inferior ribs on f/ie right and left side of the body, over the liver
and spleen. The peculiar sensitiveness of the ribs at these points is
sometimes erroneously supposed to indicate disease of the organs be-
neath them.

We have stated above that the anatomical structure of the chest ren-
dered it difficult to send the electric current through its anterior walls
to the lungs and heart. In the abdominal regions the anatomical
structure is directly reversed, and instead of an unyielding wall, partly
composed of bones and ligaments, we have a flaccid skin lying loosely
against the peritonaeum that covers the moist viscera beneath. No
other organs of the body contain so large a percentage of water as those
which are situated in the cavity of the abdomen. It is obvious, there-
fore, that when the resistance of the epidermis is overcome by the mois-
ture of the sponge or hand, and the peritonaeum and viscera are brought
into coaptation, the current must directly traverse all ihe parts desired
to be affected.

To reach the stomach and solar plexus, place the sponge or palm of
the hand below and under tlic sternum, and as far back as possible.
This pressure brings the peritonaeum and stomach into coaptation, and
forces the current to pass through them. If >he under-clothing be
simply slipped up without being entirely removed, the stomach and ab-
domen can be readily treated.

The bowels may be trcafed either with the labile or the stable cur-
rent, and, in cases of obstinate constipation, by sudden interruptions or
shocks.

Corpulent and piu-sy patients usually bear much stronger currents
over the abdomen than the thin and emaciated. Adipose tissue is
comparatively a poor conductor of electricity, and it is difficult to affect
the bowels of the \ery corpulent through the abdominal walls by elec-
iriitation, unless we employ firm pressure and currents of considerable
strength. But in the vast majority of cases currents of moderate

AppUcaiions to the Female Genitals. — Direct a^
vagina or uterus are rarely called for in general farad

Applications to the Lower Extremities. — UnleaJ
or paralysis of the lower limbs we do not ali^-ayq

APPLICATION TO LOWER EXTREMITIES. 395

allowed to again put it on, both in order to avoid unnecessary ex*

re and to protect them from the cold.
With female patients the applications to the lower limbs, except in
, of paralysis, can be made under the clothing, if the drawers be
Lapped down, without exposure.

^^*

Fic, 107.
Goieral Faradizatioo. — Application to the Lower Extremities.

The operator, sitting by the side of the patient, on a low stool or
Wtomin. should then pass the sponge or the hand lightly down the
Mlire surface of both limbs, from the thighs to the feet, avoiding, so
r ts possible, the prominences of the bones at the hip, knee, and

The outer portion of the thigh, like the back, is very little sensitive
to the electric current, because its surface is not supplied by very sen-

396

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

sitivc nerves. The inner side of the thigh, on the contrary, is supplied
by branches (torn the sensitive anterior crural nerve, and in nenroui
persons especial! v is very susceptible to electrization. In pa&sing the
sponge or the ha ml down the lower limbs great pains should be taken
to carefully gradiuue the current according to the sensitiveness of cadi
locality. This precaution is more necessary in treating the lower liiubi
than the upper, because the contrasts in the normal sensitiveness of the
different parts of the lower limbs are much greater than in the arms,
and because any severe shocks suddenly felt in the legs sometimes lluow
patients oflF their feet.

/ft cases not complicated with paralysis^ Ctmiracttotis of the sufcrfu ;j:
muscles of the knccr limits^ as of the upper limbs, can be produced h
ecmparatively feeble and painless currents.

Special Rules to be Observed in the Employment of General FarO'
dization. — In the employment of general faradization there are certain
si)ecial suggestions, on the observance of which the results of the appli-
cations will very materially depend.

1. The Strength of the Current and Length of the AfplUatiofu — It
is better that the first tentative applications shoidd always Uo made with
a gentle current, anil, if the patient be particularly sensitive, it is an ad-
vantage to use the hand of the operator instead of an artificial electrode.
After the patient has become somewhat accustomed to the treatment,
the general rule should be to make the applications pleasafif/y paxnfuL

Patients who have long been accustomed to the treatment — ^whohave
become, in a certain sense, insensible to the strength of current ortfi*
narily used— may Irequenlly be benefited by very powerful currents.

Usually, but not invariably, we may be guided by the s^*nsalions of
the patient ; but exceptions to this rule are sometime^ very striking,
and should put us on our g^iard. Some who feel no pain during the
applications may on the day following experience the most disagreeable
reactive effects. (See p. 285.)

2. Thoroughness of the Applications. — General faradiration docs not
require that all portions of the surface of the body should be touched
by the electrode at every sitting. In nervous and susceptible patients
we can approach the full measure of the treatment only by slow degrees.
It is oftentimes sufficient to make the first application only around the
neck, shoulders, and on the upper portion of the spine.

It is not always necessary to make the applications to alt portions ff
the surface of the body, even in a prolonged course 0/ treatment. The gtm-
eral tonic effects of this system of treatment can undoubtedly te euhittti
without touching either th: upper or lower extremities, But^ ^n Un

PERSISTENCE IN THE TREATMENT.

397

ManJf iJ it Just as undoubtedly true that the muscular development
lA results from long-eontxnued electrization of the arms and legs reacts
tt^atly on the whole system and materially aids the treatment.
The neck and spine should be treated in all cases, except during the
tst and tentative applications, or in patients of very unusual suscepti-
k^ During menstruation it is usually better to avoid the abdomen
^Klnver part of the spine, or to suspend the treatment altogether^
^^Bf in those cases where it is desired to increase the menstrual Jlow.
^K^gth of the Applications, — The duration of the sittings may range
^^gten fve and twenty five minutes, being modified by the nature of
te constitution, the strength of the current employed, the stage of the
treatment, and the results of the previous applications.

The smallest fraction of this time should be devoted to the head, the
bluest to the spine ; next to the spine the abdomeii should receive the
kjgcst sl)are of attention.

I. An average application of say 15 minutes may be thus appor-
tioned :

To the head i

•* seek, sympathetic and cervical spine 4

" back 3

•• abdomen 3

•• upper and lower extremities , 4

minute,
minutes.

I compared with the time required in localized faradization and cen-
I galvanization, general faradization has not the great disadvantage
)^kat been supposed. Nearly all the ordinary peripheral applications

■ctricity for paralysis require as much time as general faradization.

puguency of the Applications. — The applications of general faradi-

^lion may be repeated daily, every other day, once or twice a week, or

ill longer intervals. Every other day is about as often as is neces-

^to secure the full tonic results of the treatment ; but patients who

> situated that they can take the treatment but a short time may

»e an application daily, provided they are not in a condition of un-

1 debility, or are not more than ordinarily susceptible to the cnrrent.

^ttic very nervous and susceptible, and especially for those who com-

I of the secondary or reactive effects, it is often necessary to give

lis of several days, at least until the permanent tonic etfects begin

fe developed (see p. 258).

^sistence in the Treatment, — For the majority of cases, the treat-

I by general faradization, in order to secure its full results, must be

The reasons why this perseverance is demanded are quite

GENERAL FARAD IZATIOlf.

obvious. In theJStff place, most of the diseases and morbid coodiaoH
for which general faradization is indicated are excecdinglj chroaic n
their character. It is necessary ever to keep in niind the emphibc
words of the great Trousseau, *• Chronic diseases demand chronic trett-
rocnt^" whatever may be the method employed.

Secondly y Tonic remedies of all kind^ external and internal, are al-
ways more or less slow in their action.

WTiile great and beneficial effects are often derived from two or three
applications, a complete or approximate cure of long-standing movbad
conditions, such as dys[)epsia, hypochondriasis, nervous exhaustioo,
hysteria, paralysis, can only be achieved by persistent treatment, vaiy
ing the strength of the current and frequency of the application? ac-
cording to the progress which is made.

The length of time over which the treatment should be extender, nuj
range from one week to several months, with longer or shorter intenili,
according to circumstances.

Comparing the history of all our cases, we find that the average Dim-
bcr of applications administered to each successful case is about 15-25,
and the length of time over which the treatment was extended 4-*
■weeks.

The Use of the moistened Hand as an Electrode to th^ Ifead and Sat-
sitive Parts. — The advantages which the moistened hand sometiniet
possesses ever the sponge in general faradization are the followirg:

I. In certain eases it is more agreeable to the pati^nL It is but a
tniism to assert that no form of electrode that human skill shall ctrx
devise can ever compare with the hand in flexibility and power of ad^
tation. Its sliape, its flexibility, the number and arrangement of lh<
fingers, and the vast and delicate combinations of movement of wbidl
they are so readily ca|>able — all these £imiliar and wonderfiil c h amrtCT-
istics of the hand, united to the peculiar softness of the skin, and the
lightness with which it can touch, or press, or handle, render it saperioc
for the nicer processes of general faradization to any artificial axraage-
tnents of which the genius of man could conceive.

For applications to the head and sides of the neck, the brachial p]ex>
us and (Mt of the stomachy the tise of* the hand electrode is a vny
g^ai convenience ; and we sometirDes meet with patients who are »
tfCnsiuve atkd so fcarf\U that they will not endure even the softest spoi^
on any iKNtioo of the body, or at any stage of the treatmenL To ir
|)ly a n^ &nidk coneot to the focehead and crown of the head. vtlB
the softest spoc^ and Utig^cst posdhle sufux:, is at best an iiiiptiamrt
pcocess for a strong iitt» IB petfect hoall^ aad for the ddicate iimtt

USE CT

OOOPI

8An :oo. OAL,

a^d w not to be T^movr^ jhy/ri the

n) IfS^,AXi ^z^T^Qp^^on or 399

"Soften unendurable ; but wJien tti^ liana or tlie operator is made an
electrode, the operation of faradizing the most sensitive portions of the
head may be made not only tolerable, but positively agreeable. Except
in cases of severe local disease or unusual debility, the sponge can be
borne down the spine, over the abdomen and extremities, and down the
lower extremities without great dilTiculty.

2. li keeps the optralor continually informed of the strength of the
current^ and thus enables him to carefully graduate it, according to the
sensitiveness of each locality.

As the current passes through his own person, the operator can judge
by his own sensations whether it is too strong or too weak, and by in-
creasing or diminishing the grasp of his other hand on the sponge, can
modify the strength of the application without disturbing his apparatus.
The wet sponge on which he presses with the other hand, acts, as we
have seen, like a hydro-rheostat.

The use of the hand as an electrode enables the operator to instantly
modify the applications in any of the various degrees of weakness and
strength, and also to suspend the passage of the current instantaneously
•without shock or violence. When the sponge is used we must continually
question the patient, or watch his expression and movements, in order to
judge whether the current is of proper strength.

That most, if not all, of the tonic effects of general faradization can
be obtained in perhaps the majority of patients by the use of the
sponge, there can, we think, be no question ; but the use of the hand
of the operator, according to the principles above indicated, enables us
to achieve these results, and with less discomfort to the patient, in those
peculiarly sensitive cases where the arti6cial electrode could not be
borne at all. Very many of our patients we treat only with artificial
electrodes.

To sum up, in a word^ it is a convenience and oftentimes a positive
assistance for the operator to be able and willing to use his hand in ap-
plications to sensitive parts and nen'ous patients^ but for the majority of
cases it is sufficient to use a large soft sponge.

Effects of the Current on the Operator. — The question now arises.
What effect must the operator experience from the repeated passage of
the electric currents through his own person ?

It should be understood, at the outset, that the current does not
directly affect the whole person of the operator, nor indeed any of the
prominent organs, and that only the faradic current is used in this way.
The current passes from hand to hand, through the arms and shoulders,
and does not reach or directly influence the brain or any of the organs

400

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

of the chest or of the abdomen. The eflfects of thus using the current
on the nutrition of the muscles of the arm have already been coasidex-
ed (see Electro- Physiolog)', p. 205).

Those physicians whose temperaments do not tolerate elcclricii/,
would do well to avoid passing the current through their own per-
sons in this way. Those, however, and they constitute the mi*
jority, who are more or less benefited by the use of electricity, in thii I
way, need never fear any evil effects. If they treat a very large num*
ber of patients a day by general faradization, using the hand as an dec-
trode a considerable portion of the time, and with strong currents, they 1
will be much more wearied at night than if they used the sponge chiefly !
or exclusively. This method of general faradization has been and tJ
now used by hundreds of physicians, and we have never heard of any
serious eflects in any instance. The few whose temperaments contn*
indicate electricity soon abandon the use of the hand as an electrode, J
since they find that it is a luxury and not a necessity. The niajority 01-
perience either negative or beneficial effects, and arrive at that stale \
where it is a matter of indifference whether they use the hand or
sponge.

Special Efftcts of General Faradization. — The general cftecls 01
electricity on the system have already been considered (p. 300). We hav«
here to speak only of those that are peculiar to or most marked under
general faradization.

The effects of general faradisation may be subdivided into tkrtt \
classes :

1. Those which are experienced during or immediately after treat.
ment. — Primary or stimulating effects,

2. Those which are experienced one or two days subsequent to the
treatment. — Secondary or reacti'i'e effects.

3. Those whicli remain in the system as a permanent result of treat
ment. — Permanent or tonic effects.

Many patients, perhaps the niajorit}', experience after each siaiutt
feeling of enlivenment and exhilaration that often lasts for several
hours. With some this feeling of exhilaration is very positive and de-
cided ; with others it is but just perceptible. Others, again, experi-
ence a disposition to sleep after treatment, quite similar to that which is
felt after a bath in the surf.

Relief of pain and local or general weariness is a very frequent U
well as very agreeable temporary effect of general faradization,
one which, more perhaps than any other, tends to inspire the doo
ing patient with confidence in the efficacy of this method of ticaS'

EFFECTS ON PULSE AND TEMPERATURE.

401

ment. Patients who suffer from indefinable nervous pains ii, the head,
back, side, and stomach, or from weakness in the limbs, freqjently ap-
preciate relief even in the midst of the application. This relief usually
lasts for several hours, and in some cases may become pennanent.

All the disagreeable symptoms that sometimes arise from an ap-
I plication, as headache^ malaise, chilliness^ vertigo, /ain/ness, and cold
[ perspiration (see pp. 284-287), like similar effects from injudicious use
of other tonics, physical exercise, the shower-bath, etc., are not usually
of any permanency whatever. Indeed, they are entirely consistent with
permanently good results ; but they are apt to annoy and alarm the
patient, and for that reason, if for no other, they should be avoided.

Effect on Tem/erature.—The temperature may be inmiediately
influenced by general faradization.

Its effect on the circulation seems to be that of an equaliser. Pa-
tients afflicted with nervous diseases are apt to suffer from cold feet and
hands, and from creeping chills over the body. The equalizing, warm-
ing effect of general faradization on such patients is most decided and
agreeable, and is so positively realized, even in the midst of the seance,
that neither the bare feet nor the exposed trunk suffer from the cold,
provided the air of the operating-room is of even a moderate tempera-
ttire.

Effect on Pulse. — The effects of general faradization on the pulse arc
quite interesting and suggestive.

In a large nmnber of cases we have carefully counted the pulse, and
also observed its quality just before and just after the treatment. The
results of some of these observations are presented below : —

Bdore the

After dw

Bcs(bcT the

After ^

Applintioa.

ApplicaitioB

104

100

106

102

lOl

100

On account of the recognized susceptibility of the pulse, especially
of nervous invalids, to the influence of mental impression, we have
found it necessary, in order to avoid eaor, to make repeated examina
cioQS before and after the sitting.
26

402

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

The condusion, from our very large number of obsen'adons tn i
to the infliteoce of general faradization on the pulse in chronic i
is that of a corrective.

When the pulse is high it depresses it more or less, and
proportion to the degree of the exaltation above the normal
When it is low it raises it more or less, and usually in proportion I
degree of the depression below the nonnal standard. In nen-oxit^
excitable patients, the effect of general faradization on the pulse is i
more marked than in the cold and phlegmatic. An application i
much too strong may greatly excite the pulse.

Special and Exceptional Effects, — The immediate effect oo t
petite is, in rare instances, so marked that the i)atient at once \
desire for food, and at the next meal eats a much larger quanti^l
with far keener relish than usual.

Sensitive patients are now and then compelled to evacuate
bladder or rectum immediately after or even in the midst of the i
cation, and the urinary secretion is occasionally increased,
these effects of general faradization on the functions of special
are incidental and occasional, and are not to be expected with i
unifonnity or constancy.

Secondary or Reactive Effects. — The secondary or reactive effects rf^
general faradization are those which are experienced for a day *r|
following an application. These effects are probably not ob*
more than half of the cases, and usually only at the outset of die I
ment. Most of these secondary or reactive effects have already 1
considered (see p. 286).

Soreness in the muscles of tiie neck, tnmk, and upper extremiti
unquestionably the most frequent of the secondary s^nnptonu of |
eral faradization, and tlie one which patients are soonest to observe I
describe. It is the result of the muscular contractions that arc jrt"'^
duced by the electric current. They usually pass off in two or three
days, and are scarcely observed at all after the patient has once b^
come accustomed to the treatment. By making the drst icntaiive jp-
plications gentle and short, it is possible to avoid entirely this sub'*'
quent muscular soreness, and in very feeble or very tiiaid paiicDtsfl
should always endeavor to do so.

Indefinable neri'ousness is another occasional secondary effect, •ado*
that often gives rise to idle and unnecessary alarm. Like the sorcaflf
of the muscles, it usually passes off in a day or two, and is not (
experienced after tlie patient has become accustomed to the 1

Weariness and exhaustion may be experienced by this class (

PERMANENT OR TONIC EFFECTS.

403

tients foi several days after an injudicious application. It is a very
interesting and important fact, that these annoying secondary symptoms
of weariness and exhaustion are oftentimes experienced to their fullest
extent by patients on whom the immediate effects for a few hours suc-
ceeding the application are only agreeable. On account of this fact,
the inexperienced electro-therapeutist may be unpleasantly deceived,
and from the temporary enlivenment of his patient may suppose that
his application has been thoroughly successful, until the distressing
secondary effects, continuing perhaps for several days, show most
clearly that it has been citlier too strong or too protracted.

Permanent or Tonic Effects. — To designate any precise time or stage
of the treatment when these tonic effects are to be looked for, is
manifestly impossible. Like the tonic effects of other analogous in-
ternal or external remedies, the time of their appearance must be
variously modified by the nature of the disease, the constitution of the
patient, and the skill and perseverance of the treatment. They may
appear early in the treatment, developing themselves with great
rapidity ; or they may remain latent until after the applications are
abandoned, and then advance with sure and steady progress. They
may be so rapidly manifested at the commencement of the treatment
as to cause us to suspect them to be more the result of mental im-
pression than of the applications ; and, on the other hand, they may
develop themselves so long after the treatment as to suggest the doubt
whether they are not as much due to nature and time as to the direct
electric influence.

Among these tonic effects of general faradization, those which chiefly
attract the attention and arc of the principal importance are the following!

Improvement in the S/ee/.—This symptom comes Jirst m our analysis
of the permanent effects of general faradization, because it is one of
the first to be appreciated and observed by the patient. As insomnia
is the most constant and universal svmptom of those various nervous
conditions for which general faradization is indicated, just so is its relief
or cure the first and leading evidence that the treatment is having its
desired effect. As already mentioned, inclination to sleep is one of the
immediate symptoms of the applications, and may come on even in the
midst of the seance ; but the improvement in the sleep of which we
here speak, as a permanent effect, is appreciated during the intervals of
treatment, and long after it has been suspended.

Increase of Appetite and Improvement in Digestion. — Increase of
apl>etite and improvement in the digestion is not so early nor as coO'
slant a symptom as improvement in the sleep.

404

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

It is by no means a constant or uniform effect, even in those casei
where it would seem to be needed, and where, too, in all other respect%|
great and lasting benefit is derived from the treatment. Some |
who are permanently relieved of neuralgia, of insomnia, and of muscoh
and nervous debility, yet observe no decided improvement in tbc
digestion. Such cases, however, are quite exceptional.

Regulation of the Bowels. — Constipation sometimes yields very eaiiy
in the treatment The temporary effect is probably due, in many
instances certainly, to the direct mechanical action of the curr^aiL «| ,
the intestines; but pennanent rehef, either of constipation ot.
diarrhoea of the nervous variety, is not to be expected until the iinli^^e
and general debility on which tlicy depend have first been coxj^ecled.

Improvement in the Circulation, — Permanent equalizatioA Of
circulation is most observed in cases of dyspepsia, ner>'OUR <s-l
haustion, hysteria, and similar conditions with which defective cirailir j
tion is so frequently associated It is then the result of the improve I
ment in the assimilative power and nutrition of the system.

Relief of Nervousness and Mental Depression. — The indefioite^l
though very well recognized condition which, we term nervousn«$%|
and the indefinable mental agony that fonns_sp prominent and . si
distressing a symptom in hysteria, dyspepsia, exhaustiqp, and otiiC(|
nervous conditions, sometimes yield to general faradization quite
in the treatment.

Increase in the Size and Hardness of the Muscles ^ and in tht fl^eigk\
of the Body. — This is a natural result and accompaniment of the MBL-
provement in nutrition, and that it follows the use of the faradic as well
as of the galvanic current, sufficiently demonstrates that power gTti
nutrition is not confined to the latter.

Under the influence of protracted treatment by general faradization,
the muscles are sometimes developed in size as well as in fimwics* to
a degree which very naturally astonishes those who, for the first tifflc,
have their attention directed to it Tliis increase in size and quality of
the muscles is, of course, chiefly observed in those portions of the
surface of the body where, under the influence of faradization, ocm-
tractions are most easily produced. Therefore we first look for this
effect in the anns, the legs, and afterwards in the chesL This effect is
soonest observed in patients who are comparatively thin, or at lc**t,
whose muscular tissue predominates over the adipose. On the other j
hand, and for obvious reasons, it is not so perceptible in fen>3!r«s ^^
in the very corpulent of either sex.

Under general faradization actual increase in the size and wei^At ^

RATIONALE OF THE EFFECTS.

405

the body sometimes takes place so rapidly and perceptibly to the eye
that it need not be confirmed by reference to the scales. In othei
cases, where patients, cither through curiosity or accident, have care-
fully weighed themselves just before taking a course of treatment, a
most remarkable increase of weight has often been observed in the
course even of a few weeks.

The increase of weight is simply a result of the effect of the
electric currents on nutrition, and a natural sequence of the improve-
ment in the sleep, the increase of appetite, and the relief of pain and
mental depression of which we have already spoken.

Incrtasfd Disposition and Capacity for Labor of the Afusclcs and oj
the Bratn. — Whatever tends, directly or indirectly, to improve nutrition
must of necessity increase the capacity for intellectual and muscular
toil. Accordingly we find that patients who were so feeble that even a
short walk or ride was fatiguing, and who were signally deficient both
in the will and the capacity for exertion, soon begin to develop, under
treatment, an activity and vigor that is sometimes surprising. They
can walk farther and more vigorously, and with greater enjo)'menL
They realize a consciousness of strength to which before they were
strangers, and feel emboldened to exertion from which they would for-
merly have shrunk with apprehension.

Concerning these permanent tonic effects it is to be observed : —

1. They are not uniform. They vary not only with different individ-
uals and diseases, but also with the same individual at different periods
of life.

2. JTtgy are more rapidly appreciated by the active and the nervotts
than by the cold and phlegmatic. Other conditions being the same, a
sensitive, impressible organization will recover more rapidly under gen-
eral faradization than one of an opposite temperament.

3. They are frequently not experienced until long after the treat-
ment is abandoned. These after effects of general faradization are
worthy of the highest attention. The possibility that they may occur
is a constant encouragement in the treatment of all slow and obstinate
cases.

4- They are usually as lasting and permanent as similar effects from
other remedies and systems of treatment. It is true that patients who
have been apparently cured by general faradization are subject to re-
llpses, yet to no greater and apparently to a less extent than those who
have derived similar relief from internal medication. In considering
thii' statetnent, regard should be bad to the fact that the diseases for
which general faradization is chiefly indicated, at least those in which it

4o6

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

has thus far been most successful, are just the diseases which are moAj
likely to relapse under any or all forms of treatment.

RationaU oj the Effects of General Faradization, — It has becnl
of general faradization that it is not physiological ; but they who niiel
this objection do not well consider what they say. Of the various racll
of electrization oone can bo better explained on a physiological
than can this. General faradization is to the whole body what localized]
faradization is to an individual part or organ. All the physical, rocj
chanical, chemical and physiological effects, with the consequent
crease of the processes of waste and repair and improvement in nutri-l
lion that electrization is capable of producing in the li\nng tissues (see J
Electro-Physiology, p. i88) and which, in exclusively localised app(ici-|
tions, are mainly confined to the part which is traversed by the current,!
are m general applications appreciated by ever}' part of the systcoi. |
Then, again, the improvement which each part or organ recei%'es frool
the treatment reacts upon every other part and organ. Every ciFect \
becomes in its turn a cause ; the strengthened bram sends more ncrvooj ,
force to the stomach, by which the latter is enabled to send better blood |
to the brain.

Comparing what is known of the conductibility of the tissues (sec j
p. iSo), and the action of the electric currents upon them, with the ol>- j
served effects of general faradization, these effects may be regarded as (
due mainly —

1. To the fact that the nutrition of the entire central nervous system
is directly influenced by the current. In an ordinary application the
brain, spinal cord, and sympathetic ganglia are all subjected to theae>j
tion of the current. In most of die applications of central localised
electrization only a part of the central nervous system is affected »t
each sitting. We are warranted in believing that in nearly all nenrous
diseases the central nervous system is more or less disturbed, even when
it is not organically diseased.

2. The passive exercise that results from the vigorous and repeated
muscular contractions produced by the applications. When the applica-
tions are thoroughly and skilfully made, vigorous yet agreeable con-
tractions are excited, not only in all the superficial muscles, but in the
deeper layers, and also of the contractile fibre-cells of the stomach,
the intestines, and other vital organs. The augmentation of the man^
fold processes of waste and repair which a single sitting causes in the
muscles and abdominal organs would alone powerfully intluence nutri-
tion, even though the electric current exerted no direct effect on the
nervous system.

PASSIVE EXERCISE AND REFLEX ACTION. 40/

That the tonic effects of general faradization are very largely due to
the passive exercise which it produces, is proved clinically by the fact
that when a current too feeble to cause muscular contractions is used,
or when the muscles are neglected, the tonic as well as the primary
effects of the treatment are much less marked.

3. Reflex action from the sensory nerves. The reflex effect of the .
faradic current even is very powerful, and in general faradization nearly
all the superficial sensory nerves are acted upon, and consequently the
whole nervous system is constantly under reflex as well as direct in-
fluence of the current*

♦ Brown-S^uard and Lombard (Archives de PhynoL, November and December,
1869) have shown that when one arm is pinched the temperature of that arm slightly
rises, and that of the opposite arm fall& Dr. James J. Putnam (Boston Medical and
Surgical Journal, June 23, 1870) has shown by a series of experiments on frogs that
electrization of one foot caused reflex contractions of the blood-vessels in the web of
the foot of the opposite side. These experiments, taken in connection with the fact
that nutrition is closely related to circulation, would render it clearly probable that
reflex action is an important factor of the results of application of electricity, and
especially of general faradization, where the extremities are directly affected by the
current.

CHAPTER XI.

DIFrSRENTIAL INDICATION'S FOR THE USE OF LOCALIZED AND OENSaAt j

FARADIZATION.

In order to determine the differential indications for the use d \
localized and general faradiialion we need to consider these fotiil
facts :

Firs/, That general faradization directly affects the whole body, while
in localized faradization the direct action of the current is mainly aWKi
fined to the part to which the application is made.

Secondly^ That general faradization may, by sympathetic or rcflci j
action, indirectly have a special therapeutic influence on some sp<nci\
part or organ, while localized faradization of any part, but especial); I
of the sympathetic or cerebrospinal axis, by syrapatliedc or rdlex
action, may indirectly have a general therapeutic influence on the j
whole body.

Thirdly^ P^aradization, when properly performed, very rarely injurtS,
and usually more or less benefits, even those parts which arc in cooh
parative or absohite health. This consideration has an important prtC-
tical bearing, especially in the use of general faradization, in
doubt as to the seat of the disease. (See p. 271.)

Fourthly^ In nearly all cases it is important, and in nsany it is in
pensable, that the applications should be made to the seat of tlie dis-
ease as well as to the locality of the symptom. Scientific electro-thcrt-
pcutics, therefore, requires the most accurate preliminary diagnosis ;
above all, it is important to rigidly discriminate between diseases whidi
are of a constitutional and those which are of a local origin.

From these fundamental considerations we logically derive the gen-
eral law that constitutional diseases arc better treated by general^ and
local diseases by localized^ faradization.

More specificall}', experience demonstrates that of the large variety rf
diseases for which applications of electricity are found useful, localised
faradization and galvanization are specially indicated in those easel
where both the seat and the effects of the disease are restricted to cer-

INDICATIONS FOR GENERAL FARADIZATION.

409

ortions of the organism, with but slight or imperceptible influence

system at large. Under this head are included nearly all peri-

1 and reflex paralyses and neuralgias, efiusions, sprains, and local

and also many of the diseases of the eye, ear, larynx, and

I and digestive organs.

I the other hand, general faradization is indicated —

: In those diseases that are dependent on or associated with im-

; of nutrition and general debility of the vital functions, such as

dyspepsia, neurasthenia, anaemia, hysteria, hypochondriasis,

sis, and neuralgia of a constitutional origin, rheumatism and

toxic diseases, some fonns of chorea, and oftentimes in func-

I disorders of the genital, digestive, and other special organs.

I In morbid symptoms dependent on some local cause which can-

: satisfactorily diagnosticated- It must be confessed that a large

of cases of chronic diseases are frequently dependent on or

ted with some important lesions, of which, during the lifetinje of

ent, even the most approved methods of diagnosis and the most

I skill utterly fail to ascertain either the nature or the locality.

is oftentimes the case with epilepsy, hysteria, and hypochon-

sometiraes, also, with affections of special organs, as the eye,

jrnx, and uterus.

edikt emphatically affirms that electricity should be applied almost
vely in loco morbiy in the place of the disease, and in cases of
recommends tentative applications successively in all the s«s-
l localities until the diagnosis is made out by the success of the
acnt* It scarcely need be said that this purely experimental
, though sometimes successful, must be and is annoying, uncer-
^ and very frequently unsatisfactory.

; advantage of general faradization in such cases of doubtful patho-
r are twofold : Firsts at each application it afifects all parts of the
body, and thus is sure to reach the seat of the disease, wherever that
0*y be ; and, secondiy^ it at the same time improves the general nutri-
'•on of the system, which, in such cases, is frequently more or less im-
ired This improvement in nutrition, as has been stated, oftentimes

I lavorably on the local disease,
hill further, it must be confessed that very many of the diseases in
general faradization is proved to be of most efficient service,
in which no special locus morbi can be found even on post-
I examination.

• Die Electrotherapie. Wien, x868, p. 79.

410 GENERAL AND LOCALIZED FARADIZATION COMPARED.

Future investigations will undoubtedly do much to dispel oor ignO'
ranee on these points, and will probably assign a definite local
to some of the diseases which are now vaguely classed as con^
tionaL But even those diseases in which the local cause is definitely
ascertained may demand constitutional treatment as niuch as or toon
than those in which no local cause is demonstrated. When a house is
set on fire by a burning ftise, it is not enough to snatch away the fuse ;
we must extinguish the flames. When tlie nervous system has bc«a>
thrown into tet.inus by a wound in the fool, excision or healing of the
wound is of little avail ; remedies must be directed to the central nef-
vous system. Precisely so when chronic local disease has enfcd)!ed
the vital functions and impaired nutrition, our applications arc to be
directed to the general system as well as to the seat of the lesion.

3. In certain diseases which, though themselves incurable, are ac-
companied by impairment of nutrition that is susceptible of more or less
relief. Palsy agitans, many cases of cerebral and spinal paralysis, ad-
vanced stages of locomotor ataxia, rheumatic gout, epilepsy, and ccr*
tain spastic aflections, may be absolutely incurable, and yet the ema-
ciation, nervousness, insomnia, and general feebleness with which these
diseases are associated as cause or efi"ect or concomitant, may be sus-
ceptible of most grateful relief from general faradization. In not a few
cases of disease of these varieties, after we have failed to do any good
by galvanisation of the brain, s)Tupathetic and spinal cord, after even
central galvanization has failed, general faradization alone, given with-
out special reference to the seat of the pathological lesion, has greatly
relieved the symptoms and been of invaluable service by virtue of its
tonic effects, although, of course, it could have no permanently curathre
influence.

Illustrative cases of every grade will hereafter be presented in detail

Cauj^ of Failures in Electro-Therapeutics. — The comparison we
have here made reveals the cause of some of the failures and
discouragements that have been and are now being encountered
by many experimenters in the department of electro-therapeutics.
Constitutional diseases have been treated locally. Morbid constito-
tional conditions, such as hysteria, anaemia, rheumatism, and the
like, which, as all physicians agree, demand remedies that affect the
system, are treated electrically only through their local symptoms^ such
as peripheral paralysis, or neuralgia, or inflammation of the joints.
Temporary relief, or metastasis of these local symptoms may indeed
result from exclusively localized applications in such cases, but per«
manent correction of the morbid condition on which these symptoms

COMBINATION OF THE METHODS.

411

depend can only be obtained by general treatment. In subacute rheu-
matism, for example, galvanization or faradiiation of an inflamed joint
frequently removes the pain and effusion in that joint, and therefore
may advantageously be used with general faradization, just as the ex-
ternal application of alkaline solutions may advantageously be com-
bined with the internal administration of the same remedies ; but to
depend on merely localized electrization in such cases is manifestly as
unphilosophical as it would be to depend on merely local applications
of aJkalies. In general practice it will unfortunately be found that
physicians will frequently use localized in cases for which general treat-
ment is indispensable for complete results, for the reason that they
have neither the time nor the practice to enable them to use the latter
method with success ; just as the majority of general practitioners, for
want of a galvanic apparatus, are obliged to use faradii:aiion in cases
for which galvanization is imperatively demanded.

Combination of tJuMdhods, — Many cases are most successfully treated
by a combination or alternation of the two methods. Thus rheumatism,
for example, may be treated one week or one day by general faradiza-
tion, and the following day or week by local faradization or galvaoizai-
tion of the affected joints.

This comparison furthermore reveals and explains the suggestive
fact that the sphere of electro-therapeutics has, in a measure, corre-
sponded to and progressed with the advance in the method of apphca-
tion- Thus, when peripheral applications were chiefly used, the scope
of electrotherapeutics, though important, was narrow, neuralgia and
paralysis being the diseases for which it was mainly employed. On
the introduction of localized galvanization of the nerve-centres, electri-
city was found to be most useful for many conditions in which pre-
viously it had been supposed to be either valueless or contraindicated.
The sphere of electro-therapeutics is by general faradization and cen-
tral galvanization still further extended to embrace a large variety of
conditions and indications which localized applications fulfil either not
at all, or but very imperfectly.

CHAPTER XII.

CENTRAL OALVAJfUATtON.

TTit object in central galvanization is to bring the tphole central f
vous system — the brain, sympathetic and spinal cord — as ivetl as the pnoh I
mogastric and depressor nerves^ under the influence of tht galvanic cmrA
rent. One pole {usually the negative) is placed at the epigastrium^ rvkUri
tttc other is passed over the forehead and top of the head^ by the ism(r\
borders of the sterno-cleido-masfoid ntuseles^from the mastoid fossa t&the
sternum, at the nape of the neck^ and doum the entire length of the spint, t

The following representations of the principal steps in the methodl
of central galvanization were raade from photographs taken during Ac
applications <

Fic to8.

Crntral Galvanixatiom, first stage. One pole on the epigastrium, the otlxr «■
the craMial centre^ the hair at thnt point being moistened. Before m alting tlie
application at this point the electrode may be passed over the forehead.

DETAILS OF THE APPLICATIONS.

413

A female patient is taken in order to show that this method in its
intiret)^ requires little or 00 exposure.

Tin, 109.

Central Gai.vanizatiom, secoad stage. One pole lame position as J>efore, or \owtT
down, and the other passed up and down by the inner border of the ster^o-
deido-mastoid muscle from the auriculo-maxillary fossa to the sternum.

Details of the Applications. — We do not always make the app'uca-
tions all over the head, but merely on the forehead, gently passing the
electrode from one side to the other; then baptize the patient on the
cranial centre^ at the top of the head, and rest the pole there for about
one minute, and sometimes longer. To the head we apply from two
to six or eight cells — for patients vary in their susceptibility — ^beginning
with a weak current, and gradually increasing until a sour or metallic
taste is perceived in tiie mouth. The cranial centre — the summit
between the cars — we regard as the most important region of the head
in all electrical applications, and especially in central galvanization. A
current passing from that point to the epigastrium, traverses the centre
of life — if life has any centre — and affects the sympathetic, and the roots
of the facial nerves. The sensation produced by this application is
different from that of any other apphcatioa to the head, and is some-
DQies indefinable.

414

CENTRAL GALVANIZATION.

An application to this point for one or two minutes is usaally j
as much galvanization as the brain needs. In exceptional cases,
where the hair is thin, or the head is bald, we make the applications all
over the surface, back and front. In applications to the head« caxr
should be taken to avoid sudden interruptions, or shocks that cause
dizziness; the flashes of light before the eyes are of little account, but
nothing is gained by producing them, and they are annoying to the
patient.

Fic it«b

Centhal Galvanizatioi*, third stage. One pole same poation «s before, or on Um
t>rea<itbone, and the other at the back of the neck t)etween the first and wveBtk
cervical vertebrae.

The electrode is then passed down the inner border of the stenio-
cleido-mastoid muscle, from the aurjculo-maxillary fossa to the clavicle,
for the piMpose of affecting the pneujiiogastric and sympathetic
We usually make the application on both sides, and from one to five
minutes.

In galvanizing the spine, especial attention is given to the cihor/ttMl
centre, below the first and seventh cervical vertebne, which is to tlie
spine what the cervical centre is to the brain. The cervical sympathetic

DETAILS OF THE APPLICATIONS. 415

and pneuraogastric, as well as the spinal cord, are affected by the cur-
rent. The electrode should also be passed over the entire length of the
cord by labile applications up and down. The back is not usually sensi-
tive, and strong currents, from ten to thirty cells, can be borne without
any more discomfort than a burning or pricking sensation beneath both
electrodes.

T\a. tti.

Ckntral Galvanization^ Fourth stage. One pole same position as before, or ova
the abdomen, and the other passed beneath the loosened clothing, up and down
the cord, from the seventh cervical vertebra to the coccyx.

The back may be treated from three to six minutes, and the whole
length of the seance of central galvanization ranges from five to fifteen
minutes.

Preparation of the Patient. — All the preparation a male patient re-
quires for central galvanization is to unbutton and loosen the collar,
remove the coat and vest^ and slip up the whole clothing, so that free
access can be had to the spine.

A female patient may remave her corsets and slip up her trnder^

THEORY OF THE METHOD.

417

should kindly inform us whether epilepsy, for example, takes its origin
in the brain or in the sympathetic, and should point out to us just where
the lesion occurred, we should stili be in the dark in regard to the best
tnethod of localizing the current, for without another and still more
complex revelation we could not detemune the extent to which all
other parts of the nervous system had been affected by the local dis'
ease.

The force of this objection to the use of the accepted method of
galvanizing the brain and cervical sympathetic is seen when we attempt
to give the complete pathology of any of the diseases we have just men-
tioned, and. indeed, of almost any nervous disease that can be men-
tioned. ^Vhere is the precise i>eat of the disease in nerv'ous dyspepsia ?
We know that the stomach is weak, and we prescribe galvanization of
the pncumogaslric ; but what have the solar plexus and the spinal cord
to say in the matter? VVho can tell just how not only they, but the
brain itself, may be the origin of nervous dyspepsia, or how much they
share in the pathological disturbance, and consequently how much they
need treatment ? After eleven centuries of medical study, who can
tell the precise and exclusive seat of the disease in epilepsy, hysteria, and
neurasthenia? Is not the probability continually growing stronger
with the advance of science, that in these and many other diseases the
whole or a large (>art of the central nervous system shares as a cause,
or result, or concomitant ? Even in those diseases where the lesion is
understood, is there not much more of the unknown than of the known ?
In locomotor ataxia, progressive muscular atrophy, spinal congestion
and irritation, is the spine only at fault ? Do the sympathetic and bfuin
wholly escape the infection ? " Evil communications corrupt good
manners" in pathology as well as in morals, and the communications
between the sympathetic, and cord, and brain, and the nerves that branch
from all these, are so varied, and intimate, and complex, that when the
cord is known to be diseased we very naturally incline to consider the
other parts of the nervous system, like " poor dog Tray," in bad com-
pany, and we become very justly suspicious of their character. In this
suspicion we are justified by the accepted views of the functions of the
sympathetic, and by the clinical signs and symptoms of these diseases.

In cerebral hemorrhage we usually know the general locality of the
disease, if not its jirecise nature ; but the spinal cord, through disuse,
becomes affected with secondary degenerations, and the organs of di-
gestion also more or less sympathize.

3, That the nutrition of the central nervous system will be improved
by passing through it a mild galvanic current.
27

41 S

CENTRAL GALVANIZATION.

That in the great majority of cases of so-called functional d«
disease, and in many of the cases of special structural lesions, cenw-^
tonics are indicated, will be questioned by no one. It is also con
to be pretty generally admitted that electricity is something more
a stimulant — that it is a tonic with a powerful sedative influence. Still '
further, it is admitted that the sedative and tonic effects of electricity^
can be obtained by passing the current, with little oi no interruption,]
through any part, the nutrition of which needs to be improved.

4. It is impossible to exclusively localize the current in the cervical |
sympatlietic, hence it is certain that the good results that in some instances
follow the galvani;:ation through the neck are due to the effect of thej
current on the spinal cord or pncumogastric, as well as to the cervical \
ganglia of the sympathetic. That the beneficial effects of galvanizing the
neck in cases of nausea, dyspepsia, and gastralgia, are due in part if oot]
entirely to the effect of the current on the pncumogastric, is more tbani
probable. Conversely, we find it impossible to tell how far our attempts
to localize the current in the pncumogastric, by placing one pole at the j
pit of the stomach and the other by the inner border of the sterno-clcido-j
mastoid muscle, was successful ; and whether the benefit derived look
place through the pneumogastric, the sympathetic alone, or through both
combined, seems beyond the power of mortal skill to determine.

Similar difficulties are experienced in the attempt to differentiate the
effects of the galvanizing the brain ; how much the results of applica-
tions to the head are due to the direct or reflex action of the current on
the brain itself, how much to its action on the cephalic ganglia of the
sympathetic, and how much to its action on the roots of the pneunio-
gastric and the upper part of the spinal cord, seems in the present stale
of the sciences of anatomy and physiology absolutely impossible \o de-
termine. In galvanizing the spine we are puzzled by the same com-
plications. The cervical, thoracic, and abdominal ganglia of the sjrrn-
pathetic, with their enormous plexuses, arc all liable to be affected by
the current whenever it is applied up and down the spine ; and how &r
the beneficial results of galvanization arc due to the effect of the cur-
rent on the cord itself, and how far to its effect on these ganglia and
plexuses, only a special revelation can determine.

Still further, the subject is complicated by the consideration thai
electricity works powerfully by reflex action, and in galvanizing the
brain, the cervical sympathetic, or the spine, reflex action must contion*
ally take place through the nerve-centres, and the therapeutical results
produced by such treatment must be in part attributable to such reiMj
action.

COMPARED WITH LOCALIZED GALVANIZATION.

419

positive pole (anode) is applied over the head, neck, and spine,
it is less irritating than the negative, and tends to diminish irri-
ftifity. The majority of the cases for which central galvanization is
Bed are in a condition of abnormal irritability, and need the calming
cBect« of analectrotonos rather than the irritating effects of catalectro-
toftos. To this rule there are individual exceptions : there are cases
ikll appear to be benefited more by the negative than the positive
^. (See pp. 364-266. )

The negative pole (cathode) is placed at the epigastrium, because
4e epigastrium is a good, indifferent point, that will bear well the irri-
t«ing effect of catalectrotonos. In order to avoid over-irritating the
WOfitadi and the pneumogastric nerve, it is well, in very sensitive
'{■Ikflts, and when long applications are used, to change the position
of the Jiegative electrode by moving it up and down between the ster-
MmanJ abdomen.

The positive and negative modifications (see Electro-Physiolog)', p. 1 14)
ion take place at the breaking of the galvanic current, in the region of
ll>c anode and the cathode, probably complicate somewhat the effects of
fttaittent — arc, indeed, factors of some importance in producing the
effects, and not unlikely explain, in part, the disagreeable results that
come from too frequently interrupting the current when treating nerve-
centres. The positive and negative modifications can, however, be
to«lly avoided by using a rheostat of some kind, and gradually reducing
tie strength of the current to a minimum before the electrodes are re-

ttMVcd.

Central Galvanization Compared with Localized Galvanization of the
^trvfontres. — We claim for central galvanization a distinct and sepa-
on among the different methods of using electricity in medicine.
. . :cations of the galvanic current to the head, the neck, and the
•Pttc, which have been variously used by electro-therapeutists since the
^ of Remak, are simply forms of localized electrization, since the
"^t aimed at in ail of them is to localize the current, so far as possible,
iJJllie brain or some ix)rtion of it, in the cervical ganglia of the synipa-
"ftic, or in the spinal cord. Then, again, in all these forms of localized
IPlvanization of the nerve-centres, the poles are placed near each other
Over the part to be affected, and the peculiar action of both poles is felt,
w far as is possible by external application, in the organ that is treated.
In galvanizing the head, for example, the poles are applied behind
ears, or in front of them, or one is placed on the forehead, and
;her on the occiput, or at the nape of the neck. In galvanizing
^ cervical ganglia of the sympathetic, one pole is placed on the

♦20

CENTRAL GALVANIZATION.

auriculo-maxillary fossa, or along the ioner border of the stenio-cletd(^|
mastoid muscle, while the other is applied at the back of the neclc la |
galvanizing the spine, one pole is placed at the upper or lower part
while the oiher is passed up and down the entire length, or kept in otic j
place, or both may be moved up and down the entire length of the
cord, or confined to any portion, as is desired.

But in central galvanization the electrodes are so placed that the!
whole central nervous system is brought under the int^uence of one pole
(usually the positive) of the galvanic current at one sitting, and without 1
any important change of position of the negative pole. Besides the cco-l
tral nervous system, the pneurnogastric and the stomach itself are also
affected ; in a word, the great centres of life, of health, and of disease.

Comparing central galvanization with localized galvanization of the \
nerve centres, by the effects, we find differences of a most marked an<J
interesting character exist. The ordinary methods of galvanizing llic
cervical sympathetic, the brain, or the spine, do not, either singly or in l
combination, produce the powerful tonic results that are frequently ob- 1
tained by central galvanization. Sedative and tonic effects are unqucs- j
tionably produced by these local methods, but they are frequently in-J
ferior in quality and degree to those derived from central galvanltatioo '
when properly administered. This conclusion is derived from actual trill
and observation of cases. Neither the temporary nor the permanent
effects of localized galvanization of llie brain, of tlie cervical sym-
pathetic and pneurnogastric, or of the spine, are as satisfactory in many
cases, even when they are successively used at the same sitting asd
with the same time and strength of current, as central galvanization.

Still further, experience teaches that the method of central galvaniii-
tion, in its completeness, is more serviceable than partial or incomplete
appUcations of it. Placing the negative pole on the epigastrium, and
the other on the spine, will not accomplish the full etTects of cenlrtl
galvanization, although so far as it goes it is a good method, and pro*
duces sedative and tonic effects. To condne the attention to the bead
and neck ^one, also, Is not sufficient.

Comparlrd with General Faradization. — Comparing central galvaaitt*
tion with general faradization, we find most important differences. Il
the one only the galvanic, in the other onl) the faradic, curreait it
used.

In general faradization the application is made not only over the
central nervous system, but over the entire trunk, and especial attention
is given to the muscles of the abdomen and extremities. In central
galvanization the chief aim is to affect the central ntrvous system ; u>

COMPARED WITH GENERAL FARADIZATION.

421

Graduation the chief aim is to affect the muscular system,
igh the nervous system, central and peripheral, is affected both
iy and reflexly.

paring the effects of central galvanization with those of general
fin<]i;ation, we find that both are powerful Ionics, and are adapted for
coodHions of debility, by whatever names they may be known. Foi
iomc cases, and particularly for cases associated with great muscular
debility, general faradization is more effective than central galvariiza-
bOQ. On the other hand, in cases where simply exhaustion of the
BOTC<entres is the leading condition — as hysteria, chorea, and sc
fcrth— central galvanization is oftentimes far superior to general faradi-
m.

}traJ Galvanization alternated with General Faradization. — Some
best results thai we have yet seen have been secured by combin-
er by alternating the two methods.
letimes, after general faradization has done all that it is capable of
galvanization, rightly used, helps to lift the patient still higher,
iscs where we are not experimenting, and seek only the best good
patient in the shortest time possible, we use in succession, or
ion, and with changes and modifications, all the principal
HKithods — local galvanization of the brain, of the cervical sympathetic
indipine, general faradization and central galvanization. This course
fe found to be oftentimes justified by the results. The improvement is
positive and more permanent than when a single method is used
isively.

Some cases we treat one week by general faradization, the next
by central galvanization ; sometimes we alternate the methods
day to day.

There are, however, cases not a few, where all forms of faradization,
where local galvanization of the nerve-centres irritates rather than
its, bat in which, under the method of central galvanization, there
't and constant improvement.

'. Althaus, of London, in the third edition of his most excellent

on Medical Electricity, after describing this method of central

lization in detail, remarks that he had never carried out the

in its entirety, but that he had used, experimentally, applica-

^Di to the head and neck with the anode, and to the epigastrium with

thode. He states that unpleasant results have followed these

iments, that disagreeable cerebral symptoms were produced by it

the application, and which sometimes continued for Iwenty-fom

or D)ore afterwards.

422

CENTRAL GALVANIZATION.

"The patients had a general sensation of malaise and nervousness
headache, and a feeling of giddiness and confusion."

Dr. Althaus further states that he has used the " application of tfat
anode to the cervical and lumbar spine, and of the cathode to the pit
of the stomach with advantage."

Nothing is easier than to produce these unpleasant results in soSi
ceptible patients by any method of galvanizing the brain and neci,
provided strong currents arc used, or interruptions are alloweiU or the
applications are prolonged. The same effects may follow general fan*
di/ation and localized galvanization.

In beginning to treat a patient by central galvanization, we should
use very mild, scarcely perceptible currents, particularly around the
head and neck, and even on the cervical spine, and great pains should
be taken to avoid breaking the current, and the application should be
of only a few moments' duration. Taking these precautions lias now
become with us a mere matter of routine, and we are every day accus-
tomed to treat the most sensitive and delicate patients — cases of brs»
teria, nervous exhaustion, hypochondriasis, and allied affections — cises
which are sufficiently familiar to all American physicians, and with
sedative and tonic effects that are not obtainable by other methods.

Whenever any of the disagreeable effects spoken of by Dr. Althiaf
occur, we always give the patient a longer interval, and moderate
applications until only good, unmixed with evil, effects appear.

The American constitution is more susceptible to electncity than
the English or the German, and if our nervously exhausted* hysterical
women can bear and be profited by central galvanization, surely the
women of England and Germany might be treated by the same method^
even when used with less caution.

We have frequently treated by this method delicate women who art
too feeble to walk or stand, or even to sit up, and who, therefore, must
be treated in bed, and even in such cases, the disagreeable effects only
occur now and then, and no oftener than they occur when otfa«r
methods of electrization are employed in the same kind of cases ; in-
deed, not so freipienily as they follow general faradization or locil
galvanization of the brain.

Reply to Objections against Galvanization of the Nervt^centre*,—^
It is proper here to consider briefly some of the objections that hww
been brought against galvanizing the nerve-centres by the method of
central galvanization, or by any form of local galvanization. These
objections, which in some instances have come from persons who or
other subjects are well-informed, are of a threefold character.

OBJECTIONS ANSWERED.

423

1. That the current goes around the nerve-centres, and not through
them. This objection is fully met by the experin^ents recorded in
Electro Physiology, pp. 184-187.

2. That we do not comiiletely understand what the current doej
when it penetrates the nerve-centres — ^in other words, the rationale o(<^
the effect of electricity on nutrition is not yet an exact science. This
objection is just enough, considered as a fact, but considered as an ar-
gument, it attempts to prove too much. By referring to Electro Physi-
olog>' we shall see that there are few, if any remedies, the action of
which is as well understood as electricity. We do not exacdy and ex-
haustively know its action on the nerve-centres, neither do we exactly
and exhaustively know its action on the peripheral muscles and nerves,
and if this objection is to hold good against galvanization of the nerve-
centres, it must also hold good against all peripheral galvaniiation and
faradization.

3. That it is dangerous to apply the galvanic current through the
head and neck.

Dr. Anstie, who is a very strong friend of electro-therapeutics in
general, in his excellent work on neuralgia, speaks of galvanization of
the cervical sympathetic as a method to be either avoided or used with
very great caution, and, in support of this view, adduces a case in his
own practice. In a review of Tibbetts's little " Hand book of Vfedical
Electricity," Dr. Anstie repeats this caution, and expresses apprehen-
sion lest great injury may follow the use of this method of treatment.
The error of Dr. Anstie consists, not in enjoining caution, .since this is
needed in all electrical applications, but in suggesting the -idea that gal-
vanization of the cervical sympathetic is a dangerous procedure, likely
to pro<luce serious results. Quite recently Dr. Brown S<ii]uard, in a
foot-note to one of his .series of very able papers, speaks as follows:

" Recently, some bold physicians have tried to galvanize the cervical
sympathetic nerve. This 1 did once in 1855 on my eminent friend
Prof Ch. Rouget, to try to relieve him from a most violent headache.

** The effect was all we could desire against the headache ; but the
galvanic current, acting at the same time on the sympathetic and the
vagus (the simultaneous excitation of these two nerves cannot be
avoided), produced such a dangerous syncope, that I promised myself
that I would never try again to apply galvanism to the cervical sympa-
thetic of man."*

The best reply to objections of this nature, coming from men who

• Archivet 0/ Scientific and Practical Medicine, p. 92, No. i, 1873.

CENTRAL GALVANIZATION.

arc justly distinguished in the departments to which their lives are de
voted, is found in the argumentum ad Jwminem.

Dr. Anstie highly recommends hypodermic injections of morphine in
neuralgix

If, now, we should say to him that we knew of a case where an injec-
tion of moqjhine had ahnost instantly caused niost alarming symptoms,
and of another case where it had apparently caused death, coascqucDdjr
we had re3olve<l never again to use that method of treaUiient, he would
reply that hyjMjdermic injections had been tested for years at the hands
of many of the best physicians of our time ; that those who are roost
familiar with them are usually the most attached to them ; and
when i)roperly administered with the caution that all p>otcnt rci
measures demand, and the skill that only experience can give, dief
need seldom or never do serious harm ; and that tlie infinitely sitttQ
chance of their doing harm, when thus properly used, is so far over-
shadowed, by the inj^nite relief which they unquestionably do afTord, as
to be hardly worthy of consideration in the practice of those wJio have
made themselves familiar with their administration.

Dr. Hrown-S6quard has, among very many other researches, d
well of the profession for having given an explanation of the aci
ergot on unstriped muscular fibre, and for having, on the basis of tHis
explanation, suggested the value of that remedy in congestion oftJie
spinal cord.

If, now, we should say to him that there are cases where, with
well-defined symptoms of hypenemia of the cord, ergot at once Jiggr»>
vates the symptoms, we should but state the truth of our experience.
He could reply, however, \vith perfect justice, that just as there are those
in whom a single strawberry will cause most disagreeable s>'mptonis^ or
those to whom a mouthful of mutton is a mouthful of poison, jusC so
there are those who, whatever tlieir disease maybe, cannot bear etgot;
but that, when wisely used by those who know what they are about, it
is a remedy of vast and various efficacy.

For hypodermic injections of ergot, substitute galvanization of the
cervical sympathetic, and our reply is complete. There are those to
whom electricity, however administered, is a perfect poison, and
were not born to be treated by this most potent of remedial
There are those who can bear it in well-nigh limitless doses.

There are those who can bear it and who are benefited by it, b*il ool
when given with delicacy and great caution. Now, it is possible to
galvanize the cervical sympathetic in all three classes, except tl^c fitrsi,
without doing any serious injury, permanent or temporary, JSvtn

425

who are the most susceptible to electricity^ for whom this force can nevef
be beneficial, can yet be treated by the method of central galvanization^
with very mild currents and short sittings, and a rheostat of some kind
to avoid interrupting the current, loithout any permanent or temporary
injury.

All our most potent remedies are dangerous when used dangerously
4. That the cases which have been treated by galvanization of the
brain have been so carelessly and unscientifically studied, and so reck-
lessly reported, that they have no scientific value. Dr. Cyon, in par-
ticular, declares that the observations that are given as proofs of the
curative effects of galvanizing the brain are valueless. This statement
is unfair. What is true of certain electro-therapeutists is not true of
all. The therapeutics of galvanization of the brain have been studied
by men who have been trained to the habit of close and discriminating
observation ; who recognize and bear constantly in mind the enormous
complications that beset all therapeutics ; who have worked under the
ga2e of watchful skeptics, and with the everlasting motto, post hoc ergo
propter Jioc, incessantly ringing in their ears; men, too, who have car-
ried conscience into science, and have reported the results to the world
just as they were revealed to them.

It is of very little practical consequence whether these effects are due
to the direct passage of the current through the brain or to the reflex
action of the current on the brain through the sensory nerves. Reflex
action comes in to explain the therapeutic effects of electricity, however
and wherever applied. Granting for one moment, what is not true,
that mild currents cannot penetrate the brain, this would be no reason
whatever for abandoning the electrical treatment of the brain so long
iis experience shows that benefit is derived thereby.

CHAPTER XIIL

THE USE OF STATICAL ELECTRICITV (FRANKLINIZATION).

We have already seen that statical electricity — which in the
history of electro-therapeutics was the only form of electricity th&t!
recognized — has, since the discovery of galvanism, and still tnore stocc]
the discovery of faradisni, fallen into relative disfavor, and is now
little used either in the electrical diagnosis or electrical treaiinenlof di&>|
ease.

The causes for this decline in popularity of a form of electrit
whicli is certainly of great absolute value, and by means of wliic
stimulating, tonic, and sedative effects of a most striking character ire I
unquestionably produced, are the following :

1. It is a form of electricity that cannot be readily controUed or I
ized.

The very essence of statical electricity is diffusion ; it is evcrprljicre* I
in our bodies, in the earth, and in the air. Its tension is cnorniouSi Aod I
its laws are not yet fully understood. A strong argument brought by i
Diichenne against the use of statical electricity, and so far forth a Juil
one, was that it could not, like the faradic current, be well localized Ai
a matter of fact, no form of electricity can be localized in the bo«iy m
the stiict sense of the word, for even in the most careful and
restricted applications of faradism or galvanism there is more or less j
diffusion, but statical electricity as generally used is very widely
fused.

2. The apparatus for the medical use of statical electricity, even I
of most recent construction, are more or less uncertain in their actifll
are dependent on atmospheric conditions, and are withal bulky ladl
expensive.

3. A longer time is generally required for the successful use of statial ^
electricity than for the use of galvanism or faradism; none of the ordi-
nary methods — localized faradization or galvanization, central galvani/i^
tion or general faradization — require as much time as is generally gives
to the stances of franklinization.

METHODS OF FRANKLINIZATION.

427

4. Experience shows that statical electricity, however administered, is
comparatively useless in many diseases in which galvanization or fara-
ion is most successful. On the other hand, it is yet lo be demon-
titrated that there are any contlitions that are better met by the use of
statical electricity than by a skilful use of the galvanic and faradic cur-
rents.

Professor Schwanda, of Vienna, among others, has revived the atten-
tion of the profession to the use of statical electricity by his reports of
successes obtained by Holtz's electrophorus machine. (For descrip-
tion, see Electro-Physics, p. 19.) He claims that it produces the same
effects in paralysis as the faradic current ; thai in cutaneous anaesthesia
it is more efficacious than either the faradic or galvanic current ; that
it acts as a general tonic. Something more than these general state-
ments will be necessary to reintroduce statical electricity into practice.

No evidence is adduced to show that the tonic effects of statical
electricity are in any way comparable to those which are obtained from
general faradization or central galvanization. It is difficult to conceive
how it can be more effective in cutaneous anaesthesia than faradisation,
which is so uniformly successful in this condition that it might almost be
called a specific for it. Very few affections yield so readily to any
method of treatment as functional anaesthesia to faradization.

As compared with the faradic current alone, statical electricity would
appear to have some advantages in the treatment of simple neuralgia,
but as compared with both the galvanic and faradic currents no such
advantage is demonslrated.

In spite of all these opposing reasons, statical electricity has contin-
ued 10 be used by a few ex[>erimeiiters even in these eras of galvanization
and faradization. Besides Professor Schwanda, above quoted, elec-
tricity from frictional machines has been used by Drs. Golding Bird and
Gull, in Guy's Hospital ; by Dr. Clement, of Frankfort ; and in the Lon-
don Hospital for the Paralyzed and Epileptic, by Dr. RadclilTc and others*

The methods of using statical electricity that have been most fre-
quently employed are the electric bath, electrization by sparks, and
shocks from the Ley den jar.

The electric bath is either electropositive or electronegative. In the
electropositive bath the patient is placed on an insulating stool, holds
the prime conductor, and receives the electricity accumulated on the
glass plate, while the negative electricity is discharged from the cushions
through a metallic chain connected with the ground.

The surface of the body of the patient becomes charged with positive
electricity, while the surrounding air is negatively electrified.

428

THE USE OF STATICAL ELECTRICITY.

It is claimed that during the application the secretions and dia
tion are slimulated. The patient should take the bath for two or dut<
hours daily.

In the electro-negative bath, the patient, seated as before on an inso-
lating stool, receives the negative electricity from the cushions^ while lie
positive is discharged from the glass plate through a metallic chain con-
nected with the ground. The cushions must be insulated by glass. It
is claimed that the electronegative bath has a debilitating effect ; thai it
deprives the body of its normal electricity ; that it produces effects sitmiar
to those that are obtained by bloodletting. The process of."cha;pflj
the patient" has sometimes a most charming effect in neuralgia.

Electrization by sparks is accomplished by drawing off the electridtf
from a patient charged in the electric bath by means of some metallic
conductor or by the hand of the operator, the conductor or hand of lie
operator becoming negative and uniting with the positive electricity cf
the patient with a snapping noise and a flash of light. Electrizatioa br
sparks is accompanied by a jjricking, stinging sensation, and, when the
sitting is protracted, is followed by redness of the skin and a peatliar
eruption of white circumscribed wheals. The eruption usually appcits
in five or ten minutes. It disappears in the course of an hour. SoID^
times the sparks are drawn through flannel, the end of the insulated coo-
ductor being applied to the flannel, and passed up and down over thci
region that is to be affected. A rapid succession of sparks may p«>«|
duce vibrations in the superficial muscles. Electrization by sparks bill
been found efficacious in paralysis, amenorrhcea, and chorea^ andnuuifl
other affections.

Shocks from the Leyden jar are produced by bringing the body, of
that portion of it on which we wish to operate, in the circuit between
the outer and inner coating, A shock may be sent through the inn*
and chest by placing one hand on the knob connecting with the itinca
coating (containing the positive electricity), and the other hand on ti<
outer coating of the jar containing the negative electricity, A shodk
may be sent through the pelvis by applying one end of a branched con-
ductor connected with the inner coating to the back, and applying tiie
outer coating of the jar against the hypogastric region. In the same wajr
electricity of the Leiden jar may be localised in any part of the body.
The shock produced by the Leyden jar is sudden and disagreeable.

More recently still, Dr. Arthius, of Paris, has urged the clamis of
statical electricity. His httle work* is loan extreme degree unsden-

• Treatment of Nervous and Rheumatic Affections by Static Bleclricity, By Dl
A. Arlhiiu. Trasslated from the Frencb by J. II. Elheridge, M.D. Clucaeo» 1S74

APPARATUS FOR FRANKLINIZATION.

429

tific and unscholarly, and the author is evidently ignorant to a profound
degree of the whole subject of electro-therapeutics.

The cases he recites are, however, of considerable interest as showing,
in spile of the imperfect manner in which they are detailed, that very
important sedative and tonic effects can be obtained by statical eleo
tricit)'.

His best results seem to have been obtained in neuralgia, and in
hysteria and allied affections, and other conditions of debility — the class
of cases where general faradization, central galvanization, and galvaniza-
tion of the brain and cervical sympathetic are most successful.

There is no evidence that there are any advantages in the use of stati-
cal electricity, even as a general tonic ; all the sedative and tonic effects
that have been claimed by Arthius, or by any or all of the advocates of sta-
tical electricity, are every day obtained by skilful and varied use of fara-
disni and galvanism. It is not impossible, however, that statical electricity
properly administered may have some therapeutic advantages over an
equally skilful use of faradism or galvanism. It is not impossible that
temperaments that will not bear faradization or galvanization in any
degree may bear Franklinization. We only claim that with statical elec-
tricity, as with electric baths, no such claim has yet been established, and
that it cannot be established except by careful and protracted study by
those who are masters in the whole realm of electro-therapeutics.

Apparatus /or Franklinization. — Holtz's machine (see Electro-
Physics, p. 19) or Carry's modification of Holtz's machine is probably
the best for electro-therapeutical purposes, for the reason that it is more
trustworthy and convenient.

Besides the machine^ there are needed for electro-therapeutical pui •
poses, an insulator or electric stool^ resting on glass feet, and covered
with a non-conducting varnish, to make the instdation more thorough,
Arthius* makes the insulator large enough to hold a chair, in which the
patient sits. The feet of the patient may be placed on a glass plate.

The excitaiors are made of metal, with a point at one end and a ball
at the other. A chain connects the excitator with the ground and ia
kept from touching the patient by a ring attached lo a glass rod in the
left hand of the operator. These excitators are made of various metals,
and it is claimed by Arthius, that particles of ihe metal are transported
into tlic body of the patient, and that, therefore, differential therapeutic
results follow different metals. 1 1 is undeniable that very minute quantities
of the substance of the excitator are transported to the surface of the
body from the metallic electrode, even if they do not really penetrate be^

• Op. cit., p. 38.

430

THE USE OF STATICAL ELECTRICITY

Pio. 1 1 a.
Method of Franklinization. — (Arthius.)

ncath the skin ; for that would be in full accordance with what is knovn
of electro -physics (see Electro-Physiology, p. 190). The other part of
the claitn, that the therapeutic results of the treatment vary with the
kind of metal, is very difficult to establish. Dr. Arthius claims that the
patient appreciates different sensations with different njetals; that tb<
odor also varies, and that the patient can distinguish after some practice
the metal used by the odor ; that there is an appreciable loss in waste
of the metal used ; and finally that where copper excitators arc used there
is more relief than with other metals.

Granting all the above claims, it may be doubted whether it is noC
better to give our remedies in the usual way, by the mouth, or hypoder*
mic injections, and give electricity, so far as possible, pure and uncooi-
bined.

CHAPTER XIV.

ELECTRIC BATHS.

[OD of employing electricity that has long been popular among
hough it is not yet fully introduced into science, is the electric
e methods of giving electric baths are various. The requisites
hing tub of some form, partly filled with water, contrivances
g the cuirent — either faradic or galvanic — through the water in
patient is immersed. An electric bath can be extemporized
Unary bath-tub. The patient may rest his feet on one pole in
and hold the other pole in his hand. In that position the
le patient becomes part of one or the other pole, and the cur-
through him from one pole to the other, just as it would if
• no water in the bath ; or at most the only effect of the water
lughly saturate die part of the body in contact with the pole
til. This method is, of course, exceedingly crude, and can
avc any conceivable advantage over a similar position of the
idc of the bath, and yet it has been not a little used,
^.xell uses the following form of electric bath. The tub is
: ii.xry shape, but the metallic connections are so made that
■ .\nnot avoid passing through the body of the patient. One
■■ \ c()pi)er plate — ^is at one end of the tub, constituting a
^^ -tiirface, and the other pole — also a broad metallic plate
::j other end. Both plates are under the water. At
.:. ;i board is placed, at a little distance from the pole.
-' :i slit of moderate size. Against this slit rests the
v. i>ile his feet may or may not press against the
.. ! t:nd of the tub. By this arrangement the cur-
...li the back of the patient, and from the back
liiubs. Indeed, the back of the patient fits
-lit of the wooden rest, that the current,
'tiir body.
;!!»iHty of the body as compared with
■ ' ' ■ human body is composed mostly
>:ilts J it, therefore, conducts bet-

a sens
d, very cl
1. When

passes thro

the *»lcr

Method of Frank I.

neath the skin ; for that would he i
of electro-physics (see Electro- Ph\
the claim, that the therapeutic n
kind of metal, is verv' difficult to c-!:i
patient appreciates different sensation^
odor also varies, and that the patient can
the njetal used by the odor ; that there
of the metal used ; and finally that where i
is more relief than with other metals.

Granting all the above claims, it may *
better to irivft our remeHies in the ufiual ^

CIS. 433

- -gnfd to ^e tiienpentic effects
nrks to offer:

ic effects of electricity are ob-
electric baths; not only those
part of die body, but those where
to localitttion and without re-
no qaestkm, more or less the
1 therapeatical effects of elec-
■ 'f localisation of the current
r.ttional than those that do
ire capaUe of affecting the
the bOd|y without doing

?red in any of the forms

ntage over the ordinary

Mon and galvanization,

IS not yet been estab-

n diseases or certain

> ordinaiy electriza-

this advantage is

ater labor and in-

L*ediqg complexity

1 with the thera-

me or the other

ometimes make

'henseof stati-

niably obtain,

•■ as well have

the ordinary

nts that will

c just, and

who take

been im-

ision that

who are

r other

nd the

Terent

kindy

434 ELECTRIC BATHS.

to be of real value, must be not only numerous, but extended orer a kqg
period.

The question whether substances can be introduced into the body a
removed from it by electricity, wiU be discussed in the secticMi on
electro-surgery.

General Rules for giving Electric Baths, — In the use of electric baths
we should be guided by some of the same general principles that gnide
us in the use of electricity by other methods. The temperament of tbe
patient should be studied, and in the length and strength of the bada
and in the frequency with which they are given we should be directed
by the peculiarities of each case.

It is not well to take* an electric bath just after a full meal, nor is it
usually well to take exhausting exercise immediately after a bath, e^
dally for the delicate and nervous. The temperature of the water
should be about that of the body, and may range between 95 and 105°
Fahrenheit. The patient may remain in the water from 5 to 25 min-
utes. There appears to be no danger of catching cold after taking aa
electric bath, even when the water is quite warm. One effect of the
electricity would appear to be to give tone to the cutaneous vessds, 11
that there is less liability to take cold than after a simple warm batL

CHAPTER XV.

HYSTERIA AXD ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

*ER this head we include hysteria, in the ordinary sense of that
oetirasthenia, or nervous exhaustion; hypochondriasis and rael-
lia; spinal irrilalion, with the manifold sjTiiptoms with which it

ted ; insomnia ; and astraphobia, or fear of lightning.

give hysteria and allied affections a prominent position in the

portion of this work, because it is a class of diseases for which

ical treatment is especially adapted, and in which its success is

remarkable. This fact is not generally appreciated, for the reason

the profession have looked upon electricity as a stimulant merely,

have not fully recognized its sedative and tonic properties, and

have confined their attention largely to paralysis, as the one dis-

above all others to be treated by this agent.

IccirO'dia gnosis. — Usually, though not necessarily, there is exces-

sensitiveness to the electric current in all parts of the body. Pa-

soraetimes can bear only the mildest currents. In some cases

a mild current will not be borne on the middle of the back, which,

llh, is usually so little sensitive. Reflex sensations may be ob-

during electrization of hysterical patients. Irritation of the dis-

«idc of the body may be sensitively felt in the healthy side.

'imes there is eapacity for bearing very strong currents without

7', e7'en when there is great hyperasthcsia. The electro diagnosis

of h^-sterical paralysis will be presented under that disease.

Treatment. — Hysteria is a constitutional disease, and demands con-

tional treatment. To attempt to chase after and direct the appU-

of electricity to each special symptom as it appears, is unphilo-

ical and usually unsuccessful. General faradization and central

nization are methods of electrization that are indicated for hysteria.

ndcT whatever symptoms it may be developed, our chief and best

:Jts have been obtained by these methods. This general treatment

lloes not, of course, dispense with localized electrization of paralyzed

Huscles, or special attention to any localities where the disease is

43<5

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

for the time directed. Diseases of the sexual organs, h>'st«rical hie
cough or cough, aphonia, or incontinence of urine, may somettn)ci
need localised electrization ; but these symptoms frequently yield und
general faradization or central galvanization, even when no speciall
attention is given to the diseased parts. In nearly all cases, except,!
perhaps, long-standing paralysis, it is much better to dispense with ihe\
local than the general treatment. There are cases, however, in which
the symptoms of rigid contractions of certain muscles are most persistent i
and painful in character. In such conditions of the affected muscles j
galvanization should never be omitted. In cases of extreme h)-j)cr-|
aesthesia it may be necessary, as Benedikt advises, to place the paUenM
under the influence of an ansesthetic while the application is made*]
Strong currents do not appear to be injurious in such cases.

Prognosis. — The behavior of hysteria under electrization is as caprir
cious and inconsistent as are its symptoms. Some cases yield to )
eral electrization with wonderful rapidity ; others, apparently no '
are singularly obstinate. On the average, llie prognosis is so favors
that no case should be abandoned without a fair trial of this method of |
treatment. Under peripheral electrization the results are usually \
satisfactory, since the relief of the local symptom is by no means a (
of the morbid constitutional condition.

Viottnt hysterkoi tymptoms dependent on suppressed menstruation uJltvimUd tft^
stances of general faradiaation and ioealized gahfttMitatioH.

Case I. — A most violent and persistent case of hysteria, in the person of a inuric4
lady, aged 40, came under our observation ihroiigh tlie kindness of Dr. Oliver Wliite. .
The patient was in bed, suffering from violent paroxysms of allrmatc wec].i*ng joi I
screaming. The hands and feet were cold, the pulse feeble, and the pain in lh« heal I
was constant, and of the most severe character.

The«« symptoms had continued for nearly forty-eight hours, and tn order to •wrt
ieriou5i consequences it seemed as if in some way relief must soon tie aflbrdeil. Tte
menslrtjal period was delayed nearly two week*, and to this circumstance h ■»
possible, in pari, to allribulc the attack. The patient was submitted to thoiWCk
general faradiiatbn, and immediately after a galvanic current from eight oeQki
as neatly as possible localized in the uterus. These efforts weir followcti by deciM
alleviation of the symptoms, and a tolerably quiet night was the restitt. The me
however, did not appear, and on the following night we gave again the same Ottf-
ment, slightly increasing ihe tension of the galvanic current. Before mominjj n**-
itruation became manifest, and ihere was no further evidence of nervous dbtBrV

Nearly a year subsequently this patient experienced another attack of like dMtac
ter, and substantially the same treatment again relieved her completely vithiB lb(^

eight hours.

CASES OF HYSTERIA.

437

Hysteria of one year' i standing in a married lady, following parturition ; strangt
and indefinite sensations in the legs ; tickling , crawling, prickings waving, beat-
ing, founding, heaz'ing, rolling sensations over head and body ; imaginary s-well'
ing of the body ; Jits of weeping and great despondency — Rapid and decided
imprirvement under central galvannation with strong currents, after failure of
general faradixation — Cod-Uvtr-oil emulsion and counter-irritation used at tht
same time.

Case II.— Mrs. B., a married lady, with two children, was referred to us Novem-
ber 5, 1872, by Dr. Coakling, of Brooklyn.

The patient, though a lady of unusual iiUellii^ence and great strength of will, Iiad
for nearly a year been a victim to many of the worst symptoms of hysteria. The
syrnplums apjjcared ten days after the birth of her second child ; up to that time her
health had been almost perfect. She came from a family in whom there was some
tendency to consumption, and she bad lost two s,isters by that disease. A short time
before the birth of her secund child, she had fallen down stairs and had struck on the
bock of her head. The query arose whether that might not have had something to
do with her disease. The symptoms came on in tl»e night, and quite suddenly. She
became excessively nervous, almost wild, and the physician was sent for and succeeded
in calming her ; then followed a long catalogue of woes. On the top of the head
vras a constant sensation of shaking or agitation, or thrilling, as she described it, and
heaving, rolling, beating, waving, pounding sensations were felt in the head and over
the body. There had been tnanty attacks of weeping; at all times, though naturally
hopeful, she was cast down, and imagined she did not love as she should one of her
children. The general nutrition, as usual in such cases, was well maint.aincd.

The patient had tried, with great thoroughness, general faradization but without
substantial service.

We used on her mainly central gahtanisation, combined with the u.se of cod-liver-
otl emulsion, and mild counter-irritation over the tender vertebrae.

The patient, with all her nervousness, bore the gahanic airrent in enormous
doses : it seemed to be impossible to injure her by over-elect rizat ion. We soon found
that the stronger the currents, and the longer the applications, the greater the benefit.
Even through the brain strong currents, now and then interrupted, did no harm.
\ She soon bc^ti to improve, and continued to improve not only during the three
I months of treatment, but subsequently, and there was in this improvement a consid-
erable degree of permanency.

I In the above case there were facts of great interest. First, the ex-
traordinary tolerance in a highly nervous patient of the galvanic cur-
rent ; and secondly, the supreme advantage of central galvanization
over general faradization in severe functional diseases of the central
nervous system.

A condition where the superiority of central galvanization seems most
I apparent is that which so often accompanies the "change of life."
[Many of the symptoms of this familiar nervous state are similar to those
recorded in the case above detailed.

438

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

Hytteria of a psyehkal orif^n — Paroxysms of weeping — Pain in th% gwt^mn
gion— Great hyperxsthtsia — Improvement under general faraditatitm..

Case III. — The case of a young unmarried lady under the professional care of
H. Gregory, of Harlem, very well illustrated sorac of the main points of the
remarki.

The patient, who was but eighteen years of age, had for several years
victim of constitutional debility that disqualified her for indul^ng in any consi<
amount of exercise.

This debility, however, was not, as she asserted, sufficient to account foir the ladis*
position frequently evinced of making any exertion. Al these times, whenever
ascertded the stairs, or even attempted to walk across the room, site compL
earnestly of severe pain in the left ovarian rejjion, which extended down the left mbA
sometimes even the right leg. She was at all times excessively )ow-i.piritcd. nod
usually indulged during the day in several quiet crying spells. When her paroxyvn*
of weeping were unusually violent (prcsentuig more of the hystericaj char34:ter) ibe
cardiac nerves seemed to suffer, as evidenced by attack of palpitAtiou with dcrangol
rhythm, Tliese paroxysms were attended by greatly increased pain in the ovarixa
region, and this pain she regarded as the cause of all her unpleasant symptoms. The
fact that this part was exceedingly sensitive to pressure, while the right side was v>
sensible to ordinary impre^sstons, was to her and her friends additional proof that htf
nervous condition was an effect and not a cause of thi:i local irritation. As counter-
irritation and the usual tonic influences indtcatetl in such a case seemed to aflbrd b»l
little or no relief, her phyiician advised electrization, and invited us to treat tbi
patient. A gentle faradic current, applied with the hand as an electrode over the
left ovarian region, caused greater pain than pressure alone, and imniedi«lcl/ eadtad
an attack of crying.

After she hail been treated several times, and had become familiar with tlie onflv
tiun, it was interesting to notice the fact that if her atlentiun was en^a^ ■
eaiTicst conversation dturing an application, the current excited in her oo naaMpO'
tion of pain.

If her mind was recalled to the operation on hand, the part su^ideniy mmd M»^
eountahly became as sensitive as ever. The patient continued treatment two OMMitb^
and received twenty general applications.

Uninterrupted improvement followed our endeavors. She gradually gmiB«l a
strength and spirit.?. Her parox7sms of weeping became less and less freqtwat «tfl
she was comparatively free from them.

As she improved in these resf>ects, the irritation in the left ovarian region of wliiob
the complained gradually left her, until she was annoyed by it no more.

There is one symptom occasionally accompanying hj-stericaU condf*
tions, and which is invariably associated with hyperisesthesia of T •
that we do not find given in the descriptions of this disease, \
to an increased redness of different portions of the surface of the body.
This complication is annoying under any circumstances^ but mofv c»fe
cially so when an exposed part of the body, as the dosc, b the scat d
Jie increaiied color.

CASES OF HYSTERIA.

439

( €9used by grief — Paroxysms of weeping — Unnatural redness of skin of
arms and nose — Recovery under general faradiaatian.

^ASS IV.— The patient — a young lady 23 years of age — had lost her sister foui
previoosly, and from that affliction she dated all her symptoms. Before this
EcXion vbc bad enjoyed almost perfect health and was remarkably buoyant in her
pmtion. During her sister's illness she had been her constant attendant, and had
Mme reduced considerably in strength.

After the bttrial all strength and eneri^y seemed to leave her : the appetite was last,

li lor sereral days and nights slie wept continually, neither eating nor sleeping.

'' a;j in a measure from this prostration, she tried diange of scene, hoping

•pate her miserably nervous condition. She derived but little benefit,

'shcn tt< saw her her condition was indeed pitiaJ)le. In relating how miserably she

; how little inclination she had to meet her dearest friends; how the sound of

diatresjeii her; and what terrible choking sensations !,-he constantly experienced,

tnrs iluwoJ thick and fast. The menstrual function was jwrformed with perfect

lly ; the amount of blood lo^^t was not excessive, and was accompanied by no

All !»er organs seemed to be in a healthy condition. The patient called espe-

ilion to this increased redness of skin, of which mention has been made. It

:icDlarly marked upon the arms and nose, and when she felt more hysterical

tuatl the redness increased, and was accompanied by an annoying sensation of

This impairment of her personal appearance weighed upon her mind constantly

teemed to greatly increase her distress. Two generid applications of a mild faradic

so benetited her that for ihirty-sdx hours the constriction of the throat ceased

laoojr ber. As she continued receiving the influence of electricity, and the current

iocreased, she improved rapidly in her general condition, and after eight applica-

ihe heightened color which so atmoycd her was entirely dissipated, and with it

e^ery other unpleasant symptom, so that she again entered society aad seemed

life as well as ever.

IQatoTtf — Violent fxirvxysms of weeping — Great mental depression verging towards
imantty —Impairment of memory — Neuralgia^ atuesthesia, and dyspepsia — En^
Urt retn>ery under general faradization.

Cask V.— In December, 1867, Dr. F. D. Wcisse, of thb city, consulted us re-
fmling the condition of one uf his lady patients, who was suffering from an aggra-
t«tcd form of hysteria.

Notwithstanding his best endeavors, the case seemed to resist obstinately every form
of medication, until finally he resolved to place her under the tonic influence of
fowral electrization. The patient was a married lady, aged about thirty-five. Al-
llwBgii never very strong, she had until of late years enjoyed a fair degree of
knllh, and had given birth to several children ; her whole appearance now indicated
exhaustion, bat there was no evidence of any serious organic difficulty,
!ler ajmptoms were: intense mental depression, with paroxysms of violent crying;
it of memory ; loss of appetite ; indigestion, attended with an excessively
datuiencc ; neuralgia of the head ; anaesthesia, that shifted from place to

At dmes the depression and the fits of weeping which so frequently overcame her
^dOMlyaaamed the Conn of insanity that her nearest relatives had seriously con*

440

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

Eidered the question whether it would not be belter for her to be conEQe<d b n
asylum. It was quite common for her, wilhout any appreciable cause, to start sud-
denly from her chair, scream, and partially faint Slie would sometLtues weep for
hours, and yet he unable to a^^sign any specific cau?^e for her distress.

On the occasion of her first \'isil to us she became excessively ner»-ous »nd maiii*
fested an almost childish fear of the operation. When she was ready for treumeu
her nervous anxiety had so much increased that we thought it best to prettHd Bkercly
to make an application. Her feet were placed upon the copper pUte to which tli«
negative pole was attached, the instrument set in operation, and our hand as an elec-
trode applied to the back of the neck. No current passed, however, as the posttiv«
electrode had been disconnected from the instrument. As vnm. as the hand of the
operator was applied to her, she declared tliat she felt the electricity tinylmg tliruoci)
her whole system ; but further remarked, that it was not so terrible as she hail
imagined. We were able at the next visit to pass a mild current down the sptnc
and over her liver, stomach and spleen. Her stomach was so sensitive that ere*
this gentle application causc<l pai» uvcr that organ, together with a decided feeliag
of faintnessv At the third \'isit her condition mauifcsieil marked improvement.

Her appetite had improved ; she was less despondent and nervous ; her streogtb
had increased, and her sleep had been unusually quiet and refreshing.

A very decided feature of her changed condition was the fact that a curr«a of
twice the intensity of that previously given was now borne without the slightest di*-
comfort.

The fourth application ameliorated somewhat the distressing flatulence (rooa wtil^
she suffered, and after the fifth it ceased to annoy her to any very coi»id«r»b(* tt-
tent, while her neuralgic pains wcic entirely dissipated. It may be stated thtt U
application to the eyes at this time resulted in an overpowering drow$ineav wfaidl
lusted twenty-four hours. On January 8lh, 1868, after having received bat d|^
applicationif, and having been under treatment but about three weeks, we
up the results as follows ; —

Removal of mental depression.

Removal of paroxysms of weeping.

Strengthened memory.

Almost completely relieved of flatulence and indigestion.

Neuralgia dissipated.

Anaesthesia completely relieved.

Increase of strength.

This patient (in whose case the results of treatment were so gratl
ing) was not suffering, as we were informed by her physician, from a
decided derangement of the sexual apparatus.

Hysterical and analogous symptoms are frequently, without doobt,
both associated with and dependent upon recognizable uterine difi*
orders. In many cases, however, these symptoms may be associated
■with and perliaps aggravated by, but not by any means depcfideot
upon, such disorders. This statement would seem to be confinncU bf I
the experience of Dr. Rockwell at the N. Y. State Woman's Hoapaui '

HYPOCHONDRIASIS.

44J

He has found, during his service there, that symptoms of excessive ner
vousness, insomnia, impairment of motor power, etc., which were BMP'
posed to be merely a reflex of local derangement, have frequently
yielded to some form of electrization, before any manifest change has
been observed in the condition of the sexual apparatus.

Hypochondriasis {^Pathophobia) and Mdancholia, — The distinction
between hypochondriasis and melancholia is vital. The hypochondriac
readily appreciates the character of any special disease from which he
may suffer, but he has a most exaggerated conception of its importance
and of its probable results. He talks much of his symptoms, and un-
ceasingly seeks relief. The melancholic, on the contrary, possibly suffers
from no appreciable disease; or if any evident structural or functional
trouble exists aside from the recognized mental perversion, it is un-
heeded. As \f audsley expresses it, " the former committing a murder
would certainly be hanged, the latter probably not." The tendency
o( the melancholic is frequently to suicide — the hypochondriac clings to
life. Intellectual exertion is an impossibility for the melancholic; the
hypochondriac, on the contrarj', may lead the highest intellectual life.

The one suffers from such perverted habits of thought and feeling
that the strongest and most natural affections may cease to exist ; the
other retains all the normal warmth of feeling towards friends and rela-
tives.

Melancholia is a more advanced phase of mental perversion, and to
this advanced and more serious condition hypochondriasis not unfre-
quently progresses.

There are reasons for believing that the sympathetic nervous system
is largely at fault in cases of hypochondriasis ; and that if not demon-
strably diseased it is yet the medium through which disease of the other
parts reacts on the brain, and produces molecular or other disturbance.

The two leading ideas that we here desire to impress are, firsts that
hypochondriasis is just as truly a disease, or, more strictly speaking, a
symptom of disease, as dyspepsia, insomnia, chorea, neuralgia, paraly-
sis, or insanity, and should be treated accordingly. The popular method
of neglecting hypochondriacs altogether, or of administering //arr^t^j, is
not scientific, and, except in rare cases, is not successful. Secondly^
hypochondriasis, when not dependent on serious lesions of the central
nervous system, is susceptible oi relief and of positive cure under the
skilful and faithful use of electricity. Still further, we believe — and
the results of our own cases justify the belief— tliat cerebral disease of a
more pronounced character itself may be relieved by electricity ; and
that that terrible form of hypochondriasis which is the precursor of

cases were treated by the first and second.]

/fy/»ek*mdHssSs, witk Impoirmtnt cf the funtticns of
mfwtjrjt — StHiory tymfiiUHs in the tjcttfmities, with somt
rtsuU of estessive mtntat activity, attd dtftHtiint in fart
tion — ImfroxHmeHi under general faraJitatufn and a
lu/te,

Casb VI. — Mr. M., an actor of twenty years' standing,
by Dr. F. L. Harris, The patient was a temperate man,
permiilcti. rcjjular in all his habits : but the character of his
it nixessary fur him to exercise his memory through a series
and as the scqoeJ proved lo a roost injurious, extcut. Two
observe that his intellectual powers were failing him. Hii
paired anil his thoughts so confused, that he found it utterly
anything new, or to recall readily certain "parti" thai
fwniliar. tie wa^ hypochondriacal to the last degree, and at ih
became weak, and he complained of sensory symptoms in the tij
the same as lbo$c present after frostbite. The integrity of
markedly impaired.

The sight especially had failed him to such a degree, that i
he could read al alL The patient was exceedingly, timid,
the treatment proposed ; but he was at once submitted to a
SMmft of general faradiiation, which was followed by an ti
provemcnt in the power of locomotion. After a day's inl
was employed, and this alternate treatment wa^ employed for

The annoying sensory symptoms disappcarcl ; he gained
limbs, and was more hopeful and happy ; his ^t^e^^th of vivioti
and when we last saw him lliere liad been sufficient impr
faculties to enable him succc»fully lo attempt a pwrfurmi
learned that during an attempt to perform on a subsequent i
unable to pursue his part, and was led oS' the stage. This

oveiy was not complete ; u to his cooditioa after ttiis we

CASES OF HYPOCHONDRIASIS.

443

patient vras. a man in the prime of life, with a physique and counlenancj indicative of
Wbnst health.

several months his daily life had been rendered miserable by an undcfinabte
of oppression, and a fearful looking forward to of calamity and ruin.
•nia did he exercise all the philosophy and reason of a naturally well-balanced
: his deluiiions clung to him, and the only waking hours to which he looked for-
irith any d^rcc of patience were those of the early evening,
t comfortable dinner and a few glasses of sherry his spirits invariably rose ;
' fcr« time he was again himself. The patient was most persL^tent and faithful in
whmitting to treatment, and the number of applications that he received was some-
■liil extraorJinary. Of the faradic current some 75 were administered. Occasion-
•Bjr we fuhjcctcd him to galvanization of the brain, cord, and sympathetic^ but the
(Bolts of this method of treatment were by no means favorable. Under general fara-
§mm, however, he decidedly improved.

kepMia — Suspected disease of the ears — Improvement under general faradita'
t and gatvanitatioH of tfu brain and sympathetic — Galvana-faraditatian.

ISE V'JII. — A still more favorable result was obtainei in the person of a young

1 ^s, who, like the patient just referred to, presenteil every indication of health.

i hoars of the day he was annoyed by tiiuiitus aurium, and what to him seemed

; voice telling him of evil to come. We submitted him to general applica-

f a powerful faradic current, and also to occasional galvanization of the brain,

1 sympathetic Some improvement followed. The most decided benefit was,

rr, derived from the melhofi of galvann-faradizaiion. The faradic current, full

^h, from a Kidder apparatus, and at the same time the galvanic current from 15

\ tiunsen's battery, were passed through and around the body, by the method

electrization. Improvement was now remarkably rapid. In the course

llf a duien applications every unpleasant symptom disappeared, and the patient

KRDce remained perfectly free /rom any evidence of their return,

debility xvilh hypochondriasis, but assotiated with no organic cliange—'
General faradization and central galvanitaiion of no benefit,

he following case of excessive nervous prostration with mental
ession was not in the slightest degree benefited by any form of
tion, although the most persistent efiforts were essayed. (See
290.)

t IX. — The patient was a young artist, referred to us by Dr. J. O. Stone,

>«li his life had been noted for his pluck and love of athletic sports. He gradu-

withcut appreciable cause grew weak physically, and became such a great

that he feared to travel any distance from home, by rail or water, without

^ - «7-

He fully appreciated this change, and endeavored to overcome tt. He was examined
^in«nd again, hut it was impossible to detect the slightest structural difficulty in
•^'wgan. It seemed a fitting case for general faradiwtion and a mo-it favorable
iVQEDoiis was given, but all efforts with it and central galvanization pioved una*
; in improving his condition.

444

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

Mt/afukolia of troo years' standing in a young married tady — Complete r\

under central galvanixaUon after failure of persutent internal meduatit't

and general faradisation.

Case X. — Mrs. Y., a married woman, aged twenty-five, came first under our ob-
servation October 8, 1S71, in the seventh month of her pregnancy. Uer mestal
condition was lamentable in the extreme. There was chiefly a perversion of tlie whole
hftbit or manner of feeling, such as so frequently follows actual intellectual derange-
ment. She confessed and bewailed her want of interest in or love for lliu!>e wlio
were nearest to her, and evidently suffered raost intensely from a profound feeling of
depression and misery — a vast and fornaless idea of utter desolation. The patient
appreciated her condition, would rea^in concerning it, and acknowledge that there
was nothing real to which she could ^>oint as a caus« of her misery.

These wretched feelings were not altogether new, but for over two years bad ia a
modifie<J form annoyed her considerably. Bitten slightly by a favorite dog, she
merged immediately into a condition that may be called hypochondriacal niclanch<>-
lia, with an exaggerated notion of the danger she had incurred. She had been treated
persistently but without avail, and as a dernier resiort general faradization was at-
templetl It utterly failed in itseflects, and in good faith the patient was encouraged
to hope that with her delivery her mental balance would return. The child was
bom, and three months subsequently I was again called to see the mother, only to
hud her condition more aggravated than at any previous time. We now resolvei! to
make use of central galvanization, and employed a current from six ordinary-sited
zinc carbon-cells, with a sitting of four minutes. The patient was not at all im-
proved by the stance, but seemed, if anything, slightly more sensitive to external
impressions.

In a couple of days the same application was again tried, with the evident resoli of
decidedly exciting her mind. A third efforl was made with but three cells, from which
the current was just sufficient in tension to call into action the sense of taste. From
this trial the patient experienced undoubted relief, and at intervals of a day the ap-
plication, without being varied excepting in the length of the jeamef was repcalnl fut
some two months. Although during the treatment two or three slight relapses oc-
curred, yet on the whole the improvement was steady and satisfactory, and at tiie
close of the "central" treatment, when slie was placed entirely in the care of Dr.
William J. Donor for uterine difficulty, her recovery was complete.

N'eurasihenia, or Nervous Exhaustion. — The derivation of the ti
neurasthenia is sufficiently obvious. It comes from the Greek word
vfupoi', a nerve ; a, privative ; and a^evo?, strength ; and therefore, being
literally interpreted, signifies want of strength in the nerve. Under the
name of general debility, it is a condition sufficiently familiar lo eveiy
practising physician, and too frequently resists most obstinately all forms
of internal medication. It is not to be confounded with anaemia,
tliough it may be associated with it.

The one principle on which neurasthenia is to be treated is by the
concentration of all possible tonic influence on the nervous system —
air, sunlight, wa^.er, food, rest, diversion, muscular exercise, and the in*

emV

NEURASTHENIA.

445

tcrnal administration of those remedies, such as strychnine, phosphorus,
arsenic, etc., which directly affect the central nervous system.

Electrual Treatment. — General faradization and central galvanization
as an adjuvant to relieve more directly the symptoms of insomnia, head-
ache, etc., which are so frequently associated with neurasthenia or after
general faradization has :ailed.

"Wi^ prognosis is usually more or less favorable. In nearly all cases
of uncomplicated neurasthenia general faradization alone proves deci-
dedly and sometimes rapidly efficacious. Beneficial results from either
this method or central galvanization are so uniform in this condition
that we have reason to suspect some unrecognizable organic disease
in those cases that give no evidence of improvement after protracted treat-
ment. Even the complicated forms, that arc the result of incurable dis-
ease, may be much relieved. The cases that fail to be benefited by
electrical treatment are those of lifelong standing, or in which the tem-
perament contraindicates electrical treatment.

Neurasthenia— D^ility and attacks of sick keadaeke — Immediate and rapid im'
provemtnt under general faraditativn — Rapid increase in weight.

Cask XI.- — The p<iwer of genenal faradization to relieve neurasthenia and to csast
increase of M'cight, was illustrated in a very pleasing and satisfactory manner in the
case of a young physician whom we have treated during the autumn of 1S69. He
was 28 years of age, and for a long time he hxd been subject to severe and repeated
attacks of nervous and sick headache. To use his own expression, he had been
"living on a lower plane th.an was normal." Ovcr*work and long confinement had
reduced him to a condition of serioas exhaustion, and when he called upon us in
September he conid not walk two miles without fatigue. Although 5 feel 9^ inches
in height, he wcighc<J but 112 pounds, and for many months there had been no sign
of any increase. He had closely studied his own case, had been thoroughly examined,
and had tried ne-orly eNxry form of internal me<lication.

We liegan treatment by a mild and general application with the faradic current.
He felt temjxirarily enlivened and exhilarated, but when he rctuniei,!, two days sub-
jequently, he stated that he felt no special benefit, although he had gained one-half
U pound in weight. This change, slight as it was, encouraged him, for it had been
moollis, and years even, since he had been able to detect any increase in weight. We
may say here that he watched and studied his symptoms, and carefully ascertained
his weight, from day to day» not as a hy)x>chondriac at all, but as a scientific man,
inspired not by any special faith in the remedy, but by an earnest desire to test for
himself the tonic effects of general faradization. He continued to increase in weight
with remarkable regularity and uniformity, and at the end of three weeks he .'ound
that he had increased nine pounds. When we last saw him his weight was 124
pounds. The improvement in his general condition had gone on hand in himA with
the increase In weight. His appetite was keener and his digestion much ea>ier. Hii
attacks of headache still annoyed him, but his capacity for endurance bad been greatly

446

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

enlarged. Within the last two years we learned from the patient himself lh«t be liad
euneretl no relapse.

In this die the applications were made very thoroughly all over the person, froo
the top of the head to the feet, and with a powerful current. Both the farodic *n4
galvaoic currents were used, chiefly the faradic. It is worthy of rcmatk, also, thi:
this patient always experienced a feeling of temporary enlivenment and exhilaratioa
after each application, and sometimes the headache from which he suflfered w»* drivcii
away in the midst of the treatment.

We may say, also, that when he first came we prescrihed oxide of zinc, by exrln*
sion^ hecaiise he had used nearly every other internal tonic He took, however, bet
two or three doses of one grain each for the first day, dropping it eoltrely as aooa as
he found that he had increased half a pound in weight.

The above case we regarded as pre-eminently a typical one — a t)-pical
illustration of neurasthenia, and of the benefit that may be received fironi
general faradization.

Neuratthmia in a plethoric patieni, tamed by excarive application to btitimtu —

Slow improvement under galvanisatian of tht cervical jyntpatAetie and gemtral

faradiidfion.

Case XII. — Mr. A. was a short, stout, and remarkably plethoric naan, aged 6a
Throut^h his active business life he had confined himself most closely lo his duties
seldom taking a day for recreation, even during the heat of srnnmer. Nineteen
years since he retired frotn business with greatly impaired health and strength. It
W-ts thought that perfect freedom from all care would be sufficient to restore ht* luu
live vigor of constilulion. On the contrary, he gained but little, if any. Hi* general
appearance was typical of perfect health, but ordinary exertion, either mental or phy»
sical, was sure to produce CKhanstion. Ifii pulse -was normal, anJ the patient WM
plethoric rather than anemic. It was impossible for him to read more than tea or
fifteen minutes without becoming restless and exccf>sivcly nervous, and exeuite ts
walking, to the extent of a dozen blocks or so, would frequently firoducc conpkcc
prostration. His sleep at night was broken, and sometimes entirely d dtfoy e d .
There was not the slightest evidence of organic disease, but the whole nctnnu syv
tem seemed to be unstrung. He had submitted to almost every method of lode
treatment, l>oth medicinal and hygienic, but had seldom ex|)erienced even t
relief. We felt justified in encouraging him to hope for favorable results from
ment by elect ri/at ion. With admirable perseverance and piomplncss he cooti
viat us for two months, never, in a single instance, failing to keep an appoiataeai.

At first, general applications with the faradic current were given every otlMrd^
At each sitting he seemed much invigorated, and for several hour& he eapericRoad •
degree of strength and lightness of spirit such as he had been a. strmnger to for ^mt

These effects, howc%'cr, seemed but temporary, for the old loaRtoide invamlblyff^
tumetl ; consequently, after three weeks of treatment with the faiadic, we raMici
to a weak galvanic current.

The negative pole wxs applied to the epigastric region, and the po>nttve to tW
back of the neck, near the seventh cervical vertebra and also along the arvterior bordtf
of the scalenus anticus muscle, in order to affect more thoroughly thc|{rc«lij«^
pathetic and pneumoj^astric.

CASES OF NEURASTHENIA.

447

Sponge electrodes were used, and the applications were prolonged sufficiently to
produce an intense redness and an acute burning sensation under them. By thit
ructhnd the immediate effects were not so marked as when the faradic current was
usttj, but the relief afforded was more permanent.

For the first lime, his sleep became more quiet and sound, and during the day fol-
lowing an application he was able to exercise both mind and body harder and longer
Ihan usual. He now submitted to treatment by gnU-anization every day. Week
by week he gained very perceptibly in vigor, until, after having received the galvanic
current some twenty-five times, he left us to spend the summer months among the
mountains. He did not discontinue treatment with a nervous system perfectly

engthcned, but he had regained approximately the usual portii.)n of mental and
hy^^ical cnilurance enjoyed by persons of his years. Whereas, iKifore treatment by
electrization, he was not able to walk half a mile without fatigue, nor read more than
ten or fifteen minutes without suffering from nervous irritability, after treatment he
enjoyed and derived benefit from walking several miles in the day, and could confine
himself to a hook for an hour or two without experiencing any symptoms of mental
exhaustion.

At the date of writing, 1874, the patient enjoys a fair d^ree of health, and claims
to Iiave retained all the benefit he derived from treatment.

Neurasthenia^ complicated with anctmia^ dyspepsia t spinal irritation, and hypochon-
driasis, treated by general faradization and central galvaniwation — fmpri/vement
and subsequent relapse^

Cask XIII. — Mr. E., a tall, spare man, aged about 50, wa.s sent to us by Dr. Gurdon
Buck. He was a gentleman of wealth and leisure, and for several years had been
entirely free from any of the cares of active business life. He was frequently troubled
with indigestion. At times he would seem to regain some vigor, and would exer-
cise to a considerable extent without experiencing inconvenience, but as a rule the
most ordinary mental or physical exertion was followed by extreme exhaustion.
Pains in the lumbar region of the back were of frequent occurrence, especially after
pas&ing a sleepless night. There was, however, no spinal tenderness. He was a good
barometer— an east wind would almost drive him to despair, and so long as it lasted
he could hardly muster strength or inclination to leave his couch. As soon a<; the
wind changed and the sun appeared, he observed an immediate amelioration of his
dreadfully depressed condition.

Our patient experienced the exhilaration that so frequently follows a general ap-
plication of the faradic current.

Although at first this invigoration was of but temporary duration, the effects of the
ireatmeni were gradually prolonged after each sitting, until, in a much shorter time
than U Qsually the case in conditions such as the one under consideration, the patient
enjoyed a good degree of health.

During damp, enervating days especially, central galvanization prevented exhauju
tion far more successfully than faradization. The patient retained the nervous vigor
that he bad gained for many months ; subsequently, however, he relapsed, and again
placed hinuelf under our care. He was decidedly lienefited by tliis second course of
treatment, but not to the same extent as at first. When last seen be had retained a
ncasnre of improvement, but was extraordinarily susceptible to atmospheric changes.

448

H\STERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

Since the publication of the first edition of this work the patient was
a third time under our care, and at the present dale, 1874, enjoys, he
tells us, almost perfect health,

Niurasl/ienia, associated with distressing feelings ^ as of If ad flowiHg iMnmgk t^
veins, v/it/i insomnia and tn>cr< keaJacke — Recovery under genfral furadttatum
and central galvanitation.

Case XIV. — Mrs. H., aged 32, the mother of two children, came und^r onr caw,
Nov. 8, 1S71. Her constitution wa<; delicate, and in the past she ha;!, s>3 far jucouM
be determined from her account, suffered from decided syiwptoms of spinal irnCitiao.

During the birth of one of her chiMren, the perineum bad been torn and had utrei
united. This condition gave rise to troublesome uterine symptoms, which faileil to
yield to ordinary treatment, obviously for the rea«)n thai a cause exi>>ted that impcrx-
thfcly required surgical interference. The general symptoms of which slie complained
were, ist, want of strength. Although her apjjearance indicatetl a fair condixioa of
health, yet a short walk exhausted her completely, and unfitted her during several «ie-
ceeiiing hours for every duty. 2d, Pains of a vague and uncertain character pervaded
the whole bo<ly, and she characterized them as similar to what she imagined might
be produced were lead flowing through her veins. 3d, Insomnia and headache. She
yi2& exceedingly sensitive to the influence of general faradization, and its goo<l effects
were not especially manifested for a number of weeks. (See pp. 2S0, 2S5. )

She then began to remark that her |)o\vcrs of endurance had certainly increase<). and
complained less of unpleasant sen&alions, especially in the arms. Central galvatuxatioa
was now alternated with general faradization, and its value as an adjuvant to the mint
general treatment was evinced in the readiness with which it ai<lcil in frnpnyrmj; (be
sleep and in alleviating the other symptoms. In short, the patient was under treat*
meut until Jan. 26, 1S74 ; received thirty-one applications of the current ; andHil
not too much to wiy, thai it was entirely successful in dissipating the vague hot ilk>
tressing pain& which had for $0 long a time annoyed her, and in restoring to her •
good degree of strength. We should not omit to state that the operation which it
was found necessary to perform on the perineum was delayed solely on account of ha
neurasthenic condition.

Case XV. — Miss H., rcferre<l to us by Dr. Du Bois ckpcrienccd Oclkum h
after seven applications, of general faradization. Her symptoms were siin{iiy co
and uller nervous prostration.

Cask XVI. ^Mrs, C, a patient of Dr. Alfred Purdy, had suffered from neam
Ihenia for six years. She complained of feeble circulation, insomnia, and conui p »»
kion. A dozen applications of general faradization iinproved the drculatioQ atid th(
sleep, and decidedly relieved the const ipal ion.

Case XVII. — Mr. N., a youth of 17, without any very apparent caase, LecstM
weak, nervous, and excitable. These symptoms had existed more than a year, iriM*
be was submitted to general faradization.

Seventeen applications proved of some benefit, but his condition coDlinttcd to|
prove after his return home, and two montlis subsequently he infotmed us \r% I
that he had regained his normal health and strength.

SPINAL IRRITATION.

449

tftruous exhaustion of long ttanding, associated with severe neuralgia. Slight re*
litf during two months of general far adi%ai ion — After-effects of the treatment,
manifested by rapid improvement in all her symptoms. (Sec p. 29+.)

Case XVIII. — Mrs. B., a young married lady, had for a long time suffered most in-
tensely from pains of a neuralgic character. The head was the seat of greatest suffer-
ing, although the distress extended with more or ks? severity to every part of the body.

Her strength was much reduced, so that she was unequal lo the slightest exertion
beyond a few ordinary household duties and an occasional walk in the street of one or
two bloclcs. Not the siighieiit evidence of organic disease could be discovered by her
physician, Dr. George A. Peters, who, having seemingly exhausted llic resources of
medicine, requested us to try tlie efficacy of some method of electrization.

As the extreme debility was evidently the proximate cause of the neuralgia, we
decided upon general faradization as the proper mctho<l of treatment, and accordingly
submitted her to a very gentle application. She was one of those patients frequently
encountered, who are so susceptible to the current that it was oar aim to give of the
electrical influence the minimum that could be actually felt by the patient, rather
than the maximum that it was possible for her to bear without decided discomfort.

During the months of Octol^cr and November, 1870, we gave thirty-six applications,
which somewhat lessened the severity and frequency of the pain, without appreciably
improving her strength. We proposed to her physician, therefore, to di^ontinue our
efforts for a while, hoping that the favorable aftcr-cfTects of electrization, that are
so often seen, would show themselves in this case. Wc were not disappointed.
The patient soon began to amend, until the improvement wxs most marked, both
in the almost complete cessation of the neuralgia and in on approximate return of
normal strength.

Spina! Irritation. — Spinal uritalion is one of those names which, like
hysteria, have becotne the recognized property of the profession, against
the actual or implied protest of nearly all who employ it. It is a part
of the hysterical constitution.

The ternj spinal irritation, originally proposed by Dr, Brownn, of Glas-
gow, and described and illustrated in detail by G. T. P. Teale, in 1829,
and the Griffin Brothers in 1844, is now pretty generally understood, in
Ejigland and America at least, to express a tolerably well-defined
morbid condition, of which one of the principal symptoms is spinal
tenderness.

Differ€Htial Diagnosis. — Spinal irritation almost always forms a part
of hysteria and neurasthenia, constituting, as it were, a subdivision or
accompaniment of them, and is only entitled to the honor of distinct
nomenclature by itself when the spinal tenderness and the symptoms that
directly flow from it overshadow other accompanying conditions. Close
examination would reveal that very many of the cases in practice that
are variously classified under hysteria, anaemia, etc., have a sufficiently
marked tenderness of the vertebrae to be regarded as examples of spinal
29

450

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

irritation ; and if treated accordingly, would recover more rapidly thaa
under the methods usually employed. The best confirmation of the
diagnosis is the very favorable result of judicious and varied treatment
devoted specially to the tender spots on the spine.

Between spinal irritation and spinal meningitis or congestion tljc dis-
tinction is oftentimes purely one of permanenu and degree. In both
conditions there may be pain and heat in the spine, neuralgia Of
paralysis of the limbs, plantar heat and anaesthesia, constipation, feeling
of pressure or constriction in the chest, and stiffness of the neck, etc.
It is distinguished from myelitis by the absence of other necessary
symptoms. The contractions of muscles in spinal irritation are less
painful than those of myelitis.

Pathology. — In spinal irritation, as in cerebral irritation, it is
probable that there maybe either an?emia or hyperaemia. That many
of the cases of spinal irritation depend on passive hyperiemia of the
cord, is rendered probable.

1. By the feeling of heat and burning at the seat of the irritation.

2. By the lact that this pain is increased at night, when the patient
is in a recumbent position.

3. By the fact that it is relieved by measures that relieve congestiotv
as dry and wet cupping, and by blisters over the tender vertebrw.

On the other hand, reasoning from analogy and from what we know
of the relation of the sympathetic, it is proper to assume that ansemiamay
account for many of tlie phenomena of spinal as of cerebral irritation.
This assumption is strengthened by the fact that very many of the pt-
tients who have spinal irritation are more or less an«emic. And yet,
reasoning from the history of the cases, and from the results of treal-
ment, we are inclined to the opinion that anasraia exists only in a
minority of the cases of spinal irritation ; that in the majority of mstaft*
ces there is more or less at least temporary passive congestion of ifct
cord and of its membrane ; and that in all cases of doubt it is safe »
assume the existence of hyperaemia, and to guide tlic treatment zsxaA-
ingly.

It is not necessary to assume that this hyperaemia of the cord tt a
constant condition. Except in the severe and long-standing cases, it
is probably not so, but is more or less evanescent, temporary and la^
tastatic. This may distinguish it from spinal congestion, which is a lixed
condition. Temporary congestion of the cord, as of the brain, the geni-
tals, the eye and the ear, may perhaps be easily excited by irriiatmf
causes. It is not unreasonable to suppose that anaemia and hyperrmii
may alternate in the patient, and in the same day or hour.

CASES OF SPINAL IRRITATION.

451

Electric examination in spinal irritation may sometimes reveal ten-
der spots on the spine that are not indicated by pressure.

Treatment.— T.WcXxic treatment consists in general faradization, gal-
vanization of the spine ^nd s>Tiipatheiic and central galvanization.

Our experience in a great number of cases, since the first edition of
this work, convinces us that in galvanization of the spine tlie positive
pole acts bettor than the negative in the treatment of this affection. To
depend, however, on locaUzed galvanization alone is illogical, since the
disease, though for the time specially localized in the spinal cord, is
usually simply but a development or manifestation of the nervous
diathesis, in which the whole system shares.

Prognosis. — Under electric treatment alone, the prognosis of spinal
irritation is usually favorable for a relief, and sometimes for permanent
cure.

It is, however, of great advantage in all severe or long-standing
cases, to combine with electrization, counter-irritation (very small blis-
ters, or tartar-emetic ointment) over the sensitive vertebrae, and the in-
ternal administration of phosphorus or other stiiuiilants.

Comparative rest of brain and muscles is an important, though not
indispensable, aid to treatment. The disease is quite prone to relapse,
especially under bad hygienic surroundings. Under combined treat-
ment, consisting of blisters to the spine, phosphorus, strychnia, and
electrization, the majority of cases will rapidly improve.

Spinal irritation of four years^ standing, with excessiz't tenderness in the lumbar
region — Decided relief f torn general faradisation.

Cask XIX. — Mrs. , aged 24, was sent to us Jan, 4th, 1868, by Dr. Sewall,

lo be treated for pain, with most excessive tenderness, over the lumbar vertebrae. The
^rmptoms had l>een particularly distressing since her confinement, two months pre-
vious, but had annoyed her more or less for four year*. United with this spinal ten-
demess there was considerable debility, that made a walk of h.-itf a mile a burden;
gastric uneasiness, feeble appetite, insomnia, and, in genera], the characteristic fes'
turcs of the nervous conslitntion.

Electric examination revealed a very great tenderness over several of the lumbar
vertebrae ; only a feeble current could be borne at all, even with large, soft spranges.
No other abnormal condition was found beyond a general hypenesthesia, which is
a&ual in such cases. The tenderness was so great that even the weight of the hand
was distrevingly painful.

We began treatment by general faradization, with special reference to the tender
spot in the spine. At this locality we uved a stable increasing current, beginning
with a current K:arcely perceptible, and increasing the strength up to the jjoinl where
it cottld be comfortably borne. The patient shortly improved under this treatment,
tbough not without relapses whenever she attempted any important exertion. From

452

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

week to week the tenderness became less marked, until the vertebrae were no looget
painful under moderate pressure, and a much more powerful current could be bofM
with esiic. Agreeable temporary relief followed each application — aa obcamtCiaB
which we have frciiuently made in spinal irritation.

At the end of two months the patient was dismissed very roucb benefited.

Hyperaithtiia of the cervical and upper lumbar vertebra tauted by txp^mrc i\-iv
tUH — Great sHicepiibility to eliitrUity — Improvement under genereU and Ut)t£it*i
faradizatioH ami galvanisation.

Case XX. — Rev. Mr. F., aged 30, was referred to our care, March 9, 1868, bf
Dr. Gurdon Buck. For several months Ijefore, he had been complaining of pain aad
beavincM in the back of the neck, that had compelled him to resign bis j-a&toral
charge and abstain from all sustained menial exertiuo. The symptoms dated from
an exposure to the sun on a very hot day. The patient was large, tall, wcll-fonned,
and apparently very robust. All the functions seemed to be tolerably well {•exfoOB*
ed ; but sustained mental exertion was almost impossible. He had been treated faitJ^
futly by counter-irritation, in the shape of wci cupping, and had derived poutive beneU
ihcrefrom.

Elcdric examination indicated some tenderness on the upper cervical
and also in the upper lumbar; but this tenderness was not excessive, auid a
of fair strength, so far as the vertebra; were concerned, could be reiadily borne 1
out discomfort ; nor were the vertebrsc so painful as they somettmcra are found.

But in one respect his tKhavior under the electric examination was peculiar. Hie
sensation produced by a mild galvanic current over the upper cervical vertebrae «»
painfully felt in the forehead, indicating a morbid irritabiUty of the central BcrvoM
system, since in health such a phenomenon does not appear. That this mofiiid idi-
tability was in some way related to the sympathetic, or that, at least, the ^ynptfk^
tic was the metlium through which it was manifested, was rendered probaMe bf tbk
fact that mild faradization or galvanization of the afTcctetl part caused a very fr»-
fuse |>erspiralion on the hands and feeL This same e/Tect we have also observed ia
a case of hysteria.

Strong as the patient appeared to be, U was necessary to treat him with mild no-
rents and short applications. By turns and in succession we tried ihc varioas nedMidl
of electrization, with both the faradic and galvanic currents, and with Imp o if tf
though not brilliant results.

After a treotment extending by intervals through tlu-ee monlhs the patient IcAkr
a visit in England, where he remained nearly a year, still slowly improving.

Great susceptibility to electiicity, as in the above casc» is freqtieiillf
observed rtlter sunstroke.

^ chronii condition of irritation and hyper<tsthesia of the spinal cord grtaih **•••
^ted by general faradization, in conjunttion with galvamzatton of the rrmf^tr
tie and spine.

Case XXI. — A young Udy, daughter of a physician, who had suffered fo* bj^
months from symptoms both of congestion and irritation of the spjml caii, •*
placed under our care by the advice of the Ute Dr. H. V. Bulkley. Tcodcrvca «■

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

453

manifest over the cervical-dorsal and lurabar regions. The patient complained of
shortness of breath, numbness and tir^jling in the hands and feet, coiigh, nausea, with
neuralgic pains around the loins and in the extremities. A very decided loss of
power was monirest in the lower limbs, so tliat it was impos.sible to take more than
a few turns around the room without fatigue. Under the tonic influence of twenty
general applications of the faradic current, the patient very decidetJly improved.
The tenderness along the spine decrea^icd, and in the cervical r^on disappeared alto-
gether.

The shortness of breath, the numbness and tingling, together with the neuralgic
pains, became less marked, while the strength so far improved tliat she was able daily
to take short walks of several blocks, and to ascend the stairs with comparative com*
fort.

We now resorted to the galvanization of the sympathetic and the spine — spinal-
cord current — which were followeti by an improvement more marked than it was
possible to obtain from the faradic current alone.

The above patient subsequently relapsed after a severe fall and was
again treated with great perseverance and even better results, so that
she is now in perfect health, and is indeed unusually vigorous. The
case illustrates the record that may follow great perseverance in elec-
trical treatment.

A condition of tingling, f ricking, and a disposition to paralysis of the legs, depen-
dent on irritation and hyperamia of the (ord, decidedly relieved by gah/aniiatioH
of the sympathetic and general faradization.

Case XXIL — Mrs. W., aged 44, whose physician, Dr. H. Gregory, advised treat-
ment by electrization, was suffering from pricking sensations in the arms, and from
tingling and numbness of the lower limbs and feet. In the legs, also, there was a
decided ** disponlion " to paralysis, as manifested by a feeling of weight in the eifort
of walking.

Pressiire along the spine disclosed a tender point, at about the third dorsal and

I second lombar vertebrae- These conditions of tenderness, tingling, and weight in the

lower limbs seemed to indicate not only an irritation, but also a hyperemia of the

spinal cord. Galvanization of the sympathetic and mild general applications of the

fararlic current were followed by a marked amelioration of the.se symptoms.

The limbs especially progrc$ve<l rapidly, and after ciglit applications became quite

i strong, and were quite relieved of the an.TE5.thesia. Some tenderness along the course
of the spine still remained, with occasional tingling in the extremities, but not suffi-
cient to occasion the same annoyance as before.

Spinal irritation of several y tarsi' staiuiing— Recovery under spinal gakfanisation
atid general faradixation.

' Case XXIII.— Miss C, a patient of Dr. Gregory, was referred to us with evi-
dences of irritation the whole length of the cord. Under six weeks of treatment by
spinal galvanization %nd general faradization the patient markedly improved in all her
Dptoma.

454

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

The tender points along the spine mostly disappeared, and after the (
treatment she continued to improve until recovery was approidmatdy oonpkCC
The s)'roptonis were of several years' standing.

SpiniU irriiatun of two ytari standing — Ruavery under ipiual go.

Cask XXIV.— Miss S., an inmate of the N. Y, State Woman's Ho
affected, in addition to uterine disease, with severe and persisteat ^nal m\M
over two years' standing.

Spinal galvanization repeated a dozen times during the coarse of ■ mootli <
ally overcame the excessive irritation of the cord, and resulted in grealJy i
strength.

Insomnia. — Insomnia is a symptom which, with greater or less i
formity and severity, accompanies nearly all forms of disease.

It is a symptom of such an indefinite variety and complexity of |
thological conditions that it is manifestly impossible to treat it]
anything like uniform success by any one conceivable form of i
tion ; but of all the remedies that have yet been tried thefe is, we I
lieve, no one which permanently relieves the symptoms in so Urje A|
proportion of cases as electrization. The effects of electricity ooj
sleep, whether used in the form of general faradization, or gait
of the head and cervical sympathetic, are both tcmj>orai7 and |
ncnt. The temporary relief that appears the night or two foUo«mg*l
application, though usually far less potent than those of brom.4crf
potassium and hydrate of chloral, are yet very decided ; but it xa forik J
permanent relief that electrization is chiefly indicated in this syinpl* I
This comes gradually, slowly, and as a result of the improveuicBtaf ti^ I
morbid condition on which the insomnia depends.

As has been stated, improvement in sleep is one of the earliest rfj
fects for which we look during a course of treatment by
zation. In a wide range of diseases sleep, to a certain i
exceptions, may be regarded as a thermometer of health. Wheal
other bodily functions are well performed, the sleep ts tisuillyl
cahn, and refreshing ; when it becomes painfully and pcnistenll/ i
turbed by dreams, or is long absent, we may suspect Actual or i
ing disease.

Tempoiary loss of sleep, that conies from temporary anxiety or I
neuralgia or other pain, is usually relieved with the removal
cause, and only demands special medical treainiL-nt when it 15 lon?^
tinued.

The treatment of insomnia is really the treatmcul of all \hc O"
on which it depends. For those cases where simple wakefulness cart
unaccompanied by any other symptom of recognisable disc^ ^ t

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

455

if use either galvanisation of the sympathetic or in the head, or fara-
izalion of the head and sjiine, or, better than all, general faradization,
or somnolence is a result of all these methods of electrization. It is
Wleven necessary to make the applications to the head, the sympathe-
or even to the spine, in order to produce sleep. Simple peripheral
pdviriization or faradization will produce this result, and in some cases
to a very marked degree. This must, M-e suppose, be explained by
ttitex action. In case of rheumatism of the hip-joint, which we once
treated by galvanization through the joint, the soporific effect on the
jwtitnt was so marked that he fell into a profound slumber before we
bid time to leave the house, in less than ten minutes after the ap-
pliation was over. In another case of infantile paralysis the mother
reported that the child slept soundly for two hours or more after each
Biting, although only the limbs were galvanlzied.

hrtitttnt insamnin a/ttr (kild-birth — An application of the faradie eurrent to tht
head and xpine is follitwed by sltep of several hours.

C«» XXV, — Mrs. A., aged 30, of a WgWy nervous organization, gave birth to
Wfint child after a labor of 16 hours. So great was the disorder of her nervous
^Mem, that for 5 days and night* she was unal)le to close her eyes in sleep. Her con-
iitioa was moit dislressinp, and resilsted all eflforls in the way of medication.
It was agreed tiiat a mild application of the faradie current sbuuld be applied to
r hrai] and down the spine. The result wa^s most decided and gratifying, since a
Icep of several hours, deep and refreshing, immediately followed. It is proper to
Ljr that subsequent applications did not have the same decided eflfect, although they
vHcntly strengthened the nervous system of the patient and greatly aided in dissi-
Mttog the condition of insomnia.

Immnia of montki standing immediately relieved by general faradization,

W^fSt XXV'L — Mrs. C, a young married lady, was directed to us by Dr. J, Marion

^H^vbo was treating her for uterine difUculty. She was suffering acutely from in-

^Hpi^'tBd it was bope<l that some form of electrization might prove beneficial,

pnfCipecUlly since she had previously been relieved by the application of electricity,

AkM([h its administration had been without method. We .subjected her to the most

ttomigh form of general faradization, directing especial attention, however, to the

RBil uid neck. The applications were administered on hve successive days, and during

KKlkof the following nights the patient enjoyed uninterrupted and refreshing sleep.

(0 the permanency of the effects we are not informed.

fuMomnia of several months^ duration relieved under treatment ty general faradi'
tatioH and ga/vaniiation of the brain.

Cask XXVII.— Mr. J. D., aged 65, was referred to us by the late Dr. J. C. Nott
rihe relief of insomnia of such an obstinate character as to threaten serious conse-
ncd Uc had soffered a few months previously from a severe attack of congestive
ibb From the effects of these be had approximately recovered. His strength and

456

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

appetite were fair, b>ut as it was sometimes impossible for him to sleep more lltan as
hour or two during the whole night, he was fast merging in(oa nervous, excitable con-
dition. The patient was treated by bwth general faradization and gaJvajiiz^lion of the
brain. He very gradually improved, and at the end of a month's treatmcat be wai
enjoying five and mx hours' continuous sleep every night.

Insomnia following mtnstruation — General faraditation affords immtdisU refit/.

Case XXVIII. — Mrs. B., aged 40, suffered an unusual loss of blood at each mea.
trual perioiJ, which was followed by obstinate insomnia during the sncceediog no
weeks. General furadiz.-ition was essayed for the relief of tlie i>2eeplessae^ and wtt
entirety successful. Three or four applications after each period was soffidcot to
promote calm rejwse until the next flow.

Astraphobia (aarparjfi lightning and tfto^o^ fear of). — Some individ-
uals, especially those of peculiarly impressible organizations, arc not
only unpleasantly but seriously aflfccted during thunder-storms tlut
are attended by vivid Hashes of lightning. They suffer not only dis*
tressing fear, but positive pain in the head or stomach, that leaves ihem
in a condition of exhaustion that may last several hotirs, or even two
or three days.

A medical friend informed ns of a patient under his care, who during
thunder-storms was attacked by severe nausea, and by convulsive W-
tacks resembling epilepsy. Under treatment directed to the improTe*
ment of her general system she greatly improved. In some cases diar-
rhoea is excited.

These symptoms, though most frequent with nervous people, and fl|i>
pccially with women, may also appear in those who are otherwise Stroig
both in health and in will power.

Hereditary Astraphobia — Reflex paralysis of left forearm — lVriU»*s crttmj^ jC*>

(tstkesis associated with neurasthenia — Improvemeni under loealited gtJtimmim'
tion and faraditation and central galvanization — Spinal cord nrrve rtir^r^
and plexus nerve current^ conthined with internal medication.

Case XXIX. — Mrs. R. , a widow of 39 years of age, was referrcii to u> Julr ITlK
1871, by Dr. A. \V. Catlin. Eight weeks before that lime she had run m nccdi
into her right forefinger ; the needle was rcmovwl in three hours, but at
of power was experienced ia the fingers, and in a week the foreana also )ia4
very weak.

The patient supported herself by copying many hours daily and niglitlj^
query arose, whether the affection was reflex paralysis, or writer's cramp. Theki»'
tory of the case and the special symptoms seemed to show clearly enough thaltla
case was one of par.a1ysis, probably reflex, induced by the injury, hut that the eisdM
of the arm in writing had acted as a predisposing cause. This opimoa wa» ^bmig^
ened by the fact llial the patient had liad some symptoms of writer's cramp bc£Bradlt
accident.

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS. 457

EUetro-diagnosis. — No loss of electro-muscular contractibility, but volitioned con*
tractility much diminished and considerable anaesthesia, made evident by examination
with the esthesiometer and the electric brush. There was also analgesia.

Examination with the dynamometer showed loss of force over the muscles, and the
difficulty of writing was so great that she had acquired the habit of copying with th«
left hand. The patient was of a thoroughly nervous constitution and all her life had
suffered from astraphobia (fear of lightning). Even in her baby-hood the approach of a
thundei -storm had markedly distubed her nervous system, and long before she was old
enough to be afraid of lightning she was a victim to the weakness, the distress, the
malaise and after unpleasant nervous symptoms that lightning excites. Her grand-
mother had been similarly affected.

Dr. Catlin treated the patient by localized faradization and strychnine, and the pa-
tient observeci that shortly after the electricity was used the fear of lightning was re-
moved. This was the more singular from the fact that only localized faradization of
the arm was used and no general faradization or central galvanization.

We recommended the use of the electric brush, central galvanization, and the in-
ternal administration of Horsford's acid phosphate. The details of the treatment,
with the exception of the central galvanization, were carried out by Dr. Catlin and
the patient somewhat improved. Subsequently the patient was terribly frightened by
stumbling over the body of a dnmken man in a dark lane of the city, at midnight, and
in an almost unconscious state arrived home, and was next day taken sick. Then fol-
lowed pain in the very spot where, weeks before, the needle had entered the hand, and
the muscles of the hand began to improve.

June, 1872, the patient again consulted us. There was still, as before, local anaes-
thesia, only more profound, anore»a, insonmia, spinal irritation and various symptoms
of the neurasthenic condition.

She was again treated and again unproved ; but her recovery was never absolute.

The above case illustrates the complicated variety of symptoms that
so often appear in the nervous diathesis. It further illustrates the variety
of methods of electrization that may be used in such cases.

CHAPTER XVL

INSANITY.

We have seen that very much has been accomplUhcd in the treat-
ment of hypochondriasis and melancholia by the combined methods of
central galvanization and general faradization, and, reasoning from
analogy, it is probable that an important future is in store for the scien-
tiiic faithful use of these methods of electrization in our public and pri-
vate asylums.

// is not as well recognized as ii should be thai in distases of the bram
and spinal cord^ lohere the mind is seriously affeeted^ the ^Icctrieai treat'
ment is also indicated ^ just as in diseases of the same organs whtn the mud
is not aj'ected. In some of the asyhmis of England, United Stales, and
Germany, electricity is now and for some time has been used as an ad-
junct to other remedies for the treatment of different forms of insanity^
but with a few exceptions, the treatment is not systematically earned outt
and, partly through ignorance of the methods of application, {^jutlj'
thj'ough want of sufficient medical assistance to supervise the neccsauy
details, the results have not been entirely satisfactory, and the cases
have not been fully recorded.

We should except from these remarks the Alabama Asylum for tbe
Insane, where, under the superintendence of Dr. Br)'ce, both currtAts
of electricity have been used in the treatment of the patients for ihe
past two or three years.

We have corresponded with Dr. Bryce on the subject from the fire^
and have at different limes given suggestions in regard to the tncthod»o(
application, which suggestions have been carried out so far as pos&tble
for the already overworked officers of that institution.

Under dale of February i7lh, 1873, he gives the general results of
his observations in the following language : ** We like it : find it beof
ficial in tnost cases, valuable in a majority, and indispcnsal)! -di

forms of hysterical insanity, in primary dementia, and neur.L

The failures in this as in other branches of electro-therapeucks air,
m fact, the logical result of want of familiarity with the managetneol of

INSANITY.

459

> of incorrect ideas on the differential action of the currents,
Ithe generaJ action of electricity on the body, and deficient lechui-
1 skill in die details of the applications.

^ For those who are beginning to use electricity, or are contemplating

I use in the asylums for the insane, these general suggestions may be

intrvke : i. Let it be remembered always that electricity, in any form

r-Franklinic, Galvanic, or Faradic — when applied to the body, acts as

^ifimyJa/ing ionic with a powerful sedative influence. It is an agent

r mprctving nutrition in any condition, local or general, where im-

■ovement in nutrition is required. It is to be used for the insane just

I bromide of potassium, quinine, strychnine, and iron are used.

I The Order and degree of its effects depend largely on the method and

nncr of application, and on the constitution and disease of the patient

) which the application is made.

[,2. That in insanity the brain is not the only part of the body affected.

tluding those cases of insanity produced by reflex action from the

[estivc and pelvic organs, there are very many cases where the spinal

land other parts of the central and peripheral nervous s)'5tem suffer

^la effect of the disease of the brain.

^Iiilc these remarks may seem but commonplace to experienced

^W}chologists, and while the fact of the relation of diseases of the brain

^b diseases of other parts of the body is continually recognizedt when

^Bler remedies are employed^ still, in the application of electricity, some

^Plperimenlers have acted on the theory that the brain alone should be

tftaltd. Those who act e.xclusively on this theory will not gain great

victories over insanity by electricity. Some of the applications should

be made in such a way as to bring the whole central nervous system

Under die influence of the current, and local diseases associated with

Jl>«nity as a cause or effect should receive local treatment,

f "Hje central nervous system is best brought under the direct influence

I the galvanic current by the method of central galvani^iation. The

may be varied by galvanization of the brain, cervical synipa-

I pneuraogastric and spine ; but the method of central galvaniza-

»*» is easier, safer, and more effective. In cases associated with

^Wiry, and especially in those fomis of insanity dependent on neu-

^^thenia or nervous e.xhaustion, general faradization answers a good

piupose, and may with great advantage be used alternately with central

plvanization or localized galvani2ation of the nerve centres.

J. The first tentative applications should be very mild, and the
WrcHgth of the current and the tin»e of sitting should be gradually in-
crcaied as the patient proves himself able to bear the treatment.

460

INSANITY.

In tlie following case, although no permanent relief was afforded bj
the method employed, the temporary effects were so sudden and startling
as to render tlie history of exceeding interest :

A<utt tnama of the matt inttnte character exiiting four montkr — /Remark

effects of general far aditation.

Case XXX.— Miss R., aged ao, living in Harlem, and a patient of Dr. Josepd

Wooster, of New York, was suffering from acute mania dating from suppression of the
menses, occurring four months before she fell under our care- She had always enjoyed
most excelleiU health — indeed was remarkhle for her vigorous, robust conuiiutioo,
and it may l>c adde«.l, the ruddiness of her complexion. While watering the plants in
tlie conservatory of her sister, her clothes became quite wet ; she Delected to change
thcui immediately, and the consequence was a v^jppression of the menstrual flow. She
complained on the following day of %vere headache, and on occasiunsv during tkencU
two weeks, was markedly unreasonable in her action and demnnds.

Finally active delirium set in, but with no decrease of l>odily strength. At timet
she was intensely violent in her demonstrations — screaming at the top of her mice
and breaking every article of furniture within her reach ; as a conseqoenoe sIm
was conRued in a room stiipped of its furniture, and m her wildest moods the strait'
jacket was applied. For more than two months no sleep visited her eyelids, without
the nightly administration of from too to 120 grs, of chloral. During ilic moniing
she was often mcisurably quiet, but as evening approached she became absolotrlf
ungovernable, nnd when chloral was not given she had been known to pace arouaJ
the room with great rapidity and strength, mattering to herself, with absolateljr no
cessation, from sunset to sunrise. She had decreased in weight from 160 to 110 lb&
On the evening of tlie 15th of April, she was held firmly in position by several powa*
fu) assistants, and, after thoroughly moistening the hair of the head, wc sabmltiel
her to the most thorough form of general faradization with the very smoothest currtnt
obtainable. The current was of great strength, but evidently in itself caased no dis-
comfort to the patient. That night, and without the use of any drug, the patient en-
joyed five hours of the quietest sleep, and fur 4S hours tlicreafter was perfectly obe!i>
ent and traclabk*. Another paroxysm of violence again showed itself, and the tame
form of application was readministered. She again slept quietly, and in the momtog
awoke