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^^y^pif^ymtr^

A PRACTICAL TREATISE

on TBB

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL USES

KLECTEICITY.

INCLUDING:
Lar- ALizcD AinD Geneeal Faradizatiok ; Localized and Central
Galvamzation ; Fkakklinizatios ; Electrolysis and
Galvano-Cautery,

«;eo. m. beard, A.m., m.u.

F>*j-r r.r uu Tev Tnrk Aeaiemu of MrOl-
-rtr M r m^ i' t<fA» Aimu tom AeaJtfKyft
Mntir. .r Mrm/ttr of U< JnurMait Stvra-
<*9ir^ Atanrlatuiit : o/Mc Kt-e TOf* .Vt(i-
'•tJ<9tiC-U !yrl4tg, tic.

A. D.ROCKWELL, A.M., M.p.

raOou nf IMt Sen Tort Academy of U«iU-
etne: Mtmbtr of U>e American Academw ^
MtMcin» : Mtmber^lh^AmtrUxmNntro-
loglral Ai-ocKUten: Eltclro-TIUmteiitUI

(o (A« Wnman-* ffotpUal of i*e State of

fonrtti (Ebition. Bfoieeb bp
A. I). ROCKWELL, M.D.

WfTfT \RARLr TWO nUXDUED 1LLUSTRATI0K8

NEW YORK
WILI.IAM WOOD &. COMPANY, PUBLISHERS

M 4 S8 LAFAYFTTE PLACE
1883

fl /W iv

' 6 ^ '^

CopTmiaBT,

WU^IAU WUOU It COMP^m.

1381.

Tbow's

Prihtinii anu HooKll[^ulNa Cow?tirr

90i-ai3 KatI ittk Slreet

N'W TORK

JOHN T. METCALFE. M D.,

rSOFKSSOft or CLINICAL MEDICINE IK THE COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS
AND SURGEONS, NEW YORK,

This Work is Dedicatbd,

WITH THE GRATEFUL SSTXEH

THE AUTHORS

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.

It is with much satisfaction that Dr. Rockwell offers to the profession
a fourth revised edition of this work. When, with the late Dr. George
M. Beard, he first sent it forth upon its mission, a pioneer in a neg-
lected and perhaps despised department of medicine, it was, both on
the part of authors and publisher, with some misgivings as to its suc-
cess. While the measure of its merits as a guide in the department of
which it treats may fall far below the generous reception accorded to
it, both at home and abroad, the fact that each successive edition has
been exhausted more rapidly than its predecessor, notwithstanding the
widening literature of the subject, affords ample encouragement for
farther revision.

The chapter on Franklinic Electricity has been entirely rewritten.
This was rendered necessary by the many improvements in apparatus
and appliances, and its great value as an adjunct or supplement to
dynamic electricitj'. Experience has demonstrated, also, that in a num-
ber of pathological conditions it is even superior to the other forms of
electricity. It should not, however, be forgotten that Franklinic Elec-
tricity has in general a narrower range of usefulness than dynamic, and
that in the study of electro-therapeutics the latter should precede the
former. But perhaps the most important of the new matter that has
been introduced relates to the experience of the author in the treat-
ment of Extra-Uterine Pregnancy.

Formerly, as is well known, these cases resulted either in immediate
death, through rupture of the distended tube, or in protracted suffering,
with frequently a fatal ending, through the efforts of nature to rid itself
of the foetal mass. The only other alternative was the knife, with its
attendant dangers. By the method described, however, and used with
such complete success in every instance, this abnormality of pregnancy

Vi PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.

need not in the future be regarded as such a dreaded complicatio
it has been in the past.

The operation is simple in its details and certain in its results ; i
tended vith but comparatively little suffering or danger to the mo
and cannot but commend itself to the profession everywhere.

Extra- Uterine Pregnancy is doubtless more frequent than is gene
supposed, and because of the difficulty of an early diagnosis, death
quently occurs without any previous knowledge of the existing- c<
Hon of affairs. It behooves, therefore, every practitioner to be oi
alert for this condition in its earlier stages, when this method of t
ment is so efficacious.

A. D. ROCKWELL,
46 East Thirty-fir4t Street, New Y07

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.

In issuing a third edition of this work I have endeavored to make
such additions as seemed necessary, and at the same time avoid an
increase in size. This has been accomplished by condensing wherever
possible, and omitting portions here and there which have served their
purpose and are no longer of value. Two new chapters on the Sequelie
of Acute Diseases and on Exophthalmic Goitre, resi>ectively, have been
inserted, while several pages in the discussion of Electro-diagnosis have
been omitted, and the space occupied by later and more exact infor-
mation. The chapter on Diseases of Women has been revised, and
the clinical additions will be found interesting and su^estive, while in
the discussion of Rtidwifery the complication of Extra-Uterine Preg-
nancy is fully considered.

These, together with many other changes and brief additions
throughout the work, have, it is believed, materially enhanced its
practical value.

The position of electricity in the front rank of sedatives and tonics,
and the pre-eminent value of the methods of general faradization and
central galvanization, as means of obtaining the full measure of these
effects (claims in regard to which the authors of this work once stood
alone), have now been so long continued by expert observation in this
country and Germany that extensive demonstration of these propo-
sitions by cases is less needed than formerly.

In regard to the theory of Dr. Thomas W. Poole, of Lindsay,
Canada, that electricity is essentially a paralyzing agent, and that iis
sedative and tonic effects are due to its paralyzing power, this may be
said : That, granting for a moment the full claim, it yet remains, that
practically, we do obtain from the use of electricity sedative and tonic
effects similar to those which we obtain from a vast number of other
remedi&I agencies. Allowing that these effects are resultants of a

IMiralyzing influence it i& none the less justifiable, on scientific an
practical grounds, to use the tenns sedative and tonic

The final rationale of no work or rcmcdia.! force of any kind in con
pletely known to science, and, for practical nses, it is not necessar
thai it should be ; we, perhaps, know as much of the rationale of elet
tricity as of any agent that vre use for the cure of disease.

The more thoroughly one studies electrotherapeutics in all its n
Utions, medical and surgical, tlie clearer it becomes that tlie res
scientific ba&is for the u»e of electricity in nic-dicine and sttrgery i
found in electro-physics more than in electro-physiology ; and for tha
reftiton it did not •■ecm (vise to very much abbreviate the portion c
this work allotted to that department. The rationale of general fara
dilation and central galvanization, for example, can only be under
stood by those who luve grasped the elementary principles of electro
physics, the laws of resistance and conducdbility, and, above all, th<
law of Ohm, to which we have assigned a special chapter. Those whi
have been once well grounded in these laws of cleclro-phygics find Iha
the various special problems that arise, whether of a theoretical o
practical character, very quickly resolve themselves.

Now that electricity has become popular in medicine, there is, w
some quarters, a tcmjMation to overdo the appHcaiiaii, not only ii
strength but in length and frequency ; to treat all cases alike by rou
line, mechanical applications, regardless either of the disease or Ihf
idiosyncrasies of the patient ; hence, in cases not a few, come rcsulL
cither negatively or temporarily injurious, with disappointment on al
sides.

The dosage of electricity is a special study of the greatest practica
importance ; the difference in result between a very gentle and shori
application and a very strong anil protracted one being, in some cases,
all the difference between agreeable success and painful failure.

There are persons who must be treated not only tuildly but at long
intervals, and there are persons with, perhaps, the same maladies that
can bear with ad%'anlagc powerful and frequent applications ; to dis-
tinguish between these classes and the various gradations that lie be-
tween the extremes of tolerance and of susceptibility is the first duty,
and, oftentimes, the hardest study of hioi who makes much use ol
electricity in medicine.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

A FEW weeks after the publication of the first edition of this work, in
1871, we were informed by the publishers that a new edition would be
called for. From that time to the present moment much force has
been expended on the thorough revision of the work in all its depart-
ments. As much time and toil, it is safe to say, have been given to this
edition as to the first ; and the work as it now stands represents our
accumulated and thoroughly sifted experience from our entrance upon
this specialty, as well as a full and exhaustive rfisunifi of all that has
been accomplbhed by other authorities everywhere.

About one year ago, while this edition was in press, we amicably dis-
solved the professional association that had existed for six years, and
during which all our writings on this subject had appeared. This dis-
solution of our business relations has not affected the present work
except so far as to delay somewhat its publication.

The success of the first edition of this work has far surpassed our
highest hopes ; and our belief is that it may have done something to
raise the standard of electro-therapeutics as well as to popularize it.
More than a year since, the work was translated into German by Dr.
Vater, of Prague, who has confirmed all that we have claimed in regard
to the efficacy of general electrization, and who has followed up the
translation by a series of elaborate articles, didactic and clinical, on
general electrization and central galvanization in the Aligemeine
Wiener Zeitung.

The use of general faradization as a constitutional tonic in a
wide variety of affections is now well established and the effects
that we have claimed for it have been confirmed in full detail by com-
petent observers at home and abroad. This method of using electricity
has also attained a wide popularity, and its introduction into therapeu-
tics may be said to have marked a radical and important advance.

The section on Electro-physics is much enlarged. Observation hag
convinced us that the one great defect in those who practise electro-
therapeutics is ignoranre of the physical relations of electricity. From

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

this source flow at least half the blunders, discouriigemeDts, and
success that no%'iccs in this branch w t>3infuUy cxpcricace. The um
latory theory of l!ie cleclriual force that is adopted in this edition is,
far as can now be seen, consistent and hannonious, and it expla
better than any other theory the varied and complex phenomena
electro-physiology and elcclro-therai«mics.

The chemLsEry of the batteries, it will be seen, is expliuned in i
detail, and in accordance with recent chemical facts and notnenclatui

To Ohm's Law, at once so important and so difScnlt, a separate a
special chapter has been assigned ; and no effort has been spared
make it clear in alt its iiractical relations to all triuned minds who «
give it close and careful attention.

In the preparation of the section on Electro-physics we have bet
favored ^ith the advice and suggestions of a number of our most di
tinguished phyfticistn and mathematicians ; and especially are we indel
cd to Prof. Henry T. Fdtly, of Cincinnati, who has interested himself,
the actcm]>t here made to put the most recent theories and facts <
electro-physics in a shape at once clear, compact, and trustworthy.

The need of a section of this kind has been most urgent, for tt
treatises on the physics of electricity that have been most acccs^ib
are cither far behind the time or have been expressed so blind
as to be of little vahie to clcctro-lhcrapcuttsts. Even the best of tl
more recent ^Titers on the physics of electricity, as Fleming Jenlcin
and Latimer Clarke, have not adapted their worts to the wants of ihos
who use electricity in therapeutics.

Electro-physiology is largely rewritten and considerably enlarged
It includes a large number of ottr own experiments, mostly made din
ing the past three years, as well as a compact rfisumi of all the mor
recent studies in this branch by European and American observers
The general relation of electro-physiology to elcclro-therapeutics ha
been bronght into prominence at every point,

Tlie method of tentrai gaivanisafiffn that we have systeraatiied ani
introduced to the profession since the publication of the &rst e<Iitlon t;
here described and illustrated in full detail. The great praclica
advantages of this method of galvanization over localised galvanizarior
of the nerve-centres — and in many cases over general faradization — are
already well understood by many of our leading electro-thernpeutists.

There are now introduced into science, six methods of using electri-
city for the treatment of disease : localized faradization and localized
galvanization, genera! faradization, central galvanisation, and, In electro
lurgery, electrolysis and galvano-cautery.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

In (he chapter on Apparatus wc have endeavored to represent with
faimess and impartialit)r the be-^ workmanship and the most recent
improvemeDts. The fact of die superiority of continuous over sC]>iLntle-
coil Faradic-Diactiines in the treatment of sen»tive paueots is here for
the 6m time brought out and cmpliasized.

A new chapter on General Suggestions has been added, in which the
attempt has been made to answer in detail the VArtous practical quenes
that so annoy the beginner in electro>therapeutic3.

In tlie section on Electro-surgery the principles of g.ilvano-cautery,
of ordinary electro lyei», and of the method of ciccirolysis of [he base
have been described and illustrated, and in the clinical portions all varie-
ties of results have been presented from a very large experience in this
department, so that one may learn both what can be done and what
cannot be dune by eteciriciiy in surgical diseases.

In the clinical part of elcciru-medirJnc a number of entirely new
chapter; have been added, and all of the chapters have been recast.
The number of cases has been increased nearly twofold, the failures
and uicceiises being fairly represented.

We may call especial attention to the chapters on Diseases of the
Skin, wherein, bcsidci^ many other cases, are detailed the remarkable
mulls of central galvanization in chronic eczema and prurigo, ami to
the chapter on Diseases of Children, in which ore recorded the results
of exi»eriment» in the ircatnient of whooping-cough, njarawmis and de-
bility, arnl also the fact of the remarkable tolerance of childhood to
electricity. Since the publication of the first edition a number of excel
lent works on nervous diseases hare ap[>eared, and for that rea&on, as
well as for lack of space, the systematic remarks on ccrlain diseases
have, in this edition, been mustly omitted, save some special poiuts
wbcrcin our views differ (torn those generally adopted.

Although the work is considerably enlarged yet this enlargement is
due more to the addition of new matter than to the retention of old. If
there are any who object to the si/e of the votk, who seek for short
and ready methods to the science and art of eleciro-therapeutics, who
despise and deride the [physical ami physiological relations uf electricity,
and who suppose that lie who ha^ held two sponges on a patient has
compassed the whole of clcctrology, wc can only reply that it is not for
such that this book was written, and we hope that nothing wc may
write will encourage the increase of physicians of that character. The
id-ral of every clecuo- therapeutist— certainly of every one who gives the
Ribject special attention — should be to become an electrologist, lh»t is,
to be a master of electricity in its phj-sical and physiological as well as

Xli PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

its purely diagnostic and therapeutic relations ; for all such this e
tion is designed to be a work of exhaustive reference. Those, ho
ever, whose aims are lower will here find the purely practical a
clinical department clearlypresentedby a large variety of illustrations
the various methods of application, and by details of more than ti
hundred cases, including every type of medical and surgical disease, 1
which electricity by any method of application has been used with a:
encouraging results.

To those who, since the first edition of this work was out of pre:
have grown weary in waiting for the long-promised appearance of tl
second edition, we may express the hope that they will find in tl
present treatise sufficient evidences of original experience and resean
to fully account for, if not to justify the annoying delay.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

Tax odjrct cf this work is to present, m a compact, practical fonn,
•Q thaX U now known on the application of electricity to the trcattuCDl
g( diaene. The aim of the aiiibors has been to combine their own
csbouive «ad raiicd researches with localized and general clectriza-
baa, md the bbon of all other recent exploren in electicMhera pen tics,
is a MiD i iimi y which aliould be at once practical and exhaustive, and
wtocfa ifaonld repTcMnt viih strict impartiality all that has been really
t"5mF*i f'tf* in this department by every school, in every country, and
bjriD raetitods.

For this andeffaking the auttiors have been prepared by an experi-
^KK acquired in more than io>ooo applications of electricity in a wide
•aisesy of morbid conditions, and by personal observation of the
fthaJi and the icHilik of the recognized leaders in this impcrtaot
Udofidewx.

Por Oia v cn fe n cc of reference, and in order to avoid repetition and
ctMirfmioo, ibe work b divided iiilo Eltctro-Pkysies, Bitetro-Physiology^
£U£tr^-T%trapatiutfZnd Eleftr<hSurgery. It is believed that by this
■nagrtnent the work will be more acceptable both to the majority
I seek to coimqIi the distinctively practical portions, and to the few
vf deiirs alto to investigate the subject of electricity in its
aad pliysiolo^cal relations.
General ctectTtzation, which the authors were the first in the profcs-
ta syuesnaiically invc:ittigate, is here, for the first time, described
tUoatrued in s^-stenutic detail of its modus operandi and its very
elects to conditiaos of debility.
TlM gcDenl differential bdications for the use of the two cur-
■a and fix the ote of localized and general applications, we have
to distinguish and elucidate by lugtcal deductions from the
priac>iiles of electro-therapeutic «, and, above all, from extend.
wA espcrirocncal comparison. The knowledge of electro-therapeutical
which is so essential for an intelligent etectnMli;^nosis in
rr have eodeavored to facilitate by concise and explicit
The drawings for ill astral ions of the dilTcrcnt metliods
diccsxuackMi were nude from jihotographs taken during the applica*

XIV

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITICN.

Tn the selection nnd detailed description of appara.tus, both the ta
of the specialist and the imperative needs of rhc general piaciitio
have been constantly bomc in mind ; and while nearly all the most
proved forms of machines for both curreiiis Lave received not
uiiuutc description and illustration have been reserved only for tta
that experience has shown unite in the highest decree the qualillei
convenience and compactness, with accessibility and uniformity of
rion. 'When we began our experimcnis in this department, there
in tliis counlry no satisfactory ajiparatus either for ttie faradic or
galvanic current, and for this reason oui early observationa were la
iitider exceeding disadvantages.

'i'he dilliculty his for a number of years been partly met bjr
elcctio-iiiagnetic apparatus of Kidder, which, for all the essential qf
itics required, is as yet unsurpassed. We early bccanie convinced I
scientific electro- therapeutics required also a galvanic apparatus wh
should be at least more coni])&ct and more portable than those wl'
had been usually employed, and that to be forced to depend on aj.
ratus of foreign consttuction would both retard tlie progress and pi
licaily proliiUt the popLiIari/ation of electro-therapeutics- Aniid nn
discouragements which only those who have pursued similar invest
tions can well appreciate, we have striven to overcome this serious i
and to prepare a galvanic apparatus wiiich should be both siniple j
enduring, and which could be used at the bedside as well as in
hospital or consuUing-room. Through Uie skill and intelligence of
mechaiiiciau above4iientioued, we are now able to preseiit an Of
ratus for the galvanic current which, if not on the one band so ci
pact, or on the other so elaborate as others to which we have cal
attention, is yet, in the wide variety of size and shape of which ii
capable, in the simplicity of its construction, ami the ease of its w
agenient, perhaps even better btled to supply tiic general waiit.

Eleciro-iurgery, though a young and as yet but little dtvelo]
branch uf clectro-tlicrapculics, is yet of such inlnnsic importance i
intereiil, and so fruitful in promise far the future, tliat it has \>
deemed worthy of separate and special consideration.

In the preparation of the detailed and statistical reports of cases,
have sought to give a picture; that shall be so accurate, and so true
experience, that it may be unfailingly recognized by all those who %
sue a similar line of experiment. The somewhat deserved reproi
agaiiini eleclro-lhcrapeutisls, that they publish only their most fortun
results, we have endeavored to avert by giving prominence to failu
as well as to successes ; by noting relapses as well as permanent

KREFACE TO THE HRST EDITION.

We have been not uninindrul of the iact thai sialislical re-
pcru ot the results of any uiethod of ueaiuient, liowevec coiiscien-
tioueir prepared, must be at best incomplete, and to a certain extent
ftiuoty. Therapeutics is always a subject or vast cotnplicalions. It
bpiobable that in some of the cases reported as absolute or approxi*
Mtc recoveries, nature and time, and in a few instances, [iertia]>s,
odier niedicin.'ri or hygienic treatment bore as large a share as the ap-
pliacjons themselves. We liave, however, endeavored to nialce all
ftoiKr allowances for the influence of these various factors ; and in
the few exceptional cases where medicinal has been combined with
electrical treatment, the fact has bet-n menrioncd, and cases of posi'
Im doubt hare been excluded from consideration. For the stndy of
IIk special effects of electrical treatment, when used alone, ve have
been peculiarly fortunate, since the vast majority of our coses had
rinndooetl medication before they were referred to our care. On the
olbcr hand, it is indisputably true that some of the cases reported as
absf^uie failures, ur as but slightly benefited, were kept from perfect
recovery by the indulgence of evil habits of hygiene ; and it is fully
probable that some of them, as well as of those reported as unknown,
at^rcciatcd the after results of the trcaiment and went on to recovery.
Still further, it is in every way probable that sonic of the failures might,
by greater perseverance on the part of the patients, have been trans-
formed into perfect successes.

It IS believed that ihese various errors to a certain extent counter-
balance each other, and that on the whole our statistical reports fairly
rqiresent, so far as they go, the Intimate results of the electrical
tieatment. And yet it sliould be considered that the majority of the
cases represented in our statistics were both fong-standing and pecu-
Harly obstinate, and tliere is ground for the belief that those who treat
milder and more recent cases by the same methods will obtain a larger
percenta{(e of success.

It will be observed that ihronghout the work these leading ideas are
kept constantly in the foreground as the foundation principles on which
mtut rest the science of clcctro-tlierapeutics : —

i. That electrization, besides being merely a local stimulant, also
exercises an influence over general and local nutriiion, at once unique
and unrivalled, and that entitles it to the highest rank among constitu-
tional tonics.

a. Thai the accepted system of niakiog the applications exclusively
local is bolli illogical and inconsistent ; that in the use of electricity,
as of every olbct remedy, constitutional diseases should be treated
cooslitutionall/.

XVI

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

3. That the best method of bringing the whole STstcm undc
direct influence of the current is by general electriration as hen
scribed ; and that by the use of this mcthoil the success of el*
therapeutics is matcruilly enhanced, and its sphere very greatly nidi
so as to include a variety of Sequent and distressing coostitut
morbid conditions, for winch merely localized electrization is bui
perfectly indicated.

4. Thai, in determining the influence of the electrical applicit
ou conditions of disease the last appeal must be nuidc, not to pb
nor to physiology, nor to pathology, nor to any d/r*^i reasoning '
ever, but solely and alone to clinical experience.

To lliooe who adhere to tltc long-accc|>lcd theory that electric
merely a means for local stimulation, and, as such, chiefly lodicat
the severe or incurable conditions of paralysis or chronic rhctiina
or who hope to reduce electro-therapeutics tu an exact science 01
ba^ of a couiiJlete physiology and pathology, the above proiiosi
mast seeni both radical and erroneous, and es]»ecially so if they
studied the action of electricity on the body merely by localized |
cations.

Therefore with all the greater interest and pleasure have wi
served that, during the last few years, there hsA been in elcctro-t
peuiical literature a manifest and increasing lendt;ncy to abandoi
narrow doctrines v( merely local stimulation, to accept the fact «
experience everywhere coniinus, that in electricity we have an n
passed means of improving the general nutrition in the iminens
riety of chronic morbid conditions where such results aie chiefly
cated ; and we express the confident hope that the abundant and w
evidence with whidi in the present work we have been enabled to
tify tliese propoutioQs, increased and enriched as it may be by tli
pcricncc of the future, and harmonizing as it surely must with the
eral progress of science, will materially aid in bringing nearer the
of their universal acceptance.

Althnugii this work is not intrndcd to be in any sense a com)
guide to the study of chronic diseases of the ner\'ous .system, yet 9
general remarks on the nature, causation, and the diagnosis ol
princi|>al of these diseases have been deemed both appropriate
necessary, for the twofold reason that such knowledge is ncccssar
an intelligent ap]ireciation of the directions far the treatment, and
because very many of the diseases here mentioned — such as ner
dyspcpf^a, spinal irritation, neurasthenia, hypochondriasis, inson
locomotor ataxy, muscular atrophy, spinal and infantile paralysi
well as some of the varieties of neuralgia — ^have not received in any

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xvii

popular text-book the practical attentibn which their vast importance
b electro-therapeutics requires.

Scientific electro-therapeutics requires scientific diagnosis. He who
only knows how to apply electricity is not fit to do even that Suc-
cessfiil results in electro-therapeutics can be and are obtained by the
most ignorant of charlatans, but to intelligently report these successes
or make them of value to science requires the best skill of the physi-
cian. Mere hand-books of electrical applications cannot be otherwise
thao injurious to science. Other conditions being the same, the value
of reports of cases in electro-therapeutics is in direct proportion to the
accuracy and completeness of the diagnosis. For this season it is that
electro-therapeutics is the most exacting and laborious of all the
special departments, for in a certain sense it trenches on and necessi-
tates a knowledge of all other departments.

In the strict sense of the word, therefore, the electro-therapeutist is
IV) specialist, since his idea! — which of course he can but imperfectly
fiilfil — must be to know something of every department with which
electro- therapeutics brings him into relation. His ambition, like that
of Bacon, must be " to make all knowledge his province."

Besides a thorough familiarity with the department of nervous dis-
eases, and especially with the recent methods of studying them by the
sesthesiometer, the ophthalmoscope, and by electricity, it is necessary
for the electro- therapeutist to avail himself of all the advances that are
made in the special departments of gynaecology, ophthalmology, otol-
ogy, laryngology, and dermatology, as well as general medicine and
surgery.

In respect to diagnosis we have ourselves been exceptionally fa-
vored, smce the majority of our cases have obtained the opinion of one
or more acknowledged authorities in their respective departments.

That all the special views on the nature and treatment of the dis-
eases here mentioned should meet with universal acceptance, is more
llian can be expected. Everywhere we tread on debatable ground.
In regard to the nature, the causation, the symptoms, the general treat-
ment, the divisions and the terminology of diseases, the choice of cur-
rents, the methods of applications, the relative merits of rival appa-
ratus, — in these and in many other subjects there is room for the
widest possible divergence of honest opinion among those whose abili-
ties and opportunities entitle their opinions to the highest respect.
On all these controverted themes we present nothing as a finality, noth-
ing which we shall not readily modify in the light of sufticient inductive
evidence.

CONTENTS.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

CHAPTER 1.
A KNOWLtDGI OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-PHVSICS NECESSARY TO
THE ELECTRO- THERAPEUTIST — DeFIMTION OF ELECTRICITY — HaG-

NETISK. Polarity of magnets — Magnetic induction 1-7

CHAPTER ir.
Frictional, or statical, OR Franklinian ELECTRICITY. Statical in-
duction — Oistribntion of electricity — HolU's machine — Electrophonis
— Gold-leaf electroscope — Leyden jar 8-18

CHAPTER ni.
Galtanism, or voltaic ELECTRICITY. Chcmistrjr of the battery —
Simple galvanic circles — Polarity of the circuit — Electro-chemical
series — Amalgamation — Polarity of electricity — Derived of branch
cunents — Polarization of electrodes — Daniell's and Grove's batteries—
Zinc-carbon batteries— Smee's battery — Galvanometers — Volta's re-
searches 19-44

CHAPTER ly.

Electrolysis (slectro-chehistry). Laws of dectrolTsis — Theory of

electrolysis. 45''50

CHAPTER V.
IWDDCED ELECTRICITY— Current and maoneto-induction— Electro-
UACNETiSU. Thermo-electricity — Ampire's theory of magnetism —
Electro- magnetic helix — Induction coils — Ruhmkorfl's coil — Mf^eto-
dectridty— History of induction — Thermo-electric batteries $1-^

CHAPTER VI.
Ohm's law and its practical application to electro- therapeu-
tics. Electro-motive force — Tension or potential — Resistance—
QnsBtityor strength of current — Large cells vj. small cells 65-83

XX CONTENTS.

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.
Relation of blectro-physiology to electro-therapeotics— Ani-
mal ELECTRICITY. Electfic fishcs — Galvant and Volt a— Humboldt's
aadAldini'ii researches — Da Bois-Reyniond'<; discoveries — Experiments
of Trowbridge 8

CHAPTER II.
Electrotonos, anelectrotonos, \\d catelectrotosos. Du Bois-
Keymond's molecular theory- of anelectrotonos— Effects of electrotonos
—Pfliiger's contraction law. 99.

CHAPTER III.
Action of electricity on the ski.n. Action of the faradic current —

Of the galvanic current — Electro -a ntesthesia loj-

CHAPTER IV.
Action of electricity on the iirain and spinal cord. Galvani-
zation of the brain — Experiments of Ilitzig, Ferrier, andothers It2-

CHAPTER V.

Action of electricity on the SyMrATIIETIC and PNElTMOCASTRia

Experiments with sphygmoj^raph 1 16-

CHAPTER VI.
Action of electricity on the nerves of special sense. Action on
the optic nerve — On the auditory nerve — Brenner's researches — Action
on the gustatory nerve 12S-J

CHAPTER VII.
Action of electricity on motor and sensory nerves and vol*
UNTARY MUSCLES. Electro -muscular contractility — and electro-mus-
cntar sen^bility — Increase of temperature after muscular contraction —
Electro-physiological anatomy 141-]

CHAPTER VIII.
Action of electricity on involuntary muscles. Experiments... 15S-1

CONTENTS. XXI

CHAPTER IX.
Acnos OF ELECTRICITY ON THE BLOOD. Experiments 164-167

CHAPTER X.
Electro-conductivity of the human body. Modified by age and

tempcrunent 168-1 75

CHAPTER XI.
The effect of electricity on nutrition. Mechanical, physical,
chemical, and physiological effects— Electrical endosmosis after phyucal
effects— Elect rolyas of living substance— Circulation — Secretion — Ex-
cretion — Absorption —Effects produced by increa'* in size and weight
— Reflex action— Experiments — Effects of electricity on bacteria and on
the growth of plants. 176-19S

ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

CHAPTER I.
History of electro- therapeutics. Era of Franktinic electricity — .
Era of galvanization — Era of faradization — Localized faradization and
galvanization — General faradization — Central galvanization 198-215

CHAPTER II.
General therapeutical action of electricity. Electricity a stimu-
lating sedative tonic — Is electricity transformed into nerve force? — El-
ectricity compared with other tonics— Rationale of electrization 217-225

CHAPTER in.
General suggestions in regard to the use of electrictty as a
therapeutic agf.NT. Stage of disease, when indicated — Differential
action of poles and of current direction — Both scat of disease and effects
to be treated — Healthy parts may be benefited — Dose of electricity —
Mild currents- Care in details of application — Time, frequency, and
regularity of applications — Combination of methods — How to judge of
effects — Good effects — Bad effects— Regard for age — After effects —
Use of electricity by the laity — Abbreviations used in electro -therapeu-
tics 226-260

CHAPTER IV.
Comparative value of the galvanic and faradic currents. Ad-
vantages of galvanic over faradic — Advantages of faradic over galvanic
— Galvano- faradization 261-267

XXII

CONTEVrS.

CHAPTER V.

The nntctnxs or eumo-nucnosis izixcnto-rA-moLOOT). Modi*
fcarioiw of dectro-scBSibilitf— Ekctr»-siBScnlif tcBstbtUtf u^d coa-
trmKtSitf—iialwaao vt. Fafvl»«Mwlar contiscttlity— Kextion of de*
gcnentiMi — AbaonMl reBtx imtmbdiij — Pipicpc ooasractkM* —

El«cao-btoKOpT.

s6ft-2Sa

CHAPTER TL

ELZcnto-THeKArsTTtCAL A-tATOirv. Motor pooBK— Elcdro-KBaihJIitj

of the bodf x&J-SQO

CHAPTER Va

'APTAftATCS ros ELEcntO-TiiKunvrics. Single Mad Rpustc coQ tn«-
chino — Fanific appinttu — Kttlei for lU osc — Gal^ntnic affpintus —
PirectioiM for nte — Catnnet h&ttery— Rhcotiatt — Gilv&ooiBcten mad
(faotrada— Can ofdedsudo — Eoropnui batteries. zgi-j^

CHAPTER IX.

Localized iLBcruzAnoif. Dry fmmluAiion^Ekctric okheb— Electii*
tatiun with noutened etecirmlei^Direct and tnduvci «leciriution —
I>cfinitHm ortenxn — Detailiorapiitiniloo* — Electriuuoa of the Itfain,
spine, oerric^ qraip«tlKti& ptezues. acrvci, musde*— Effects 33(*^

CHAPTER X.
CtifUAL JtAkJitiiZATiON. Object proposed — pMiiko of puieni — Of
operator — ApplicUioa to tieail and neck— I'm of hand a> on electrode
—SpeeW rule* observed— Perwsteace b treatment— EBeeis — Ratiooale
orefleeu. 347~37i

CHAPTER XL

DlfVtRBNTtAL IWDICATIONS TOt TUE .CSB OF UXIAUZED AND GENBXAL
FARADiiATiov, Cattte of failare* in dectro-therapentic* — Combina-
Uoa of Uw netbods SJ*-Z75

CHAPTER Xlt

ClFTSAL OALVANIXATIO'V. Method— Details of the appUcatkia — Theory
of tha DUlhod— Compared with locaUtcd ealvaolcatioii — With general
fondkaiioa— Ob)ectiDBS answered 376-389

CHAPTER Xin.
The use or riiANKij.tic oe inrATic klcctricttt. Apporaiiu for
tfaaUinualioa—Ucthod* of aiiplkiiiun — Value of franklbiic elec-
trtchy M compared wllb dynamli: clcctneitj 39»-3iM

CHAPTKK XIV.
TEIC kATllS. Method of giving— Effectt— Rule* for gwing them.. 395-39S

CONTENTS. xxiii

CHAPTER XV.
Hysteria and allied affections. Electro-diagoods^Cases or hys-
t erta — Hy pocbondriasis — Cmcb — Neurast faeaia — Spinal initat ion — In-
sonmia— AstTvpbobia (fear of ligbtniag) 399-4'5

CHAPTER XVr.
ISSANITV. Methods used — Cases. 416-420

CHAPTER XVII.
Cerebral and spinal congestion. Prognosis and treatment — Cases., 431-424

CHAPTER XVIII.
Necralgia. Methods of treatment — Cieneral prc^nosis — Cepdialal^a —
Cases— Sicli headache (migraine)— Facial neuralgia — Gaslralgia — Scia-
ticai — Reflex neuralgia— Galvanic belts and disks. 425-446

CHAPTER XIX.
An.csthesia Different kinds of sensibility— Farado-senability — Electro-
diagnosis — Prognosis — Cases 447^51

CHAPTER XX.

Paralysis. Paralyns from opium — Sypdiilitic paralysis — Lead paralysis —
H)-3tericat paralysis — Cases — Hemiplegia, treatment and accessories —
Cases of hemiplegia — Glosso- laryngeal paralysis — Parapl^pa — Facial
paralysis — Paralysis from pressure and cold — ReAex paralysb 452~473

CHAPTER XXI.
Locomotor ataxia {posterior spinal sclerosis). Causes of the dis-
ease — Electro-diagnosis—Prugnosis— Treatment — Case% 474-477

CHAPTER XXII.
Progressive mitscular atrophy. Prognosis and treatment — Cases —

Progressive myo-sdcrotis (Pseudohypertrophic paralysis) 478-^82

CHAPTER XXIII.
Rheumatism and cout. Treatment — Prognosis — Cases^Myalgia —

Lumbago— Pleurodynia — Rheumatic gout 483-489

CHAPTER XXIV.
Spasmodic diseases. Writer's cramp — Torticollis — Cases — Paralysis

Agitans — Asthma — Facial spasm — Hydrophobia — Epilepsy — Case&. . . 490-501

CHAPTER XXV.
Diseases of the skin. General considerations— Methods of application —
Central galvanization —Eczema — Prurigo — Lichen — Ansestheda — Acne
— Acne rosacea — Psoriaas pityriasis — Herpes — Herpes Trontalis — Ring-
worm- Scleroderma — Melanoderma — Elephantiasis — Case — Alopecia
— Permanence of results 502-516

CONTENTS. XXV

CHAPTER XXXIV.
Artificial respikation by electrization in cases of apparent
death from drowning, or suffocation through poisonous
gases, or in asphvxia of new-born infants 6l2-6l4

CHAPTER XXXV.
Diseases of the heart and lungs. Palpitation of the heart — Angina

pectoris — Consomption 615-619

CHAPTER XXXVl.
ExoFHTHALHIC GOITRE. Methods of treatment — CaseaL 620-627

CHAPTER XXXVII.
Sequela of ACin'E diseases. Diphtheria — Cerebro-spinal meningitis —

Typho-malai ial fever — Sunstroke 628-635

CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Miscellaneous medical diseases. Cases — Intermittent fever — Addi-
son's disease — Case — Diabetes — Dropsical effusions — B right's disease —
Suppression of urine — Diabetes — Chronic rhinitis — Catarrh of nose —
Anosmia — Toothache — Ozone and ozonized oxygen — Hay fever — Fever
and convalescence — Obesity — Cirrhosis of the liver — Chronic aicohol-
isin 636-651

ELECTRO-SURGERY.

CHAPTER I.

History of electro-surgery. Early history— Later history — Surgical

and medical electricity compared. 655-660

CHAPTER II.
Electrolysis, Its nature and general methods — Method of introtlucing
the needles — Electrolyzing the base — Method of operating — Instruments
— Theory of the method — Its advantages and disadvantages 661-672

CHAPTER III.
Galvano-CAUTERY. Advantages over actual cautery — Apparatu"^ handles,
burners, loops for Galvano-cautery — Care of batteries — Uses and ad-
vantages of the galvano-cautery — Rules for use of galvano-cautery, and
adaptBtioD to various departments— Statistics of cases, 673-685

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

rAOS

I — Magnetic Zone, Olnstnted 3

2„ " Polarity, Ulufltrated 4

3 — " Armature 6

4— Insulated Conductor. 10

5 — Brass Hemispheru 11

6 — Insulated Cylinder 12

7 — Cylinder Electrical Machine 13

8— Hollr's Machine 14

9— Bennett's ElectroKOpe ^. 15

10 — Leydcn Jar 16

II — Simple Galranic Circle 22

13 — Compound Galvanic Circle 28

13 — Branch Current, illustrated. 29

14— Voltaic Pile 30

15— Daniell's Battery. 32

16 — Grove's Battery 34

17 — fiunsen's Nitric-Acid Battery 34

18— Smee's Batt«y 37

19 — Voltameter 40

ao — Astatic Galvanometer 41

81 — Galvanic Frog. 43

22 — Phenomena of Electrolysis 50

23 — Electro-magnetic Helix: 53

24 — Electro-magnet 53

25 — Cnnent Indaction, iQiutmted 54

aS — Indnction, illustrated. 55

•7 — Cmrent-intemptcr 56

a8— Ruhmkorfl's Coil 58

«9 — ^Hone-tboe Magnet 61

XXVtii LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS.

30— ThennO'eleclTicity, illuitraied

3t— Funiiet's Tliermyelcctnc Botlery

32 — EleclroloDO^, illtuUatcd ,

33 — AndectroionoK and Cnlelccirotonot, illLutrated

34-43^ SpltyBmographii; Tracingv

44 — Elect ro-[heT3peutica1 Anatuniy of the Iluinan Body — sin tnioT view

4j — £)cctro*thcrapcul.icAt Anatomy of ihc Human Body— potteriot view

46 — Kidder's KarmJIc Unchiue .,".

47 — Faradic Machine (Gnlvniio-Faradic Manufacturing Co^)

4$— •• " withjul tlie box

49— " '• (Thomns Hall)

50 — Zinc-carbon Baiter/, ja cclb

51— Barilcil Bnllery

52 — Ottlvnnic Battery, 36 cells

S3 — Kidder'* Zinc-catliun Battery. 18 celli

54— Chloride o( SUvcr Battery

55 — Cftblitct Battery (GaWano-Far.'ulk ManDfacturingCo.}.

56 — Portable Galvanic Battery iDrcsclicr)

57 — Gal vauo- Faradic Macliuic, " ■

SS— PoriaWc BectB-LcdanchS Battery

S9 — Brenner's Appontiu {Ca]v;ino' Farad ic MatiufacLuringCo,)

60 — Galranomeler vietl l>y the Authors (Chester & Co.)

6r — Sictncn'i Stapper-rheostat

63 — Ilydro-rlipostal (GaK'ano-Farwdic Manufacturing Co.)

63— Universal HandleKfor Electrodes

C4— " " " " wilh Interrupter, imulated

65 — Lonu Sponge Electrode

66~F.lectr<Nle* of various sizes to be attached to Universal I landlei

67 — Until Kublfcr Handle an<I Electrode

63 — Sponge-li older, with iponge attadied .

69— Small S]ioage Electrode ;

70— Duc!ieniie'» Electrode ;

7 1— Rockwell's Bras% Ball Electrode for General F.iradiwtioa ;

72— Beard's Stationary Electrode ;

73— Adjustable Electrode, with band ;

74 — Beaid'c Adjustable Electrode, with Haonel coYcr • ',

75— Flannel Cover for Eled rode .,., ;

76— Adjustable F.leclrwie, with tpaage .'

77— Oblong Adjiutable Electrode ;

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxix

H PACR

78 — Metallic Brush 323

79 — " '* with brush pushed within the cylinder. 323

80 — Sptnzl Electrode 323

8t — Beard's Current -reverser '. .jA 324

82 — Meyer & Meltzer's Faradic Machine. 327

83 — Foveaux's Portable Galvanic Battery 329

84 — Meyer & Meltzer's Portable Apparatus 330

85 — Galvanization of the Cervical Sympathetic 336

86— " " " " including the Pneumogastric . . 337

87 — Faradiiation of Facial Nerve and Muscles 339

88 — Muscular Faradization, with Metallic Electrodes 339

89 — Faradization of muscles of thigh 340

90^ " " Popliteal Nerve and Peroneal Muscles 340

91 — Spinal-cord-brachial plexus current .' 342

92 — Spinal -cord-medium nerve current 34^

93— General Faradization, application to head , 349

94— ** " " "spine 351

95— General Galvano- faradization, application to spine by sponge-holder 354

96 — General Faradization, application to stomach 358

97— " " " " lower extremities 359

98— Central Galvanization, first stage 376

99 — " " second stage 377

100 — *' " third stage 378

toi — *' '* fourth stage 379

102 — Method of Franklinization 394

103 — Electric Bath 396

IC»4— Circle Disk 486

105 — Oblong Buttou Disk , 486

106 — Elephantiasis of legs, before treatment by electricity 515

107 — Rectal Electrode, non-insulated 523

loS— " ' ' insulated 523

109 -Double Rectal Electrode 523

I to — Faradization of the Uterus 530

III — Uterine Electrode 531

112 — Beard's Intra-uterine Electrode 531

113— Double Intra-uterine Electrode S31

H4 — Duchenne'a Double -uterine Electrode, open 53*

lis— " '* " " closed 532

116 — Vaginal Electrode 533

XXX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

ItT— Intra- u If rins Galvanic Fcaaiy .>•*•■■•«<

l(S — J)ncli«iiie'» Tcocar ......».•.•,,.,,,

119— Noeggeralh'» Trocar ,

tia-tii-ti3—iioTnei Fibre, 6nt d^ree ,

i;3-l24^NonnaI Fibre, lecond degree. .,, , •■......•...i

125-116— " " Ihirtl degicc

Ii7-n!t-i:i9 — Normal Fibrt, fuutlh d^ec , ,,...

130— In »bI a led Calhclcr El>cclro<lc •.*•.

131 -I J2— Double V*Mci>l Electrod*, closed ftod t>p;n

133 — Lvyngcail Electrode suid NccLUt

134— luiem&l Eleclriiaiion of Ear , ,

135 — Mun»y"s Oalv.-mic Nipple -iljield ,

136 — Extra- Uleiine PrcEiianc)'

137 — Extra-Utertiie Preuitancy , .....•..>..

138— Nasal Electrode

139 — Conductor for ElecLrolyus. ,...*

140— Ba)-onct-poiiitcil Needles for Elcctrolysb.

141 — Raclcwcll's Iiong Needle for Electro'lysis of Vlenis

14a— Rockwell's Ncedle-Holdert with Needles for Electroljib

143—- Beard's I/ktig-^uttinc Needles Air Electrulytii^of tlie bue

144— Eleclroly&b of Base in tcirrhiuof breast

145— •• '• " '• " " " «fter removal of tnmoi

146 —Byrnes* MuUtpleniletncnt Bat lery

147 — Zinc-Carbon Galvano- cautery Bftltery (Kidder)

148— ■' '• " •' ■' [Galwino-FaradicManiiPingCo.).

|.Q, . ■• H •• »t ■• tl <■ •• »

Ijo—Gaivana -cautery Battery (Meyet & Mellicr, Londonl

tjt-176 — Accompanying Appliances— Handles. Burners, or CantsriMts, Loopf,
Knivet, etc. Tor GALvann-cantcry C/ji-

177-iSS — i Galvano-cantery Operating Cue and Iy>op (Galvaao-Faradic Man-

) ulacturingCo.)

189 — Benign C>->tlc Tumor treated by Ordinary Electrolysis

190— Electrolyui of Base ufMaligniinl Cyttic Tumor.

191— RcmorBl of Epithelioma by Elect rolyMH of Bam...,.....,

192 — ( Epithelioma of Vagina and Vulva before and after operationi by Elec*

193 — ( ttolysU

194— Sciirliui of Breast treated by Ordinary Electrolyns

I95 — Trouvc's Electric Explorer.

196 — Gnicnine's Magi^et

ELECTRO-PHYSICS

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

CHAPTER I.

A KNOWLEDGE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF EI.ECTBOPMlfSICS NECESSARV
TO THE ELECmO-THKRAPEUTlST — DEFIHITIOM OF KLECTRICITY—

UAGxerrsM.

Eleetro-phynes is the scienee which treats ef eteetrieiiy in its physital
reiaiiofit.

No one can be a master in elcctro-thcra pen tics xwithoiit also being a
muter in electro-physics. Hence it becomes necessary, in a systema-
tic treatise on electro-therapeutics, to present the leading princi^iles of
electro-physics, and to point out their practical bearings both on
electro-physiology and electro- llterapeutlcs. This iiL-ccbsity is all titc
greater because electro-physics is the branch of clectrology that electro-
thctapeutists are most of all disposed to neglect ; and ignorance of this
department has retarded, and still retards, the scientific advance of
electro-therapeutics both medical and surgical It is possible to make
happy hits in electro-thcrapcntics without knowing anything of eleclro-
phj'sics or electro-physiology; but on the average, and in the long run,
the best results will be obtained by those who to purely practical know-
ledge add a thorough mastery of the scientific relations of the subject.

liTiy discussed in a Practical Treatise like this. — The necessity of pre-
senting the leading principles of electro-physics in a practical treatise
like this is the more imperative from the fact that, until quite recently
Et least, all, or nearly all, the text-books on physics in use in schools
and colleges have failed to represent the advanced researches and
generatiiations of modern scientists in the department of electricity.
The old hypotheses, that electricity is a single or double fluid, still linger
in our centres of education, or yield the ground but slowly ; and even in
those works that are fully up Co the times on xim subject, the special
I

2 ELECTRO-PHYSICS,

tnd practical bearings of electro-physical principles on electro-phyt*
iology and electro-therapeutics are of course not considered.

To this should be added tlie consideration that any science, however
vrell acquired, if it be not kept before the mind by teaching or writing.
Or by practical application, soon fades from the memory, or becomes a
mass of half-truths and uncertainties. We are therefore justified in
assuming that not one in a hundred of those who «nll consult this book
as a guide in electro- therapeutics will be so thoroughly and accurately
informed on the principles of electro-physics as not [o need, on tliis
subject, some compact treatise which shall »enre as a guide and reminder
of the leading facts and principles of the science. To supply this need
is the object of this diviuon of our treatise.

KATURS AND DEFISmON OF ELECTRICITV.

EUctriaty is now regardtd as a force torreiaUd to the other great
/orces of nature — heat, Hght, etc. — and, tike them, is simply a mode of
maiian, — a farm of vibraiion.

Although the precise nature of these vibrations have not yet been
mathematically demonstrated, as in Uie case of light and heat, yet the
theory that the phenomena of electricity arc the result of vibrations has
much in its favor, and it is by no means impossible that in the future the
nature of these vibrations will be well understood.

In the present treatise, as in all works on physics, various terms, as
"current," "ilows," "runs," etc., that took their origin when ihe fluid
theory prevailed, are retained for the sake of convenience of description.
With this understanding there is no objection to their use.

ElectHcily is manifested in thiee general forms : Magnetism ; Stati-
eal or Friitiona! or Frankltnic Electricity ; and Gah-tmism, or Voltaie
or Dynamical Electricity.

MACNCTISU.

Magnetism. — In order to understand electridty in general it is nece»-
lar}- to understand magnetisna, wtiich is one of its manifestations.
Magnetism, defined by its phenomena, is the ^ovicx which certain bodies
fpssessoi attracting iron. The bodies which are observed to have thia
power are called magnets, and are divided into two classes — naitwal and
artiftiai. Natiiral magnets consist of iron ore or loadstone. I.oad<

MAGNETISM— POLARITY OF MAGNETS. 3

Stone was first discovered in Magnesia, in Asia Minor, aad hence the
klume magaet was derived. The comjia&s was introduced into Europe in
die twell^ centuo'i but the Chinese arc said to have been acquaiotet'
with it in the fourth century,

Artijitial magnets arc usually made of steel that has been magnetizet?
by the galvanic current or by other magnets. Steel bars that have
been thus magnetized may be either straight or bent. For convcntence'
uie, they are usually bent in the form of a horseshoe.

Ail substances arc more or less susceptible to m;^etic influence, but
iron is more affected by it than others- Experiments illustrative of the
> cfiEccts and power of artifidal magnets are so familiar that they need not
■be dted.

Polariiy of Magnets. — The polarity of a magnet is that peculiar pro-

peity by wliicli it manifests two opposite kinds of magnetism, that are

termed, relatively to each other, the nonh and the south pole. When a

[magnetic needle is so suspended that it can move unimpeded in any

• direction, one end points to the north, and the odier to the south. If

the'magnet be disturbed in any way, and forced temporarily out of

sition, it at once and uniformly returns.

Polarity is a quality that belongs not only to magnetism, but also to
other forms of electricity, and to light and the other great forces.

The poles of a magnet arc always at its ends, for here the attractive
power is greatest. This can be demonstrated by a very simple experi-
ment If a nugnctic bar be rolled in a pile of iron-tilings, it will be
finmd that these adhere to the bar most firmly and in the greatest
quantit)- at and near its poles. The quantity that adlieres is less as we
approach the middle of the bar.

Neutral Line. — In long bars there is always a place at the middle,
or near 10 it, where no filings are attracted. This space is variously
led the neutral or magnetic toru^ or magneiie equator, or point of

Fig. \

Another £uuiliar experiment is to pass an iron ball, suspended by a
tiling or thread, near to a magnet &om end lo end- It is observed
that the ball is attracted very little, or not at all, in the middle, bul

4 ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

that the attractive power is increased as we bring it towards either end
If any substance be placed between the ball and the magDet, the at-
traction is just as marked, unless the interposed substance itself con-
tains iron. Nearly all substances tliat are not themselves magnetic
are capable of transmitting the magnetic influence.

Another featiu-e of magnetic polarity is, that like poles repel, and
unlike poles attract, each other. If one magnetic bar be suspended
freely in the air, and another be brought near to it, it will be found
that the north pole of one is attracted by the south pole of the other,
and vue ftrsd — in short, that the like poles repel, while the unlike
utract.

rto.

^fagnetUm of Broken Magnets. — If a bar that has been magnetized
be broken in the middle, each half will have two poleit and a neutral
point in the centre. If one of these halves i* broken in the middle,
each half will be found to have two poles and a neutral line. If one
of these parts in turn be broken, each half will again be found to be a
complete magnet, with two poles and a neutral line, and so on as long
as we can carry the divi^on.

Coul&ml^s Theory of Magnetism.^A theory of magnetism ad-
vanced by Coulomb is, that magnetic substances consUt of particles^
taeh one of rvhieh is a magnet. TJiese particles have their poles turned
bl different directions, so as to neutralize each other.

Magnetization brings these particles round so that they lie in the same
direetien. This theory brings magnetism very close to statical electri-
city, and would naturally be adopted by those who believe all roag-
etic phenomena result from electricity in magnetic bodies.

MAGNETIC INDUCTION.

Between tbe behavior of electricity in animal bodies (aniouJ electri-
city), electricity in general (statical aud d)-namical electricity), to be
subsequently explained, and magnetism as here explained, there arc
aiokigies so close and so consistent as to warrant the view that all are
but difftrent mamfeitati&ns of one /{free.

Magneiic Jnduelion. — U a bar of soft iron is brought in contact
with or near to one of the poles of a niagnct, it is attr.tct<:d, and for
the time being becomes itself magnetic; and if it is brought near
enough to the magnet, it firmly adheres to it A bar of soft iron thu3
obtains by induction all the properties of an ordinary magnet. It has
a north and south pole. It attracts iron-filings around these poles, just
like the regular magnet. If another piece of soft iron is brought in
contact with, or near to its poles, it is attracted and made to adhere,
just a« it would do if applied to an ordinary msgnet. Quite a number
of bars of soft iion may be made to adhere in the same way. But
vhen this bar, thus made magnctict is forcibly removed from the per*
nianent magnet to which it adheres, it instantaneously loses all its mag-
netic power, and the iron-iilings or pieces of soft iron that have been
attracted by it at once drop off. Such a magnet is therefore styled
" temporary ;' in contradistinction to the permanent magnets of stecL

If a bar of iteet is brought near to, or in contact with a magnet, it
also becomes magnetic, and exhibits very different phenomena from
the bar of soft iron. In the first place, it becomes magnetic much
more slowly than the bar of soft iron, and displays less niagneiic

)wer. On the other hand, it does not, like the soft iron bar. lose its
^lltractive power as soon as it is removed from the magnet, but ptrmO'
nently retains it

The quality of steel by which it at first resists the attractive power
of magnets, and resists the dispersion of the magnetism which it has
ooce acquired, is called eoereitive force.

The same phenomena are observed in regard to heat. Some bodies
that are quick to acquire heat, are quick to part with it ; and vice tersd,
liose bodies which, like iron, steel, and so forth, acquire heat gradually,
' also part with it slowly.

It is by virtue of its coercitive force that hadstone permanently re
tains its magnetism.

The harder any steel is, the greater its coercitive force. Steel that
I soft has comparatively little coercitivencss, and when brought near

, 0* in contact with a magnet, it behaves %'ery much like soft iron.
Tery bard steel, on the contrary, has so great coercitiveDcss that it ii
^nly attracted by very powerful magnets.

6 ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Soft iron, when adulterated with sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic, oi
charcoal, or if it is even twisted or bent, may exhibit a slight degree
of coercitive force. Soft iron that is perfectly pure possesses no cocr-
citive force whatever.

The law of the distribution of magnetism in a bar of iron, and the
law of magnetic attraction and repulaion were discovered by Coulomb
in 1789.

Shape 0/ AfagntU — Ufagtutu Armatures.— knifvzxaX magnets are
either composed of straight bars, or arc bent in the shape of a horse-
shoe. The horseshoe forui is used mainiy for the sake of conveni-
ence. It enables us to apply both poles ulniultaneQusly and uniformly
to the object that is to be magnetized. Very powerful magnets may
be made of a number of thin steel bars placed side by side, their poles
being situated homonymously, that is, l>-ing in the same direction. A
number of bundles of bars of steel arranged tn this way is called a
^'■magnetic tnagasint, or baittry"

Magnetic armatxtres arc pieces of Soft iron that are placed at the ends
of magnets, to keep iheir magnetic power. Thia b-ir, or armature, not
only receives magnetism from the magnet, but acts upon it in return,
and iIjus helps to preserve its magnetic power. Magnets that are not
provided with an armature gradually lose their attractive power by the
disturbing influence of the magnetism of the earth. The magnetic
power of magnets is apt to be impaired by letting them fall on a hard
surface, Or by suddenly striking tliem with a solid body.

■^

7ta. s.

Magnetxtation. — It is possible Co communicate magnetism to bodies
diat can retain it in several different ways:

t. By single Touch. — ^Thc bar which we wish to magnetize is laid
an a table, and the pole of a magnet is rubbed along ils surface frotu
end to end for a number of times.

2. By double Touch, — The bar that is to be magnetized is placed on
B piece of wood, the ends of which arc placed against two strong mag-
nets. Two magnets for rubbing are placed on the bar to be magnet-
ited, making an angle with the bar of from 15' to 20°. A small piece
of wood is placed between the cxtrcmiHca of these two magnets, to
prevent their touching. They are then rubbed along the bar that is to
be magnettzed, from the middle towards the end, and back again, and

MAGNETIC INDUCTION. ^

raised from the magnetized bar again at the middle. This method
communicates a strong, though sometimes irregular magnetism j it wai
iovenied by Mitchell, and perfected by Epinus in 1758.

3. By separate Touih. — This method consists in jiuttingtwo opposite
pol^ of two magnets of the same force in the middle of the bar that is
to be magnetized, and moving each of ihem at the same time toward
the opposite end of the bar. This operation is repeated several tinted
on both ^ides until the bar is magnetixed-

Thc magnets may be held vertically or may be inclined.
The vertical method was first used by Knight in 1745.

4. By ifu Gaivanu Current. — TJie bar 10 be magnetized Js placed
inside a coil of msutatcd wire through which a galvanic current is nin-
ning. and ts then moved backward and foiwaid, as in (he method by
die double touch.

5. By the Earth. — It is clear that the earth is itself a magnet, for it
manifests strong inductive power. A steel rod becomes permanently
magnetic when it is held parallel to a. dijiping needle. If a bar of soft
iron is held in tlie same (losition it also becomes magnetic, and much
more rapidly than the steel bar, but does not so long retain its magnet-
ism. If a soft iron bar, held in this position, is struck a few times by a
hammer, its magnetism, which was before temporary, becomes per-
manent The blows of the hammer seem to impart in seme mj's-
terious way a coercitive force to the temporary magnet

Large masses of iron, when kept in a stationary position for any
length of time, always give proofs of having been magnetized by the
earth. Tools in workshops arc apt to become pcnnancntly magnetic
&oin the repeated hammering to which they arc subjected. The mag.
netisra of the loadstone is due to the silent but continuotis inductive
action of the earth.*

Saturation Paint of Magnetism, — The limit of the amutmt of mag-
netism that a magnet can petmanently retain is called the point of satu-
ration- If any magnet receives more of magnetism tlian it can pcnna-
neotly retain, it gradoally loses it or throws it off until it falls to the
point of saturation, when it ceases to lose any more. The saturative
pmnt of any magnet depends on its temper and coercitive force.

Magnetism is very markedly influencetl by temiicraturc. When a
magnet is heated it loses itsiiiagneiic power in proportion as its tem-
perature rises ; when it cools it regains more or less of what it has lost.

* Od ifab subject we luy refer to the able pamphlet of Prot Ifayer on Tki Earth
a great Atagnn.

;hapter II.

FRICriOKAL, OR STATICAL, OK rKANKLINIC ELECTRICITY.

When glass is rubbed with silk it acquires the power of aitraelin
any light substance, such as a pith-halL By a short contact this prop
erty is also communicated to the pith-ball, and it then repels the gla^
instead of being attracted.

These phenomena are explained by the existence of a force which i
tenucd EhciricUy. Thai whicli exists in the glass is called vilrroust C
fosi/ive, or + ciectricity. If a piece of sealing-wax be rubbed wit
flannel it will attract the pith-ball, which is repelled by the gla^s. Thi
phenomenon is ihic to the existence of resitMuj, or tugaJive, or — el«
tricity in the sealing-wax.

The name clcclritity is derived from the Greek word riXtxTpov, mean
ing amber, because, as the story goes, Thalci of Miletus, one of th
seven sages of Greece, first discovered the manifestations of this mystc
nous force by nibbing a piece of amber with a dry cloth.

The sdcnce of electricity dales from 1600, when Dr. Gilbert, of Col
Chester, physiciaa to Queen Elizabeth, published a work oti inagnetisni
entitled TraeSaius de Magnets. He first useti the word eleeirieUy. H
showed that not only amber, but other bodies, as sulphur, wax, etc.
develop electricity. He first used the term poles in magnetism, am
announced the first theory of terrestrial magneti-sni. Not only scaling
wax and glass, but all bodies contain more or less of electricity that ma;
be thus developed by some kind of friction.

Conductors and Non-e0nducior$. — All bodies are electrically dividei
into three classes: Conductors, semt-conduetors. and nan-conductors
Under the first class — conductors — arc included water and all M-lin-
solutions, the metals, the earths and stones, the structures of plants an(
animals, eta, etc. Under the second class — semi-conductors— are in
eluded ether, alcohol, dry wood, marble, paper, straw, etc, at 32° F
Under the third class — non-condnctors, or insulators — are included glass
sealing-wax, porcelaio, resins, sulphur, wax, dry metallic oxides, fatt;
oils, etc, at — 13* F.; phosphorus, india-rubber, gutta-percha, col

FRICTIONAL OR FRANKLINIC ELECTRICITY.

lodioD, wool, dry hair, ulk, shellac, eboDitc, amber, feathers, chalk,
lime, dry gases, and aqueous vapor in a dry state.

The conducting power of metais may be lessened by Hearing them.
In nearly all other substances heat increases the contlucttDg power.
Certain sub&tances, such as feathers, wool, hair, and the atmosphere,
which in a dry state are non conductors, become, when thoroughly
moistened, the best of conductors.

In this classitication of all substances into conductors, semi-conduc-
tors, and non-conductors, reference is had only to frictional electricity.
Substances that are setui-conduciors for frictioruL electricity are Don-
conductors for galvanic electricity.

Frictional electricity may be obtained Dot only by rubbing, but also
by (Icatage and ^essttre. When a piece of mica is cleaved, the two
plates which arc separated exhibit optK>silc cicctricirics, and a faint
light is obscr\'ed when the cleavage is made in the dark. The light
that is seen when sugar.candy or loaf-sugar is broken, is accounted for
by the dcTclojinient of electricity through cleavage.

When a thin piece of cork is pressed against a slice of orange,
by insulating handles, one assumes a positive and the other a negative
electricity. The same phenomena may be obtained by cleavage and
pressure of very many other substances, and under diverse condi-
*ia09.

A conductor is said to be insulated when it is placed on some Don-
conducting substance, so that the electricity communicated to it is pre-
vented from passing into tlie ground. Glass is one of the best non-
conductors, and is the insulating material usually employed in the con-
struction of electrical apparatus. ]t is hard, durable, and easily ob-
tained, and, could its surface be kept always dry, would be surpassed as
an insulator by no material, li; frosty and dry weaiiier it acts very well ;
but when the atmosphere is at all damp, it becomes coated with a layer
of moisture, which vciy much imi>airs ils insulating power.

A umch superior insulator to glass is ebonite, a preparation of vulcan-
ixcd india-rubber, that of late has been much used.

JDiuorery 0/ EUetru Conduction. — Electric conduction was discov-
ered by Stephen Grey in 1739. He found that when a wire 700 feet
long, and hung on loops of silk, was connected at one end with 3 glass
tube, and tlic tube was rubbed, the other end of the wire was electri-
fied and attracted light bodies. When wire-loops were substituted for
U)e silk-loops, the electricity passed off through the we. Hence origi>
Dated the distinction between intuiat'trs and eanduelers.

Lfiti of Eltitriiity. — All electriiied bodies lose electricity more or leu,

EIJECTRO- PHYSICS.

however carefully Ihcy may be insulated. Tncre arc two reasons i
this :—

First. No in&uUtors are perfect The best insulators, as glass ai
ruTiber, conduct somewhat.

SecoDt^ly. The air is a conductor; its conductive capacity depcD
uyioa the amount cf moisture in it.

In vafuo, also, electrified bodies lose their electricity more rapid
than in air, on account of the diminution of the pressure on the insuL
ing siirfacc.

The human body, as will be shown under E!ectro.physioI<^y,
charged with electricity, which is conducted away by the air, and n
unlikely by other conduciurs.

SiatUat Inductiffn.^^An insutattd eondue/ffr, -when charged with eUh
posUix-t or nega/wf cUclricHy, acts on bodies f laced near to U just as i
magnet arts on soft iren ; it attraets the oppos.
andrepeis the same kind of electricity. This nv
be shown in the toUowing manner : A brass cyli
dcr (Fig. 4), rounded at either extremity,
insulated by means of a glass rod. Two pit
balls are susjiended by cotton thread from eai
end. ir an insulated bait charged with positi
electricity be brought in close proxituiiy to ll
brass cylinder, the pith-balls will diverge, sho'
ing a disturbance of the electrical equilibrium in the cylinder. So so<
as the charged ball is withdrawn, the {lith-balls hang down as bcfor
showing that the electrical disturbance in the c)-linder depended on tl
presence cf the charged ball, and was merely temporary.

If a small disk of insulated gilt paper be brought in contact wi
the end of the cylinder next the charged ball, and then approach!
toward an elcctrontcter, the needle will indicate that the disk has |
ceived — electricity.

If the experiment be tried with the opposite end, + electricity w
be transmitted to the gilt disk.

It is thus seen that + electricity of th« charged ball causes the DQ
end of the cylinder to assume a — condition ; while, according to-
universal law, that no — electricity can be excited without an equ
amount of positive electricity, the opposite extremity becomes +. Tl
phenomenon thus described is called induction, or influence ; and whi
in this peculiar electrical condition the cylinder is said to he po/a
ixed.

Jnduetion and Conduttion compared. — We ha -■« seen that a body m;

Fto, 4.

DISTRIBUTION OP ELECTRICITy.

be charged Mridi dcctricity both by eondueiien — actual contact — and
by induction at a distance. In conduction, the first bod/ loses a part
of Its electricity; in induction it does not, In conduction, the elec-
tiicity given to the body is the same as that vhich gives it ; in induc-
tion, it is of the opposite kind. Id order to iinpart electricity by con-
iuction, the body must be insulated ; to impart electricity by induction,
lie body must be for the time in connection with the earth. Bad con
ducton are acted on bjr induction slowly, but retain their electricity
jngcr ; just as steel which is slowly magnetized bccomrs ^permanent
let, whUe soft iron, which is rapidly maguetized, soon l^jses its
letism. There is a limit to the conductive capacity of every elec-
Ftri&ed body ; when this limit is reached, it ceases to have any effect od
'tte second body.

Hisirtbution of Elfetricity. — It is evident that the greater the surface
over which electricity is diffused, the less is its power or intensity at any
given point.

Blairicity does net pcnttrate to the interior of metaUie tonduetors, but
douses ii self over the surface.

Experiment proves this. Let a brass ball be ctiarged with electricityf

Fto, t

ud suspended by a silk thread, and then covered with two hemisphen-
cal surfaces of brass, which exactly ht it. When the hemispheres are

kVitbdrawn, it will be found that they are charged with eWctricity, which

plus been entirely taken from the brass ball.

Faraday illustrated this truth by a beautiful and original experiment
with a conical bag of cotton gauze, around the opening of which an in-
■alated ring was attached. The bag was held distended by means of a

inlk thread attached to the apex, and then charged. By the proof-plane,
b* found that the cliarge was wholly on the outside. The bag was
then turned inside out by pulling the thread the other way, when it was

H0LT2*S MACHINE, 13

the other hand Afterward a glass cylinder wai uied instead of
ralptatir.

In 1740 IVincklcr substituted cushions of horsehair as nibbpr^ In
1760 Ramsieo substituted a circular glass jilate for the glass cyUnder.
The forms of electric machines now used are modifications oE Ranu-
den's. This 13 one of the forms of ai>paratus from which wc obtain
statical electricity. Fig. 7 represents the common cylinder electrical
nudiine, for developing electricity by friction.

HoUit EUctrpphorus Mathine. — The best and most recent fonn of
apftaratas for statical electricity is the electrophorus machine that was
invented by Holti,* of Berlin, in 1865. In this machine the electricity
if generated not by friction, but, as in the electrophorus, by indnetivf
MticM. The machine consists erf two glass disks and paper coalings,
inth a ntunber of conductors. One of the disks revolves on its aitis ;
the other remains immovable. The disks and pai>cr coatings are cov-
ererl with sealing-wax.

The metallic conductors are made in a comb-shape. An incision in
the immovable di&k, with the pa]>er coating and metallic conductor, is
called an elenKnt. The machine may have two, four, six, or eight of
these elements. When rotated, the paper coating becomes charged with
negative electricity: the corresponding part of the movable disk be-
comes charged with positive electricity. The conductor ccTresi>ond9
to the finger of the experimenter. The length of the spark produced

* A ttnllai macUne wu construted about ihc tame time bjr T&pl«r,

ELECTRO- PHYSICS.

by the machine depends on the %he of the disk, i»^iich may be ii, si,

or 30 inches in diameter. These machines are al&o called ratatiot,
muUifihers, because by their rotar)* motion they multiply by successive
iraasmissioas the charge of electricity tJtat they commuoicate.

FM.I.

EUelric Spark. — Ad mteTcstitig phenomenon cODoected with the
electrical madiine is the electric spark which is drawn from the con-
ductor when the (ingei is presented to it.
The positive electricity of the conductor decomposes the electricity
■He body, attracting the negative and repelling the positive, and, when
rnsion is great enough, these opposite electricities overcome tbe
uicc of the air and recouibine, with a spark and crackling sound.'
Qirk is accompanied by a prickly sensalion. When the spark is
is straight ; beyond two or three inches in length it becomes
or ligzag, like the lightning io the sky.

ELECTROSCOPE.

The hamaD body may be charged witli electricity by sitting on an
insulating stool and touching the conductor of an electrical machine.

When the body is thus charged, the hair diverges, a peculiar kcnsa-
lion is felt in the face, and if any other person standing on the gioun<!
touches one so charged, be receives a spaA, with a crackling sound
and a pricking sensation.

£/tciri?/Ai>rus. ^The electrophoras, invented by Volta, in 1775, con-
sists ofa metallic mould, tilled with a mixtxire of shellac and turpentine,
and a movable metallic cover thst is provided with a glass handle.
The surface of the shellac is negatively electrified by beating it with a
cat's fiir or fox-tail. The cover is then put on, and by contact be-
conies negatively electrified, and gives to the finger a slight spark of
negative electricity. If the cover be now removed by its insulating
handle, it gives posirivc elcctriciiy to whatever touches it. This posi-
live cleclncily it acquires not directly bom the shellac, but by induetivi
a^/um through the air.

Ga/ff-Zea/ EUctroscapt. — By this inMrument wc are enabled not
only to delect the presence, bii( to determine the kind, of electricity
tlut may exist in any body.

Fig. 9 represcDtB Bennett's electroscope. R is a tubulated glau

r».»>

•hade, enclosed at its lower end by a metallic cover, by means of whtcb
it communicates with the ground- A metal rod. fitting in the tubule of
the shade, terminates at its upper extremity in a knob, C, ard at in
lower extremity it holds two narrow strips of gold leaf. On the inside
of the shade ore two &t*ips of gold leaf reaching to the metal cover

iti

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

If a body charged with either Vind of electricity J* brought in contact
with the knob, the gnltl leaves diverge.

Thomion's Quadrant EUtiromettr. — A far supcrioi instrument for
all delicate researches is the quadrant eltciromtter of Sir Williarn
Thomson. This instrument is quite complex, and only in a general
way shall we attempt to describe it. A delicate aluminum ncodic,
two inches long, is hung by tvro cocoon threads in a glass jar, which is
one-sixth filled with sulphuric acid. From ihe needle a delicate thread
of plailnum drops into the acid. The needle is thus free to swing liorl-
zoQtallji- a Utile distance, or until the torsion of one of the threads by
which it is hung forces it back to its original position. Above the
needle a very delicate mirror is suspended. When the aluminum needle
is charged with electricity, which is conducted through the sulphuric
acid and carried tip the platinum wire, the needle is repelled or at-
tracted according as the electricity is positive or negative. Uehind a
screen, at some little distance, is pLiced a lamp, the liglit of which
readies the needle through a slit in the screen. On the screen is a
scale ; a very slight movement of the needle is reflected by the mirror
above it on the scale. An exceedingly slight displacement of the needle

Vra. to.

will cause a very large displacement of the image reflected on the
scale. Thus this instrument is of great value in very delicate researches.
I^yden Jar. — The Leyden jar is made of gta-ss, with a canting of tin-
foil pasted carefully inside and out, extending to within a few inches of
•he mouth. Thrmigh a varnished wooden cover a wire, having a knob
top, is ]»tsscd, and extends to the inside coating. Now, when etcher
sitive or negative electricity is communicated to the knob at the
>, it is immediately diffused over the whole inside coating ; and by itt
ductive influence the outside coating t,ikes on the opposite kind.

LEYDEN JAR.

When to this state, — the (wo coalings being oppositely electr'fied, —
Uie jar is said to be charged ; and a discharge takes place when a com*
iiiunkation is established between the knob and the outside coatiag,
the e<\uilibnuiu being restored with a bright dash of lij^lu and a ttharp
report.

As the human system is a good conductor, this discharge may take
place through it, by grasping the outside coating mth one hand, and
touching the knob at the top with the other ; or several persons may
foroi a line by grasping hands, the one at one extreme touching the
oatnde coating, while ^e one at the other extreme touclics the knob.
All will feel the shakf as it is called, at the same insiaoL While the
jar is receiving the charge, it must not be insulated ; that is, the outside
roust communicate with the earth. As the positive Quid collects OD
the inside, the outside becomes negative by the expulsion uf the posi.
tive fluid naturally in it, and the accumulation of the negative fluid in
its stead, drawn from the earth. But if the outside is insulated, these
transfers to and (rom it cannot take place, and thereibre the jar cannot
become charged.

A submarine cable i& really a vast Leyden Jar. The wire constitutes
the inierivr coating, the water the exterior coating, and the gutta-
percha the insulator between them. On this account the pniisoge of
an electric current through a submarine cable is grcady retarded.

Hislory of the Ltytien far. — In October, 1745, a bishop of Cammin,
in Poroetania, Von Kleist by name, passed through a cork in the neck
of a flask an iron nail connected with an elccliical machine. The flask
contained mercury or alcohoL On touching the nail, Vuii Kleist re-
ceived a severe shock. In January, 1746, Cuneus, Allamand, and
Musschenbroek passed a nrire from an electrical machine into a flask
filled with water. Mnsschcnbroek held the flask in his right hand, and
when a turn was given to the machine, he received a spark from the
conductor with his lefl hand

The spark was so terrible that he declared he would not receive
another like it for the French crown. He observed what Kleist did
not, that only the person who held the jar received the shock. In this
experiment the hand of the observer corresponded to the outer coating
of the ordinary Leyden Jar. He was the vchmx scicntilic of the three
Leyden philosophers who have given the name lo the Leyden jar.

The theory of the Leyden jar, and apparatus similar to it, was given
by Franklin in 1747. In the same year Watson, Bishop of LlandafI,
sent a discharge ironi a Leyden jar through 3,800 feet, and subsequently
through 10,600 feet of wire.

Z8 ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Ejtperiments like these were also made by Fraoldin across the Schc
kilL

Fora long time FrankltDic electricity was the only form used in elect
therapeutics. At present it is but little used except in certain h
pitals and public institutions. Its value as a therapeutic agent
however, unquestioned, and now that some of the inconveniem
attending its use have been removed by Holtz's machine, it is just t
it should have a fair and careful trial at the hands of modern elect
therapeutists.

CHAPTER HI.

OALTANISM, OR VOLTAIC ELECIR'.CnV.

Uhdeb the general term Dynamieal EUctrietty is included the elec-
tricity which arises, firsts from chemical action^-espedalljr from tha;
attending the dissolation of metals — called galvanism or vcUaic elte-
tridty ; te(o»dljf, from iiiductioa by currents or magnets, called
mduc€d efttirifUy, tUttro-magnetism, or magnctthtUctrUity ; thirdly ^
from heat, called thermo^Uclricity. These varielics arc called dynam-
ical electricity, signifying eledriaty in motion as distinguished from
friitifinai or statiral electricity, which denotes the electrical condition
of bodies in which electricity remains insulated or stationary. Strictly
speaking, these tcrais — dynamUal i^xA statical — arc applicable to both
br«Qcbe» yf the science i for if the poles of a series of galvanic batteries
ere insulated, they manifest, before the current begins, the electric
tension of a friction machine. Again, the characteristics of tlie gal*
ranic current arc manifested slightly in the series of discharges which
arc transmitted in a wire connecting the prime conductor of a machine
in action with the ground or other negative conductor.

Naiur< and Definition of Forte and its Relation to Matter. — />/■« it
that wfiii-h produfet motion. It is itself a primary- motion and cannot
be defined. Matter is a collection of centres of force called atoms.
Molecules are collections of atoms. A molecule is the smallest particle
into which a body can be divided without losing its identity.

The molecules of a gas are in n4>id and continuous motion, and the
r^tive velodties in diiferent gases has easily been determined. These
motions and velocities are the result of the forces of which matter con-
rists. It must be similarly true of liquids and solids : force and motian
rre the bases of their eonstiiuiion. Indeed, without force matter would
ruit exist at all, for matter is simply an aggregation of centres of force.

Ponderable Matter is a form of force which our senses lecognize.
Ether pervade* all matter and all space, but it is not recognized by
v-ose, and yel it is none the less a manifestation of centres of force.

EUttricity compared with other Forces. — If force be added to mattei

ELECTRO-PHVSICS.

the equilibriuni of that point is disturbed, and the dstnrbance is pre
gated from molecule to molecule, through iiialter, or clher, or bi
Heal by conduction and mass-motion arc: of ma.tter only. Heal
railiation and light are of the ether only. Electricity is now regar
as a movement of the ether, and of the l)ody in which it circula
Chemical action is a rearnuigemenl of atoms. After this action
sum of the activities of the molecules of the rc&ultiDg product U
fercnt from that wliicli its factor^i previously had. This diffcrcnc
force, and appears sometimes as light, and under certain condiiiont
electricity, but it is rarely or never confined to one mode of mani
tation. T/ie condition for the gerteraiien of eleetricity by ekemteai an
appears to be thai this action takes place at the surface of a condui
through whieh a current {so called) can circulate. Siace the cuireD
made of motion of the mulcculcs of the conductor through whic
passes, and of the ether, the nature of the conductor must modify
current itself. It is known that the current through a tclegraph-v
500 miles Icag meets the greater part of its resistance in tlic first
miles. The current is moditied by the materia] and length and size
the wire.

The differential physiological edccts of induction-coils of differ
lengths and fineness may thus be in part explained. These difieren
effects will be spoken of in the clcctro*thcrapcutical portion of 1
work.

The Chemistry of the Battery not yet Exact. — Chemistry can nc
be an exact science until temperature, speu&c heat, aod matter art:
ConsiOercd, and ju&tly estimated in all reactions. I'his has not yet b
accomplished.

We arc unable to state a/rwrt what must be the electro-motive fo
of the different batteries in use, since tliat, as we have seen, depei
on data hereafter to be determined. i-Yequently, however, we are a
to state which of two reactions must evolve the greater force, and
under like circumstances, the stronger electric current. ITiisisdone
inspection of the electro-chemical scries of elements. That scries, hi
ever, must vary with the temperature, so that it is no sure guide.

Q^e of tfu Water in the Battery.- — The water used in all comn
batteries serves as a solvent of the salt formed in the reaction. \V1
the water used bcconics saturated by this salt the current &top&, an^
declines in power as tlie solution approaches saturation.

Office of the Metals in the Battery. — Of the two metals in t
battery one only enters into the reaction. Zinc has generally filled t
place in all the best-known batteries, because it is nearer the ncgat

CHEMISTRY OF THE BATTERV.

end of the clectro-chemicnl series than any other common and c>inve-
DieDt metal "Poiassiumot sodium vroaldbe the A^auideaioi the negmivf
metal, but they arc nq[ convenient or practicable. Any metal or con-
ductor which is not acted on by the fluid in which it is immersed may
occupy the other place in the couple.

All modern rescarcli tends toward the conclusion that the dift'ercnt
forms of electricit)* which wc variously distinguish as magttetitm, Frank-
limism, galvanism, iUetro-magmtism, arc but CTpressjons of one force,
which force is, as we have seen, but a mode of motion of the universal
ether. Very recently a European physicist has estimated the eleciro.
Qiocive force of HolLt' s machine, and has expressed it in a mathematical
forrn, so that ii may be compared with the ordinary galvanic batteries.

In the present chapter wc shall speak of the form of electricity' that
is generated by chemical action — galvanism or vollaism. Analogy and
experience make it more than probable that all ehimical action whatsa-
ftrr is aUended with the nttutiffn of eUttrieiiy ; and reasoning still
fartherwe may believe diat all molecular disimbaoce, however excited,
must give rise to electrical disturbance. The play and interplay of
electrical phenomena are incessant and infinite; electrical force, like
light and gravity, is everywhere being generated and everywhere acting.
If we arennable to detect the electricity generated by chemical action
only aader certain conditions, or when generated in comparatively
laige quantities, it is because of the imperfections of our knowledge and
the want of sufTiaent re&nement in oiir apparatus for collecting and
measuring electricity.

h% a matter of ex]>ericnce it i» found that chemical electricity is most
conveniently generated by the reactions that take place between two
metals and some actd solittion, and as a matter of convenience and
economy xinc is the metal at tlie e.\pense of which the electrical force
is evolved, the other metals acting merely as conductors ; but the
combinations that are actually employed by physicius are but a fraclioD
of those that are possible and conceivable.

Every year new batteries and modifications of old batteries are de-
vised, but all of them are based on the general principle that chemical
action of any sort whatsoever is attended by the evolution of electri-
city.

We present below brief descriptions of some of the principal batteries
that arc now in use. All, or nearly all of Ihcm, in (heir orij^inal shape,
or under various modifications, are used in electro-lherapcutics. We
shall not attempt to exhaust the list, but to illustrate those that are best
known, most useful, and arc most thoroughly representative. Those

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

who ondersond the pnnci[^e on which these batteriei are constructecj
will not find it difficult to understand any new modi6catioQ of them thul
may arise. ,

Here let us interpose the remark, that the time and energy that arc
devoted to the study of the chemistry of batteries will not be wasted
time— will indeed be spent most wisely — for half the annoyances of
young and old electro- thenijwutists comes from the dlDicuhy of keeping
their batteries in order. This difficulty will be diminished one-half and
more when we really understand the mechanism of batteries and the
hws that govern their action.

Simple Galvanic Circles. — In the formation- of a simple galvanic
circle there are usually metals and a liquid.
Fig. 1 1 constitutes such a circle.

Let C and Z represent respectively plates
of copper and zinc introduced into dilute
acid, and connected by a wire. .\n electri-
cal disturbance Lakes place over all the
surface of the rinc covered by the liquid.
Positive electricity is generated at the zinc
element, and flows through the liquid to the
copper, and thus a constant current is es-
tablished over the wires, as shown by the
arrows.
So far as the galvanic action is concerned.
it matters not whether the plates touch each other or are connected by
wires, as in the figure. A current is formed, whether contact is made
between the plates either above or below the lic|uid. In every instance,
however, a eircuU must be formed, around which llie electricity may (low.
The electricity may traverse the circuit cither in a single current or
in a number of partial currents, into which it may divide itself when
the plates are brought in contact along their whole surfaces. When
the plates, or the wires which connect them, are in contact, the circuit
is said to be closed ; when they are separated, it is said to be breken^ or
n. The electricity is generated wholly by the chemical action of
acid upon the zinc, and, other things being equal, tlie quantity of
'ricity set in motion will be proportional to the extent of zinc sur-
rxposed to llie acid.

w terms Elecfro-f>csiiive and Eleetrfi^egative. — Both in simple

ompotmd circles the electricity always moves in the liquid of the

t (irom the zinc to the copper; and out of the liquid, from the

to the sine This should be remembered, fince the zinc m

Tm. II.

POLARITY or THE CIRCUIT.

<^Ud the tUdro-fositive tltmemt, aUhcugh out of the li^id it is negO'
tivt ; And, consequently, in the dccomposiuon ibat occurs in the
battery, that clement which goes to the linc pole is called the elec'^o-
jiositive element, being attracted by its oppwitc force ; while the
element going to the copper is called, for the same reason, the clcctro-
negative^a current from two liquids and one mctoL

Two liquids and one metal can also produce a circuit as well ss one
liquid and two ntetaU. Becquerel's oxygen battery (pile ii oxyg6ne) it
one of the best arrangements of this kind. The current is produced by
the action of caustic potash on nitric acid, platinum forming the con-
ducting axe

Nomegmeity of tht Galvanic Circuit. — In /rw-fttf/rir/ electricity there
aie points which form the seat of + or — electricity. On the con-
trary, in a wire where a galvanic current is circulating, there are no
Rich ix>int*. Jl has no power, like frictional electricity, to attract or
repel objects. The wire fcel<t and behaves no differently when the
ctirrent is pos^g than when it is not. The wire conducts so much
better tlian the air that the current follows it. Its force is the Ramc at
every point, in the battery or in the circuit. .Making interruptions in
it at different points, and sending currents through solutions of sulphate
of copi>cr, the same amount of copi>cr is deposited at each of the
places where the intemiption is made. If we connect the several
breaks by pieces of platinum wire, each wire wilt be heated to the
•lame temperature.

/« short, the mftgnetic-heaiing and chemical and other effects of the
current are the same at every point in the circuit.

Poiartty of the Circuit. — If the wire in which the current runs be
cut or broken at any point in the circuit, the current ceases to flow-
thai is, ceases to be dynamic, but at the two cut ends there b statical
electricity. One end of the cut wire will be charged with + and the
■other with — electricity. The amount of this statical electricity will
depend on the original strcng^tli of the current before the intemiption
was made.

By the condensing electroscope it can be shown that each end of
the cut wire Is charged with an opposite electricity, and the amount of
this can be estimated If we take away any part of the wire entirely
from the circuit, the piece of wire taken away is out of the circuit en-
liiely; but if the ends of the wires at each point of interruption be
dipped in a fluid that is decomposed by the current, the circuit will be
again completed, and it will be found tliat the part of the wire that is
taken away has op|>osite electricities at the ends.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Similarly, also, the solution in the battery and the metals themselres,
like the corineciiiig wire, are +• at one end and — at the other. The
circuit throughout consists of 4- following — and — following -f-. Ii
appears to be ciectrically the same throughout.

KUetrical Relalions of the EUmenls. — In the galvanic cell, by the
decomposition of the water, oxygen arises at the positive pole and
hydrogen at the negative.

The metals assume opposite electricities, the zinc being positive ajid
the copper negative.

Since electricities that attract each other are opposite to each other,
the substances that arc liberated at the positive pole are called tleciro-
negativf. and the substances liberated at the negative pole arc called
elettrO'Positive. Thus, in the decomposition of the battery, oxygen
which is liberated at the zinc is electro-negative, white hydrogen which
is liberated at the copper or platioum is electro-positive.

The elements have been arranged as to their electrochemicat rc-
lationt when associated in pairs in the galvanic cell. According to
recent chemistry, atoms arc arranged in two classes, according to their
combining power. Positive atoms arc those which are attracted to the
negative electrode in electrolysis, and whose hydrates arc bases.
^fegoHve atoms are those that are attracted to the positive pole in
electrolysis, and whose hydrates are acids. The electro-chemical serief
ire prescDled below :

Eiectro-Chemieai Series.

Negative end — .

Silicon.

Zinc.

Oxygen.

Hydrogen.

Manganese.

Sulphur.

Gold.

Laathaoum.

Nitrogen.

Osmium.

Didymiiitn.

Fluorine.

Iridium.

Cerium.

Chlorine.

Platinum.

Thorium.

Bromine.

Rhodium.

Zirconium.

Iodine.

Ruthenium.

Aluminum.

Seleuium.

Palladium.

Erbium.

Phosphorus.

Mercury.

Yttrium.

Arsenic

Silver.

Glucinum.

Chromium.

Copper.

Magnesium.

Vanadium.

Uranium.

Calcium.

Molybdenum.

Bismuth.

Stronrium.

EtECTRO-CHEMICAL SERIES — AMALGAMATION.

Tungsten.

Tin.

Barium.

BoroD.

Indium.

Lithium.

Carbon.

Lead.

Sodium.

Antimony.

Cadminm.

Putassium.

TeUurium.

Thalliam.

Rubidinn].

Tant&lDtn.

CobalL

Caesium.

Colnmbium.

Nickel

Fositivt end +■

Titanium.

Iron.

Each atom of any of the substances in this list is positive to an^
atom of any substance above it, and negative to any one below it.
These distinctions are therefore purely relative.

Thus, for example, copper, when associated in a galvanic pair in the
projicr fluid with any one of the elements below it, generates positive
dectricity and becomes electro- positive, but when associated with any
one of the elements above it, becomes electro-negative.

The more ctcctro-negative any one of the elements in this series \%
to a given element, the more intense will be the current generated
when they are united in a galvanic pair. For eiainple, the current
generated by zinc and copper "is feebler than that obtained from zinc
and platinum, and the current is less when carbon is substituted for
the platinum. The order in the above arrangement is, however, by no
means absolute. The relative position of the metals depends fre-
fjoently on the \\<\\i\A in which they are immersed. Thus silver is —
toward lead in a solution of dilute sulphuric acid, while in a solution
of cyanide of potassium it is + toward it.

Amalgamatien. — If pure zinc is immersed in dilute sulphuric acid
DO change is manifest, while ordinary commercial zinc is quickly dis-
solved by it. The action of the dilute acid or zinc is due to the im-
inirities of iron or lead which it contains. These tmpnrttics are electro*
negative toward zinc, and they cause la<al eurrrnts of eleetricity.
When the l>aticry is closed, these local currents interfere witli the
action that produces the main current ; when the current is open, they
may still keep up their action, as is evidenced by the bubbling up of
the gases, and thus the zinc may be in time destroyed.

Now, local action in a single battery cell, arising from the above
cause, not only consumes the power of that member, but reduces the
energy of the whole series. In order to avoid this evil, resulting from
local action, it is necessary that the zinc plates be amalgamated with
mercory. The amalgamated surfaces are reduced to one uniform
electrical condition, like pare zinc, and will remain in the fluid for any

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

length of time unacted on, ninil connected m-ith the electro-negati
elcmcoL

At the present time all improved batteries are con^tnicted with am:
gamated zinc

Ilmi' io amalgamatt Zinc. — ^To amalganute zinc, fin>t inmierse it in
solution of dilute sul^^uric acid of almost any strengtli, so as to cle.
the iuffece ; then dip it in mercury, or pour mercury over it, and r
it on frith a bnish or sponge or cloth. The mercury will spread vc
rapidly over the surface of the zinc, and give ii a bright, mercury-li
appearance.

The an of atnalgamaling sine is of great practical importance to t
electro-therapeutist, since nearly all the batteries in common use ha
zinc for one of the metals. Amalganmted zinc was first used for g:
vanic batteries by Kemp, in 1826.

Chemical Aciian the Origin of the Current. — When the electrical
opt'os>(c mctola — zinc and platinum, for example — axe dipped in acid
lated water and united at Ihetr ends, either directly or by a wire, ti
zinc has so strong an attraction for the oxygen of tlte water tliat it unit
with it and forms the oxide of zinc. This oxide of zinc combines wi
the sulphuric acid and forms sulphate bf zinc. The hydrogen of t
water escapes in the form of gas al the ])latinum. The result of tl
ehemical action is a current of eUctrieiiy. The ziuc (the clecu
negative element) dissulvcs, and the quantity of electricity genctab
is proportioned exactly to the quantity of zinc dissolved. t

It had been supposed by Volta and his followers that simple conU
of the metals -was all that was necesiary to excite the current ; b
Faraday showed, by two very beautiful experiments, that mere eonta
was not sufficient — that there must be ehemical action in the cell
order to obtain 3 current. It is possible that all chemical actions a
attended with llie generation of electricity ; but only under certain co
dilions, or when the amount is considerable, are we able to detect iL

In what way does Chemical Action generate the Current f — In sciea
it often happens that tlie simplest and easiest questions arc the harde
to answer. Just how the current h excited by chemical action we (
not fuUy know. We know that when the different metals touch ea(
other, the positive electricity will go to one tmetal and the negative '
the other. This disturbance, however, is only momentary, and equi
brium IE at once restored, and no current continues.

Now we may regard ijie atoms of oxygen and hydrogen that mal
up a molecule of water as charged with opposite eleclridttes, like tw
different metals. \Mten zinc and platinum are dipped in water, tl*

ELECTRICITY AS RELATED TO OTHER FORCES.

positirely charged atom will turn toward one metal and the negative
Towv^ the olhirrj but as long as the nietaJs do not touch each other
tfjc equilibrium is at once restored, and ihcre is no oirrenL The free
ends of the metals are in a state of electric tenaon, and are capable
of discharging themselves into a condenser or Lcydcn jar. \Vhen the
metalt are made to toueh eath ethtr^ or are coHHteted hy vires, they are
relieved of their charge, and again become charged ; then again relieve
^emselves, and so on indefinitely. There ts no equilibrium established,
bat a constant effort to establish it, which never succeeds. This con-
siaoE effort to establish an equilibrium keeps np the current

EleelruUy a Mode of Mot'teiu — Although, for the sake of conve-
nience, we speak of electricity as a current flowing in certain direc-
tions, after the Tuanner of a river, yet, as we have already said, we
chould not thereby be led into the error of supposing that the elec-
tricity is a real fluid flouring through different substances, or from one
substance to another.

Elettrieity is a dtsiurAaitee propagated in the iMecuies of a bfldy,
OMd ai ike tame time in the Ether pervading that body. — The theory that
tight vas caused by the emission of particles from the stm was aban-
doned long ago; and now the theory that light consists of undulations
of ether b considered to be as impregnable as the theory of gravitation.
Similarly we may believe that electricity consists of movements of a
^diflfcrcnt kind from those of light, btit which is variously modified in its
mmifestations by the substances through which it circulates.

The impulse or nrovement that constitutes what we call the current
^ may be regarded as simply a mode of motion.

J^ariiy of Elettricity. — Polarity, or properties in opposite direetionsj
is iwt peculiar to electricity. light and heat may also be polarized,
and chemical attractions and repulsions are h'kewtse manifestations of
the polar qualities of atoms. We may gather a definite idea of the
oaiure of electricity and the character of the so-called "current" by the
following illustration : Let a tube be filled with balls, all of which are
attracted to each other. If the first ball is turned round on its centre,
it will turn in a similar way the next ball, and so on through the whole
ECiies. There is here no progress of a material current, but simply a
wMi«m.

[f the motion is rapidly repeated through the attempt of electricity to
find an equilibrium, we have what we call an electrical cuirent.

ElectrteUy ectverfihle into the other Great Forces.— V/c see in thil
tection on electro-physics many illustrations of the transformation of
one force into another. If we start with beat, we find that it pro-

ELXCTRO-PHYSICS.

duces electricity, and thnni^ electricity produces chemical action,
magnetism, and light. If we start witli magnetism, we 6ii<i that it
produces ekctricity, and throu^ electricity heat, chemical action, and
UgfaL If we start with chemical actioo, we find that it produces heat,
light, and electricity. If we suit with electricity, we find that it pro-
ducer ma^ctism, beat, li^t, chemical action, and motion.

Coaversion of EltctrUUy into Htat. Tlu J&ltetrie Light. — By the
law of the correlation of forces the electricity gcnetatcd in a batteiy
may be converted into heat. This heat may remain in the battery or
be tiaosferred to any part of the circuit. In order to convert the elec-
tricity into heat it must pass through some poor conductor that resists
its passage, and thus compcU it to appear as heaL With ordinary
thick copper wire there is but little sensible heat in the passage of a
current, because copper wire is a good conductor; but when platinum
wire, which is a poor conductor, is used, it is raised under a strong
current to white-heat. This has been utilized in gattiana-eautfry.

In the iUctric light the heat is traiuferred to carbon points interi>osed
in the circuit Particles of carbon become incandescent, and are volatil-
lied and transported from the positive to the negative pole. A metal
or other substance may give an electric light, but carbon, on account of
its Inability, gives a better and stronger light than any other substance,
rhc electric light was invented by Sir Humphry Davy in 1813.

Compound Galvanic Cirdes, — The compound galvanic circle, or gal*

FIC ti.

ic battery, is composed of two or more simple galvanic circles. They
so connected together that the copper of one battery is joined to
tine of the next, and so on throughout the series, lly combining
ther a number of cups nich as are represented in Fig. 13, we form

DERIVED OR BRANCH CURRENTS.

&n excellent compound circuit. Each cup contains a zinc and a coppei
pLitc, which are connected together as described above. By examining
this airaogeoient, it mil be seen that one extreme of the scries is cop>
per and the other zinc If the^ two cxtremc!» or poles are connected
by a copper wire, the current will Bow in the direction of the arrows,
both through the series and over the wires.

Derived^ or Fartiat, or Branch Currents. — When a current in its
passage through any conductor meets with different qualities of resist-
ance, it subdivides into various branch currents. In Fig. 13 the cur.
pent go«s irotn the demenu through the wire r, ^^ /, n, m ; but if a

Tta. II.

second wire, «, *, g be interposed, the current will divide at g, it,
part going by way of g and part around through Jf, «. The divided
currents which go through the wires are called derived or partial cur-
rents. It, instead of one or two wires, a large number were interposed,
the current would subdivide itself as many times as there were wireSi
pait gmog through each wire.

]n thus dividing into derived or partial ciurenls, two laws are
obeyed:

I St. 7^ SUM ef the strength of thf divided eurrtnt is equal ts the
ttremgth of the prineipai current. If (in the figure) the strength of the
current ^, /, » is 40, and g, x, n is 60, then the strength of the prin-
cipal current in r, g^ before division. Is 100.

zd. Tht strength oj the currents in the divided parts is inverjtty
at the resistance ia /hose parts. This law supplements the first, ilc-
Itstance is directly as the length and inversely as the diameter.

If the derived wires are of the same length and diametirr as the prin-
dpal wire, then the current will divide into ci^ual ])aru> between them.
If the derived wires are of the same length as the principal wire, but
of unequal di-inictcrs, the current will divide unequally, according to
the diameter of each wire. The law may be illustrated by thinking of
tlte course that rivers pursue when they are subdivided or split up into

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

deltas. The quantity of water that flows through all Uie aubdivisioQt
or deltas would be equal to the quantity that flowed through the main
stream before the divisions took place. If the subdivisions are of dif-
ferent sises, tlie deepest and widest will couvey
the most water.

^V'hcn etectricity passes through the hurnaa
body it encounters tissues that diflcr considerably
in their cODduclivity, and h«nce it subdivides into
an infinite number of derived or partial current^
the strength of which varies with the nature and
length of the tissues. This point will be further
iilustrated iu electro-physiology and electro-thera-
peutics.

Description ef Gaivanic Batteries. — Under this
head may properly be included, first, a description
of the voltaic pile, which was constructed by Volia
in 1799, and became known in England in 1800.
The apparatus consists of a tiumber of disks piled
ooe above the other. The arrangement is iu the
following order ; A disk of copper is placed on a
frame of wood ; a disk of cloth, moistened by
acidulated water, is then placed oa the copper,
and tlien a disk of zinc on the cloth completes
what is called the voltaic couple. A series of
such couples constitutes a voltaic pile — the ter-
minal copper being the positive and the terminal
line the negative pole.
This apparatus is inconstant and unreliable, easily rorrodes, has
many inconveniences, and is now but little used. Various luodilicalions
of the voltaic pile have been devised, but all of them are too inconstant
for electro- therapeutical ptu-poses, or indeed for any sustained use
whatsoever.

Polarisation in Batteries. — \\'hen two metals, as zinc and ptalinunit
are placed in acidulated water, the platinimi plate becomes covered
witli a film of hydrogen. This hydrogen is electro-positive, like zinc,
and so when the platinum becomes well covered we have clectro-posi*
tive zinc opposed to electro-positive hydrogen, and thus the current be-
comes enfeebled, if not destroyed. This polamatioo in batteries is pre-
vented in two ways :

1st. By keeping the liquids in constant agitation. Blowing into the
iquid with a bellows, or stirring the liquid by any mechanical airangc*

Fib 14.

POLARIZATION OF ELECTRODES.

mcnt, keeps the surface of (he platinum or carbon free from hydrogen,
and thus prevents the weakening of the current.

Dr. Byrne, in his galvano-cautery battery (to be described in the sec<
ttOQ on Klectro-surgery), has availed himself of ibis dcpulahzing power
of mechanical agitation, and has thus succeeded in obtaining agreat and
enduring quantity of electricity from a cotnparativcty Binall surface.

On the same principle we explain the fact that lining the metals out
of the liquid for a moment or two at once increases ihe strength of the
current ^Vhile in action, the hydrogen accumulates on tlie platinum ;
by removing the metals from the liquid an instant, the hydrogen escapes
and the battery u as good as ever.

3d. By the use of tw liquids. The cells of Grove, Daniclls, and
Bunsen, to be hereafter explained, are constructed so a« to avoid po1an<
ration of the metals.

Polaritiition of Electrodes and Currents of Potaritaiion. — ^The elec-
trodes that convey the current tlirough acidulated water also become
polarized.

Oxygen covera the poudve and hydrogert the negative electrode.
Hydrogen being electro-positive, and oxygen electro-negative, these
two gases act like two metals, and if the current of the battery he bro-
ken and tlie two films of oxygen and hydrogen are connected metalli-
cally, an electric cunent is obtained. Just as a current is obtained
between zinc and platinum. In the liquid the current Hows from the
^in of hydrogen to the film of oxygen. Two electrodes covered in
tfatf way with films of gas are called potari&ed, and the currents gene-
rated by these are called the eurrents of polarisation. These currents
of polaiization are always in a direction opposite to the main current^
and tend to interfere with and weaken iL This polarization of the
electrodes takes place roorc or less in all applications of the galvanic
cunent. One evidence of this is the discoloration of the electrodes
that are employed in electrization after long use. To meet this difficulty
wnfolaritable electrodes have been devised. These will be described
under Kleciro- therapeutics.

Stecndary I'Utt and Gas-£atteriet.-~-\f a series of plates of plati-
wam, with moistened cloths between them, be connected with the poles
of a batter>-, the gases {oxygen arvd hydrogen) resulling from the docom*
position of the water accumulate in tilms on the platinum. If now the
series be separated from the battery, it nill itself through the action
between these films of gases, generate a current. A pile thus formed
k called ft suendary pile. It was discovered by Rittcr. n»e gas*
battery of Grove is constructed on the same principle. The gases arf

ELECTRO-PHVSICS.

collected in glass lubes, oxygeo in one and hydrogen in the other, a
in each tube is fastened a platinum electrode. The tubes arc invert
oyer sulphuric acid. When the electrodes arc connected with a g
vanomcter a current is indicated, the direction of which is from oxj-g
to tij'drogen.

There are two genaal varieties of batteries, dffubte and singit eeU.

Doublt'tell Constant Batteries. — ^I'he current produced by cleraci

with a single liquid becomes rapidly enfeebled, because of the polarij

tion. Thi» polaritaiian is prevented in the double-cell batten

of Daniell, Grove, and Bunsen, by placing the electro-ncgalive e

ment in a liquid that is acted upon chcmica
by the deposited hydrogen. Currents frc
these two-cell batteries are called e&mtai
because they do not weaken so rajiidly
currents from single-cell batteries, and II
metals can be allowed to stand all the tin
in the solution.

The term constant is now applied lo |]
galvanic current, however generated,
-*1 II 11 ir^HI M^ dislinguished from the induced or farafl
0t^ ^S^^Ji^i^^^ current. j|

r^»^-_ ii III!- ilJ^i^B? j)anielts Battery.— V\g. 15 rcprosenta
single celL V is a glass or porcelain vcss
nearly filled with a saturated solution 4
sulphate of copper. C is a cylimlcrof co
per, 0]}en at both ends and perforated by a nuniber of holes. (
which is aUo perforated by holes, is an annular shelf at the upper pc
tion of the zinc cylinder, upon which crystals of sulphate of copper m;
be placed 10 supply the waste in the cell caused by the electrical actio
P is a thin porous vessel of unglazed earthenware, containing il
amalgamated cylinder of zinc Z, and a solution either of common s:
or dilute sulphuric acid. The elements are connected in series!
strips of copper,^ and n, which are fixed to Che copper and zinc 1
means of binding-screws. When the circuit in the battery just d
Bcribed is closed, an aloni of zinc replaces and liberates from the nitr
icid two atoms of hydrogen, thus producing sulphate of zinc. Tl
liberated hydrogen rej^laces one atom of copper in the sulphate (
copper, which by electrolytic action is deposited on the copper clemen
or sometimes on the porous cup. Polarization is the resistance to tl
^asage of the current produced by a deposit {s\ich as hydrogen) c

Fic. ts.

DANIELL'S AND GROVE'S BATTERreS. 33

either of the elements. No such deposit occurs in this battery, hence
the current is constant.

Order of the parts in Daniell's sulphate of copper battery: tst, zinc;
3d, solpburic acid ; 3d, porous cup ; 4th, sulphate of copper ; 5th,
copper.

Zn + H. SO, + Cu SO, = Zn SO, + H, SO, + Cu

The current oblamcd bom this battery will flow with undiinini»hcd
suengtfa for hours, and, in fact, is superior to all its fellows in con-
stancy. Daniell's battery was invented in 1836. Tlie modiflcalions
of Daniell's battery are quite numerous ; among them we may men-
tion those of Hill, Siemens- Halske, and Muirhead.

Groves Battery. — This battery differs from DanicII's mainly in the
substitution of a nitric-acid for i^sulphate-of-copper solution, and pla-
tinum for copper, by which increased electro- motive force is obtained.
In Fig. 16, A represents 3 glass vessel containing dilute sulphuric acid,
Z a cylinder of zinc open at both ends, and V a porous pipe-clay vessel
partially filled with nitric add. P is a plate of platinum, with a cover,
C, which rests on the porous vessel when the platinum is immersed in
the nitnc4cid solution \ b and a are binding-screws, which connect re-
spectively with the platinum and zinc

In this arrangement a double reaction occurs between the zinc, sul-
phuric acid and nitric acid, giving as a result, sulphate of zinc, water and
nitrogen dioxide, which is disengaged, and by contact with the air be-
comes nitrogen tetroitide. The reaction in Grove's nitric-acid battery
is as follows : i si, zinc ; ad, sulphuric actd ; 3d, porous cup ; ^tb, nitric
acid ; 5th, platinum.

Zn, -(- (H,SO,), -J- <HMOJ, = {Zn SO,), -|- N.O, -l- (H. O),

ilsft N,0, -f O, = N, O, by contact with the atmosphere. Force
just be lost by the evolurion of these nitrous fumes. Prod Wolcott
Gibbs, of Cambridge, has discovered that a small quantity of bichromate
01* potash in the nitric-acid cup of Grove's battery acts as a deodorizer
by taking up the disagreeable nitrous acid fumes. Thus one of the
most serious objections to the use of this battery is removed.
Grove's battery was invented in 1839. It is very powerful^ and ii
3

bunsen's an^valker*^inc-carbon batteries. 3!

comimuml battery, by means of the clamp m n, and a rod connecting
the carbon of one cell with the zinc of the following.

Bantft't Bichromate Battery. — In this battciy a solution of biehr9-
tt of potash — one part to twelve parts of water— is placed in the

IS cup.

The order of the parts in Bunsen's Bichromate Battery is as follows :
MX, zinc ; id. sulphuric acid ; 3d, porous cap ; 4th, sulph. acid and
biciiromate of potash ; 5th, carbon.

Reaciien.

Za, + (H. SOJ, + K, Cr, O, + (H, SOJ,

= (Zn SO,), + K, Cr. (SOJ. + (H. O),

CArome-a/um, sulphate of xinc^ and vfaier^ are the products. The office
of the porous cup U to keep the bichromate of potash from th>e surface
of the zinc, and thus more uniformity and constancy of action is attained.
While the action of Bunsen's battery is the most energetic of all the
constant batteries, and while the first cost is less than Grove's, it is yet
more expensive to work and more inconvenient to manipulate. Bim-
ten's battery was invented in 184.3.

Waiker's SingU'tell Zitte-earb&n Battery. — In this battery earbcn
is Kubstituted for the platinum of the Smec battery, and (be solution

.used is composed of bichromate of jiotash, sulphuric acid, and water,
the same as in Bunsen's battery. The carbon is usually the pressed
and baked graphite of the gas-works. There is considerable differ*

,,cnce in the quality of the carbon as sold in the market ; the more
lioroughly it is pressed and baked, the better it will be. Carbons tliat
are poorly prepared, or that contain impurities, easily become soaked
wilh fluid and the salts of the solutions, and also generate local currents
that interfere with the main current. Sometimes the carbons are
{llanniied. that is, covered wjtli finely-divided platinum, as is the silver

^ the Smec battery. The proportion of the solution used in Walker's
battery is as follows :

Sulphuric add,

Bichromate of potash, U %\.

Water %Ta\.

The rcactioB is the same as in Bunsen's Bichromate Battery just de-
icn'bed.

To prepare this mixture, add the sulphuric acid to the water, and
when this is eaol, add the bichromate of poLish well pulverized. Do
not immente the elements in the fluid until it is perfectly eool, for viijftn

ELECTXO-PHVSICS.

hot the fluid saturates the carbons and removes the amalgam frona the
zinc, and thus injures very seriously the worktug power of the battery.*
The proportio'DS of sulphuric acid and bichromate of jwtash above given
may be varied more or less as may be desired. Mathematical accu-
racy is not required If, however, the solution h excessively strong,
if the proportion of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid is too
pat, say two or three times what is here given, the battery will wear
away very rapidly and a greenish-black deposit will be found in the
bottom of the cells. This deposit, which someiimcs fomis very haixl,
and is ditficiilt to remove without bieakin^ the glasses, is the chrome-
alum, and is a result of the decomposition of the salts and acids that
takes place while the battery is in action. Like the Smee battery, the
zinc-carbon battery will need to be occasionally amalgamated, but, un-
like the Smee battery, it docs not require any mercury in each cell, and
the presence of mercury will give rise to local action. We speak thus
particularly of the simple zinc-carbon battery, because it is one very
widely used in electjo-lheraixrulics, an<! it is important that its manage-
ment should be well understood. The galvanic batteries of Stohrer, of
the Galvano-faradic Manufacturing Company, and of Kidder, are mostly
of single-cell ziiic-carbim elements. The zinc-carbon battery, like
Smee*^ to be hereafter described, is not constant. If the metals are kept
long immersed in the solution, the power rapidly goes down. It is
necessary, therefore, to keep the metals ouf of the sclution, except when
the battery is in use. In this respect the battery differs very much from
the baltcriefl of firove, Bimsen, and I-cchanchf, wliere the metals are
never removed from the solution except to be cleaned and repaired.

Sme^s Battery. — This battery, invented in 1840, is very economical,
convenient, and easy to manage, and on that account has been COD-
udcrabEy employed in electromagnetic apparatus. It consists of a
plate ot,co^^ug.^led platinum, or silver covered with ftnely-dividcd plati-
num, between the two plates of zinc, in a solution of sulphuric acid and
water {one part to ten or twelve).

The order of the parts io Smee's Sulphuric Add Battery is as follows ;

ist, zinc; 2d, sulphuric acid ; 3d, platinum.

Reactu>n.
Zft + H, SO. = Zn SO. -I- H,

' tt to mil kDown that when sniplitirie acid and water arc mixed, the mlntion be*
comes very hot. The explanation of iMs i«, tliUin mixing, the atonuof [he wiitcrare
Mirkcted to the aionu of the sulphuric ftdd ; In other wordi, vtark is datit. The voL-
nne ii OimhiEihcd 8 per ceat., and the heal that appears is a result of the work tbiu
petCamwd.

SMEE'S AND LECHANCHE'S BATTERIES.

The chemical actioo of this battery is more rapid than that of the sol-
phalc of copper battery, because platinum is more positive than copper*
whose place it occupies in the sulphate of copper battery. The dis-
engigement of the hydrogen is effected by mechanical means, but there
must be a large loss of force in cliaiiging hydrogen to a ga&eous state,
precisely a& force is lost in chajiging water to sleaiii.

The object of corrugating the plutinuui plate, or making it into folds
or furrows, is to give greater surface. The object iti covering it with
finely-divided platinum is to roughen the surface so tliat the hydrogen
will not adhere. Il is customary in using the battery to keep about
half a tablespoonful of mercury in the bottom of the cup, in order that
the zincs may be all the time w::ll amalgainalcd. Care shoidd be taken,
in the preparation of this battery, to prevent
the mercury from collecting on the platinmu
plate. If by any carelessness it docs get
on the platinum plate, it will turn it to the
.color of mercury, and will weaken ur destroy
the foice of ihe batteiy. In this battery
wore or less action goes on even when the
'Connections arc not made ; tliis is evidenced
pby the formation of sulphate of zinc at the top
of the niclals after ihcy have been long im<
mersed. It is therefore an advantage in using
the battery to keep the elements cut erf (he so-
luJion when not needed. If kepi constaittly
inimefsed, like Danicll's batter}', it ver>' soon
loses its i>owerand becomes thoroughly incrustcd with sulphate of zinc
Lidanthes Battery. — During the past few years, tliis batter)* has
attracted great attention in Europe, both among telegraphists and clec-
tio-lberapeulists. The great advantage that is claiiued for it, where it
is not used too long at a time, is that it is far more consunt Uian any
other battery yet invented. The battery was devised by I.eclanchf, a
Frenchman, in [S6S, and bears his name. A Leclanch^ cell consists
of, ist, a cylinder of zinc in a concentrated solution of chloride of am-
pionium ; 2d, a rod of carbon, packed with powdered carbon and na-
tive peroxide of nungancsc in a porous cell. The whole is closed with
a cover. The chemical changes that take place in a Leclanch^ bat-
tery are these : Chloride of ammonium is decomposed, chlorine com-
Bining with the zinc, hydrogen being absorbed by the oxygen of the
peroxide of manganese, and aminooia being liberated. The ammorua
16 absorbed by the water, but in process of time the water becomes

Via. IS.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

saturated, then the ammonia escapes through the opening in t
cover. I

The chemical formula is as follows :

Zn + (CI NH.). + (Mn O.). = Zd CI, + H. O + (NH,), (- Mii,<

Leclanch6's battery was first arranged for electro-therapeutics
Gaiff<£, an iostrumenl-naaker of Pari*. It has been modified by Tripi.
the wcll-knoM-n French clcctro^herapcutist, by Kcyser and Schmii
of Berlin, and a portable form has been devised by Beeli, of Mimic
l.ec1anchi-'8 battery has one great advantage and some disadvantagi
Its advantage lies in its power of endurance. If tiot overworked
will stand for months and years, and yet retain sufficient power to
quite ubcful in eteclro-lherapeutics. This b not true of any otb
battery ; even Danicll's, the most constajit of alt, and as various
modified, requires replenishing or cleaning every few months, else
goes down to nothing.

Its disadvantages are these :

isL It rapidly /i7/3rjr«, and so generates a secondary current til
weakens the main current. This polarization only takes place wtt
the battery is in aaion ; if, therefore, the battery h but Little uscdi
only occaiuonally, this disadvantage does not appear.

ad. The free ammonia that escapes after the water becomes sa1
rated is annoying.

On account of these disadvantages, Leclanch^'s batter)' has notbfl
as popular among telegraphers as was at x>ne time expected it would t
Among Furopcan electro- dicrapcutists, however, it is considerably use
It is sometimes employed in electio-inagnetic or induction macliines.

Caliatis Iron-sine Bailfry. — In this battery the positive plate ,
xinc in dilute sulphuric acid; the negative pUtc is iron in siroi
nitric acid. The great practical difficulty with this battery is, th
imder certain conditions it may suddenly and rapidly evolve nitro
fumes. This complaint has been made even by those who have adopii
this form of battery in electro- surjjical practice. The common cxplan
lion that the phenomena displayed by this battery are due to the pi
sivity of iron, is not in accordance with the more recent doctrines i
physics. Tliis fact is a serious objection to the use of these battcri
In electro-therapeutics. They have been employed, however, for ti
purpose of galvano-cauterj.

Woiiasf&rfs Zint'topper Batttry. — ^This form of battery, devised 1
Wollaston in i8ot, is now pretty well displaced by modem improv

ZINC-COPPER BATTERY— WATER BATTERY. 39

meDts. It consists of a copper vessel, enclosing a solution of sulphate
of copper, a zinc plate, or a sheet of copper folded over a piece of
nnc so as to have beih faces of the zinc exposed 10 chemical action,
and so increase the quantity of electricity. The tvo objections to the

«ery arc, that it is not constant, and the n>clals must be kept out of
'tfie soluiion except when in actual use, and that the zinc becomei
rapidly corroded vith a deposition that weakens the force of the bat-
tery. Ttiis deposition must be constantly cleared and scraped ofi^ if
wc would keep up the strength of the current.

The order of the [>arts in the sulphate of copper battery, ungle cell,
is as follows ; ist, zinc ; sd^ sulphate of cupper ; 3d, copper.

Reaction.
Za -f Cu SO« 1= Zd S04 -f Cu

In this battery any local action on the zinc will deposit metallic
copper in tlie form of a black gxiwder upon the zinc, or an oxide of
C0|>per, which forms a covering on the surface of the zinc

For this reason the zinc must be amalgamated or else frequently
cleaned. Sulphate of copper rau:>t be frequently added, so tJiat the
battery sJiall be charged with a saturated solution of that salt ; but care
must be taken that the solution of sulphate of zinc does not approach
saturation.

The necessity of frequently cleaning and scraping the zinc In this
battery is a most serious disadvantage, and on that account mainly it is
not to be recommended to the electro-therapeutist.

WaUr Batttry. — If a large number of cylinders of zinc and copper
be immersed in inralcr in glass jars, and are properly protected from
light and dust, a current of electricity will be produced. A battery
of 130 pairs causes the gold leaves of the electroscope to diverge, and
1,200 pairs gives a strong shock. A battery of 2,000 or 3,000 pairs is
very powerful. Batteries of this kind have been constructed by Crosse,
Koad, and GasbioL

These »-atcr batteries will keep their power for years, provided water

supplied to them to make up for the loss fmm evajioraiion. They
''take up a large 5|>ace, and, on account of the great resistance of the
water, give but a smatl quantity of eUetrictty. For these two reasons
Ihcy offer no ad^'antagc for medical use.

Marine Batitry.~-K sca-watcr or marine battery has been constructed
by Duchemin, of France. A cylinder of carbon and zinc, attached
10 a cork, is put mto the sea, and connected with the shore by con-

ELECTRO-PHYSICS,

ducting wires. As the oceiui fuiatshes Uie exciting Quid, it needs 1
repknisluig. It was hoped that a battery of this kind might be I
sufficient strength to furnish an electric light (or light-bouse*. 11
hope, so Oir as we knour, has not been realized.

Dry Pile. — Dry piles have, instead of liquids, some solid hygromen
substances^ as paper or leather. There are many varieties of d
piles. Those of Zamboat, which are best known, are composed i
tin or silver and binoxide of manganese. A piece of paper is tinni
or silvered on one side, and the other side is covered with powdcrt
binoxide of manganese. These sheets are cut into disks, about oi
inch in diameter, and arranged so that tlie tin or silver of each disk
in contact with [he manganese of the next in the series. A Zambo
pile of 300 couples is very feeble and slow in its ftccion, but it CI
charge a Leyden jar, and it is quite permanent

Instruments for Measuring EUetriciiy. — The instruments for me
suring electricity arc quite numerous, and some of them arc ve
delicate. It is necessary here to describe only a sufficient number t
illustrate the principles involved.

Tht Voltameter.— 'We voltameter is an instrument devised by Far
day to measure the strength of the galvanic current. It is a graduaK
tube that receives and accurately measures the quantity of gas that
generated by the decomposition of water by the current in a give
lime.

In Fig. 19 the platinum needles connected with the poles of the bi
tery are inserted through the cork, at the end of the tube. The gas«
that result from the electrolysis rise to tlie top, as tile tube is held u|
right, and repel the water through a hole in the cork.

rt;r:T:x:::tr^

PIC !»■

!r::T:;t::,ztJ.-t,:J;.n;::
■■111

Thb is a very trustworthy method of measiiring currents and o
comparing batteries. If we wish to ascertain how one battcrj- con
pares with another in strength, or whether a battery has weakened h
use or long standing, or whether the suength is sufficient for a powe
ful electrolytic operation, the voltameter will give us precisely the infoi
mation we seek.

Galvanometers. — A galvanometer is an instrument for indicating th
presence and direction of a current, and for measuring its suengti
'ITicrc arc scverU varieties of galvanometers, but all are constructed o;

GALVANOMETERS.

diesame general principle— a tnagnet freely hung so as to be defiteied *j
th£ passage of a current through a coil of insulated wire. Galvanom
etcrs wilh a long coil — suniL'times called "iemion" galvanonielcrs —
arc used to measure ciicuils of large rcsislancc. fJalvanoinelers with a
short coil — aometiiaes called "quantity" gaJvanometerii — are used to
measure circuits of small resistance. The explanation of this difference
vill appear in the chapter on Ohm's Law.

FK. m.

Astatie Galvanameter. — This form of galvanometer is used either to
detect the simple presence of a current, or to measure the strength of a
VKok curienl. Let A and B, Fig. zo, represent two needles of about
equal strength, having the same axis, and having their poles reversed
m reference to each other. The needles will settle a very little in the
meridian, from the fact that one of them is very islightly more highly
magnetized than the other.

C is an iosulatcd wire, bent around the lower needle several times.
VMien a current is passed through thi» wire, the needles will be influ-
enced to tarn in the same direction. In this way the passage ot the
most feeble current may be detected. In connection with a thermo-
electric pile, thLt instrument is capable of indicating a change of tem-
perature of only a very small fraction of a degree. Galvanometers
which have a long resistance coil, and in which a branch resistance coil,
or " shunt," as U is called, is interposed, may be used to mea&ure
itreng currents (see chapter on Ohm's Lan), and are iheiefore con-
venient in comparing bntterles. A galvanometer of this kind that we
employ will be described under electro-therapeutics.

Thcmson's Refitcting Galvanometer. — Sir Willimi Thomson has done
much to advance the science of electrology by the consinictioa of
his reflecting or mirror galvanometer, which will indicate the presence
of very slight currents. This instiiuuent cousiiits of die coils of a gal*
Tanameler, between which arc suspended, by a single silk fibre, a
mirrot and magnet, which, when it moves under the influence of a cur-

ELBCTKO- PHYSICS.

reat, is redeclei tliroiigb a. lens on a graduated seal: placed At a 1illl«
distance in front of it. A lajnp is placed behind the screen, which
contains a slit, through which the light passes to the mirror, from
which it is reflected back on the gtaduaicd scale. When the magnet
is dcltected by the passiige o( a current through the coil, the image
moves to the right or left along the scale, the angle nwdc by the re-
flected image being twice the an^le through which the mirror and
magnet arc (ictk*c ted. A very small defit<tion of the magnet pre-
duets a very great dhfilacement of the rejfeeted image on the screen, and
thus a very slight current con be delected.

This instrument, as that of Wiedmann, of Gennany, is much used
in delicate electro- physiological researdies.

JiheestaUi; Instruments far Measuring Resistance. — The rheostat,
an instrument invented by \^1lcat»tone, was OTigin.illy designed to
ascertain the relative amount of resistance of different conductors. In.
electro-therapeutics it is emjktoyed to interpose resistances In the circuit,
eta, so as lo delicately modify the strength of the current within small
fractions of the strength of an elejnent.

Id electro- physiological investigations, as also in certain branches of
electro-therapeutics — particuUrly in applications to the ear — rheostates
have been used. The form employed by IJrenner and others, and also
the water rheostat, will be doscribed tn electro thcrapeuli^rs.

Early J/isIory of Gaivanism. — In the year 1 786, while Galvani, Pro-
fessor at Bologna, was experimenting with an old-fashioned electrical
machiiie that lay near a di^h of frogs chat hud been prepared, it is
stated, fur his gick wife, he noticed that the frogs jumjicd whenever a
spark was drawn from the conductor of the machine. On observing
this, it occurred to him that perhaps he had found a means of detect-
ing atmospheric electricity more delicate than he had previously em-
ployed. In order to test this, Galvani took the di&l) of frogs, and, with
his nei^fhbor Caiiiillo, went out on the terrace of his house.* ]t was
a clear evening in the early part of September, and no marked dec*
trie phenomena were apparent in the air. Fixing an iron hook in the
spine of each frog, he suspended it from the iron raiting.

Beheld spontaneous movements appeared in the frogs, various im
their e/iarader and ^uite frequent t

That moment was the birth of the science of Galvanism. At once
there flashed on the mind of Galvani the query, IVhat causes these ton'

* At No. 96, in Sliatio S. Feticv, Bulogta, tbe liousc wlicrc Galviuii lived, with
lenace anil railing*, It (till ihOM-a lo ItavcLIcts.

EAKLV HISTORY OF GALVANISM.

trattmu t Tbere were no electric disturbances in the air ; the electric
nucfame was far away inside the house. Could there be electricity in the
frogs themselves ? lu the history of science tt often happens that a
theory partly false guides us into facts that are wholly true. Thus it
happened to Galvuu.

From that uiomeDt until he died, he lived in an atmosphere of ex-
peiinienL Frogs without number were slaughtered, and all for the
poryose of prox'ing to hiinsclf and Others that it was animal eUetrieify
that caused iliese contractions.

Galvani's researches, as soon as they were made public, in 1791, ex<

dted great iateresi among scicnlific men, and inspired him to make
another attempt to master the mysteries of electricity. At the time
when Galvani made his discover)*, the interest excited by the discovery
of the I-cydcn jar and Franklin's kite, about forty years previously,
hod died out l^ilosophers bad followed the vein thus opened, about
as lar as it seemed to lead They supposed that the battles of ele^
tricity were all fought out, and so they were laying aside their armor.
On the announcement of Galvani'a discovery, his experiments were re-
peatcd all over Europe, and the theory that die contractions of the ma»-
rles of the (rog were due to animal declncity was universally adopted.
Vatt^t Rtitarchet : Tht Theery of Contact and Chemifol Acticn.—'
iViuong those who were stimulated by the discovery of Galvani, wai

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Volu, Professor of Physics in Favia, luly, who had already been long
distiiiguished sis an electrical cxpcriiucater, and who, in the koowledge
of this special branch, was far superior to Galvani.

At hrst \'oUa accepted Galvani's tlicory of animal eUcirieity, but
subsequent icscarch caused him to doubt its truth. He observed that
it was only by means of heterogeneous tuetals that muscular contractions
could invariabiy be produced, and hence he denied the existence of
animal clcctricily, explainicg the phenoinenoa of muscular contractions
through (he intlucnce of the aru^cial clccthcjq' excited by a beteroge'
Dcuus metallic C0'inbina*ion.*

Galvani then not only demonstrated that contractions could readily
be caused by exactly homogeneous metals, but that the phenomenon
was produced by the simple contact of nerve and muscle. His manner
of experimenting was as follows : The leg of a frog, denuded of its skin,
had its sciatic nerves cut at their exit from the vencbral column. The
nerves thus denuded were taken gently up by some non-conductor and
made to it>uch one of the muscles, when the leg would immediately
become convulsed. Volta eudeavorcd to prove that the concussion
caused by the contact of ncr\'c and muscle was the caiisc of the electric
current thus produced ; but Galvani conclusively demonstrated tliat such
could not be the case, by placing a non-conductor between the two n%-
sues, when no action could be excited in the leg. He went further,
and at last succeeded in producing muscular contractions when only the
oeivei of DOD-prepared legs were brought in contact.

The discovery of the Voltaic pile, which excited great interest in
men of science, seemed to decide the battle for Volta, and all the
efforts of Galvani to convince philosophers of the existence of animal
electncity were in vain. Galvani's first observations on frogs dates back
as far is tySo. He lirst published his researches in 1791.

Volta did not undertake the investigation of the subject until 1793,
the year following the publication of the researches of Galvani. And
yet Volta has almost equal claim to be the founder of the science of
galvanism ; for while Galvani discovered the new manifestation of
electricity, he failed to comprehend its true value, while Volta, by the
discovery of the pile which bears his name, demonstrated what Galvani
would never believe, but which Prof. Fabroni, of Florence, had in 1793
!iug);cstcd, that chemical action was the source of the electricity in Gal-
vani's experiments.

* The ttKor7 llut the eiperiiDcnt of tfalTsni could be cxpUiaed by cbemual Ktiua
wu Gnt ntQjntcd by Ttoi. Fabroni, ofFlorcDce, \a 1792.

CHAPTER IV.

ELECTROLYSIS (eLECTRO-CHEUISTRT).

EtECTROL^'Sls, derived from ^iMerpm and Xvm, through Xvirn, diseii'
Ifagitig, h the act er process of dteomposing a comfound subslante by
tttetriciiy.

Eleciro-chemicul dccomposirion ukes place at bnth potcs, hiil with
different products and manifestaiions according to the strength of the
current, the nature of the siibsunces acted upon, and the material of
which the electrodes are composed.

History of Eitclrolysts. — ^The chemical effects of statical eUetricUy
verc first investigated by Drs. Priestley and Cavendish, in 1784. Tiie
decomposition of warer by passing through it a succession of discharges
of statical electricity was first discovered, in 1789, liy Messrs. Dicnian,
Paeo, Van Troostwyck, and Culhbertson. The power of the gahatiie
current to decompose water was discovered and first described by
AfeSivrs. Nicholson and Carlisle, in 1800. They experimented with the
voltaic pile, which had then just been discovered. These ex|>erimenl8
en ilao decomposed other substances by the galvanic currcni. On
Nov. ao, 1806, Sir Humphry Davy presented to the Ro)tiI Societj- a
lectore *' On some Chemical Agencies of Klectricity," and in the fol-
lowing year he announced his discovery of the decomposition of tbe
filed alkalies. Between 1831 and 1840 Faraday published his " £x-
fcrimrntoi Rtsearchts in J&Uctricity" in one of the most rcniaj-kable
scries of scientific essays that ever proceeded from the pen of man.

Terminahj^ of EUetrclysis. — With the aid of* two friends, Faraday
prepared the following terminology of electrolysis, which is now gener-
■Uy adopted. The poles where the electricity passes in and out of the
body Uiat is undergoing decompositioa are called eUetrodts {ri^init^wt
umJ i&ie. way). Tbe surface wljere the current enters the dccompoj*
'\x\% body is called the anode (&a, upward, and 0^, way) ; the surface
where the current leaves the decomposing body is colled the cathode
(•ara, downward, and i&It, way). The anode is in contact with tiio
ftoiitirf pole and the cathode with the negative.

ELECTRO -PHYSICS.

Practically, anode is used as synonymous with positive pole, i
cathode with negative, although, strictly speaking, anode and citht
refer to the foinis of the decomposing body, and positive and negat
to ^K poUs cf the battery that arc in contact with these.

Conipnund »ib!>tanccii that are directly decomposable by the ctirrt
are called eUelrclytes (^^^CT-pov, and Xwi», decompose). To eleetrol^
a body is to chetnicatly decompose it by the cnrrent. The act of p
ducing electrolysis is called electrolysation.

The elements of an electrolyte arc Icriucd i^ns, (cUi'. participle
the verb ii^i, to go). Those ions that ap[je.^r at the an^de are tenr
anions, those which appear at the cathode are tenned cations. F
nicrly anions were termed electronegative, and cations the electro-pc
live elements of the compound. Water, for example, ia an electro);
that evolves nvo tons — oxygen and hydrogen ; oxygen goes to l
anode and is the anion ; hydrogen goes to the cathode and is )
cation.

No substance can be an electrolyte which is not a conductor ; 1
in the readiness with which they are decomposed substances widi
vary. Every electrolyte must contain more or less of water. Pi
water, though an electrolyte, is yet decomposed only with great di
cidty ; hilt by adding to ii a little sulphuric acid, or certain salts, it v»
easily undergoes electrolysis. It is furthermore believed that no tli
can be a conrlucfor wilhoot also being an electrolyte; that is, more
less eleclro-cheuiical tircomposttion cntist take place when the gatvai
current passes through any fluid. Substances that are found to be rca
clectrolyles are chloride of sodium, muriatic acid, and iodide of pot
sium.

Laws cf Electrolysis. — Although electrolysis, like all other pi
nomena connected with atomic changes, is but imperfectly understo<
yet some of the general laws of its operation have been already w
ascertained.

Among the more important of these laws the following may be eq
mcrated : 1

1. Definite RUctro-ehrmieal Aetian. — It has been fonnd that wTi
several substances are simultaneously decomposed fay the current, I
elements that are evolved are definite in quantity and are electi
chemical equivalents of each other. This law, which was discovered
Faraday, may be thus illustrated. Let the current be sent successive
through a series of cells filled with oxide of lead, chloride of lead, w
chloride of silver. The different substances would combine in the fi
lowing proportions :

LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS.
Al the Positive Pole.

Water. 8 grs. oxygen.

Oxide of lead 8

Chloride of lead . . . 35.5 grs. chlorine.

Iodide of lead 127 grs. iodiae.

Chloride of silver. . 55.5 grs. chlorine^

At the Ntcftthe Pole
I gr. hydiogeo.
i»3-5 grs. lead

103.5 "

J03S "
loS grs. silver.

I
I

I liese numbers, it will be seen, represent the combining proportion!
of these substances.

Substances combine in equivalent proportions j they are decomposed
UQ the same equivalent proportions,

». Primary and S^eondary R<tuUs. — The rcsultsof electrolytic action
are distinguL-ihed zs. primary and seeondary. The results are called /rr-
wiaty when the elements that are decomposed appear at tlie electrodes
uarhanged atvd uncombtned ; the results are called SdPndary when
thf elements that are decomposed are changed or recombincd when they
apjjcar at the electrodes. The secondary results arc favored i>y the
nascent condition of the elements that are decomposed. The secondary
results are caused by the action of the decomposed elements on the sub*
ttaoce of the electrode, or ort the substance itself that is undergoing
deccKn position. Even the decomposition of water, when diluted with suJ-
phuric acid, is really a secondary result. Perfectly pure distilled watet
does not perceptibly decompose even under quite a strong current. If a
few drops of sulphuric gases are added, the acids are freely disengaged.
The sulphuric acid H,SO,»is disengaged by the current into H, at the
negative and SO, at the i>ositive pole ; the former H, is liberated,
and ihc latter SO, at the positive pole aas on the water and ftjrras
sulphuric acid again. Secondary decomposition is modified by the
material of which each electrode is composed. Thus in decomposing
sulphuric acid, when the positive electrode is mad"* of carbon, the oxy-
gen decomposed acts on the carbon, forming carbonic acid and carbonic
oxide. Elcctro-rhcmical action coptinucdfor weeks, months, and years,
as was done by thai very laborious exjMrrimenter, Mr. Crosse, of Broom-
field, may produce as secondary residis interesting minerals, such as
quartjc, arragonite, malachite. During these experiments in electro-
cry stall t ration Mr. Crosse discovered that remarkable insect, the
ararus, which appeared in cleclrized solutions of sulphate of iron,
solphate of zinc, and nitrate and sulphate of copper. It was supposed
tha.t the acari arose firura ova deposited by insects floating in the at*
niosphere, and that Uicy mi^ht possibly be haichc<I by electric action.
A* ft reward for this discover}-, which now seems to be almost forgotten.

ELECTRO- PHYSICS.

Mr. Crosse was subjected to absurd and outrageous abuse, a< thougl
he were infringing on the prerogatives of the Creator. Mr. VVcckcs, of
Sandwich, in Kent, subsequently repeated the experiments of Crosse by
passing electrical currents duomgh &ilicale of [)ota<<h in glass receivers
over mercury. All possible care was taken to keep out foreign matter.
After a consLint aclion pf a year, insects appeared, entirely siniilar to
tliosc obtained by Mr. Crosse, The metallic deposits in electro -metal-
lizing are the secondary results of the electro-chemical decomposition.
Water i& electrolysed, hydrogen is disengaged at the catliodc, and oxy-
gen at the anode ; but the hydrogen, reacts on the metallic solution,
combines witii its oxygen, and frees the metal. The oxygen also cotn-
bineswith an elenienit at the anode. In the^section on Electro-Surgery
it will be found that the secondary decomposition ia utilized in the selec-
tion of the materi.il used for needles in galvano- puncture,

3. Tlis Differential A ctwn of the Poles. — Different elements go to the
anode and the cathode, according to the nature of the substance dc*
composed and ttie miienal of which the electrode is made.

PtatinuM-tvire makes the best electrode for electrolytic experiments
on various substances, because platinum is not acted on. Copper and
silver wire may be used, but the secondary action which they cause
greatly complicites the experiment.

To distinguish the precise character of the changes that take place in
the electrolysis of many substances is frequently difficult, and sometimes
impossible. It is difficult to decide whether any of the elements of the
electrolyte, besides water, undergo decomposition ; and whether the
changes are of a primarj* or secondary character.

Among the substances that are most readily decomposed by the t^cc^
trie current are the following :

Iodide 0/ Potassium. — ^This decomposes under a very feeble current,
the iodiile and oxygen going to the positive and the hydrogen and al-
kali to the negative. Thus tiie decomposition of iodide of (Kjlassiura
by electricity affords a very good means of distinguishing the poles.
The brown color of the iodine alw-iys appears at the positive pole. The
whole solution soon presents the color of iodine.

Oilpride of Sodium. — A solution of common salt decomposes quite

readily, chlorine appearing at the positive and hydrogen and oxide of

wdium at die negative pole. If the positive needle is platinum, the

Hor of chlorine is at once delected; if it is of copper, the chlorine

ites with the copper, making the solution turbid.

Acetate 0f Lead. — This salt in solution decomposes with coroparaliva
nw^s by secondary action, peroxide of lead appearing at the posi-

THEORY OF ELECTROLYSIS.

dre pole, and hanging from it in light threads or masses. The iratet
OequcDtly decomposes before the tead yiuhls at all

iVoiiiiis trisSings. — It is by the electrolysis of lead that the beau-
tiful iris-rings are produced. A polislied steel plate is put in a dilute
solution of acetate of lead. Tlie steel plate is connected wiih ihe
positive pole of a galvanic baiieiy, while a wire, connected with the
negative pole, is put in the solution. Peroxide of lead is at once libe-
rated on the slccl beneath the wire, and a film extends outward, but
growing thinner aud thinner. *i'hus a scries of concentric circles is
fbnned exhibiting bn'ght iris colors.

NUrie AiU.— Strong nitric acid con<lucts well anil decom|K>ses, oxy-
gen appearing at the positive pole, nitrons acid and nitric oxyd at the
negative pole. Dissolution lakes place, and the water becomes yellow.

Nitrate of Potash.— "XM^'^ a good conductor, and yields secondaiy
results.

Sulphurous Acid. — This, when diluted, yields oxygen at the positive
pole, and hydrogen and sulphur at the negative.

Sulfhurie >4rrrf.— This yields siilphnr at the negative pole, and pio-
duces secondary results.

Munatif Atxd. — A strong solution of this yields hydrogen at the
negative |X)le, and chlorine at the positive ix)le.

EUflro-mttallurgy. — Electro-metallurgy, or the art of precipitating
metals from their solutions by the galvanic current, is a result of the
discovery of electrolysis —is indeed itself simply an electrolytic pro-
cess. There arc two divisions of this art — elecuolyping and electro-
plating. The ait of electro -metallurgy was discovered, independently,
by %)«Dcer, in England, and Jacobi, in Petersburg, in 1837. Electro-
gildiny was discovered by Drtignatelli, a pupil of Volta, bot was first
used by AL de la Rive.

Theory oj EUctrotysis. — The theory of electrolysis at present accepted
is the following: In every compound one of the elements is electro
positive, the other, electronegative. Under the influence of the
ojiposing electricities from the electrodes, decomposition and recompo*
sition go on from one pole to the other. But these decompositions and
recompositions are seen only at Ike eUitradiS.

This may be illustrated by the electrolysis of water. Water is com-
posed of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. Oxygen is
cicctro-negaitive and hydrogen is electro-positive.

When, now, tlie electrodes are dipped in water, the eIccfro.negative
oxygen of the molecule tt {Fig. 32] is attracted to the positive polCj and
the clectpo-negative hydrogen is repelled.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Jbt' tf t' i-' s-' 5^ &'4-

4 1V-:'

The oxygCD is then given off at the posidve pole, while the libera
hydrogen unites itself vith the next atom of oxj^en of the mole<

6, whQe the original atom of
drngen is expened.

This atom of hj-drogen un

with the oi>-gen of the raolec

drives out the hydrogen <

'""^ =■ which that atom had been ]

viously combined, and so on through the whole scries of molec

until the n^ative pole is reached. Here the hydrogen has lui it

oxygen to combine with, so it is liberated as gas.

'J'be electrolysis of all other electrolytes is similarly exj^ned. 1
simple and ingenious theory was devised by GrottbOss.

Decomposed Elements appear only at tkt Eiectrod<s.-^\xk electn^
the elements decomposed appear only at the electrodes ; the inter
diate region (iresents no change, although, of course, it must be t
er&ed by ttie decompositions that occur. This is illustralcd by
followitig exiteriment of Davy : Three vessels are connected by a
ton wick thorougtily moistened. In one vessel is placed an alkaline I
»nd in the other two, water. The liquid of all three vessels is colt
with syrup of violets. When the galvanic current is made to pass Ihn)
the vessels, the liquid at the negative pole becomes green, and
liquid at the positive Itecomes reii, demonstrating that the acid goa
the positive and the alkaline base to the n^^tive pole. The Sail
the middle vessel sufieie<l do change of color, although it miut fa
been traversed by the acid in the solution.

Eleetrelytii compared tixilh the Rraeliont in the Batteries. — It w3
observed that the chemical action that takes place in the Stiids of
battery is similar to eledrolpis. The two are, indeed, facts of '
cisely the same nature. The action in the bauery is accompanied
an electric current ; the action in electrolysis occtus as a result of
passage of a current.

In the section on Electro-Surgery it will be shown that all these i
aical laws of electrolj*3is hav: a direct and necessary bearing on the
of electrolysis in surgery.

CHAPTER V.

INDUCED BLKCTRICITY — CHRRHNTAMJ MAGNETO- INDUCTION — ELECTRO-
UAUNETISM — TllERMO-EI^ECTRIC UATTRfclES.

Induced Eiecfrieify, or £lecfro-Magnttism : Elutrodynamital Induc-
tion. — \Ve hive seen that inducticn means the action that electrified
bodies exert on other bodies at a distance. Elcctro-statical induction
bas already been treated of. We have now to speak of the induction
of current-electricity.

Prof. Oersted, of Copenhagen, first observed that the electric cur-
rent, brought near a aia^tnetic needle, caused it to deflect. This was
the earliest ohscrvaiion in c)ectro<magneti»in.

Philosophers at once set themselves at work to explain this phenome*
non. The discovery was not an accidental one on the part of Oersted.
For years he had been occupied with the study of electro-phyacs, and
as eatly as 1S07 be had published a work in which he slated tiiat he
purposed to ascertain whether electricity in its rao&t latent state had
any effect on the magnet. His first discovery that the needle had a
tendency to place itself at right angles to Ihe wire in which a current was
passing, was a natural sequence and confirmation of his early researches.
This discovery by Oersted formed another era tn tlie science of elec-
tricity; for in [Szo tlie enthusiasm caused by the discoveries of Galvani
and Volta had subsided, just as the entitusiaara caused by the Leyden
jar and Franklin's kite bad died away when Galvani made his renowned
experiment.

Ampir^s TTuory of Magnttism. — Among the many scientists who
sought to explain and unfold the phenomena of electro-magnetism as
discovered by Oersted, it was reserved for Ampirc to achieve the
highest success. This theory, which was developed by rigid matheraat-
ical demonstrations, was, that lath mokcuie of a magneiic body is trav-
trsed by thsed tUetric currtnts. These currents are free to move
about their centres of gravity, but the eoerettivt force, which is weak in
uft iron bat great m steel, tends to keep them in position.

ELECTRO -PHYSICS.

Before a magnetic body is magnetized these molecular currents, i
rings of ekciiiciiy, by their mutual attraction nctitmlize each othe
so chat their combined action on any other substance is noiliing.

WTieu a body i» magnetized, these mohatlar currents assume a para
M direction. The mote complete the magnetization, the more nearl
parallel they become. When they are completely parallel, the limit c
magnetization is reached. Ampere further supposes that all tliese nv
Iccular currenls are equivalent to a single current circulating round th
magnet Still fiirther, and in consonance with his theory, Ampere suj
posed that terrestrial magnetic effects were due to magnetic curteni
that circulate round the earth from east to west, perpendicular to th
magnetic meridian. The resultant of these currents is a single cui
rent going from east to west. These currents, which are suppose
to be due to the action of the sun, deflect magnetic needles, m3gn<
tize iron, etc

Hie Electric Current acts as a ^fagnei : Solenoids. — In confiroM
don of Amp^c's theory of magnetism, it is found that when a hc]i:c, o
spirals of covered wire, coated in such a way ihat one of the wires passe
through the axis (solenoid, as it is called}, is suspended into cups o
mercHty, and traversed by a current, it will act like a magnetic needl
and point from north to Boulh. Am]>ire gave the fotlon-ing rule b
which ihe directions of the needle under the current can be undei
stood : Let the observer imagine himself placed in the wire, so that ;
current enters at his feet and leaves at his head, while his face is tumei
toward the needle; the pole will always be deflected toward the lej
of the observer.

Helix.— \r\ a helix of a copper wire through which a current circu
lates, each convelul'wn of the spiral vrOiy be regarded as one of die littli
magnets of Ampere's theory. The ends of the spiral, when the ciirren
passes through it, act on a magnetic needle hke the poles of a magnet
Ampere's theory explains two important magnetic phenomena.

ist. Why tike poles repel and unlike attract.

Two north poles of a magnet side by side have opposite cnr
rents and repel each other. Similarly with two souch poles. But I
nortli and south have currents in the same direction and attract eact
other.

2d. Why a magnetic needle places itself north and south, h
magnet can come to rest only when the current below it, nearest the
earth, is parallel to the earth-current. The magnetic needle turns to
the north to allow the currents below it to become parallel to the earth'i
cttnent

ELECTRO -MAGNETIC HELIX,

rio.1).

Bitctr^magntiic Helix. — Magnetism is indnced in a, bar of soft iron
by the simple passage of a current near tt, in a direction at right angles
to the bar. If, however, the vriru (Fig. 33) cndidcs the iron many
times, this effect will be much in-
creased. Let a cuirent be passed
over the wire in the direction of the
arrows, and the iron within will be-
come strongly magnetic, with its
poles as shown by the letters S and
N, If the enclosed iron be not too
heavy, it will be drawn to the centre
and held suspended there.

When the current is broken, the iron ceases to be magnetic; while,
if a bar of hardened sieel be substituted Tor the iron, it will reiaia its
magnetism permanently. Such a coil of wire is called a helix, firom
iX(^ a winding, and a magnet formed in the manner described is tenned
an tUetro-magnel.

Fig. 34 represents the general fonu of an electro-magnet. It is com-
posed of a bar of sod iron, bent into the
form of a horseshoe- An insulated wire is
coiled round its extremities. \\'hcn a cur-
rent of electricity ts passed through the coil,
_4be borseshoc-bar becomes magnetic, and
Itiacts the armature. If ilie current is
)kcn, the bar becomes demagnetized and
^Ihe armature falU to the ground. Perma-
nent magnets possess much less power than
electro- magnets.

If the iron bar withiu the helix be more
than a third of an inch in thickness, and the
LCurrent be of moderate strength, the mag-
Etuuu induced is in proportion to the
Mtength of the current, and of the nnmber of turns in the coil. Ad-
ditional coils of the wire give 00 increased magnetism, if the bar is
^thinner thao onc-tliird of an inch. In tliis cose maximum is soon
reached. Again, if the circuit is made very long, thus reducing the
strength of the current, the advantage usually gained by the thick bar,
and by increasing the number of coils, may be lost The iron bar
lid be perfectly pure and well annealed, in order Chat the electro*
'magnet may quickly acquire and as quickly lose its iiia£;netisiu on
rlosing and breaking ilie circuiL

Fi&u.

ELECTRO- PHYSICS.

Direction of t/u Indtu«d Current. — If a current of electricity is passed

through any conductor, it will in*
duce a current in the opposite dirce-
tion in a second conductor situated
parallel to tJie IJnit. Let A B, l-'ig.
ttn-ay 35- tie a wire connected at either

extremity with tlie jjoIcs of a gal-
vanic battery, and M N a second wire parallel and near to the first.
As soon as the circuit is formed and a current passes from -f to — , a
■ccondary current is induced in the second wire, but in an opposite
direction.

This current ts, however, but for an instant. As soon as the circuit
^broken, an instantaneous current, with its direction reversed, is again
established in the second wire.

Different Orders of Induced Currents. — Induced or secondary cur-
rents have themselves the power of producing induced currents in other
adjacent circuits. Currents thus induced from secondary induced
currents are called tertiary induced currents. These tertiary induced
currents have also the power of producing induced airrents in an ad-
jacent circuit, and so for a long series.

Currents produced in this way are in apposite directions alternately,
and tlieir strength diminishes Uie higher they ascend.

As a secondary current flows in a direction opposite to that of the
battery current, so the tertiary flows in a direction opposite to the
secondary. This law holds good througliout the whole scries, — the
strength of the current diiuinishitig as the distance from the battel;
increases.

The ntanifestatioo of electrical action in the secondary coil, upon
closing and breaking the circuit, is called the electric throb, while the
passive condition of the wire while under induction has been described
by Faraday as electro-tonic.

Ifthc primary coil be movable, sw that it can be brought in closer
proximity to the secondary coil while the current is passing, an inverse
current is produced at the moment of its approach, the same as when
the circuit is closed. If now the primary coil be withdrawn, a direct
current is produced, tl^ same as when the circuit is broken. As long
as the primary coil remains in one posiiion, all evidence of electricity
tn the secondary wire disappears. If, however, while in this position,
the strength of the prim.'iry current be increased or diminished, mo-
mcntary ctirrcnts are established in the secondary coil ; the inverse
following the baease, and the direct current following the decrease in

DIFFERENT ORDERS OF INDUCED CURRENTS.

tbe strength of die primary current lo ihus exi>enmeDUng, it is mudi
more convenient to wind the wires on separate bobbins, so that one
may be placed within the other, as represented in Fig. 36.

Let A represent the primary coit, which is composed of wool-covered
[Wire y, of an inch in diameter: and B the secundary coil, of silk-
.covered wire, much longer than the other, and about ^^ of an inch in
diameter. Now let the secondary coil be connected with the galvan-
ometer, G, by means of ihe two binding-screws, while the primary coil,
by two loose and flexible wires, is placed in the circuit of a galvanic
celL As soon as A is inserted into B, a niotncntary inverse current is
indicated. If it be withdrawn, the galvanonieier indicates a momcn-
I tary direct cumrnt. While the primary cotl remains in Ihe secondary,
tbe needle announces tbe induction of currents according to the prin-
ciples sutcd above, whenever the strcnglh of the primary current is
increased or diminished.

TAf CenJitions under whkh Induction takes plaee.—To sum up ir
brief! lodoction ukes place from one circuit into an adjacent circuit,
1st. At the moment when tbe current is closed, ad, The moment
when Ihe current is opened. 3d. While the current is increasing 01
diminiiJjing in strength. 4th. While the current is l^rollghl near to of
removed &om the adjacent circuit A current that closes or tncreasei

ELECraO-PHYSICS.

in strength, or is hrought near to an adjacent circuit, induces an invers*
momentary current in that circuit A current that opens or diminishes
in strength, or is removed from an adjacent circuit, induces a direct
momentary current in that circuit. It will be seen, therefore, that in-
duction taken pljx:c only when there is some change in the eondHicn oj
the inducing current. It nuist be closed or opened, increased or dimin-
ished in strength, brought near to or removed from the adjacent circuit.
In the ordinary electro -magnetic machines these changes arc made
by a rheolome, or current-Interrupter, and the strength of the current
is modifieiil by withdraniog or removing a cnetatUc cyUnder enclosing
the coils, or by withdrawing or rcttioving the core of iron needles.

Induction of a Current on Ittelf : Extra Current. — ^I'hc extra cur-
rent is that which is induced by the current in each coil, or winding of
the priinary coil on the other adjacent windings.

The windings act inductively on each ottier both at the o[>cning and
dosing of the circuit. Thus we have a direct and an inverse extra cur-
rent The direct extra current gives shocks and sparks, decomposes
water, niagneti/cs steel, and melts platinum-wire. The electro-motive
force of the extr;i current bears a liniform relation to the intensity of
the primary or inducing current When the secondary coil is closed,
the extra current does not appear in the primary coil, but by what is
called reaction it is formed in the secondary coil itself^ and Uecotnes
an ordinary induced current.

It is called the extra current only so long as it remains in the pri-
mary coil ; il so remains only when the secondary coil it open.

Hheofome, or Current- interrupter. — Among
the different contrivances for producing these
changes in the primary current that are neces-
sary for induction, the most convenient i» the
Rhcotome, or Current-interrupter.

This, when placed in the circuit of the pri-
mary coil, alternately closes and opens the cur-
rent, and thus causes induced currents in th«
secondary coil.

I'lg. 27 represents a currcnt-intenupier.
Into the iron covering A are fastened the
ends of the iron wires of the core within the
coil.

The liammer H is attached to a spring D,
which is in the primary circuit ; / is a projection tipped with plati-
mtm, berausc that metal docs not corrode; /', connected with the

Fio.»r.

INDUCTION COILS.

Krcw, is also tipped with platinum. IVhcn the circuit is closed, the
rorc of iion>wire A becomes magnetic, and draws H away from /*",
•gainst wliich it naturally rests. This breaks the current, for the circuit
'b completed through the connection of/ and/', .^s the current ii
tfroken, A of couise loses its magnetism, and no longer has power to
UtrsLCt H i theiefoic the spiing D brings H back to /', where it natur-
ally rests. This completes the circuit, and again A becomes niagnctic,
and again it attracts H, and thus H is Jtr// rapidly vibrating with a
bumng sound between A and/'. These constant inicrruplions keep
Dp an induced cunent in the secondary coii. The screw b gives the
Dcccftsar}' slilTness to D.

Otjat of the Iron Core in the Primary CoU.—'Tiic inductive power
of the primary current is very greatly increased by putting a bar of soft
iron or a bundle of iron wires in the heart of the primary coil. The
iron core strengthens the current in this way. tt becomes magnetic by
the action of tlic cunent, and Uiis magncU&ni disappears when the cur-
rent opens. The disappearance of the magnetism induces a current in
the fOffiV tiirtction as the disappearing primary current, atid tlius
strengthens it. In electro-magnetic machines, as u»cd for electro-
thenipeuiics, this iron core is a very convenient means for modifying
ihe current. Pushing it in the coil increases lite current, withdrawing
it diminishes the current.

A bundle of wires is preferable to a single bar of soft iron, for in tbe
Utter, currents are formed which impede the sudden cessation of Che
primary current, while in the former these cannot be formed.

Tkiekness and length of ihe Outer and Inner Wires, — It is a law of
electro-physics that wires of a large diameter conduct electricity better
than wires of a small diameter. It is neces-^^ary that the primary cur-
■jeot should be strong, since its principal object is to excite niaguetism
in the coie ; consequently the coil is uuuie of thick wire and of moderate
length. The secondary coil, however, is made of very thin wire, and
of great length, so that as many turns as possible may be brought
within the influence of the core and of the primary coil, and tlms pro-
duce a secondary current. As with the galvanic or inducbg current,
the electro-motive force of the battery is proportionate to the num<
bcr of cells ; so with the induced or secondary current, the electro-
motive force of the coil is proportionate to the number of turns or coila

fait

Induction Coils and EUdro-magnetie Machines. — An induction cot)
(ai philoso^ilucal or clectro-therapeuUcaL purposes consists usually of
tivo htlites or coils of wire enelosing a Itar of soft iron or a bundle of

ELECTRO -PHYSICS.

iron wires.* The inner coil is connected with ihe poles of a battery,
and there is sonic arrangetnctil for breaking tlw current. TIie innef
coil is composed of tolerably coarse wire, and is comparatively short.
The current that runs tJiroiigh it is Calletl the primary^ ur sometimes
the inducing, current. Tlie outer coil is in no way connected with
the inner coil, but receives by induction a current from the current of
the inner coll as it is alternately broken and closed. I'be outer
coil is composed oi Jine wire, and it is very much longer than the
inner coiL

The liner and longer the wire, the greater the tension of the current
The current that comes throtigh the outer coll is called the seeondary
current, in distinction from tbat whicli comes from the inner coil, which
is called the primary. In both coils the cojiper is insulated with silk
covering.

Ruhmkorff's Coil. — Tlie most powerful of all coils, and the one best
adapted for philosophical experiments, is that of Ruhmkorff. of Pari«.
It is about 14 inches in length. The inner coil is of cupper, is about
2 mm. in diameter, and 4 or 3 yards long. It is coiled on a cylinder
c^ canl-board, and is enclosed it) an insulating cylinder of glass or
rubber.

Fml aB.

The wire of the outer coQ is of copper, from ^ to )- nun. in diameter,
and from thirty to sixty miles in length. The distinctive feattires of
thift coil are llicsc :

1st It is coiled in sections so as to avoid the induction of the outer
coil on itself, which is liable to take place when it is very long and the
^siun is high, however thorough the insulation.

* In the roochioc of Kidder, to be de*<Tit>ed viulcr Elect ro•TlltnpClllic^ the hcUk
Is compoKcd of three or mors coil* of wire, not dultnct, bat coiiRected,

RDHMKORFPS COIl-

2d. The iDsulation is very complete. The wire is covered vritli sUk*
and each windii^ is separated Irota the others by a layer of shellac
lu the larger coils of RuhmkorfT the induced currents are thousands of
times stronger fhan the primary current that cxcilcs ihein.

7S/ QmdenscT of Rufunkarff' i O/'/.— The intensity of the current of
iIm secondary coil is increased by interpo^ng a condenser in the circuit.
In Ruhtnkorffs coil the condenser consists of 150 sheets of tin-foil 18
inches square, and witli a surface of about 75 square yards. These
sheets arc coiled around insulating oiled silk, and around each other, so
as 10 form two armatures, and the whole is placed below the helix in
the base of the apparatus.

Being introduced into the circuit, it receives the extra current and
increases its tension. It stores up and utilizes force that would other-
vbe be wasted in the fomi of sparks at the internipter.

Efffets firaduitd hy Ruhmkorff's Coil. — ^Tfw tension of RuhmkorfT's
coil is enormous, and for the reawns above given — the length and finc-
ncs of the secondary wire and the power of the condenser. It possesses
all the properties of staiicai as well as dynamical electricity. It is
capable of giving a shock so violent as to prostrate a man, and if a
sufficient number of clement* are connected with it, it could kill as by
a stroke of lightning. When two couples are connected with it, it will
kill a rabbit. It causes fine iron wire to nicll and bum with a bright
bght. It can rapidly decompose water, 01 produce luminous effects in
the water without decomposition.

It decom|>oses and combines gases. Passed through a hermetically
sealed tube containing air, it forms nitrous add from the nitrogen and
oxygen. It 6tn produce a s]>aHc eighteen inches in length in the air.

In rafKtf it pro<luccs most remarkable effects. In the so-called
tieOrit egg, a luminous trail is observed between the poles. At the
positive pole the light is red and brilliant; at the negative, feeble and
violet. If vapor of alcohol, or turpentine, or bisulphide of carbon, be
introduced into the vessel, it appears in the forai of alternate light and
dark zones or strata. The tints vary with the nature of the vapor.
The same phenomena arc obtained by the ordinary galvanic current
from a large number of cells. The luminous eiTects of the coil are as
great from a single cell as from a large number.

In electro-therapeutics a wide variety of electro-magnetic machines
have been devised. Most of them are run by one or two cells, like
imec's or Walker's, and the current generated is juft sufficient for ap-
ilicatinn to the human body, and are but little adapted f(;r the phili^
sophiral roam.

ELECTRO -PHYSICS.

The [argest induction coil of which we have Any knowledge is that of
Apps, in London. It is nine feet ten inches long, and its diacnetcr is
two feet. The soft-iron core is five feet long, four inches in diameter,
and weighs 125 pounds. The length of the phniary coil is 3,770 yards,
while that of the secondary coil 13 ont hundred and fifty miles. This
battery is excited, by 4S large Bunsen celU. It gives a flash twenty-
nine inches long that will perforate five inches of solid plalc-glaas. At
the Stevens Institute of Tcchnologj-, Hoboken, there U also an indue*
tion coil of great power.

Pr^eriiei cf Induced Currents. — Induced currents have in different
degrees all the properties of the ordinary galvanic current. They pro-
duce chemical, thermic, Iuhiidqus, and phyiaiological effects. They
deflect the luagnctic needle, magnetiitc steel, and arc capable of them-
selves exciting induced currents. There is a difference, however, be-
tween the effects of the direct induced and inverse induced. The
direct gives a powerful shock, the inverse a mild shock.

The direct magnetizes to the point of saturation, the ioverse does
not magnetize.

lu llieir action on the galvanometer they are about equal In quan-
tity, the direct and inverse induced currents are about the sanie ; but
the tension of the direct induced is greater than that of the invenw
induced.

Ccmfarative Chemieal Effects of the Gahxmie and Induced Currents.
— "WxzX tile chemical character of currents of induction is distinctive from
tlie galvanic is proved by the following eiperiment : When the platinum
poles connected with an induced ciurent are placed in water, water is
decomposed and oxygen produces oxidation of platinum, which is re-
duced to metallic platinum by the recombination of the hydrogen with
the oxygen. This process takes place at both poles, so that both
become covered with a powder of platinum.

If a solution of iodide of potassium and starch is brought into the
circuit, the blue color appears at both poles. When the galvanic cur-
rent is used, the blue color appears only at the positive pole. When
the induced current is sent through water it decomposes it, just as the
galvanic current does the oxygen and hydrogen, both appearing at
both poles ; but they recombine, and thus the water does not appear
to be decomposed at all.

It is of the first importance to the dcctro-therapeutist to understand
elcclro-iuagnctiMn, for it is the form of electricity most used in etectro-
iberapeutics.

Magfuto-eUctrieiiy. — Magneto -electric induction is the induction of

MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINES.

€i

electric currents by magnetism. It is as ihe Icrm implies, the reverse
of electro-magnetic indnction There are two forms of niagneio-clec-
trie induction.

The ^rs$ aod most familiar form is when a current is induced in a
coil of insulated wire. The second form is when a current is induced in
conducting plates.

Under cteciro-magnetic induction we have seen that the ooU of
wire in which a current circulates produces a contrary induced cur-
rent in an adjacent coil whenever a change is macic in the current by
opening, dosing, withdrawing, or approaching it. The strength of the
iTMJuccd current is proportioned to (he amount and suddenness of these
dianges. If now we substitute for the primary or inducing coil a per-
niancnt bar magnrt, and cause it to approach or withdraw from (he ad-
jacent coil, it induces a current in that coil. This principle is the
bo^ of all the magneto-electric machines that are so faniliar to stu-
dents of philosophy, and that were once so much used in electro-thera-
lieutics.

The development of magneto- electricity is shown in a very simple
manner by the common horseshoe magnet, its armature,
and a copper wire. Let the armature A B be encirded
by the wire C, one end of which is flattened and amal-
gamated with nitrate of mercury, and the other filed to
a |X>int. >Vhen the armature is placed cpon the magnet,
the luoracnt of contact, when it is witJidrawn, and the
act of withdr.nwal, n-itl each be marked by a spark of
electricity at C, where the two extremities of the wire
meet.

The electric airrent flows in one direction at the in-
stant magnetism is induced in the soft iron which is
enclosed by Ihe coil of wire, and in the opposite direc-
tion n-hcu its magnetism is destroyed.

In the electro-magnetic machines in ordinary use a sof^-iron arma
ture covered with wire is made to rotate in front of the poles of a per-
manenl horseshoe magnet. As the armature rotates, its two ends are,
of courser, alternately brought near to and removed from the bars of the
magnet, and thus two currents are induced in the wires that cover the
anuaiure. Each current lasts half of a revolution, and if the rotation
be rapidly kept up, a current is produced which may be perceived when
the ends of the wires arc joined.

A ContinuoHs Current from Atagneto-tUetric Machines. — When the
armatures of the magneton! cctric machine are made to revolve with

FlQ. •$.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

•ufficient ra^iidity, ai tontinuous current is prodaced which has all the
properties of the galvanic current. Magnetoelectric airrcnts are,
therefore, extensively used in electroljtic experiments and in electro.
plating. It is possible ttiat some of tliese may be utilized in electro*
therapeutics.

Currents induced by Magnetism in Conducting-plates : Magnetism
«/ Roiaiion.—lr\ 1834-5 Arago discovered that when a copper disk re-
volved with great rapidity under a needle resting on a disk above the
disk, the needle deflected in the direction of the motion of the disk.
After a time, if the movement be sufficiently rapid, the needle refuses
to remiun fixed, and turns around after the disk. The expUnation of
this phenutnenun was given by Faraday in i8ji. He showed ttiat it
uose from the reaetion of the currents induced in the plate by the mag-
net. The niagnettsin of rotation is only one of the many phenomena
connected with induction. All these phenomena. — induction by currents
of magnetism and by rotation — are explained by the theory of Ampere
before cited. They are at once in harmony with that theory and con-
finnatory of it.

Hisiifry cf InJuftiffn. — The discovery that electric currents of mag-
netism cau iuduce currently in neighboring circuits was made by Faraday
in 1830. His researches on the subject were published in the Philo.
Kiphical Tnnucrions in 1S31 and iSjs.

lliis discovery of Faraday, like that of Oersted, was the result, not
of sccident, but of long and laborious experimentation. As early as
1825 Fataday had sought to make a wire, through which the galvanic
current was passing, induce a current in a neighboring wire, just OS A
conductor charged with Franklinic electricity would have done. Not
until iSjr did he 6nd out that the current must be broken or closed,
or approached or withdrawn, before it could induce a current in a
neigl^oring wire.

In 183* Prof. Henry, then of New Jersey, now of the Smithsonian
Institute. Washington, obserred pheivomena which, in 1S34, Faraday
ihowcd were due to the extra current In 1S37 Bachhof&ier and
Sturgeon showed thai a bumlle of wire was better in an induction app>
nius than ■ rod of soft iron.

In 1841 Prof. Henry studied the inductiv« actioo of cnrrents on
canrnts. In 1S50 or 1S51 Rulunkortf constracted the induccion.coi],
^-ftnd in 1853 Fixeau grcatty increased its power by adding to it a con>

made a

discoi-w)*

discharges

Leyden ji

primaiy si'inl tndoce a carrcnt in a secondary spiral, and that currents
of the third, fourth, and fifth order can be thus producedi and of Ba&

HISTORY OF INDUCTION.

cicDt strength to give shocks, burn, etc., was made simulianeousty by
its. Henry, of IVashington, and Ries3,of Berlin.
The dist tiiagiieia-elcctiic tuachinc was made by Paraday in 1S31.
The Li^i machine of the style now used was made by Fixii in 1832.
Improvements have been since luadc bySaxton (1835), Clarke {1B36),
?c\nae (1844), Stuhrcr (iS4.>}, Siemens, HaUkc, Duchcnae, and
>tbers.

TB E RWOEI,ECni ICITV.

ThfrmO'tUdrUity is that Jorm of eUetricUy that arisfs from tki heat-
iHg of tva heUrogiHtous coHductors at their function. The two most
[^important methods of generating thcnnal currents are, ist, willi two
rtions of the same niclal ; and sd, with two different kinds of metal.
Thermo-eUetricity generattd by One Metal. — If a copper wire be
cut into two pieces, and one of the ends be heated to redness and
iwe&sed against the end of the other piece, a current of eleclricity is
produced. This is demonstrated by the galvanometer.

^VhcQ different portions of the same metal have ditTerent stnictitres,
z current is obtained when the point where both structures come
. together is heated.

If, for example, a platinum wire be twisted or bent on itself, this
twisting so changes the structure of the mre that a current is generated
by heating the point of union between the twisted and non-twisted
portion.

Thtrmo-eiectrieiiy gtHera/ed by Twff Meta/s.— Let A and B (Fig. 30)
be respectively bars of antimony and bismuth, soldered lo-
gcthcr, while O rcj>rc8ents a galvanometer connected by two
wires with the free extremities of the metals.

^Vhen the junction S of the metals is heated, a airrenl of
electricit)' is gcneraicd, which flows from ihc bismuth to the
antimony, as shown by the arrow. If the junction S is ehiHed
by applying ice. a current is also produced, but in tiie c//*-
site direction. This coinbbation constitutes a l/urmo-eiectric
■*;i-^ pair.

rw.'jL Thermo^Uctrie Batteries. — A number of thermo-electric
couples soldered together so that the copper or antimony of
one is soldered to the bismuth of the other, and so on. is called a
thermo-iUetrie battery. The current is generated by healing one row
of the soldered faces, or, as the current depends on the difference of
temperature of the two sides, by applying ice to one side and heat to
the otlier.

ELECTRO -PHYSICS.

The accompanying cut represents Farmer's thcmio^Icctric battery,
constructcJ en the pnnci]>les abovi: indicated. Tlie heat is supplied
by a gas-burner ur a-lcohoMiuip.

Thermo-electric batteries of any form are not as yet luuch used in
elcctro-lh era peu tics. The hopes at one time entertained of them have

FlO. 31.

Fanner's Thermo-EEectric Battery.

been disappointed. In practice they have been found to be Snconve-
nicnC, bulky, expensive, and unlrustworttiy. It ii nt>t impossible, how-
ever, that future researches m.iy so develop the department of tliemio-
elcctricily that thermo-electric batteries may be constructed that shall
be more convenient for practical use than the ordinary galvanic bat-
teries. This is a realm in wbicli Lhete is room for experimcDt-

CHAPTER VI.

0100*5 LAW AND FTS PRACnCAL APFUCATION TO HLECTKO-TUERAPEVTICi.

The basis of all electrical measurement is Ohm's law, which is, that
the quanlUy of electriaiy passing threush any point in a eircuH
varies direcity as the eUctro-mctivt force, and inversely as the resistance.

Putting Q for quantity, C for electro-motive force, atid R for resistance,
Uie Uw ift thus expressed ; Q = |.

litis lav was discovered by Prof. Ohm, of Nuremberg, in 1827, and
for a long time was neglected. It is the north-star of dynamical elec-
tricity. Those who can keep this always in sight need never lose their
way, however long or intricate the explorations they may moke in this
important and fascinating realm. Although originally nothing but a
theory, yet it has been powerfully confirmed !ty ihc uiathematica) calcu-
lations of Fechner, PouiUet, Kohlrausch, Danicll, De la Rive, and
Wheatstonc, and has proved itself competeul to explain all the phe-
nomena, with wtiith it has to do. Just as the strength of the theory of
gtavitatjon consists in its power to account for (he movements of the
solar system. Just as the strength of the undulatory tlieory consists in
its power to explain the complex phenomena of light, so the strength
of Ohm's Uw consists in its power to account fur the phenomena uf dy-
namical electricity. As no one can be master in astronomy without
utuJcrstanding gravitation, or in optics without understanding the undu-

tory theory, so no one can be master in electricity without under*

tnding Ohm's law.

We shall endeavor to make this law and its application as clear as
nature of (he subject will allow. U i.s necessary to deiine certain
is that arc not very familiar; first of all, units of measurement.

A unit is an abstract term to express any diiermintd quantity, by the
ftpetition of which any other quantity of the same kind can be measured.

.An i>hm i . a tmit of resistance ; one million ohms — one megohm ;
^jMe millionth of an olira = one microhm.

A Dumber of units of resistance have been proposed — among others,
S

ELECTRO-Pm'SlCS.

definite lengths of wires of a definite thickness ; but wire is rarely pure,
and the different specimens widely vary.

In 1S64 the HrLCinh Association, 3.cting on tJie suggestion of Webei;
decided that electrical resistance could be expressed as an absolute ve-
locity, williout any reference to the siihslancc that conducts. This unit,
which exfressts a velociiy of 10,000,000 metres iti a second, is called 1
B. A., or British Asiociation, unit.

Previous to this action of the Assodation the best known units were
those of Siemen and Varley. Siemen's unit is a column of pure
mercury, one metre long and one square niilltmetre in sections at o"* C.
Varley s unit wa& one mile of ordinary copper-wire. No. 16, -^ of an
inch in diameter at 60° F. The B. A. unit of the British Association is
embodied in an atloy of platinum and silver. This alloy has the ad.
vantage of German silver, that its conducting jiower docs not change
with long use.

The unit of eltetromotivt foree is called a volt. A volt is equal to
about the force of a Daniell cell, or the decimal •93G8.

The unit of quantity is a farad. In other words, a farad is the
qnanrity of clectricit)' which, with a certain electro-motive force, flows
ihrough a certain resistance.

The tenninolog)' of electricity in general has been atrociously diffi-
cult and obscure, but nowhere has there been deeper obscurity and
grosser misunderstanding and inconsistency than in the application of
the terms resistaner, quantity, tension, and eleetro-metive force.

Eleetro.motive Foree. — The eleetro-motive foree is the foree that urges
forward the current.

It is the origin of tension, to be hereafter defined. This force it
modtlicd —

ist By the nature of the plates of which the element is composed.

2d. By the nature and strength of the acid solution.

3d. By the number of elements in the solution.

Substances that stand at or near the two extremes of the electro-
positive and electro negative series, generate a stronger electro motive
force than substances that stand near each other.

Zinc and platinum or anc and carbon give more electio-motivc
force than zinc and copper, bccanse the difference in their oxidability
is greater, and tliey stand farther apart in the electro-positive and
electro-negalive series.

Plates that are imperfect in their stnicture, or which contain impuri*
lies that generate currents in opposition to die main current, or platei
ttot are worn out, or are ercnistcd with the products of chemical

OHMS l^W— ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE.

decompoarion, give less electro-mouve force than plates (hat are per-
fect, fresh, and clean.

Similarly also the electro-motive force Is diminishal by the Jtolariting
ftctJOD of Uie currenl in the cell. Thus, in the Smee cell, the hydrogen
that gathers on the plattnuiu-plate and the oxygen that gathers oc the
itnc, generate a cuirent that is opposite in direcdoti to the niatn cur-
rent, and enfeebles it ; and for this reason, lifting the plates out of the
tiquid a moment to allow the gases that form on them to escape, ct
vigorously agitatiiig the liquid, at once increases the electro- motive
Ibrce. Strong adds which excite vigorous chemical action give more
clectro-motiTe force than weak acids, and therefore it is that sulphuric
and nitric and chromic acids are bo much used in batteries.

When the proportion of acid in the solution is large, electro- motive
force is greater than when it is small. Strong solutions, however, con-
Mime the plates faster, and the electro -motive force will be reduced
(hereby sooner, other conditions being the same, than when weak solu-
tions arc ascd.

The eleclro-oioiive force is exactly proportioned to the numhtr a/
eUmemts, without regard to their sist. Two elements give twice as
jcfa eicctro-motivc force as one element, and one hundred elements
one hundred times as much as one element of a similar character.
This can be proved by a galvanometer, with a long resistance-coil,
.where the deflection of the needle will be in pretty exact proi)ortion to
the nnmber of cells brought into the ctrcuii. The exactness of this
proportion is of course modified by the imperfectioos ofindividnal ele-
ments, or by variation in the quantity and strength of solution in each
cell ; but the law always holds good.

As with the long-coil galvanometer, so with the human body, or any

other powerful resistance whatsoever, the electro-motive force that passes

throQgh it will be — all other conditions being the same — proportioned

[to the number of ilemtnis and without regard to their sise. If a series

ffrf very iarge elements are opposed to an equal series of very smaR

[iCletoczits of similar construction, no current will pass; they will neti-

[traUxe each other. If both be tested by the galvannmtrtcr with a long

Tcdstancc, they will cause similar dcfleciions of the needle.

7Hf quantity of eUcirUUy that passes through a circuit is directly pro.
ferHaned to the electro-motive force. If lliere were no resistance in the
circuit, quantity and electro -motive force would be the same : Q = K.
But ilicre can be no circuit without some resistance, therefore Q nevei
equals E.
£kctro-nMtive force of different batteries, approxitnatdy :

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

Grove too

Bunscn 98

Daniell.. 56

Smee (when not in aclion) 57

" (when in action) 25

Wollaston (copper and zinc) 46

Mari£ Davy (sulphate of mcrcuiy and graphite). 76

Chloride of silver 6a

Chloride of lead 30

These estimates are the mean of a very large number of observa-
tions by l^timer Clark, taken on a sine galvanometer. The electro
motive force is somewhat modified by various undetermined causes.

Tension^ or Potential. — Tension is thai quality 0/ itectricity by which
il fiver^omes rtsislana. This definition is practical rather than strictly
scientific, and can only be understood by explanation.

Tension is a result oi ihe electro-nioiive force, and is dependent on it,
and by mistake the two are often confounded. The sum and the diffe-
rences of electro-motive force are always equal to the sum and diffe-
rences of tension, but they arc diffcrcnlly distributed in ihc circuit.
Ky mathematicians the term potential, suggested by Green, is preferred
to tension. The term is a relatit'e one, and no bo<Iy or part of a body
can be said to have an ahst^iuie tension or potential. The potential of
a body is really the difference between its potential ami that of the
earth, which is assumed lo be zero. Electricity flows from a body or
part of a body at a higher potential, to a body or i>arl of a body at a
lower potential, and the work irrtiicli it docs mexsures its amount
Differences of poteniial may be compared to differences of level for
water. As water tends to flow from a higher level to a lower level un-
til all is of a uniform height, so electricity tends lo flow from a higher
to a lower potential until the ]}otential of all parts of the conductor is
the same, and ceases to flow. An instance of extreme tension is found
in lightning, where it is caused by the differences in the electro-motive
forces between two clouds, or between ilie clouds and ilie earth.

The tenaon of the frictional machine is very great, for the reason
that it is not at all influenced by the resistance of the circnit, which
in the galvanic battery is very great. If the current of the galvanic
battery encountered no resistance in the circuit, or was not affected by
irsislance, its tension would be enormous.

The term tn/enstly has long been used as synonymous with tension ,
at, strictly speaking, intensity is derived from the French intfnsiit,

OHU'S LAW— TENSION, OR POTENTIAL.

which has been translated intensity, but which really means quanMy.
It is better to dispeose entirely with the term intcnsi^, and we have
rione so ill the present wurk.

Out deEnition of tension may be thus illustrated : Let a battery of 100
Cells be joined in the ordinary tension arraogeiueat, zinc united with
carbon and so on. Place the battery on an intiuktcd stand, and connect
the zinc or negative pole with the earth, leaving the ot!]cr free. Regard-
ing the earth, for convenience' sake, as zero, the copper pole will have
a tension of o, while the free end n-ill have a tension of 100 poiitr-'.
If a wire be connected with the free end, a cuni^nL would tifyn from u
to the earth. If now we reverse the position uf the pules, connecting
the carbon pole ii-ith the earth, and leaving the other free, the carbon
end will be o, and the tine end will be loo negaihe, and if it be con-
nected with the earth a current will How /rom tht earth to it. In both
of these cases the tension is the same ; in one case it is positive, in the
other negative. Take the sanie battery, with the zinc pole connected
jrith the earth, and join the carbon and zinc ends by a short, tliick wire^
t)d a strong current will Sow through the wire. But here comes in the
difference between tension and electro-niotive force, for it can be ascer-
tained by proper tests that the electro-motive force of tlic battery is the
same as it was before the ends were joined, but the tension has changed.
Before, it was 100 |>ositive at the carbon end, now it is almost o.

If^ instead of a short, thick wire, a long, fine wire that offers greater
resistance be used to connect the poles, ihc tension at the carbon end
will rise with the increase in resistance in the wire. When the n:si&t-
ance becomes inhnitely great, the tension becomes 100 again, but it
can never exceed too, for the tension can never txtted the electro-
motive force at any point, although it may fall very much below it.

These two general laws in regard to tension should be remem-
bered :

isL It rises with the distance from the zero end of the circuit.

ad. The quantity of electricity passing between any two points is
tlway^ proportioned to the difftrtnce of tension between tlieae points.
The actual tension may be high or low, positive or negative, but there
can be 00 cnrrcnt without diffirenees of tension.*

The atrangcment in series (or, as it is erroneously called, "intenwty
l^anangement"), is when the electro-positive clement of one cell is united

< the electro-negative element of the next cell, and so on. The " quaa-
t»ly anaDgement," or " multiple arc^" is when all the electro-positive el»

• OmElutrUnl MiontrtBttnl, By Latimer Clark. London, 1S68, p, 17.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

ments are united to all the electronegative elements go u to maie on
large clenient. The urangement in scries, or a " tension Brrangcmcnt,'
is used for all ordinary gatlvanization and electrolyzatios. The mu]tipli
arc, or " (juantily arrangemenl," isusedingal%'ana-cautery. Thejihrasc
"joined for lensJon," or " intensity," and "joined for quantity," an
relics of old and exploded theories of electritity. For convenience
&ake tlicy are stilt used ; but those who understand Ohm's Uw neet
not be deceived by them.

Resistance. — Resistance is that quaiity of a eonduetar thai impedt.
the passage of a circuit .

There are two kinds of resistance in any circuit:

tsL That of llie battery il&elf {Internal Resistance).

3d. That of the connecting wires (circuit outside of the battery), the
galvanometer, the human body, or other substance introduced into th<
circuit {External Resistance).

ffoiir Resistance is Modified. — Resistance is modified in three ways :

ist. By the nature of the substance, whether liquid or ^lid, or by iQ
sjiKcial chemical composition.

3d. By tlie form of the substance, whether long or short, of small oi
large diatitcccr.

3d. I*y the temperature.

It IS i>rovcd hy cx^cnmcTmhzt the resistances of wires of the santi
material and vf the same thickness are directly prep^iiened to thcit
UngtK, and inversely proportioned to the squares of their diameters.

A wiie one mile in length gives twice the resistance of a wire half a
mile long, and four times the resistance of a wire one-fourlh of a mile
long. On the other hand, wires of the same metal, but of diamctcrd
whidi stand to each other in ihe relation i, 2, 3, offer a resistance which
stand to each other as 1, |, ). In other words, Ihe longer the wire the
greater the resistance, the thicker the wire the less the resistance. The
same l.iw, but less exactly, applies to liquids, and for this reason largt
elements give less resistance than small elements. The relative specific
resistances of a number of metals at a temperature of 54*^ K. are as
follovs :

Copper I Iron 7.5

Gold 1.4 Lead 11

Zinc 3.7 Platinum 11.3

Mercury (at 57') 50.7.

The converse of resistance is conduction.

The following table of the relative conductibility of metals at 33° P

ohm's law — RESISTAN'CE.

7«

is taken from Latimer Clark. It will be perceived that it Tartea some
K-haL from the above table of relative reastances :

Silver

,I30

Zinc.

»9

Cojipcr (pure). 99.9 Steel 16

•• selected (commer-
cial) 85 to 95

Copper, ordinary (couuner-

dal) 40 to 70

Brass 30

Gold.

Iron IS

German silver 121015

Tin 13.4

Lead 8.3

Platinum 6.9

,78 Mercury. 1.6

It will be seen that both eiHmiles agree in making copper and silver
the best conductors, and for that rca-wn coppcr-vrirt is so much used
in making battery connections. In both tables platinum stands low in
conductibiJity, and for that reason platinum wire is used when, as in
galvano-catitery, it is required to generate heat by passing the current
through a resisling medium. If mercury could be made in the 'form
of a wire it would of coui^e be belter than plaliitun), since its rcsisi-
ance is somewhat greater. Bismuth, graphtle, and coke rank still lower
in conducting power than mercury. The resistance of liquids is enor-
mous. Thus, taking copper-wire at 33" V. as i, the resistance of a
saturated solution of sulphate of copi>er at 48** F. is 16.885.530 ; ditto
of dilonde of sodium at 56° F., 2.903.538 ; ditto of sulphate of zinc,
15.861. 267; sulphuric acid diluted to -^ at 68° F., [.032.020; nitric
acid at 55* F., 976.000; distilled water at 59° F., 6.734.208.000.

It has been estimated that the human body, by virlite of the salts
irtu'ch it contains, conducts 15 or 20 times better than water, provided
Ae sAin bt JuUy moiittHtd ; and that copper conducts from three tn
foor hundred miUion times better liian the human body.

Effects of I'etnptrahire on Stsistanee. — Resistance is more or less
5cd by temperature.

Between t* and 100* C. the relatire conducting power of the mctaU
eroains the &an>e; at 100^ metals lose about 30 per cent, of their
conductibility as compared with 0° C. ; but this varies with different
metals. Conductivity is increased by annealing. Non-metallic sub-
Etances increase in conductivity as they rise in temperature. Water,
for example, when heated conducts better than water cold. When a
current passes from a liquid to a solid, or viee versd, the resistance if
lery great.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS,

Ail ResiUanu relative. — No substances absclviely reust Ihc jia&sage
of clectncicy; eveti rcsio, glass, axkd sulphur, the woist conductors, do
conduct a sU^t cuirea^ as can be proved by a very delicate galvatio*
meter.

Nq perfect Cdnducior. — Kven the best conductors, as copper and
silver and gold, are imperfectly so ; they all resist the current more or
\es&.

This can be shown with the galvaaometer, which, when brought d't-
rectly into the circuit, shywr a dcflcclioii of the needle. When short
wires of copper or silver are intcriioscd the deflection is lessened.

If we now comprehend the terms eleitro-mctive force antl resistatue,
we shall have no difficulty in comprehending the term quantity, for,
•ccording to Ohm's law, the quantity varies directly as the clccuo-nio-
live force and inversely as the resistance.

7^ qaantUy of electrieity is the amount whiih passes through the
cirruit in any ^tvea time,

Thi-s depends, according to Ohm's law, on two factors — the eleetro-
wuftive farce and the resistaitee. The quantity varies direetiy as the
eleetro-motive feree ; and if there were no resistance, qiianiiiy would
be precisely lUe same as electro-motive force. But the quantity varies
inversely as the resistance^ and therefore, to 6Qd out what the quantity
of any current is, we divide the electro-motive force by the resisrance.
The fraction thus formed is the quantity or the strength of tlic current,
as we commonly call it. There are, as we have seen, two kinds of
resistance, that in the battery and that in the circuit outside of the bat-
tery ; hth of these must be taken into account in estimating the relation
of the different kinds of batteries, and in selecting batteries for special
kinds of work. Let E be die electro-motive force, K the resistance
of the circuit outside of the battery, r the resistance in tlie battery;

then = Q, the quantity or strength of the current — the number of

farads or measures of electricity that flow through the circuit in a given
lime. The correctness of this m.ilhcmatical conclusion may be demon-
strated on a galvanometer that has only a short resisting wire ; one cell
wilt deflect the needle nearly as much as one hundred cells. Again,
when any number of cells ewe joined together wtth great external resist-
ance^ such as is offered by a long, fine -wire, or by the whole human body^
for example, ih£ quantity of electrieity that flows through the eircuH
will inereate with the increase in the number of cells.

There is no incon-ststcncy between these phenomena. It is indeed a
part of and a conclusion from Ohm's law. Everything depends on the

ohm's law— quantity or strength of current. 73

txiemal risistanc€. Although in this cas«, as in the other, each added
cell brings in tU ova internal resistance that counterbalances the etec-
tro-fuotive force, yet the interoal resistance bears sa smait a proportion
to the luge external resistance that the quantity of electricity Sowing
through the circuit will be pretty directly proportioned to the number
of cells.

Still keeping Ohm's law before us, we can demonstrate this matbe-
maiically.

Let the electro-motive force of any cell be lo volts, aud the inierntu
resistance be so ohnia, and the txternai resistance afforded by the
AjfMMM body 10,000 ohms. The quantity of a single cell could be thus
represented :

10 tlee«ro-»ati*B ftwe e to I

Again, we may illustrate this as follows:

One hundred rells are jouied together and the ends are connected
by a short wire. Let the clcctro-motive force of one cell be 10 volii
or units of ek-ctro-motive force, then the electro-tuotive force of 100
cells will be i,oqo volts. Let the rcsisuuice in each cell be 5 ohms^ or
units of rc«&uince, then the resistance in the 100 cells witl be 500
ohms. Let the resistance of the short connecting wires be 10,000
ohms : now, in order to find the number of faraJs of electricity — that
is, the quantity or strength of tlie current that flows through the con-
necting wire — divide tfu tUttromotive force by the resistance, and we
have this liaction :

t.ooo dcarotnobvc tan* l.M*

t^OB misuaeB of win, and fio mucuKC <d buwiy uueo

This fraction reduced = /p a little more than -jij, which fraction rep-
resents the quantity of electricity that flows through the wire.

We may illuslrale this law by supposing a current of water passed
through aji ordinary syringe. The ([uantity of water that flows through
the tube will be directly proportioned to the force with which it is
urged forward by the piston ; this force would correspond lo electro-
Riotive force. The friction will correspond to [he internal and ex-
ternal resistance of the battery. Now if we divide the one by the
other, we have the quantity of water which in a given lime llowfc
throngb tlic lube, or the strength of the current. In this way we can
find the number of cubic indies of water that flow through the tube in
a second of liuie, jtut a5 we can fmd the number of farads, or units oC

ELECTRO -PH VSICS.

quantity of electricily, that flow through x cinniiL It followt from a£
ihii, of coai*e, that if the electro-rnotive force be very greatlj' in-
creased, the resistance being the same, the qaantity most be increased ;
bat if the resistance be increased in proportion to the increase of the
electro motive force, the quantity will not be any greater.

Absolute Quantity and Actual Quantity. — tt also follows that the
absolute quantity of any batter)- — the amount that It is capable of
generating — may be very niucli greater than the attual quantity that
it sends through a circtiit. Everything depends upon the resistanee,
iriwther it be small or great

Relation af Quantity to Electro-therapeutics. — It is important to know
how to ascertain the quantity of electricity, for nearly all of the lead-
ing actions of electricity depend on quantity. It is quantity thar
deflects the needle of the galvanometer, and quite accurately mea-
sures the current that passes through the wires that suirouml the
needle. It is qoantity that decomposes chemical substances, as water,
salts, the human body, etc. Hence, electrolytic operations largely
depend on the quintity of electricity that flows through the tissues
acted on. It is quantity that accomplishes much of the therupeutical
effect of the different forms of electmation — although tension alone,
with very small quantity, may, as in the case of frictional or frank-
linic electricity, be capable of therapeutical effects. Franfclinic elec-
tricity, however, relieves and cures disease by changing the electrical
condition of the patient, by giving a positive or a negative charge,
more than by the passage of the current through the body, and the
consequent clcctrotonic and chemical changes. Ordinary faradic or
galvanic electricity, on the other band, does not, as many suppose,
charge the patient with electricity, and does not, by its direct action,
leave any more electricity in the body than it finds there. If they
increase or diminish the natural electricity of the body, it is indirectly
through the effect of quanrity of electiidty passing through the tissues
and improving nutrition.

Under this head come these important practical conclusions:

First. If any large number of cells every way similar are joined in
a SHORT CIRCL'IT by large connecting ivirtSy and unlhout any other ex*
ternai resistance, there will be no more quantity of electricity Rowing
than if a small number of similar cells were so Joined-

Although each additional cell increases the electro-motive force, yet
it also increases the resistance^ as we have alreaily seen, and this in-
crease of resistance will counterbalance the increase of electromotive
force, so that the quantity of electricity that flows through the circuit

OHM'S LAW— LARGE CELLS VS. SHALL CELLS.

will be about the same. Ohm's law will demonstTate this tnnthemati-
caAVf. Let the electro-motive force of any cell be lo volts, oi units of
electro-motive force, and the reststaDce of each cell be 30 ohms, or
anics of resistance, and the resistance of the short irire 2 ohms.
Dividing the electro-uiotive force by the resistance, we have for a single
cell )8'*^fl~il = A~'^^ qiianlity that one celt sends through
the circuit

Now let there be 50 similar celh, and our fraction nill be \^ x \^
— iVA + s = AVi = IH — * fraction that varies very slightly in
value from -f^. Let there be 1,000 cells, and we have this fraction:
H ^ HH = kim + « = iHft- The result stili diflers but slightly
from those previously obtained.

Stcendiy. Zarge ceils connected by great external resisiaaee, as tkt
human body, or a galvanometer with a ton^i; rejutance-coit^ d9 not send
wmrt quantity of electricity through that external resistance than similar
smaJi cells.

"Vhe elecln)- motive force of large cells is no greater than that of simi-
lar small cells, as we have already seen. The resistance is less because
the surface of the plates is greater, and the greater the section the less
the resistance, as has already beea shown. But the little advantage
thus gained from large cells by a diminution of resistance bears so
small a proportion to the great external resistance of the human body,
or of a very long wire, that the quantity of electricity actually sent
through the circuit will not be materially increased— at least by any
Tcasonable number of cells.

Here agsun Ohm's law comes to our assistance, and fortifies our
statctnent by a Hgi<I mathematical demonstration. Let us suppose a
battery of 100 small celts. Let the elcctro-moiive force of each cell
be 10 volts. Let the internal resistance of each cell be zo ohms.
Let the exicmal resistance of the human body, through which the cur-
rent is to be made to pass, be 10,000 ohms. Now, by Ohm's law, to
find the quantity of electricity that flows through tlic human body when
eodosed in the circuit, we divide the electromotive force by the inter-
nal and external resistance, as follows :

MS V le = noa

mJ«d ^taOETuJ rcMUMMe), ■ too « m ■ ■ODd^ieMRlftl'reuiUfiCc)

Let tis now suppose 100 similar very large cells. The electro
motive force would be the same, the external resistance would be the
same. But the internal resistance of the battery would be less be-
caaie die suriace is greater.

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

By a Iftw previously explained, Uic resistance varies inversely as tk
sptan of the sectten. For cocvenicnce sake, we will suppose the n
ustance of the large cell to be: -^ that of the small ones — thax is 3-
and Ohm's law will give us the fallowing fraction :

tta » i» B looo (dcdro-iDotiK lorae}

Kvooo (mernal reiuaiK:«) loo > a = too voaoo lea

— a fraction that is, it is true, a little larger than '^, but not enough t.
be worth considering.

The same truth may be shown by n galvanometer that has a lonj
resistance -coil. If the Huid be raised just a little, so that eletnents or*
just iiuuierscd and tiie poles are connected with such a galvanoiiicler
a certain dcHection of the needles will taLe place, according to tin
number of cells; if new we raise the fluid still higher, so that all tlx
elements ore immersed, and four or hve times as much surface i:
brought into action in each cell, the needles will not be much mt>r<
deflected, but will remain at nearly the same point where it was whci
the elements were first immersed. This is an experiment thai w(
have made repeatedly.

For the galvanometer substitute the human body from the hand t<
the legs And wc can understand the great fact that large cells do no^
send more quantity of electricity through the body than sntaU ceils oj
similar character.

from all these demonstrations we see (hat it is with eleclricity a*
with money — the aheiutc quantity that any man may give may be a
very small fraction of the actual (.[uaiitily that he can he made to give.
A millionaire has a far greater quantity of money than one who has
only a thousand dolUirs, but the one may not give a dollar any easier
than the other. Under great pressure the millionaire may give a
thousand times more than the poor man, just as a battery* of laige cells
may, before small resistance, send a very much larger quantity of elec-
tricity than a similar battery of small cells ; but when there is great
resistance it may send very little, if any, more.

In electro- therapeutics, as in telegraphy, electro- metallurg}'. and
other uses, large cells have this advantage, that they last longer and
do not require so frequent cleaning and filling.

Althoiiyh they cannot in a given time send through the human body,
or long lines of wires, any more ci\iantity of eleclricity than small cells,
yet their reserve quantity is much greater, and in proportion to their
size they will held out longer and keep up a mure uniform current.
The poor mail may give ttve dollars as easily as the millionaire, but

OHM'S LAW — LARGE CELLS fa, SHALL CELLS.

under great pressure the millionaire cmn keep on giving out five dolUnr
long after the resources of the poor man arc exhausted.

Large cells may, for electro-therapeutical purj^toses, have the advan-
tage of steadiness of current ; llierc would appear to l>c less Jiueiuaiwn
in the strength of the current from moment to momeut than wheo the
cells are small.

In Kfuall cells the degree of the internal resistance and the extent of
the chemical action may vary more or less from moment to moment,
owing to the polarization of the elements and the deposition of the
salts in the solution. This fluctuation is moat marked In batteries
where the action is very energetic- Small single cells especially the
zinc-caibon batteries, lose much of their power during a long opera-
tion. Tlie popular notion that large tells hai:€ a thrrapetttic attpan-
tage over small tells by sending a larger quantity of eUetriaty through
tk« body is, in the light of Ohnis iaw^ as well as in the light of expe-
riente, errontous.

Thirdly. For tht eleetro-themicat decomposition of water, salts, and
Ike human body (eleetre/yjis), a considerable number of cells of medium
tise, neither very large nor very smalt, and in which the ehemtcaJ action
it powerful, are required.

The resistance of the limited portion of the human body usually
submitted to circttolytic operation is great, though not so great as that
of the whole body; and as we have seen, before a great resistance,
very large cells give no greater quantity in a given rime than cells of
moderate si/e. If the cells are loo small, however, they will soon
become exhausted. For electrolytic operations, the ordinary zinc-car-
bon ot Walker's batteries, as manufactured in this country by the Gal-
vano-faradic Manufacturing Co., Kidder and others, answer very ex-
cellently most of the purposes of eleclrolj'sis. They have more electro-
motive force than Smee's elements, and .ilthough not as enduring, they
yet give a greater quaniily of electricity for a short time, which is of
coarse the great requisite in electrolytic operations. The resistance
of the skin is very great, but in eIectrol>'si5 the needles go beneath the
skin, and arc placed near each other. The resistance is very much
less than in external applications when the electrodes are far apart;
hence it is an advantage in electrolysis to have cells of good rijw,
though not of the largest

Fourthly, fVhen a short platinum-wire in a short circuit is to be
heated, as in galvano-eautery operations, a very few large cells or a
tingle rery large cell is preferable to a large number of small cells.

This &ct has long been practically recognised, and all the batterie*

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

for galvano-cautcry opcratioDs ue constructed on this principle. Tbe
reason for Ihis (a not so well understood ; Ohm's law g;ives us the ex*

planiLtion.

Platinum wire, though it resists the ciirreot very powerfully as com-
pared with silver or copper wire, yet offers a very sroill reBiBtance as
compared with water or tbe human body, or rfry /&ng wire of any kind.
Hence, in the galvano-caittery instruments, the txttruai resistance is
small, being not vcr)' much greater than the internal resistance of the
batteries, perhaps not so great. Now, before a large external resist,
ancc — the human body, or very long coils of wires — the surface of the
elements is used to the best advantage when cut up into small cells ;
'before a small resistance, tiie surface of the elements is used at the
best advantage when cut up into a few large cells, or, if the external
resistance be very filighi indeed, a single large cell will be belter; for
wc have previously shown that, in a short circuit, one cell gives as
much quantity of electricity as one hundred, or, indeed, any number of
cells.

Lei us suppose too small cells ; let each cell have an electro-motive
force of lo volts and a resistance of ao ohms. Let there be enclosed;
in a circuit the human body, or a very long coil of fine wire, that gives
a resistance of 10,000 ohms. Then, according to Ohm's law, we have
the following fraction ;

(CSOM CNUnut rauiUBM mo k •» = aixu in lemol rttituaee n

irhicb represents the quantity of electricity that £ows through the
circuit. Suppose now one celt of tlie same character, but very mudk<
larger, sends a current in a short circuit — through a short platinum-
wire, such as is used in the galvano-cautcry for cnuleridng surfaces.
Suppose the external resistance of this short circuit be 9 ohms. The
electro-motive force of the large cell is no more than that of the small
cdl ; the internal resistance of the battery is very much less, for, as we
have seen, the resistance diminishes as the surface increases. For
convenience soke, we will suppose the internal resistance of the large
to be |>j that of the small cell — that is, 1. Now, dividing the electro*
Qiodve force by the resistance, according to Ohm's law we have this
result:

10 eki;iTii-ino«i»* foroe lo

f ciKtiuJ reHusnce '•■ i iuicnut rcuauace lo

the quantity of clectridty that flows through the circuit, iw twelve timet
as much as with 100 small cells.

OHM'S LAW— APPLIED TO GAI.VANO -CAUTERY. 79

Suppose now this one large cell be connected by a long and fm
platiouin-Trire, sucli as is used in the removal of tumors by galvano-
cautery operations. The reustaoce will of course be greater, for two
rcAsoiUi because the wire is lun^r and because it is 6ncr; for the law
Vk, the less the surface or section the less the resistance.

Suppose the resistance be 19 ohms. Dividing the electro-motive
force by the resistance, we have —

■p citcniiJ roulanoe « i inlrm>l mluanco k> •

tiiai it, one-half the quantity of tledrUity thai there was when a short
\flatinumwire -was in the circuit. Very likely this would not be
enough to heat the wire and keep it hot during a long operation.
This law coines to our rescue, and helps us out of this as of so maoy
other difficulties. Cut up the one large cell into two cells, and inter-
pose the long fine platinum-wire m the circuit. The electro- motive
force mil be doubled, (he external resistance will be the same ; but
the internal resistance will be greater because tlie surface is diminishetL
Dividing the electro-tnotive force by the resistance, our fraction
tCands thus :

which is nearly double the quantity of electricity sent through the long
wire by a single cell. Thus is explained the fact that the best galvano*
cautery batteries are arranged so as to be thrown into one lai^ge cell,
,or cut up into several celts, according as a short or long wire is to be
heated.

It Mas been found by experiment that the heat developed by the eurreiU
M ttny Hfire is proportioned tc the squares of the quantity of electricity
that flouts through it.

This is demonstrated by passing a current tlirough platinum- wires in
■ boitle of alcohol. The heat is communicated to the alcohol, and the
^tfiemiometer shows the temperature. It is found if a current of a cer-
tain quanlity raises the temperature 10, a current of twice that strengtb
will raise it 40.

Again, it is found by experiment that the heat developed by the (ur*
rent in any wire is preportioneit to the resistance of the wire.

This is demonstrated with the arrangement just described, by insert-
ing a rheostat whose resistances are known, so as to keep the quantitjr

ELECTRO-PHYSICS.

of electricity constant at a fixed pmnt, and then inserting platinum
wires of different lengths into the bottle.

From all this it follows that batteries for galvano-cantery should
have large surfaces and a small number of cells, and that they should
be arrai^ed so that the surface may be used as one or two cells or
cut tip into four or ax^ according a» short or long wires arc to be
heated.

FifiM)'. It /allotas that the date of an tlecirieal appUeation camwt
be atcurately described by stating the number of tells and the length of
the sitting.

This conclusion ie an important one. and for wont of a knowledge of
it electro-therapeutists condnuaJly blunder.

Supposing now that we are treating a patient locally or centrally by
the galvanic current, and we Acme to transfer the patient to another
ph>'sician. We inform the physician to whom the transfer is made, that
we are treating the patient wiUi ten cells for ten minutes, and we desire
that he should continue to give tlie same dose. In the light of Ohm's
law, let us see what »ucl] instructions are realty worth. The quantity
of electricity that passes through the palienc in a mmute is equivalent
to the electromotive force divided by the resistance; multiply the quo-
tient tlius obtained by ten, and we have the dose of electricity that the
patient receives in ten minutes. If, now, all die factors that determine
the electromotive force and the external and internal resistance were
constant and were accurately known, and if they were the saxac for all
batteries and all modes of application, then (he dose thus ordered
would be a mathematical one, and could be mathematically followed.
Ko forms of error are so erroneous or so illusory as those that approach
us under cover of facts and figures. In otu* very attempt to be accurate
we stumble into gross inaccuracy. Had we left the whole matter to the
judgment of the physician, with some general suggestions as to tlie sus-
ceptibility of the patient, we should have come far nearer the truth, aa
will be apparent by the following considerations.

The cicctio motive force varies in different batteries, and in the same
battery at different times. Grove's battery, for C3uunpte, has four times
tile elect ro' motive force of Smec's baltery in action, and twice the elec-
tro-motive force of line and copp<;r, or Daniell's battery. Then, again,
the electro- motive force will, in some batteries, as Smec's or Walker's,
fall off during an application ; and in all batteries, however constructed,
the electro-motive force varies at different times, from causes not ye*
determined

Bat the electro-motive force is constancy itself in comparison with

OHU'S LAW — APPLIED TO ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS. 8 1

ih« voriatioDs of the internal and external resistances. Beginning with
tbe iDlcmal resistance, wc 6nd lliat for a Grove's cell, containing one
pint of liquid, it is very »autl, less than one ohm ; for a Danicll's ccU»
5 to 1 5 ohmK, and for a Sniee's cell, less than one ohm. The mtcmal
rcfistancc varies with the ^c and shape of the cell, the distance of the
plates from each other, and with the length of time that the battery is
in action. Even if the cleciro-motivc force and external resistance
were accurate and constant, the variations in the internal resistance
would be sufficient to vitiate all attcmiJts at prescribing electricity by
the number of cells.

But it is in the external resistance that we find the greatest variation,
uncertainty, and inconstancy in applications of electricity to the human
body. The external resistance depends on the following factors :

isL Tbe size and construction of the wires that connect the batteiy
with the electrodes. The larger the section the less the resistance,
and, therefore, large wires will conduct more than small one*. A cer-
tain conventional size is manufactured by each instrument-maker, but
the siies vary with different makers.

ad. Tlie size and shape of the electrode. Up to a certain point,
vaiying with the number of cells, a large, broad electrode will conduct
more than a small and narrow one. A metallic electrode conducts
much better than a sponge; flannel conducts much better than
age, but worse than racial. The difference in the conducting power
of metal, sponge, and flannel, is great. A current which is jminfiil when
applied by a metal, and is quite jwrceptible when applied by a flannel
or chamois, is not felt at all when applied by a sponge. The painful*
nets of an appUcation. it is true, does not depend on the amount of
electricity that passes, but is also modified by the extent to which the
current h diffused. This would depend on the action of the electrode.
With the same current passing, the hand of the operator would probar
bly be less irritating than a sponge or flannel.

jd. Tbe quantity and quality of the liquid used to moisten the elec-
trodes. Electrodes that are perfectly dry conduct but little, at least
with currents of ihe tension used in electro-therapeutics. Electrodei
that are wet with warm water conduct better than those that arc wet
cold water ; and diose that are wet mth warm sah-water conduct

ESC of all. The difference in the conductivity of a sponge wet with
jraple cold water and one wet with warm salt-water is so great that a
' current which is not felt when applied by Ibe former, becomes unbearable
when applied by the latter.

4th. The amount of pressure that is used on the electrodes. If tbe
6

ELECTRO-niVSTCS

wet sponge is lightly pressed it conducts but little, and its conducrivitj
increases with the pressure. Firm pressure moistens the sliin more
thoroughly, and thus increases its conchirtivity, and at the tame lime u
brings iuto coaplalioo all parts of the sponge, so that it be<:ouies well
laturated.

5th. The position and extent of tlie body included between the elec*
trodes. This factor is a most important one, and it has been unac-
countably overlooked in all disaissions on Uiis subject. 'ITie difference
in the conductivity of the bones and soft tissues is all the difference
between twenty and one, and in all parts llie conductivity is niodilied
by age, by tcmperaraent, and by disease. The resistance of tlic whole
body, from one hand to the other through the shoulders, is about seven
or eight times the resistance of the Atlantic cable, and the resistance of
liie whole lengtii of thi: body, from the li;:a[l and hhcuUk'rs to the feet.
is probably greater than that. J:jut the resistance of any limited portion
of the body, as the head, or spine, or cervical iiymp;Uhctic and pncu-
mogaslric, or individual muscles or nerves, must be only a fractional
part of the resistance of the whole body. Other conditions being the
same, the nearer the electrodes are to each other the less llie resistance.
This may be illustrated by an experiment that we have frequently tried.
If one electrode be put in the vagina and the other in the rectum, a cur-
rent of but two or four cells may be painfully felt; but if one of the
electrodes is placed externally on the back or bypogastrium, a current
of a dozen or more cells may be scarcely perceived. The same experi-
ment may be tried on the back ; placing one pole on the nape of the
neck and the other at the lower end of the spine, a current that is just
perceptible at first, as the electrode* approach each other becomes
positively unbearable.

6th. The length of the application. When the galvanic current ia
first applied to the body by wet sponges, but little sensation is experi-
enced on the skin ; but in tite course of a few seconds a burning ]>ain is
felt, tliat increases with the length of the application. This is explained
in part by the chemical changes that take place, and in part by tlie fact
that as the skin becomes more and more moistened by the pressure t^
the wet sponge, and the skin under the electrode becomes more and
more congested, the resistance is diminished. Consequetitly, toward
the close of even & very short application, more electricity passes, all
other conditions being the same, than at the beginning. On this
account it frequently becomes necessary to reduce the number of cells
during the silting, especially when the electrodes are kept all tlie time
on one spot Thus it becomes clear that any attempt to prescribe the

OIIH'S LAW— APPLIED TO ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS, 83

dose of electricity by the number of cells, la ordinary exiernai applica'
lions to the body, must fail of its object. In electrolysis, wheie ttie
needles are alirays united, near to each other and under the skin, the
chances for error arc not so great, since there is much less variation in
the lesutance. K, in describing an electrolytic operation, we specify
the kind and number of cells uscti. and rhc mode a.nd length of opera-
tion, we convey a tolerably correct idea of what was rcatly done. The
time may come in the a<lvance of science, after physiology &hall have
found its Newton to reduce its present chaos to order and law, when
it shall be possible to prescribe so many farads of electricity, repeated
three times a week, as we duw preiicribe so many grains of bromide of
potassium, or so many drops of laudanum, repeated three times a day ;
but for the present we can rest as-tnred that when we describe tlic cur-
rent that we employ as mUJ, or medium, or sttvng, and have staled the
method and length and frequency of application, we have attained all
the accmacy ttiat science will allow.

Although the above statements have reference only to the galvanic
current, they just as truly apply to the faradic ; for induced as well as
galvanic electricity is subject to tlie law of Ohm. One difference, how-
ever, should be noted, that on account of the slighter chemical action
of the faraa*. furreiil Uie resislance of the skin beneath the electrodes
does not diminish with the length of the application. For the above
reasons the graduated scales that accompany some of the faradic
machines for dcctro-therapeutics are of but little practical value.

Finally, Ohm's law explains ihc fact of observation, that when the
pole* of a galvanic battery ore metalticaUy connected, the chemical
action in the battery is greatly increased and tlie plates rapidly de-
stroyed. The metals being beirer conductors than the body, conduct
a much greater quantity of electricity ; and as the potential qitantily of
electricity that any battery is capable of generating is limited, then
when the resistance between the poles is least, the action must be
strongest, and the metals the most rapidly consumed. Neglect in this
retard causes the pieniatuie destruction of many batteries.

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER I.

KXtJiTtON 0» tlECTRO-PHVSI0L0r.V TO KLECTRO-THKRAPEimCS—
AKIMAL ELBCnilCnT,

EUctrO'Phys'whgy is the sdemt whUh treats both of the laws of
animai eltctrieiiy, and also pf the phenomena produced by the action of
tieelricity on the body in health. We propose to present this subject

tas coiiipActly as possible, and consequently shall spcaV only of those
£u:l3 that are necessary for a true appreciation of the science, atK)
chiefly of those that, directly or mdirectty, have a practical bearing on
electro-therapcu lies.

Impvrtanie of a Knowledge of Eleetre-phymlogy to the Eleetro-thera-
Peutist.^h is of course pos^ble to use electricity successfully in thera-
peutics without any thought of its pli)'siological aclion, anJ ihonsands
have so nsed it. It is possible to relieve pain of almost every variety,
and to cure any of the curable forms of paralysis, without understanding
anythinjj of the action of electricity on niitrilion or on the nornial mus-
cle. Any old country granny, the stupidest of nutses, an infant even,
can hold two sjwnges on a part of die surface of the body, and let the

tcurrent run. lliose who aim no higher than this — the indiscriminate

rbolding of electrodes on palient.s — need give no thought to electro-
physiology ; need, indeed, waste no time on this or on any other work of
elcctio-therapeutics : they du not even need to trouble themselves with
the details of the applications but have simply to delegate them, with-
out reserve, to the nearest nurse or clodhopper. Those, we aissert, who
um no higher than this will fall short of even that : their success in
relieving symptoms by electrization will be so capricious and illusory,

, that, in time, they will abandon the attempt, allow their battery to grow
rusty in the garret, and ihencefortli they will condemn and despise »d-
CDtific and successful clectro-thcrapcutists.
Tlie electro-therapeutist, above all others, should start out under the

'inspiration of the motto of Ihe late President Dwight : " Aim high, for
you will be sure to come short of your aim-" To apply electricity after
the majiner of nur^s and "rubbing doctors," is not using it, but abuft>

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Those who aspire to mastership in electro-therapeutics wilt not be con
lent mth the mere attempt to relieve sympioras ; ihcy will seek to 5tu<lj
(hose most complex and subtle diseases for the treatment of which elec
tricty is indicated ; they will resort to this force for diaynostic as well ai
therapeutic aid ; they will strive to know not only how to use it, tnit, whai
is more difficult, how not to use it. He only can reap the full and ricV
harvest of elect ro-therapeuiita,! science and ait who sows beside all
waters ; he must become more or less proticient in neurology. In electro-
physics, ajid in electro-physiology. He who lias a knowledge of tlie
laws of animal electiicity, and the actions and reactions of franklinic,
galvanic, and faradic electricity on the brain, spinal cord, and sympa-
thetic ; on the nerves of motion and of common and special sense ; on
voluntary and involuntary musclesj on the skin, and on all the %'ariou9
passages and organs of the body in health, and also of the clcclro-con-
ductivily of the body, will find the paths of electro-diagnosis and of elec-
tro-therapeutics illumined at every step by such knowledge* and will, in
the end, make more correct interpretations of disease than he who
merely holds electrodes on patients without any higher aim ; and more
than that, he will he introduced into a field of thought and experiment —
a field surpassingly rich and fruitful, and i>ing in close relation to all
departments of physiology, of pathology, and of biolog}', where he can
study science for its own sake, widiout regard to its immediate practical
value.

In the above remarks we do not wish to be understood as subscrib-
ing to the nnllon, quite popular among some, that clcctro-therapcudcs
must be based on electro-physiology ; very far from it : the two sciences
are closely related and are of reciprocal assistance, but one is not built
up on the other. Neither are exact sciences, and may never become
such. Pathology, though it b but " the shady side of physiology," yet
M> complicates therapeutics that electro-physiology cannot become a
reliable basis for electro- therapeutics. The two sciences are pursuc<l
mainly by diiferent methods: electro-physiology is a' science of experi-
ment ; electro-therapeutics is a science of experience.

Eiectro-physiohgy largely Studied by Experiments en the Living Hu-
man Subject. — An advantage of great import to clectro-physiolog)', and
one that especially commends it to the elcctro-thcrapcutist, is that it is
largely based on experiments made on the living human subject. . True
enough, thousands of frogs have given up their lives in the electro-physi.
ological laboratory, and dogs and cats, rabbits and guinea-pigs, rats, and
monkeys even, have been subjected to electric tests while living, in health
and uninjured, wlule dying, and when dead ; but some of the most

AMMAL ELECTRICETY.

interesting and suggestive phenomena of this science, those which have
the nearest practical relation to electro-therapeutics, can be best studied
on the linng human subject, and without injunng the Mibject experi-
mented on. This is the supreme advantage of the study of the
physiological action of electricity over the study of the physiological
action of ihe majoiity of drugs. The objection 50 often made against
experiments made with medicines on inferior 4»iiiinls, tliat they do not
leach ihe action of such medicines on the human body in disease.
cannot, therefore, apply to elcctro-physiology, except to a limited
degree.

Not a few of the physiological reactions uf the human body to elec-
tricity can be studied while making therapeutical applications. The
reaction of voluntary muscles, of the motor and sensory nerves, of
some of the nerves of special scn<ic, to elcclncity, and the general effects
of electricity on nutrition, are taught us every time we electrize a patient
by any of the familiar methods of application. Electro-physiology and
electro-therapeutics tlius go hand in hand.

714^ Loialisation of EUciricity in ihe Body an Advantage in Studying
Us Physiotogieal Effect. — The drugs with which wc cx]Jcrir>icnt on anj.
mals, in order to learn their physiological action, are usually absorbed
and carried through the whole system; to confine their action to any
part or member is impossible. If they select any organ on which to
expend their force in preference to other parts, it is by virtue of tlieir in-
herent affinity for such organ, and not from any power in the experimenter
to confine them tlicre. Bui electricity can, to a certain extent, be local-
ized in a muscle or nerve, or in some special organ ; thus its etfects can
be studied with greater precision and certainty than the effects uf drugs
internally administered. Thus the physiological action of electricity has
• specially practical bearing on its therapeutical action,

Animal EUetririty is the EUciriaty that txists in Animal Bodies,
Xltetrie Fishes. — The most remarkable display of animal etcctricily
ipears in certain varieties of tithes. At a very early period it was
known that a certain Hat fish had not ouLy the power, when louclied, to
give forth shocks, but could impart to other bodies, for some distance
tlirough the water, a benumbing influence. This phenomenon was tirst
proved by actual experiment to be of an electrical nature as early as
'77i 't ^n<l soon after, by means of a number of Leydr^n jars, connect-
ing with a disk of leather or wood, either side of which was covered by
linfoil, an artificial torpedo was constructed. The subject of animal
electiicit)- is one of great scientific Interest, and may in time become
of direct ptactical value lo electro-therapeutics. This peculiar power

ELECTRO-PIIVSIOLOGY.

is possessed only by a small Dumber of tishes, the best known of whicb
are the torpedo or tkctric ray, ihe gymnotus or electric ett, and the
tttetric shad.

This development of electricity does not take place in all parts of
the fish, but is confined to a pt-cuHar expansion of the nervous system,
called ihe electrical organ. The nerves constiluiiug the electrical or-
gans of the torpedo and gymnotus are of great size. Those of the ftw-
mer consist of three principal trunks, and arise from the cerebro-spinal
systau ; while the nerves composing the electrical organs of ihe latter
arc derived from Ihc spinal cord alone, .^s stated above, the phenom-
ena produced by these fishes arc similar to those which are obtained
from electricity that is artihcially generated.

If electric fishes are touched with the hand, a shock is perceived, while
if glass, resin, or any other non-conductor is intervened, no effect is
produced

Sparku may be drawn from them tn the same way that they are drawn
from other bodies that are artificially diarged with electricity. The
current obtained from them will magnetize sleel needles, decompose
water, and if the needle of a galvanometer be brought into the circuit it
will immediately suffer dellection, *o that ihe direction of the current
may be readily determined.

The electric force of the tish is much weakened after it has exerted
its power a number of limes in cpiick succession, and it requires rest
and nourishment to enable it to recover its normal vigor.

History ef the Disccrvery of Electricity in the Body of Man and other
Animals. — We have already seen (HlecEro-Fhysics, p. 4S) that Galvani
discovered in 17S6 that muscular contraction follows the contact of the
nerves and muscles of a frog with a heterogeneous metallic arc. Krom
this observation, and from subsequent study of the subject, Galvani was
inclined to believe and to declare tliat in the tissues of animals there
exists a Bpcclal independent electricity, which he called animal eleC'
tricity. Although Galvani's conchisions were, as wc now know, not en-
tirely logical, yet he stumbled on an important discovery that was des-
tined to be demonstrated and confirmed by other and later observers.

There is such a force as animal electricity, but the experiments of
r.alvani are explained by contact of dissimilar substances and by the
chemical action of the fluids of the body on the metals, and not by the
electricity of the body.

VoUtis Rf searches have already been given in Electro-Physics (p. 50).

Humholdfs Researches. — In 1 799 Humboldt published a work contairv-
iDg the result of many and curious experiments, the object of which was

ANIMAL ELECTRICnY.

to show that both Volta and Galvaoi were right and both wrong ; that
there was such a thing as animal electricity ; that Galvaniwas in error
in regarding it as the only form of electricity that appeared in his cx«
{wrimcnts ; and that Volta was in error in refusing to admit its exist-
ence.

AiJinFs andNahills Researihes. — In 1803 a nephew of Galvani,
Aldini, jmblished experiments that went to demonstrate the existence
of animal clectrici^. The voltaic pile, however, was a stronger arga-
ment against the existence of animal electricity than any experiments
cotUd be in its favor, and toz these reasons animal electricity was for-
gotten.

In 1827 M. Nobili, having constructed a very sensitive galvanome-
ter, was enabled, as he supposed, to detect, without doubt, the exiiit-
ence of an electric current in the frog. He observed that when the
needle was placed in the circuit it denated some 30*.

Xesatrchfs of MatteueH and Du Bef5-Reymimd.-~l^ few years subse-
quently, Matteucci turned his attention to this subject ; but it was rc'
served for Du Bois-Reymond to investigate most dearly and most
fully, if not most conclusively, the electric properties of the nerves and
muscles.

By these two obscrveni it is believed to have been shown, ist. That
cnrrents in evcr>- resi>ect like the frog-current of Nobili, are not peculiar
to the frog, but are inherent in all animals, warm and cold-blooded^
in toads, salamanders, fresh-water crabs, adders, lizards, glow-worms,
and tortoises, as well as rabbits, guinea-pigs, mice, pigeons, and spar-
rows. (Chi Boi»-Reymond. )

td. That currents are found to nerves as well as muscles, and that
both are subject to the same laws. (Du Bois-Rcymond.)

3d. That the current usually observed is a muscular current that 15
produced by the muscles, the nerves acting only as inactive conduc
tors. (Du Bois-Rcymond.)

4lh. That this muscular current may be upward or downward, and
that the euirenl of the whole limb 1$ the resultant of the partial cur^

Its of each muscle. (Du Bois-Reymond.)

5th. That Uiese currents do not depend on the contact of hete-
sgeneous tissues, as Volta liad believed, for the nerves, muscles, and
^tendcms in their electrical relations are homogeneous. (Du Dois-Rey*
mood.)

6th. That electricity is found not only in the muscles and nerves,
hut also in the brain, spinal cord, and sympathetic — in mutot, sensory, and
mixed nerves — in a minute section as well as in a large mass of nervotu

ELECTRO-P H VSI OLOGY.

substaDces — in a small fibnl as well as in a large muscle— in the skin,
icplecn, testicles, IddDcys, liver, lungs, and tendons; but not in fascw,
sheaihs of nerves, and sinews,

7th. That animal electricity is capable of decomposing iodide of
fjotassiurn, and of deflecting the needle of the galvanometer^ (Mat-
leuccL)

Stli. In the mu&clcs and nerves electricity is in the condition of a
thsed circuit.

9th. That contractioti of muscle is accompanted by an electric rfij-
tharge resembling that of a torpedo. (Malteucd.)

It was the perusal of the essay of Matteucci that inspired Dti Bois-
Reymond tu undertake tliose magniliceiit researches that have givea
him a name and a fame in the realm of electrology.

?[e devised special apparatuses for his researches, uid handled them
with great skill and patience.

Even if many of the conclusions jiresentcd are erroneous, they arc
none the less interesting suggestions, and have prepared the way for
those who are now earnestly seeking to discredit his experiment and
disprove his statements.

The above conclusions of Du Bois-Rcymond were derived from ex-
periments on the nerves of frogs, but electricity is not confined to the
lower forms of life, either dead or dying.

Electricity in the Living Man. — In the living man it is believed
that cutaneous currents are found The hand is negative to the elbow,
and the palm of tlie hand is negative to the back. The foot is negative
to tJie ciicsi, and the sole of the foot is negative to the back. The elbow
is slightly positive to the chest, and die hand is sometimes negative to
the foot, and sometimes the reverse.

These cutaneous currents are cjuite strong and uniform. They are
Id be distinguished from the thermo-electric currents that are observed
when two syiuiuetrical pails are heated.

A finger at the temperature of 32^ is positive to one at 90", and a
finger at 60° is feebly positive to one at 80*^, and strongly- positive to
one at 180°. The cutaneous currents arc also to be distinguished from
currents tliat arise from dissimilar immersion, dissimilar sweating and
shielding of the body.

Currents of electricity have been found in the urethra and bladder
of the rabbit, the intestines, the spleen, the testicles, the tendons, and
the oviduct of the frog, and the iris of birds.

All these currents resemble the ordinary muscular ctirrents, in that
the outer and inner surfaces have opposite electricities.

ANIMAL ELECTRICITY.

The currents of the nerves and muscles are very much stronger tluui
Aose of other tissues.*

Dr. C. B. RadcUffe takes a radically different vicvf of animal etec
iricity. His coaclusions, briefly summarised, are as follows :

I. The sheaths of (he fibres of nerve and muscle during rest are
chafed with clectiicily like I^yden jais. He believes it probable,
though not entirely demon&Uable, thai the sheaths of the fibres con-
duct electricity so feebly that they are practically non-conductors and
arc di-elcctric.

This charge is brought about by the development of electricity, either
positive or negative, through oxidation, or some form of chemical action,
ou tlie outside of the sheaths of the fibrcii, which electricity inducer
through the di-elecLric sheath, an opposite electricity bom the inside of
the sheaths, after the manner of the Lcydcn jar. Electricity which exists
in the nerves and muscles during rest is in a statical condition, and not
in djTianiic or cmrent state.

The ncrvc-currcnt and musclc-cunrnt arc purely incidental phenom-
ena, resulting from applying the electrodes to points of uneiiual elec-
tric tension.

3. That the pasMge of a nerve or muscle from a state of rest to a state
of action is accompanied by a discharge similar to that of a torpedo.
The arguments in favor of this view arc, that the anatomical and phyn'o-
logical apparatus of the torpedo closely resembles the muscular appara-
tus of all animals ; that the ncrvc-currcnt nearly disappears from the
Dcnre. and the muscle-current from the muscle, when nerve and muscle
pass from rest into action \ and, finally, that the phenomena of induced
or secondary contraction cannot otherwise be explained.

This discharge takes place between the sheaths of the fibres, which are
verj elastic, and arc capable uf being elongated during rest by the mu-
tual attraction of the opposite electricities with which they are charged.

3. That when a nerve or muscle passes from action to rest it resumes
its condition of charge. Elongation, therefore, is the result of cliarge,
and contraction of discharge.

This point is illustrated by the following experiment:

A narrow band of rubber is wound on both siiriaces very near the edge
with gold-leaf, so that it can be charged or discharged with electricity
like a Leyden jar. By a simple arrangement of a grooved wheel and an
apparatus that multiplies and records the movements, it can be shown
that when the band is charged by a few turns of a frictional machine, il

• DynaptH4 o/Ntrvij attJ Mustttt. London, iSyi.

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

elongates, and when the charge is discharged it contracts. It is belicvco
that the mHscle behaves in precisely this manner. If nerves arc not
affected in the same way, it is because their fibres are not sufficiently
elastic

4. That the blood keeps up the natiuul charge of electricity in nerve
and muscle.

The acceplance of this view explains many interesting facts m
paliiology. It explains the fact that diseases thai are accompanied by
a deficiency in the ncr\'c-currcnts, as nctinilgia, spinal irritation, hysteria,
tetanus, epilepsy, usually manifest tliemselvea by morbid activity, by
increased and unnatural luovcmentii of muscles aiid nerves.

Active intlaiiuiiatioas, when there is increase of blood, are not usually
accompanied by excessive muscular or nervous action.

Apparatus for Studying Anima! EUctricity. — In a practical work of
this kind it is not necessary nor proper (o enter into elaborate detail
uf all the cxperiincnial premises by which Matieucci, I>u Bois-Ke)^
mond, PliUgei, and others have made iheir discoveries. A very brief
description of the apparatus of Du Bois-Reyinond may possibly be of
interest

He employed a very delicate galvaQometcr, the distinctive fea-
tures of which were, first, the astatic needles were constnicted and
arranged with great care ; and, ittondly, the wire around them was very
long, and of from 4,000 to 34,000 convolutions. A multiplier of this
sort will indicate the presence of exceedingly feeble currents. The
wires of the multiplier are connected with carefully cleaned and pre-
pared flat new plates dipped in vessels of rinc, containing sulphate of
line to prevent polarization. Two cushions, as they are called,
made of layers of blulting-paper soaked in a solution of sulphate of
zinc, are laid in the edge of each vessel, with their ends in the liquitL
The whole is enclosed in a moist chamber. In order to protect any
tissue, it is placed in connection with the two cushions in varions posi<
tions ; then, if there be any current, the deflection is seen in the needle
of tlie multiplier.

When two synunetrical parts of the longitudinal or transverse section
of a nerve are applied (0 the cushions, no deflection b seen ; when two
dissymmclncal parts of the longitudinai section are placed on the
cushions th« needle deflects 6" or j*. When the longitudinal section
of the nerve on one side touches one cushion, and the transi'erse sec*
tion touches the other side, the needle deQects 15° to jo".

Instead of the galvanometer mullipher we may use the rheoscopic
frog, which may give some results : but it has the disadvantage that it

EXPERIMtaNTS OP TROWBItlDGE.

toscii its irritability, and that it contnu:t5 only when the current is
closed or brokeo.

ExperimtHts of Tr<nv6ruigt, — ^^Ve have given a full and varied pre-
sentation of the leading conclusions of Du Bois-Keymoiul and others^
and have described, in a vtry general way, the best method of peifonn<
iog the experiments on which his conchtsions arc based.

We have done this in justice to a name that is greatly honored in
science, in justice to the name that has made an era in physiology, and
to prepare the litudcnt for an inlclligcnt understand in^j of t!ie ex|>eri-
ments that seem to overthrow these «ews of Du Bois-Reyraond that
have been so widely accepted.

It has alwa)^ appeared lo us that in the experiments of all electro*
pbysiotogisls, ibe later as well as the earlier sclioul, there were ciuuices
for great error, and have been surprised that their conciusioiis have
been accepted with so little rcserk-ation.

Bearing in mind that all chemical action, however slight, is probably
accompanied by the generation of electricity, it is surely noi irrational
to suspect that the conclusions from careful experiments of Du Buis-
Rcymond and others might be in some, if not in all cases, muditied by
(ktmicaJ athon between the animal tisaues and Liie cusbions of the gal-
vanometer, however skilfully these were protected.

Among the physicists at least, the theories of Du Bois-Reymond have
been, on the Mbolc, losing ground during ihe pa&t ten years, anil pro-
bably on account of the considerations that are above presented.

Prof. John Trowbridge, of Haivaid College, has recently nude a
series of researches that seem to cast grave doubts on the Interesting
and hitherto accc|>tcd conclusions of Du Bois-Keyniond in regard to
animal electricity.

This physicist, starting out on the face of the accepted fact thai
two liquids of disiimiiar ehtmuat cAaraitcr, separaitrd by a porous
partition, give rise to a current of eltcirieiiy, has made experiments
with an apparatus simitar lo that employed by Du Bois-Reymond io
his researches on animal electricity. Instead, however, of placing a
piece of muscle or nerve on the cushions, he used a series of artifieial
musila. These artificial muscles were made of glassiubes covered by
porous pal utions, and tilled with the different liquids, such as—'
Undistilled water.

Weak iolution of salt in distilled water.
Solution of dilfercnt salts of iron.
Blood,
Acidulated water.

ELECTRO-PHYSrOLOGY.

Placing the artificial muscle thus ]}rcpared in the position vhere the
natural niusdc is placed in Du Bois-Re/moiid's experiments, be found
tliat each liquid caused a deflection of the needle of the galvanometer.

There IB no queslioii, in the opinion of Prof. Trowbridge, that the
cuirents that caused these tlcHcctions of the needle arose from the
actions of the fluids in the tubes on the saline solution of the cushion and
the protecting guard. This view is confirmed b/ the fact that when
the anificial muscles were, 6Ued with distilled viaXcr, there was no de-
flection of the needle observed ; but when imdistillcd water or the
other fluids mentioned were used, the needle of the galvanometer de-
flected su far as in some cases to throw the spot of light off the scale.*
Prof. Trowbridge exercised the same precautions as arc found necessary
by electro-physiologists in obtaining the so-called muscular currents.
He argues tliut the behavior of the artificial muscle must be similar to
that of a natural muscle placed on the cushions ; and he stales furtiier,
that when we use the nalur<it muscle.-, containing fresh and chemically
active blood, separated by its sheath from the clay guards of the cushions,
an electrical action must take pl<uc between the fluids of the muscle and
the saline solutions in the connecting apparatus, 7vhich action cannot
well be distinguished from the so-called muscular current.\

In order to avoid every possible source of error in these eiperi-
meets, Prof. Trowbridge not only tried distilled water in the artificial
muacles, instead of undistiUcd water and the different solutions, but also
tried the mere contact of the bladder mcmbrane-i>arrition mthoui any
fluid, and in neither case was any current produced. He employed a
vessel shaped like the letter U, opened at the bend, and covered at the
ends by a membrane. Into the two limbs of the lube he injected
fluids of different kinds. When the vessel was filled with a fluid that
was homogeneous, and the ends of the tube brought in contact with
the cushions, the needle of the galvanometer was deflected. When the
points of contact were reversed, the direction of the needle was re-
versed. That mere contact of the tube with the cushions did not cause
the deflection of the needle, was diown by the fact that when no fluids
were in the tube there was no deflection. Thai the direction of the
current was through the U-shaped tube, and not from its extremities to
the galvanometer and back, was proved by the fact that when the
section of one of the limbs of the U-shaped tube was constricted, the

* Tlionuon.'i reflecting galviuiometer and new cpudrant-electromeler were Qied ht
lh««e ex pertinent E.

f On Ihc Electro -mollTe Action of Uqulis MpftnUed hj Membranes. Amrrkttm
t»Krnal ef Seienet and Arts, voL iiL, Msy, 1S73.

EXPERIMENTS OF TROWBRIDGE. 97

f1efl«ctioD of the needle was reduced, and when the constriction wai
complete there was no deflection.

The conclusion to which Prof. Trowbridge arrives from these ex-
periments which have been repeated at various times, is, '* t/iat wAt/t the
cushiffrtt 0/ tht galvanmntter are connected by a tntmbraofftis sae eon-
taining fiuids, or animai tiisue saturated wifkfimd, an endosmoiie aet't&n
takes pla£t, accompanied by galvanic action ; and that this ga/i-anie
cution is determined by the differenet of endosmotic action at various
faints 0/ the enclosing membrane" •

When, therefore, a muscle is placed on the cushions of the galvanom-
eter, its transverse section on one pad and its longitudin^il section
on the other, endosmose takes place, which is different at dilTcrcut
points, and the galvanic current that appears is probably caused by
this ditfercnce of endosmotic action and not by the so-catlcd musciilac
current. Then granting that a muscular current exists, it must suffer
important modifications in strengtli and direction through this endos-
motic action. // the muscular current does not exist, this endosmetie
action, with the accompanying galvanic artion, will account for the dc
flection of the needle of the galvanometer that had been supposed to be
due to the muscular current.

In a letter received by Dr. Beard from Prof. Trowbridge, under date
March iS, 1873, nearly one year later than the date of the publication of
the researches of which tlie above is an abstract, he says that "later
experiments have convinced me that there are no such currents as mus-
cular currents, proi>crIy no called. I think that the phenomena noticed
by Dii Bois-Rej-mond arise from differences in the chemical nature of
different portions of the muscle Du Bois-Rcymond contends that
such chemical difference does not exist, and that the tissue is homo-
geneous from a chemical point of view. It must be remembered,
however, that a delicate galvanometer can detect differences in chemi-
cal comijosilion which cannot be detected except by the most refined
Analysts. I should therefore make my assertions strnngur llian 1 have
done, in the accompanying papers, in viev of subsequent experimenL"

Prot Trowbridge has also made experiments that seem to cast grave
doubts on the conclusions of Du Bois-Reymond in regard to electrical
currents in the arms. Du Bois-Reymond in his experiment connects
the terminals of a galvanometer in separate vessels by a siphon-tube
eoniaining die same liquid as the vessel. The ends of the tube are
covered wiih a porous preparation.

* noMedings of the Aianlcan Academy of Am and Sctenco, Januarj 9, 1871.
7

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Placing a forcftiigcr in <:3.ch vessel and violentl/ contiaciing ihe
aim, he observed that the needle of the galvanometer was deflected ; on
contiacting the other wm, the needle deflected in the opjKtsitc ilircc-
rion. Dli Bois-Rcymond explained this phenomena by the theory
that electrical currents circulate in the arm distinct from and co-exist-
ing with the muscular and nerve-currents. It is not djflicult to con-
ceive that in an experiment of this kind there would be chances for
error sufficient to make us very cautious in accepting any immediate
conchisions in regard to it In order to lest the validity of this con-
clusion, Prof. Trowbridge prepared a vessel with two limbs, which he
substituted for the human finger. Du Bois-Keymond's experiment-
vessel was filled with a solution of salt, and the end of the limbs was
covered with prepared membrane. The resistance of th« circuit
through both limbs and the vessel was about that of the human body
from the forefinger of one hand to the forefinger of the other — that is,
about seven or eight times the resistance of the Atlantic cable. The
ends of the limbs or tubes were immersed in the fluid of the vessel con-
nected wiih the galvanometer. As soon as they touched the liquid,
the needle of the galvanometer was deflected, and on reversing the
limbs the needle was deflected in the opposite direction.

When the flexible portion of one of the limbs was pinched so a* to
diminish the diameter, the deflection was also diminished. When a
trifling change was \ni\A\i \x\ the ekemici^ character cf the jlmds in the
two iimbs, and one of the lim&s tens slightly csnlra£ii/i^ the direction rf
ihe needle was reversed.

Prof. Trowbridge is disposed to believe that the deflection of the
needle caused by the contraction of the muscles of the arm, "is pro-
duced either by the temperature or by the change in the flow of the
blood." It \v&s been established, that the electro-motive force between
venous and arterial blood is about one-thirtieth that of a DAnicU's
cell ; and as muscular contractions change the chemical character of
the blood, and as by very slight chemical difference between two fluids
(eparated by a meuibrane, like the skin, is sufficient to create a gal-
ranic current, it is not improbable that the conclusion of Du Bois-
Reymond in regard to the existence of a separate electrical current
in Ae arm is erronemi^

CHAPTER IL

KIXCTROTOrrOS, ANBLECTBOTONOS, AHD CATEI.ECTR0T0N08.

EUctrotonos is the peculiar mniifitation of irritability that nervet
and musclti under gc when aeted upon by a gaivanic turrent.

UTiile the nerve is in the elecirotonic state, that part of it not in-
cluded betweeo the poles will deflect the needle of a. delicate galvano-
meter ; and that the deflection then caused is not due to the natural
nerve-current, is proved by the fact that it ap])ears when only the sur-
face of the nerve is connected with tlie galvanometer. It is therefore
the electric condition of the nerve caused by the passage of the current
through it that deflects tl;e needle. The electrotooic condition not only
remains so long as the galvanic current continues to pass, but, if the
corrrnt be sufficiently powerful, it remains for a limited time after the
current ceases to pass.

Hie elcctrotonos is more noticed tlie larger the extent of nerve
acted upon, provided the current be sufficiently increased to overcome
tbe iDcrea&ed resistance.

In nerves that are dead, or have tost their irritability, elcctrotonos
cmnot be excited at all, or only feebly, and the same is inie when th«
nerve is cut across or tightly bound with a ligature.

Tlte change in the ner^-e-currcnt depends on the direction of the
plnoic current. \Vhen the galvanic current flows in the same direc-
tion with the nerve-current, the strength of the nerve-current is in*
crtJAcd ; when the galvanic current flows in a contrary direction, the
strength of the nerve-current is diminished.

Elcctrotonos is greater when the galvanic current flows lengthwise
^/i^n when it flows across the nerve. It increases, within certain limits,
£fh the increase in the intensity of the current.

Af&letular Theory of Aneltctrotones. — ^Du Bois-Rejmiond has sug-

-^c«J Atlicoty to account for the phenomena of elcctrotonos, which

f^__ £>ecn generally accepted. It is analogous to Ae theory of mag-

'^^ti> suggested by Coulomb. He supposes that muscles and nerves

.t^*

£^t of electric molecules, which have one positive equatorial lone

100

ELECTRO-PHySIOLOCY.

uid two negative polar zones, vhose axes arc pciralkl to each other;
that is, two molecules make one molecule. This is called the peri'^ieir
arraugemenc. In a magnet, cacli individual molecule manifesis tlie
same phcnorociia as the entire magnet : each molecule is indeed a
magnet in miniature. In iike manner, each molecule of the nerve ot
muscle manifests the same phenomena as the entire nerve or muscle.
These pcri-polar molecules are enclosed by a moist covering.

IJu Bois-Reymond fiirtlier supposes that each peri-polar molecule
may be divided into a group of di polar molecules — where the positive

fio. jr.

Peri-polor Arruigement of ELcctro-motar Molecules

L ft'— Lon^tuiiinkL Section. T S— TraQSveme Section.

P^Pweledronomic Layer.

hemispheres arc turned toward each other — without changing theit
electrical properties. This is called the dipolar arrangement. If a
number cf such molecules are brought under the influence of a f^alvanic
current, their powtive zones will turn toward the negative pole, and the
negative toward the positive ; one of the molecules (3) turning 180*
on its axis. I'hc arrangement will be as above. Prom its resemblance
to the voltaic pile it is called the pile-like arrangement.

This pile-like arrangement of the molecules not only takes place
between the electrodes, but also beyond them into the exira-polat
region.

Du Bois-Rcymond has illustrated these phenomena on molecules
made of zinc and copper.

From these experiments Du Ilois-Rcyraond concluded, first, that the
nerve is always in the condition of a closed circuit, since electric cur-
rents are produced by the coaaecciou of layers surrounding the mole-
cules with their molecules ; and secondly, that the current obtained
from an animal, as indicated by the g.ilvanomcter, is only a small por-
tion of the entire current.

ANELECTROTONOS AND CATELECTKOTOXOS.

101

Tlie galvanic current that produces ihc cicctrotomc condition is called
ihe /fflariMing current. The portion between the poles is called in/ra-
felar ; beyond and outside of the poles, extra-polar. Elcctrotonos is
ascending when it jirocceds from the diubcIc to the nerve ; descending
when it proceeds from the nerve to the muscle.

AntUetrotonos and CtUeUctretonos. — Anelectroionas is a condition of
dtminishtd irritability whieh takes place at the positive electrode. CaU-
Uetrotonos is a eondilton of intr eased irritability which takes place at the

L S — Lo(i£itiidiiial Section. T S — Troiuvcne S«tloa.

I, PeH-poUu airangemcttt of dcclro-motor inol«culev
I. Di-poLu MTangi;mciiL of cleciro- motor moleculev

3. Pik-likc amngcRient of dectro-molor molccoJeiv cAuttd by the sction of
the gxlvuiic current.

negative electrode. At some point between the electrodes the irritabililj"
of the nerve is ucdiangcd. The conditions of a^clectiotonos and
catelectrotonos arc found not only between the polcii, but also in the
other portions of the nen-e, in the extra-polar portion.

The portion between the poles and near the negative pole, together
with the portion beyond the negative pole, is in a state of catelectro-
lonos, with increased irritability . The portion between tJie poles and
near the positive pole, together with the portion beyond the positive
pde, is in a state of anelectrotonos, with diminished irritabllitjr.

The exlra-polar catclectrotonos depends on the length of the nerve be-
tween the poles, and the strength of the current, up to a certain limit.
The strength of the extra-polar anelectrotonos is proportioned to iti

laa

ELBCTRO- PHYSIOLOGY.

distance from the poles, being greatest near the intra-polar portion.
The extra-polar catelectrotonos, both ascending and descending, is in
a state of increased irntabJUty. The extra-polar anelectrotonos, botb
ascending and descending, is in a slate of diminished initabilitjr.

Ntutral Point. — Between the poles there is a point uriicre the irrita*
bility is rwt changed ; there anelectrotonos meets catelectrotonos. This
is called the neutral point. The relative position of this depends on
the strength of the polarizing current. Where the strength of the cur-
rent is medium, the neutral point is about niidMuy between the poles.
Where the current is weak, the neutral point is nearer the positive
pole. Where it is strong, it is near the negative pole.

Negative VariatioH- — When a current fre^juently iiucrrupled is
applied to an irritable nerve, it causes the nerve-current to diminish in
strength, and finally utterly destroys it. This fact is demonstrated bjr
the galvanometer. i

The same phenomena is caused to a less degree by chemical or
mechanical stimulation of nerve. Negative variation has been explained
by the theory that the |)rri-pcjlar molecules in the nerve change theio
arrangement, so that their electro-motor power is diminished. The neg-
ative variation of the current has been studied by Bernstein. He re-
gards alt the electric phenomena of the nerve as undulatory movements,
and has mathematically estimated the length of the waves in nerve and
muscle. Cyon, in con&nnation, has sitown that ihc decree uf thb
variation is directly proportioned to the number of interruptions in the
exdling current.

Effeett of Elfdrolonosin Diminished Canduetivtty . — The power of a
ntrve ie eondufi irritability is more or less modified by the cendiiian of
tiectrfftonos. The portion of the nerve near the positive pole, which is
in a condition of anelectrotonos, has its conduclibility diminished ; the
portion of the nerve near the negative pole, which is in a condition of
caielectrotonoK, has its conductibilily increased. If the cnrrenl be suf-
ficiently ttrong, the power of the nerve to conduct impressions may
nearly or entirely destroyed.

Effects pf EUetrptonos after the breaiing of the Galvanie {polarising
Cssrrtnt. — One of the effects of the cleclrotonos is the irritation wliich it
caused by the paxaing away of the nnelectrotonos. This irritation,
which appears at the positive {lole, is shown either by a contractioa or
by a tetanic condition.

Positive Modification and Negative Modification. — The nerve which is
in a condition of catelectrotonos at the negative pole is greatl/
modified by the breaking of the polarizir^g current. Its initabilitj if

uf.

ANEl^CTROTOSOS AND CATELECTROTONOS.

103

dMrebjr duni&ished. Tins diminutioa of irritability is called the *' ntgO'
Hoe wtodt^mtien." At tlie poiiitivc pole \w thccatelcctrotonic region, an
■rm>r cl irntability, or pasilive moJifi^atian, apiwars on breaking the
entreat This increase and diiiiiniition of irritability continue for some
Wmt after the pobming current is broken.

iy<ff */a Change in the Dtreclian of (he CarreHi. — Another effect of
fltoctroconoft U the change of irritability which is caused by a change in
llw ifinclioa of the current, tf a nerve is subjected for some time to
the ia&Kiice of a galvanic current in a certain direction, it loses some
flf its irritabilitir, which it regains when the current ts reversed.

SUttmr^Um 9/ frritabHUy. — A very important effect of electrotonos
ii a KOootion of irriiability in a nerve. It has been proved, both by
a[peneiK:e ind by experiments, that nerves which froiu any cause have
iMt tbtir imtability to the faradic current, »o<iietimes regain it after an
Hylieabon et the galvanic It has been shown by the experience of
•ewnl writers on eleciru-theiaiieutics, and of ourselves, that, in casej
of paraljHB, wben the Auadic current at tirst fails to produce contrac-
lirrwf. the application of the galvanic may not ooly readily produce coa-
baolMXM, bat oaay also produce such a change in the irritabilUy of the
f m-miyttd pmrii At to cause them to regain their lost irritability to the
ftfodu inrremi. (See Electro-Therapeutics.)

SUttrgtBrnat t^ Musele. — A musele, like a nerve, may be put in the
eaaddoo of dectroconos ; the change^ of irritability liiat accompany
Aii coodibcm are confined to tlie poitioa of muscle through vhich
Ifae entreat flows. The subiequeut effects, after the polarizing current is
bgkcDh are also limited to the |>ortion through which the current passes.

tt ta logically probable, also, that not only the motor- nerves, but also
rft putt of the nervous system — central and peripheral — are capable of
tbc pheDOmena of modified irritability under the galvanic

7%tipry of Aneleetroionos and CattUetrfftonos. — That the galvanic

in its passage through the nerve diminishes the imtability of that

in ih« region of the positive pole, and inc^(^ascs its irritability in

4)c vrpcm of the negative pole, maybe explained by the imrclyjihysical

rfictf of ibc carrems in the tissue.

We harr feea that in electrolysis adds go to the positive and

. to the n^alive pole ; now it is a fact of physiology that acids

the irnubility of nerves, while alkalies increase it Anelec-

aiul catctectrolunos may therefore be caused by actda at the

' and alkalies at the negative pole.

cxplaaaiioa b rendered probable by two facts : firsts thai

Tbb

104

ELECTRO -PHVSIOLOGV.

anelectrotonos and catclcctrotooos arc not produced by the secondary
faradic current, which ha:s no m^ked chciiiica.1 action ; and seeenMjr,
that very feeble and mstanlaneous passages of the galvanic current {>ro-
ducc electrolytic effects.

■Pfliiger'i Contraclion-Law. — The law of conlraction, a^ derived by
PSUgcr from exijcriments on the frog, Is thus forniuhted : The nerve is
txcittd by tht apptarance vj eaitUttrotorufs, and tht disappearanu of
aneUetrolonos-, bid not by (hi appearance of anelectrot&nos or the dU-
appearance of cateUctrotoncs. This law is considered of great scientific
as well as practical value.

EleetrotQnos in the Living Man. — The subject of electrotonos in the
living inau has been studied by Eiilenburg, Saint, Von Bczold, Brenner,
Erb, BrQckncr, Runge, and Kilehne, but most successfully by Cyon.

Cyoit,* by a series of elaborate and careful experiments, has shown
that the contraction-law of Prtiigcr, as established on the frog prepara-
tion, applies aba to the living human subject.

He lias shown that, after closing the circuit, the irritability is in-
creased near the negative pole ; that this condition of caielectrotonos
increases as the current runs up to a certain point ; that on breaking
the current the negative modification, or condition of diminished irrita-
bility, apfwars for a moment, and then disappears.

Near the positive pole, on the other hand, the irritability is diminished
at and after closing the current. On breaking the current there ts
an increase of irritability, oi positive modifitaiion, which appears to be
greater wlien the current has been allowed to run a long time.

The experiments from which Cyon derived tltcsc conclusions were
made on the ulnar ncr*-e, and with great care to avoid error. It will
be seen that tl\e results correspond with the results of Pfluger's experi-
ments on the frog, and confirm thcni. Cyon found, however, thai these
results weic not uniibrni in all persons, but were modified more or less
by temperament and disease.

Practical Bearings of the Laws of EUetrolonos. — While the laws of
clectrotonoi do not account for all the therapeutical action of the gal-
vanic current, they are, nevertheless, of great value, and help to ex-
plain the practical differences observed in the action of ihc two (loles.
In a carefully prepared article, however, by I)e WattevillCtt the con-
clusion is reached " that a therapeutical system, built on the opposite
anelectrotonic and katelectrotonic effects, rests upon an imaginary
1x1515. . . . Both are stimulants, if 'stimulation' there be, llie kathode
more than the anode."

* Priittipti d'Elttlroih'.rafiit. Pwls, 1873, p. lyotttef.
f Conditions t/thi Unipolar Stimulation, tit. " Biuii.**

Part IX.

CHAPTER in.

ACnOH OF BLECnuCmf ON THl SKIK.

In regard lo the study of the action of cJcctiicity ao the body is
bcallh, it is necissary to niake the pttiliituiury reiiLirk hxt niaiiy of
the cxpeiimeDts that have been made and piibli&hecl, and widely quoted
io this departnitrDt, have but little scienlific value, and cannot be re-
garded as in any sense aulhonlativc. The reason for the uncertainly
pertaining to the reported exiwriments are manifold :

t. TAe distinetioH behaetn the turrenis has noi been observed. Not
only have the faradic and the galvanic cunents been constanlly con-
founded, but the subdivistuDS of the faradic current — the electro mag-
netic and magneto electric — have been vaguely commin};)cd. Many
observers speak of galvaoii-alion when they mean faradization, and vite
Virsdy and not a few apply both tei-ms to the use uf the sainu current.

2. AlIou/aHi'i has not been made Jer the differential actwn of strongs
medium, and Jeeble currents, or of long and short applieatiens, 'I'lie
difference in the phy&iological efTect of a large and small dose of opium,
strj'chninc, belladonna, or ergot, or any other powerful rcitiedy whatso-
ever, is enormous. When a small dose has no perceptible effect, a large
doae may throw into profound »leep, or into violent convulsions, that lead
lo deatli. In speaking of the physiological action of drugs of any kind,
the do&e is always mentioned, and any experiment with drugs, on man
or animaU, when the dose id noi known or mentioned, has Utile value in
ftcicncc. Similarly also in electro- therapeutics, we find in cvcry-day
experience that the difference in the effects of a mild and short, and a
severe and long, appticaiiun, is only the difference between making a
patient inhoilely better or in&nitely worse.

When, therefore, we read that galvanization of the syuipatlietic or
fmeumogastric produces such and such edects, we really get no precise
knowledge whatsoever. ,

3. The differeniial suseeptibility of man and animals has nM bemdut}
tMuidered. Experiments with electricity performed on the lower ani
mais, as frogs, dogs, cats, horses, rabbits, cows, guinea-pigs, etc., do no!

io6

ELECTRO- PH YSIOLOGV.

klwajrs afibrd a safe basis for generalization in rcg..rd lo the effects of
electricity on maD, and especially on man in a state of civilization. In
tbdr susceptibility to the electrical stimulus, and in the let^th of time
that iJiey retain their irritability after death, there is a great difTerence
in animals ; between animals aod civilized man this difference must be
very greaL

In proportion as the organization of man is more complex than that
of the lower animals, in that proportion will the physiological reaccioas
of Ihe hiiiiian body to the electric current, or indeed to any other in-
6tience, be more complex and uncertain, and more liable to deviations
and modifications than the ph)'Mologica1 reactions of the inferior forms
of life lo which we are supposed lo be related. Conclusions in electro-
physiology, derived solely from experiments on animals, have the great
merit of simplicity ; but when applied to tlie far higher and more com-
plex organization of man, and especially of civilized man, with his ex-
cessively sensitive system of nerves, they are apt to lead into serious
error.

4. Individuai tdiesyrurasies have not been praperly considered The
action of mcdicimrs varies with thu tc-mpcranient to such a degree as to
make necessary great caution in rushing to generalizations from exi>e-
riiuents on one or two persons. Applications of electricity, faradic
or galvanic, to the cervical sympathetic, similar in length and strength,
■nay cause in one individual syiuptoim of cerebral congestion, in another
symptoms of cerebral anicmia, and in another its effects may be purely
negative. In one individual the effects of such application may be felt
at once, in another an hour or two after the application, in another not
until the following day.

There is a great difference in the average susceptibility of different
nationalities and of the higher and lower orders of society, \*"ith occa-
sional exceptions both ways; the tough, coarse-fibred Uboring classes
arc much less susceptible to electricity, ju&t as they are much less sus.
ceptible to drugs, than the delicate, iinely organized, brain-working
classes.

5. The action pf ehttridty on the body in health may be iearned, in
part ai irast, by iludyittg its action in disease.

•' Pathology," Allbutt well says, " is but the shady side of physiology."
To draw the tine precisely where health ends and disease begins, is
oftentimes beyond the power of mortal man. Of the deep darkness of
[lie midnight-hour any child is conscious, and even the birds discern the
approach of evening ; but what physicist so keen as lo tell the precise
uomeot when the late afternoon begins to fade into the ^rly twi%ht?

ACnON OF FARADIC CURRENT ON THE SlttN.

107

It is becauM physiology and pathology thus run into each other, that
observations on pathological states may be of great service to physiolog)-.
Experiments made with electricity on patients more or 1es« diseased
have helped, as wc shall see. to solve some of the problems of elcctrO'
physiology. Certain pathological slates render the nerves unusually
Itnpressible to electricity in degree, though in the same way as ir
health, and thus are of great value to the electrophysiological cxperi
menter-

The above considerations explain in part the opposite and iDcotisistenl
u well as fragmentary character of electro-physiological researches, and
tbey should be borne constantly in mind by those who study this and
the following chapters, devoted to the action of electricity on the humar
body in health.

Actien of Franklimit ElettrUity. — When the sparks of frictiona!
electricity arc applied to the skin they produce a sensation of pricking
and if the sparks are large the skin becomes red and a papular eruption
appears. Applied to the scalp, it causes the hair to stand on end.

Acticn cf the Faradie Cumni. — If any dry artificial electrode is
prcs.sed again&t the dry skin while a faradic current is passing, the elec-
tricity will penetrate but slightly to the deeper tissues, unless the current
is very intense, because of the great resistance offered by the »kin.

One clfcci of the faradic cuTTcnl on the skin in this way is to cause a.
ehange in the eireuiatun. Tlie change may be either anxmia or hjrper-
setnia. At first there is ameniia. The calibre of the blood-vessels ij
narrowed, tlirough the action of the current on the vaso-motor nerves.
This contraction with anxmia is spasmutlic in its character ; it lasts
btit for a time, and in the course of two or three minutes it gives way
to bjiKTxmia. The skin becomes red, and remains so for a short or
long lime, from several minutes to several hours, according to the
strength of the current, the length of the application, and the tempera*
ment of the individual.

Another effect of faradizing the skin in this way is pain. This p;un 13
□rased by the irritation of the extremities of tlie sensory nerves.

When the dry hand is substituted for the dry artificial electrode, the

surface can be faradi/ed without producing pain. During the latter

■operation the electricity, acting upon the dry surface of the skin, pro.

• duces a peculiar cracking or humming sound that may be heard several

feet.

An application of a faradic current of ordinary strength is followed
liy the west marked effects on the skin when it is dry, from the fad
(hat the electricity is mostly confined to the surface of the tissue. A

io8

ELECTRO-PHVSIOLOCY.

reiy fine, or, in other words, a rapidly Intciniptcd, fandic current, has
ft more marked effect on Clic sciibory nerves tliau a coariic, or slowly in>
lerrupted, curreul, and in the tieatnient of the more common forms of
anxsthesia and neuralgia this foct must be considered. The negative
pole has a much sttonger effect both en the sensory and motor nerves
than the positive. Any one can readily disttn^tish the pales, when held
in tlie hand, by the stronger sensation and mere violent museu/ar con-
traction which is felt at the negative.

Some parts of the &lun are more sensitive to the current than others,
fcom the fact that they are more richly supplied with nerves. The face
u especially sensitive at the points where die various branches of
the trigeminus issue, and at the line of demarcation of the stcin and
mucous membrane of the nose and mouth. The relative sensitiveness
of different parts of the surface of the body to the faradic current will
be discussed in detail in a chapter devoted to that subject in the section
on EkciroTherapeutics. A faradic current of moderate strength, when
applied to bones that lie very near llic surface, produces considerable
pain of a peculiar character. This pain is caused on account of the
irritation of the sentient nerves of the periosteum. The forehead and
the region of the scapula and tibia are especially sensitive to electriza-
tion.

It is not supposed that the bone is specifically affected by the electric
current. Both the pcriasteuiu and the bone, however, may have an
increased amount of blood attracted to them by the electric current.
Acting in thi& manoer, electrisation has been known to reunite an old
fracture. (See Electro-Suryery.)

The great and peculiar sensitiveness of the skin to cicclticily is ex-
plained in part by the fact that the epidermis as a whole is so poor a con.
ductor, and the electricity enters it by points through the sudoriferous and
sebaceous glands, and the smaller the diameter of die point at which the
electricity enters a body the greater the density, the strength of tlie
cwrent being constant. When now an electrode is applied to the body,
the entire current, instead of diffusing itself over the whole surface,
enters at the glands, where there is best conduction, and consequently
excites pain. For the same reason, to a greater degree, electricity
applied by means of a metalUc brush is far more painful than when
applied with a broad metal or s|}onge.

I'or ttie same rcaiion a wet sponge electrode, when lightly touched lo
the surface of the body, causes more pain than when firmly pievsed on
the skin.

One effect of faradiung the skin is the phenomenon of " goose-flesh,"

ACTION OF GALVANIC CURRENT ON THE SKIN.

109

»
^

populaily so called. This is noticed not only where ihc electrodes are
spplted, and between them, but at a distance. It is more observed iii tlie
nervous and feeble than in the hardy and strong. It may be excited b> I
wealc currents of momentary duration. In some persons it cannot be '
excited at all.

Attien of the Galvanic Current. — The ciTccts of the galvanic current
on the skin differ somewhat from those of the faradic. At both poles
there is a^vram^scDsation, which increases io intensity with the strength
of the current and the len(;th of the application. The sensation, when
the current is closed, is like that of a mustard-plaster, or, with a very
strong current, that of a hot iron pressed on the skin. Tl\e "goose.
skin " sometimes appears as under the faradic current, bnt it lasts longer.
It appears only around the poles, and not beneath them, at the points of
contact. At x\\t fosUive pole, in .>«mc rases, there appears under the
electrode, at hrsc, a shallow depressiuo, and the skin is pale, but soon
hyperemia appears, and many little elevations here and there. When
3 strong current U used an i»cliKiuic appearance is presented beneath
the electrode, and a red areola extends for some distance around.

At the negative pole substantially the same phenomena appear, but
the h>-perwmia arises more rapidly, and is more intense and extended.

Tlie general sensation caused by the galvanic current is then, in
charaeier, substantially the same at both poles. In decree of action
there is a certain diScrence, since the change at the negative develops
more rapidly a»d powerfully.

The above phenomena we have repeatedly demonstrated on a variety
of tem|)cramcnts. We have observed that the rapidit)* and strenglh of
the action are considerably modified by the individual. Soft, thin, and
delicate skins appreciate the burning feeling and the various stages of
hypcncinia more quickly than skins whicli are coarse, thick, and hard,

Ziemssen, who has carefully studied this subject, states that unpff-
lariioiiU electrodes are necessary in order to obtain the complete
results with ccrtsunty. The advantage of unpolarizable electrodes is,
that ihey are not so painiiil, and so a current of from thirty to sixty
elements can he borne for a long time, say from ten to thirty minntcs.
With ordinary electrodes such a current would for most persons be un-
endurable after the second minute.

Chemical Ejects of the Galiuinii Current on the Skin. — The chemical
effects of the galvanic currcol on tlie skin differ not only in degree but
in kind. Under the negative pole — when metallic electrodes of moderate
diameter arc applied on the skin, slightly moistened — there appear small,
pale vesicles, that are transparent and are not raised much above the

ELECTRO -PH VSIOLOGY.

skir;. This pliciomcna is produced by a current chitt causes a stronj
burning sensation. These vesicles contain fluid and layers of cpidcmii*
The fluid is alkaline. WTien the strength of the current is increased tht
fluid becomes of a brownish color, and blisters are formed and a rec
areola apjiears. Tbic serum that cotnes out on the skin is alkaline
These blisters, and all the other phenotucna, as has been ofter
demonftlrated, appear more rapidly on delicate than on thick skins, and
when fully formed ihey are a long time in healing, and for days and
.weeks a yellowish and brownish discoloration maybe observed at the
jminis where the skin was acted oo.

If thcap])lication be still more protracted little ulcers arc formed, that
are also slow to perfectly heal, but are not painful, and cause no an-
noyance.

At the positive pole, when a strong current is used for some rime, a
blister api>ears, accompanying llie otlier sj-mploms of "goose-flesh,"
ischxmix The blister is colored in its centre a yellowish brown.
The serous fluid that comes from the blisters is aci'rf. The metallic elec-
trode becomes black through exidaiioH. In order to demonstrate this
action uf the positive |>ole, it is better to have the connection at the
negative pote established by means of a broad, sof^ and welt-moistened
sponge.

Ziemsscn states that by this experiment, made with thermometers,
no elevation of lemperatuie takes place cither at the positive or nega-
tive pole.

Id all these chemical actions of the galvanic current on the body, it is
probable that more or le«s ozone is produced, and it is not impossible
ihat the ozone thus produced may in some way modify the effects.
(See section on (7w«^and Ulcers, in Electro-Therapentics.)

Eiectraattasthesia. — It has fur some time been a matter of dispute
whcltier a slight anaesthesia can be produced by the electric current.
It is well known that for a number of years some dentists have been
accustomed to connect the forceps for extracting teeth with one pole
of an electro-magnetic apparatus while the patient rested his foot on the
other pole, 50 that as soon as the forceps seized hold of the tooth a cur-
rent is established. Although this method of producing aniesthesia is not
now received with favor, there is no question that the electric currents
do have a slight benumbing effect. The results of various experiments
that we have from time to time performed in this department seem to
be conclusive. We have had teeth extracted white a strong faradic
current was passing tlirougU the juw, and feel assured from this personal

ELECTRO-AX^STHESIA.

Ill

Biiencc that the electricity caused the pai'n to be less sensitively fc]t.
Thai the pain caused by the prick of a pin, Tor example, is less sensi-
tively felt when a strong faradic current is passing throxigh the |>art
where the puncture is made, we ha.ve practica^Uy demonstrated oi. the
hand and other parts of the body.

Allhaus* arrived at the conclusion ihat the electric current could pro
duce an anaesthetic or slightly paralyjiiiig efTect, from experiments on
the aerve-trunks, as the ulnar and sciatic. His method of operating
was to place the positive pole over some point where the nerve was
superficial, and (he negative over some one of the terminal bmnches,
keeping up the action of ihe current for fifteen minutes, with the result
of pioducing a feeling of numbness, and less sensitiveness to the cur-
renL Knorr, of %tttnich, has availed himself of the ansestbetic effects
of electriiation for opening felons and buboes.

We have also experimented on inflamed and irritated mucous mem-
branes. In thinitiSt phar)-ngitis, and larj-ngitis, we have for three years
been accuslonicd continually to make use of the benumbing effects of
elcctmation.

It has a very slight anxschetic effect on irritated and inflamed mucous
nurmbranc, and those on whom it has been employed desire to have the
applicatioos repealed. Our custom lias been, m some ca&es, to use local
racadization after the application of caustics and other irritants, in order
to relieve Ihe very annoying pain that they so often cause, or in any
irritable condition of the parts.

A French physici.in, M. Victor Rcvillotit, h.is obtained similar resuiti
from applications of the faradic current to the uterus after cauteriza.
•ioD. f

Ehciricai ExeUabUity 0f thf Skin. — Tschiriewt and De Wattcville
have pointed out a method by which Ihe absolute and relative excita-
bility of the cutaneous nerves can be readily tested. The jirinciples
of their method arc : tsL Elimination of all the sources of variation in
the strength of the currents due to the variable ihiclcness of the epi-
dermis, and ihc different positions of the electrodes, etc, by intercalat-
ing in the circuit such resistances as to make such variations insignifi-
cant. 2d. Elimination of the variable abundance of nervous elements
in ihe skin, by exciting it at a constant number of points, dispersed
over a constant surface.

• MMUat FJtttrieity. i86a pp. l66, 167.

f Arthtvts GiniraUi J* Miditin*. September, i8£S. p. 35&

X Braiu. Part VI.

(CnoN OF Er.ECTRlCITr ON THE B»AIN AMD SPINAL CORD.

Dirtet Application. — It has been shown by Fntsch and Khzig that
in the cerebral convolutions there arc centres for the production of
voluntary muscular movements in various ])arlsof the boily. 'I'hese
physiologists took off the upper pan of the skull of a dog, and by
means of weak gahanic currents excited the cxiiosed brain, locating
the current, as far as possible, in sina]! portions. They found that
when certain definite portions of the anterior convoUilions wt-re excited,
mavemitiis wen caused trt certain groups of muscles on the opposite side
of the body. Continuing their researches, ihey showed that there are
(Iflinite ncr\x-cenires for the nerves that preside over the mttscles of
[he neck, the foot, and the face, for the extensor and adductor musclea
of the forearm, and for the flexor and rotator muscles of the arm.

Prof. Fcrricr, of King's College, London, has made simitar researches
with x\\(t faradie current, and with it has investigated the brains of fish,
frogs, dogs, cats, rabbits, guinea-pigs, and monkeys. He has studied
not only the cerebmm, but the cerebellum, the corpora quadrigemina,
and other portions of the brain. Electiization of the oplic ihalami
produced no result. Klcctrization of the corpora striata caused the
limbs to be flexed. Electrizatfon of the anterior tubercles of the corpoia
quadrigcmina caused dilatation of the pupils and opisthotonus ; while
electrization of the posterior tubercles caused the animal to make all
sorts of noises. Elitctrt^aiion of the cerebellum caused movements of
the eyeballs. Dr. Beard* has carefully studied this subject on the brains
of dog«, rabbits, cats, and pigeons. He used both currents, mild, me-
diuui and strong, and studied also the question of diffusion of currents.
His provisional conclusions were, that the surface of the brain was
electrically excitable ; that the theory advanced by Dupuy and other
French observers, that the excitation was due to the diffusion of the cur-
rents to the central ganglia, was not tenable. Dr. BarthoEow f had made

* Archive* of EI«ctroLogy and Neurology. May, 1S74. f Ibid.

GALVANIZATION OF THE BRAIN.

113

sunilar expenroetits on Ihe brain of 3 living iromaji, exposed by can-
cerous disease.

Efftiti 0/ External Galvanisatien of ihe Brain. — The leading effect
of medium and strong gaJvanizatioD of the brain by external application
in the living human subject is iliffercnt When one electrode is placed
on the forehead and Ihe other on the occiput, or one on the summit of
the head and the other on the stomach, galvanUation is followed by
little if any tendency to vertigo. When a current of even feeble tension
La passed from temple to temple, or from one mastoid bone to its fcllov,
very decided diijiorss is at once i>erccivecl, which continues during the
operation of the current, and becomes most decidedly inauifcsted at the
mcmient the circuit is broken.

During the passage of the current there is a vciy marked and' quite
irresistible tendency to lean toward the positive pole, while objects in
vicv sceto to move in Ilie same direction. When the circuit is opened
there is a reversal in the direction of the seeming movements, and the
experimenter instantly bends in the opposite direction toward ibe nega-
tive pole.

For these phenomena an ingenious and plausible explanation is given
by Hitng. When the current passes from the forehead to the occiput,
the right and left lobes of the brain and alt that pertains to them are
equally or syminecrically inSuenced, and liltis if any dizziness is per-
ceived. Place, however, the anude upon one temple and the cathode
upon tlie odicr, and maik the rcadinc&s with which dizziness b produced.

In this operation tlie brain is no longer symmetrically affected. Oue
hemisphere is in a condition of anelectrotonos, or diminished irritability,
irhile the other is in a condition of caiclectrotonos, or increased irriia-
bility, or, as it is expressed, there is a falsilication of the muscular sense,
a disturbance of the equilibrium, and the apparendy involuntary incli-
nation toward the anode is in reality a voluntary effort to restore the
imaginary loss of balance.

Hitiig indicates several degrees of galvanic giddiness.

I. A wure sense o//ul»ess in the head. This feeling is caused by a
mild current when broken, but not usually when the current is ninning,
nor so markedly when the current is closed. Certain temperaments,
howo'er, experience tliis feelmg not only when the current is broken,
but also when it is running.

3. Apparenl movements. These are produced by stronger currents.
Objects when the current is running appear to go from the positive to
the negative pole ; when the current is broken the apparent movement
is reversed.

114

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGV.

3- Siaggiring. This is produccil by stronger currents. In impress
tbltf leiiiperanients very mild cnirents may proUttce It.

Movitnenis of the Eyts. — Moi'ementi of ike eyeballs have also been
observed by Hitzig duriiig the second and third stages* of diuuncss.
UTien a strong current goes transversely through the head, and its
direction is changed, movements of the eye, resembling nystagmus,
appear. There is a jerk, and then a further movciueiu. If the positive
pole be in the right mastoid, and the negative in the left, both eyes are
jerlced toward the left, and kept there, provided the current be suffi-
ciently strong.

There arc anatomical reasons for supposing that the brain can be
more easily affected in the mastoid and occipital regions than in the
anterior portion. A large vein connects Ihe transverse sinus with the
posterior auricular veins, and wii]i the posterior nieninguaj artery into
the skull throtigh the mastoid roramen. In the occipital regioti a vein
connects the transverse sinus with the vena ccrvicalis profunda throu^
the posterior condyloid foramen.*

SPINAL CORD.

Rigid cramps of all the muscles of the trunk and extremities follow

eleclriwition of the spinal cord when an cicctrodo is placed at either
eitremity of the cord. Cramps of the same character are also pro-
duced when one clectrmlc is applied to the anterior and the other to
Ihe posterior column, either at their upper or lower extremities.

3f the spinal cord be divided at about its centre and the lowTr half
clcctrued, only the muscles of the lower or hinder lunbs will contract.
If the upper half be electrized, only the muscles of the fore limbs will
enter into contraction. The results will be the same, whether the cut
extremities arc separated or brought in close contact, in which latter
condition no impediment is oAered to the passage of the current.
The al)ove researches of Weber have been confirmed by Dr. Beard's
experiments on dogs and rabbits. Tlie effects are produced by both
currents.

Inhibitory Effects. — At the moment of closing and breaking a gal-
vanic current its action upon the cord is manifest by the contraction of
the muscles of the body and limbs ; but during the passage of the cur

* Quoted from Laichla ajiA Anatomh dtt Jtfiiuekrm, vol. liL, a, p. 154, b;
AllhaKa Third edition, p. 139.

SPINAL CORD.

115

rent do contnctions are observed, and a paialyzing cfTcci soon talcci
place. The cord remains insensible to any stimulus that may be a.p
pUcd to it as long as the CTirretit is passing, but at its cossation any
OKchanical irrilalion w-ill give rise to the usual tetanic convulsions.
This diminution of excitability is con^ncd nione lo the spinal cord, foi
if ihe motor nerves and muscles arc traversed by an iniiucetl current
(while the cord is under the inducnce of the galvanic) they contract
vigorously. The galvanic current applied through the spinal cord for 3
long time produces paralysis

According to Mayer, if a mild faradic current be applied to the cervi-
cal region of frogs that are in an irritable condition, movements of the
lower extremities occur. Electrisation of the posterior columns pro-
daces these movements easier than eleclmation of the anterior cob
umns. If the posterior columns arc removed no movements occur. If
the cord is divided iuEo halves, posteriorly and anteriorly from above
nearly down to the origin of the sciatic nerve, electrization of the pos-
terior half produces movements, but electrization of the anterior does
not. If the posterior roots 011 the trunk of the brachial nerve are elec-
trized, the movements are produced just as when the cord itself is elec-
trized. Fick, however, declares that the anterior columns respond lo
faradixalion.

Cilio-spinal Cftttre. — The cervical sympathetic nerve, which animates
the radial Abres of the iris, takes its rise from the spinal cord between
the seventh cervical and the sixth dorsal vertebrae.

If this portion of the cord be galvanized, the excitation is transmitted
to the cervical sjinpathetic nerve, and thence to the iris, producing dila-
tation of the pupil. This point has been termed by Hodge and Waller
the centrum cilh-spinale. A ganglion near the fifth lumbar vertebra
which, on being electrized in animals, produces contractions of the rec-
tum and bladder, is called the ganglion gtnUo'Sfmaie,

The first of these points, the eenirum ciliQ-spinale, can be demon-
strated by external applications both of the galvanic and faradic cur
rents, and b of great importance in general faradization. The ganglior.
^entto-splnaie also is probably directly, though not so demonstrably,
affected by external electrization of the spine.

CHAPTER V.

ACnOX OF ELECHUCrrV an the SVUPATHEnC AND PITBUVOGASTKIC.

Ik order to intelligently appreciate the experiments that have beeo
made to detenninc the actiun of clcctiicil; on the sympathetic and
pneumogastric it is necessary to keep constantly before the mind the
rollowing considerations :

I. The action of electricity on the sj-mpatheric ai»d pneuraogastric
must be modified by the kind of electricity employed, by the strength
of the current and length of the applications, and by the condition antl
temperament of the subject in which the experiment is made.

To say that galvanizing the s)Tiipathetic produces such and such
effects is really to give no information whatsoever, for at once the
inquiring soul raises the questions. How strong were the currents used?
How long were the applications ? Were men or animals sibjertcd to
the experiment ? Were they intact or injured ? If animals, what kind,
and were the results the same on several animals of the same kind ?

a. These nerves can be affected both by external and internal appU*
cations of electricity.

The fact that external electriiation affects these nerves, which has by
some been disputed, is fully apparent from what is known in general
of the electro-conductivity of the body, is conitrmed by special experi-
ments, and is demonstrated by observations in ph)-siologica) and patho-
logical cases. This is true not only of the cervical sj-mpathctic ganglia,
but of ail the ganglia of tlie body. Known facts in regard to the elec-
tro-conductivity of the body show that none of the ganglia of the
^mpathetic can escape the electric influence when the current is ap-
plied over the surface of the body.

3- 'ITie effects of external application through the skin on these nerves
c innol be cx|icclcd to be identical in kind and degree with the effects
of direct application to the nerves themselves. Although the cer^-ical
ganglia of the sympathetic and the pncunKJgastric nerve are traversed by
the currents of electricity when the elcctro<les arc placed on the skin in
•ucha position that the current in passingfromone to the other finds these

SYMPATHETIC AND PNEUMOGASTRIC.

tl?

nerves in their pathway, yet on physical or ph>'sio]ogical principles we
cjuuiot expect the same results as when ihe one or both poles are di-
rectly applieii to the nerves. In external applications it is the derived
currents that pass through the nerves, and direct poiar effect is not
gained When we consider that tlie currents in passing from one pole
to the other diffuse themselves into nuinberless undulatory, diverse cur>
rents, it is easy to see that only a small part of the electric infltietice
win be a{)})reciated by such small nerves as the sympathetic ganglia or
the pneumogostric. In the body between the electrodes the currents
act like diflused light ; at the electrodes the currents act hke light cuu
centrated to a focus. If currents of sufficient power could be borne
eztenially, it is possible that by single external a]jplications there coiild
be produced all the effects duit ate oblaiocd by direct applications to
the nerves Acmselvcs ; but this is hardly probable, for the twofold rea-
son that the differential polar effect could not be obtained, and that
the great sticuulation of each of the electrodes on the surface would
complicate the experiment. These considerations, as it seems to us,
sufficiently explain what to many has been regarded as a great diffi-
culty—that the ordinary therapeutical measures for electrizing the sym-
pathetic do not produce the same effects as direct ap])lications to the
ganglia.

That the syiupatheticand the pneuiiiogastric axe traversed by the cur-
rent when the electrodes arc placed on the surface of thff neck, is siiffi-
cicntly probable from the known laws of electric conduction. When
one electrode is placed at the nape of the neck, and the other at
the anterior border of the stcmo-cleido-mastoid muscle, the current,
whether (aradic or galvanic, however widely it may radiate, and however
niunerous the branch-ctirrcnts may be, must by physical necessity trav-
eiBC the sympathetic and piicumogastric There is no more prob-
ability thai it will go out of its way, in violation of physical laws, and
avoid these nerves, than that a »torm sweeping between New York and
Brookljn will take a circuitous march and avoid the East River.

These nerve* — the sympathetic and pncumogasiric — and the tissues
by which they are surrounded, are good conductors, very much superior
in conductivity to the skio, and uf almost the same conductivity as the
muscles ; and even if some branch or derived currents pass through
other tissaes, as unquestionably is the case, these nerves cannot be
wholly avoided, and when The electrodes are in central positions they
•re probably die highway through which nearly the entire charga
pauses.

Buc siionger than the analogies of electro physics, and more con-

Il8

ELECTRO -PI lY SIOLOCY.

vincmg than experimeius on the dea^ subject, are the observed effecti
of electrization of Che neck in physiological and pAthological cases.
These effects, which will be detailed further on, harmonize so closely
with all our knowledge of ncrvo- physiology, and accord so exactly with
paihological observation, as to demonstrate beyond doubt, and wiih an
emphasis by which those who observe cannot fail to be impressed, that
the sympathetic and pneuniogastric can be aflfected by extenial faradi-
zation or galvanization of the neck.

4. It is diDiciilt, if not inipossible, to afTcct the cervical sympathetic
or the pneumogastric by external applications, without at the same time
affecting the depressor nerve, the spinal cord, or the brain, and especially
difficult is it to limit the action to the pneumogastrtc without at the
same time affecting the sympathetic, and vice versa.

This conclusion follows as a logical result from the anatomical rela-
tioQ of the parts and from what is known of the electro-conducdvity of
the body, and is pretty distinctly demonstrated by the physiological and
tlierapeiitical action of the current when extemalty applied. In what-
ever position we place the electrodes, the derived currents, in passing
fromone electrode to the other, must traverse some portion of both of the
great nerves. The base of the brain and the region of the neck constitute
the most important part of the central nervous sj'stem. So far as life
can be said to have any centre, it is here, where the pueuiuogastric, the
phrenic, and the other great nerves take their origin. Directly or indi-
rectly, by the actual passage of the current, or by reflex aclion, any part
of this important region is liable to be affected in the applications em*
ployed in the so-called galvanization of the cervical synipathettc

It is partly on account of this difficulty of limiting the action of the
canent to one or other of these great nerves that we Heated iheni both
under the same chapter. When operating on these nerves, exposed
and laid bare and isolated, the action of the current can, of course, be
limited pretty exclusively to the nerve operated on. The cervical
ganglia of the sympathetic receive the chief attention in all these ob-
servations, because they are prominent and accessible and bear a
powerful and recognized influence over the cerebral circulation ; but
all the ganglia of the sympathetic are accessible to the electrical inilu-
ence.

Aclim 0/ EhclricUy on the Cranial Portion 0/ iht Sympatkttic. — In
(737 M. Pourfour du Petit discovered that the following S}'Tnptom9 re-
sulted from division of the cervical filaments of the sym[>athetic nerve,
vii. : contraction of the pupil, rcdnesii and injection of the conjunctiva,
ind flattening of the cornea ; the eyelids approach each other, (he

SYMPATHETIC AKD PNEUMOGASTRIC.

119

nictitating membrane becomes more prominent, the secretion (rom the
mucous surfaces of the eye is increased, and the eyeball is drawn fur-
ther into the orbit. In addition to these sj*mptoms, the ears and
nostrils also become red and injected, and ihc head hotter and more
sensitive.

Claude Bernard observed that not only did all these phenomena die*
•ppear when the crauial portion v( the nerve was submilted to electri-
zation, but that quite reverse phenomena appeared. The pupil be-
came larger than natural ; the conjunctiva, the cars, and the nostrils be-
' came quite pale; the eyeball protruded from its orbit; the mucous
fpxfaces became drier, and the head cooler and less sensitive ; but as
soon as electrization was discontinued, all the phenomena caused by
the section of the nerve again appeared.

Electrisation of the great sympathetic btfort it is divided produces
almost precisely Itic same results as after division. It has been ob*
served by Weber, that if cither the inferior cervical ganglia of the
&ymi>athetic nerve or its cardiac branches arc submitted toeleclrization,
the aciion of the heart is accelerated.

Action of Eleciridiy on the Cephalic, Thoracic, and Abdominal Can-
g/ia.~-ScQtitm of the isynipathetic causes, as we have seen, increase of
heal in the ear.

Now if the cejihalic end of the divided sympathetic is electrified, the
increased temperature of the part is lnwereil ; but if the electric current
be passed through the large diameter of the ear, the temperature is further
increased. On the other hand, if there has been no division of the
q-mpathctic, and the car is electrified, the beat in that part is lessened.

Valentin found that the galvanization of the superior thoracic gan-
glia revived the pulsation of the heart after it had ceaicd, and increased
the frequency of the beats when already in action. Mild galvanization
of the splanchnic nerves that arise from the six lower dorsal ganglia
of the sympatheric increases, while strong galvanization diminishes,
llie peristaltic action.

Effect of dirtct EUctritation of the Pfuumogastric and on the Jtespi'
raiwH, — MM. Arloing and Tripier have shown that section of the
pneumogastric below the medulla oblongata so far modifies its iinta.
bility that the action of the heart is not arrested, or but for a short time,
by the faradization of the distal end of the cut pneumogastric

The same authors believe that weak faradic currents cause a sli^t
increase in tlie rapidity of the beats of the heart and elevation of the
blood'piessure in the arteries.

They found that the right pneumogastric has a more powerful mflu

I20

ELECTRO-PHVS lOLOGV.

eacc over the heart than the left Faradizatioa of the i cripheral end
of the divided pneuniogasmc causes anest of the aciioo of tlie heart,
sudden irregularitin of lU rhythm, atvd sotmc diminution of pressure.
Fai^zaticm of the central end causes retarded and diminished pres-
•ure.

According to MM. Arloiiig and Tripier, faradization of the ia/tur
pneuinogastric vnih/eelf/e currents does not accelerate re^inuion ; Cira-
dizanon with medium cunents cauMrs sudden in:>piratioa and forced
expiration ; faradisation with strong and powerful currents causes re-
flex coughing and vomiting. The Binic observers found that the lef^
pncumogastric has a more powerful influence over respiration than the
right.

The discovery that the HgA/ pncntnogastric has a greater power over
the heart than the left, was made by Masoin, of Belgium, about the same
time as it was made by i-Vrloing and Tripier. Masoin found the move-
mentB of the heart were slopped by the galvanization of the left pncumo-
gastric It was possible to restore the movements by a mechanical ex>
citation, such as striking the heart with the finger ; but after the move-
ments were stopped by galvanization of the right pneiunogastric, it was
not possible to restore them in that way.

Dr. Brown-Sfiquard* states that he has found the same differences to
exist in men as in animals, judging frcwu experiments made not by electri-
city, but by pressing on the nerves near the angle of the jaw.

Arrest of Respiration by Galvamzation ef the Laryngeal and other
Branches of the Pneumo gastric. — It has been shown by Urown-S^qiiardi*
that electrization of the upper or the lower laryngeal nerves causes
arrest of Uic respiration, and Bidder has sliown that a reflex spasm of
the glottis may be caused in the same way. Electrization of the
cesophagus and pharynx may sometimes produce the same effect If
the upper laryngeal nerve is electrized after the chest is opened, the
arrest of the respiration does not take place as easily as when the
chest is not open. The rcspiralton, when thus arresttfd, usually re-
turns in the course of a quarter or half a miiiute, whether the electriza-
tion is continued or not.

The etTect of electrizing the pneumc^astric on the respiration ii
modified by two factors — the portion of the nerve that is electrized
and the strength of the current. Mild galvanization of tlic pnciimogas-
bic in the lower part of the neck may increase the respiratory more-

* Arthivet a/Seitmtifit «md prmlkot Mtjifim JwnMiy, 1873. p, 9a..
f Loc dt, T?. 96.

SYMPATHETIC AND PNEUMOGASTRIC.

131

ments ; weak electrization in the upper part of the neck, near the origiii
of the nerve, may arrest respiratioc.

A mild current may increase the respiration or diminish it, or it maji
have no cflfcct whatever.

A medium current may arrest respiration and cause spasm of the
glottis and of the muscles of in<)i]iration.

A powerful ciureat may paralyze the diaphragm, and may produce
death without the accompajiying symptoius of agony.*

Coughing. — A promiocnt clfcct of clcctr)j:ing the pneiunogastric it
toughing. This symptom may be excited by external as well as b>
inieinal applications, and by the faradic as well as by the galvanic
cunen.

We made our first experiments in thiii dii-cction in [S67. Dr. Rock-
well then observed that the application of cither pole of a strong faradic
current to the nape of the neck — Ilie other pole being at the feet, or in
either hand, or at the pit of the stomach — excited in sensitive patients
quite severe attacks of coughing, thai lasted so long as tlie pole letuaiued
in position. Most clearly this effect was seen in thin and sensitive pa-
tients. It was not necessary to be particular in regard to the position
of the pole on the neck in order to excite this symptom ; not only in the
cilio-spinal centre, but even when the pole is as low down as the
■ first and second dorsal verCebne, the lan-ngcal branches of the pneu-
mogastric may be so irritated as to induce coughing.

This phenomenon we daily observed in ttie operation of general
{anulizalion. The same effect follows the use of Urpng interrupted gal-
vanic currents.

According to Dondcrs, the pneumogastrlc, when acted upon by the
gaJi'aiii^ current, conforms to Pfl(}ger's law of contraction; in the
region of anelectrotonos its irritability is lessened ; in the region of
catelectrotoDOS its irritability is sometimes increased.

Ji/ivrt of ExternaJ Applications of Electricity en the Pneumogastrie
and Cervital Sympathetic of living uninjured Men. — The experiments
above recorded were made chiefly on the exposed nerves of animals, and
the applications were made directly to tlie nerves by one or both poles.
Keeping in mind the considerations previously adduced, we proceed to
examine into the effect of external applications of electricity on the
cervical sympathetic and the pneumogastrie of living men in health.
Id our attempts to solve ihc problem, we have experimented on a

• ArtAivft of Sfitntifit and P^diert Mtdidne, No. i, 1&73, p. 96. WTielhei
tboM fxperimoiu w«re i^fuimcd wiib ihc fuadic 01 galvatiic cutrent is not dw
tfocUy stated.

122

ELECTRO- PHYSIOLOGV .

kige variety of individuals of different ag«s and by different methods of
ai^ptication. One of the electrodes is placed tn the mastoid fossa, and
the other over the seventh cervical vertebra, or at the top of the cla^-icle.
Both directions of the current are used. We used in these experiments
a zinc carbon, or the Smce's battery, of from 5 to 30 cells, from 1 to 5
or 10 minutes.

The general results of our researches may be thus summed up :

1. A slight fetling vj drffwsinest. This sometimes began to be per-
ceptible shortly after the electrodes were applied, increased up to a
certain point, and continued for some little time after the stance was
over. In many cases it is not obser^'ed until the lapse of (ive or ten
minutes after the siance. The feeling, which was by no means con-
stant, was usually so slight that it might not have been observed, had
we not in our experiments kept closely on the watch for every sensa-
tion experienced during or just after the application.

Some individuals are amazingly susceptible to this soporific effect of
galvanization of the neck. A young lady whom we were treating for
facial acne by central galvanization, was frequently put n'ght to sleep
wUhin one minute after the application began. Her eyes would close
and hec head would droop and nod ; and when the electrodes were
retDOved she would awake but slowly, snd with a vacant look and
drowsy feeling, such as we all experience when we are suddenly roused
from a Tiap. This effect followed any surt of application around the
neck with cither pole and in any direction.

On the accepted theory that a state of cerebral anemia predisposes
to sleep, we should reason, a priori, that electrization of the sympa-
thetic ought to induce a feeling of drowsiness, since on some individ-
uals it unquestionably diminishes the current of blood in the brain, and
expcrimentaHy we have found that it does thus induce a slight and
temporary disposition to sleep, although this result is probably far less
marked than it would be if, without injury to the living subject, the
application could be made directly to the ganglia, and this effect is by
no means uniform, but varies with the strength of the currents and
with the tempciament of the individual.

2. A feeling 0/ ivanmth through the system with sensible perspiration.
This was not a constant symptom, though it was oflenlimes very
decided. To produce scnablc perspiration usually requires a strong
current and a long application. The extent to which this was felt was
manifestly dependent on the strength of the current and the length of
the application. It was usually felt but a short time after the sianct
wu completed. We have observed this effect more frequently and

SVMPATHETIC AND PNEUMOGASTRIC.

133

more maxkcd\j in the susce|*Hble and nervous than in the cold and
phlcginatic, and most frequently in more or less pachologicai cases.

3. j4 marked effeet oh the pulse. The pulse was soinctinics accele-
rated, but more frequently lowered, two, three, four, or more beats.

Id order to deienniae tlie effects of electrisation of the sympathetic
on the pulse, we made die examinations immediately before and imme-
diately after the applicatiunii. IT-vcry prec:iuUoD was taken to avoid
error, by :dlowing an interval of rest before the silting, in order to give
time for the subsidence of the pulse to its natural condition from any
excitement that it may have received from the exertion of walking or
the labor of partially disrobing. In cases of doubt the whole minute
was counted, in some instances several times in succession. A patient
unaccustomed to the sensation produced by lUe elecuic current, or to
the mcdut optrandi of its employment, might experience an accelera-
tion of the pulse from simple mental excitcmeni, not only prior to or
at the commencement of the sitting, but also during or after the appli-
cation. Error from this cnuse w.is in our cases manifesdy impossible,
and all the others on whom we experimented with a view to obtain
physiological results were so well faniilianzed lo the medical employ
ment of electricity that they would receive any treatmetiL proposed
with cool indiflfcrencc. In order still further to guard against en-or, and
at the same time to observe the continuance or permanency of the
effect of (he experiments, we repeated, in some instances, cur exami*
nations of the pulse at inter\'al9 of fifteen minutes or half an hour after
the sitting was over.

A corroborative evidence that these changes in the pulse were due
to the action of the current, and not Co mental excitement, is found iti
the fact that, after an interval of five, ten, or fifteen minutes, the pulse
returned to its original condition.

These changes in the time of the pulse were also accompanied bjr
perceittible changes in its character, which, if careful spliyginographic
observations bad been made, might perhaps have been reduced to some
general law.

Eulenburg and Schmidt found that when the positive pole of
from twenty to forty of Darnell's elements was placed at the manu-
brium sterni:, and the negative pole in the auriculo-maxillary fossa,
the pupil of that side was at first slightly dilated and afterwards con>
tracted. These changes in the pupil are by no means uniform in their
appearance. In some cases they appear at ooce after closing the
circuit, and in others after tlie lapse of half a minute or minute,
ird in others after interruptions. Ttiese phenomena arc liable tc

124

ELECTR O- PH YS 10 LOGY.

many variadoos, according to the strength, length, and locality of the
appUcatioDS. If an elccuode is placed in the auriculo-maxiilary fossa
of cacii side, the changes in tlic i>upil occur on both sides, but are more
marked on the side on which is the negative pole. The same applica-
tion, continued for some lime with a strong current, reduced the normal
Iiulse from 4 to 16 beats a minute and ihe pathological put^e even
more, diminished the tension in the carotid and vertebral arteries, and
markedly altered Ihcir sphygroographic tracings. The same obserrers
found that galvanizatioo of the ifiiac alw diminished the beats uf the
pulse.

EffiCi of External Eltfirtsation through the ntek en the Retinal
Circulation. — In order to determine the effect of external applica-
tions of electricity through the neck on the retinal circuUtion, we have
made many experiments with the aid of a number ol~ leading ojihthal-
mologists.

Tlicfcs experiments, which have been frequently re|>eated with dif-
ferent individuals, with different strengths of current, and with different
batteries, seem to us to demonstrate the following propositions : *

1. Galvanising or faradizing the region of ihc cervical synijiathctic
has a marked temporary ioQucncc over the retinal circulation. It may
cause contraction of the arteries or dilatation of the veins.

2. The farodic current produces precisely the same effects on the
retinal circulation as the galvanic, only more slowly. The physiological
difference between the currents in this respect is therefore a difference
of degree and not of kind.

3. Mild currents and short applications caused contraction of the
blood-vessel of Ihe retina, while strong currents and long applications
caused dilatation. Much seemed to depend en the tentperament and
eoitdiUon of the individual. HOtat loould cause centraetion in eat
would in tht other eause diUUati&n.\ These varying effects correspond
with clinical experience.

4. When the patient on whom the experiment is made is in an
excited or irritable condition from any cause, or from previous elcctri-
xat ion, even a mild current will sometimes cause dilatation at once,
without any eaiiy contraction.

* Tbe ophclulmolofpus who obvrved the retina tn these experimenis were Drs.
Room, Hockley, Loring, MaUhcwson, Prout, and Newton, to ail of whom we dodrv
to retoni our RcknuwIedgBMnli.

\ Tbe oppoiile and cotUmJictaiy rcsulli obtained bj- difliereni cbaervera wlio hawa
•ta£«d the eSecU of chloral, bcomide or pot a Mam, etc., un the tetinal circulatloi^
aujr be aimllarl/ cxpJamed.

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE SPHVGMOGRAPH.

125

5. The contractioD which takes place is sometimes foUovred, a few
iiiinutea after the cJose of the jAnr/r, by dilaUtioD which is greater Ihar
norniaL

6. The dilatation which takes place is sometimes followed b^ con
traction after the close of the sianee.

In some of the experimeDts do effect on the retina could be detected.
Impressible aod aervous temperaments se«m to exhibit changes in tb^
vascular condition of the retina much more readily than cold and phleg
marie teniperameQis.

The question now arises, ^\TictIier these changes in the retinal circa
lation were due to the effect of the current on the sympathetic or on
the pncumogastric, or did they take place through the spinal coid or
by reflex action ?

This question is answered by comparing the results of these experi-
ments with the result of experimenis made by Duchennc and Prof.
Ldgeois, of Paris, These gentlemen laid bare the cervical sympathetic
in a rabbit, and electrized it with both currents in the same manner
that we electrized the necks of the iodividuaU on whom we experimented.
The results on the drcnlation in the rabbit's car were in every tlislinc-
tivc feature identical with the result* on the retina when the galvanic
current was passed through the neck of the liWng human subject.

The other effects of galvaniiing the region of the cervical sympathetic
— disi>osttion to sleep, sweating, increased circulation in the extremities,
etc.— seem to confirm these pJiysiological observations.

These experiments have been partially confirmed by Onimus, who
has shown that the circulation of llie retina may be influenced by
galvanization of the cervical sj-mpathctic. He observed hyperemia,
but this, as we have shown, is not a constant effect.

Exfierim^nis with the 5iphy gme graph.— \^e. have made experiments
with the sphygmograph, with the assistance of Dr. L. De Forest Woud-
mff.

For assistance in the study of spbygmography we are under obligation!
10 Dr. Roger S. Tracy. A few samples of the observations are repr^
KOted in the cuts.

nnaatai galnfilBina of the tynpaJlMdc.

126

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

H<k i.^-Aitcr 1^ nuiatn' phoniiuloa of ttw «r™P*'i'M)Mk

Na. «. — Fits aiua I E> after the dow al tiifitiKt otgilnii[a:iaaoliim tTaBptthafh

N& >— After fire uuniitu' Ckradiutian of (jriniiatbclic

No. & — After nine Diinulci' [iradiiiuiir ■.■! . .t !-■ iil.i:;!:.

.jV-A-JVjv-J^-JVJVUVJVj\,jV^

H«. 7.— Aitcr tinn(7 niaulu^ bndintiODaf tfrnpaibede.

Ko. 8. — Afm fifwco foiiiiitex' gcnetal in^ifiiJEih

From these experiments we iJcrive the following conclusions :
1. Both currents — faradic and galvanic — when applied in such ■
way as to traverse the region of the neck in which the pneiimogastric
and cervical ganglia of the sympalhecic are situated, markedly affect
the pulse.

a. The effect ts chiefly shown in abruptness of the systole, and in
abruptness of the diastole, and in shortening of the intcr\-al between
the cardiac impulse and the .-merial impulse. In general it may be
said (hat the force of the piiltie is increased. Its rapidity may be
either increased or diminished, according to the length of the appli-
catioD and the strength of the current, ami analogy would lead u^

EXPERIMENTS WITH TIIE SPItVCMOGRAPH.

127

to believe lliat the effect must widely v;uy witli the individual. The
axtcrudl impulse increased probabSy from ihc effect on llic vaso-moior
nerve*.

3. The effect of general faradization was 10 prolong the systole and
llie interrai between the cardiac and the oricnal impulse. The abnipi-
ness, and the systule lliat is so marked during and after faradization
thrci^h the neck^ was not observed after genera) faradisation. A calm-
ing, soporific influence is very frcnuenily jjruduced by general faradi-
tatitfn, and the effect on the puUc harmonizes with this observation.

4. These effects on the pulse gradually pass away, but arc dislinclly
traceable for a nnnibcr of minutes after the electrodes arc removed.

The effect of the current thus applied on the circulation is probably
a complex resultant of the effect of the electricity on the pneumogas*
trie, the syna|>3thetic, the depressor, and the spinal cord. To differen.
liate these effects is manifeslly impossible.

In this connection are to be noted the later investigations of Dr.
Fischer,* of Munich, on the effects of electrization of the sympathetic
He ex]>erimenlcd on horses and cats, Irritating the nerve dire<:liy, with
the twofold object of sludymg the blcxjdiension in tlie cerebral vessels
and the changes in the size of the pupil. The general results of these
effort* confirm observations previously made, and especially otir staie-
menl as to the impossibility of accurately localizing current* in any
ganglia by simple extenial applications. Direct faradization of ihe
syn)pathctic increased the blood-prcssure and tension of the aitery, and
Increased the frequency of Ihe pulse. The same phenomena were ob-
served under galvanisation, but in a less degree. Faradization of the
e«posctl sympathetic cansed very marked reactions in the pupil, while
galvanization of the nerve produced comparatively little effect. When,
however, the sympathetic and vagus were simultaneously submitted to
the influence of galvanism the reactions of the pupils were very
inaikcd. Simultaneous faradization, however, was followed by no
alterations.

• Stkmidt'i yakrhtehtr. N«. 4.

CHAPTER VI.

AcnOH or Et-ECTRicrry on the nerves or special sebsb.

Action of the Galvanic Curreni on the OpHe Nerve. — ^Thc galvanic
current, when applied to the eye, causes both^iu^i of light And per-
ception 6 f color.

If one electrode is placed on the tODgue, or on any part of the
mucous surface of the mouth or nose, and the other on anjr part of
the surface of the body, the flash is readily perceived.

The character of these fla-ihes is variously modiBcd by the strengtb
of the current and the suddenness of the interraption. The tempera,
ment of the patient also modifies the reaction, and the effect of the two
poles is usually quite diflerenL

We have studied this subject with various strengdis ofcinTent, and on
subjects of both sexes ditlcriug widely in age and temperamenL

In one subject— a young man of nervous temperament — the positive
pole placed over the eye, with a medium current from ten zinc-carbon
cells, caused a white central spot, with a light areola. The white
central spot varied in shape between that of a quarter or half to a full
niooo. When the negative pole was placed over the eye, the central
spot appeared of a bluisli or purplish otdor, and the areola was the same
as under the positive pole. In both cases the areola seemed to consist
of waves of light radiating from the centre toward the periphery.

In making these experiments, the pole that is placed over the eye is
armed with a soft sponge, and is pressed firmly on the closed lid, while
the other is applied at the back of the neck, or is held in the hand of
the subject.

In another subject, a young physician of good health, and nervo-
sanguine temperament, the positive i>ole from a current of six cells caused
a central disk of a pink color, and from diis spot violet waves radiated
I the areola. The pink disk appeared when the current was
:d, the violet areola flashed out when the current was broken. The
negative pole produced reactions every way simOai. Tlus subject
could not bear very strong currents.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE EVE.

129

Several other physicians on whom wc experimented could not di*
itinguish any central disk, but all could readily :iee the light areola.

The conclusions from the above, and numerutui lumilar experiment!
made in diUerent individuals, are a follows :

t. A mild as well as a strong galvanic current applied to the eye, and
interrupted, causes a. dash or gtimiucr of light to appear.

a. A medium or strong galvanic current causes, in addition to Ihe
LBash of liglit, a distinct central spot nf %*arying shape, and both the
central spot and the areola may be of various culorst as pink, purple,
yellowish, and nolet

3. With some individuals, though not with all, the colors of the central
Spot and of the areola, and their relative arrangement, appear dif*
ferently under the two poles, and also dilferently at the closing and

IjOpening of the circuit.

4. All those reactions, like all other eleclro-physiotogical reactions,
variously modified by the temperament of the individual operated on

' and by the strength of the currenL

The above conclusions^ as nill be seen, differ somewhat from those
of Helmholtx and others who have studied this subject. The diffel**
cnlial action of the ascending and descending currents we have not
been able to demonstrate, and see no way of demonstrating. We be-
lieve that here, as in so many other clcctro-physioIogical and electro-
therapeutical procedures, the differential polar action has been con*
founded nith the differential action of the ascending and descending
currcnls.

Ahhou{^ the above reactions in their full degree can be most cotl-
venientiy obtained by placing one electrode over ihc closed eye, and
the other in the hand or at the bacTc of the neck, yet Ihc general re-
action of the glimmering flash of light can be obtained by placing one
electrode in the vicinity of the eye, or on any part of the face or beard,
or, in the mouth. In susceptible persons the ^sh comes from inters
lujited galvauizatioQ of the neck or spine.

Faradic Current. — The current from the primary or secondary coil
of the ordinary faradic machines has little or no perceptible effect on
the retina, as we have demonstrated by various expenmenls. We
have found, however, by repeated observations that the current from
the long ccmIs of tlie electro-magnetic machine niaaufactured by Kiddei
has a most decided action on the retina. The peculiar constniclion of
the coil of this machine will be described in the chapter devoted to
ap]»arams for electro-therapeutics. It is sufficient here to say that it is
composed of three or four or more coils of insulated coppei-wire, the

ELECTKO-PHYSIOLOGY.

inward coil lieing short and thick, and ibe others gradually increasing
in the length of the wires. These coils are not separate and distinct, as
in ordinary n»acliinc«, but connected, and arc, so to speak, tapped at the
points of union, so as to obtain a number of currents ^•ar^^ng in
quanfit)', tension, and physiolcgiral power. It i.s from the fourth and
fifth coilB, which are not furnished to the majority of hia smaller machines,
that we obtain the reaction of the retina that we are now to describe.
The reaction is best obtained by placing a medium-sixcd sponge
dectrode, well moistened, over the closed eye, or very near to the eye,
while the other electrode i* held in the hand or applied to some
indifferent point, as the back of the neck, or arms, or feet. With a
current of moderate strength thus applied, a circle filled with wavy,
undulating light, or whitisJi spots or figures, appears. It is ditficuU to
convey in language a precise description of this appearaiicc. If snow*
flakes could be elongated !U>mewhat, and ULidc to coil about in various
directions, they would give a good idea of this reaction. If we look
through a window at a thick, driving snow-siorm, with large flakes, wc
can get a not very incorrect notion of ihc reacticn, as we have over
and over again deinonscrated on ourselves and others. 'So' far as we
have been able to see, bright or variegated colors do not appear, except
from the current of the fifth coiL The negative pole gives a strongei
reaction than the positive; bul not apjircciably different in character.
This reaction of the fourth coil of this machine is utterly unlike that
which is obtained from cither pole of the galvanic current. This effect
has long been shown by the inventor of this machine, and has been
illustrated hy htm. We were induced to question his assertions until
we had first made experiments of our own with the different coiU of
the machine.

TTit Effect of Electrical Irritation compared with Afechanical Irrita-
tion of the Eye. — It 15 interesting to compare the reaction produced
by the galvanic and faradic currents on the retina tu the ctTects of
mechanical irritation. We have found by experiment on ourselves
that rubbing the eyes when closed, or partially closed, causes various
and oftentimes beautiful appearances, "^^t-rf frequently a central spot
will appear, varying in shape and color, and changing in shape and
cnhir during the irritation. All conceivable shapes, and every grade
of color, we have seen in this way over and over repeated ; sometimes
a mere circle of light shading uitf into darkness, and again a definite and
wcl].formcd object, brillUnt in color, standing forth clear and beautiful
against the dark background. Forma resembling a bouquet of flowers,
or a duster of stars, or various shapes of crystals, app«ar with such

AUDITORY NERVE,

131

■ i i iJiKH. thftl we lave to prolong ihe erperiment. Simp e pressure on
the aide of the t^'eball will cause reactions somewhat similar in kind
(iboMgh leu in degree) to those produced by the faradic current.

ThcM tMCtions, however, arc not constant ; ihcy vary greatly with
the individual, JUid with the same individual at different times. In
order to obtain the mrwl hcanliful a]>p«-arances, it is necessary to first
look far a nionient on bri];ht light, or to have the eyes 0|)en in the full
Bffligftf, It would seem that the retina must first become sensitive,
bjrecpasttre to strong light, before tlie reactions can apiicar in their full
CSCtOlL

Afti^t ff Eiretricity fin thf Auditory Nerve ; Action of the Faradic
Ckrremt. — The farorlic current, when applied to (he ear, or in the
rktmty of thf ear, causes a ringing, or humming, or rumbling sound,
a cco f dio g to the method of application and the strength of the current.
Tbeae wnods are due, in part, to the susurri of the muscles.

Aetifim tf the Gaivamc Current. — To the galvanic current the audi-
tory rraclt by certain fixed laws.

This normal formula is as follows :

Ka S Kt, distinct accented sound.

Ka D Kl >, satiod disappearing by degrees.

Ca O — , no srnsatioD of sound.

Aa S -.

An D -.

An O Kl, weak and short sound, similar in character to Ka S.

In tfc^ above rormula, Ka = Kathode (negative pole). An = Anode
(poaMtre pole). S = closing (schliesung), O = opening (oeffnung), D
= dwarioB cf carretit,

Pf ■=■ w hiaiHug toiMid.

Kl =nDj^ *

The wnsaboiu with Ka S appear sooner and stronf^er than with

AaO.

This fomrala, it will be obser^-ed, hannonizes with the law of elec-

(■ee p. inland Pd^vi's contraction law — that "a nerve it

* fy tM 9fpwraMct of ccUeltttroiamn and the diiappearame ej

tt ; iMf, kawtver, hy the disappearance of eafeleclrolonos and

Ar m ff M mM m c e of aneiectrai^nos. (See p. it6).

Akhoagfa iJm character of souods varies with the strength and contin-
MMX of the current and w^tb the individual, yet in the healthy ear the
ftiar tgtttM Dcvcr vary.

132

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

77t€re is never any xensatifim of $aitnd vtith the fhnng of the anodi
(An S), except to pathological conditions.

The fiolar effect is therefore the leading effect, and Ac direction of
the current through the auditory ncr\'e appears to have no demonstra-
ble influence.

The use of the rfaeosut and the changes in the reactions that are
made by interposing tlie various grades of lesistaDces in the circuit are
represented in the fo!Io»-ing experiments of Brenner : •

The expenroent was performed on a healthy ear that bad been cured
a short time before of a catarrh of the middle ear. The number of
elements is in Roman, the number of resistances in Arabic.

XX lo-So gave no reaction.
XX 90-130 KaS — Buzzingofflies
very short.

KaD

KaO

An S

An D

AnO

XX 130-170 Ka S — Stronger buzz-
ing.
KaD— Same.

KaO

AnS

An D

AnO

XX iSo->5o Ka S — Distant rum-
bling of wag-
ons.
Ka D — Same.

KaO

An 3

An D —
AnO — Buzzing of
flies.

Erb f gives the following resolt of

XX 360-400 Ka S— fumbling
cannon.
KaD— Same >
KaO

AnS

An D — -

An O — Rumbling
wagons.
XX 410-550 Ka S—Strikingof me-
tallic plate.
KaD— Same >

KaO ■

AnS

An D *

An O — Rumbling.
XX 560- Ka S — ShariJ ring like
a silver table
bell.
KaD— Same >

KaO

AnS

'AnD

An O — Weaker and
shOTter ring
ing.
experiments on himself:

• Op, dc. Band I, p. 105.

f Arthiv Opkthalmdesy *ind Ototag.

VoL i. No. I, pi S4&.

BRENNER'S RESEARCHES.

133

10 El Ka S KI —

KaD Kl >

KaO

AnS ■

AnD
Ad OKI

8 anO 6 £1 Ka S Kl
KaD —
KaO —
AnS —
. An D —
AnO —

On another patient,* 50 jrears of af^e, he obtained the following »•
action with accompanying ^rmptoms of pain and facial contortions :

8 EI Ka S — Cteai whistling, slinging pain and facial contortions.

Ka D — Gradually disiappcarei

Ka O — No sensation.

An S — Violent pain.

Ad D — Pain remains.

AnO — Shun and weak whistling; slight facial convulsions whb
10 El ; the same formula gave still louder sensations
of sound, but the accompanying pain was very severe.

Bkobcf f gives the following reaction in a healthy man :

Same pajieni trcaled by > itronier ciimm.

Ka S— Sharp ringing.
Ka D— " "

KaO

AD [ing,

Ka S — Rumbling of cannon.
Ka D— " "

KaO

AD ■

AO — Rumbling of wagons.

AO — Weaker and shorter ring-

The variations of the tone with the difference of the current are rep-
resented in the following experiment of Brenner : I

Wiib ibi Cub«d« doring. Wliti Anod« opaoing. (AaOJ

XXioKaSK. XX30AOK.

ao Ka S K. 40 A O K.

30 Ka S K. 50 A O K.

40 Ka S K'. 60 A O K.

50 Ka S K'. 70 A O K.

60 Ka S K'. 80 A O K'.

70 Ka S K". 90 A O K'.

80 Ka S K". 100 A K'.

K Jieadions produted directly and nat by Re^ex Aeticn. — Vft

* Lm. ciL, p. 350.

f Op. ciL, Band L, p. ro6.

X Loc dt., f. no

134

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

Clioroughly agree with Brenner and Erb Chat these readioiu of the audi*
tory nerve are obtaiiicfi by the iHretl action of" the current on the nerve,
and not by reflex action througti the trigeminus. This \-iew is proved
by the general fact of the condiictibility of the tissues of the brain (see
chapter on that subject), by the fact that even when the trigeminus is
j-aralyiicd the reaction may yet occur,* and by the fact that when the
electrode is jilaced in a condition favorable for the entrance of the
current into the ear, the reaction is more decided than when the elec-
trode is ]ilaccd in a condition favorable for the excitement of the trige-
minus, but unfavorable for the direct entrance of the ciuretit, as has
been conchisivcly shown by Krbf and by ourselves-J We have removed
die jtole from ijie tragus iif the malar bont and the cheek, both of whieh
P&inis are highly f avertible for the excitatimt of the trigemiaus, and
hate fount/ t/uxt ti/ith removal the reaction diminiihiii or disappeared.

In order to obtain that normal formula, the follon'iDg conditions arc
necessary : —

I. Convenient gak-anic apparatus.

A very powerful galvanic batteiy is not needed The range of ele-
ments to which the auditory nerve sensibly reacts is between a to 30. In
some cases quite strong currents are necessary. The galvanic batteries
and electrodes described in this work are adapted for these investiga-
tions. There should be a current revcrser; and a rheostat, though not
exactly indispensable, is yet very convenient.

3. A right method of application, tttid practice in using it.

On llie whole, the best method of application to produce these reac-
tions is the external arrangciuent, in which one pole is firmly pressed
on the tragus (the car external auditory canal having been previously
filled with warm salt water), while the other is held in or fastened on
the hand on the opposite siile. Any convenient electrodes may be
used for these purposes. So long as the pole whose specific effect we
desire to produce is on the right place in the ear or on the tragus, the
position of the other electrode is not absolutely essential, provided it
is somewhere on the opposite side^ so as to allow the current to pass
through the auditory nerve. It is difficult or impossible to get the
reaction while the pole is on the mastoid ])rocess of the same side. It

* Vide Moos' cue, above quotad In Archlv Ophth. tmd Otol., vol. L> Vo. 3, p^

I ArchtvOphiK und OloL. vol. L, No. i., p. z6i et leq.

X For a. detailed ducussion of this subject, see Brenocr'a work, Bond L, I Abth «
p. 94, «t Mq.

ACTION ON AUDITORY NERVE.

135

bas been showu ih.it when both poles arc (ilacud in the auditory canal,
by means of a double electrode, the auditory nerve teacts to the nearer
pole.

A number of intdtigettt and praetised palienis with both healthy and
diseased ears.

The advantages of intelligence on the part of a patient are obviouis ;
iust as in investigating electro-niuscutar senubility, it is necessary tu
depend entirely on the statements of the patient for our information.
Even the strong-minded and intetligent are soiiietinies so dt^tre^sed by
the pain produced by the applications, or so distracted by the sensa-
tions of dininets, and the contraetions of (he /aeinl musehs, that they
are anable to rightly interpret their subjective sensations in the ear.
It is necessary that the experiments should be made on a ntunber of
patients, in order to obtaiu the variety of reactions above described

-It is best also to make the first experiment on patients who have
diseased cars, for it is as true of the auditory as of the na&al passages
that ihcy sometimes become less sensitive when diseased. This is to
be explained panly by the manipulations and treatment to which such
patients become accustomed, and partly by tlie fact that the morbid
process itself produces callousness of the parts.

The operator should proceed cahuly and with self-command. After
tlie patient is in position, with his head inclined on the; back oi the
chair or lounge, and one of the electrodes fastened to or held in the
hand opposite the car to be experimented on, a little warm salt water
should be dropped in (which can be very conveniently done by squeez-
ing the small quantity necesi.ary to fill the external auditory canal from
a small sponge or from a teaspoon or funnel-sha]>ed glass*) and the
other electrode firmly pressed on the' tragus. It is well to begin with
a small number of elements, and gradually increase untU a reaction is
obttined. The reaction will usually appear when the current is strong
enough to produce contractions of the facial tnuscleti. The imtient
should all the time be continually and repeatedly questioned in regard
to the «eo»a(ioiis experienced, especially if he is unaccustomed to the
treaimentt for at first he may be so distracted hy the Jiashes of light
before the eyes, the eantraetiant ef the facial mtueUs, the nuusea, the
metaiiie taste, and the noise of (he water in the ear, ami especially by
the fain, that he may be unable at first to distinguish the true character
of the reaction.

* It is wdl to place a towd tbovt the neck, Jiin as when cyringiag the ev, io
ulo avoid wetting llwooUu or other clotliini; of the patient.

If the battery is {irovided wiUi a. t»mmidaior. Fur increasing and
diminishiDg the Dumber of cIcmcDis brouglit uito requiMUoD, a current
reaerstr for clianging the direction of the current without removing Ihe
poles, and a rhtostat for intrcducing rtiislames into the circuit, the
labor of ih^e operator will be materially lightened ; but such applianen
are not indispensabU.

The operator should remember that ttie reactions arc inodi&ed by the
experiment itself, (a.) Ka.S is most effecuial after An.S. Therefore
the use of voltaic aUcrnahves is of service.

(i.) The excitability of the nerve is increased by long closure of cath-
ode (Ka.S.).

(^.) The excitement of An.O. increases with the strength of the cur-
rent and the length of closure.

It should be remembered also that Ka.S. is stronger and quicker
than An.O.

Judging from our own researches in this dejjartmenl these three lead-
ing Btatcinents of JJrcnner — that the auditor)' nerve reacts to the ntarest
electrode in a regular manner, that in health pounds of sonic kind are
produced at the closing and in the duration of the cathode, and that io
pathological cases a part of the normal foriDiila i» more or less changed
— are capable of sufficient and easy demonstration to those who are
thoroughly familiar with eleclro-thcrapeutical cxpcrinicnution.

On the other hand, some of the special feature* of Brenner's system
> offer difficulties in the way of their successful and uniform demonstra-
tion thai can only be overcome by careful practice in this special de-
partment. To catch the sounds which in health arc heard at the open-
ing of tht; anode ; to distinguish between the noise caused by the agita-
tion of the water in the car, and the subjective bounds that are so fre-
quently the symptoms of disease of the auditory apparatus and the genu-
ine reaction of the auditory nerve ; to obtain the complete normal
fbmmla in health, and to satisfactorily discriminate between the various
abnormal reactions of disease — the 6rsl attempt to fiilly corroborate all
the assertions in these particulars will usually result in complete or par-
tial failure, especially to Chose who are unfamiliar with the use of gal-
jvanic apparatus.

Degreei of Irritability. — Brenner distinguishes three different dc«

grces of irritability of the auditory nerve, according to (he number of

f elements that it takes to excite the reaction. The degrees of irritability

may be changed during the sitting by the effect of the current on the

ncive. and especially by the voltaic alternatives.

Thus, if at the beginning of the sitting the nerve reacted to i6 ele

OBJECTIONS AXSWERED.

137

menis, but to no number less than that, these t6 elements would repre-
sent the primary irritabtUty of that nerve.

If by i-arious aUcraations of the current the nerve is brought into a
condition that it reacts to ti dements, the!>c 12 clctnetits represent the
secondary irritability of that nerve.

If, by stiU farther excitation, the nerve is made to react to 10 ele-
ments, these 10 elements represent the tertiary fx^itability of that nerve.

In opposition to the above conchisions Dr. Wrcdcn, of St. Pctcrs-
borg, has moile a numlicr of experiments which seem to htm to establish
that the sounds heard during galvanization of the ear are due not to
the reaction of the auditory nerve, but to the contraction ef the smaU
muicies of the midtUe ear. In his experiments he electrixed the Eusta-
chian tube, through the catheter, and also the middle ear, by means of
small, delicate, and finely graduated sounds insulated to their points.
He believes that by this method he causes contraction of the temar
tympani and of the stapedius, through irritation of the fifth and seventh
nerves.*

AVredcn asserts that during electrization by these methods the mem-
brana tympani is retracted, and believes that this retraction is caused
by the contraction of the muscles. This, however, has been denied by
Poorten. To settle this question, L5wenbcrg devised a manometer,
which consists in a bit of cork or rubber fined into the external meatus
hennetically. and receiving hennclically a capillary glass lube which
contains a drop of colored lii^uid. The external meatus is filled with
water, whtcli is connected witJi one of the poles of a faradic machine,
while the other is applied to the skin by a sponge or through the £usta>
chian tube. When the membrana tympani is retracted by the action
of ilic current, the drop of colored water indicates this retraction by
falling, when it is pushed outward, by rising.

Admitting to the fiill all that has been claimed by Wrcdcn and Low-
enberg, we do not see that it proves lliat the supposed complex reac-
tions of the auditory nerve to electricity are nothing more thin muscu-
lar contracdont. Admitting that in some cases where the membrana
tympani is gone, the reactions are not obtained, still the following con-
siderations are, to our mind, convincing :

1. The reactions of the gatv.inic current, when applied to the car, arc
frequently similar to some of the sounds of tinnitus aurium. They are
sometimes so much alike that they cannot be distinguished.

* A r^sani^ of thli lubject It presented in Dr. Roou's vrcrk on Ditttuet eftfu
£ar, pr. 493-49S-

138

ELECTRO -PHYSIOLOGY.

2 Tlie differential [lolar effects of the galvanic t irrent on the ear
wnich are very easy of deiiioiislration, cannot be explaiaed by any
theory of muscular coiittactton.

3- Some of the rcacliona arc produced by the steady action of the
galvELtiic current, without any intcrni|nion, and with a strength not suih-
cicnt to produce imiscular contraction ; while it is trie that certain
reactions in some casea require strong and interrupted currents, it is not
true of all of them.

4. A reaction of the auditory nerve similar to some forms of tinnitus
can be obtained in some sen&iiive ca&es, not only by galvanization of
the ear, but of the other i)arts of the head, and even the trunk.

We have had a patient who coinplained every time we galvanized
the spine that buzzing, hissing sounds were excited in his car. Simi-
lar sounds are produced by galvanization of the ear. The effect in
this case was probably retlex.

All these considerations convince us that the variety of sounds pio-
duccd by galvanization of the ear 15 due to the excitation of the au-
ditory nerve, .md that this excitation may be both direct and rellex.
We are fully aware, however, that for the present this fact has a greater
ititerest for the clectro-]thysiologist than for the electro- therapeutist.

Olfaclory Nerve. — We have observed in freijucni experimenting on
ourselves that the negative pole of a strong galvanic current applied to
the Schneiderianraenibratie caused, in certain sensitive; localities, ano<ior
much resembling sulphuretted hydrogen. The odor observed in the neigh-
borhood of docks will iierhai>s suggest the peculiar character of this re-
action more than any formal description, 'lliis reaction is obtained only
when a powerful current is used. It is obtained at the 0|>cning of the
circuit, while the cirruit is closed and for some liltic time after the circuit
is opened. VVe have found that this peculiar reaction varies much witll
the individual, and with the same individual at difiVrent times. A sen-
sitive, ur even an ulcerated condilion of (he mucous membrane would
seem to form it. Although wc are frequently treating cases of rhinitis
(nasal catarrh) by internal galvanization with metallic electrodes, yet our
patients ne\'cr speak of this pecidiar odor. The mucous membrane
of the nasal pasl^ages is very sensitive, and in ordinary therapeutical
applications only gentle currents will be borne, whereas this reaction of
the olfactory nervets dettands powerful and painful currents.

The differential "reaction of the positive and the negative pole of the
ascending and descending currents that were long ago claimed by Rit-
tcr, wc have not been able to confinii. The phenomenon of sneezing, or
a disposition to sneeze, of which Ritter spoke, is due, not to any reac

ACTION ON TlIE GUSTATORY NERVE.

139

Hon of the olfactory nerve, but to the medianical irritation of the sen
iory nerves by the electrode. Sneezing, as all aurists know, is called
forth by a single introduction of the Eustachian catheter, and we observe
it continually in introducing the nasal electrode. It is observed most,
however, just as the electrode i« being inserted ; and when the current it
running, the symptom docs not usually annoy us. The action of a gentle
ciirrent on the sensor>' nen*es of the nasal passages seems rather to have
a sedative effect, and in a measure counteracts the tendency to sneete
that is excited by the mechanical irritation of the electrode.

SchOnbein suggests that the peculiar smell experienced from the pas-
tage of the electric current through the olfactory nerve b caused by
nzone that is generated.

This peculiar odor, observed in powerful galvanization of the nasal
passage, is unquestionably due to the reaction of the nerve to the clec*
trtcal stimulus, and cnrresiionds to the effects produced by the same
agent on the nen'cs of seeing, hearing, and tasting.

Franklinic electricity, electro-magnetism, niagneto-etectricstjri tre
unable, in any strength that can be cttdurcd by a person io health, tO
excite the peculiar reaction of the olfactory nerve.

Action »/ EUctricityon the Gustatory Nerve — Action of the Gairauie
Current. — In 1754, long before the discovery of galvanism, it was
noticed by M. Sulzer that lead and silver, when ctmnected and then
brought in contact with the tongue, gave rise to a peculiar taste similar
to that produced by vitriol of iron. If we a])ply a piece of zinc to the
upper, and one of silver to the lower part of the tongue, a powerful acid
taste will be experienced under the zinc plate, and a slight alkaline
taste under the silver plate. These sensations are perceived as long
a£ the circuit is closed ; but if the plate or the tongue be warmer or
colder than natiu^, or very much benumbed by acids or other irritating
substances, very little, if any, sensation is produced. If the tensloa ol
the current be much increased, by using several pairs, the tongue be-
comes convulsed and a tlash of light is perceived. When neither of the
electrodes touches the tongue, a metallic instead of an acid or alkaline
taste is produced.

The peculiar reaction of the gustatory nerve to the current is gen-
erally described by tliose on whom wc have cxpcrimL-ntcd as " cop-
pery," or "sour," or "metallic," or "bitter." Sour or coppery are, we
believe, the designations most frequently employed by those persons
who experience the sensation for the first time, and who have no
theories in the matter to prove or disprove, and who therefore are
likely to give their real impressions. I£ we ask tlieni whetlier they have

I40

ELECTRO -PHYSIOLOGY.

a taste in ihc mouth while the current is passing, thej- usually reply thai
the taste is sour or " coppery," and soinctimes they may call it " bitter."
If we aalt them whether the taste is ** metallic," they usually reply in the
affinnative. Our observations on this subject have been very numer-
ous, and they have been made with boih currents. It ia not necessary
to scud the galvanic current through the tongue or through the chorda
Qrmpani nerve, or through the face even ; for galvanization of the neck
in the anterior and posterior regions, and of the head in almost any
direction, and of the spine — the lower as well as the upper region— will
be fell in the gustatory nerve.

This metallic lastc is felt almost as soon as the galvanic current is
closed, grows strougei while the current runs up to a certain point, and is
sometimes felt for several minutes after the electrodes are removed.
In some tempera in cuts On which wc have experimented, the metallic
taste remains on the tongue for several hours, and even all day, and
longer.

In susceptible teitiper&ments the faradic current produces in a less
degree this metallic taste, and that, too, not only when applied to the
tODgue, but also the head, neck, and spine. In. the operations of cen-
tral galvanizalion this rciction of tiic gustatory nerve becomes of con-
siderable value in showing us that the current is passing as wc wish it,
and that tlic patient is receiving all that is well for him. The gustatory
reaction thus answers the purpose of a galvanometer, showing that the
current is passing, and to a certain degree regulating the dose.

There is little doubt that this metallic taste, caused by electrization,
IS due to a peculiar excitation of the properties of the gu&tatoty nerves
by the stimulus of the current

The theory that it might be of an electrolytic character, and therefore
explained by the products of decomposition at the poles — acid at the
positive, and alkalies at the negative — RosenLial, by a variety of ex-
peiimeots, has showti to be imtenable.

CHAPTEB VIL

ACTION OF ELlCTRICmr OM MOTOR AND SEKSORT KERTOS AKD

VOLUNTARY MUSCLES.

TrrUahiiity of nerves and muscles is thai property by virtue of which
they eantfuet the natural stimulus of the kody, or external impressions,
fir respond to artificial stimulation.

Nerves and muscles are called irritable so long as. they retain this
property, iiritability of the nerves is a proi>crty inherent in them.
No other tissue except nerve tiMiie possesses this projsertjr.

During life nerve* and muscles manifest their irritability by fulfilling
«U the natural functions that belong to them ; it is this property that
enables them to conduct that mysterious vital agent, which, in lieu of
definite knowletlgc, we are obliged to call nerve farce. This nerve
force, which is peculiar lo living beings, may possibly be correlative to
the other forces of nature — light, heat, electricity, magnetism, and
gravilation — but the tlicory that it is identical with electricity is, as will be
aecn, untenable.

Irritability, how lonj^ Retained after Death. — The irritability of nerves
and muscles begins to diminish after death, and sooner or later disap-
l>ear& It disappears much sooner in warm-blooded than ia cold-
blooded animals.

In warm-blooded animals, as the rabbit and the dog, the muscular
current may disappear in half or three-quarters of an hour. In the
limb of a frog that has been properly protected and under a cool tem-
perature, it may remain for two, three, or even four weelts. It is on
account of this persistence of irritability in frogs that they are so fre-
quently chosen in electro- physiological experiments. Irritability also
varies with Uie temperature. It lasts longer in cold than m waim
weather, and und^r extreme heat it remains but a short time.

Tlie local application of poisons and powerful chemical substances,
IS extract of opium, acetates of strychnine, morphine, creasoie, nitrate
of silver, mineral acids, rapidly destroys the irritability.

Hvw Muscular Contractions are Produced. — There are, then, two

142

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

«a>-s by which the muscles can be made to contract onder electricity :
(i) by acting on the motor ncr\-cs, and (a) by actittg on the muscles
themselves. There it, however, this interesting and important differ-
ence in the effect of electrizing the motor nerves and the muscles, tfiat
when the foniter aie electrized all the muscles supplied by them con-
tract, and when the muscles are electrized, only that muscle to whkh
die electrodes are applied, or that part of the muscle between the
electrodes, will contract When direct applications to the muscle are
made, the best contractions are produced by putting one electrode at
each end The muscular contractions produced by directly (an-
dizing the niu!iclc arc due to the excitation of the muu:Ie, and also of
the in Ira- muscular nerve-fibres. The most powerful musatlor contrac-
tions are produced by placing one electrode on the muscle, and the
other at the point where the motor nerve that suppKes it is most super-
ficial.
* J}ifferintial AdifiH c/ Positive and Negative Pole in Praductng Con-
tra^tifim. — Mot only is there a difference in the degree in the opening
and closing contractions of the f;iradic current, but there is also a dif-
ference in the action of the poles in producing contractions. When the
iQterraptions are rapid, as in the majority of machines, the muscle does
not have time to go through all the process of lengthening and shonen-
ing with each movement of the current to and fro, and consequently
it is kept in the state of tonic contraction above described. If, now,
one pole be placed on some indifferent point, while the other pole
is placed over the nerve to be acted on, it will be found that the ntga-
tiv£ pole pnnluces stronger contractions than the positive.

This experiment is easily made, and it b not difficult to demonstrate on
one's self thai this stronger action of the negative pole in producing mtis-
cular contraction is entirely independent of the direction of the current
— i&, in short, a polar effect We have already seen that on sensory
nerves the negative pole is more powerfully felt than the positive.

Simple Fluctuation in Strength of Current su^ient to Produce Con-
traction. — In order to produce muscular contractions it is not necessary
that the current should be opened or dosed. A moderate variation in the
strength of the current — such as is obtained by adding one dr more
cells, or by uniting another and independent current b the circuit, or
by taking off some portion of the current from the circuit — wilt cause
tiusciilar contractions. The contractions produced in this way arc,

vever, less vigorous than those produced in closing and opening the

it It is to be observed, also, that the vigor of the contractions ia

■rtioned to the suddenness of the closing or opening the cirO'iL

MOTOR AND SENSORY NERVES, ETC.

143

This point is frequently forced upon our observation in the treatment of
paralysis. If the electr[>dcs arc ormvil with lai^e sponges, and ire
»l<wly applied over the muscle, with gridually increasing pressure,
^ciircfly any contraction, or at least only a feeble one, is produced ;
but if the intemipcion be mode in the mclallic ]>art of the circuit — in
the electrode by an interrupter, or in the battery — the contraction with
the same current will be very energetic

% referring to Electro-Physics (p. 55), it will be seen that the law of
ouiscular contruccion under electrisation follows the laws of current-
ioduction. Both contraction and induction occur when a thange is
made in the strength of the current by closing, opening, increasing,
or diminishing.

Muuular Contractions mare Vigorous when a great length of iht
Nerve is Galvaniud. — The muscular contraction caused by gatvatiisa'
tion is greater when a large than when a sniBlI extent of the nerve is
included between the electrodes. It is not a difllcuU matter to demon-
sirate this fact. The experiment caa be made on nerves of rabbits,
dogs, frogs, or other animals.

Nerves of Living Man. — Our previous remarks have been ap{>l)ed to
the reaction of the nerves of animaU in a condition not purely physio-
logical. IVTicn the galranie airrent is applied to a living and healthy
motor nerve in a healthy man, contraction takes place only on closing
the ciratii. This fact is constant with either pole and any direction of
the current The native pole applied to the nerve produces stronger
contraction than the jiositive. At the opening of the current there is no
eoniraetioH- When the nerve is separated from the body, or injured, or
fatigued in any way, the phenomena already described appear. The
first symptom of fatigue is contraction both at the opening and closing
of the cuficnt. When the nerve becomes more exhausted the contrac-
tions are produced on closing and opening the inverse current ; and
when the exhaustion is still greater, contraction is obtained only on
making the direct c:urrcni.

Action of the Faradie Current. — The faradic current, when rapidly
interrupted, as in most of the faradic machines, and applied to the
motor nerves, keq>s up a tonic contraction of die muscle supplied by_
these. This contraction is maintained so long as the ciirrcnl runs.

If a contrivance for making s!ow inductions be connected with the
faradic machine, then the contraction of the muscles corresponds to
the oi>ening and closing of the current, and the opening eotttraetion is
stronger than the closing.

When the cuneot of the secondary wire is closed by placing the

144

ELECTRO -P HVSIOLOGY.

electrodes on the skin, the current of the primary coil (extra-carrenl}
exercises ii retarding influence on the secoodaiy current, and then the
closing coiitraciion is rendered more gradual and gentle from nothing
to the maxioium.

When the current of the secondary coil is ojKrned, the current of the
primary coil (extra-current) does not exist (sec Elcctro-Phyiic*, p. 55).
and consequently the current of the secondary coil is not retarded and
goes rnpidly from its maximum to nothing.

Differential Aetian of Primary and Secondary Coils. — Duchenne has
stated with a measure of truth that the current of the primary coil (ex-
tra-current) of his apparatus has a more powerful effect on the senisi-
bility and contractility of the orgaas beneath the skio, while the current
of the secondary coil acts more powerfully on the retina and on the
skin. "The primary coil is composed of thick, short wnre.

The secondary coil is composed of long and ihin wire with many
windings.

The differential action of the primary and secondary cnnents on the
skin, muscles, and optic nerve is due to these two causes :

I. The primary current, circulating through a short thick wire, lias
less tension than the secondary current that circulates through a long
thin wire, "because tension is developed only in the pre«nce of resist-
ance. Since, now, the skin offers greater resistance than the muscles,
the secondary current, by virtue of its greater tension, is able to pene-
trate ic, and also to penetrate the brain and affect the optic nerve.
But the primary current, having less tension, passes through the skin,
circulating in it but slighdy, and goes to the muscles beneath, which are
good conductors, and on these it spends its force. In other words, a
current of low tension selects the best conductors, avoiding the poor
conductors so far as is possible, while the current of high tension
traverses also jKwr conductors.

3. The primary current moves in one direction, and has a mild elec-
trolytic power, while the secondary current moves to and fro so rapidly
that it cannot perforin electrolysis.

Aeticn of the Galvanie Current. — ^The interrupted galvanic atireot
of moderate strength, if applied to a motor nerve, causes all the mus-
cles supplied by that nerve to contract.

If the current be interrupted slowly, the contractions wilF be clonic, if
rupldly interrupted, the contractions will be tonic. The violent contrac-
.ions that occur at the moment of dosing and opening the circuit of
I intense current may be avoided if wc begin with an extremely mild

rrent and slowly and gradually increase its tension. By this

method fl

VOLUNTARY MUSCLES.

145

Rittcr wa/ enabled to pass through his own person, without experienc-
ing cithCT the closing or opening shock, the enormous current gener-
awd from a battery of two hundred elements.

GahHttwioHic Contractions. — IrVhen very powerful currents arc
Applied contiauou&Iy to the nerves, ionic contractions axe produced dur
mg the whole time that the circuit is closed. Contractions thus pro
duced were called by Remak gaivanetonii tCH/racthm. They are
called galranoVi'ff/V contractions to dtsting;uish them from the ci&Hit
contractions produced by the faradic current. When the galvanic cur-
rent is applied continuously to th'* surface of ihe bo<ly, by means of
u<nst sponges, the galvano-tonic contractions increase in vigor, up to
a certain point, Ihe longer the electrodes arc kept in position. 'J'his
phenomenon is explained mainly by the fact that the skin becomes more
iDOtst )w well as hj-pcrwmic (p. no) by the effect of the current, and
thus becomes a better conductor for the electricity. With the f;iradic
current this increase of effect is not so obser^-able. The current
lequired to produce galvano-tonic contractions is q;iitc powerful and
painful. The strength of current required will depend on the [ibsition
of the nerve acted on, the length of nerve inchided between the elec-
tn>de$, and the individual experimented on.

Tonic Coa/raftiont in Antagonistic Muscles. — Remak states that when
galvanic cairents of great power ore used, certain nervous tonic con-
tractions appear in antagtjnistic muscles. Thus, for example, when
ihe ruediAn nerve is subjected to the continuous action of a powerful
galvanic current, contractions appear in the common extension of the
same arm, so that the fingers are raised. It is probable that this phe-
nomenon is due to rtfiex action.

E^ect of the IVi/l in apposing and aiding Conttactiens produced by
EUctrieity. — ^Tlic contractions produced by electricity can be materially
aided or opjwwed by effort of the will of the person operated on. If a
person whose muscles are being electrized concentrate his mind on the
muscle thai is subjected Co the influence of the current, and simultane-
ously with the closing of Uie circuit, wills to contract the muscle, the
coniraclion will be more vigorous and complete than when the elec-
tricity is not so aided. The will co-operates with the electricity, and the
two agents reinforce each other, and thus accomplish more than would
be possible for either alone. This aun be very conveniently dcmon-
stntcd on tlie communis extensor of the forearm. In eleciro-therapeu-
tica this co-operaiion of the force of will and electricity becomes of
great practical value. It has long been known that paralytic patients
nf all kinds, even those of a cerebral chronic incurable character, can be
lO

ELECIRO-PHVSlOtOOY.

greailf benefited by slightly cimctntrating ih« mind on ike parts to U
m^vtd, as the fingers vr toes, and resoJutely willing bf mote them.

In i>r»clicc it h&s been found that such treatment is of positive and
permanent service.

The combinatiun of the furce of will with elecuicily is very touch
more efficacious than either when used alone. When a nitiscle becomes
so diseased that the will is powerless to retnove it, tiie electricity
tiiay contract it with ease. Where electricity alone causes feeble or
imperfect conlraction, electricity, co-operating with the will, may make
the contraction vigorous and complete. In order to make ex|>crimcnt9
of this kind fully successful, it is necessary that the mil and force should
be concentrated simul/aneously with the closing of the circuit; and
yet expericDce shows ihai the efi"ect of the electiiiation, if not too
long continued, is to give tone of the muscle, so that it responds more
readily to the wit] for several minutes, or even hours, after being sub-
[ected to the electrization. This is especially obser\'ed in muscle* that
are in a condition of paresis. In all these cxpcrinienls much dcperKis
on the organic energy and grit of the patient. Co::versely, it is found
that by an effort of will the contraction of muscles induced by electri-
city can be within a ccitain limit, successfully opposed. The cx|>cri-
mcnt can be made on the cotnniimis extensor of the forearm without
difficulty. A feeble current will cause this muscle to contract so as to
bring up the hand and fingers; by an eflbrt of tlic will this can be,
resisted so that the hand remains on a level, or nearly so. When ver/i
strung currents are used the wtU is completely overborne, and has no
effect whatever.

Extent of Shortening of Muscle during a Contraction. — In the process
of contraction muscles shorten in proportion to their length. The
greatest possible shortening is obtained during tetanic or continuous
contraction, and not during a momentary contraction. The maximum
of shortening is reached, not suddenly, but gradually, and it does not
long remain at the maximum even when the electrization is continued,
but begins to lengthen at first rapidly and then more slowly.

The greatest amount of shortening possible to a tntiscle is thret-quar-
ters or two-thirds of its length.

In contraction the muscle becomes a little smaller in bulk. The
cause of this is not fully understood.*

/mmediaie Strengthening or Restorativt Efftd of Eieetrixation en

• Etectrt-Pifysiotegy mnd Elettro- TMeraftuiUs.
VoA, i$6«, p. 573.

Bjr a E. Uorgui, M.D. New

VOLUNTARY MUSCLES.

147

Voluntary Museles. — One very intere«ing effect of electrization on
voluntaiy muscles is to increase their power of doing work. This eflTect,
which is called by Heidcnhatn and Rcmalc restorative, can be demon-
strated ia various ways, The capacity of walking, to cases of paralysis
of the lower limbs, is sometimes incrciLsed at once after electrization \
the patient ste|« across ihc floor easier and more firmly and rapidly,
and can walk further ; or he can raise his leg higher and with let<«
difficultjr. In one case of paral)-si3 of the tibialis andcus muscle there
was no resjionsc to ihc wilt until 3 current of medium strength had
been applied, when it contracted without much difficulty. Dr. Poore *
found, on placing a weight of 1 7 oz. in the hand of a man holding his
arm out at right angles with his body, that in four minutes the pain was
to great that he could not go on ; applying now a mild current through
the nerves of the arm, the strength returned. Another man could hold
out his arm 13J minutes when the current was applied, but only 6
tninulcs without the current.

The dynamometer is a good means of studying this subject. In one
case Dr. Poore found that eight successive squeezes of the dynamome-
ter with electrieation gave 4J7 lbs. ; without electrization, 38S lbs.; a
difference of A9 Ibti. In another experiment made, when the hand was
not tired by previous experimenting, the difference was even more
marked, being a gain of 153 in six stjucezes of the dynamometer.

Effect ef Fatigue of Muscles on the Contractility. — When a striped
muscle l>ccomcs wry much weakened or fatigued it behaves under clec-
tmation much like the smooth muscle. Dr. Beard has demonstrated this
fiict on dying rabbits and dogs. Beginning the electrization just as
they are cut 0|icn, the striped muscles re-ict vigorously and normally to
the ctirrent ; but as the animal dies the character of the contraction
changes, becoming slower and more delilicrate. If, now, the current
be r^>idly interrupted, no contraction occurs, for there is not time for
the muscle to respond. \i, now, weak currents are used, the muscle
contracts very much af^er the manner of unstri|ied nuisclc — that in, with
a slow drawir^ rather than a rapid and vigorous action.

Effect of Muscular Tension and Relaxation on Muscular Conirae
tioH. — Dr. \Vm. R. Fisher, of New York, has called attention to the
fact that muscles contract more easily when somewhat rclnxed thaji
when in a tense condition. This experiment can be tried very easily on
the common extensor of the forearm or on tiie peronci muscles of the
leg. I'he fact is of practical importance in the treatment of paralysis.

TluPraettiiener, Jul* 1873,

X48

ELECTRO-Pm'SIOLOGY.

ZiciiiSscn,* on experimenring with iinpolarizablc electrodes, and
gradually increasing the strength by the aid of the ih;osta(, obtained
the following results;

I. With the weakest current that caused muscular coDlraction there
was evening contraction at the cathode.

a. With a current a little stronger there was strong eleiing centra^
Hon at the negative pole, and weak opening contraction at the positive.

3. With still stronger current there was also Wjcak contraction at the
opening oj the positive pole.

4. With still stronger currents iJiere was a tonic eontraeiton at the nega-
tive foie, continuing for some time after tlic contraction at the closing.

5. With a tuucti stronger current the tonic contraction was more
vigorous; the other contractions are also increased in strength, and there
api'trarcd a contraction ai the opening 0/ the negative pole.

6. With the strongest current that can be borne, all the other contrac-
tions were increased in strength, and there appeared, besides, moderate
tonic eontrottiem at the positive pole.

The above results can be verified only when unpolarizable electrodes
are used, for with ordinary electrodes the pain would be far too great
to be endured. The opening and closing of the current must be made
in the metallic part of the connection, in order to give it the greatest
possible suddenness. Zicmssen suggests for these experiments the
median ami nlnar nerves at a point a little above the wrist. At this
point the epidernis is quite thin and the nerves superficial. Judging
from our observations, it is impossible to reduce this subject to a rigid
uiatlieniatical law. The words "strong" and "weak," as applied to
currents, arc quite indefinite, and the irritability of nerves varies in dif-
ferent individuals at different times. It is for these reasons that observ-
ers dilTcr in the results of their experiments.

EUctrO'inuseuhr Contractility and Electro-muscular Sensihility.—
The susceptibility of the muscle to contract under the inlluence of the
electric current is called electro-muscular contractility. The sensation
that accompanies tliis contraction of the muscles under the electric
[ufluecce is called electro-muscular sensibility. Electroinuscular con-
tractility and electro-muscular scnsibilitj* vary in different individuals,
and in different pans of the body. They are greatly modified by dis-
ease. This fact is of great importance in diagnosis of paralytic affec-

Qons.

In using the terms electro-muscular sensibility and electro- muscular
contractility, we do not wish to convey the idea that the/ represeot an/

•Op.dt.,p.8a

ELECTRO-MUSCULAR CONTRACTILITY.

149

Special nerve-functions, but rather that the general seD&ibility of the
nerves, and the general contractile power of the muscles may be excited
by the application of electricity. The question, whether there is any
spedal sense of muscular contractility, aside from the general sensibility
of the nervesr of the muscle, of the tissues that surrouncl it, and of the
bones and cartilages with which it is connected, is one that we are dift-
posed to answer in the oegative. There appear tJ be hysterical cases,
where the consciousnc^ of muscular contractility under the electric
current remains, white the skin is almost perfectly auECSthetic ; and there
are certainly cases where the muscles respond to the will, but do not
respond to electricity. Practically, therefore, the terms electro-muscular
sensibiUty and coniractilily, especially the latter, with its subdivisions
into farado-and galvanu-contractiiily, are uf gicat value in electro-
[iliysiology and therapeutics, and it appears to us are perfectly legitimate.

The manifestations of the clectro-muscutar contractility and sensibility
of the muscles in Ihc ditfcrerit parts of the body arc modificd,jtf/-jr, by
the anatomical position of the muscles; i^condly, by the quantity and
distribution of the sensitive nerves ; and thirdly, by the thickness of Che
skin and adipose tissue.

The tnuscles of the face, the piatysma inyoides and steino-cteido-
mastoid are, in health, very sensitive to the electric iniluencc. Next
in order of sensitiveness to the electric current are Uie anterior muscles
of the foreaim and of the inner side of the thigh. On the other hand,
the muscles of the back possess a much less degree of electro-nmscular
contractility and sensibility, and the posterior muscles of the forearm,
and posterior and other muscles of the thigh are much less susceptible
to ibe electric influence than those of tlie anterior and inner portions of
these hmbs. In corpulent patients it is more difficult to atfect the mus-
cles, because adipose tissue is coinparalively a poor conductor. In
vomeD and children the adipose tissue is relatively more abundant than
in males and adults.

Inereast e/ Temptraiure after Museular Contraction. — It has been
ascertained by careful experiments, that an increase of temperature
results from muscular contractions produced by Ihc electric current.
Increase of temperature in the muscles of paralyzed iimbs, after elec-
trization, is fretjucnUy perceptible to the touch of the operator, and the
sensations of the patient. Wc have repeatedly demonstrated the same
results from faradization of the arms, the legs, the face, and, indeed, all
ports of the body. In very many cases this increase oi temperature is
so marked as to be powerfully appreciated by the patient, and entirely
perceptible to the hand of the operator. General faradization cause*

1 50 ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOCy.

more or less elevalion of the temiwratute of the body. This is
demonstrated by tlic sensations of the patient,* and by the thenuom-
etcr.

It has been shown by BrownS^quard and Lombard that excitation
of Lhe Derves of the skin causes an increase of terui^erature in the
limUf

The development of heat is not aided by increasing the strength
of the current above the degree necessary to produce a ful) contrac-
tion. It has been demonstrated that, in patients afflicted with itau-
matic tetanus, there is a great increase of temperature that remains
for some time after death.

Investigations on tlie effcxt of muscular contraction on temperature
should be made by delicate surface iheniiometers. Sume of the super-
ficial muscles of the Ibreann offer 3 good surface for this experiment.
The thermometer must be kept firmly and unifonwly pressed on the
akin, and the modifying effect of currents of cold atr should be guarded
against. The ihcmiumcter should be kept mj(/Babout fiflecn minutes
before beginning electrization, so as to get accurately the normal tem
perature. Then the nerve that supplies the muscle or muscles to be
tested should befaradited.

The following investigation is from Ziemssen.J The patient was a
strong man, who was suffering from complete paralysis of the extensor
muscles of the hand and finger from nerve injury. This fact accounts
for l\\e low temperature before faradization.

Temperature on the foTeami, between the extensor digit, comra.
and exten. carp. radi. btev. :

The skin uncovered 34.7° Cent

After 4 minutes' faradization through the radial nerve :

At openiug of current 34.8

I minute after opening the current 35.3

5 minutes " *' 35.7

10 " " " 35-35

" " " " 3S-3

In the J3th minute faradtzxtion was renewed for i minute:

Temperature at opening the current 34.7

I minute after opening the current 35.1

4 minutes " " 35.45

* Eltetrieilat in dtr Mtdecin, tS66, p. 3^

f Arthivet dt Pkyti^itgit^ November Mid Deccnber, iSfiS. { Op. eft. p, 90,

INCREASE or TEMPERATURE AFTER FARADIZATION. Ijl

In the 6th minute faradization was renewed for i minute :

TenipcKitiire at opening the current 35.1

1 minute after opening the current 35.3

5 minutes " " 35.6

The general results of all the investigations that have been made in
this (IvpartmcDt by Becqucrel, Breucbet, Helniholtz, Zienisseo, Altliaui,
and ourselves arc these :

1. When muscles art.- made to contract under faradization of ihc
nerres that supply them iheir ceniperaiure rises.

2. This elevation of temperature is not necessarily accompanied by
my increase in size cf the ves&cis, although faradization usually lacicascs

' the size and appearance of the vessels more or le^.

3. The more vigorous the contraction and the longer it is continued,
the higher the tfmi>eraturc rises,

4. If the faradization he continued long enough the temperature will
be so much increased that it can be detected without difficulty by the
hand, and by itie sensations of the jwrKon operatt-d on.

5. When all the superhcial muscles of the body arefaradized, as in the
method of general faradization, the temperatiuc not only of individual
muscles, here and there, but alao of the whole body, nsc%. This fact we
have repealed and demonstrated by observations made on many varie-
ties of temperament.

A more accurate method of investigating this subject is by means
of the thermo-electric pile (sec Eleclro-Physics, p-Cj)* Thts instru-
ment is capable of measuring a small vaiiation in temperature, and
also indicates Ihc variiitions much more quickly than the themioin
etcr. The thenno-eleclric pile is connected with a reflecting galva
nometer (see Electro-Physics, p. 4 1)^ Ziemssen gives the foUomng oh
scr^'atiun made on the extensors of the forearm :

TWB 09 Fakadizatiok. Deflection of thz Nksrle

Mtnttift. SftffHdl. OP THS GaLVANOUSTKR,

o '5 - 15

o 3» + «-3

45 + 5-0

1 — ...M - 7.a

a — ............ -hiQ-o

3 — +30-1

4 — +40.1

It will be observed that with the increase in the time of the feradiza-
tion there is greater and greater deReclion of the needle, just as there
is a rise of the mercury in the ordinary thermometer.

152

ELECTRO-PHYSTOLOCV.

Source of Heat in Museular Contraction. — According to Hermann,*
who has specially studied the chemistry of the develoimicnl of heat
during muscular conliactioii, muscLilax work is the result 0/ the decom-
position 0/ nitrogenous substances. Among the products of Uiis de-
composition arc Afixrd acid, carbonic add, and myosine. Of these the
carbonic acid leaves the body, while the fixed acid and the myosin* re-
main and are worked over again in the organisiiL The muscles grow at
the same time that they work and develop heat, and urea and creatine
are found in the residuum. The imisicle is restored by the act'iou of
oxygen, an albutninnid, and a non-nitrogenous substance in the blood.

All these complex cheiuical changes that are excited during niuscu*
\ta corAx^zViCia give rise to heat. If the muscle is prevented, by tne>
chanical means, from contracting, the heat develops in it more rapidly
than when it is free. This follows from the recognized law of the cor-
relation and conservation, of forces. The force that does not appear ai
work apiwars as heat.

Duration of Electro-muscular Contractility after Death, — The
muscles retain their conuaclility under electricity several hours after
death. The length of time that the electro-muscular contractility is
preserved varies with difTerciit umscles, with different animaii, and
probably, also, with the tnodc of death. In order to determine this
question, T)r. Beard has made experiments on dogs and rabbits. Dr
OnimU8,f of Paris, has experimented on the body of a murderer who
bad been guillotined. He found that the muscles of the tongue and dia-
phragm were the drst tu lose their electro -muscular contractility. Next
came the luu&cles of the face, among witich the masseter retains its ex-
citability the longest. Tiuo and a half hours after death the electro
muscular contractility was lost in ail these muscles.

In the limbs the extensor muscles first lose their electro -muscular
contractility, and in ;ibout an hour the flexors followed. The muscles
of the tnmk rt.-s))unded^r^ or six hours after death, and the abdomiuol
muscles longer still.

Onimus observed on the criminal what Dr. Beard has observed on dogs
and rabbits, th.it when the muscle is dying it contracts most noticeably
at the point where the elccirodcs arc placed, and very slowly at a dis-
tance from the electrodes ; and that the muscles respond to direct
slectrtzation widi needles after they have ceased to respond to the cur*
rent when applied through the skiq.

* Morgan, op. cU., p. 58) et Mq.

I Lt Mamvtmemt MUitait, Feb., 187),

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOCICAL AXATOMY.

153

Previously, in January and t-ebniary, i8o3, Aldini, a nephew of
Gftlvani, obtained permission from the government to experiment or
two criminals who were executed at Boulogne. Immediately aftei
death the bodies were subiiiiiccd to powerfut galvuiiii: excitation. The
muscles oC (he face contracted vigorously in such grimaces as to irighten
the assistants. The liaibs were violently convulsed, and the bodies
acted as tliough they would ri^ again to life.

At Gla-igow, Urc majde sinjilar experiments on the body of a crimi-
nal that had been on the gallows one hour. The applications were made
to the spinal marrow, the phrenic nerves, and the intercostal mnsdes.
According to the position of the electrodes the body was bent forcibly
back, the chest rose and fell as in llic act of breathing, ami ihc various
emotions of lage, terror, despair, were depicted on the counteiuuice.
One of the spectators fainted, and several were obliged to leave the
room.

Mledro-physiological Anatomy. — EUctro^hysiolcgical analomy treats
tj the physiological action of musetcs utuier tht infiuenee of the eleetrie
eurrent applied ia such a way as to product contraclions.

The contraction observed in an individual muscle, when submitted to
the influence of the electric currii^ut, closely re&embles the contraction
of the same muscle when under the influence of the wiU.

Ducbenne was the futt to iuvei^tigale this subject systematically, and
bis rescarche;* have done much to modify the accepted views concerning
the functions of certain muscles. Those who desire a more complete
idea of his views than is given in the following brief resumr, we refer to
his writings.*

Museies of the Fate — Electro-physiognomy. — This name has been
applied to the study of character and expression, through localized
Cuadization of the muscles of the face. Ky means of small electrodes
the cuirent can be localized %o as to produce contractions even in the
smallest muscles. For these experiments a recently dead subject has
this advantage over the living man, that in the case of the latter con-
tractions produced by the current would be complicated and interfered
with by involuntary' movements.

According to Duchenne, who has chiefly investigated this subject, the

* De rElecUbalion LocalU^ et de Kin AppIic&tioD ^ In Pathologic ct i U Thfra-
peulique. Pari;, 1S61. Alio, MfcbAiiKine de la Phj-tionomie Hiim^inc, ou An&ly^e
£lc£iro-phyuolo||^uc dc I'Exprcsdan des Pr44vii» afpHcntfle ill la Pratique de« Acts
Pbutkjuei. Pari^ 186a. Tbbworlc contains jihotot^ravhic repM.-s«(ilauoiiK uf the
virkms appeaiuncet of th« face under eiectnzaiion of the liiffcrmc muKlct. TbCM
photopspbi arc frojucntly referred to by l>aiwiiL In his work qd Exprtttian.

154

ELECTRO -PHYSIO LOGY.

frontalis muscle, whon a little contracted, exprcs&es pleasure ; when
more contracted, asioniilimcnt or doubt ; when strongly contracted
with other muscles, terror.

Contraction of ihc /yramh fa/is nasi expresieg sadness; of the (:<»r-
rugtUor superciliiy contemplation ; of the orbicularis ^Ibelrrarum, con-
tempt. Contraction of these two, united with the pyianiidalls na^,
gives % iuittffu), inalitious expression. Contraction of the triangularis
nast expresses lust ; oi the sygomatieus major, various degrees of mirth;
of the tygomaticuj miitor, melancholy ; of the /•lafystna myaides, hypo-
critical laughter; of the //a/ysma myoidfs, pain. Contraction of tlie
flaiysma myaides axiA fr&ftiatis gives an expression of terror. Contrac-
tion of the plaiysma myoidts and fiyramidalit expresses rage. United
contraction of the tygcmaticus major aiid /rontaiis produces an ex*
prcssion of agreeable surprise. Contraction of the ^wcrino/cr indicates
age, by m.-Lkini{ furrows in the cheek.

Contraction of the legator alec and labii sufierioris causes an un-
pleasant expression, such as a child exhibits when about to cry ; contrac-
tion of the triangularis arts gives an cxin-essinn of sadness or disgusL

Contraction of the external fibres of the orbicularis oris gives the
lips a position of whistling or tissing ; contraction of the internal libres
of Uic same muscle compresses the Ups against the teeth.

Muscles of the Upper Extremity, — Tlie contractions resulting froui
electriiation of the extensors of tbe Angers give to the hand a peculiar
appearance.

The first phalanges not only become extended, but arc spread apart,
while the last two phalanges become Hexed.

The metacaipus fomis an angle widi the forearm, and in this condi-
tion the hand rcscmbltrs, to a certain extent, a bird's claw.

Elcctri^alion of the extensor digiti minimi proprius separates the lit-
tle finger from its neighbor, while contraction of the extensor indicts
proprius brings the index and middle finger together. By the method
■of localized elcclriRation the adductors and abdiictoi^ of the lingers,
and the intenissci and tumbricales, are found to act not only in draw-
ing these members togedier atid separating ihem, but also in extending
the second phalanx of the thumb and the second and third of the odier
fingers-

The flexor poUicis brevis is concerned in extending the sccon<l
phalanx of the thumb, as well as in flexing the first.

So long as the arm is in its natural position, the supinator longiis has
no function to perform ; it is only when the forearm ts prone chat its
peculiar action is maiiifesL

ELECTRO- PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

155

In paralysis of any one of the above muscles, it is readily seen thaf
the observalion made concerning tlieir functioD i£ correcL

For example : if the adductor longxis and t-xteiisor brevis poUicts be-
come paralyzed, the mclacarpal bone of the thumb is addiictcd. If th«
extensor longus pollicis is paralyzed, the thumb is inclined towards the
metacarpus, although its movements are not markedly impaiicd if the
extensor brevis and adductor longus are strong.

Electrization of the deitcid not only raises the upper arm, biit also.
Tcry perceptibly changes the powtion of the scapula. The external
angle of the shoulder-blade becomes dci>res&ed, the internal angle is
elevated, while the distance between its posterior spinal border and the
ribs is slightly increased. In paralysis of the deltoid the arm hangs by
the side almost completely helpless. The muscle is composed of three
distinct groups of fibres, and the degree of paralysis depends upon the
Dumber of groujis or special group involved.

The pcctoralis major and latissiiniis dorsi muscles, although situated
for the most part on the trunk of the body, are especially usefiil iu
assisting in the movements of the arm.

Musclts of the Trunk. — \S'hen ail of the fibres of the trajicxius are
submitted to electric excitation, the shoulder-bla.de becomes elevated,
Bs posterior border approaches the median line, the shoulders arc
drawn lutckwanl, and the head is tlirown slightly forward and toward
the opposite side. Like the deltoid, the trapezius is made up of three
sets of fibres.

When the superior set is electrized the head turns toward the side
initated, and the face looks toward the opposite side.

The middle set of fibres elevates the shoulder-blade, while by the
action of the lower set its inner angle is depressed, and its posterior
border is drawn toward the median line. In complete ]>aralysis of the
trapezius ihc following symptoms are manifest : U'he back is rendered
broader, on account of the scapula removing elighdy from the spinous
processes ; the shoulder becomes dcprei>sedt and, on account of the
abscDOe of steady support for the arm, its movements are rendered diffi
cult. Electrization of Ihc rhomboideus major and minor muscles ele-
vates the scapula and slightly inrns it on its outer angle.

If the current be sufficiently intense, the lower angle of the scapuL
approachcB nearer to the spinous processes diau the inner.

If the rhomboideus muscles are paralyzed, the scapula removes itself
Kinewhal fi-ora the walls of the thorax, the skin between the shoutder-
hlade and the spine appears in folds, and the lower angle of the bone \t
drawn forward and outward, on account of the action of the serratiu

156

ELECTRO- PHYSIOLOGV.

amicus major. By excitation of the seiratus anticus major the scajxiIj
is drawn forward uid outward, m that the space between its posteriot
border and the spine is doubled. The posterior border ii pressed
ag.unst the ribs, while the anterior border is markedly removed from
them.

When ihe muscle is paralyzed the shoulder-blade sinks but httle, so
lon^ HB the arm hangs motionlc:>a by the side ; but as soon as it is
moved from the body llie posterior border and under angle of thiB
scapula ate tiftcd from the thorax, white the anterior approaches it more
cloi«]y. In complete paralynis of the &erratus anticus the movements
of the arm are much impaired.

A single external intercostal muscle may be electrized by pressing a
small electrode against the lower border of one of the upper ribs, near
the origin of the scrracus magntis moscle.

The individual abdominal muscles are readily influenced by electric
excitation.

Electrization of the rectus muscle so stretches and draws it inward
that Ihe abdominal wall becomes dau Irritation of the external oblique
expands the abdomen laterally.

If we electrize the transverse abdominal, powerful transverse con-
tracuons of the abdomen follow. When both phrenic nerves arc sub-
mitted lo electric excitation, powerful and frequent contractions of the
diajihragm are produced. An increased amount of air rushes into the
lungs on account of the capacity of the thorax enlarging through the
descent of llic diaphragm, and the moving outward of llie false ribs.
Atrophy of the diaphragm causes, during inspiration, a depression of
the epigastrium and abdominal walls, while the thorax expands as
usual.

Musehs of the Lower Extremities. — Electric excitation reveals the
fact that flcxLon and extension of tlic foot cannot be produced by the
flexor or extensor muscles alooe, since these muscles lend to abduct
and adduct as well as flex and extend. The ^exors and extensors
cause direct flexion and extension only when they act in conjunction
with certain other muscles.

The movements of the foot are controlled by four sets of muscles.
These are :

The tibialis andcus, which at the same time flexes and adduces the
foot — the dcxor adductor muscle, the extensor digitorum communis
longus and extensor hallucis, which flex and abduct the foot — the
flexor abductor.

The gastrocnemius solius and tibialis posticus, which extend and

ELECTRO-PHVSIOLOGICAL AXATOMY.

157-

xddnct the foot — the extensor adductor, and the peroneus longus %iid
brevis, which extend and ahduct the foot — the extensor abductor.

Electrization of the tibialis anticus, or, tn other words, the Acxor ad-
ductor niuede, not only extends and addiictEi the foot, but lifts the innei
border of its upper portion as well.

ElectrLtation of that group of muscles called the flexor abductor, be*
sides flexing and abducting the foot, extends the four last toes, lifts the
outer border of the foot, turns the sole outward, and bends the great
toe.

Pes equinus may result from the stronger action of the extensors.

If the 6cxor abductor group become paralysed, the movement of the
fool is reversed — the sole turning inward ami the anterior portion turn-
ing upward.

Electrization of the extensor adductor group so extends and adducis
the foot tliat the heel is directed outward and the great toe inward. The
first phalanges of the toes become extended, and the last flexed, giving
to them the form of claws.

Elcctrizaiton of the extensor abdnctor so extends and abducts the
foot that the internal malleolus becomes decidedly prominent through
the sinking of the inner border and tlie elevation of the outer border
of the foot. Paralysis of tliis last-named group of muscles produces in
the course of time what may be termed a flat foot. This results from
the disappearance of the arching of the foot.

In consequence of paralysis of the extensor adductor the foot natu-
rally becomes abducted, the arch of the dorsal surface is increased, and
instead of the flat foot above mentioned, we have a very decided hollow-
ing out of the plautar side.

CHAPTER VIII.

ACriOS or ELECXRiaTV ON ISVOLUNTARY MUSCLES.

CoirrRACTioNs are produced in a i^luntary muscle the instint the
p<des of a galvanic battery, or of an elcrtro-raagnctic machine in o))er*
aiion, are applied to it. The contraction of the muscle connnaes
during the pi-ssage of i\xz /aradic current, but when the galvanic current
is used quickly relaxes after the iint ahock. Wlien, however, the inles-
tines, the stomach, the <x50|>hagus snd other parts which are composed
odni'oiuntary muscnlir fihre, are subjected lo the electric current, move-
ments arc not induced in thcra utiiU a certain time after the tissue has been
acted uf^n. The msvemfnts thus exeited continue for a time after the ees*
sa/icn of the current, an J dt> not, as in the ease ff vcfluntary tnuse/es, at
onte return to their normal ecndUiou.

Iris. — Faradization of the iris, with a very gentle current in a room
that is moderately darkened, causes It to be constricted or dilated, ac-
cording to the position of the electrodes.

Stomach. — FaradiiatioD or galvanixation of the stomach cause* gra-
dual shortening of the transverse and longitudinal fibres in the direc-
tion froi]] the cardiac to the pyloric orifice. Dr. Rockwell, in the treat-
ment of paralysis of the cesopliagus associated with a sort of atony of
the stomach, has frequently had occasion to observe the readiness with
which this phenomenon is demonstrated in the living .man by applica*
tions directly to the mucous surfaces of the parts.

Intestines.— It tne\y pointed electrodes or needles, connected lilher
with a faradic or galvanic apiiaratus, be applied to the intestine of
a living or recently killed animal, steady and (inn contraction takes
place at the points where the electrodes are applied. Under a
mild current the contraction is slow, steady, and gradual. The intes-
tines are drawn up after the manner of a woman's work-bag. 'ITiis
contraction, tliough most marked just at the point where the needles
touch the intestines, is also observed a little distance between and on
the outer side of the needles. Under strong currents this constriction
takes place very rapidly, and goes on until the calibre of the imcstincs

INVOLUNTARY MUSCLIfS,

»59

k nearly closed. When the electrodes are removed t)iis constriction
slowly disappears. These vhenoincna arc seen both in the large and
small inte&tinesand in the rectum. The duodenum responds most read-
ily, the rectum and colon less so. These phenomena are more or less
modified by the condition of the animal, whether living or dead, and
whether recently or long killed. This fact of electro-physiology, which
has been frequently demonstrated on animals, is very suggestive in a
practical point of view. The value of electricity in constipation is, in
view of these observations, partially explained.

Spteen. — \Vhca ihc spleen of certain animals, h'ving or recently Icilled,
as the dog, is submitted to the action of a tolerably strong current,
either fitradic or galvanic, a visible drawing and contraction throng*
out the entire extent of the organ, not only where the electrodes are
applied, but bctwircn them and beyond ihcm, in every direction, there is
DuniTest sluiuking of the tissues, with change of color. 'Ilus fact, which
has been disputed by some physiologists, we hare demonstrated in a vari-
ety of experiments. The phenomenon is not so noticeable in the
spleen of the rabbit as in that of a dog, and in order that it may
occur rapidly and be easily seen, the current used must be of consider*
able strength. The shortening and discoloration of the spleen under
electrization appears to be more or less permanent. This physio-
logical fact suggests the query, whctlicr the enlarged spleen of inter*
miltent fever might not be treated by electricity.

Bladder. — When the fillc<l or emptied bladder of a living or recently
l(illc<! animal is acted on by cilher current, of moderate strength, a
triable drawing and contraction take place in various directions. The
tissue becomes firmer and harder, the cavity diminishes, and if it con-
tain.'^ urine a portion of it is expelled This electro-physiological fact
is utilised in cases of paresis and paralysis of the bladder.

OTerur. — The uterus of animals and of the human being contracts
after the maimer of the intestines^ btaxldcr, and other involuntary muscles.
Wluitcver pole is used, or in whatever direction the current be applied,
contraction takes place wh<-ncvcr the current is applic<1, whether the
uterus is or is not in a gravid condition. Hoth faradization and galvani-
cation have this slow contracting influence on the uterus.

In the chapter on Diseases of Women, the very interesting and im-
poitaot practical applications of this physiological fact will be pointed
out in detail. It a])plies especially to the electrical treatment of me>
tritis artd uterine engorgements.

K-rf^/.^The ureters are constricted and shortened by electrization,
and as in the case of the uterus, the intestines, and the spleen, the con>

i6o

ELECTRO-Pin'SIOLOGV.

tractions take plice, according to the law of their phpiological actioit,
from the kidneys toward the bladder, and the contractions continue aftei
the electrodes are removed.

Vat Defer ens., EpididymuSt and Tunica Vaginalis. — Wlien the electric
current is ap;>licd to the vas deferens, the epididynitis, or Uie scrotum,
they likewise contract after the manner of the intestines, uterus, and SO
fottb. The scrotum contracts rapidly, almost instantaneously, under a
strong current, and remains contracted for some time, as we have
demonstrated on rabbits and dogs, and on the living hnman being.

Gall-hladder. — When a current of considerable strength is applied to
the gall-bladder by pointe<I electrodes, constriction takes place at the
points of applicati&ii, and the whole bladder lends to contract, and,
like the urinary bladder, to discharge Us contents. It ii> not tinposstble
that a powerful current sent through the liver of the living subject,
by external applications, may cause contraction of the gall-bladder ;
and in this way wc may in part explain the value of electrical treat-
ment in jaundice.

(Esophagus. — In rcKlciits the ccsophagns consists of striped muscle
only ; in birds it consists of unsiriped muscle, and :n man of a com-
bination of both striped and UDStripcd muscle. Both sets of fibres,
longitudinal and circular, contract under the current, iK>t only at the
points where ihc electrodes arc applied, but through the whole length
downward toward the stomach. In the treatment of dysphagia this
fact may wcU be considered.

/r<*fl/-/.— The effect of electrization of the pnenmi^stnc and other
nerves that supply the heart has already been considered. The effect
of direct electrization of the tissue of the heart itself is not witliout
ioteresL Galvanisation, with currents of moderate strength, of the
heart of an animal that h9.% stopped beating, may cause a return of its
rhythmical action. It has been sometimes observed that the contrac
tions return more vigorously in the right than in the left side. Accord-
ing to otn* oI>scrvatiDn, in the hearts of dogs and rabbits much depends
on the strength of the current used. If a strong current were directed
through pointed electrodes tu the substance of a heart of a dying
animal, tlie pulsations are in part arrested, but they recur as soon as
this current is broken. These conclusions are based on a large number
of observations. When the heart has fully stopped it may be restored
Sy a weak current, and again arrested by a strong current.

Blood Ttssils.^T^c small arteries that contain considerable unstriped

<^:lc contract under the current, after the manner of ilie intestines;
is, the contraction does not appear instantaneously, but a Ultle

INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES— EXPERIMENTS.

]6l

tunc after the needles are applied it goes on slowly, and ailer the
needles are removed ihcy gradually return to their normal condition. lo
the larger arteries this contraction is not so marked.

It Drill be observed that electricity acts on unstriped muscular fibre,
in this rcs|]cct at least, very much like erguL The power of ergot to
constringe the blood-vessels is Uie explanation of its great value as a
remedy in spinal and cerebral congestion. The efficacy of electrization
in the same afifectiuns, as well as in sprains and various local infiamma-
tions, may be in part explained by the same theory. This subject will
be discnsscd in the chapters devoted to the Influence of Electricity on
Nutrition and Spinal Congestion.

The above conclusions arc based largely on our own experiments,
although many of the observations had been previously made by various
physiologists.

There were, however, cert^UQ queries m regard to the differential
action of the poles, and of the two currents, and of weak and strung,
on involuntary muscle, that had not been answered. These queries
have aimed to solve by a large number of experiments on animals.
The records of one set of these experiments, noted at the time by our
firiend Dr. John Van Bibber, of Baltimore, are herewith presented. Il
will be observed that the chemical and other effects of tlie current,
besides the contracting influence, are ngted.

Experiment i. — The abdominal cavity of a good-siited rabbit was
opened, and a medium faradic current, with needle electrodes, was
applied to the upper part of the small intestines. Contraction produced
most vigorous at the posirivc. A vcmiicular motion was also observed not
only in the part within the circuit, but extending some distance beyond
eadi pole. The rabbit was fully under ether, and tlie only other mus-
cular movements weie cardiac and respiratory. The color of intes-
tines was normal and healthy, and was undiiiturbcd during this operation.

Experiment 2. — .\ galvanic current, sixteen cells, was now applied,
with needle electrodes, a little below point of first experiment. There
was an immediate change in the circulation of the part. It became
darker and venous in its 8pj>enrance, presenting the appearance of a
clot. The intestines, before so flaccid as to render the insertion of a
needle diflicult, became very fuU and hard. The negative pole was
loose in the tissues, with bubbles of hydrogen generated around it, and,
on the other hand, the positive pole became very firm in its inseition,
with evident constriction of muscular fibre around it.

The first effect, therefore, seemed to be congestion, and afterward,

coa^lation.

l62

ELECTR O- PHY SIOLOGY.

Experimtnt $. — On stomach, with galvanic current, sixteen cells..
Id region of po^tive pole the circular fibres arc much contracted, and
ilie same disintegrating effects of negative pole were observed.

Experiment 4. — Faradic cuircnl on large intestine. Contraction of
muscular fibres was observed, and thought to be greater at positive
pole.

Experiment 5. — Faiadic current on spleen. The smooth surface of
that organ was soon corrugated, tending to show that the tissues were
contracting under its influence.

Experiment 6. — Galvanic current on spleen. Generation of hydro*
gen at negative pole, also congested appearance, and after removing
Utiedle vcrj' dark spot at negative pole.

Experitnent 7. — Faradic current on bladder. The bladder was par-
tiatly filled with urine, and when the current was applied, there was
great and immediate contraction of muscular hbrcs and expulsion of
urine.

Experiment S. — On left kidney, faradic airrcnt. Muscle con-
tracted, and seemed to be permanently so, at least during observation.

Right kidney, galvanic current. Same etfcct at negative pole, dark
congested spot ; but during passage of current the bladder, which had
been much contracted by faradic current, seemed to fill up.

Experiment 9. — On liver. No action. The rabbit seemed to show
remarkable vitality, and it was necessary to renew ether very frequently.
It was determined then that the electricity seemed to prolong life, even
alter it had been so taxed by anatomical mtililation.

The conclusions from a large variety of experiments, of which the
jbove is a fair illustration, are these :

I. Both cuirents^-faradic and gal^'anic — cause an unstriped nascle
to contract in accordance with the law. of its physiolt^col action. It
remains contracted, and after the breaking of the current gradually
returns to its normal condition.

a. The time when the contraction begins, and the vigor with which
it continues, and the rapidity with which it returns to its normal condi-
tion, after the breaking of the airrcnt, varies with the organ acted on,
with the strength of the current, and with the condition of the animal
acted on, whether living, dying, recently or long dead.

3. The positive pole has a more powerful contracting influence on
unstriped muscles than the negative. The differential action of the
poles ii seen in both currents, but is more decided with the galvanic.
This fact we were, we believe, the first to discover. This (act of the
more potent action of the positive pole on unstriped muscle is of con.

INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES— EXPERIMENTS. 163

siderable signification in the treatment of engorgements of the uteru&
etc It will be discussed in the chapter on Diseases of Women.

4. Unstriped muscles can also be made to contract by faradization
or galvanization of the nerves and nerve-plexuses that supply them —
indirect electrization.

5. The behavior of the different oi^ans that are supplied with un-
striped muscles under electrization depends on the relative amount of
muscle in their tissues. The intestines, the scrotum, contract rapidly
and vigorously; the spleen and arteries less perceptibly and more slowly.

The liver and lungs do not apparently contract under either current.
The electrolytic action of the current is observed in these organs, as
in all other tissues.

6. The differential reaction of voluntary and involuntary muscle tc
the current is mainly a matter of degree. Both kinds of muscle con-
tract in accordance with the law of their physiological action, undet
both currents, and both return to their normal condition ; but involun-
tary muscle returns very slowly, while voluntary muscle returns rapidly,
almost instantaneously. When voluntary muscles have become greatly
exhausted through fatigue or death, they behave very much like invol-
tmtarv muscles.

CHAPTER IX.

ACnOM OF ELECTRICrrr ON THE BLOOD.

The actior. of tlie galvanic current on the blood is a subject to
which we have given at different limes considcraljlc attention. BIcod
coagulates so quickly after leaving the living body, that the action ol
clectricily upon i( can only be studied with satisfaction when the elec.
trodes arc placed within un artery or vein, or In a current of blood as
it flows from the wounded blood-vessels before the process of coagula-
tion has set in. We have experimented on blood with the gal-
vanic current in both ways.

When the needles connected with the poles of a galvanic battery are
inserted into the feebly flowing blood of a wounded animal, elcclroly-
sis at once takes place with differential polar action of a striking char-
acier. At the positive pole a small, firm, ami dark clot forms, that
adheres closely to the needle, especially if it be ateet that is readily oxi-
dized. At the negative pole a larger, softer, lighter, yellowish clot
forms, with a mixture of foam or froth from the bubbles of hydrogen.

If the ctirrcnt be strong, and the operation protracted, the positive
Steel needle will become either destroyed by oxidization or greatly
reduced in size.

From the above it will be seen that the action of electricity on the
blood is mainly, if not entirely, of a chemtKal character — in a word,
e/eeirfflysiSf Ol electro-chemical decomposition. Goliibew and Burdon-
Sanderson have studied the effect of faradiiation on the blood -coqiusclcs
under the microscope, and Rollct and Neuman have studied the same
under the influence of the galvanic current. It has been shown that
the red corpuscles of the blood are discolored by tlie alkalies of the
negative pole, and caused to shrink by the acids at the positive pole.
Under the discharges of the Leyden jar the red corpuscles change theii
shape and lose their color.

March 12th and J4th, 1S71, Dr. Beard made, with Dr. E, L. Keycs,
a nutnher of experiments on dogs, in order to determine the diffcrcn-
rial action of the poles in producing a clot. One method of ex

ACTION OF ELECTRICITV ON THE BLOOD.

165

imenling was to etherize the animal, open the abdomen through
the Unca alba, and expose ihe aorta, into which needles, insulated with
bard rubber up near to their points, and connected with both poles,
wore introduced. In some cases the artery was coustricied, in others
liot. We condense Ihe record of the experiments from the published
statements of Dr. Keycs,* based mainly on notes made at the time
by the physicians who co-operated with us.

ExpERiuENT I. — March 17th. A small dog was etherized, the
abdomen laid open through the linea alba, and the aorta exposed.
Positive and negative needles, insulated (imperfectly) with hard rubber,
were introduced into the aorta about one incli apart. Both needles
were of steel, gold plated at the points. The negative needle was acci-
dentally nin through the artery, and emerged into the muscle beneatli.
The current from sixteen cells of a Stohrcr's battery n-as passed for ten
minutes. The artery was not compressed. Blood flowed through it at
great force.

ResuU. — Bloody foam surrounded the negative needle, the blood
emerging from the artery. Needle luo:>e. It dropped out, the blood
followed.

Positive needle adherent to artery, requiring a little force to pull it
away. Artery was ait, before the needle was removed, to looTi for
doL No clot discovered in the vessel A little black material was
found adherent to the wall of the artery, and to the positive needle at
the point of entrance. The lining membrane of the artery was altered
and discolored, wherever either needle had touched it, over a space
about one and a half line in diameter.

Experiment IV. — Medimn-sized dog etherized. Positive needle
(platinum), insulated with hard nibbcr, was placed in the artery. Nega-
tive needle (platinum). Insulated with siiellac, in muscles near the spine.
Eighteen cells Stohrer. Time, ten minutes. Current of blood about
lluee-fourths, arrested through the artery, by compression with thumb
and fingers, one inch above and below the needle.

Rtsult. — Firm black clot outside of the vessel at point of the eiv
trance of needle, and where the opposite wall was. touched by tlie
Dcedle's point. Inside — timi, black clot^ adherent to the wall, but not
large enough to obliterate the vesscL

Lining membrane of artery blue-black, and coats of -vessel adherent
and condensed at point of entrance of needles, and where opposite wall
bad been touched. Needle not much acted upon. A little tlake of

* pTBCilnl EUctTo-Thenpeutici, New Yoik Mrdkat Journal, December, iS7r,

i66

ELECTRO-PHVSIOLOCV.

h&rd rubber cime f R, and was left attached to the clot. A few bubbles
of oxygen escaped from the vessel alongside the needle.

ExPERLUEKT VII. — Positive needle gold^ non -insulated. Nt^dve
needle steel, non-insiilatcd. Both in vesseL Sixteen cells. Time
ten minutes.

JlesuU. — Clot same at the positive pole as in Experiment IV., but
action on lining nierubrane was much less than in that expenmeot.
Gas cscajjcd at negative needle. No clot at negative needle. Artery
compressed only beiow, circulation arrested

Experiment XI. — Renal artery of dog was cut, and blood alloved to
How into peritoneal cavity. As it Qowed, negative and positive steel,
non-iasulatcil needles, connected with eighteen cells, were dipped into
it. Action coninienced at once- A daik clot formed about positive
needle, and a light foam around negative. At the end of one minute,
at the positive needle, a black clot had formed, a quarter of an inch in
diameter, dense enough to be lifted out of the fluid on the point of the
needle, and to su&Cain its own weight. At negative ncedlu there was a
spumous yellow moss, whicli could be lifted in part from the blood on
the needle's point, but which had no con^stence whatever.

The Dxperiiuciitti were continued with Dr. Keyes, at the slaughter-
house, the needles being placed in the warm blood, as ii flowed from
the arteries of d)nng animals. These experiments were performed
under great diflficuUies, and at some risk of being kicked by the expiring
bullocks, and did not therefore lead to any important results.

Kluod coagulates so c^uickly aflcr it leaves the body that when wc
wish to determine the chemical action of the electric current on it, it is
necessary tu introduce the needles into the vessels of the living animal,
or into the blood, just as it i^ flowing from the vessels.

During the ivinterof 1873 Dr. Beard made, with the assistance of Dr.
J. H. Raymond, similar experiments on dogs and rabbits. The animals
were etheriEed, cut open, and the needles (platinum) itiBcrtcd into
different arteries and veins. In some cases also the arteries were rup-
tured, and the needles were introduced into the pool of blood before it
had time to coagulate.

The conclusions in regard to the electro-coagulability of the blood,
to which we have been led by these repeated experiments on animals
and OD men are these :

t. Both poles of the galvanic current cause a clot in blood, either
running in an artery or vein, or freshly drawn, and stationary.

3. The po^tive clot is black, hard, aod small ; the negative clot
'& light, soft, and bulky.

ACTION OF ELECTRICITY ON THE BLOUD. l67

3. These clots are the result of the electrolytic action of the current,
with the evolution of oxygen and hydrogen, of acids and alkalies and
their subsequent combinations.

4. The largest clot and most satisfactory observation in an artery is
caused when hoth/oies are placed within the blood-vessel and near to-
gether. The reason of this is, that when the poles are near together in
the blood, the resistance is very much less than when one of the poles
is CD the surface.

5. In order to produce a firm clot of sufficient size to obstruct a
large artery, strong currents — from 30 to 40 cells — are required, and
quite protracted siances. The process of coagulation under the cur
rent is comparatively a slow one.

6. Electro-coagulation in a blood-vessel is aided by any compressioa
that impedes the rapidity of the flow of the blood The slower the cur-
rent runs, the more rapid and firm the coagulation. Small and recent

Uots, especially those connected with the negative pole, may possibly
be washed off. The practical bearings of these conclusions on the
electrical treatment of aneurisms will appear in the section on Electro-
Surgery.

CHAPTER Z.

KUtCTRO-CONDUCTlVITV Of THE HUHAV BOSV.

The chief coosrilucnt in the human body is water, which is about
three-fourths of its average weight.* The saline constituents which the
water holds in solution vary in quantity and quality in the different
tissues and the different parts and organs of the body.

The conductibility of the body, as a whole, may be best understood
fay regarding it as a mass of water aod salioe iogtedicDts, with solid
tissue interspersed. The degree of resistance to the current that differ-
ent [Mirls of the body offer will therefore depend on their structure.
Those parts which, like the bones and e])iderrais, contain little water,
will offer a much greater resistance, and be poorer conductors, than
those parts which, like the muscles, nerves and tendons, and carti-
lages, contaiu a large i^ercentage of water. Soft parts, like the stomach,
intestines, and mucous membranes in general, offer comparatively
little resistance, because they contain so large a percentage of saline
solutions. Saline solutions conduct better than simple water, and
wann saline solutions conduct better than those which are cold.

The human body, as a whole, conducts electricity fifteen to twenty
times better tlian pure cold water, provided the &kin is thoroughly moist-
ened. It owes this superior cunductibility to the warm saline solutions
which it contains. According to recent experiments by RichardsoOf
the blood is the best conducting material of tlie body.

Fereentage of Water in the 7'issutt. — To ascertain the relative pro-
portion of water in the different tissues of the body is a snbject that
has occupied a number of observers. The results of the different inves-
tigations do not agree mathematically, for the reason, partly, that indi-
viduats differ in the water-holding capacity of their tissues, as in all
other respects.

Tlic following table f gives at a glance the results of the different
investigators :

* Perelra, FoeJ and Diet, Am. cd., p. 39.

■f Zicmwm, Die EltetrifitUl tti ^er Mtdiein, vtene guu ningeftrbeitcte AnflAfe.
Erttc Hilirte, p. 18. 1S73.

ELKCTRO-CONDUCTIVITV OF THE HUMAN BODY. 169

FERCENTACE OF WATER IM THE TISSUES OF TUB HUUAK BODY.

Blood.

Guy suiter oE the bciio. .

White

Gny matter of apinal oord.

White

Nerv« mtWr.

Adulu.

8ft5
(E. Biichoff)

Ss-o '

730

CU Hfirit) I 70.8 .
65.0 f (lUitlu)
(Von I3ibr»)J

, 77.3 .
(Raake)

77-0
(Ruke)

Muck 8i.2-.'HS

(Raiike)

lim 76.1 . .

(Von Bibra)
70.4 ...
<SchulUc)

S0.9 . . .
(Rmnke)

75.8....

(Von Bibn.)

Ebatic tiiauc
Falty

SS-O

CBhcboffj

8S.6
(Biscfcafi)

Si.S
(UiKhotl}

64-5
(VonMir^

87.8
(BicchoS)

82.5
(Oidiuanii)

(come*

Comecthv lisne-J ikin <Hi3)

{ifdrrAant 57.5.

(WicnhijH]

Bancs — oi Mrieul t4-t6

(FricdLcbcn)

79. 1-...

(Kaake)

18-M

(Fiicdlcbea)

An eramination of the above lalile shows clearly these two facts :

I. The percentage of water in the different tissues of the human
body, excepting the skin and bones, is almost uniform — ranging be-
tween 70 and 90. The percentage of water in the skio is alnioBt two-
thirds as gicat as in the brain, s|>inal con], and nerves. In the bones
the perc«ntag« of water is otU'fiftk that of the soft tissties.

a. There appears to be more water in the tissues of new-born diil>
dren than in adults. The difference, however, is but trifling.

Investigations of a similar diaractcr have been made on the tissues of
oxen, dogs, frogs, cats, hares, and rabbits ; the results do not differ mate-
rially from those obtained on the tissues of human beings.

Compared witii a number of metallic substances, the human body
is ail exceedingly poor conductor. Thus it has been estimated that
copper is several thousand million times a better conductor than the
human body.

Dr. C. B. Radcliffe made three experiments, in which he measured the
resistance of nerve, tendon, and muscle, as nearly of the same shape
and size as possible. Tiie pieces were taken from the sciatic nerve,
the tendo-Achillis, and the adductor longus of a recently killed rabbit.
He found the mean resistance of one inch of the sciatic nerve to be

i70

ELECTRO-PH VSIOLOC V.

40,000 units (sec i>. 66) — (Jul is, about ciglil limes the reustancc oT the
Atlantic cable ; of the tendoo, jS,ooo units ; and of the muscle, 1 3,000
unite*

Bants and Skin poor Conductors. — It ^ould never be forgotten that
the epidermis, in a dry state, is a poor conductor. In practice chu
resistance of the ci>idernib is overcome by tiioroughly moistening it.
The hair and nails are aJso poorconductois. In muking applications to
the top of the head it is necessary lo thorougbijr moisten Che hair. The
booes contain Icjis water than tijc sofl parts, and arc consequent!}' poorer
conductors. Soft parts which are thus enclosed in a bony covering are
less powerfully affected than soft parts which arc not so enclosed.

The Current tends to take the shortest IVay between the Kieetrodes. —
The electric current always takes the shortest and most direct course
Irom one pole to the other, provided the media iQter\'eniug between the
electrodes is of a uoiforw conduct Ibility. When, therefore, the ]}ositive
electrode is applied to one part of the body, and the negative to tlie
other, the current wouLd diffuse itself uniformly between the poles,
provided the structures of the body between tlicm were uniform. But,
aa has been seen, the different parts of the body var^' widely in regard
to their conductibility, — those which cuntain a large quautily of saline
solutions being good condiicton>, and, vice versd, chose which contain
a small quantity being poc« conductors, — the difference of conductibility
between muscle and bone being nearly twenty to one.

The current does not affect all i>arts alike. The extent to which any
part is directly reached, when the current is applied over the surface,
will depend butli un its structure and its situation.

^ofc parts, wliich contaia a large amount of water, like the brain,
spinal cord, and abdominal viscera, arc good conductors, and unless
their situaCioD is unfavorable, tliey are directly and powerfully affected
by the current, when applied to the surface by means of moist conduct-
ors. On \X\c udicr hand, bone, which contains a much less percentage
of water than the muscles and soft parts, is comparatively a poor con-
ductor. Accordingly, soft parts which are partially or entirely enclosed
by bone aie much less readily affected by external applications than
would be the case if they were exposed.

Another legitimate inference from the accepted theories of the nature
of eleciridly, ood from what we know of the relative conduciivity of
the different tissues of the body is, that when electrodes are pUiced on
the surface of the body the current move» between them in a kind of

* i^Hamict 9/ Nave and Miuele, p. 19.

ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVITY OF THE IIlJ3>tAN BODY. 17I

undulalive or wave-like manner, extending on boUi sUlcs of the median
line between Uiein for a considerable distance.

That these theories, in regard to the electro-conductivity of the body,
are sound, is pro*'cd in three ways :

I. By experiment on the living subject

z. By direct e^tjierinient with the goli'anoscopic &og and reflecting
galvanometer on die dead subject.

3. By the evidence of pathological cases.

That Uic tendency of electricity is to take the shortest road between
the electrodes, is proved by the following experiment : The two forc-
ann» are crossed so that they touch carh other a Utile distance above
the wrist. Placing now one electrode on the outer surface of each arm,
and letting the galvanic current run, a feeling of heat and pricking is
felt, not only beneath the electrodes, but also, to a less degree, at the
jhVar surf acts »f tht Jertarnu where they touch each other. On remov-
il^ the clectrodex it is observed thai not only the spots beneath the
electrodes, but also the spots where the arms touched, have become
reddened.

This shows that a portion of the current takes the shortest way from
one electrode to the other, aldiough that road lies through two layers
of epidermis, which is a very bad conductor.

.\ portion of the current, in this experiment, goes up the arm, across
the body, and down the other arm.

In order to ascertain what proporrion of the current took the route
acnw* the amis. Ziemssen* made the following experiment: Fittling
one Gsreanu over the other, as iu Krb's experiment, he placed between
tbem two plates of zinc, connected with a delicate reBecting galvanom*
cter (sec Electro-Physics, page 41). The result of the experiment, when
2o elements were directed across the arms, was a deflection of the
needle 36.3". The same arrangement made on the dead body gave,
with 10 elements, adellection of S.5*' ; <n-ith 15 elements, a deflection of
>9-7° ; v'ith 30 elements, 38.3°. On separating the forearm, so that
the whole current must nin around Uimugh the arms and body, he
found that i\-it]i 10 elements there was a deflection of iS-q"; with 1$
elements, a deflecrion of 31. 7** ; with 30 elements, a deflection of 48.5^.
The conclusion was that in eadi experiment oneJialf of the ciinent
went across through the forearms, and the ether half up ajid down the
arms and through the body.

£vidtiut of Fathoiogicai Cases. — When the spinal cord i< in a condi-

* O^ du, p. u.

172

ELECTRO-PHV-SIOI-OGY.

lion of health, a powerful current may be applied down the back with>
out discomrort; but in cases of myelitis, spinal congestion, and oclici
morbid states, very marked and peculiar symptoms are sometimes ob-
served. We have seen a case of myelitis when even a very mild fornilic
current over tlie !>i>iuet near the supposed seat of the disease, caused
Eevcre pain in the right leg that cgntinued for several hours. Such a
phenomenon is never observed in health. The fact that it does occur,
especially when |]ie electrodes are not placed near any prominent
nerves, shows very clearly that the current affects the spinal cord in a
luore direct way than by mere reflex action. ,

The sensations of the patient, and the results of treatment, also show
that the stomach, liver, spleen, tntestines, and the genital organs in
both sexes, are traversed by the current in external apjilications of either
current.

Exptrimenis on Dead Subject with a Freg Preparaticn. — Erb opened
the skull of a dead body, took out the brain, and covered the out-
side of the skull with pieces of muscle about three-quarters of an
inch thick. Over the iniiscic pieces of skin were placed, and over
the skin the electrodes. The skull was then tilled with the brain, in
such a way as to avoid any direct connection with the muscle. The
skull was thoroughly dried, and a prepared frog placed on the cerebral
matter. A very gentle current was then let on, and both on opening
and closing the frog contracted energetically, showing that a portion of
the electricity at least passed through the brain. Branch currents may
also have gone around through the layer of muscular tissue ; but the
important point, that some of the electricity took the short way direct
through the skull and brain, was in this experiment conclusively shown.

The same experiment with the faradic current showed the same
result.

Similar experiments on the spinal cord showed that the current pene-
trated Ihe vertebrae as readily as through the skull.

Actual Experiment with a Refi/ciing Galvanometer. — ^The evidences
already given are sufficient, with corroboration, to establish the fact,
that the electricity, when applied to the surface of die body, goes
through the tissues lying between the electrodes, and that all the in-
ternal oT;j;ans may be thus acted on by the current. The mathematical
demonstrations of this fact that have been recently made by Kurchardt,
and after him by Ziemssen, are, however, none the less interesting.
Ziemssen's method of investigation was to insert two platinum needles,
insulated to their points into the organ to be experimenied on, as the
brain, spinal cord, sympathetic, lungs, liver, etc., and connect them with

ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVITV OF THE HUMAN BODY. 173

2 delicate Wiedtnann's refleciing galvanometer, while the electrodes of
B g&l%-anic battery of from i to 50 elements were applied extn-neUIy, id
sucb a W3)- Lh.iC the cuiTent, io passing torn one to the other, niu&l
[pa&s ihrwigh the place where the points of the ticedlca were inserted.
!se expcrimcfiM were performed on the dead subject, and on ani-
lals, living and dead. Unpolari^able needles ( Electro- Phj-si«, p. 31J
rere iisetl. The body, or part to be examined, was isolated on wood
or glass. By these means he easily demonstrated these two facts :

I . Thai all the iniernal parts and organs e/the body can be traverseit
hy derived citrrgiiJs {^eti page 39) '.uhat tkt tltetrodts eonntetsd ■with
a gahaaie battery are properly placed on the skin.

When the electrodes arc placed on the head, derived currents pasj
through the brain. When the electrodes are placed on the spine, de>
rived currents pass through the cord. In the sanie way it was demon.
•trated that the sympathetic, heart, lungs, liver, isplcen, intestines, and
bladder were traversed by derived currents when llie electiodes were
■pplicd respectively to the neck, thorax, and abdomen. Similarly also
™e nerve-plexuses and great veins were shown to be traversed by cur-
rents when external applications were made.

3. The derived currfiils mere usually most powerful-, thai is, the
greaiest quantity of electricity passed in a direct line, between the elec-
trodes.

When the eod* of the unpolarizable needles were removed from one
another, near the central line, the needles showed less and less deflec-
■tion, proving that the derived Currents were weaker. To this genera!
llv there are, however, exceptions. The current which contains a very
targe percentage of water conducts electricity better than other neigh-
boring parts, even when out of the axis of the curve.

3. The derived currents can be sent through the internal parts in any
direction, end increase in strength with increase in the strength of tht
principal current.

When the principal current is reversed, the derived airrenls will be
reversed also. In one experiment, on the dead body of a young
uOiaa, the electrodes of the princJiial current were placed behind the
lean. Two holes were made in the parietal bones, in the track be-
tween the electrodes, and two other holes were made, about six centi-
metres farther forward, and about eight centimetres froni each other.
Id the holes made through the bones into the brain were placed the
. Iinpolarizable needles connected with the reflecting galvanoinclcr.
Two needles were also in the tubercula quadrigeniina. The results of
the observations are contsdned in the following table :

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOCy.

Ko. of

c I cm cms.

XecdiM in paslerior

pgln in direct line

of current.

Needier ia anterior
poles out of
direct tine.

N«edlei

tube re
qnadhfc

1-5°

0.6*

i.6«>

2.1'

1.7'

8.a'

IS
so

a.8»
3.2"

3-S-
4.»'

la the above observation, which may be regarded a£ a crucial and
convincing one, these three points are distinctly proved :

First, That the cuiTcnt posses from one electrode to the other
through bone and brain.

Second., That most of the derived currents take the direct route in tl'iA
axis between the electrodes, and tliat tlie suength of the derived currents,
the conductivity of the parts being the same, diminishes in proportion
to their distances from llic axis.

TTtird, That the tubcrcula quadrigcraina, by virtue of their fluid
structure, conduct electricity belter than the after parts of the brain.

Fourth, That the strength of the currents sent through the body is
proportioned with considerable exactness to the strength of the current
employed in the application.

Tile laws of conductivity of the body, as here demonstrated in the
brain, have also been similarly demonstrated in the spinal cord and in
all the organs of the thorax and abdomen.

The grand conclusion from all these experiments, and from clinical
experience, is that t/u eUctro-conduetivity of the human body is lo b*
explained, mainly, by the ordinary physical laws of electro-conducHonf
and only tif a very limited extent by physiology.

Physiology and pathology may come in to modify, to a slight extent,
the conductivity of the body ; for, as we have seen, individuals differ ia

their conductivity. Increase in the quantity of blood or salts in the body

increases the conductivit)', and ditninurion of blood or of the salts, *>^^|
lakes place in some diseases, diminishes the conductivity. But all^^^
these varying factors have caused only a very slight petturbatioQ of the
physical laws of electrtxonductivity.

There is some ditfcrcncc in the conductivity of the living and dead
body, but this difference can mostly be explained by /Avju'o/ principles.
It may well be questioned whether the principle of life, whatever that
may be, exerts any very important influence on electro-conductivity.
Burchardt found that when more saline solutions were injected into the
dead body the electro-conductivity was increased. This is just what

ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVITY OF THE HUMAN BODY. I/j

wc should expect on phyncal principles, because warm saline solutions
are good conduciors of electricity in the body or otit of it.

According lo Ranfcc, living muscle conducts nmcli worse than dead
muscle, the proportion being as loo to 56. I-iving muscle conducts
115,000,000 limes, and dead muscle 64,400,000 times worse than
copper. Dead muscle conducts better than living, on account of the
decomposition and chemical changes th»t take place after death, aud
especially on account of the accumulation of lactic acid.

P.Uclro-condiutiviiy modified by Age and Temperament. — Young peo-
ple ofier greater resistance than old people, for the proliablc reason that
the tissues of the old contain more of the salts than those of the young.
The hands of tho&e who labor with muscle, and whose epidermis is
tlieieby thickened, offer greater resistance than the hands of those who
Hve by brain alone. The right hand, being more used than the left,
has a thicker epidermis, and therefore presents a greater resistance.

Different individuals of (he same age and condition differ in their
condoctivnty in a manner that cannot be fully explained. WTien
"shocks" of a battler)*, or faradic machine, or Lcyden jar are sent
ihraogh a number of persons in a row, some will feel it slightly, others
strongly, and perhaps one or more may be almost if not quite pros-
trated. This fact may explain some of the freaks of lightning, for it
has long been known that when a number of persons are standing near
together some maybe struck down and others unharmed. Some Indians
and negroes, it is said, can take hold of the electric eel without receiving
shocks.

The same individual may conduct differently at different times. As
die body is perpetually changing, as it varies in its intimate constitu-
tion, not only from year to year, biit from d.iy to day, and from moment
to moment, it is easy to understand why it should vary in its suscep-
tibility to electricity, just as it varies in its susceptibility to the articlea
of nrdinaiy foodi to stimulants and narcotics, and to internal mcdh
cation.

CHAPTER XL

TJn ETTECT or ELECTRtCnV ON NUTT tTION.

It is not a lillle surprising that electricity should have been used .n
a therapeutic agent for more than a century before it began to be
recognized among scientific men as a powerful means of aiding nutri-
tion. In 1867, after a series of prehminary experiments, mainly con-
ducted by l>r. Rockwell, we ascertained that electri/ation was a /*»«/>
of most remarkable eJHcacy ; that its permanent tonic effects were, in-
deed, far more wonderful, as well as more valuable, than its primary
stimulating effects. When we announced this discovery to the pro-
fession, in our Treatise on the Medical Use of Electricity, the statement
was received by many, and especially by those accustomed to and
familiar with other ctectro-ptiysiologital and electro- therapeutical re-
searches, witti incredulity and surprise.

The attention of observers has been so exclusively directed to the
primary stimulating effects of electricity, that they have neglected to
pursue the subject fnrthcr, and to study its permanent effects on nutrition.

Tlie effects of the passage of electricity through the body are of a
fourfold character :

t. Mechanua^

2. Physical.

3. Chemuai.

4. Physiological.

Inasmuch as the effect of electricity on nutritioa is a resultant of
all these four orders of effects, it is necessary to speak of each in
some detail.

The mechanical, physical, and chemical effects of electricity on the
body arc similar in character to the same effects of electricitj- oq any
substance whatever ; the fhysiehgieal effects arc those which take
place in virtue of the vital properties of the tissues. The mechanical
effects of electricity on the body are most markedly appreciated under
the faradtc currenL The reason is clear from the nature of the faradic
current. It is a current of alternation, of to-andfro motion, of con-
itaat closing and breaking (see Electro-Physics, p. 54). When it

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY OK NUTRITION.

177

|}asses through the body, even when it produces no muscular contrac-
lion, it acts very much in the same way as gentle tapping, or potnd*
mg, or rubbing on the tissues ; and this gives passive exercises to all
the deeper tying as well as the superficial tissues. We may belte**e
that the molecules of the ti^tsucs are agitated by the passage of the
current, as the particles of a bar of iron are moved by the influence of
magnetization (see p. 9}, or as bodies are expanded by heat. The
numerous branch currents going to and fro act a$ so many shuttlecocks,
keeping every atom in incessant dlslurbaiicc. That the 5im])lc process
of tapping on the surface of the body, by means of the vtbraHoni that
it excites, has a positively beneficial effect in certain chronic affec-
tions, has long been recognized. It is reasonable [o suppose that this
beneficial eficct is in part due to the increase of cndosmotic action.

Physical Effects. — Hie physical effects of Uie passage of electricity
through the body are htat, and the modification of endosmose and exos-
m^st, and the Iransferrence q{ substances frsm ene pale Iff the other.

The heat excited in the body by the simple p.-issagc of a weak cur.
rent that causes no muscular contraction, is small; but there is little
question that heat is thus excited, although it is difficult or impossible
to measure it by the themiometer. The main arguments in favor of
this belief are (i), that ail conductors of electricity become heated
more or less in proportion to their resistance — the body offers great
resistance, and more or less of the electric force must be converted
into heat ; and (2), powerful currents, cither galvanic or faradic,
even when not used so as to excite muscular contractions, cause in-
crease of heat in the track of its patisage, so marked as to be ca^ly
delected by the touch. No thermometer is necessary to show that in
electrolytic operations, where strong currents arc used, the tissues near
the needles, and between ihcm, become intensely heated, so ihat to
rest the finger on them almost causes pain. This fact we have demon-
strated over and over again in various parts of the body. It is equally
clear that ihc raradic current, even when not very powerful, raises the
temperature of the parts through wluch it passes. The sensation of
Ihc patient and palpation by the operator demonstrate this beyond
doubt. Cold extremities are warmed sensibly and quite rapidly by
faradiMtion or galvanization, even when no sensible muscular contrac-
tions are produced by the current. It is logical to infer that very weak
currents, either faradic or galvanic, cause a slight increase of heat by
virtue of the passage of the current, and as a physical effect of such
passage, without reference to the physiological i>hcnomenoD that must
accomjMtny the physical phenomena, which must probably also cause
la

i;8

ELECTRO-PHVSIOLOOy.

ft rise of the temperature. Sch'iH declares, as a result of his observa*
tions, that a nerve is wamicd by an almost moiiicntary passage of the
current.

A second important physical effect of the passage of an electric cur-
rent through ihc body is the transference of siilistanccs from one pole
to the other. This physical effect of the current has long been recog-
nixed. In the electric light, for example, the particles of carbon go
from the positive to the negative pole, and to so marked a degree that
the positive carbon is quite rapidly worn away. A very remarltable
illustration of this transference of matter in the track of electricity some-
times occurs in lightning stroke. Trustworthy cases are reported of
indiviJuals who have been found struck dead by lightning, and bearing
on their bodies distinct images or impressions of some object, as a tree
or house, near which they stood when they fell.

In 1864, at Nibclle, in France, three men who were gathering pears
were struck by lightning. One was killed at once. The others were
thrown to tlie ground unconscious, and one of these, when taken home,
was found to have on his breast a "distinct daguerreotype of the tree."

In i860 a woman of Sisonnc, in France, who was struck by lightning,,
carried on her back a complete image of a tree — trunk, branches, and
leaves— that was near the place where she fell. A simitar case is re-
corded by Franklin.*

The explanation of all these cases is the same. The particles of the
tree, reduced lo great fineness by the electricity, are mechanically trans-
ported and burned in the skin. The process is therefore not chemical,
but mechanical and thermic.

Bodies have been literally tattooed iii this way. Transference of sub-
Stances is a ]iart and result of the electrolysis tn organic substances
already described (Elcctro-Phj-sics, p. 47), and also of the electrolysis
of organic bodies to be hereafter describc<l.

The electric currents also exercise a positive and very interesting in-
fluence over endoBinose. By the passage of a galvanic current the endos-
motic phenomena may be both stimulated or reversed. This is shown
in the following experiment of Dutrochel : A tube containing gum-
water is closed at one of its ends by animal membrane and dipped in
a vessel containing common water. By the ordinary operation of the
laws of cndosmosis the gum-water rises in the tube on account of the
entrance of some of the ordinary water through the membrane into

* Death t>y Lightning, by H. Dr. Fedct (aermont Ferr^ndJ, CaattU da Ht^
tMtx, Jane fkio, 1872. inmalaled In Tht CUmit, July 6, 187a.

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON NUTRinON.

179

ic tube. But if the positive pole of a galvanic battery be placed in
the common water, and the negative p<ilc \n the gum-watcr, the endos-
motic action is stimulated to such a. marked degree that the level of the
gam-wnter rise* with much greater rapidity ; if we reverse the pole the
level of ihe gum-water in the tube sinks instead of rises. The faradic cur-
tent from the setondary coil produces no such effccL The current from
the inner coU — the extra current so called — produces these effects to a
le»s degree. It is pretty clear, therefore, that these phenonien* de-
pend on the chemical, and not on the mahanieai power of the current,

ElertrUal Endatmasis is infiuateed by S/rtHgth of Current and Resist-
aneeef Circuit. — It is found that the quantity whirh rises is inexact pro-
portion to the strength of the current, and to the extent of the porows
surface. It has been found that the greater the resistance of the liquid
to electrolysis, the inwe it yields to this endosmotic action.

The above phenomena have been demonstrated at different times, and
by a variety of observers.

Besides the physical effects above described, there may be many
others that we cannot at present recognize or appredate, but which
may be revealed by the spectroscope and other means of refined re-
search.

A/ter Physical Effects of the Currents, — It has been observed that
platinunt wires are contracted by the |>assage of electric currents through
them, and that copper wires that are used for conducting electricity
become britde thereby. The differential acrinn of the faradic and gal-
vanic currents in this respect is quite interesting, for, according to
RuhmkorfF, the copper wires that conduct faradic currents break more
QKedily and more frequently than those which conduct galvanic currents.

Tliis physical fact is very suggestive of what may be facts in physi-
ology and pathology. We have already seen that magnetisation has
physical effects of a most decided character. We have seen that it
causes sounds to proceed from the body magnerized ; that the bodr
magnetized also becomes elongated; and that this elongation is proba-
bly due to the fact that Che particles arrange themselves, during mag-
netization, lengthwise in the direction of the bar. It is not improbable
that the human body in health and in disease may also be changed by
the action of the currents in a manner that we Ao not yet comprehend,
and that such physical or physiological changes may account for some
of the therapeutic effects of elecLrization. This probability applies
especially to the after effects of eiectiical treatment, effects that are
notice<i not while the applications arc being made, or during the course
of the treatment, but weeks and months after the treatment is discon>

:go

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

tinned. On this subject we shall speak, in more detail ia tbesectio-i on

Klcctro- Therapeutics.

Chemical Effcctt. — ^The chemical effects of the current are mainly of
an eUctrplytit chaiactcr. Tlicy consist of an electrochemical coinposi-
lioD of the fluids of which the body is composed. The general laws
and phenomena of electrolysis in its relation to inorganic substances
iiave already been set forth in the chajitcr on that subject in Electro.
Physics. It remains for us here lo speak of electrolysis, in its rela- '
tion Eg organic life. At the outset we may remark that there is no
evidence that organisaiian, as such, seriously modifies electro-chemical
decomposition. The fluids of the body decoojpose under the influence
of the cun'eol, just as the same combination of fluids with tissue would
decompose if not endowed with life. If the results of the electrolysis
of tijc dead body are different from the results of the electrolysis of
ilie living body, it is because of the chemical changes that take place in
the body after life has departed.

The human body is composed of fourteen dtfTereiit chemical stib-
stances, many of which are singly capable of decomposing under the
current, and in their various combinations are capable of many decom*
pcisitioiis and recom positions, with secondary results that cannot well be
estimated.

The general facts of the electrolysis of inorganic substances, the ap-
(icarance of oxygen and acids at the positive pole, and hydrogen and
alkalies at the negative pole, apply also lo the electrolysis of the living
body. The great law arrived at by Faraday, that in electrolysis
substances are decompojied in equivalent proportions (see Electro-
Phy^ica, p. 46), also 6nds no exception or interference in organic
stnicturt-s.

Some of the Phen&mena cf Electrolysis of Living and Dead Tissues.— •
In order to determine the electrolytic effect of the current on organic sub-
stances we have made a wide variety of experiments on both li^Hng and
dead tissues, fluid and solid, in a nonnal as well as pathological condi-
tion, on animals and men. We have Cried the galvanic current on the
voluntary and involuntary musctcH ; on the mucous and serous mem-
branes ; on brain, spinal, and nerve matter ; on the lungs, the heart, the
liver, spleen, stomach, intestines, bladder, uterus; on the saliva and the
urine ; on the cartilage and on bones. The general conclusions at
whid) we have arrived from these experiments arc these :

i. All these animal tissues, living or dead, decompose, so far as car.
be seen, like inorganic substances, and by unifgrm laws.

3. The fact most patent to su^icrticial observation is that the rapidity

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON NUTRITIO."*.

181

of the electrolysis tlepends more on the amouat of fluid id the tissaes
than on all other factors combined.

3. The great difference in the effects of electrolysis on organic and
inorganic substances is seen after the current has ceased to act. In
t)ic electrolysis of most inorganic substances — such for example as iodide
of potassium, acetate of lead, chloride of sodium, and so forth — the
effects cease as soon as the current ceases ; the substances remain in
the condition that the current left them. The electrolysis of organic
Bubstances starts a f recess thai continues long after the current ceases to

Electrolysis ef the White of an Egg. — Wlien the »4iitc of an egg is
electrolyzed by copper needles or wire, white flakes rapidly forni around
the Dcedle connected with the negative imle, covering the needle as
cotton covers a bobbin of a tooin. Hiis white covering soon becomes
detached from the needle, if the current is tolerably strong, and floats
on the surface of the albtiiueii, and tlien another similar envelope is
formed over the needle. In a little time the surface of the albumen
becomes covered with white, lilight masses, reAcinbling what arc known
on our tables as "floating islands." These fomiations are not coagula,
u tntght be supposed, but are siini>ly composed of hydrogen gas envel-
oped by very thin layers of albumen, into which it is mechanically driven
by tlic electrolytic action, after tlie analogy of soap-bubbles and the froth
of a beaten egg. where the distension is caused by common air envel-
oped by water and albumen.

Besides these changes the albumen becomes discolored, and reddish-
yellow streaks are found at both poles. This discoloration is due partly
lu the action of the onygen or the albumen on the copper of die elec-
trodes.

Although, as has been said, platinum wires at the point of insertion
into the substance arc best for these experiments, since they arc not
acted on, iind exhibit the changes in their punly, yet a common sewing
or darning needle, or cupper wire, will answer ; but it should be borne
in mind that the action of the substances on these will complicate the
observation, and that they will in a &hort time become destroyed by
oxidation.

Electrolysis of Fresh Milh.—When fresh cow's milk is electiolyzed
with platliiuni needles an odor of chlorine is distinctly perceived, due to
decomposition of the chloride of sodium, and liltic islands of foam appear
JHi the surface. This foam, on being broken up, gives (otth an odor of
rinc, and disappears, showing that it is not coagulated albumen,
simply chlorine gas ud albuminous envelopes.

l82

EI . ECTRO- PH ySlOLOGY.

Eiictrelysis af ihi AqueoLs and Vitreous Humors of the £>r.— When
platinum needles connected with a galvanic current are inserted into
the aqueous and vitreous humors Of the cj*e of a dead or dying labbit,
rapid electrol)'sis takes place at both poles, with evolution of gases in
albuminous envelopes. A cloud resembling cataract is speedily formed
over the pupil, and in a few moments, if the current be of medium
strength, the covering of the eye will be ruptured, with a violent escape
of albumen-enveloped gases. This process, which T>r. Beard has fre-
quently studied ID the eyes of ra.bbits and dogs, is similar to that which
takes place in the electrolysis of hydrocele and of cenain cystic tujnors.

Eltttrolysis ef Beef. — It is possible to gain a measurably correct idea
of what changes take place during and after electrolysis of the living
body, in health or disease, by studying the phenomena that appear
during electrolysis of dead tissue. If a piece of beefsteak, for example,
be subjected to the action of the galvanic current by needles connected
with the positive and negative poles, a process somewhai resembling
frying can be distinctly seen and heard and felt ; more specifically,
bubbles of hytliogeii appear at the negative pole, and a kind of hissing
•ound is heard, even when the car is at some little distance, and a i>osi-
live sensation of heat is felt when the finger is pressed over the part
that is being clectrolyzed. Under the microscope this process can be
more closely studied. Chemical examination shows that oxygen, acids,
atvd aJbumen go to the positive pole, while hydrogen, alkalies, and
coloring matter go to the negative, and the action at the negative pole
\% much greater than at the positive. Under this process the beef be-
comes gradu-tlly dried and changed in color, owing to the disappearance
of the water)- constituents and the other electrolytic action; and, in
proportion as (he beef groivs drier and the hbrcs begin to lose their ad-
herence and fall apart, the electrolytic process becomes less and less
active, because there is less Quid on which to act.

For some hours after the needles are removed, the process of drying
and disintegtatioa and decoloration goes on, until the portion that lies
between and near the (Hiles shrivels, contracts, and crumbles, until it
resembles ihe burnt corners of a piece of roast beeC

Electrolysis of Fruits and Vegetables. — Wc have experimented on a
variety ot fruits and vegetables — as oranges, leoions, apples, pears,
peaches, potatoes, turnips, etc The effects of the clectrolybc action,
as they appear to the eye and the ear, though consistent with the great
general laws of electrolysis of inorganic substances, yet are more or less
modilicd by the varieties of structure. W'hen a sound apple is electro.
*yxed, tlie part around the negative needle changes in color and looki

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON NUTRITION.

183

u tbou^ it had been bruised and was beginning 10 decay, and the
needle sooo becomes loosened and will easily Tall out. The piocess of
drying and decoloiatioa goes on after the operation is discontinued. In
fruits and vegetables the electrolytic changes that take place are largely
due to the electtolyzacion of water, Which is aided by the adds that
they contain.

When muscles have been separated from the body and submitted foi
several days to the action of a strong galvanic current, there have been
found at the positive pole sulphuric, phusphoric, hydrochloric and azo-
tic acids, and at the negative [kiIc alkalies — as soila, polassa, and am-
roonia.

I^gros and Onimtis have shown that when on allcali, as carbonate ol
soda, is placed at the positive pole in electrolysis of the human body,
and an acid — as tartaric acid — at the negative pole, the usual eschars
have DoL been fonned. This would seem to indicate that the cauteriaa-
tion in electrolysis is due in part to the acids and aUcalies that result
from the decomposition.

This cauterizing action is not solely due to the acids and alkalies, for,
vrtwn other acids and alkalies are applied to the body, eschars of the
iame degree are not obtained. The current penetrates and pervades
the tissues and induces various changes beyond and beneath the eschar,
which changes continue long after the current is broken.

The phenomena above described all occur under the galvanu cur.
rent, and with needles as electrodes.

The ctiTxent from the jmniary coil of the faradic machines has some
electrolytic power, and even the current from the secondary and ter-
tiary coils is not without some chemical effect. It w not necessary to
use needles or pointed electrodes of any kind in order to produce elec-
trolysis ; but with a sufficient strength of current the phenomena may
be produced by large, Hai, metallic surfaces. There is more or less
electrolysis in all the ordinary applications of electricity to the body,
whether made with metals or sponges, small or large.

Phyjiehgital Effects. — The physiological effects of electricity, pro-
perly so called, are those which take place by virtue of the viiat proper-
tics of the body. The other cffccLs above described — mechanical,
physical, and chemical — arc not peculiar to living bodies ; they are
observed on the dead as well as the living, on inorganic as well as
organic substances, although they are, as we have seen, more or less
tpodified by vitality. But the jihysiotngical cflccis of which we are here
to speak are peculiar to organization ; they cease when life ceases, fo«
Ihey arc mainly the modification of the >-ital processes by electricity.

i84

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

There are in general /owr ways in which electricity applied .o the ti»
tues modifies Iheir physiological fiiiKtions : —

I. It may increase Ihem.

3. It may diminish them.

3. It may aircst them.

4. U may raudify their quality.

Sotuc of the more important illustrations of their effects hare been
already discussed.

We have seen thut electricity, according to the kind that is employed,
and according to the incthuii and strength and length of the applica-
tion, causes various pheuomeoa on the skin, contracts voluntary and
involuntary muscles when applied either to the muscles themselves 01
to the nerves that supply them, and increases the process of oxidation,
and raises the temperature, excites the nerves of common and special
sense so as to cause pain, llashes before the eyes, noises in the ears, and
a peculiar taste and odor. When ajjplied to the pneumoga&tiic it
increases, diiiiiiitshcs, or arrests the action of the heart.

It remains here to speak of the following physiological effects of elec-
tricity : —

J. On the circulation.

7. On secretion and excretion.

3. On al>sorption.

The effect of ckctricity on the circulation is somewhat complex. It
includes (he effect on the heart and on the unstripcil muscular fibres of
the arteries, as well as on the central and peripheral nervous system in
general, since the flow of blood in the arteries, veins, and capillaries is
influenced by the quality and quantity of innervation that ihcy receive.
We have to sjicak merely of the direct effect of electricity on the capil-
lary circulation. It has been shown already that electrization of the
cervical symiialhetic may have the directly opposite effect of contracting
or dilating the vessels of the retiua. That the same opposite effects
may follow electrization of any part or organ, depending on the tem-
perament of the patient, the quality of current, and the length and
strength of tht; application, is also demonstrable. One effect is con-
stant under all conditions., and that is, that the circulation is niodilied
in one or the other, or in both ways. The average ultimate effect is
lo increase thc^uu/ 0/ bloaJ, raise the temperature, and dilate the veins.
Dilatation of the veins, after prolonged electrization, is a phenomenon
that can be demonstrated with ease on any part of the body where the

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITV ON NUTRITION.

185

veins are proutincnt. The back of the hand is ihe best place to study
this phenomenon, and faradization Uluslnues it most disiiiicily.

This enlargciiienit of the veins is accuiupanicd by a riiie in tempera
lure, and especially if the muscles lia.ve been brought into vigorous
conlniction, chat is not only indicated by the ihennonteter. but is ap-
preciated by the subject. Under general faratlizalion the h.incls and
feet become wanner ilaring the sitting, and may remain warmer for
hours. Central galvanization, or galvanization of the cervical symp^
thctic also warms the peripliery.

On Secretion and Excrelion.~'V\\e secreting power of the secreiiny
organs of the body is very markedly influenced by electrization. The
usual effect is to increase their activity ; but when very mtld currents
arc ascd, such effect is not always obi^erved, and it is probable, from our
experiments, dut very strong currents may produce a reverse elTect.

On the toihrymal glands the action of ihe current 13 Dot SO easily
shown, because strong currents arc not well borne on the face or head,
and the glands themselves are not directly accessible. It is difficult to
decide whether the flow of tears that accompanies strong electrization
of the face is the result of the mechanical inttacion or the phyuo-
logical action of the current on the lachrymal glands or the nerves that
supply them.

The secretion in mufout membranes is quickly increased by electrijta-
tion, as can lie demonstrated most easily on the Sdineiderian membrane
by means of metallic electrodes introduced in the nasal passages.
This fact becomes of practical importance in (he treatment of iJie so-
called "dry catarrh," and also in exhausting diseases, associated with
dryness of the mucous membranes.

On the ja/f'roo' secretion the effect of the current is very easy of de-
monstration. That application of the current, both galvanic and faradic,
can increase the secretion of the salivary glands, is rcry easily demon-
strated. We have shown this at various times during the past live years,
galvanizing or laraditing the tragus of the car, with either pole, or against
the mcmbrana tymt>ani. This effect is due to the excitation of ihe
, dtorda tympani nerve, some of the fibres of which go to the submaxillary
'ganglia. This increase of saliva is sometimes so great that, while the
current i:* flowing, continual swallowing is necessary.

In sensitive persons tlie same effect follows, by reflex action, electri-
zation in almost any )>art of the neck or face. In certain pathological
cues, as Addison's disease, Dr. Rockwell • has found the annoying dry-

•See Owe 187.

186

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

new of the mouth greatly relieved by electrization, and in (ulhulogical
cases of the severe character, as in diabetes, when the salivary sk-cie
tion ruay be greatly diminished, we have found central galvanization to
increase the secretion quite raindty.

On the biliary secretion the action of the current is less easy of ouihe-
luatical demonstration. The results of external electiiiation in palho-
loi{ical cases seem to prove that the quantity of the bile may be increased.
Whether this increase is due to the action of the current on the sab>
stance of the liver, or the nerves that supply it, wc arc not aljle to
stale.

The secretion of fiiJ/'';ryir/Vc, and of the inttstinai fiuid, is in all prob-
ability increased by external electrization. Analogy would show these
fluids ought to be secreted in greater abundance under the influence of
the current, and the results of treatment in pathological case* give this
probability something of the force of certainty. Appetite is sharpened,
digestion \a quickened, and constipation relieved, both by local and by
general elecuicai treauuent, so rapidly and iio decidedly as to make it
pretty evident that the gastric and intestinal fluids are made to secrete
more liberally by the action of the current on the nencs that supply
these organs than on tJie tissues of the organs themselves.

An excellent means of studying the variations in the nutrition is
found in the elimination of the urine. This is believed to be a result
of oxidation processes dioc may take place either in the kidneys or in
the tissues or >» both.

Lcgrtjs and Oninms have studied the effects of electrization of the
spine on the elimination of urine.

Their conclusions, derived from more than 250 analysc-t, made On
the urine of rabbits and of themselves, are these : —

1. Interrupted currents dimini^ the quantity of urine and of azote.

3. C'cnirtfugal galvatiic cunents increase llie quantity of the nrine
and diminish that of the urea.

3. That continuous centripetal currents increase the quantity of urea
without increasing the quantity of urine.

On the urinary seeretion the effect of electrization can be demon-
strated in {lathological cases without difficulty. In cases of diabetes
insipidus and meltUus, local and general treatment may cause great di-
minution in the dischaige, while in dropsy and in rheumaiism we have
known the kidneys to be siimulate<] as much as by powerful diuretics.

On the average man in health there is considerable difticulty in esti-
mating a moderate increase of the urinary secretion under electriza-
tion, for the sufficiently apparent reason that the quantity oX urinr

EFFECT OF ELECTBICrrV ON NUTRITION.

187

nries with to wtaxty conditions of food, drink, and excTcise, and so
forth. Unless the effect of cleclri«ition on the kidneys «fcre immediate
and decided, it would be difficult to differentiate between its effects
and the effects of the other important and varying factors.

On the menstruai seeretien electncity acts with remarkable power.
Both currents, applied externally and intemally, centrally or generally,
in phjrdological as welt as pathological cases, affect the quantity ol
menstrual secretion rapidly, and soiuettincs permanently. The effects
Are sometimes iiitmediate, taking place during or directly after the
'application. The number of days that the menses appear are some-
times increased, and entire suppression is slowly or speedily ciireil.

In pathological cases, where there is an excess of menstriial flow,
electrization corrects and diminishes it. These apparent and interesting
' effects of electricity on the uienstnuU secretion may take place chiough
ftc direct action of the current on the ovaries and the uterus, or indi-
rectly through the brain, sjTHpaihctic, and spinal cord, and the nerves
tiiat supply the pelvic organs. They may lake place through reflex
action from electrization of the feet or hands, or other and distant parts
of Ae body. Franklintc electricity also produces these effects.

The whole subject is of immense practical importance, as wil'. be
Been in the chapter devoted to Diseases of Wotmrn.

On the lacieai secretion electricity, especially the faradlc current,
acts with decided though varying power. It has never been known to
diminish it, while it sometimes increases it, and it may restore it after
it has been temporarily suppressed. This physiological fact has &
pnurtical significance that will appear in the chapter devoted to Mid>
wifery.

Similarly also the secretion of the spcrmatu fiuid is increased by gal-
vanization or faradisation. A nmthcmatical test of the power of elec-
trization to increase the secretion of the testicles cannot, for obvious
reasons, be obtained ; but the statements of individuals en whom the
experiment was tried seem to establish this point. The applications may
be made not only through the testicles, but through the perinasum and
over the spine. The results are not invariable, but are obtained in a
sufficient number of cases to make it fair to regard such effect as a
Uw of electro-physiology.

The secretion of the sweat ghnds is also increased by powcrfiil
galvanization of the central nervous system, and especially of the cervi-
cat spine and sympathetic. In very Kusceptible patients either galvani-
sation or faiadiaation of the head, n'*ck. or spine, and strong electrization
of almost any part of the body, will cause sensible perspiration. Wg

i88

ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY.

have seen imIividtiaU whom a few minutes of general faradization with
feeble ctinents brought out large drops of sweat on the forehead, and
made the hands as moist as though they had been dipped in water.

Oa Absorptian, — The action of electricity on the absorbents is best
studied ia ^pathological cases, such a$ hypertrophies, effusious, and
morbid growths.

Id thickening of the skin that appears in some cutaneous affections,
in corneal opacities, in enlarged joints, in pleuritic effusions, in hydro-
cele, ill dropsy of various parts, in passive mtlemaj and in enlarged
glands, in tumors of nearly everj- variety, can be demonstrated the power
of electricity to produce absorption. Reasoning backward from patlio-
lug;)' to pliybiQlogy. we justly infer that the same effect takes place, more
or less, in all applications of electricity to the body, but that the degree
of it ia nioditicd by the condition of the part to which the application
is made. The effect on secretion is apparent at once to the cyt or the
sensation ; the effect of absorption is apparent only to the eye, and
then only when there is a visible excess uf fluid or solid in tlie part to
which the application is made. This part of our subject will be prac*
tically illustrated in various chapters both in Medical and Surgical
Electricity.

Effects of EUctrieity produced by Refiix as well as by Direct Action,
■ — The reflex effects of electricity seem not to have been fully recognized
by electro-therapeuiiats. There is considerable ditficulty in ascertaining
the precise reflex effects of electricity on animals. The effects as they
thow iheuiselvcb ou man arc largely sensory, not motor ; the stinmla-
tion of the circulation of abiiDrption and of secxetion that might and
probably does take place, reflcxly as well as directly, is too minute to
V readily observed. We arc justified in believing that electricity acts
inabsorption, secretion, and exertion by reflex as well as by direct action,
Irom the fact that in irritable constitutions sensory effects on the sensa-
tion and on circulation, of a maxked diatacter, are produced by electric
irritation. Thus, for example, when the hands or the feet arc traversed
by strong currents, cither continuously or in sudden shucks, pain or
disagreeable sensations may be felt in tlie hands and feet, of the oppo-
site side, or in the back, or stomach, or side. These retlcx effects are
not cousianlj and when we look for them we tnay not find theui. They
can be best studied in persons who are susceptible to electricity, and
whose spinal cords are weak and irritable. Ia some pathological ca^es
also, such as chronic myelitis of the anterior column (anterior spinal
sclerosis}, the reflex action of electricity is illustrated with great dis-
tinctness. Localized faradization, or galvanization of the lower limbs

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITy ON NUTRITION.

189

may be felt not only in the part traversed by th« aiiTcnt, but in th*
arms, in the oppoMle limb, in the back, and stomach to such a degreo
as to cause pain.

Strong cuiruiits acting on irritable constitutions may sometimes by
reflex action shock the irhole- system, provided the application br
localiiied in certain localities. Thus in a case of veiy obstinate con
stipation that wc once treated by internal galvanization of the rectum,
a current of not very great strength, suddenly intemiptcd, was disagree.
ably felt in the head, left hand, and feet. Very frequently, indeed, in
eiperinienting on ourselves or other individuals, or on animals, and in
treating patients, we have received shocks through the hands 01 amii
tbat seemed to be felt in all parts of the twdy. In some instances the
pain and disagreeable sensations thus caused by the reflex action of the
current last for several minutes or hours.

On the circulation the retlex effects of electrization arc demonstrable
by delicate apparatus for testing temperature. It has been shown by
experiments that electrization of one hand affects the circulation in the
hand of the other side, so as to change its temperature under the thermo-
electric pile.

Powerful electrization of feeble persons may cause a general chilli-
ness of the cxtrcrflitics that may last for hours, A sensation of hav-
ing caught cold has been known to follow strong peripheral faradiza-
tion.

Whether the action of the current on the retina and on the auditory
and gustatory nerve is direct or reflex lias been long disputed. Our
^xeseardies induced us to the belief that electricity acts on the nerves of
cial sense both reflexlyand directly. That the gustatory nerve can
be treated by reflex action, wc have shown in a variety of experiments
with both currents. Sensitive patients appreciate the sour or metallic
taste when the application is made to the lower part of the spine or to
thearms. Similarly, flashes before the eyes may be produced when the
electrodes are so placed that the current canuot traverse directly the
region of the brain where the optic nerve takes it$ origin. Excitation of
the auditor)' nerve by reflex action is not so easily demonstrated, but
tinnitus annum sometimes follows electrization of the spine and neck,

id it is not unfair to infer that it is the result of reflex excitation.

In thus admitting the possibility of exciting the nerves of special
sense, we do not desire to give the impression that the ordinary physio-
logical excitation of these nerves under electricity is purely of a reflex
character ; on the contrar)-, wc have shown already, in the chapter on
(Elcctro-Conductivity, that the current penetrates the brain and goes

190

ELECTRO-PHYSIO LOGV.

through those parts where Ac optic nerves originate, and also must
pflss through the labyrinth and act directly on the auditory nerve.

In reference to the reflex cfTccts of electricity tliesc two considera-
doDS are of importance : —

I. The galvanic currents operate much more powerTuIIy by reflex
action than the faradic The partial explanation of this fact which we
offer is that the greater chemical power of the galvanic current, due to
its acting always in one direction, cau&cs it to operate more distinctly
on the nerves than iliu faradic current. This fact of the superior reflex
ca|)acity of the galvanic current is one of high practical import In the
treatment of disease, and explains in part, if not entirely, the dangerous,
or at least unpleasant, effects that somctiuiL-s follow careless or ignorant
galvanization in cerebral hemorrhages and other irritable conditions of
the central nervous system,

Atthaus ha^ recorded a case of ansesthcsia of the fifth pair of cerebral
Der\'es of a most jirofonnd character, in which there was a complete
absence of cerebral symptoms — ditzincss, flashes of light, and galvanic
taste — whenever a galvanic current of twenty cells was applied to the
face. A current from thirty cells, which on a person in health would
cause pawcrfut Hashes, a hissing sound in the ears, feeling of heat, and
perhaps perspiration, caused in this patient onlyS slight sensation of
giddiness and metallic taste and phosphoric odor.

This remarkable case is a strong arpiment in favor of the opinion
that the results of electriiation of the head and the results of experi-
ments like those of Erb are due in part, if not entirely, to retlex action.

It is possible that in [he above case tlie portion of the brain where
the optic nerve originates was also diseased so as to render it insensible
to electric excitation.

a. These reflex effects occur tn all the applications of electricity of
cither form, and complicate the direct effects. The physiological and
therapeutical effects of electrization of the brain, the eye, the ear, the
cervical sympathetic, the spine, the trunk, and the periphery, every-
where are a complex resultant of both direct and reflex electrical ac-
tion. Lotalixed electrization, strictly speaking, is an impossibility, how-
ever closely together the electrodes may be placed, and however dis-
tant from the great nerve tracts and nerve centres the spinal cord must
take cognizance of the impression made by the current on the sensory
nerves ^nd other parts and organs must share in the eflfects, for bet-
ter or for worse. It is for this reason that caution is requisite even in
^adiiing the paralyzed muscles in recent hemiplegias and in active my*
ditia.

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON NUTRITroN.

I9t

The very reniarkabte resutls that follow general faradization — a
method to be subst^iuentijf described — are lo be accounted fet in part
by reOex actions which are contiaually talcing .ilace duHng all stages of
the application.

Pr.uiiatl Appluat'wH of ihesi Physiological Prtneiphs to Ehclro-
TAeraficaties. — With the above facts and reasonings before us we are
prepared lo intelligently appreciate the effect of eiectriaty an nutrition.
AVe do not profess to have exhausted the rationale of the conipk-x action
of elecnriciiy on the tissues, but to have indicated the leading principles
by virtue of wliich it affects the oulrition of the animal body. Many dis-
coveries may yet be in store for its in this department ; it may e shown
that oione is (jenerated in the tissues wnth every passage of the current,
and that this ozone is taken intn the circulation ; the subtle and intri-
cate cheraiitry of electrolysis of living tissues in their secondary and
teniary, as well as their primary changes, may be unfolded to the viaon
of the future, and what we now see in a ^zs% darkly posterity may
behold face to face; but sufficient is known to explain in a most in-
teresting way the unrivalled effect of electricity on the nutrition.

An objection sometimes brought against electricity is that we do not
DDderstand its action ; and yet in (he whole round of stimulating tonics
diere are but few whose action can be so well explained as that
of electricity. VVho knows how arsenic feeds the nervous system or
how <iiiinine breaks an attack of chills and fever? AVhy does oxide of
sine act with magic force in chronic alcoholism? How does opiuia
produce sleep and relieve pain ; and who has entered into the niyste*
rics of anaesthesia?

Animal nutrition is a process of enormous complications. There is
no single chemical change at which one can point and declare that
this explains the growth and sustenance of tiie body ; but there are
nameless and numberless phenomena everj- moment going oa in the
living tissues, and as a result of alt these, in their infinite play and com-
bination, the body lives, moves, and has its being. Electricity in pass-
ing through the body modifies many or all of these processes, and thus
modifies nntriciun. As a resultant of the complex physical, chemical,
and physiological action of electricity on the dssues, there is increased
development and growth.

Exptrimenial an J Clinical Proofs of Ike Effect of Electricity en Nutrt-
iifin. — We have studied the effect of electricity in great detail on anunals
and on man. On animals our experiments have been confined to the
cflccls of general faradization ; on man we have studied the effects of
both loc dizcd and genc^ral treatment.

193 ELECTRO -PHYSIOLOCy.

CW a litter of four puppies, Hr. Beard subtniltcd two to general fara
dixation evcr>' other day, for eight minutes each, and two were not sc
treated, all having an eqnal chance at their mother's breast and noiliing
besides. All the imppies were carefully weighed at the beginning and
at the end of the treatment, which lasted for four weeks. It was found
that both of the pups that had been electrized weighed more than tlie
puppicfi [hat had not l>ccn electrized ; all had, of course, increased in
weight, but of those electrized one had increased /tfar ounces and the
other ten ounces more than his fellows that~had not been electrized.
The difference of size in favor of the puppies that were electrized was
so marked and so easy to sec, that without great difficulty one who had
never seen tliera succeeded in picking out, from ocular inspection,
those that had been treated, and chat Iuq in the evening, and in a bad
gas-light It was observed during the treatment that the puppies which
were electrized becaitic ravenous, and sucked with greater energy than
their less-favored companions.

The lueiliod of treating the pups, we may remark, was to put them
on a sheet of copper, while the hand of the operator or a sponge-
electrode was rubbed ail over the surface of the body, previously moist-
ened.

The details of the experiments, prepared by our assistant, Dr. J. W.
Sterling, who made the applicarions, are as follows*

July 1. 1871. — Weight of 4 piip«, iodiiy«o]d:

2 Mack pups {wcij;ht catb) 1 lb; 6 01.

a ycUaw pops weight O'f vne ,,. i lb. 3I01. ;<7tticr, i lb, 2} cc

July, I, ^%^l. — Coininenccd gcnrrsti rarnditalion, each applimion about S minuter

Applied it to one of ilic black paps, wcitflil 1 lb. 6 ol, Euid tbc llglitcst of the yel-
low pups, weight I lb. 2\ ot.

Contitiue;! the ^pplicsiiona four weelu, m^Wing three each week.

July 28, iS;i. — Weighed the pup« after twelve applications.

I black pup (^neral faradialion) 3 lbs. 7 OL

t block pup (no faradiution] a " 13 "

I ycllaw pup <geneTD.l faTadiuiian) . 3 " o "

I yellow pup (no £>ni<iutalion) .•.....-. 2 " 13 *'

Making iidcAi gain for the ttetlrited puf (black) of lOoc, for the yellow elect riicd
pup, 4ot

This wc believe, was the first comparative experiment of this kind
made with the faradic current. Subsequently, Dr. Beard repeated Ihe
experiment on a titter of three rabbits. Two were faradized every other
day ; to the other no treatment was given. At the end of six weeks ilie

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON NUTRITION.

^93

one not treated was visibly larger than cither of those that were treated.
Wc explained this unexpected result by the thcor)' that the current had
been used too strong and too long for the young and delicate animals.
The expcriiiicni was carried on while we were iu the couuuy, and the
details were intrusted to those who were utterly incompetent for thcii
duties. The directions given were to put the feet of the rabbits iu a
basin of tepid water, and after well moistening (he back of the neck to
pass the current through for ten minutes; on account of the non-con-
ductivity of the dry Iiair of the rabbit, general faradization was almost
impossible.

Legros and Oninius electrixed with the galvanic current some pup-
pics for a quarter of an hour every day, by placing one of the fore-paws
and one of the hinder pa*-* in tepid water connected with the elec-
trodes. At the end of six weeks those that had been electri/cd weighed
more than the sanie lot that had not been electrized ; and this differ-
ence was perceptible to simple intpection ; one was galvanized widi tho
ascending, and the other with the descending current

The effect of faradization on nutrition is powerfully illustrated by
the experience of those wbo habitually or fi^qucntly apply general fara-
dization through their own persons, taking an electrode in one hand,
and applying the other to the body of tho patient. In this method the
current pai^ses through both amis, and vigorously contracts lite muscles.
The pfrmanent effects of the current on. the person of the operator
are :

t. To cause very marked and sometinus rapid growth of the muiila
if the arms.

The explanation cf this phenomenon is sufficiently easy. The mus-
cular cunlractiuns that arc produced by the current in its passage
through the arms cause increase of the local processes of waste and
repair, and accordingly the muscles increase in size, just as they natu-
rally do under the influence of any other form of active or passive exer-
cise. This mechanical explanation would be of itself sutficivnt, but, in
addition, it is entirely probable that the electric current exercises a
direct and specific influence on the ner\'e-branchcs, which effect is ex
pressed by the increased size and vigor of the muscles through which
the nerves ramify.

Dr. Rockwell, during his 6rst experimental attempts in the treatment
of disease by general electrization, observed a decided increase in the
development of the muscles of the arm. It began to force itself on his
attention a few weeks after he commenced to give special attention to
general electrization, and at the present time it is fully as marked as

194

ELECTRO-PHVSIOLOGY.

ever. Both arms of each one of us have not only increased much in
size by actual nicuurement, but also correspondingly in strength and
hardness. This efTect is observed in the arm and foreann, but most
decidedly iu the muscles which, (toia their position or nerve supply,
conlract most readily and vigorously when the current passes from
hand to hand, such as the deltoid, brachialis anticus, biceps, and the
flexors and extensors of the forearm. This same effect has been noticed,
to a greater or less degree, by our students, and, so far as we have
been able to ascertain, by ollicrs, who have employed electricity throngh
their own persons for any considerable period, 'i'his development of the
arms seeius to progress up to a certain limit, at which it remains.

3. A very gradual hii dtcidtd ionic injfuenct on the systtm.

This effect is so exceedingly slight, that in a very haidy and vigorous
person it wntdd not be recognized. That the current, in passing from
hand to hand, so frequently and so long, shotild, in the course of time,
mildly affect the general system, is entirely jirobable. Like any other
muscular exercise of the arms — gymnastics and the use of the clubs —
its intlucncc, so far as it goes, must be positively toning and beneficial
to the constitution.

Effects of Electricity on' Bacteria. — Cohn has experimented with
electricity on bacteria.* Currents Irom two pOMerfuI elicinents, steril-
ized the nutritive solution completely at the positive polu in twelve to
twenty-four hours, so that afterward Ihc bacteria produced did not in-
crease. At the negative pole the action was wt-aker, the liquid not
being completely sterilized. At neither of the poles were the bacteria
killed, aiid when bruugUt into another muritivc Huid lliey developed
normally.

Yeast-cells, on the other hand, and mycelium fungus, brought into
Ike lii|iiid that wa* sterile far bacteria, increased plentifully at the posi-
tive pole. A batteiy of five strong elements killed the bacteria dis-
tributed in the liquid within twenty-four hours and sterilised the liquid
St both poles.

Effect fif Electricity en the Growth fif /Vuw/j.— The influence of
electricity on the growth of pLints has recently been studied by Mr. K.
H. Hitdijeni.in. of Norwich, England. On a plate of gla^s three inches
square, two strips of sheet-tin are laid, so as to almost touch in the
cenlie. On this glass, and over the tin strips, is spread a piece of felt
moistened with rain water. On its dampened surface cress-seeds arc
thickly strewed. The tin plates are connected widi the poles of a weak

* Mtd, Prat and CirtuJar. June g, iSSo.

rFFEcT OF ELECTRICITY ON NUTRITION.

195

'.■.■■ icry ; the result is that one-half of the felt is charged with
, _ Mid the other half with negative electricity. At the si Je of this
X second t'late, which has connection with the battery, and
<ch the seeds grow, subjected to no artificial conditions. After
. Uie seeds on the opposite side of the first piece of felting gave
^[^minatioii, and the hulls were shrivelling up and becoming
On the negative side of the felting the seeds were swollen, and
Lulls, which retained their natural color, were beginning to burst.
M J of six days the first shoots made their appearance. Several
i-ii^-r the first shools appeared upon the second plate. A strange
oT this trial was, that while on the negative pole, where there was
"jv Kigii of stronger development, the root-sprout sank downward
he moist felling, the roots from the positive side rose upward from
^Uckened and dried-up seeds.

ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

CHAPTER L

fOSTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUnCS.

EUetro-Therapeutus is the science that treats of the study of eltctri'
eity in Us rehtion to disease.

It incliiilcs both Electro ^fedicine and EUelr&Surgery, or as the)
are more coiutiioiily teniied, MedicaJ nn^ Surgical Blectrtcity. Umlei
Mcdica] Electricity are included Btectro-DiagHOsis, or EtccirQ-Paiholo^y
as it is s*'iiiicti(iies termed, and Eiectro- Therapeutical A natemy.

The earliest history of clcctro-therapcutics, as of many other depart
merits of medicine, is shrotided in obscurity. It dates back to a mythi-
cal and [ej;endary a^'e, before mankind had been trained to habits of
scientific triticisiii, while yet history was a. mass of traditions, and ruiiioi
was a siibslicule for truth.

It is said that centuries ago the negrcsscs of West Africa were accus.
tonicd to dip their sick children in water where lay the electric fish called
the torpedo. The remedial powers of electricity were also referred to by
Pliny and DJoscorides. Scribonius Lnrgus, a physician of the tiruc of
Tiberius, was accustomed to prescribe the same remedy in the treat-
ment of gout. As long ago as the days of Pliny, necklaces of amber
were worn by women and children (or the sake of their supposed reme-
dial powers.

The mysterious power of the magnet was known to the ancient world,
DUt we have no reason to believe that it was ever extensively resorted
to by then) for the cure of tlisease. In Europe, during the middle ages,
the loadstone was used in the treatment of dil^ease, and although its
tucccsse.'t were iritling it aroused the professional attention and received
extravagant praise from the distinguished Paracelstis, About the mid-
dle of the eighteenth century, Maxitnilian Hehl, of Vienna, and others,
excited a new and more successful interest in the use of magnetism in
disease by the mamifacture and cni|iloyinent of artificial magnets.

The real history of electro therapeutics may be divided into three
eras : the Era oj FranUinic Electricit}; inchiding (he early and crude
experiments with the frictional machines and the Leydcn Jar ; the Era

HISTORV OF E .ECTRO-THKKAPEL'TICS.

199

pj Galranisathn, beginning with the publicarion of the discovery of
Calvani, in 1791, ami including ihc invention and medicfll employment
of the voltaic pile ; the Era 0/ FaraMsathn, beginning w-iih the discov-
ery of induction, in 1831-32, and including all that has since been a&
com|)lii>hed in the department of localized and general elecLiizaiion.

in the first cia only franklinie electricity was used, because it was
the only form that was known; in the second era, both franklinU
electricity and galvanism were used, since the latter supplemented, but
not entirely supplanted, tlie former ; in the third era, all thrci; f<imv>t of
electricity — franklinie, galvanic, and fcuadic — were brought into requisi-
tion, though the use of franklinie is coufuied to a few, and will proba-
bly &OOD become historic.

The Era of Franklinie Eltftricify. — The records of this era, though
not extensive, arc yet both interesting and suggestive. It is probable
that in this, as in the second era, very much was attempted and even
Eccompli^cd in this depanuieiu that has never been recurded in per-
manent luedical literature, and therefore couLd never become of value
to science.

In 1730 F.llenne Grey first observed divergence of the hairs in aa
isolated subject put in communication with static electricity.

The same experiment was repeated by .A.bb<i Nollei and Du Fay.
I)u Fay observed the electric sparks drawn from the isolated snhject.

NoUet says, "I shall never forget the surprise which the first electric
gpark ever drawn from tiic human body, excited botli in M. Du Fay
■od roj-sclf."

Sparkt* were then drawn from the body in various shapes— one of
which was called the electrical kiss ; other forms were known as the
"electrical star," "electrical rain," and so forth. The drawing of the
sparks coustituted a great source of amuseiueot iu the society of the
period-

In 1743 K.ruger d'HelmMadt suggested that these electric sparki
might be made of service in therapeutics.

In 1744 Kratienstcin, a German physician, recorded a case of
cure of paralysis of the lingers by sparks drawn from & fricitonal ap<
paratus.

In 1746 the discovery of the properties of the Leyden jar by Mu»*
chenbioek gave physicians a new means of using electricity in the
treatment of disease.

In 1749 Jailabcrt,* of Geneva, published a treatise on the raedlcal
□se of electricity, in which he reported a cure of long-standing poralysii

• Exfrritncti tur EUeMtit/, PArb, IJ47.

200

ERA or FRAXKLIXTZAnOS.

of the right arm, resulting from Injury, by electric sparks. Tlie awe
was brought about in two or three months, and may perhaps be re-
garded at the first decided and unfiucstioned result of the kind that was
obtained in the early daj-s of eleclro-therapeutics.

1750 Ncbel showed that contraction of the muscular tissue was prc»-
duced by electriiation.

Bohadtch, of Bohemia, also recommended electricity, especially for
the treatment of hemiplegia.

In 1753 Lindhult, a Swedish physician, reported a cure of epilepsy
by electrjdty.

In 1 754 Snlzcr made bis famous experiment on the tongue with zinc
and copper platca. (Sec Electro- Physiology). He did not, however,
pur<^ue his experiments, and it was reserved for Galvani and Volia to
discover galvanism.

In 1 755 De Hlen reported a Urge number of electrical aires of
paralysis, sjiasmodic and other nervous affections, and also of suppres
sion of the menses, and St Guy*e dance. About this time, also^
Schaeffer and Ncbel published cures of rheumatism, toothache, hj-po-
chondria, paralysis of the optic nerve, and of intermittent fever and
neuralgic pains. Between 1750 and 1757, cures of paralj-sis were re-
ported by IVydone, Benholon, S,iiivages of Montpelier, and Spry, the
latter of whom cured a case of lockjaw and paralysis.

The position that electro-therapeutics held at that time, and the
hopes that were entertained of it, is very well represented in a little
treatise by the eminent divine, Rev. John Wesley, entitled, The Desid-
eratum ; or^ EieetrUiiy Matte Plain and Useful, by a Loi'tr 0/ Mankind
and 0/ Common Sense, 1759*

In this treatise the author anticipates, in a sort of theoretical w.iy,
ver)' much that has since been demonstrated, both in electro-physics and
electro -thcrapcu lies, and with surprising accuracy. In the preface he
acknowledges his indebtedness " lo Mr. Franklin for ihe speculative
part, and to Mr. Lovett for the practical." He also mentions as authori-
ties, Dr. Haadley, Mr. Wilson, Watson, Freke, Martin, Watkins, and
the Monthly Magattne, whence we may conclude that even at that
early day the subject was exciting much interest, but more among the
laily than in the prnfcssion.

From the tone of the book it is clear that the Faculty, as Wesley
calls the profession, were disposed to despise electro-therapeutici

* Thli Irnltse hai been recently repuMl^ed by Batlli^, TindaU & Cox. Londoi^
1871.

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-TircRAPEUTICS.

20I

and to reject its claims, as they have been ever since, until mthin a few
.yeirs, and consequently they suffered what was really valualile in roedi-
-cine la Iw nmiiopoiized by the laity.

The mind of Mr. Wesley, as the world knows, was of the practical
sort, and in this trcatiBe he docs not suffer himself to be carried away
into gross hyperbole or serious untruth. He expressly disclaims any
idea of regarding electricity as a panacea, but says what we now know
to be true, th.it it is indicated in a wide range of disorders ; but that if
any one agent should ever become a panacea, electricity stood the best
chance of being that agent.

Evidently ignorant of Franklin's invention of lightning-rods, in 1775,
he .suggests that buildings and ships might be saved from the effects of
lightning, by " upright rodsof iron, made sharp as needles and gilded to
prevent rusting," and connected with the earth. He further suggests,
that the northern lights are of electrical origin.

HcgivcB die following list of diseases in which electricity is of service,
with a number of illustrative cases, most of which arc very imperfectly
detailed. It will be observed (hat most of these diseases are still treat-
ed electrically, and with greater or less success. It seems from the list
that the treatment of diseases of the skin by electricity is simply
another attempt to effect what was accomplished with success more
tlian a cenlur}* aga

All these conclusions of Wesley and his contemporaries were, how^
ever, ba»ed on experiments made with franktinic electricity. The
world was to wait forty-one years for the Voltaic pile, and seveaty-two
years for Faraday to discover induction.

" Ajpie*, St. AiulionyV Fire ; BHrnlnew, even from a Gtttu Serena j BlooJ Extn-

lied; Bronch'>cetei Cliloro^U; Col^nets in tbe Feet ; Con^mpiion ; Coniraction
Bf lbs IJicbs; CTJimps: Deafne&t; Dropt^y; Epilepsy : I'^ccl violcnlly dlu^rdered;
Pdans; Kiitulii Lacninalu t Gant ; Gravel; Headache; HyKlericK; InHomina*
lions 1 Kin^SEtril; Knot* In the Flesh; l,atneneM; Ijtpra^; Morlfficntian ; Pain
in the Back, in ibc StomsKh ; Palpitstioiu of the Heart ; Paliy ; PlturUy ; Rheu-
Balhia; RicigwOTim; Scialica; Sbingle*; SpraJo; Sore Keet ; Sircllii)g« uf all
kind*; Throat «ore; Toe hurl ; Tooth-achc ; Wen."

In 176J Watson cured a case of general tetanus in a young girl of
Eeren years. Although the fame of the cures wrought by electricity
attracted crowds of invalids, yet by the ignorant and superstitious it
was confounded with witchcraft, and the aid of the priest was invoked
to save them firom its baneful influence.*

• A Trralist on .\fiJirai Etectridty, Theorelieal and PraetitaJ By J. Altbav^
MJ>. 1S70, p. 2S4.

202

CRUDENESS OF THE EARLV EXPERIMENTS.

Alibi Sans published a work on the medical use of clcctncitj-, and
recorded imiiortant cure*. According to this authority, ihere were
Kvcn different methods of craploj-ing static electricity — "an electric
bath, drawing sparks, by irroration, friction, insufflation, exhaustion, and
conimoiion." Injurious and ncyaiive as well as favorable results were
sometimes reported Thus Dr. Hart brought on paralysis in a girl,
and Abb6 Ma/,ras excited epilepsy in one of his patients. Benjamin
Franklin failed to cure the inv.ili<)s that flocked to him after his great
discovery, and Abbfi Nollet, tifter many years' experience, was com-
pelled to admit that he haJ seen bm Uttle pernianeni benefit from
electricity.

Symptoms only trtated in these early Experiment!. — In these early
and many of tlie later experiments, not disease, but the results of
disease, were both studied and treated. When electricity was applied, it
was to the »jTnploir« and not to the pathological condition ; hence the
enormous blunders and frequent failures of the early electro-therajwn-
tists. The symptoms most treated, and in the treatment of which the
greatest hopes were entertained, were blindness, de-ifness, paralysis of
luotion, syiiipcoiiis which are now known to depend. In veiy many in-
stances, on paihotogLcal states, which are in their very nature as incurable
as death itself. Still further, the applications were made to the scat of
the symptoms exclusively, instead of to the seat of the disease, and this
mistake helped to swell the number of the failures.

Ph)-sioIogy and pathology bad not yet reached that degree of strength
and breadth of surcness to furnish good foundation on which to erect
the science of electro-therapeutics, and wiihal the appliances for gene-
rating electricity were bulky and untrustworthy.

ElcctTo-therapeutic» was therefore baffled in its first attempts at
growth, through lack of needful support from allied and fundamental
sciences ; it must wait for physics, for physiology, for pathology to come
to its rescne, which in due rime they have done and arc now doing.

In 1773 and 1778 Maduyt presented memoirs * f on the subject,
in which he affirmed in his report that electricity was a remedy of vast
and varied powers; that it had a po«tivc and very benefida) influence
over nutrition ; and that it equalised the circulation, materially affected
the pulse, the perspiration, and the secretions ; and was surprisingly

* Mein. niT Ics cflets gcn^mu*, la nature et l'uct)fe i1u fluiile ^Icclitqutt consd^rj
ramtae m^licainenl. Lu en it^cembre, 177S, i Ia Socijt^ tn-pAe de m^lccinc.

f Mem, «ur Ice (ilFCfircntcs miini^m d'sujminittrcr 1' electricity, eC obMrvaiions nu
tn elTcii que oca divert Rtoreos onl ptodulti. Lu ea d^cembrc, 1783, k la Soviiiii
r"y»k 'le mrdednci

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

303

efficacious in the treatment not only of paralysis, but also of oihrr con
ditions, sucli as consliiiatioii and {^deina. This report aroused con-
siderable interest in electro-thcjapeutics on the part of the profession.
and for a season the applicaiinn of frnnklinic electricity became exten-
sively popular. In 1777, Cavallo published a work • which excited con-
nderable attention. He reported cures of epilepsy, paralysis, chorea,
deafness, blindness, rheumatism, glandular enlargements, and recom-
mended etectiicity as a means of artificial respiration.

On the theory that medical substances might be combined with
electricity, Pivati, of A'enice, placed in his electric machine a glass
cylinder, filled with Peruvian balsam, and Giuseppe Bruni affirmed that,
by (he same arrangement, tilled with purgatives, he had produced the
same effect on an electrified patient as though the remedy had been ad.
ministered internally, f

In 17S3 Wilkinson presented the results of some experiments with
electricity in England. Although the fame of the cures wrought by the
new remedy attracted thousands of the people, yet by the ignorant and
>uper»t!tiou3 electricity w-is confoiinilcH with the spirit of cvil.J

Of the seven methods of employing statical electricity recommended
rby these early experimenters, but three were in common use. These

re, the electric baih^ eUetruatian by sparks^ and shocks from the Ley-
den Jar.

The Era of Galvanitaticn. — Animal electricity was discovered by
Galvani in ij86, and made public in i7gi. Il was by the experiments
of Calvani that Volla was stimttlated to investigate the subject ol
electririty. He denied the existence of animal electricity which Gal
vant had discovered. One of the most important fruits of the discus-
sion that arose between them aod their respective followers was the
constniction of the voltaic pile, which for many years physicians
employed, with various alternations of failure and success, in the treat-

*Qt of disease.

In the period intervening between the discovery of animal electricity
by Galvani, and the constniction of the pile of Volta, electricity was
api>lied to the liody by means of metallic plates, joined together by a
metallic arc. Sometimes these were simply placed against the skin,
and sometimes over spots denuded by a blister.§

* A Complete Treatbe on Electricity, in Tlieory uid Prticlice, with original Ei*
perintentk. LonilrcR, 1777. I'^-. Medical Elcctncltjr. Londrea, 17S0.

I Atlhstii, op. cU., p. 3S7.

X A. Tripler, Muiuel d'^lectro-tliMpie, expos^ praitque et cHikiue desappltcntioa:
aiJAcalM ct chtrurgtcalct dc I'^lcctricitd. Paris, 1S60. g Ttiiucr, op, cit., p. a6a

304

ERA or GALVANIZATION.

Id ij^i, Behrend, Crcve, and Klem tuggesled the uic of galvanism
is a means of distinguishing real from apparent death. The first
attempts to make galvanism of practical service in the treatment of
disease were made l»y Professor Loder, of Jena. The results of his
experiments were unsatisfactory.

In I79J Hufclaiid and Reil advised the use of galvani!>m in
paralysis.

In 1796 Pfa.fr advised the same remedy for amaurosis. None of
these authorities spoke from much personal experience.*

In 1 797, Alexander von Humboldt f suggested, on theoretical
grounds, (he use of galvanism in paralysis, rheumatic pains, and dis*
eases of the eyes.

Valli actually restored to life, by galvanism, frogs and fowls that had
been nearly suffocated.^

The voltaic pile, invented in 1800, marked an era in the medical ase
of the galvanic current, because, with all its imperfections, it was vastly
superior, for therapeutic puqioses, to the metallic plates that had pre-
viously been employed during the period which had elapsed since the
discovery of Galvani. It was at once employed by Loder, in Jena, by
Grapengicsser,§ Bischoff, and Lichtenstcin, in Berlin, and by Haller,
in Paris, chiefly in cases of paralyEis.

In 1801, Augustin, of Berlin, published a treatise on galvanism, in
which he reported results of treatment of paralysis by applying the
negative pole to the central end the nerve, and the positive to the
peripheral. Prof. Schwab experimented with the voltaic pile in cases of
dcaf-mutcisnt. In 1802 Sigaud de la Fond published a work in which
he recommended franklinic electricity for nearly every form of disease.
In [804, Atdini, a pupil of Galvant, published a treatise on galvanism,
in which he theoretically recooiniended it for deafness, insanity, and
amaurosis, and also to produce artificial respiration. ||

Even during this era, and for many years after the invention of the
voltaic pile, franklinic electricity was still employed.

In 1817 Dr. Thomas Brown, of Albany, published a work entitled
" 7^/ £tAfreai FAysieian," in which he recommended franklinic electri-
city for paralysis, tic-douloureux, epilepsy, chorea, and in a large variety
of disorders.

• TrIpiCT, opi cit., p. 363.

+ Vemich ilber die ge'cirtc Mu&kd und Nervenfojer. Berlin, ly^.
\ ExpW«lce Rir le gatvonlnne, Irafluit par Jndclot. PArii, 179^
§ Venniche den GalviniHnos iiir Heilunji ciniger KruilchcJten nnjuwcndov
Berlin, iSot. \ Esui thtforique et expJruncoiA tur Ic galvi&bmc 1S04.

HISTORY OF ELECTRO -THERAPEUTICS.

205

In tSiS Dr. Everett, of New York, published something od the use
df electricity io medicine that was based on experience that he had de-
rived with the apparatus of Dr. Hrown.

Io spite of all these endeavors on the part of scientific men to give
iiii|wrtancc and dignity to the cause of elL-ctro-therapeutics, it filled to
fulfil the extravagant expectations chat had been formed of it ; a reacCion
followed, and it fell into disrepute. Electricity had been tried for a
wide range of diseases, but partly on account of the inconstancy of the
voltaic pile, and partly through the ignorance of the opciatorS] it was
found to be a most uncertain remedy. It was confounded with mes-
merism, which at this period came into notoriety, and for a rime it
shared its fate.

Many of ihi early Experiments madtby the LaiSy. — Itwill be seen by
a glance at the above-mentioned oaLiies that the earliest expeiinieau
in electro-therapeutics were made by the laity. A science that now
commands some of the best brains of civilization was bom among the
humble and the lowly. It was cradled in ignorance and reared and
fostered by those who, however eminent in other walks, knew Itttic or
nothing of medicine. Chemists, phy:iicit)ls, prie&ls and paupers, monks
And mountebanks, were in the eighteenth century the leading authorities
in electro- therapeutics. If there were those at this lime who had faith
in the coming of a belter d-^y, when elcctro-thcrapcutics shauld be a
recogniicd and permanent part of the medical science, it was their mis-
fortaae to die without the sight. Not until the close of the eighteenth
century were the great discoveries of Galvani and Volta revealed to ihe
world, which was to work and wait for at least half a century before it
should see even the beginning of the fulfilment of its hopes. Some of
the great sciences, like some of the great reUgions, have had the hum-
blest origin.

Of the early history of electro-physics, WheweU • thus remarks :—
"At Buch a period a large and popular circle of spectators and ama-
teurs feel themselves nearly upon a level in the value of their triali
and speculations with the more profound thinkers; at a later period,
when the subject is becoming a science, that is, a study in which all
must be lefl far behind who do not come to it with disciplined, informed,
and logical minds, the cultivators are far more few, and the share of
applause less tumultuous and less loud. Electricity, to be now studied
rightly, must be reasoned upon mathematically."

What Wheweil here says of cicciro-phy&ics may just as truly ba
Afiplicd to electro- therapeutics.

* Hittory of tlu IndiKttve Sciences, ad cd., voU iL, p. 300.

jo6

CHARACTER OF THE EARLY EXPERIMENTERS.

In the earlier experiments, the philosopher and the fool were |>rctty
Dcarljr on the sajnc level in their knowledge of the application of ihis
suhtlc force to the treatment of diseases, with this advantage on the side
of the foot, chat through the very excess of his ignorance he dared and
ventured where ihc philosopher knew jusL enough tu fear to tread.

It was, as we shall see, a long time before electro-therapeutics should
be gradually developed into a science of sufiicient posittveuess to com>
mand the attention of men of science for its own sake, and to excite the
de^ir of the ignorant.

Here, as in all other realms of investigation, the developraeni is from
simplicity towards complexity, from generals to specials, and from truthl
that are common to all classes, to truths that only a few specialists can
tlioroughly master. We arc reminded here of tlie beautiful thought
of Thoreau. When reproached for his excliisiveness and love of solitude,
he replied, " It is not so much that I love to be alone, as tliat I love to
soar, and the higher I ascend, the company grows thinner and thinner,
until at last I am left almost alone."

Strikingly this princi|)lc has been illustrated even in the most recent
history of eleciro-ihempeutics, both in Europe and America. A field
now occupied by some of the ablest scientists of Germany, England, and
France, was fonnerly crowded with lawless intruders.

When we began to write on this subject in 1866, a tide of in-
quiries at once set in upon us, from all parts of the country. The
authors of these letters, with some few exceptions, we have never seen ;
but, judging from the style of composition and the character of the in-
quiries, they were as a rule comparatively ignorant, and belonged to
the lower strata of the profession. Letters that we receive more re-
cently during the past three years, evidently come from many of the
best men in the profession. As the science develops, brains and cul-
ture arc attracted to it. In our laige cities, those who are studying this
subject are among the most promising names in science.

In 1S35, Sarlandiire proposed the employment of acupuncture
needle* b galvanization, so that the current could be more exclusively
and definitely localized on the desired nerve or organ. This method
of treatment was called clectnj-punctiwe.* He used for this purpose
franklinic electricity. Subsequently Magendie successfully experimented
with galvano-puncturc in neuralgia, paralysis, and other ner^'ous dis-
eases.

The discovery of electro-puncture was the be^nning of the science

* H4in. nr t*ftl«ctro.punctuce. F«rii, iSas.

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

207

of cIcctro-Mirgery, a dcjiartmcnt which at (hat time coniniandcd a
widtr Interest than the medical use of electricity, and which has now 1
most important posilioQ in science.

Gerard ami Pravaz suggested, and Pitrcf^uin and Ciniselli sutxcedea
in curing aneunsm by galvano-puncture. Subsequently galvano-cauter-
iution has been investigated by Stcinhcil, MiddcldoritBT (1859), Amus-
tat, Aliliaus, Byrne, ourselves ^i^^l many others, ((-'or detailed history
of the surgical uses of electricity, see Electro-Surgery, Chapter I.)

In 1826, Raumt publishi-d in I-nndon a work on galvanism, which
Iwo years later reappeared in a ilifferciit form, and was translated into
Freach by Fabre Palaprat, who was the first to use the galvanic current
in electro-puncture.

The Era of Faradization, — ^Thc publication of the discovery of in-
ductive electricity by Faraday, in 183 i-a, changed the whole course of
eleclro-thcrapetitics. On the basis of this discovery electric machines
were cowttructed that were both niore reliable and more convenient
than tlic nnlinary voluic pile. The tirsi magnclo-elcctric machine was
constructed by Pixii in 1832, and was first employed in the trcatnjcni
of diseases by Neef of FrankforL Afterwards electro-magnetic (volta-
electric) machines were conslructcd by Neef, Clarke, Sliihrer, and
others, which from time to time have been variously modified by %
luge Dumber of experimenters in diflerent countries.

From this time electricity in the form of faradization hcgan to be ex-
tensively and indiscriminately employed, both in this cotinUy and in
Eorope. It was used by the laity as well as by the profession, though
at first without any recognised method, and without any very cleai
idea* of the indications for which electrization was adapted. Since
that time four distinct methods of medical electrization have been intro-
duced, in which the galvanic as well as the faradic current have been
appropriated, and under one or the other of which may be clashed all
the applications of faradic or galvanic electricity that have since been
employed. These methods are hcalited /aradizaiion, localised gahan-
italiott, general faraditation, and central galvaniiatian.

History a/ Lenalised /ujradiuitioa. —The history of localized electri-
'ration is identified with the name of Dochenne, whose experiments and
discoveries have given such .111 impetus to this important and growing
department. Duchcnnc was not, however, the first to cm|>loy localiised
faradisation. Prior to his time, faradization had been used by Masson
ia France, and Neef of Frankfort ; and in this country it has been cni*
i-'^loyed by the profession and by the laity from the period of the first

spuUrizaiion of machines of induction.

20S

LOCALIZED FARADIZATION.

Even as early as 1843 locoMzed /armfisa/ien was used in tins countij
side by side with general faradization, thoiigii, like the latter, it had re-
ceived no distinct nomenclature, and was indiscriminately recommended
and nnscicntifically applied.* The two methods, localized and general,
were frequently confounded, and both were known under the vague
lerm, "electrifying." Duchennc's earliest attempt to call the atlcnuor*
of the profession to this subject is thus recorded in his own words : —

" De I'art dc Umitcr I'excitation ^lectrique dans les orgatics sans
piqucr m inciser la peau, nouvclle uiuthode d' electrisation appeUe e/tc-
trisaiioH iocaiisee^ et dunC les principes, r^sum^ datts une note adrcs*i^e
eo 184; il I'Acad^mie des Sciences, ont dli d£velopp6s ct publics dans
les ar€hive$ geniralts de Medicine en juillct ct aoAl 1S50, et ftvricr ct
mars 1851." In 1855 he published his chief work, " De 1' Electrisation
Localis(e, ct de son Application k la Pbysiologie, 6 la PathologJe, et &
la Thifrapcntiqiic."

This work became known to the profession in Germany through the
abridged translation of Dr. Erdmann.

The leading idea of the method of localised faradixation of Du-
chennc waii, that the current can be localixcd over a fixed foint under
the skin if we II -moistened conductors are strongly prtssed upon (ke skin.

He observed — what is perfectly familiar to all experimenters in elec-
tro-therapeutics — that when dry electrodes are aijplied to the dry skin,
sparks with a crackling sound are produced, but no sensation and no
muscular contraction. He observed that when the electrodes are well
moistened, conUactions are excited iu the muscles, with the phenomena
of sensation.

He recommended three forms of electrodes — solid metallic elec-
trodes, metallic brashes, and the hand.

On these observations and experiments Duchenne based a S)-steni of
electro-therapeutics and electro-diagnosis which, as since reliiied, de-
Tclopcd, and modified by himi^clf and by numerous other laborers in
various countries, has now grown into a permanent department of
science.

Localized fara>dization was appteciated by electro-therapeutists more
rapidly than some of the other metho<ls of using electricity, as elcctro-
lyzation, general faradisation, galvano-cautery, and central galvanira-
tion, for the reason that it is the easiest learned of all the methods and

* In Pike's Cstilo^e of Matliem^lica], Optical, and Philosophiail ItiBtritraenta,
t&t^ there is » cut of the ru-xdic ftppsTatuM ihftt hiu! t>cai in use lor live years by
these early eKpcrimenlcriL The Mine work kIki contsin* a. cut [lluiiDLiLDg thdi
SWthod *f locati/cd Utailiution of the leg.

HISTORY OF ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

209

requires only the simplest and cheapest form of battery. To b« an
expert in it requires a degree of skill and experience and manual facil-
ity. OS well as familiarity with the diseases for which it is indicated, and
tome knowledge of electro-physics and electro-physiology are of essen-
tia] lenrice ; hut in none of these respects is this method as exacting
as anf one of the others.

HeiKe it is, that localised laradization is the method with which
novices usually begin their experiments in this branch, and it is the
BMlhod which by the mass of the profession is now more used than
«iiy other.

Among specialists, however, of all counlrieii, localiicd galvanimtion
it Bore used than localizcil faradization, since it meets on the whole,
m cipcrieoce shows, a larger range of indications.

MKstfirjt cf Loeaiittd Galvanisation. — One of the ablest and most
pnitniacot of those whom the writings of Duchenne inspired to enter
cpoD the study of elcctro-thcrapeutics was Professor Rcmak, of Berlin.
His first work, " Uebtr Mfthtfdische EUdrisirurtfi GelUhmter Afaskfitt"
" Oft the Methodical FJectrization of Paraly/ed ^^uscles," was pub-
liibrd in 1S55. In this work he revived and recalled the attention of
the profeuion to the foivaitif eurrgnt, and he furthermore announced
thai in order to hriog a muscle to complete contraction it is betlet to
exdfe its motor nerves than to allow the current to operate on the
mascuUr substance itself His second work, " GalvoHp-Therafif tUr
/ftrvfn- and MMiktl-Kmnkheiten" was published in 1858.

Bemak became the founder of a bcIiooI oT elcctro-Iherapeu lists in
Ccnnaii|>, j« Duchcnne had been in France. Their systems, as has
Iwen laid, differed in two important particulars. Both used localitei
dectriiation. Docbenne used the faradic current, making the applica
tioot to the muscles ; Retnak used tlie galvanic current, making the
«ppUcatiou to the motor nerves.

Duchenoc declared that the galvanic current was useless for the
truiiueDt of disease, while Remak contended that it was the only car-
ITM that was </ any value. Duchennc was unwilling to admit the
reality nf the discoveries of Remak, and Rcmak as emphatically re-
jected ibe conclusions of Duchcnne. Both enforced their statements
by the resaks of experiments, and both appealed to experience.

It b DOW well recognitcd by all electro-tlicrapcutists that there ¥ras
tr«th OA both sides of this interesting controversy — that the galvanic
and £uadic cutreati are both of service in the diagnosis and treatment
of disease, and that too in more than one mode of application. We
tarn see tluu if Duchennc was too dogmatic, Rcmak was too cxtrava-
M

2IO

DCALIZED GALVANIZATION.

gant, but that both of them, by their experiments and labors, were at
positive service to science, and made the way easier aad safer for those
who have since followed them in the department of localized clectn/.a-
tion.

Rcmale, shortly bufore his death, ptihlishcd a work entitled " Appli-
caiion ttt. Courant mns/an/ au jyaitemtnt des Nirroses" Paris, 1S65,
which coLtaincd the leading ideas of his system, and has been the means
of stimulating many other experimenters in ihjs difftcitlc depiitment

Rcmak did more than merely introduce the galvanic current to the
profession — he discovered and recommended special applications of
the currt-'nt, and suggested the thcorj- of its catalytic action. He was
the first to scientifically investigate localized galvanization of the cer-
vical sympalhetic, of the brain and spinal cord, and thereby greatly
widfncil the sphere of elcciro-therapciitics. Although at first his
theories were scouted, and his stateniects discredited, yet since his
death they have, in the main, been strikingly confirmed, and are now
■egartled as accepted facts in science.

Even during this last era, franklinic electricity has been by no
.::eans laid Eiside. In 1S47, Dr. Golding Bird published very
r-marVabk* reaulia obtained in the treatment of amcnorrhcca by
italic eleclricity. in Gu/s Hospital. He made use of a Lcydcn
}ir. Franklinic electricit>' has been succes'Sfully used by Drs. Gull
ind Clement. It has, for a number of years, been successfully
employed by Dr. Radcliffc and others, in the I^ndon Hosjiilal for the
Paralyred and Fpileptic. Quite recently Prof. Schwanda, of Vienna,
has reported suggestive results from franklinic electricity generated by
Holtz's eleclrophorus machine. Dr. Arthius, of Paris, has recently pub-
lished a work on the subject ; this has been translated by Dr. Leveridge,
of Chicago.

Within the past fifteen years localized faradisation and galvanization
has been developed and improved in France, in Germany, in England
and America, by a nunibcr of able and laborious men of science.
Among the voluminous authors in this department may be mentioned
the names of Meyer,* BecqHerel,f Haicrlachcr,! Althau5,§ Tripier,]

* Die ElKlridlat in ihrcr .'^nwendung tuf praktiicb« Hcdictn. Uertin, 1S54 and
tS68. Truidfttcd hy t)r. HnmTnond.

I Trait* tiw opilication* ile I'electricitrf 2 In Th^rapeulifiue, P«ri«, tSj;.

t Dir Indtictiun^Elcctiicitiil in pli)idolo);iftch-t!ierapcutuch«:r Beneliung. Niirn.
oerg, 1857.

g Treatite on Medical Electricity. London, 1859, Lateit edition, 1873. Gftl*
ronbm in Paralysis, Nourolgia, etc., 1S66.

I Manuetd'Eleciroth^pic Pnris, Itt6l.

HISTORY or ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

211

Rosenthal,* Frommholdf Zieinssen.J Ganatt.g Benedikt,|| Brenner.l"
Cyon.**

History ef Central Faraditation. — In general farad i/:ation the aim
U to bring (he whole body under the influence of the faradic current, so
lar as is possible, by eicternat apiilicntion.

The origin of general faradization, like that of localized, is somewhat
uncertain, since it is difficult to dcternuDe how long it was used by the
laity before wc formally introduced it to the profession. It is certain
that both methods have been in i»opular, and, to a certain extent, in
professional use in America, from a period not long subsequent to the
popnlari ration of the discovery of induction, certainly a long time be-
fore they were inlroducc<l to the profession. One of the first — and
probably the very first — to employ a form of general faradization was
Williaiti Miller, of New York, who began the empirical use of this sys-
tern of treatment in 1S43. Since that time some form of general far<
adization has been employed by Sherwood, of New York ; Dr. W. Dcm.
ming, of Portland ; Drs. Garratt, Cross, and Guthrie, of Boston ; Dr.
Wells, of Rochester, N. Y, ; Drs. Page and Chinning, and by a very
large number, both in the profession and out of it, of whose names and
special methods but licde is known, since they have taken Imt little pains
to establish the treatment on a scientific ba^, or to introduce it to the
attenticu of the ptofemion. Many of these practitioners combined
locaiiicd with gcnerxl faradiialiou, and some, perhaps the majority, em
ployed the latter exclusively, though with little definilcncss or precision.
Although, as has been said, some of these early experimenters were
educated physicians, the majority were ignorant not only of medicine,
but of every other depaJT^^ent, and not a few, unfortunately, were as
un|mnci{jle<l as they were ignorant.

Although many of these experimenters were laymen, although they
bad no part nor lot in the realm of science, and althonsh many of them
were as devoid of conscience as of intellect, yet wc should none the
less eagerly seek for and accept whatever of truth they may have stum

" Die Elcelrotherapic, ihre Begrendung und Anwendung in der Medkln. Wicn,
11(65. Latett c'lition, TS73.

f Elcclrotlic(a]jlc mit bcM>i)<lcrcr RlickucfaC fiuf Kcrvcn-Kruiklieiten; vom pnk-
(bcbcn Siairi'tpunkle tkiicitt. Pes[)i, 1865.

X I>ic Elcciricitit m dcr Mclidn. Berlin, iS£6, Lalcfit cijiiion, 187a.

g Ucdksl Electricity. Phthddpliia. tl^6.

\ Elect roth^apic Wicn, 1S6S. Second edition, 1S74.

^ UDCcTsuchungen und Bcobacbtungcn auf dcm GeLiiete dcr EIcktrothcrBpte
Leipdg. 186S und 1S69.

•• Principe* d'Eleclrothiijpic. Pari*, 1873.

2[2

Gl^NEKAL FARADIZATION.

bled upon or discovered. In the history of therapeutics it has often
been the fortune of the ignorant and the lowly to hit by chance on
some great fact for which the wisdom of the ages has sought in vain.
Says Dr. Stills, " Nearly every medicine has Ijccomc a popular remedy
before being adopted or even tried by physicians ; "* and according to
Percira, nux vomica is one of tlie few remedies the discovery of which
is not the effect of mere chance.f

Impartial history must, we think, record that, before Dtichcnne and
Re malt were known on either side of the Atlantic, before our more
recent elect ro-thcrapcii lists had commenced their professional labors or
studies, there were in this land not a few empirics who, by some form
of general or localized faradization, or both combined, or by methods
various and inconsistent, and in spite of their own ignorance or vice»
were achieving successes in the treatment of disease which, in certain
features, even the most advanced physicians of our day have not yet
surpassed. If they did not belong to the chosen ranks of the profes.
iion, it is none the less true that the results which they secured were
oftentimes such as the ablest leaders in science might well have envied.
If their methods were empirical, thrir empiricism w.as often justified by
its success. If their nomenclature was imperfect and confused, and
their diagnosis erroneous, yet their confusion and errors were not a lit-
tle redecjned by the skill with which tliey met emergencies when the
therapeutist was far more needed than the pathologist or the diagnosti-
cian. T/it grtat dffict of these empiries mas not in their resuitt, whiek
oftentimes were truly rtmarkabU, hut in the faet that their getterat
ignoranee, and espeeiaUy their ignorance of medieine, rendered it impos-
sible for them to discriminate in their eases or their methods, or to iniel'
Ugentiy communicate their experience to others, or in any •way to make it
of permanent value to science. They treated all cases about alike,
without reference to the pathological condition, and in spite of all theii
successes frequently failed where, with better knowledge, they might
have succeeded.

In Europe, so far as we can ascertain from the published writings on
the subji'Ct. or from our own personal observation, the method of genercU
faradization, as described in this work, has not been used or recom-
mended, at least by men of science. In 1S52, BcckensteinerJ

• Therapeutics, vol, i., p. 31. Tlie wiin« aullior states lliai "by far the
p-ciLter numl^r [of medicine] were fvm employed in countries which were oad
arc unw in a AaXe of scientific l^KORUice."

+ Haleria McOica, toL ii., p. 336. Hydrate oT Chloral may now be adiled ta
tUs list. t E^tudet suf TEtectricit^ Parit, 1S59.

mSTORY OF ELECTiiO-THERAPEUTICS.

2»3

luggcstcd ihc kk>a of *' aninializing " staiical electricity by posing it
through tite body of die operator, and making passes over or Dear the
patient.

In 1857, M. Dropsy* de Cracow published a new method of
I frradiiaiion, ihcmadus operandi of which consisted in connecting an
electrode by two branches on the top of the head and the epigastrium,
while the other electrode was connected by four branches with the
hands and feeL At each sitting the pules were reversed. In 1858,
Seilerf proposed to cure coiisuinption ai^d many other obstinate and
inc\irab1e diseases by passing a fEiradic current through two electrodes
near to but tiot over the body of the patient.

In 1863, GublcrJ suggested tlic ircatnicnt of conditions of debiliqr
by placing both hands and feet in separate basins containing salt
water, and pacing a fciradic current through the body.

C>ur own attention was calle;! to die s^ubject of general faradization
ia 1866, and in that and the following year we introduced it to the
profession, describing in a general way its powerful tonic eSTects and
WwJtts operandi.

{Tlu Mtdtcal Use of EUetricity, with special rffereuce la generat
thetrhaticn as a i&me, &'c. Beard and RockweU^ Nrut York, 1867.)

The name general tUelrtiation, as descriptive of tliis method of
treaonent, was first employed by us and in the writings to which we
have referred. In tlie prei>ent edition of this treatise we restrict the
tenns to general faradisation., for the reason that our method of
tentrai gahmnixaticn, to be hereafter described, has to a conslderabl'*
extent taken the place of ^^ir<-/-ii/ galvanization.

Our own claims in regard to general faradization are :

isL To have studied the method as practised by the laity, and to
have improved it, reduced it to a system, aud given it a scientihc
basis, and to have shown its relations to other methods of using
electricity — in short, to have done for this method what Duclvenne did
for localized faradization.

2d. To have intcr|>rctc<1 its si}ccial and general effects, giving it a
name, pointing out the true rationale of the method, and the in-
dications for its use.

3d. To have first called the attention of the jirofession to this
laetbod, enforcing our views by the results of personal experiments.

* Elect rot li^ra pie ea Application mSdicKle pra.tl(jue de rdlectricitfe bu^ tur da
iKNircaux gifoc^dvt. ParLi, iS;?, In Svo.
f Calnnintioii par iiil!uence. Paris, 1858.
X Dcl'Elcctriiation gn^tsUc. Biilletia de 'I1i{;rai«uiique, Dec, tS6^

214

CENTRAL GALVANIZATION

4th. To have discovered in our experieiients witn this method, that
electrization was a tooic of great anij varied cfli'Cacy, and therefore
indicated iii a large range of cotulition* of debility, and to have forced
this fact on the professional mind until it has become widely accepted,
and has become the basis for the use of electricity in the treatment
of medical diseases.

1'hc length of time req,uLred to make a thorough application of genera]
faradt^ation, and the amount of practice necessary to acqjirc ^ill and
facility in its eniployment, have interfered Bonicwhat with its ])opiiIariza-
tioD among specialists in electro-therapeutics; but in spile of thes«
difficulties the method la now used witii the highci^t iuCCcas by hundreds
of [ihysicians, specialists and general practitioners, &c., and its popular*
it)* is very rapidly increasing.

In Germany the method has been from the first received, in part
through the careful rtsum6 of Prof. Erb, of Heidelberg, with greater
interest and appreciation and with more favorable consideration than
in any other country, cxccplicg perhaps the United States. Dr. R.
Viter, of the Univcrsiiy of Prague, in his preface to the German
UansLation of the first edition of this work, has warmly recommended
the method, basing his recommendation on his own personal experience;
and more recently, Benedict of Vieuna, in the latest edition of his work,
has given the method intelligent and appreciative con&itk ration.

Hutcry ef Central Galvanizaiion. — The method of central galvan-
izalioQ, as has been described in our published papers (Electricity and
the Sphygmograph, N. Y. Medkai Record, December 15, 1871 ; also,
Receni Researches in Elect ro-Therapeulics, October, 1873, by Dr.
Beard; Central Galvanization, N. Y. Med. Journal, May, 1872, by
Dr. Rockwell), consisted in plating the nef^aiive pole at the epigast-
rium, while the positive was applied over certain pcrtiens e/ the head,
ever the sympathetic and pneumogastrie in the neck, and down the
whfile length of the spine from the first to the last i^ertebra. At that
time we had used the method «^th ihc highest success, in hysleria, in*
sanity, nemaschenia, gastralgia, dyspepsia, and certain diseases of the
skin, and since that time this method has been extended to a wide
variety of affections. In some diseases it has supplemented, in others it
has supplanted, general faradization and galvanization of the cervical
sympathetic.

The full method of central galvanization, as it wJU be described in
this edition of the present treatise, was not stumbled upon by accident,
but is the result of a long period of experimenting. When we began to
use the galvanic current, we sometimes treated gastralgia and dyspep

HISTORV OF ELECTRO-IHERAPEUTICS.

2IS

»a by placing one pole, usually the negative, in the epigastric region,
and the positive on the nape of the nock at about the sixth cervical ver<
tehra. Gradually we extended the domain of the application so as to
include (he mastoid fossa and tlic anterior border of the sternocleido-
mastoid muscle, down to the sternum on both siden. Afterwards wc
re&olvcd to apply the positive electrode to the forehead, still keeping
the negative on the epigastrium.

Inlluenced by the fact of observation, that the lop of the head be-
tween the ears was frequently tender and painful in hysteria and neur.
Asthenia, in both sexes, it occurred to us that this might be a good
place to plant the electrode so as to affect the brain, Another consid-
eration of practiraJ moment was, that this place in both sexes is quite
accessible, even with the present methods of arranging the hair. Look-
ing at the subject from the standpoint of anatomy, physiology, and
pathology, also, it was sufficiently clear that in galvanizing the brain,
the object should be, not so much to affect the anterior lubes as the
base and posterior portion^ where originates the great cranial nerves.
We soon found by clinical obsenp-ation, that little dizziness was caused
when tlic electrode was placed in this position, and that a stable current
of a number of cells could be borne without unpleasantness, and that
oftentimes a peculiar sensation was experienced, very different from the
Stinging and pricking sensations that arc felt when the electrode is
placed on the forehead. Last of all wc extended the application, so as
lo include the whole length of the spinal column, passing the electrode
beneath the clol]ies of the patient, loosened and pulled up for that pur-
pose. Since the first publication of this method of central galvaniza-
tion, wc have modified it by changing the position of tlie negative pole,
up and down the breast and abdomen, so as to avoid over- irritating the
stomach.

Some of the processes of central galvanization had been used by
other physicians, long bcfot^ we worked up the complete method as he
described. Dr. Allhaus writes us, that several years since he had em-
ployed the first step in the process— one pole at the epigastrium and
the other at the back of llie neck, but becoming alarmed by unpleasant
symptoms, had abandoned it; and Dr. Meredith Clyiner, of this city,
informs us that during the past three or four years he has independently
used the processes of central galvanization with tonic results that have
been most pleasing.

The ill.fortune of Dr. Althaus was due, we suspect, to the fact that
he used powerful or interrupted currents — a mistake that we repeatedly
made during our earlier experiments, a mistake that is IrcqucDtly loade
by those beginning any new method of electrization.

CHAPTER IL

CEXKRAt. THERAPEUTICAL ACTIOX OT BI.EaRlCnV.

Elteiriiiiy in its Medieat Relaticns is a Siimulating Sedative Ttnif.—
The cause of medical electricity has been, and still is, greatly r&
larded by vague and incorrect notions of the position of electricity in
the materia medica. It has been classed as a stiiiitilanl, and up to the
tiiue wheD we began to wiiie on Uie i.iib>eci, in iSa6, nearly all tlie
wTitcis on tlic suUjcct had assumed wilhout tjucstion or discussion that
the sumubting action was the main if not the only acliou of electricity
The idea that it was also a tonic was not even discussed. The 6rst
fonnal presentation of the use of electricity by the method of general
bradizaiion a^iprared in a paper l>y l>r. Rockwell, based on consid>
erable experience and many experiments, and entitled " Electricity in
the TreaUnent of Rheumatic Affectivns," and published in the Medifat
Jttiord va 1866. 1q lhi» and subsequent papers by both the authors
of this treatise, the tonic effects of electricity were fully demonstratetL
Those few in the profession who used electricity at all hul gone rui
fimher than Duchenne, and supposed that when they had used this
agent to kick up paUicd muscles, llicy had exhausted its therapeutic
iodications. la obedience to the sajue nanow and exclusive dogma,
electricity was supposed to be excUiHivcly contraindicated in febrile and
inllanimatory affections, and was supposed to be of value only in a
very limited range of subacute and chronic diseases. The acceptance
of the view that electricity is a tonic has wrought a revolution in
elecuo-tberapeuttcfi. An agent which was formerly used mainly if
not exclusively in [laralysis and rlicuniatisni, is now used, and with far
more brilliant hucccm, id hysteria and alTections allied to it, in iniuinity,
anemiA, neurasthenia, iii nervous dyspepsia, neuralgia, chorea, in the
convalescence from fevers, and all forms of pain and debility whatso'
ever.

it is necessary to state, at the outset, that in classing clectrieity as a
ftiviutjtiHg stdattvt tem<, we use the words in tlie sense in which they
ftre ordinarily understood aud employed when applied to other reme*
iie» and systems of treatment, and without any reference to the mere

2l8

STIMULANTS VS. TONICS.

verbal distinctions that ma/ be or have been made in the clas&ficatiOB
of materia mcdica.

Stimulants are usualEy understood to be tho^ agents which quickly
txtite the system, and temporarily arouse its activity. They arc hke
ll^c goal], which forces the exhausted beast to draw the burden, but
does nothing to inciease his strength; or like the blast of the fur-
ooce, which increases the combu&tioa, but adds no fueU We do no*
accept this definition, but would prefer to regard stimulaots as those
agents that correct, intensify or economize the forces of the system.

Sedatives may be severally defined as those agents that allay irrita*
bility and pain and induce natural repose.

Tonics are ordinarily understood to be those agents which gradually
improve nutrition, restore enfeebled functions, invigorate the system,
and permanently increase its capacity for labor.

It is because electrization is capable of producing at oace the effects
-which are ascribed Co all these classes of agents, that wc have defined
it a stimulating sedative tonic

These various effects are not always mathematically distinct, but run
into each other. The slimtilant effect may at once lead to sedation,
and the pemiauent improvement to nutrition follows after a long time,
and is in part a result of both stimulation and sedation.

Of these three orders of effects, stimulation, sedation and improve'
ment in nutrition, stimulation is the one that is of the least importance,
and yet it is the one that first strikes the observation, and the one which
until very recently has been regarded as the exclusive test for the use
of electricity in medicine. If electricity were merely a stimulant it
would scarcely pay to us{) it in the treatment of disease, for its range
would be so narrow, and the result of its use even in that narrow range
K> temporary and unsatisfactory, that physicians would not find it to
their advantage to spend time and labor in making the applications.

The ill success of all previous attempts to popularize electro-thera-
peutics is to be exjilained in part by the fact that those who experimented
wiih it looked upon it as a simple stimulant and noUung more, and
recommended it accordingly. If it depended on its stimulating action
only, the cause of electro-therapeutics would have little vitality. The
reason why electricity is now growing in popularity in the profession is
betause it is found to relieve aSl forms of pain, and to add tone lo the
system and improve nutrition after ordinary sedatives or tonics have
failed.

Tonic Effects of Electricity best elicited by General Faradisation and
Central Galfamtatioa. — Reasoning from analogy, as well as from cxperi-

GENERAL THERAPEUTICAL ACTION OF ELECTRICITY. 319

ence, it woiitd seem Ihat Uic full effecti of electricity on the human l>od>
could only be obtained by muking the applications a/i <n'er tki person aii4
en the central nen^us system in sueh a way as to affeet the xcholt sysleau
The induence of any drug or rcnicdiil agent on the comtitulioD ciu<
only be ascertained by bringing the whole system under that influence
A man wlio habitually washes one uf his fingers in cold water zy
preciaies the Ionic effects of the cold only in that finger ; but a mat

LWho habilualty takes a showcr-bath, or plunger into a tub of cold
water, realizes powerful tonic effects on his entire Bystcm. If a man
duly ex]K)set one arm to the sunlight, while the rest of the body is

;. enclosed in a dark cell, he receives direct tonic effects only in the

'exposed member ; but he who walks forth and ex|Joses his whole per*
son to the solar raya will in time experience the full tonic effect of suO-
light on his system. If one hand or one foot is vigorously and regu*
Urly exercised, the muscles of that limb exhibrt the tonic effects of the
exercise, and increase in Hardness and perhaps in size ; but if all the
portions of the botly are vigorously and regularly exercised, all the
principal muscles will increase in finnness and perhaps in iue, and
tonic effects will be appreciated by the entire system,

Ju»t SO M'ith all other tonic remedies and influences. If quininCr
strychnine, iron, arsenic, oil, etc., could be localized in a single limb,

»only diat limb would be directly influenced by them. Their tonic
effect is only obtained by administering them in such a way that tliey
will penetrate every portion of the body.

Electricity is no exception to this Uw. In order to ascertain Its full
effects on the Hy»tem at large, and to determine its position among
remedies, the applications must be made in such a vay that the whole
system shall, so far as possible, be directly or indirectly brought under
its influence. This is best accompli&lied by the methods oi general
faradisati&n and eentral gahanizaiion that arc hereafter to be ex-
[rioincd in detail.

In making a detailed comparison, therefore, between the effects of
electrization and the effects of recognized contcs— quinine, iron, strych-
nine, physical exercise, sunlight, cold bathing, etc. — it is logically neces-
sary that the applications ehould be so given that the whole body
should be brought under the direct influence of the current, just as it is
brought under the iuiluence of other recoguiied toDics as ordinarily ad>
ministered.

The immediate effects of an application of general faradization and
central galvaniradon are often a feeling of enlivenment and exhilaration,
drowsiness, temporary relief of pain, and incrca-sed warmth of the body.

220

LIKE OTHER STIMULATING TONICS.

The same clfcc.cs are notably observed after the shower-bath, a tumble,
in the surf, a brisk walk in the open air, or from the odministratioQ of
alcohol.

Like other stimulating toiiIcs, general faradizatioa and central gal-
vanization, when given in an overdose, or in too great strength for the
constttucioii of ihc patient or the condition of tlie system at the time,
may l>c followed by ticcondary or reactive effects that arc both dis>
agreeable and positively alarming. The second or third day after an
injudicious application, the patient, ei>peciall/ at the outset of treat-
ment, may experience soreness in tlie muscles, an indefmable feeling of
nervous exhaustion, irregularity of pulse, and sometimes exacerbation
of special xyiiiplotiis. It is well known thai severe physical exercise
will produce all these unpleasant secondary effects, especially in pa-
tients who are fecbk* and unaccustomed to niiiscuUr exertion. A cold
bath, cither in the surf or at home, that is too prolonged may give rise
to all these 8>'mptoms the night or day fotloiving. Unpleasant etfects
may secondarily follow an overdose of our ordinary btimulaiil^ as
alcohol, or from internal tonics, as iron, quinine, strychnine.

The perniancnt eficcts of general faradization and cculral galvaniza*
lion are as closely analogous to those which come from other Ionic
remedies and sy&tcius of treatment as arc the immediate and second-
ary effects.

The very marked permanent effect of general faradization and central
galvanization is improvement in the sleep. i*hysical exercise — walk-
ing, boating, gj'mnostics, bowling — cold bathing, and the ordinary
internal ionics do the same, though not so markedly and with far less
uniformity.

General faradization and central galvanization also permanently im-
prove the appetite and digestive capacity, and regulate the bowels. '
Improvement in the various operations of digestion is one of the most
uniform effects of our ordinary ionics, and it is for that purpose, more
perhaps than for any other, that tliey are employed.

l.ikc other tonics, general faradization and central gatvanizatioL
equalize the circulation. This effect, when it immediately follows an
application, is nearly the temporary excitement, similar to what follows
a rapid walk, or gymnastics, or alcoholic stiumlants, ami soon pa.ssc3
Rway. But when it becomes a permanent condition — when the patient
'■;els Less annoyance from chilliness and cold extremities — it is a result*

I of the imj-rovcment in nutrition.
ike other tonic n'eaiiures — gymnastics, active games, and outdoor
«nicnts, etc, etc —general faradization and central galvaniz.xtioQ

GENERAL THERAPEUTICAL ACTION OF ELECTRICITV. 221

cause the muscles to ucvclop in sizo and hardness, and sumetiiiies,
though by no means uniformly, ;>rodnce importanl and rapid increase in
the weight of the body, the result of the improvement in nutrition. In-
crease in weight is familiarly observed al'tcr a (rip of pleasure, a vaca-
tion in the country, a voyage by sea, and very frequently indeed from
ttie use of cod-liver oil and strychnine. General faradization some-
limes ciiiscs the patient to incrca-ie in weight from the very outset of
the treatment, and to an extent that is most surprising.

IaVc other tonics, general electrization, faradization and central
galvanization, iu iheir ultimate effects, increase the disposition and the
capacity for labor of the braia or of the muscles. This is indeed the
chief end to which all tonic treatment is directed, inasmtich as dtniin-
' ished capacity for labor is ^lerhaps the condition for which tonics are
most frequently advised, and it does not usually increase the capacity
for toil until it has first improved the sleep, the appetite, the digestion.
The siime is true of many other, if not all, tonic remedies.

Experience shows that general faradization and central galvaniEatioa
are usually contraindicated in those diseases and for those temperaments
that will not bear any of the internal ionic*. We find almost invariably
that ihey must l>c used most cautiously, and meet with their worst failures
in cases where quinine, strychnine, iron and siimul.anta have proved to
be injurious.

Whatever difference of opinion there may be conceroing the ration-
ale of clectrii^ation, or whatever dispute tlieie may be concerning the
ttse and the meaning of the words stimulant, sedative, and Ionic, the
majority of advanced practical electro-therapeutists must substantially
'letidorsc the emphatic words of Prof. Nicmcycr : " /« Mf constant cur-
rent vf finTe a means more pennerpd than any ether of modifying the
nutritive eondttions of parts that are deeply situated." *

Rationale of EUetrisaiion. — The stimulating, the sedative, and the
tonic effects of electrization are resultants of the various and diverse ac-
tion of Ihc currents on the tissues. These effects have been defined as
nteekanical^ physieal, eatalytie (increase of circulation and absorption),
eleetretonic (inodifirarion of nerve), eleetrolyt'ie (electro- chemical decom-
position), and chemiiat. The mechanical effects are more m.irkedly
observed from the faradic current, the other effects from the galvanic
These terms, considered as explanatioiie of the action of electrizatioD,
we, it must be admitted, quite unsatisfactory, since they arc incapable

* Trxt'Book of Practieat Mtiikint ; TrsuitlMion of Dr«. Humphfcys and Hacb
by, vol. ii., p. 290b

222 IS ELECTRICITY TRANSFORMED INTO NERVE FORCE?

of cxacc and complete d«&niUoD, and must, to a certain exteDl. include
each other. It is safe to say that we know m much of the ratiouali
of ctcriri/ation as of mnst of our internal reincdics. (See chapter on
the subject in Elcctro-Physiolog)'.)

Is Elechicity TraHsfm-med into Nerve Force 1 — Nearly all of the
earlier and very many of ilie latter experimenters in electro-therapeu-
tics assumed without argiimcDl, that electricity was identical with the
nerve lorcc, or, at Icist, tliat it was directly tranhfonned into it. Although
the weight of evidence is at present decidedly against the theory of the
idcnriry of those forces (see Experimentsof Hclmholtz), yet the assiunp.
tioii that chey are ideniica.1 or can be directly transformed into each
other, still lingers. The taking phrase, " Klectrictty is Life," is con*
stantly used as the war-cry of rival instrument makers, and as the
motto of travelling charlatans, on the street corners and at country
fairs. Whatever future science may unfold, we are now forced to say
that t^oi only is there no evidence that electricity is identical with life,
bnt also that the theory thai electricity, when applied to the body, is ever
directly transformed into nerve force has few if any facia or arguments
in il.s favor. That the body can be charged with electricity, and that
the normal electricity of the body can be changed in character '\% clear
enough; but it docs not follow that such changing of electrical condi-
tion has any direct intlncncc on the quantity or quality of the nervous
force. Whether galvanic or faradic electricity charge the body to any
extent in passing through it may rightly be doubted; if they leave
more electricity in the body than they found in il, it must be by virtue
of the direct influence of the current over the nutrition. Electricity
is no more life than light and heat are life. I-ike light and heat it may
SRstain life, not by direct transformation, bm indirectly through its in-
fluence over nutrition. When ihe light of the gun falls on a plant or
animal, when arciflcial heat is applied to a cold and paralyzed limb,
growlh is stimulated and nutrition improved, bat not, so far as can yet be
demonstrated, by any direct transformation of light or heat into nervous
force. Similarly, also, we have no sufficient endciice as yet that the
varied and marvellous improvement in nutrition that follows clecrriia-
lioa is the result of anything more than the indirect improvement in
ncr\'niis force, which is a part and result of the general improvement in
nutrition.

In the time and manner of their development the tonic effects of
general faradization and centra! galvanization resemble those of other
tamrs in these hvo particulars.

I. Theyart Det'elo/ieii Slcwfy. — ^This slowness of development raark«

GENERAL THERAPEUTICAL ACTION OF ELECTRICITY. 223

a radical distinction between tonics and mere sHnmtanis. The agree-
able sdmulatiiig clfccts wliich inimcdialcly follow an application of
rgeoeral faradijiaiion and central gaivanixation. just as they follow the use
of gymnastics, walkingf active games, etc., soon pass off or merge into
the pcrnianent or tonic effects that come more or !e«s slowly, and
ificr repeated treatment.

a. Tlify arf ajtrn Dfvtlepfd long aper the Treatment is Ahandcned.—
i^eeks and months aAer a patient has taken a course of general treat-
ment by general and central electrization he may continue to improve-
in his general conditiuu, even (hough very little progress may havo
been made while the applications were being received. Just »o the
tonic effects of a tilp by land, of a sea voyage, of our ordinary summer
vacations, are sometimes not appreciated until after we have returned
home, and are again fully at work.

Why were not the Tonic Effects of Electricity sooner Discovered i—^
The inqutT)' now very naturally ari.scs, why it is that the important fiin-
daniental fad — that electrization is a powerful means of improving
nutrition, and capable ol producing effects on the constitution similar
to tho»c which are familiarly obtained from the tonics in ercry>day use—
,has escaped the observation of the very able writers who in different
''lands have devoted themselves to electro- therapeutics, until we called
sitention to them.

The iniiuiry is thus answered : —

I. Because most of the recent scientific observers whose writings are
aulhoritics in electro-therapeutics have used electricity locally, in some
fonn of " healited electrisation."

For obnous reasons, that have already been presented, localised elee-

iitrisatiffM must produce chiefly local effects, which aithoiigh they are

tonic in their character, so far as they go, and reveal themselves by

marked improvement in the local nutrition, would not ordinarily ffllg-

r gcst the powerful con&titutional tonic powers of which electrization is

[«apaUe when applied all over the body, any more than the feeble

ects of washing the hands, the face, or the feet, or any single member
or organ, would suggest or give any intimation of the well-known con-
stitutional effects of surf-bathing or the shower-bath.

Indirect constitutional effects result from localized electrization of the
central nervous system, and especially from galvanization of the brain,
ftpine and cervical sympathetic, although, as will be seen, tiiey arc rot
u marked as those which follow general faradization and central gal-
vanization.

It is a very U'tcrcsting and significant fact, however, that since the

224

TONIC EFFECTS RECENTLY DISCOVERED.

introdiictioD into medical practice of the methods of localizing the

galvanic current in the nervous centres tirst suggested by Remak, elec-
tro therapeutists have achieved success in a variety of diseases asso-
ciated with debility and impaired nutrition, where before electrical
treatment was supposed not to be indicated, at least by those who con-
fined themselves to localiited electrisation.* A euggesUvc fact relating
to this subject is that Gubter, who is one of the very few European
writers who had used faradization in such a way as to directly affect tlie
whole system, also remarked tonic effects in conditions of debility, even
from his very awkward and imperfect method. f

2. Because the immediate effects of electrization are so markedly
stiriiuiating as to suggest the idea tliat it is simply and oniy a stimulant
or irritant. In some of the cases for whicli localized electrization are
used the stimulant are the effects which are chiefly desired. But, as
has already been shown, many of our ordinary tonics arc primarily
stimulating, and ro much so that they have been classed as stimulating
tonics.

There is little question that if many tonics in ordinary use, had
been used only locally, as electricity has been used, they might have
been regarded merely as stimulants.

3. Because until quite recently most of the recognized authorities
and writers on electro- therapeutics of modern days have not \ised
electricity in those diseases and morbid conditions where tonics, par
txctUencc, were demanded. They have used the agent mainly with a
view to stimulating effects, and in some form of localized electrization.
On this principle they have treated paralysis, rbeumatism, neuralgia.
etc. As wc shall demonstrate hereafter, besides those diseases in
which the efficacy of localized electrization is fully established, the
morijid conditions and symptoms for which electriaiation is most rapidly
and permanently successful, are precisely those in which wc use our
ordinary tonics — such as dyspepsia, nervous exhaustion, insomnia,
hypochondriasia, hysteria, general neuralgia, chorea, spinal irritation,
and some forms of paralysis dependent on or associated with general
debility.

Fiirtherroore, in prosecuting this inquiry wc must not overlook two
important historical facts : —

1. In the latter part of the last and early psut of the present

• Vi4t (he wriltngsof Rannl:, Meyer, Benedtkt, Nietneyor.

f De I'Electriutiaci (^n^rale consider^ cotninfl agent tonlqne er stimnltnt drf.
fudble. BuUettH dt TMirafetUifue, D^mbn, 1863. (For dctchpi bn of hii
mcihod, ice pi t4&.)

GENERAL THERAPEUTICAL ACTION OF ELECTRICITY. 22$

ccDtuiy franklinic electricity and the current of the voltaic pile were
used for a variety of diseases for which we now use tonics, and often-
titues with some success. But the agent was used mostly empirically,
without any de&mte idea of its nature or the rationale of its operation,
Partly on account of the inconstancy and uncertainty of the voltaic
pile, and partly on account of the many failures that were necessarily
inevitable with such poor apparatus and desultory experience, partly
also as a reaction from the extravagant hopes and promises of the
earlier experimenters, this system of treatment soon fell into disrepute.
2. Tonic effects have been obtained from various methods of em<
ploying electricity by non-professional men — charlatans and outsiders
— in the United States at least, for many years, although very few of
them have kr.own or suspected the nature of the agent they dealt
with, or of the diseases they have treated.

CHAPTER III.

GENERAL 5UCGEFT10N5 IN REGARD TO TH£ USE OF ELECTRICITV
AS A THUKAPKUTIC ACKNT.

Before describing in deuil the different methods of ustDg elec-
tricity, it luny be well to offer &ome suggestions of a general
character lliat will apply to all the different methods of clcclriialioii,
localized and general, wHth the faradic and with 'the galvstnic curreius.
It is of the first importance that those who are beginning to study and
practice electro-tlierapButicB shnuld have correct notions not only of
the general i lie rape iitical action of electricity — the principle on whidi
it is used — but, also, of the general laws of its application. Such
knowledge £ts one to tOtelligentlj' study the special methods of appli-
cation, and the treatment of the various diseases. A want of this knowl-
edge is a constant hindrance, and not unfrequently utterly discourages
the beginner in this science.

Central Indications for the Mfdieat use of Electricity. -^Sxi error
that appears prumiiiently in nearly all the works on mctlical electricity,
and one that seriously interferes with the progress of healthy and philo-
sophic clectrothera]Jeutics, is the habit of treating the name of the
disease raiber than (he eonitrtian eif the system of which Ihe Kyniptoins
arc the result and expression. Men ask whether electricity is good for
this disease or that disease without any well-defined idea of the position
that this powerful agent occupies in the armory of therapeutics. It should
be understood that electricity is a powerful stimulaiin^ sedative isnie^ and
as such is indicated in any subacute or chronic disease, where slimulaC-
ing, sedative or tonic effects are indicated, and without reference to the
name of the disease by which the condition expresses itself. With tliis
general principle before us we ceajc to wonder that electricity is used
and recommended in such a wide variety of diseases, many of them of
an apparetitty opposite character, and we see the injustice of tha,t
crilicL^m which condemns electricity because it is good for so many
*0ercnt affections. Just as quinme. which ii not a specific for any

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

«7

iisease — uoless it be chills and fever — is yet used freely as a tonic id
an indcfiiiite ntiinbcr of diaeftses where tonic effects are repaired, so
electricity, which is not a specific for any one disease, is yet used wilh
good results in any number of diseases where local or general nutrition
18 impaired an<l needs to be improved. The indications for the use uf
electricity are wider than the indications for the use of nuinine, for
the thicefold reason that it has a powerful sedative action which
quinine, or indeed any other single tonic remedy does not have ;
tfiat its stimulant and tonic effects are more decided, and that its
effects, sedative, stimulating or tonic, can "be confined mainly to certain
organs, nerves or muscles, or be distributed ihmiigh the whole IwKly, aa
may be thought necessary. When the propriety of using electricity in
any medical case is discussed, the first i^uciitions to be answered are :

1. is Uiere any pain to be relieved ?

2. Is there any need and chance for improvement in local or general
nutrition ?

If these questions can be answered in die affirmative, then electridty
in some mode of application may be administered. T^e result of the
treatment will depend on the skill wJdi which it is conducted, on the nature
.of the lesion and length of time that it has existed, and on the agree*
^ment or disagreement of the temperament of the patient with elec-
tricity.
Stage of Disfose when Electrical Treatment is Indicated. — Electricity is
indicated mainly for Aubacule and chronic diseases ; at least the best results
that come from the use of this remedy have thus far not been obtained in
the acnte stages of disease. And yet there is no question that in the
acute stages of rUeuinatisni faradization is of value, and there is reason
to believe that future experiments will show that relief of pain, of
sleeplessness, and of general nervousness — with perhaps permanent
benefit — may be obtained in the active stages of febrile and inJlaniinatory
affections. The ctuef theoretical objection to the employment of
eleciricitr in acute diseases is the fact that the tonic effects of
electrical treatment require so much tituc that any disease that runs
but a limited period will not be able to appreciate them. This objec-
tion does not, however, apply to tlie stimulating or sedative effects :
these can be felt instantaneously or within a few hours after an applicadon.
Electricity is cenainly one of the most potent of sedatives, and in
'vcf^' many acute affections sedatives arc const.intly indicated.

The old notion that electricity was merely a stimulant aided in forming
in the professional ruinJ another very gross error, that in active indam-
Qiations electricity is conira-indicated. Experience proves every dajr

228

DIFFERENTIAL ACTION OF THE POLES.

&aX the sedative effects of electricity are exceedingly grateful in even
the acute stages of sprains and diseaitcd jnints.

The dognia that in hemiplegia from cerebral effusion it is better lo
wait for several mouths uniil all ihc active irritation has subsided,
before beginning electiical trcalnient — which error is yet maintained by
juany of the ablest writers on medical clectiicity-^oolt its origin in.
the erroueous conception of the position of electricity iu the materia
nicdica.

It is difficult to conceive of any actively inflamed or febrile state,
where electricity, in the hands of one who knows how lo use without
abusing it, may nut be used without injury even if it Joes no good.

Dijfferential Action oj' the Poles, and of the Ascending and Descending
Currents. — This is a subject on which much has been thought and writ-
ten, and concerning which opinions have been exprexKd with an
absoluteness not justified by experience. Almost the first question that
the beginner in electro- therapeutics asks, is, " Which pole shall 1 use ?"
as thuugli ttiat were the fundamental problem lo be solved. Another
question that is put in almost the same breath is, " Shall the current
be ascending or descending ? "

These queries seem to the novice to be of supercminent importance,
and he is annoyed that his instructor or text-book does not lay down
such t»>sitivc rules on the subject as to set hts doubts at rest forever. In
after years, when he shall have had much experience, he wilt learn these
two facts: First, tliat tlie question, which pole or which direction of the
current to uae in any given case, is one of various complexity, and can-
not always be solved by a dictum. Secondly, he will learn that the prac-
tical therapeutical difference in the action of the pole or of the ascend,
ing and descending currents, is much less demonstrable than he sup-
posed, and that the special directions for each disease are not at hand.

The ditferencc of the physiological action of tlic poles of the g;i[vanic
current, when applied to the body, is, as we have shown under electro-
physiology^ of a radical character. It has specially been shown that
the antUctrotonic region at the positive pole is in a condition of dimin-
ished, while tlie ccUeiectretonie region near the negative pole is in a
condition of increased irritability. Moreover, it is easy of demonstnu
tion that tiie negative pole of botti currents is more painful than the
positive, and this fact, as we have seen, enables us to distinguish the
poles in cases of doubt, or when we do not understand the cohslruc-
tion of the battery. Still further we have seen that on the nerves of
special senses — notably on the optic and auditory nerves— the polej
have a differential action of a spccl&c and demonstrable chatacler.

GENERAL SUGGIi^STIONS.

229

When now wc leave physiology and enter into the complex realm
of thcrapeulic!^ we find that it is usually better that irritable iwrts of
ihc surface of tlie body should be treated mainly by the positive pole,
'riii* relative position of the electrodes is not usually departed from in
general faradiiation and central ga vaniration, for the reason that the
majority of case* that require these methods of treatment are abnor*
mally irritable.

The negative pole, being more irrititing than the positive, is indicated
when it is desired to cause contraction in a paralyzed muscle, and the
difftrence between the poles in producing nmscular conlraclioii is chief-
ly a difTercnce of decree only, since both poles cause contraction when
placed on the body of a muscle or over its motor point, but with the
same strenj^th of current a more vigorous contraction will be produced
by the negative than by the positive pole.

In regard to (he differcniial action of tlic ascending and descending
currents there has been an almost in&nite amount of shallow observation
and impulsive writing ; for how the differential therapeutical or differ-
ential phi'siological action of the ascending and descending currents is
to be rightly discriminated from the action of the poles we cannot well
understand.

The object of applying electricity to the body in disease b to r«r-
frfft't nuiritien, and nutrition is a process of infinite complexity ; in-
dce<l, the most complex and most mysterious of all the wondrous pro-
cesses of nature. He who solves it will become immortal, both as
tbe greatest scientist and the greatest theologian of history, leaving
Newton and Catvin far behind. The relief of pain, the reduction of
tumors, the increase in sixe of muscles — all these everyday results of
electrization are signs of improvement in nutrition, and it is impossible
to exhaustively explain them by aJi)'thing we now know of electro-phy-
siology. Any man who attempts to base all his elcctro-thetapcutical
procedures on Ihc laws of eleclrotonos will find hiinself involved in com-
plications that have no end.

The one practical rule in regard to the poles, which we have arrived
at, IS that t}\c positive pole it the less irritating. In accordance with this
nile we place the negative pole at the feet or coccyx in general faradi-
zation, aiKl at tliti pit of tlie stomach in central galvanization, so that
the head, neck, and spine, and other sensitive parts affected may be
under the influence of the positive pole.

That differential effects — physiological and therapeutical — may arise
from a difference of current direction is not at all improbable — cer.
lainly no one can well prove the negative— but wc sec no way of

230 DIFFERENTIAL EFFECT OF CURKEXT DIRECTION.

demons I rating such differential effect. In every attempt that we make
the diflcrential paiar effect comes in to complicate, and in our
judgment, to override any differential effect lliere may be in current
direction. Take the faniiliai experinient : an electrode in each hand ;
in one arm the current will be ascending, in the other descending.
If now one arm were differently affected from the other, have we any
right to nisJi to the conclusion that such diffcrentiaJ effect is due to the
&ct, that in one arm the current is aJKending, in the other descending?
Is it not far more piobaWe that such differential effect is due to the
fact that the positive pole is in one hand and the negative in the other?
The differential effect of the poles can be demonbtrated in various
ways, and our knowledge of it influences our practice ; the differential
effect of cnrrcnt direction, if it be not entirely a myth, is to say the
least itndemonstrated.

Take again, for illustration, the method of galvanizing the spine. If
the negative pole be placed at the nape of the neck, and the positive at
the lower end of the spine, the current is ascending, and if a certain
effect is produced, or I>elieved to be produced, such effect is attributed
to tlie fact that the current is ascending. The upper part of the cord
is under ihc influence of the negative pole, and the lower part of the
cord is under the influence of the positive pole, and what evidence is
there that there is any differential action of current direction aside from
the differenital polar action ?

Similar diffictdtics beset us when we place one pole, say the negative^
on some indifferent point, as the feet, or thigh, and pass the positive
up and down the spine. Have »'c any right to attribute the cficcl pro-
duced to the fact that the current is descending, when we know that the
|iOfiitivc pole has a very different physical, physiological and iherapeuri-
cal effect from the negative pole, without any regard to current direc-
tion, while we, an yet, do not know that the ascending current has a
different effect from the descending current, without any regard to (he
differential polar effect One thing is clear and indisputable, and thai
is di.^t the differential effect of current direction, assuming that it
exists, is largely overborne by the differential polar effect. This is trtic
of both currents. A crucial experiment for detemuning the q^ueslion of
the differential action of the ascending and descending cunents, would
be to experiment on a piece of nerve in a physiological condition, all
Mrts of which give the same response to electrical excitation, and are

>wn to have the same function.

such a nerve-piece could be supposed, and if the positive pola
be placed on the middle of it, and the negative f '>le at the peri-

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

231

phera] end, we should have a descending cttrrent ; Ihe positive pole re*
maining at the middle and the negaKve transferred to the central end
ctf the nerve, would give the ascending current. If now the effect afte<
these procedures should be different, llic strength tif current, prcsnure
emplojred, and lime of stimulation being the same, and if the effect of
previous stimulation could be eliminated before the second part of the
experiment is made, we should have a conclusive demonstration of the
differential physiological effect of the ciurent direction. But such an
eirperiment is ideal, and the complications arc too great (or science at
present to make it actual. In all physiological exi>cnmeDts of this kind
differential polar effect complicates, if it does not neutralize, the dif<
ferenlial effect of current direction.

In therapeutics, the complications of the subject arc all Ihe greater,
because all the statements that h.ivc been and are made in regard tc
the advantages or disadvantages of the ascending or descending cur-
rent ID this or that direction arc of little worth.

The practical rules on this subject to which experience, en^htened
and fortified by physics, physiology, and pathology, have led us, may be
tbus recapitulated.

I. The stiniiilating, sedative and tonic effects of etectricity, faradic
and galvanic, are obtained by either pole, or by both combined or in
alternation, the difference in their therapeutical action being merely
a difference of degree.

3. In cases where the sedative effects are more indicated than the
stimulating effects, the positive iK>le is prcfcmblc to the negative, since it
is less irritating, and with the uninterrupted galvanic current, produces
catelectrotonos or a condition of diminished irritability.

In the great majority of the nervous cases, where general faradization
or central galvanization areuscd.seiladonis more nccilcd than stiinula-
tion ; hence the general rule to use the positive i>ole in these methods.

3. In cases where the stimulating effects are more indicated than the
seUativc effects, the negative pole is preferable to the positive, since
h b more irritating, and with the galvanic current produces cat*
electrotonos, or increased irritability.

For those lemjieTaments, now and then met with, that are exceedingly
tolerant of electricity, who can bear it in any doses, however given, and
for cases of local or general anxslhesia and paralysis of motion, whatever
may be the pathological cause, stimulation is more needed than sedation ;
hence it is an advantage in such cases to use the negative pole, and in
some cases " voltaic alternatives,'' which are more trritaring than eithet
[>ole when used alone.

232 SEAT OF DISEASE AND EFFECTS TO BE TREATED.

Inasmiicli as we cannot tell the degree of eJectro-5uscci>tivity in
ft patient unlil we havt- tested il, it is well always to begin general
farailisation and centraJ galvanization with the positive pole. This rule
is e&peciaUj' important in the United States, where the majority of oar
patients of both »exc9 arc susceptible and nervous and require sedation
more than stimulation.

Both the Seat of the Disease and the Effeets of the Disease to be
Treated. — The q^iiery whether in localized electrization we should direct
the treatment mainly to the seat vf the disease — the pathglogical lesion,
or to the seat of the prominent symptoms — ^the ej^ects of the lesion — has
given rise to some discussion.

It sounds very practical to advise the treatment of the s)'mptoma
without regard to the scat of the lesion. It sounds very scientific to
dairo ttiat the electricity should be confined to the exact scat of the
disease. Now the wise physician is both scientific and practical, and
keeping clearly before the mind this ct-ntra! thought, that the leading
action of electricity is that of a stinnilating tonic with a powerful
sedative influence, we can readily discern the truth on this subject.
Both the seat of the disease and the seat of the symptom should be
treated, for in bolli there is need of improvement in nutrition. In
this view common sense and experience accord. In hemiplegia, for a
typical exainplc, the lesion, the beat of the disease, is in the brain,
while tlie leading symptom is in one-half of the body, which is para-
lyzed. The muscles of that side become atrophied, and the nerves
become anacBthetic. To restrict the electrization to the brain, and to that
side of it where the lesion is or is supposed to be, is so imposing and
sdenlific in theory that electro-therapeutists of limited experience
might advise this treatment exclusively. To purify the stream, first
purify the fountain. Lay the axe at llie root of the tree. All thes<
analogies arc beautiful, but they are fallacicus. The symptoms of the
diseo-se will not disappear when the disease disappears. The effects
remain after the clot is absorbed. In the larger number the half of
the body is as much the scat of the disease as the brain; for the
several parts of this human machinery are all members one of another.
When one suffers all suffer. To con&ne the treatment to the paralyzed
muscles is also irrational, although the purely peripheral treatment is
far more successful than purely cenlr.iI. If we .ire to be exchiwve .ind
one-sided and theoretical in otir treatment, it is better to exclusively
treat what are called the symptoms or effects of the disease, and to
neglect the brain altogether. But it is the part of the higher wisdom
to use both methods — central an:l peripheral, to attack the seat of th«
lesion and the seat of the symptou.

GENERAL SUGGESTIOXS.

333

The most satisfactory results in hemiplegia come from a coinbiDalton
of periiiheral and cemral treatment. Similarly with diseases of the
»pinal cord, as congestion, sclerosis, resulting in paralysis of motion
or sensation. Purely central treatment— galvanization of the spinal
cord — is not sufticicntj the symptom also, the paralysis, must be
treated directly in llie muscles and nerves where it is most prominent.
In diseases of the spinal cord, treatment confined to the seat of the
disease does more good than in diseases of the brain, for the reason
that the cord is more acces^ble to the current, its surface biding more
exposed, as it were, throi^hout its entire lenjjtth. But those whc
content themselves with treating diseases of the cord by simple galvani-
zation, to the exclusion of peripheral treatment, make a grave mistake ;
they fail where they ought to succeed, and they succeed only in a small
percentage when a large percentage was possible. Cases of ataxia,
as well as of motor-para1y»s need peripheral treatment with the nioist
sponge or wire brush, or both, as well as galvanization of die spine.
On the same principle our method of central galvanization is some-
times more effective in diseases of the cord and brain than localized
galvanization of these parts, as usually practised. In neuralgia also,
where the seat of the disease is in the nerve-centres, the application
should be mode both to the tender and painful points, as well as over ihe
root of the nerve, and a very good method of application is to place
one pole over the origin of the painful nerve, as near as possible, and
Ae other over the tender point and along the whole course of the
nerve. Frcqncnity neuralgia, as we shall see, yields to our metliod of
central galvanization — where not only the painful anddiseascd parts, but
also ihe whole central nervous system, wliether healthy or not, is treated,
— when it does not yield, at least as rapidly or as surely, to local a|ii>li-
cations either central or ptrripheral.

Hfalthy parti may he benefited by EUctritation. — There is a kind <A
unconscious idea abroad among electro- iherapcurists that in applying
electricity to the body it is necessary to avoid acting on healthy parts,
and that the direct effects of the current should, so far as possible, be
confined to the part that is supposed to be in a diseased conditioit.
This erroneous doctrine takes its origin, first, in the teaching of
Duchenne and other advocates of localized electrization, and, secondly^
in the narrow and incorrect ideas of the general physiological and thera-
peutical action of electricity.

Duchenne, by embodying the term •' localiicd " in the title of his work,
has done much to popularize in the profession the notion that in clec
trical applications the aim should be to concentrate the current on the

234

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

pan where it is supposed to be needed, and to avoid afTcctitig oUier
pacts.

The idea that electricity is a mere stimulus, and only valuable as a
means or exciting paralyzed muscles or waking up dormant nerves,
would very naturally lead to the adoption of the view that it should be
used only in those parts that arc in need of stimulation, and that
healiiiy parts would he injured by it. The false ideas lliat have pre-
vailed in regatd to effect of stitiuili, which we have elsewhere discussed,
have tended to increase this absurd dread of applying electricity to
healthy parts. A little common sense applied to this subject may per-
haps help us (o find the truth without great difficulty.

First of all, we must bear in mind always that the doctrine taught by
the European writers, that electricity is a stimulus merely, is narrow
and erroneous. Klectricity, applied to the body, acts as a stimulating
tonic with a powerful sedative iiillueiice. Then, again, stimulants are
something more than mere goads or spurs ; they correct and intensify
the forces of the body, and may be useful and as necessary in conditions
that we call healthy as in those that we call unhcaUhy. Stimulants
tonics, and sedatives are called for every day, and are every day em-
ployed by nearly every member of the human race, young or old, sick
or well.*

Still further, pathology is not so much a special and separate condi-
tion as a degree of the nonnal condition of health. No one can tell
just where ph)'siology ends and patliology begins. Reasoning from all
these considerarions, it is clear not only that electricity need not be
confined to diseased parts, but that the parts that we call healthy may
be benefited by it just as truly as those that we believe to be un-
healthy, and the benefit they receive may react favorably on the dis-
eased parts, and thus aid the treatment.

These views are enforced by analogy. Very few of our stimulating
tonic or sedative remedies are limited in their action to ]iarts that are
diseased. The medicines that we give by the mouth or by the syringe
go whither they please, and if they sensibly affect some diseased organ,
it is not because their action is confined to that organ, but because that
organ, on account of its readier operation or of its disease, is more sensi-
tive than other parts to the inHuence of remedies. Alcohol or opium go
to the brain, lead aflccl'* the exterior muscles of the forcann, and the
Influence of chlorate of potash is quickly felt in the mucous membrane

' Thit mbject b ditcnwcd in detail la Dr. BfiHRTi workoB "SlimiilantS *ni

GENERAL SCGGESTIONS.

2S5

of Ae mouth ; but none of tliese remedies restrict themselves to the
parts lh:u arc the nio&t |>crcciKibI)-' afTccleil by tliciti.

lodeed, llie fact that our most valued medicinef are used for such a
variety of local and general xfTcctions shows that iheir cCTect!! arc not cod-
fixied to separate parts of tlic body to the extent that has been supposed.
Electricity can be localized, in cases where it is desirable to do so,
better than almost any other remedy, and yet the most careful and suc-
cessful localisation of the current is more or less imperfect. The re-

[flex effect of electrization that always complicates the direct effcctSt
and which are sometiines of more value than the direct effects, cannot
be avoided. Then, again, die branch cunenis, which, as we have

Lseen, move in undtilatiuns not only directly between the electrodes, but

'at a. considcraMc distance on either side of the median line between
them, will be likely, in nearly all forms of application, to touch healthy
parts that do not stand in especial need of trealmcnL The most cora-

'pletc form of localised elecirization is electrolysis when the needles are
placed close together, but even here the reflex effect is most powerful,
and operates with a mild as w<:]l as with a strong current.

Idit fortunately it is never necessary to localize electricity, in the
strict sense of the term. It is sometimes necessary, however, to avoid
producing too strong reHex elTccts, and in applications near sensitive
parts the possibility that the branch currents, if powerful currents are
used, may over-irritate, should ever be borne lu mind. Experiment and
expcrieoce show that healthy animals and men can be electrized with
bcnchi all over the body, or in any part of it. In applying electricity
to any part of the body we improve the nutrition of that part ; in ap-
plying electricity to the whole body we improve the nutrition of the
whole body, or, at Ica-St, of those parts wliich are directly or indirectly

.iniluenced by the current. Faradization of a healthy muscle luikei

' it grow (aster thaa it would grow without faradization ; In oUier words,
it produces ihc same effect that it would if the muscle were paralyzed.
When a part is in a pathological condition — when, far example, a
muscle is atrophied — any irai>rovemcnt in nutrition under electrization
i& more quickly obsen'ed, and is probably more rapid and important
than when the same nmsclc is treated in a physiological condition ;
but tlie improvement of the healthy muscle is none llie less real,

■ though it may be relatively less important than in the diseased muscle.

The tonic effects of general faradization and of ccniraJ galvanixation,
and, indeed, of many forms of localized electrisation are dtie to the
direct or indirect action of tlie airrcnt, on parts which arc more or less
bealthy, or which, to say tbe least, are not in any recognizable patho

336

DOSE OF ELECTRICITY.

logical state. The objection sometimes brought against these melhodi
thai ihey do ihiis affect healthy parts, simijly attempts to prove too
much. The same argument would banish all, or nearly all our stimu
lants., tonics, and sedatives from our materia medica, and practically
discourage all attempts to relieve or cure dirunic diseases of ihe ner-
vous system.

Dvst of £lectriaty. — Nearly all our medicines arc prescribed by an
average standard dose. This average standard is derived from experi-
ment and cTpericncc, and, with the majority of drugs, is a eafe guide
in aduiinisuaiion, although every judicious and thoughtful physician
■todies each case by itself, and varies the dose according to the ap
parent indications.

In the case of electricity, when medically employed, the dose cannot,
in the present state of science, for obvious physical reasons, be arbitra-
rily or mathematically slated.

The dose of an application of electricity consists of these factors :—

1. Tlie strength of the current, or the quantity of electricity ttiat
fioirs in a given time.

2. The length of the application-

Both of these factors are so mtxUfied in variouiways that they can-
not attain anything like m.ithematical precision. The strength of the
current, or the qjuaiitity of electricity that flows through the circuit, as
we arc taught by Ohm's law, is the electromotive force divided by the
resifctmce. We have previously shown (in Electro-Fhysics, chapter vii.)
that both of these factors are susceptible of almost infinite variations,
some of which arc and others of which are not understood.

In the time of the application there is less vagueness but even in
this factor the precision is more apparent than real ; for the effect of
electricity depends so ttiuch on the manner in which application is
made, whether with interruptions or without interruptions, wheiher
with large or small electrodes, etc. The method of the application.
whether local or general, and if local, to what part, and how directed,
also modilics seriously the determination of the dose from the length
of the application. Ten minutes of general faradization or central
galvanization will have a much more powerful general cfTccl than
ten or even twenty minutes of local electrization. Five minutes of
gaIvani;tation of the brain will accomplish more good or evil ihan
fifteen minutes' faradiz,itton of the uterus, or of any one of the extremi-
lies.

The time may yet come, in the advance of saencc, when electrical
Bcasureinent will attain such a degree of precision that we shall be able

GENERAL SUGGESllONS.

2i7

to prescribe so inxny farads of elcctricily. as «re now prescribe so majiy
grains of quinine, or so many drops of laudanum ; but Uie day when
such exactness shall be possible in applications to the human body is
probably not very near. Our [jresent method of meauuring; the gal-
vanic cuircDt by the ouiaber of degiees of deflection of the needle of a
galviinomcter is very unsatisfactory, fur the twofold teaAon That the de-
declion beyond a certain angle docs not accurately represent the relative
strength of the cunent, and especialJy because when applied to the
body a different and varying resistance is encountered, which at once
destroys the value of tlie comparison. Electio-therapeutists have some-
times stated the amount of the defleciiun which the current caused
before being applied ; but all such statements arc uf little or no
value, and particularly when we do not know the construction of the
particular galvanometer which they employ. A further diflicuUy m
measuring electricity by tlie galvanometer, is ihat ihc strength of the cur-
rent in most of the batteries in common use declines during the appli-
cations, so that a current which is powerful at first uiay iu the course of
len or fifleen minutes be only medium.

llie graduated scale on some of our faradic machines, and which in
dicates the number of inches that the rod or helix or tube is moved,
is also a practically useless guide, except as far as it may be resorted
to to encourage and amuse silly and weak-minded imtients. In any
faradic machine the strength of tlie current in tlie cell, and consequeni'
ly the strength of the induced current in the coil, varies front day to day,
and varies during the application ; and the amount that passes through
the patient is dependent on the size of the electrodes, and the amount
of moisture in them, and their relative position.

In default therefore of any trustworthy means of prescribing electricity
by farads, or other dtfinite measures, we are compelled in practice
to depend on these two indications :

I. The sensations of /he patient.

Very fortunately the sensatiun of the patient during the application
indicates with coiikiderable correctness whether the current is of the
proper strength. The rule is Ihat where strong eurrtnts are borne
witksui diseomfort strong currents are benefieial ; where only mtfd cur-
rents are borne only mild currents are indicated. The diiTerence in the
natural sensitiveness of patients to electricily"is very great. This dif-
fercnce is further modified by disease, tn anaesthesia local and general,
in sclerosis of the nerve centres, and certain local afTcclions, very power-
ful currents cause but little pain. On the other hand in hyperesthesia,
in hysteria and allied affections as a rule, and in acute and subacute

33«

DOSE OF ELECTRICITY.

Jocal inflaintnatioiiE. only mild currents can be borne. To dJsregnd^
the feelings of the patient and make the applications exceedingly pain-
ful will tend to produce the evil rather than the good cRects of elec-
tricity. To give only mild applications when painful ones could be
well borne is to rob the patient of a part of the benefit to which he ii
entitled.

To the rule that the sensations of the patient are the guide in elec
tiica] applications there arc some exceptions, just as there are some
exceptions to (he rule that the appetite is the j^uide in the quantity
of food that we eat. It is partly to guard against these exceptions, and
to keep on the safe side, that the first few applications on a new pa-
tient whom we have not before treated by electricity, should be mild and
short.

Not only do different individuals vary in thcii sensitiveness to electri-
city, but different parts of the surface of the body in the same indinduai
also vary, as we have seen through a considerable range ; and in the
cavities of the body and on the raucous surface the range of vanation
in sensitiveness is yet greater. The mucous membrane of the mouth,
tongue, urethra, is very sensitive, and this sensitiveness should be re*
Bpecled by the clectro-tbeiapeutist.

There are some quite rare cases of hysteria where the great sensi-
tiveness of the patient may be disregarded, or chloroform or ether may
be administered. The sensitiveness of the patient is a guide only or
mainly in regard to the sirtngik of the current. In regard to the
length of the application we must be guided by —

z. The immediate, secondary, and remote ejects. — This second guide
serves to correct tiie mistakes of the firel. A meal that disagrees
with us may show its ill effects in a few minutes or hours, or the
following day. Similarly we should study the effects of electrical ap-
plications. So far as any one or all of the good effects described in thii
(Jiapter follow an application, so far we may judge that the applica-
tion has done good ; so far as any or all of the evil effects described
in this chapter follow an application, we may judge that it has done
evil. Tlic evil and the good effects may sometimes be associated.
To rightly interpret these effects, and to disringiiish between those that
arc produced by the applicarions and those that are produced by
moral, hygienic or medical causes is one of the scvcrc^st tests of medi-
cal skill. There is less liability to deception in studying the immediate
effects, since there is less chance for othci forces to complicate the
results. After a few hours, the complicaliong of diet, exercise, weather,
medicine and so forth begin to appear, and obscure the effects of the

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

239

electricity. The secondary and remote effects can therefore only be
ascertained by repeated observations. A single application gives us
little opportunity to answer the iiiiestion whether electricity is really
the remedy that the case requires.

One caution itmst not be TorgottcD : the immediate and secondary
effects may be evil while the remote effeets may be good.

A long walk that much fatigues us is often beneficial, thougli the
benefit does not appear for several day.'*. Those who take travelling
vacations to reciuit exhausted energies, frequently feel worse while
thcj- are travelling, but arc stronger on their return and for montha
following. The fatigue and soreness and stillness thit sonictiiiies foU
low skating and gymnastics, and utlicr cxcrctiics, do not always indi-
cate that benefit has not been derived. The next Oay the appetite
and spirits may be better, sounder sleep may follow ; the evil and die
good effects contend for the mastery, and the good effects triumph.

The best resulti of EUctrical Treatment usually obtained with MUd
Currents. — For the average constitwlion, and with the exceptions that
come from certain idiosyncrasies and certain diseases, such as anaesthesia,
the best results of electrical treatment are obtained by «iW currents.

The temptation to disregard this nile and use painful currents is,
even for the experienced electro-ihetapeutist, very great, and sometimes
irresistible. The dogma, "no smart no cure," which has wrought so
much misery in the world, still lingers, even among the intelligent.

The descendants and near relatives of the man who growled at his
dentbt for cxtrarling his toolh without ]»in or bluster, because he
had been accustomed to being hauled all around the room during that
operation, are yet very numerous. Even in cultivated circles there
can be (bund those who have no faith in medicine unless it is bitter,
and no respect for the doctor unless he half kills them. Then again
toniepalientsmake a virlue of bearing pain, and will pretend that they
do not feel the current when they know Lhcy arc suffering all the
horrors of the damned. Moreover, mercenary patients wish to get
iheir money's wotih. and if ihey pay so many dollars for an application,
they want so many dollars' worth of agony. For all these reasons com-
bined, wc are, in spite of our experience and caution, continually
making the blunder that we here wani against. Over the doors of tlie
elcctro-therapeuttsi, and in full view of the operating chair, we would
inscribe this motto, "Better give much too little than a little too
nwch."

TAi use of Salt on the Electrode, — A very good device to prevent using
too strong currents, particularly the galvanic current, is to saturate tha

340

CARE IN DETAILS OF APPLICATIONS.

sponges or cloths of the electrode with plenty of salt water. Salt water
is a good conductor, much better than simple water, and will causo
the patient to seniiilively feel a current, of wliich, if the salt waiei
were not used, he would not be conscious.

With the same strength of current, a sponge or cloth electrode
saturated with salt is more painful than a similar electrode not so
saturated. The current when conducted though salt seems to pass in
points from the electrode to the body just as when conducted through
metal or tlie metallic brush. In a word, an electrode saturated with salt
not only conducts a greater quantity of electricity, in accordance with
Ohm's law, but conducts it more painiiilly than an electrode saturated
with ordinary water.

Car^ in the Details of the Applieations. — There is as much differ-
ence between a skilful and an awkward application of electricity as
there is between a tikilful and an awkward operation in surgery. By
those who desire to become experts in applying electricity, the follow-
ing points should be considered :

I. To avoid suddenly interrupting the currents in cases where inter-
ruptions are not required, and especially in applications on or near the
head. In the treatment of paralysis of motion and of sensation, inter-
ruptions are required, but in the treatment of the brain, spinal cord,
and sympathetic, and in very many peripheral ap|)lications stable cur-
rents only are required. In all such cases the current should be closed
gradually and delicately, if possible by means of a rheostat of »Ome
kind, or by incrcasiing or diminishing the pressure on the sponge of the
electrode. Intcmiptions made in the metallic part of the current are
always more sudden and violent than those made in the electrodes, for
the physical reason that the connection of the current is more sharp and
abrupt.

Delicate patients should be treated with delicacy. Those who are
sensitive and ap]>rehensive should never be annoyed by sudden breaks
in the current, except in those forms of disease where sudden breaks
are required.

In presenting this caution we do not intend to endorse the notion that
serious pathological lesions are caused by interrupting the current, even
on or near the brain. There is little or no evidence besides tlie case
of Uuchennc, Chat any serious injuiy to the retina, or to the auditory
nerve, (W to any part of the brain, or sympathetic, or spinal cord, has
been prodaced by faradization or galvanization with the strength of cur-
rent ordinarily employed in electro-medical applications. The dizzi-
ness, the sour lasie in the mouth, the flashes of light before the eye^

GENERAL SDGOESTIOHS.

241

^
^

tbe shock or agitation produced by the sudden intemiprion of the
galvanic current, are aonoying, and to llie delicate |>auenl unaccus-
tomed to thcni, sometimes alarming, but «-ith the batteries in ordinary
iLsc, and with the strength of current that is, 01 ought to be employed
through the head and neck, they arc rarely if ever dangerous : thef
are temporary effects that soon pass away, and are forgotten. But
they are to be avoided in cases where they arc not required, for the
ihree-fold reason that they do no positive good, that they may interfere
with the succesK of the treatment, and that they alarm or annoy the
patient. Wc are to avoid wortj'ing our palietits in this way, for the
ume reason that ve are to avoid treading on their corns, because it is
disagreeable and discourteous.

2. To avoid making the applications unnecessarily painful through
carelessness in the management of (he electrodes. By the use of line
and soft sponge — the best tliat can be found in the shops — the smarting
and stinging pain of the applications c<in be much diminished. Aside
from the fact that, with some exceptions, less satisfactory results follow
painful than pleasant cnrrents, thiC feeling of pain should, so far aspos>
sibic, be avoided. There arc, as we have said, a certain number of pa-
tients who carry into medicine the same views that once dominated in
religion, and who desire to suffer, and have very little respect for any
treatment that does not cause more or less agony. Such patients will
sometimes find, after one or two severe and painful applications, that
they are injured more than benefited, and will submit lo the advice of
the physician and take the treatment that is best for them.

3. To avoid suri^irising and startling the patient by allowing the wire*,
or the metallic punions of the ciccirodes, to touch any part of his ex-
posed body. If the connecting wires slip out of their connections with
the electrodes they are liable to fall on the exposed skin and give a
painful shock. If the edge of the electrode not covered with sponge
or cloth touches the skin, it will give the patient sudden pain, and
aniioybolh him and the operator. Connecting wires that are not pro-
tected by rubber are liable to lose their silk or cotton coverings in
places which when they touch the skin cause pain.

4. To be always and every moment sure that the current is running.
The batteries should be tested before the application, either by the
galvanometer or through the hand or person of the operator, that he
may be sure that it is in order, that the connections are properly made,
and that (he electrodes arc sufficiently wet to conduct the current.
When mild currents are used, sail may be added to the solution in
irbich the dccirodc is dipped, so that a slight stinging sensatioa

242

DISROBING OF THE PATIEIO*.

beneath the electrode, may keep the patient assured tliai the curreiM
is parsing.

Disrobing of tht PaiUnt. — The great majoritj' of electrical applica*
tions require, on the part of the patient, more or less loosening or
removal of the dress. Not only is Ihis necessary in general faradiza-
tion and central galvaniifation, but in very many ioca] applications to
the spine, abdomen, and iipi>cr and lower limbs, — excciJling merely the
face, head and hands. To know how to direct the patients to arrange
their clothing so as Co give the operator sufficient and easy access to the
person, is a part of the art of practical elcctro-thcrapcuttsts, and it it
an art not to be despised. Male patients have less trouble in this re-
gard than female patients, since iheir garments arc fewer and simpler,
bin they are more annoyed by the little they have to do than women
are by their va<it paraphernalia. The art consists in loosening and ^uli'
ing up without entirely remoz'ing the undtr-ththing, thus avoiding
irffublt, exposure irnd waste of time.

Temperature of the Electrodes and of the Operating Roam. — The
question is often raised by patients whether there rs any danger of tak-
ing cold after an application of electricity. The answer is clearly in
the negative. The electricity, as such, so far as it goes, fortifies the
system against cold; but, by careless exposure while undressed in a
cold room, it ia potisibLe to take cold, ju&t as by similar exposure wheo
electricity is rot used. It is also possible to make the application
quite uncomfortable by using sponges moistened with cold instead of
tepid water. Our aim should be to have the temperature of the
operating and dressing-room a little higher than is necessarj- for a per-
son fully dressed ; to moisten the sponges or electrode covers in te))id
or — in very cold weather — in hot water ; and when the feet are placed on
a foot-jilate of tin or copper, to have a warm soapstonc beneath the
foot-plate to keep it always comfortable.

Time of day for the j4pplii'ation.—App\ic:i.tions of electricitj- may be
given with advantage at all hours of the day and night. In our experi-
ence, and probably in the experience of all electro-therapeuiists, the
majority of the applications are given in ordinary business hours, in the
forenoon and afternoon. We have never been able to see that anything
was gained by giving any particular heed to the hours of eating ; just
before meals, and just after them, ordinary electrical treatment may be
given with apparently a^ much benefit as two or three hours from a
meal. In some impressible icmiieramcnts, central galvanization and

:neral faradization temporarily inaease appetite, and for such persons
application might ver)~ properly be given a little before meals. For

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

»*3

those who luffer frv-rn dyspepsia, a seance pretty soon after dinner nn^
be of service in aiding Oigcslion, but we cannot say that wc have StetL
iwy such rcstilL<L

For all delicrtte, hysterical, sleepless patients, the evening is an excel-
lent time to receive electricity. The jiowerful sedative effects of central
and general electrization are in this clas:i of patients most graieftilly re-
alized a little bcfoi I.* going lo bed, or after they have already retired.
for these reasons we have, for years, been accustomed to treat sonic of
our patients in the evening, before or shortly after retiring, aod, were it
Dot for the inconvenience, we should do it more frequently.

77au of Applicatwns, — The lime of an application is an element of
the dose of electricity that has not been sufficiently studied. Eleclro-
thcrapcuti&ts have fallen into the conventional and routine habit of using
the current all the way fiom 6ve to ten or fifleea minutes or so, at a
sitting, without sufficiently investigating the question whether the length
of the application ought not to be varied with studious care, in each
case, and varied during the course of treatment

For irritable, sensitive and impressible patients this law certainly
holds ; tluU long applUaiiom with mUd turrenis are better than short
appUcathns with strong currents. This law, which is the outcome of
all our observations in the department of electro-therapeutics, applies to
all modes of uung electricity.

A sudden shock, or a series of shocks with a powerful current, may
injure, where a prolonged application with a gentle current may work
no harm and much good. That this element of time becomes a practi.
cal difficulty in the use of electricity by overworked general practitioners,
must be admitted : but if it be a scientific fact— as it surely is — that
time ts required to gain the choicest and be»t effects of electrical treal-

snl, then wc must recogni/c and accept the fact, and treat our patients
:cordingly, and expect them to reward us for our labors more liberally
than for a mere prescription or suggestion.

We inust on this point, because we feel that dirough neglecting it
many mistakes have been made, and throu^ a disposition to neglect it
llberc is danger that in some minds elect ro-llier.ipeu tics itself may fall
into disrepute. While many patients and many cases do well under five
or ten minutes of clectritation, very many others, especially after they
have become accustomed to it, require at least double that time.

With all our might, wc should avoid the error of supjjosing thai -the
best effects of electrical treatment will succeed by short applicatioiu
with strong currents. In this way we may both save time aud lose otu
patients.

244

FREQUENCY OF THE APPLICATIONS.

Economy of this sort may prove to be the worst of extravagaiK^

Frequency of the Applieations. — Ordinary stimnlaniing and tonic mc Ji
dnes are yiven one, two, and usually tlirce times a day. The dose of
electricity cannot usually be administered so frequently without doing
more evil than good. It seems essential to the electro-therapeutical
treatment, whatever (he mode employed, — general and local faradiza-
tion, central and local galvanization, and even electric baths and the
use of the body batteries, — that there should be a considerabU period a/
rest beiween the appUeaiiens,

Electrization sets in tnotion forces that slowly act and react hours and
days after the electrization has ceased- The time required for these
forces to operate to the best advantage varies with individuals, but in
all cases a certain period of rest is required, and if the .application be
repeated before this period or some portion of it has elapsed, the bene-
fits of the previous appUcilion are more or less neutralized, and the
patient inay be weakened more than streni^thened. This at least appears
lo be the conclusion that long experience forces upon us. All the
way between every day or once a week the applications can be given
vrilh benefit. 'Iliree or four times a week is about as often as the aver*
age patient cares to make his visits, and it is safer to begin treatment
with at least an interval of a day or two between sittings. Some pa*
dents require at the outset of a course of treatment, intervals of ihree
or four days. If by accident or intention, strong and long applications
are made, unpleasant reactive etVects may follow that at once suggest
the necessity of waiting for a day or two. Many a lime does it happen
to lis to visit a patient, and, on learning the history of the symptoms,
to put off trie applicarion twenty-four or forty-eight hours.

On the other hand, there arc those who can take fidl applications every
day for a month iu succession, and in some ca&es, as it appears to us
with greater benefit than would be derived from applications given every
other day. At the founding of the Klectro-Therapeutical Depailnient
of Dcinilt Dispensary, we received patients only twice a week, and good
results were obtained nndcr that system, but we afterwards found it de-
sirable lo add another day. In private practice we make the applica-
tions more frequently than at first, and find an advantage in so doing,
fur the reason, mainly, that we use milder currents than fonnerly, And
Dtti patients can bear and be prgfited by more frequent sittings.

(iencral and central applications require longer intervals than local
and peripheral applications, for die patent reason that they more
powerfully affect the whole system, and are more frequcndy followed
by retclive effect*.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

245

In rare cases, — when Uie^iatLent hot but ashort time to remain in town,
Or when an intolerable pain is to be relieved, — we have given applica-
tioQS twice a day, but have nut usually obtained any ^advantage thereby.
Chronic nervous diseases cannot be cured in a day ; time is as ncces-
taiv as the electricity. Long standing pathological lesions are not to
be carried by assault, however bravely conducted ; they yield only to a
protracted siege.

Reguiarity of the Appluaiiom. — It is the custom with some electro-
therapeutists to insist on regularity in the days and hours of the
applicatioDs, and there are those who believe that the best effects
follow regular and methodical treatment. On this point wc arc in some
doubt. Patients who are methodical in their habicii, and who are
regular in their visits, will be less Ukety to omit visits, and will be
kiDore likely to persevere, and conscipienlly will be more profited than
those who omit half of their visits and abandon treatment before it
i» fully tried. There is no evidence that regularity, as such, is any
^advantage; although there is strong probability that for some constitu
' tions, and, perhaps, for diseases with periodic ^^inplonis, it iiii(;ht be
an advantage to give the applications at the same hour daily, or
every Olher day, as the case maybe. Our own custom in this regard
varies. Practically we hnd it impcs!>ible to treat alt patients with
absolute regularity, and in those cases where we arc able to do so we have
DOt, thus far, been able to see any special therapeutic advantage.

Prolonged Applications. — A method of using electricity that has been
too little studied by the profession is that of proUnged applications
with mild currents.

In certain diseases, both medical and surgical, it is of advantage to
allow the current—galvanic or faradic — to run for several hours — all
day or all night — as may be convenient.

We have become so accustomed to the use of short, or comparatively
shon applications, that wc forget that the current if sufficiently gentle
may be passed throcigh the iKuly, or part of the body for hours, if not
days consecutively, without injury, and with great benefit, provided
certain cautions are observed.

When the galvanic current is thus used, care must be taken not to
allow the sponges, or metals, or cloths, to remain too long in one
spot, since they will caiLsc a disagreeable though not serious ulceration
of the skin, that may be some lime in healing. In order to avoid this
ulceration, it is well to use sponges in&tcad of mclals, anil to change
from time to time the post iou of the electrodes, so that they may not
act too long on one spot.

246

COMBINATION OF METHODS OF APPLICATION.

The details of this method of using electricity must be varied with
each case and ihc circumstances of the paticDt.

Intervals between the Courses of Treatment,— \X is sometimes of service
to suspead a course of treatment after it has been going on a iiumber
of weeks, and to allow an intcn-aJ of one or more weeks, according to
circun)staDCe». It is sometimes obscrrved that patients improve as
much during the interval as during the treatment, and when the a)^Ii>
cations are renewed, they have greater force than at the close of
the conriic of treatment. It is true of electricity, as of alrao&t every
other siiriiuEant, tonic, sedative remedy, that aAer receiving il a certain
time the system becomes so accustomed to it as to tolerate it, and
then its full force is not appreciated. In casca where tlm toleration of
el<;ctricily is observed, when the improvement halts, so to S[«alc, a
brief suspension of treatment may be indicated, and on renewing it,
all the benefit at first realized may be repeated.

On the other hand, there are patients who seem to prosper best under
steady, unintcrnipled iroalmcnt.

Combination of Methods 0/ W////i'(rf/flii.— Comparatively few diseases
are to be treated solely by any one method of application ; many of the
purely local alTections ever yield better to electrical procedurCj when
the applications are varied, than when one mode only is persistently
used. Both currents, g.ilvanic and faradic, maybe tried in. altemarion
or succession, and both Uie direct and indirect methods may be em-
ployed at the same sitting or at diiferent sittings. In all diseases where
the whole system is involved, the method of application may be yet
more varied. General faradization and central galvanization may be
used alternately, and the ahcmation may be by the day or week.
These methods may be varied with galvanization of (he brain in all
directions, galvanization of thf- pneuniogastric and sympathetic and of
the spine. Id some diseases, a& notably in those where central le-
sions are accompanied by peripheral injury and general exhaustion, as
hemiplegiaj ataxia, and so forth, all the methods of application may
be used, including faradization with the wire brush. VVc observe not
tjnfrequently that after one method of electrization has done all that
it is capable of doing, after it seems to have lost its power, another
method of electrisation, or a mere modification of a method, may push
the improvement yet further, until it in time loses its force and the fresfa
flimulus of another method is required.

In this respect the bch.ivior of electricity is in no way peculiar; to
all powerful remedies the system in time becomes so accustomed, as to
tolerate them without ajipreciating ihcir remedial influence. In the

GENERAL. SUGGESTIONS.

adininistratioi. of tonics in cases of debility, and of astringents in cam
of chronic iliarrhaia, a necessity for frequent change of T«medy is
geoeraJly lecogniied.

Jfffw tff j'uJge of /he £ffe<ts of JUeetrUaf Treaimtnt. — It U of the fust
iinponancc for the electro- thcra(ieuti»C to have a clear, just and sys
teniauc method of determining the effects <^ electricity-, both good and
evil. Much of the difference of oi>imoD that prevails among IhoM:
who use electricity, as to its general and special value, and much of the
prejudice that exists against electro- therapeutics is the result of a want
of a knowI«dt;e of the tc^tit by which ihc action of electricity on patienti
U to be determined.

^Mien we give opium, ve kitow very soon whether it relieves pain
and produces sleep, or, as not unfrcqucntly happens, has effects pre-
cisely opposite. We learn to judge without great difficulty whether the
chloral and quinine are doing the work, dial we desire. With sdmulants
and ionics, as used in the chronic affections, (jreaier dilhculty is ex-
perienced, but there are certain tests vrhich wc study and look for and
by which we are guided. The effects of electricity sliould be similar^
Uudied.

The goad effects of electrization are in general as follows:

I. JietU/ of Pain and Disagreeable Sensations heal and generai.—
This relief may appear shurtly after the application is commenced,
after it has been continued for some minutes, or at its close. In aoiue
[Cases there is no relief during or immediately after the Bitting, but
set*eral hours subsequently. We include painful sensations uf every
kind — the vague wandering pains of neurasthenia and hysteria, the
burning of inHatnuiation as w-cll &s real neuralgia.

3. Improvetnent in the Pulse. — Where the pulse is abnormally slow
it may be (|uickcncd bclh during and for some time after the sitting.
Where it is abnonuaUy rapid it may be lowered. The pulse, there-
fore, may be a guide in the atlniinistration of electricity, as it is a guide
in the adintiiistralion of akoliol and various other forms of sdmulants
and tonics. If the quiet jmUe is made much quicker and so remains
for some rime, wc may suspect that the application has been too
strong or too long.

3. improvement in the Temperature of ihi Body, or of the part whieh is
trtated. — Parts that are abnormally warm are cooled, or as is more fre-
quently the case, parts tliat are abnoi ntaily cold are wanned, during and
■ubse<quent to the opcrauon. The temperature may be tested by the
i-teiuations of the patient, by the touch of the operator, or by the ther-
mometer.

24*

GOOD EFyECTS OF ELECTRlZATIOJf.

4. Genera/ (aiming Influence and DispaUion to 5/^c/.^ Nervousness
is iLlluycd, just after lakiiig wine, or foutl, ur a bath, or a drive by the
sea. The disposition to tleep comes ou usually after the application,
in rare cases during the sitting, especially when the head or neck is
galvaniied.

5. Menial Exhiiaraiion. — The effect of sca-baitiing, or the inhalation
of oxygen, is ro exhilarate in a way that defies minute analysis. The
effect of eleccriiation is similar. This effect is seen more strikingly
in hysteria and hypochondriasis,

6. Iiureasf of Appetite and Improvement in Digestion. — In some
instances the appetite is sharpened by a siaylc silling; tlie ]>erinanciit
improvement is, of course, a slower effect, and is only observed after a
number of applications.

7. Improvement in Local arid Central Nutrition. — ^To accomplish
liuprovemeut in nutrition is the great object of electrical treat-
ment. The relief of pain and of other special synipioms, during
a silling, may justly be regarded as results and accompaniments of
improvement in nutrition. At a later stage of a course of treatment,
the improvement in nutrition may be seen and studied by the senses.
Improvement in local nutrition is produced by local electrization, ino-
provemeiit in general nutrition is produced by general or central elec
trization. I'cripheral local electrization, may, however, rellexly pro-
duce tmprovemctit in general nutrition, paiticularty when prominent
organs, as the uterus, the stomach, and liver, arc treated.

The evil effects of electrization, by the occmrencc of which we may
suspect that the applications are too strong or too long, or impropcfly
given, or tliat wrong meihods are used, or that the temperament and
disease of the patient coutra-iudicale electricity, are, in general, as
fallows ;

1. Headache and Backache. — Sudden shocks, or inteiruptions of the
current, may cause tnomentaty- headache that passes away as quickly
as it came. When the headache persists for a considerable time, one
may know thai there has been somewhere a mistake in the applica-
IJOD. Backache follows as a rule only general or cetitral ueatmenL

3. Irritability and Insomnia. — Patients may feel nervous, irritable,
and indefinably disagreeable after an application, and the sleep the
following night may be less sound and more disturbed by dreams than
usual. These arc evil effects, iind are to be guarded against.

3. Gemral Malaise. — TTiis symptom, which is the reverse of the
exhilarati jn spoken of among the good effects, appears tiot unfrequently
after an ovei-duse, especially of general faradization. It sometimes,

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

249

though less freqiientl)', Tollows central galvaouslton, and there is no
form of local clcctrUatiun, central or peripheral, that oiay oot ia some
temperaments and conditions give rise to it.

4. Ex£ttalwn ffr Pain, or fturease of Pain already existing.—
Neuralgia is sometimes increased on the apjilicatJon of the current, and
particularly when the currents are strong and inlcmiptions ore made.
A harsh and rough faradic current, even when mild, may aggravate
paiiL Sometimes there is no cftcct during or immediately following
the seance ; but in the course of a few hours, the pain, is excited 01

-aggravated.

Similarly the pains that acconi[>any malignant tumors may be excited
when cleciricily is applied during an interval, or they may be increased
i£ treated during the paroxysm.

5. Over-Exaied Pulse. — The pulse may indicate whetlier die appli-
cation has done good or harm, wiili some considerable certainty, pro-
vided the operator is sufficiently fauiitiar *-ith the normal pulse of the
patient. This familiarity can only come from previous acquaintance.
A stranger, seeing a patient for the first time, and treating him by
electricity, is quite likely to be deceived. The pulse may be over-excited
by the mere coming in of a new physician, or by the thought or dread
of electricity. 'I"hu» the value of tlie jniUe as a means of determining
the degree of the ill effects of an application is much dimim'shcd. As a
lest of the good effects of electricity, it is much more worthy of trust.

6. Oiiiliness and other Nervous Sensaiiotts. — An application which has
been made injudiciously may be followed almost inimcdiatly by a feeling
of chilliness, as though tlie patient had taken cold. 'I'here may be al!>o
a stiffness of the neck, and pain on tiu-ning the back, as though the
patient were rheumatic, and heat and burning in the spine, and crawling,
creeping, pricking, stinging, sensations in the face, down the back, and
on ihe limbs and other pans of the body.

These sensations arc not due to a cold, as is sometimes supposed, —
for, except through gross carelessness, patients do not take cold during
an application of electricity, — but they arc merely nervous sensations, of
an hysterica] char.icter, precisely like the symptoms described under
hysteria and allied affections, and are due to over-irriiation of the spinal
cor<I,and perhaps also of the sympathetic They more frequently follow
faradijration than galvanization, especially when a hard, rough, unpleasant
current is used. They appear only in the exhausted and neurasthe-
nic, and most frequeutly in women.

7. A feeiing of Soreness, Stiffness, and a dull Aching. — These Musa*
lion* are closely allied to those described iik the preceding paragraph \-^

2 so

BAD EFFECTS OF ELECTRIZATION.

ihey are che resuU of over irritalion of the nerve-centre ; the soreneu
that is felt in the muscles after severe faradization is somewhat like that
which is experienced after violent exercise in the gymnasium, on skatet
or on horseback.

The dull, aching pain through the whole body is lilce t)ie sensation
that is experienced after (akinj; culd. It is a purely nervous sensation
and is cau&ed by over-irritation of the &pinak coid. One patient whom we
treated for an exJiausCcd and irritable condition of tlie cord, res^ulling
from ccrcbro-spinai fever, persiiitcd that every application caused him
to " take cold,"

8. Profuse Pirtpiration. — Gentle perspiration is one of (he good effects
of electrization ; it is observed both after general and local treatiuenL
But profuse perspiration of any p-irt, as the head, or one of the limbs,
or of one side of llie body, or of the' whole body, occurring dui iug a
iiiancc, or directly following it, is a bad symptom, and indicates over>
irritation. In some hyper-sensJtive conditions profuse perspiration
may appear under a vcr>' mild current, and at the outset of the appli-
cation. We have known a paralyied arm in hemiplesia break out with
abundant perspiraiion. Incases of cerebral and spinal irritation we
have known the forehead and lite hands to perspire freely during
the application. Some constitutions are specially impressible in lliis
regard. We once treated a case of paralysis of the bladder by external
galvanization ; the patient was of the average strength and health, hut in
less tlian live minutes his whole body was as "freely (Jcrspiring as in the
hotesi wmimer day. Nausea and faintncss also came on and stopped
the application.

9. Prvhviaeti Heaftion of the Nerves oj Spt<ial Sense. — In thesection
devoted to Electro- Physiology, we have sccTi tiiat the nerves of special
sense, the auditor^-, the olfactory, the ophthalmic and the gustatory
nerves, all liavc iheir special and peculiar reactions to electricity.
These reactions arc normal and physiological, hut in degree and variety
they are greatly influenced by temperament. These reactions are, on
the part of the auditory nerve, hissing, rushing, boiling, seething sounds ;
on the part of the ophthalmic nerve and retina. Hashes of iiyht ; on the part
of the olfactory nerve, under a powerful and painful current, peculiar
phosphoric or ozonic odor ; on the pan of the gustatory ner\'c, an acid
or coppery taste. For the great majority' of temperaments in health or
di»ease, these reactions disappear with the cessation of the application ;
but where there is special susceptibility to the electricity, or when very
aevere or prolonged applications have been made, some of these reactions
may continue for hours or days. Thus we have known palienU to

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

asi

complain of the peculiar taste in the mouth tw-o or tbiee days after ac
application. The buzzing in the cars also ikief not always stop when
the current is opened, prolonged flashes before the eye* arc somclimcs
noticed, thougii but rarely. Prolonged reaction of the olfactory nerve
ire have never obscrt-cd.

We call these prolonged reactions evil effects, because they appear
in very susceptible patients, or after careless procedures, and are usu-
ally accompanied by other effects tiiat are uiuiiistakaUy evil.

Disturbanctsof the Nerves e/ Motion and Common Sittsation. — Undet
this head ve include hyiwrsesthesia, general or local, that an overdose of
electritation sotncttmcs produces in nervous and hysterical patients, or
the opposite condition of aniesthesia and muscular spasms, contractions
and rigidity. These phenomena arc not frequent, but in rare instances
they have been obser\-ed ; nmscular spasm, where Jt already exists, may
be aggravated tcmponirily by electricity.

jffygiette of Patients after tfu Apptiealions. — Patients who arc strong,
and arc treated for purely local troubles, may be entirely indifferent in
'regard to their behavior after electrical applications ; ihey may cxerciir
brain or muscle, or remain idle, as may be convenient, and the improve-
ment under the treatment will go on just the same. But delicate
patients who are treated for grave conditions of debility, and especially
feiiialcs, do better to avoid exertion after an application : better for them
to sit awhile, or rest on a lounge, and if they are treated in bed to
remain there ; and this, wc believe, is another advantage in treating such
cases just after retiring.

If any fancy they t.ikc cold as a result of an application, it is a pure
Cuicy, or it is the nervous chill that sometimes follows over-electrizatioot
or it is the result of csposure in a cold room while undressing.

CumuJatwf aetioH of Elteirieity, — It sotaetimes happc;n<( in the treat*
ment of a painful and tender nerve, that a suddi-n shock is fell, after
the electrodes have been a long time in position, even when the airrent
is very mild aiid is scarcely felt on the surface.

A medical friend, who by our suggesdon treated a case of ulcer of
the stomach by the galvanic current, infonned us that a very mild
current from a few liiic carbon cells, which gave no burning sensaCioQ
On tlie surface whatever, would, after the electrodes had been kept Id
position a few minutes, one on the epigastric, and the other on the
back, cause all of a sudden and without any warning a painful shock,
as though a strong current had been suddenly interrupted in the
metallic part of tlie circuit. This ptieoomenon occurred so often thai
be nbandoDed the treatment.

252

THE TEMPERAMENT TO BE CONSIDERED.

Wc have uccasiotially made the some ubsun-ation on other jku-Es of the
bod)'. Thus, in a case of sciatica that wc were tieating by the galvanic
current— one pole on (he course of the nerve below the trochanter,
and the other on the b^ck — only a very slight senttatioo wa» felt for
two or three minutes, when all at once the patient gave a jump at
Chough shocked by a powerful current. A number of times during the
seance the experiment was repeated. Every pains was taken to avoid
error by assuring ourselves that the current was accually running all the
time, and that tliere was no actual interruption.

This cumulative action, if we may call it such — would seem to b«
sonicwhat analogous to the cumulative action of strychnine and sKxte
other remedies. The rationale of it is in the present state of our
knowledge hard to determine. Jt may be that as the skin becomes
more and more moistened, its conductivity so increases that a portion
of the nerve is traver^^ed by the current which at first was not toudied,
and that this physical explanation is sufficient. It may be thai the
nerve, already in an irriuble condition, may have its irritability so
^eaily increased, that it develops it suddenly under continued though
mild stimulation. We have, as yet, no evidence tliat such shocks are
specially haiinful, although they are unpleasant and startling. They
can be avoided as a rule by shifting the electrodes every moment, bo
as to avoid a long irritation of any one spoL

Jnereased Toletaiwn of EUetritUy, — The system can become
habituated to electricity just as it becomes habituated to alcohol, or
opium, or any other potent remedy. After a long course of treat-
ment, extending over several moniiis, nearly all patients bear very
much longer and stronger applications than at first. This is observed
in those whose seositiveuess to electricity is at Eirst extreme. It is
not therefore necessarily a discouraging fact if at the outset of a
course of treatment very gentle currents and very short sittings are
required.

The Temperament, as weli as the Disease, la he eansidered in using
EleeiricUy. — There are individuals whom electricity always injures, the
only difference \a the effect on them between a mild and a severe
application being, that the former injures less than the latter. There
rre patients upon whom all electro-therapeutical skill and experience
wasted ; their temperaments are not en rapport with electricity.
mailers not what may be the special disease or symptoms of
: fiuni which they suffer — paralysis, ur neuralgia, or neurasthenia,
via, or aJfeclious of special organs — the immediate and the per-
effects of galvaaixation or faradization, general or localized.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

253

are evil and only evil. We have not arrived at this opinion by theorizing;
we have been driven to it by the accumulalinj; and irresistible logic
of facts. The first query that arises, in the mind of the clcclro-thcra.
|)etitisl, when a case under his care responds badly, is, " Am 1 rigluly
using this remedy ; am I making the application toe long or too
Severe, or by improper methods? Would a change of current be de-
■irable?" But after we have tried all electrical applications ; after we
have gone from galvanism to faradism, from general to ]ocaliy.ed elec-
trization, from long and severe to short and gemle treatments ; after we
ha%'e rung the changes on all these, and yet pcrsislcnity aggravate
rather than mollify the disease, and instead of strength and relief, pro-
duce weakness and distress, and ingtea<I of calmness cause irriiatioii, —
then we have only to make as graceful a retreat as possible, and put
that patient down as a case that was not born to be treated by elec-
tricity. We have no explanation to offer of ihe phencvmcnon ; and the
popular belief or supposition, tliat the excess or deficiency of animal

■ electricity has something lo du with these matters, is as undemunslrable
as it is plausible ; he who should attempt to prove or disprove it would
find he had undertaken anything but an easy task. It would seem to

rCOme in Iht: list of those strange but raniiliar likc>i and dislikes in rc{(.ird
to certain articles of food or drink, or of certain sights or odors. We
know of no physiognomical or rather external appearances by which
to determine whether a patient does or does not belong to the unfor-
tunate few who can have no lul or share in electro-therapeutics. The
strongest equally with the weakest, the plethoric and the enervaiedj
are found among these Gentiles of science.

The reverse (troposition, that there are certain constitutions for
which, by whatever fonn of chronic disease ihey may be afflicted, elec
tricity is always indica.ted, is equally true. There are patients who
find in electrical treatment almost a specific. Whether ihcy suffer from
d)'«pepsia or neurasthenia, from hysteria or dieeaxes of special organs,
rheumatism or neuralgia, clcctri^alion always relieves them up to a
certain [XMnt, at least, if it does not positively cure. TAe broad fact to
be unJfrstiHxi if, that it is not so much the disease or the symptoMS, at
the temperament that indicates cr centraindieaies tleelrizatian,

H'hile some chronic diseases are more amenable to electricity than
others, among all patients there are individuals to whout it is a matter

'of indifference wh,it special affection they may suffer from ; so long as
imi>rovement in local and general nutririon is indicated, they will be
benefited by electrical treatment.
To alt this it should be added thai some persons arc intiifftrtni to

2S4

THE TEMPERAMENT TO BE CONSIDERED.

eleclricity— Uiey can bear almost any strength of cither current verj
fre<(uenil)' and for long ai>plication8, without experiencing any effect
either good or evil. Kleciricily may be pouied over tliem in iiiiiitless
measures ; they may be saturateil with it, and they may come out from
the application:! not a whit better or worse. Patients who are quite
delicate and sensitive exhibit thi» supreme and i)rovok.ing indifference
to electricity. We arc inclined to believe also that |>atients vary in
their mseeptibility ta eiiciricity at different times of life. Susceptibility
to stimulants and narcotics oftentimes undergoes strange modifications
during the Urctime of an individual. Those who at one time cannot
drink coffee, sometimes find th.it a few years »o modify the tempera-
ment that they can drink it with absolute freedom, and vice i-ersa.
Similarly, also, al'Coholic liquors act in a most cajiricioiiM way, some-
times benefiting, nt other times injuring even when nearly all the other
conditions except age are the same. Idiosyncrasies in regard to cer-
tain articles of food are by no means con.siaiit tlirough life — they may
change eicher way, and that too in the course of a few years; they
may be modified by febrile or other diseases that revoliiliuiiiiie the
system, or by residence in v.-u-ious climates, or by mere lapse of years.
Analogy would lead iis to suppose that susceptibility to electricity might
also be thus modified, and our observations seem to convince us that
such is llie case.

We arc further inclined to believe that susceptibility to electricity,
favorable and unfavorable, like all other constitutional tendencies, is
subject to the laws of hereditary descent, and runs in families. We
have treated by clectriciry three members of the family of a ])hysician,
who are afflicted with quite diverse maladies, but all of whom not onljr
improved under the treatment, but can be electrized with great freedom
by cither current ; and yet none of them are strong, and two of them
are delicate.

On the other hand, wc have treated fantilies where several of the
members are so susceptible to the electric current that the application
must be made with great care lest unpleasant results occur. We arc fuilv
convinced also that the proportion of those who do not bear electricity
well is larger among the higher than among the lower classes; io
hosjiital and dispensary practice, the number of patients who exhibit
excessive susceptibility to the electric treatment is quite limited, whereas
in private practice, among the intellectual classes, one out of five or
ten, take the cases as they run, must be treated with very considerable
caution, lest disagreeable symptoms arise.

ReliUion of Eleeti ■>'Suiceptivity to Prognosis. — Between electro-suscepp

GEXERAL SUGGESTIONS.

255

tivity and prognosis there vould appear tobenoconsUnt rcUtion. One
patient may be extremely susceptible to electricity, and another capable
of bearing il in large dt»ses, and both shall be benefilcd. If there be
any law in the matter it is this, that those who occupy the medium
ground, who are neither specially sen«iive nor (he reverse — offer thi
best prognosis under electrical treatin^nt. It is cfiually sure, however,
ihat tho&e who are cxceedit>gly ssnsitive may become so tolerant of
(he remedy as in derive great benefit from it. For this reason we
should not be discouraged, even by extreme electro -sensibility or
el ectrO' susceptibility in our patients.

The most provoking class are those who cannot be infliicnred in any
way by electricity, but who can even from the very first receive it
in enormoiiA doses withotit showing or feeling any good or evil effect,
and yet even such cases may by protrarted tIX^atment be benefited.

Jif^ard/er A^e. — In the apportioning of the dose of electricity the
only general rule to be considered i&, that the extremes of life — the
very young and the very old— demand rather more caution than those
in youth and middle life, Il is not hoirever necessary to divide the
Joses of electricity for infants and cliildren, as we divide the doses of
ordinary medicines; children from three years down to three months
and even younger may be treated by general faradization and central
galvanization almost as freely as adults. On theoretical considerations^
and in order to be on the safe side, we do not usually treat very young
children as long, nr with as strong currents as adults, nor quite so
frequently, but we have not often seem any especially bad restdts from
quite prolonged applications, provided mild currents are used. The
nile is to give the average baby about half as much treatment as the
average adnlL Children cry when the current hurts them, and this to
the merciful physician operates as a check against overdosing them.

Very old patients — Iwiween seventy and ninety — need to be
treated with reasonable, but not extreme caution. The moderately
agcti — between fifty and seventy — often bear electricity bcticr than
those in the more active period — between twenty and fifty.

Regard far Sfx. — As a nde females are somewhat more susceptible to
electricity than males, and require lo be treated with greater caurion ; not
that there is any difference of susceptibility of the sexes, hut because in
civilieaHon woman is more delicate than man, and more readily influenced
for goo<l ur evil, by all remedies and systems uf treatment. But
although the law that woman is more ioipressible than man holds well
on the average, yet the individual exceptions arc very numerous.
Some women— even those who are exquisitely delicate — can bear cnor-

256

REGARD rOR METHOD OF APMJCATlOSt

mom iluWB of dectrkilf, while tocDc men «bo are iny hzidr caa best

none at alL The role however, is coostani cnoogh Co make it
adraaUe alwa>s to hegia ib« treatment of delicate females with coo-
ftiileraUe camion.

The higha Haccptftflity of women to decfiricsl iaiaeooe^ BBkes
Iheai jridd more nfndljr thaa men to the treafeat, wboi it iiuta the
tenperament and disease, and beoceit is that many of the most d eJ ightibl
re«ult» of general (anulizalioo aitd central galra ft iia ti oo. have been
(Stained m Deurasibcnk, anemic, h}-stencal wooten.

The menitrual period in women does not contraiodicaie electrical
treatment at all, bat on cotuideratioDS of ddicacy the operatioas of
general f.iradiution ai>d central galvaniiatioa cannot wdl be pafcnocd
al that time. Local applications to the periphery caik be made wiiboat
regard to the menses.

Regard for the Method of Afipluatien and tht SOU ef the Electro
therapeutut. — It is not electricity in the abstract, bat eieiiriiatu>H,—thu
is, electricity applied to the body— that cures dii>e35c. Everything, tlicre-
fore, depends on the method of application. Padents frequently say that
tb^ have " tried electricity" and it did no good. We have long since
ceased to pay any heed to such statements, or lo allow tbeiii lo inHu-
cncc our piognoHS, unless it is expressly stated who gave the electrical
treatment, what methods were cm|}loyed, and how faithfully the treat-
ment was carrie<I out. Some of the best successes we have ore gained
with patients who liave "tried electncity" and found it wanting.
What should we think of a patient afflicted with a broken leg who
should say that he had " tried surgery," and it had foiled to set the
bone? Would we not ask, " What suj^eon ? Was he a pretender, or a
man of science? .A.nd did he have a fair chance?" It is i)0>sible» even
if good ircaiment at the hands of good men failed some time ago, that
the conditions may now be so altered that the same or different treat-
ment will lie successful.

It is not Ihe remedy, it is the manner of using it that detemiioes its
value. There is as much difference in electro -therapeutists as there is
in general surgeons, ophthalinolologists, or aurists, or gynecologists, or
obstctriciarts. In the ranks of those who use batteries are all grades
of genius, anrl lack of genius, especially the laiter. In electro-thera-
[laitics two currents are used, and six different methods of application,
ind these methods are all capable of indefinite variations, dependent
on the tiistc, skill or cxi>erience of the electro-therapeutist. When one
mode of application fails, another may succeed; when one clectro-
ihcraiKutist falls with any mode of application, another with the same

GENERAL SUCGESTJO.KS.

257

mode of application may succeed. And yet, patients with sonic
obscdte disva&c, thai requires the best diagnostic as well as ihempcuiic
skill, who have had, perhaps, half a dozen applications of the niagncrto*
electric or rotary machiri'CK, at (he hands of some stupid servant-girl,
declare dial they have "tried clctindty." As well might a sailor
whose brukcn bone had been badly set at &ea by a comrade before the
loasl, decUre that he had "tried surgery."

7%f Differettiial Prognosis af Aeeidcntat and Htrtditary DUtase,
under Electrical Treatment.— 'V\\z prognos-is of any case under electrical
treatment dqiendis more on the time that the disirase has been existing
than on the nature of the disease itself. Very grave and severe symp-
toms of the mo»t threatening character yield promptly, when they are
recenty and, so to s|>eak, accidental, while mild and nameless syniplonis,
that ap]>ear to be of the most trifling character, when long standing, and
especiAlly when they are inherited, may be exceedingly obstinate. It
becomes therefore of the first importance to incjuire hoiv long the mor-
bid symptoms, or other symptoms allied to them, have been existing in
the patient, before making a prognosis. This principle applies to all
diseases for which electricity is employed. It is illustrated in a most
interesting manner in hysteria and allied aflccdons. If two cases pre-
sent themselves, both suffering from symptoms of hysteria and neuras-
thenia, but in one case the symptoms are a lifelong heriiage. while in
the oiher ihey have arisen recently, and, so to speak, accidcnially,
the prognosis in the latter case is, other conditions being the samn, con-
sequently more favorable. Even if the 5>-mpto!ns in the recent case be
M'a severer type, the prognosis may be much better than in the inher-
ited case. On this accoimt it becomes necessary to inquire with dili-
gence, and repeatedly, of the patierls and of their friends, in order to
see whether any allied sj-raploms have been their portion through life,
and whether the special disturbances for which they require ireatiiieat
are simply branches of a great tree of disease that has grown up in them
from the moment of their inception.

AVhcn, for example, a patient appears with sciatica, or tic-douloureux,
it is not enough to Icam how long that partinilir sym|)tom has dis-
tressed him in the present attack. The questions to be asked are :
Has he ever at any period of Itis life had this or any other forn> of
neuralgia ? Is he of llie nervous diathesis? Have his parents or any
of his near relations suffered from neuralgia, or from any disease, or
symptomsof discascthat are allied toil? On the answers given to these
queries will depend our probable prognosis, not only a.s to the rapidity
of relief under electrical treatment, but also as to 'ws permanency.
»7

358

AFTER-EFFECTS OF ELECTRICAL TREATMENT.

Inherited diseases are inclined to relapse : the symptom ma/ give
way, apparently, bt:f()re the force of tfeatinent, but may rea])|iear as
easily as it disappeared, even while the treatment is continued.

AJttr-Effefts of Electrical lytatment. — It is a fact well recogniEcd
that the tonic effects of a trip to Kuiopc, or to the mountains, or of
a short vacation anywhere, or at any season, are frequently but little
appreciated while the patient is travelling or recreating ; hut appear
days, weeks, and n)onihs subsequently. A debilitated man may receive
no 8tri;ngth while on the ocean, or at the hotel, or farm-houfie in the
country, may, indeed, seetu to grow weaker instead of stronger, and
may become disheartened thereby, but on his return to his duties, heallh
may gradually, perhaps imperceptibly, come to him, and be may cxpcri>
ence a renovation and a recuperation that can only be explained as the
a/Ur efTticts of his vacation.

It is, perhaps, oot so well recognized chat tonic remedies, and systems
of treatment of various kinds, may act just in the same way. Not only
the evil but the fjood citects of medicines m.iy be cumulative. We may
see this principle illustrated in the administration of quinine, strychnine,
arsenic, phosphorus, and iron.

Electricity obeys the same law, and io certain constitutions, and cer*
tain Klatcs of the system, especially those of debility, il docs little or
nothing that the patient can sec or feel during the treatment itself,—
but prepares the way for a perfect and permanent recovery. We have
seen this principle illustrated in a large variety of cases of chronic dis-
ease. The practical lesson that we are to derive from this is to en-
courage patients who do not feel fully satisfied with the progress that
they make while under treatment, to watch closely, if possible, their
career long after treatment is aboudoned.

Eteitrization in its Reiaiiottsto other Eorms of Treatment. — The ques-
tion, so often asked, whether electrical treatment will interfere with
internal medication, or with gymnastics, the Russian, Turkish or other
baihs, and so forth, is very easily answered. Il harmonizes with all other
tunic remedies, and methods of treatjuent that are employed for the
cojnnion purpose of reUeving pain, oi building up btoken-down consti-
tutions.

Excq)t in cases where we wish to experiment and learn the t!ierapeu-
tical value of electricity by itself alone, uncomplicated with other
healing factors, it is a positive advantage oftentimes to employ, at the
same time with electricity, external or internal medication of varioiij
kinds. So far as we now know there is no medicine that is incom-
patible with electricity. There is no evidence that any remedy has any

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS.

259

specific reenforcing effect upon electricity, such, for example, ascertain
stimulants have on hydrate of chloral. Some of rhe best therapeutical
results are obtained bom a combination of ekctrica! with other
(reatmeiit.

Om i^e Use of EUttricHy by the Laity. — Even at this advanccil stage
of electro-lherapeutics it seems to be necessary to constantly warn the
profession against indiscriminately intrusting the details of electrical
applications to the nurses, friends of i^atients, and Ihc ])atic»t8 them-
selves. Having just rescued this department from the hands of the
laity, and given it a position among men of science, it &eems strange
that lliose physicians who are familiar with the subject should even now
use their tnducnce to tctuni it iu tlK- people at whoiic tundx il for-
merly suffered so much ; to restore it to the captivity of prejudice and
ignorance.

The temptation on the pan of the people to use electricity them-
selves, and on the part of the profession to allow them to do so, is very
strong. The majority of physicians know little mure of electro- thera-
peutics than dieir patients. Some have a theoretical, but not a practical
acquaintance wit]] iL Then there are those who are well practised in
the art, but arc too closely occupied to employ it. They have no ap-
paratus, or if they have any it is very likely out of order. Perhaps no
specialist is accessible, or the patient is, or is supposed to be, too poor
to employ one. The physician, forgetting that it is not electricity, but
electrization tliat cures disease, forgetting that there are two kinds of
electricity in common use, and six different methods of applicaiion,
every one of which is capable of various modifications, forgetting that
there arc certain lemperaments that will not bear electricity, howevci
applied, and that there are others who must be Created at first with
great skill and caution, and un whom the currents and methods em>
ployed must be studiously varied during a course of treatment, in
short, forgetting that clectru-therapeulics, considered as a science or an
ait, is wonderfully complex and exacting, orders the patient to ** gfi a
battery and try eleetrUity"

This prescription is usn.Tlly carried out in the following manner : An
old magneto-electric machine ^rotary) is trumped up from some neigh.
tor's garret, where, after having failed to cure any member of the family,
it has been rusting for years. If the patient be wealthy, perhaps a new
faradic machine is ordered, that gives a harsh, rough current, and when
applied, drives the patient to despair. The friends of the patient are
bored with the recjuest of the patient to apply electricity, and only hali
do their duty ; consequently the patient tries to make the application

26o ABBREVUTIONS USED IN ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

to himself, and, of necessity, makes awkward work. Pretty soon th«
metals become corroded, and the current ceases to How, and the baltcry
is soon consigned to liie closel or garret, where it will do no harm,
and probably as much good as in tlie hands of the patient.

This picture is no't drawn from fancy ; it is a picture of genuine and
irequcnt experience.

Abtra'iatiofis used in Elfctro-Theraptnlict. — It is a decided con-
venience and saves nmch time in recording cases, in giving jirivate
instniction, in public lecturing, and in conversation, to describe elec-
trical applications by abbreviations. About a year since we devised
the following abbreviations, which have been used with satisfaction in
giving private instniction and ia conversation with our assistants and
others who arc familiar witU it, and in records of cases from day to day.
Wc do nut adopt it in the present treatise, for the reason that it is not
yet widely known, and might perplex and bewilder ibe reader ;

I.. F. Localized faradlzatioa

1.. G. " galvantzatioD.

G. F. General faradiitation.

C. G. Central galvanisation.

G. R Galvanization of the brain.

G. C. S. " " sympathetic

G. S. " " spine,

E. Electrolysis.

G. C. Gal^-aj-.o-cautery,

CHAPTER IV.

COUPARATIVB VAtUE OF THE GALVANIC AND FARADIC CURRENrS.

Much of the confusion that exists concerning the differential intiica.
tions for the use of the g&K-anic ami faradic currents arises from an im-
perfect or erroneous or exaggerated conception of the dtslinclion in
ihcir physical and physiological effects. The general belief or supposi-
tion is that there is between them a radical and important difference
in kind, as though ihey were two different agents or furccs.

We can most intelligently compare the therapeutical effects of the two
currents, if we first compare their physical characteristics and their phy-
fliological effects.

By referring to the section on electro- physics, it will be seen that both
cuirenls — iaradic and gaWaiuc — are capable of prwlucing chemical de-
^composition, of deflecting tlie needle of the galvanometer, of producing
Bparks, and of Ijciiig changed into lieaL Generally speaking, tUese
c&cts are produced more pcwerfuUy by tlie galvanic current ; but in
Gramtnc's machines wc shall sec that magneto-electricity is capable of
producing great heat and of elcclroplaling on an enormous scale.

Both currents are obedient to the law of Ohm, with this qualificationt
diat the faradic current must be regardCTl as having passed through a
great resistance.

Faradic and galvanic electricity arc therefore the same force — elec-
tricity, only each variety is niodiiied by the nature of the substanca
through which it circulates, as welt as the manner of its production.

Light is light, whether Its waves arc shorter or longer, and in ^pite of
interference and polarization, and whatever may be the color iliat it ex-
cites in the retina ; sound is sound, whether its undulations move slowly
or rapidly. So electricity is electricily, liowcver generated or however
modified by the medium through which it moves ; and all furms of it,
oagnetism, as well as franlclinism, gsUvanisni, and the many .-arieties of
' feradism, arc merely different expressions of the one great force — elec
thcity.

262 GALVANIC AKD FARADIC CURRENTS COMPARED.

In their p/i_ytuf/ffgifa/ effects the two currents approach each othct
»vcn more closely. It is inie that the pheaomena of electrotonos have
only been demonstrated under the galvanic current ; but it is not proved
that Mmilar phenoincna, to a less degree, may not be caused by the faradtc
current, and cvery-thy experience in electro-therapeutics shows that with
the faracUc current, as with the galvanic, the positive ]K>le is tlie mure
calming, and the negative the more irritatiag. £oth currents act on the
skin »o as to modiry tiie circulation, the galvanic having a greater chemi-
cal effect and causing a feeling of burning, while the faradic causes a fceU
ing of stinging and pricking, itoth currents applied to die brain and
spinal cord excite contractions of peripheral muscles. Applied to the
sympathetic both currents, according to the degree of irritation, cause
contraction or dilatation of tlie cerebral ve&scis ; the faiadic producing
the same effect as the galvanic, only more slowly. Applied to the pneu-
mogastric, whether cut or injured, both currents produce about the same
effects on the heart Even in their action on the nerves of special sense
the currents approach each otlier far more closely than has been
supposed.

In temperaments of a high order of susceptibility the faradic current
may so excite the retina as to cause flashes before tlie eyes, and may
produce a metallic taste in the mouth, and even the auditory nerve re-
sponds to the faradic current, though less distinctly than to the gaU
vanic current, and witlioul the peculiar differential action of the
(lolcs.

Applied to motor and sensory nerve branches, both currents and both
poles cause sensations of pricking, tingling and numbness, and contrac-
tions of the muscles which the nerve supplies. Applied to \-uluntary
muscles both currents cause contractions, the faradic more readily than
the galvanic ; applied to involuntary muscles both currents cause slow
contraction at both poles and in the intermediate region. The electro-
lytic action of the faradic current on the blood or on the tissues of the
body is but feeble as compared with that of the galvanic cuneot ; but
yel it exists, and frointhe inner, or primary coil, is easy of demonstration ;
and yet it must be confessed that in their chemical action the currents
diverge more widely than in any other physiological effect.

Over nutrition both currents and both poles have a powerful influence,
faradic acting mure prominently through the muscular, the galvanic
gb the nervous system.

Ihe accumulating results of experiments and experience in

ignosis and therapeutics, we think that there is strong reason

g the essential distinction in the effects of these currents on

ADVANTAGES OF GALVANIC OVER FARADIC.

263

the body as mainly tf ^//^rw,— practically amounting, it is true, to a
difference in kind, — and that this is the scientific basis for their differen-
tial employment.

In the form of localized electrization both can produce muscular
contractions in ])aralyzed muscles, and relieve U)cal neuralgias j both
cause absorption of abnormal secretions ; and both can directly affect
the brain, spinal cord, sympathetic, and all the internal organs, pro-
ducing, in different degrees, the various therapeutic results that directly
and indirectly flow from electrical excitation of these parts. In the
form of general electrization both currents, besides producing most of
the other results of localized electrization, act as powerfully stimulating
tonics, and thus form most efficient aids in the relief and cure of nerv-
ous exhaustion, nervous dv&pepsia, constitutional neuralgia, and of a
wide raoge of nervous diseases associated with or dependent 00 general
debility.

In electro- surgery' both currents avail to discuss tumors, heal ulcers,
and hasten absoqjtion, although for these purposes the galvanic is
incomparably the more cffcclivc.

And yet the difference in degree between the effects of the two cur-
rents is so marked and so clearly demonstrable, as to be practically
equivalent in ccrlaio instances to a difference in kind, and to give very
important and remarkable advantages to one current or the other, ac*
cording to the indications required.

The advantages of the galvanic over the faradic are : —

1. A greater fiewer 0/ overcoming resistanee. It therefore aflects the
brain, spinal cord, and sympathetic more powerfully than the faradic,
since the anatomical position of these parts is such that considerable
resistance mn^t be overcome in order to directly affect them. Kor the
same reason it is usually to be preferred when it is desired to affect the
middle and internal car, the rerina, and the muscles of the eye.

2. A power of producing muscular eontraiiiotis in cases where the
faradic fails. This peculiarity of the galvanic current has now been
observed so frequently, and in such striking instances, that it has be-
come an accepted fact of clcclro-therapeutical science. Illustrative
examples irill be given in the section on paralysis. After a certain
amount of treatment by the galvanic current the paraiyEed musclea
frequently resume their susceptibility to the faradic

3. A far mere potent elecirotonic, electrolytic, and thermic action.
The chemical power of the galvanic current is most markedly seen
when used for the purposes of galvano-cautery or electrolysis. The
superior efficacy of the galvanic current to the faradic, so often

364 CALVAXIC AND FARADIC CURRENTS COMPARED.

observed in the ccatment of neuralgia, of atrophied muscles, rheuma-
tism, is probably due to its greater "catalytic" sclion. It probably
induces more rapid and more important molecular and other changes in
the tissues. This superiority of the galvanic current is supposed to be
due to its more continuous duration ; it moves constantly in one direc.
tion, and thus produces more powerful electrolytic effects than the fa*
radic current with its rapid interruptions can possibly produce.
The advantages of the f:iradic over the galvanic current are these : —

1. By virtue of Us frtquost interruptions it more easily produets
muscular (ontractisnt when passed tn^er the muscles or the nen>ts that
supply them. In order to produce full muM^ular contractions with a gal-
vanic current of moderate srrcnglh it is necessary to inlemipt the cur
rent, and, unless it is quite powerful, to localiie at least one of the
electrodes over ihc motor nerve liy which the muscle is supplied — that
is, over the so-called " motor points." On the contrary, the faradic
current is in a condition of rapid inttfmiption and produces contractions
when indiflfcrcntly [wsscd over the surface of the muscle, as well as when
localized on the main motor ner\'e that supplies it.

This adv.inl3gc of the faradic current is best appreciated in general
faradization, the powerful tonic effects of which, as will be seen, are
partly and quite largely due to the passive exercise and consequent
oxidation and other important changes of tissue that result from lb<!
several thousand niuscular contractions that take place during an ordi-
nary silting. In localized electrization this advantage is not so clearly
and strongly marked, since, in this method, by a proper knowledge of
electrO'lhcrapeutical anatomy and sufTicient care, it is possible lo direct
one of the electrodes on the " motor points ; " and yet even here the
faradic current is much more convenient, because its employment re.
quires no arrangement for interruption, and less minuteness of attention
to thi? situation of the motor nerves. The exceptional cases of paraly.
sis, where the mustrles have lost tlieir susceptibility to the faradic cur.
rent, do not interfere with ihe general rule.

2. // produces greater mechanical effects. These mechanical effects
of the faradic current arc due to its rapid interruptions, which cause
contractions not only of the mujcles but also of the contractile fibre-
cells, thus stimulating the circulation, and with it the processes of
waste and repair. In this respect its action is similar to that of rub-
bing, pounding, movements and vibrations. These mechanical effects
are especially indicated in Ihe treatment of diseases of Ihe abdominal
v-iscera, which are supplied with contractile 6bre-cull« ; tuuesthcaia, and
i^eneral muscular debility.

ADVANTAGES OF FARADIC OVER GALVANIC. 265

3. It is less likely to pnyduit unpleasant at harmful effeets, when
inttutifiusly usfd, than the gah-anic.

T5 confirm this statemenl wc rest mainly on the evident results
of clinical observation. We may indeed refer to a number of cases of
severe constitutional neuralgia and excessive ner\ous exhaustion where
the fara^tic current invariably relieved, and where the galvanic current
as invaritbly aggravated, the symptoms. For this reason it is better to
begin the practice of electro- therapeutics with the faradic current, and
for those funilics who desire a scientific plaything, the faradic machine
is safer than the galvanic apparatus.

Id all applications to the head, neck, and spine especially, applica-
tions of the galvanic current can rarely be protracted without injury,
while in many aise« the spine and neck may be faradized through very
prolonged sittings, with positive benefit to the patient. To the head,
also, a faradic current of a jiroper quality may he applied much longer
than a galvanic current, before uni^Leasaitl dizziness or headache is
excited. The belief, pretty generally entertained in Ejirope, that the
faradic current cannot be applied to the head without injur)', is to be
accounted for by the (act that most of the electric machines there em-
ployed are scparale-coil machines, and do not furnish a current of suffi-
cient sroooihness for faradization of ihe head. Most of those who at-
tempt tliis method of treatment use too small electrodes, and thus give
the current greater density than the brain can bear. Galvanization of the
eye or ear, or of the cervical sympatlielic, must always be shorter than fara-
iSzation of the same parts. ITiese considerations, however, need not inter-
fere with the use of the galvanic current to these parts, in all cases where
it offers a positive advantage over the faradic. There is no real danger
in using either current 00 auy patient, provided it betiscd properly.

A consideration of some practical importance with general practi-
tioners is, that the faradic apparatus is more convenient, more portable,
than even the compactest galvanic apparatus that has yet been devised-
It is impossible, however, for any practitioner to realize anything tike
the full benefit of electrization wiihout apparaitis for the galvanic ai
well as the faradic current.

The general ditferential indications for the use of the two currents
tnay be thus summed up. The galvanic should be used —

1. To aft tetfh special Et.ECTROrONIC and ELSCTROI.VTIC POWrR -m

the brain^ spinal eortt, sympafhetie, or any part of the central fir pertph-
tral nervoHS system.

2. Tp frodiiee ceniractions in paralysed museltT that fail ifi respcna
to tht/aroHie.

a65 GALVANIC AND FARADIC CURRENTS COMPARED.

3. In electrostltgeryt to produce tlectrolysis or eautet isatitm.

The faradic should be used—

1. To act Mii-DLy on the brain, spinal cord, symfiaiHetie, er an] fori
9/ the central or peripheral nervous system.

«. To excite muscular tontratiions wherever the muscles are not so
mtiek diseased as to be unadle to respond to it.

3, To produce Strang mechanical effects.

Both are essenrial in electro-diagnosis — the faradic especially for the
muscles, and the galvanic especially for the nervous system ; and both
are adapted for general as well as localized electrization, although in
general electrization the faradic current is chiefly used It logically
follows from wba: has been said that very many — perhaps the majori^
— ^)f diseases are best treated not by one current exclusively, but by
both cuiTcnts, cither in alternation or succession. Special indications
will be given under the special diseases.

7^4 two currents compared to bromide 0/ potassium and hydrate of
chiorat

W'c arc accustomed to compare in a rough way the Ui&erenlial action
of the currents with the differential action of bromide of potassium and
hydrate of chloral, the faradic current being the bromide of potassium,
and the galvanic the hydrate of chloral.

Bromide of potassium is a safer remedy than hydrate of chloral,
but there arc very many cases where it is powerless, and the hydrate of
chloral acts as a specific ; so the faradic current is safer titan the gal<
vanic, and therefore better adapted for general use, and, for those who
use but one current, fulfils a larger rctiuircnicnt ; and yet there arc
many cases where it fails and the more powerful galvanic is demanded.
Kxcept for the cases where the galvanic current 13 clearly Indicated, it
is well to begin with the faradic current, just as we use bromide of
potassium before resorting to hydrate of chloral.

A combination of bromide of potassium and hydrate of chloral is |
frequently more effective in producing sleep and relieving pain thaa
either remedy when used alone : similarly the combined or alternate
use of the faradic or galvanic currents will sometimes accomplish much
tiiDte than either current used exclusively.

OALVANO-Fjl RADIZATIOX.

In order to secure the advantages of both currents, and at tht same
dmc to avoid the trouble and inconvenience of employing them in suc-
cession, or altemalcly, as is so frequently necessary, we have f'eviscd a

GALVANO-FARADIZATION.

267

inethod of using Ihem simultaneously. To this method wc have given a
name which sufficiently expresses its character — gaivano-faradisalion.
It may be either general or localized.

The method of general gal vaae -faradization requires a double
electrode, with 00c part for the galvanic and the other for the faradic
current. The copper plate may be connected at one part with the
pole of the firadtc, and at another with that of the galvanic apparatus ;
thus the circuit is completed for both currents.

In localized galvano-fanulization it is necessary to have in iiae tiro
double electrodes; for this purpose the double excitors of Duchenne
answer very well. By a proper conslniclion and adjustment of the
electrodes it is possible to localize the two currents very near to each
other. Whether any special therapeutical advantage arises from tlic
^multaneous use of the two currents, we are unable to state.

We allow the above description of galvano.faradization to stand jusl
as it appeared in llie lirst edition.

Since we have used central galvanization — a method to be subse-
quenUy described — we have dbpcnsed almost entirely with general
galvaiio-firadizatioD.

CHAPTER V.

TBE PRINaPt.r.S OP Br.lCTRO-BIAGNOSIS (EtECTRf>-PATHOI/»nY).

Iw tilis chapter we ghall speak only of the prmcipUs on wliich
etcctricity is used as a means of diagnosis in medicine. The details
and siiccial applications of these principles will appear under the vari-
ous diseases.

A history of the use of electricity as a means of diagnosis would very
likely be the history of electro-thera pen tics itself. As soon as men
began to use the voltaic pile rn the treatment of paralj-sis and kindred
diseases, about the middle of the last century, jiist so soon, probably,
they began to lest the power of the electric current to diagnosticate
disease We logically infer that electrization was used as a racans of
diagnosis much earlier than the published treatises on tlie subject would
show, from the fact that it has been so used — in a blind and empirical
way, it is true — in this country, for thirty or forty years. Mankind,
always and c%'erywherc, are superstitious, credulous, ready to receive
whatever approache; them with an air of mystery, much more so in the
last century than in the present ; and it is certainly not unfair to sup-
pose that the earlier experimenters in this dcparlmL-nt consulted, to a
greater or less extent, the diagnostic or prophetic power of the subtle
agent — electricity. Their experiments, we may suppose, were unscien-
tific and unsatisfactory. They were probably neither based on any
well-defined principles, nor conducted by any intelligible system. Ac-
cordingly, they secured very few tangible, or at least communicable, re-
sults, and if scientific men had not espoused the cause of electro-thera-
peutics, the phrase electricity as a means of diagnosis, would never have
been known. Nearly all that has been accomplished in a scientific
way, in this department, is comparatively recent ; though Marshall Hall
earnestly called the professional attention to the fact tliat Electricity
might assist us in differentially diagnosticating paralysis as far back as
1839.* Since that time the subject has been studied by nearly all the
prom'nent workers in the department of electro-therapeutics.
*Hcdico-C]iirur)pcal Transutlons, 1^39.

MODinCATIONS OF ELECTRO -SENSIBILITY.

269

In order to be expert in eleciro-<3iagnoMs, k is necessary to be
thoroughly familiar with the normal reaction of the diffuent parts aD<1
organs of the body to faradic and galvanic electricity. The foundi-
tton principles, on which Electricity can be made a means of diagnosis
ofdiscrase, arc simply these four : —

J^irst. Th< fact that all tht f^aris and organs of tki body are mart er
less sensitive to the electric current, and that this sensitii-eness is modified
by disease. This electro-sensibility may be either increased or dimin>
ished

If an electric current be passed through a boil, or irritable ulcer, or
the skin, like any other irritant, it excites more pain than when it is
applied ovct the healthy skin ; and this pain which it cinses usually
bears quite a direct proportion to the nature and condition of the
morbid process. This is so familiar and so appnrent an example of in-
crease of eleclro-sen&ibility, that to suie It is 10 denionatrate it. The
electric currents, during the various processes of electriotion, penetrate
beneath the skin, and, as it has been experimentally and practically
demonstrated, traverse, to a greater or Ictis extent, the principal vital
organs. It is evident, therefore, that those organs which are abnor-
mally sensitive, llirough disease of any kind, must feel the current much
more appreciably than when in a condition of health.

But the titechaoical effects of the electric currents work both waj-s,
and organs which are indurated or changed into an anesthetic condi-
tion by disease arc less sensitive than is normal to the electric current,
just as they ore less sensitive to any other mcclumical cause acting upon
them.

Accordingly, we find tliat when even powerful electric currents are
passed through an indurated joint, or an atrophied liver, or any part the
sensory nerves of which are paralyzed, they may produce little sensa-
tion.

Before nuking examinations to determine the sensitiveness of the
different parts of (he miriace of the body, it is neccsjiary to know their
relative nonnal sensitiveness, as indicated and described in (he chapter
on Electro-Therapeutical .\natomy.

No absolute Standard of Eleeiro-sensibitity. — We have no absolute
or mathematical standard of iclectro. sensibility by which to comi>are
the deviations that appear in disease. We can only compare the
wnsitivcncss of parts with the average sensitiveness of the same parts
in health. When half the body is diseased, as in hemiplegia. It may
readily be compared with the eiectro-sensibility of the healthy side.
Id all these examinations into sensibiUty we are dej>endent on ib«

270

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO- DIAGNOSIS.

sialcmcnts of the patient, and the results will be infiueiiccd by his ia
telligence and honesty.

It need hardly be said that the diagnosis obtained by observing this
increased or diminished sensitiveness, of any part or organ, must, of ne-
cessity, be a very general one. It simply infonns us of, and directs our
aUctition to, the fact tliat such a part or organ is in some way diseased.
The special nature of this disease uiusl be determined by the ordinary
means of ditTerential diagnosis at our command.

This sensitiveness to the electric current is particularly marked over
the prominent nerve-tracts, and in those regions endowed with great
tactile sensibility. If even a mild current be ajiplied at tli0:ic points on
the upper or lower limbs where the prominent nerves, are superficial, a
feeling of tingling or nuniliness is fell through the branches of llie
affected nerve ; and if the current is very much increased in strength,
a decidedly aruesthetic effect is experienced. In paralysis of sensa-
tion, or an;csthesia, this feeling of tingling, thrill, and numbness is
very much diminished under the influence of the electric current, or is
entirely absent. It is on this principle that elcclricily becomes a most
valuable means of diagnosis in the various stages of anxstbesia. A
condition of aucesthesia or analgesia (loss of sense of pain) can readily
be detected by the brass ball employed in general faiadiiation, or by
the meUliic l>ru»h, or by any other form of electrode. To detect
analgesia the electrode should be moistened so that the current may
penetrate the epidermis.

General faradization is found to be of practical utility in aiding us to
determine the locality of certain discascii, if ni)C their precise n.-iture.
In dyspepsia, electrization often reveals great sensitiveness in the
epigastric region, and on the left side over the spleen. In severe
dyspepsia, accompanied by emaciation, a current is sometimes pain-
fully transmitted from the middle of the back to l3ie neighborhood of
the epigastrium. A peculiar sinking sensation is sometimes felt at the
pit of the stomach when a strong current is applied over the seventh
cervical vertebra, or over the bracliial plexus. All these symptoms,
taken together, undoubtedly suggest an aggravated case of dyspepsia,
and usually of the nervous variety. Congested or irritable states of the
liver are revealed by an abnormal and pec:uliar sensitiveness when the
current is applied over the right hypochondriac region. Care must At
taMent however, not to amfound the normal sensitiveness of the suptrjieial
ntr\'es over t/u ribs, with an abnormal condition of the liver. There
are certain diseases of this organ in which it ts less sensitive than usual
to electrization, *ri sometimes it appears to be decidedly ana^thctic

MODIFICATIONS OF ELECTRO- S EN SIBIUTT.

271

•
•

*
I
I

A lady patient of ours who had suffered for years from hepatic disor-
der was very sensitive to the current excepting ovlt the right hypcchon-
driac region, where ths could bear the whole power of the apparatus
without amy discomfort, except that which was necesEanly caused by
the natural tenderness of the skin. The precise condition of the liver
U. that time we were not able to ascertain. The evidence, however,
was sufficient to conArm our previous suspicions in regard to the exis-
tence of some affection of that organ. It may he said in general,
that those diseases which cause the tiver to be sensitive to external
pressiu^, also cause it to be sensitive to electrization. The same
general principle will apply to the stomach, the spleen, the intestines,
' and the ovaries* Our experience in the electrical treatment of diseases
of the lungs has not been large, but it has hccn sufficient lo nuke it
quite probable that ceitain sensitive conditions of tuberculous deposit
uiay be suggested by abnurnml sensitivcnc&s to the faradic current over
•he apex of the chest.

Electro-diagnosis of the acnsory nerves requires us to examine the
condition not only of the various portions of the skin, but also of the
nerve-branches, and the plexuses.

If in cutaneous anajsthesia we 6nd normal sensitiveness on the nerve-
branches, we judge that the disease is confined to the nerve ratnifica-
liotis only.

If in complete anassthesia of an extremity the nerve plexus exhibits a
noniial reaction, we also judge that the disease is not central but peri-
pheral, including (he nerve-branches.

far t/u purpose of testing the condition 0/ sensaiion ikt faradic otT'
rent is usually to he preferred, for the reason that its mechanical effects
arc greater than those of the galvanic.

The elecuo-sensibility may be normal or nearly v> when ordinary
sensibility is much diminished. In some cases of posterior spinal scle-
losis, for example, a moderate electric current may be fully perceptible
while a pin may be thrust into the flesh without causing any pain.

The Head. — In health the head is very sensitive both to galvanira-
tion and faradization, in all parts except the posterior. This electio-
BensiliveoeM of the frontal and parietal regions of the head is due to
the superficial nerves, and not to the brain itself. In pathological cases
this sensitiveness may be either increased or diminished.

Spine. — In health the spine is but little sensitive to the current. In
pathological cases it may exhibit a sensitiveness to the electric current
that is not revealed by pressure or by any other method of irritation.
This conditici is found in neuralgia, spinal irritation, hysteria, etc. It

272

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-DIAGNOSIS.

is interesting, also, to know that cleclric examination sotnetimes indS-
cates abnonnitics in the sensitiveness of certain parts of the body thai
exhibit tio functional derangement.*

Sympaihtiic and Pneumogasiru. — The ganglia of the cervical sj-mpa-
thetic and the poeumoga^mc may be examined electrically by tJie inoeij
border of the stemo-cleidO'tnafttoid muscle. Sometimes there is abnur-*
ma] sensitiveness all along the border of the stcmo-clcido-inastoid
muscle in the track of the imeuinogastric. This sensitiveness is found
in a large number of pathological conditions, locomotor ataxia, muscular
atrophy, various cerebral ajTeciions, etc We have observed it also Jn
spinal irrilauon, and during paroxysms of sick headache. This abnor-
nul sensitiveness may be frequently demonstrated by mechanical pres-
sure. We are disposed to regard this sensitiveness as due to the pneumo-
gastric more than to the syinpathclic.

£iectrc-iHuscular Sensibility. — Electro-muscular sensibility includes a
feeling of pain and a feeling of contraction. The latter may exist with-
out ttie fonuer.

Success in investigating electro-muscular sensibility depends on the
condition and intelligence of the patient.

In conditions of cutaneous hypenesthesia it is exceedingly difficult,
ei'en for the most intelligent patient, to distinguish between the senst*
tiveuess of the skin and that of the muscle.

In paralysis electro muscular sensibility is frequently diminished,
together with the eleclro-mnscular contractilily ; they often rise and
fall together. In hysteria, electro-muscular sensibility to pain is some-
times greatly increased. For remarks on the physiological nature of
electro-muscular sensibility, see B^ectro-Physiology, p. 148.

Seeondly. The fact that Uu eUetra-muscuhr egniraeiiiity and irritO'
bilily are mere or test modified by disease.

IrrHabiliiy strictly refers to the quivering which muscles exhibit
under mild currents ; (ontractility to the power of actually contracting
under whatever strength of current may be necessary. The two terms
are very frequently used interchangeably.

That muscular contractions can be produced by the electric currents,
tias been known since the period of the earliest investigations in tbe
de|>artmcnt of electro-physiology.

The first systematic attempts to make this a basis for establishing

differential diagnosis were m-idc by Dr. Marshall Hall, and suhscf^ucntly

by Dr. Todd. The conclusions of these distinguished experimenters

are quite fantiliar, and as they were unsatisfactory and partly enoncouB,

"Benedlkt op: cit., p. 6a

ELECTRO -MUSCULAR SENSIBILITV AND CONTRACTILITV. 273

it is not necessary to present them in detail. More recent investiga-
tions have establislved that the behavior of the dcepseatcd muRclcs> in
regard to theii contractility, is a much more coiiit>licACed question than
was fornierly supposed. The contractile power of a muscle is nude up
of two factors, viz.: the excitability of the intra-muscular nerve-fibres,
and the function.\l capacity or irritability of the muscular substance
itself. When, therefore, the conlractile power of a muscle differs in .
any respect from the normal, this variation may be due to an abnonuil
condition of either one or both of these factors. Still further, it is
stilted that when the excitability of the intramuscular ncrve-fibrcs and
the irrilabiliiy of the muscular substance are increased, yet if the
former has suffered more than the latter, the contractile power may be
diminished, and fiV^ versA.

In comparing heallhy with diseased sides in paralysis, it is necessary
fa use nvl only the same Urengih &/ eNrrertt, kui aiso the same relative
foiititm and pressure of the electrodes.

The general principles that have thus far been established, in regard^
to the relauoD of electro-muscular contractility to disease, are as fob
lows: —

ist. In paralysis of motion, the electro -muscular contractility is
sometimes norma], occasionally increased, and very frequently dimin-
ished.

Increase of electro-muscular contractility, or at least of Irritability, may
be observed in diseases of the brain, attended with irritative lesions, in
certain spasmodic and hysterical affections, and occasionally in loco-
motor ataxlx Diminntion of electro-muscular contractility is usually
observed in grave lesions of the anterior columns of the spinal cord,
and motor tract of the brain, in rheumatic jiaralysis, lead -paliiy, in welU
marked progressive muscular atrophy, and in paralysis from injury of a
nerve in some iiart of its course.

2d. In certain central diseases, the elect ro*muscular contractility is
it first normal or diminished, and afterwards increases with the progress
of the disease, until it becomes greater than normal.

The length of lime that is necessary to illustrate tncse variations de-
pends on the nature of the disease. In chronic inflammations of the
Bpinal cord, in effusions in the brain, causing hemiplegia, these varta-
tioDS may run through many weeks and months. In cases of hemiple-
gia also, these different conditions of the electro-muscular contractility
may run in a circle ; being sometimes normal, sometimes increased,
and sometimes diminished (Bcnedikt). All these changes correspond,
of coiuae, to certain changes in the, pathological condition of the

274

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO DIAGNOSIS.

diseased brain. Just what this cuirespondence is in each case, cannot,
in the present state of eLectro-pathoiogical science, be well determined.

3tl. The fact that certain forms of paralysis behave very differently
under the faradic and the galvanic current. Muscles over which a
faradic current can have no inllucnce, may contract easily under a
milder galvanic current than is necessary to produce contractions of the
same muscles in health. Souietiiues, as the paralyzed muscles recover,
they regain their power of contracting under the faradic current, at ihe
same time proportionately losing their contractility under the galvanic
current. This law is most readily demonstrated in peripheral facial
paralj-sis.

This fact, that in certain peripheral paralyses gak'anomuseufar eon-
tractUity may remain after Jar mto- mute ular (ontraetUtty is wholly lost,
was first pointed out by Baierlacher in 1859. His observations have
since been continned by Schulz, Meyer,* Althaus, Hammond, Radcliffe,
Ziemssen.f Legros and Onimus,! ourselve3,§ and other observers. (See
section on peripheral paralysis. )

Some of the more specific principles on whidi electricity is used as
a means of diagnosis in medicine may be thus slated. Although con-
tractions occur on!/ on closing or opening the current, yet we distin-
guish four kinds designated by Ihe following abbreviations : ist, C. C-
C. ; ad, A. O. C. ; 3d. A. C. C- ; 4th, C. O. C.

The first is Ihe eatkodal doiure eontrardon, and occurs when the
cathode, or negative pole, is applied to the nerve or muscle, and the
current closed.

The second, anodal opening conlraelton, occurs when the anode or
positive pole is applied to the nerve or muscle and the circuit opened.

The tliird, anodal eiosure eontrattion, occurs wlien the anode is ap-
plied and the current closed.

The fourlh, cathodal opening contraction, occurs wheu tlie cathode
is applied and the current opened.

The readiness with which these various contractions arc induced
relatively to each other, depends altogether upon the strength of the
airrcnt and the condition of tlie nerves, whether diseased or healthy.
If on the healthy nerve or muscle the negative pole is pressed, and a
current of sufficient strength employed, it will be found that on closing
the circuit a contraction takes place. In order, however, to induce a
contraction of the same vigor on opening the circuit, it is necessary

•Op. dt, p. 417.
(Op^ dt.. p, 61.

t EtKtricitM in Her Affdiein, 1866, p. T^i
*g New YarA jVeJkaJ Stotrd, tS6il, p. 409-

CALVAXO- r*. FARADO-MUSCULAR CONTRACTILITY. 2/3

that the strength of the current be increascA Each one can readily
confirm this statement for himself, and by experimenting thoroughly it
will be found that contraction in the healihy muscle occurs in the order
just given.

In diseased conditions, however, tliis formula is subject to great vOr
nations. The readiness with which a muscle contracts to electrical
inHuences may be increased. This occurs in certain cases of hemi'
plegia associated with an irritative lesion ; and in the early stages of
{aciol paralysis due to the action of cold associated with a rhcu matte
diathesis. In these cases the inira-musculir tierves ore atucked &om
the beginning, while there is but little if any alteration of the miiscuUir
fibres. The faradic current causes contractions through the intra-muscu-
lar nerres ; therefore, in cases such as the above, its power to jn-oduce
muscular contractility is lost. The galvanic current, acting more espe-
cially on the muscular fibres* retains its [tower, and, as experience shows,
a milder current will cause contractions tlian is found necessary for the
healthy muscle. As the patient improves, it takes an increased tensbn
of galvanism to cause the same effects, until, fin.illy, faTado-uitMcular
contractility becomes manifest. Agairt, the readiness of contraction
may be decreased and finally abolished, as in the late stages of bulbar
paralysis ; occasionally in paralysis following acute diseases, in myeli*
lis, and in progrc&^tve muscular airuphy.

The above are termed quaniitaiivt reaethns, consisting, as has been
stated, in a simple increase oT diminution in the quickness of re-
sponse to a current of given strength. Qualitative, which includes as
well quantitative changes — in other words leaned the reaction of degen-
o-<j//(Wi— consist in an alteration in the order of occurrence of the
contractions. These changes ore observed in any form of traumatic
paralysis where the continuity of the nerve has been completely inter*
mplcd, in rheumatic paralysis associated with compression at some
point of the nerve, in lead palsy, many forms of infantile paralysis, in
spinal paralysis where the gray matter is much involved, in progressive
rouscular atrophy, in some cases of neuritis, bulbar paralysis, in cases
of pressure on the nerve by tumors or cicatrices, ctc^ and in some
paralyses the result of acute diseases.

The nonnal formula becomes, in the above cases of paralysis, sub-
ject to the following changes : The negative pole at its closure (C. C
C.) becomes as weak or even weaker than the positive (A. C. C). and
the positive pole at its opening (A. O. C. ) becomes weaker than the neg-
ative at its opening (C O. C), At the same time the contractions be*
come weaker and less rapid than in health. When the circuit is closed

2T6

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-DIAGNOSIS.

ihe coniractinns arc also liable to become teiinic, while rapid interra|>
tions of the galvanic current ullcrl)' fail to call fonh any response.

Vfiitional Coniroftility may exist taiun Eledro-contraiiiiity is di-
minished. — The volitional jwwcr ma)' icinaiii when the electric contntcti-
lit>* is diminished If a muscle exhibits diminution of contractility under
clectriciniration, but reacts nonnally to the w///, the conclusion is thai
the muscle is not injured, but that the abnonuity is caused by change in
the irritability of the intra- muscular fibres. This is observed in certain
stages of traumatic and lead paralysis. We arrive at the same conclu-
sion in those ca&es where the muscles refuse to contract under direct,
but respond normally to indirect, electrization.

Muscles of Ihe eye are .in exception to this mle, since, from their
anatomical position, they cannot be made to contract by direct, but
only by indirect, reflex action from ihc fifth pair.

Cases where reaction is lost botli to the will and electricity indicate
actual injury of the muscle.

Furthermore, it should be con^dered that tlie electro-muscular coa>
tractility and sensibility of dise-tscd imiwJcs may be and arc greatly
modified by the treatment, both pcmiancntly or temporarily. Modifi-
cation may take place even during the stance.

T7iirdty. That the special fhysiologieal reactions of the central
and peripheral nervous systems to {he galvanic current are essentially
changed tehen the nerve is in a pnfAotogieal eanili/ion.

This is true of the spinal cord, the nwtor and sensory nerves spinal
cord and nerves of special sense, and of the s>Tiipatheiic. According
to Itcncdikt, if the negative pole is placed, for example, on the pero-
neal nerve, and the positive on the palcUa, with an interrupted current,
a weaker irritation appears than when the positive pole is placed on
the cervical or lumbar verlebre. The more the central parts are in-
cluded in the circuit the greater the irritation. In pathological con-
ditions this reaction is changed.

Opening e/mtraetions are regarded by Henedikt as characteristic
evidences of certain forma of locomotor ataxy. They are observed
also in neuritis and in chorea minor. They indicate a molecular dis-
turbance. They accompany both increased and diminished irritability,
usually the latter.*

Nerves of Special Sense. — The changes of the reaction of the nerves of
spedal sense to electric irritation may be boih^uantitaiit'e and gualilative.

* These views of Bonedilct, conceratng the tignilicance of " openb^ contraclitMU,"
hare been K%-erc1/ :rittcbeil by Breoncr (" UDtersuchunsea," &C., Bd. IL, 1869, p»
SIS. et ftcq.).

ABNORiEAL REFLEX IRRlTABILirY.

277

Auditory Ntrve. — It has been shown that the reaction of the auditory
nerve to galvanic irritation — the strong subjective sensations of sound
— is materially changed by disease; and hy this wc judge of the
condition of the nerve. (See Diseases of die Ear.)

Optic Nerve. — The reaction of the optic nerve under the influ-
ence of the galvanic current, is attended wiih Haiihcs of light. The
qualitative changes in reactions of the optic ncr\*e to electrical irrita-
tion arc numerous. In certain pathological cases, as wc have observed,
flashes of light may be produced by the faradic current. In other
pathological cases, as severe atrophy of the retina, the flashes of light
do not appear during galvanization, or only when a very strong current
b UMd. We have observed very marked differences in the reaction of
the optic nerve in the tti'o eyes when nnc was diseased and the other
healthy. Flashes of light from galvanization of the lower part of the
spine arc indicative of abnonnal irriubility or organic disease of the
spinal cord. They are observed in locomotor ataxia and spinal
iiritation.

Olfactory and Gustatory Nerves. — The peculiar smell that is ex-
pcricnccd on galvaniiation of the oJfactory nerve may be citlier in.
creased or diminished by disease. It is absent in paralysis of the olfar
lor)' nerve.

The peculiar metallic taste that follows galvanization of the tongue,
or that in experiecKcd by reHcx action wlien the galvanic current is ap*
plied on the neck and upper part of the spine, is subject to various
modifications by disease. Id irritable conditions of the cord wc have
observed that ihts metallic taste will appear when the application is
made in the lower part of the spine. In two striking instances it was
experienced from faradization of the cilio-spinal region.

Fourth. The fact that in certain central diseases, and in eenditicnt
vf great irritability^ as hysteria ^ the reflex effect of the current is so
exalted as to excite reactions thai in a normal condition of the body never
appear. Thus, in a lady of middle life, who for several years had suf.
fercd from all the symptoms of declared chronic myelitis, we were first
struck by the fact that even a very mild current over the upper portion
af the back was sensitively felt down the right leg. This symiJlora we
have never known to occur in a perfectly healthy condition of llie
spinal cord. Afterwards wc found that a very short as well as very
mild .application of the current to one leg caused a disagreeable feeling
of pain and heaviness not only in this leg, hut also in the other, for
several days following the application. In another case of general
'iji.'alysis dependent on hysteria, a wcxy feeble current localized in OQC

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-DIAGNCISIS.

hand, or in one foot, would be appreciably, and oftentimes painfully,
felt through all the four extremities, llie patient declared that the
sensation was like that of "waves rolling through the body."

A still more marked illustration cf lUis diagnostic power of elcctrizji-
lion was the following :

In the case of a lady whose lower limbs had been somewhat para-
lyzed for two years, who presented no marked symptoms of severe
organic disease of the cord, we were irkcUned to suspect chat her para-
plegia might be due to nervous exhaustion, until this abnormal reflex
sensitiveness to tlie electric current seeiued to establish the existence
of myelitis, or at least lueuingitis. We first observed that a feeble cur-
rent in tlic neck was felt down the spine, and subicquently the patient
complained that a strong current down the lower extrcniitics trans-
mitted paJn to the back. The occurrence of this abnonnal sjinptom
forced us to the unwilling conclusion tliat we were dealing with a case
of organic disease of the spioe. The subsequent history of the case
has confirmed this diagnosis. It has been shown by Ilcncdikt,* that,
in certain morbid conditions, cicctriiation of one extremity produces
contractions in the other. This phenomenon has been observed in
progressive muscular atrophy, and in certain rcllex neuroses, fn a case
of iheumatic gout that we treated the application of the galvanic cur-
rent to the left knee caused a sharp pain in the corrcspouding part of
the right knee.

This fact enables us not only to make a diagnosis of central disease,
but in certain cases even to suspect rhe seal of the affection.

We are confident that in all cases cf crossed reflex contractions
— ^just as in the cases of crossed reflex sensation above cited — th^^re is
always some central disease. This syniptom when it occurs may per-
haps then be regarded as so far forth diagnostic.

Crossed reflex sensations and crossed reflex contractions may be
manifested sinuiltaneously in a patient affected with organic Hiscase of
the spinal cord. This singular coincidence was ob5er\'cd in the case
above recorded of (he lady who complained of waves of sensation all
over the body when the current was applied to any one of the four ex-
tremities. These peculiar sensations were sometimes accompanied by
feeble and spasmodic muscular contractions.

General shaking and tremor of a limb, or of the whole body, after
electrization, is also diagnostic of central disease. Wc have obscrt'ed it
in one case of softening of the brain, and in a number of cases of hemi-
plegia. This general or partial tremor does not appear unless a coo*
• Die Elcktrotherapie, pL 63.

DIPLEGIC CONTRACTIONS.

279

liderablc strength of ciurvnt has been employed, or the applicatioii has
been much prolonged.

Diplcgie Contractions. — Renialc.* of Berlin, was rhc first to note tht
fact, that contractions of the muscles of one orboth of the upper extretni
lies may Bomctimes be produced by placing the positive pole in tlir
auriculo-iii axillary' fossa, just posterior to the ascending ramus of the lowei
jaw, and tlic negative by the iiidc of the sixth cervical vertebra, Thi
theor>'of Remik, th&t these contractions, to which he gave the name of
^'diplegu^' were caused by irritation of the superior ganglia of the sym
pathetic, was apjiarently confirmed by Fieber,f by cx])crimctits on ani
uials in whom the sympathetic was exposed, and subjected to the action
of the current.

Strong currenu — from twenty to forty elements — are usually, though
not always, necessary to produce these contractions. The contractioDS
may be of various degrees, from mild drawing, with scarcely pcrcepliblc
oscillations, to violent movements resembling chorea. Theymay appeal
in the inierossei or in the muscles of the arm or forearm of one or both
sides. They may abo appear in other positions of the electrode than
the one described. From one to five minutes are usually necessary to
excite them, and they may continue for a few nionieols after the appli-
cation has ceased.

That these so-ciUed diplegia contractions are a reality and not a de.
lusion, as some have declared, we have demonstrated in a number of
cases, and especially in progressive muscular atrophy. The cases where
they are readily dcnionstraled, are, according to our observation, not
fiequent, and we can easily see that one might practise electro-therapcu-
ticsforalong time without seeing any, especially as currents of con*
«idcrable strength, a|>plied in a certain manner, are necessary to pro*
duce them.

The evidence that these contractions occur exclusively throngh the
sympathtriic is not to our view saiisfaclory, and there is stronger proba-
bility thai the spinal cord is the centre, which in certain irritable con-
ditions exhibits these manifestations under strong elcctncal stimula^
lion. In none of the methods of application where these diplegic con-
tractions are called forth is it possible to localize the current to the
sjTnpathctic. The special diagnostic value of these contractions is nut
great. They occur not only in progressive muscular atrophy, but in
hysteria and hystcroid affections, and would ap|>car to be paihogno-

* Application du ccBDuit coDitut an tntUcmcnt dcs neuroses. Paris, 1S65.
f I>i« diplegischon Contractioocn nacli Versuchea ao McDschea und Thlerok
balln, 1866, pp. 31, 33, 3>

28o

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-DIAGNOSIS.

nionic of DO one special disease, but rather of a condition of iiritabilit)
of the nerve-centres ihat may apjJcar in many different diseases.

Feigned Diseases. — liy the application of the principles stated above
the electric currents may he of great service in helping us to disiinguish
leal from feigned disease. A esse of prelcndciL paralysis of juoiipn ot
seosauon can leadily be settled by applying the current to the limb,
since no force of will can fully resist the energy of die contractions thai
clectricily may excite in healthy niusclcs, or the pain that can be pro-
duced by strong faradization of the skin. The principle will work both
ways, and, if the electro -muscular contractility is diitiinishcd hclow the
normal standard, we may know that the disease is real Where one
side or one Umb only i» aUcctcd, the comparison between the healtliy
portions and those where disease is suspected can easily be made. Dr.
Russell Reynolds • mentions a patient with hemiplegia who was sup-
posed to be malingering. Electrization of the limbs on both sides
showed clearly a diminution of contractility on one side, as the patient
reprcsente<l, and accordingly the case was pronounced to be one of real
hemiplegia

Dr. Ahhaus | records a case of suspected malingering that he studied
by the aid of electricity. A member of a work lugni en's benefit soci-
ety professed that he had tost the use of his arm in consequence of an
accident — a fall — three years bicforc. The fjncsiion was whether the
society should give him the ^loo to which periiuneinly incapacitated
members are entitled. The patient, though tall and strong, had done no
work since the accident, and professed to be unable to undress himself.

On examination with the faradic current. Dr. Althaus found that all
the muscles of the arm responded without difficulty ; he therefore con-
eluded that the ner\'es and muscles were uninjured — in other words,
that there was no paralysis. He found, however, that when a very
strong current was used the patient appeared to suffer, but the aim did
not execute the movements it should do when the muscles contract.
Accordingly, he had the patient anaesthetized by nitrous oxide gas, In
order lo sec whether any anchylosis existed that might interfere with
the movements of the arm. It was found that no anchylosis existed.
Dr. Althaus gave a certificate that the patient had no paralysis and
no andiylosis or dislocation, but that there was a painful affection of
the joint which would yield to subcutaneous injections of morphia and
galvanism, and that the patient could use the arm if he wished to.
The claim for benefit money was disallowed.

.Faradisation as a means of distinguishing real from apparent death-"

* Lancet, K^'A i6, 1S70. f Third Edilioa, p. 455.

ELECTRO-BIOSCO PY.

28j

Eiectro-Bioscgpy, — ^Thc use of electricity as a means of d.stingiiishing
real from appuenc death was sugjjcstcd as long ago as 1792, by Drs.
Bchrend and Crcvc. Subsequently liger, of Vienna, used frankliiiic
electricity on ncwly-bom inrants, and found that when muscular con-
iractions still existed, then the child was not dead, but could be re-
stored.

In 1852, Dr. Criniotcl, of Paris, wrote a memoir in which he stated
that when Jarado-toniraii'dHy is gone, liftf is extinct. He stated fur-
thenuoic that fiiradu-contraciility gradually disappears after death, and
that after a period ranging between half an hour and two hours it en-
tirely disappears. He suggested the term ttectro-bioscopy, and recom-
tuendcd that those who are apparently dead from drowning, syncope,
apoplexy, freezing, hysteria, and ihc inhalation of ]>oiiionouft gases,
should, before burial, be tcsled. n

Roscutlial, of Vienna, has also studied the subject with much core.
He has fyund thai b<jtli farado- and galvano-conwactiliiy gradually disap
pear after death. He agrees in the main with Criinolcl in the follow-
ing general conclusions :

Eteetrocontraetility disappears more rapidly after death from ehronic
than acute diteaset ;. it persists longir in well than in badly nourished
kfdies, and ii usually disappears wUhin three hffuri.

Rosenthal found that in amputated limbs the Tarado- and galvano-con-
traclility were active the first hour, and entirely disappeared in ninety
minutes. In case of drowning electro-contractility disappeared in three
hours and a quarter. In some cues where rigor mortis his not ap-
peared, where the temperature of the body is yet quite high, and where
the joints arc flexible, the absence of electro contractility yet proves
beyond question that the person Is dead.

Rosenthal further records a very remarkable case of trance in a hys-
terical woman, where it was declared and believed by the physician
that the patient was dead. The skin nras pale and cold \ the pu-
pils contracted, and not sensitive to light; no pulse could be felt;
the extremities were relaxed; melted sealing-wax dropped on the
skin caused no reflex movements, and do moisture appeared on a
mirror held before the mouth. Respiratory murnmrs could not be heard,
but a feeble intermittent sound in the cardiac region was just percepti*
ble on auscultation. For thirty-two hours the patient had been appar-
ently dead; but on electric examination Rosetithal ici\sx\^ farado-am-
tratiUity \\\ the muscles both of the face and the extremities. He
therefore urged the use of the faradic current to restore tlie patient
In twelve hours the patient recovered her speech and movements

383 PRINCIPLES OP ELECTRO-DIAGNOSIS.

Two yean afterwards she was alive and well, and infoaaed RosenAtd
that she knew nothing abont the caoHDencement of the attack of the
tntice, and Aat afterwards she heard people talk about her death, but
die was powerless to help herselC

CHAPTER VI.

ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICAL ANATOMY.

Eltctrc-therapeuiicai anatomy includes a description of tAe localities at
Vfhieh the difftrent nerves, muscles^ and ffrgant can be best affected by
the electric furreals, and also the relaiive tUctro^eHsibiliiy of the dif-
ferent parts ef the body. It is therefore to elect ro-thcra[jcutic3 what
surgical anatomy is to surgery.

Metffr Points of Musdes. — The subject of the motor {mints was first
systcmaticaJly studied by Zieinssen, who experimented on the recently
dead subject, and marked with nitrate of silver the points at which the
individual nerves ami tiiuscles most readily responded to faradization.
Many of these points can be easily and succe*afully studied on the living
human subject. Those which we have represented in the cuts are derived
mostly fiojii numerous observations on persons in health. They have
bcea found to agree id the main with those of ZieniKSen, with wluch
they have been compared, and by which they have been made more
accurate and complete. Tho»c: who wish to ex-tmine the subject io
greater detail arc referred to the work of Zicmsscn.*

It will be found, however, that those which arc here described arc
»uf5cienc for most of the purposes of electro-therapeutics.

The best method of verifying these points is to place one large
sponge electrode, well moistened, on some inditferent point, and to
firmly press a small negative \ electrode, also well moistened, over the
spot where the nerve or muscle should be affected. If the right place
is touched, and tlie strength of tlie current aud the pressure be suili-
cient, the normal physiological action of the part affected will at once
appear, (n the case of imiscles contraction will take place, accom-
panied with a feeling of contraction ; in the case of nerve-branches and
plexuses, there will be sensation more or less painful along the pcriphe>
ral ramifications of the nerves, and, if the excitation be sufficiently
strong, contraction of tjne muscles whtdi they supply.

* Die £l«tt1dlU in der MecUcin. Berlin, 1866. p. \\\,t\ Ecq.
t The neguivfi b 10 be prercrrcct, t>ecmiBC it is the Uroiij;er, uul acl> more pom*
fully in prodyoog contTKllooi,

ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICAL ANATOMY.

It is not to he understood that a studious regard for all of tlicse dec
trie points is always necessar}* in making .ip|ili cations of electricity. Id
the normal condition most of the superficial and many of the deejNrr
iHuscles and nerves are easily excited by ordinary labile applications
with large sponge electrodes. Soine of the muscles have two or more
motor points, and are therefore uiore readily affected by large than by
small electrodes.

A large sponge electrode of from 3 to 6 or 8 inches in diameter, folded
over a brass ball, such as is used in general farKdiiation,— cs.u3es full
contraction ofa majority of the superficial and deep muscles when rapidly
passed up and down the tinvbs.

But when the muscles have become diseased, so that they respond
with difficulty to the electric current, It becomes necessary to give spe-
cial heed to the situation of these motor points, in order to determine
their actual electric condition, or to aid in restoring them to their nor-
mal condition by exciting artificial contraction.

It should be remarked furtliermore, (hat these motor points vary in
different individuals, jii!§t as the anatomical relation of the nerves and
muscles varies, and that the representations of the cuts can be only
approximately correct.

The points at which the nerves and muscles of (he eye, car, and
larynx can be best electrized, also the best method of elecirtznig the
cesophagus, rectum, genital and abdomiaa.1 organs, will be described in
tlie chapters devoted to the diseases of those pans.

We present below a brief description of the points at which the prin-
cipal nerves, plexuses, and branches can be best excited clccirically,
and also the physiological effect on the nerves and muscles produced
by such excitation.

Facial — at its exit from the stylo- mastoid foramen, between the mas-
toid process and the angle of the lower jaw, or at the opening of the
external auditory canal.

Ptteumogastrie — at the lower and anterior part of the neck, between
-*ie common carotid artery and the jugtdar vein j inferior laryngeal —
between the cesophaguE and the trachea by the gatiglia of the sympa-
thclic.

The supericr f^rt'iVa/ ganglion of the sympathetic can be reached in
the anterior maxtllary fossa, just behind and below the angle of the
lower jaw ; the middU cervical, by the side of the stern o-cleido-niastoid
muscle, opposite the fifth cervical vertebra ; the inferior cervical, also
by the inner border of the sterno cleido-mastoid muscle, opposite the
Kcond cervical and first dorsal vertebra.

MOTOR POINTS.

385

Aecesswy — at its exit from the ftemo-clcido-riiastoi<1 muscle.

Hypoghssus — between the stylohyoid and hyoglosstis muscles, nnder
the hyoid bone.

Phrenic— ax. the outer border or the sterao-deido-miutoid muscle^
by the anterior border of the scalenus anticus, near the omohyoid nnu>
cle. Excitation of this nerve causes strong movements of the che^t.

Brachial plexus — in the sui>ra-clavic«lar space, posterior to the
outer border of the stemo-clcido-mastoid muscle. Excitation of this
plexus causes a feeling of tingling and numbness in the fingers and
down the ami, and, when the current is strong, flexion of the forcartn
and Gngers.

jDiJrWfV scapula — at the border of the trapezius, near the accessory.

Supra scapularis — jiist before its entrance into the scapula, and ex-
ternal to rhe omohyoid muscle.

Anterior thoracic — at the uj)]>cr border of the pcctoralis major, below
the clavicle.

Poticrior thoracic — above the cla^-idc, near the trapezius.

The thoracic nerves arc irregular in their distribution, and therefore
difficult to find.

Axillary — at the upper and posterior border of the axilla.

Museuh-cutaneous — between the biceps and coraco-brachialis.

Median — in the lower third of the arm, at the point where it crosses
the bracliial artery. Mild excitation of this nerve causes tingling in the
ami and fingers ; a strong excitation causes closure of the fingers and
pronation of the hand.

Ulnar — at the groove between the olecranon and the internal con-
dyle. Excitation of this nerve causes pain in the inner surface of the
foreann and contraction of the fiexor carpi ulnaris, Elcxor dtgitonim
profundus, adductor poUicis lumbricalis, and interossei of the little
finger.

Radial — in the lower third of the arm, at the point of its emergence
from beneath the triceps. Excitation of this nerve causes tingling in the
outer part of the ami and forearm, and down to the wrist ; strong
excitation produces extension of the first phalanges of the fingers, ex-
tension of the hand and thumb and supination of the forearm, contrac-
tions of the extensor carpi radialis and ulnaris, extensor digitorura com*
munifi, extensor minimi digiti, extensor indicia prop., extensor pollicil
longus and brevis, adductor pollicis.

Sciatic — in the thigh, posterior to the head of the femur, at the point
where the nerves issue from the pelvis, or in the pelvis, through the
posterior wall of the rectum. Electrization of this nerve causes sensa-

388

ELECTRO-THERAPEirriCAL ANATOM f.

tions of tingling in the leg below the knee, and foot, sir, jlar tc thosA
which wc so often experience when we accidenuUy sit on ;he sciatic
nerve.

Crurai — just after its exit from beneath Poupart's ligament, exterior
to the crural artery. Electrization of tKis nerve causes sensations in
those ]>arls of the leg that arc Bupj^licd by its branches.

Obturator — on the horizontal branch of the piibic bone, Iflheap.
plication is successful, and the current used sufficientlj' strong, the thigh
is abducted.

Popliteal — in the outer part of the popliteal space. Eleciri/ation of
this nerve causes vigorous contraction of the muscles that mo*"e the
foot upward and outward.

frontal — on the posterior border of the capitulum fibulae. Excita-
tion of this nerve causes contraction of the tibialis anlicus, peronci
muscles, extensor digitorum coninnmi^ longus, extensor dtgitorum com-
rounis brevis, and extensor halhicis longus.

Tibial, — This can be reached on the middle and outer part of the knee.
When strongly clcctrizctl, contractions arise in the muscle of the pos-
terior part of the leg. The tibial nerve can more easily be reached in
the depression posterior to the internal malleus.

Farado-imsihiliiy of the Surface of the Body.— Very many muscles
have no accessible motor points, and must therefore be electrized intra-
muscularly. Practically this is done in the majority of cases. Wc pre-
sent In the acconipanj-ing cnts a birdVeye view of the electric points of
the prominent ncr»-cs, plexuses, and muscles, and of the relative sen-
sitiveness of dilTcrcnl parts of the surface of the body to the faradic cur-
rent.

The relative sensitiveness of the differeni part-S of the surface of the
body to faradization, we have also ascertained by nnmerous compara
tive observations on persons in health, with Che moistened hand and
well- moistened sponge electrodes. The method of making these obser-
tions is to place the patient In the position for general faradization, with
his feet on llie plate to which the negative pole is attached, while the
experimenter applies the positive all over the surface of tl"e body.

Degrers of /''arnch-scnsibilify.—Wv have dislinguishei five degrees
of sensilivcncss, the highest being marked one. For all practical pur-
IMMes these are sufficient ; approximate accnracy is all that is attempted.
The sensitiveness of the body when irritated by the faradic current ia
due partly to the quality and position of the sensory rerv<s, and partly
to the peculiar feeling that attends am^cutaf contraction ^eleclrtMnuA*
Ctilar sensibility).

KLECTRO-SENSIBILITY OF SURFACE OF BODY.

289

The feeling of muscular contraction amounts tn some instances to
actual pain, so that a part which is not richly supplied with sensory
nerves may yet be very sensitive to the current. This is esjiccially tlic
case witJi the 6lerao<cleiUo-uiai>toid muscle, whidi on being tottched
near its centre contracts with a painful jerk. The same ts true, to a
less extent, of the Irapcjius, the flexors of Ihc arm, and of the peronei
muscles. In all parts where no muscular contractions are produced,
the Sensitiveness of the surface of the body depends on the quality and
position of the sensory nerves, and beats a pretty cousunl relation to
its sensitiveness to ordinary mechanical irntation.

Thus it will be observed that the parts which are most sensitive to a
blow or fall, or to any mechanical injury,- — as the bead, face, or surface
of the bones, clsricle, sternum, scapula, patella, etc., — are likewise
marked highest in the scale of sensitiveness to the current.

To guard against error it is necessary —

I. To tise always the same electrode and the same direction of the
current ; therefore the negative pole should be kept at the feet during
the entire silting.

3. To make the prestiire of the electrodes uniform, and to moisten
vrell all parts supplied with hair.

5. To use the moistened hand for the head and face. The head, es-
pecially, is GO exceedingly sensitive to the faradic current that it will
hardly bear a sufticicnt strength of current tluough a sponge to make a
comparative estimate.

It will be observed that only a few parts are marked 5 — the middle
of the back, the outer surface of the thigh, and the testicles. The peri-
nxum, which cannot be represented in the cut, should also be marked
S- It will be obficrvcil that the points most highly sensitive are those
where very sensitive nerves pass over the surfaces of bones, as the head
and jaws. Of the other parts not represented in the figures, the external
auditory canal should be marked i ; the middleof the stern ocleido-mas-
toid muscle, a ; the axilla, 3 ; and the ends of all the ftngcrs, a; the
under aide of the penis, 2 ; the point between the penis and scrotum, 4 ;
tlie under surface of the heel, the plantar arch, the ball of the foot, 4. If
the external auditory canal, drum of the ear, conjunctiva, nasal nmcoyg
membrane, tongue, and larynx were represented, tliey should be marked
a degree or two higher than i, since they are more sensitive than any
portion of the surface of the head. The best point to test a current of
extreme feebleness is the tip of the tongue.

The rectum, urethra, and vagina are but little sensitive to the eurretU
in comparison tvith the mucous meuibranes of the m<futh, except at their
19

ago

ELECTRO- THERAPEUTICAL ANATOMV.

extnual orifice?. They might be marked 4 w 5- The os uUri and tlie
bladder vrotikl I>e inaiked 4, 5.

It should be distincily understood thai these remarks apply to the
applications of the- faradic current wirh electrodes siiflicicntly moistened
to allow the current to pass readily through the epidermis. In dry
faradization the results are someivhat different, the pain at alt pans be-
iny far less.

Farado-sensibility as compAred with GahanO'sensthilify.^-'VUe: gal-
vanic current causes a burning sensation wherever it is apphcd ; but this
IS most sensitively felt at those parts that are abiindantly supplied by
sensory ncrvrs. This burning feeling increases with the length of lime
that ilic current is applied.

The greater sensitiveness of the bones to the faradic current, as com-
pared *'ith ilic galvanic current, is due to the greater nicchnnical action
of the former. An intcmiptetl galvanic current, of sufficient strength
to produce muscular contractions, produces the same sensations as the
faradic current, witJi the addition of the btiming ffcting at the surface
beneath the electrodes. The fact thai the galvanic currein is less jwiin-
ful to the surfaces of the bones gives it a certain advantage in making
ap]>IicalioiiH to ihc bead, allliough the pain of the faradic current, when
apl^Iied to the head by the moistened hand, may be reduced to * mini-
nmm.

A Kmnoledge 0/ the Normal EteetrO'SensibiHty of the Body essential in
Etectro-iiiagnosis an/i EUetre therapeutics. — A knowledge of the relative
scn.sitlvcness of the different pans of the body to the electric current
)£ indispensable Iwth in ekitrodiagnosis and etectre-thfrapeutics. It is
Bt once obvious that to determine by the electric test the extent of anaes-
thesia, or loss of electro-nnisccilar sensibility, in cases of paralysis with-
out a previous knowledge of the normal sensitiveness of the pans to the
electric current and the normal feeling of electro- muscular sensibility in
the affected muscles, is simply impossible. From a want of this knowl-
edge very important mistakes are made in electro -diagnosiB. In local
and general fara<liz3lion a knowledge of the relative sensitiveness of all
the parts of the surface of (he body enables one to make an application
which would otherwise be painful, and perhaps injurif us, both paiDle.<«
ind refreshing.

CHAPTER Vir.

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPt imCS.

Thb general principles on which batteries are constructed, as w<l
u minute description of some of the best known elements, have already
been presented in ihe section on electro physics. In this chapter we pro-
pose to spealc only of those combinaitons of elemcnu tliat arc used in
electro-therapeutics, and our descriptions will be of a general character,
having reference mainly to the practical use and care of them by the
electro-thcrai>eulist.

before entering on the description of apparatus a few general re-
marks may be appropriate.

1. A good battery is not all chat is necessary to make a good elerm*.
Ifaerapeutist.

There exists an impression, quite widely prevailing in the profession,
that the beginning and the end of the great science of electro-thcrapcu-
rics is to get a battery. This impresiion has wrought much e^-il. It
has been the means of leading physicians to invest time and patience
and money in a deparlment for which ihcy have no qualification. The
purchase of a battery is simply a. tx&i step in the right direction ;
it is the beginning of a long road.

One who uses electricity in medicine requires good apparatus jiis(
as the surgeon requires good iostrumenis and the carpenter good tools ;
but as tools cannot make a carpenter, nor instruments a surgeon, so a bat-
tery cannot make one skilful in the therapeutical use of electricity. It is
not the battery, it is the brains, (hat makes a good electro therapeutist.

a. The best and most recent apparatus is not so simple as to entirely
dispense with the need of care and experience on the part of the physi-
cian.

The advance in the construction of apparatus for electrotherapeu-
li« has been very great, but not sufficient to make it possible for
fararfic or galvanic apparatus to keep in order without attention.

Just as the fire in the grate goes out unless the coil is replenished,
)i<st as (he gas is extinguished when the supply is shut off, so electriciti

292

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

generated in a battery ceases to tow unless the luetnls consumed in th«
chemical action arc replaced or repaired.

The best and simplest of baitcrics wilt sometimes get out of oider.
Unexpected contingencies will arise that demand some knowledge of
applied electro physics. The knowledge can be obtained only by study
and experience.

3. Whatever choice we make in our apparatus at the present day, ire
shall probably not make any very serious mistake. A few years ago it was
impossible to get a really good apparatus for electro-therapeutics ; now
it is almost impossible to get a really l>ad one.

4. An apparatus to which wc aie accustomed is much more tractable
in our hands than a far superior apparatus the management of whidi is
new to us. It is with batteries as with babics^-evcry man thinks his own
ia the best. We see the same principle illustrated in instruments fgr
general and special surgcr)*.

Ceniinuaus-eoil and Sffarate-eail Faradic Machines. — There are in the
market, and in cuinnion use among pliysicians, two quite dilferent fotms of
farodic apparatus. In one of these forms which vre call the contitmeusiOH
machine, Ilnr lielix is composed of one hng wire varying in thickness,
lapped at difffrent points, so as to obtain different qualities of current.
This mre may be wound in three, four, or more coils. The inner coilis
Hsnally comparatively short, and Is of thick wire ; the second coil is
longer, and of finer wire ; the third still longer and finer, and so on ;
but the metallic connection is complete, and it is all a continuous wire.

The machines of Kidder, Hall, and others are of this construction.

In the jf/ara/^'-iJ't?// machines the helix is composed of iwa entirely
separate and distinct wires ; the inner wire, which like that of the inner
coil of the continuous machine is short and ihick, has no metallic con-
nection willi the outer wire. 'Ilie outer wire is longer and thinner than
the inner wire. The faiadic machines of Slohrer, of Drcscher, and of the
Galvano- Kara die Manufacturing Company are of this construe lion.

The quality of the induced current generated by these two types of
machines arc quite different. We have already seen (Electro- Physics,
p. 3) that electricity is a force — a mode of motion of the ether and of the
particles of the substance in which the force circulates. It follows from
this definition— if we accept it— that the quality of the current must be
modified by the nature of the substance through which it is conducted.
Every modification of the conductor, increase or diminution of its dia-
meter, increase or diminution of its lengih, or any change in its consli-
lution, must affect more or less tlie character of the current that Sows

rough it. Hence it is that the currents coming From the different points

SINGLE AND SEPARATE COIL MACHINES.

293

of tlic continuous-coil machine are sotnewha:, though slightly, diRerenl
from each other in quality and in their physiological effects. Hence also
ihc current from the separaie-coii inacliioc it quite different from that
coming from the continucus-coil machine.*

Single-eoil and Separate-ceil Faradu Mcchines compared in their
Tlterapeutie Effects. — The conchi^iionii at which we have arrived on this
question are formed from a very wide experience with single and separate
machines, in public £Lnd private practice as well as from convertation and
correspondence with many phj'sicians who are using one or both varittics,
and whom we have requested to study their comparative effects. Our
conclusions may be thus stated :

I. For nervouSf hysterical, and greatly debilitated patients, and in
nearly all cases where general faradization is required, a single-coil ma-
chine is preferable.

This conclu:>ion is based not on any physical, physiological, or theo
retical considerations, but simply ont'/my<:fr/^^/^/-/Vffir^. Again andagain
have we attempted to treat nervous, delicate, and hysterical patients
witli ihe separate-coil machine, and have been compelled by unpleasant
symptoms to return to the madiine with a single coil. The reasons why
Ihccitirent from the »ingle-coil machine \% less irritating and more agree-
able to delicate patients, arc to be found in, ibc/kysicai differences of the
currents already referred to. This conclusion is not peculiar to our-
selves ; it is held by many, though not by all, the electro- therapeutis is
with whom we are acquainted.

It is not even necessary tliat the patient should be ver)' delicate in
order to test this difference ; any individual of average slreogth and
health will appreciate without diHiculty the general fact, that the cur>
rent from the one aiachinc is more agreeable and less harsh and weary-
ing than the current from the other.

That the Ionic and sedative effects of general faradiiation can, how
ever, be obtained by separale-coil machines, is proved in Germany,
where the faradic machines in use are chietly of llie separate-coil varie^,
and general faradization is uticd there continually by the highest aulhori*
ties in clectrolog)-, and with all the brilliant effects over nutrition thai
we have in onr writings claimed for it.

It must, however, he admitted that the Germans arc much less sensi-
tive and nervous than the .\mcricans.

But the advantages of a smooth and pleasant ctirrent are not con5ned

* Oniniiuv of Puis, hu rrccntly &hown ihal hclicn fbrmcd of copper, sllvrr, vid
lead have a dUcrentioJ physiolo^-Icd action. — Jimr. dt PAnitiemit tt Je in Pkytiela-
fie, Mars, 1S74.

294

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPECnCS.

to general faradization ; in localized Faradization of the musclesof the face,
legs, and arms, and in a|>[>lications to special organs that are irritably
the cunent from the separate-coil machine is more irritating and un-
pleasant than tJiat of the single-coil machine. In childien with inu-
tile paralysis, and in delicate women who perhaps are afraid of elcc*
(ridty, this consideration becomes one of practical importance.

On the other hand, there arc very tnany cases, especially in public prac-
tice, where it is a matter of apparent indifference which current is used.

3, For patients who from idiosyncrasy or from disease are greatly in-
Mnsililc to elcctnciCy, the scparatc-coil machine M:ems to be preferable
10 that of the single coil.

Cases arc not very uncommon, even among the better classes, where
there is enormous and inexplicable tolerance of electricity. Power*
ful and protracted applications leave them as they &ad them ; they are
not painfully felt during the sitting, and they leave no appreciable
effects behind them. In the anesthesia that accompanies posterior
spinal sclerosis and certain injuries of nerves, the harsh and irritating
current of the separate-coil machine is not disagreeable at all, and ap-
]}ears to be, in our hands at least, more cf^cactous than the cnnent &om
the single-coil machine. We are, we believe, the only obser\'ers who
have called attcntiun to this fact. Formerly wc supposed that the dif-
ference in the quality of the current of different machines dc]>cnded
mainly on the construction of the rheotome ; this view is not sustained
by our more recent studies tn the department. It is the coil more than
the rheotome, and more than the kind of cell, ihnt determines the
quality of the current, although the frcipiency of the vibrations as de-
tennined by the rheotome has a decided iniluence.

Tiie Camparativt Valu* of Slcnu InlerrupUom .-^X\i^z arc a large
number of physicians who find or think they tind a great therapeutical
advantage in slow interni|uions to the treatment of paralyMS. A blind
deference to authority has prevented a careful, original, and impartial
investigation of this subject, and statements of European writers and in
strument makers had been received without dispute, unti! we incidentally
■poke of our experience in the matter less than two years ago.

With a slow ittterriiptidn a stronger cumnt can he borne than with
a rapid interruption, and hence it sometimes happens that a paralyzed
muscle will contract under the former when it will not under the latter.
In occasional instances this advantage may be titilized for those phy-
licians who have only the faradic and no galvanic apparatus.

For those who have a galvanic current of good strength the slow in-
termption is imnccessary, even granted that it has some advantage over

FARADIC APPARATUS.

295

F.C 44.

Fuadic Machine, with a tip uruigemeiit (Ki4der).

296

APPARATUS FOR ELECTROTHERAPEUTICS.

the rapid interruption in producing muscular contraciion, for a strong
galvanic current interrupted will cause muscle* to contract that will
not respond lo the firadic current whether slowly or rapidly inter
riipted.

In ihisl)3iier>' the cell is placed on pivots so that it can be easily
turned over go*. When ii|>right, the metals are immersed ; when turned
over, the metals are out o( the solution. The stopper is of rubber,
and it is provided with a rubber funnel for the escape of the gases.
This arrangement is a very great advance on the oid one, where each
time the machine was used, there would be pouring of the acid and
necessar)- spilling into and from a bollle.

For the past year wc have used only this tip element, having dis-
carded entirely the old arrangement. It is not ornamental, but is very
convenient.

Smcc's cell is a very convenient cell to take caie of, and when not
kei>t too long immersed, or used with loo strong solution, is very en-
during.

The current of Kidder's faradic machine is a very pleasant one, and
is especially adapted for nervous and sensitive patients, on whom gen-
eral faiadisaiion is employed. The agreeable character of the currents
that come from it is to be explained in part by tht: fact that it is a
continuous coil macliioe — all the different coils, from three to six in
number, being connected — and in pan by ihe construction of the rhco-
!ome ; but mainly, we think, by the former, since, as has been stated,
ill single-coil machines, other condiiions being the same, give a
Ijlcasantcr current than separate coil machines.

The character of the current is, as we have seen^ modified by the length
and fineness of the wire in ihc different parts of the coil. The inner
coil (A B) 15 of tliick wire and is short, and gives a very mild current ;
the second coU (B C) is of thinner wire, and is longer, and gives a
stronger current ; the tliird coil (C D) is still finer and longer, and gives
a still stronger current. The majority of these instruments have but
tliree coils ; but in some of the larger instruments one or more coils
;K and F) have been added. All these coils are metallically con-
nected, so that they really con&litute one long coil, varying in diffcrcni
parts in the fineness of the wire.

All the currents that come from this batiery (A B, H C, C D, D E,
A D, A E, etc.) may, therefore, be regarded as modifications of the
primary current (see Electro-Physics, p. 63). Inasmuch as electricity
IK modified by the nature of the substances through which it circulates,
It follows that coils of tlifferent IcngUi and fineness will give different

RULES FOR USE OF FARADIC APl'ARATUS.

297

VAiietics of currents ; this is fouud to be the case with the batteiy under
consideration. It is found that the currents vary not only in strciigtl),
but in the nature of thc-ir effects, with the portion of the coil &om which
they come ; that ihey cau&e different sensations when applied to the
body. The differential therapeutic action of these currents Is loo com-
plex to be readily or satisfactorily demonstrated.

RULES FOB THE USE AND CARE Ol' KIODER's FARADIC APPARATUS.

The directions that we give under this head will apply in general to
all, or nearly all, faradic machines, and, therefore, need not be repeated
in the descriptions of other machines that are illustraled in this
volume.

To frefare the Apparatus Jor Use. — Fill the glasii jar with a solution
or water and sulphuric acid — one part sulphuric acid to eight or twelve
parts water. It is not necessary to be rigidly mathematical in regard to
the quantity of the sulphuric acid. The average proportion i» one-
tenth, but it may range between one-sixth and one-sixteenth. The jar
should be about two-thirds Ailed with the solution.

It is also necessary to put about a leaspoonfnl of cpiicksilver in the
cup. This touches the lower end of the zincs ard keeps them con-
stantly amalgamated. (See Electro Physics, p. jy.)

The quicksilver should not be allowed to touch the central plate of
platinum, as it may injure it. In some of the niodi&calions of tJiis
apparatus it is necessary tocloAc the prongs between one of the brass
posts that is labelled and the one in the middle that ha* no label.

The apparatus is now ready for action. If ilie spring docs not ax
uncc vibrate, give it a slight stroke with the finger. If it still refuses to
vibrate, it may be necessary to readjust the screw. If ihe spring
vibrates, but irregularly or too slowly, the evil may usually be remedied
by readjusting the screw.

Now connect the strings attached to the electrodes with the lettered
iwsts. A is always the positive pole, and B, C, and D are always nega-
tive relatively to A.

Te disiinguish the Poles. — It is always possible to distinguish the
negative pole by holding the electrodes fur a moment in the two hands ;
the one in which the current is strongest Jelt is the negative poU.

If the apparatus refuses to go, or if it slops at any time while in use,
the cause may be looked for —

I. /« the screw of the rkeotome or current -breaker. This may not
be properly adjusted. I'he point may be loo lar from the spring, or too

298

APPARATUS fOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

closely pressed upou ic. Thiswnnt of proper adjustment of the screw
K the most frequent cause of a sloijpiiig of Uie machine, and of the re-
fusal of the s[>rinj; to vibrate. I'hc spring may sojuetimes be corrodef
at the point where the screw touches it.

2. /« /he eanufetion of the wires. The wires that unite the zincs and
platinum uiay nut be properly screwed at their point of connection, or
may be corroded.

3- In the baltery iiself. The battery — that is, the zinc and platinum,
with the iotiLtioD in the glass jai — may get oiu uf order in four ways.
first, the solution may lose its strcnglh. This difficulty may be reiiie-
died either by pouring in sonit; sul|)ininc acid or by making an entirely
new solution, or by simply adding more water. Secondly, the zincs may
become so corroded and incrusled as to became incapable of generating
a current. When we have reason lo suspect thai such is the case we
should clean them with an old tooth brush or cloth^ or amalg.imale
them. When the zincs have lost their amalgam, local action may take
place ; llils will be indicated by rapid cvoliUioti of hydrogen. Thirdly, a
portion of the mercury may havi? fallen onto the jilatinuni, and covered
it. When this happens, little or nu current can be obtained. Fourthly,
the platinum and tlie zincs will, in time, by hard and long u&age, wear
out, and will need to be replenished.

4. In the helix. It is very rarely indeed that the helix of this appar-
atus ever becomes so injured as to become incapable of service. If,
after we have propcily adjusted the screw and spring, made sure of the
connections of the wires, replenished ihc solution and cleaned the zincs,
the apparatus persistently refuses lo go, we have reason to suspect that
i^mething may be wrong- with the wires that compose the helix. If
stich be the case tiie evil can be remedied only liy the inventor himself,
or, at Icatit, by &ome one practical!^' familiar with the construction of
helices, I3«t we s^hculd try very patiently and pcrscvcringly before we
accept the conchmon that ihc helix is thus out of order, for it is an ac*
cident of extremely rare occurrence.

When no current is felt ac the electrodes, although the apparatus act^
liroperly. we know that the eamueticn is broken somewhere in the tnsu
lated cenductiag wires. Sometimes the union of the wires with the
electrodes is imperfect, and occasionally the wire in some part is broken.
I-'inally, the electrodes themselves may become very much corroded,
and may need cleaning before a good current can be obtained.

Ta take care of the afifiaratus. — When not in use, the element can be
taken out of the solution. When the lip batlery is used, all that is ne-
cessary is to merely turn over the jar. If the element remains too lon^

PARADIC APPARATUS.

299

a time in the jar ai; tncrut>tation of »slt will sometimes accttmulate on
the toi) of the zincs ,vhich will need to be brushed or washed off. Thir
salt is the sulphate of zinc, resulting from the action of the sulphuric
acid on the zinc.

We may know that action is taking place in the battery wUen bub'
hies of hydrogen are rising up by the sides of the zinc

Methods 0/ modifying the Current. — 'Jhc sirenylh of tlie current of
this macliine inay be modified in several ways, as follows':

t. It maybe modified by withdrawing or pushing in the metallic tube
that covers the helix.

When this tube covers the helix an indelitiite number of branch
currents are indurcd in it that interfere with the miin current and
weaken it. In proportion as this is witlidrawu, the induction of branch
currents, and the consequent interference with the main current, grows
le&s.

This method of modii}'ing the strength of the current must be used
coatioually both in general and locali&ed faradization.

fit. 4S.

Fandic Machine, sqnrale coil, double cell, in box { C ft) van 0- Farad ic Manvifacturtng
Co.)- F F are the Iwo elements of dnc-oubon ; A A tfie roik bj- whicli Ihe aae
is raisnl froni, and lowered iuio, the Kiliiiion ; D the hammct, uid 4 the hdU
Ijartly drawn out. Theae [oachEim sue run by one or two linc-oarlxtn cells
(Wftlket*! ])>ttcry, see p. 35, in HlccLio-Phyiics).

2. The current may be modified by increasing the quantity of the
lolutioQ, or of tlie sulpliuric add m iL This measure can be resorted

300

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO -THERAPEUTICS.

to when the current fails to accomplish our purpose, even when tlie
metallic tube Is entirely or nearly withdrawn.

3. When the current passes through the body of the operator, the

cucrent may be modified by increasing or diminishing the pressure of
the hand on the sjKinge connected with the positive pole. (Sec Geo-
eral Faradization.)

PARADIC APPARATUS.

301

The direction of (he current can be changed, at any time, by revers-
ing the jxisitioii tjf the t-lcctrotics, or by reversing the conducting wires
in ihe posts, or by the current-re verser, when one ia attached to the
machine.

The faradic machine represented in Fig. 46, besides being of the
sei>araic-coil variety, giving both the primary and the secondary Ctir-
reni, has also a very convenient contrivance for producing slow or
rapid interruptions.

Fandic MAchine (coniinuou<i coil) (Thftmns Mnll).

The machine of Hall is a neat, compact arrangement, and gives a
very pleasant current. Chromatcd lead is iisctl (or the electro-nega-
tive element. One of the nielals is raised out of the solution by a
very convenient spring, instead of the jyintcd-rod.

Maf^nttO'Elidric Mathines. — '\\icmit^netp-eltctri({i:ix%o<itCiK-Arctary)
machines (see Electro- Physics, p. 61) arc not much used it the present
day, and are not ordinarily to be recommended. They have been cm-
ployed largely and indiscriminately, especially in this country, nnd have
done the cause of clcciro- therapeutics much evil. Although die cur-
rent alTorded by them is well adapted to produce muscular contractions,
and is frequently of service in the treatment of paralysis, rheumatism,
and kindred disorders, yet, for all tlic wide range of diseases in whicl)

302

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

faradic cleclricity is indicated, it is nctlher siifficientlj^ reliable nor mf
ficiently effective. In niost of the condirions of irritability, in which
general faradi^alian is most effective, this fonn of electricity, as generated
by most of the machines, is conua-indicatcd, on account of the rough
and disagreeable quality of the current.

Another very prominent objection to most of the rotary machines in
Ibis country is that Ihcy require the aid of an assiiitaiit to turn the
crank. This objection may be met by clock-work attachmenL An
arrangement of (his kind is employed by Dr. Morel! McKcnzie, of
Ixindon, in the treatment of paralysis of the larynx ; but even for lliiii
special pur])ose it would seem to have no advantages, but positive dis-
advantages, as compared with a compact, convenient, and reliable
electro- inagn die apparatus as described in the preceding pages.

M. Oraninic * has made a magneto-electric machine which fumislies a
conlirtuoui instead of an interrupted current, which in its effects re-
sembles the ordinary galvanic currenL The machine consists of three
rings of soft iron, around which is an endless coil of copper wire. Each
of these rings rotates between the poles of a powerful magnet, and the
arrangcmcDt is such that the opposite currents in the halves of each
ring form a single continuous current

I'he machine ts turned by hand, and in its large form generates a
large quantity of electricity. It can produce all the effects of the ordi-
nary galvanic current. It makes platinum wire red hoc, fuses metals,
and is used in clcctro-ptating.

If this machine can be reduced in size, and modified in shape, it may
become of value in electro-medicine and electro- surgery,

GalTanit Appttratus. — The merit of placing in the market, in an
accessible fomi, convenient and reliable f;aivamc batteries, was in this
country pioneered by the Galvano-Faradic Manufacturing Company.
Before the organization of this csLabltshmeDt the faradic machines of
Kidder and others had been long in use, but suitable galvanic machines
could not be obtained.

HydrOital. — The hydrostat is an admirable contrirtncc for keeping
Ihc fluid from spilling when the battery is carried in a buggy or on a
long joiuney. It consists of a rubber covering accurately fitted on the
top of the cells, and we have found it a most trustworthy arrangement.
A battery of sixteen ccUk, made by this company, wc once took with
as charged tttree hundred miles into the country on a cousulution, and
not a drop was spilled.

Allhatis on Medical Eleclridty, third edition, |$74, p. S8.

CALVAXIC APPARATUS.

303

Wc umy remark here that on ihc street or steam cars, a battery liisi
is charged will not iisuall/ spill. It is in omnibuses and in busies Uial
the hydiosiat vi necifcil.

The xinc-carbon batteries are also coii&lructed on the same ^nero]
principle of suttecn and eight cells. The t>ixteen-ccU combination if

304

APPARATUS KOR ELECTRO-TIHiKAPEUTICS.

purcable, and about as heavy, when charged, as a mediuin -sized valise,
well packed.

The eight-cell combination is no heavier ilian a coimnon faradic
machine, and when well charged gives a ciirrciu of sufficient slrcngth
Tor many applications to the eye anil head.

Twenty fourzincciirbon butery (Gfllvino-PaTftdk Mfg. Co.).

The above is called the Barllett galvanic battery (Fig. 49). It is a
very convenient apparatus. It has connected with it a hydrostat, which
quite fiiccesiifiilly prevents the spilling of the solution during transpcr-
taiiun. The accessories, such as current selectors, commeilator, rheo-
loine, etc, are all attached to the battery. The bottom of ihe box is
a movable nay. in which the glass or hard-nibher cells are placed.
'["his movable tray is controllcil by two hinged rods, which are fastened
to it, and these by two lifting-rings at the end of the nibber table.
These rings, being screwed tightly down, hold the cells firmly against
ihc hydrostat, or, being loosened, allow the hydrostat to be removed
from the front of the centre of the box, They also serve as handles to
lift the tray of cells.

DIRECTIONS FOR GALVANIC APPAKATOS.

30s

PraeHtal DireetioHsfor the Use 0/ Zint-Carbcn Gahnimt BaUertes.

The following directions mil substantiallj' apply to all cw nearly all
forms of ihc zinc-carbon batlerj*, by whomsoever nuniifactured.

How the Battery is Ccmtructed a>td Used. — Thcbc baiEcrics are com*
posed of plates of zinc and carbon in a solution of bichromate of po-
toss, sulphuric acid, and water. The solution i$ contained in glass jars
that arc raised up to the plates of linc and carbon by the keys at the
end& of the box, or by a crank. When the jars arc raised by the kcyfr

Fic. JO.

TUily-«x Uus« siaC'Carboti cell gabanic buicry, with circular switch, revnMT, and

iMcrrupter, Tor office ui huiipital use (Kidder),

to the top of the box, turn the keys at right angles^ or him the crauk,
and the jars will slay in position, and the battery is re^dy for use, if the
jars arc properly tilled with the solniion.

\Vhen the battery is not in use the jars should be let down from the
plates by means of the keys. If allowed to remain immersed day after
day the battery will rapidly lose its strengtit. (Sec Electro-Physics,

P- 36.)

Ifau' to Charge the Battery. — The solution is made in about the fol-
lowing proi>ortion5 : sulphuric acid, i oz. ; bichromate potass, t^ oj, ;
»o

DIRECTIONS FOR GALVANIC APPARATUS.

307

mUer, lo oz. 'The best way to nuke the solution is to dissolve the 1»-
d)TX>mate of pi^tosh in cold vater and then add the sulphuric acid-
The mingling of the water and sulphuric acid causes great heat. /><» «M
usr tht ioiution until U is tool. We had not been able to get any sat-
isfactory explanation of the fact thai soUilions when het injure the bat-
tery, until Prof. Erackett, of Princeton, informed lis that from experi-
ments he made several years ago he proved thai when the bichro-
male of potash solution is used hot a layer of ozone is formed on the
carbon ; this at oiice weakens the current.

Lift out the plates by the middle piece to which they arc attached,
lift up the jars by the keys and fill each jar with two, or three, or three
and a half ounces of the solution. They should be filled pretty uni-
formly, and care should be taken that no more should be put in than the
jars will hold after the plates are innncrsed.

Jivw to cUan tht BaiUry and Amat^amatt the Zincs, — Every few
weeks 01 months, according to the extent to which the battery is used,
it will be iioceutai] to wash the plates and ficrai>e off the exudation, and
renew the solution, or, at least, to add more acid or w.itcr, and amalga-
mate tlie zinc. The chrome alum that collects in the bottom of the jars
(see Electro-Physics, p. 36) and becomes very hard can he softened by
allowing warm water to stand in the jars for a lime, and then loo^niiig
the deposit with any sharp instrument. A good way to amalgamate
llie zincs is, take a strip of zinc, dip it in a solution of sulphiuic acid
and water, then dip it in mercury ; the mercury will adhere to and run
Over it ; (hen rub up over t!ie surface of the xincs of the battery until
all arc well covered with mercury. During the process of amalgama*
tion the zincs should be kept well moistened with a solution of sul-
jihuric acid and water. (Bee Klectro- Physics, p. 36.)

Hqw ia icil the Strength 0/ the Current. — Those who have no galva-
nometer can tell whether the current is running and how strong it is by
putting one pole in the hollow of the hand and the olher between the
thumb and forctingcr. The poles should be wet with sail water or
nmpte warm water. Those who have been accustomed only to the
Doisy and violent faradic (induced) current, will be disapijointed to f ^jd
that diis galvanic current causes only a sli,\;ht burning sensation, with no
shocks except when interrupted. A current that is scarcely felt when
applied in the hand, may be too strong to apply to the head, or face, or
neck. The greatest mistakes are made by using the gaiianic current
ftN* strong.

Horn to distinguish the Poles. — The current is felt strongest at th«
MBCATiTE POLE. When both poles are dipped in a solution of iodide

3o8

APPAkATL'S FOK ELECTKO-TllliKAPEUTlCS.

of poias&iutii, the brown color of the iodine appeois at the positive

POLE.

Chlorkir of litver tMLtlny.

Cells out uf caHi>

The cell in the above battery is very small, betnj; otic and one-quar-
ter inches square by five und one-half deep. It contains a strip of zinc
and a strip of sIK-er, the latter being covered with abuut S dwt. uf fubcd
chloride of silver. The solution is water and sal ammoniac, in the pro-
portion of a pint of the former to 8^ dwt. of the Utter.

T/ie Cabinet Batltry* — A little more than a year ago it was sug-
gested to the Galvano-Faradic Manufacturing Company the possi-
bility of arranging a combination of sixty or more Siemens- Halske
elements of moderate si^e, in such a way that all the cells and all the
connections and appliances should be contained in a small movable
desk or bureau. The suggestion was made in the belief that all the
supposed or real advantages uf the combinations of large cells that
are usually placed in cellars or basements, and connected by wires with

* Some cbunccs have bcrn made in the foriTi of this tuttcry since the lost edition,
but the (;cricral [jrtncLplc:s □( its conslriictlon remain ihe unie.

THE CABINET BATTERY.

309

the operiting room, could be secured at far less trouble by a. simple,
convenient, and accessible arrangement, in which many of Che diAicultiei
cuuDCCled with removal, cleaning and o*'eHiauIing should be reduced
to a minimum.

In the roughest possible manner a general plan of a bureau with
drawers and cover was dran'n and ic was further suggested that it would
be well to have a current- selecter, current- re verscr, rhcosint, and gal-
vanometer interposed in the circuit, and that the appliances should all be
in a {rtanc surface at llie top; and tlial the drawers cuntaining the cells
thould be so made that they could be easily taken out whenever neces-
sary to inspect and replenish the batter)*. We thought little more of
the matter until November last, when the Comiiany called our altenlion
10 the fact that they had completed a battery which they called the
Cabinet battery, and which is represented in the accompanying cut.

Kw-w.

The Cabinet batlerj- is so simple that a very brief description of il
will be sufficient. The Siemens- Hal ske cell i^ merely a modification of

310

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTiCS.

Daniell's cell. It consists of a small cylinder pf glass, aitachfd ai the
t)ottom to a cylinder of porcelain. In this cylinder is placed a coil of
ribbon of copper, and a little water. Outside of this cylinder is a cylin
dcr of zinc, and the space between it and the outer glass jar is sawdasl
on the top, and at the boltoni powdered papier. machS packed closely,
and wet with water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. The object
of the ^an-diist and papicr-machi is to hold the tluid and avoid spilling
and to make tlie action of the battery gentle and iinirorni, A cork
is placed in \hc cylinder so as to prevent mingling of the fluids of the
outer and the inner cella.

These cells, like all niodifications of Daniell's cell, arc very con-
stant ; that is, they give a st^iuiy and uniform current, and can be used
for a long time without recharging. It is necessary, now and then, to
drop a Uttle water into the inner cylinder to make up for the los» by
evaporation, and to put in a few pieces of sulphate of copixr ; this,
however, can be very easily done by pulling out the drawers and
removing the corks. Each cell is about the size of an ordinary
tumbler. There are three drawers, each containing twcnt)- cells.

The metallic connections of the cells are made at ihe back part of
the drawer, and are completed when the drawer is well pushed in. On
the top of the bureau are the currcnt-sclectcr, by which one cell or
sixty cells can be brought into the circuit; the currcnt-revcrser ; the
short-coil giilvanomctcr for indicating the presence and direction of the
current merely, and the hydro- or water rheostat, for gradually increas-
ing or diminishing the strength of the current

The water rheostat is the pcrfcclion of neatness and convenience,
and is lUfTcrently arranged frotu any that we have seen. The water is
contained in a small case or cop, with a glass top. By turning a small
brass disk, connected with a brass lever, a small or large area of the
water can be brought into the circuit. Beside all the appliances for
the galvanic current, this Cabinet battery also provides xhc/aradie cur-
renL Two Lechanchfi cells in ilic upper drawerare connected with a con-
tinuous coil and incerruptcr, on the right hand of the top of the bureau.
The faradic current can be increased or diminished by pulling out or
pushing in a metallic rod in front of the tO[> piece.

Tlie advantages of tliis Cabinet combination arc these : —

I. // is very easily moved and maria^fd. The whole Cabinet, con-
taining sixty cells, the electrodes, connections, etc., for both currents,
and the cover to place over the top, is but three feet high and scveiv
teen inches broad. It is placed on castors, and can be easily mDve<!
Om one ward of a hospital to another ward, or about the room, by oat

THE CABINET BATTERV.

311

pmon, as easily as an onlinary centre-table. The combinations of
lHnidr& cells are generally placed in the cellar, and the apparatus
lougbout is pomanent, and when the physician wishes to move his
^office the labor of re^icltiiig the battery i» very great Tliis conibitia-
lion, without taking out the drawers, can be transported bodily from
one boose to anotI>er as easily as any bureau the drawers of vhicb
arc filled with heavy jjoods.

Although the battery will probably go for years without thorough
orerhatiUng, yet occxsional inspection and refilling will be required,
and can be very easily perfornie<I.

2. // grrfs a ccns/atf, uiti/ifrm, and iteatt/ atrrtnt ; and is, therf/ore,
htttrr ad,iftfd far tht trtatmral of irritable aiul tensitivt e^nditient than
the smatl cells of the ardinary pariiskU butler its.

Tbta advantage it shares with all nnodiiications of Danieirs bitter)',
rxplanatioo of the constancy and steodinirss of the current from
combinations of Daaiell's cells Is found in the fact that on ac-
€0«at of the fccblcne&t of the solutiou, and the interposition of (he
potDits cell, the chemical action is »low and uniform, with no inter-
ruptions or even variations. In the single zinc-carfoon cells the solution
\h very strong, and the chemical action very vigorous ; the plates are
ipidly polari/ed ; the density of the solution, and with it tlie inlL-r.
nal lestkCance of the battery, ts continually changing as a result of the
^V^Dions chemical action, and cxmsc<iuenlly the strength of the current
only diminishes after a protracted use of the battery, but i/ nirus
frvm mommi to Moment.

l*he potential quantity of elcctricit)- may be the same in a combina-
ticm of single lincorbon cells, as in a combination of san'dust Danicll's
crlla, and may even be far greater ; but there is great difference io the
nqiidity with which they evolve it. For short work, such as is required
in powerful electrolytic operations, tlic single zinc-carbon cell is far
i'lefctiWc to the lUnicll, for the reason that the quantity o( electricity
thai it generates in a ••hort ttmc, say half an hour, is very much greater
than a sinular number of Danicll's cells would generate in the same
This C^inet battery is iliercforc not a gooil battery for clrc-
and we ne\'er attempt to use it in any iuiponani electrolytic
tioos. In experinicnting witb it we find that it causes but a very
cebic decomposition of iodide of potassium, or chloride of Mxliuni,
It could not indeed be othemise ; in electrolysis, as everywhere, force
answers to force ; the amount of chemical action outside of the cell —
electrolysis — must be proportioned to the amount of chemical action
modi ot Uie cdL la the Danicll's cell the diemical action is very slow

312

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEL'TICS.

and feeble ; hence, the clectrolynis it causes is slow and feeble, but it
is constant and steady ; it docs not gi**e out so iiiucli electricity in an
hour as the single tine-carbon cell, but it coniinucs to give it out long
■ficr ihc zinc-carbon cell is exhauated.

Two men have each a thouiiiind dollars ; otic 5])cnds recklessly, rap-i
idly, and cxiravagantly, and in a few days is penniless : tin- other
spends regulaj-ly and slowly, and unifunnly, one dollar each day, and
makci his thousand dollars last a thousand days. The single zinccir-
bon cell makes an extravagant battery ; but in elecirolysis extravagance
is needed, and besides the solnlion can be removed from llie plates, so
that no action can take place when the battery is not needed. The
Daniell's cell makes an economical ballcry, since it spends slowly and
regidarly, even though it is kept constanlly immersed. Hence its ad-
vantage in the treatment of the neuralgic, tiic hysterical, and the nerv-
ously exhausted, who in some cases, at least, require lo be treated with
feeble, mild, steady, and painiiss currents. The current from these
Danicll's cells is less painful than the current from small and active
cells, for the reason mainly that it is more uniform.

The notion entertained by some that these large double-cell batter-
ies send a larger quantiiy of etectricit}' through the body than small
cells, is at war with Ohm's law, and has no foundation iai experience.
The resistance of the body is so great in comparison with the internal
resistance of the batteries, that tc makes but little difference in regard
to the quantity of electricity that tluwii through the body whetlicr the
cells are large or small. As a matter of fact, the small single zinc-car-
bon Cells, or even the ordinary Siiiee's cell, give larger quantity of elec-
tricity for a short time than the lat^e Danietl's cell. (See Electro*
Pbj'sics, pp. 66-84.)

The arrangement in Fig. 54, is very light, compact, and portable.
The cells .ire quite small, and of course need refilling more frequently
than larger cells. The cord spools {S S) arc convenient contrivances
for winding up the cords when not iu use.

These batteries are made also of ten, twenty-four, and forty cells.

The combination in Jig. 55, embraces both the faradic aud the gal-
vanic currents, sixty zinc-copper cells — and a rlieoslat. The same coil
that furnishes the faradic current can also be enclosed in the circuit
of the galvanic current so as to form a rheostat. Connected with the
apparatus, on a board in front of it, is a ctuTent-reverser, a current*
iulenupter, and a galvanoscope.

The faradic current is supplied by a conrinuous coil with many wind*
■ngs, and gives a very pleasant current.

THE CABfXET BATTFRY.

313

These baHcries (Fig. 56, p. 3i5)areoftweIve, or twcniy-four, or thirty-
fix Cfflls. The general construclion of the I.cclancli6 cell has already
:eu described in Electro-Physics.

Curt W. Meyer sUo manufactures a combination of LccJanchi's cells
that is conveniently portable, and ii said to be quite enduring. These
■moll Lechanche cells are not as enduring as those of a larger size, ind
ivhen frequently used must be frequently clear. 1, like the zinc-carbon
bfttteries.

Jtaines' -Battery. — Prof. George W. Raines, of Augusta, Georgia, has
described • a portable jpilvanic battery, cc>mi»osed of strips of zinc and

FiO, S4.
Portable gnlvank tntteiy, twraly lioc-cflTbon celt* (Drncher).

Jalinum, united by copper strips in the shape of ihc letter V inverted.
Itese xiiic j.nd platinum strips thus united are passed through holes
made in a rubber plate, beneath which is a squate trough of rubber, di-
fVided into forty-nine compartments or cells. These cells contain the
dA solution, which can be raised to the metallic strips so as to Immerse
The whole battery is about the weight of a No. 4 faradic ma<
Ptiiine of the Galvano-Faradic Co.'s niamifacturc.

Galvartomtters or Galvanoseopes. — llic general principles on which
Ivanometeni are consuucted have been already described (Electro
"^Physics, p. 40).

A galvanometer which, by Dr. Rockwell's suggestion, was made by
Messrs. Chester & Co., is represented in Fig. 58. It is of the long-cotl
variety, and is provided with a " shunt," which has a resistance equiva-
lent to 150 miles of telegraph wire. This galvanometer measures witb

" Siitulifie Amtriean, SeptetnbcT 2S, 1873.

314 APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO -THERAPEUTICS.

' ...•i?r(j-«>*M..'' '\

Fie. 5«.

Portable Beeti-LrchiuicW Ulicry, twenty eclli (Thooiw Hall).

eoiisidcrable accuracy Ihe strength of ihe galvanic current, since ihed*
flection of the nee<3Ie is in tolcmbly exact proportion lo the number of
cells introduc«l into the circuit. It is very useful, therefore, in compar-
ing dift'crent batteries, or the same battery at diffcrenl (iines, in order ta
dcierpiine how much iwwcr it has losi. When a thiriy-two-ccU zinc-
carlion battery U in perfect order it will dellect the needle of this gal-
ranoinetcr froni 40° upwards ; fifteen cells will cati»c a deflection of
about 2o» or 45". The deflection of the latter part, when a large num-
ber of cells are introduced, is not exactly proportional as in the first
lart, but siirticiently so for all practical uses.

The ordinary "-^ort-coil " gaI\-anonietcr3 {galvHnoscopcs)are so deli-
cate that one or two cells send the needle round lo 90", and are there-
fore useful only to determine the presence and direction of the current

IC S7,

Rrcnoer's Apponitas, including Stopper Rlieustat, Gnlvanoscope, Faradic Coil, etc.
(GalvanO'Fn.nKlic M&nufncturing Co.). This apparatus nifty be connected wiih
tny desnd nombcr of large cells in ihc cellar.

RheoHaies. — ^The general object and principle of the rlieostat has
been already described (Electro- Physics, p. 42). It remains here to
speak of those forms that are best adapted for elcctro-lhctapcutic*:

Galvauumetei i»ed by llic Authors. (Chester A Co.)

A form of rheostat, very well known to electro-physiologists and
elcctro^tberapeutists, is that of Siemens, and introduced into electro-
therapeutics by Brenner in his rtsearclics on the car. The unit of
Siemens is a column of mercury, one metre long, with a transverse sec-
tion of one square millimetre at 32° F. The rheostat may contain
1,110 or 3,100 units. The metallic blocks or pieces on llie lop are
attached to insulated coils of wire, which in their length correspond to

RHEOSTATES.

317

no. JO.

VitmrH^ SfvpftT'Rktintaf. — On ihe cifclc B, ihc metallic X\A% uc numbered tj
unili fnini o 10 10; oq Ibe circle C, l>y lens from o to 100 ; on [En drdc D,
by hundrtds Tron o \a l.uoo. Tw avt itic thiru>Lal, cunnect tlw wire A wicb
one of Ibe poluof chc biiitay, uid the wire £ with one of tlie cleclrDde* : ia
thh vay die rciisiucct of Uic riLcmUt uc iacludod ia the circuit, coiutituting
wh&t inc-illecl a " uttndary tSjturt."

the numbers i, a, 3, 4, s, 6, 7, etc., 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, etc, 100,
200, 300, 400, etc., mirltcd over thtm. At the central end of each divU
sion of ihe siar-shapcd tO|)-piece there is a hole for receiving the stop-
tier. When all the stoppers arc inserted in the division marked o,
there is no resistiince in the rheo&tat, and the current goes directly
through it, and not at all through the body of the patient, for the rea-
fon iliac metal conducts electricity very much better than the body, and
when it has a choice i1 will take the path through the best conductor.

When now, ihc stoppers arc inserted so that some of the coils of wire
connected with the divisions of the top-piece, say those marked 5, 50
500, are brought iuto the circuit, the current will have to overcome not
only the resistance of the metallic connections, but aUo the resistance
of 550 Siemens' units, represented by corresponding lengths uf copper
wire, and by preference much more of the current will pass through the
body. If all the resistances, 1,110 or s.ioo units, are interposed,
mo&t of the current passes through the body. If all the stoppers are
removed, a part of the current goes through the rheostaL

Rhtostat 0/ Mayer (S** ATc/^.— Mayer & Wolff, of Vienna, have
constructed a simple form of rheostat — a wooden box containing coiU
of wire corresponding to 1,605 Siemens* units.

Hydrorheestat {water rheostat, or ii^uiit rheostaf). — For ail the prac
tical purposes of clcctro-thcrapcutics, even for the most delicate appli-
cations to the most delicate organs, as tlie ear, eye, etc., the common
water rheostat— or, as it Is sometimes called, hydio-rheostat, or liquid

3i8

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTKS.

rheostat — is sufficieolly precise, and in convcDience is iDC:ODi|>ar;ibl)r

superior to the stoi>pcr rhcosCiites.

The water rheostat, rc[jrcsciited in the cut, is simply a column of
water, interposed in the circuit, and so arranged that the distances be-
tween the exlrcrniiies of the metals that close (he circuit through the
water «an be iQCieMcd or dimioished at pleasure.

Fig (b.
Hydro- RlieMtat ^Cjalvano-Fuadic ManufACturing Co.]'

rhe precision that physiologists and physicians obtain by the use of
the stopper rheostat is more apparent than real. A study of Ohm's
law will show that the quantity of electricity that flows through the body
in any electrical application, depends not alone on the nature of the
conducting wire, and the number of cells employed, but also on the
nature of the electrodes, the quality and degree of moisture in lliem,
the auioiml of pressure used, their distance from each other, and the
pan of the body that is treated. Those who are particular to state the
number of cells employed, and the number of units interposed, are
therefore much less precise than they suppose ; for, besides all the qua.
lifications just given, the strength of even the most constant cells varies
more or less from time lo lime (see chapter on Ohm's 1-aw, pp. 66-84.)
Keports, therefore, that contain in full detail the number of elcmcitts
employed, and the number of units interposed in the circuits, are appar-
ently but not really precise ; the careful physiological researches on defi-
nite and very limited portions of tissue, the statement of the Jcind of cell
raiploycd, and tlie number of them and the number uf re&istauces of

ELECTRODES.

319

•

the rheostat ioterposed, may convey an approximate idea of the
strength of current, anii tlius inay be of service tu other investigators,
but in the vecy nature of ihings tliey caanot be accurate. lo the ordi-
nary applications of clcctro-thcrapcucicK, unless it be lltaitcd elcctroly'
»h, we oftentimes state the number and kind of celts employed, but
always with the implied proviso that we arc suggesting approxiaiate and
not mathematical tnith.

So far aii pniducing delicate tiludcs and grades of sensation is con-
cerned, the water rheostat, when properly constructed and adjusted, is
fully as trustworthy as the stopper rheostat, and far more convenient
for the operAlor. A rheostat of some forui, though not indispeasable
in electrical applications, is yet a great convenience, and, especially in
central galvanization and in local galvanization of the nerve-centresi a
very great convetiictice. In ordinary peripheral applications, unless it
be to very sensitive parts, the rheostat is not required.

EUdredes. — Of the many varieties of electrodes, we shall describe
thoie only tlut are practically useful.

FWJ. 61.

UoivcraJ Handle foi Electrode*, with Intcmipter (Calv«no-Fara<)ic Mumtictniinf

Co.).

Fis. «a.

Univcrtkl HaiidlMfor EJectrodes, with Intcmiptcr — insaUtcd (Galvano-FaradicUiii<

ufacluiing Co.).

The peculiarity of these handles (Fig. 63) i», that there is no cstposcd
Dielallic surface, the connection being made at the dosed ends. A dis-
advantage of these electrodes is that they can be used only with one
conducting wire, to which they arc pcnnanenlly attached.

tLECTRODES.

321

tto- 7a
Beard's Stationary Electrode (Gulrkno-Fanulic Manniocturii^ Co.).

This can be screwed to the edge of a table. The s[>Dnge at ilie top
fitii be unscrewed and moi.'itciicd. In many applicatiuns to the ear

Fin. 71.
Adjustable Electrode, uith Band— (Kidder).

eye, heat], and &Lce this is a most convenient electrode for the hand of
the patient to rest upon.

^»

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEfTICS.

These adjuslabk- electrodes, which are made of several differenl
uzes, have long been lo us indisiwnsablc. They can be fistcncd by
means or a. simple cloth band to any part of the body, and kept there
as long as may be necessary.

In diseases of the skin, in rlKuinatism, in sprains, and in cuniurs, and
in sM cases where it is desired to kec^T the electrode long in one spot,
they are most convenient A second advantage which tliey have, is,
that they can be passed easily under the clothing, thus saving nuich
undMSsing on the part of the patient.

These adjustable electrodes can be covered wth a sj>onge, which can
be sewed through the hole at the edge, or what is very much better,
with electrode covers, to bL- hereafter described.

We use these adjustable electrodes in cenlral galvanization, galvan-
ization of the cervical sympathetic, and brain and spine, and in a large
variety of periphorixl applications. In some applications, as in central
galvani ration, one electrode is adjustable, while the other held by the
patient is of the ordinary form with a hantlle. Wc do not mndi use
the bands that accompany them, preferring to hold the electrode in
position by allowing the clothii^g of the patient lo rest against it, or
having the patient hold it, by a little pressure.

Ill galvanization of the syiupaihctic, for example, the adjustable elec-
trode can be easily placed under the collar at the back of the neck,
and kept there by the pressure of the clothing.

r.... r»-
Bcfttd'a Adjust a.)>)i; KlectroH'C — smaJl
sice — wiih llannd cover.

Fig- 7j.
Fluinel Cover for AdjuisEnMc Elec-
trode — unaU siic.

These flannel covers .ire ])rovidcd with elastics in their edges so that
they remain in position when put on the electrode, and arc easily slipped
off and on. They can be washed like towels, and the expense of mak-
ing them is so slight, that a las^a number ran be kept constantly on
hand. Another advantage of these flannel covers is that tlie current is
more painfully felt through tiieni than through sponges, and hence there
is, while using them, loss liability to give too strong currents. Wc have
lor»g been accnsiomcd to use these covers in all cenlral applications of
the galvanic current.

ADJOSTABLE ELECTRODES.

323

rw. 74.

ki^Dittble Electrode, wUTi sponge {Gtl-
vuto-Kaiatlic Manufacturing Co.).

OhloRg Adjustable Electrode (Uftl
vano-t'mra(licMiuiufiw:tuitngCi.i.).

These adjustable electrodes with sponges are very convenient Tot
application lo patients confined to bed. They may be placed imtlei
the patient against the back, or on the abdomen, or on any part of the
bodVi without seriously disturbing the position of the patient.

FlO. It. FlO. TT- Fw. 1*.

letnllic brush The mhic with bmnh [m^lied within Spinal Elecltode.

(Kidder). the cyliniJer for proiection. Gftlvano-FaraOlc M'fi^ Co.

A currenhrroerser with flex'thh eUetrades. — Cut 79 represents a cur-
lent-reverser recently de\'i5e<l and perfpcted, and which was fii-st con-
Btructcd by Messrs. Ileniann & Co. It is now also uiade by the Gal*
vano-Faradic Manufacturing Co.

It differs mainly in this feature from other devices to accomplish the
Mine purposes, vij. : that the eurrtnt is reversed by simple and ftigM

324

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

pressure of the thumb., without the iniervenlion of a slide, or any
plex arrangement whatsoever.

The letter D represents the button of the spring, by pressing which,
the current is intertupted or revcr-wid. Pressing it lightly, inttrrupti
the current ; pressing it firmly, rtvenes it

Beard's CurTcAt-Revcrsrr, with flexible cleeirod«.

In the vertical section of the hard rubber handle, A A is represented
as s])ringing ii|i a>;aittst the nieiallic plalc on ihc tipper and inner sur-
face of the handle. Pressing this slightly down, iiieialHc connection is
broken and the current Is interrupted; pressing it firmly down, the
connection is iiia*Je and ret'ersedzX B B, the metallic plate on the lower
surface of the handle.

C represents the wires that connect with the battery, enclosed in a
rubber tubing E.

F and G are flexible wire electrodes armed with sponges ; they can
be separated several inches and kept there, or put close together as
repfeseiited in the cut. The advantages of this are these :^i. in
man/ of the applications of localized electrization this neat and simj^le
arrangGmcnl saves considerable expenditure of muscle on the part of
the Operator. One hand can be perfectly free white the other holds'
and guides the electrode. In electrizing the muscles of the hand and
ami, and of the (ace especially, it is fax more convenient than to use
separate electrodes.

2. In cases of paralysis of motion and of sensation, where vpltaie
cltematives arc sometimes indicated, tliis is the easiest conceivable
iDclhod of reversing the current We find the arrangement of the flcxi-

UKPOLARIZABLE ELECTRODES.

325

ble electrodes very convenient in external applicalions to tumors,, rheu-
nialic Joints, and sprains.

The special electrodes that arc oeciied for local applications to spe-
cial jmrtB, as the eye, the e.ir, larynx, ccsophagus, rcclunij vagina, ule-
rus, bladder, urethra, and so forth, will be described in the chapters de-
voted to the electrical treatment of these organs. VVc pro[)ose here lo
represent and describe only those that are of general use iii all the or-
dinar}' applications, both of general and localized electrization.

The variety of shapes and tnodiiica lions lliat may be given to elec-
trodes is limited only by llie la*tc, inclinations, and pecutiarities of the
Operator. In describing those that we chiefly use and recommend, we
do not desire to give the impression that we regard them as better than
have been or maybe devised by others; but simply that they have
satisfactorily answered our purposes, and will, wc believe, in the main
be iiatisfaclory 10 others.

VnpoUtrizabU EleitroJes.— li is well known to clectro-phyaologisls
that in consequence of the electrolytic changes that take place during
the iMissage of a current from the electrodes to the body, a change
takes place at the surface of the electrodes, by which a new electrical
action is set up that to a certain extent interferes with the main current
and also causes pain. Electrodes thus affected arc called polarized.
(See Electro- Physics, p. 31.)

Dr. H itrig,* of Berlin, has devised electrodes in which this secondary
electrical action ai the surface does not lake place j to these he has
given the name tinpolaritabU electrodes. These are made unpolariza-
blc by a solution of sulphate of zinc. By the courtesy of Dr. Hitzig,
we were enabled to tost them wliile in Berlin, and were favorably
impressed with their action. The pain produced by stable galvanization,
is sometimes very disagreeable, and by these electrodes it w.as certainty
diminished. They can be u^ed several hours without exhibiiing any
polarization. Tbe subject of unpolarixable electrodes had previously
received the attention of Regnauld, Mattcucci, and Dll Kois-Reyinond.

Ruhbtr Cavtn for Conducting Wires. — The conducting wires coii*
necting the electrodes with the apparatus are covered with silk ; they
may be still further insulated by flexible rubber. We have long been
accustomed to use these rubber covers, and are much pleased witli
them. If the rubber is properly prepared it will not injure the silk
covering beneaUi it. Some electro- therapeutists have rubber coveringE

* Vd>ef die Anweixlung un|Ki1»rWirl>arer Electrodcn in der Elcctrotbertpie. Bcr
jncf Kliobcbc WoclicDscbrift, 1867, No. S9,

of a dificrtint color for the two poles, thus affording a ready means erf
distintpiishing them.

Can of Electrodes. — Eleciro<lherapeutics U a scries of details ; and
aiuoDg the more important of these details is the care of the electrodes.
The chemicaJ action, even of the secondary coil and faradic current, is
sufficient to corrode any metal that is used, except platinum ; and pUti-
nuDi electrodes are rarely, if ever, used except in electrolytic operations.
I'he copper plates used at the feet in general faradization become more
or less corroded and reijuire occasional cleaning, in order to keep them _
bright. All the general and special electrodes of all kinds require oc-
casional polistiing with sandpaper, cii)oryi}a)>cr, or whtling. It is an
advantage to luvc the electrodes, as well as the batteries, nickclLtcd,
so as to reduce corrosion lo a minimum.

'ITic sponges that are attached to the electrodes need to be frequcnily
washed in warm water, and those that are much used iihould be occa-
sionally disinfected with chlorinated solutions. It is better, iiowcver, lo
make delicate and particular patients, especially ladies, supply tlieir
own sponges. But a physician who has a large general or special
practice will find it very difficult, if nut impossible, to kcc]> a large as*
hoitincnt of electrodes, sponges, and electrode covers always separate ;
and hence it becon^cs necessary to treat many of the patients with the
same electrode:. To meet this diffimiliy we devised the electrode covers,
eUewhere desciibed. Thesi; can Ik; thrown off with every applicatioo
and wasticd weekly, like towels. The expense and labor of making
them is so slight that some electro-therapeutists, after using them a few
tiinefl, cast ihem a^iide cntirdy.

Buropenn Battir'us. — For the sake of our European readers, we give
very brief descriptions of a few of the batteries that are at the present
date most used by European electro-tlierapeu lists. All who consult
this book — Americans as well as Europeans — may find it of interest to
compare the wcrkuninsliip of the difTcrent comitries. A fact which such
a comparison constantly suggests is, that all advanced and active electro-
logists in all counltics have realized the same difficulties and wants of
the specialty, and have sought to overcome them by sinnlar or nearly
similar methods, and nearly all have in a greater or lets measuic succeed-
ed. On the whole, witli special advantages or disadvantages on both
sides, the American batteries for the farailic current, the galvanic cur-
rent, and for the galvano-cautcry, are superior to the European.*

' For the cl«trotypa of the cnit dial accuTopany x\vsx detotpUoos of the Ei^bb
apparatu we are indebted to the kindnc&soriV.Alclkaut. TbsdocriptKnuvei
denicd from the lliird edition of bU treatise on Elecuidty.

I
I

EUROPEAN APPARATUS.

327

This is enclosed in a small mahogany box, six inches high, three and
a half inches deep, and six inches wide. It is run by a zinc-carbon cell.
The priniary and secondary currents are obtained without shifting the
I<a3ition of llic wires.

Kic. So.
Meyer oiiil Mclixer's Faradic M&chLne.

Stohrei^s Faradic Machine. — This weli-known separate-coil machinCi
which b run by a rinc-carbon cell, is widely u«cd in Europe.

Duehenne's faraJU apparatus is of the separate-coil variety ; it it
inferior in portability and convenience to many other European as well
as to the American machines. Ii is ntn by a Bunaeii's cell.

Legendr^ s Jaradic apparatus is popular in France, on account of iU
portability and cheapness.

Gaiff^ t Jaradk apparatus is very portable, and gives a fair strength
of current. He has made two forms of faradic machines, one run by
■ chloride of silver clement, and the other by a sulphate of oiercury
clcmenu

328

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO -THERAPEUTICS.

Du Boii'Reyinond' s faradic apparatus, or ** sledge," as it is called, it
run by an element of Grove or Bunsen. It is provided wilb a "gal-
vanic kej" for cj[>L'nitig and closing the circuit at pleasure. The ma-
chines of Benedict and of ^iemcns-Halske are modilicaiiutis uf that of
Du BoisRc}iiiond,

Ktuger & HIrscliinann, of Berlin, have con«ructed a good faradic
machine, which is run by a Lcchmchd element. It is arranged for slow
or rapid intormpiions.

Su Tar as n-e are able to learn, none of these machines have any
special advantages over ihose of American manufacture previously
described, and some of them are much inferior to the most recent
American improvements.

Stohrer*s Zint-carbon Galvanic Batiery. — Dr. Eniil Stdhier, of
Dresden, is the pioneer in the art of making convenient and tmstwortliy
galvanic apparatus for electro-therapeutists. He mokes combinations
of 2inc-carbun ctUs, Iwth portable and non-portable. He was, we be-
lieve, the fu&t to devise conveiuc^nt and simple current-rev ersers and
curren I -sek titers. These batteries have the diiadvantoge of all zinc-
carbuii batteries, that the carbons are friable. 1'hey also polarize
rapidly, though not so rajjiclly zs Smcc's cell, and if the plates arc kept
long in the solution the current becomes very weak.

FoveaH:i^i battfry {Pig. 81), which is quite portable, consists of from
twenty to fifty small Sniees cells. It is furnished with a switch, by
which any desired number of elements can be brought into the circuit.
\\ is provided with a dial or current -sclecter, for bringing any number
of cells into the circuit. The jars arc made of liard rubber or porce-
lain. The tray containing the Jars is lifted and let down at pleasure.
This battery is much used in England. It has, however, rhe disad-
vantage of all constructions of Siiice's cells, that it rapidly polarizes
anO weakens. We prefer simitar conibiiiailons of zinc-carbon cells.

Befker-Muirhead or Siemens- Meidingcr Stationary Gahanic Bat-
tery. — This battery, which is highly poi»ed by Althaus, consists of
fifty modified Danicll's cells. No acid is used in it, but only water for
the imc surface and sulphate of copjwr for the copper surface. The
cells, whirh are ciuite large, are kept down cellar, and contained in two
l)Oxes. The advantages of this battery are, that on account of no acid
being used the chemical action is very feeble, and polarization is re-
duced to a niinipitim; and that, like the Cabinet battery, on account
of its steadiness of action, it is better adapted for nervous and irritable
patients than the small batteries.

Foveatu's Porlible Galvanic Baltery.

Remains S/a/ionary Gahanic Apparatut. — In Gennany, this appa-
ratus, composed of sixty cells of Siemens- Halske modiiicatluns of
DanicU's baiiery, is much used. It is provided with a galvanoscopc, a
curr«nt-selcctcr and a currem-rcverser. This apparatus, though vcn

330

APPARATUS FOR ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS.

good indeed, would appear to be inferior in cunvcnicDce to the Ameti
can Cabinet battery, previously described.

F m. Be
Maya & Mcluer's Portable Galvuvo-FoniJic A^iixtiiius.

The idea of coriibining both currenis in a single apparatus seems to
have occiined altiiust Hiimillancoiisly to the (;1ectr«Iui;ists ami niecha*
nicians of Europe and America. The practical advantages of any
conibiiialiun that lias yet been offered arc nol^ {qx partablt use at least,
so great as was expected. 1'hc galvanic current wliich they give is apt
to be too Teclilc for all occasions, and the size of the apparatus is
much larger than is needed for the faradic currcnl alone.

This apparatus of Meyer & .Mcltzer is provided with a galvano&cope,
current-selecter and current -re verscr. It is so arranged that the first
or the last portion of the cells may be used at p]e.t»uie, thus avoiding
the disproportionate use uf the first portion. Zinc-carbon cells are
used, and they are raised and depressed as in the American zla&
carbon baneries.

CHAPTER DC

LOCALIZED E[.ECTRIZATION.

%/ object of lotafiseJ eleetrizttien is to confine fht direct action oj
the current, so far as p^sstbie, to some particular part of the body.

This is aceomplished by pheing electrodes so that the eurrenf, in
passitt^^ from one to the other, shall ehiefiv traverse only thai partieular
part that is la be affected.

Both currents may be localized in this way, hence the division of
localized elt^trization into localized faradizatlou and localised galvani-
zatiun.

The Bcienlific utte either of localized jialfanixatiffn or faradisation
requires as accurate as possible preUmtnary diagnosis of the diseaie.

In cases of doulit ii is necessary to electrize in succession all Ihe
5U5>))ccted localities until the results of treatment show conclusively
that we have hit upon the seat of the disease. Accordingly, in obsti-
nate or doubtful cases the head, the cervical sympathetic, and the
spine, a]id io some instances the uterus or org:uis of the abdomen, are
to be successively electrized.

In the very numerous cases of doubt also, when the locality of the
disease cannot be ascertained, as well as in conditions of irritation
where electrization of the seat of the disease will not be borne, peri-
pheral applications alone arc frequently of decided service. For peri-
Ijheral appliciaiions both the galvanic and faradic currents are used ;
for central applications, chtedy the galvanic. In some diseases, as, for
example, locomotor ataxia, in certain stages il is better to treat the
prominent syniptonts, as, for example, the an.-csthc8ia, than the seat of
the disease in Ihe spine.

InUrumenls for Localised Electrisation. — In. localiitcd electrization
the same galvanic and faradic apparatus are used as in general electri-
laiion. For localised electrization in all its modifications there are
needed a variety of elecuodes of different shapes aiid sizes, to reach
the various localities and acconipUsh the different indications.

333

LOCALIZED ELECXKIZATION.

Of tlie electrodes there are three geoeml forms : tht electrie hand ;
tk€ meiaUit brush / solid mefah and metals ((mtrtd with sponge,
fiantul, linen, or chamois, choroiighly mnistcnctl.

Dry 6r Cutaneous FaraJizaiion. — To accomplish diy faradualion
ibc |>ortioi) of thu skin over which the application is to be roatle should
be wiped thoroughly dry, or, what is better etil!, s^winkled with some
absurUiig powder, as the common nursery powder ; and tlic applica-
tion may be made with the dry h»nd of the operator, or with metallic
electrodes.

In dry firadizition with the hand there is heard % peculiar crackling
sound, which is caused by the sparks that lake place as the current
passes from ditfereni points of the hand to the skin.

Wlicn the dry hand is useil, the operator passes the current througli
his own person, one of the electrodes appHed to some near point by
an assiatant. or held m the hand by the patient himself. Solid metallic
electrodes of various shapes may be used for dry electrization.

Dry electrisation by the metallic brush with a strong cnrreni, faradic
or galvanic, is a very painful method of application, and is to be re-
sorted to only in those cases where there Is profound aitaneous anscs*
ihcsia or in neuralgia. In all cases where there is great sensitiveuess
the hand is to be preferred to any form of artificial electrodes.

Sleetric Mmco. — The so-called eUctrit mvxa is produced by using a
loetallic brw^h, plate or point, and one nioi&tencd electrode. 'I'he dry
electrode is rapidly touched to the surface where the moxa. is to l>c
made, while the other is kept firmly applied to some near and in-
different point. The surface of the skin may previously be rubbed
very dry, or sprinkled with some absorbing powder.

The operation requires a current of some strength, and is exceed-
ingly painful. It is chiefly employed as a counter-irritant in neuralgia,
in which atfection it is frequently successful. The electric iiioxa may
also be produced by means of two metallic brushes, one of whicli is
pressed on the skin.

EUttriiation with Moistened Electrodei. — When it is desired to affect
the tissues lying beneath the ejiidcrmis, it is better to use electrodes
covered with sponge, chamois, or tlannel, thoroughly moistened with
salt water or ordinary water.*

The siee and shape of the electrode employed must be modified ac-
cording to the situation and sensitiveness of the part where the current

* In faradiution we never or but rardy uie ult la the water ; io galvsniialion
It b sometitnes % grcit aJvantiset because it m&ket the current more pdinfnlly felt,
and thus prevents the u*e of too &iidii£ cumaits.

DEFINITION OF TEKMS.

333

is to be localUed, and also by the sensitiveness of the patient. As •
rule, small, finely-pointed electrodes are required for locali/pd faj-adi-
Lzation of single muscles, larger eleArodcs for large [uui»ctes, or groups
of muscles, and those with the largest surface for galvanization, of thr
sym|>athel)c, brain and spine.

When tiic current is localized by means of moistened electrodes, il
diflfuscs itself through the body between the electrodes in various di-
rections. The extent of this (lifliision will be \'ariously modilied by the
situalion of the electrodes and the structure and relation of the parts
that lie between them (sec Electro Physiology). It is manifest aUu that
the density of the current, oilier conditions being the same, will be great*
est near the electrode and least at the farthest point between them. The
ttretti^th of the current bting tht utme^ itttall tUctrodes are mare pcinjui
than those with a broad sur/aee, and metallie more than the wet sponge
orfiaHHti. Tlie least painful form ofartiiicial electrode is a soft sponge,
with a broad surface, and well luoiiitened.

Direct and Indireet Electrisaiwn. — Two general methods of localized
electrization arc recognized — the direct and the indirect. In direct elec-
trization the application is made over the muscle to be excited. In in*
direct electrization Utc application is made to the ncr»'c which supplies
the muscles. In the former method, large electrodes are preferred ; in
the lailer, usually ttiose which are small and pointed. The faradic cur-
rent is best indicated for direct electrization, and the gaU-anic for indirect.

The points where the motor nerves enter the muscles arc called
"motor points." They have been carefully demonstrated and located
by Zicmsscn and ourselves.

Definition of Terms. — tn stable applications both electrodes ire kept
in a fixed position.

In labile applications one of the electrodes is moved or glided over
the surface ^ sometimes both of the electrodes arc moved simultaneously.

A current is called continuous when it is allowed to flow in one direc-
tion without interruption. Only the galvanic current can be continuous,
since th« faradic is always in a condition of intermption.

A current is called interrupted when it is broken by removing one of
the electrodes, or by some fonn of current -breaker in the electrode, or
by >ny method of breaking the circuit. The faradic current is always
interrupted by its rheotomc, but it may be still further interrupted by
removing one of the electronics.

A current is called uniform when it remains of the same strength
during the applications of the electrodes.

A current is called by us increasing^ when its strength is gradually

334

LOCALIZED ELECTRIZATIOW.

augmented during iSc applications. This method jwsscsscs a great ad-
vantage in treating conditions of irritation and inflammation. It may
be used with both galvanization and faradization. A nmch more pow-
crfiil cnrrent can he borne when its strength is gradually increased than
when it is suddenly let on in full foice with the first closure of the cir-
cuit, as is usually the custom with the majority of electro- therapeutists.
A current which when suddenly closed may cause unbearable pain, and,
when applied near the nerve-centres, may induce diz/incss and fainincss
may oftentimes be borne without discomfort and with positive advantage
if it is gradually increased from a very mild current With the faradic
current a mikl anxsthesia is produced.*

IiicteastDg currents are indicated iu applications to the brain, sympa-
thetic, spinal cord, the eye and ear, urethra, inRaroed joints, and to
all conditions of great irrit.ation in any part of tiic body.

The faradic current (of Kidder's apparntus) may be Increased by
slowly withdrawing the metallic «ibc. To gradually increase the gal-
vanic current, a rheostat of some kind is needeil. The gaSvanic current
can al5o be iucreased by an arrangement that gradually adds to the num-
ber of elements without interrupting the current, or when a sponge
electrode i» used, by slowly increasing the prcs-sure.

The term voltaic alternatives is applied to those applications in
which the direction of the current is reversed continually, while the
electrodes are kept firm. The cunenl-reverser is a very convenient
instrument for producing voltaic alternatives (see p. 324).

I'or ckctriKation of muiicles, labile or stable interrupted currents are
preferred. Kor eLectri nation of the head, spinal cord, sympathetic, and
nerve-tracts and plexuses, stable continuous currents are indicated, and
these again may be either uniform or increasing. I.,ibile or stable in-
terrupted currents are best adapted to produce muscular contractions,
and cause most potent physical and mechanical effects, while stable
continuous currents, whether uniform or increasing, produce the strong-
est electrolytic or catalytic action.

In cases where tlie electro-muscular contractility is not greatly di-
minished, it is an advantage to use electrodes with a broad surface,
since thereby several motor points may be influenced stmuhaneously,
together with a considerable extent of mnscular tissue, and because
tliey are less painful than stnall electrodes. In such cases the faradic
current is preferable.

When the electro-muscular contractility is very greatly diminished, as

• Sq an inicte on Faradic Anitithcsia, by Dr. A Tripier, of Paris, in Archives of
Eleclrology «ni Neurology, May, 1S74-

DETAILS or APPLICATIOKS.

335

hi rreqiicntly hapjwixs tn paralysis, contraclions aj« best produceo by
stnaW, finely pointed electrodes, applied at thtr motor points of Ute in-
rlividua) muscles; yet even here electrodes of moderate size are usually
^refemble. Such cases often require tlie galvanic current.

Dftaiis of Applieatwns of Lifcaiited EUelrtzation.

Galvaiiitafien oflhe Central Neri'Cus System.-— It is necessary to beai
in niiml ai iIk- outset, that to produce powerful electrolytic effects on
(he brain, spinal cord, and sympathetic, the galvanic current is prefer-
able lo tlie f;irailic, although the faradic current certainly alTccts the
nerve-centres.

Gahan'ttaiion of the Head. — Tlie head may be electrized in a variety
cf ways, according to the supposed seat of the disease. One pole may
be ]>laced on the forehead and the other on the occiput ; or boili poles
may be placed over the ears or on the mastoid jtrocesscs. Anolhet
method which we frcquendy adopt is to place the positive pole on the
summit, over the supposed organ of firmness, and the other at the oc-
ciput, or under the chin.

To affect the base of the brain, the electrodes may be placed on or
behind the mastoid processes. To confine the action to one side of
the brain, one electrode may be placed on the forehead, over the eye,
and the other on the niasto'd procesa of the same side. The patient
may hold one of the ]to1cs in the hand. Still another method less used
is to place an electrode on each templet

l^ss di2ziness is caused if the current is opened and closed with tlic
IKtsitive than with the negative pole. It is well, therefore, to first apply
the negative pole.

J,css diziiness is c:insed when the current flows through one side of
the head, or from the forehead to the occijiut, than when it is sent from
one side to the other, through the mastoid processes (see Klectra-
Physiolog)'. p. 1 1 3).

The use ef some kind of a rheosiat, so as Iff atvid interrupting fhe eur-
rent cr ^ifi'tg sudden " shacks" on elosing and optmng^ is almost indis-
pt'nabie iit electrising the brain and neck. With regard to the direction
of the current, il is usually better to place the negative pole nearest ibe
neck, and the positive pole nearest the forehead. Dut this ndc is liable
to many exceptions, and each case must be stutlied by itself.*

Electrization of the head produces flashes of light through irrilation
of retina, and dizziness, which with many is disagreeable. If the a^

* See remarks nn polar efl«cti, p. 102.

33fi

LOCALIZED ELECTRtZATION.

plication is too long continued, hesdachc and tnson.nia, and general
malahe, mAy result. Patients whom a short application through ihr
head 'henefits, arc sometimes injured when the stance is protracted.
Oalvaniralion of the head should be made wilh broad electrodes, frith
a stable current, wbich niav be either uniform or increasing, and should
not exceed from one-half a minute or three-quarters of a minute, tc
five or teu minutes, and with a mild current.

To all these tales in regard to the strength of currents there arc ex-
ceptions. There arc cases of even ver)' delicate patients that will beat
almost any amount of electricity tlirough the head and neck.

Gahanization of the Cemical SymfnUhetic. — The porriun of the sym-
pathetic to which galvanization is chielly directed for therapeutical pur-
poses is the cervical, although the cephalic, thoracic, and abdominal
ganglia are unrjuestionably affected by it, though not with so specific,
demonstrable, and immediate results.

There are a number of methods by which the superior, middle, and
inferior cervical ganglia may be demonstrably affected by ttie galvanic
current.

Fia. B>
Golvanlzatton of ihe Cervical Sympathetic

I. One electrode with an oblong extremity is placed in tne auriciilo-
masillary fossa, while the other with a larger snrfacc is applied over,
ur by the side of the sixtli and KeveoUi cervical vertebras (see K^. 95),

The second electrode n)ay also be applied at any point along the
spine, from the occiput to the coccyx. It is by this method that diplegic
contractions are usually produced with most success.

GALVANIZATION OF CERVICAL SYMPATHETIC.

357

a. The Bn>t electrode being placed as before, in the auriculo-niaxilUiy
ifosM, the oiher, with a surface of moderate diameter, is applied just
above the manubrium stcrni, by the side of the slemo-cleido-uiastoid
muscle (see Fig. 96).

Gmlvaniution of tlw Ccrncal Syrnpalbetu^ bduiUag Use Pneamofiultic

The second electrode may also be applied higher up in the neck, op
posite the middle cervical ganglion.

The above are tlie two mcthodE which have been most frequently ein-
ployed. Other methods are the followiog.

3. The first electrode being placed as before, the other may be ap-
plied on the shoulder, ctbow, or in the hand of the opposite side, or in
the axilla.

4. Both sides may be galvanized simultaneously, by placing an dec*
30de over the mastoid processes.

5. One electrode is placed just above the manubrium stcrni, and tlia
Other at any point down lUc spine.

6. One electrode is placed over the sixth and seventh cervical verte-
brae, and the other over ihc brachial plexus, at the pit of the stomach,
just abo**e the manubrium stemi, in cither hand, or at the feeL

In all these methods cither direction of the current may be used, ac-
cording as calming or irritating eifects are desired (see p. 3S1).

Concerning the physiological elTects of galvanization of tlie sympa-
thctic vc Electro. Physiology, p. taS.

Applications to the ji>'mpathetic should be made from one to ten

338

LOCALIZED ELECTRIZATION.

rauHltes, and wiili from 6ve to twenty-five cells. Several methods may
be tried at a single sitting in C3.se? where the applications arc n-ell
borne.

Bearing in mind that in all such attempts to galvanize the cen'iciJ
s>-nipathctic, the pneumogastric and »pine initst be n>ore or less indn-
enced, the general indicaiions for the use of this nictliod of trcatiucol
to which experience would seem to point are these : —

z. Cerebral aiiaiinia and hypersinia. Tliese conditions are associated
wttli and are a part of a targe variety of diseases. Insomnia, hemiplegia,
tic douloureux, niaiiy diseases of t!i.e eye and e:ir, as neuro retinitis i>*^r-
VouE deafness and tinnitus aurimn, arc all more or less associated with
cerebral ;in;enii;i, hyperasmia, and all have been treated by galvanization
of the cervical sympathetic, with more or less success.

2. Disorders of the vasomotor nerves. Under this head may be in-
cluded some ca^cb of deficient circulation, cutaneous hypcra»thesia, ami
certain dtseasies of the skin.

3. Functional diseast-s of the digeslive and genital apparatus. Gal-
vanization of the synipatliclic in these conditions secm» to work, partly
at least, by reflex action, and partly, also, by the in^uence which the
spinal cord and pnenmngaslric receive during the applicatinns.

It is scarcely necessary to remark that the exelmire use <>/ga/i»a»i-
tatioH of the eervieal sympatkeiie is indicattd only in exceptienai cases.
It is to be employed in connection or alternaliou with general firadiea-
tion and galvanization of the brain, spinal cord, and periphery. A note-
worthy advantage of this method of treaimcut in those cases for wlijch
it is of service is the comparatively short time required for its employ*
ment.

The objection that galvanization of tlie cervical sympathetic is a
dangerous procedure will be considered in the ch-i-ptcr on central gal-
vanization.

Galvantzation 0/ the Spinr.-^Thc spine may be electrized by placing
one electrode at the occiput, and the Jlher at the coccyx. One of the
electrodes may be kept in situ, while the other is slowly passed up and
down ihe entire length of the cord. Eitlier pole may be passed up and
down in this way according to the cCfect desired.

The current may also be localized in any part of the spine that may
be required, by giving the electrodes the proper position. The appii-
cations may be made with ten cells and upwards, and should not usually
exceed five or ten minutes. The applications should be sensitively
felt, like a gentle mu^ilard plaster, but should not be excessively poiii
61I, like a blister.

PERIPHERAL FARADIZATION.

339

ria, Bj.

PanJtiadon of the Ftaal Nerve and ttfuiclei Eytlid firmly closed and ni»<:th
dnwn to ou tada.

HucaUr FaiailtiatloB witli incollic dectrode* (D«cheflne)i

S40

LOCALIZED ELECTRIZATION.

Fic. tj.

FandisBlioD of the M axla of the Thigh, oontrutloa at the qnadricepb

PtTadiuti&Ti of Poplileatl Nerve and Peroneal Muadea. Pool broagnt npmrd and

oulvratd.

PERIPHERAL FARADIZATIOX.

3^1

Etectrnatien vj PUxttses, Nerves, and Muscles. — PlexuBCB, nerves,
aod muscles are treated by both currents (see chapter on differential
indications for the use of the galvanic and Earadic currents),

One electrode may be applied to a plexus and the other to one of its
branches, or to a nmsclc or group of muscles. Both electrodes may be
appliud to tlie nerve, or one to the nerve and the other to a muscle ; or
both may be applied to a muscle or group of muscles. All these appli-
cations may be made either with or witliout regard to the direction of
the current, and different methods may be tried at the same seance.

]n nil the positions described in the above cuts, contractions should
be produced with mild farailic currents, when the (Jectrodes arc in the
position reijresented. 1/ very strong currents are necessary or no eon-
tractions are pessibhy the muscles tire in a condition a/ disease.

Peripheral applications are indicated 'where the disease is purely of a
peripheral character; the partly central applications are indicated where
the disease is of a central origin.

Labile intemipied applications are indicated where it is desired to
produce mechanical effects or musailar contractions, as in anxsthesia
and paralysis.

Stable continuous applications are indicated where it is desired to
produce eleclrotonic, chemical, or catalytic effects, as in neuralgia.

Bcncdlkt" makes the followinj; somewhat ovcr-rcfincd subdivisons
of the inctliods c^ galvanization of the centre and periphery :

Spinal.ecrd current : both poles arc placed on the spine, either near
together, or at some distance from each other.

Spinal-eord-rpot current: one pole is placed on the spine, and the
other is passed up and down by the sides of the vertebrae.

Spinalcord-plexus current: one pole is placed on the spine, and the
other on a plexus of nerves.

Spinal-eord-nerve current : one pole is placed on the spine, and the
other on a nerve.

Spinaleordmustle current; one pole is placed on the sjiine and the
other on a muscle.

Plexus-nerve current: One pole is placed on a plexus of nerves and
the other on a nerve.

Nerte-muscle current : one pole is placed on a nerve and the other
on a muscle.

These currents may be either st«^U or laiUe^ continuous or inter-
rupted, uniform or inereasing.

• Op. dt, p. 5*

342

LOCALIZEO ELECTKIZATIOK.

no. It.
Spinal conl-bnchUl plesoi curmL

Splaal-cord-medkn nerve curreat.

The method of electrizing the eye, ear, nose, larynx, oesopKaguj^
heart, lungs, slomach, liver, kidneys, spleen, intestines, rectum, bladder^'
male and female organs of generation, will be described in the chapterf
.devoted to di^ases of these organs.

The method of electrizing individual nerves and muscles has been de-
ibed and illusuated io the chapter on electro-therapeutical anatoniy.

EFFECTS.

343

iij^tet of Current modijied by the Length of Application. — The sensa-
tions anil the cfTects cf clcctriLal applications are considerably inuiliriccl
by the length of time that llie electrodes are kept in positioa. Wljen die
/artf*/;V current is first applied to the skin, it causes a stinging, pricking
sensation, perceptibly strongest at the negative pole; if the electrodes
arc kept in position the sensation may gradually diminish, and the parts
will become verj- slightly benimibed, and if now the strength of tlic cur-
rent be groiiualfy increased, little or no additional pain is caused. If
the current is at first very strong, it cannot be borne long enough to pro-
duce this bcnuinUng effect.

When the gaivanie current \* first applied to the skin it causes no
sensation or scarcely any, unless it be very strong or is directed over or
near a motor nerve; if the electrodes are kept in position for a few
seconds, a slight burning sensation is felt at both poles, but strongest at
the negative. This burning sensation increases quite rapidly until the
sensation it causes is like that of a strong mustard plaster, or hot iron, and
becomes unendurable. The beuumbing eifect of tlie faradic current 15
not experienced. The fact that the galvanic current is but little fell at
first, leads those physicians who have not been accustomed to it to use
it altogether too strong. This increase of the pain under the galvanic
current is dne to two causes — the moistening of the skin through the
moisture of the electrode, so that it becomes a belter conductor of elec-
tricity, and the special chemical action of the poles (see Electro- Physi-
ology, p. 181}. I'his incrcai^ed conductivity of the skia is the partial if
not complete explanation of the fact that the muscles contract under a
feebler current after the electrodes have been some time in one place. It
is not impossible, however, that the nerves or muscles may be so stimu-
lated by the current as to contract more readily th;in before stimulation.

The reverse proposition, that strung currents used for a long time
enfeeble the nerves and muscles so that they respond less readily to the
current, is certainly true, and is easy of demonstration, especially in cases
of facial paralysis. For this reason, prolonged applications frequently
do more harm than good.

Effeds of Locaiized Electnzatisn. — T^ocalizcd electrization has to a
liniited extent the same direct effect on the part to which the applica-
tion is made that general electrization has on the whole body. It acts
as a locally stiihulating tonic.

Improvement in Local Nutrition the leading effett of Localized Mltc-
trizaticn. — The leading and general cficct of localixcd electrization, and
one which is a complex result of the various special effects, is improve
nent in heal nutrition.

LOCALIZED ELECTRIZAnoy

Localized electiuaiioo of ao atrophied or poorljr Doorished nmcU
causes that idukIc to imin'ovc in stxe and strength ; locailied electruar
tton of an atro{>hie<i or poorly DOtmshed orgut, as the oterus, causes il
to incrtatc in size and improve in funcdooal acdvitjr.

Localized electrization of any part of the cercbro-spool syvtan ha-
ixoves the nuuition of that {>artf and as a result the whaie bodjr, over
which the cerebro-spinal system presides, may ioifmive in oatritioii.
Tbu& localized may indircclly have some of the same effects a» gcncnl
eleclrization. Similarly, also, xs we descend from Ihc centre toward the
pcriph<r>- electrisation of any ncr*-e branch or plexus improves the nu-
uition, not only of the nerve acted on, bnl also of its various branches,
and of the muscles and organs that it supplies.

When the nutrition of an atrophied part is improved it grows larger ;
vAten the nuuition of a hypcrtrophicd part is improved il grows sautUer.
The same treatn>eDt that makes a dabby muscle increase in size causes
a goitre to diminish in siic. These opposite effects of the local uiie ol
dcctricity, though apparently inconsistent, arc yet quite consistent (see
Electro-Physiolc^, p. 191 ; and Electro-Surgery, chapter on Tuinoia).

The spatial effects of localized, aniilce those of general electrization,
cannot be broadly suted or classified, for the obvious reason that they
must so largely depend on the localit)' to which the a[>plicauon u made.

Although applications to the central nervous tiystcin arc sotnetitncs
followed by mild and limited degrees of the primary, secondary-, and
permanent effects that result from general faradization or central gal-
vanization ; yet the cases where the full order of these effects is so
marked and decided as to be observed arc comparatively unfrequenL

Applications to the brain and sympathetic system may be followed
primarily by relief of pain, slight exhilaration, a feeling of warmth or
somnolence ; secondarily by fatigue, headache, or soreness of Uie
muscles, or cxaceri>aiion of the morbid symptoms ; and permanently by
improvement in sleep, strength, and capacity for labor.

But this ordo" of effects from lo* Jizcd electrization is exceptional, even
from applications made to the head. More frequently the permanent
effects arc experienced without the primary, or jwrhaps both the per-
manent and secondary, and sometimes only the httlcr.

Vet none of these constitutional effects, in whatever order they may
occur, are experienced to the extent that is derived from general fara-
dization.

Tlie agreeable symptoms which arc most frequently observed after
localised aijpltcations to the nerve-centres are litsfosithn io sieep, rtiuf
'f htitJueht or other fain, and occasionally slight exhilaration.

ABSOLUTE LOCALIZATION IMPOSSIBLE.

345

Sometimes ihc beneficial results of electrixation of paralyzed munclca
follow immetliatcly after the a|>plicaiion. The patient is conscimw of
an ability to wsc the nuiscles treated with greater eise and freedom.
This iinprovcmeiit may be merely temporary, or, as is more fruiiuenlly
Ihc case, partial relapses occur, leaving a certain amount of perniaueat
bcne6t. Immediate relief of neuritlgic pain, and of the reverse con-
dition, anesthesia, may follow localized as well as general electrixation.
pTTie temporary relief of the neuralgia may be complete, while that of
aniestheTiia is usually only partial and limited. In both conditions the
evil symptoms may recur, or a. certain amount of pemianeni beneli*
may remain.

Among llie disagreeable symptoms are Jiisutess, fuavinest^ oppres-
sion, keiuiachty soreness in the musdes^ exkausfwn, and indejinabie ner-
vousnest.

These disagreeable symptoms are most likely to result from applica-
tions that have been either too severe or too protracted for the con-
dition of die patient ; and yet ihey sIiuuUl by no means excite alarm,
iince tlicy often accompany the most successful results. These ui»-
plca-unt symptoms are more likely lo follow the use of the galvanic
cuireiit than the faradic, especially when the applicitions arc protracted.
The o|>iiiion that has been expressed by certain miters, that the head is
more likely to be unpleasantly affected by the faradic: thao ihc g.ih'anic
current, is not sustained by exiJcrience. The phenomeiia of di/Jiiness,
heaviness, etc, frequently experienced after even a very short applicv
*tion to the head, are but rarely observed when the faradic curreDt of a
>nlinnoii»-coi] ap[>aralus is employed, with a large soft sponge, or tlie
hand of the operator.

A)}plicniions of localized electrization to individual mtiscles or groups
of muscles rarely give rise lo any constitutional syni]itomH whatever,
unless the electrodes are placed on or near the head.

The special effects of localiicd electrisation of special organs, as tlte
eye, ear, Lirynx, stomach, liver, intestines, uterus, ovaries, bhidder, etc.,
will be described in the chapters devoted lo the treatment, of the disease*
of these organs.

Absoiuie Laeaiitathn of EUetrUUy impossihU. — It should be con-
sidered that exclusive ami ahsotuic localizaiian of the effects ef tieelriza-
Hon is impcssibU, The effects of both currents extend, either directly
or by reflex action, to parts beyond the circuit. This is demonstrated, not
only by physiological experiments, but by the observed facts of clinical
experience. Thus it is observed, in some irritable conditions, that
galvanization of the spine, and even of the extremities, causes a metallic

346

LOCALIZED ELECTRIZATION.

taste ; that galvanization even of the hands or feet sometimes hastens
or increases the menslnial discharge, relieves headache, and produco
sleep. The same effects to a less degree arc somcttmL-s oljscrvcd from
faradization.

Some of the illustrations of this fact are quite strikinp. Thus in the
cascof Jhc wiicofa physician whom vre were trcaliiiy by faradisation of
the shoulder for rheumatism, the menstrual flow was so much increased
and prolonged that it was necessarj- to abandon the treatment, although
only very mild currents and short apiilications were used.

In the case of a lady whom we were treating for sciatica, by localized
galvanization of the painful portion of tlie nerve, the pain was de-
cidedly relieved, but the effect was to bring on a lecurrence of the
menses after they were suspended, so that the patient was nearly all
the time menstruating.

These illustrations are extreme and comparatively rare, but they
serve to show clearly enough that the cttccts of clectrizatiun cannot
well be localised to the points between the electrodes, and that other
and distant parts must, of necessity, be more or less ^ected.

The term /ocd/zft*/ electrization, introduced by Diichcnnc, is therefore,
strictly speaking, a misnomer, since we are taught by physics that the
vibrations of the electrical force must diffuse themselves in various direc-
tions, and at a considerable distance from the electrodes, and wc arc
taught by clinical experience that the effects of electrization, however
near together the electrodes may be placed, are not entirely confined
to the points between or near the electrodes, but may be felt, aod in
some instances far more demonstrably. In distant parts and organs.

To the use of liie term localixed electrization, there is no objection,
provided it be used understand ingiy, and with the idea tliat it is merely
a term of convenience. The term local electrization is often used
synonymously with localised electiizatiou, and for the reasons here
suggested is preferable to it. I^ocalizcd electrization has the advantage
of being first in the field, and has become, to a certain extent, con-
secrated by u^fige.

CHAPTER X.

eSVERAL FARADUATION.

77u object proposed in general faradizatian is to bring every portieti
yf the body under the infiuente of the faradie current, so far as is pos-
sible, by external applications. This is best accomplished by placing
one pole {usually the negative) itt the feet or the eaceyx, while the other
it applied over the surface of the body.

The faradic is the current which is almost exclusively employed in
general eluctrizatiun, and, for that reason, the directions and explana-
tions given in this section, with the exceptions that will be noted, apply
mainly and specially to general faradization. Since tlie discovery of
central galvanization, to be hereafter described, we nwc discarded the
term general eleetrication^ and substituted general /?r<i<yiiti/w«, for the
reason that the galvanic currenl is preferably used in the form of cen-
tral galvanization.

In the inajonly of cases it is more convenient and satisfactorj- to
have a sheet of copper at the feet. This position is indeed the rule in
general faradization. The broad, callous soles of the feet are but
slightly sensitive, and will bear a stronger current than any other per.
tion of the surface of the body. But the passage of electricity through
the ankles causes vigorous contraciions of the flexors and extensors,
which, when the current is very strong, may be somewhat painful. Ac-
cordingly, when the patient is peculiarly nervous and sensitive, or when
X current of unusual strength is to be employed, and in all cases where
a stronger application is desired than can be borne through the ankles,
or when it is desired to save time or inconvenience, it is advisable to
have the patient sit od the plate, or a sponge electrode with a broad
surface may be applied to the coccyx.

In general faradisation, as in localized, the currents may be stable
(stationary) or labile (moving), unifornfot increasing.

Increasing currents are adapted for certain important centies, as the
head, spine, cervical S)-mpathettc, and ciUo>spinaI and epigastric regions.

34*

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

The advantage of this metliod of application ts that it allovrs (he use of
a stronger current than will otherwise be borne ; the strength of (he
current may be so very gradually increased that the increase within
certain limits may be almost imperceptible to the patient This arises
partly from the fact that Ihe current has a slight benumbing or anaesthetic
effect (sec Ek-ctro- Physiology, p. Ill), and partly from the fact that by
a gradual increase of the strength of the current (he patient is si>ared
the shuck that is exp{.TiL-nced when a strong ciurent ts suddenly directed
through sensitive portions of the body.

Zaiiifand inUrrufUd iMztcnis arc adapted for the muscles, especially
of ihe extremities.

General /aradisafion is vcrj* far from being so easy a process as it
might appear from this brief description. Its successful cmploytncnt
requires, on the part of the operator, some mechanical dexterity, entire
familiarity with the instruments required, a complete knowledge of
electro-therapeutical anatomy ; a personal acquaintance with the sen-
sations and behavior of alt portions of the body under the different
electric currents ; close and patient study of the diseases and morbid
conditions in which it is indicated, and of their response to faradization.
There are those who by long practice are enabled, when necessary, to
readily manipulate any ponion of the body with cither hand, while there
is passing through (hem a current so pon-erful as to keep many of the
principal muscles of the arras in a state of contraction. This qualifica-
tion, however, Uiough convenieut, is not indi^pensabte.

Oil the side of Ihe patient, success in the use of general faradiza-
tion reiiuires something of the same patience and perscrerance that
are conceded to be necessary for success in the use of any other form
of electrical treatment.

Nothing is more difficult than to fully and accurately describe in
words an operation that in its very natute demands actual sight and
experience. The true method of icaniing the art of general faradiza*
tion is by repeated observations of its application to the A'rm^ subject,
by personal experience of its sensations and results at the hands of
practised adepts, and by long and various experimenting on diverse
temperament, and in opposite states of disease. We shall endeavor^
however, Co present the best possible substitute for a course of private
liissoiis or extended clitncu.1 observation in this department, by answer-
ing in detail the practical questions that naturally pre^nt tlieniftelvei
to one who approaches the subject ab initio, and who has no oppor-
tunity for personal interviews with those to whom the various steps of
the operation ha\e become already familiar.

POSITION OF TIIE PATIENT,

349

Fn.9>-

CtXEtAL Faxadoatiox — apfJlcatloa to the head by the hu«! or the openitw.
{la ihit, u in mil of tlie cutt of Ecncral foncliution. for cuuvenience of Uliutn-
lloa ibfl patiant u Tqircs«tii«] without anjr coverioe. In the nujoriiy of cam
ihejr are protected by a th^wl or irnjiper, and Erequeatljr llie underclothiag li
■At rattOTeo*

Pfiiiti^n 9/ th< Patunt. — The patient should be seited on an m-
dinarjr stool, Mritli hi« Tace toward the instrument, and his Tect on the
•beet of copper to which the negative pole is attached. Any chair ihnt
be* a back or artn-i will somewhat interiere with the manipulations of
the operator.

Those piUients who, through pnralyw's or debility, are iinaUe to sti
np aX all, can receive tlic treatment while lyin^ in bed or oa a lounge.

350

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

In such cases the sheet of copper may be placed upright agunst a
pillow, and Ihc feel of ihe patient pressed against it, or an electrode
may be placed at the coccyx. Assistance will then be required to turn
the paticDt wbeu the applicatioa is made to the back and spine, but in
»uch cases partial applications arc frequently all that are required.

Infants and very f<;;ble or very timid children should be held in the
lap of the mother or nurse, while an assistant holds Uie sponge to tlie
coccyx.

While the application is being made to Ilic lower limbs it is well for
the patient lo stand, in order that the operator may have access to the
gluteal regions and the posterior and anterior nurfacc of the thigh.

Position cf ikc Operator. — While making applications to the trunk,
the operator may either stand or sit by the side of the patient, conve-
niently near to the tahic, on which arc placed the apparatus, electrodes,
sponges, howl of water, and other appliances that may be called for
during the a]>plicatioa.

While operating on patients taller than himself the operator m-ill find
it easier to stand, especially while treating the head and upper portion
of the trunk. While treating short patient-s the operator will find it
less fatiguing to sit in a chair. Most operators will find it very conve-
nient to cliange their position from a sitting to a standing posture, or
from one side of the patient to the other, while making the applications
lo tlie various parts of the trunk.

Minor Apparatus. — Electrodes, sponges, and copper plate.

The best electrode for the pole that is applied over the patient is a
brass ball of abont one inch in diameter.

Around this brass ball should be loosely folded a soft wet sponge,
of about six inches in diameter. This is found, by experience, to be
by far the most convenient form of artificial electrode that can be
devised. Next to the moistened hand of the operator it is the most
agreeable to the patient of any shape or quality of electrode. The
sponge can be pressed or folded over the brass ball so as to make tk
r.omparaiivcly small electrode, or its entire surface may be apjilicd.

When the operator allows the current to pass throtigh his own
person, and uses his hand as an electrode, holding tlie sponge and bail
in his other hand, he can modify the application to any degree of
strength or mildness that he may desire, by simply increasing or di-
mini.'ihing the pressure of his hand or fingers on the sponge. Used in
this way the sponge holding the water acts like a hydro-rheostat (see
p. 319). ^Vhe^ it is necessary that the application should be particularly
gentle and cautious, it is well to rest t e ball and sponge on the table,

POSITION OF THE OPERATOR.

351

Tto. V

■KNRftAl. FARA.DIZATIOK — application to the spine. Tlic Icind of tTie operalOl
h on the mvlallic tube, in n pQinlion to incrcate or diminuh ttie current u may be
iM«(l«d.

and to begin the treatment by first presMng one hand firmly over the
part desired lo be affected, and with the other lightly and delicately
tondiing the sponge, at firsi wiiU one finger, then with two, three, and
lour successively, and finally with the whole hand, thus giving a very
gradually inereasins current. Brines' electrode, which is a sponge
covered at the back with rubber, Is very convenienc for general fara-
dufttion.

A piece of copper plate is rcr.ommendcd for the negative electrod*^
tliecaiise tt is found bj experience to be, on the whole, tnore coDve-

352

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

meat than any othtrr aiTang<?meiit that has yet been suggested. The
bowls of warn) water, targe sponges, etc-, that have been suggested,
are not only much less cleanly and convenient than the copper plate,
but arc also mucK poorer conductors. Metallic slippers are more
troublesome than Uie broad plate, tliuugh tlieir appearance, perhaps,
i& more omanieiitoL It needs more care to put on the slippers, ant]
if tlie patient loses hU self-control during any stage of the application,
and throws up his feet, it i^i bomcthtag of a task lo &od the slippen
again and accurately adjust them.

In the use of the copper plate these details must not be foTgotten :
FirUf [o keep it well warmed, in cold weather, by a piece of healed
soapslonc beneath il ; setandly^ to keep it slightly oiolslened with
vrarui water, in order Lo improve the connection.

If only one foot is applied to the copper plate, the pain in the aoklci
during certain stages of strong applications, will be uncndumblc. In
mild applications it is sufficient to have one foot on the plate. It is
necessary ever to bear in mind the rule, that the pain of electrical
applications, other conditions being equal, is in inverse proportion to
the surface of the electrode. The larger the surface of the electrode —
whctlier positive or negative — llie lesa the pain. In this fact consists
the advantage of using large sponges.

In general faradisation the pain at the negative pole is chiefly felt at
the ankles, and somewhat at the toes, but not on the bottom of the
feet. The feeling of constriction in the ankles is catised by the rapid
and violent contractions of the niusdcs. If only one foot is a[>plicd to
the plate the entire force of the current must, of course, be borne by
that foot, and furthermore, the other Umb will receive no direct benefit
from the treatment.

The trouble of removing the shoes and stockings may be obviated by
placing a large sponge connected with tJic negative pole at the coccyx^
or on the thighs.

Facility, skill, and readiness in use o/the various methods 0/ modi-
/jfinS ^^' strength and quality o/jhe current is one very important secret
of success in the use 0/ genet al faradiioiton. A skiljttl operator will
cause less discomfort xulth a strong ciitrent than one who is awkward
v/U cause with a very weak current.

Details of the Applications to the Different Parts of the £ady.—A&
the various parts and organs of the body differ very widely in their sus-
ceptibility to faradization, and in the effects wluch they receive from it,
it becomes necessary to explain the modus operandi of the applications
mth considerable fulness of dctaiL

APPLICATION TO HEAD AND NECK,

353

Appticali mi to the Head. — The head, especially" the forehead,!*, by
far, more sensitive lo the electric currents than any other portion of the
surface of \\\c body. The /R<o reaitons for thi» are sufficiently obvious.
The surfaces of bones are always sensitive to l^cfaraHic current, as to
any other mechanical influence ; and the cranium is no exception to
this law. Then, again, the fifth pair is an exceeihngly sensitive nerve
io all its raniifications, and especially over the forehead.

There :ire many cases that do not bear even mild applications to the
front and top of IJie head, and who lieem to be injured rather than
benefited by it. With others, the effects are highly agreeable.

In treating the forehead the operator should first press his moistened
hand firmly over the head, and then making the connection with his
other hand on the sponge and brass hall of the positive pole, should
allow die current to pass steadily, without interruption, for one or two
minutes. In Kidder's faradic apparatus, A U is the best current for
the forehead. The tise of the band as an electrode is particularly de<
sirablc in making applications to the forehead.

MeisieHing Iht Hair. — The dry hair i* a non-conductor, and there-
fore it is always necessarj- to wtt it frerty before tUctrising any porrion
of the head that is covered by it. It is not usually desirable to com-
pel lady patients to pull down their hair, or to thoroughly moisten it.
A %-cry important centre for affecting the brain is the crown of th« head,
between the ears, over the so^:alled organ of finnncss, — the cranial cen-
tre. If the h^r at this point be sufficiently moistened to admit the pas-
sage of a mild current with any convenient form of electrode, a peculiar
and slightly painful sensation is experienced.

In some exceptional cases of disease the heail will bear currents of
considerable strength. The back of the head over the cerebellum will
usually bear quite strong applications. The current is felt through the
ramifications of the occipital ncr\'cs, giving rise ofleatimes to sensa-
tions not only painless, but absolutely agreeable.

Applications to the Neek and T7troat. — The back part of the head
and upper portion of the spine will usually bear powerful applications.
It is an interesting and important fact that very marked effeds may be
produced by gtnrral faradita/ion, even when the applications are mad*
only to tte hack and sides of the neck.

The reason for this will be clear when we come to study the electro-
therapeutical anatomy of the parts. From the upper pordan of the
spine and base of the brain proceed the most important and most sen-
ndre nerves of the body — the pneumogastric, and the brachial plexus,
and the phrenic nerves.
=3

APPLICATION TO NECK.

side of the spine, while a povrerfal current is passing, ihc electric influ-
ence may be pemptibly communicated, not only to ihe spine bnt
also to the larynx through the laryngeal nerves ; to the stoinoch
through the pneumogistric ; to the lungs through the phrenic; to both
arms antl haniis through the brachial plexuses and their branches — in
therif to Uu most important nervej and organs of the body. The sym-
pathetic is also directly affected at this point.

There ia no other single place on the surface of the body where the
electrical influence can be communicated to so many icniKirlant nerves
as at llie cilio-splnal centre. In order, however, to affect all these
nerves and organs above mcnttonecl by faradization it is necessary to
u&e a powerful current, and to press the sponge very firmly against the
skin.

In very Hcshy paLienis it is sometime* quite difficult to affect the
brachial plexuses and their branches in tlie arms and hands without
using a stronger current than can well be borne through the feet and
ankles at the negative pole. This application, so far from being pain-
ful, is to many positively agreeable. The thrill which it communicates
to the nerves and vital organs is often so delightful that the patient rc-
qaests to have the application prolonged. In patients who can bear it,
this application at the cilicspinal centre may be varied by suddenly
intemi|>ting the current.

Thisapplication is a very important factor in general f3radi):alion, and
trill achieve decided lontc effects on the system, even when no other
portion of the body is touched by the current. The immediate sensa-
tions which it produces, however, are by no means unifonu. Some pa-
tients, through the irritation of the laryngeal ner^-cs, cough spasmodi-
cally, and even violently, under the excitation even of a comparatively
mild current ; with others, even the most powerful currents, and the
firmest possible pressure of the sponge, fail to produce any such effect
In nervous and sensitive patients this application often causes a pecul-
iar and decided sensation in the stomach, tlirough the pneumogastric
nerve ; the strong and vigorous rarely experience any such sensation,
even under currents of great power.

Another important locality in the electro- therapeutical anatomy of
the neck is in the posterior triangle, just by the poatcrior border of the
stemo-cleidu-niastoid muscle. If the fingers of the operator, with a
current of considerable stienglh, or the sponge with a current compara-
tively mild, be pressed firmly on this space until the jxwlerior border
of the scalenus amicus is reached, the patient will at once experience a
ti:t^ling or pricking sensation in the arm and hand on that ade, caused

356

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

bjr t1ie excitation of the brachial plcxtis, and in some cases a thrill ii
communicated by means of the pneumogastric to the stomach, and by
the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm.

Applicaiions io the Upper ExiremUiei. — It is not always necessary
to go to the trouble of fxradiiing the extremities, but in many coses it
is a decided advantage to do so. In faradization over the extremities,
the sponge, or the hand of the operator, stioiild be passed thoroti^lily
over the surface of the hands and anus, and »'iih sufficient force to pro*
ducc: agreeable contiactJons of all the superBcial muscles. Except in
infants and corpulent females, contractions of the superficial muscles
of the arm arc obtained with a mild current.

Applications to Ihe Spine. — Stronger currents of electricity may be
borne Over the middle of the spine than ]>erlia[>s over any other poitioa
of the body. There arc no very sensitive peripheral nerves in the back,
and the spinal cord is so thoroughly protected by its bony covering that
the currents arc never felt in it painfully, except when it is greatly ex-
hausted or organically di&eased. The nerves ihat issue from the spinal
cord are more or less affected by powerful applications to the back, and
tJiiough them the various parts and organs which they supply are cott-
tiderably influenced.

The bes-t method of electrizing the back is to pass the sponge down
its entire length beneath the under-clothing, in case it is not removed,
from ihe first cervical vertebra to the eouda equina, carefully avoiding
the prominences uf Lhc scapula and the nssa innominata. Below the
inferior angle of the scipula (he sponge may be moved from side to bide
over the region of Ihe kidneys, iivcr, and spleen.

If a strong current be applied over ihe lower portion of Ihe spine,
between the upper borders of the ossa innominata, a slight sensation is
sometimes, though by no means uniformly, communicated to the rectum
and the male genital apparatus, the penis and the testicles, througb
their spinal nerve supply.

In view of these considerations it is manifest that in the employment
»f gcHtral faradisation particular attention should be given to the spine,
even at the expense pf n-^^.'eetinj^ other portions of the body.

That the lungs and heart are less influenced by electrization than other
im|)Ortant organs, is chicRy accounted for by the anatomical structure of
the chest. The ribs, with the intercostal muscles and ligaments, form
an unyielding wall. Furtbennore, the pleura and pericardium ore not
closely adherent to the inner wall of the chest, but lie loosely over the
lung* and heart. These organs, therefore, are best affected eleclricilly
by applicaticns above the sternum, around the neck, and over the upper

APPLICATION TO ABDOlfEN.

357

half of the spine, whence the nerve-supply of Uie viscera proceeds, and
by direct eleculzation of the vagus in the neck.

Ai^pHcattons over the chest are, however, of positive and permanent
service, by developing the thoracic and intercostal muscles, and for this
reason, if for do other, ihey should not be neglected. But it should not
be forgotten that the surfaces of the ribs, like the surfaces of all other
bones, arc* sensitive to electrization, and thai therefore the chest will
not bear as severe applications as the spine, neck, or abdominal re-
gions, lliift sensitiveness is, of course, more in the thin and nervou*
than in the corpulent and phlcgiiialic It is usually most marked on
the inferior ribs on the right and ifft side of the body^ over the liver
and spleen. The peculiar sensitiveness of the ribs at these iioints is
sometinic-s erroneously supposed to indicate disease of the organs be-
Tieaih ihuu).

We have stated above thai the anatomical structure of Ihr chest ren-
dered it dithcull to «end the electric current through its anterior walls
to the lungs and heart. In the abdon)ina1 regions the anatomical
structure is directly reversed, and instead of an unjn'clding wall, pnrll;/
compo&ed of bones and ligaments, wc have a ilaccid skin lyiiig loosely
against the peritonicmn that covers the moist viscera beneath. No
Mhcr organs of the body contain so lai|[e a percentage of water as those
which are situated in the cavity of the abdomen. It is obvious, ihcrc*
fore, that when the resistance of the epidermis is overcome by the moift.
ture of the sponge or hand, and the peritonaeum and viscera arc brought
into coaptation, the current must directly traverse all the parts desired
to be affected.

To reach the stomach and solar plexus, place the sponge or paliu of
the hand below and under llie sternum, and as far back as passible.
This pressure brings the pcritonxum and slon^ach into coaptation, and
forces tlve current to pass through them, if ihe under-clothing be
simply slipped up without being entirely removed, the stomach and ab-
domen can be readily treated.

The bowels may be treated either with the labile or the stable ciir-
rent, and, in cases of obstinate constipation, by sadden interruptions or
shocks,

Corpulent and pursy patients usually bear much stronger current*
over the abdomen tlian the ihin and emaciated. .Adipose tissue is
comparatively a ])oor conductor of electricity, and it is difficult to affect
the bowels of the very corimlent through the abdominal walla by elec-
trization, unless wc employ firm pressure and currents of considerable
strength. But in the vast majority of cages currents of moderate

358

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

Strength, applied lightly over the surface of tlie alxlomeR, wiU readi>>
produce contractions of the abdominal muscles, and, if pressure be cm
ployed, the intestines and all the organs of the abdominal cavit)* are di-
rectly traveised by the current

Gateial Ftaadiaiioa — Application to the ttoitwcL

AfplUatimu to ike FtmaU GmiiaU. — Direct applications to the
vagina or uterus are rarely called for in general faradization.

Apptualions to (he Louver Exirtmiiiei. — Unless there is weakness
or paralysis of the lower limbs we do not always apply the current
directly lo them, because, when the copper plate 13 at the feet, the
nuiscles below ilie knee are more or less exercised during the whole
treititient.

Before proceeding to make the applications to the lower extremities,
■he patient should be required to stand up, still keeping the feet on ilie
copper plate. Mate patients who, during tlie earlier stages of the
operation, have entirety reniored their clothing from the trunk, »hoiild

APPLICATION TO LOWER EXTREMITIES.

359

fbe allowed to again put it on, both in order to avind unnecessary ex-
posure and to protect ihera from the cold.

With female patients the applications to the tower limbs, except tu
cases of paralysis, can be made under the clothing, if the drawers be

[dipped down, without exposure.

^itneni Kuaditation— AppJIcatloii lo the Lower Extremitiea.

The operator, sitting by the side of the patient, on u low ^luol ot
ottoman, should then pass the sponge or the hand lijjhUy do»7i llie
entire surface of both limbs, from the thighs to the feet, avoiding, so
&T as possible, the prominences of the bones at the hip, knee, and
ankles.

The outer jiortion of the thigh, like the back, is verj- little sensitive
to tbe electric ciurciit, because its surface is not &np|f)ied by very sen-

3<to

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

fiittve nerves. The i»ner side of the thigli. on the contrary, is supplied
by branches from ihc seosilive anterior crural nerve, and in nervoui]
persons especially is very ausceptible to eLectrization. In parsing ihe
Sponge or the hand clown the lower limbs great pains should be taken
to carefully graduate the current according to the sensitiveness of each
locality. This precaution is more necessary in treating the lower limbs
than the upper, because the contrasts in the normal sensitiveness of tlie
difTereni parts uf the lower linibs are much greater than in tlic arms,
and because any severe shock* suddenly felt iu the Ic^ aonietirnes ihrgw
patients oS their fecL

/« ^asts not iompHeattd with paralysis, controitisns of the superficial
museUs of the lower limbs, as of the upper limbs, ean be produetd by
eomparativeiy feeble and painless currents.

Special Rules to be Observed in the Employment of General Faro-
dizaiion. — In the emploj-nient of general faratli/ation there are certain
special suggestions, on the observance of which the results of the appli-
cations will very materially depend.

1, The ^rength ef the Current and Length nf the Application. — It
is better that the first tentative applications should always be made with
a gentle current, and, if the patient be ]iarticularly sensitive, it is an ad-
vantage lo use the hand of the operator instead of an arliUcial electrode.
After the patient has become somewhat accustomed to the lrcatmcnt»j
tbegcncriil rule should be to make the applications pleasantly painful.

Patients who have long been accustomed to ilic treatment — who have
become, in a certain sense, insensible to the strength of current ordl*.
narily used — may frequently be benefited by very powerful currents.

Usualty, but not invariably, we may be guided by the sensations of
tlie patient ; but exceptions to this rule arc sometimes very striking,
and shuuld put us on our guard. Some who feel no pain during the
applications may on the day following experience the most di&agreeabU
reactive eSects. (See p. 34S.)

a. Thoroughness of the Appliealions. — General faradisation docs not
require that all portions of the surface of the body should be touched
by the electrode at every silting. In nervous and susceptible patients
we can approacli the fu!l measure of tlie treatment only by slow degrees.
It is oftentimes sufficient to make the first application only aruunil thf
neck, shoulders, and on the upper portion of the spine.

It is not alxmys necessary to make the applieaiiom to all portions of
ihe surface of the body, etien in a prolon^^cd course of treatment. The gen^
eral tonic effects of this system of treatment can undoubtedly be achieved
without tcMching either th: upper or Icnver extremities. But, on thi

PERSISTENCE IN THE TREATMENT. $6t

ath^r han/i, it is just as undoubtedly true thai the muscular developmtni
that results from long-continued eUctrisaiiQH of the arms and legs reoitl
/atforably on the whole syitem a»d maieriaily aids /he treaiment.

The neck and spine should be treated in a]l rases, except during th«
first and tentative applicitions. or in patients of very unusual susccpti*
bility. During menslruatioH it is usually better to avoid the ahdomet
and lower part of the spine, or to suspend the treaiment altogether^
except in those eases where it is desired to increase the menstrual flow.

Length of the Applications.— 'V\k duration of ihe sittings may raugt
betivttn Jv.e and twenty-fve minutes, being uiodilied by the niiure of
tile constitution, the strength of the current employed, the Ma^e of the
treatment, and the results of the previous applications.

The smallest fraction cf this lime Uiould be devoted to the head, th«
largest to the spine ; next to the spine the abdomen should receive the
largest share of attention.

I. An averaijc niiplicaiion of say 15 minutes may be thus appor*
tioued :

To th« htaA t mtente.

" neck, iyinpftchetic and cervlcfti spisie 4 minutes.

" hack 3 "

'* alKlomea 3 "

" upper ami lower extretnitiei , 4 "

As compared with the lime required in localized faradization and ctu-
tral galvanization, general fandizatioQ baa not ihe great disadvantage
that has been supposed. Nearly all the ordinary peripheral applications
of electricity for p.ir.aLysis require as much time a* general faradization.

Frequency of the AppHeations. — The applications of general faradU
laiion may be repeated daily, every other day, once or twice a week, or
by still longer intervals. Every other day 'm, about as often as is neces-
sary to secure the fuU tonic results of the treatment ; but patients who
are so situated lb;it they can take the treatment but a short time may
receive an application daily, provided they arc not in a condition of un*
o«u&I debility, or are not more than ordinarily susceptible to the currenL
For tlie very nervous and susceptible, and especially for those who com'
plain of the secondary or reactive effects, it is often necessary to give
intervals of several days, at least undl the permanent tonic effects begin
to be developed (see p. 220).

Persistenee in the Trealment.~-Vot the majority of cases, the treat-
ment bj' general laradiiatiun, in order to secure its full results, must be
persistent. The reasons why this perseverance is demanded arc quite

363

GEXERAL FARADIZATION.

obvious. Ir. ihc first pUcc, most of the diseases and morbid conditioni
for which general faradization is indicated are cicvedingly chronic in
tlicir character, it is uecissary ever to keep in miiid the emphatic
words of the great Troustieau, " Chronic diseases demand chronic treat-
ment," whatever may be the method employed.

Siiondiy, Tonic remedies of all kinds external and internal, are al-
ways more oi less slow in their action.

\\'hilc gicax and beneficial effects arc oficn derived from two or three
applications, a complete or approximate cure of longstanding morbid
conditions, euch as dy5))ei>s:a, hypochondriasis, nervous exhaustion,
hysteria, paralysis, can only be achieved by pereistent treatment, vary-
ing the strength of the current and frequency of Uic applications ac-
cordintj Co llie progress which i» made.

The length of lime over which the trcatmi;nC should be extended may
range from one week to scveml months, with longer or shorter intervals,
according to circumstances.

Cotnpaiing the history of all our cases, we find that the average num-
ber of apphcatioas administered to each successful case is about i5-25«
ar>d llic length of time over which the ticauuent was extended 4-8
weeks.

The Use of the moisttned Hand as an EUctrade to thi Head and Sen-
sitive Parts. — The ailvantages which the moistened hand sometimes
possesses over the sponge in general faradization are tlie following :

I. In certain cases it is mere agreeable to the patient. It is but a
truism to assert that no form of electrode that human skill shall ever
devise can ever compare with the hand in llexibilily and power of ada|>'
tation. Its shape, its flexibility, the number and arrangement of the
fingers, and the vast and dcUcate combinations of movement of which
they arc so readily capable — all these familiar and wonderful character-
iattcs of the hand, united to the peculiar softiiei^s of the skin, and the
lightness with which it can touch, or prc^, or handle, render it superior
for the nicer processes of general faradization to any artificial arrange-
ments of which the genius of man could conceive.

For applications to the head and sides of the neck, the brachial plex-
tu, and |nt of the stomach, the use of the hand electrode is a very
great convenience ; and we sometimes meet with patients who are so
sensitive and so fearful that they will not endure even tlie softest sponge
on any poniun of ihe body, or at any stage of the treatment. To a|i-
ply a mild foradic current to the forehead and crown of the head, with
the softest sponge and largest possible surface, is at best an unpleiiiianl
[uucess for a strong man in perfect health, and for the delicate invalid

USE OF HAND AS AN ELECTRODE.

363

is ofiea uneiiilurable ; but when the hand of the- operator is niad« aa
electrode, the opcratioo of faradiiing the mosl sensitive portions of the
head may be made not only tolerable, but positively agreeable ExceiJt
in cases of severe local disease or unusual dcbilit}-, the sponge can be
borne down the siiine, over llic tibdoiuen and exlreiiiicies, and down ths
lower esiremities without great ditficully.

a. It iueps the operator centmualiy in/ormtd of tht tirtngt^ of th%
current^ and thus tnables him to earefuUy graduate it, aecordmg to the
seHsttivtntiS of each loeality.

As The current passes through his own person, the operator can judge
by his own sensations whether il is too strong or too weak, and by in-
creasing or diminishing the grasi) of his other hand on the sponge, can
modify ilie stioii^jth of the application witlioul distii/bing his apparatus,
llie wet sponge on which he presses with the other hand, acts, as w«
have seen, like a hydro-rheostat.

The use of the hand as an electrwle enables the operator to instantly
modify the npplioitions in any of the various degrees of weakness and
strength, and also to suspend the passage of the current instantaneously
wilhout shock or violence. Whert the sponge is used we unist continually
(juestiou the patient, or watch his expression and movements, in order to
judge whether the current is erf proper strength.

That most, if not all, of the tonic eifecta of general faradization can
be obtained in perhaps the majority of patients by the use of the
sponge, there can, we think, be no qmestion ; but the use of the hand
of the operator^ according to the principles above indicated, enables ua
to achieve these results, and with less discomfort to tlie patient, in those
peculiarly sensitive cases where the artificial electrode could not be
borne at all. Very many of our patients we treat only with arlilicial
electrodes.

To sura up, in a word, it is a eonvfftienre and aftentimei a positive
assistance for the operator to be able and willing to use his hand in ap-
Pittaiionsto sensitive parts and nervous patients, but for the majority of
cases it is sufficient to use a large soft sponge.

Effects of the Current on the Oferator. — T!ie question now arisen
What effect must the operator experience from the repeated passage of
the electric currents through his own person ?

It should be understood, at the outset, that the current docs not
directly affect the whole person of the operator, nor indeed any of the
prominent organs, and llmt only the faradic current is used in lliis way.
TTie current passes from hand to hand, through the arms and shoulders,
and docs not readi or directly influence the brain or any of the organt

364

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

of the chest or of the abdomen. The effects of thus using the current
on ihu nutrition of the muscles of the anu have akeady been consider-
ed (see Electro- Physiulo]:y, (J. 194).

Those pliysiciaDs whose teniperatuents do not tolerate electricity*
would do Well to avoid pasdng the current through their own i>er«
sons in this way. Those, however, aud they constitute the oift-
jority, who are more or less benefited by the use of electricity, in this
way, need nwer fear any evil effects. If ihey treat a very large num-
ber of pacicuts a day by general faradization, using the hand as an elec-
trode a considerable portion of the lime, and with strong currents, they
will be much luurc wearied at night than if they used the sponge chiefly
or exclusively. Thi^ mvlhod of general faradization has been and is
DOW used by hundreds of physicians, and wc have never heard of any
serious effects in any instance. The few whose temperaments contra-
indicatc electricity soon abandon the tisc of the hand as an electrode,
since they find that it is a luxury and not a necessity. The m.ijotily ex-
perience either nuyativc or bcneticial effects, and arrive at tliat stale
where it is a matter of indifference whether they lue the hand or
sponge.

Special Effects 0/ General Faradixativn, — The general effects of
electricity on the system have already been considered {p. 263). We have
here to speak only of those that are peculiar to or raoM marked under
general faradization.

The effects of general faradization may be subdivided into three
classes :

I. lliose which are experienced during or immediately after treat-
inent. — Primary or stimu/aimg effrcts.

3. Those which arc experienced one or two days subsequent to the
treatment. — Secondary or reactive effects.

3. Those which remain in the system as & permanent result of treat-
ment. — Permanent or tonic effects.

Many patients, perhxps the majority, experience after each seanee a
feeling of enlivenmeni and exhilaration that oflei» lasts for several
hours. With some this feeling of exhilaration is very positive and de-
cided; with others tt is but just perceptible. Others, again, experi*
fence a disposition to sleep after ireattnentt quite similar to that which is
felt after a bath in the surf.

Relief of pain and local or general weariness is a very frequent aa
well as very agreeable temporary effect of general faraditation, and
one which, more perhaps than any other, lends to inspire the doubt-
ing palieni with confidence in the efficacy of this method of treat-

EFFECTS ON PULSE AJ*D TEMPERATURE.

3G5

mcnL Patients who sufTer iJroin indefiiiable iieivous pains ii. the head,
Dade, side, and stomach, or from weakness in the limbs, frcqjentty ap*
Iircciale relief even in the midst of the application. This relief usually
lasts for several hours, and tn some cases may become permanent.

All the disagreeable syni|>tom9 tliat sotnctimes arise from an ap*
plication, as headache, malaise, chilliness, I'erligo, faintness, and cetd
fersfiraiion (see pp. 247-250}, like similar effects from injudicious use
of other tonics, physical exerci&e, the shower-balh, etc, are not usually
of any permanency whatever. Indeed, tliey arc entirely consistent with
]>ennanently good results; but they are apt to annoy and alarm the
]>atient, anri fur that reason, if for no other, they should be avoided.

Effect on Timperature.—1\\c temperature may be immediately
inflncncetl by general faradization.

Its effect on the circulation seems to be that of an equaliser. Pa
ticnts afflicted with nervous discatics are apt to suffer from cold feet and
hands, and from creeping chills over the body. The equalizing, warm-
ing efiecl of general faradiKation on such patients is most decided and
agreeable, and is so positively realized, even in the midst of the s'eanee^
that neither the bare feet nor the exposed trunk suffer from the cold,
provided the air of tlie operating -room is of even a moderate tempera-
ture.

Effect on Pulse, — Tlie effects of general faradization on the pulse are
quite interesting and suggestive.

In a large number of cases we have carefully counted the pulse, and
also observed its quality jiust before and just after the treatment. The
results of some of these observaiioiis are presented below : —

IM»r»ltia

Aftn the

Befrin iha

Ahvitw

Apptiwtian.

Applkatwn.

ApplicAiiAit.

Applkatiob

104

100

106

102

- 84

«9

SOI

100

On account of the recognized susceptibility of the pulse, especially
of nervous invalids, to the influence of mental impression, wc have
found it necessary, in order to avoid error, to make repeated examina
tions before and after the ntting.

366

Sneral faradization.

Th« conclusion, from our verj- large number of obscrrarions in rcganl '
tu the infiitcncc of general faradisation on the pulse in chronic disease!^
is that of a corrective.

When the pulse is high it depresses it more or less, and usually in
proportion to the degree of the exaUation above the nomial standard.
When it is low it raises it more or less, and tlKuJIy in proportion to the
degree of the depression below the normal standard. In nervous and
excitable iialicnte, the effect of general faradiraiion on the pulse is much
more marked than in the cold and phlegmatic. An application that is
much too strong may greatly excite the |>ulse.

Sptcial and Extfptwnal Effects. — Tlie immediate effect on the ap-
petite is, in rare instances, so marked that the (laticnt at once feels
desire for food, and at the next meal eats a much larger quantity and
with far keener relish than usual.

Sensitive patients are now and then compelled to evacuate their
bladder or reclnm iniiitcdtatcly after or even in the midst of the appli-
cation, and the urinary secretion is occasionally increased. But all
these effects of general faradization on the functions of special organs
are incidental and occasional, attd are not to be expected with any
unifonnity or constancy.

Sfecndary or Reaitive Effects. — ^The secondary or reactive effects of
general faradisation are those which are experienced far a day or tw*
J^lovnitg an applicaiwn. These effects are probably not observed in
more than half of the cases, and usually only at the outset of the treat-
ment. Most of these secondary or reactive effects have already been
considered (sec p. 349).

Soreness in the muscles of the ncctc, trunk, and upi>er extremities is
unquestionably the most frequent of the secondatr symptoms of gen-
eral faradization, and the one which patients are soonest to observe and
describe. It is the result of the muscular contractions that arc pro-
duced by the electric current. They usually pa&s off in two or three
days, and are scarcely observed at all after tlic patient has once be-
come accustomed 10 the treatment. By making the first tentative ap-
plications gentle and short, it is possible to avoid entirety this subse-
quent muscular soreness^ and in very feeble or very Hmid patients we
should always endc-avor to do so.

Indefinable nervousness is another occasional secondary effect, and one
that ofien gives rise to idle and unnecessary alarm. Like the soreness
of the muscles, it usually passes off in a day or two, and is not commonly
experienced after the patient has become accustomed to the treatment.

Weariness and exhaustion may be experienced by this class of pa>

PERMANENT OR TONIC EFFECTS.

367

ticnts Tot several days after an injudicious application. It is a very
inteiesting and important fact, that these annoying secondary sjiuptoms
of weariness and exhaustion are oftentimes cxperienccil to ihcir fullest
extent by patients on whom the immediate effects for a few hours sue
ceeding the application are only agreeable. On account of this fact,
the inexperienced electro- therapeutist may be unpleasantly deceived,
and from the temporary enlivennient of his patient may suppose tliat
his application has been thoroughly successful, until the distressing
Secondary effects, continuing perhaps for several days, sliow most
clearly that it has been cither too strong or too protracted.

Perinanent ar Tonic Effects. — To designate any precise time or stage
of the treatment when these tonic *,'ffect8 are to be looked for, is
manifestly impossible. Like the tonic effects of other analogous in-
tema) or external remedies, the time of their appearance must be
variously modilicd by the nature of the disease, the constitution of the
patient, and the skill and perseverance of the treatment. They may
appear early in the treatment, developing themselves with great
rapidity ; or they may remain latent until after the applications arc
abandoned, and then advance with sure and steady progress. They
may be so rapidly manifested at the commencement of the treatment
as to caoiie us to suspect them to be more the result of mental im-
pression than of the applications ; and, on the other hand, they may
develop tiieniselve* so long after the treatment as to suggest the doubt
whether they are not as much due to nature and tinie as to the direct
electric Inllucncc.

Among these tonic effects of general faradisation, those which chiefly
attract the attention and are of the principal importance arc the following :

Improvement in the Sleep. — This symptom comes _;?«/ in our analysis
of the permanent effects of general faradization, because it is one of
the first to be appreciated and observed by Che patient. As insomnia
is the most constant and universal symptom of tliosc various nervous
conditions for which general faradization is indicated, just so is its relief
or cure the first and leading evidence that the treatment is having its
desired effect. As .ilrcady mentioned, inclination to sleep is one of the
immediate symptoms of the applications and may come on even in the
midst of the s^nce ; but the improvcrnent in the sleep of which we
here speak, as a permanent ^Sucl, is appreciated during the intervals of
treatment, and long after it has been suspended

Increase of Appetite and Improvement in Digestion. — Increase of
appetite and improvement in the digestion is not so early nor as con*
stait a symptom as im)*rovemenl in the sleep.

368

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

It is by no nicans a constant or uniTorm effect^ even in those case«
where It would seem lo be needed, and where, too, in all other resiJccis,
great and lasting benefit is derived from the treatment. Some patients
who arc jicmiancntly relieved of neuralgia, of insomnia, and of muscular
and nervous debility, yet observe no decided improvement in their
(iigestinn. Such cases, however, are quite exceptional.

HeguAitian of the Boweis. — Comtijiation sometimes yields very early
in the treatineuL The temporary effect is probably due, in many
instances certainly, to the direct mechanical acrion of the current on
the intestines ; but permanent relief, cither of constipation or of
diarrhtEaof the nervous variety, is not to be expected until the indigestion
and general debility on which they depend have first been corrected.

Jmprovtmcnt in the Circulation. — Permanent equalization of the
circulation is most observed in cases of dyspepsia, nervous ex-
liaiistion, hysteria, and similar conditions with which defective circulsu
tion is so frequently associated. It is then the result of the improve-
ment in the assimilative power and nutrition of the system.

Relief of Nervousness and Mental Depression. — The indefinite,
ihottgh very well recognised condition which we terra nervousness,
and the indefinable mental agony that forms bo |>romineat and so
distressing a symptom in hysteria, dyspepsia, exhaustion, and other
nervous conditions, sometimes yield to general faradization quite early
in the treatment

Increase in the Size and Hardness of the Museles, and in the Weight
of the Body. — This is a natural result and accompanimenl of the im-
provemcni in nutrition, and that it follows the use of the farachc as well
as of the galvauic cuirent, sulBciently demonstrates that power over
nutrition is not confined to the latter.

Under the inlluence of protracted treatment by general faradization,
the muscles are sometimes developed in size as well as in firmness to
a degree which very naturally astonishes those who, for the first time,
have tlieir attention directed to it. This increase in size and quality of
the muscles is, of course, ctiielly observed in thoi^e portions of the
surface of tlic body where, under the influence of faradization, con-
tractions are most easily produced. Therefore we first look for this
effect in the arms, the legs, and afterwards in the chest. This effect is
soonest observed in patients who arc comparatively thin, or at least,
whose muscular tissue predominates over the adipose. On the other
hand, and for obvious reasons, it 15 not so perceptible ia females, c»'
in the very corpulent of eitlier sex

Uuder general faradization aetttai increase in the site and weigH ef

RATIONALE OF THE EFFECTS

369

tM^ tody sometimes takes jjlace so rapidly and ^iccceplibly to tJie eyp
that it Deed not be confirmed by reference to the scales. In othei
cases, where patients, either through curiosity or accident, have care*
fully weighed themselves just before taking a course of treatment, a
most remarkable increase of weight has often been observed in the
course even of a few weeks.

The increase of weight is ^inply a result of the efTect of the
electric currents on uutritioa, and a natural sequence of the improve*
inent in the sleep, the increase of appetite, and the relief of pain and
menial depression of which we have akeady spoken.

Increased Disposition and Capctcily far Labor of the Muscles and tf
the Brain. — Whatever tends, directly or indirectly, to improve nutrition
must of necessity increase the capacity for intellectual and muscular
toil. Accordingly we find diac paiteuu who were so feeble tliat even a
short walk or ride was fatiguing, and who were signally de&cient both
in the will and the cai»acity for exertion, soon begin to develop, under
treatment, an activity and vigor that is somctiutcs surprising. They
can walk farther and more vigorously, and with greater enjoyment.
They realize a consciousness of strength to which before they were
strangers, and feel cmlioidcned to exertion from which they would for-
tnerly have shrunk with apprehension.

Concerning these i>ermaneut tonic effects it is to be observed :—

1. They are not uniform. They vary not only with different indi\'id*
uals and diseases, but also with the same individual at different perio<1s
of life.

2. They are mere rapidly appreciated by the active and the nervous
than by the eeld and pkle^matie. Other conditions being the sarae» a
sensitive, impressible organization will recover more rapidly under gen-
eral faradisation than one of an opposite temperament.

3. They are frequently not experienced until long after the treat-
ment is abandoned. These after effects of general fataflixation are
worthy of the highest attention. The possibility that they may occur
is a constant encouragement in die treatment of all slow and obstinate
cases.

4. They are usually as lasting and permanent as similar effects from
other remedies and systems of treatutent. It is true that patients who
have been apparently cured by general faradization are i>ubject to re-
lapses, yet to no greater and apparently to a less extent than those who
have derived similar relief from internal medication. In considering
this statement, regard should be had tu the fact Uiat the diseases fot
whicli general faradization is diiefly indicated, at least those in which il

370

GENERAL FARADIZATION.

tias tiius far been most successful, are just the diseases wliich are moiU
Likely to relap&e under any or all fomis of treatment.

RaiionaU ef the Effects of General Faradization. — It has been said
of general faradization that it is not physiological ; but ihcy who raise
this objection do not well consider what they say. Ofthc various methods
of electrization none can be better explained on a physiological basis
than can this. General faradization is to the whole body what localized
faradization is lo an individual part or organ. All the physical, me-
chanical, chemical and physiological effects, with the consequent in-
crease of the processes of waste and rei>air and improvement in nutri*
tion that electmation is capable of producing in the living tissues (see
Electro-Physiologj', p. 177) and which, in exclusively localized applica-
tions, are mainly confined to the part which is tra\*ersed by the current,
arc in general applications appreciated by every part of the system.
Then, again, the buprovemein whidi each part or organ receives from
the treatment reacts upon every other part and organ. Every cflect
becomes in Its ttim a cause ; the strengthened brain sends more nervous
force to the stomach, by which the latter is enabled to send better blood
to the brain.

Comparing what is known of the condiiciibiUty of the tissues (see
p. 180), and the action of the electric currents upon them, with the ob-
served elTects of general faradization, these efiecls may be regarded as
due mainly —

I. To the faet that the nutrition o/tht entire central nervous system
is directly infiuenced by the current. In an ordinary application the
brain, spinal cord, and symi>athetic ganglia are all subjected to the ac-
tion of the cuircnL In most of the applications of central localized
electrization only a part of the central nervous system is affected at
each silting. We are warranted in believing that in nearly all nervous
diseases the central nervous system is more or less disturbed, e\-en when
it is not organically diseased.

a. The passive exercise thai results from the vigorous and repeated
WHseular contractions produced by the applications. When the applica-
tions are thoroughly and skilfully made, vigorous yet agreeable con-
tractions arc excited, not only in all the superficial muacies but in the
deeper layers, and also of the contractile fibre-cells of the stomach,
the intestines, and other vital organs. The augmentation of the mani-
fold processes of waste and repair which a single sitting causes in the
muscles and abdominal organs would alone powerfully influence nutri-
tion, even though tlie clccuic ciureiil exerted no direct effect on the
nervous system.

PASSIVE EXERCISE AND REFLEX ACTION. 371

T1ia.t ihe tonir; eff«cu of gen«r«l faradiz&tion are very largely due to
the passive exercise which it produces, is proved clinically by the fact
th;it wh(?n a current too feeble to cause muscular contractions is used,
oi when ihc muiicles are neglected, the tonic as well as the priniaty
effects of die treatment are much less marked.

3. Reflex action frpm the sensory nerves. Tlie reflex effect of the
faradic current even is very powerful, and in general faradiiacion nearly
all the superficial sensory nerves are acted upon, and consequently the
whole nervous system is constantly under retlex as well as direct in-
duence of the current.*

* Brown-S^uanl and Lombard (Archives de Pfayiaol., November and December,
1869) have shown thM when one »m is pinch«l (he temperature oT tbai arm &%hl1]r
ri>c>, and Ihat of the oppoiltc arm falK Dr. Jaitiea J. Putnam {Bo«Ion Meilical uid
Surgical Journal, June 33, iSfo] hu shown bjr ft serici of experiment* on frogit lliat
electrizalinn of one font cauied reflex coRLractiont ^f the blood-veudt in the web of
the foot of tlie opposite Hde. Thwe experiments, taken in conneclioo with the fact
that nuKiiiun i4 clcisely related to circulation, would reiiJer it clearly probable itiat
idles Bciiun U nn impuriant favtor of the results of applicaliuii ol electricilj', oad
espBciaily of general Ibradisatiui^ where the extremities are directly affected by tlu
rutmt.

CHAPTER Xt

DirrERENTlAL INDICATIONS FOR THE USB Of LOCAUZED AKD GENERAl

FARALilZATIOK.

In order to determine the differential indicntiotis for the use of
localized and general facadizatton we need to consider these foui
facts:

First, That general faradixation diredly affects the whole body, while
in localized raradizatioii tlie direct action of the current is mainly con-
fined to the part to which the application is made.

Secondly, Thai gt-neral faradizaticn may, by gympathetic or reflex
action, indirectly have a siiecial therapeutic influence on some sfeciat
port or organ, while localized faradization of any part, but especially
of the aynipalhetic or ccrcbro-spinal axis, by sympathetic or refiei
action, may indirectly have a general therapeutic influence on the
whole body.

Thirdly, Kaiadizalion, when properly performed, very rarely iiijtues,
and usually mure or less bcnc^ts, even those parts which are in com-
parative or absolute health. This condderation has an important prac-
tical bearing, especially in the use of geiteral faradization, in cases of
doubt as to the sent of the disease. (Sec p. 334.)

Fourthly, In nearly all cases it is important, and in many it is indis-
pensable, that the applications should be made to the seat of the dis-
ea*e as well as to the locality of the symptom. Scientific elect ro-lJiera,-
peutics, therefore, requires the most accurate preliminary diagnosb ;
above all, it is important to rigidly discriminate between diseases which
are of a constitutional .md those which are of a local origin.

From these fundamental considerations we logically derive the gen-
eral law that constitutional diseases are tetter treated by general, and
heal diseases by laalised. faradization.

More speci&cally, experience demonstrates that of the large variety of
diseases for which applications of electricity arc found useful, localized
faradization and galvanisation are specially indicated in those cases
where botii the scat and the effects of the disease arc restricted to ccr-

INDICATIONS FOR GENERAL FARADIZATION. 373

lain portions of the organism, with but slight or imperceptible influence
on the system at large. Under this head are included nearly all peri-
pheral and reflex paralyses and neuralgias, effusions, sprains, and local
injuries, and also many of the diseases of the eye, ear, larynx, and
genital and digestive organs.

On the other hand, general faradization 15 indicated —

I. In those diseases that are dependent on or associated with im-
pairment of nuTntion and general debility of the vital functions, such as
nenrous dysjjepsia, neurasthenia, aniemia, hysteria, hypochondriasis,
paralysis, and neuralgia of a constitutional origin, rhcumatlsiii and
other toxic diseases, some forms of chorea, and oftentimes io fuD&
tional disorders of the genital, digestive, and other special organs.

a. In morbid symptoms dependent on some local cause which can*
not be satisfaciorily diagnosticated. It must be confessed that a large
number of cases of chronic diseases are frequently dependent on or
connected wilhsome important lesions, of which, during die lifetime of
the patieni, even the most approved metliods of diagnosis and the most
practised skill utterly fail to ascertain either the nature or the locality.
This is oftentimes the case with epilepsy, hysteria, and hypochon
driasis ; sometimes, also, with affections of special organs, as the eye,
ear, larynx, and ntcnis.

Benedikt emphatically affirms that electricity shoiUd be applied almost
exclusively i« heo merbi, in tlie place of the disease, and in cases of
doubt recoiiiiueiids tentative applications successively in all the sus-
pected localities until the diagnosis is made out by the success of the
treatment.* It scarcely need be said thai this purely experimental
system, though sometimes successful, must be and is annoying, uncer>
lain, and very frequently unsatisfactory.

I'he advantage of general faradization in such cases of doubtful paiho*
logy are twofold : First, at each application it affects all parts of ths
body, and thus is sure to reach the seat of the disease, wherever that
may be ; and, secondly, \x at the same time improves the general nutri-
tion of the system, which, in such cases, ia frequently more or less im-
paired This improvement in nutrition, as has been staled, oftentimes
reacts favorably on the local di^ase.

Still further, it must be confessed that very many of the diseases in
which gener.il faiadization is proved to be of most efficient service^
are those in which no special locus tmrbi can be Ibund even on post
mfirUm examination.

* Die Ekctroihcnpie. Wieo, 18^ p. 79.

374 GENERAL AND LOCALIZED FARADIZATION COMPARED.

Future invesligAtions will undoubtedly do much to dispel our tgach
ranee on these points, and will probably assign a definite local cause
to some of the diseases which are now vaguely classed as constitu-
tional. But even those diKeases in which the local cause is definitely
ascertained uiaj- demand const itulional treatment as much as or n>ore
than those in which no local cauiie is demonstrated. When a house i«
set on fire by a burning fuse, it is not enough to snatch away the fuse ;
we must extinguish the flames. When the nervous sj'stem has been
thrown into tetanus by a wound in the foot, excision or healing of the
wound is of litde avail ; remedies must be direaed to the central ner-
vous syslein. Precisely 80 when clironic local disease has enfeebled
the vital functions and impaired nutrition, our applications are to be
directed to the general sj-stem as well as to the seat of the lesion.

3, In certain diseases which, though themselves incurable, arc ac-
companied by impairment of nitrition that is susceptible of more or less
relief. Palsy agtiam, many cases of cerebral and spinal paralysis, ad-
vanced stages of locomotor ataxia, rhcuniatic gout, epilepsy, and cer-
tain spastic affections, nvay be absolutely incurable, and yet the ema-
ciation, nervousness, insomnia, and general feebleness vn\h which these
diseases are associated as cause or effect or concomitant, may be sus-
ceptible of most grateful relief from general faradization. In not a few
cases of disease of these varieties, after we have failed to do any good
by galvanization of tlie brain, 8>'nipathettc and spinal cord, after even
central galvani/aticn has failed, general faradization alone, given with-
out special reference to the scat of the pathological lesion, has greatly
relieved the symptoms and been of invaluable service by virtue of its
tonic effects, although, of course, h could have no permanently curative
influence.

Illustralive cases of every grade will hereafter be presented in detail.

CflWJ*" i>/ Failures in EUctro-Therapiuiics. — The comparison we
have here made reveals the cause of some of the failures and
discouragements that have been and are now being cncoimtered
by many experimenters in the department of electro-therapeutics.
Constitutional diseases have been treated locally. Morbid constitn-
tional conditions, such as hysteria, anxmia, rheumatism, and the
like, which, as all physicians agree, demand remedies that affect the
system, are treated electrically only through their local symptoms, sudi
as peri])heral paralysis, or neuralgia, or inSamroation of the joints.
Temporary relief, or metastasis of these local symptoms may indeed
result from exclusively localized applications in such cases, but per-
maiieQt correction of the morbid condition on which these sympionu

COMBINATION OF TUE METHODS.

375

depend can only be obtained by general treatment. Iq subacute rlieii-
matism, for example, galvanization or faradisation of an inflamed joint
frequemly removes the pain and effusion in (hat joint, and therefore
may advantageously be wscd with general faradization, just as the ex-
ternal application of alkaline solutions may advantageously be com-
bined with the internal administration of the same remedies ; but to
depend on merely localized electrization in such cases is manifestly as
unpbilosophical as it would be to depend on merely local applications
of alkalies- In general practice it will unfortunately be found that
physicians will frequently use localized in cases for which general treat-
ment is indispensable for complete results, for the reason that they
have neither the time nor the practice to enable them to use tlie lattei
method with sticcess; just as the majority of general practitioners, for
want of a galvanic apparatus, are obliged to use faradization in easel
for which galvanization is imperatively demanded.

Combination pf the Mftfmds. — Many cases are most successfully treated
by a combination or alternation of the two mclhods. Thus rheumatism,
for example, may be treated one week or one day by general faradiza-
tioi), and the following day or week by local faradization or galvaniza^
lion of the affected joints.

This comparison furthermore reveals and explains the suggestive
fact that the sphere of clectro-thcrapcutics has, in a measure, corre-
sponded to and progressed with the advance in the method of applica-
tion. Thus, when peripheral applications were chiefly used, the scope
of electro -therapeutics, (hough important, was narrow, neuralgia and
paralysis being the diseases for which it was mainly employed. On
the introduction of localized galvanization of the nerve-ceatres, electri-
city was found to be most useful for many conditions in which pre-
viously it had been supposed to be either valueless or coniraindicated.
The sj>here of electro- therapeutics is by general faradization and cen-
tral galvanization still further extended to embrace a large variety of
conditions and indications which localized applications ful&l citlier not
at all, or but very iioperfectly.

CHAPTER XIL

CENTRAL OALVAKIZATIQN.

The object in central galvanization is ta bring the whale central net-
vaus system — the brain, sympathetic and spinal cord — or well as thepneu-
mogas/ric and depressor nerves^ under the influence ef the galvanic cur-
rent. One pole (usually the negative') is placed at the epigastrium, while
the other is passed over the forehead and top of the head, by the inner
borders of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles, from the mastoid fossa toike
sternum, at the nape of the neck, and drnvn the entire length of the spine.

The rollowiiig representations of the principal steps in the melliod
of central galvanization were made from jihotographs taken during die
applications.

Fic gS.

Central CALTAMnATios, first stage. One pole on the epigastrium, the other mi
the eranial ctnlrt, tlw hair ftt thai point being molUened, Before miLktng th«
applJcatign at this point tlic elcctiXKic may be pamed over the fordbcad.

DETAILS OF THE APPLICATIONS.

377

A female patient is taken in order to show that this method in its
:iitirety requires little or no exposure.

Cir.. 9 J.

Central CALVANiZATtorv, second sttge. One pole same posttloa as berare, or lo*«t
down, fl.nd the oihcr passed up and do«m b^ tlie inner border of the stcx»o<
dado-miudoid miuclc from the auricnlo-auuulluT foisa to the stcroum.

Details of the Applications. — We do not always make the appilca-
tions all over the head, but merely on the forehead, gently passing the
electrode from one side to the other; then baptize the patient on the
cranial etnlre, at the top of the head, and rest the pole llicrc for about
sne minute, and sometinics longer. To the head we apply from two
to 9tx or eiglit cells — for patients vary in Ihcir susceptibility — beginning
witli a weak current, and gradually increasing until a sour or metalJie
taste is perceived in the moulh. The cranial eentre — the summit
between the cars — we regard as tlie most important region of the head
in all electrical applications, and especially ia central galvanization. A
current passing from that point to the epigastrium, traverses the centre
of life— if life has any centre — and affects the sympathetic, and the roots
of the facial nerves. The sensation produced by this application is
different from that of any other application to the head, and is sonie-
times indefinable.

378

CENTRAL GALVANIZATION.

An application to this point for one or two minutes is usuaUy about
as much galvanization as the brain needs. In exceptional cases,
where the hair is thm, or ihc head is bald, we make the applications all
over the surface, back and front. In applications to the head, carr
should be taken to avoid sudden inteiruptions, or shocks that cause
dizziness; the fl.ishes of light before the eyes ate of littie account, but
noLliing is gained by producing them, and the/ are annoying to the
paticnt-

Fia. <fi.
CXSTRAL Galvanizatidh, third Kat^t. One pole canie position u before, or on ihe
breastbone, uii! the other at the luiclc of the neck between the fmt and seventh
cervical vcrtebfit

The electrode is then passed down the inner border of the stcmo-
cleidO'tnastoid muscle, from the auriculo-niaxillar)' fogsa to the clavicle,
for the piurpose of affecting the pneuuiogastric and sytnpalhetic
W'c usually make the application on both sides, and from one to five
minutes.

In galvanizing the spine, especial attention is given to the cilio^inai
centre, below the first and seventh cervical vertcbne, which is to the
q'>ine wtiat tlie cervical ceutrc is to the brain. The cervical sympatlictic

DETAILS OF THE APPUCATIOXS.

379

and pneumogastric, as well as the spinal cord, are affected by the cur.
rent. The electrode should also be passed over the entire length of the
cord by iaMe applications ui> and down. The back is not usually sensi-
tiTc, and strong currents, from ten to thu-ty cells, can be borne withoul
any more discomfort than a burning or pricking sensation beneath both
electrodes.

tiO. tfi.

CiktxalGalvaxizatiun, Tourth Uagr. One pole uune ponlion n before, or ovei
(be ntKluineii, and the ntlier pMMd beneath tlie looseaed clothing, ap uid down
the cord, from the Kventh cervical vertebra to the coccyx.

The back may be Treated Irom three to ^ minutes, and the whole
length of the iiance of central galvanization ranges from five to fifteen
minutes.

Prtparatiffn of the Patient. — All the preparation a maie padcnt re-
quires for central galvanization is to unbutton and loosen the collar,
remove the coat and vest, and slip up the whole clothing, so that free
access can be had to the spine.

A female patient may remove her corsets and slip up her under

380

CEXTilAL UALVAXIZATION.

doUiing, or merely loosen the clothing at the neck and waist, so as tc
make room for ao electrode to be passed down to the epigastriani, and
for a spinal electrode to be passed up and down the back.

Elecirodes. — For the negative electrode at the pit of the stomach,
any sponge or flannel electrode with a broad surface, so as not to be
too painful, and an insulated handle that the patient can hold, will
answer.

For the positive pole, we prefer adjustable electrodes (sec p. 333), of
different sizes. These can be passed under the clothing with great ease,
and can alw be provided with flannel covers, that may be washed as
often as necessary.

^(T/frr>.— Almost any form of galvanic battery will answer for central
galvanization, but for reasons before given (p. jri), a battery that gives
a steady uuifotiu current, and that is provided with a rheostat, is pre*
fcrablc. The Cabinet battery is exceedingly convenient for central
galvanization.

The mctJiod of central galvanization is based on these four as-
suniprions, all of which seem to us justifiable.

I. That in a very large number of diseases, and especially of the so-
called functional diseases, ihe pathology is not exclusively confined tc
any region of the brain, or sympathetic, or spinal cord, but the whole
central nervous system is invaded by a conditlOD of exhaustion and ir-
ritability. We believe this to be true not only of hysteria, chorea, and
of many affections allied to them, but of certain state* of neuralgia, and
a number of diseases of the skin. It is possible, furthennore, that some
diseases that are not now regarded as in any respect of a nervous char-
acter may in ihc future be sliown to depend so closely on the nervous
syaCem that they can be most successfully treated, not through their
varying aiid local manifestations, but through the brain, spinal cord, and
aympathetic. Tliat certain diseases, not primarily nervous, do so affect
the nervous system that they need to be treated, in part at least, by
remedies that act on the nerves, will be conceded, I suppose, without
question.

3. Iliat a large proportion of the most frequent and distressing chronic
diseases, as hystena, hyjwchondria, neurasthenia, chorea, epilepsy,
nervous dyspepsia, neuralgia, and many forms of insanity, are so obscure
and subtle in their pathology that it is impossible to determine tlic pre-
CISC scat o^ the disease in any given case, even where some local patho-
logical condition may exist, and consequently we can never know just
where the curreni should be localized. Even when the scat of die dis-
ease is, or is supposed to be, acuuately kuuwo, if a special revelation

THEORY OF THE METHOD.

381

diould Icmdly inform us whether epilepsy, for example, takes its ori^n
in Ihe briun or in the sympathetic, and should point out to iia just wher«
^e lesion occurred, we should still be in the dark in rcgiird to the best

'method of localuing the current, for without another and still more
complex revelation we could not deteriiiiiie llie extent to wliich all
other parts of the nervous system had been affected by the local diit
ca»e.

The force of this objection to the u*e of the accepted method of
galvanizing the brain and cervical sympathetic is seen when we attempt
to give the complete pathology of any of the diseases we have just men<
tioned, anil, indeed, cf almost any nervous disease that can be men-
tioned. Where is the precise seat of the disease io nervous dyspepsia ?
We* know that the stomach is wcaii, and wc prescribe galvanization of
the pneumogastiic ; but what have the solar plexus and the spinal cord
to say in the matter? Who can tell just how not only they, but the
brain itself, may be the origin of nervous dyspepsia, or how much they
•hare in the pathological disturbance, and consequently how much they

'need treatment? After eleven centuries of medical study, who can
tell the precise and exclusive scat of tliu disexse in epilepsy, hysteria, and
neurasthenia? Is not the probability continually growing stronger
with the advance of science, that in thete iind many other diseases the
whale or a large part of the central nervous system shares as a caiii»e,
or result, or concomitant? Even in those diseases where the lesion is
understood, is there not much more of the onknown than of the known ?
In locomotor ataxia, progressive muscular atrophy, spinal congestion
and irrttaiton, is the spine only at fault ? Do the symfMithctic and brain
wholly escape the infection? "Evil communicatioas corrupt good
manners" ID pathology as well as in morals, and the communications
between the sympatlietic, and curd, and brain, and the nerves that branch
from all these, are so varied, and intimate, and complex, that when the
cord is known to be diseased wc very naturally incline to consider the
other parts of the ner^'ous system, like "poor dog Tray," in bad com.
pany, and we become very justly su&picious of their character. In this
suspicion we are juitlned by the accepted vievrs of the functions of the
sympathetic, and by the clinical signs and symptoms of these diseases.

In cerebral hemorrhage we usually know the general locality of the
disease, if not its precise nature ; but the spinal cord, through disuse,
becomes affected with secondary degenerations, and the organs of di-
gestion also more or less sympathize.

J. Thai the nutrition of the central nervous system will be improved
by passing through it a mild galvanic current.

382

CENTRAL GALVAMZATIOW.

That in the great majority of cases of so-called fimctional nerroos
disease, aiid in many of the cases of special structmal leaotu, ncrre-
looics are indicated, will be questioned by no ooe. It is ako ccmiag
to be pretty generally admitted that electricity is sotnething more than
a ttiinnlant— that it is a lanU with a powerful sedative infiucoce. Still
fiirther, it is admitted that the sedative and tonic effects of electricity
can be obtained by passing the current, with little ot no tntemiptioD,
throng any part, the nmrition of which needs to be improved.

4. It is impossible 10 extluiiveiy localize the current tn the cerrical
^mpatbetic, hence it is certain that the good results that in some instances
follow the galvanization through the neck are due to the effect of the
current on the spinal cord or pneumogastnc, as well as to the cenical
ganglia of the sympathetic That the bene6cial effects of galvanizing the
neck in cases of nausea, dyspepsia, and gastralgia, arc due in part if »ot
entirely to the effect of the current on the pneumogastiic, is more than
probable. Conversely, wc And it impossible to tell how far our attempts
to localize the current in the pneumogastric, by placing one pole at the
pit of the stomach and the other by the inner border of the stemo-cleido-
masloid muscle, was successful ; and whether the benefit derived took
place through the pneumogastnc, the sympathetic alone, or through both
combined, seems beyond the power of mortal skill to determine.

Similar difficulties are experienced in the attempt to differentiate the
effects of the galvanizing the brain ; how much the results of applica-
tions to the bead are due to the direct or reflex action of the current on
the brain itself, how much to its action on the cephalic ganglia of the
sympathetic, and how much to its action on the roots of the pneumo-
gastric and the upper part of the spinal cord, seems in the present stale
of the sdences of anatomy and physiology absolutely impossible to dc-
termine. In galvanizing the spine wc are puzzled by the same com-
plications. The cervical, thoracic, and abdominal ganglia of the sym-
pathetic, with their enormous plexuses, arc all liable to be affected by
the current whenever it is applied up and down the spine ; and how far
the beneficial results of galvanization are due to the effect of the cur-
rent on the cord itself, and how far to its effect on these ganglia and
plexuses, only a special revelation can determine.

Still further, the subject is complicated by the consideration that

elecinciiy works powerfully by retlex action, and in galvanizing tlie

* '«in, the cervical sympathetic, or the spine, reffex action must contino*

take place through the nerve<entres, and the therapeutical results

need by such treatment must be ia part attributable to such reflex

COMPARED WITH LOCALIZED GALVANIZATION.

383

The jjosilive pole (aoode) i» applied over the head, neck, and tyint,
because it is less irritating than the negative, and tends to diminish irri*
lability. The ni.ijorily of the c.isc3 for which central galvaniiation is
used are in a condition of abnormal irritability, and need the calming
effects of analectrotonos rather than the irritating effects of catalectro-
.tonos. To this rule tliere are individual exceptions: there are cases
' that appear to be benefited more by the negative than the positive
pole. (See pp. 336-3x8.)

The ncgaiivc pole (cathode) is placed at the epigastrium, because
the epigsistriiira 13 a good, indifferent t»oint, that will bear well the irri-
tating effect of catalectrolonos. In order to avoid over-irritating the
stomach and the pnciimogastric nerve, it is well, in very settsiiive
patients, and when long applications are used, to change the position
of the negative electrode by moving it up and dovrn between the ster-
num and abdomen.

The posirive and negative modifications (sec Electro-Phj-siology, p. 103)
that take place at the breaking of the galvanic current, in tJie region of
the anode and ihecalUode, probably complicate somewhat the effects of
treatment — are, indeed, factors of some importance in producing the
effects, and not unlikely explain, in part, tiie disagreeable results that
come from too frequently interrupting the current when treating ncrvc-
ccntres. The positive and negative modifications can, however, be
mostly avoided by using a rheostat of some kind, and gradually reducing
the strength of the current to a minimum before the electrodes are re-
moved.

Ctntral Galvanisation Cpmpared with Localised Galvanhation of ihe
Ntrvt^fnirts. — We claim for central galvanization a distinct and sepa-
rate position among the different methods of using electricity in medicine.
The applications of the galvanic current to the head, the neck, and the
Bpinc, which have been variously used by electro-therapeutists since the
time of Remak, are simply forms of localized electrization, since tlie
object aimed at in all of them is lo localise the current, so far as possible,
in the brain or some portion of it, in the cervical ganglia of the sympa*
thetic, or in the spinal cord. Then, again, in all these forms of localized
galvanization of llie nerve-centres, the poles are place<l near each oiher
over the part to be affecled, and the peculiar action of both poles is felt,
M) 1^ as is possible by external application, in tiie organ that is treated.

In galvanizing the head, for example, the poles are applied behind

the cars, or in front of them, or one is placed on the forehead, and

'the other on the occiput, or at the nape of the neck. In galvanizing

the cervical ganglia ol the sj-mpathctic, one pole is placed on the

334

CENTRAL GALVANUATION.

auriculo-maxilkr)' fossa, or along the inaei border of ihe sterno-clcido-
mastoid luuscle, while the other is applied at the back of the neck. la
galvani/.iii); the spine-, one pole ia placed at the upper or lower part,
while the other is passed up and down the entire length, <»- kept in one
])1ace, or both may he moved up and down (he entire length of the
cord, or cunfiiied to any purlion, as is desired.

But in central galvanization the electrodes are so placed that the
whole central nervous xystciu i» brought under the influence of one pole
(usually the positive] of the galvanic current at one sitting, and without
any important change of position of the negative pole. Besides the cen-
tral nervous Hystcin, the pncitmogastric and the stomach itself are also
affected ; in a word, the great centrei of life, of healtli, and of disease.

Comixiring central galvanization with localized galvanisation of the
nerve centres, by the tjfic/s, we find differences of a most marked and
interesting character exisL The ordinary' methods of galvartizing the
cervical sympathetic, the brain, or the spine, do not, either singly or in
combination, produce the powerful tonic results that arc frequently ob-
tained by central galvanisation. Sedative and Conic effects are unques-
tionably protluced by these local methods, but they are frequently in-
ferior in quality and degree to tliosc derived from central galvaaiiation
when proper])- adiuiniiitercd. This conclusion is derived from actual trial
and observation of cases. Neither the temporary nor the permanent
effects of localized galvanization of the brain, of the cervical sym-
patlietic anil pneumogastric, or of the spine, ore as satisfactory in many
cases, even when they are successively used at the same sitting and
with the same time and strength of c:urrent, as central galvanization.

Still further, experience teaches that the method of central galvaniio-
lion, in its completeness, is more serviceable than partia.1 or incomplete
applications of it- Placing the negative pole on the epigastrium, and
the other on the spine, will not accomplish the full effects of central
galvanization, although so far as it goes it is a good method, and pro-
duces sedative and conic effects. To confine the attention to the bead
and neck alune, also, is not sufficient.

Cempartd with General Faradization, — Comparing central galvanit*.
tion with general faradixatioa, we find most important differences. In
the one only the galvanic, in the other only the faradic, current is
used.

In general faradization the application is made not only over the
central nervous system, but over the entire trunk, and especial attention
is given to the muscles of the abdomen and extremities. In central
galvanitacion the chief aim is to affect the central nervcut system ; in

COMPARED WITH GENERAL FARADIZATION.

385

general famdiuiTion the chief aim is to afiect the museuhr system,
although the nervous system, central and purij^hcral, is alTcctcd both
directly and refiexly.

Comparing the effects of central galvanization with those of genera]
faradization, vc find that both are powerfal tonics, and are adapted for
conditions of debility, by whatever names tliey may be known. For
tome cases, and particnlarly for cases associated with great muscular
debility, general fonidisaiion is more effective than central galvaniza*
tion. On the other hand, in cases where simply exAaustiifn of the
nerve-centres is the leading condition — as hybteria, chorea, and sc
forth — central galvanisation is oftentimes far superior to genera) (aradt'
zation.

Central Galvanization alttmated toitk General faradisation. — Some
of the best results that we have yet seen have been secured by combin*
ing or by alternating the two methods.

Sometimes, after general faradization bos done all that it is capable of,
centnil galvanization, rightly used, helps to lift the patient still higher.
In cases where we arc not experimenting, and seek only the best good
of the patient in the shorte&t time possible, we use in succession, or
alternation, and with dianges and modilications, all the principal
methods — local galvaniiation of the brain, of the ccriHcal sympathetic
and spine, general faradization and central galvanization. This course
is found to be oftentimes justified by the results. The improvement is
more positive and more pennancnt than when a single method is used
exclusively.

Some cases we treat one week by general fiixaduatioD. the neit
week by central galvaniiation ; sometimes we alternate the methods
from day to day.

There arc, however, cases not a few, where all forms of famdization,
and where local galvanization of the nerve-centres irritates rather than
benc&ts, but tn which, under the method of central galvanization, tliere
is sure and constant improvement.

Dr. Althaus, of London, in the third edition of hi« most excellent
work on Medical Electricity, after describing this method of central
galvanization in detail, remarks that he had never carried out the
method in its entirety, but that he had tised, experimentally, applica-
tions to the head and neck with the anotle, and to the epigastrium with
tlic cathode. He states that unpleasant results have followed lhe£«
experiments, that disagreeable cerebral symptoms were produced by it
during the application, and which sometimes continued for tveoty-fout
liours dr more aftenvaids.
25

386

CENTRAL GALVANIZATION.

"The patients had a general sensation of malaise and nervousnesi^
headache, and a Tccling of giddiness and conrusion."

Dr. Althaus further states that he has used the "application of tha
anudc to the cen'ical and lumbal spine, and of the cathode to tlie pit
of the stomach irilh advantage."

Nothing is eaaer than to produce these unpleasant residts in sus-
ceptiMc patients by any method of galvanizing the brain and necV,
provHded strong currents are used, or interruptions are allowed, or the
applications are prolonged. The same effects may follow general fara*
dixation atid localized galvanization.

In beginning to treat a patient by central galvanization, we shonld
use very mild, scarcely perceptible currcnu, particularly around the
head and neck, and even on the cervical spine, and great pains should
be taken to avoid breaking the current, and the application should be
of only a few niotiients' duration. Taking itiese precautions has now
become with us a mere matter of routine, and we are every day accus-
tomed to treat the most sensitive and delicate patients— <a5es of hyfr>
Icria, nervous exhaustion, hypochondriasis, and allied aflfcctions— cases
which arc sufficiently familiar to all American physicians, and with
sedative and tonic effects that arc not obtainable by other methods.

Whenever any of the disagreeable effects spoken of by Dr. Althaua
occur, we always give the patient a longer interval, and moderate the
applications until only good, unmixed with evil, effects appear.

The American constitution is more susceptible to electricity than
the English or the German, and if our nervously exhausted, hj-slerical
women can bear and be profited by central galvanization, surely the
women of England and Germany might be treated by tlie same method,
even when used with less caution.

We have freqneniiy treated by this method delicate women who are
loo feeble to walk or stand, or even to sit up, and who, therefore, must
be treated in bed, and even in such cases, the disagreeable effects only
occur now and then, and no oftener than they occur when other
methods of electrization arc employed in the same kind of cases; in-
deed, not so frequenUy as they follow general faradization or local
galvanization of the brain.

Reply to Objutions against Galvaniioiion of the Nin>e-ctntres. —
It is proper here to consider briefly some of the objections that have
been brought against galvaniring the ncrvc-ccntrcs by the method of
central galvanization, or by any form of local galvanization. These
objections, which in some instances have come from persons who on
vther subjects are well-informed, are of a threefold character.

OBJECTIONS ANSWERED.

I. That the current goes around the nerve-centres, and not through
thrm. This objection is fully met by the experiments recorded in
Electro- Physiolog)', pp. i73-i7ft.

3. That we do not completely understand what the current doei
when i: penetrate* ihc ncrvc-cenlres — in other words, the rationale of
the effect of electricity on nutrition h not yet an exact science. This
objection is just enough, considered as a fact, but considered as an ar-
gument, it attempts to prove loo much. By referiing to Electro-Physi*
ology we shall see that there are few, if any remedies, the action of
which is as well understood as electricity. Wc do not exactly and ex-
haustively know its action on the nerve-centres, neither do we exactly
and exhaustively Icnow its action on the periphera! muscles and ner\-C5,
and if this objection is to hold good against galvanization of the tierve-
centres, it must also hold good against ail peripheral galvanisation and
faradization.

3. That it is dangerous to apply the galvanic current through the
head and neclc.

Dr. Anstic, who is a very strong friend of electro-therapeutics in
general, in his excellent work on neuralgia, speaks of galvanization of
the cervical sympathetic as a metliod to be either avoided or used with
very great caution, and, in support of this view, adduces a case in hia
own practice. In a review of Tibhctts's little " Hand-book of Medical
Electricity," Dr. Anstic repeats this caution, and oxpresses apprehen-
sion lest great injury may follow the use of this method of treatment.
Tlie error of Dr. Anstic consists, not in enjoining caution, since this is
needed in all electrical appHcations, but in suggesting the idea chat gal-
vanixation of the cervical sympathetic is a dangerous procedure, likely
to pro<hice serious results. Quite recently Dr. Brown-Siquardf in a
foot-note to one of his series of very able papers, speaks as follows :

"Recently, some bold physicians have tried to galvanise the cervical
sympathetic nerve. This I did once in 1855 on my eminent friend
Prof. Ch. Rougel, to try to relieve him from a most violent headache.

"The effect was all we could desire against the headache ; but the
galvanic cunent, acting at the same time on the sympathetic and the
vagus (the simultaneous excitation of these two nerves cannot be
avoided), produced stich a dangerous syncope, that I promised myself
that E would never try again to apply galvanism to the cervical sympa-
thetic of man."*

The best reply to objections of this nature, coming from men who

* ArtJUva v/ Stitntijie *mi Pnttinl Mtditint, p. 91, N?. i. 1873.

388

CENTRAL GALVANIZATION.

are justly dislinguUlied in the departments to which their lives arc do
voted, is foLind in the argumenfum aJ kominem.

Dr. Anstie highly recommends hypodennic injections of morphine in
neuralgia.

If, now, we should say to hicn that we knew of a case where an injec-
tion of morphine bad almost instantly caused most alarming !i)'mptom5,
aiid of another case where it had apparently caused death, con*cquently
we had resolved never again to use that method of treatment, he would
reply that hypodermic injections had been tested for yean* at the hands
of many of the best physicians of our rime ; that those who are most
feirailiar with them are usually the most attached to them ; and that,
when properly administered with the caution that all potent remedial
measures demand, and the skill that only experience can give, tJiey
need seldom or never do serious harm ; and that the infinitely small
chance of their doing harm, when thus properly used, is so far over-
shadowed, by the infinite relief which they unquestionably do alTord. as
to he hardly worthy of considcratiiin in the practice of those who have
made themselves familiar with their admiui.stration.

Ur. Brown-Sequard has, among very many other researches, deserved
welt of the profession for having given an explanation of the action of
ergot on unslripcd muscular librc, and for having, on the basis of this
explanation, suggested thevalae of that remedy in congestion of the
spinal cord.

If, now, we should say to him that there are cases where, with
well-de&Ded symptoms of hy|>crsBmia of the cord, ergot at once aggra-
vates the symptom!, we should but state the truth of our experience.
Hecould reply, however, vrilh perfect justice, that just as there arc those
in whom a single strawberry will cause most disagreeable Bymptoms, or
those to whom a mouthful of mutton is a mouthful of poison, just so
there are those who, whatever tlieir disease may be, cannot bear ergot ;
but that, when wisely used by those who "know what tliey are about, it
Is a remedy of vast and various efficacy.

For hypodermic injections of ei^ot, substitute galvanization of the
rer\*ical sympathetic, and our reply is complete. There are those to
whom electridly, however administered, is a perfect poison, and who
were not bom to be treated by diis most potent of remedial agents.
There are those who can bear it in well-nigh Umitless doses.

There arc those who can bear it and who are bcnetited by it, but only
when given with delicacy and great caution. Kow, it is possible to
galvanize the cervical sympathetic in all three classes, except the first,
without doing any serious Injury, permanent or temporary. Even thou

OIlJLCTIONS ANSWERED.

389

mkf Mrt tJU mfitt susceptible to tUctrkity, for fshoM this forct <an nevtt
k kmeJUiai, can ytt be treated by the method a/fenlral gahanizatha,
tnik very mild eurrentt and short sttttngs, and a rheostai of some kind
19 ttmd interrufting thi current, without any permanent or temporary
injury.
All our most potent remedies are ilangerous when used dangerously
4. That ihe cases which have been Ucated by galvanisation of ttie
bntn have been so carelessly anil unscientifically studied, :ind so reck-
Icttly reported, that tbey have no scientific value. Dr. Cyon. in par*
licular. declares that the observations that are given as prcofi of the
curatiire effects of galvanizing the brain are valueless. This statement
kuitfair. What is true of ctirtain electro-therapeutists is not true of
■n. The therapeutics of galvanization uf the brain have been studied
Ly men who have been ttained to the habit of close and discriminatiag
observation ; who recognize and bciir conittaiitly in mind the enormous
compticaltons that beset all therapeutics ; who have worked under the
guc of watchful skeptics, and with the cverla»ling motto, post hoe ergo
fr^pterhoc, incessantly ringing in their cars; men, too, who have ear-
ned conscience into science, and have reported the results to the work)
jvst as ihey were revealed to them.

It is of very little practical consequence whether these effects we due
to the direct passage of the current through the brain or to the reflex
aciioa of ttte current on the brain through the sensory nerrcs. Rellcx
action comes in to explain the therapeutic effects of electricity, however
and whercTcr applied. Granting for one moment, what is not true,
ihai tntld cuncois cannot penetrate the brain, this would be no reason
whatever for abandoning the electrical treatment of the braiu so long
u experience shows that beueCit is derived thereby.

CHAPTER xrrr.

THE USE OF FRAUKLINIC OR STATIC ELECTRICITV.

The two great obstacles lo the use and popularisation of Franklinic
electricity have been : i, That the necessary apparatus were bulky
and expensive ; 2, That they were more or less dependent upon
atmospheric conditions, and ihcrefore uuccrtain in their action. The
first of these objections (.lilt holdi*, but the oilier no longer exists.

With the apparatus to be described we are able, at all seasons and
in all kinds of weather, to obtain this form of electricity in sufficient
quantity for therapeutic piirposes. Notwilhstandiug this, liowcvei,
there is one diiiadvantagc under which wc occasionally labor in the
use of Franklinic electricity, and this is, that although the machine
itself works well, the condition of the external atmosphere is such, al
certain seasons, that the stored electricity in the insulated body is
abstracted loo quickly. It Is maiuly in the months of July and August
that this difficulty occurs.

Apparatus for Frankliniialion. — The best apparatus for the gen-
eration of Franklinic electricity for medical purposes is the Holtt
machine. This contrivance, although a great advance over the old-
fashioned cylinder machine, siill proved inoperative during most of the
sunimcr months at least, and frequently ceased to act for awhile, even
in winter.

Vigoroux has recently been experimenting in this direction in
Paris, where it Itas been found ibat if the apparatus is covered with a
tightly fitting glass case, in which is placed a quantity of chloride of
calcium, which absorbs all the moisture of the air, electricity can be
generated with mote or less readiness in all kinds of weather.

The attention of the profession in this country was first called lo
this useful contri\'ance by Dr. W. J. Morton.* T^e machine consists
of TWO stationary and two revolving glass plates, giving a large quan-
tity, and a spark of eight or ten inches.

Formerly but a single revolving plate was used, which yielded a

* New York ^tcdlcal Record, vuL xl>.. No. 14.

METHODS OF FRANKLrHIZATION.

391

lower tension and less quantity ; now, however, machines of three, and
even four, revolving plates are constructed, and any aiuount of force
can be readily obtained.

For almost all jiractical purposes the four-i>late apparatus with its
stationary wheels twenty-four, and its revolving wheels twenty-two
inches in diameter is sufficient This apparatus is represented in J'ig.

FlC. EOO.

loo. The machine may be operated by steam or water motor, or by
hand.

Franklinization, as this method of treatment is now termed, may be
given in several ways, each difTering in the effect produced.

Insulation. — In the admijiistratiou of l-'raiiklinic electricity, insula-
liou is the first step taken, and to this end the patient is scaled upon
a platform supported by glass legs, and connected by a brass rod with
cither side of the machine, according as wc wish to give a positive or
a negative charge. As in the administration of dynamic electricity^ so

39a THE USE OF FRANKLIJJrC OR STATIC ELECTRICITy.

in the treatment by Fr&nklinic electricity, the eiTect produced is due
to what is termed a difference of potential. In hydrostatics the slaiid-
arU level of our measurumcnt is the sea, and in electro-statics tiie
earth, and in the same way that we have levels above and below the
sea, and temperatures above and below zero, so we have jtotcntials
aAaz'f and Mtrw the earth's potential, termed respectively pc^iitivc and
negative potentials. In treating a patient, then, by insulation, we
simply changL- his potential to a higher or to a lower one than that of
the earth, according as he is placed in communication with the posi-
tive or n^ative condenser. To use a homely phrase, the electricity
is, as it were, pumped into ihc body, and its silent recei>tion, and as
silent and more gradual discharge to ihe surrounding aiiuusphcre,
produces in most persons effect* that are very agreeable. The hair
of the head standi out in all directions, accomijanicd also by a pleas-
ant vibratory sensation, if at the same time the discharging knobs are
brought in sufficiently close communication.

The pulse may be slightly accelerated and the face flushed, while
frequently it is observed that a slight but gentle perspiration appears.

This condition maybe kept up for about twenty minutes, ot until
an agreeable feeling of drowsiness is experienced.

If, wliile in tills condition of insulation, the brass tod connecting the
insulating stool with the macliine, be held lightly in cither hand of the
patienL and the discliarging rods brought near together so that a con-
stant discharge takes place between them, the ivensation experienced
by the patient is similar to that resulting from the administration of a
feeble faradic current.

In those pauenta who are especially susceptible, tliis mild and
simple method of treatment is frequently of much value. It is slightly
tonic and refreshing in its action, and may be used as a tentative
method before proceeding to the more positive and effective treatment
of the spniy, sparks, and shocks, or the general surface stimulation that
is so admirably obtained by the use of the roller. Usually the effects
experienced are very slight indeed, but in several instances I have ob-
served some curious phenomena, and notubly in one of my cases
where the patient was sulTering from the peculiar scquel;c of cerebro-
spinal meningitis described elsewhere. Treatment by insulation was
invatiably followed by an overpowering tendency to droivsiness, which
would continue for half an hour or more-

Frankiinicati^n by sparks or spray. — The patient being in the con-
dition of insulation just described, sparks can be drawn from any por*
don of the body by the near approach of a conducting substance.

METHODS OF FRANKLINIZATION.

393

Fig. tooa represents the operator in the act of drawing sparks Trom the
jtatient seated upon the insulating stool.

brass balls of various sizes (monntcd on glass handles, held by the
operator), connected by a brass chain with the ground, or, better still,
with the nearest gas or water-pipe, arc usually employed. I'lg, loo*
represents the ball electrode ordinarily used.

The size of the sparks drawn from the body may be graduated in aze
and length ; and in strength, from a slight tingle to the sharp impres-
sion that accompanies, a large spark passing through aeveral inches of
intervening air. The body varies much ia its susceptibility to electrical

■p-"

F^C ICO*.

influences, and as in the use of dynamic electricity, and especially the in-
duced form of it, so in the use of Franklinic eleciricity by means of sparks,
the operator should subject his owti person to its Influences until he is
thoroughly aware in what regions Ihcsc Etrong sparks are nut disagree*
able, and in what regions they are painful. A large variety of electiodes
besides those represented in the accompanying cuts may be used ; but
aside from special fonns for the car, mouth, nose, etc., the ball electrodes
of metal and of hard wood, and the jwinted rod for the spray or electric
wind, are, as a rule, sufficient. It is unnecessary for the patient to remove
any of his cloihicg, as the sparks pass readily through the thickest iabrics.

394 THE USE or franklinic or static electricity.

Al llic point where the si>arks spring from l!ie skin to ihe electrode
a whitish spot will be at first noticed, and in some cases they very
closely resemble the ordinary urticarial wheals followed by erythematous
bhishes which soon dis&ppear. When in place of a round ball, a pointed
rod (Fig. loo^) is brought within a few inches of an insulated body
already charged, we obtain the eflecl called the electric wind or spray.
Tbis is due to the silent discharge of the electricity that has accumu-
lated in the insulated body.

The air is agitated between the elecuode and the body of tlie patient,
and the sensation is not only very pleasant, but the results that fol-
low its use .ire often very efficacious.

Getural Frankiimzaiian. — On the same principle that we apply the

FiC. IM«.

Fee. )oof.

&radic current tu the whole surface of the body, calling ii general
faradization, so we can make similar use of the franklinic electricity,
and very properly apply the term General Franklinization.

This is accomplished by means of the metallic roller (Fig. loo^,
allhouuh it i» by no means so generally effective, and it is certainly far
less agreeable. It directly excites the cutaneous nerves, and has also a
powerful retlex action. When the roller is used upon the hare skin, the
conduction is so perfect that no sensation is appreciated. It is only
when the clothing intervenes, acting possibly as a sort of I.cyden jar,
that the peculiar pricking sensation is observed, it is needless to say
that to obtain the best therapeutic effect of the roller, it should be
applied over the clotbiug.

VALUE OF FRAXKLINIC ELECTRICITY.

394^

Shoeks from tht Leydenjar. — These arc produced by bringing the
body, or that portion of it upon which wc wish to operate, In the cir-
cuit between the outer and inoer coating. A shock may be sent
through the arms and chest by placing one hand on the knob connect*
ing with the inner coating (containing tlie positive electricity) and the
other hand on tlie outer coating of the Jar containing the negative elec-
tricity. A shock may be sent through the pelvis by applying one end
of a branched conductor, connected with the inner coaling, to the back,
and applying the outcrcoating of the jar against the hypogastric reginn.
In the same way the electricity frotn the Leyden jar may be localized
in any part of the body. The shock is a violent method of treatment
and is not usually called for.

In addition, a static induction current (simultaneously suggested by
Drs. Morton* and Bartholowf) can be obtained from a Holtz ap-
paratus, and this has been suggested as a substitute for faradic clec-
triciiy. It is claimed for this current that it produces maximum nmscular
contractions with a minimum amount of pain, and that the response is
quicker than that from the faradic current. K% for the first claim, it is
difficult to sec how it can be determined, since the ordinar)- faradic cur-
rent, from the wngle coil apparatus especially, need seldom call forth
pain in (he production of mu.scular contractions. As to the alleged
Jer quickness of retiponse, I have not as yet been able to satis-
rily form an opinion. The change in the apparatus for the pro-
ductioa of this current is quickly and easily effected, and for the par-
ses of localized electrization it is useful. For general faradization,
jwever, I can quite confidently assert that it i* far inferior to the cur-
rent produced by the best faradic apparatus.

From fmnkltnic electricity tonic and sedative effects of a very In-
teresting and positive nature can be obtained either by insulation, by
sjiarks, or the usi: of the ruEler. Speaking frotn a considerable cxperi-
ence with this form of electricity, I should say that, while its constitu-
tional tonic effects are unequal to those that follow general faradization,
rhen this method is carried out properly, with due attention to detail,
yet, as an adjunct or supplement, it is invatuabtc. It is one of the
familiar things in medicine that a remedy which at first acts well may,
after a time, prove inefficacious, rendering Jt necessary to resort lo some
other remedy of the same class. This is true in regard to the dynamic
and sialic forms of electricity. Occasionally cases of nervous exhaus-
tion, as irell as other forms of disease, after improving to a certain

• New York MeJical Record. April a, iS8t.
f Mutual on Medial Electricity, iSSi.

394^ THE USE OF FRANKLDfIC OR STATIC ELECTRICITY.

jioitif , under ihe influence of gaU-anism or faxadism, hang fire, as il were,
but by submitting the patient to the action of franklinization a new im-
pulse seems to be given. In this way, one treatment supplementing
and rc-enforclTig the oLlicrs, results are obtained far more satisfaciory
than could possibly fuUuw the exclusive use of general or localized
faradization, central galvanifation, or franklinization. L'ain is souietimcft
relieved by fjanktlniz-ation after both galvanism and faradism have
failed, but liiia is not the rule. The pain of muscular rheumatism,
however, is relieved by thit* method sooner and more effectually than
by the others. For this purpose, the treatment by the roller, which
exercises a generally stimulating effect over abroad surface, is supe-
rior to the treatment by sparks.

In the various forms of true neuralgia, franklinism is not comparable
in. power lo galvanism. The poiii Uut llie funner is frequently so suc-
cessful in subduing is generally of a chronic character, con&ned to uo
special nervc-tninks, dull and aching in diaractcr, and with no tender-
ness on pressure. In these cases 1 have long known that faradism
was superior to galvanism, but more recent experience has convinced
me that franklinization is more efficacious than either. In tlie enlarged
joints of subacute and chronic rheumatism, and to excite the process
of absorption In chronic synovitis, llie treatment by sparks is freijuently
more efficacious th^n either faradization or galvanization. In old con-
tractions, and in cutaneous an;eslhe«ia, franklinixaiion frequently pos-
sesses advantages over the others.

In locomotor ataxia, and In systemic diseases uf the spinal cord in
leral, it is rendered probable by a number of suggestive cases that
tnuch more can be accomplished by the use of franklinic than by dy-
namic electricity.

In electro-diagnosis franklinic electricity is of but limited value,
those qualitative and quanlicatave changes which are so important as
indicating structural degeneration, being salisfactocily produced only
through the action of the two forms of dynamic electricity.

Valuable as is franklinic electricity, it has a more limited range of
usefulness than dynamic, and the more strongly this fact is impressed
on the professional mind the better. He who begins with fraoklinism
the study and practice of medical electricity, begins at the wrong end.
Let him first master dynamic eleclricity, and then supplement his
knowledge and experience in this direction by franklinism. The di9ereti>
tiol indications for the use of galvanism, faradism, and t'ranklinisni, may
Well demand the closest scrutiny, for on the accuracy with which we esti*
luate these indications will largely depend the success of our cfTorts.

CHAPTER XIV.

ELECTRIC BATHS.

A METHOD of employing electricity that has long been poptilat among
the laity, though it is not yet fully intrncluccd into science, is the eUeirU
bath. Thp methods of giving electric baths arc various. The rc(iuisites
aie a balliing tub of soTiie form, partly fillc-d witli water, contrivances
for sendinjf the current — cither faradic ox galvanic — through the water in
which the patient is immersed. vVn electric balh can he extcmponzcd
ID any ordinary bath-tub. The patient may rest his feet on one pole in
the water and hold the other pole in his hand. In that pusitiuii Uic
body of the patient becomes part of one or the other pole, and the cur-
rent flows through him Ercm one pule to the other, just as it would if
there were no water in the bath ; or at most the only effect of the water
is !o thoroughly saturate the part of the body in contact with the pole
in the bath. This rtvethod is, of course, exceedingly cnide, and can
scarcely have any conceivable advantage over a similar position of the
poles outside of the bath, and yet it has been not a little used.

Mr. Russell uses the following fonu of electric bath, llie tub is
of the ordinary shape, biit the metallic connections arc so made that
the cnrrcnl c-innot avoid passing through the body of the patient. One
pole — a broad copper plate — is at one end of the tub, constituting a
pari of its lining surface, and the other pole— also a broad metallic plate
— is placed at the other end. Koth plates are under the water. At
the head of the tub a board is placed, at a little dislai^ce from the pole.
This board has in it a slit of moderate tize. Against this slit rests the
back of the patient, while his feet may or may not press against (he
copper plate at the other end of the tub. Ky this arrangement the cur-
rent can be directed through the back of the pattetii, and from the back
through the body and lower limbs. Indeed, the back of the patient fits
so closely and snugly into the slit of the wooden rest, that Che current,
if it pass at all, miist go through the body.

In regard to the clcctro-condtictibility of the body as compared with
wntcr, we have already spoken. The human body is composed mostl)
u( water, h<ilding in solution various salts ; it, therefore, conducts bet

596

ELECTRIC BATHS.

ter Umn water of the same temperature j and on account of this superiot
conductivity of the living human tissue a considerable portion of elec-
tricity must go lhrOiig;h the body vrlienever it lies in A bath, even though
it does not touch either pole. That the body conducts better than the
water is proved by this experiment, which we have often made. Place
both hands, at Boine distance apart, in a bath through which a current
of considerable .strength is running, anil a sensation will be distinctly
felt in them. Bring ihe hund^ 6liU immersed, very close to each other,
and the sensation will be much dimimshed. When the hands are fat
apart a considerable portion of the current passes through the body frono
one hand to the other. It prefers this much longer and roundaboul
road to the direct path through the water.

Fifi. in I.

Electric B»li.

In the arrangement that Russell uses (l-"ig. loi), if the palient prewei
bis feet against the copper plate at the lower end of the tub, his body
becomes a part of the pole that is attached to that plate, be it positive
or negative.

Dr. Justin Hayes, of Chicago, has a somewhat diflferent form of elec-
tric bath. In the sides of the tub and near the bottom are a number of
electrodes connected with the battery. These electrodes aie so arranged
that tlie current can be sent through any one or all of them, and thus be
localized on the part that specially needs treatmeat.

This method of u?*iiig electricity, which is called the electro-thermal
treatment, is canicd out by Dr. A. P. Peck, of Chicago, who has ob-
tained excellent results from its employment.

The study of the comparative practical advantages of these differeol
forms of baths is of course beset by many complications.

EFFECTS.

39;

Effects 0f ihe EUctric Bath.— In regard to the therapeutic effects
of the electric bath, wc have these remarlts to offer:

I. The stimulating, sedative, and tonic effects of electricity are ob-
tained more or less by all forms of electric baths ; not only those
where the current is Incalixcd in Homc part of the body, but tlicse where
it is generally diffused wiihoul regard to localization anrl without re-
gard to current direction, exert, there is no question, more or less the
special and distinctive physiological and therapeutical effects of elec-
tricity. Those forms of balhs that admit of localiiation of the current
seem to ns 10 be far more scientific and rational than those that do
not admit of such localization, but all forms are capable of affecting the
system, for electricity cannot pass through the body without doing
more or less guoil or evil.

a. The question whether electricity, administered in any of tlie forms
of baths yet devised, has any therapeutical advantage over the ordinary
methods of using electricity — as localiwd faradijation and jj.ilvaniiation,
general faradization and central galvanization — has not yet been estab-
lished. Even if it should be proved that in certain diseases or certain
conditions the electric baths arc sliyhtly superior to ordinary electriza-
tion, the further question would still arise whether this advantage is
sufficient to compensate for the longer lime and greater labor and in-
convenience of the baths. The question b one of exceeding complexity
— for the thempeurical effect of the water is combined with the thera-
peutic effect of the electricity, and to eliminate the one or the other
is no easy task. Enthusiastic advocates of the baths sometimes make
the same mistakes as the advocates of Franklin iz:ition, or tlie use of stati-
cal electricity, of assuming that the results which they uudeuiably obtain,
and which are sometimes most satisfactory, could not just as well have
been obtiuned by a proper use of electricity in some of the ordinary
methods.

It is claimed that the baths will be borne by temperaments that will
not bear ordinary electricity. This claim may possibly be just, and
yet the difficulty of demonstrating it is very great ; for those who take
the baths aud are benefited by Ihem may most likely have been ini.
properly treated by the other methods, and thus fall into the delusiOQ that
the baths are//r se more bearable than ordinary electrization.

The true and only way to determine this question is for those who are
masters in electrology to try the baths, side by side with their other
methods of using electricity ; just as they try the two cturrents and the
different methods of using them on the same patients and on different
paticDts^ and iu a wide variety of diseases. Observations of this kind^

398

ELECTRIC BATHS.

to be of real value, must be not only numerous, but extended over a long
period.

The question whether subsunces cau be introduced into the body oi
removed from it by electricity, will be discussed in the section on
eleclro-stirgery.

Central RuUs for givhts EJtetrie Baths.— \-n the use of eleclric baths
we should be guided by some of the same general principles that guide
us in the use of electricity Ijy other methods. The tcmiicramont of the
paiieuc should be studied, and in the length and strungtlv of the baths
and in the frequency with which they are given we should be directed
by Uie peculiarities of each case.

It is not well to take an electric bath just after a full meal, dot is it
usually well to take exhausting exercise immediately after a bath, espc*
ciiilly for the delicate and nervous. The temperature of the water
should be abuut that of the body* and may range between 95 and 105°
Fahrenheit. The patient may remain in the water from 5 to 35 min-
utes. There appears to be no danger of catching cold after taking an
electric bath, even when the water is quite warm. One effect of the
electricity would appear to be to give tone to the cutaneous vessels, so
that there is less liability to take cold than after a simple m-arrn bath.

CHAPTER XV.

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AfrECTtONS.

Under ttii& bead we luclude b/stcrJa, tn the ordiuai/ sense of ihtX
ttrm; neurasthenia, or nervous exhaustion ; hypocbotidiiosis and mel*
incholia; spina.1 irritation, vrith the manifold symptoms with which it
is associated ; insomnia ; and astraphobia, or fear of lightning.

We give hysteria and allied affections a. prominent position in the
clinical portion of tliis work, because it is a class of diseases for which
electrical treatment is especially adapted, and in which its success is
most remarknble. ThU fact is not generally appreciated, for the reason
that the profession have looked upon electricity as a stimulant merely^
and have not fully recognized its sedative and tonic properties, and
hence have confined ihcir attention largely to paralysis, as the one dis*
ease above all others to be treated by this agent.

Eltctro-diagnffsit. — Usually, lliough not necessarily, tliere is exces-
sive sensitiveness to the electric current In all parts of the body. Pa-
tient't sometimes can bear only the mildest currents. In some cases
even a mild current wiU not be borne on the middle of the back, which,
in hcalih, is usually so little sensitive. Keflex sensations may be ob>
served during electrization of hystericaJ patients. Irritation of llie dis-
eased side of llie body may be sensitively felt in the healthy side.
Sometimes there is capacity Jor bearing very strong currents without
injury, even when there is great hyperesthesia. The electro-diagnosis
of hysterical paralysis will be iirescnted under that disease.

Treatment, — Hysteria is a constitutional disease, and demands con-
stitutional treatment. To attempt to chase after and direct the appli-
cation of elcctriciiy to each special symptom as it ap|>car», is uniihilo-
sophical and usually unsuccessful. General faradization and central
galvanization are methods of electrisation that arc indicated for hysteria.
Under whatever symptoms it may be developed, our cliicf and best
results have been obtained by these methods. This general treatment
docs not, of course, di&i>ense with localized eleciri/ation of paralyzed
musdes, or special attention to any locahties where the disease ii

40O

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTICNS.

for the time directed. Duca&cs of the sexual oi^anii, hysterical hie
cough or cough, aphooia, or iccontinence of urine, may sometimes
need localized electrization ; bat these symptoms frequently yield under
general faraxlization or central galvanization, even when no special
attention is given to the diseased parts. In nearly all cases, except,
perhaps, loQg- standing paralygis, it is much better to dispense K-ilh the
local tlian the general trcatuient. There arc cases, however, in which
the symptoms of rigid contractions of certain muscles arc most persistent
and painful in character. In such conditions of the affected muscles
galvani/.ation should nev«r be oraittetl. In cases of extreme hyper-
leslhcsia it may be necessary, as Bencdikt advises, to place the patient
under the influence of an anxsthetic while tlie application is made.
Strong currents do not appear to be injurious in such cases.

Prognosis. — The behavior of hysteria under electrization is as capri-
cious and inconsistent as arc its symptoms. Sonic cases }'ield to gen>
eral electrization with wonderful rapidity ; others, apparently no worse,
are singularly obstinate. On the average, the prognosis \& so Eavorable
that DO case should be abandoned without a fair trial of this method of
treatment. Under peripheral electrization the results are usually ud*
satisfactory, since the relief of ihc Eocal symptom is by no means a cure
of the morbid constitutional condition.

yioient kystfrUaJ tymptomt dtpttidttU oh mpprttted mtiutruatien aUeviaUd fy two
flaiuet af gtntrAi faraditatioH and lotaltttd galvaniiatiot.

Cahr I. — A molt violent andpenltfcnt cue of hj^eria. In Ihe penon of aroairkd
\»Ay, ogetl 40, came under out ohurvAtion through tli« binducM of Dr. Oliver White.
The paitinit wiLs ill l>«d, suffering from violent puoxyuu of attcnule wcefiiog ftt»!
Kreaniing. TIic huiiU uid Tcct -were cold, the pulie feeble, aad the pttia la the bctul
was constant, ajiil of the moit severe cliaracter.

Th«» symptoms ha<I concinued for nearly forty-eight honn, and in order to ftwrt
•erious oouequences It seemed il« if in sonic way relief miui lOon be afTorded. The
raetistniBJ period wu ddaj^ed nearly two wcek^ and to lUs ciicumuince It was
posible, ia part, to aitiibute the nlluk. The patient wu labmitted to ihorough
gmeiAl foradiution, imd immedi&tely alter a galvanic current from ci^ht cells wu
as nearly ft% {loisiblc loc&liicl in the uterus. These efforts were foUoweil t>y decided
DUevia.lii>n uf the tymptotnt, and a tolrrablyquiel night wa« the re*ii!t. The mcnuet,
however, did not appear, and on the following night we gave again the »»me tremr*
tnent, slishtly incrauiiflg tlie tenuoii of ihe galvanic current. Before morning men*
ttruaibn became maoifoit, and there was no further evidence of nervous dbturli-

Neuly a year mbsequently this patient experienced another attack of like charac-
ter, and tiibslantially (he unve ircatmciit acain relieved her comjJeiely whliin forty.
cy;hl houii.

CASES or HYSTERIA.

4oi

ffytltria of 9Ht yatr't uanding in a married lady, /oltffu/ing farttiritivn ,* itrangt
and ittdffimu ttntaliiRt in the UgJ ; tttkiiug, erimling, frieJ^ng, waving, t*ai-
ing^ fouiutiitg, AfaviHg, reiHng temaltMU otter MmuI amdb«dy; imagitiary tvttU-
ing 9/ the tidy; fitt 0/ weeping and great detp«ndeney-~Rapid and deeid-A
im^ovtmtnl uititir ctHtral gatvamtalion tuilh ttrong eurrents, after failure 0/
geiural faradisaliiM^Cod^Huer-oil tmuhi^n and eountrr'trrUiiiian used at tkt
tame time.

Caub li.— Mrt. B.. a married \oAy, with two chiMtcn, was rererred to tis Kotcnt-
ber 5, !S;i, by Dr, Cankline, of Brooklyn.

Th« patieni, ihnu^h a lady of unuiual inl«Ilij<ei)ce and great sirenclh of will, hod
for n^rljr a year h«n ■ viciini to many of ttic wortt iiyinptomK of hysteria. The
■yrnptuiriii ap^arct] (i;n days aflw Ike liitlU of her scconil child ; up lo that lime her
health li3d been almost perfect. She oime from a fxinily in whom tlietc was tome
tctiicncy lo consumption, and ^c had loU iwi? gUtm by l)iat tliscMC. A short time
before the birth of her weoad child, she had {altBn dowii stairs and bad struck on the
hack of her head. The query arose nhcther that might not luve hail something t4
do with her dbeasc. The symptoms came on in the niglit, anrl quite suddenty. Shq
became exccuively nervous, almost wild, and ihe physicinii was seiil for and succeeded
in calming; her ; then falluwed a loau catalogue of woev On the lop of the head
was a oonttniii wn^niion of shaking or agitation, or thrilling, as tha descfilied it, and
lieaviiis, rolling, I>eatlTkg, wavtn);, pounding MnMilIons were felt in [he head and over
llie body. There had been majiiy attacks of weepinj: ; at all times, ihouKh nacufall^
hopcfol, ^e was ca»t down, atvl imagined slic did not love as the should one of her
children. The (general nutrition, as usual in such cases, was well rosintaincd.

The patient had tried, vtiih j^ul thoroiighunia, general faradiulion but without
mbttantiat wrvicc.

We used on bet mainly tenlral gahHtnitalion, combined with the use of cod-li*er>
oil emuluon, and mild counler-irrilalion over tlie tender vertebne.

The paticDt. with all her nervtnisncvs, bore Ihe gatvame ettrrttH in enormvn*
d.vtj: it Kcmed lo be impnisiible to injure her byovcr-elcciriialion. We soon found
thai t}ic stronger the corrcnts, and ilie longer the applications, tlie ereaier the benefit.
Even throu{^ the brain strong currents, now and then intempied, did no harm.
She aoon b^n to improve, and continued to improve not only daring (he iluee
months of (rcatmeni, but »ub«cqueiitly, and there was in this iinprovcnicnt a cobmU-
arable degree of permanency.

Ill the above case there were facts of great ititeiesL J^irsty the ex-
traordinary tolerance in a highly nervous patient of the galvanic cur*
rent; and seeondly, the supreme advantage cX central galvanization
over general faradization in severe functional disea.ies of the central
nervous s)'Stem.

Hysterical and analogous symptoms are both associated with and
dependent upon recogiiiitabic uterine disorders, but in many cases, while
thefte symptonrts may be associated with and aggravated by such disor-
ders, they arc not by any means always dependent upon them.
26

402

HYPOCHONDRIASIS.

During his service at the New York Stale Woman's Hospital Dr. Rock-
well has found (hat symptoms of excessive nervousness, etc., wliidi were
»U|>iJO!.cd to be merely a reflex of local derangement, have frequently
yielded to some furni of electrii.ilion, before any minifest cKange has
been observed in the comlilicn of the sexual ai>[kii:itus.

HypochsfKiiriasis [^Patkophohia) and Melancholia. — TTie distinction
between tiypocliundriasis and tncladdiolia is vital. The hypochondriac
readily appreciates the character of any special disease from which he
may suffer, but he has a most exaggerated conception of its importanc*
and of its probable results. He talks much of his symptoms, and un-
ceasingly seeks relief. The melancholic, on the contrary, possibly suffers
from no appreciable disease ; or if any evident slnictnral or functional
trouble exists anidc from die recogrii/ed mental perversion, it is un-
heeded. As Maudsley expresses it, " the foniicr committing a murder
would certainly be hanged, the latter probably not." The tendency
of the melancholic is frequently to suicide — the hypoch6ndriac clings to
life. Intellectual exertion is an impossibilitj* for the nielftnchoUc; the
hyiiochondriac, on the contrarj-, may lead the highest intellectual life.

The one suffers from such perverted habits of thought and feeling
that the strongest and most natural affeclions may cease to exist ; the
other retains all the norinal warmth of feeling towards friends and rela-
tives.

Melancholia is a more advanced phase of mental perversion, and to
this .-idvanccd and mere serious condition hypocliondriasis nut unfre*
quently progresses.

There arc reasons fur believing tliat Uic sympattietic nervous system
is largely at fault in cases of hypochondriasis; and that if not demon-
strably diseased it is yet the medium through which disease of the other
parts reacts on the brain, and produces molecular or other disturbance.

The t«'o leading ideas that we here desire to impress are, frsi, that
hypociiondriasis is just as truly a disease, or, more strictly speaking, a
symptom of disease, as dyspepsia, insomnia, chorea, ueuralgia, i>araly-
sis, or insanity, and should be treated accordingly. The popular method
of neglecting hypochondriacs altogether, or of administering plaeebos, is
not scientific, and, except in rare casci, is not successful. Seecndly^
hypochondriasis, when not dependent on serious lesions of the central
nervous system, is susceptible of relief and of positive cure nndcr the
skilful and faithful use of electricity. Still further, we believe — and
the results of our own cases jiistily the belief— that cerebral disease of a
more pronounced character itself may be relieved by eleclricity; and
that that terrible form of hypochondriasis which is the precursor (rf

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFELTIONS.

403

organic cerebral disease — the veeiibulc That leads to the dirlc and
glooiny caverns of insanity — may be controlled or kept at bar by a per-
severing electrical treatment. (See chajjlcr on Insanity.)

Treatment. — In hypoehonJtiasis, general faradiiatioi), central gal-
vaniiation, and galvani/.acion of the ccmcal S)7ii pathetic, arc indicated-
We have obtained good results from .ill methods, though most of our
cases were treated by the first and second.

Hjfotli«H4riQiis, vfitk impairmuitt ff the fuiutioHt of tfittLti uhu — W^aJUtui
mtmory^Sentery lym^omi in lif txIrtinitUi^ with tamt t«ii af mi.-<i«r ptfwrr^ tht
rtSHtt ef t-xtriiift mental tietivity, and JrfiertJeHt in part on slight eerrhvl t-mgtt*
ticn — TmprcvemtHt under gtntrat fareulitaliim and ttntrai gahfanitatisn — Rt-
tafte.

Cask II] -'Mr. M., an sicior of iweuty years' ttnniUnj^ was placed under our cmrfl
by Dr. F. l^ Ilarrit. The jialieiil wa* a (etnperate miui, *iul ta iai n Iii<i profcnioD
perniittcd, t^ilar in ilt his habits : but the cliaractcr of his cngagcmenis bad rendered
it BOMfsary for him to exerciM hii memory ihroueh a Mri«3 of yevs to an unusual,
Utd as lh« Kcqiicl [OnytA to a mo^l injuhoiii, extent. 'J'wo months prior lie b«'gnn lu
obwrvc that lus intcUccCuAl powert were failing him. tlii memory ticcanic mi tni*
pMicil and 111* llnju^hti w confiucd, lliat he found it utterly impouible to " commit "
•nythini' new, ot to recall readily certain "parik" that had been long perfectly
{■miliar, lie wat hypochonilriacal lo ihe but dcgre«, atiil at the lame time bl» bmb«
became uealc, aud he cumpUiiie<1 uf i>enM>ry ^mptoms lo ibe lips of the finKera, much
the »ine a« ttio^ preMOC after frDttbilc. The integrily of mo» of the komswu
markedly Impaired. Under seances of j;cnetal faiadiiation ai;il central Kalvsnizaiioii
the annoying sensory «/mptonu diMppeucd ; he gained entire mulery over hit limbf^
ukI «ru more hopeful and happy ; his sirength of ntton became neirty nurmal, and
when ire last law him Ihcre lud Itecii MiIDaenl improvcnteni in hii inlcllectua] focul-
lie* lo enable him *«cco*fuily lo attempt a performamn: on the »tage. Wc learned
that dnriii): an attempt lo perforin on a «u1)«e<|uent occsision he became i]utte unable
to pwrtue his part, and was l«d off the Mo^-e. This wa& suQicieiit to (how that re*
covery m-u not complete ; a* to hii condition after tlii» we arc uninforTacd.

J^tAfl/Mia — ItHfrffaeatenl under general faraditatian and etnlral gatvaniuttien.
Ca>K IV. — A very bvurable result was obtained in llie petsom of a yourig man
a|[ed 25. Al all h»ur« nf (he day he was annoyed by linnttuK aurium, and what to
him wenicd an audible voice tellini; him of evil to come. We iubmiiied him togen-
eral ftpplicalionii of a powerful fanullc cutrent, and alto to uccaslt^nal i^lvaoixation of
the brain, cord, and symiiathciic Some improvenient followed. The mo*t deddcd
benefit itas, h.iwewcr, tierivcd from the melhoii of gatvano-faradiMlicin. The faradic
current, full strength, from a Kidder apparatus and at the »ame lime the galvanic
cnrrenl from fifteen celU of Bun'icn's balLuty were passed throogh and around the
body by the method of general eleclriuilion. Impfirenient wa* now remarkably
rapid. In the courw of half a do/en apptkaibns every unpleasant symptom disap-
peared, and the patient has since remained perfectly free from any evidcoce of tlicit
return.

4C4

HYSTERU AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

Mtlamkfflia ff twp ynrf ttanJing in a young marritd hdf—Comf^ttt rtewerf
under etHtral gahanivition a/ltr /ailure o/ fertulemt inttrmai mtditalien

Case V.— Mrt. V., % married woman, >£ed tweaty-Ave, came firu nndcr oar ot>-
KsraiioD October S, lS;t, Sii the leveiilli muntb of her i^regniDcy. Her mental
conation wai lamenubleinihe cxtTcTne. ThcrewoschieHya perversion of ttie whole
habit or tnanncr of feeling, sucli as so frBf;uentlv follatrs actual intdlectnal derwnee-
ment. She confessed and bewailed her w-ani of interest in or love for ihoae who
were nenresl to her, antt eriilently siiRcred mntt inteoMl^ frnm a prnfnunri feeling of
dcprcmoa and tniKTy — a vast and formless idea of utter dcwIalioQ. The patient
ifipTcdated her ci^ndiilon, would reason oonccfniog it, oiid acknowledge thai (liere
was noihlns teal to which she could piint as a caute of her misery.

These wrciclied feelings were not altogether new, but for over two years haii In a
modified form annoycl her coimdcrably. Biticn slightly by a favorite dog. she
merged immeillately into a condltliMi ihaC roay be called hypochondriacal melaudio*
lift, uiih on «xa^<-.rAted notion of tbe danger ihe had incurred. She had been treated
per^isiently bni without avail, and as a dtrnUt rtuori general faroriiution was at-
tempted. It ttUerly faile<) in Its etTccli, and in good faith the paticut was encouraged
lu hope that witli her delivery her mental balance woatd relum. Tlie cliild wai
horn, and three months tutweijuently I wns agnin called to see the mother, only tO
lind her condiiion more ^gravaied ihnn at any previous time. We now resolved Go
make use of ccRlral galvuiicattDn, and emploj-ed a current from six ot^inary-uzed
line carbon-ccUs. with a utting of four minuteiN The patictil wu not at all imr
iwoved by the seauct, but teemed, if anything, slightly tnore senacive to extenul
improuons.

In a cou[,ie of days the same application vras again tried, with the evident result of
decidedly cXLiliui; her mind. A (bird effort was made wtlh but Ihtec cells, from which
the imrTcrit wai jiut lufhctent in temio-n to call into action the seme of laite. From
(his trial tbc patient cxpcricnctKl undoubted relief, and ai iatcrvals of a day the ap-
plication, without being varied except iitc in the length of the ^m/, wasKpcMed br
some two months. Although during the treatment two or three slight relapse* oc-
curred, yet on thewhiile the improvement was steivly and satisfactory, and at the
dose oi the "central" Itealtnent, when she was placed entirely in the care of Dr.
William J. Donor for oterine difficulty, her recovery was complete.

.Neurasthenia,* er N&Tous Exhaustion. — Thederivation of the term
neurasthenia is sufficiently obvious. It comes from the Greek word
vctftw, a nerve ; a, privative ; and oOivoi, strength ; and therefore, being
literally interpreted, signifies want of strength itt the nerve. Under the
name of general debility, it is a condition sufficiently familiar to every
liractieing phj*sician, and tuo frcqiicnlly resists most obstinately &lt formi
of internal medication. It is not to be confounded with anxmia,
though it may be associated with it.

The one principle on which neurasthenia is to be treated is by the
concentration of all possible tonic influence on the nervous system —
■ir, sunlight, warer, food, rest, diversion, tnttscular cxerdjte, and the in
* Sec monograph aa this subject, by Dr. Beard.

NEURASTHENIA.

405

lemal administration of those remedies, such as strychnine, phosphorus,
arsenic, etc., which directly affect the central nervous system.

EUetrital Treatment. — General laradizatioii aiKl central galvanizatiua
as ao adjuvant Lo lelieve more directly the symptQins of inH>mnia, head-
ache, etc., which are so frequently a&sociated with neurasthenia or after
general faradization has Tailed.

The /ro^'SOJM ii usually more or less favorable. In nearly all cases
of uncatnplicatcd neurasihenia general faradization alone proves deci-
dedly and sometimes rapidly efficacious. Beneficial results from eilliei
thia ineiliod or ccntr.il ^alvaiii^catioii are so uniform in this condition
that we have reason to suspect some unrecognizable organic disease
in those cases that give no evidence of improvement after protracted treat-
ment. Even the complicated forms, that are the result of incurable dis-
ease, may be much relieved. The cases that fail to be benefited by
electrical ireatuieni ore those of lifelong staiidiitg, ot in which the tem-
perament contraindicatcs electrical trcatmeiiL

IffmraHitnia— DtMity and attaeii of lieh htaJaekt—tmrntdiait and rapid tm*
frwanent undtr gtnrrai /iiradi%atioH — Rapid imrtait in wfigJiJ.
Case VI. — The power of gearral fandiuUlon to relieve neurAstJienia and locktue
increax of weight, was illuitrated in ■ very plcumng and tuttUfaclory niknner in the
cue of a young phyuciAU vrhoiii wc have Ircul^il during ihc auluinn of il^6c^ Ha
wai 28 fcirs Kit .14^, Hid fur « lo»i{ liiii« lie liaJ been subject tu Mrere and lepeated
Itiocks of nervous and tick hcadaclic To use Iiis ovm. vxptadoa, lie had been

» "living on & lower plane than was uormol." Ovcr-woik luJ long eoil£lMmMt had
reduced him to a conJilioo of iciioua cxliatuiioii, and nhcn he coDad iipoa us in
Scplcmber he couLd not wilk two miles wUhotit fatigue. Aithongh 5 feet 9^ inch»
in hcichi, he weighed but 112 pooncl-s and for mnor months there hed been no sign
of any increase. He had oloscljr studied his own case, had been Ihoioughly cxamiaed,

^B Bsd had tried nearly every form of lutMonl meOicniiun.

^P We began Ircaimenl by a milU anil general applicalton with the faraJtc current.
lie felt tempornnly cnlivenecl and cxbiJaraied, buc when ho relorned, two da)') tub-
■eqncntly, he uated iliat he felt do special beuefit, alihooeh lie had ifaiaed oneia//
« pound in vtigkt. TliU change, slight ax it was, encouraged him, for it had been
months, and yean even, since he hjid been able lo detect any increase in wcighl. We
Btqr lay here that he watched and studied his ^mptonu, and carefully aKercoincd
his weigbtf fiom day la day, not as a hypochondriac at all, but as a Kienlllic nun,
inspired not by any special faith in the remedy, but by an eamot drtire to tett for
blnuHf the tonic effects of general faradinliun. He continued (o increase in weight
with leinarVable regularity aiwl oaiformlty, and at the end of three weeks lie .'ouod
thnl he had increased nine pounds. When we last t«w Hm bis weight was t34
pounds. Tbe unpruvcment iti his general condition had [^one on hand in hand with
the incicase in weight. His appetite was koeoer and his digestion much ea^er. Hit
attacks of headache Mill annoyed him, but his capacity forendurance h&d been gicatlj

4o6

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIO^TS.

CBUiged. Withiii the lut two yean welnrned from the pfttient htmsoU that btbad
soffcred no nUpie.

Id ilib cue the applications were mode very Ihorflughl/ all over (be penon, from
the lop of the head to the feet, and wilb a powerful airrcnt. Holh (he fumdic an4
gslvuic cuncDtS %(crc u«r«i, chicflj rhe faradic It ts worthy of remark, also, that :
this palicflt always experieaceil a reeling of temporary eittivcfiment and cihilaratiaitl
after eacli ajipltcaiion, xaA vtmciinm the headache from whicli he mffiercd waadriv
away in the oiuUl of Oic trenltiicnt.

W« may wy, aUo, tbai when )ie first came we prescribed OMit of tiac, by rxtlM'
tifH, becau!>e he had tucd neatly crcry other internal totik. He took, however, but
two or three doses of one grain each for the dm day, dropping it entirely as won as
be found that he had incrca^ half a pound in weight.

The above case we rcgirdcd as pre-ciniricntly a typical one — a tj'pical
illustration of neurasthenia, and of the benetit tliat may be received from
general faradization.

tttnriutkmia in a filetiork fiitirmi, rausfd hy extmivt apflUaliott I& hiitintu^^\

Slow imfnn-rment amJer gatvanitati»n vf tht ftrviiat sympathfiU and gtneraty
faraditaiieH,

Case VIL — Mr. A. wu a ^orl. slout, and ranaikably plethoric man, seed 6a.
Through hiK active buunne life he had confined Himself mosi clowly to hi; duiie%
Kldom taking a day for rocreMion, even during the heat of suminer. Nioeteoi
years since he retired from hu*ine*iwith greatly tin paii^l health and strength. Ic
was thought that perfect freedom from all care would be sufficient lo TCftore hit n*ai
tivc ngor of conMiliilioii. On the contrary, he gained but little, if any. Hiagrueral]
•iqicaraace was tj^picalof petfci^t hcaJib. but ordinary cicriiun, either mental ut phy>1
tical, waa sure to produce exhaudion. ffit pulse tom mifrmat, and tlie palitnt ■
ptHhvrie ralktr thut aftmie. It wa^ imi>awib]e for him lo read more than ten or
fifteen minute* without becgmtng icstlets and excessively ncrvons. ttid cxcrciK in
wallcing, to the extent of a doien blocki or so, would frc<|ucutly produce complete
proHntion. Hit uleep at night was broken, anil sometlmei entirely de<droyed.
There wu not Che nlighte^t evidence of organic dtwase^ but the whole nervous f]r»>j
tern neetned (o be unstrung. He had nibmitted toalmott every method of tonlo''
treatment, both medicinal and hygienic, but h»<I seldom expetimced even temporary
relief. We felt jintificd in encuuragioi; him to hogie for favorable remits from treat*
ment by cleclrizalion. With admirable! perieveianM and promptnrv he continued tO
vidt UK for two month*, never, in a dngl« Inslince, failing to keep an appointment.

At lirsi, general appllcatlou wEth ihe faraillc cnrreiit were given every other dajh {
At each letting he *eemecl ntucfc Invigorated, and for several hoars he experienced M
d^ree of Mreogth and lightness of spirit nich at he had been a stranger to for yean,

Thew effects, iiowcrer, *ccmcj but [emj-uiary, fur the old lassitude invariably re-
turned; caDSe<iuently, after three weeks of treatment with the faradic, we resiwted
lo a weak gnlriuiir rurrent.

The negative pole wst applied to the epigastric region, and ihe positive to the
lliack of the neck, ne^ the seventh cervical veriebra aiid also along the ulterior border
>[ (he scalenus anticut muscle, in order (o affect more thoroughly the great tynw
Bibelic anil pncumosastric^

CASES OF NEORASTHE>nA.

407

SpMge clccltodei were lued, uti Ihe ap|)licalions were proioR([«l sufGcientlf t«
produce ttn inlciue leilncm aiiil on acute burning •cii^tion under ibem. Bjr thii
itiClhod the iininnliju« clTn:l« were not *a marked a* when the fanidic current woi
oaail, tiMt ch« relkf alTorcJed wa« niorv permMicnt.

Fur iIk fiiiit litae, IiU U«ep became mure quiet and uiuiid, and during the day lot-
lowing iui spplkaiioa liv •>» able to cxeiciK Wth mind aiid body harder and lon]^
tlub iiaiiJd. He now uiluntcKd 10 ircAliDent by s^lwiization evaydsy. Wrdc
'by wttk be gained very percepiilily in vignr, until, ar^er having received ihc galvAnifi
cuTcnt WfDC tvTenty-1i»c limes he left ii* lo spend llie lummcr tnnnChi dmong th»
nvuittaiiia. He did not di«ciJJ)tinuc Ircalmcnt with a ncrvout tyMccn ]>errcc1Iy
tftrenglhened, Inil lie bad Trained ftppruiimalety llic usual puiliou of EueiiLal and
phjrncai enduraiicc enjoyed by persons of hit yean. Wliereas, before ireattnent by
ciccuimion, be wa» not able to walk half a mile witlioai fntigue, nor fc^d more than
ten ar fifteen minutes wiiliout tulTcrlng from ner\-ou.i initability, after Ireninient he
cnJAyed and derived beitefit from wilting several milcti in the day, and could confine
biinKtftu a book for on hour or twD without cspeiieRviug any symptumi of mental
exhaiuliun.

At llicdjite of writing, 1874, the patient cnjoyi a fair degree of health, and claimi
to hav« retained oIL the beiiefil he derived fmni cceaioieni.

Iftvrtutktnia^ ttmphtaitdyeitktnttmia, ^tpepsia, spina! irritalien, and hyp^hfit*
4riattt, trtatti by general faraditi^iatt and einlrai ga/iMttiaatun — Improvement
tHd lu^eftKNl reUpte.

CASitV[n.~Mr, E., a tall, tpaie mart, aged about 50, w& sent tons by Dr. Gurdoo
Buck, He wtu a c'^'i' '■''"'>" of wealth and Idxure, and for Kreral years had bccrii
entirely free from any of the cares of act ire buuncu life. He was frequently troubled
with indigestion. At limes he would Kcin lo rc)^tti v>n)e r^or, and would eiter>
cite to a conwlerable extent without ex|)eriencing inconvcnieiire, but as a rule Lite
tnoU ordinary nieriial or phynLjl exertion was follutred tiy exiicnie exhiiii»li«ai,

■ipt iu the lumlur regloti of the back were of frequenl oH:currenc«, especially aflei
' IwadRg a deeplea night. There wat, however, no spinal lenderncvv lie u-n* a good
l>tromeler~an cast xrind would olniuM drive bini to tk^pair, and k> lung a, it luited
he could hardly imixter Urengtb or indtnatian to leave hi« couch. Aswonaaths
trind duuigcd and the sim appeared, he obwrved an Immediate amelioration of hb
^eadfully deprcMed condition.

Our patient npeiicnced Che eahilanitii>ii that *o frequently folluwft a general ap-
plication of the faiadic curicnc

Although at fint ihtt invigoration wa* of but temporary duration, llie effects of tht
Ireatmeni were giuiiialty piotonged after each titling, until, in a much diorter time
tliau is usually the case In conditions such as the one under con filler at ion, ilie patient
enjoyed a. goud il«gree of henlth.

I>aring damp, enervating daj-s e^iecially, central galvaniiation prevented exl)a>iji>
tion far more succcsofully tJun faradicaiion. The pnlictil letttiiicd the nervou* vigor
that he liad gained fur moiiy montha ; Mibitei|uently, tiowc\er, he rdap«cd, and again
binuelf under our care. I Ic wu do;ide<Uy benefited by this sri:ond couiie o(
trealmcnt, but not lo the ume extent as at fir»t. When Inm *«en be had retained fl
measure of improTemcnit, but was eatraatdiuarily tutceptilile to nlmocphenc ehaaga^

4o8

SPINAL IRRITATION.

Ntnmu txhatutien of hng itainiingy atttriaUd witi sevtrt Hturaigia, Sitgil re-
Ji'i/ a'ur ing two moitlkt 9/ genrrai /.trjJiaaJicH — A/crr-rffetlt ef tht trtatmtnt,
niatifetlt4 iy rapid impriKienuHl in aii ktr tympifmt. (:>« p. 194. >

Cass IX.— Mrs. B.,a]ruiing tnirricd Udy, haJ for a loDg time tuficrcd mo«t in-
teniely from pjitn* of 3 iicunvleic c!iar«cter, Tlieh«a<) wanthc (cat of gre«l«t snllt^r.
Ing, although the diMrcn atcndcd with mote or lc» MTcnt)' to every part of the \>oAy,

Her Uren|rtb w^ much reduced, ki thu she wau tiii«qiul lu the iliglilot exerLi'Mi
beyond a few onlinuy houudiuld dutiis uid an occasional walk in Ihc ktrcct of oiie or
no blocks Xot the iJightcst evidence uf orguile ditcaM could be discovnod by her
libjucLuif Dr. Ucorsc A. Fclcrs, who, bavine Gceintn|;Iy exhausted the nsoiirca of
mciliciuc, ic<iiic:>tcil ui to try itie eRicacy of same method of elect rirat ion.

As the entreme dchUiiy wu evidcuily Ihc proumate cause of the neuralgia, we
Iccidcd upon gciK^ral ^adiution as the proper method of treatment, and accordingly
submitted ber to a very gentle ap|dicalion. She wsb one of ihow paitenti frequently
cocounieie^l, who are v> tuK«ptible to tiie current that It was our urn to give of tba
electrical Influence tlie mtnhnuia thai could be actually felt by the paiiait, nuber
than Uk najiimuin that it wu pusubic for bcr to bear without decided diiconifert.

During the months of Oclobci and November, iSjo, we gave thirty-nx applicatto*^
which somewhat leuened tlie severity and freq^iency oT the pain, withonc apprecJaUy
iiupioviii£ her ^trrn^th. We proposed Co her phyncinn, ihercfdre, to (llicoEittnue ow
efforts fur a while, liupbff that the favorable afler-dlecti of elect rizatiou, (hat ar«
•O often wen, would ihow tbctniielves in tbi> ca>c. We were nut disappoiiltail.
Tlie patient toon bccan tg amend, until the improvement was mu'it marked, botli
in the almost complete cessation of the neuraljjia and In aa appr<;>»xtuite retura of
normal strength.

Spinnl Irritation. — Spinal im'talion Is one of those names which, like
hysteria, have become the recognized property of the profession, ajjainsi
llic actual or uiiplicd protest of nearly all who eiii}jluy it. Il is a part
of the hysterical constitution.

The term spinal irritation, originally proposed by Dr. Brown, of Glas-
gow, and described and illustrated in detail by G. T. P. Teale, in 1829,
and the Griffin Brothers in 1844, is now pretty generally understood, in
England and America at least, to express a tolerably well-defined
morbid condition, of which one of the piiiicipal syinpiotna is spinal
tenderness.

J^ifferential Diagnosis. — Spinal jriitation almost always forms a part
of hysteria and neurasthenia, constituting, as it were, a subdivision or
accompaniment of them, and is only entitled lo the honor of disrinct
nomenctatiire by itself whfn the spina! tenderness and the symptoms that
direetiy fi>ru! from ii evtrshadiyw other accompanying eondUians. Close
examination would reveal that very many of the cases in prju:itcc that
are variously clasitilicd undc;r hysteria, anxniia, etc, have a ButDciently
marked tenderness of the vertcbrx to be regarded as examples of ^ina]

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECIIOXS.

409

irritation; and if treated accordingly, would recover more rapidly than
under the methods usually employed. The best confirmation of the
dia^osis is the very favorable result of judicious and varied treatment
devoted siH-'cially to the tender spots on the spine.

Between spinal irritation and spinal meningitis or congestion the (^•
tinction is oftentimes purely one oi pertnanenet and degree, in both
conditions there may be pain and heat in (he spine, neuralgia or
paralysis of the lijnbs, plaaitar heat and ameslhesia, cumitipatiuti, feeling
of pressure or constriction in the chest, and stiffness of the neclc, etc.
It is distinguished from niyelilii) by the absence of other necessary
symptoms. I'lic contractions of muscles in spinal irritalioo are less
painful than those of myelitis,

J'atAalogy. — In spinal irritation, as in cerebral irritation, it is
probable that there maybe either aniemin or hypenemia. That many
of tlie cases of sjjinal irritation depend on passive hyperemia of the
cord, ift rendered probable.

1. Jiy the feeling of heat and burning at the seat of the irritation.

2. % the fact tlut this pain is increased at night, when the patient
is in a recumbent position.

3. By the fact that it i^ relieved by measures that relieve congestion,
as dry and wet cupping, and by blisters over the lender vertebr<e.

On the other hand, reasoning from analogy and from what we know
oflberelaiion of tlie sympathetic, il is proper toassume that anicmia may
account for many of the phenomena of spinal as of cerebral irritation.
This a*stmiplion is strengiheucd by tlie fact that very many of ihe pa-
tients who luve spinal irritation arc more or less anaemic. And yet,
reasoning from the history of the cases, atid from the results of treat-
ment, we are luclined to the opinioa that auiemia exists only in a
minority of the cases of spinal irritation ; that in the majority of instan-
ces there is more or less at least temporary passive congestion of the
cord and of iu membrane ; and that in all cases of doubt it is safe to
assume the existence of hypcrcemia, and to guide the treatment accord-
ingly.

It is not necessary to assume that this bypersemia uf the cord is a
constant condition. Kxcept in ihe severe and long-standing ciscs, it
is probably not so, but is more or less evanescent, temporary and me-
tastatic. This may disliuguish it from spinal congestion, which is a lixed
condition. Temporary congestion of the cord, as of the brain, the geni-
tals, the eye and the ear, may perhaps be eoiily excited by irritating
causes. It is not unreasonable to suppose Uiat anaemia and hypenemia
may alternate in the patient, and in the tame day or hour.

4IO

CASES OF SPINAL IRRITAIIOK.

Elceiftc examinaiwn in spinal irritation ma/ sometimes reveal ten
der spots on the spine that are not itidicated hy iiressure.

Treaimettt. — Electric treatment consists tti general faradization, gal
vaniiaiion of the spine and syni|»alhctic and central galvanization.

Our experience in a great number of cases, since the hrsl edition of
this worV, convinces us that in galvanization of the spine the jKisitivc
pole acts hetter than llic negative in the treatment of this affection. To
deijcnd, however, on localized galvanization alone is illogical, since the
disease, though for the time sjiecially localized in the spinal cord, is
usually sin]ply but a develupmc-nt or manifcsLation of the ncrvoua
diathe^s, in which the whole system shares.

/yognosis. — Under electric treatment alone, the prognosis of s^nnal
irritation is usually favorable for a relief, and sometimes for permanent
cure.

It is, however, of great advantage in all severe or long-standing
cases, to combine with electrization, counter-irritation {very small blis-
ters, or tartar-emetic ointment) over the sensitive vertebne, ajid the in-
ternal administration of phosphonis or other stimulants.

Comparative rest of bniii and nniscles is an important, though not
indispensable, aid to Treatment. The disease is quite prone to relapse,
especially under had hygienic surroundings. Under combined treat-
ment, consisting of Misters to the spine, phosphorus, strychnia, and
electrization, the majority o( cases will rapidly improve.

Spinul irritoHan of fatir ytarf stattdtng^ xoilh exceuivt Umitrmtts in tkt
rtgiom — DteidfJ rtlief from gtiurtU faraditattan.

Cask X. — Mrs. , «gc<! Z4, was sent to us January 4, 1868, l>7 I>r. Sewall to

be trealCid for pain, with muit cucosivc tenJemew, ower the Inmtiar reriebra;. Tbc
fpaptons hAcI liccn parlirululf dUtreuing ^ce Iier confinemeat, two montht pre*
vUnu, but bul annuycil her nioic ui loco fi>r four yearv UnitiKi with thU (pinzl (ea-
dcmtts there wa« coRM'Icrable debility, tliat made a walk of hnlf a mile k LukIcd;
gaslric unciuineu, fwbic appetite, ijuumnU, and, in paterd, tlie characiemlic lea*
tuns of the Dcrvons conslituiJoiL

Eitftrii examiHolioH revealed a itry gTCAl tendenwe over sevcnU o\ the lumbar
treriehne ; only a feeble current coultl lie home at all, tvta with tares, aofl i^xutfek
No Other abnomtal condition wai foiiml beyond a geocnJ hype not hcsia, whicb ii
Ufoal in such c*w«. The tcndcmcst wu »o great that ev«n tl>c weight or the hud
wu di>tTcu)»Kly painTuI.

We \xzan trcatmcnc by genoal Eirailiiation, with Rpccial reference to the lender

spot in itie .%pine. At this locality we ui«'l a titnble incrca.iing turrcnl, beginning

w'lh a ciitrent scarcely perceptible, aud intrcaMiig ihc *.tTcne1h up to the point whrr*

it cooH be comfortably bunic. TliiC patient ^lortly improved UDder this irealmcot,

I tluNifk not witliout relaptca whenever «he s.tteni]ilcd any iinpi>rtanl exertiun. Fri>iit

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS. 41 t

veeh to week the imdenteB becaiae Ics marked, until (he v«rlebrj: were tio tonga
Winrnl under Tncxlerate prenure. and a much more powerful (.-nrrciil conlt) be bora*
trith ewif. Agreeable tcinpor&ry reltd followed cadi applicHlion— on obwrvatioa
which we have frequently iii;ulc in iyAtini imUtidn.

Al the end of two months the pattenl wu dumiiaed very mncfa ben«6tcd.

Hyptrmttkf$ia of tht itrvkal and tif fur lumbar vfrSr^ir (atttrJ ^ fxfMure to t Jit
iwi — Grtat nute/tiiilily Iff tttttrkUy — Jmfrovtmtm umdtr gtaertU and totatited
/orsdtaMun and gatwmaaJion,

CAtK XI, — Kcv. Mr, F., aged 33, w-a% referred to onr catc, March 9, 186S. by
Dr. GuTtlon Buck. For several inonihs before be bad been caiii[]luiniiit; of pain and
bcanDCM in the back of tbe tteck, [)iat hud compelled him to rcci^ his pauoral
char)[c andabttain fiomall snsiained mental cicrtUm. The ^jmiplom* dated ftom
an expuutfc la the »un on a very hoi day. The patient wtu large, tall, well-foniMd,
and apparently very rabukt. All the funclinm neemcd lo )>e tolerably well perform*
ed : but Rutained iiientitl cxrrtioD w»k alnio»t iFiipowiUe. He hail been treated fattb-
fially 1>y counter-uriiatiun, lu th« diapc of wei cupping, and Kad derived positive benclU
tJiercfrom.

EUctrit txamitt9tun indjcaied some tenderuBa 00 the upper oervical veitebne,
and alio in the upper lumliar; hut tliH leruleraeu wai not exteuivc. and a currenl
of fair simiglh, m> Tar a* (lie vertebra were concerned, could be readily botnc wUb*
out (liKuiiirurl ; nor were the vertcbnc lo painful %% Ihey soineliniea arc found.

Bat in one m|>ect hii tielavior unclrr (lie elec(ric: exatninaltun wax pecnliai. The
(cnntion produced by a mild galvanic currenl over the upper cendcal vcnebne was
painfully felt tn (he fureliead, indicating a morliid irritability of the central nervous
■yvtem. suice in health such a plieiioineiion dues not appear. Tha( llili morbid irri-
tability was in tome way rclatol In the K)'mpathelic, or that, a( least, the Mni^Atb^
tic wai the medium through which il was manifested, was rendered prubaUc by the
fact that mild fariulimioa or galvaniialioo of lite affected part caoaed a very pro*
fuse perspiration on the lianda and feet. Tliis same effect we have also observed In
a ose of hj-tteno.

Stroiqi as the patient Appeared to be, It was neceviary (o treat him with mild cnr-
rcn(s and sliort appIicaiionfL l)y iurii» mid In sncee<Mon we tried the various methods
of eieciriialion, with both the 6uadic and galvanic cunents, and with important
Iboi^h not brilUant mulli.

Af^Cf a treatment extending by Interval through three month-s (be patient left (or
vnat in England, where he icnuincd nearly a year, iltll slowly improving.

Great susceptibility to electricity, as in the above case, is frequently
observed after sunstroke.

A thronU itHdithn of irritation and hyperatthtwia of lit rpinat tvrd fratty ^tiU'
fittd by £tneral faraJitatijH, in teitJuneiMn mth galvaniulian of tkt tym^Ju-
Mr Mid t/int.

Case XII. — A young lady, daughter of a pb)-%iciaa, who had tufrered for many
mnnths from nyiiiptoms both of congestion and irritation of the tpinal cord, wai
pUcod under oar care by the advice of the late Dr. H. D. Bulkley. TeadcroMS wn

412

HYSTERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

nanUcU ovct ihc oervijal-dorial and lamb>r regions. The patient comptil&ed ol
•lioirtneu ot breath, nutnbncaa and liiii;luig iii tlie hanili and feet, cough, nauKa, with
neuiKlgic pauit arounti the luitu anil iii tbe cxtri^milia. A very decided loan of
power wu manifc^c in the lower limb*, »o cbai ii was impoudbic to lake more than
11 few tunii around the room without rtLtigue. Under ilic tunic inHucncc of tvrcntjr
general ■pplicatlon^ of tlie foiadic cuxrcui, the paticut very decidedly iiU|>roved.
The tendenai sloag ikt spine decicuedf and in Llic ccTviciU region diMtjipcved oUo-
getbcr.

The diorlness of breath, the numbness and litigHng, together with the ncnroljic
|win<, became IcM marked, wliLIc tbe sln^ngth tta far improveil that »he wu able dail»
to lake abort urallu of (event] Mocks, and to lucctid the stairs urilh comparative cora
fort.

We now retried to the ga!vaDiiaiion uf liie t^ympaihetic and tlie Fpine — rpina]*
cord cnirent — which were folJowvd by an improvcnieiki more marked than it WM
pouible to obtain from the foradic current aton&

llie above patient subsequently rdaiised after a severe fall and was
agaiti treated with great perseverance and even better results, so that
she is now in perfect health, and is tndixd unnauAlIy vigorous. The
case illustrates the record that may follow great perseverance lu clco
trical treatment.

<f (trnJuipM of tingiimgt pritking, and a Jufiofifhrn to parafyni of tht Itgt, de/tn-
dent on irritation and hyf<rttmia 0/ the t^d^ detidtdiy rtluittdhy gahttaiustunt
«/ lh4 lymfath/tie and genva! /araditattoH.

Cask XIII. — Mrv W., aged 44, wlione phyiician, Dr. H, Urcgory, advised trest-
menl by elcciriMtion, wa« sufTciing irom pricking seu&atlons in the aims, and froni
tingling and nvimbnesj of the lower linibi and feet. Id the legs abo, there woa a
decided "dujiivMMi" to porolyaiG, at manifest i»J by afccIiiLg of weight in the effort
of walking,

pTCMiirc nlonf Che &pine discLowd a tender point, at about (be third dorsal and
second lumlur vcitctiiw. ThcK cunditiont of tenderness, linglinj[, and welglil in the
tower limbs teemed lo indicate not only on irrtlatiun, but alto a b]'p(:r:emia of the
Bpioal cord, Galvanitation of the sympathclic and mild general applications of tba
biadte current were followed by a marked aiaelioralion of ihete tiyinjiConii.

The Lijnbt especully t>ro|{re»ed rapidly, and after eight appticotiont became qiutfl
Btrocg, and were ^uite relieved of the anx^thcsla. Some tenderness along the conrie
of the spine still remained, with occ.iaional tingling in the extremities, but not auffi*
cieot to occadon the ume annoyance as before.

S/twU irr»tatt»n 0/ itvtral ytari titin.ltng-~Rte<nxry undtr jpi»al gatvauUation
and gentrai /{uraditation.

Cask XIV. — Miss C. a patient of Dr. Gregory, was referred to as with evidences
of ifritation the whole length of the cord. Under six weeks of treatment by i^pinal
galvflniutioa and general forodiution the patient markedly improved in all her
symptoms.

m'STERIA AND ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

413

The tcrdcr points «lonE the spine in<»t!y dlMppeftrwJ, md after the ce^uiioa ol
treatment sJic conrinued to Improve until recovery was mpproximaieiy complete.
The jymploms were of (cveml ytati' slxndinc.

SfiiMnI irritaiioM oftoMytarf slatnHtig—lietavery ttnder t^nal galKUtiaaNoM.

Ca^k XV. — Misa S , an inmate of the Xcw York Siitc Woman's HDXpUal. Wtti
affected, in addition to uterine cUseoK, with severe and persiitcnt &pinal Lmtati>}a of
ovct I wo years' standing

Spin.-il galvaniuiiua repeated a doien limea during the courie of a month efreclif
ally ovcccatne the cxceaaive irritation or the cord, and reiullcd in greatly incrcakcd
atrcngth.

Insomnia. — InBomni* is % symptom which, with greater or less uni-
formity and severity, accompanies nearly al) forms of disease.

Jl \% a symptom of such an indefinite variety and complexity of pa-
ihological conditions that it is manifestly impossible to treat it with
anything tike uniform success by any one conceivable form of medica-
tion ; but of all the rcnie^LtcH that have yet been tried there is, wc be-
lieve, no one which pertzianenlly relieves the sj-mptoma in so large a
proportion of cases as electrization. The effects of electricity on the
sleep, whether used in the form of general faradization, or gal vaniJiatioD
of the head and cirvical syiinjathctic, are both temporary and perma-
nent The temporary relief that appears the night or two following an
ajiplicaiioo, though usually far less potent than those of bromide of
potassium and hydrate of chloral, arc yet very decided ; but it ts for the
ptrtnaneni relief that electrization is cliiefly indicated iu this symptom.
This comes gradually, slowly, and as a result of the improvement of the
morbid condition on which tlic insoninia depends.

As hfls been stated, improvement in sleep is one of the earliest ef.
fects for which we look during a course of treatment by general electri-
zation. In a wide range of diseases sleep, to a certain extent and with
exceptions, may be regarded as a thermometer of health. When all
other bodily fmictionit are well performed, the sleep is usually sound,
calm, and refreshing ; when it becomes painfully and persistently dis-
turbed by dreams, or is long absent, we may suspect actual or approach-
ing disease.

Tempoiary loss of sleep, that comes from temporary anxiety or froir
neuralgia or other pain, is usually relieved with the removal of th«
cause, and only demands special medical treatment when it is long con
dnued.

Tlie treatment of insomnia is really the treatment of alt the diseases
on which it depends. For those cases where simple wakefulness exists,
unaccompanied by any other symptom of recognizable disease, we

414

HYSTERIA AXD ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

may use cither galvanization of the sympathetic or in the head, or fara-
dization of the head and spine, or, hettcr than all, general faradizatioD,
(or somnolence is a result of alt these methods of electrifalioti. It it
not even ncce«saiy Co make the ap'plicatians to the head, the s}anpathe-
tic, or even to the spine, in order to produce sleep. Simple peripheral
galvanization or faradization will produce this result, and in some cases
to a very marked degree. This must, we suppose, be explained by
reflex action. In case of rheumaiism of the hip-joint, which vre once
treated by galvanization through the joint, the M>poritic effect on the
p.-ilicril was so uiarked that he fell into a profound slumber before »-e
had time to leave the house, in Icks than ten minutes after the ap-
plicalion was over. In another case of infantile paralysis the mother
reported that the child slept soundly for two hours or more after each
sitting, although ODly the limbs were galvanized.

Ftr/itlent intcmnia after ekililhirth — An appiicatisi of thtfaradk ntrrtnt t» tA*
AmJ aitii sfiiHf it fffileweJ iy iUtf of ttvtral hovrt.

Cask XVI.— Mrs. A., nged 30, of ahigliljr nervous org»iixation, e^ve birth to
her first child after u labor oT 16 hour& So great wu the disorder of her nervous
iystem, ttiat for 5 daj's and nighTi she was unable to close lier ejci In slcqj. Her con-
dilion wa« motl dittretting, and reiiUed «]1 eRbm la ihe way at medicACuin.

It wju «gre>e(l thai ■ mild applicAtion oT the Tkradic current should be applied to
tlu head and down the spine. The tcHilt was must dceidcd ajid gratifyinx, uoce a
llccp of several hoiux, dee|i and rtfrciJiin|{, immcdialely rulluweJ. It i» proper lo
iay that subsequent applications did not h»vc the Hme decided effect, aUliough they
evidently strengthene't the nervous syatcm ol the patient and greatly aided In dlis^
paling the condition of insomnia.

/Kfommi* p/ mimth^ tloMding im nuJitUefy rtUevtd iy grarral faraJiuUion,

Case XVII.— Mrs. C, a yomic married Udy. was directed tons by Dr. J. Marion

&nis, wlio WM Ire3,ting her fur uterine dif&cully. She <nu %uIfcTttig ajrutcly from in-
HUtnia, 3Uid ii «a« hnprd (hat lome form of elcctriulion migFil prove bwcfieial,
more especially iioj;c stiehod pte\'ioiisly been reticvcti by ihc applitaiion of decirEciiy,
although its odminittniiioii had l^eeii vriihuui method. We subjected her to tlie most
thoroogb form of general furadiiatii^n, directing especial attcniion, however, to the
head and neck. The applications were adminiE.tcrcd on five successive da.ys, and durln^j;
each of Ihc foiloning nights the palisnt enjoyed uninterrupted and refreihing deep,
Ai to the penaanency of tlie cfTcctx we ace not informed.

/Hf^miia o/inerai months^ Juratien reUrvtd tinJtr frtalmtmt iv giittralfandi-
laliam and g^aJvanitatiaH of the brain.

Case XVIIL— Mr. J. D., aged 65, wau rcfened to u> by the late Dr. J. C. No«
for the relief of insomnia of such an obstinate character as lo threaten serious conse-
quences. He had iiufTcrcd a few months prcvioosly from a severe attack of conscstlve
AiUa. Fron the cfCccu o( these he bad appraiiinately recovered, flit ttrcngth and

HYSTERIA AN'D ALLIED AFFECTIONS.

415

appetite were fnir. but is It wu »in«tliiiei imposoble Tor him to skep mote than as
hour or two during the whole night, lie wu fait magging into incrvoui, cudi^ble con-
dtlioD. The pntiirni wu ticftlcd by both t;encril faradiuiion inri ^Iraniutioi) flf the
bndn. He very grailiully improved. And at the tnd of a ninnlh'i Ireatmmt he wu
enjoying fire ami lix houn' cantuiuoun ilc«|> ercrjr ni^ht.

tmmnnia foUwBing mtnttrualtfn-^GtHtral faraJiiathH affcrdf immtttiatt rtlitf.

Ca«S XVIMa. — Mis, B., aycd 40, su/Tclcd aii utiUMiul luM of bloud Ht each nicn-
Irvul perioJ, wMch was followe^l by ubuinale intomnia during the succeeding Iwu
weck^, GeDeral fuailiialiun u-u csuyed for ibc relief of ihesleqilcv^nc-^ iui<i wax
entirely tucccuful. Three or four B|ipliuttoi» after eaiifa period waa tuHicient to
promoic calm repo» utitiJ the next flow.

Astraphobia (aarpaTjii lightning and «^o;S« fear a/). — Some inillvid-
uals, cs|>L>(nalLy liiusu of pcctiliarly uniJiessibk orj^auUatioDS. are oot
only uai>teasaiitly but seriously aff&cted during thunder-storms tliat
are attended by viWd flashes of liyhtnitig. They suffer not only dis<
trc»sing fear, but [positive pain in the head or stomach, that leaves them
in a condition of exhaustion that may last several hours, or even two
or three days.

A medical friend informed us of a patient under his care, who during
diunder-stornis was attacked by severe nausea, and by convuIsLvc at-
tacks resembling ci>ilcpsy. Uiidt^r treatment directed to the iiiiprove-
meiit of her general system she greatly Improved. In some cases diar-
rhaa is excited.

These symptoms, though most frcfjucnt with nervous people, and es
pccially with women, may also appear in those who are otherwise strong
both in health and in will power.

In tn-o cases of astraphobia of long standing we found much diminu-
tion of volitional contractility and considerable anresihesia, but no loss
of electric muscular contractility.

Treatment by the electric brush and central galvanization afforded
much altliough not absolute relief.

CHAPTER XVI.

IK8ANITV.

We have wen that very much has been accomplished in the treat-

inenE of hypodionclriasis and niclanchoUa by thu combined methods of
central galranization and general faradization, and, reasoning from
analoj^y, it is probable thai an important future is in store for the scien-
tific faithful use of these tnethotU of electrization in our public and pri-
vate asylimis.

// i> «*>/ as well recognised as it should bethat in diseases ff/ fAe brain
and s final eord^ where the mind is seriously affected^ the eleetrieal treat'
mint is alio indicated, Just as in diseases of the same organs what the mind
is not effected. In some of the asyUims of England, United States, and
Germany, electricity is now and for &ome lime has been used as an ad-
junct to oilier reiiiedicB for the treatment of different fonns of insanity ;
but witli a few exceptions the treatment is not systematicalty carried out,
and, partly through ignorance of the methods of application, partly
through want of sufficient medical assistance to supervise the necessary
details, the results have not been entirely satisfactory, and the cases
have uot been fully recorded.

Wc should except from these remarks the Alabama Asylum for the
Insane, where, under the superintendence of Dr. liryce, both currents
of electricity have been used in the trcatmenl of the patients for the
past two or three years.

We have corrcsiiondcd with Dr. Bryce on the subject from the first,
and have at different times given suggestions in regard to the methods of
application, which su^cations have been carried out so far as possible
for Ihe already overworked officers of that institution.

Under date of Kebruary 17th, 1873, he gives the general resnlts of
his observations in the following language: "We like it: find it bene,
ficial in most cases, valuable in a majority, and indispensable in certain
forms of hysterical insanity, in primary dementia, and neurasthenia."

'I'lic failures in this as in other branches of electro-therapeutics are,
in fact, the logical result of want of familiarity with the management of

INSANtTV.

417

hutefics, of iDCOrrcct ideas on the differential action of the cDrrents,
tod the gcnefa] action of electricity on the body, and deficient techni^
al Hkill in the details of the applications.

Kor ihoie who are txrginning to use eleclricily, or are contcmplatinj;
itt tuc in the aitylunis for itic insane, these general SQggestions niay be
of service : 1, I^-t it be remembcrCTl always that electricity, in any form
— Franklinic, Galvanic, or Faradic — when applied to the body, acts a«
a itimulatmg tanic with a pitunrr/ul tfJatiTY in-fiufntf. It is an agent
ka imfrffvimg nuiritiou in any condition, local or general, where ira-
[mvement in nutrition is required. It is to be used for the insane just
as bromide of potassium, quinine, strychnine, and iron are used.

I'be Older and degree of its etTccts depend largely on the method and
manner of application, and on the constitution and disease of the patient
tn which the ap|>Iication is made.

1. That in insanity the brain is not the only jiart of the body aflfected.
Excluding those cases of insanity produced by reflex action from the
digestive and pelvic organs, there are ver)* many cases where the spinal
cord and other parts of the central and )>eripheral nervous system suffer
'as an effect of the disease of the biain.

While the>e remarks may seem but commonplace to experienced
psychologists, and white the fact of the relation of diseases of the brain
to diseases of other parts of the body is continually recogniicd, when
other remedies are employed, still, in the application of electricity, some
ea|)crimenters have acted on the theory that the brain alone skeuUi he
treaitd.