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10
The
Arch^ological
Review.
VOL. I.
(flDarcb— Huflust, 1888).
'.-*<«>•>
LONDON:
DAVID NUTT, 270 STRAND.
1888.
INDEX
TO THE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW,
I.— INDEX NOTES.
Aberdeen, Stono Circles near, 210 ;
Treasure Trove, 364.
Afrikanische (West) Geldringc, 345.
Agherim, Battle of, 212.
Airlie, vessel found at, 41.
Akropolis, Archaic Ionic capitals on,
442.
Alboume, Roman Remains at, 435.
Aldrington, Roman Remains at, 435.
Alexander the Great, The portraiture
of a terra cotta head in Munich, 361.
Alexander III., Traditionary accounts
of the death of, 44.
Alexandria, Painted sepulchnd st^lai
from, 362.
Alfriston, Roman Remains at, 435.
Almondsbury, Roman entrenchment
at, 115.
Alnwick, the Premonstratensian Abbey
of St. Mary at, 42.
Alresford Lodge, Roman Villa at, 210.
American Song-games and wonder-
tales, 118.
Amphitheatre, Roman, at Bosham, 435.
Andrea de Yalle, the seal of, 42.
Angmering, Roman Remains at, &c.,
435.
Anklet, an African ivory, and a Chinese
cup of Rliinoceros hom, 279.
Anthemion, Egyptian origin of the
Ionic capital and of the, 361.
Antrim Co., Moume, Lough, 43.
Aphrodite, tTralteste Tempel der, 442.
Apollo of Kanachos, gem engraved
with, 280.
Aquhollie stone, oghams on, 44.
Arbres entrelac^s, les deux, 212.
Argyleshire, Lower Coilabus, Islay,
43.
Arrow heads, Flint, at Merigomish,
Nova Scotia, 364.
Art, some illustrations of early Chris-
tian, 44.
Artemisium, excavaticms on the sup-
posed site of the, 43.
Arundel, a doubtful Roman staticn,
435.
Arwenack, notes on it« destruction dur-
ing the Civil War, 44 ; Killigrows of,
42 ; House, notice of, 42.
Aseburg, Ausgrabung der, 345.
Atrium VesUe, remarks upon the,
43.
Auchendolly, Kirkcudbright, harness
ornament from, 43.
Autriche Hongrie, La pal^ethnologie
en, 344.
Avisford, Roman Remains at, 435.
Aylesbury, The Manor of, 43.
Ayrshire — Caprington Castle, 41.
Aztekischen und der Maya-handscrif-
ten, der charakter, 404 ; Tageszei-
chen in den, 404.
Babylonian Writing, Hieroglyphic,
442.
Bainesso Catterick, ancient Roman
Balance found at, 119.
Bakhshali MS., The, 212.
Ballagawne, Isle of Man, cup-marked
stone at, 280.
Balquhidder, St. Angus, Curing Wells,
363.
Banff, notice of a pieta from tlie old
church of, 43.
Baratela, Intomi alle Antichita seo-
perte nel fondo, 361.
Barbadoes, Negro songs from, 118, 211.
Barnard, the Castle of, 211.
Bamhill, near Broughty-Ferry, 363.
Barrington, Sir Thomas, Inventory of
goodS of at Hatfield Priory in 1626,
210.
Bass Rock and its owner, early notices
of, 43.
Bath, Present condition of the Roman
remains at, 118 ; Sculptured Stone
found at, 280.
Baths, Roman, 39, 115, 275, 356, 435,
436,437.
Baydon, Roman Remains at, 39.
Beauly Valley, Remains in, 44.
Beauport Park, Roman Remains at,
435.
2074^\
IV
rXDEX.
Beddingham, Roman Remains, 435.
BedfordjBhire, Dunstable, 281.
Carved Bone, found in, 279.
Beeding, (Upper) Bill, Roman Re-
mains, 435.
Beggar's Badges of licensed Scottish
Mendicants, 364.
Bells, Church, Irish, 210.
I engeo, Roman remains at, 43.
Bengeworth, Romain Remains at, 115.
Berkeley Castle, Charter of Edward J.,
and Foresters Account amimgst the
Muniments of, 280.
Berkshire — Stancombe Down, 280,
Stratfield, 281.
Bibury, Roman villa at, 115.
Bicknor, Roman Remains at, 115.
Bignor, Roman Remains at, 435.
BiQingshurst, Roman Remains, 435.
Binderton, Roman Remains at, 435.
Birsay, Orkney, box discovered at, 41.
Birth, Marriage and Death Rites,
Chinese, 211.
Bishops Canning, (Rouudway Hill),
Roman Remains, 39.
Bishops, seals of English, 280.
Bisley, Roman Villa, 115.
Bitton, Roman Remains, 115.
Blackroinster, Roman Remains at,
115.
Blackshaw, West Kilbride, Ayrshire,
notice of rock surface &o., at, 3G3.
Blatchington, (East), Roman urns,
435.
Blatchington, (West), Roman founda-
tions, 435.
Blythborough Church, Suffolk, 42.
Boazio, notice of a map from the
survey of, 42.
Boddam-Wctham's Roraima, and Brit-
ish Guinea, Folklore from, 211.
Bognor Mill, first brass of the Elder
Agrippina, 435.
Bohmen, aus dem nordostlichen, 361.
Boley Hill, Rochester, 441.
Pk>ne, (carved), with interlaced pat-
terns, 41.
Bones, long stature, as estimated from,
118.
Bormer, Roman cemetery, 435.
Bosham, Roman foundations, 435.
Bosniaques, un rocueil des proverbes,
213.
Boston Cubit, the, 363.
Botolph's, Roman remains at, 435.
Bottesford, Lincolnshire, notes from
the records of the Manor of, 43.
Bourton - in - the - Water, (Salmonsbury
camp), Roman remains at, 115.
Box, Roman remains at, 39, 211.
Bradford-on-Avon, Roman remains
at, 39.
Bramber, bridge, (probably post-
Roman), 435.
Brandon, Gun Flint Manufactory at,
3(>4.
Brigantium, Bauliche Ueberreste eines
Privatbades, in der Oberstadt von,
362.
Brigg, boat found at, 41.
Brighton, coin of Constantius 11., 435.
Bristol, Church of the Temple or Holy
Cross, 364.
Roman remains at, 115.
Britain as a Roman Pn^vince, 44.
Roman Inscriptions discovered
in, 44.
Brock worth, Roman remains, 115.
Brodie Stone, oghams on, 44.
Brokenborough, traces of Roman work
at, 39.
Bromham, Roman remains, 39.
Bronzes, 42, 43, 115, 116, 212, 274,
275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 344, 355,
356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 362, 363,
435, 436, 437, 439, 441.
Broughton Gifford, Roman remains, 39.
Broughty Ferry, discovery of worked
flints at, 42.
Brunn, Kr. Rupjiin, cin Begriibniss-
feld bei, 344.
Brj'done (or Brydon) Wm., document
in handwriting of, 41.
Buckinghamshire — Aylesbury, 43.
Budbury, Roman remains, 39.
Budock and Mylor, map of the
parishes of, 42.
Bullfe of the Roman Pontiffii, Leaden,
279.
Buncton, Roman tiles, 435.
Burial Places, see ** Cemeteries."
Buschmannem, Hottentotten und
Omundouga, physische Anthropolo-
gie von, 345.
Buteshire — Knockanhelly, 42.
Byzantine Art, on some examples of,
280.
C A BURN, Mount, pre-Roman camp,
435.
Caer, Drewyn, 211.
Caerwent, Roman Pavement at, 280.
Cakeham, Roman remins at, 435.
Cambridgeshire— Ely, 280.
Cameo, an onyx, bearing the Head of
Medusa, 279.
Camps, Roman, 115, 116, 117, 275,
436, 438, 439.
Canterbury, Accounts of St, Dunstan's,
440 ; Roman remains found at, 440.
Caprington Castle, 13th cent, MS. at,
41.
Carlisle, Roman pottery found at,
281.
Caslau, die unterste Culturschicht auf
dem Burgwalle Hrddek in, 344.
eine ueolithische Station in der
siidlichsten Ziegelei zu, 344.
Casterton, Kirkby Lonsdale, brooch
found at, 363.
Castle Combe, proofs of Roman occu-
pation, 39.
IXDEX.
Costlenook, near Whitley Castle,
Northumberland, Inscribed Stone
found at, 279.
Castles— Weobley, 118; Barnard, 211 ;
Colchester, 211 ; Oystermouth, 211 ;
Scotness, 441.
Catterick, Yorks, A Roman Steelyard,
discovered at, 279.
Caudebec-les-Elbeuf, Figure en terre
blanche trouv^e a, 442,
Cave, Mound Builders, 184.
Cellini, Sexds ascribed to, 42.
Celtes, Le char du guen'o des, 441.
Cemeteries, Hallstaatt, 119 ;
Roman, 40, 41, 116, 117, 275,
277, 280, 366, 360, 363, 364, 435,
437, 438, 439.
-Saxon, Wickhambreux, 440.
Cemov, (North) Roman remains, 115.
ChamDa, copperi)late inscription of,
212.
Chanctonbur}', pre - Roman Camp,
436.
Charters, of Neath Abbey, Notes on
the, 210.
Chedworth, Gloucestershire, the Ro-
m«in Villa at, 42 ; Rouian remains,
115.
Cheshire, sculptured stones of, 41.
Chester, age of City Walls of, 44.
Little, Roman Remains at,
281.
Chichester, Roman Remains, at, 436.
Chiddingly, Roman Ironworks, 436.
Chilgrove, Roman remains at 436.
Chinese Birth, Marriage and Death
Rites, 211.
Cup of Rhinoceros Horn, 279.
Legends, and Superstitions,
211.
Chipping Campden, Roman remains
at, 115.
Chipping Sodbury, Roman remains at,
115.
Chitcomb, Roman ironwork, 436.
Chollerford, Northumberland, Flint
Knife and Glass at, 279.
Church Bells, Irish, 210.
Churches, Britain, 43, 44, 118, 119,
210, 211, 279, 364, 440, 441.
France, 43.
Italy, 42.
uiurestored, 21L
Circle (The), as a sun symbol, 345.
, Stone, Quendale Bay, 363.
Cirencester, Roman remains at, 40,
115.
Cissbury, pre-Roman camp, 43<^.
Cists, recent discoveries of, 41.
Clach-na-Bratach, the stone of the
standard, 364.
Clarendon Wood, Roman remains at,
40.
Clayton, Roman remains at, 436.
Cleeve (Nottingham Hill Camp),
Roman remains at, 116.
Clement YII., I'histoire des arts k
Avignon, 212, 442.
Cobham Hall, furniture in, 441 ; letter^^
to Duke of Lenox at, 441.
Cocking, Roman remairs at, 436.
Coins, British, 281.
Indian, 212.
Roman, 39, 40, 116, 116, 117,
274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 366, 356,
357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 435, 436,
437, 438, 439, 441,
Colchester Castle, some documents
relating to, 211.
Mazer at Trinity Church, 210.
Note on Sulevsen altar at, 211.
Roman roads near, and radiat-
ing from, 210.
-Roman tessellated pavement.
found at, 210.
Cold Astc>n, Roman entrenchment at,
115.
Cold W^altham, Roman remains at,
436.
Coleford, Roman remains at, 116.
Coleme, Roman remains at, 40.
Colesboum (Combend Farm), Roman
remains at, 116.
Columbia (British), Songs and Dances
of the Kwakuitl of, 344.
Colwinston, Glamorganshire, opening
of Barrow, 280.
Communion Plate, 43, 441.
Congo, Anthropologic der Volker vom
mittleren, 346.
Consular Denarii, the Twentieth Legion
as illustrated by, 211.
Contes populaires, Quelques recueils
de, 212.
Conyers of Sock bum, 211.
Cornwall— Budock, 42 ; My lor, 42 ;
Falmouth, 42 ; Glasney College, 42.
Christian remains in, 43.
Deed in English, 43.
flint-flakes, &c., in, 41.
Folk-lore of, 118-119.
Counting -Out rhymes of children, 344.
Cowgate, stained glass, &c., in
Magdalene's Chapel, 364.
Crab-Tree Hill, Roman remains, 116.
Craig-y-Dinas, 211.
Cremone, note sur une plaque de bronze
d^ouverte k, 212.
Cricklade, Roman embankment, 40.
Crocodile amoureux, le, 184.
Cromhall, Roman remains at, 116.
Crookes, Sheflield, discovery of Cinerary
Urns at, 280.
Cross, French two-barred, 212.
Crosses, 43, 47, 281.
Cubit, the Boston, 363.
Cuckfield, aliens resident in (1793), 441.
Roman remains at, 437.
Culverhouses, 41.
Cumberland — Carlisle, 281 ; Penrith, 44.
Daounoworth, Roman villa at, 116.
VI
INDEX.
Dairsie (Fifcshire), Roman remains
found at, 363.
Dalison documents, 440.
Damerham, Roman earthwork, 40.
Dances of certain primitive peoples in
Asia and Africa, secular and religious,
211.
Danny (see Hurstpierpoint), 437.
DaphnsBf finding of, 43.
Darlington, the works of the Nevilles
round, 211.
Dean (Forest of), Roman remains at,
116.
Death rites in China, 211.
Decorations, Japanese New Year, 119.
Deerhurst, Gloucestershire, a Saxon
Chapol at, 43.
Denbigh, Carmelite priory at, 211.
Densworth, Roman remains at, 437.
Derbyshire — Chester, Little, 281; Had-
don Fields, 281 ; Horseton, 280 ;
Horsley, 280 ; TidesweU, 279, 280.
Fines in time of Richard I.
in, 279.
Recusants of, 281.
Devil's Dyke, pre-Roman camp, 437.
Devizes, Roman remains, 40.
Dieux Eternals, Les, 441.
Dinsdale and Sockbum, notes on, 118.
Diptych, belonging to Hinckaert, 42.
Ditchling, pre-Roman Camp and road,
437.
Dodington, Roman remains, 110.
Donegal Folk-lore, 119.
Donington, Roman coffin, 437.
Dorset, Celtic and Roman antiquities
in the N.E. part of, 44.
Dowdeswell, Roman remains at, 116.
Drachenstein bei Donnem, 441.
Dryhill, Roman remains at, 116.
Duirinish, Skye, Church plate from, 43.
Dumfriesshire — Dumfries, 43; Mofl&it,
41 ; RuthweU, 364.
Dumfries, notes on Town Hall of, 43.
Duncton, Roman remains at, 437.
Dundee, oak panels formerly in Fran-
ciscan Nunnery, 44.
Dunfermline, Roman remains at Pit-
reavie, near, 41.
Durham — ^Barnard Castle, 211 ; Dar-
lington, 211 ; Escombe, 210 ; Greta
Bridge, 211; Piers Bridge, 211;
Raby, 119 ; Staindrop, 211.
Ethnology and development of
the bishopric and county palatine
of, 211.
Ealino, Paloeolithic workshop floor
discovered near, 279.
Eamley ( Almodington), Roman remains
at, 437.
Eastbourne, Roman remains at, 437.
Easter Ross, notes on, 363.
Easterton, Roman remains at, 40.
Easton Grey (at a place called White-
widls), traces of Roman work, 40.
Eaton, near Norwich, bronze articles
found at, 279.
Eckenflelds, Roman remains at, 437.
Ecuador, Roman remains at, 41.
Edburton, Roman remains at, 437.
Edinburgh, the Mercat Cross of, 43.
defence of, 364.
Edinburgh Castle, St. Margaret's
Chapel, 364.
Edward I., Charter of, and Forestei-s'
account amongst the muniments of
Berkeley Castle, 280.
Edward il., documents relating to
death and buiial of, 43.
in South Wales, 118.
marriage contract of, 118.
Edward VI., Inventories of Church
Goods in the 6th year of, 119.
E^ptienne, une confr^rie, 212.
Emgebomen von Siberia, Einiges
Uber die, 183.
Ely, tile pavement in Causden's Chapel,
280.
English family, annals of, 441.
Erne, Lough, bronze weapons found
in, 279.
Eroflhung eines Htigelgrabes bei Matz-
hausen, 442.
Escomb Church, Bishop Auckland, 210.
Eskimos of North Eastern America,
Tribal divisions of, 183.
Essex— Colchester, 210, 211 ; Halstead,
118; Hatfield, 210; Lees Priory,
212.
Etapes de la gtSnealogie de Thomme,
les demi^res, 345.
Ethnographisch — anthropologische Ab-
theilung des Museum Godefroy, 184.
Europe, Western, Epitome of pre-
historic Archaeology in, 213, 363.
Ewhiu*8t, Roman remains at, 437.
Fairy Tales, modem origin of, 118.
Fal (the river), notice of a map from
Baptista Boazio's survey, 42.
Falmouth, the early topography of,
42.
Haven, in William of Wor-
cester's Itinerary, 42.
Farley (Wiltshire), Roman remains, 40.
Farmborough, Somersetshire, A Roman
Interment discovered near, 280.
Fascination, 212.
Fasti Capitolini, remarks on the
original locality of, 43.
Felixstowe, Suffolk, A bronze hoard
from, 279.
Roman and other articles
found at, 280.
Fermanagh, Co., Lough Erne, 279.
Ferrers, early descent of the, 279.
Fierabras, La Composition de, 212.
Fifeshire — Dairsie, 363 ; Dunfermline,
41 ; Lindores, 41.
Finding of Daphnse, the, 43.
Findon, Roman remains at^ 437.
INDEX.
VII
Firle Hill, Roman remains at, 437.
Fishboume (New), Roman remains at,
437.
Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, 441.
Folly Farm, Roman pavement, 40.
Folk-Lore of Aboriginal Formosa, 211 ;
of China, 211 ; of Cornwall, 118,
119 ; of Done^, 119 ; of Ireland,
118; of Salsette, 212: of Somali
Tribes, 119; of Wales, 279; of
Western India, 213 ; of Wolof , 212.
Fonts, Scottish Baptismal, 364.
Footpaths, On the antiquity of some,
210.
Forbidden doors of the Thousand and
One Nights, 119.
Foresters' Accounts at Berkeley Castle,
280.
Forfarshire — Bamhill, 363 ; Broughty-
Ferry, 42 ; Dundee, 44.
Formosa, Folk-Lore of Aboriginal, 211.
Fortingall, Perthshire, stones <&c., at
Garth, 42.
France, Etudes bibliographiques sur
les Melodies populaires, 212.
Freiwaldau, Riesen von, 344.
French two-barred Cross, 212.
Friesland, (North), Folk-tales of,
118.
Frindsbury Hill, Quarry House on,
440.
Friskney, Lincolnshire, on the mural
paintings in All Saint's Church, 41.
FiUham Church, Register of tombs in,
212.
Galloih, Anciens, I'etemuement, 212.
Oar\'ock, Kincardineshire, censer found
at, 363.
Oauloise, Statuette de femme, 212.
Les Inscriptions, 442.
(regenlaut, der, 404.
Gipsy Tribes of the North West Pro-
vinces of Oudh, 184.
Glasney College in William of Worces-
ter's Itinerary, 42.
Glasserton, Excavation of St. Ninian's
cave, 364.
Glating Beacon, doubtful Roman camp,
437.
Gleinau A.D. Oder, Graberfeld bei,
441.
Glen Urquhart, two sculptured stones
in, 43.
Gloucester, Roman Remains at, 116.
Gloucestershire — Berkeley Castle, 280 ;
Bristol, 115, 364 ; Dean, Forest of,
116 ; Deerhurst, 43.
Glynde, Roman remains at, 437.
Golspie Stone, inscriptions on, 44.
Gower, Penny Crisk Tumulus in, 118.
Graberfeld bei Gleinau, 441.
Graves (Rev. James), In piam Memo-
riam, 118.
Gray (Miles), of Colchester, Bell
Founder, Will of, 211.
Great Bedwyn, indications of Roman
Station, &c., 40.
Greek Inscriptions published in 1886-7,
362.
Greece, Archeeological discoveries ia,
442.
Greenup County, Kentucky, the Old
Fort Earthworks of, 362.
Greta Bridge, Roman altars at, 211.
Grittleton, Roman remains at, 40.
Guiana British, Folk-Lore from
Boddam - Wetham's Roraima and,
211.
Gulbien, Kr. Rosenberg, Ostpreussen,
Alterthiimer von, 303.
Gunpowder Plot, Documents relating to
observance of, 280.
GypsabgiisAO von Kopfen, Photo-
graphien und, 344.
Haddon Fields, barrows at, 281.
Hagstones or Marestones, 118.
Halesworth, carved Beam upon front
of House at, 280.
Halstead and its neighbourhood. The
bells of, 118.
Hamble, The Alien Priory of St.
Andrew and its transfer to Win-
chester College, 43.
Hamilton, Lord, Seals of, 363.
Hampden Hill, Somerset, Roman and
MediiBval Objects found at, 280.
Hampnett (West), Roman Remains
at, 437.
Hampshire — Alrosford Lodge, 210 ;
Hamble, 43 ; SUchest^r, 43 ; Win-
chester, 43, 280.
Hampton, Letters of Thomas Stanley
of, 440.
Hangleton, Roman remains at, 437.
Hardham, Roman camp, 437.
Haresfield, Roman remains at, 116.
Harestaffe (Jhn.) the Rhymed Chronicle
of, 279.
Harting Beacon, Roman remains at^
437.
Hastings, Roman Camp, 437.
Hatfield Priory, Inventory of Goods
of Sir Thomas Barrington, Bart, (in
1626), of, 210.
Hayti, Myths of Voodoo worship and
child sacrifice in, 345.
Hecucka Society, Songs of the, 344.
Hodington, Roman remains at, 40.
Helm£^le, Sutherland, bronze vessels
found near, 42.
Hempstead. Roman remains at, 116.
Henbury, Roman remains at, 116.
Hennickendorf , Bronzekessel von, 344.
Henrietta Maria, ring belonging to, 42.
Herefordshire-Huntington, 118 ; LJan-
rhidian, see Weobley ; Weobley,
118.
Hertfordshire—Bengeo, 143.
Herzegovina, die Bronzeschatz von
gremn gradae iuder, 362.
VIU
INDEX.
Hibbaldstow, The Court Rolls of the
Manor of, 43.
Hinckaert, Philip, Diptych of, 42.
Hittite Cylinder and Seal, 44.
Holbuiy (near Dean), Roman remains
at, 40.
HoUingsbury Hill, pre-Roman camp,
437.
Hornblendeschiefer, Polirtes Stein-
koil aus, 442.
Homegebirge, Ringwall im, 361.
Horsefield, Roman remains at, 116.
Horseton and Horsley, Annals of, 280.
Horsley, Annals of, 280.
Hottentotten Buschmannem und
Omundonga, physische Anthropolo-
gie von, 345.
House, the old German, 362.
Houses, Roman, 40, 275, 280, 359.
Hiigelgrabes bei Matezhausen, Eroff-
nung, 442.
Huntington, Herefordshire, Lordship
of Ei^lish and Welsh, 118.
Hurstpierpoint, Roman remains at, 437.
Iadeit ausBorgo Novo inGraubundten,
345.
Idols, Roman, found, 41.
Iford (field near), Roman villa, 40.
Incineration des morts h, I'age de la
pierre, 212.
India, Western, Folk-lore in, 213.
Indianem der westlichen Stamme,
Photographien von, 344.
Indians of Puget Sound, 344.
Innem Nordluzons lebenden Stamme,
Beitrage zur Kenntniss der im, 404.
Inventory of, goods, (1626), 210.
Inverness-shire — Beauly Valley, 44 ;
Duirinish, 43 ; Glen Urquhart. 43 ;
Mains of Croy, 44.
Iping, Roman urns, 437.
Ireland, Conquest of, 44.
Monuments of, 212.
Irish Church Bells, 210.
Folk-Lore, 118.
Iron, ancient, industry in Scotland,
364.
Trade in the Seventeenth Cen-
tury, Picture of, 280.
Italienischen Museen, Mittheilungen
aus, 362.
Italy, Churches on the eastern coast
of, 42.
Japanese Kew Year Decorations, 119.
Jesus College MS., pedigrees from, 279.
John (King), Notes on the will of, 118.
Jupiter, The twelve year cycle of, 212.
Kaffern , die religiosen Auschauungen,
404.
Kent — Boley Hill, 441 ; Canterbury,
440 ; Cobham Hall, 441 ; Frindsbury,
440 ; Lyminge, 119 ; Maidstone, 270 ;
Plumstead, 280, 441 ; Rainham, 441
Ramsgate, 441 ; Rochester, 440, 441
Roumey, New, 441 ; Sandwich, 118
Scotnoy, 441 ; Springhead, 441
Walmer, 440 ; Westbere, 440
Westenhanger, 441 ; West Wick-
ham, 279 ; Wickhambreux, 440.
Kent church plate in, 441 ; pseudo
Samian ware found in, 441.
Kentucky, Greenup County, The old
Fort Earthworks of, 362.
Kerpen, Ostpr., prahistorische Begrab-
nissplatze in, 362.
Kieselartefakte aus neuen agyptischen
Fundstatten, 345.
Killigrew MS., 42.
Kincardineshire, Garvock, 363.
Kineton Quarry, Roman remains at,
116.
King*s Diamond, notice of, 42.
King's Weston, Roman camp, 116.
Elingscote, Roman remains at, 116.
Kingsholm (near Gloucester), Roman
remains at, 116.
Kingston-Seymour, Coins found at,
280.
Kinross, urn discovered on Easter
Gellybank farm, near, 41.
Kirkcudbrightshire, AuchendoUy, 43.
cups, etc. found in, 363.
Kirkmaiden, excavation at St. Medan's
Cave and Chapel, 44.
Klagenfurt, Herkunft des Bemsteins
an einigen Fiboln zu, 362.
B^lostemeuberg, die Temi>era-Gem-
alde auf der Rilckseite des Yerduner
Altares in, 362.
Knight, sculptured head of, 441.
Knockankelly, Arran, cist discovered
at, 42.
Knyston (T. H.), memoriam, 364.
KoDan, Kaukasus, antimongerathe aus^
dem Graberfelde von, 345.
Kommerau, das Graberfeld von, 344.
Kourion, a silver Patera from, 362.
KreiBse Neidenburg Ostpreussen, Dor-
fanlagen im, 361.
Kwakiutl, songs and dances of, 344.
Lacock, marks of Roman habitation
at, 40.
Lage von Rethra auf der Fischerinscl
in der ToUense, Die, 344.
Laibach, Neueste Funde romischer
Steinsarge in, 361.
Lake Dwellings at Lough Moumo, 43.
Lakeham (at Wick Field), Roman
Remains, 40.
Lancashire — Lancaster, 119.
Prehistoric remains from West-
moreland and, 279.
Lancaster Castle Hill, the consecrated
well of, 119.
Lancing Down, Roman remains at, 437.
Language, (Cornish), what traces are
there left of the old, 43.
IXDEX
IX
Lark*s Bush, Roman remains at, IIG.
Latton, Roman remains at, 40.
LautiziOy seals ascribed to, 42.
Lavant, Roman earthwork (allied),
438.
Lavantthale. Laurentius zu St. Leon-
ard im, 361.
Leckhampton Hill, Roman Remains
at, 110.
Lees Priory, Essex, Notice of, 212.
Legends and Superstitions, Chinese,
211.
Leland in Somersetshire, 363.
Len&p^ conversations, 344.
Lenox, letters to Duke of, at Cobhani
HaU, 441.
Lewes, Roman remains at, 438 ; niate-
rials for a history of priory of, 440.
Liane, notice sur les fouilles execut^es
dans Ic lit de la, 344.
Limington, the early owners of, 363.
Lincohi Minster, ancient eastern ter-
mination of, 44.
Lincolnshire — Bott«sford, 43 ; Brigg,
41 ; Friskney, 41 ; Hibbaldstow, 43 ;
Lincoln, 44 ; Sleaford, 44 ; Willough-
by, 279.
Lindfield, aliens resident in, (1793),
441.
Lindores Abbey, notice of the register
of, 41.
Little Hampton, doubtful Roman
bottle, 438.
Llandaff Cathedral, Church Goods,
118.
Llaniigan Church, 211.
Llanhamlack Church, 211.
Llanrhidian, alias' Weobley Castle,
118.
Llansaintffread, Llanhamlack, and
Llaniigan Churches, 211.
Llantwit Major, discovery at, 118.
Llyfr Silin, 211.
London, remarks upon the Records of
the Parish of St. Stephen, Coleman
St., 42.
Inventories of St. Paul's
Cathedral, 44.
Lower Coilabus, Islay, bronze sword at,
43.
Luckau's, 3 neue entdeckte Rundwalle
in der Umgebung, 361.
Lunz und Umgebung, 3G2.
Lydbrook, Roman remains at, 116.
Lydney, Roman remains at, 116.
Lyminge, Co. Kent, Historical notes
relating to the church, 119.
Maidstone, paving tiles in All-Saints,
279.
Mains of Croy, Invemess-shiro, dis-
covery of brooches, etc. at, 44.
Malmesbury as a Village Community,
42.
Man, Isle of, Balagawno, 280.
Man, Isle of, early Christian monu-
ments, 118; sculptured stone found
at, 363.
Manor Court Rolls, value of, 279.
Mares6eld, (Oldland), Roman ii'on-
works, 438.
Marestones or Hagstoncs, 118.
Margam Abbey, 118.
Marlborough (near), Roman remains,
40.
Marriage Rites in China, 211.
Marsyas, Sarcophago de Sidon repre
sentant, 441.
Mary, Queen of William III., ring
belonging to, 42.
Master, (James) Expense book of,
440,
Mazers, or the English niediieval drink-
ing bowls, 42, 210 ; at Holy Trinity
Church, Colchester, an ancient,
210.
Mercat Cross of Edinburgh, 43.
Merida, yucatan, Schadcl von, 345.
Merigomish Harbour, thi-ee arrowheads
found at, 364.
Merovingienne, Etude sur quelques
caskets et anneaux de V ^poque,
212.
Metaponto, bnmze bull at, 441.
M^telin, Histoire Geologique de, 442.
Michigan, Archteology and Ethnology
of, 184.
Micmac an*owheads from Nova Scotia,
364.
Middlesex — Ealing,- 279; Fulham,
212 ; London, 42, 44, 118, 274, 365,
360.
Midhurst, Roman remains at, 438.
Mildeiihall, Roman remains at, 40.
Midlothian— Edinburgh, 43, 364.
Miracle plays, 67.
Mithraeum. in Ostia und dcs in den
Extemsteinen, 362.
Moan, Harray, iron age deposit found
at, 363.
Moeringen, bronze de, 212.
Moffat (near), camp and fort on the
Garpol Bum, 41.
Mommsen's (Theodor), view of Britain
as a Roman Province, 44.
Monkton, Farleigh, Roman remains at,
40.
Monmouthshire — Caerwent, 280.
Monuments, Early Christian, in Isle of
Man, 118.
in Ireland, 212.
Moreton-in-the-Marsh (near), Roman
remains, 116.
Mound Builders, their age and date,
212 ; Cave of, 184.
Moume, Lake dwellings at Lough, 43.
Munich, The portraiture of Alexander
the Great, a ten'a cotta head in,
361.
Miinsterthale, die St. Johannes-
Kirche zn Taufers im, 361.
INDEX.
Murtly, sculptured stone discovered at, Orkney, Danish claims on, 363.
42. Oudh, Gipsy tribes of, 184.
Mylor, Map of i)arish of, 42. Oystemioutn Castle, 211.
Nationality, Race and, 280.
Nature worship in ancient and pre-
historic religions, 345.
Naturvolker, Fferde und, 184.
Nautical Almanack, early history of
the, 41.
Neath Abbey, Notes on the Charters
of, 210, 211.
Negro Songs from Barbadoes, 118,
211.
Nephrit, ahsyrische Steinartefakte,
namentlich solche aus, 345.
Neston, (near cottage called ' ' the
Medleys"), Boman Remains, 40.
Neustettin, Bildzifferschrift aus einem
alten Brunnen bei, 345.
Nevilles*, the works of the, round Dar-
lington, 211.
Newhaven, pre-Roman camp, 438.
Newland (near), Roman Remains,
116.
Newton stone, inscriptions on, 42,
44.
Niederheim, Die Kirche zu St. Georgen
in, 361.
Niederlausitzer Graberfunde, 344.
Niemitsch und Sackrau, die Ortsna-
men, 404.
Gefassformen des Lausitzer Typus
und Einzelheiten, 344.
Norfolk — Eaton, 279 ; Nor^dch Castle,
279.
Northumberland — Alnwick, 42; Castle-
nook, 279 ; ChoUerford, 279.
Northstoke, Remains discovered at,
363 ; Roman Burial place at^, 364.
Nova Scotia, arrow heads from Meri-
gomish harbour in, 364.
N^he Bridge, Roman camp and sta-
tion, 40.
OcuLisTES Romains, Liste des, 442.
Oesterreich (Siid), Archaologische
Erinnerungen von einer Reise in,
346.
Ohio, Prehistoric Artidcial Terraces
in, 344.
Oldbury on Severn, Roman coins,
116.
Omaha and Ponka Myths, abstracts of,
*XAA
Omeatl und Halkga, 404.
Omundonga, physische Anthropologic,
von Buschmannem, Hottentotten
und, 345.
Onondoga Tales, 344.
Oriental Antiquities, notes on, 362.
Orkney — Birsay, 41 ; Stronsay, 363.
Orkney and Shetland, bronze weapons
found in, 363.
Pactific Folk-tales, Two South, 118.
Painswick, Kimsbuty camp, Roman
Remains at 116.
Palffiolithics and Mound Builders,
their age and date, 212.
Pal^ontologie stratigraphi(£ue de
riiomme, Essai de, 344.
Palikao, La Station quatemaire de,
404.
Parham Hill, Roman Remains at,
438.
Park Cwm Tumulus, description of,
210.
Passion, picture frame, inlaid with in-
struments of, 279.
Pavements Roman, 39, 40, 115, 116,
210, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 355,
356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 436,
437, 438.
Pedigrees from Jesus College, M.S.,
279.
Peeblesshire, the pre-historic forts of
363.
Penally, The Old Quay House, 210. -
Penpark Hole, Roman Lead mine,
116.
Penny Crick Tumulus in Gower,
118.
Penrith, valuation of the lands and
goods of inhabitants, (Henry viii.),
44.
Penygaer, compound wall of, 211.
Perthshire — Balquhidder, 363 ; Fortin-
gall, 42 ; Perth, 42.
Perth, Offerand Stok of St. Elois* altar
at, 42.
Peters (Himh), letter to, from Thomas
Shephard, 279.
Petworth, Roman Remains at, 438.
Pevensey, Roman Remains at, 438.
Pferde und Naturvolker, 184.
Philippinen-Austellung in Madrid und
eine verkrtippelte Zworgin, 344.
Philippinischen Inseln in Madrid,
Austellung von den, 362.
Phrygia and the borderlands. An-
tiquities of Southern, 362, 442.
Phtah, bronze Statuette of, 280.
Physiognomik, Die, 345.
Picture Frame, inlaid with the Instru-
ments of the Passion, 279.
Pienza, An English Cope at, 280.
Pir^, Inscription d^couverte, 212.
Piers Bridge Roman altars &c., at,
211.
Plato, inedited portrait of, 442.
Plummer's Plain, Roman onyx cameo,
438.
Plumstead, Roman Coffins found at,
280,441.
Pol(^te, Roman Remains at, 438.
INDEX.
XI
Ponka, and Omaha Myths, Abstracts
of, 344.
Pontiffii, Leaden Bullas of, 279.
Poor Man's Wall, see Devil's Dyke.
Portslade, Roman Remains at, 438.
Pottery, Roman, 39, 40, 115, 116, 274,
275, 276, 277, 278, 356, 356, 357,
358, 359, 360, 361, 435, 436, 437,
438,439.
Praxit^le, L'Hermes de, 212.
Preston, Sussex, Roman Remains at,
438.
Priegnitz und Westfalen, Hiiuser mit
Eulenlochem in der, 362.
Priest, Effigy of, in St. Mary's Church,
Swansea, 118.
Prinstead, Roman Remains at, 438.
Proverbes bosniaques, un recueil des,
213.
Pueblo-Indiana, Gerathe und Oma-
mente der, 345.
Puget Sound Indians, 184, 344.
Pulborough, Roman Remains at and
near, 438.
QuEMDALE Bay, Shetland, Stone Cir-
cles at, 363.
Raby, 119.
Race and Nationality, 280.
Races, stature of old, as estimated from
bones, 118.
Rainham Church, 441.
Ramsgate, Roman remains at, 440.
Ranscombe Camp, Roman Remains at,
438.
Recusants of Derbyshire, the, 281.
Regia, remarks upon the, 43.
Reichenberg, die Capelle des graflichen
Schlosses in, 362.
Heichenstein in Schlesien ein neuer
Fund bei, 362.
Renart, Sur une branche du Roman
de, 212.
Riesen von Freiwaldau, 344.
Roads, Roman in England, 40, 118,
210, 277, 360, 435, 439.
Roche Abbey, Rotherham, Stone at,
280.
Rochester, ancient Episcopal palace of,
441.
Boley HiU, 441.
Bridge in 1561, 440 ; poem on,
in 1601, 441.
Rock markings, some, 41.
Rodmarton, Roman Remains, 116.
Rohesia de la Pomerai, note on, 41.
Rokeby, Roman Altars at, 211.
Romains, Liste de Oculistes, 442.
Roman Forces in Britain, notes on,
44.
roads in Sussex, 439 ; roads near
and radiating from Colchester, 210.
Romney, New, records of, 441.
Rottingdoan, supposed Roman glass
factory, 438.
Roxburghshire— Wester Wooden (Eck-
ford), 44.
Royalists, list of Welsh, who com-
pounded for their estates, 118.
Rudge, Roman Remains at, 40.
Rftg, old, 210.
RuQiboldswyke, Roman bricks and
urns, 438.
Rushmore, settlement excavated at,
211.
Ruthwell Cross, 364.
Rye, Roman Romains at, 438,
Sacbaen, Alterthiimor aus der Provinz,
441.
und der Lausitz, Eisenfunde
aus, 442.
Sachsenwalde, Ausgrabungcn im, 361.
Saint-Germain (contrat de 1581),
441.
Saintes, the antiquities of, 43.
St. Asaph, Documents relating to
tithes, and other property belonging
to the Dean and Chapter of St.
Asaph, 211.
St. Briavels, (near), Roman Remains,
117.
St. David, the Patron Saint of Wales,
notes on, 280.
St. Ninian's Cave, Glasserton excava-
tion of, 364.
St. Roche Hill, Roman Remains at,
438.
St. Wilfred, 119.
Sakrau, Die Drierolten-Fibeln von,
362.
Salisbury, Archaeological meeting, ad-
dress at, 44.
Cathedral, the architect of, 41.
Roman pavement, 40.
Plain, Roman Remains on, 40.
Salsette, Folk-lore, 212.
Sambaquis die brasilianischen, 344.
Samian Ware, pseudo, found in Kent,
441.
San Salvador, Central Amerika, Jadeit-
keil von, 345.
Sandwich, notes on the Churches of
St. Clement and St. Mary, 118.
Sar|>abali (der), ein altindischor Schlan-
gencult, 345.
Savemake, Roman Remains at, 40.
Schadel von Nagy Sap (Ungam),
345.
Schlaupitz, das Graberfeld von, Kr.
Reichenbach Schlesien, 362.
Scotland, ancient iron history of,
364.
ancient valuation of land in west
of, 44.
Baptismal fonts, 364.
Beggars' badges, and notes on the
licensed mendicants of, 364.
xu
INDEX.
Scotland, Churches consecrated in the
13th century, 43.
horizontal water-mills of, 42.
Oghams in, 44.
Scotney Castle, 441.
Sculpture, English, 118, 441 ; Roman
Remains, 115, 117, 274, 357, 358.
Seaford, Rc»man remains at and near,
438.
Seals of English Bishoi)s, the, 280.
S^clin, Lille, incised slab at, 280.
Sedlcscombe, Roman Remains at,
438.
Selkirk, document in handwriting of
Wm. Brydone, 41.
Selsea, Roman Remains at, 439.
Sheffield, Norman Cross Shaft at, 281.
Shephard, a letter from Thos., to
Efugh Peters, 279.
Sherston Magna, Roman Remains, 40.
Shetland, Quendale Bay, stone circles,
at, 363 ; Yell, Island of, 364.
Shoreham, Roman Remains at, 439.
Sicily, 13th century, pyx from, 279.
Sidon, Sarcophago de, 441.
Signs, (Traders'), on Old London
Bridge, 118.
Silbury, (near) Roman horseshoes, 40.
Silchester, further notes on the ex-
cavations at, 43.
Skipworth, Yorks, incised stone at,
279.
Sleaford, Roman excavations at, 44.
Slindon, Roman Remains at, 439.
Slinfold, Roman Remains at, 439.
Smythe, Thomas, (Customer Smythe),
Westenhariger, 441.
Sockbum and Dinsdale, notes on,
118.
Conyers of, 211.
Somali Tribes, (Western), Folk-lore
and Social Customs of the, 119.
Somersetshire— Bath, 118, 280; Farm-
borough, 280 ; Hampden Hill, 280 ;
Leland, 363 ; Limington, 363 ;
Norths toke, 363 ; Stanton Drew,
364 ; Wells, 41.
Notes Heraldic and Genealogi-
cal on, 364.
Songs, Negro, from Barbadoes, 118,
21 L
South Downs, Roman Camps, on,
439.
South Stoke, Roman Remains at, 439.
Southerham, Roman Remains at, 439.
Southwick, Roman Remains at, 439.
Spat Laktation der Kafferfrauen, 404.
Spoonley Wood, Roman Remains at,
117.
Springhead, Roman coins found at,
441.
Staindrop Church, 210.
Stancombe Down, Roman Remains
on, 280.
Standard, Clach-na-Bratach, the stone
of the, 364.
Stanley, Tliomas of Hamjjton, letters
of, 440.
Stanmer, Roman Remains at, 439.
Stanton Drew, the stones of, 364.
Staunton, Roman Remains at, 117.
Stettin, iibor Graber der Bronzezeit in
Hinterpommem untersucht durch
Dr. W. Konig in, 362.
Steyning, Roman Remains at, 439.
Stinchcombe, Roman Remains at,
117.
Stone Circles, 210, 363.
Stoneham, near Lewes, Roman Re-
mains at, 439.
Stones, inscribed and sculptured, 41,
42, 43, 212, 276, 279, 280, 281, 356,
357, 359, 360, 363.
Stoney River, Roman Remahui at,
439.
Storrington, Roman Remains at,
439.
Stour, Roman Remains on, 4-1.
Stow-in the- Wold, Roman Remains at,
117.
Strata Florida Abbey, Cardigansliire,
excavations at, 211.
Stratfield, Mortimer, sepulchral slab
at, 281.
Stronsay, Island of, canoe found in,
363.
Stroud (Brown's Hill), Roman Re-
mains at, 117.
Studley, Remains of Roman Habita-
tion, 40.
Succession, archaic Law of, in Eng-
land, 42.
Sudeloy, Roman Remains at, 117.
Siidslavische Dorfanlagen und Hiiuscr,
361.
Suffolk — Blythborough, 42 ; Felix-
stowe, 279, 280 ; Halesworth, 280.
Sulevse, Colchester, altar to the, 211.
Sullington, Roman Remains at, 439.
Sun-god on Babylonian Cylinders,
Assyro-Babylonian forgery, 363.
Suri dynasty, the Rupees of the, 212.
Surinam, der Schadel und das Becken
eines Buschnegers und der Schadel
eines Karbugers von, 345.
Sussex — Cuck field, 441 ; LindfickU
441.
Assize of, in 1279, extracts from,
441.
— Benefices, Crown presentations,
temp. Ch., ii. 441.
Dialectal place nomenclature.
Glossary of, 441.
— Members of Parliament for, 441.
Roman roads in, 439.
Sutherlandshire— Golspie, 44 ; Helms-
dale, 42.
Sutton, (see Seaford), 439.
Sutton, (Stane St.), Roman Remains
at, 439.
Swansea, effigy of a priest in St. Marys*
Church, 118.
JNDEX.
xia
Swell, (Upper and Nether), Roman
Remains at, 117.
Swinigel und Hase, 361.
Tagolsheim, sepultures anoiennes de,
404.
Tales, the diffusion of popular, 344.
Tangermiinde, neue Funde auf dem
neolithuschen Graberfelde bei, 344.
Schadel aus der Nachbarschaft
von, 344.
Teinds " De Craggis et Gorgin," con-
troversy in regard to, 364.
Tetbury, R-jmin Remains at, 117.
Teton Dakota Ghost Story, 344.
Tezcuco, the sculptured stone of, 361.
Thasos, Histoire G^ologioue de, 442.
Thessalienne, Fastes £ponymiques
de la ligue, 442.
Thorshammer, 404.
Thousand and One Nights, the for-
bidden doors of, 119.
Thundersbarrow Camp, Roman Re-
mains at, 439.
Tideswell Dale Quarry, 279, 280.
Tiryns, die Mykener Konigsgraber,
und der prahistorische Palast der
Konige von, 442.
Tolbooth of Edinburgh, the origin and
early history of, 43.
Toulouse and Narbonne, 42.
Tours, the Church of St. Radegonde,
43.
Tre'r Ceiri, Compound Wall, 211.
Trient, Beitrase zur Geschichte der
Gobelins im Dome zu, 363.
Tvrlnehara, Roman Remains at, 439.
Ty-clwyfau Farm, Llanfairfechan, 281.
Tyrols, ueber verschiedene Kunst-
denkmale, 362.
Uley, Roman Remains at, 117.
Unseburger Hausumo, 344.
Upper Slaughter, Roman Remains at,
117.
Urns, 41, 42, 44, 116. 117, 353, 435 ;
Roman, 40, 276, 277, 280, 356, 358,
359, 435, 436, 437, 433.
Urquhart, Glen, sculptured stones at,
43.
Ur-und-Natui-volkem, die Textilindus-
trei den, 404.
Valentia Segellaunorum, 42.
Vereinigten Staaten Nordamerikas,
Bovolkerung in den, 404.
Verhaltniss, Bevolkerung im, 404.
Villa, Roman, 40, 42, 115. 116, 117,
210, 211, 435, 438.
Village Community, Malmesbury as a,
42.
Vinovia, 119.
V(X)doo Worship and child sacrifice
in Hayti, Myths of, 345.
Vorarlberg, Glas^emalde aus, 362.
— — vorkommenden Schiidolformen.
Ueber die in, 344.
Wales— Caer Drewyn, 211 ; Colwin-
ston, 280 ; Craig-y-Dinas, 211 ; Den-
bigh, 211 ; Gowar, 118 ; Llandaff,
118 ; Llanfairfechan, 281 ; Llan-
figan, 211 ; Llanhamlack, 211 ;
Llansaintffread, 211 ; Llautwit Ma-
jor, 118 ; Margam, 118 ; Neath,
210 ; Penally, 210 ; Penygaer, 211 ;
Penny Crick, 118 ; Park Cwm Tumu-
lus, 210 ; St. Asaph, 211 ; Swansea,
118 ; TreV Ceiri, 211.
Folk-lore of, 279.
North, compound walls in, 211,
Walmer, Roman Remains at, 440.
Wanborough, Roman Remains at, 40.
Wans (near Verlucio), Roman Remains
at, 40.
Warburton, Roman Remains at, 439.
Warleigh, Roman villa, 40.
Warminster, Roman Remains at, 40.
Washington Hill, Roman Remains at,
439.
Watersfield (see Cold Waltham), 439.
Wells, building of the church of, 41.
Welsh Dioceses, older churches in,
119.
words, ancient, 279.
Royalists, list of, who compounded
for their estates, 118.
South, Edward II. in, 118.
Wemberham in Yatton, Roman house
at, 280.
Wendenzeit, in Feldberg und Umgeg-
end, ueberresto der, 345.
Weobley Castle, (Llanrhidian), 118,
Wepham, Roman Remains at, 439.
West Dean. Roman Remains at, 40.
Westbere Church, ancient glass in, 440.
Westenhanger, Customer Smythe of,
441.
Wester Wooden, Eckford discovery of
a cist at, 44.
Westergite, Roman Remains found at,
439.
Westfalische Todtenbaume, 345.
Westfield (Sussex), Roman Remains
at, 439.
Westminster, notes on the Hall of
William Rufus at, 41, 42, 43.
Westminster, mace, cup, and snuff-box
belonging to city of, 279.
Westmorland — Casterton, 363.
prehistoric remains from Lanca-
shire and, 279.
West Wickham, implements found at
Rowes Farm, 279.
White Hawke Hill, pre-Ro;nan camp,
439.
" White Ladies," Staffordshire, 211.
Whitewalls, Easton Grey, traces of
Roman work, 40.
XIV
INDEX.
Whittington (Wycomb), Roman villa
at, 117.
Wick (near DevizeB), Bonian Bemains
at, 40.
Wickhambreux, Saxon cemetery at.
440.
Wiener-Neustadt, Alte Glaagemalde
in, 361.
Wiggonhult, Roman Remains at, 439.
Wigtonshire — Glasserton, 364; Kirk-
maiden, 44.
notice of urns, &c. , in, 364.
William of Worcester, itineraries of,
42.
Willingdon, Roman Remains at, 439.
Willoughby, Lincolnshire, Roman and
other remains found at, 279.
Wilmington, Roman Remains at, 439.
Wiltshire — Malmesbury, 42 ; Marl-
borough, 40 ; Salisbury, 40, 41, 44.
Roman Remains in, 39-44.
Winchelsea, doubtful Roman walls, 439.
Winchester Cathedral Church, excava-
tions at, 280.
— — College, transfer of the Priory of
St. Andrew to, 43 ; waterwork panels
recently discovered at, 280.
Wissmann, Sammlung des Leutnant.
361.
Wiston, Roman Remains at, 439.
Witches* Ladder, 118, 210.
Witcomb, Roman Remains at, 117.
Withington, Roman Remains at, 117.
Wolof Folk Lore, 212.
Wolstanbury, Roman Remains at, 439.
Woodchester, Roman Remains at, 117.
Worthing, Roman remains at, 439.
two hundred years ago, 441.
Wotton, Roman Remains at, 117.
Wraxhall (North), Roman Remains at,
40.
Wrington, a sketch of the parish of^
364.
XocHiCALCO, die Ruinen von, 442.
Yatton, Somerset, Roman villa near,
211.
Yell, Island of, Shetland, standing
stones, &c., in, 364.
Yorkshire — Baincsse, 119 ; Catterick,
279; Crookes, 280; Roche, 280;
Rokeby, 211 ; Shefield, 281 ; Skif-
worth, 279.
INDEX.
XV
II.— ARTICLES, CORRESPONDENCE, &c.
Abaja (West African tribe), tattooing
marks, 402.
Abdication in favour of Son in Mar-
quesas and Tahiti, 266.
Abduction in Fiji, S43.
Abyssinia, custom of selecting King
in, 90.
Acre, The Cornish, 60.
Acton Bumell, Church Restoration,
283.
Adultery, punishment for, among the
tribes of the Grambia, 9, 11.
Africa (South), mother on ceasing
child-bearing, lives with son, in,
267.
tribes on the Coast from the
Senegal to the Gambia, 16.
tnbes of, see ** Kafirs."
Zulu animal language tale, 162.
(West) tribes of, see " Ibadans,"
"Ifes," "Jebus," "Jolas," " Jolofs,"
«*Lowbey8," ** Mandingoes,*' '*Mo-
dakes," " Nominakas,^* ''Ond(«,'*
"Oyos,'' *' Salum-Salums," " So-
reres.*'
Agnatic kinship amon^; Fijians, 342.
Agricola, Argyll fortifaed by, 49.
Agricultural Dialect Words, Durham,
425-430 ; Wiltshire, 33-39.
Akkadian language, Turanian origin
of, 99.
Alaska, Indians of, 244.
Alexander the Great, Magicians of,
understand animal language, 83.
Allan (J. Romilly), MvMinn of CVitm-
tian ArcJKtolwjy, 191-19(5.
Alphabet, origin of Phoenician, 97, 101.
Altaic (Hittite) hieroglyphics, 98, 100.
Anderson (J.), Our National Monu-
ments, 186-191.
Animal bones polished with flint, dis-
covered, 281.
Animals, the language of, 81-91, 161-
181.
Annamites, animal language myths of,
171, 179.
Anthropological Institute, Transactions
of, 117, 210.
Anthropology and Archaeology, 6-7.
Antiquaries, Society of, Transactions
of. 279.
Ants, language of, 171.
Arabia, animal language myth in,
173.
marriage for fixed period in,
316.
*' Arabian Nights," animal language
mjrth in, 170.
Aran Islands, Remains in, 188.
Arch, remains of probable triumphal
Roman, at Aventicum, 419.
Architecture in Egypt, 411.
Argentocoxus, story of, 389.
Ai^ll, fortified by Amcola, 49.
Arrowheads, copper (Spanish pre-his-
historic), 262.
** Art in Ireland,** by Margaret Stokes,
revietCj 46.
in Egypt, 411 ; Phoenician, de-
rived from Turanians, 101.
Arundel, Rape of, 66, 67, 58, 69;
Sheriff's Court of, 68.
Aryan legal customs, sonship in, 255.
Races in Phoenicia (evidence of).
93.
Ashley (W. J.), Economic History and
Theory in the Middle Ages, rcri>fr,
371.
Ashton (J.), The Fleet : its River, Pri-
son, and Marriages, review, 60.
Asses, language of, 171.
"Assisa Panis" of Lo
124.
Association, British ArchieologicaJ,
transactions of, 117, 210.
** Assyria" (Story of the Nations
series), rerieir, 442.
Atkinson (J. C), DericatUn of Place-
names, 430-434.
Aventicum, Tlie Roman IMetropolia of
Helvetia, 413-426.
**Avesta,*' influence of, in Caucasus,
318, 321323, 325, 327, 331.
Australians (Souih), marriage customs
of, 386.
Austria, animal language ac<iuired by
magic feniseed in, 160 ; animal mytli
in, 176.
Aylesford Library, 79.
Bakers, Bristol, Book of, 125.
Chippenham, offending against
the assize, 207.
Coventry, ** Black Book*' of,
124.
London Bakers,
London, " Assisa Panis " of, 124.
of York and tlieir ancient or-
dinary, 124-134, 215-228 ; Book of
accounts of, 450-452.
dozen, origin of, 227.
limited to time for purchasing
com, 132.
records relating to, 125-126.
Ballad, Irish Religious, 147-148.
Banishment of men and women as
sacrifice among Jebus, 397.
Banks' Island (Melanesia), serpent
myth, 168.
XVI
INDEX.
Bantik, taboo myth at, 25, 111.
Basque, version of ** Seven Wise
Masters," 89.
Bavaria, animal language myths in, 176.
succession of son during father's
life in, 257.
Bear baiting at Pjiris Garden, 68.
Bears, language of, 82.
Beddgelert, swan-maiden myth at, 198.
Bells, Church, Berwick, 456.
Bengal, animal language tale, 163.
** Berwick-upon-Tweed," History of
Town and Guild of, review^ 452-456.
Bhondas, marriage rites of, 386, 387.
Bible, see ** Genesis."
Biers, Ancient English, 368.
Birds, language of, 82, 83, 84, 85, 162,
163, 167, 168, 169, 180.
Birth rites, Caucasian, 324 ; Pictish,
49.
Black Death, deterioration of monastic
life from, 145.
Blind (K.), A G-rimm'a tale in a Shet-
land Folklore version^ 346-352.
Blood drinkingof enemies among Picts,
49.
Boars, bones of, found at Ventnor,
281 ; deposition of, as food offering
in Hallstatt cemetery, 120.
Bohemia, animal language myth in,
173, 176.
Bone implements at Aventicum, 414,
415,
Books, Glossaries appended to, 77-78,
158.
B<jrough English, see Junior Right.
Borneo, Taboo myth in, 199.
"Boy who becomes Pope," Breton
version, 85, 86; German, 85; Italian,
85 ; Norman, 85.
Bracelets, Spanish, pre-historic, 261.
Bramber, B^pe of, 56, 57, 58, 59.
parliamentary division, 59.
Bread, assize of, 124-134, 215-228;
prices of, fixed, 126-127 ; varieties
of mediaeval, 227-228 ; weight of,
126-127.
Bristol, Books of Bakers of, 125.
and Gloucester, Archtelogical
Society, transactions of, 115.
Britons, polyandry among, 388, 389,
392, 395.
Brittany, animal language myths in,
174.
*'The Boy who became Pope,**.
versions of, in, 85, 86.
method of gathering herhe dVr,
197.
l^ronzes found in Hallstatt, 121.
Brother, succession of, in Fiji, 343.
Brown (R.), Bibliography of Morocco^
79 ; Origin of the Eskimo, 237-253.
Buckland (A. W.), Pre-historic remains
in iSpatn, 259-266.
Bull, b^nes polished by flints, found
at Ventnor, 281.
Burgh, Chartered, transition from
village coiiununity to, 105.
Burial Customs, Caucasian, 322, 326,
330 ; Chevsurs, 322-323 ; English,
366, 367 ; Eskimo, 252 ; Spanish, pre-
historic, 201, 263.
Burmah, swan-maiden myth in, 25.
Bye-laws of Borough of Chippenham,
206-207.
Cakes, sacrificial, used by Ossetes,
329.
Caledonians, see "Picts."
Cambridgeshire — Hanseton, 282 ; Thor-
ney, 283.
Cambriensis, Archseologia, proceedings
of, 117, 210.
Campbeltown, handfasting custom at,
393.
Cantiana, Archseologia, proceedings of,
. 440.
Cars, funeral, 370.
Cashel, destruction of, Innismurray,
188.
Castleguard ter.ure in Sussex, 57.
Castles, Berwick, 453 ; Norwich, 283.
Casts of Monuments, Collections of,
195.
Cats, language of, 172.
Caucasian Highlanders, survivals of
Iranian Culture among, 313-331.
Caucasus, religious rites in, 318, 319.
see '* Chevsurs," "Ossetes,"
**Pschav8."
Celebes Islands, swan-maiden myth in,
25.
Cemeteries — Hallstatt, 119 ; pre-his-
toric in Spain, 260 ; Roman, at
Aventicum, 425.
Ceylon, Kandyan custom of poly-
andry, 387.
Chartered Bui^h, Chippenham as a,
105.
Charters, nullified by change of seal,
136.
Cheshire, Villenage in, 448.
Chester, cross found near, 283.
Chevsurs (Caucasian tribe), dead body,
impurity contracted by touching,
322-323 ; dress, 319 ; funeral cus-
toms, 322, 323 ; purification by cow's
urine, 321 ; purity (physical), 320 ;
religious rites, 320 ; weapons, 319.
Chichester, Rape of, 56, 57, 58, 59 ;
Sheriff's Court for, 58.
Children, by Caucasian Nomoulous, be-
gotten by strangers, belong to hus-
band, 315 ; select masters, 315.
Chinese hieroglyphics, 98, 99.
Chippenham, Dakers of, 207.
as a Village Community, 102-108,
203-210.
Christian Archieology, proposed Mus-
eum of, 191-196.
Church Bells, Berwick, 456.
Restoration, 283-284.
WDEX
x\ii
Churches, British, 282-283.
ClarOj Co., Aran, remains at, 188.
Cocks, language of, 169, 170^ 175.
Coins. British, 281.
destruction of, 144.
Roman, 282, 422.
Spanish, 144.
Common Lands at Chippenham, 206.
Commonwealth, villenage in England
during the, 444-449.
Communal help (in Russia), 273.
property (in Russia), 267.
Communities, village, 372, 373, 374 ;
in Russia, 266-273.
Community, village, at Chippenham,
102-108, 203-210 ; Ditmarsh, 373.
Concubim^e in the Caucasus, 315.
Conder (Capt. C. R.), Pre'Stmitic
element in Phce-Hkia^ 91-101.
Contract by handshaking in the Cau-
casus, 318.
husband's rights based upon,
254.
Coorgs, female kinship among, 395 ;
marriage feast of, 387, 388 ; social
organization of, 395-396.
Copper, prehistoric articles of, in
Spain, 262.
Cornwall, Acre of, 60.
animal language myth in, 179.
Royal Institution of, papers
contributed to, in 1886-7, 41.
Coroner's Court for Hastings Rape, 59.
Coronets, Spanbh prehistoric, 261, 262.
Corrobborees among South Australians,
386.
Corwrion, Lake, swan-maiden myth at,
32, 112, 113, 196.
Counting, Methods of, among Gambian
tribes, 9, 11, 13, 14.
, quinquennial, 9.
Counting-out rhymes for children, re-
deWf 213.
Couvade, custom of, 254, 255.
Coventry, '* Black Book " of bakers,
124.
Cows, purification by urine of, 321«
see **Oxen."
Cromwell, Yillenage in England in
time of. 444-449.
Crosses, 194-195, 282-283.
Crows, language of, 82, 163.
Cruitnigh, see " Picts of Ulster."
Cultivation, system of, in village com-
munity, 207.
Culture, Iranian, in the Caucasian
Highlands, 313-331.
Cumberland, Villenage in, 445-446.
Cuniform hieroglyphics, 98-99,
Cup, wooden, found in Hallstatt Ceme-
tery, 121.
Customs of the tribes of Lagos, 396.
Cut-money in Virgin Islands, 144.
Cyfar, ancient Welsh measure, 18-19.
Cymmrodorion, Archadological Society
of, transactions, 279.
Cypriotes, Phoenician alphabet derived
from, 101.
Daghestam, see *' Caucasus."
Danish settlement at Chippenham, 104.
Dead, beliefs concerning, among Os-
setes, 327 ; Pschavs, 326-327.
, body, impurity from touching
(Caucasian belief), 320, 322-323.
Deer, bones polished by flint imple-
ments foimd at Ventnor, 281.
Deities, Phoenician names of, derived
from the Turanians, 96.
Denmark, handfasting customs in, 390.
Derbyshire Archffiological Society,
transactions of, 279.
Descent, Fijian laws of, 342-343.
Devils, names of, 63.
Diadems, prehistoric in Spain, 261 ;
Roman at Hallstatt, 121.
Dialect Words, Agricultural, in Dur-
ham, 425-430 ; Wiltshire, 33-39.
Discoveries in British Isles, recent,
281.
Ditmarsh village community, 373.
Dogs, Folk-lore, concerning, among
Eskimo, 249 ; language of, 85, 169,
172.
Domesday measures of land, 285-295.
Dorsetshire, Domesday measures of
land in, 285.
Drama, Index Notes to the Old English,
— Chaste Maid in Cheapgide, 75-77 ;
Ralph Roister Doisttr, 156-158 ;
Every Man in his Humour, 307-312.
Dress in the Caucasus, 319.
Dunstable, prehistoric remains found
at, 281.
Durham, agricultural dialect words used
in, 425-430.
Dwellings, Lake (near Aventicum),
414 ; prehistoric in Spain, 260.
Eagles, language of, 82.
East Harptree, Roman remains found
at, 281.
Economic History and Theorv in the
Middle Ages (W. J. Ashley), rcricic,
371.
Eddaic tradition of polyandry, 389.
Egypt, Archaeology m, 405-413.
, exhibition of antiquities, 354.
, hieroglyphics of, 98.
Elephant, hairy, discovered at Swale-
cliff, 28L
Elton (C. J.\ The Picts of Galloway ,
48-54.
Emer, the wooing of, 68-75, 150-155,
231-235, 298-307.
Endogamy in the Caucasus, 317.
Englimd, '* Seven Wise Masters," ver-
sion of, in, 87.
Epirus, tale of animal language from,
83.
xvm
INDEX.
Erbistxick, map of a portion of tho
fiolds of, in tho year 1844, 17.
Eskdale, handfaetiiig at, 393.
Eskimo, origin of, 237-253.
, American-Indian origin of,
242-246 ; art amongst, 252-253;
characteristics similar in different
localities, 238-240 ; districts in-
habited by, 238-239 ; Kayak imita-
tion of Indian canoe, 247 ; language
of, 243 ; Palseolithic men (theory
that Eskimo are European), 251 ;
|>otlaches (custom of), 247 ; tribes,
establishment of, 241 ; weapons of,
248.
Essex, Archa3ological Society, transac-
tions of, 117, 210.
Esthonian animal language tales, 1C2,
164.
Evans (A. J.), Hit HiOXstait Period in
Upper Bavaria, 119-123.
Exogamy and Polyandry, 385-396.
Female succession, 253, 394.
Ferguson (R. 8.), ScoWi '^Benmck-
npon-Tweed," I'eriew, 452-456.
Femseed, animal language acquired
by, 164, 165, 166.
, magic properties of, 164, 165,
166, 179, 180.
Festivals, periodical, marriage con-
tracted at, 386-387, 388.
Fetish Houses in Lagos, 398.
Field, common, cultivation of, 107, 208,
209.
Fifteenth Century, England in, review,
295.
Fiji, agnatic kinship in, 342 ; marriage
customs in, 343.
Fijian Laws of Descent, 342-343.
Fines of York bakers, 450, 451.
Finland, animal language myth in,
172.
First bom, Jewish sanctity of, 335.
Flint instruments found at Slade, 281 ;
in Spain, 259-260.
Flowers, custom of strewing hearse
with, 369.
Folk-Lore, Dog, 249; Eskimo, 249-
250.
Folklore Journal, papers in, vol. v., 117,
210.
Folkland, manors created from, 105.
Folkmote in London, 372.
Foreign periodicals, index notes to,
117, 183, 212, 344, 361, 404, 441.
Forest, village conmiunities settled in,
103.
Formosa, Land mortgaging in, 181.
races of, 182, 258.
France, animal language myth in,
172.
, "Seven Wise Masters," ver-
sion of, in, 87, 88.
Eraser (J, G.), The IxDupuufe of
Animals, 81-91, 161-181. ' .
Freckcnham, Coins found at, 281.
Free forests, settlement of village com-
munities in, 105.
Frogs, language of, 83, 85, 161.
Funeral customs, Caucasian, 322-323,
326-330; Chevsurs, 322-323; English,
366-367 ; Eskimo, 252 ; Spanish
(prehistoric), 261, 263, 264.
Galleys, Spanish prehistoric (sculp-
tured), 263.
Galloway, fortified by the Romans, 49;
language of, 51 ; Picts ol, 48-54.
Gambia, native races of, 7-16.
, tribes of, see " JoLis,'» " Jolofs,"
**Lowbeys," *'Mandingocs,'* "Nu-
minkas," "Salum-Salums," *'Sei-
eres "
Gavelkind in Wales, 18-22.
Geese, language of, 83.
Geldable hide, in Domesday, 285-286,
287
Geld-inquest, Dorset, 286, 289.
Gennany, animal language myths in,
163, 164, 173, 175, 176, 177, 179.
, ** The boy who became Pope,"
version of, in, 85.
, see "Bavaria," "Bohemia,"
" Thuringia.*'
Gild of Berwick, 455-456 ; of Southamp-
ton, 373.
of Bakers at York, 124-134, 215-
228, 450-452.
mercantile, 372.
Glass, Spanish prehistoric, 264.
Glossaries appended to Books, 77, 158.
Gloucestershire, Roman remains in,
115-117.
Golden herb, manner of gathering in
Britanny, 197.
Gombo tattooing marks, 402.
Gomme (G.L.), (Jhippeiiham as a Village
Oommnurti/, 102-108, 203-210; Physi-
cians of Myddfai, 214 ; SoiiMp and
LiheHtancc, 253-258 ; Exogamy and
Polyandry, 385-396.
Greece, animal language myth in, 166-
167.
Grimm's Tale, A Shetland I?olk-Loro
version, 346-352.
Guiana, animal language believed to
exist, by natives of, 82.
Gwolys, system of land-holding in
Wales, 22, 23.
Hakka villages in Formosa, 182-183.
Hallstatt, cemetery at, 119.
Hallstatt Period in Upper Bavaria,
review, 119-123.
Hampshire, Petersfiold (Slade), 281 ;
Slade(Petersfield),281; Ventnor,281.
Hand votive, Aventicum, 423.
Uand-fasting, Scotland (in), 390, 394 ;
Wales (m), 391.
Handshaking, Caucasian form of con"
tract, 318.
nVDEX.
XIX
HaiiBeton, Roman coins discovcrod at,
282.
Harrow as heraldic deyice, 366-367.
Hartland (E. 8. ), Iiidex Note on African
Tribes, 16 ; Physicia^is of Afyddfai,
24-32, 109-115, 196-203.
H.-xstings, liape of, 56, 57, 58, 59.
, Coroner's Court for, 69.
Haverfield (F.), Boman remains in
Sussex, 434-440.
Headman (Chippenham) duty of cut-
iug first acre, 209.
Hearse, History of the word in Eng-
land, 365-371.
Hebrides, king's marriage custom, 389.
Helvetia, Aventicum Roman Metro-
polis of, 413-425.
Henry YIII. and the English Monas-
teries, review, 144-147.
Ueriots, oppressive, in England, 444.
Hiawatha and the Kalevala, 376-384.
Hide of Land, Dcmiesday, 285.
Hieroglyphics, importance of varia-
tions in forms of, 412.
independently developed
(Altaic, Chinese, Caniform, Egyptian)
98.
Hill-forts of Sussex, 55.
Hittitc (Altaic) hierogl3rphic8, 98, 100.
Holt (A.), Index Notes <m Old Palace
at Westminster, 143-144.
Horg Worship, 432.
Horses, language of, 169.
House-Community, alienation of pro-
perty with consent of chief, 269.
direct taxation of, 268.
ownership of, in Russia, 267, 268.
House, Fetish, at Lagos, 398.
Howorth (H. H.), Sussex Rapes, 230.
Human sacrifices, (Ibadians to god of
war) 400 ; Ifes, 396, 403 ; Ondos,
396, 397 ; Oyos, 401.
Huntingdonshire— Yelling (St. Neots),
283.
Ibadans (West African tribe), amuse-
ments, 400, fetish houses, 398 ;
government, 399 ; history, 400 ;
human sacrifices, 400 ; marriage
customs, 399 ; musical instruments,
400 ; polygamy, 3«8 ; succession,
398.
lem-gual, Irish copper wine cask, 69.
Ifes, (West African tribe), human
sacrifices, 396, 403 ; marriage cus-
toms, 403, superstitions, 403 ; women
secluded every ninth day, 404.
Image of the dead among Ossetes, 329.
Imbas Forosnai, Irish mode of divina-
tion, 303.
India, animal language myths in, 169,
173, 179.
(Kangra), abdication in favour
of son, 256.
(Peshawar), birth of female a
India, version of ** Seven Wise
Masters," 91.
(East) See "Bengal,'*
"Bhondas," "Co.orgs," "Kocch,"
**Miris," "Naga," "Nairs," **Para-
kas," "Santals."
Indian Words and Usages, Glossary
of, 78.
Indians, Americans, see ** Alaska."
Eskimo descended from Ameri-
can, 242.
Infanticide (female) in Prussia, 390.
Inheritance, Sonship and, 253.
Inn-holders, see "Tiplers."
Innis Muiredach, Sligo, remains at, 187.
Institute, Archaeological, transactions
of, 41.
Interment, partial, at Hallstatt, 120.
Iranian Culture, its survival among
Caucasian Highlanders, 313, 331.
Ireland, early Christian art in,
(Margaret Stokes), review, 46.
Historical and Archaeological
Association of, transations of, 117,
210.
Contempt, ancient expressions
of, 79.
marriage customs in, 391.
monuments of, 187-188.
Picts of, see Picts of Ulster.
Polyandry among early inhabi-
tants of, 389.
Religious ballad, 147.
Scandinavia, intercourse with.
303.
misfortune in, 258.
Iron, striking with, forbidden in myths,
196, 197, 198.
Italy, "The boy who became Pope,"
version of, in, 85.
Jacobs (J.) Junior Eight in Genesis,
331-342.
Jebu (West African tribe) physical ap-
pearance, 397 ; dress, 397 ; orna-
ments, 397, 398 ; amusements, 397 ;
trade, 397 ; banish man and woman
as sacrifice annually, 397 ; umbrella,
symbol of sovereignty, 397.
Joint-ploughing, Welsh custom of, 18,
19,23.
Jolas (Gambian tribe), historical notes
on, 12 ; language of, 13 ; laws of,
13 ; physical features of, 12 ; sexual
selection among, 13 ; trade r)f , 12.
Jolofs, (Gambian tribe), counting
among, 14 ; government among, 13;
language of, 14 ; physical features
of, 14 ; religion of, 14.
Jonson (Ben), Every man in his humonr^
Index notes, 307-312.
Junior- Right in Genesis, 331-342.
Jutland, eating flesh of white serpent,
confers wisdom, 174.
Kafirs, circumcision festival of, 387,
male kinship recognised by, 395.
XX
mDEX.
Katira, polygamous marriage among,
395.
Kalmuck animal language tale, 161.
Kangra, Punjab, abdication in favour
of son, 256.
Kayak, imitation of bircb bark canoe,
247.
Keke tattooing marks, 402.
Kent— Swalecliff, 281.
King, marriage custom in Hebrides,
389.
King, sacrifice (human) at death of,
(OndoX 396 ; installation of, 397.
Kingship, succession to (Oyos), 401.
Kinship, Agnatic in Fiji, 342 ; female
influence of, 254.
Kirby (W.F.), Hia\oatha and tlie Kale-
vala, 376-384.
Kirgis, animal language tales among,
Kocchs, female succession among, 253.
Kovalevsky (M.), Village Commnnities
m Riusia, 266-273 ; Survivals of
Iranian ChtUure among the Caucasian
Highlanders, 313-331; VUlenage in
ICngla/ndj 17th eeiUury 444-449.
Kylix in Hallstatt cemetery, 121.
Labour, compulsory in village com-
munities, 372, 373.
Lacouperie (T. de). Races of Formosa,
258.
1 adak, polyandry in, 257 ; succession
in, 256-257.
Lngos, Native tribes in, 396-404.
see "Ibadans." " Ifes,'' ** Jebus,"
"Modakes," **Ondos," "Oyos."
Lake, dwellings near Avenches, 414.
Lancashire, Villcnage in, 448.
Land, co-heirship in, in Wales, 22.
Domesday Measures of, 285-295.
holding in Russia, 267, 270, 272.
measures, see Measures of land.
mortgaging in Formosa, 182.
Language of Animals, 81-91, 161-181.
Lathes, iCentish land division, 55.
Law and Historical Words, Glossaries
of, 78.
Laws of descent, Fijian, 342.
Legal Customs in the Caucasus, 318.
Terms, Glossary of, 158.
Lowes, Rape of, 56, 57, 58, 59.
barony, court for, 59.
Library, Aylesford, 79.
Rf3yal at Nineveh, 443.
Lincobishire— Snarford, 368.
Lions, language of, 82.
three, as a charge on the Royal
arms, 135.
Lithuania, animal language myth in,
173, 179, 180.
ownership of land in, 270,
Llanberis, taboo myth at, 201.
Llyn Cwnillwch, swan-maiden myth at,
202.
Llyn Nelferch, see ** Ystradyfodwg,"
Llyn-y-Dywarchen, swan-maiden myth
at, 200.
Llyn-y-Fan-Fach, swan-maiden myth
at, 24, 199.
Lofthouse, pterodactyle found at, 281.
London, ^' Assisa Panis " of, 124.
folkmote of, 372, 373, 374.
Roman Remains discovered
at, 282.
Roman Remains in. North
Side of the Thames, 274-278, 355-
360; South Side of the Tliames,
360-361.
Loo Choo, taboo myth in, 112, 198.
Lowbeys (Gambian tribe), customs of,
15 ; language of, 16 ; marriago
among, 15 ; origin, traditional of,
15 ; physical features of, 15 ; re-
ligion of, 16.
Lukis (W, 0.^, Megaliihic monumenfa^
352-354.
^ Mah^bh^brata, taboo myth in. 111.
Malagasy, Swau-uiaiden tale, 25, 28,
198.
Mandingoes, (Gambian tribe), crime
and punishment among, 9-11 ; his-
torical notes on, 8, 10 ; language of,
9 ; physical features of, 9, quinquen-
nial counting by, 9, 15 ; religion of,
9 ; trade amongst, 8.
Mark, see " Free Forest."
Market in village communities, 104.
village, Chippenham a, 103-
1044.
Marquesas, abdication in favour of son
among, 256 ; succession among, 256.
Marriage among Arabians, 316 ; Aus-
tralians, (South), 386 ; Bhond.'is,
386-387 ; Caucasians, 315 ; Coorgs,
387, 388; Fijians, 343; Ibadmns,
398 ; Hebrides (kings of) 389 ; Irish,
398 ; Lowbeys, 15 ; Peraians, 316 ;
Romans, 392 ; Thule (inhabitants of),
389.
customs, Australians (South),
386 ; Ibadian (chief daughter^ 399.
ex iisu, Roman, 392.
festivals, (contracted at periodi-
cal), 386-387, 388.
Fijian rules regarding, 343.
fixed periods (for), Arabia,
316 ;• Caucasus, 315 ; Persia, 316.
pits, artificial, 383.
purchase in the Caucasus, (by)
315.
rites in the Caucasas, 315 ; in
Lagos, 403.
Masson (D.), Tuar Ferge Fowhide Dhe,
147-149.
Masurian, " Seven Wise Masters," ver-
sion of, 89.
Measures of Land, Domesday, 385-395.
see "Acre," "Hide," "Lathe,"
"Quillet," ** Rapes," "Runrig," Vir-
gate," " Yard."
INDEX.
XXI
Medio Language, Turanian origin of,
99.
Megalithio Monuments, 362-364.
Meknesia (Bank's Island), serpent
myth, 168.
M^lusine, contents of, 117.
Menabozho, animal language under-
stood by, 83.
^ Meyer (K.), Tht Wooiiig of Emer, 68-
76, 160-165, 231-236, 298-307.
Middle Ages, economic history in,
review, 371-376.
Middleton (Thomas), A Chaste maid
in Cheapsidej index notes, 76-77.
Milan, Taboo myth at, 30.
Miles, (E. J.), Aventicnm the Roman
Afetfc^u of Helvetia, 413-425.
Mir System in Russia, 270.
Miracle play, furnished by Bakers of
York, 226.
' • in London, 67.
Miris, female kinship among, 395.
Monasteries, Henry VIII. and the
English, review, 144- 14G.
Money, cut, in Virgin Islands, 144.
Mongolian animal language tale, 163.
Monuments, collections of casts of,
195.
Irish, 187, 188.
National, 186-191.
Moors, animal language understood by,
84.
Morocco, bibliography of, 79.
Mortgage of land, in Formosa, 182.
Mosiacs, Roman at Aventicum, 421.
Mother, resides with son when past
childbeaidng, 267.
Moyen-Age, Le, (revieio\ 123.
Murage, exemption of estates in
Bramber Rape from, 58.
Musical instruments (Ibadian), 400.
Myddfai, the Physicians of, 24-32,
109-115, 196-203, 214.
Mythology, Egyptian, 410.
Naga, animal language myth, 169.
Nair polyandry, 387, 394.
Naples, animal language myth in,
171.
Neolithic remains in Spain, 269.
Neutral ground, markets on, 104.
New Zealand, Sonship in, 265 ; Suc-
cession in, 255 ; Swan maiden myth
in, 198.
Nomibantakas, see *'Nominkas."
Nomibartakas, see "Nominkas."
Nominkas (Oambian tribe), descent
from Mandingoes of, 11-12 ; laws of,
12 ; religion of, 12 ; sections of, 11 ;
trade of, 12.
Nomoulous (wife for fixed period) in
Caucasus, 315.
Norfolk— Norwich Castle, 283.
Normandy, "The Boy who became
Pope," version of, in, 86,
Northamptonshire-Peterborough, 282,
283.
Northumberland — Berwick-on-Tweed,
452.
Norway, eating flesh of white snake
confers wisdom, 174.
Norwich Castle, Norman work found
in, 283.
Novantfe, Cumbrian origin of, 61-62.
Nutt (A.), Ancient Irish expresitu>n$ of
tocial coiUempt, 79.
OcEANO-Melanesians, (Social History
of the Races of mankind) revieio,
184.
Olowu tattooing marks, 402.
Ondo (African tribe), customs at death
of king, 396.
Ornaments, prehistoric, in Spain, 260,
261, 262.
Ossetes (Caucasian tribe), dialect of,
314 ; funeral customs of, 326, 330 ;
origin of, 313.
Owu tattooing marks, 402.
Oxen, language; of, 162.
Oyos (West Africin tribe), human
sacrifices, 401 ; kingship, succession
to, 401 ; punishment among, 401.
PALiGOLiTHic men, theory that Eskimo
are descended from, 261.
Palmer (A. N.), Field System of NoHh
Wales, 17-24.
Paraka, animal language myth in, 173,
179.
Paris Garden, bearbaiting at, 68.
Parliamoutary papers and reports
Notes from — The Tribes of the
Gambia, 7 ; 1 he Races of Formosa,
182 ; Fijian Laws of Descent, 342 ;
Native tribes of Lagos, 396.
Pasture, freeman's right of, in common
fields, 209.
Paternity, sonship not connected with,
among Hindoos, 254.
Pavements, Roman, 282, 421, 422.
Peacock (E.), History of the word
Hearse in England, 365-371.
Pele tattooing marks, 402.
Pentamerone, animal language tale in
the, 91.
Periodical distribution of land in
Russia, 271-272.
festivals, marriage contracted at,
386, 387, 388.
Publications, Foreign, 1888, In-
dex Notes to, 117, 183, 212, 344,
361, 404, 441.
Porrault*s Popular Tales, review,
235.
Persia, marriage for fixed period in,
316.
Peshawar, India, birth of female a
misfortune in, 258.
XXIl
INDEX.
Peterborough, Coins found near, 282 ;
Saxon Remains at, 282 ; restoration
of Abbot's gateway, 283.
Petrie (W. M. F.), Arcluxdogy in
Egypt, 405-413. *
Petrovitch, Peter, talks with birds, 83.
Peveiisey, Rape of, 66, 57, 58, 59.
Phallic worship among South Aus-
tralians, 386.
Phoenicia, Pro-Semitic element in,
91-101.
Alphabet of, 97-101 ; Art in, 101;
Aryan races in (evidence of), 93 ;
language (Turanian origin of), 99-100;
migration of inhabitants from Meso-
potamia (traditional), 94; myths of, 97;
population (three elements of) in,
92 ; Turanian origin of, 97, 99, 100,
101.
Phoenicians in Spain, 259, 263, 264.
Physicians of Myddfai, The, 24-32,
109-115, 196-203, 214.
incts of Galloway, 48-64.
of Ulster, 60.
Pits, artificial, constructed for marriage
rites, 386.
Place-names, derivation of, 430-434.
Plants, magic, 163, 176, 177, 179, 180,
200.
Ploughing, joint, Welsh custom of,
18-19.
Ploughlanda in Cornwall, 60.
Polyandry, Exogamy and, 385-396.
Polyandry among Britons, 388, 389,
392, 395 ; Irish, 389 ; Ledaks, 267 ;
Nairs, 387, 394 ; Spitians, 267.
Eddaic traditions of, 389.
Polygamy, pennitted among Sereros,
11.
Polynesia, succession in, 266.
Porphyry, contends that animals
speaJc, 82.
Portcullis, used as meaning hem sc, 365-
366.
Potlaches, custom of among Eskimo,
247.
Pottery, Roman, discovery of, 281.
Spanish, pre-historic, 261, 265.
Price (J. E.), Kuman remahu in Lon-
don, 274-278, 355-361.
Prussia, female infanticide in, 390.
Pschavs (Caucasian tribe), purity,
physical, 324 ; religion, 323, 325, 326,
327 ; sacrifices, 324 ; temples, 325.
Pterodactyle, found at Lofthouse, 281.
Puberty, festival of, among Kaffirs,
387.
Punishment among Oyos, 401.
Purity, physical, in Caucasus, 319, 324.
Quillets, Welsh division of land, 17.
Quinquennial counting, 9, 11.
Rape (West Sussex), liable for repair
of bridges, 59.
Rapes of Sussex, Tlie, 54-59, 229-230.
boundaries of, 55, 56, 229 ; Courts
(none mentioned in Domesday), 58,
230 ; derivation of names of, 66, 67 ;
Domesday, Lords of, 59, 230 ; military
origin of, 57 ; origin of word, 56,
230 ; Saxon times (unimportance of
in), 57, 229 ; Scandhiavian origin of
names of, 230.
Religion, absence of relics of early in
Spain, 260.
Religious beliefs and rites in Caucasus,
318, 319, 320, 324, 325.
Research, organisation of local, 168.
Restoration, church, 283-284.
Rhys Gryg, Prince of South Wales,
200.
Richard I., change of his Seal, 135-143.
Rings, Eskimo, 247 ; magic, 163 ;
wishing, 168.
Roman marriage ex iisn, 392.
Remains at Avcnticum, 418.
Remains, index notes to, Glou-
cestershire, 115 ; London, North of
the Thames, 274, 366 ; South of the
Thames, 360 ; Sussex, 434 ; Wilt-
shire, 33.
roads, Sussex, 439.
Round (J. H.), Coimish Acre^ 60;
Richard J.'» Cfiange of Seed, 135-143 ;
Sussex Rapes J 229-230 ; Domesday
Measiwes of Land, 285-296.
Run-rig allotments in Russia, 267.
Russia, animal language myth in, 172,
180 ; communal-help in, 273 ; re-
distribution of land in, 269 ; ** Seven
Wise Masters," version of, in, 88, 90.
origin and growth of village com-
munities in, 266-273.
see ** Lithuania."
Sacrifices, human, among Ifes, 396,
403 ; Ondos, 396-397 ; C^os, 40.
Sacrificial banishment among Jebus,
397.
Salisbury, Roman villa found at, 282.
Salum-SalumR(Gambiantribe)langunge
of, 16 ; religion of, 15.
Santals (India), swan-maiden myth
among, 25.
Sawyer (F. E.), The Rapes of Sussex,
54-69.
Sayce (A. H.), "Story of the Nations :
Assyria,** review, 442-443.
Scandinavians, abdication in favour if
son among, 256 ; intercourse witli
Ireland, 303 ; succession among, 25().
Scholfe, remains of, at Aventicuni,
420-421.
Scotland, animal language myths in,
176-179 ; Handfastmg m, 390, 392,
393, 394.
I)roceedings of the Society of
Antiquaries of, 1886-7, 41, 363.
Scotland, see " Campbeltown," " Esk-
dale,'' "Hebrides."
Seal, Richard I., his change of, 135-143.
INDEX.
xxiii
Semitic inscriptions in Pha3uicia, 93.
race in Syria, 92 ; in Phoenicia,
93.
Soreres (Gambian tribe), crime and
punishment among, 10 ; government
of, 10 ; physical features of, 10 ;
polygamy permitted among, 11 ;
quinquonuLil counting by, 11 ; re-
ligion of, 10 ; trade of, 10.
Sei-fdom in England in 17th century,
444-449.
Serpents, language of, 83, 103, 166, 1G7,
168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176,
177, 178, 180.
magic, 1 63.
white, 174.
Servile townships of Wales, quillet^Kl
fields of, 19.
** Seven Wise Masters," Abyssinian
version, 90 ; Basi^ue, 89 ; English,
81 ; French, 87, 88 ; Indian, 91 ;
Masurian, 89 ; Russian, 88, 90 ;
Swahili, 90 ; Teleut, 90.
Sexual relationships in the Caucasus,
315.
Sharks, language of, 82.
Sheriffs Court (joint) for rapes of
Arundel and Chichester, 58.
Shrewsbury, Restoration of Abbey
Church, 283.
Shropshire — Acton Bumell, 283 ;
Shrewsbury, 283.
Situla, bronze, found at Hallstatt,
121, 123.
Skeat (W. W.), Notes on Agricultural
Dialect Words of WUtshire, 33-39.
Sbule, prehistoric Remains found at,
281.
Slavonia, animal language myth, 165,
168.
Sligo — Innismuredach, 187 ; Innis-
murray, 187.
Smith (L. Touhuiu), Bakers of YiwA*,
124-134, 215-228 ; Book of Accounts
of the Bakers of York, 450-452.
Snakes, language of, 83, 163, 166, 167,
168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175,
176, 177, 178, 180.
Snarford churchy Lincolnshire, ancient
hearse, 368.
Solomon, language of animal under-
stood by, 84.
Somersetshire — East H.arptree, 281.
Archaeological Society, transac-
tions of, 363.
Son, succession of, during father's life,
256, 257.
superiority of, to father, 255.
S<mship and Inheritance, 253^258.
Sovereignty, umbrella symbol of, 398.
Spain, prehistoric remains in, 259-266.
Neolithic implements in, 259.
Copper implement in, 262.
Spear of the bellows, Irish weapon, ^02.
** Spider and the Flea," Shetland tale,
347-352.
Spiti, polyandry in, 257 ; succession
in, 257.
Stir Chamber (Close and Patent Rolls),
144.
Stone implements at Aventicum, 414.
see ** Arrowheads," " Flint."
Stones, pre-Norman sculptured, 194-
195.
Strata Florida Abbey, Cardiganshire,
remains at, 282.
Succession, Female, 253, 394 ; Fiji,
342 ; Ladak, 256-257 ; Marquesas, 256;
New Zealand, 255 ; Oyo (to King-
ship), 401 ; Peshawar, 257 ; Poly-
nesia, 255 ; Russia, 269 ; Scandi-
navia, 256 ; Spiti, 257 ; Tahiti, 25() ;
Wurtemburg, 257.
Suffolk— Freckenham, 281.
Superstition, absence of relics of early,
in Spain, 260.
Sussex, Rapes of, 54-59, 229.
Roman Remains in, 434-440.
Archselogical Collections, Index
to, 440-442.
Swabia, animal language tales in, 82,
164.
Swahili^nimal language myth, 168.
version of ** Seven Wise Masters,"
90.
Swalecliff, tusk of hairy Elephant
found at, 281.
Swan-maiden group of folktales, 25-
32.
Sweden, eating flesh of white snake
confers wisdom in, 174.
Sword, Caucasian, described, 319.
children fed on point of, by the
Picts, 49.
found at Hallstatt, 122,
Symbolism, Early Christian, of Britain
and Ireland, rericWy 45.
Syria, animal language myths in, 82,
173.
evidence of Semitic race in, 92.
Syrian tale of l>ear language, 82 ; Lion
language, 82 ; Shark language, 82.
Taboo stories, 24-26, 109, 196.
Tahiti, abdication in favour of son in,
256.
Tartary, animal language myth in, 169,
172, 178.
Tattooing marks of tribes of Lagos, 402.
Tchukchi, distinct from Eskimo, 240.
Teleut, ** Seven Wise Masters," ver-
sion of, 90.
Temples, Pschav, described, 325.
Theatre, remains of R(»man, at Aven-
ticum, 420.
see ** Paris Garden."
Thorney Abbey, restoration of, 283.
Three Causeless Blows, see " Physic-
ians of Myddfai. "
Thule, communal marriage in, 389.
Thuringia, animal language myth in,
181.
3CXIV
INDEX.
Tibetan aninial hmguago tale, 162.
Tiplere, bread (sale of by), 133, 216,
218.
white bread only allowed to be
sold by, 133.
loaves sold by, to weigh more than
those vended by baker, 133.
sell only on Thursday, 133.
Tithes, common fields of Erbistock not
subject to, 21.
Toads, language of, 83.
Triumphal Arch, remains of probable
Roman, at Avonticum, 419.
Tuar Ferge Foighide Dhe, 147-149.
Turanians, Akl^ian language derived
from, 99 ; evidences of the, in
Phoenicia, 93, 94,95 ; Medic language
derived from, 96 ; Phoenican art de-
rived from, 101 ; Phoenician folklore
derived from, 97 ; Phoenician langu-
age derived from, 99, 100.
Tylor (E. B.), Anthropology and Ar-
choiologyy 6-7.
Tyrol, animal language myth in, 176.
Udal (Nich.), Ralph RoUUr Doisttr,
index notes, 156-158.
Ulster, Picts of, 50.
Umbrella, Jebu symbol of sovereignty,
398.
Urn burial, in Spain, 261, 265.
discovery of, at Slade, 28J .
VAn Pool, swan-maiden myth connected
with, 26, 110, 196.
Vases, painted, found at Hallstatt,
122.
Ventnor, bones discovered at, 281.
Villa, Roman, found in London, 282.
Village Communities, 372, 373, 374.
basis of membership, 203.
markets in, 104.
in Russia, 266-273.
Village Community, Chip|X3nham as a,
102-108, 203-210.
Ditmarsh, 373.
Villages, isolation of English, in 17th
century, 447.
Villenage in England in the 17th cen-
tury, 444-449.
Virgate in Domesday, 285.
Virgin Islands, cut-money used in,
144.
Wales — Beddgelert, 198 ; Corwrion
Lake, 32, 112, 113, 196 ; Erbistock,
17-24 ; Llanberis, 201 ; Llyn Cwm-
Uwch, 202; Llyn ^'elferch, 199;
Llyn-y-Dy warchen, 200 ; Llyn-y-
Fan-Fach, 24, 199 ; Van Pool, 26,
110, 196 ; Ystradgynlais, 202 ;
Ystradyfodwg, 110.
— animal language myth in, 179.
— handfasting (relics of) in, 391.
— pcdyandry (evidences of), in, 389.
North, ancient field-system (relic
» —^ ^
of) in, 17-24 ; cyfar (measure of land),
18, 19 ; gavelkind in, 18, 19, 22 ;
gwelys (tracts of family land), in,
22 ; joint ploughing in, 18-19, 23 ;
quillets (division of land), 17 ; ser-
vile townships of, 19.
Wall, great, of Aventicum, 418.
War, god of, human sacrifice to [Ibad-
ian], 400.
Wasteis, market villages founded in,
104.
Wends, animal language tales of, 165,
173.
Westminster, the old Palace of, Index
Notes of, 143-144.
White Serpents, 174-177.
Wife, Caucasian, for fixed period, may
be hired out, 315.
Wiltshire— Chippenliam, 102-108, 203-
210.
agricultural dialect words in, 33-
39.
Wishing rings, 168.
Witch, description of, 66.
Wobum Abbey, Greek marble at, 168.
Women impure in Caucasus during
menstruation and pregnancy, 320.
Fiji belong by birth-right to a
particular man, 343.
(Ife) secluded every ninth day,
404.
Wooing of Emer, 68-75, 150-155, 231-
235, 298-301.
Worms, language of, 167.
Wurtemburg, succession of son during
father's life, 257.
Yard-land, 39, 208.
Yelling, restoration of Church, 283,
York, the bakers of, and their ancient
ordinary, 124-134, 215-228 ; book of
accounts of the bakers of, 450-452.
Yorkshire — Lofthouse, 281.
Youngest son, rights of, among Jews,
331-342.
Ystradgynlais, swan-maiden myth at,
202.
Ystradyfodwg, swan-maiden myth at,
110.
*'Zend a vesta," see ** Avesta.'*
Zulu animal language tale, 162.
THE
Arch^ological Review.
Vol. I. MARCH, 1888. No. i.
EDITORIAL NOTE.
THE objects for which this Review is established are above all
things practical. We believe that, as it gets known and as
its influence increases, it will become necessary to every student. It
occupies no ground held by other periodicals ; it seeks no ends for
which there already exist adequate means of accomplishment.
Almost every county or distiict in the United Kingdom is the
centre of archaeological enquiry by a local organisation. The
Cambridge Antiquarian Society, the Berwickshire Field Natural-
ists, Newcastle Society of Antiquaries, Glasgow Archoeological
Society, the Sus.sex, Surrey, Kent, Shropshire, Somersetshire,
Lancashire and Cheshire, Wilts, Yorkshire, &c., county Archa3o-
logical Societies, the Essex Field Club, the Powys Land Club, the
Devonshire Association, the Royal Institution of Cornwall, are
among the most active of these local organisations. As national
organisations there are the Society of Antiquaries, the Archgeo-
logical Institute, and the British Archaeological Association in
Elngland, the Society of Antiquaries of fc'cotland, the Cam-
brian Archaeological Association in Wales, and the Archaeological
Association of Ireland. Then for special departments of arche-
ology, there are the Anthropological Institute, the Geological
Society, the Geographical Society, the Folklore Society, the English
Dialect Society, and such recently formed societies as the Pipe Roll
and the Selden. Nothing is clearer, therefore, that so far as
separate organisations are concerned there is considerable activity
in Great Britain in matters of archaeological interest. The question
is — is it well directed and concentrated ?
A
2 ARCHJEOLOGICAL REVIEW.
To this question there can be but one answer, and tliat a very
humiliating one — absolutely nothing is done to bring all this excel-
lent machinery into full working order. The Society of Antiqu-
aries of London is the oldest, wealthiest, and most impoiiiant of
tlie central organisations, and we cannot conceive it doing
more useful work than that of mapping out a plan of archae-
ological research and -seeing that it is carried out. So long
ago as 1799, for instance, the idea of compiling a plan of Roman
Britain from the remains of that period found all over the country
was promulgated, but nothing is yet done. Prehistoric, Celtic, and
Saxon Britain, are similarly neglected, and an archaeological survey
which is carried out so well and elaborately in India, is denied for
the home country. To refer to a special subject, that of Roman
Roads, Dr. Guest has given us a very excellent outline of the
whole matter, and his plan of traversing the roads themselves
gives special value to his observations. But when a local society
takes up the subject it properly confines its work to its own dis-
trict. Tims in the first volume of the transactions of the Lancashire
and Cheshire Antiquarian Society Mr. H. C. March gives a very
adequate account, accompanied by ])lans, of the Roman Road over
the Blackstone Edge. But no neighbouring society continues the
good work in its own borderland, and thus the subject is left in a
fragmentary condition.
Now, local antiquities, explained and illustrated by local
students, are of much more than local value. In no branch of
archseological science is this better exemplified than in that dealing
with institutions. National institutions are built up from local
institutions, and in these latter are often to be found germs of the
remotest antiquity, which have survived simply because they
have never been called upon to meet the requirements of later
ages. To illustrate this by an example there does not at fii-st
sight seem to be much significance in the fact of a manorial
court meeting on a mound, under a tree, or by the side of a stream.
Necessity, the nature of the duties, other special causes might have
originated such a practice, and it would be kept up from the dislike
of change. When, however, we find that in many of our municipal
towns the citizens held their folkmoot, not in the Guildhall but
in the open air, as at London, Wycombe, Rochester, Preston, &c. ;
when we find that the Hundred Courts and the Shire Courts
adopted the same practice ; when, finally, at Kingston in England,
at Scone in Scotland, at Tara in Ireland, we find national ceremonies
conducted in the same primitive fashion, we know full well that
EDITORIAL NOTE. 3
the local survival is a matter of deep historic interest. Turning
to anotlyer subject, the methods of agriculture, the local practice
of dividing the lands yearly into long narro>v strips, of allotting to
each owner several of these strips at distances from each other, of
throwing the whole together again after the arable season is over,
would only seem curious so long as it was considered locally. But
when it is noted that all over (Jreat Britain-such a practice obtained
in some shape or other, it is recognised that we have before us a
custom of considerable importance. These arc only two out of
many instances which crowd upon the mind, but they are suffi-
cient to show that in monumental archaeology and in archaeological
custom, local research is first of all required. But before the local
enquirer can do his work properly and efficiently it wants system-
atising and directing.
When at the hands of Professor E. B. Tylor, Mr. McLennan, Sir
Henry Maine, Mr. C J. Elton, Sir John Lubbock, Pi'ofessor Boyd
Dawkins, and other scholars, the science of comparative archae-
ology was founded, the value of local antiquities increased a thou-
sandfold. A local survival was found to be perhaps the single
thread indicating the lines of progress along which national
development has taken place. Every such survival has a niche in
the nati(mal building-up, and its place when found and explained
helps onward the record of the history of our race.
If the want of systematic study and research in matters of
national antiquities is deplorable, there is even more to regret in
the neglect shown towards the antiquities of other lands in so far
as they illustrate those in this country. Special discoveries like those
in Babylon, Syria, Egypt, and in Greece and Rouie, have attracted
attention, but they have not been sufficiently utilised for comparative
history, and the significant discoveries in northern Europe have been
much neglected. Comparative archaeology must make gigantic
strides before it can be reckoned as an advancing science. One
of its most important functions is to render help to the most
comprehensive of all historical sciences, namely, anthropology. If
local survivals take us back to the far-off* periods of Celtic or
Teutonic history, they are capable of being illustrated by, and
illustrating, the customs and beliefs of the backward races of
modern times. To the materials obtained from local survivals
must be added those obtained from geological and monumental
evidence, and we have a field of enquiry which in extent and im-
))ortance is second to none.
It may perhaps be considered presumptuous to imagine that a
4 ARCHJWLOGICAL REVIEW.
periodical can do what such organisations as we have above re-
ferred to have failed to accomplish. But nevertheless that is our
aim. By indicating what is wanted, by directing and stimulating
research in all directions, we hope to establish clearly that archaeo-
logical teachhg is as much called for as any other branch of educa-
tional work. In taking up then the hibtory of man as our subject
we bear in mind that he alone of all creation is capable of looking
back into the past.
Some little explanation of our proposed methods is desirable.
In dividing the Archaeological Review into sections we do so
for convenience of study only, and we fully bear in mind that
archieology, as a science, must be treated as a whole, and that its
branches dovetail into and oftentimes overlap each other. But the
first steps must be taken by specialists if we would arrive at sub-
stantial results upon which to work ; and we can promise that
specialists in the various sections of the Review will find a welcome
both from ourselves and our readers.
The firat section will be devoted to what is more properly con-
sidered Anthropological Archaeology, as it is studied by the An-
thropological Institute. It will include savage customs and beliefs,
ethnology, some departments of folklore, mythology, and such studies
in comparative archaeology as make a definite contribution to the
history of man, as distinct from that of any particular nation. The
second section, Archajology, will include the records of geology so far
as they reveal the doings of man, the remains of prehistoric man,
the legends and traditions of the past, dialects, and the monu-
mental relics of historic times. The third section, that of
Histor}^ will chiefly treat of such antiquarian subjects as illustrate
domestic manners and customs, local institutions, legal, court,
and other ceremonies, economic history, &c. The last section will be
devoted to Literature. Wliile welcoming any contribution which
throw light upon the history of literature, we shall for the
most part seek to make this section of use to the study of archaeo-
logy by taking as our cue the observation of Lord Rayleigh in his
masterly address to the British Association, that " by a fiction as
remarkable as any to be found in law, what has once been pub-
lished, even though it be in the Russian language, is usually spoken
of as known, and it is often forgotten that the rediscovery in the
library may be a more difficult and uncertain process than the first
discovery in a laboratory." If this be true of physical science, how
much more is it true of archaeological science ? Many of our old
writers record facts without knowing or dreaming of their archae-
EDITORIAL NOTE. 5
©logical importance. Our old school of antiquaries collected facts
for the pure love of collecting, and they went on measuring and
describing without much thought that their results would some day
be utilised for the purpose oE science. Many of us cannot, for
various reasons, use shovel and spade, nor even perhaps knapsack
and staff; but we can dig into books and rediscover for scientific
purposes what was once noted by the curious student or by the
political reformer.
Under each section a certain amount of space will be given to
what we propose to term Index-notes. The system of index-
noting has been planned in order to concentrate and systematize
such information as properly comes within our domain. The
idea will be to take in hand some subject of importance which
has not yet been dealt with adequately, owing generally to its
extent and vastness, and contributions will be invited upon the
plan laid down. No index will ever be given complete at once
under this arrangement, but if completeness is waited for, wo
may still go on waiting for many years. A complete index can
be built up, bit by bit ; and when once the fragments are obtained,
it will rest with those interested to place the mosaics together
and give the world the complete picture.
In each section correspondents are invited to communicate any
information on the topics under treatment, or new original matter
not sufficiently long to form the subject of an article.
The w^ork accomplished by the various local archaeological
societies will be recorded in the shape of an index of the papers
])ublished in the volumes of transactions issued during each year,
commencing with those of 1887. To make this record complete
an index of the papers published up to 188G is needed. This has
been compiled, and a portion w^ill be printed as an appendix to each
issue of the Review. This index will be arranged under authors'
names, and when completed by the addition of such titles as may
have been omitted, a subject-index will be added. This appendix
will be paged separately, so that it may be bound up into one
volume.
If the scheme here laid down can be carried out with some
degree of completeness, the editor and conductors of the Archaeo-
logical Review will consider they have met one of the requirements
of the Victorian age.
G. Lauuence Gomme,
Hntbtopoloo^*
— : o : —
ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY.
ANTIQUARIAN research is necessary to the very existence of
a Science of Man, and anthropologists will welcome the ap-
pearance of an Archaeological Re\4cw, having for one cliief purpose
to contribute to Anthropology. Nor is this merely the cheap favour
due to self-interest, for they are able to give as well as to receive.
It is true that Archaeology had flourished for ages before the new
science of Anthropology took definite shape and name. But from
the beginning the relations of the two were of mutual assistance,
and it is to co-operation with the new ally that Archai^ology owes
no small share of the wider scope and fuller information which
marks off the archaeologist of this century from the antiquary of
the last. The study of the Stone Age has wonderfully opened out
since the time when stone arrowheads and celts were catalogued as
Ancient British weapons ; and this advance may be traced in no
small measure to the effect of Cook's Voyages, which perhaps more
than any other work brought on the rise of modem anthropology,
in this department leading to the systematic comparison of stone
implements actually made and used in the modern barbaric world,
with those preserved as antiquarian relics in Europe. Ancient
pottery is collected with all the more zeal because of the problems
of early civilisation which it helps to elucidate, now that the
earthen vessel is traced as an outcome of older vessels of skin or
shell, hollowed wood or basketwoik, whose foiins are kept up by
the potter, often ornamented with faintly-remembered traces of
their very cords and plaits. Not to multiply such comparisons, it
may be worth while to mention a single case in order to show how
the comparative method of studying the phases of an art among
mankind at large, may serve as a help and guide to those who
concentrate their labour on a narrower archaeological field. An
investigator who had carefully compared the modes in which the
archers of various nations released the an^ow from the stidng, saw
with surprise that the figures of bowmen on classic sculptures from
Egina showed an attitude of grasp which was impossible. It
proved that the hands had been restored by Thorvaldsen, and
^ E. S. Morse, Anc'xtni mid modem Methods of AiTOic-release, in Bulletin of
Essex Institute, vol. xvii.
THE XATIVE RACES OF GAMBIA. 7
that the anthropological method touched reality with a closeness
beyond the means of unassisted archaeology.
Archaeology has, with laudable breadth of view, range J from the
earliest works of man to those which are only old-fashioned, from
a chair of Queen Hatsu to a chair of Queen Anne, from a palaeoli-
thic implement to a pair of snuffers. The more its work is carried
on in alliance with Anthropology, the more perfect becomes the
line of development from pre-historic times to our own. Relics of
things which have dropped out of use but lately, or which even last
on in the present Avith an interest belonging to the past, may be
commended as worthy of special note by those who read this journal.
What, for instance, is more interesting in the history of society than
to trace the stages of tenure of land by the tribe, the family, and the
individual. Within a generation or two, as county histories show,
one might easily have got specimens of the sticks or other lots cut
with patterns, which were used in the re-distribution of the com-
munal plots of land. It may be even now possible by enquiry to
preserve the last of these significant relics, or copies of them from
memory. It is still quite easy to print English parish-maps, whose
divisions show, scarcely changed, their former shifting partition
among the village community, under almost the same system now
actually prevailing in countries where the change of institutions
has gone on more slowly. In fact, the plan of a modern Russian
or Hindu village may be in P^ngland a document of ancient history.
The value of such documents of the present which serve to explain
the past will be fully recognised in this Review.
Such being the mutually beneficial bearings of Archaeology and
Anthropology, it must be left to the future to show that a journal
in which this alliance has full scope, will find no lack of profitable
work ready to hand.
Edward B. Tylor.
NOTES' FROM PARLIAMENTARY REPORTS.
No. I.— The Native Races of Gambia.
IT sometimes happens that the consular reports, sent in to the
Government, contain information on native customs and be-
liefs. Anthropological students are not in the habit of consulting
Parliamentary Blue-books, and they must wade through heaps of
them before they can come upon anything of value. It is
essentially one of our functions to provide this information for the
8 ANTHROPOLOGY.
ready use of the student, and we shall reproduce in these pages such
extracts as bear upon anthropological matters. If by drawing
attention to the value of this class of information, we can induce the
Government to encourage their oflScials in supplying important facts
which oftentimes they alone are capable of obtaining, our action
wiil liavo served a double purpose. The following is taken from
• Papers relating to Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions " (a 5071 of
1887), pp. 91-101.
The principal tribes associated more or less economically with
the Settlement are the following : —
1. Mandingoes.
2. Ser<^rcs.
3. Nominkas.
4. Jolas.
5. Jolofs.
G. Salum — Salum.
7. Lowbeys.
In addition to these the trading community come into contact with
Foulahs and Turankas, or Toocalores in the upper river.
1. Mandingoes. — The head-quarters of this extensive and power-
ful race lie in the mountainous district, near the sources of the Niger
and the Gambia, extending as far as Kong. From this region they
overran the surrounding country westward to Bambouk, and still
puslied on until the banks of the Gambia as far as the sea, more or
less fell under their sway.
The history of their advent in the Gambia is thus described by
F. Xavier Golberry, a French writer who visited this portion of
Western Africa in the years 1785-G-7 : " About the commencement
of the tenth year of the Hegira, Amari Sonko, a celebrated Mandingo
warrior, descended from the interior of Africa, at the head of more
than 20,000 armed men, and, followed by a great number of women
and Marabouts, he ravaged all the northern coasts of the Gambia,
arrived towards the mouth of that river, where he fought many
battles with the King of Salum, and finally remained conqueror of
the territories of Barra, of Kollar, and of Badibou."
It is interesting to note that the present King of Barra, or
Nuomi, is " Moranto Sonko," and the Sumar, or Prime Minister, is
" Barkari Sonko," probably descendants of the Mandingo warrior
noticed by Golberry.
At the present moment the principal countries on the north bank
of the river are occupied mostly by ilanf lingoes, and the dominant
tribes in Combo, on the south bank, are also of the same race,
though the heathen Jolas in the bordering Fogui country are able
THE NATIVE RACES OF GAMBIA. 9
to hold their own against them. Nuomi (Ceded Mile), lokardo,
Kiang, Jara, Badibou, n'Yarmina, Packow, Sandial and n'Yarnie,
are all, more or less, peopled by Mandingoes, who practically control
the trade of the lower river. Three-fourths of the ground nuts
hitherto cultivated have been grown by them ; the export of bees-
wax seems to be dependent also upon the Mandingoes, who bring it
down from the interior of the Jola country. They also bring cattle
and hides into the market and cultivate cotton largely, which their
women spin and weave into the pagns, or country cloths, which
play so conspicuous a part in the trade of the river.
The Mandingo languaoje is rich and musical, and susceptible, I
understand, of more variety of expression than the Jolof tongue
which next after the Mandingo is, perhaps, the most prevalent
language. The latter adopt the decuple system of numeration,
whereas the former possesses only a quinquennial period. The
following are the Mandingo numerals : —
One .... Killing.
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Kiffht
JNme
Ten
Eleven
Foulah.
Salua.
Uawee.
LuUoo.
Warroo.
Warroo — Wi 1 1 a.
Sayee.
Canonto.
Tan.
Tan-in, Killing, &c.
The Mandingoes, as a rule, are Mohammedans, though many are
** Sonninkees ; " and in all their faith is permeated more or less with
fetishism. The term " Sonninkee " is applied by Mohammedans to
all people, irrespective of race, 'who drink spirit.
Physically, they are, in general, a spare, athletic race of medium
height, often with aquiline features, but in contour always distinct
from the typical negro. In colour they are not so dark as the
Jolofs, but the hair is woolly. The laws in Mandingo towns are
administered by " Alkalis," or " Sumas," both terms having the
same signification. The only difference is that the former is a kind
of prime minister in a Mohammedan town, while the latter holds a
similar office in a Sonninkee town. Murder aid adultery arc pun-
ished by death. The sentence in the fonner case is carried out by
killing in the same manner as the murder was committed ; and in
the latter the adulterer is usually killed with cutlasses. The
adulteress suffers only whipping, and is cast out by her husband.
Tlieft is punished by whipping, an instmment somewhat similar
10 ANTHROPOLOGY.
to a " cat *' being used for the purpose. Slander and disrespect to
parents, or the aged, are punished by fine, which goes to the alkali
and head men of the town. Immorality as distinguished from
adultery is almost unknown ; but, if practised and discovered,
would meet with the death penalty as in adultery.
The Mandingoes still keep up a connexion with their original
country, and recognise a supreme authority in the ancient Man-
dingo kingdom, though this recognition is more sentimental than
real, the distance being too great for any effective authority to be
exercised. Tlie present King resides at Sangara, the capital of the
Tilibo country, situated ahnost immediately at the source of the
Niger.
2. Sevf'res. — This race occupies the neighbourlioodof Joal, Seine,
and Baol to the north of the Gambia and outside British jurisdic-
tion, though many of them are settled on the Ceded Mile. They
are a distinct race with a language having no affinity either to the
Mandingo or Jolof.
They are an independent and comparatively industrious people,
cultivating largely both com and rice ; they also rear numerous
cattle. As, however, their wants are extremely few, they are of no
great economical use in the Settlement. Their wardrobes never
consist of more than two pagns.
In religion the Sereres are infidels, and, except in a few in-
stances, have hithei-to resisted all attempts to convert them to
Islamism. They recognise a Supreme Being, but he is only in-
voked in case of hostile invasion, a fasliion which has doubtless
been borrowed from the Mohammedans. The King of Seine, who
is the ruler of the Serere nation, keeps one Marabout attached to
his person for this express purpose, but his services are never put
into requisition on any other occasion.
Physically they are a fine, well-grown race, 'with not unplea-sant
features, their complexion, as a rule, being of a deep black.
The present King of Seine is Jal Gay, who exercises consider-
able power over his subjects. The King appoints a soH of governor
named a *' madungat " to represent him in subordinate districts, and
the madungat has the power of appointing agents under himself
who are styled '* jarraf." Nothing of importance, however, can be
done without the King's consent.
In their own country the King administers the national substi-
tute for justice. As with the Mandingoes, murder and adultery
are punished with death ; shooting or decapitation, according to
the decree of the King, being the means adopted Immorality is
THE NATIVE RACES OF GAMBIA.
11
treated in a more lenient fashion, and resolves itself into a question
of money. I am told, however, by persons who know the customs
of both tribes well, that the Mandingoes and Sereres frequently
condone the offence of adultery, if the male culprit is rich enough
to satisfy the outraged honour of the husband ; and, moreover,
from the necessity of extreme caution, that the wives resort to
various cunning devices in order to deceive their husbands. The
virtue of these communities is, therefore, more apparent than real.
Each Serere man is permitted by custom to have 10 wives, but
indulgence in a greater number is regarded as a pardonable folly.
Theft is punished in a very drastic manner. The thief has the
whole of his goods confiscated and handed over to the victim of the
robbery.
As an illustration of the distinct character of the Serero lan-
guage the following are the numerals employed by them : —
One
. Leng.
Two
. Duck.
Three .
. Taduck.
Four
. Nahack.
Five . . . .
. Bettack.
Six
. Betta-foleng.
Seven .
. Betta-duck.
Eight . . . .
. Betta-taduck.
rsme . . . .
. Betta Nahack
Ten . . . .
. Harbo Hy.
It will be observed that the primitive quinquennial period is
adopted by the Sereres, as is the case with the Jolofs.
In the event of a summons from the King the whole of the
absent Sereres would be compelled to return to Seine.
3. Nomifilas. — This race occupies the region known a^ the
kingdom of Nuomi or Barra. I have been unable to ascertain the
precise boundaries of the old Nuomi kingdom, but at present the
Nominkas are spread over the various towns along the Cedei Mile,
a portion, however, residing outside the jurisdiction.
They appear to be divided into two sections, named respectively
the Nomibartokas (meaning those living at the entrance of the
river), and the Nomibantokas (meaning those living more within
the river). The former occupy the region between Jonwar and
Jinneck, and the latter reside between the towns of Essow and
Jooroonko.
The Nominkas are all Mandingoes ; but the Nomibartokas live
so near to the Sereres that they speak this language in addition to
their own.
12 ANTHROPOLOGY.
Jonwar, mentioned above, forms one of a group of islets adjacent
to the mouth of the Saloum river to the north of the Gambia. The
inhabitants of these islets ori^nally were under the control of the
King of Nuomi. Since 1866, the Nomibartokas have refused
further tribute to the King and Princes of Nuomi.
The Nominkas communicate with Bathurst by means of large
canoes, which some of them are very clever at making. These
canoes will sometimes cany as much as three tons of ground nuts,
of which they cultivate large quantities.
In relicfion most of the Nominkas are now Mohammedans,
though originally they were Soninkees. Their laws are similar to
those of the Mandingoes, from whom they sprang.
4. Jolaa, — The history of this primitive and extraordinary race
is involved in much obscurity. No idea appears to exist amongst
themselves in regard to their origin, and even tradition is silent,
except as to lecent events, in the chronicles of their country.
So far as it is possible to learn from the people themselves, the
Jolas, or Fellups have always occupied, more or less, the region
they now inhabit, viz., the country comprised between the southern
limit of foreign Comb") and the north bank of the river Casamance,
running in a north-easterly direction towards the south bank of the
Gambia as far as the mouth of Vintang Creek, a large tributary of
the latter river. The so-called "Fogni" country is at present
divided by the Jolas into districts as follows, all comprised within
the limits of lower or foreign Combo : — Fellup, Siati, Mungoon,
Cabillie, Binkin, and Carroon. There are also another set called the
Chabon Jolas who live more in the immediate neighbourhood of
the Casamance, though they all speak the same language.
This people up to the present appear to have resisted even an
imperfect approach to civilisation. Although an industrious race,
their ambition has been satisfied by the attainment of the barest
necessities of life. Little beyond rice is grown in the Jola country,
and this, with fish caught in the creeks, forms the staple food of the
people. Their neighbours, and enemies, the Mandingoes, oblige
them to procure powder and guns for self-defence; but beyond
these articles the Jolas buy or exchange but few of the marketable
commodities of Bathurst.
Physically they are not an attractive looking race ; and both
sexes wear little or no clothing. In their own country there is
practically no Government and no law; every man does as he
chooses, and the most successful thief is considered the greatest
man. There is no recognised punishment for murder, or any other
THE NATIVE RACES OF GAMBIA, 13
crime. Individual settlement i.s the only remedy, and the fittest
survives.
Unlike the rule amongst most African races, there is absolutely
no formality in regard to marriage, or what jmsses for marriage,
amongst them. Natural selection is observed on both sides, and
the pair, after having ascertained a reciprocity of sentiment, at
once cohabit. No presents are made by the bridegroom, and the
consent of parents is entirely ignored. They do not intermarry
with any other race.
Their language is quite distinct from that of any other con-
tiguous people, and I understand that it is not easily acquired. It
appears to be poor in vocabulaiy, as might be expected in the case
of a I'ace with so few wants. The Jolas do not count beyond 10,
and distinct terms are used only up to five, as in all the tribes
noticed except the Mandingoes. I have had some difficulty in ascer-
taining the numerals, each Jola whom I have questioned having
given me different information; but the following appear to be
generally recognised and undei'stood : —
One . . Eanor.
. Coo-cooba, or Soo-Cooba.
. Hoo hahjee, or See hahjee.
. Coo bakeer, or See bakeer.
. Foutoe.
. Fou-toe d eanor.
. Fou-toe coo-cooba.
. Fou-tou-hoo hahjee.
. Fou toe coo-bakeer.
. Koo-n'Yen.
Beyond these figures counting becomes pantomimic, the people
using both hands and feet to represent higher nmnbers. Pieces of
stick are also sometimes employed for the same purpose.
It is evident from these facts that the Jolas, whether from per-
secution, or from some other cause, have always been an isolated
race, and have shunned contact with their neighbours. They are,
however, a brave people and have proved themselves capable of
holding their own against the warlike Mandingoes, who are con-
stantly attacking them.
5. Jolofs. — ^Although " Jolof " is a word veiy frequently used in
Bathui-st, an<l most of the native inhabitants speak that language,
yet, as a matter of fact, very few of the genuine race are to be
found in it. The habitat of the Jolofs is in the adjoining French
Colony of Senegal, and comprises Jolof, Cayor Baol, and Saloum.
Formerly the Jolof nation was united under one Emperor or King,
who was styled " Burb i Jolof ; '* but dissensions arose ending in
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
14 ANTHROPOLOGY.
separation, each district choosing a King of its own. The Jolofs
proper are stated to be a handsome race ; and, as a rule, those of
both sexes with whom I have come into contact have been tall and
well-formed, with a jetty blackness of complexion. They are
proud, and exceedingly vain, claiming for themselves a very ancient
descent. The women are inordinately fond of gay apparel and per-
sonal adornment of every description. They frequently pierce the
ear along the entire edge with a series of holes, so that this feature
may be as far as possible loaded with ornamentation. The wool
is i)ulled out to its extreme length, and plaited into thin strips
which hang from the head, giving a peculiar character to these
natives. The natural plaits are supplemental with artificial ones
made of a native dyed fibre, and the whole is smeared with a rancid
grease which emits a very ofi*ensive odour. Of their moral qualifi-
cations report speaks very unfavourably, mendacity, deceit, and
licentiousness being prominent characteristics of this people. In
religion they are fervent Mohammedans ; they rarely intermarry
with any other race, and are extremely sensitive to any mishap in
this direction.
Any mention of this race, apart from its ethnological interest,
would be superfluous in the Gambia Blue Book were it not for the
existence of the language in certain districts, and for the fact that a
portion, at least, of the adjacent country of Baddiboo, which has
played an important part in Gambia affairs, contains numerous
representatives of this race. This region borders on Saloum, which
is a portion of Jolof proper.
The Jolof language is expressive though not lich in vocabulary,
and, I understand, depends much upon accentuation for its correct
rendering and apprehension. The numerals are as follows :
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
Bew-na.
Yar.
Nee-ec-ta.
Nee-a-veut.
Joorome.
Joorome-beuna.
Joorome ^Yar.
Joorome Nee-et-ta.
Joorome Ne-a-veut.
Fooka.
It will be readily understood from the foregoing that counting
in Jolof gets to be a very complicated process after a time, and that
mathematics has yet to become an exact science amongst this
people. Golberry, in the work previously alluded to, very pertin-
THE NATIVE RACES OF GAMBIA. 15
ently comments upon the curious fact that in spite of the contiguity
of the Jolofs to the Moors, who adopt the Arabic system of numer-
ation, the former should have persistently adhered to the primitive
method of reckoning on one hand only instead of on both. It is a
curious and perplexing circumstance that the Mandingoes, who are
an inland people, and probably came into contact with more en-
lightened races at a later period than the tribes nearer the coast,
should be in advance of all the other races in this portion of Africa
in their system of counting. The question whether their method
originated with the language, or has been acquired at a later period
of their history must be left to more experienced philologists than
myself. The Mandingoes, however, have always been great traders,
and it is possible that their instincts taught them at an early stage
the advantages of a system based on ten fingei*s instead of five.
6. Salum'Salums. — This race requires only a brief notice.
They are neighbours of the Sereres, and, through intermarriage,
their language is a mixture of Jolof and Serere.
In religion they are partly Marabouts and partly Soninkees.
The former frequently take wives from the latter, but no Marabout
would give his daughter to a Soninkee unless to a King or a
Prince, and that reluctantly.
7. The Lowhei/8. — This race may be described as tlie gipsies of
North- West Africa. It is almost impossible to get any certain in-
formation in regard to their history. They wander about from
place to place, and none whom I have questioned have been able to
tell me the part of Africa from whence they originally came. I am
informed (not by a Lowbey) that there is a tmdition winch assigns
to them the land of Midian as their original country, and that they
were cursed by Jethro for stealing cattle, and doomeJ to a wander-
ing life. I am inclined, however, to regard this story as a modern
invention, seeing that I have not yet discovered a Lowbey who
ever heai-d of Jethro, of Moses, or of the land of Midian.
They are a decidedly handsome race, bearing a stronger resem-
blance to the Foulahs than to any other people, though, as a rule,
darker in colour. In all probability they were descended from the
Foulahs, but, if so, it is curious that they should have completely
changed their mode of life, the Foulahs being a pastoral and agri-
cultural people, while the Lowbeys almost exclusively confine
themselves to the making of the various wooden utensils in use bj
natives generally. They settle temporarily with any tribe, but never
intermarry with another race, thus preserving the type of feature
which obviously separates them from their human surroundings.
16 ANTHROPOLOGY.
In rolijyion most of them are pagans, though a few profess the
Mohammedan faith. They have no laws of their own, but are
guided by those of the people amongst whom they are for the time
being located. In case of war happening they very sensibly re-
move at once into a district where there is peace. Their language
appears to be allied to the Foulah tongue, but they usually speak
the language of the tribe with whom they are staying.
The Foulahs and Toocalores, to whom allusion has been made,
are practically the same i*ace. Little need be said of them, as the
former are a well-known African race, and many travellers have
noted their unusual lightness of complexion. Dr. Gouldsbury in
his report on the Upper Gambia Expedition gives a concise history
of this people.
INDEX NOTES.
I. Afkican Trires on the Coast from the Senegal to
THE Gambia.
The following notes are from Voyage to the Canaries^ Cape
Verd, and flu Coast of Africa^ under the command of M, Danconrt
(1G82). Translated from the French of M. Le Maire by Edmund
Goldsmid. {Privately printed,) Eilinburgh, 1887.
Administration of justice, ordeals, 70, 71, 73.
Agriculture, 48.
Amusements, 69.
Arms and mode of fighting, 73-75.
Character, 52-54.
Charms, 61-63, 74.
Children, rearing of, 67, 68.
Clothing, 54-56.
Eating, modes of, 72.
Food and Drinks, 48-51, 53, 56-58.
Funeral ceremonies, 65, 66.
Hospitality, 53.
Houses, 32-34, 58, 59.
Implements, 48, 50, 66, 67, 69.
Industries, 48, 06, 67.
Marriage customs and ceremonies, 59, 64.
Musical instruments, 54.
Physical characteristics, 51, 68.
Religion, 59, 64.
Sexual morality, 59, 68.
Sorcerers, 63.
Totemism, 61.
E. Sidney Hartland.
— :o : —
RELICS OF THE ANCIENT FIELD^SYSTEM
OF NORTH WALES.
THE fields that lie within the ancient arable areas of hundreds
of townships in North Wales are still, in many cases, divided
into what (in English) are called " quillets," that is to say, into open
strips marked off from each other merely by boundary stones, and
belonging to different owners. The quillets belonging to each
owner are often scattered in many fields and strangely intermingled
with the quillets belonging to others.
On the accompanying map the quillets are the spaces formed by
the dotted lines, while the figures within eitch quillet represent its
area, and the letters the initials of its owner.
Under modem conditions, land in quillets is inconvenient to
farm and undesirable to own. The agents and surveyors of mineral
estates, which include much of this form of property, find the
quillets a constant source of worry and trouble, and are apt to
break out into instant blasphemy at the very mention of the
hated name. It is not, therefore, surprising that landlords owning
quillets in the same set of fields should, by exchange or purchase,
have been successful, in an enormous number of cases, in abolishing
them altogether. What must really excite surprise is that so many
quillets remain. In the Fields of Erbistock,^ in particular, within a
comparatively small area, an unusually large number of quillets
may still be found, and afford an important series of examples for
study. In the beginning of the present century, it is said, many of
the Erbistock quillets were exchanged and extinguished so as to
effect an enlargement of the rectory grounds. Fortunately, the
alterations then and at other times made were not extensive
enough to upset altogether the earlier arrangements, and the accom-
panying map shows how a large portion of the arable area of that
parish remained divided in several ownersliip so late as the yeai
1844, and how substantially it is divided still.
Before, however, we come to deal with the special points of
interest presented by the Erbistock map, it will be necessary to say
^ Erbistock is a parish in the counties of Denbigh and Flinty about five
miles from Wrexham.
B
18 ARCHEOLOGY.
something of quillets in general. They all come down from ao
earlier time, and though they are not in general found in every part
of the ancient arable areas of the townships in which they occur,
they are never found outside those areas. After examining a very
large number of quillets in perhaps half a hundred distinct townships,
and carefully considering every reference to them available in
ancient wills, deeds, and surveys, it becomes plain that those quillets
which apj>ear to retain their original area, belong really to two
great groups. Fii*st, there are those that have no normal area,
every quillet in the «ame field being, however, roughly speaking, of
the same size. Anl, secondly, there are those that appear to
conform, wherever found, to a normal area, and that may, there-
fore, be called normal quillets.
The quillets of the first group resulted from the unmodified
operation of the custom of gavelkind — a custom formerly universal
in Wales, whereby a man's property was, at his death, shared
equally among his sons. When the deceased proprietor had but a
few fields, every one of them appears to have been divided. If he
had three sons, each field would be divided into three quillets.
Quillets that arose in this way would obviously have no normal
area, the size of them being determined by the size of the field, and
the number of the sons among whom it was shared.^
The quillets of the second great group appear, on the other
hand, to conform to a normal area. Speaking now only of East
Denbighshire and South Flintshire — the district best known to
me — this area seems to be the cyfar, a local measure still partially
used, and which contains 2560 square yards. Many of the quillets
which I assign to this group measure half a cyfar, and others two
cyfars, but most of them approach so nearly to the measure of a
single cyfar that it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that it was
as cyfars they were at first set out. Now, what does this name
" cyfar " mean ? It means a joint ploughing. It is known, in fact,
to have stood originally for the quantity of land ploughed in a
1 1 have refrained from pointing out that some of these quillets might them-
selves subsequently be divided into smaller ones, according to the same custom
of gavelkind, inasmuch as in the first part of this paper, for the sake of pre-
cision, I confine myself to the case of those quillets that retain their original
area. But that the quillets were frequently subdivided in the way sug<rested is
quite certain. Sometimes they appear to have been subdivided after an odd
fashion. A (luillet, for example, in the fields of Hope Owan, lias the form of
a right-angled triangle, thus :— j and wliich, as it
only extends to the middle of the field, s probably the fourth of an older
quillet which was shared thus :— i |
ANCIENT FIELD^SYSTEM OF WALES. 19
single yoking by the common plough-team — a common plough-team
being one to which two or more owners of oxen contributed.^ The
quillets of the first group, or many of them, come down, it is
evident, from the time when the law of gavelkind was still
observed, but the custom of joint ploughing had fallen into disuse,
while the normal quillets, or quillets of the second grouj), come
down from the earlier time when the law and the custom were
both in operation. In the ca,se of the normal quillets, however, the
effects of the first have been so masked by the results of the opera-
tion of the second that it is this latter — the custom of joint plough-
incr — which becomes now the main factor to be considered.
o
The regulations as to joint ploughing or cj-operation are minutely
described in the Welsh Laws, and have long been well known, but Mr.
Frederic Seebohm (in his English Village Community) was, I believe,
the first to point out that those regulations involved not merely the
wide scattering of the strips belonging to each owner, but also a par-
ticular order of sequence in the arrangement of those strips. Extend-
ing Mr. Seebohm's explanation by help of the order of sequence
which we still sometimes find among the quillets of East Denbigh-
shire and South Flintshire, we may venture to give the following
account of the common plough-team and of the results of its
operation.
Let us suppose a field measuring about four cyfars^ in which A
had a half-share and B and C quarter-shares, and let us further
suppose the plough-team to have consisted of four oxen, A would
have to contribute two oxen to this team, and B and C one ox each :
then A would have assigned to him the first cyfar ploughed ; B, the
second ; A, the third j and C, the fourth. Or, if the field measured
^ The cyfar was theoretically (and under some circumstances all along
actually was), a single butt of land of a definite form (ten times longer than
broad), but when the areas of the fields ploughed were small, it was impossible
for the cyfar to retain this form, and it often then included two or more
butts.
' I shall probably be thought mistaken in treating as a normal fact the
existence of a field so small as that above supposed at the early date now under
consideration. But tdthough the field system of North Wales was, as will
hereafter be explained, in many cases, an open one, it does appear to me that,
so far at least as the toxcnsh ips of the freeholders were concerned, largo portions
of most of the quilleted areas of the district now being discussed must have
been, before the di)se of the period of co-aration, already divided into a lai'ge
number of small fields. In some of the sere'de townships there is evidence of
the existence of large quilleted fields, but I do not believe there was any con-
stant difference in this respect between the two classes of townships, for the
small fields were due, in one way or another, to the operation of the custom of
gavelkind, and in later times this custom was in force among the Serfs
{Taeogioii) as well as among tlie freeholders.
20
ARCHEOLOGY.
eight cyfars, A would have the first, third, fifth, and seventh ; B,
the second and sixth ; and C, the fourth and eighth ; thus : —
B
B
Or, if A and B had equal shares in the field, each would have every
other cyfar in it. When the plough-team consisted, as was often
the case, of eight oxen, and four or five owners of cattle contributed,
a more complex order of succession would be introduced, but I
purposely here deal with the simplest cases only. Even, however,
tlie simpler series of sequence among the quillets we can hardly
expect to find preserved very often down to our own time. In the
course of centuries so many changes have taken place. Quillet
holders have exchanged their slips. The boundaries of fields have
often been altered so that the quillets formerly in one field are now
in another, and other alterations have been made — too numerous
here to specify — which have introduced confusion. Nevertheless,
it is still rather common to find fields of which the quillets belong
alternately to A and B. This will be noticed to be the case, for
example, with Tlie Big Slang in the Erbistock map, with the butts
of The Big Square Field, as well as with four out of the five quillets
of Little Bcltha^ in the same map. In Bam Field (see map), if we
put out of consideration the large quillet which has probably taken
the place of three or four smaller ones, we get the series ABAC,
and we get the same series in the first four of the five quillets of
Well Field, In The Parson's Field no such series can be traced, but
here confusion appears to have been introduced by an exchange of
quillets, as the result of which two strips in the middle of the field
have been joined together.^
^ Two centuries and a half ago, when all the names wore Welsh, the field-
nomenclature of Erbistock was exceedingly picturesque and varied, but, with
the subsequent Anglification of the parish, the old names, when they have not
disappeared altogether^ have become corrupted in fonn. *'Lenni" — the name
of two of the fields shown on the maps — stands evidently for '*Lleiniau" — tht
strips or q^iUletit ; while ** The Boltha" is as evidently *' Y Bwllie^^^the plme of
the pod. Nothing can be more trivial than most of the names now given to the
Erbistock fields.
^ It ought to be said that five owners share now among them all the quillets
of Erbistock. Every quillet, that is, belongs either to A^ B, 0, or D. Of these
five, three are the owners of estates each of which represents two or more
smaller and more ancient ones. But tliis does not necessarily invalidate the fact
of the definite sequence among the quillets, but may only make more complex
ANCIENT FIELD^SYSTEM OF WALES. 21
The Erbistock map presents other interesting points. Look, for
example, at the quillet belonging to the Rector in David! s Field : it
consists of a single butt, and does not include any portion of the
two headlands. In the Big Square Field, on the other hand, the
alternate butts (or groups of butts) and the adjoining portions of
one of the headlands belong to A and B, while the whole of the
other headland belongs to B. There is another point to be noticed.
The ancient parish of Erbistock consisted formerly of two distinct
townships, Erbistock and Maelor, represented each by its own
churchwarden. Erbistock, which includes a portion of the quilleted
tract, was, it is quite certain, a free township. Maelor, which forms
still a detached bit of the hundred of Maelor in Flintshire, and
which includes the remaining and larger portion of that tract, was,
I have some reason to suspect, a servile township, and here in tlie
name Village Field, thrice repeated, we have perhaps a relic of the
open field system. Notice, again, how the whole of this quilleted
tract is grouped about the ancient site of the parish church, and lies
enringed in a bend of the silver Dee.^
The mention of the parish cliurch of Erbistock gives occasion for
some other observations which in this connection seem fitting to be
put on record. This church, twice rebuilt in modern times, has been
immemorially dedicated to St. Hilary. In the year 1530, however,
or a little before, the ofierings therein " before Saint Erbin," who
was then evidently the patron saint of the church, are mentioned.
It is plain from this that Saint Erbin's name and the name of the
parish are connected ; that " Erbistock " means Erbin's Stoke {stoke,
a place or settlement enclosed with stakes) ; and that it is a name
which must have been given by Englishmen. Erbistock lies, in fact,
in that large portion of the borderland of Wales which, about the time
of Offa and for nearly three hundred years after, was so thoroughly
settled by Englishmen that scores of the names which the latter
gave to their townships survived the Welsh re-conquest of that
the order of that sequence. Take, for example, the four quillets Jof The Big
SLa^vg where we have the series A B A B, and where A is the Rector, whose
glebe is exceedingly ancient, and whose quillets are, for the most paH, the same
as they were hundreds of years ago. If now we grant that B stands for two
original owners, we only get, instead of A B A B, the less simple series
ABAC.
^ I do not know whether it is worth noting that **none of the Erbistock
quillets is subject to the payment of tithes," and that "with two or three ex-
ceptions, all the unquilleted fields that lie within the quilleted area enjoy the
same immunity.'' "This untithability of the common fields of Erbistock is,
I believe, a quite local phenomenon, and does not, so far as I know, exist in
any other part of the district.'' — History of A^icieivt Tenures of Laiul in the
Marches of North Wales,
22 ARCHEOLOGY.
borderland, its complete incorporation in the Welsh political system,
and its exclusive occupation by a Welsh- speaking population.^
Now, are there any signs in the field-system of this district of the
prolonged English intrusion just indicated ? There appear to be
no such signs. Except that the names of many of the old Mercian
settlements were retained, the effects of the English occupation were
wholly wiped out. The relics of which I have attempted to give
an account are, so far as can be ascertained, the relics of a Welsh
field-system, and not of an English.
Now, the Welsh field-system differed, it is already obvious, in
many of its features from the old common-field system of England.
And the most important of these special features of it are, it would
appear, in the main to be referred to the universal operation in
Wales of the custom of gavelkind.
This custom of gavelkind operated, there is good reason to
believe, in the simple and direct manner supposed in the preceding
paragraphs for a very long time prior to its legal abolition. But at
an earlier date its operation was complicated by its connection with
a peculiar method of entail whereby land was in certain circum-
stances tied up for three generations. And long after this
method of entail ceased to bo observed, the effects of its work-
ing remained often visible in the field-arrangements of the ancient
arable areas. The peculiarities of those arrangements cannot, in
short, be fully understood unless we bear in mind that, so far at
least as the free townships^ were concerned, the occupied land of
Wales was aforetime held in gwelys, or tracts of family land, all the
occupiers of each gwely being co-heirs and descendants of a common
ancestor, the last full proprietor of it. We know that in Erbistock
^ Already by the time of Edward the Confessor Erbistock seems to have
fallen into the hands of Rhys Sais ap Ednyfed who, however, appears to have
held it of the English king. Although subsequently it was seized by the
Normans so that in Domesday Book it was returned as in the hundred of
"Exestan," the Welsh must very shortly afterwards have recovered possession
of it. According to the Domesday Survey there were in ** Erpj^stoch half a hide
of land geldable, one carucate (in demesne), one radman, one villain, and one
bordar. " A direct descendant in the male line of the above-named Rhys ap
Ednyfed, was a few years ago a bellman in the streets of Wrexham.
^ Among the Serfs (taeogion) of the bond townships the land was oiiginally
regularly redistributed so that every serf should have an equal share, but in
later times I do not find so much as a trace of this practice ; on the contrary,
bond holdings are mentioned in those townships, the occupiers of which were
co-heirs, and in which therefore the succession was probably regulated by the
custom of gavelkind. We should, under these circumstances, expect to find
the quilleted tracts in the townships formerly servile not dissimilar in their
arrangements from those existing in the tcwnsliips formerly occupied by free-
holders. And, upon the whole, this expectation is not contradicted by actual
observation.
ANCIENT FIELD'SYSTEM OF WALES. 23
also (that is, in the free townsliip), all the occupied land formed in
1270 a gwely, for a deed was executed in that year wherein " all the
heirs of Erbistock " are mentioned as having sold to the lord Howel
ap Madoc a certain parcel of land there. Now, in the third gene-
ration each gwely would be finally shared among the great-grand-
children of the last full proprietor or among their heirs. There is,
however, much that remains obscure as to the details of the working
of this practice, and as to its effects upon the field-arrangements
of the areas affected by it. The explanations that I shall now offer
are therefore very general and necessarily incomplete.
If a gwely, at the time of its final partition, was very large, and
there were few to share it, each of the partitioners would probably
have cattle enough to furnish his own plough-team, so that in the
holdings of none of them would there be any scattered strips to
come down as quillets to a later time. If, on the contrary, the
gwely shared was small and subdivided, not a single one perhaps of
the partitioners would be able to make up a team of his own, so
that the gwely might still in a way be held together by the
necessity that existed for co-operative ploughing. The person, oi
the persons, who held each share would contribute to the plough-
team according to what his or their share of the gwely was. 'J he
holder, or holders, of the eighth part would furnish one ox to the
full team of eight, and would then have every eighth cyf ar ploughed.
It is not quite certain whether we should be justified in supposing
that these cyfars would be scattered throughout the whole of the
arable portion of the old gwely. If so, the fields would be rather
large, the cyfars belonging to each owner or group of owners would
be widely dispersed and be of normal form and area, and the con-
ditions generally would at first closely resemble those present in
the large common fields of England. But these conditions would
almost at once begin to be modified under the influence of the
Welsh law of family succession, and that variety of phenomena to
appear which, in the case of the Welsh common fields, is at first so
perplexing to the reader.
The explanation just given would cover the case of many areas
in which the quillets are still rather thick upon the ground. In
other cases of this kind we must suppose the gwely to have been
wholly broken up. It would then be partitioned into a large
number of comparatively small fields in separate ownership. And
as each paHitioner might in course of time be represented by a
group of persons, his heirs, each of these fields might either be again
partitioned into smaller enclosures, or, imder the influence of
24 ARCHEOLOGY.
co-operative ploughing, be distributed into separately owned
cyfars.
Finally, the disuse of the custom of co-operative ploughing
would bring to an end the annual shifting of the quillets in the
same field, while the ultimate abolition of the law of gavelkind
would bring to an end the further subdivision of them.
Wrexham. Alfred Neobard Palmer.
TNE PHYSICIANS OF MYDDFAL
AT the foot of the steep grassy cliffs of the Van Mountains in
Carmarthenshire lies a lonely pool, called Llyn y Fan Fach,
which is the scene of one of the best known and most beautiful of
Welsh Folk Tales. The legend may still be heard on the lips of
the peasantry ; and, stated shortly, it relates that the son of a
widow living at Blaensawdde, a little village about three-quarters
of a mile from the lake, won the love of a water-fairy who dwelt
in the pool. She wedded him on condition that he should never
strike her " three causeless blows ; " and when that condition was
broken, albeit inadvertently, the lady quitted her husband for ever.
Sometimes, however, she afterwards appeared to the three fair sons
whom she had borne to him, and gave them instruction in herbs
and medicine, predicting that they and their issue would become
during many generations the most renowned physicians in the
country. More than one version of the story has found its way
into print ; ^ and it is unnecessary to transcribe it here at length.
I shall simply give such details in the course of my remarks as will
enable all who are unfamiliar with it to follow what I have to say.
Students of Folklore will at once recognise the plot as one of a
large class, technically known as Taboo stories, in which the hero,
married to, or otherwise in the power of, a supernatural being,
breaks a prohibition laid upon him by that being, and thereby brings
about the catastrophe.
^ Mr. Wirt Sikes, in his British OoblhiSj p. 38, gives two versions, one
from the Oambro-Briton, and the other, according to a bad habit of his, with-
out citing his authority. The fullest account is quoted by Professor Rhys in
his collection of Welsh Fairy Tales, published in the Oymmrodor, iv. 164,
from a version written down by Mr. William Rees of Toun, from the oral
recitation of two old men and a woman, natives of Myddfai, supplemented by
other enquiries on the spot. Mr. Lewis Morris, I should add, has recently
published, in his. Songs of Britain, a version in poetry of great beauty and
pathos, which at the time the above paper was written, I had not had the
opportunity of reading.
THE PHYSICIANS OF MTDDFAl. 25
But before directing attention to the prohibition, or taboo, it is
desirable to ascertain the personality of the heroine. There is a
group of Folktales, generally called the Swanmaiden group, whose
variants are found throughout the world. They tell of maidens
who descend from the sky in the form of birds at certain times and
lay aside their plumage, in order to lave their human limbs in
some sequestered fountain. There the bathers are watclied by
a youth, who steals the prettiest damsel's clothes, and takes
advantage of her destitute condition to force her into marriage,
or into rendering him assistance in some rash enterprise. This is
the usual formula, but there are of course many variations. The
bird plumage does not always appear, though reminiscences of it
may peep out A Burmese drama, for instance, sets before us nine
princesses of the city of the Silver Mountain, who wear enchanted
girdles that enable them to fly as swiftly as a bird. The youngest
of these princesses is caught while bathing, by means of a magical
slip-knot. A divine ancestress of the Bantiks, a tribe inhabiting
the Celebes Islands, came down from the sky with seven companions
to bathe. A man who saw them took them for doves, but was
surprised to find that they were women. He possessed himself of
the clothes of one of them and thus obliged her to marry him. In
a story told by the Santals of India, the daughters of the sun make
use of a spider's thread to reach the earth. A shepherd, whom
they unblushingly invite to bathe with them, persuades them to
try which of them all can remain longest under water ; and while
they are in the river he scrambles out, and, taking the upper
garment of the one whom he loves, flees with it to his home. In
another Indian tale, five apsaras, or celestial dancers, are conveyed
in an enchanted car to a pool in the forest. Seven supernatural
maidens, in a Samoyede marchen, are brought in their reindeer
chariot to a lake, where the hero possesses himself of the best suit
of garments he finds on the shore. The owner prays him to give
them up; but he refuses, until he obtains a definite pledge of
marriage, saying " If I give thee the garments thou will fare up
again to heaven." ^
But perhaps the most curious of the stories of this group from
which the plumage has disappeared is the Malagasy tale of the way
in which Andrianoro obtained a wife from heaven. There three
sisters, whose dwelling-place is in heaven, frequent a lake in whose
crystal waters they swim, taking flight at once on the approach of
^ Tliese stories are all cited from various sources by M. Cosquin, Contes
Pop. de la Lorraine, ii. 18. Cf . Ralston, Tibetan Tales, 53.
26 ARCHJEOLOGY.
any human being. By a diviner's advice the hero changes into three
lemons, wliich the youngest sister desires to take; but the others,
fearing a snare, persuade her to fly away with them. Foiled thus,
the hero changes into bluish water in the midst of the lake, then
into the seed of a vegetable growing by the waterside, and ulti-
mately into an ant. He is at length successful in seizing the
youngest maiden, who consents to be his wife in spite of the
difference of race ; for, while her captor is a man living on the
earth, her father dwells in heaven, whence the thunderbolt darts
forth if he speak, and she herself drinks no spirits, " for if spirits
even touch my mouth I die." After some time, during his absence,
his father and mother force toaka, or rum, into the lady's mouth,
and she dies ; but on Ids return he insists on opening her grave,
and, to his joy, finds her alive again. But she will not now stay
on earth : she must return to her father and mother in the sky.
They are grieving for her, and tlie thunder is a sign of their grief.
Finding himself unable to prevail upon her to stay, he obtains
permission to accompany her. She warns liim, however, of the
dangere he will have to encounter, — the thunderbolt when her
father speaks, and the tasks her father will lay upon him. Before
he goes he accordingly calls the beasts and the birds together ; he
slays oxen to feed them ; he tells them the tests he is about to-
undergo, and takes promises from them to accomplish the things
that trouble him. Obedient to his wife, he displays gi'eat humility
towards his father-in-law ; and by the aid of the lower animals
he comes triumphant out of every trial. The beasts with their
tusks plough up the spacious fields of heaven ; the beasts and birds
uproot the giant trees; from the crocodile lake the crocodiles them-
selves bring the thousand spades ; between cattle which are exactly
alike the cattle fly distinguishes the cows from the calves ; and the
little fly, settling on the nose of the heroine's mother, enables the
hero to point her out among her daughters. The wife's father ia
astonished, and gives his daughter anew to the hero to be
his wife, dismissing them with a dower of oxen, slaves and
money. ^
Many points of agreement with the legend of the Van Pool will
be noted here. According to the version of that legend adopted by
Professor Rhj's the first time the youth of Blaensawdde beheld the
Lady of the Lake she was sitting upon its umiiffled surface, which
she used as a mirror while she combed out her graceful ringlets.
She imperceptibly glided nearer to him, but eluded his grasp and
^ Folk Lore Journal, i. 202.
THE PHYSICIANS OF MYDDFAL 27
refused the bait of bwley bread and cbeese that he held out to her,
saying as she dived and disappeared :
** Gras dy fara ;
Nid hawdd fy nala ! "
(** Hard-baked is thy bread ;
It is not easy to catch me ! ")
An offer of unbaked dough, or toes, the next day was equally un*
successful. She exclaimed :
♦* Llaith dy fara !
Tinifynna'."
(** Unbaked is thy bread !
I will not have thee. ")
But the slightly baked bread, which the youth subsequently took,,
by his mothers advice, was accepted: he seized the lady's hand
and persuaded her to become his bride. Diving into the lake she
then fetched her father — " a hoary-headed man of noble mien and
extraordinary stature, but having otherwise all the force and
strength of youth " — who rose from the depths with txco ladies and
was ready to consent to the match, provided the young man could
distinguish which of the two ladies before him was the object of
his affections. This was no small test of love, inasmuch as the
maidens were exactly alike in form and features. One of them^
however, thrust her foot a little forward, and the hero recognized
a peculiarity of her shoetie, which he had somehow had leisure to
notice at his previous interviews. The father admits the correct-
ness of his choice, and bestows a dowry of sheep, cattle, goats, and
horses, but stipulates in the most business-like way that these
animals shall return with the bride, if at any time her husband
prove unkind and strike her thrice without a cause.
The version published in the Cambro-Briton is somewhat
different Three beautiful damseLs appear from tlie pool, and are
repeatedly pursued by the young farmer, but in vain. They
always reached the water before him and taunted him with the
couplet :
** Cras dy fara,
Anhawdd ein dala ! "
One day some moist bread from the lake came floating ashore
The youth seized and devoured it ; and the following day he was
successful in catching the ladies. The one to whom he offers
marriage consents on the understanding that he will recognize her
the next day from among the three sisters. He does so by the
strapping of her sandal ; and she is accompanied to her new home
by seven cows, two oxen, and a bull from the lake.
28 ARCHAEOLOGY.
The third version presents the maiden as rowing on New Year's
Eve up and down the lake in a golden boat with a golden oar.
She disappears from the hero's gaze, without replying to his ad-
jurations. Counselled by a soothsayer who dwells on the mountain,
he casts loaves and cheese night after night from Midsummer Eve
to New Year's Eve into the water, until at length the magic skiff
again appears, and the fairy, stepping ashore, weds her persistent
wooer.
Not the least of the remarkable resemblances here is the suit
by offerings of food. In the Malagasy story, indeed, this device is
unsuccessful ; but in a Carnarvonshire analogue the youth entices
his beloved into his grasp by means of an apple ; * and in the Van
variants the offering assumes almost a sacramental character.
Until the Elfin maiden has tasted earthly bread, or until her lover
has eaten of the food which sustains her, he cannot be united to
her. The heavy father also plays his part in the Welsh story,
though that part is not quite the same as in the Malagasy and
other versions. In these the hero has lost his wife by some of the
means we shall discuss presently, and is seeking to recover her, as
in the tale, perhaps best known of all, of Hasan of Bassorah.
Among Hasan's difficulties, however, we do not find one of the
most characteristic episodes, that, namely, of the tests imposed on
the pretender to the hand of the ogre's daughter. This episode is
preserved in two of the three Welsh versions cited above, by the
demand to select the maiden from others exactly like her. It
would be interesting to review with some care the various tests ;
but this would lead to too long a digression. I must content my-
self with a few references to the test before us, which, in tlie stories
where it occurs, is the last of all the suitor's trials, and on this
account, perhaps, the one most likely to survive in tradition.
Now there are three chief means by which the lover or husband
is enabled to identify the object of his devotion. Two of these are
indicated in the two versions of the Carmarthenshire saga : in the
one the lady slyly helps her lover ; in the other he recognises an
insignificant peculiarity either of her person or attire. The third
means is that of the Grateful Beast which has better means of
knowledge than the suitor, due probably to the magical powers
credited to the lower animals by all peoples in a certain stage of
culture. This is the method adopted, as we have seen, by Andria-
n6ro. In like manner the princess in the Burmese drama already
referred to is betrayed by the " the king of flies " to her husband,
^ Y Gymmrodor, v. 94.
THE PHYSICIANS OF MYDDFAI. 29
though the Tibetan version of the same plot given by Mr. Ralston
from the Eah-Qyur knows nothing of this entomological agency.
There the hero is a Bodisat, who, if he does not know his beloved from
the thousand companions who surround her, at least has a spell the
utterance of which compels her to step out from among them.^ It
does not appear that Kasimbaha, the Bantik patriarch, is required
to undergo this test. But he is indebted to a bird for indicating
the lady's residence ; a glow worm places itself at her chamber
door ; and a fly shows him which of a number of dishes set before
him he must not uncover. Jagatalaprat^pa, in the Tamil book
translated into English under the title of " The Dravidian Nights
Entertainments," pursuing one of Indra's four daughters, is com-
pelled by her father, after three other trials, to choose her out from
her sisters, who are all converted into one shape. He prays assist-
ance from a kind of grasshopper ; and the little creature, in return
for a previous benefit, hops upon her foot.^ All the foregoing ex-
amples present the hero in search of a wife who, after a period of
married life, had escaped him ; and, so far as I recollect, it is in
such a case only that he discovers her by the instrumentality of an
insect without concert with her. There is a Russian story, however,
in which a fly assists him to win his bride in the first instance, but
only through a previous understanding. He is in the power of her
father, the Water King. On his way to that potentate's palace he
had, by the advice of the Baba Yaga, gone to the seashore and
watched imtil twelve spoonbills alighted, and, turning into maidens,
had unrobed for the purpose of bathing. Then he had stolen the
eldest maiden's shift, to restore it only on her promise to aid him
against her father, the Water King. She redeems the pledge by
performing for him the usual tasks, the last of which is to choose
the same bride thrice among the king's twelve daughters. The
first time she secretly agrees with him that she will wave her hand-
kerchief ; the second time she is to be arranging her dress ; and the
third time he will see a fly above her head.^ This programme
forms a connecting link between the incidents in the Welsh vari-
ants and those we have just been considering.
If we take this Russian story as a point of transition, and turn
to the other two means of identification, we need not be long de-
tained. The stories in which these means appear are, I think, all
^ So much stress has been laid, by Benfey^s followers, on the Grateful Beast
formula as an evidence of Buddhist influence, that this variation, from an incon-
testably Buddhist source, is worth while noting.
2 P. 80.
3 Ralston : Russian Folk Tales, 120, from Afanasief.
30 ARCHEOLOGY.
cases of bride- winning, not bride-recovery ; all mdrcJien, not sagas ;
and all found in Europe. It would not be safe, in the present
state of our knowledge, to draw any general conclusion as to the
racial peculiarity of this form of the myth, since it is found among
tribes as diverse as Basques and Danes ; but the evidence certainly
does point both to this and to the influence of geographical proxim-
ity. The most usual personal idiosyncrasy of the damsel is the
want of a finger, or some deformity in it, the result of her previous
efforts to aid the hero. Thus, in the Basque tale the lad is set to
find a ring lost by the o^re in a river. This is accomplished by
cutting up the maiden and throwing the pieces into the stream ;
but a part of the little finger sticks in his shoe. When he after-
wards has to choose between the ogre's daughters with his eyes
shut he recognises his love by the loss of her little finger.* The
giant's daughter, in a West Highland tale, makes a ladder with
her fingers for her lover to climb a tree to fetch a magpie's eggs,
and, in the huriy, she leaves her little finger at the top.^ This
accident arises sometimes from the dropping of a piece of flesh on
the ground when the hero cuts up his beloved ; * or, as it would
seem from a story of the Italian Tyrol, from spilling some of her
blood. In the latter case, three drops of blood fall into the lake,
instead of the bucket prepared to receive them, and thereby almost
cause the failure of his task. When the magician afterwards leads
the youth to his daughters and bids him choose, he takes the
youngest by the hand, and says " I choose this one." We are not
told that there was any difference in the maidens* hands, but this
is surely to be inferred.* In the Milanese story of the King of the
Sun the hero also chooses his wife blindfold from the kins: s three
daughters by touching their hands ; * and here, too, we must sup-
pose previous help or concert, though it has disappeared from the
text. In a story from Lorraine John has to take the devil's
daughter, Greenfeather, to pieces to find a spire for the top of a
castle that he is compelled to build, and in putting her together
again he sets one of her little fingers clumsily. With bandaged
eyes he has to find the lady who has assisted him ; and he succeeds
by putting his hand on hers.® The lad who falls into the strange
1 Webster : Basque Legends, 120.
- Campbell, Pop : Tales of the West Highlands, i. 25. Cf : a Picard tale,
Mclusine, col. 446, and the other stories referred to by Cosquin, op. cit., 25.
-'* Bibliotcca de las Trad. Pop. Espanolas, i. 187.
* Schneller : Marchen und Sagen aus WalscLtirol, 71.
•' Inibriani : La Novellaja Fiorentina, 411.
" Cosquin ; op. cit, 9.
THE PHYSICIANS OF MYDDFAL 31
genUeman s hands in a Breton tale, forgets to put the little toe of
the girl's left foot into the caldron ; and when she and her two
sisters are led before him veiled and clad in other tlian their
ordinary garb, he knows her at once by the loss of her toe,^ As it
is told in Denmark the enchanted princess agrees with the king's
son to wind a red silken thread around her little finger ; and by
this means he identifies her, though in the form of a little grey-
haired, long-eared she-ass, and again of a wrinkled, toothless, palsied
old woman, into which the sorceress, whose captive she is, changes
her.* In a Swedish story the damsel informs hsr lover that when
the mermaid's daughters appear in various repulsive forms she will
be changed into a little cat with her side burnt and one ear snipped.'
All the stories concur in representing the father under a for-
bidding aspect. Not infrequently he is the devil, at other times a
giant or an ogre ; and the contrast between himself and his lovely
daughter is so strongly felt that occasionally, as in the two last-
cited instances, she is held to be enchanted and captive in the hands
of a malevolent beino^, like a witch or a mermaid The cfenius of
the Van Pool has escaped this character, unless some remains of it
be found in a sequel to the tale which I shall mention hereafter.
But he has escaped it at the expense of his very existence, or at
least of any substantial influence over the course of events ; for he
does not appear in two of the three versions of the story at all, and
where he does appear it is only to do that which the lady herself
performs in the Cambro-Briton version. The difference effects a
material change in the current of the story, — far more than the
alteration of the circumstances in which the maiden is found by the
hero. It is true she comes in no swan-plumage to the lake to bathe
in its cool waters, but dwells in its depths, and only walks at rare
intervals upon the shore, or sits upon the surface to comb her locks,
plunging in again, and not flying away, when disturbed. But her
real personality cannot be doubtful. It is not every swan-maiden
who is endowed with bird's plumage. This is a detail, which, as
we have already seen, sometimes slips out of the story, — and that, in
spite of its picturesqueness.^ And even where it is preserved we
^ S^billot : Contes Pop. do la Haute Bretagno, i. 197.
2 Grundtvig : Daniache Volksiniirchcn, i. 46.
3 Cavallius and Stephens : Schwedische Volkssiigen und Marchen, 255.
^ One of the most remarkable instances of this is a tale rendere<l from the
modem Greek by Von Hahn, where the name Swan-maiden is preserved in the
title, though the plumage has disappeared from the text. Von Hahn,
Griechische und Albanesische Marchen, i. 131. Wrongly cited Folklore
Journal, iii. 233, where the reference is, by mistake, only to the notes. Cf :
Leland : The Algonquin Legends of New England, 140, where the maidens are
called Weasels.
32 ABCff^OLOGY
do not find it exactly how and where we should have expected it.
Witness the curious Algonquin tale of How one of the Partridge's
wives became a Sheldrake Duck. A hunter, we are told, returning
home in his canoe, saw a beautiful girl sitting on a rock by the
river, making a moccasin. He paddled up softly to capture her ;
but she jumped into the water and disappeared. Her mother,
however, who lived at the bottom, compelled her to return to the
hunter and be his wife. The legend then takes a turn in the
direction ot the Bluebeard myth ; for the woman yields to curiosity
and thus deprives her husband of his luck. When he finds this
out he seizes his bow to beat her. " When she saw him seize his
bow to beat her she ran down to the river, and jumped in to escape
death at his hands, though it should be by drowning. But as she
fell into the water she became a sheldrake duck." ^ The Fassama-
quoddies, who relate this story, have hardly yet passed out of the
stage of thought in which no steadfast boundary is set between men
and the lower animala The amphibious maiden, w^ho dwelt in the
bottom of the river, could not be drowned by jumping into the
stream ; and it is evident that she only resumes her true aquatic
form in escaping from her husband, who, it should be added, is
himself called Partridge and tjeems to be regarded as, in fact, a
fowl of that species. If then, we may believe that this lady in her
maidenhood had the shape of a bird, although no mention be made
of it, we need not hesitate to conclude that the heroine of the Van
Pool was a swan-maiden.
In this connection it is material to observe that in the Carnar-
vonshire story of the fairy bride of Corwrion, referred to later on,
we are told that when the unlucky husband infringed the lady's
prohibition she at once flew through the air and plunged into the
lake ; and one account significantly describes her as flying away
like a wood hen. Can it have been many generations since she was
spoken of as actually changing into a bird ?
E. Sidney Hartland
(To he coiiUnned.)
^ Leland, op. cit., 300. I have considered this legend in connection with
The Forbidden Chamber, Folklore Journal, iii. 238.
AGRICULTURAL DIALECT WORDS. 3$
AGRICULTURAL DIALECT WORDS.
I. — WILTSHIRE.
With Notes by Professor W, W. Skeat.
IN the third volume of the " Beauties of Wiltshire," by John
Britton, published in 1825, there is a list of the provincial
words of that county. Mr. Akerman in 1842 published a glossaiy
of Wiltshire dialect. Until 1879, these were apparently the only
two lists of Wiltshire words. In that year Professor Skeat re-
printed Britton's list, comparing it with Akerman s Glossary, and
making sundry additions from other sources, the net result being,
it was said, that this list practically contained " all that was to be
had concerning Wiltshire words before the publication of Halliweirs
Dictionary." But a very interesting glossary has been overlooked
by all these authorities. It is contained in pp. 258-268 of Davis's
Agriculture of Wiltshire," 1813, 8vo. The importance of the
Agiicultural reports are well-known to the English Dialect Society,
and in 1880, they published Mr. Jas. Britten's valuable "Old Country
and Farming W^ords gleaned from Agricultural Books." The fifth
section of this work is derived " from the Reports of the Agricultural
Survey 1793-1813," but it does " not include all the counties sur-
veyed by the board of Agriculture." Accordingly the following
glossary has not before been brought to the notice of Dialect stu-
dents ; and it will be found that many additions may now be made
to the list of Wiltshire words. But the importance of this glos-
sary is not limited to the additions it makes to the word-list ; of
far more importance arc the definitions it supplies to all the words.
These definitions take us back to the times when the words were
living realities applied to existing agiicultural institutions, and it
cannot escape attention how archaic these institutions were.
The original is not arranged in alphabetical or any other order ;
but in arranging it for these pages no alteration whatever has been
made in the phraseology used, both word and definition being given
exactly as they stand in the 1813 glossary. A reference is added
between square brackets where the word is to be found in either
Akerman or Britton and in Mr. Britten's " Old Country Words."
It will be seen by this means what is the nature of the additions
from this list to the other Wiltshire lists.
Professor Skeat has very kindly looked through the proof-
sheets, and his notes are indicated by his initials. Professor Skeat
says, " In every case the author's etymological suggestions are wrong.
C
34 ARCHAEOLOGY.
What he did understand was the country talk and the country uses.
Such men are of great use in their way. It is a valuable and useful
list b3yond doubt."
A(JiHrMENr — 0-itblo at agi8tin3iit aro those taken to kiop by tho week or mouth.
[Line : See Britten's Old Conntry and F.wmuij WonU^ iv.]
AiLBS — B.irley-ailes, the beards of the barley. [See Britten's Old Country
Worh, i.]
Ais, or as — Harrows and drags are frequently called by this term in South Wilts
from being originally made in the shape of the letter A. [A bad guess ;
it is more likely to be the M.E. cyth^j A.S. cyethe^ a harrow. The pi.
would bo nithes in mod. E., and the th would be dropped as in dothes.
The letter a was called aa. — W.W.S.]
AisLBH — Wheat aisles or isles, an indeterminate number of sheaves set up to-
gether in a double row.
AuHAYED, or rayo I— Used speaking of corn ; thus, corn well arrayed, or rayed, is
com we'l dressed and cleaned. [Comimre Ree or Ray in Britten's Old
ionu'ry Words, iii.]
Backheavet)— Winnowed a second time.
Bane— See **Coath."
Bekry — Whait ia a good barry, whan th > grain is plump and well fill d.
[See Britten's Old Connirif Word<y ii. ami v.]
Bo.WELL, corn-marygold — This plant ia tho plague of the SMiuily lands in the
barley crop, and is frequently destroyed by chalking.
B:)URXE.s — The vallies between the chalk hills or the rivers in those v .Hies ; but
usually a2)plied to the river and valley jointly.
BitEAD-BOARD — See '* grate-board."
BitiNDED — Colour of light brown approaching to dunn.
B iirrED — Shed [^as] corn. [Sea Britten's OH Country and Farminj Word^, ii.]
CAFFis<i or cavinj-rudier— The winnowing fan and tackle.
Caaimojk — Reat-liarrow. [See Glossary to Piers Plowman. — W.W.S.]
CaTvJH Land —Pieces of arable laud in common fields of equal sizes, the pro-
perty not being ascert lined, but he that x)loughed first chose first.
[See Britten's Old Country Word^, iii.]
Catch Meadows — Those on a declivity where the water falls from one level
trench to another.
Cave, or dust— The chatF of the wheat and oats which is generally given to
the horse. [See ''caving," Britten*s Old Country Worilsy vi.]
Charlock— A weed in i)art of South Wilts.
Cjilver-hogs — The name for sheep fn)m Christmas till shear time. [A.S.
cilfarlamb ; see Wilts Glossary, — E.D.S.]
C )ATH or BANE-The rot in sheep of which the first sympt<mis are flukes,
provincially *' plaice" in the liver. [C)mpare " Plaice- worm " in Brit-
ten's Old Country WonlSy ii. See Coathe in Halliwell ; A.S. cothUf
disease.— W.W.S".]
Cook ID Barley and Oats — Barley and oats are always pooked or cocked, seldom
carried from the swath. Oats sometimes reaped and shojived in North
Wilts. Hay is pooked, cocked, first in foot-cocks, and when dry in
hay-cocks. [Compare the same word used for " hay-makiug " in Brit-
ten's Old Country Words, i. iii.]
CoMBSS — The wooded side of hills. [A conilyc is a hollow in a hill-side ; W.
ojpm.—W.W.S.]
Coil 'J of Plock Wood— a pile of cleft wood, eight feet Umg, foar feet high,
and four feet wide. [See Britten's Old Country Words, iii. vi. vii.]
AGRICULTURAL DIALECT WORDS. 35
Couch— Black couch, ajrostis stolonifera, or couchy bant. White couch, ti'lti'
cum repenty called iu other counties stoyle squith or quitch.
Coulter — The cutting part of a plough, which divides the land.
CaooKS — Wiltshire shepherds seldom use crooks, as the sheep are so much
easier caught when in fold, but they always use dogs to keep the sheei>
out of bounds, and by these means are enabled to feed close to an un-
enclosed piece of standing com without injuring it.
Ctt'>wPBCK — Shei)herd's purse, or shepherd's podler.
Djwns— The chalk hills, particularly when in a permanent state of pasturage.
Drags —A provi icial name for harrows. [Derby, see Britten's Oil Country
Wonts, ii.]
DfiAiL -The iron bow of a plough from which the traces draw, and which has
teeth to set the furrow wider or narrower.
Drashols — See " threshles." [DtrusJiel is the common Wilts pronunciation of
thrashd ; so also drmo for throw. — W. W.S.]
Draughts — Hazel-rods selected for Imrdle-making.
Drifts — The rows in which underwood is laid when felled.
Drugging Timber — Drawing [timber] out of the wood under a pair of wheels.
•
Ea-G ras*— After-grass.
Ei>tJK-OROWED — Barley is edge-giowed, or in two shares twi-ripe. Barley coming
irregularly from a want of rain after first sown, of course ripening
unequally. [See Britten's Old Conutnj Words, ii. Twi-ripc, ripening
twice, or at two different times ; cf. twi-bUl, — W. W.S.]
Field— Parts of a barn, that part of a bam between beam and beam : c.^. a
barn of four fields. [Also called a bay. — W. W.S.]
Flyals— See **threshles."
Flowing or Floating Meadows — Those that are laid up in ridges, with water
carriages on each ridge and drains between.
FossELS or FoLDSHORES— The stakes to which the hurdles are fastened with a
loose twig- wreath at the top. [Fossel= fold-sail ; see sails. — W.W.S.]
Frith — Thorns or bush underwood. [See Britten's Old Country Words, iii. vL]
Frying, Freaing, or Frithing— Making covered drains filled up with brush-
WCK)d.
Oay Wheat— [Wheat] rank in the bhde.
OoRE— A triangular piece of ground. [See Britten's Old Country Words, vi.]
Orate Board or Bread Board— The mould or earth-board of a plough which
turns the furrow ; earth being frequently called grate.
Oratincw — The right of feed in the stubs or stubbles.
Oripe — Wheat is laid down in grii)o when laid down in handfuls untied.
[Britten's Old Cowiiry Words, v.]
Oriping or Takin(; up Gripes— Draining with covered drains chiefly with turf
or stone. [See Britten's Old Country Words, iii.]
Oround-rest — Wood on which the shares of a plough rest. [Not at all ; I be-
lieve rest is for torest ; see ioreest in Old Country Words, iv. -W.W.S.]
Hain up the Land— To shut it up for a crop of hay. [West Eng., see Britten's
Old Country WoriU, vi. ; WilU Glossary, E.D.S.]
Ham, and particularly Mill Ham — A narrow strip of ground by the side of
a river. [Devon, Britten's Old Country Word<, vi., cub voce '*haugh.'*]
Hand— Com has a good hand when it is dry and slippery in the sack, a bad
hand when damp and rough.
36 ARCHJ^JOLOGY.
Harled — Oat«, well harled, or well kidded, [i.e.] well eared. [Britten records a
different meaning. Old Cotmtry Words, ii.]
Harrows, parts of, called by provincial names. See **ai8," **drags," "harrows,**
** shares. ** "tines,** "whippence. *
Harrows — The longitudinal bars of harrows.
Hauung is applied to the carriage not only of timber but of all other com-
modities.
Hayes^— As a tennination of a word, such as calf-hayes, cow-hayes, &c. ; a
piece of ground enclosed with a live hedge ; from the French woi*d /laie,
a hedge. [A common error ; it is simply the A. S. hege, a hedge. — W. W. S.J
Hat-ricks are usually made round and cut out at the bottom, from three or
four feet high, to make the rick stand like a ninepin, sometimes obloni;^
with cooted ends, not gable ends.
Healed — Wheat, not well healed, not well covered with earth when sown.
[Britten's Old CmuUry Wardsj ii. A.S. /leZan, to cover. — W.W.S.]
Hinted— A barn process, well hinted — well secured. [Britten's Old Country
Words, ii. From A.S. hentan, to grasp.— W.W.S.]
Hoo— From hough or hook to cut ; as a hog'd mane or hog'd thorn edge,
originally meant a cut or castrated animal and in that sense was applied
equally to all kinds, as a hog colt, a hog sheep, a hog pig ; but at this
time it is used in a more extended sense for any animal of a year old,
as a hog bull, a chilver hog sheep.
Hop and Ray— Hop, clover, and ray-grass sown together, a very common and
good custom.
Hurdles — For sheep-folding, six feet long, three and a half feet high, made
of hazel-rods closely-wreathed, the upright rods called sails and the
long rods wreaths.
Isles -See "aisles.'*
IsNET — Alkanet bugloss.
Kidded- -Beans or oats well kidded [have] the stalks full of pods ; [tliey are]
bunched, when planted in bunches and not in rows. [See Britten's Old
Country Words, i. and ii.]
Knee-sick — Wheat is knee-sick [when] weak in the stalk and dropping on the
first joint. [Britten's Old ComUnj Words, v.]
Knife — Cutting-knife, the hay-knife ; the blade, a right-angled triangle, and
the handle of wood, bent.
Laining — When the smith dresses the wing and point of a share it is called
laining.
Lambs'-Cages — Cribs for foddering sheep in fold ; they are usually made semi-
cylindiical, with cleft Ash-rods about six to seven feet long and about
one foot diameter.
LiNCH, LiNCHET, or Landshard — The mere green-sward dividing two pieces of
amble in a common-field called in Hants, a lay-bark. [See Britten's
Old Country Words, ii., iii. ; Seebohm's Village Community. 5. Linch is
quite a distinct word from Uind-shard. — W. W.S.]
Lined — An animal is lined who has a white back.
Lodged — Wheat is lodged [when] thrown down by wet or wind. [Britten's Old
dmntry Words, ii.]
Lot- Meads — Common meadows divided into acres or equal sized pieces ; but
the property to the hay of each piece being detennined yearly by lot.
Lie — Called in other counties a rod, pole, or perch, or land-yard (all these names
meaning the stick by which it is measured), is of three lengths in this
county — 15, 18, and 164 feet. The first of these measures is getting out
of use, but is still retained in some places, particularly in increasing
AGRICULTURAL DIALECT WORDS. 37
ma8on&' work. The seoond is the ancient forest measure, and is still used
in niany parts of the county for measuring wood-land. But the last,
which is the statute perch, is by much the most general. [See Britten's
Old CotnUiy Wonh, vii. ; Wilts Glossary, E.D.S.]
Luos — Poles. [Britten's Old Coxiutnj Words, v. See above.]
Main-pin, or Thorough-pin — The pin which fastens the bed of a waggon to the
carriage.
Maudlin, or Mathern, or Wild Chamomilb— These weeds usually prevail when
the ground is overworked and made too light. Common to cold wet arable
lands in North Wilts. [Britten and Holland's Enrjlish Plant-Names.]
Meulot, or Kino's Claver — [See Britten and Holland's English Plant-Names.]
Milled Hop — Hop clover-seed cleaned fn»m the husk.
Neat Cattle — Bull, cow, calf; one-yearling heifer or bull, first year; two-yearling
heifer or bull, second year. [See Britten's Old Country Woi-ds, iii.]
Peel — The pillow over the axle of a waggon.
Penning — See **Poyning."
Pick— See *' Prong."
Pigs — Boar and sow ; shoots, young pigs of three or four mouths old ; maiden
pig, a young sow that has not bred ; lK>ar stag, a castrated boar.
Pitched Market — Where the com is exposed for sale as in Salisbury, Devizes, and
Warminster, and not sold by sample.
Plaice— See **coath."
Plock Wood — Cleft wood.
Plough — A waggon and horses, or cart and horses together, are called a xilough
in South Wilts. [In Somerset a waggon. See Britten's Old Country
Words, iv.]
Plough — Parts called by provincml names, see ** coulter,'* ** drail," ** grate
board," * Aground -rest," "laining," ** shoot," **whippence."
PooKED— See ** cocked.*'
Porr—Duihg-pot, a dung cart. See ** Sole."
Poyning, or Penning — Shutting up the sheep in the fold.
Prong or Pick — A fork for the stable or for hay-making.
Proud — Wheat is winter-proud, [when] too rank. [See Britten's Old Country
Woi\ls, i. ii. ; sub voce ** winter-pi'oud."]
Ranges —Two drifts. See * * Drif te. "
Rave.s, or S1DE.S — A part of a waggon called the waggon-bed. [See Rives fully
described in Halliwell.— W. W.S.]
Rayed— See **anayed."
Reap-hook — This is a short-handled hook without teeth, the blade bent beyond
the square of the handle, and used to cut to the hand a handful at a
time.
Red Weed — The rod poppy, which is the plague of tlie down-lands in tho wheat
crop if sown when the land is dry.
Sails — The upright rods of hurdles used for sheep-folding.
Scoop — A shovel.
Scythe or Sive — The handle [is] called the snead, usually about four feet long
in the blade, and the stroke about six feet.
Seed-tip — The box in which the sower carries his seed. [An error for seed4ip,
M.E. seed-leep ; see Lep in 0. Country Words, vi. — W.W.S.]
Shares — The cross-bars of harrows.
Sheep — Ram, ewe ; lambs till about Christmas ; wether-hogs, chilver-hogs from
thence till shear, time, two-teeth wethers or ewes from the shear-time after
38 ARCHJEOLOGY.
ono year old ; six-teeth, fr m the shear-time after three years old ; full
mouthed, from the shear- time after four years old.
Shoot — Fore-shoot and backward-shoot. Two pieces of wood immediately behind
the coulter of a plough.
Shoots — Young pigs of three or four months old.
Shoi'L — Usually means a shovel, but frequently a spade. [See Wilts GUssaryy
E.D.S.]
SiLLOW— See **sole."
SLEKiHTiNG or Slaying— Depasturing the sheep in the downs, whence a sheej)-
down is frequently called a sheep-sleight.
Sole, Si ll, or Sillow — The w^ord sole, now suU, or sillow, meant a particular kind
of plough — viz. , a sole-plough, the old ploughs being made without a sole
to the share, having only a socket to fasten on the fore-shoot or chip ;
and when these ploughs became general they were called soles, and so
distinguished from the old kind of ploughs, which are now scarcely known
in the country. [Britten's Old Countrij Wards, i.^ iii., vi.] To understand
these terms, recourse must be had to those counties where the old order
and terms of husbandly still remain— viz., Devon and Cornwall, where
the ploughing is done by oxen, and the carriage by horses under the pack
saddle. When a cart or wain was wanted, and which was seldom the case
except for timber, the plough-beasts were used, and it was said the plough
did such and such work ; when dung was to be carried, it was put in two
pots or tubs across the horses' backs, whence dung-carts are still called
pots. [Very confuse<l ; (i counse sole is a totally distmct word from still
and sillow ; the two latter represent A.S. sidh, a plough ; and are older
words than sole. — W.W.S.]
Spances — A part of a waggon called the waggon-bed.
Sparked — Cattle of two colours, mottled. [Mr. Skeat suggests ** probably of too
active a kind," see Britten's Old Conninj Words, ix., but the above ex-
planation gives the dialect meaning. — I retract. — W.W.S.]
Spurling-boards, fenders, side-boards, end-boards — [Boards] to prevent the
com from flying out of the floor.
Stowls, or Stools — The stocks on which imderwood grows. [Britten, Old Comdry
Word^, vi., explains this word as the same as moots, roots of trees. See
also Wdts Glossary, E.D.S.]
Stubs — The stubble of all com is usually called stubs, as wheat-stubs, barley,
stubs, &c. . The right of feed in the stubs is sometimes called gratings.
Sull— See '*solo."
Sw^ATH — Hay [is] in swath \n hen just mowed. [See Britten's Old Country Words,
iii. ; Wilts Glossary, E.D.S.]
Tare — Vetch with wind, the red and white striped convolvulus, these two
plants are the plague of a weak wheat-crop in the sand-lands. [Witli
wind is an error for withtviiui, i.e., convolvulus.— W.W.S,]
Tedded — Hay is tedded when first tlirown abroad. [See Britten's Old Conutry
Wards, iii., vi.]
Tenantry Fields and Downs — Fields and downs in a state of commonage on
the ancient feudal system of copyhold tenancy.
Threshles — A pair of threshles or drashols, or flyals, [i.e.,] a flail.
Tines — The teeth of the harrows or drags, so called because formerly made of
wood from the old word tine a stake. [See Britten's Old Comdry Words,
ii., iii., and vi. Etymology quite wrong ; tim is A.S. tind, a tooth, prong
of a harrow.— W.W.S.]
TiNiNG — A new enclosure made with a dead hedge ; from the old word tine, a
stake. [No ; from M.E. tiiven, to enclose. — W.W.S.]
Tithinos — Ten sheaves of wheat set up together in a double row. [See Britten's
Old Coutitry Words, v.]
AGRKTLTURAL DIALECT WORDS. 39
Ton of RoiKJH Timber, 40 foet, tho load 60 feet, is only used when timber is
hewn for the navy.
Trenching or Guiterino Land— Draining it with open drains.
Twi-RiPE — See **edge-growed."
Waggon, parts of — Called by provinciiJ names : — raves or sides, spances, com-
pose the waggon-bed ; peel [is] tho pillow over tho axle ; main-pin or
thoiY)ugh-pin, tho pin which fastons the bed to the carriage.
Waked— Hay is waked when raked together in rows. [See Wales in Halliwell.
— W.W.S.]
Wheat — Reaping is done with a short crooked hook in handfuls or gri2>es.
Wheat-reed — Straw preserved unthrashed for thatching as it is usually done
in the south-west part of tho county, the ears having been previously
cut off to be thrashed.
Whip Land — Land not divided by meres, but measured out, when ploughed,
by tho whip's length.
Whipfence — The weigh-bcam and bodkins, the fore-carriage of a plough as
also of the harrt>w and drag.
Wind-mows — Cocks of a waggon-load or more, into which hay is sometimes
put previous to ricking in catching weather.
Winter-proud— See ** proud.'*
Wood- WAX — Common in poor pasture ; flower yellow.
Wreaths — The long rods of hurdles used for sheep-folding.
Yard of Land — A quarter of an acre, so called because in ancient common field
lands where tho furlongs wore forty poles long, the quarter of an aero
was a land-yard or pole at the end.
Yard-land — That is bind sufficient for a plough of oxen and a yard to winter
them. Ancient copyhold tenements int^D which manors were usually
divided each being occupied by one tenant and enjoying equal stinted
rights of common. [The importance of this definition as a current
custom of Wiltshire will be fully seen by reference to Seebohm's Village
Commumtifj pp. 117-125.]
INDEX NOTES.
I. Roman Remains — i. Wiltshire.
Baydon, coins, iron implements, building-remains, coal, iron-working. Gentle-
man's Magazht^y 1806, ii., 335 ; Wilts, ArcJi, Soc., x., 104-109.
Bishops Canning (Round way Hill), personal ornaments. Wilts. Arcli. Soc,
vi., 137.
Box, coin, pavements, pottery, building- remains. Gentleman's Ma<jazine, 1833,
part i., pp. 357-358 ; Wilts. Arch. 8oc., iii., 21 ; v., 5.
Bradford-on-Avon (in part of town called Budbury), coins. WUts. Arch. Soc.,
v., 5-8.
Brokenborouoh, traces of Roman work. Wilts. Arch, Soc., viii., 16.
Brohham, baths, coins, iron slags, pavement, pottery, urns, villa. GeiUlemaWs
Magazi)ie, 1796, pp. 472-473 ; ibid., 564 ; ibid., 1840, part ii., p. 528 ;
ibid., 1841, part i., p. 81 ; Wilts. Arch Soc., iii., 21 ; xix., 299-302.
Broughton Gifford (in a field called Bradleys), coins. WUts. Arch. Soc,
v., 280.
Castle Combe, proofs of Roman occupation. Wilts. Arch. Soc., ii., 136.
40 ABCH^OLOGY.
Cirencester, objects of iron, bronze, lead, coina, pottery, paintings, glass, bone,
pavements. Wilis, Aixh. Soc., xiv., 186-192.
Clarendon Wood (3 miles from Salisbury), coins. Jouni, Brit, Arch. Ass., i.,
57, 62.
CoLERNE, villa. Wilts. Arch. Soc., iii., 21 ; Arch Janm., xii., 89; xiii., 328.
Cricklade, embankment. WUts, Arch, Soc., xii., 120.
Damerham, earthwork. WUts. Arch. Soc., xi., 266.
Devizes, coins, vessels, Penates, lead coffin, &c. Wilts. Arch. Soc., ix., 29 ;
Arch. Journ.^ x., 61.
Easterton, coins in urn. Wilts. Arch, 8oc,, x., 178-180.
Easton Grey (at a place called Wliitewalls), traces of Roman work. WUU.
Arch. Soc, viii., 16.
Farley, bath, pavement, villa. Gentl^man^s Magazine^ 1823, part i., p. 113.
Folly Farm, pavement. WUts. Arch. Soc,, xix., 86.
GnEAT Bedwyn, indications of Roman station, pavement. WUts. Arch. Soc,,
vi., 261 ; xix., 86.
Grittleton, coffin, remains of building, coins. Aubrey's (Mlectians for WUts,,
128, note.
Hedinoton, coins. Aubrey's Collectiaiis for WUts,^ 45.
Holbury (near Dean), vestiges of occupation. WUts. Arch. Soc., xiii., 33-41.
Iford (field near), villa. Wilts. Arch. Soc., v., 5.
Lacock, marks of Roman habitation. WUts. Arch. Soc., iii., 21.
Lakeham (at " Wick Field "), coins. Aubrey's GMectiom for WUts., 95. *
Latton, tessellated pavement, remains. Aubrey's Collections for WUts., 152 ;
WUts. Arch. Soc., ix., 232-237.
Marlborough (near), coins. WUts, Arch. Soc., xix., 84-88.
MiLDENHALL, bricks, tiles, pottery, &c. WUts. Arch. Soc., xix., 84.
MoNKTON Farleigh, coins. WUts, Arch. Soc., xx., 72.
Neston (near cottage called the ** medleys "), roadways. Wilts. Arch S^ic.,
v., 5.
Nythe Bridge, camp and station. WUts. Arch. Soc, vii., 125.
RuDGE, cup, tessellated pavement. Arch. Jonni., xiv., 282.
Salisbury, pavement StaMard newspaper (letter signed F. G. I^icholls), 14
Feb., 1888.
Salisbury Plain, bronze ligura. Arch. Jonrn., viii., 318.
Savernake, 1 avement. WUt^. Arch. Soc, xix., 86.
SHER.STON Magna, coins of Constantino. Aubrey's Collectvpns for WUts., 106.
SiLBURY (near), horse shoes. Arch, Jouim., xi., 65, 296.
Studley, marks of Roman habitation. WUts, Arch, Soc, iii., 21.
Wanborough, coins (none later than Commodus), ruins of houses, black ashes,
especially about a meadow called ** The Nighs." Aubrey's (hUectians frr
WUU, 194, 195, note.
Wans (near Verlucio), dice. WUts, Arch, Soc, xiv., 233.
Wableigh, villa. Wilts. Arch Soc, v., 5.
Warminster, coin, foundations, pavements, pottery. Gentleman^s Magazitie,
1786, part ii., p. 990 ; ibid., 1787, part L, pp. 221-222.
West Dean, pavement, &c. Jonrn. Brit. Arch. Ass., i., 53, 57, 62 ; Arch,
Jonrn., ii., 82, 86.
Wick (near Devizes), coins, Penates, &c. Wilts. Arch. Soc, vi., 138.
Wraxhall (North), burials, coins, fibulse, villa. Ge}itle'ninns Magazine, 1860,
part ii., pp. 157-159 ; Arch, Jonrn., xvii., 160 ; xviii., 146 ; WUts. Arch.
Soc, vii., 59-75.
INDEX NOTES. 41
II. PAPERS CONTRIBUTED TO THE ARCHiEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES OF
THE UNITED KINGDOM DURING 1886-1887.
[Archseologia, vol. L. ; Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries
of Scotland, vol. viii. (n.s.); Archaeological Institute, vol. xliv ;
Royal Institution of Cornwall, vol. ix. The other societies will
follow in due course.]
Anderson (Dr. J.), notices of recent discoveries of cists or burials with unis,
&c. Froc, i^oc. Antiq. Scot, viii. (n.s.) 97-101.
— — notice of a Cetacean bone carved with interlaced patterns in ^lanels.
Froc. i'oc. Antiq. tcot.^ viii. (n.s.) 390-396.
Atkinson (A.), notes on an ancient boat found at Brigg, Arch. L., 361-370.
Bain (Joseph), note on an ancient document in the handwriting of William
Brydone, or Brydon, in all probability the town clerk of Selkii'k, who
is said to have fallen at Floddeu. Froc. 8oc. Antiq. Scot, viii. (n.s.)
336-337.
Begg (R. B.), notice of a large cinerary urn recently discovered on Easter
Gellybank Farm, near Kinross. Froc. So:. Antiq. Scot. viii. (n.s.)
142-145.
Bennct (Rev. J. A . ), The Architect of Salisbury Cathedral. A rch. lust., xliv. , 366-
- 374.
Bever dge (Henry), notice of two cemeteries containing cists and urns on the
estate of Pitreavie, near Dunfermline. Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.)
240-252.
Blyth (R. H.), notes on a camp and fort on the Garpol Burn, near Moffat.
Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.) 331-335.
Bond (Thomas), note on Rohesia de la PomeraL Boif. Itust. Cor^f., ix., 273-275.
Brent (Francis), on the occurrence of flint flakes and small stone implements
in Cornwall. Boy. Inst. Corn., ix., 58-61.
Browne (Rev. G. F.), Brief Precis of the description of the early sculptured
stones of Cheshire. Arch. Inst., xliv., 14(5-156.
on basket work figures of men represented on sculpture<l
stones. Arch., L., 287-294.
Gheales (H. J.), on the mural paintings in All Saint's Church, Friskney,
Lincolnshire. Arch., L., 281-286.
Church (C. M.), Reginald, Bishop of Bath (1174-1191) ; his episcopate, and his
share in the building of the Church of Wells. Arch., L., 295-360.
Clarke (Somers), the west side of Westminster Hall. Arch., L., 9-16.
Cursiter (J. W.), notice of a wood carver's tool box, with Celtic ornamentation,
recently discovered in a peat moss in the parish of Birsay, Orkney,
Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.) 47-50.
Davidson ^ames), notice of a small cup-shaped vessel found in a stone cist at
the Public School, Airlie. Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.^ viii. (n.s.) 136-141.
Dickson (Thomas, LL.D.), notice of the register of Lindores Abbey, a 13th
century Scottish MS. on vellum, in the library at Caprington Castle,
Ayrshire. Froc. Soc, Aniiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.) 148-159.
Dunkin (Edwin), notes on some points connected with the early history of the
Nautical Almanack. 2?</i/. Inst. Corn., ix., 7-18.
Duns (Professor), notice of an idol human head from Ecuador. Froc. Soc. Antuj.
Scot., viii. (n.s.) 159-165.
on some Rock markings. Froc, Soc. Antiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.)
126-136.
Esdaile (G.), On the Roman occupation of Britain. Arch. Inst., xliv., 51-55.
Ferguson (R. S.), Culverhouses. Arch. Inst., xliv., 105-116.
42 ARCHEOLOGY.
Fortnum (C. D. E.), the Seal of Cardinal Andrea de Yalle, a.d., 1517, with
remarks on some other cardinals' seals of that period, ascribed to
Lautizio of Perugia, and to Cellini Arch.^ L., 118-128.
some further notice of the Diamond Signet of Henrietta
Maria, Queen of Charles I. ; of the King's Diamond ; and of the Sapphire
Signet belie ve<l to be that of Mary, Queen of William III. Arch,^ L.,
104-117.
Fox (G. E.), The Roman Villa at Chedworth, Gloucestersliire. Arch. hist,y
xliv., 322-336.
Freeman (E. A.), Toulouse and Narbonne. Arch, hrnt., xliv., 129-145.
Valentia Segellaunorum. Arch. J list., xliv., 311-321.
Freshtield (E.), masons' marks at Westminster Hall. Arch<eologia, L., 1-4.
some remarks upon the Book of Records and History of the
Parish of St. Stephen, Coleman Street, in the city of London. Arch., L.,
17-57.
on certain churches on the eastern coast of Italy. Ardi.y L.
407-420.
Gomme (G. L. ), on archaic conceptions of property in relation to the Laws of
SuccesRion ; and their survival in England. Arch., L., 195-214.
The History of Malraesbury as a village community. Arch.^ L.,.
421-438.
Goudie (Gilbert), on the horizontal water-mills of Scotland. FrtK. 8oc. AiUiq,
Scot., viii. (n.s.), 257-297.
Gow (J. M.), notice of cup-marked stones and curing well on the estate of
Garth, Fortingall, Perthshire. Froc. 8oc. Antiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.),
41-47.
Graves (Re v. Charles, D.D.), an attempt to decipher and explain the inscriptions-
on the Newton stone. Proc. Soc. AiUiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.), 298-320.
Green (E.), remarks on the fifteenth century Diptych of the Chevalier Philip-
Hinckaert, Chastelain de Tcrvueren, in Brabant. Arch., L., 73-80.
Hartshome (A.), Blythborough Church, Suflfolk. Arch. List., xliv,, p. 1-14.
Hope (W. H. St. John), on the English mediseval drinking bowls called mazers^
Arch. L., 129-193.
on the Premonstratensian Abbey of St. Mary at Alnwick,.
Northimiberland. Arch. List., xliv., 337-34(5.
Hunt (C. A.), notice of a box supposed to be the ** offerand stok " of St. Eloi'g.
altar in St. John's Church, Perth. Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.),.
50-53.
Hutcheson (Alex.), notice of the discovery of a stratum containing worked
flints at Broughty Ferry. Proc. foe. Antiq. Scot., viii. (n.s), 16<>-169.
notice of a sculptured stone recently discovered at Murtly*
Proc Soc. Antiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.), 252-256.
Jamieson (Dr. J.), notice of the discovery of a cist with an urn at Knockankelly,
Arran, with a report on the osseous remains by Professor Cleland. Proc.
Soc. AnUq. Scot., viii. (n.s.), 170-173.
Jeffery (H. M.), the early topography of Falmouth, illustrated by maps of
different periods of time. Roy. List., Cornw<iU, ix., 147-159.
■ on a map of the parishes of Budock and My lor, drawn about a.d..
1580, with a notice of Arwenack House. Ibid. , ix. , 160-164.
a map of the river Fal and its tributaries, from a survey made in
1597 by Baptista Boazio. Ibid., ix., 165-170.
Emendations in the itineraries of William of Worcester which refer
to Falmouth Haven and Glasney College. Ibid., ix., 171-173.
on the early acceptation of the name of Falmouth. Ilnd., ix.
174-178.
two historical sketches of the Killigrew family of Arwenack, com-
posed by Martin Lester Killigrew in 1737-8, and known as the Killigrew
MS. and the Falmouth MS. Ibid., 182-215.
Joass (Rev. J. M., LL.D.), notice of a hoard of bronze vessels found in 1868.
near Helmsdale, Sutherland. Proc. Soc. Aid'yj. Scot., viii. (n.s.)^
214-218.
INDEX NOTES. 43
Kii'by (T. F.), the Alien Priory of St. Andrew, Haiuble, and its transfer to
Winchester College in 1391. Arch., L., 251-2(52.
Lach-Szyrnia (Rev. W. S.), Christian remains in Cornwall antei-ior to the mission
of Saint Augustine to Kent. Boy. List., (hnucnll, ix., 65-57.
Lewis (B.), The Antiquities of Saintes. Arch. List., xliv., 164-243.
Lockhart (Rev. W.), churches consecrated in Scotland in the thirteenth century.
Froc, Soc. Antiq, Scot, viii. (n.s.), 190-200.
M^Diarmid (W. R.), notes on the town hall of Dumfries, commonly called the
mid steeple. Froc. Soc. AiUiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.), 186-189.
IVIackay (W.), notice of two sculptured stones in Glen Uiquhart. Froc. Soc.
A^Uiq. Sc4)t., viii. (n.s.), 358-360.
Maclean (Sir John), an ancient Cornish deed in English. Roy. In^. Corn., ix.,
27-36.
Macx)herson (Norman), notice of communion cups from Duivinish, Skye, with
notes on other sets of church plate. Froc. i^'oc. Anti([. Scot., viii. (n.s.),
398-440.
Malan (Rev. A. H.), what traces are there left of the old language ? Roy. Inst.,
ConiietdJ, ix., 37-43.
Maxwell (Sir H. E.), no'ice of an enamelled bronze harness ornament from
Auchendolly, stewartry of Kirkcudbright. Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., viii,
(n.8.), 306-398.
Micklethwaite (J. T.), note on the hall of William Rufus at Westminster. Arch.,
L., 5-8.
on the remains of an Ankerhold at Bengeo Church, Hert-
ford. Arch. Inst.^ xliv., 26-29.
Middleton (J. H.), on a Saxon chapel at Deerhurst, Gloucestershire, Arch., L.,
66-71.
Miller (Peter), the origin and early history of the old Tollbuith of Edinburgh,
the heart of Midlothian, and the Luckenbooths. Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.,
viii. (n.s.), 360-376.
, the Mercat Cross of Edinburgh from 1315 to 1617 : its site and form.
Froc. Si}c. Antiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.), 377-389.
Moore (S. A.), documents relating to the death and burial of King Edward IT ,
Arch., L., 215-226.
Munro (Robert), notes of lake dwellings in Lough Mourne, County Antrim,
Ireland. Froc. Soc, Antiq, Scot., viiL (n.s.), 321-330.
Nichols (F. M.), some remarks upon the Regia, the Atrium Vestaj, and the
original locality of the Fasti Capitolini, Arch., L., 227-250.
Parker (J.), the Manor of Aylesbury, Arch., L., 81-103.
Peacock (E.), The Court Rolls of the Manor of Hibbaldstow, Arch. Inst., xliv.,
278-288.
notes from the Records of the Manor of Bottesford, Lincolnshire,
Arch., L., 371-382.
Petit (J. L.), The Church of St. Radegonde, near Toiub, Arch, Inst., xliv.,
157-163.
Petrie (W. M. F.), The Finding of Dapluiae, Arch. List., xliv., 30-42.
Price (F. G. H.) , further notes upon excavations at Silchester, Arch., L., 263-
280.
Pullon (R. P.), notes on recent excavations on the supposed site of the Artemi-
sium, near the Lake of Nemi, made by Sir John Savile Lumlcy, Arch.,
L., 58-65.
Ramsay (Mrs.), ncjtice of a leaf-shaped bronze sword found at Leannan Buidhie
(Yellow Hollow) farm of Lower Coilabus, Oa, Islay. Froc. Soc. Antiq.
8cof., viii. (n.s.), 102-104.
Ramsay (Alex.), notice of a pieta from the old church of Banff. Froc. Soc. An'iq.
Scot., viii. (n.s.), 356-357.
Reid (J. J.), early notices of the Bass Rock and its o^Tiers. Froc, Soc. Antiq.
Scot., viii. (n.s.), 54-71.
44 ARCHAEOLOGY.
Ross (A.), notice of the discovery of portions of two penannular brooches of
silver, with beads of glass and amber, and a silver coin of Coenwulf, King
of Mercia (795-818), at Mains of Croy, Inverness-shire. Proc, Soc. Antiq.
i:^cot., viii. (n.s,), 91-96.
Sayce (Prof.), On a Hittite Cylinder and Seal belonging to the Rev. Greville
J. Chester, Arch. Jii^., xliv., 347-350.
Scarth (P. H. M.), Britain a Province of the Roman Empire as treated in the
history of Rome by Theodor Momrasen. (The provinces from Caesar to
Dioclesian, Pt. I., ch. v.) Arch, Lust.j xliv., 351-364.
ShicU (John), notice of carved oak panels which were formerly in the chapel of
the Franciscan nunnery in Dundee. Froc. Soc, Antiq. Scot., viii. (a.s.),
108-125.
Shrubsole (G. W.), On the age of the city walls of Chester, Aixh. Inst., xliv.,
15-25.
Siriips(m (W. S.), two inventories of the Cathedral Church of St. Paul, London,
dated respectively 1245 and 1402 ; now for the first time printed, with an
introduction, Arch., L., 439-524.
Skene (W. F.), on the traditionary accounts of the death of Alexander the
Third. Fror. Soc, Antiq. Scot,, viii. (n.s.), 177-185.
Smart (W.), a brief account of some Celtic and Roman Antiquities within the
N.E. part of the county of Dorset, between Bockley Dyke, N., and the
River Stour, S., from Blandford to Wimbome, Arch. Inst., xliv., 380-396.
Southesk (Right Hon. Earl of), the oghams on the Brodie and Aquhollie stones,
with notes on the inscriptions of the Golspie and Newtf>n stones, and a
list of the oghams in Scotland. Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.,yiu. (n.s.), 14-40.
Thomas (Cap. F. VV. L.), ancient valuation of land in the west of Scotland.
Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.), 200-213.
Thomas (G. W.), on excavations in an Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Sleaford, in
Lincolnshire, Arch., L., 383-406.
Trotter (Dr. Robert), notice of the excavation of St. Medan's Cave and Chapel,
Kirkmpjden, Wigtownshire. Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., viii. (n.s.) 76-90.
Venables (Rev. Precentor), Some account of the recent discovery of the foimda-
tions of the Eastern termination of Lincoln Minster, as erected by St.
Hugh, Arch. Inst., xliv., 194-202.
opening address to the section of architecture at the Salisbury
meeting. Arch. List., xliv., 244-260.
Wallace (Thomas), notes on ancient remains in the Beauly Valley, Inverness-
shire. Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scot, viii. (n.s.), 340-355.
Watkin (W. T.), Was Ireland ever conquered by the Romans? Arch. Imt.,
xliv., 289-293.
Roman Inscriptions discovered in Britain in 1886, Arch.
Inst., xliv., 117-128.
Supplementary notes on the Roman Forces in Britain,
Arch. Inst., xliv., 375-379.
Whitley (H. M.), note on the destruction of Arwenack during the Civil War.
Roy. Inst., Corn^oall, ix., 50-54.
a valuation of the lands and goods of the inhabitants of
Penrith, temp. Henry VIII. Exchequer, Q.R. Lay subsidies, Cornwall.
Boy. Inst. Corn., ix., 217-270.
Wilson (D.), some illustrations of early Christian art. Froc. Soc. Antiq. Scvt.,
viii. (n.s.), 222-239.
Winning (J. G.), notes of a cist containing an urn found at Wester Wooden,
Eckford, Roxburghshire. Froc. Soc. Antiq, Scot., viii. (n.s.), 338-339.
REVIEWS. 45
REVIEWS.
Early Christian Symbolism op Grbat B.iitain and Irbijind Before the
Thirteenth Ceuturj. By J. Romilly Allen, F.S.A., Scut. London :
(Whiting ife Co.), 1887. 8vo, pp. xix., 408.
The Khind Lectures have been the means of giving to the world such ex-
cellent books that the anuouncement of a uew series by a new author raised
high hopes of another of like sort. But the present volume is somcwliat
disappointing. Mr. Allen has neither Dr. Mitchell's thoughtful matter nor
the careful method which makes Dr. Anderson's books the best summaries
that exist of their respective subjects according to our present knowledge
of them. This book is wanting in system and in accurate scholarship. Mr.
Allen has taken much trouble in collecting his materials and has freely
used the work of those who have been before him in the field. But he lacks
order in his arrangement and judgment in weighing the respective worths
of the authorities he uses. When he borrows he gives references, which is
a right virtue, but some of them are rather strange ones. And it is evident
that most of the more important quotations are given at second hand.
In one thing, however, Mr. Allen ia highly to be praised : Symbolism is a
dangerous subject, and they who assume to expound it, are apt to write
nonsense more than most men. Mr. Allen does not do so. He rightly
condemns the wild guess-work which has wrought such mischief in the study
of antiquity and has often made it ridiculous in the eyes of the world. And,
if he claims to see further int-o an old stone than others, he has something
better than his own inner light to guide him. He deals chiefly with old
stones, and may fairly claim to have helped forward the study of them.
The figures, over a hundred and fifty in number, will be of great use to
future workei-s, though most of them are only outline diagrams, some being
taken from rubbings. We must protest ngainst this short and easy method
which has unfortunately found its way into some arch ecological publications
of good repute. It is most unfit to produce an even tolerable representa
tion of any object, unless, as in an engraved brass, all the work is
on one plane. Mr. Allen's figures are useful as suggesting objects to be
studied rather than as providing a substitute for direct study of them.
That can only be done on paper by means of photography. With rude
work it is so easy to miss or to misinterpret a feature that even careful
drawings are often not enough, as is shown by the different appearance of
an object in different drawings, each purporting to represent it. For in
stance, compare the figures cf the old gi'ave stone at Penmachno on page
87 of this book, with that on plate 11 of Messrs. Brindley and Weatherley's
new book on sepulchral monuments. Mr. Allen's figure 32 is of the right
kind.
We note two very singular emissions. On page 77 Mr. Allen gives a
list of the few known remains of Romano-British Christianity, but makes
no mention of finger rings of which several have been found. And though
he more than once mentions the famous cross at Gosforth, and refers to Mr.
C'alverley's paper in the Archceological Journal (by the by, he always calls
it Joum, Brit, Arc/ireol, Inst., which is not its title) he says not a word
about Mr. Calvcrlev's remarkable interpretation of the carvings on the cross
46 ARCHEOLOGY.
Perlmps the interpretation does not square with Mr. Allen's " Celtic " ideas,
but we hold it to be the brightest light that has yet been thrown on this
dark subject and expect that it will show the way to further discoveries.
In conclusion we would echo Mr. Allen's protest against the neglect of
our ancient remains and appeal for their protection. We should be sorry
to have them moved from their ancient places and put into museums, as he
appears to wish, but even that would be better than that they should be
allowed to i)erish from exposure or wanton mischief.
South Kensington Museum Art Handbooks : Early Christian Art in
Ireland. By Margaret Stokes. Published for the Committee of
Council on Education. London : (Chapman and Hall.) 1887. Svo,
pp. xvi., 210.
This is a valuable work on an important subject. In the able hand^ of
Miss Stokes, who has already written much on cognate topics, and has
executed exquisite fac-similes of illuminations from the Book of Kells and
other Irish MSS., the arts of ancient Ireland have been presented witli
fullness of knowledge, clearness of statement, and in a most convenient
form. This Handbook has one hundred and six admirably selected and ex-
ecuted wood cuts which greatly enhance its value. The most casual glance
will prove how refined and delicate was the sense of beauty, how accurate
the hand and eye, and how patient the labour of these Irish scribes and
workers in mptal, whose productions yet remain in the Museum aud Library
of the Royal Irish Academy, and Trinity College, Dublin. Specimens may
also be met with in museums and libraries in London, Oxford, Cambridge, and
elsewhere in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe. The subject of this
took embraces Illumination^ Metal Work^ Sculpture, and Build i?i^ Architecture.
A valuable chronological table of examples of Irish Art, the date of which
ca!i be approximately fixed, has been added with an index, so that the hand-
book is convenient for reference. At the close of each branch of the subject
a list of authorities is appended, enabling the student in any department
to have access to the sources of further knowledge.
Miss Stokes's work, however, is much more than a mere handbook, it is
A comprehensive, reverent, loving accouiit of the services to civilisation
rendered by Ireland during the dark ages, from about the fifth to the twelfth
oentury. The pious zeal of Irish missionaries impelled them to visit pagan
lands, bringing with them not only religion, but arts aud culture. In her
interesting chapter, " Irish Scribes on the Continent," she observes of these
pioneers of light and tnith that **they excelled in music, as in painting or
carving. They penetrated to places where Christianity had never before
reached, not only to Poland and Bulgaria, but to Russia and Iceland, settling
-flown as duty or inclination prompted them."
Writing formed an important part of the monastic occupations. " Great
labour was bestowed upon the ornamentation of some manuscripts, especially
the sacred writings ; these are wonderful monuments of the conceptions,
skill, and patience of the scribes of the seventh century." Nor will this
bj called in question by any who have seen that gem, the Book of Kells,
preserved in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. Thirteen illustrations
from it are given in the book before us. These are adminible, but, of coinse,
they lack the perfect colouring of the MS. itself — so marvellous in its clear,
j)ure, delicate, and harmonious tints, which are the wonder and envy of
REVIEWS. 47
artists of our owa day, who know not what pigments were used by these
early scribes, nor even how they were produced.
"The peculiarity of Irish Art," writes Miss Stokes, "may be said to bj
the union of such primitive rhythmical designs as arc common to barbarous
nations, with a stylo which accords with the highest laws of the arts of
design, the exhibition of a 6ne architectunU feeling in the distribution of
parts, and such delicate and perfect execution, whatever the material in
which the art was treated, as must command respect for the conscientious
artist by whom the work was carried out."
The chapter on Metal Work contains illustrations of many beautiful
objects from the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, the Cross of Cong,
the Ardagh Chalice, the Shrines of St. Patrick's Bell, of St. Moluise's Gospels,
and of the Stowe Missal ; of brooches known as the Tara^ Roscrea^ and
Ardagh, as well as some richly decorated croziers, book covers, and other
similar objects.
The Sculptured Crosses, of which thirty-two elaborately ornamented ones
are standing, are amply illustrated. As many of them bear the names of
personages whose deaths are recorded in the Annals, Miss Stokes's con-
clusions, in asdgning them to the 10th, 11 th, and 12th centuries, have a
solid basis to rest on. The MSS. were much older, the finest examples
ranging from the 7th to the 9th century. The death of the scribe of tlic
Book of Armagh is thus recorded in the Annals : — " a.d. 844, Fcrdomnach,
a sage and choice scribe of the Church of Armagh, died."
In the chapter devoted to Building and Architecture, many examples of
ancient oratories, churches, round towers, and also of doorways, capitals,
mouldings, etc., are given. Also a broad classification of the towers, accord-
ing to the average styles of their masonry and apertures. On this subject
Miss Stokes observes, " Ireland, in her ecclesiastical circular towers, shows us,
in upwards of a hundred instances, what were the first and simplest types.
Thus, from the study of the monuments of Ireland, the historian of Christian
Art and Architecture may learn something of the works of a time, the
remains of which have been s vept away elsewhere ; and it may yet be seen,
as in the case of her institutions, customs, faith, and f jrms in art, so in
architecture, Ireland points to origins of noble things."
We must not conclude this brief notice of a very delightful and instructive
volume without alluding to the practical object which its author desired
that it should serve : —
" In presenting the following Manual of the Archajology of Ireland, the
writer's object is to indicate how far the knowledge of her native arts in the
past may subserve to their higher development in the future. It is only
by adherence to a certain system of study and method of treatment that
this result can be looked for. The object is not to present a guide for the
antiquities of Ireland, but rather to indicate how these antiquities should
be approached, so as to draw forth whatever elements of in:>truction may lie
hidden in them for workers in the present day."
Ibtetotig,
— : o : —
772^^5- PICTS OF GALLOWAY.
EVERY one who has studied the life of Agricola will remember
his favourite project for the conquest of Ireland. Tacitus,
who often talked with him on the subject, has told us that in the
fifth year of his government (a.d. 82) he concentrated a force in
that part of Britain which looks on Ireland, not from any fear of
invasion in that quai-ter, but rather in the hope that something
might occur which would enable him to bring a new country into
the Empire. The coasts and points of Ireland were already better
known by the repoi*ts of sailors and merchants than the northern
parts of Britain. One of the petty kings, moreover, had been ex-
pelled in some domestic war, and had taken refuge with the Roman
general, who received bim with every sign of friendship, meaning
to use his cause, when occasion offered, as a pretext for interven-
tion and conquest. It was calculated that one legion with sufficient
auxiliaries, say a force of ten thousand men, might subdue the
island from sea to sea ; and Agricola hoped that in this way the
Western Provinces of Spain, Gaul and Britain might be strengthened
and knit together, and that the total disappearance of libeiiy
among their neighbours might strike despair into the hearts of the
still unconquered Britons.
According to Agricola's informants tliere was but little differ-
ence, as far as natural disposition and habits of life were concerned,
between the tribes on either side of the Irish Channel ; and this is
borne out by what we learn from Ptolemy as to the similarity of
the names of peoples and places in Ireland and on the opposite
coasts of Britain. We must, however, take this information in con-
nection with another statement by Tacitus, who observed that the
tribes which had been already subdued were rapidly adopting the
Roman civilisation, that Agricola had taught them to build temples
and market-places and fine houses, and that they were even learn-
ing to enjoy the luxuries of "the bath, the lounge, and the banquet"
The Caledonians, or " the Picts," as they were afterwards called,
and their neighbour and kinsmen across the sea were still in the
condition of barbarians. If we may believe the old descriptions
they were a surly and savage race, dispersed in wandering tribes
and always ready for the chances of war. The tattooed warriors
THE PICTS OF GALLOWAY. 49
are said to have drunk of the blood of their slaughtered enemies
and to have smeared their faces with the gore ; the first ceremony
after an infant's birth was to feed it on the point of a sword with a
prayer that it might die on the field of battle. They were expert
swimmers and good sailors ; and were bold enough to cross the
rough channel in canoes of wicker and oxhide.
Our knowledge of the topography of Agricola's campaigns must
always remain too slight to enable us to determine exactly the
coasts inhabited by these barbarian tribes. But the great prepon-
derance of opinion is in favour of choosing Galloway, which appears
as the country of the Novantse in Ptolemy's Geography, as the dis-
trict where the army was concentrated. There are several reasons
for making this choice. In the first place the rival claims of Kin-
tyre seem to be removed by the persistent belief of the ancient
geographers that the Promontory of the Epidians, as Kintyre was
called, and all the rest of the west coasts above Galloway, ran in an
east and west line towards Denmark, instead of approaching Ireland
and running in a northerly direction. Galloway, on the other
hand, and the opposite Irish coast were described with remarkable
accuracy by the same geographers. This opinion is borne out
by the fact that remains of Roman forts have been discovered in
Wigtonshire and the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright in situations
corresponding with those of the towns of the Novantse which were
described by Ptolemy as existing in the reign of Hadiian. It
should be stated, however, that Mr. Skene adopted another view in
his great work upon Celtic Scotland. He preferred to think that
the country foitified by Agricola lay among the promontories and
broken coasts of the modem county of Argyll. He points out the
undoubted fact that Agricola did stai-t with a fleet from the Clyde
in the summer of a.d. 82, and that many engagements were fought
with nations up to that time unknown. Mr. Skene is of opinion
that Galloway may very likely have been visited three years pre-
viously, when the general in person explored the wooded estuaries
which were occupied in his second compaign. He therefore favours
the view that on the later occasion the Romans fought their way
through the hostile districts of Cowall and Kintyre " till he saw the
Western Ocean, with the coast running due north, presenting in
the interior one mass of inaccessible mountains, the five islands
of the Hebrides, and the blue shores of Ireland rising above the
western horizon.'* The description, however truthful in its
approach to nature, appears to be quite inconsistent with the
geographical beliefs of antiquity, and we can only suppose that
D
50 HISTORY.
those beliefs imply that Agricola did not visit the districts in
question.
If we are asked what difference it makes whether Agricola
looked towards Ireland from the Mull of Galloway or the Mull of
Kintyre, any more than it matters what was the name of Hecuba's
mother or the title of the Siren's song, we should answer that the
solution of the difficulty might throw some much-needed light on
the obscure history of the Picts, and especially of the Irish Picts, a
subject on which every fragment of information is of great ethno-
logical value. The practical difference of settling the question in
the one way or the other would be that in the first case we should
know a little more about the Picts of Galloway, whose name drops
out of English history about the time of the Battle of the Standard;
and in the other case we should be dealing with another branch of
the Pictish race, about which we can learn no more than that their
history was blotted out by a very early invasion of the Scots f mm
Ulster and the establishment by them of the Scottish kingdom of
Dalriada.
There were Picts on both sides of the Irish Channel. Veiy
little seems to be known about the Picts of Ulster before part of
their territories was seized by the Scots under the ruling tribe of
the O'Neills, who set up an Irish kingdom of Dalriada in the north-
eastern comer of Ireland. The Picts on that side of the sea were
known as " Cruitnigh," from a word which signifies form or colour
and is supposed to have reference to the custom of tattooing.
They seem to have occupied a district opposite to Galloway, once
called " Dalaraidhe " or Dalaradia, and now represented by the
modem county of Down and the southern parts of Antrim.
Without dealing too minutely with the vexed problems of the
annals of Dalriada, we may say that it appears clear that at the
beginning of the sixth century the Scots crossed over to Argyll and
the neighbouring islands, and there set up a kingdom which for
some time remained in dependence upon the Ulster Dalriada. Mr.
Skene points out that St. Columba arranged a treaty in the year
575 to the effect that the Scotch Dalriads should thenceforth be
free from all tributes and exactions, but should join with the parent-
stock " in all hostings and expeditions." About sixty years after-
wards, however, the Scotch Dalriads are found, in conjunction with
the remnant of the Picts of Ulster, arrayed against the Irish king
at the famous Battle of Moira. Some slight trace still remains of
the continuity of these Dalriad stocks. In a certain district of
Ulster, lying opposite Kintyre, and known as the Glens of Antrim,
THE PICTS OF GALLOWAY. 51
a dialect of Gaelic is spoken which is declared by competent autho-
rities to be absolutely identical with the south-western dialect of
the Scottish Gaelic now spoken in Argyll, Perthshire, and the
southern isles. According to Mr. Murray's well-known essay in
the 2nd volume of the Reoue Celtifjae, this dialect is nearer to the
Irish than that which is used in the northern and central parts of
Scotland. But still it is very different from the Irish of other
parts of Ulster. " Tlie Celtic of all the rest of Ulster, viz., in
Donegal and isolated patches in Derry, Tyrone, and the south of
Armagh differs considerably from the Scottish dialect, and is truly
an Irish dialect" He remarks that there is not the slightest reason
for deducing the Glensmen of Antrim from Scotland ; and we may
add that there is no evidence of any kind to indicate that the Picts
of Galloway crossed over from the shores of Ulster. What is now
required is to institute a search among those who are best
acquainted with the localities about the question whether or not
the Gaelic of the isolated patches in Derry, Tyrone and Armagh
bears any marked resemblance to the form of Gaelic which once
prevailed in Galloway.
It is well known that the people of Galloway retained their
ancient language till some time in the sixteenth century ; its dis-
appearance after the reign of Queen Mary is usually attributed to
the effects of the Reformation, and especially to the use of the
Lowland Scotch in public worship, and in the parish schools.
Some have thought that this language may have been Teutonic ;
others have been inclined to believe that it was the same kind of
Welsh as that which is known to have prevailed in the neigh-
bouring Kingdom of Strathclyde. The patient industry of Celtic
scholars has now collected so much evidence on the points in dis-
pute as to make it certain that the Teutonic hypothesis is mistaken.
The problem as to the Cumbrian origin of the " Novantae *' is more
obscure. Their next neighbours on the east bank of the_Nith were
almost certainly members of the great nation of the Brigantes, and
so far the ground still requires to be cleared by the men of " words
and places," the students of Topomomaatique, as the French call the
modem science of "habitative nomenclature." Mi-. Skene states
the problem in clear language. " In this remote district," he says,
•' in which the Picts remained under their distinctive names as a
separate people until the twelfth century, a language, considered to
be the ancient language of Galloway, was still spoken as late as the
sixteenth century, and that language was Gaelic." He then en-
quires whether there are any fragments of the Pictish still pre
52 HISTORY.
served, by which we can estimate its place among the Celtic lan-
guages of Britain. Very little is found. A few proper names of
kings, and the Galloway word "scolofthe" for a poor scholar, nearly
exhaust the list. There is one other word which we must refrain
from discussing for fear of reviving the celebrated controversy
about " the head of the wall." The appearance of the list certainly
indicates a tendency towards Irish forms as contrasted with Welsh
and the Gaelic of other parts of Scotland. It remains therefore for
the topographers to examine into the matter, and to report whether
the local names are rather Irish than Scotch, and (if so) whether
they resemble any particular dialect of Iiish which may be sup-
posed to have affinity with the language of the Picts of Ulster.
The difficulties of the undertaking are enormous. Sir Herbert
Maxwell has told us in his studies of the Topogiaphy of Galloway
that it would have been almost hopeless, but for the labours of
Pont, who wrote down many of the still-living Gaelic names for
use in the maps which were published after his death by the
Blaeuws of Amsterdam, and could never have been attempted with-
out the assistance of Dr. Joyce's works on the origin and history of
Irish place-namea It must be remembered also that the names in
question were given during a long period in which the Celtic
speech was itself growing and changing its form, that they have
been preserved by the people who for centuries have spoken a
totally different language, and that their present form is due to
persons who wrote them down phonetically without caring in any
way for their ancient meaning. Besides all this, who does not
know that " the Celts are fertile in etymology," and that there is
hardly a simple place-name lor wliich several equally plausible
derivations have not at different times been suggested ?
Let us consider, without entering too much into detail, what
are the chief materials prepared for the solution of the problem.
In the first place, of course, come the names used in Ptolemy's de-
seription of the country. The Novantae take their name from the
Novius or Nith, a common river name ; their other rivers are the
Deva, the Abravannus, and the estuary of the " Lena ; " in these
the geographers have no difficulty in recognising the Dee, the Luce,
and the Cree. Some of the names would certainly appear to be
Celtic. We cannot say as much for the towns of " Lucopibia " and
"Rerigonium," which have a barbarous look, and may belong to
one of the unknown tongues which it is the fashion to correlate
with the Basque. On the other hand, " Lucotetia " was one of the
names for Paris, and it is possible that the names were given by
THE PICTS OF GALLOWAY. 53
soldiers between the time of Agricola s campaign and the appear-
ance of Ptolemy's work. Both places have been connected with
baseless legends, the one being identided by Camden, and after-
wards by Pont, with the " White House " of St. Ninian at Whit-
hem, which was at one time the seat of an Anglian bishopric, while
the other, owing to a misprint in an early edition of the geography,
was taken for a palace of the Dalriad kings at " Bargennie," and
confused with the vitrified fort in Loch Etive, best known in con-
nection with the legend of the Lady Deirdre and the fate of the
Children of Uisneach.
The name of the Province of Galloway bears witness to some of
the events which have confused its language. The natives were
called Gall-Gael or foreign-Gaels at first because of their falling
under the foreign rule of the Anglians, and the name was afterwards
extended to take in all the people of the Western Highlands and
Islands who, as subjects or allies, were under the power of the
Norwegians. Many of the place-names collected by Sir Herbert
Maxwell are of the old Northumbrian type; some seem to be
Welsh of Strathclyde, and others Norwegian; and many others
again, as we might have expected, are in the modern dialect of
Lowland Scotch. A very large proportion of the names, and
especially of those relating to church matters, are of a very ancient
type. There are, for example, many early dedications to saints,
such as Kilmore, Kirkcudbright, where St. Cuthbert preached to the
" Nidwari Picts," and " Killemacuddican," an endearing name for the
same saint's habitation, and we are assured that, in almost every
case where " Kil " precedes a proper name, the word refera to the
cell of an early saint and may be as old as the 6th century.
Whether we look at the words derived from the physical aspect
of the country, from hill, wood, and stream, from domestic animals
and beasts of the chase, or from the offices, trades, or personal
characteristics of men, we are struck with the great similarity of
the nomenclature to that of Ireland, which Dr. Joyce has so lumin-
ously explained. Broadly speaking, the work leaves no doubt
that the Picts of Galloway spoke a language extremely like the
Gaelic dialects of the Highlands and south-western districts of
Scotland, and also extremely like the cognate dialects which are
used or have at different times been used in the several
Provinces of Ireland. Much has already been gained ; and
everyone who looks through Sir Herbert Maxwell's collections
will be grateful to him for the skill and industry with
which he has accumulated and marshalled his facts. Much, how-
54 HISTORY.
over, still remains to be done. What ha3 been accomplished should
be taken as the starting-point for new discoveries. Wliat is wanted
now is an application of the method of differences. The stress or
accent on the syllables of a name seems to be different in Galloway
from that which is found in IrisL Some words which are not used
in other parts of Scotland appear to have been common in Galloway
and parts of Ireland. Other Irish words, such as " sliabh," a hill,
occur very frequently in Galloway, though rare in other parts of
the country; but they occur with slight variations from the Irish
usage in their meaning and pronunciation. There ai*e many other
points as to which an enquiry is needed, with special reference to
the varieties of dialect in Ulster. It is to be hoped that some of
the persons who are specially qualiffed by knowledge of the
localities, and who take an interest in Celtic philology, will under-
take the task, and let us know whether the Irish King was right
when he told Agricola that the people on the two opposite shores
were similar in their dispositions and habits of life.
C. Elton.
SUSSEX DOMESDAY STUDIES.
No. I. — The Rapes and their Origin.
By Frederick Ernest Sawyer, F.S.A.
THE entire district or kingdom now known as Sussex, and in
Domesday called Sudsexe, has almost from its foundation (/>.,
for 1400 years), possessed the same boundaries. Professor K A.
Freeman remarks: " Sussex is no shire, no department but a com-
ponent element of England, older than England.*' ^ The county
boundary on the east was probably always formed by the river
Rother and its estuary, and the western boundary by Chichester
Harbour and one of the streams running into it, whilst the almost
impenetrable forest of Andredsweald formed a natural boundary on
the north.
The coimty of Suissex appeai-s in Domesday divided into
six rapes, a territorial division peculiar to the county. The
name has caused much discussion, and it will therefore be desirable
to consider the matter fully. We may observe that the term does
^ English Towns and Districts, p. 125.
SUSSEX DOMESDA 1' STUDIES. 55
not occur in any document extant before the Domesday Survey, in
which it is first mentioned, and it is probably derived from the
Icelandic hreppr, signifying land divided by a rope. It was a relic
of the Scandinavian ancestors of the Normans, and was doubtless
introduced by the latter into the county soon after the Conquest
There is little or no evidence for the conclusion of Lappenberg,^
that "to the first German population belongs apparently the
singular division of Sussex into six rapes, each of which is again
divided into Hundreds." Robertson endeavours ^ to trace the
trithing in Kent and Sussex, and observes that Sussex is divided
into Elast and West, and both of these into three rapes each, whilst
Kent contains three lathes. Bishop Stubbs quotes from Robertson,
and observes that " Kent and Sussex are two of the Heptarchic
kingdoms of which their lathes and rapes arc perhaps the original
ahires."^ There is, however, apparently nothing to show that any
distinction between Elast and West Sussex existed imtil long after
the Conquest, when for convenience the County Court was appointed
to be held at Lewes as well as at Chichester. (See Act 1 9 Henry
VII., cap. 24.)
Th3re appear to be three good reasons for rejecting the sug-
gestions of a pre-DomesJay origin of the Sussex rapes, viz.: —
1. Their boundaries and physical chai'acteristicp.
2. Their names.
3. Their history.
I. The sea-coast of Sussex was formerly marked by several im-
portant fiords or estuaries, namely, those of the Arun, Adur, Ouse^
Bourne, and Rother, but of these only one, the Ouse, from the
coast to Barcombe, forms the boundary of a rape. Major-General
Lane-Fox (now Pitt-Rivei-s) points out that the existence of these large
estuaries is opposed to a connected system of defence in the hill-forts
of Sussex, which are of British origin. He considers that each
group formerly had a stronghold of its own, intended, no doubt, to
contain the inhabitants of the surrounding district, who dwelt in
the valleys beneath, where fuel and water were obtainable, where
traces of their cultivation still exist, and who, like the savages of
Africa and many other parts of the world, resorted to their strong-
hold in times of danger, each man carrying with him fuel, water,
and provisions sufficient to sustain him during a predatory attack.^
^ HiBtory of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings, I., 107.
' Scotland under her Early Kings, II., 433.
» Constitutional History of England (1880 edit.), I., 128.
^ Archceologia, xlii., p. 51.
56 HISTORY.
Now, so far as we can conjecture, early and half-civilized settlers
like the Saxons would certainly choose physical boundaries, such as
rivers, if they had introduced the mpe as a land division, but we
find, in fact, that (except as already mentioned) the rape boundaries
can only be defined on a map. Moreover, they run, roughly
speaking, at right angles with the coast, and thus resemble closely
the county and state boundaries which in many parts of North
America follow meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude.
This tends to confirm the suggestion that the rapes were " set out
with a rope," or by a surveyor. We find again that most of the
parishes between Hurstpierpoint and Lewes run northwards from
the Downs in parallel slips, greatly resembling the rapes, and
in shape they lack the irregularity which is characteristic of early
settlements.
Palgrave thus describes the matter : — " He [William the Con-
queror] divided the county into six districts, extending right down
from the northern border, each possessing a frontage towards the
sea, each effecting a ready communication with Normandy, and
constituting, as it were, six military high-roads to his paternal
duchy. But few Norwegian or Teutonic terms can comparatively
be found preserved among the Normans, but the hreppar seems
to have been retained almost unaltered among them. Hence these
demarcations were, and still are, called rapes. Each possessed
within its bounds some one castle or other important station for
defence or protection, and each appears to have been placed under
some military commander. Sussex alone, of all the counties in
England, sustained this great territorial alteration, being dealt with
from the firat moment entirely as a conquered territory." ^
2. The Sussex rapes invariably bear the name of their chief
town, and taking them from east to west, we find the names are
Hastings, Pevensey, Lewes, Bramber, Arundel, and Chichester. The
towns from which the four central rapes derived their names were
situated at the head of important estuaries (now long reduced in ex-
tent), while the other two were in close proximity to the sea. In
the Domesday Survey, Chichester rape does not appear by name, and
the only rapes named are those of Arundel, Hastings, Lewes, and
Penevesel. The rape of Bramber is described as that of William
de Braiose. There is little doubt, however, that the six rapes then
existed. The names of the rapes are, as will be seen, derived from
the principal towns (or castles), and this is a strong argument in
favour of their having originated shortly before the compilation of
' History of Normandy and England, IT., p. 394.
SUSSEX DOMESDAY STUDIES. 57
Domesday, for if they had been introduced 600 years previously
by the Saxon invaders they would have born distinctly Saxon
names, and probably the patronymic " ing," which is very common
in Sussex.
The derivations of the Sussex rape names, according to the best
authorities, are as follows : —
Hastings. — From Hasting, a Danish pimte who landed in England
in 893 (Sax. CAron., ^c).
Pevensey. — The eye or island of Peo/n,
Lewes. — From Ang.-Sax. hlcsw^ a word expressive of the gradual
ascent which the eastern termination of the Downs makes
from the river, and joined to the old British name of the
stream Isca or he, whence lil8Bw-ise or hlew-ise, or Lewes.
(Chamock, Local Etymology),
Bramber. — Ang.-Sax. Brymmbiirh, a hill fortification (Lower Hist
Suss, I., 72). Why not, however, from its Norman owner,
De Braiose, and so " Braiose's Burgh ? "
Arundel. — The dell or dale of the Arun (Chamock, Local Etymo^
logy). (Ferguson, River Names of Europe, p. 38, says, Arun,
from Sanscrit ar, ir, or ur, to move.)
Chichester. — The cester or castle of Cissa (son of ^lle). cf. Ciss-
bury in Findon parish.
The last-mentioned is the only unmistakable Saxon name,
though Peofn may also have been a Saxon,
3. The towns which gave their names to the six Sussex rapes
are not associated witli any of the early Saxon settlements in the
county, and are not referred to in early chartei's. This is strong
proof of their unimportance in Saxon times. Chichester (Regnum)
and Pevensey (Anderida), it is true, had been Roman cities, but the
former was not of special consequence under the Saxons, and until
after the Conquest, when the seat of the bishopric was transferred
there from Selsey, which doubtless explains the increase of its houses
(as stated in the Domesday survey) from 100 in the time of the
Confessor to 160 then. The latter, after its capture in 491, had
been left desolate.
The rapes were, as Palgrave points out, of military origin, and
we accordingly find a large number of manors in Hastings rape
were held by Castle-guard tenure,^ and made payments for the
support of Hastings Castle as the head of the barony (or Honor) of
^ This tenure is explained by Mr. C. J. Elton in his book, The Tenures of
Ke}U, p. 200.
58 HISTORY.
Hastings. The EJarl of Chichester, as owner of Hastings Castle,
still receive Castle- guard rents in the Hundreds of Baldslow, Gold-
spur, Guestling, Hawkesborough, Henhurst, Netherfield, Ninfield,
Shoyswell, and Staple.^ Castle-guard {warda castri) rent became
payable every sixteen weeks, and consequently in every leap year
four payments were due, and the total was one-third more than in
ordinary years.^ The reason for this singular aiTangement is not
known. This tenure, though not mentioned in Domesday, explains
tlie relation of the rape to the hundreds and manoi*s.
In Pevensey Rape much of the land round the Castle was ward-
able,^ /.^., paid Castle-guaid, or Castle-ward, and Otteham Manor
paid 3s. 4d, annually.
In Lewes Rape it is clear tliat the borough of Lewes was the
only important place, and from the Domesday Survey we find that
nearly all the manors had liagce or houses in Lewes, again showing
the importance of the chief rape-town for military purposes and for
defence, and affording shelter to the inhabitants of the unfortified
villages. Hagce also occur frequently in Chichester Rape in a
similar manner. We find again William de Braioso in 1268 ex-
onerating certain estates in Bramber Rape from murage (a tax for
the repair of a castle), indicating the existence of an obligation to
support the castle of that rape.
Sir Henry Ellis observes that " we have no mention in the
Domesday Survey of any mote or court atta^ched to the ra])e, nor is
there any reference to its .testimony as in the case of the hundred.'* *
It v/ould seem, however, that there was a joint Sheriffs Court for
the rapes of Ai-undel and Chichester, for in the " Particulars of the
Honor and Castle of Arundel," it is stated that all the tithings
within the hundreds and half -hundreds of Poling, Avysforde, Boxe
and Stockbridge, Bourne and Singleton, West Easwrith, Elsebome,
Rotherbridge, Burye, and Demfourde, " be suters to the Sheriffs
tourne of No-Man's-Land twice every year, which said toumes be
kept within the forest of Arundel after our Lady Day and Michael-
mas."^ The recent introduction of the rape at the time of Domes-
day is the probable reason why no Rape Court is mentioned. No-
other Rape Court can be traced.
1 8u88. Arch, Coll., vi., 67.
2 BurroU MS. add 5680 pp., 81, 171, 177, 316, 337, 340, 420, &c. It ia also*
referred to in the VcXov EccUsicutic^is (Public Rec. edn.), I., 366.
3S.A.C., vi., 227.
* Grenerdl LUrod^tdion to Dometday, p. Ivii*
» Burrell MS., 6701, add.
SUSSEX DOMESBA Y STUDIES. 5J>
The Domesday Lords of the Rapes were as follows : —
Hastings .... Earl of Eu (or Owe).
Pevensey .... Earl of Mortain.
Lewes .... William de Warenne.
Br AMBER .... William de Braiose.
Arundel and Chichester . Earl Roger de Montgomerie.
The division of the county into rapes is still mentioned and
indicated on maps, but the only rape which exists for any practical
purpose is Hastings Rape, which has a separate coroner.
The Rape of Bramber until lately elected a member of Parliament,
this privilege having been conferred by statute in last century,
when, in consequence of the gross bribery which prevailed in the
borough of New Shoreham, the constituency was extended so as to
include the entire Rape of Bramber. The Redistribution of Seats
Act, however, in 188(5, abolished this special constituency.
John Rowe, in his Cnstomal of Lord Abergavenny's Manors in
tlie Barony of Lewes ^ says : — " The freeholders are to appear only
twice a year, viz., at the courts holden at Easter and Michaelmas,
where, if they know of any wrong done to the lord, they are bound
to make it known on oath or fealty. But they are not to be of the
homage, because they perform service of juries at the Barony
Court held at Lewes for the whole rape." ^
In West Sussex the rape also survives for the important pur-
pose of liability to the repair of bridges, which in that division falls,
as of common right (/>., in the absence of proof that any other body
or person is liable), not on the County Division, but on the rape in
which the bridge is situate.^
1 John Rowe was steward to Lord Abergavenny from 1679 to 1622. The
customs are printed in Horsfield H\d, and AtUUi, of LetoeSj I., 177-179.
3 This interesting fact was kindly communicated by F. Merrifield, Esq»^
Clerk of the Peace for Sussex.
60 HISTORY.
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE CORNISH ACRE,
I DO not know whether attention has ever been drawn to the curious
early list of the Bishop of Exeter's free tenants contained in the '' Testa
de Nevill " (pp. 201-203), and the list of Henry de la Pomeray's tenants
(1293-4) printed with it (pp. 204-5).
In my " Notes on Domesday Measures of Land," ^ I ventured to
advance, as my own hypothesis, that the " acra " or " ager " of Cornwall, in
Domesday, must be something quite different from either the geld-acre, or
the actual acre spoken of by Domesday in England. My ground for this
supposition was that, if not, a levy of Danegeld on such an assessment
would produce a redtictto ad ahsurdum. Mr. Eyton, however, had unhesi-
tatingly accepted the Cornish acre, in Domesday, as identical with the
English acre. He gave, as an instance, the entry (Domesday I., 145, a): —
" Ibi sunt 4 acra terrse, terra 4 carucis. Ibi sunt 2 caiuca)." The natural
inference from such an entry would be that the " acra " here is equivalent
to a ploughland rather than to an acre.
Now, in the list of Henry de la Pomeray's tenants in Tregony, Corn-
wall, we first read that there were in demesne '* II. acras cornubienses con-
tinentes II. carrucatas cornubienses," and then, through the long list of his
tenants, we find them holding in every case ** Cornish acres" equating
"Cornish ploughlands." Turning to the Bishop of Exeter's tenants, we
find them all with similar holdings of " acres," for which they pay two
shillings and one sheep for every " acre," plus having to plough a slightly
varying amount of land expressed sometimes in terms of the '^ English
acre" ("acra Anglica") and sometimes in those of the Coniish acre.^
The proportion of land to be ploughed to the land is about ^ or ^, which
makes it more than doubtful whether even these ** English acres " were
really acres at all. Now the local Cornish (South Welsh) acre is reckoned
as rather larger (5760 sq. yds.) than the English one (4840 sq. yds.), but
the "acres" of these records must represent a much larger unit. Perhaps
some of your readers can throw light on this local custom, which, from its
occurring in so unique a region, should prove of some value to students
of our early land system.
J. H. RoimD.
REF/EIV.
The Fi^et : its River Prison and Marriages. By John Ashton. Illus-
trated by Pictures from Original Drawings and Engravings. London :
(Unwin) 1888, 8vo., pp. xvi., 391.
We cannot altogether quarrel with Mr. Ashton over this book, because it is
built up by well selected extracts from works not always readily accessible,
and by very good drawings, copied from contemporary sources, exhibiting
' Domesday Studies.
' I omit the " servitia et anxilium."
REVIEW. 61
the topographical aspect of a considerable portion of London at various
periods of its history. But these two features exhaust the good qualities
of the book. To slipshod and often unmeaning language Mr. Ashton adds
the graver fault of a total absence of arrangement or of analysis of his evi-
dence. Certain facts are repeated in two or three different places ; other
facts are totally ignored ; and very frequently a most irrelevant piece of
history is dragged in on no sufficient ground, either of literary or his-
torical necessity, but simply because it is interesting. To these faults we
must add that of occasionally giving some very unnecessary and not
always correct criticism of authorities. But although on historical and
literary grounds we cannot commend Mr. Ashton's book, there is no gain-
saying that it is of interest and will prove of service to the student
The tnith is, Mr. Ashton has hit upon a very interesting topic, and he
goes to out-of-the-way sources for his information, and never omits to give
full references to the books he quotes. His pictures, however, constitute
the great charm of the book. Any one who has examined the Grace
collection, or who has dipped into the interleaved copy of Pennant in the
British Museum, knows what vivid interest is to be obtained from a study
of topographical engravings. Mr. Ashton has been at pains to select some
of the best and most telling specimens. The mouth of the Fleet river,
1765, is a very curious view of -a part of London that has now completely
disappeared, and the two illustrations of Holbom Bridge are also specially
interesting. The Fleet river is now, like many other old London streams,
converted into a sewer, and it would be worth the while of any London
topographer to examine the plans of the sewers constructed during the
past thirty or forty years. The routes of the old streams were nearly
always adopted as the natural course of drainage, and their influences upon
the topography of London are still to be seen in many places. One of the
subjects noted by Mr. Ashton in connection with the Fleet, are the wells
which were situated near its banks, and although his notes are not com-
plete they are sufficient to give a fair idea of an interesting topic. Mr.
Ashton might have consulted with advantage some papers on this subject
in the Gentleman^s Magazine,
The chapters relating to the prison and to the marriages classed under
the name of Fleet are more discursive, and less satisfactory, because they
have been dealt with by other authorities. The plan and section of Fleet
Prison which Mr. Ashton reproduces are both acceptable.
Xitetatute.
— :o :—
THE FOLKLORE LIBRARY— A RETRO-
SPECTIVE REVIEW.
No. I.
MR. LANG in his recently published ^fyt/t Ritual and Religion
has demonstrated how important it is to sometimes tuni to
the records of old literature for lessons upon modem scientific sub-
jects. It is not likely that the remarkable illastration of Aristotle's
opinion that mast discoveries and inventions have l)een made time
after time and forgotten again, which Fontenellc affords in his
examination of " the absurdities of mythology/* will be again met
with in the writings of old authora on subjects so little influenced by
scientific considerations as the beliefs of mankind. Still there is much
folklore material still lying unquamed in the mines of old English
literature. Some of this was brought to light by Sir Hcniy Ellis
in his edition of Brand's Popular Antiquities, but here the extracts
from old books are necessarily given i>iece-meal, and the student
never knows whether in quoting these old authorities Sir Henry
Ellis merely confined himself to his requirements for illustrating
Brand, or whether he exhausted his author. A systematic account
of these books will therefoix) be of considerable gain to the student,
and we propose in these papers to examine from time to time such
books as afford evidence of English popular supci-stitions. No
attempt will be made to use the material thus obtained merely
for writing a pleasing article, but all quotations will be given in
full with paginal references, and each article will 1)3 in reality a
complete analysis of the book for folklore |)urj)oscs. It is to bo
understood that when no quotations ai-e given from, or note made
of, any section of the book, there is nothing in that section of
importance.
One of the most curious of the books refeiTcd to by Ellis, is A
declaration of egregious popish impostures to ivithdraiv the tiarts of
his Maiesties subiects from their allegcance and from the truth of
Christian religion professed in England vndcr the pretence of casting
out of deuils : at London, newly printed by Ja Roberts, dwelling in
Barbican, 1605, 8vo., pp. [vi] 284. The preface is signed S. H., that
is Samuel Harsnet, Bishop of Oxford, who afterwards became Ai-ch-
THE FOLKLORE LIBRARY. 63
binliop of Canterbury. Harsnet had the most bitter hatred against
the Roman Catholics, and this book, to,2^ether with his Discovery of
fraudulent practices of J. Darrell, 1599, are full of charges of the
most heinous description against the Romish priesthood.
He first gives " the names of the parties supposed to be pos-
sessed." They were these : " Marvvood, seruaunt to Ma. Anthony
Babington, Will. Trayford, attendant at that time vppon Ma.
Edmund Peckham, Robert Maynie, Gentleman, lately before come
out of Fraunce, Sara Williams, Friswood Williams, two sisters, and
AnneSmith,all these meniall seruaunts to Maister Peckham aforesaid.
The names of the actora in this holy comedie were these : Edmunds
alias Weston, rector choii, Ma. Cornelius, Ma. Dibdale, Ma. Thom-
son, Ma. Stomp, Ma. TjTrell, Ma. Dryland, Ma. Tulice, Ma. Sher-
wood, Ma. Winkefield, Ma. Mud, Ma. Dakins, Ma. Ballard, and
some othei-s besides that were daily commeis and goers." And then
he goes on to say that " this play of sacred miracles was performed
in sundiy bouses accomodate for the feate, in the house of L. Vaux
at Hacknoy, of Ma. Barnes at Fulmer, of Ma. Hughes at Vxbridge,
of Sir Geor^re Peckham at Denham, and of the Earle of Lincolne in
Channon Row, in London."
On p. 14 occurs a geneitil description of the pranks of the
devils. "The penner of the miracles as if he meant to scare us
with the very noyse, reports vs the manner of the Hobgoblins in a
very tmgicall stile. The whole house, saith he, was haunted in a
very terrible manner, molesting all that were in the same by lock-
ing and imlocking of dores, tinckling amongst the fier-shouels and
the tonges, ititling uppon the boards, scraping vnder their beds, and
blowing out the candels, except they were halowed. And further,
that these illmannered vrchins did so swarme about the priests in
such troupes and thronges, that they made them sometimes to
sweat as seemes with the veiy heate of the fume that came from the
deuils' noses."
The real interest of the book commences with Chapter 10,
which is headed, " the strange names of their deuils." It says " you
are to vnderstand that there were in our possessed 5 captaines or
comaundei-s aboue the rest : " — Pippin, Philpot, Maho, Modu,
Soforce. They " were not of equall authoritie and place, but some
had more, some fewer vnder theyr commaund . . . The names of
ther punie spirits . . . were these, Helco, Smolkin, Hillio, lliaclito
and Lustie buffe-cap . . . Modu was a graund commaunder, muster-
maister over the captaines of the seaven deadly sinnes : Cliton,
Bernon, Hilo, Motubizanto and the rest.
64 LITERATURE.
"Here, if you please, you may take a suruay of the whol(»
regiment of hell, at least of the chief e Leadei-s and oflScers, as we finde
them enrolled in theyr names.
" First Killico, Hob, and a third anonymous are booked down for
three graund commaunders, euciy on having vnder him 300
attendants.
"Portirichio had with him two captaines and an hundred
assistants.
" Frateretto, Fliberdigibbet, Hoberdidance, Tocobatto were foure
deuils of the round or morrice, whom Sara [Williams] in her fits
tuned together in measure and sweet cadence. These foure had
forty assistants vnder them as themselues doe confesse.
" Lustie JoUie Jenkin by his name should seeme to be foreman
of the motly morrice : hee had vnder him, saith himselfe, forty
assistants, or rather if I mistake not he had beene by some old
exorcists allowed for the master setter of catches or roundes vsed to
be sung by Tinkers, as they sit by the fire with a pot of good ale be-
tweene theyr legges, * Hey iolly Jenkin. I see a knaue a drinking,
etcsdt.'
'' Delicat another captaine hauing vnder him twenty assistants —
all were there tag and ragge, cut and long-tayle, yet diuers of them
it pleaseth the holic exorcist to commaund theyr names to doe them
some grace, others he lets goe out leauing no names but an ill
fauour behind the. The names of such as the exorcist thought good
to fauour were these, Puffe, and Purre, the two fat deuils that had
beene coniured vp for mony. Lustie Dickie, Comerd-cappe, Nurre,
Molkin, Wilkin, Helcmodion, Kellicocam, these having neither
service nor rank.
" Maho was generall dictator of hell, yet for good manners sake
hee was contented of his good nature to make show that himselfe
was vnder the check of Modu." (pp. 45-50.) Two other names,
Hoberdicut and Cocabatto are given incidentally on p. 129. From
this curious list of devils, it is believed that Shakespeare procured
the names quoted in Lear, or as Mr. Halliwell-Phillips puts it, " the
first edition of a book (160S) that was in Shakespeare's recollection
when he composed his tragedy of Lear. ' ^
In considering the value of the names of the devils, it is well to
turn to the confessions of the ** possessed " which are given at
the end of the book. Sara Williams said that the names of the
spirits were written " vpon the wals at Sir George Peckham's house
vnder the hangings," (p. 181), and she apparently believes that the
^ '^ Calendar of Shakespeare rarities,*' p. 29,
THE FOLKLORE LIBRARY. 65
names were there before the priests tried to make her believe that
they were devils' names. Of two of the names she gives very
interesting information, introducing us perhaps to two unknown
chap-books or English folktales. She says, " she wel remembretb
and saith that her mistres as they were at worke had told them a
merry tale of Hobberdidaunce that vsed his cunning to make a
lady laugh" (p. 180), and " the name of Maho came into her minde
for that she had heard before her vncle reade the same out of a
booke, there being a tale therein of Maho" (p. 181). We do not
know what tales these can be, but they introduce us to a lost
portion of English folklore. In another place, however, we have
mention of well-known tales. On page 61, after relating an absurd
story, the text proceeds, " I doe verily suspect this wonder was acted
somewhat neere Gotham, and that the spectators were the posteritie
of them that drowned the Eele," and on page 136, is the following —
" coyners of fables, such as puffe vp our young gallants with bigge
lookes and bombast phrases, as the booke of Lancelot du Lake,
Guy of Warwicke, The Mirrour of Knighthoode, Amadis de Gaule,
and such like their legends, out of these they conceit their
monstrous shapes, vgly bug-beares, hydeous apparitions of ghosts,
out of these they conforme their charmes, enchauntments, periapts,
amulets, characters, wast coates and smockes of proofe, against
hayle, thunder, lightning, biting of mad dogges, gnawing of rata
against botches, biles, crosbiling, sparrow blasting, owle hunting and
the like."
Chapter 19 treats " of the astonishing power of nicknames, re-
licjues, and asses' eares, in afflicting and tormenting the deuill "
(110-122). In this chapter we read that "a witch can transfo»-me
herselfe into the likenes of a cat, a mouse, or an hare, and that shee
being hunted with hounds in the forme of an hare, and pinched by
the breech, or whipped with scourges in the similitude of a cat, the
same pinch or marke shal be found in the breech of the witch that
was before made by the hounds in the breech of an hare, and yet
shal you see this sencelesse witlesse and brainlesse conceite verified
and made sooth in the practise of our holy coniuing crue " (p. 111).
Reverting to morie general items of folklore, chapter 11 gives
** the reasons why sometimes one deuill alone, sometimes an 100,
sometimes a thousand, are cast out at a clap " (51-57). Chapter 21
tells us " of the strange formes, shapes, and apparitions of the
deuills" (131-139); and there are several important passages to
note. On page 135 we have : " If that the bowle of curds and
creame were not duly set out for Robin Goodfellow, the Fier, and
66 LITERATURE.
Sisse, the dairy maide, to meete at ' hincb pinch and laugh not/
when the good wife was a bed, why then either the pottage was
burnt to next day in the pot, or the cheese would not curdle, or the
butter would not come, or the ale in the fat would neuer haue good
head. But if a Peeter penny or an houzle egge were behind, or a
patch of tyth unpaid to the church, the ware where you walke for
feare of bull beggers, spirits, witches, vrchons, elues, hags, fairies,
satyrs, Pans, Faunes, Syluans, Kit with the candlesticke, tritons,
centaurs, dwarffs, giants, impes, calcars, coniurers, nymphs,
changlings, scritchowles, incubus the spume, the mare, the man in
the oake, belwayne, the fire drake, the puckle, Tom thumbe, hob-
goblin, Tom tumbler, Boncles, and the rest."
A witch is very minutely described on page 136 as follows :
" Out of these [legends] is shaped vs the true idea of a witch, an
olde weather-beaten croane hauing her chinnc and her knees meet-
ing for age, walking like a bow leaning on a shaft, hollow eyed,
vntoothed, furrowed op her face, hauing her lips trembling with the
palsie, going mumbling in the streetes, one that hath forgotte her
paternoster, and hath yet a shrewd tongue in her head to call a
drab, a drab. If shee haue learned of an old wife in a chimnies
end. Pax, max, fax, for a spel ; or can say Sir John of Grantam's
curse for the miller's Eels that were stolne : ' All you that have
stolne the miller's eeles laudate dominum de coelis, and all that have
consented thereto benedicamus domino/ Why then ho beware,
lookc about you, my neighbours, if any of you haue a sheepe sicke
of the giddies, or an hogge of the mumps, or an horse of the staggers,
or a knauish boy of the schoolo, or an idle girle of the wheele, or a
young drab of the sullens, and hath not yet fat enough for her
porridge, nor her father and mother butter enough for their bread ;
and she have a little helpe of the mother, epilepsie or cramp, to
teach her role her eyes, wrie her mouth, gnash her teeth, startle
with her body, hold her armcs and hands stiffe, make anticke faces,
gime, mow, and mop like an ape, tumble like a hedgehogge, and
can mutter out two or three words of gibridg, as obus, bobus, and
then withall mother Nobs hath called her by chaunce idle young
housewife, or bid the deuil scratcli her, then no doubt but mother
Nobs is the witch, the young girle is owlcblasted and possessed."
Chapter 22 treats " of the admirable small act of expelling the
deuils and of their formes in theyr departing."
These perhaps exhaust the subjects dealt with at any great
length by the learned Bishop. Throughout the volume are some
curious allusions to some of the bye-paths of folklore. On
THE FOLKLORE LIBRARY. 67
Christmas games, the Bishop says that, in his opinion, " there was
neuer Christmas game performed with raoe apish, indecent, -slouenly
gawdes then your baptising " (p. 32), and we have the following
note on p. 116 : " The exorcists being pleased for want of better
recreation to play all Christmas games with those sowes, as ' laugh
and lye downe,' and my ' sow hath pigd/ and the deuil being but a
prompter and candle-holder to such sport." On miracle plays a
very interesting |)assage occurs (p. 115) : "It was a pretty part in
the old church playes when the nimble vice would skip vp nimbly
like a Jacke an apes into the deuil's necke, and ride the deuil a
course and belabour him with his woodden dagger til he made him
roare, wherat the peoj)le would laugh to see the deuil so vice
haunted. This action and passi5 had soin semblance by reason the
deuil looked like a patible old Coridon, with a payre of homes on
his heade and a cowes tayle at his breech."
These extracts give the most important facts to be obtained
from Dr. Hai'snet's book on the popular superstitions of his day.
In the original they are mixed up with expressions of his own
contemptuous indignation against those who believe and those who
encourage such beliefs, and his indictment against the Roman
Catholic priests is a heavy one, though doubtless charged with con-
siderable prejudice. With this we have nothing to do here : the
value of the book for our pui-pose is for the information it contains
on folklore.
Students consulting the book will find some singular allusions
to the facts of the day, as, for instance, "the shittle {sic) of a
weauer s loome " (p. 92), and the idea that the devil appeared " some-
times like a Russian with curled haire"(p. 139). The proverbial
phrase, "a month's minde," occurs on p. 25, and to "tell tales out
of schoole " on p. 52. Schools and their books are alluded to also
on p. 92 : " We are not fit matter for these deuil powers to work
vpon till we haue been at their schoole and haue learned to spel
our home booke and the Crosse rowe with them."
We conclude with some passages illustrating the contem-
porary life of London, which will be of service to the historical
section of our readers. Speaking of the doings of the priests at the
exorcising of spirits, Dr. Harsnet says : " It does not appeare that
they acted in any Church, Chappell, or consecrated place, exce^Dt
happily they slipped into some nobleman's voide house in London,
which houses, in regard of tbeyr owners callings being aboue reach
of authority, are commonly now adayes the sanctuaries of popish
traison . . ; . not that the noblemen themselves are privy to such
68 LITERATURE.
meetings." Of the cries in the London streets, the following pas-
sage is illustrative : " doe but imagine hira [an exorcist] walking in
our London streets a little before day light, what time the chimney
sweepers vse to make theyr walke, and crying in his hellish, hollow
voyce, * hay ye ere a deuil to driue ? ' ' hay yee ere a wench to
fire?' *bay yee ere a boy to dispossesse ? ' " (p. 95). On p. 59 the
Bear-baiting at Paris Garden is alluded to as follows : *' I have
heard of a good-natured gentleman at Parish garden that cryed,
' take off the dog for shame, and let the poore Beare alone ; ' " and
the sign of " the dogges head in the pot " is alluded to on p. 241 as
existing in Fleet Street.
THE WOOING OF EMER,
[The following tale, of which a translation is here for the first time
attempted, belongs to the oldest, or heroic, cycle of early Irish literature.
Its ceutral figures were the Ulster King Conchobor and Cuchulaind, the
hero of his war band and of the people. Several versions have come down
to us, on which see Jubainville, Catalogue de la Litt6raiure Epique de
rirlande, p. 227. My translation is based on the fragment in the Lebor
na h-Uid/re (compiled about 1050 a.d.) and on a complete version in the
Stowe MS. 992 (compiled in 1300 a.d.).
The tales of the heroic cycle were written down perhaps as early as
the sixth century; at any rate the literary activity of the Irish monks
turned early to the preservation of their national literature. But,
with the exception of three ecclesiastical MSS. and the old Irish MSS.
of the Continent, the whole of this literature was destroyed by the Norse
invaders of Ireland, who " burnt and threw into the water " all MSS. that
they found in the monasteries. See Wan of the Gaedhil with the Gaill, ed.
Todd, p. 139.
When, however, in the eleventh century, a period of comparative quiet
followed, the monks once more set to work to rescue what was left of the
old literature, recovering the tattered fragments of the old MSS. and pro-
curing copies from monasteries abroad.
Thus, although we have these tales in this later form, there is no
reason to suppose that they have been much changed. Their contents are
evidence of their origin and age.
Conchobor and Cuchidaind were, I believe, historical i)er8onages, and
Irish tradition and chronology were not perhaps so wild i\3 one might think
when they fixed their age at the beginning of our era. But on this, and
on less starthng problems, when the reader has the whole tale before him,
I would Hke to say something.]
THERE lived once upon a time a great and famous king in
Emain Macha,^ whose name was C!onchobor, son of Fachtna
^ The royal seat of Ulster.
THE WOOIXG OF EMER. 69
Fathach.^ In his reign there was much store of good things with
the men of Ulster. Peace tliere was, and quiet and pleasant greet-
ing ; there was fruit and fatness and harvest of the sea ; there was
sway and law and good lordship during his time with the men of
Ulster. There was great state and rank and plenty in the king's
house at Emain. On this wise was that house — viz., the Red
Branch of Conchobor, after the likeness of the House of the Mid-
court.2 Nine beds were in it from the fire to the wall. Thirty
feet was the height of each bronze front that was in the house.
Carvings of red yew were therein. It was a board . . . below, and
a roof of tiles above. The bed of Conchobor was in the front
of the house, witii boards of silver, with pillars of bronze, with the
glitter of gold on their head-pieces, and carbuncles in them, so that
day and night were equally light in it, with its silver board above
the king to the highest part of the ro3'^al house. Whenever
Conchobor struck the board with a royal rod, all the men of Ulster
were silent thereat. The twelve beds of the twelve chariot-cliiefs
were round about that bed. Yea, the valiant warriors of the men
of Ulster found place in that king s house at the drink, and no man
of them would touch the other. Splendid, lavish, and beautiful
\7ere the valiant wg^rriors of the men of Ulster in that house.
There were great and numerous gatherings of every kind in
that house, and wonderful pastimes. There were games and
music and singing there — viz., heroes were at their feats, poets
sang, harpers and players on the timpan ^ struck their sounds.
Now, once the men of Ulster were in Emain Macha with Con-
chobor drinking the iern-gual (iron-coal).* A hundred fillings of
beverage went into it every evening. <jrhis was the drinking of the
" coal " that would satisfy all the men of Ulster at one time.^ The
chariot-chiefs of Ulster were performing on ropes stretched across
from door to door in the house at Emain. Fifteen feet and nine
score was the size of that house. The chariot-chiefs were per-
forming three feats — viz., the spear-feat, and the apple-feat, and the
sword-edge feat. These are the chariot-chiefs who performed those
feats — Conall the Victorious, son of Amorgen ; Fergus, son of Roich
^ Fachtna Fathach, son of Rudraigo, was king of Erinn. Ho was the lover
nf Ness, the wife of the druid Cathbad. Hence Conchobor is also called the son
of Cathbad. See Rev. Celt. VI., p. 178.
^ The feasting hall at Tara.
• A small stringed instrument played with the fingera. Cf. Rev. Celt. Vf.,
p. 183, 15.
^ This was the name of a huge copper wine-cask, so called, according to LL.,
p. 258 b, ** because there was a coal-fire in the house at Emain when it was
drunk."— Cf., also LL.. 254 b.
70 LITERA TURE.
the Overbold ; Loegaire the Victorious, son of Connad ; Celtehar,
son of Uthider ; Dubthach, son of Lugaid ; Cuchulaind, son ot*
Soaldam ; Seel, son of Barnene (from whom the Pass of Bamene is
named), the warder of Emain Macha. From him is the saying, " a
story of SceFs," for he was a mighty story-teller. ^ Cuchulaind sur-
passed all of them at those feats for quickness and deftness. The
women of Ulster loved Cuchulaind greatly>for his quickness at the
feats, for the nimbleness of his leap, for the excellency of his
wisdom, for the sweetness of his speech, for the beauty of his face,
for the loveliness of his look. For there were seven pupils in his
kingly eyes, four of them in his one eye, and three of them in the
other. He had seven fingers on either hand, and seven toes on
either of his two feet. Many were his gifts. First, his gift of
prudence until his warrior s flame appeared, the gift of feats, the
gift of buanfach,^ the gift of draught-playing, the gift of calculating,
the gift of sooth-saying, the gift of sense, the gift of beauty. But
three faults had Cuchulaind — that he was too young (for his mous-
tache had not grown, and all the more would unknown youths
deride him), that he was too daring, that he was too beautiful. ''The
men of Ulster took counsel about Cuchulaind, for their women and
maidens loved him greatly. For there was no wife with Cuchulaind
at that time. This was the counsel, that they would seek a woman
whom Cuchulaind might choose to woo. For they were sure that a
man who had a wife to attend to him would less ravish their
maidens and accept the love of their women. And, besides, they
were troubled and afraid that Cuchulaind would perish early, so
that for that reason they wished to give him a wife that he might
leave an heir ; for they knew that his re-birth would be of himself. ^
Then Conchobor sent out nine men into each province of
Eiinn to seek a wife for Cuchulaind, to see if they would find in
any dun or in any chief place in Erinn the daughter of a king, or
of a chief, or of a lord of land, whom Cuchulaind might be pleased
to choose and woo. All the messengers returned that day a year
gone, and had not found a maiden whom Cuchulaind chose to woo.
Thereupon Cuchulaind himself went to woo a maiden that he knew
in Luglochta Loga — viz., Emer, the daughter of Forgall the Wily.
Then Cuchulaind himself and his charioteer Loeg, son of Riangabar
(or Reincobir), went in his chariot. That was the one chariot
which the host of the horses of the chariots of Ulster could not
follow, on account of the swiftness and speed of the chariot and of
the chariot-chief who sat in it. Then Cuchulaind found the maiden
^ Some sort of game like draughts. See Lu. CUia, 27.
THE WOOING OF EMER. 71
on her playing field, with her foster-sisters around her. These
were daughters of the lords of land that lived around the dun of
Forgall. They were learning needle- work and fine handiwork from
Emer. She was the one maiden whom he deigned to address and
woo of the maidens of Erinn. For she had the six gifts — viz., the
gift of beauty, the gift of voice, the gift of sweet speecli, the gift of
needle- work, the gift of wisdom, the gift of chastity.*^ Cuchulaind
said that no maiden should go with him but she who was his equal
in age and shape and race, and skill and deftness, who was the best
handworker of the maidens of Erinn, and tliat none was a fitting
wife for hiro unless such were she." And as she was the one maiden
that fulSUed all those conditions, Cuchulaind went to woo her
above alL
It was in his festal array that Cuchulaind went on that day to
address Emer and to show his beauty to her. As the maidens were
sitting on the bench of gathering at the dun, they heard something
coming towards them, tlie clatter of the horses' hoofs, the creaking
of the chariot, the cracking of the straps, the grating of the
wheels, the rush of the hero, the clanking of the weapons.
" Let one of you see," said Emer, " what it is that is coming to-
wards us." "Truly, I see here," said Fiall, daughter of Forgall,
"two steeds of like size, beauty, fierceness, and speed, bounding
together, . . . , high-headed, spirited, powerful, pricking their ears (?),
thin-mouthed, with long tresses, witii broad foreheads, much speckled,
slightly slender, very broad, impetuous, with curling manes, with
curling tails. At the right pole of the chariot is a grey horse,
broad-haunched, fierce, swift, fleet, wild, taking small bounds,
broad-maned, . . . , thundering, stamping, with curling mane, high-
headed, broad-chested. The large-glebed . . . hard turf is aflame
under his four hard hoofs, a flock of swift birds follows, he takes
his course along the road, there darts from him a flash of breath, a
blast of red-sparkling fire stands out from his curbed jaws. The
other horse jet-black, hard-headed, round, slender-footed, broad-
hoofed, . . . spirited, curly, plaited, tressed, broad-backed, firmly
shod, . . . fiery, fierce, strongly striding, firmly stamping, long-
maned, curly-maned, long-tailed, with firm curls, broad of forehead,
beautiful he moves along after having beaten the horses in the
land, he bounds over the smooth dry sward, he follows the levels
of the midglen, he finds no obstacle in the land A chariot
of fine wood with wicker-work, on which are white bronze wheels.
A white pole of white silver with a mounting of white bronze. A
very high creaking frame of tin, round and firm. A curved strong
72 LITERA TUBE
yoke of gold. Two plaited firm yellow reins. Hard poles, straight
as sword-blades. A dark ^ sad man in the cnariot, the fairest of the
men of Erinn. A heautiful jgiirgle^ five-folded tunic around him,
a brooch of inlaid gold on his w^hite breast at its opening, against
which it heaves, full strokes beating. A shirt with a white hood,
interwoven red with flaming gold. Seven red dragon-gems on the
ground of either of his two eyes. Two blue- white blood-red cheeks
that breathe sparks and flashes of fire. A ray of love burns in his
look. Methinks, a shower of pearls has been poured in his mouth.
As black as the side of a black . . . each of his two eyebrows. A
gold-hilted sword resting on his two thighs. A blood-red hand-
fitted spear with a shaip mettlesome blade on a shaft of wood . . .
is fastened to the copper frame of the chariot. A pur])le shield
with a rim of silver, with ornamental beasts of gold over his two
shoulders. He leaps the heroes' salmon-leap . . . many like
swift feats over it, the chariot-chief of the one chariot. There is a
charioteer before him in that chariot, a very slender, long-sided, much
freckled man. Very curly bright-red hair on his head. A ring of
bronze on his brow which prevents his hair from falling over his
face. Patins of gold on both sides of the back of his head to con-
fine his hair. A shoulder-mantle with sleeves about him, with
openings at his two elbows. A rod of red gold in his hand wdth
which he keeps the horses in order."
Meanwhile Cuchulaind had come to the place where the
maidens were. And he wished a blessing to them. Emer lifted up
her lovely fair face and recognised Cuchulaind. And then she
said : " May God make smooth the path before you ! " " May
you be safe from every harm!" said he. "Whence hast thoU
come ? " she asked. " From Intide Emna,'* he replied. " Where
did you sleep ? " said she. " We slept," he said, " in the house of
the man who tends the cattle of the plain of Tethra." " What was
your food there ? " she asked. " The ruin of a chariot was cooked
for us there,*' he replied. " Which way didst thou come ? " said she.
" Between the Two Mountains of the Wood," said he. " Which way
didst thou take after that ? " said she. ** Not hard to tell," said he.
" From the Cover of the Sea, over the Great Secret of the Men of
Dea,^ over the Foam of the two Steeds of Emain, over the Garden
of the Morrigan,* over the Back of the Great Sow, over the Glen of
1 In LL., p. 66, 29, Cuchulaind is called j^nc/, " fair.'
- i.e. The Tiiatha De Danand, a name for one of the races who inhabited
Ireland before the coming of the Goidels.
•^ One of the names of the Battle-goddess of the ancient Irish, lit., ** Great
Queen."
THE WOOING OF EMER. n
the Great Dam, between the God and his Seer, over the Marrow of
the Woman Fedelra, between the Boar and his Dam, over the
Washing of the Horses of Dea, between the King of Ana (or Ara)
and his Servant, to Mondchuile of the Four Comers of the World,
over Great Crime, over the Remnants of the Great Feast, betw^een i^viivs J
Dabach and Dabchine, to Luglochta ^ Loga, to the daughters of the ix a \ -j
nephew of Tethra, King of the Fomori. J What is tiie account of '
thee, oh maiden ? ** said Cuchulaind. " Not hard to tell, truly,*'
said the maiden. "Tara of the women,^ the whitest of maidens, Ar
the ... of cliastity, a prohibition which is not taken, a w^atcli-
man who sees no one.® A modest woman is a worm,* a scaldcrow^
a rush which none come near." The daughter of a
king, a flame of honour, a road that cannot be entered viz.
I have champions that follow me to guard me from whoever will
take me against their pleasure, without their and Forgall's know-
ledge of my act" "Who are the champions that followed thee, oh
maiden ? " said Cuchulaind. " Not hard to tell, truly," said Emer.
"Two Lui, two Luath, Luath and Lath Goible^ son of Tethra,
Triath and Trescath, Brion and Bolor, Bas, son of Omnach, eight
Condla, Cond, son of Forgall. Every man of them has the strength
of a hundred and the feats of /fijoep Forgall himself, too,
hard is it to tell his many powers. He is stronger than any
labourer, more learned than any druid, sharper than any poet. It
will be more than all your games to fight against Forgall him-
self. For many powers of his have been recounted ... of manly
deeds." " \yhy dost thou not reckon me, oh maiden, with those
strong men ? " said Cuchulaind. " If thy deeds have been recounted,
why should I not reckon thee among them ? " " Truly, I swear,
oh maiden," said Cuchulaind, " that I shall make my deeds recounted ^
among the glories of the strength of heroes." "What then is
thy strength?" said Emer. "Not hard to tell, truly," said he.
" When I am weak in fight, I defend twenty. SuflScient for thirty
is a third of my strength. I alone make combat against forty.
My protection guards a hundred. Fords and battlefields are
avoided for fear and dread of me. Hosts and multitudes and many
ai-med men flee with the terror of my face." " Those are goodly
flghts of a tender boy," said the maiden, " but thou hast not yet
1 GloBB : i.e. to the gardens.
2 Gloss : I.e. as Tara is above every hill, so I am above every woman.
^ Gloss : i.e. I am looked at by everybody for my beauty, and I look at
nobody. /
^ Gloss : i.e. when the worm is seen, it goes into the depth of the water.
* Gloss : viz. for her beauty.
^c
A
••#
. /
. "St
74 LITERA TUBE.
reached the strength of chariot-chiefs." " Truly, oh maiden," said
he, " well have I been brought up by my dear foster-father
Conchobor. Not as a churl looks to the heritage of his children, not
between flag-stone and kneading-trough, nor from the fire to the wall,
nor on the floor of the one larder (?) have I been brought up by
Conchobor, but among chariot-chiefs and champions, among jesters
and druids, among poets and learned men, among the lords of land
^j- I and farmers of Ulster have I been reared, so that I have all their
lo.^ ^ manners and gifts." " Who then have brought thee up in all those
Tf^ * -y deeds thou boastest ?" said Emer. " Not hard to tell, truly. Fair-
' ^ speeched Sencha^ has taught me so that I am strong, wise, swift,
y^y ''. deft, ... I am wise in judgments, I am not forgetful. I . . .
/ anybody before wise men, I attend to their speeches. I direct the
^ *«.^ judgments of all the men of Ulster, and do not alter them, through
the training of Sencha. Blai, the lord of lands, took me to him-
self on account of the kinship of his race, so that I got my due with
him, so that I invite the men of Conchobor*s province with their
king. I entertain them for the time of a week, I settle their gifts
and their spoils, I aid them in their honour and their fines. Feigus
has fostered me, so that I slay strong warriora through the strength
of valour. I am flerce in valour and prowess, so that I am able to
guard the border of the land against foreign foes. I am a shelter
for eveiy poor man, I am a rampaiii of fight for every wealthy
man, I give comfort to each wretch, I deal mischief to each strong
man, through the fostei'age of Fergus. I came to the knee of the
poet Amorgen, so that I praise a king for any excellency he has, so
that I can stand up to any man in valour, in prowess, in wisdom,
in splendour, in clevemeas, in justice, in boldness. I am a match
for any chariot-chief, I give thanks to no one, but to Conchobor
alL Findchoem^ has cared for me, so that the victorious
Conall Cemach* is my . . . foster-brother. Cathbad of the gentle
face has taught me for the sake of Dechtire,* so that I am a skilful
student of the arts of the god of druidism, so that I am learned in
the excellencies of knowledge. All the men of Ulster have equally
brought me up, both charioteers and chariot-chiefs, both kings and
chief -poets, so that I am the darling of the host and multitude, so
^ An ollam or chief poet of Ulster.
2 Findchdcm and Dechtire were daughters ot Cathbad.
^ The son of Amorgen and Findchoem.
* The mother of Cuchulaind.
INDEX NOTES. lb
that I fight for the honour of them all alike. Honourably have
I been asked by Lug,^ son of Cond, son of Ethlend .... of Dechtire
to the house ... of the brug. And thou, oh maiden," said
Cuchulaind, " how hast thou been reared in Luglochta Loga ? "
KuNO Meyer.
{To be continued.)
INDEX NOTES.
THE OLD ENGLISH DRAMA.
EVERYONE knows that in the Old English plays there £ire a
very great many allusions to manners and customs, super-
stitions, &c., prevalent at the time they were written. Proverbs,
obsolete words and phrases are also enshrined in and sometimes
originate from these plays, and there are many glimpses into the
daily life of London. Nothing has yet been done to bring these
facts into a condition for the use of students, and it is therefore
proposed to index in these pages each play separately and thus
build up gradually what will ultimately become an historical index
to the early dramatic literature of England. The play selected to
begin the series is not chosen specially, but we think it will be
found to contain sufficient interest to show the value of such index
notes as are proposed. The references are to act and scene.
I. MiDDLETON (Thomas), A Chaste Maid in Cheapaide, 1630.
Amber, dissolved for a love potion, v., 2.
Amsterdam, the refuge of Puritans, iii., 2.
Apostle spoons, a christening gift, iii., 2.
Auction sale, iii., 3.
Bam elms, iv., 3.
Blackfriars theatre, iv., 3.
** Bo to a Goose," i., 1.
Bonfires made before the door, v., 3.
Bracks, cracks, flaws. (See Nares' Glossary), i., 1.
Brentford, Branford, ii., 2 ; v., 4.
Bridewells, ii., 1.
Buss, kiss. (See Nares' Glossary), ii., 2.
^ One of the Tiiatha De Danand, a supomatural being, who in the shape of
a baby slept with Dechtire before she was married to Soaldam, and thus begat
Cuchulaind. The house of the **Brug" referred to in the text is probably the
same as that in which the Ulster heroes were entertained when they were in
search of the wonderful birds. Cf. the Compert Cotvcxdabid 3 and 6 (Windisch,
Ir. Texte pp. 137, 139), and LL. 144b, 18.
76 LITERA TUBE.
Cambridge, merchants' sons at, i., 1.
Cato (Dionysius), Disticha de Moribus^ a school book, iv., 1.
Christening gifts, iii., 2.
Coals, burning of, L, 2.
Coffins, adornment of, v., 4.
Cog, dissemble. (See Nares* Glossary), iv., 1.
Corderius (Mathurin) Cdloqniay a school book, iv., 1.
Crier, common, sale announced by, iii. , 3.
Customs. See '* bonfires," **cliri8tening," ** coals,'* "coffins," "crier,'*
** horse-racing," '* rushes."
Dancing, i., 1.
Figient, fidgetty. (See Nares' Glossary, s.v. figent), iii., 3.
Finger (ring) superstition as to connection with the heart, iii., 1.
Fitters, pieces. (See Nares' Glossary), iii., 2.
Foutra, a foutra for=a fig for. (Not in Nares'), ii., 2.
French language, i., 1.
Gaudy-shops, shops where finery was sold, i., 2.
Gear, business. (See Nares' Glossary), i., 1.
Golls, a cant term for hands. (See Nares' Glossary), ii., 2.
Gossiping, christening, ii., 1.
Haberdines, probably a childish sport. (Not in Nares*), iv., 1.
Henry V., sword of, at Westminster, iv., 3.
Hobson, the celebrated Cambridge carrier, from whom was derived the
proverb Hobson's choice, i., 1.
Horse-racing at Brentford, v., 4.
Infonners, who for prosecuting delinquents were rewarded with part of the
fines, ii., 1.
Lammas, iii., 2.
Latin language, i., 1.
Lent, prohibitions during, ii., 2.
Lin, cease. (See Nares' Glossary), iii., 2.
London, Blackfriars theatre, iv., 3 ; Bucklersbury, iii., 2 ; Comhill, conduit in,
iii., 2 ; Gresham's Burse, i., 2 ; Holbom Bridge, i., 1 ; Paul's school, iii.,
2 ; Queenhithe, ii., 2 ; the Strand, v., 1 ; Tumbull Street, ii., 2.
, Government, character of, ii., 1.
Love potions, v., 2.
Lurch, filch, iii., 2.
Outcry, auction, iii., 3.
Pearl dissolved for a love potion, v., 2.
Posy on wedding ring, i., 1.
Pi-ecedence of city wives, ii., 4.
Proceeded, taken a degree, iv., 1.
Progress, royal, ii., 1.
Proverbs. See ** Bo to a goose," ** Hobson."
Quean, used as term of reproach to women, iL, 2.
Red-hair, objection to, iii., 2.
INDEX NOTES. 77
Rider's Dictionary, a dictionary Eng. Lat. and Lat Eng., published in 1589,
iv., 1.
King, wedding, i., 1.
Romford hogs, iv., 1.
Rules, sports, revels, i., 1.
Runts, oxen of small size, iv., 1.
Rushes used for floor covering, iiL, 2.
Salads, i., 1.
Sale announced by crier, iiL, 3.
School books, iv., 1 ; boys, i., 2.
Schools, St. Paul's, iii., 2.
Shittle-cock, the old form of shuttle-cock, iii., 2.
Sir-reverence, a form of apology, a corruption of save reverence, iv., 1.
Snaphance, a spring lock to a gun, hence by metaphor applied to anything
that strikes sharply. (See Nares* Glossary), ii., 1.
Spiny, slender. (See Nares' Glossary, s.v. spinny).
Spittlehouses, ii., 1.
Stage, sword dancing on the, iv., 3. (See **Blackfriar8 Theatre.")
Superstitions. See ** amber," "finger-ring," ** red-hair."
Surrey. See " Bam Elms."
Sweetmeats, iii., 2.
Sword-dancing, iv., 3.
Tester, a silver coin, i., 1.
Thames, stairs, iv., 2.
Theatres, Blackfriars, iv., 3.
Undergraduates, whipping of, iii., 2.
Virginals, a musical instrument resembling a spinnet, i., 1.
Watermen of London, iv., 3.
Wedding ring, i., 1.
Westminster, monuments at, iv., 3.
Wittol, a contented cuckold. (See Nares' Glossary), i., 2 ; iv., 1.
II. Glossaries Appended to Books.
Tlie importance of some glossaries not published separately, but
-appended to the books for which they ai'e compiled, is not generally
recognised. A complete list of such glossaries is a desideratum in
English literature, and the following is an instalment towards such
a list : —
1. Enqlisu Words, Puuases, and Customs.
SirThomas Elyot, The Boke tunned the Gouenu/ur, 1531, edited by H. H. S. Croft,
London, 1880. 2 vols. 4to. The glossary is very full and valuable
vol. ii., pp. 449-637.
Sir John Fortcscue, The Gov^ivaiuie of EngUuul, 1471-1476, edited by C.
Plummer, Oxford, 1885. 8vo. *^ The glossanal index is merely intended
to give help to those who, reading the text for historical purposes, may
be puzsded by middle English forms and meanings. It makes no preten-
sions to any philological value." — Preface, p, xi. ; pp. 357-362.
78 LITERATURE.
F. J. Fumivall, Fiftij Earliest English WiUs in the CauH of Probate, London,
1387-1439. London, 1882. 8vo. List of words and subjects, pp.
170-200.
Toulmin Smith, English Oilds, Loiulon, 1870. 8vo. "Glossarial Index," pp.
462-483.
R. T. Hampson, Medii ^vi Kalendariiimy London, 1841. 2 vols. ** Alpha-
betical digest of obsolete names of days, forming a glossary of the dates
of the middle ages." — Vol. ii., pp. 1-430.
Reginald Scot, Hie Discoverie of Witchcraftj 1584, edited by Brinsloy Nicholson,
London, 1886. 4to. Glossary, pp. 580-689.
Joseph Lucas, Studies in Nidderdah, London (no date). 8vo. ** Glossary of
some of the words used in the dialects of Nidderdale, chieOy from words
collected between the years 1868 and 1872."— pp. 227-292.
G. S. Streatfeild, Lincohuihire and the Danes, London, 1884. 8vo. ** Glossary
dealing with the surviving traces of the Danish language." — pp. 314-377.
Rey, R. Morris, TJie BlicMing Homilies of the Tenth Ceidnry, London, 1880.
4to. Index (and glossary) of words, pp. 265-392.
2. Law and Historical Words.
W. Stubbs [Bishop of Chester], Select Charters and other Bhistraiions of Eiujli^i
Constitutional History, Oxford, 1870. 8vo. **This glossary does not
contain the French or Anglo-Saxon words contained in the translations
given in the body of the work ; nor mediaeval forms of classical words
diifering in si)elling only from the accepted usage ; nor has it been
thought necessary to specify the ordinary meanings of words the pecu-
liar senses of which only are worth noting." — pp. 513-531.
Pnblicaiions of the Pipe EoU Society, vol. iii., 1884. 8vo. ** Table of Abbrevia-
tions, besides serving as a key to the contracted wortls most frequently
recurring in the early Rolls, should also be carefully studied by the
reader in order to familiarize himself with the general principles of
abbreviating." — pp. 10-34. Glossary — ** Short explanations are given of
some historical words and phrases used in the Pipe Rolls. It should
be clearly understood that this glossary has been compiled from ordinary
authorities for general purposes, and is in no way intended to apply
solely to the pipe rolls of the reign of Henry the Second." — pp. 70-100.
Anglo-Saxaih Clironide, edited by B. Thorpe, London, 1861. 2 vols. 8vo.
" Glossary of a few Anglo-Saxon terms necessarily retained in the transla-
tion, for which there is no exact equivalent in English." Vol. ii., pp.
321-323.
Thomas Blount, Tenures of Land and Customs of Manors, edited by W. C.
Hazlitt, London, 1874. 8vo. Glossary, pp. 411-446.
Munim^nta GildhaUae Loudoniensis, edited by H. T. Riley. Liber custumarum.
London, 1862. 3 vols. 8vo. ** Glossary of Anglo- Nonnan and Early
English words," vol. iii., pp. 289-372; "glossary of Mediaeval Latin,"
vol. iii., pp. 375-407 ; '* glossary to the appendices," vol. iii,, pp. 467-
472 ; **glossarial index of festivals and dates," vol. iii., pp. 475-476.
Records of the Borough of NottinyJMm, 1155-1547. London and Nottingham,
1885. 8vo. 3 vols. ** Glossary of English and Latin," vol. iii., pp.
481-505.
R. T. Hampson, Origiupn Patrici<e, or a deduction of European titles of nobility
and dignified offices from their primitive sources. London, 1846. 8vo.
Glossarial index, pp. 397-428.
3. Indian Words and Usages.
Sir J. B. Phear's TJ^e Aryan Village in India and Ceylon. London, 1880. 8vo
Glossary, pp. 289-295.
CORHESPONDENCE. 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MOROCCO.
I am preparing a complete Bibliography of Morocco as a companion to
that of Sir Lambert Playfair ou Algeria and Messrs. Graliam <fe Ashbee on
Tunis. This was attempted by Renou nearly half a century ago, and still
more recently M. de Mortiniere published what professed to be a con-
tinuation of Renou's list. Both catalogues are, however, full of errors and
80 imperfect that I have already been able merely out of my own collection
to nearly double the published rolls of works and papers treating of the
Empire. My library contains many rare MSS. and several unique, or all
but unique, pamphlets and chap books. I shall be glad to hear (at
"Ferslev, Rydal Koad, Streatham, London,") of any privately printed
works, or report?, or of memoirs bearing on Moorish Piracy or Christian
Slavery, and on the English occupation of Tangier not mentioned \\\ Col.
Davis' recent history of the Tangier Regiment.
Robert Brown.
ANCIENT IRISH EXPRESSIONS OF SOCIAL CONTEMPT.
Mr. Whitley Stokes in his new edition of the Tripartite Life of St.
Patrick (Rolls Series) p. clxxii., mentions " that the solitary mention of the
way in which social contempt was expressed is p. 138, when Patrick
prophesied that a certain tribe who had stoned hira, would be under spittles
and wisps and mockery in every assembly (Irish : ocus l)ethi foselib ocus
sopaib ocus cuitbiud hicach airecht imbed)," and he adds " what these wisps
were is not clear." It seems legitimate to compare this expression with a
common incident in the Celtic folk-tales still current in the Highlands. A
personage of the tale falling into the hands of enemies has the " bindings of
the three smalls" (i.e. wrists, and ankles, and waist) laid upon him and is
cast under the table, " under the drippings of the lamps and the feet of
the big dogs," as one tale (Campbell, ii., p. 453) has it : " under the cats,
and dogs, and men's spittles, and with shame and insidt on themselves,"
according to another one (Campbell, iii., p. 270), to quote but two cut of
many instances. The incident is peculiar so far as I know to the Celtic
folk-tales, and it is interesting to be able to trace it back to the 9th if not
to the 4th century. The " wisps " which puzzle Mr. Stokes may be con-
jectured to be either the cords or withies with which the tortured ones
are bound, or the rushes which covered the floors.
Alfred Nutt.
THE AYLESFORD LIBRARY.
In the forthcoming sale of the library of the Earl of Aylesford atMess^^<.
Christie's rooms on the Gth of March, there are, among many other rai e
and valuable works, some few which seem to deserve special notice, e,g, (No.
409), a fine copy of The Chastysing of Goddes Children, commonly ascribed
80 LITERATURE
to Caxton, but although printed vith his types, there seems good reason for
supposing with Mr. Blades that the work was really executed by W. de
Worde. (527) The original autograph MS. of Cornwallis's Discourse of
the Most Illustrious Henryy late Prince of Wales (1626), with the dedica-
tion to King James I., for which the author's nephew substituted his own
•dedication to Charles I. in the edition published by him in 1641. (799 )
A fine copy of the first edition of Fabyan's Chronicle^ of which very few
perfect copies are known to exist (864) The very rare Parochial History
of Cornwall^ by Hals, containing, in addition to the printed text (which has
MS. corrections by Davies Gilbert, who had the use of this copy while com-
piling his own " Parochial History "), a transcript of all that remained
unpublished of the work of Hals, in which are many passages altogether
omitted by Gilbert. This volume, as well as the ** Fabyan," was bought by
Lord Aylesford in 1820 at the sale of the library of Sam. Lysons. (1026)
Higden's Folychronicon (Caxtouj 1482) has a few leaves supplied in facsimile
by Harris, but is in other respects a good copy. (1076) A fifteenth century
MS. on vellum, containing thirteen historical documents, chiefly relating to
the dioceses of Canterbury and Rochester. It appears to have been the
MS. used by Hearne, who has printed several of the documents in his edition
of Sprott's Chronicle. (1496) A collection of more than three hundred
Royal proclamations issued in the reign of Charles I., beginning with the
announcement of the death of James I. and extending down to March,
1641. (1704, 5, 6) The first, second, and third folio impressions of Shakes-
peare. The most important of these is the second^ which formerly belonged
to Theobald, and after his death to Dr. Johnson. It contains numerous
MS. notes by both.
F. N
NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS,
All communicalions thottld be directed to ** The Editor^ Archoedogical Review^ 270 Strand,
WX.
The Editor cannot undertake to return rejecte I MSS. unless a stamped directed envelope is
sent for (hat purpose.
Erratum.
Page 22, note 1, line 7, for "one carucate (in demesne)" read " land for one
plough."
THE
Arch^ological Review.
Vol. I. APRIL, 1888. No. 2.
Hntbtopoloo^*
— :o: —
THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS.
** Sie sprechen eine Sprache
Dio ist so reich, so schoii ;
Docli keiner der Philologeii
Kann diese Spracho verstehn/'
IT is an old belief that animals, and even plants, talk to each
other, and that men can freely understand and answer them.
But this belief, born of that primitive communism which makes the
whole world kin, is gradually dispelled by a more exact observation
of nature ; and men, beginning to draw the line more sharply between
themselves and the lower creatures, are fain to confess that thev
understand the beast language no longer, though they cling to the
idea that the faculty is still enjoyed by a few, either as a natural
gift or an acquired accomplishment. Sometimes with a peculiar
fitness this antique lore is the special attribute of simple folk, as
fools or children, who reflect the mental state of a bygone age.
A modem poet can still ask the children to
** Whisper in my eur
What the birds and the winds are singing
In your sunny atmosphere,"
as if the kingdom of nature, like the kingdom of heaven, were
hidden from the wise and prudent and revealed unto babes.^
* *' Ui non cdiu^fere sit aditiia ad regnum hominis, (pi4>d fniuhdnr in scieutiitf
qmtm ad regnum codonnn, in quod, nisi sub persona hifantis, mtiare non datur."
Bacon, Novum Onjnnum^ i. 08,
F
82 ANTHROPOLOGY.
Combating the pi'actice of killing animals for food, Pori)hyry
argues that they are reasonable creatures and speak a language
which differs from that of men only in this, that whereas human
language is regulated by human laws, the language of the beasts is
bound by no rules save those imposed by nature and the gods.
" What though we do not understand the beast language ? " he
asks, " a Greek does not undei-stand a Hindoo ; and to a man bred
in Attica, the Syriac, Thracian, or Scythian tongue is unintelligible,
and sounds like the croaking and creaking of cranes."^ A belief
like Porphyry's is still held, on grounds not unlike his, by the
Indians of Guiana. •* In Guiana countless Indian stories, fully be-
lieved, introduce the sayings of animals ; and though the individual
Indian knows that he no longer understands the language of the
beasts and birds around him, yet he attaches but little weight to
this, in that he is constantly meeting with other Indians of one or
other of the many alien tribes which surround him, who speak
languages at least as unintelligible to him as are those of birds or
beasts ; and in that, as he is fully persuaded, he constantly hears
the peaiman [medicine-man] still converse with birds and beasts.*'^
When the language of the beasts is thus a foreign tongue to
man, the ideas he has of it are naturally vague. Sometimes he
seems to think that all animals speak the same speech, sometimes
that the speech of birds differs from that of beasts, sometimes that
each species of animal has its own distinct language The last was
perhaps Porphyiy*s notion, for according to him some races of men
have a natural aptitude for the language of certain animals ; the
Arabs, he said, understand crows, the Etruscans eagles.* A Syrian
story* specially mentions the bear language and the lion language ;
a young man understands and converses in both, and acts as inter-
preter between the lions and the daughter of the elfin-king, who,
brought to be the bride of the lion-prince, does not understand the
lion language. When a bear asks the youth how he learned the
bear language, he answers "By the grace of Gocl" In another
Syrian tale^ a chiefs daughter has been swallowed by a shark ; and
a fish, who had been swallowed by the shark at the same time, is
questioned as to the girUs fate by a Mahommedan doctor of law
who understands the language of fish. A Swabian story^ tells how
2 Porphyiy, De ahdiitetitia, iii., 3.
3 Im Thurn, Among the Indiaiut of Otiiana^ p. 352.
* De Abst:, iii. 4.
5 Prym und Socin, Syruche Sageii utul Mdkrchen (Gottingen, 1881) no. xxx.
^ Ib.y no. xxiv.
^ Birlinger, VlfUcgthiimliches aiis Schwabefii,, p. 336.
THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS. 83
a man understood the language of geese, and from overbear-
ing a conversation of these birds was able to anticipate their
attack on a farmer's crop. In a modem Greek tale from Epirus^
a poor man goes out to earn his bread. He comes to a river
on whose banks the birds twitter and sing. Here he stays
three years to learn their language. When he has mastered
it he returns home, and hearing that a certain queen has a toad in
her body and can get no help from any physician, he goes to see
what he can do for her. First he speaks in the snake language,
but the toad makes no answer. Next he tries the frog language ;
still no response. Lastly he tries tho toad language. Immediately
the toad answers from the queen's body, and in the course of con-
versation admits that he dislikes sour thing-^. A dose of vinegar is
promptly administered to the queen, who is soon rid of the toad.
The poor man receives a ducat from the grateful monarch. In
this story it is implied that a knowledge of the bird language
carries with it a knowledge of the languages of other animals. We
shall meet the same implication again.
A knowledge of the language of animals is sometimes a,scribed
to particular persons, legendary or historical. Peter PetroWtch of
Cracow, a hero of Russian song, talked with the fowls of the air.®
The Indians say that Menabozho understood the languages of all
animals.^® In a fabulous life of Alexander the Great, written in
French prose in the fifteenth century, Alexander is represented as
borne through the air in a glass cage, yoked with eight griffins, and
he is accompanied by magicians who understand the language of
birds.'^ In the Koran^^ Solomon is made to say, " O ye folk ! we
have been taught the speech of birds ; " and he is supposed to have
understood more than the bird language, for, coming with his
** Hahn Q-riechhche mui AlhaiiSHische MdJirchen^ no. 33.
^ A. Rambaud, La Riissie ipique, (Paria, 187C), p. 80.
^^ A. Bastian in Zeitschrifl f. Mhiwlogiey i., p. 158.
11 John Dunlop, Hidory of Fictmi (2nd ed., 1816), ii., p. 127 ; kL p. 184
of F. Liebrecht's German translation (Berlin, 1851). Tho prose romance is
based on two metrical romances, one by Lambert li Tors, the other by Thomas
of Kent (Dunlop, ii., p. 124). A collection of medieval French metrical
romances on the history of Alexander (including extracts from Thomas of Kent)
was lately published from the MSS. by Mr. Paul Meyer, under the title Alex-
itndrt It Grand daiis la llttirature Fran^aUe dn moyen dge (Paiis, 1886). In one
of them {MS. de la Bibl. Imp., No. 789) Alexander sails through the air in a
griflin-car, and says (vv. 377 sq.) :
' ' Et aaurai des oisiax com lor est cmiveiiant
QuaiU il voleiU Id sits en Vair ki est ardant"
1* Ch. xxvii. (vol. ii., p. 100 «g., Palmer's translation).
84 ANTHROPOLOGY.
hosts to the valley of the ants, he heara an ant saying, *' O ye
ants ! go into your dwellings, that Solomon and his hosts crush you
not while they do not perceive," at which speech the king laughs.
According to an Arabic legend,^^ Solomon, reposing in the valley
between Hebron and Jerusalem, is visited by the angels of the
winds and the angels that bear rule over all living things ; by their
help he simimons to his presence animals of every kind, and con-
verses with them. Moslems still believe that " all kinds of birds,
and many (if not all) beasts, have a language by which they com-
municate their thoughts to each other." " It was from the Moors
of Spain that Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II., learned the
meaning of the cries and the flight of birds.^^ For in the Middle
Ages, Spain, so long the home of Arabian arts and learning, was a
favourite abode of enchanters ; magic was regularly taught at
Toledo, Salamanca, and Seville.^® To this day it is hardly possible
to walk the narrow, winding, desolate streets of Toledo — perched
like an eagle's eyrie in proud isolation from the modern world —
without falling under the spell of the Middle Ages, and feeling that
behind these white, silent walls the magician may still be working
his " enchantments drear."
Grimm has conjectured ^^ that the elevation of Gerbei*t to the
Papal See may have been the origin of a German folk-tale in which
a boy who has learned the language of animals rises t(j be Pope.
The story is only one of a widely-spread group of similar tales,
which we will now examine.
In the case of authors who wrote before the invention of print-
ing, scholars are familiar with the process of comparing the various
manuscripts of a single work, in order, from such a comparison, to
reconstruct the archetype or original MS. from which the various
existing MSS. are derived. Similarly in folk-lore, by comparing
the different versions of a single tale, it may be possible to arrive
with tolerable cei^tainty at the original story, of which the different
versions are more or less imperfect and incorrect representations.
*'^ G. Weil, Bihliache Legeudeu (ler MuselmUnner (Frankfurt, 1845), p.
225 w/^.
^* Lane's Arabian Nights' EntertainmenU, I., p. 35.
^•"^ William of Malmesbury, De gedis reg^im Auglxtrnm, II., 10, " /6< qnuf
caiitu^ et viAatmi arinm porteiulit, didicit;" Vincent of Beauvais, Sj>ecHluni
Bi»toriale, xxiv., 98 (paraphrasing William of Malmesbur>'), ^^ Ihi didicit et
caittus avium et vdattts myderinm."
^^ Sir W. Scott, note on Lay of the Lad MindMy Canto II. ; Maury, La
Map*' et VAdrdogie dans VAntitiHiti et ai( moyen Sgf, p. 21G. Magic was even
called tfcientia Tvletana,
^^ Note on Kinder mid HavsmUhrcheu^ No. 3J1
THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS. 85
The story of " The Boy who became Pope " will furnish us with an
example of this process of collation in folk-lore. Versions of the
story are found in a, Italy/® b, Germany ,^^ c, Normandy,^ and d,
Brittany ; ^^ and they all belong to what a pateographer would call
the same family, being undoubtedly derived from one ai-chetype.
Other versions of the same story, differing more or less from the
preceding and from each other, will be afterwards noticed.
We will first give the archetype, as restored from a comparison
of the four versions belonging to the same family. Along with the
text of the archetype we will give the most important variations
(where they occur) in the different versions, indicating these versions
by the letters I. (Italian), G. (German), N. (Norman), and B.
(Breton).
The story is that of " The Boy who became Pope, or the Three
L^mguages." A man has a son whom he sends away to be educated.
After a time the son returns and is asked what he has learned. He
replies, " I have learned the language of dogs'^ ^ He is sent away
to school again. After a time he again comes back, and is asked
what he has learned. He answers, " The language of frogsJ' ^ He
is sent away to school again. He returns a third time, and is asked
what he has learned. He replies, " The language of birds'* **
The father is angry. He orders ^ a man to take the youth into
a wood and murder him. The intended assassin pities tlie youth and
lets him go, but brings as a token to his fatlur t/ie heart of a deer,^
pretending that it is the youth's.
In his wanderings the youth comes to a dwelling where he is
received for the night. The dogs bark, and, understanding the
language of dogs, the youth hears them saying that robbers are
*® Crane, Popydnr Ittdutn Talea, No. xllii.
'^ Grinim, Kinder und HmuntUOirchen, No. 33.
-0 Fleury, Litteratm-e omle de la Bdikte-Nornuindie (Paris, 1883), p.
123 sqq.
-^ Sebillot, drutes Populaiirs de la HanU-BveUujM^ 2ine S^rio, No. xxv.
-- Frogs N. ; dogs, frogs, and birds I. (this is simply an abbreviation of
what follows, the three visits to school behig compressed into one. But in I.
the order of the archetype — viz., dogs, frogs^ birds — is preserved both here and
in what follows).
-^aDogsN.; birds G.
2* Frogs G.
-* He orders — pret'cnding that it is the youth's : omitted in B.
*-*** Heart of a dog I. ; eyes and tongue of a deer G. (For bringing back an
animal's heart instead of a person's, of. Fleury, op, cit. La FUle sans Mains^
p. 163.)
86 ANTHROPOLOG Y.
about to attack the house. He gives warning to the master of the
house, and the purpose of the robbers is defeated.^
He comes to a house where a girl is ill. By understanding
what the frogs are saying he learns that the girl is ill because slie
has dropped something ^ which a frog has got hold of. The lost
object is rescued from the frog's mouth, and the girl is made
well.2o
He goes to Rome with two ^ companions whom he has met on
the way. They hear birds singing on a tree, and the youth under-
stands the birds to say that one of the three fellow-travellers will
be made Pope.^^ At Rome they find that the Pope is dead, and by
a certain sign^- the youth is recognised as the future Pope and
elected.
His fatlier visits himy repents of what he had done, humbles
himself before his son^ receives his pardon^ and lives unth his son
/lenceforward. ^
There are two other Breton versions of the story, which differ
more or less from the preceding, e. In one called " Pope Innocent,"^^
the son of th:3 King of France predicts that his father will pour
water for him to wash his hands, and that his mother will offer him
a towel to dry them with. His parents are angiy. A man is
charged to kill the prince, but lets him go free. Hearing that a
Pope is about to be elected, he sets out for Rome. He meets two
monks who are also bound thither, and they go together. On the
way they have various adventures, which have no parallel in the
-^ In B. the incident of the dogs and the robbers follows that of the girl and
the frogs, agreeably to the order in which in B. the youth learns the three lan-
guages. In G. the robbers are omitted, and the dogs bark simply because there
is a great treasure in the house, and they can have no rest till it is removed.
2® The holy wafer (host) N. B. ; a crucifix I. (which does not say that a frog
had got hold of it, but simply tliat the girl had thrown the crucifix into a
fountain).
'''^ In G. the frog incident is abbreviated to this, that the youth hears and
understands the croaking of the frogs, and is saddened by what ho hears.
30 Three I. In I. he meets these companions after, in N. B. before, the
adventures with the dogs and frogs. In G. the fellow travellers do not
appear.
^^ In N. it is only said that what the birds said astonished him, and that he
kept the secret to himself. But the meaning is plainly as in the text.
^^ In G. two white doves alight on his shoulders ; in I. a dove alights on his
head ; in B. all the people pass under the bell to see who will be Pope ; when
the youth passes under it, the bell rings. In N. a portion of the sky descends
on his head.
^^ His father — henceforward omitUd in G. ; and lives witli his son hence-
forward omitted in N.
•** MU^mm, I. (1878X coL 374 aqq. For some of the parallels which follow I
am indebted to Dr. Keinhold Kohler s notes in MHusine, I. c. 384.
THE LANGUAGE OF AXIMALS. 87
preceding versions. But the incidents of (1) the castle and robbers,
and (2) the girl and the frogs, and (3) the prediction of the birds,
all occur, though in (1) the dogs are not mentioned. At Rome
the prince's candle takes fire of itself on three successive days, so
he is elected Pope. His parents come to Rome to get absolution
for their sin ; they fulfil their son's prediction ; he pardons them,
and they live happily together.
f. In another Breton version,^ called " The History of Christie,
who became Pope at Rome," the boy Christie makes the same pre-
diction as in the preceding version. A servant is charged to kill
him, but brings back a dogs heart instead. Christie has various
adventures, of which the only one like the preceding is that of the
robbers, and here the dogs reappear. The test for Pope is the same
as in the foregoing tale. His parents visit Rome, and the Pope
washes their feet.
In neither of these Breton versions is the langruaofe of animals
distinctly mentioned, though a knowledge of it is implied in the
incident of the frogs in the first and perhaps (though less clearly)
in that of the dogs in the second.
Further, the general plot of the story occurain a number of other
tales, g. In the " History of the Seven Wise Masters of Rome,"^®
a certain knight sends his son to be educated by a Master in a far
countiy. After seven years the child returned and as he is sitting
at table with his parents a nightingale sings sweetly. The knight
marvels at the sweetness of the song and wishes that some one
3s 26. c. 300 sqq.
3^1 have used the Historia calnmuie noveixalis ({iie septem mpieutnm hiscrib-
Uur (Antwerp, 1490) ; the Engliah translation, reprinted at London, 1688 ; and
the two old French redactions published by Mr. Gaston Paris {Deux Redactioiis
dn Roman den Sept Sages de Ri)m?^ publi^es par Gaston Paris, Paris, 1876). The
Hiatoria calumnie iwoercalis^ according to Mr.Paris (preface, p. xi., note) is the
same text as the HistorUi septem SapietUnmj " avec des chaiiyemetUs den noma et la
suppression de tout ce qui est chrHien.** Accoiding to him, the second of the
French versiotis is a close translation of the Latin, and the English version is
made directly or indirectly from the Latin. But the French version is certainly
not a close translation of the HUtoria calumnie iiovercodis so far as I have com-
pared the two, but differs from it considerably. On the other hand the French
and English translations (so far as I have compared them) agree with each other
closely and differ from the Latin ; and as in some of these details where they
differ from the Latin they agree with modem parallels one can scarcely help
concluding that the genuine folk-tale lives independently in these versions, and
that the Latin is merely a translation (and an abridged translation) of a verna-
cular version. Hence in the story in the text I follow the French and English
versions, and neglect the Latin. Mr. G. Paris himself believes that the Latin
Historia septem sapientum is a translation of an older French version. The
general question of the relation of the different versions of " The Seven Wise
Masters " seems to ba very complex, and I do not pretend to enter on it
i
83 ANTHROPOLOGY.
could interpret it. Hi& son says he can do so but fears his father's
displeasure. The knight bids him speak out. So the son says
" The bird foretells that I shall become a gi'eat lord and that my
father shall bring me water to wash and that my mother shall hold
the towel." His father in anger throws him into the sea, but he is
picked up by a ship, taken to a distant land, and sold to a duke.
The king of the country is plagued by three ravens which follow
him continually, screaming loudly. He offers his daughter in
marriage and the succession to the throne to any one who shall ex-
plain the mystery and rid him of the ravens. The child explains
that the ravens are a father, a mother, and a young one ; that the
mother deserted the young one in a time of scarcity but now claims
to exercise a mother's rights over it, while the father-raven, who
fed the young one in the time of scarcity, resists the mother's
claim ; the birds therefore wish the king to decide to whom the
young one belongs. The king decides in favour of the father ; and
the birds fly away. The youth grows up and in time weds the
kinor's dauofhter. He visits his father and mother, who know him
not, but do him reverence ; his father offers him water to wash
with and his mother presents a towel, as he had foretold. He re-
veals himself to them, forgives them, and takes them to his king-
dom where they dwell in honour and joy.
& In a French version of the " Seven Wise Masters," ^ a fisher-
man is out fishing with his son. Hearing some birds shrieking, the
father asks what it means, the son interprets their cries as the boy
in the previous version interprets the nightingale. His father flings
him into the sea, and the rest follows as before, except that the
question between the ravens is, which of two males shall have the
hen-bird to wife ; the old male had been her mate but had deserted
her in a time of scarcity, when the younger male had fed and
cherished her. The king decides for the younger male.
i. In a Russian version ^ which reproduces very closely the for-
mer version of the " Seven Wise Masters," a man hears a nicrhtinorale
singing a sad song and wishes that some one could interpret it.
His son, a child of six, says that he knows what the nightingale is
singing but fears to tell. His father bids him speak oui His son
says : " The bird says that a day will come when you will serve me ;
my father will pour water for me and my mother will offer the
towel." His parents, enraged, set him adrift on the sea in a little
37 The version is the first of the two French versions published by Mr. G.
Paris, op. cit., pp. 47-50.
3® L. Leger, Catites PopitUiires Slavesy no. xxxi. (from Afanasief).
THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS. 89
boat. He is picked up by a ship and brought to a country where
the king is plagued by three ravens, and the rest follows as in the
" Seven Wise Masters ;" the question between the ravens being, as in
the first case, whether the young one belongs to the father or
mother, and the king deciding for the father. The son's visit to
his parents and the fulfilment of his prediction as to the water and
the towel also follow as before.
l\ In a Masurian version ^ a merchant sends his son to a master
to learn the language of birds. On his return liis father hears him
conversing with a lark. With some difficulty the son is persuaded
to tell what the lark said to him, "When you come back you will be
a rich man but your father will be poor; your mother will wash
your feet and your father will drink the water." His parents are
angry and give him to a merchant to kill. The merchant takes
the lad away in his ship but does not kill him. They come to
England, where the kinof's son and daughter are ill of a scurf. The
lad explains that at the holy communion the prince and princess had
thrown on the ground the consecrated bread which had been swal-
lowed by a toad. The toad is caught and boiled and the children
are cured. The king gives the lad his daughter to wife and the
kingdom to boot. He now goes to visit his parents, finds them
very poor, and his prediction is fulKUed.
I. In a Basque version ^ a son hears a voice saying that his
parents will one day be his servants. His parents are angry and
give him to two servants to kill ; the servants, however, let him go
and bring back a dog s heart in token that they had killed the lad.
The youth sets out for Rome, meets two men also bound thither,
and they all go together. They lodge for the night in a house,
which turns out to be an abode of robbers. The young man is
warned by a voice, and the three escape from the robbers. Next
they come to a house where a girl is very ill ; the young man cures
her.*^ As the travellers approach Rome, all the bells begin to ring
of themselves ; so the lad is made Pope. His father and mother
come to Rome to get pardon of their sin ; the son recognises and
forgives them, and they die of joy.
m. In another Basque version*^ a ship-captain asks his son what
•*'•' Toppen, Aherglauhen aus Majsuren^, p. 150 aqq,
*^ Wentworth Webster, Basq^ie Legeiuh, p. 137 sqq,
*^ The Basque narrator forgot how the cure was effected. From a com-
})arison of the Norman, Breton (Sobillot), Italian, and Masurian versions, wo
may conjecture that the girl had dropped the communion bread which had been
swallowed by a toad, and that the cure was effected by recovering the bread
from the toad.
* - W. Webster, Basqtie Legeiuh, p. 136 */.
90 ANTHROPOLOGY.
he has learned at school. The sou says that he has learned to
understand the songs of birds. His father takes him on a voyage.
A bird perches on the ship and sings. The father asks what the
bird says. The son answers : " He sings that I am now under your
orders, but you shall also be under mine." The captain puts his son
into a barrel and flings it into the sea. The barrel is cast up on a
shore, the boy is taken out and marries the daughter of the king of
that country. One day the boy*s father is caught in a storm and
driven on shore. He goes to the king, his son, but does not recog-
«
nise him and becomes his son's servant. In time the son reveals
himself and they live together happily.
n. In a Teleut version ^ a man sends his son to school. When
the boy's schooling is over, his father fetches him home. On their
way home they hear birds singing and the father asks his son what
they are saying. The son says: "If I tell you, you will be angry."
But his father bids him speak out, so he says : " The birds said that
I shall be emperor one day and that you will come to my castle
and suffer a great indignity." His father is angiy and cuts off his
son's head ; also he cuts off" his horse's head, wraps his sou's body
in the horse's hide, and throws it into the sea. The body is cast
ashore ; an old woman finds it, opens the hide, and the youth comes
forth alive. The king of this land is dead and has left no son-
Two golden posts with a candle on the top of each are set up in the
village, and every one has to jump between them. He is to be
king upon whom the two candles fall They fall upon the youth
and take prt^ so he is made king. The father comes to his son's
palace and suffers the indignity his son had foretold. The son
reveals himself and treats his father and mother well.
The king's decision between the ravens in g. A, i, occurs in a
*■* W. Radloff, Fviktn der VolkdUteratur der TurkiscJten StUmme SM-
slhineiuij L, p. 208 sqq.
* * Thus the test is the same as in the two Breton versions of " the Boy who
became Pope." The same test (candle lighting of itself) occurs in a Russian tale,
Gubematis, Zoological Mythology, i., p. 318. In a Swahili tale a young slave
comes to a city where the sultan has just died and a new sultan is about to be
elected. **They used to throw a lime, and whoever it struck three times, he
was the sultan.'' The lime falls on the slave three times, so he is made sultan
E. Steere, SicahUi Tales, pp. 141, 143. Dr. Krapf was told by a priest of Gur-
ague that in the Kingdom of Senjero (south of Abyssinia) it was the custom
after the death of a king *^ for the chief men of the kingdom to assemble outside
the city, in an open field, and wait till a vulture or an insect settled on one of
the assembly ; and he to whom this happened was unanimously elected king.'*
Krapf, Travdsy itsearches and missioiuiry labo^n's dtiriiig an eujhteen years' resi-
dence in easterik Africa, p. 68. This statement, however, was contradicted by
another witness whom Dr. Krapf questioned.
THE LAXGUAGE OF AXIMALS. 91
modem Indian folk-tale. Considering that this incident occurs in
the " Seven Wise Mastei's " and in a modern Indian tale, it is remark-
able that it does not appear to occur in Sindibad,*^ the oriental
original of the "Seven Wise Masters." The Indian story is as
follows: — Three birds came day after day to a court of justice.
The Raja asked his minister what this meant. "I haven't the
slightest idea," said the prime minister. " If you don't know by
to-morrow," said the Raja, " I will cut off your head." The minister
learned the secret from his gardener, who was a fool but understood
the bird language and had heard the dispute between the birds.
The hen-bird had seen her mate walking with another hen and,
suspecting him of bigamy, said : " Let her alone." The cock de-
clined to do so, and they had gone to law. The Raja decided in
favour of monogamy by holding up one finger ; so the second hen
flew away, and the old couple departed together.^
So in a Kirgis story a Khan orders his vizier under pain of
death to tell him what three geese have just said ; the vizier cannot,
but is saved by the Khan's daughter who knows the goose
language.^^
In the Pentamerone there is a story which begins somewhat
like " The boy who became Pope." A man has five simple sons,
whom he sends into the world to brighten their wits. They come
back, each with an accomplishment ; the youngest understands the
language of birds.*® J. 0. Frazer.
{To he continued.)
THE PRE'SEMITIC ELEMENT IN
PHCENICIA.
THE year which has just closed has seen the discovery of one
of the most important sepulchres ever as yet excavated in
Phoenicia. The riches which it contains are as yet only imperfectly
** At least I have not found it in the Greek (Fiih\(lae BAmuxn4tnms^ ed. A
Eberhard, 1872), the Sjrriac (as translated by F. Baethgen, Siudban, oder die
Sieben tveisen Meider, si/rliich uiid deutschy 1879), nor the Arabic (as represented
by the old Spanish translation appended to Coniparetti's Neseatrhen respect imj
the hook of Sindibadf translated for the Folk-lore Society, London, 1882).
*** Lulian AiUiqiuiry^ iii., p. 320 tiq.
*^ Radloff, Proben, d'c, iii., p. 347 liqq.
*•* Basile, Fe^Uameroite, v. 7 (vol. ii., p. 212 s^j. Liebrecht's German
translation).
92 A XTHROPOLOG Y.
known to the public, for the Turkish Government — alive to the
value of important antiquities — has taken the matter into its own
hands, removing the sarcophagi, the precious ornaments, and
funeral furniture from Sidon to the Stamboul Museum, and re-
serving to itsalf the publication of the results. It is known, how-
ever, that gold, silver, and bronze objects, sculptured coffins, a
Phoenician inscription, and eleven lines of hieroglyphic writing,
have been found, and that the cemetery is of about the Persian
age, and therefore belongs to the most perfect period of Phoenician
art.
This find — the most impoi*tant since the magnificent discovery
of Royal mummies in Egypt — will no doubt once more direct
special attention to the great race which dwelt at the foot of
Lebanon, and crossed the seas to Biitain and Madeira ; and the
following suggestions fits to the origin and relationships of the
Phoenicians, as shown by language, writing, art, and ethnological
type, may therefore be of more than ordinary interest.
The longer and deeper that the student works his way into the
social history of the past, the more difliciilt does he find it to put
his finger on a pure race, in any part of the world. Not only is this
generally recognized in our own time, but from the dawn of histoiy
each country seems to have contained more than one distinct stock,
together with those cross-breeds due to intermarriage, from which
in some cases the most energetic type finally arises. In Chaldea
we have two and perhaps three races, as early as 4000 B.C. In
Egypt there were ceiiainly three elements of population before
2000 B.C., and probably much earlier. The same was the case in
Greece, and in Italy, where Pelasgi and Etruscans represented a
stock as distinct from Hellenes and Romans as aie the Basc^ues
from the Franks. The important point to be recognised in study-
ing Phoenicia is the evident existence here, as in all other ancient
countries, of more than one element of population. This fact,
which has not, as far as I hdve read, ever been clearly pointed out,
serv^es to explain much that is still obscure in the antiquities of this
enterprising people, and thus throws light on the origin of their
neighbours in Western Asia, Egypt and Europe.
Of the existence in Syria of a Semitic race we have monumental
evidence as far back as 1600 B.C., in the names of the towns con-
quered by Thothmes III. As far as it is possible to judge from
such sources, the language of the Semitic inhabitants of Syria at
this time closely resembled that which we find on the later Phoeni-
cian inscriptions. The portraits of the Kefa on the monuments of
PRE^SEMITIC ELEMENT IX PHa:KICtA. 9i
this great conqueror are distinctly Semitic in feature and in com-
plexion, and we know from the decree of Canopus that the Kcfa
were PhcBuicians.
From about the age of Solomon downwards we have Semitic
inscriptions from Phoenicia, and although these are few and far be-
tween, as compared with the numerous Punic texts of a later age
from Caiihage, they are yet sufficient to give a good idea of the
language of the dwellers in Tyre, Sidon, and Gebal. From Cyprus
wc have texts which, among other interesting peculiarities, show us
that the Phoenician calendar was the same as that used by the
Hebrews before the captivity. Thus the months Bui and Ethanim,
which bear other names in the Assyrian calendar, used by the
returning Jews from Ezi'a downwards, are now known to have
belonged to the calendar of Phcenicia — an indication of great in-
terest in connection with the criticism of some books of the Old
Testament.
To confine our studies to Semitic languages and races, in con-
sidering the ancient history of Syria, would however be a great
mistake ; although it is an error very common in works on the
subject. More than twenty years ago it was pointed out that an-
other race existed, side by side with the Semitic, in northern Syria,
a race which in complexion, in feature, and in other peculiarities,
appeared nearest to the Altaic, Mongol or Tartar types. Scholars
like Mariette and Chabas pointed out that the Kheta kings and the
Kheta towns bore names which were certainly not Semitic, and
apparently not Aiyan, and which consequently would most likely
be Turanian^ — in agreement with the physical type represented on
the Egyptian monuments. As we look backwards through his-
tory we perceive that in this respect the race relations of the in-
habitants of Palestine and Syria have remained almost immutable.
From the age of Alexander onward, it is true, Aiyan peoples have
for a time held the mastery on the eastern shores of the Mediter-
ranean ; but their dominion has never long endured, and the two
races indigenous to Western Asia (Turanian and Semitic) have con-
stantly taken advantage of the weakness of Europe to throw off the
yoke. The Semitic element has always been the stronger in the
south, and the Turanian in the north, while the balance of power
has been sometimes on the one side, sometimes on the other. The
later incursions of Turks and Mongols have but repeated the older
* This temi is used because it expresses generally the type of the non-
Semitic race in north Syria without defining it as exactly belonging to any of
the branches grouped as north Turanian, such as Finnic, Turkic, Mongol, &c
<J4 ANTHROPOLOGY.
migrations of the Partljians, Scythians, or yet earlier Turanian
hordes, sweeping down on the Mesopotamian plains and on the
Syrian coast, just as we may yet see Russian armies advancing
west and south from their base under the Caucasus. These early
migi'ations were not confined to Syria. There is clear evidence of
the very early existence of Turanian tribes in Egypt, in Greece,
and in Italy, the Etruscans being considered by the best authorities
a Turanian race. Even as far west as the Bay of Biscay the last
traces of these migrations are to be recognised in the Basque dia-
lects of France and of Spain. In Mesopotamia and in Media the
Turanians are found from the dawn of history to have been the
dominant people ; and to them is to be ascribed the origin of that
civilisation which was first accepted, and then further developed by
the Assyrians and Babylonians, the Hebrews and Semitic colonists
of Phcenicia.
The traditions of the Phoenicians point to their early migi'ation
fi-om the Persian Gulf, and it is only from the north — in the
neighbourhood of Aleppo — that Syria, defended by that great desert
iicross which none save Khaled has ever brought an army, can be
approached from Mesopotamia. There is no solid ground for dis-
carding this tradition, although the suspicion with which modem
students regard ancient historians has led to very various pro-
posals, in accoimting for the presence of an early Semitic people
in Phoenicia. When we remember that Tammuz, Nergal, and Istar
were adored by Semitic peoples both in Mesopotamia and in
Phoenicia, it is clear that there must have been a verj'^ early com-
munion between the two coimtries.
It may be regarded as a fact accepted at length by the most
cautious scholars that the Kheta or Hittites were a Turanian
people, who descended into Northern Syria from the region of
Ararat, just as the Akkadian tribes from the same centre pushed
southwards into Mesopotamia.* To give the name of Hittite to all
the tribes of the same stock in Asia Minor and Armenia is mani-
festly an error ; but that a common civilisation belonged to these
tribes is certain, and the name Kheta is foimd in monumental his-
tory to have applied to the inhabitants of Kadesh in the valley of
the Orontes, and to those of Carchemish on the banks of the
^ Akkadian has been regarded by Lenomiant and others as a Finnic rather
than a Mongolic language, but detailed comparison shows that it is nearer to
the Turko-Tartar dialects. Even in Turkish some two hundred Akkadian words
{including numerals and pronouns) remain almost unchanged to the present
t'aj.
PRE^SEMITIC ELEMENT IN PHCENlCIA. 95
Euphrates. Thus the Kheta were near neighbours to that region
at the foot of Lebanon which was inhabited by the Phoenicians.
The object of the present paper is to point out the existence of
an early non-Semitic element in Phoenicia itself. This is indicated
partly by the names of the Phoenician gods, and by the Phoenician
mythology, and partly by the character of their art. Finally, the
origin of the Phoenician alphabet may be very clearly traced to the
same element of population.
The most reliable information which we possess as to the Phoe-
nician pantheon is to be found in the inscriptions of Phoenicia,
Cyprus, and Carthage, collected in the great Corpus of Semitic
inscriptions edited by Renan. Here in a Semitic language we find
the correct forms of those names which have been distorted by
Greek writers so that their sound and meaning are alike sometimes
unrecognisable. It does not however follow that even in their
monumental forms they are certainly of Semitic origin, any more
than are the names of Babylonian and Assyrian gods mentioned in
Semitic texts. The Semitic languages of Western Asia in all ages
are permeated with a Turanian element, and naturally so since the
Babylonians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, and even Arabs,
have always been in contact with Turanian tribes. Thus, in our
own time, although Turkish is a language full of Arab and Persian
words, yet the Arabic of Syria and of Egypt is not free from an
admixture of Turkish. So in Assyria the Akkadian invaded the
Semitic speech. Hebrew has indeed been thought by some to have
remained pure, but this is certainly not the case. A careful search
would bring to light in Hebrew dictionaries many words of pre-
Semitic origin, and some have already been indicated by Delitszch
and by other scholars ; as for instance Hehal for " temple," the old
Akkadian E-gal or " great house " — a simple explanation of a word
which has no real Semitic derivation.
Among the deities adored in Phoenicia wei*e Tammuz, Istar, and
Nergal. The first name is not known on Semitic monuments in
Syria, but it is not disputed that Tammuz was adored both in
Phoenicia and among the Hebrews. Istar has been changed in
Semitic parlance to Ashtoreth. Nergal is mentioned on a Phoeni-
cian text from Greece. Now all three of these deities are of Tur-
anian origin, and they were adored by the Turanian tribes of Meso-
potamia. Tammuz is the Tam-Zi or " soul of the sun." Istar is
the " chief deity," or " Deity of light,*' originally the moon ; and
Nergal is " the great ruler *' represented in Syria, in Anatolia, and
in Chaldea, as a lion-headed god, like the Egyptian Bast or the
96 • ANTHROPOLOGY.
Indian Yama. We have in these three najiies clear indications of
the adoration of the Turanian deities common to Chaldea and
Phcenicia.
It is probable that many of the untranslated names of
Phcenician deities may be explained in the same way. Melcarth,
Tanith, Baal Sillek, Abset, Eshmun, Tsid, and Bod, are curious
names for which no really satisfactory Semitic derivation is pro-
posed. There are of course in this pantheon many certainly Semitic
names, such as Baal, Resheph, Dodah, and many more well-known
titles ; but the deities of Phoenicia as a rule have different names
to those of the Semitic gods of Mesopotamia, and several of the
words above-mentioned remain without any satisfactory ex-
planation. Melcarth has been somewhat twisted to mean "King
of the City,*' but as a Turanian word it might mean "Lord of
light," a more appropriate tenn for the Tyrian Sun god. Tanith
is probably a Semitic form of Taiiy a common Turanian word
meaning "noble*' or "powerful." Sillek is probably to be com-
pared with the Akkatlian Silik, which forms pai-t of the names of
more than one deity, and which is a common Tartai' and Finnic
word from a widely-spread root meaning " to pierce " or " shine."
Abset has been compared by Renan with the Egyptian Bast, but
may perhaps mean Father Set^ — a deity common to the Hittites,
Egj'ptians, and Etruscans, and whose name originally meant " tire "
or "redness." Eshmun or Esmun — a word which has puzzled
many scholars — may l>e simply Es-mun, "the Good God,'* Es being
one of the commonest and most widely- spread words for deity in
Turanian languages. Tsid recalls the Akkadian Zida "lucky" or
lively,"* and Bod or Boda might be connected with the Tartar
root Bot Bod meaning " to trust," " believe," or with Buda " height."
Not only are the names of deities thus in many cases seemingly
Turanian, but some of the myths or legends of the Phoenicians
appear to have the same derivation. Thus the stoiy of Venus and
Adonis is the old Akkadian legend of Istar and Tamzi. According
to the Phcvnician cosmogony the origin of all things was Mot, a
word which as a Semitic term could only mean " death,'' which is
the end, not the origin of things. As an Akkadian word it means
" to create," " bring forth," " bear," thus explaining a term hitherto
'^ AB for ^^ father" occurs in &ome of the Turanian languages of Western
Asia as well as in Semitic languages.
* Sidon may be also a Turanian town name, viz., Tzul-nn or the "city of
Tzid.'' In Genesis it is connected with the Hittites (x. 15). Tyre, on the
other liand, was a Semitic settlement on a ^' rock " in tlie sea, and is not men-
tioned in Genesis, a fact which goes to show the early date of the xth chapter.
PRE-SEMITIC ELEMENT IN" FH(EKICIA. 97
liopeless. Tlie Cuneiform emblem for this word was originally an
eagle with the sun under his feet, and the title of this emblem was
" the good bird." Many of the Phoenician myths are the same as
those of Babylonia and were known to the Semitic and to the Tui--
anian peoples as well. Thus the six days of Creation are not exclu-
sively found among Semitic peoples, for even the Etruscans held this
belief from an early age.^ The curious bull-headed monster called
Ea-bani (" Spirit of Ea "), who becomes the Greek Minotaur and is
connected with the bull-horned god Ea, was a Turanian conception.
In Mongol folk-tales his adventures are preserved, as well as in
Cuneiform tablets. His head appears on Etruscan vases, and the
Greek bull-headed river gods are his relatives, for Ea was the god
of rivers and of the ocean. This horned deity is found both in
Asia Minor and in Phoenicia.
The three names Khar, Kefa, and Fenekh, applied to the
Phoenicians and to Phoenicia on Egyptian monuments are also
capable of a Turanian etymology. Khar would mean " mountain "
and Kefa " hill," — referring to the Lebanon. Fenekh, perhaps the
original of the words Punic and Phoenician, would mean ** settler '*
or " townsman," from the ^videly-spread Turanian word Pin for a
town or settlement. These various indications agree with those
recognisable in the religious art of the Phoenicians (which is closely
related to that of Mesopotamia originally of Turanian origin), in
indicating the early existence of a pre-Semitic element in the
Phoenician population.
We may now turn to the question of the Phoenician Alphabet
the origin of which is still disputed by antiquaries. It is
established that all known alphabets of Asia and of Europe have
a common origin in the Phoenician. It is also undisputed that the
latter grew gradually out of an original hieroglyphic system, which
in turn developed from an older purely picture writing. The
alphabet in Phoenicia is not as yet traced back further than
1200 B.C., at most, and the best supported theory of its derivation
is that of De Rougd which endeavours to trace the original forms
through the hieratic to the Egyptian hieroglyphics. The principal
objections to this explanation as yet have been that the resem-
blances are not close, and that the comparisons are in some cases
arbitrary.
A new diflBculty has, however, arisen of late which is still more
formidable. The Carians and Lycians used a system which con-
•"' See Dennis Etnn'Uij L, p. xxxvi.
98 AXTHHOPOLOG Y,
tained not only the 22 Phoenician letters, but also other letters or
syllables interspersed, which are the same used in Cyprus before
the Phoenician Alphabet was adopted. The usual explanation of
this fact is that a mixed system containing two distinct elements
was employed — as though we were to write Hebrew in Roman
characters interspersed with Hebrew letters when the Roman
Alphabet proved insufficient. This explanation is contrary to the
experience of palseographical students who find that nothing ar-
bitrary exists in early methods of writing. Everything is to l)e
explained by gradual development and unconscious change. The
Carian and Lycian inscriptions rightly understood prove to us that
the Phoenician Alphabet is the survival of a larger system of
syllabic forms, which was employed throughout Asia Minor and in
Cyprus, and which had itself developed not from the Egyptian but
fi^om the misnamed Hittite system of hieroglyphics.
There are in Asia and in the Delta four systems of hieroglyphics
— the Egyptian, the Cuneiform, the Chinese, and the Altaic (or
Hittite), each of which developed independently and must be in-
dependently studied. Of these the Hittite is apparently the most
primitive, for several reasons, the chief being that its symbols are
fewest, the system as at present known containing only about 130
signs. The Cuneiform includes some 550 signs, but these are
easily reduced to an original system of about 130. The Egyptian
included about 400 signs ; the Chinese, now the furthest developed,
is said to have begun with 540, which might no doubt have
developed like the Cuneiform from an older and simpler
system.
In the opinion of the majority of scholars these systems have no
connection beyond the natural use of the same forms for the same
objects ; but this is not the opinion of the more advanced students.
Dr. Hommel and M. Bertin have compared Egyptian and Cuneiform
emblems — as have earlier scholars. Prof, de Lacouperie, through
a knowledge of ancient Chinese, has been able in half-a-dozen
instances to compare the Cuneiforai and the Chinese emblems.
Were older forms of the latter known the comparison might per-
haps be carried further. As regards the Hittite, I find that there
are 40 cases in which the emblems may be compared with the
Egyptian, and 36 or more in which they can be compared with the
Cuneiform. Not only is the form and meaning the same, but in a
large proportion of cases the sound is also closely similar.
With regard to such comparisons, it should be remarked that the
Chinese (or the Mongols), the Akkadians, and the Hittites are now re-
rRE-SEMITW ELEMESr IX PH<EX1CIA. 99
cognised as belonging to the same original stock.® There is therefore
nothing surprising in the similarities of their systems of writing.
These similarities are not found to extend beyond the representations
of objects and actions. The grammatical signs are distinct. The
evidence therefore only shows an original common source in an old
Asiatic picture writing" which developed into three distinct
systems.
As re^anls the Egyptian, however, it may be argued that it has
probably a distinct origin, because the Egyptian language belongs,
not to the Tartar group, but to that North African race which is
represented by Copts, Gallas, Kabyles, Tuariks, and the Guanchos
of the Canary Islands — a ruddy or dark people with aquiline
features, whose speech places the verb before the noun, and employs
prepositions in preference to the Turanian suffixes. It is, however,
known that there was a Turanian element in Egyptian population,
'^ The TurauiHU origin of the Akkadian and Medic languages, though at
tirst disputed, may be said to be now generally accepted. Lenormant has by
comparative labour established that the Akkadian granuuar agrees with the
oldest Turanian grammar recognisable in the Mongolian and Manchu Tartar
languages, and to a certain extent also in Chinese (Chaldean Magic, English
Edit., 1887, p. 284, seq ; cf. Etudes Accadiennes and La Magie chez les Chald^ens,
1874). In vocabulary he has mainly used Finnic languages for comparative pur-
poses, hut Prof. Hommel has lately (Zeit«chrift fiir Keilinschriftforschung,
April, '82, 1-2 ; July, 1884, 1-3 ; Nov., 1884, 1-4) argued in favour of Turkic
affinities. A thoroughly reliable Akkadian vocabulary is still wanting, hut there
is a substantial agreement between the works of Sayce, Lenormant, and Delitszch
a<i to a great many words. Taking these as a basis, I have made an independent
study of both grammar and vocabulary; out of 800 words I find 400 almost un-
changed as common words in Vambery's Comparative Turko-Tartar Vocabulary
above quoted, and about 300 in Donner's Finnisch-Ugrischen Sj)rachen. In tlie
latest Turkish Dictionary (Samy Bey Fraschery, 1885), I find as true Turkish
wortls about 200 which are ahiiost identical with Akkadian words. The Turkic
roots are generally nearer than the Finnic, as, for instance, Tin, ** life," Turkic
Tin, Finnic Lemj ; or Dimjir, "God," Turkic Tamjriy Finnic J»/wwi/a. The
l>eculiar position of the plural preceding the suffix in Akkadian and in Medic
is that of the Turanian languages. Oppert says that the peculiarities of Medic
** attach it to the great Altaic family," and that with Sumerian (Akkadian),
and even more completely, **it is the most ancient specimen left us of the
linguistic stock of higher Asia " Q). ix.) ; and agani, ** of all the chief stocks, that
4}{ the Turk seems to oflfer most resemblance with Medic, but we must not ex-
clude freciuent analogies with the Ugrian and Fuuiic properly so called " (Les
M^des, p. 50). Lenormant (La Magie chez les Chald^ens, 1874) agrees that
Medic is a Turkic language. About 220 words are known belonging to the
language as it existed about 500 B.C. There is substantial agreement as to
sound and meaning between Opi)ert and Lenormant. About 70 of these words
jure like Akkadian, and the grammar of the two languages is closely similar.
The majority of the Medic words will be found in Vambery's Turko-Tartar
Vocabulary, and very many exist in modem Turkish.
" Prof, de Lacouperie thinks that the Chinese is directly borrowed from the
Cuneiform, but the facts are as yet too meagre to allow of a final decision.
<
100 ANTHROPOLOGY.
and it is perhaps to these Egyptian Turanians and not to the African
stock that the hieroglyphic system owes its origin. This is rendered
the more likely because in Egyptian, as in Semitic Cuneiform, a
double system (syllables and determinatives) occui's. In the Cunei-
form this was due to the use of the symbols in expressing a language
distinct from that of the oriorinal inventors. The same may have
been the case in Egyptian, and the language of the monuments is
very probably not the language to which the hieroglyphic system
originally belonged.
However this may be, the comparativ^e study of these four
systems is attiticting increased attention, and serves to throw much
light on the archaic hieroglyphs used in Asia Minor and in Syria
to which the provisional name of Hittite has been given. This
system approaches very closely to the Cuneiform, as it is now
known, in its most archaic condition, from the monuments of
Tell-loh. The arrangement of the texts and tlie forms and sounds
of the symbols alike show most remarkable similarities.
Now, as above noted, it is very generally held that the Cypriote,
Carian, Lycian, and Phrygian syllabaries — also found in use at
Abydos in Egypt — are the " hieratic " forms or conventicmal
sketches which were derive! from the older Turanian system of Asia
Minor and of Syria. These syllabaries were employed in countries
surrounding Phoenicia. The Cypriote was first deciphered by
means of a bilingual in Phoenician (written alphabetically) and in
Greek (written in syllables) ; and it would seem far more natural
for the Phoenicians to have improved on a system used l»y their
immediate neighbours than it is to suppose that they imported a
foreign system from Egypt.
The comparison between the early Phoenician forms and the
Cypriote has not, as far as I can ascertain, been made; and an
objection will, at the outset, be offered to such comparison, because
it will be urged that as there are four or five syllables to every
letter (/?a. Be, Bi, Bo, Bit, for B), the selection will be arbitrary and
delusive. A careful study of the Cypriote syllaTAes used by the
Greeks will, however, dissolve this difficulty. Already in that
system we find the emblems beginning to be used as consonants
without vowel sound. In every case, when a syllabic emblem is so
used, it is a short vowel, d or e, which disappears. AV stands for
N, Se, for S, and so on. Thus if the forms of the Phoenician letters
are compared with the forms of the syllables used as consonants
only in Cypriote (which is easy in the majority of cases), we have
not an ai-bitrary but a veiy natural selection, in the survival of
PJiJ^SEMiriC ELEMENT IX PH(EXICIA. 101
those syllables which have the weakest vowel sound, and in the
gradual disuse of the strong sjllables, which were replaced by con-
sonants and by the stronger vowels, which were also represented in
the Cypriote system by distinct emblems. It appears to me that
this derivation of the Phoenician alphabet becomes inevitable from
the moment of the discovery of the Asia Minor inscriptions, which
present letters not surviving in Phoenicia. The comparisons which
may be so attained are very much closer than those on which De
Rouge relied in tracing the alphabet from the Egyptian hieratic.
Thus the Semitic G may be derived from the Hittite and Cypriote
A(f or (ra, originally a " crook " — such being the meaning of the
Tartar root having that sound. The Semitic M can be gradually
ti'aced from the old Hittite emblem for country Ma, and the double
peak still survives in the Roman capital M. Ma, not only in
Akkadian, but in many living Turanian languages, is the early word
for " country " or " home." ^
Such a derivation of the alphabet agrees with the existence of a
Turanian element in Phoenicia itself. The evidence of art is
equally suggestive. The familiar emblems of Phoenicia are common
to many countries in which a Turanian element has existed from the
earliest times. Hercules, with his lion skin, was hewn at Amathus
in Phoenicia 14 feet in height. He is the Etruscan Ercle, and the
old Akkadian Er-gal or Uru-gal, " the great man " or " hero." The
Scambaeus is an emblem of the Creator in Phoenicia, in Egypt, and
in Etiuria. The winged horse is common to Etruscans, Phoenicians,
Hindus, and Assyrians ; the two-headed eagle is found in Cappadocia,
in Troy, and in Etruria. The soul is represented as a harpy or
human-headed bird among Babylonians, Egyptians, Etruscans,
and Phoenicians ; the sphinx is found in Cappadocia, in Phoenicia,
in Egypt, and in Etruria. The symbolism of ancient art is the
same in all those countries into which we find the Turanians
to have penetrated ; and the Semitic race owed very much of its
early civilisation to those settled Turanians whom it conquered and
destroyed, just as the Arabs under the Khalifato adopted the
civilisation of the Greeks, Persians, and Indians whom they
subjugated and then employed. The present sketch will perhaps
serve to shojv how important it is to remember, in studying the
Phoenicians, that they were not exclusively a Semitic people.
C. R. CONDER.
^ This word Ma is recognised by Lenormant, and Delitflzch, though the com-
mon form in Akkadian is Mat, In Finnish Maa^ in Vogul Ma^ in Ziranlan
Jkfn, still mean ** earth " or **land."
Hrcbaeoloo^.
— :o : —
CHIPPENHAM AS A VILLAGE COMMUNITY,
THE history of the village coiniiiunity, so far as it has heen
considered the parent of the later institutions of this country,
has been narrowed down to an examination of the ai^ricultural
economy of certain districts. The position of the tenants, their
dues to the lord, their peculiar methods of cultivating, have been
exhaustively examined ; but the position of the community from
which all these other elements were derived has not yet received
much attention. Of course the rise of the commercial system of
economy shattered the primitive organisation of tribal communities
much more quickly and much more eflBcaciously than it did the
primitive methods of agriculture, and while the latter still obtained
very extensively in England until quite recently, the former has
long since disappeared. But its disappeaittnce must have been due
to certain processes of evolution ; there is no evidence whatever of
a sudden transfonnation from one system of institutions to an-
other, although in individual examples some drastic measures may
have inteiTupted the general course of events. Like all social
organisms therefore which have passed through stages of de-
velopment, it may be predicted that it has left some* indications
of its line of progi'ess. If we examine narrowly the history of
certain municipal towns we cannot but be struck by the existence
of many strange customs and proceedings hardly at one with the
commercial ideas which surround them. In a paper printed in
Archceologia I some time since pointed out how these customs may
be traced back to the archaic customs of the village connnunity,
and I propose to examine some points in the history of Chippen-
ham which will, I venture to think, throw considerable liglit upon
this subject. Such an examination would fall under the foUowin
heads :
1. The conditions of the settlement.
2. The transition from village community to chartered burgh.
3. The structure of the community.
4. The system of cultivation.
O
CHIPPENHAM A VILLAGE fVMMiyiTV. 103
I. THE CONDITIONS OF THE SETTLEMENT.
There is some evidence that the Britons had one of their forest
homes not far from the present site of the town of Chippenham.
Turning up from the river Avon tlirough a narrow roadway indica-
tive enough of early occupation is a farm now known by the name
of Cockleborough, and Aubrey has preserved for us a tradition of his
time that this place was once a " borough."^ The thick woods of
a forest, which can even now be traced in the forests of Braden,
Calne and Bowood, Pewsham Wood, Blackmore, Selwood, Groveley,
Gillingham, Cranboum Chase and New Forest,^ hemmed this place
in and made it a stronghold such as Caesar tells us that the Britons
retreated to. But that this British stronghold guided the settle-
ment of the English on the river Avon, within bowshoot almost of
its ruins, there is no evidence to tell. The English settlement was
made in a clearing in the forest, and the process may be pictured
by what we know of the doings under similar circumstances in
other lands. The holding in the forest is traditionally recorded in
the rhyme preserved by Aubrey, who, noting that " this towne did
stand in the Pewsham forest before it was disafforested about the
year 1G[30], the people made this rhyme:
** * When Chipnam stood
In Pcwsliam wood
Before it was destroyed
A cowo might have gone for a groat e a yea re,
But now it is denayied.' "•"
and the ancient way to the forest is even now marked in the place-
names of the modem town by the name of Forest-lane.
Now with these facts before us may we conclude that the settle-
ment at Chippenham was not accomplished until after the main
Anglo-Saxon settlements had taken place ? Bearing in mind what
Mr. Kemble has to say about the gmdual encroachment of the
communities on the mark " when once the surface of a country has
become thickly studded with communities settled between the
marks, and daily finding the several clearings grow less and less
sufiicient for their support,"* we may turn to the evident origin
of the name Chippenham as the market-village for our next guid-
ance. Dotted here and there in the ancient forest lands of middle
* Aubrey's CoUection^t fi/r Wiltit, p. 10.
'^ Rev. Canon Jackson, Hint, of Otipitenhumu, 2.
••» CoKec^Vww for WUts, p. 8.
^ SaxatM in Enyland, i. 48-49.
104 ARCHAEOLOGY.
England, arc market-villages whose history is of considerate im-
portance. By the side of Chippenham in Wilts we must place
Chipping [Campden] and Chipping [Sodbury] in Gloucestershire,
Chipping [Lambourn] in Berks, Chippenhurst, Chippinghurst, ancF
Chipping [Norton] in Oxfordshire, Chipping [Wycombe] in Bucks,
Chipping [Warden] in Northamptonshire, Chipping and Chipping
[Barnet] in Herts, Chipping [Ongar] in Essex, and Chippingham in
Cambridcreshire. All these were carved out of the waste lands of the
early communities. This crucial fact enables us to take an import-
ant step in ascertaining the origin of these market-villages. " In
order to understand what a market originally was,*' says Sir Henry
Maine, " you must try to picture to yourselves a territory occupied
by village communities, self-acting, and as yet autonomous, each
cultivating its arable lands in the middle of its waste, and each, I
fear I must add, in perpetual war with its neighbour. But at
several points, points probably where the domains of two or three
villages converged, there appear to have been spaces of what we
now call neutral ground. These were the markets. They were
probably the only places at which the members of the different
primitive groups met for any purpose except warfare, and the
persons who came to them were doubtless at first persons specially
empowered to exchange the produce and manufactures of one little
village community for those of another."* Of course in this passage
we have a picture drawn rather from India than England, but
there is not wanting evidence to prove that much of it is as time
of the past state of one country as of the arrested stage of the
other.
Thus then we have the market-village of Chippenham, situ-
ated conveniently on the banks of the river Avon, which helps to
show us that the Wilsetas understood the ai-t of settlement, a fact
which is abundantly evidenced by the situation of their towns
throughout the county — a situation which led the rural economists
of last century to speak so eloquently about them.® When next we
come to the period when the Kings of Wessex possessed a hunting
seat at Chippenham, and the Latin chronicles begin to style it
" villa regia,*'^ we are dealing with the accidents of its early history.
That the Danes encamped here for a short time, that one of their
chieftains found his last resting-place in a tumulus still called after
him " Hubba*s low/* are facts of more pregnant importance, because
* Village Commnnities, p. 192.
** See Marshall's Rvral Ecoiwmy of the Smdhem Co^mties, ii., 307-308.
^ Canon Jackson's Hidory of Chippenham, p. 7.
CHIPPEXHAMA VILLAGE COMMUXITY. 105
where the Danes settled, there, as a rule, they stamped the mark
of their occupation.**
In considering the S3btlement at Chippenham therefore, there
are the following interesting facts to note : — Tliere is scarcely any
evidence of contact with the Celtic settlement in its neiglibourhood ;
there is absolutely no trace of any town or even occupation-land
having been on this site during the Roman period.® My suggestion
then is that the community founded for itself a settlement in the
free forest or mark : and that this may account for the fact that,
passing forward to the days of political history, we find it under no
lord but the king. And it may be pointed out that under the
lordship of the king, the Saxon community is in the same position
as the Welsh free tribal communities, the chieftainsliip ot which, at
the time when Wales was conquered by Edward I., was vested
directly in the Prince of Wales, and did not fall into the hands of
manorial lords.^^ When Mr. Seebohm discusses the creation of new
manors out of the folcland he quotes a passage from one of King
Alfred's treatises, which is pregnant with suggestions in such a
case as Chippenham,^^ but he leaves the question still open whether
out of the clearing in the forest would arise a free village commun-
ity, or a village community in serfdom under a manor and its lord.
We will see what the evidence is with regard to Chippenham.
2. THE TRANSITION FROM VILLAGE COMMUNITY TO
CHARTERED BURGH.
When we come to gather up the facts for a comprehensive view
of the community of Chippenham we see plainly enough that it
passed through several stages of decay or disruption until finally
it was broken-up, leaving only mosaics of its original constitution.
These mosaics will come under examination presently, and in the
meantime it is necessary to turn to the evidence of tliree veiy im-
portant stages in the process of breaking-up which, fortunately,
can be ascertained. This evidence is to be derived from the settle-
ment of a dispute in chancery in the reign of James I., the charter
of Queen Mary, and Domesday ; and I represent these to myself as
^ That the Danes had some degree of influence at Chippenham is shown by
the Domesday record of *' Rainaldus Canut," who held there 1 hide of the king.
Oanut is certainly a Danish name and he held lands nowhere else in Wiltshire.
^ Jackson's History of OUppetJiamf p. 3. The nearest evidences of Roman
occupation are at Studley, Bromham, Lacock, Box, and Coleme.
^° Seebohm's Engliah Village Chmmimity, p. 237.
" Ibid, 170.
106 ARCHJEOLOGY.
ejKKshs ill tike history of the Chippenliain comimmity when the
force of outside events had produced internal disruptions — a state
of things which, if read by the light of comparative history, will
reveal to us several important features in the transition from village
community to an organisation which would meet the requirements
of an advanced commercial society.
The document dating from the reign of James I. is a decree of
Chancery settling a dispute which had arisen between the inhabit-
ants of one portion of the then borough and the borough authorities
as to who were entitled to enjoy the borough lands. Finally it was
settled that all the tenements which then stood within the borough
were in future to represent the initial rights of the community to
the exclusion of all tenements which might subsequently be
created. Here it will be seen that in the village itself first com-
menced the process of decay : the old homesteads did not suffice
for the growing population, so long as group-living did not ob-
tain. But this decree not only reveals where the decay had set
in, but where the natural development of the primitive community
was an*ested. The original democratic constitution of the old com-
munity is revealed by the struggle which took place before it was
possible to create tenements which did not carry with them the
rights of burghal freemanship ; and this sudden stoppage of a de-
velopment from a democratic village community to a democratic
burghal communitj^ is the fact which marks the break-up of the
older organisation of the village.
But if in the reign of James 1., it had become necessary to re-
sort to the law courts to obtain an arrest of the natural growth of
the community, may we not assume that the previous charter of
Mary had been obtained for a somewhat similar object ? Up to
that date, Chippenham was unchartered. Whatever rights and
privileges it possessed, had descended with its old position of a
village community, or to speak technically, a manor ; and for it to
have suddenly obtained the position of a chartered borough, with-
out possessing any great commercial activity which needed protec-
tion, betokens that something was going on which threatened its
existence as a corporate body. This is what appears to me to be
fairly deducible from the legal operations of King James and
Queen Mary. And this inference is borne out by some facts which
are presented to us from other sources, and which show that tlie
danger to be met was the transfer of the village lands into holdings
in severalty.
In early days the Bailiff of Chippenham had struggled hard to
CHIPPEXHAM A VILLAGE COMMUmTY. 107
maintain the old land-rights of the community ,^^ in the days of
Mary it would appear, if we take the charter to represent the
whole facts of the case, that the community was almost landless.
It might be argued from this that the community of Chippenham
had lost its lands during the disruptions which enabled the Lords
of Hungerford to grasp at all they could lay hands on. But it
does not at all follow that the grant of Queen Mary suggests that
Chippenham possessed no lands other than those then bestowed*
The alienation of the corporation lands has been enormous since
this period,^^ and this alienation may well have been from lands
held by prescriptive rights, which would be more readily disposed
of, while the charter-granted lands, possessing a more definite anl
publicly-known title, could not have been so readily alienated. This
view of the case is confirmed by a very curious piece of evidence.
Some land called the West Mead is granted by Queen Mary's charter.
The extent of it was then stated to be 30 acres, and it still remained
in the hands of the corporation in 1835, its exact acreage being 30
ac., 3. r. 15 p. But in the occupation of this mead, which is culti-
vated, as we shall presently see, in an extremely archaic fashion, are
associated several indi\adual freeholders who hold their portion of
the common " in the same manner as the corporation hold theirs."^*
Who then are these individual freeholders ? They must have been
small holders, as their whole possession did not amount to more
than 13 acres, and their intimate association with the corporation
lands is most significant. Surely we have something more here
than a ^erely convenient arrangement for agricultural purposes ?
My own suggestion is, that they are descendants of original mem-
bers of the community who before Queen Mary's time had trans-
ferred their temporary rights in the land to a holding in severalty.
If this is the right reading of the evidence, we may go one step
further, and say they represent the last of a series of transactions
which had been going on from time to time since the days of the
first curving out of the market village in the forest, and which will
fully account for the necessity of converting the prescriptive village
community into a chartered burghal community.
Taking into account then that the community was already
in possession of some lands at the time of Queen Mary's grant,
our next point is to consider the nature of this grant. The
lands granted to the newly made burgh, had belonged to Walter,
1- Jackson's Hidory of ChipiyeiHuim^ p. 21.
^3 For instance, the Municipal CorporatUm Commission shows that over 8(>
acres of the chartered lands were '* missing " in 1835.
^* Municiixd Corporation Commission.
108 ARCHAEOLOGY.
Lord Hungerford, beheaded by Henry VIII. They were in
temporary possession of the crown, until the heir came of age,
which event happened within 23 days after the date of the char-
ter.^^ And the reason for cutting off from the possessions of Lord
Himgerford, lands which made up a great part of the parish of
Chippenham, seems to me to rest, not so much in the caprice of the
sovereign, as in the asserted rights of the community which had at
one time or other been despoiled of these very lands. For there
are two very important facts which suggest such a state of things.
The first and most important is that when the new corporation be-
gan to utilize their newly chartered lands, they did so in a
thoroughly archaic fashion, and not in the spirit of the charter, nor
of the transactions in King James's reign. This gives us evidence
of the continuity of the methods of holding and cultivation, and
hence it goes a long way towards establishing a continuity of the
holding itself ; for why should a community suddenly created by a
modem charter proceed to exercise its rights in the fashion it might
have done if its lands had descended uninterruptedly from the
earliest times ? It certainly could not have invented the traditional
customs of a bygone age, and the tradition could scarcely have
survived without the aid of the lands which suppoi-ted it. Secondly,
the evidence of Domesday proves that at the time of the Norman
conquest, the community possessed the lands subsequently granted
it by Queen Mary out of the possessions of Lord Hungerford. We
shall presently deal more at length with the survivals of archaic
custom and with the evidence of Domesday, but for the present, it
is suflScient to point out that, for both of these reasons, it apj)ears
that Mary's grant may be interpreted as representing the asserted
rights of the community based upon their continuance from early
times. Taking this evidence on the whole, therefore, it seems to
prove that the period which witnessed the inauguration of the new
borough witnessed, too, the last stages of the village-community.
The old democratic and ai*chaic constitution was not suited to the
times which recognised landed property as one of the chief means
of individual wealth. The village-community, therefore, pa^^sed on
into the burghal community, and in its new capacity re-asserted
some of its old righta It obtained some of these rights in the
charter granted lands, and by retaining with these the old methods
of cultivation, we are better able to identify them as remnants of a
once more extensive land-community.
G. Laurence Gomme.
(To he contiivived.)
* * Jackson's History of ChippeiJiamt P* 23.
THE PHYSTCIANS OF MYDDFAL 109
THE PHYSICIANS OF MYDDFAL
(CmdiiiXied from mUe, p, 32)
WE may now deal with tho taboo and its breacL It will be
remembered that the bridegroom of Myddfai is forbidden to
strike " thi-ee causeless blows." Of course he disobeys. According to
tho Cambro-Briton version it happened that one day, preparing for a
fail', he desired his wife to go to the field for his horse. Finding
her dilatory in doing so he tapped her arm thrice with his glove,
saying, half in jest, " Go, go, go ! " The blows were slight, but
they were blows ; and, the terras of the marriage contract being
broken, the dame departed — she and her cattle with her — back into
the lake. The other two accounts agree in spreading the blows
over a much greater length of time. Mr. Rees' version relates that
once the husband and wife were invited to a christening in the
neighbourhood. The lady, however, appeared reluctant to go,
making the feminine excuse that the distance was too far to walk.
Her husband told her to fetch one of the horses from the field. " I
will," said she, " if you will bring me my gloves, which I left in the
house." He went, and, returning with the gloves, found that she
had not gone for the horae ; so he jocularly slapped her shoulder
with one of the gloves, saying, " Go, go ! " Whereupon she re-
minded him of the condition that he was not to strike her without
a cause, and warned him to be more careful in future. Another
time when they were together at a wedding she burst out sobbing
in the midst of the joy and mirth of all around her. Her husband
touched her on the shoulder and enquired the cause of her weeping.
She replied : ** Now people are entering into trouble ; and your
troubles are likely to commence, as you have the second time
stricken me without a cause." Finding how very wide an inter-
pretation she put upon the " causeless blows," the unfortimate
husband did his best to avoid anything which could give occasion
for the third and last blow. But one day they were together at a
funeral, where, in the midst of the grief, she appeared in the
highest spirits and indulged in immoderate fits of laughter. Her
husband was so shocked that he touched her, saying, " Hush, hush !
don't laugh ! " She retorted that she laughed, " because people,
when they die, go out of trouble ; " and, rising up, she left the
house, exclaiming : " The last blow has been struck ; our marriage
contract is broken, and at an end ! Farewell ! " Hurrying home
she called together all the faiiy cattle which had been given by her
110 ARCH^'EOLOGY.
fatlier as her dowry, walked off with them to the hike and vanislied
in its waters. A little black calf, slaughtered and suspended on
the hook, descended alive and well again to obey his mistress'
summons ; and four grey oxen, which were ploughing, dragged the
plough behind them as they went, leaving a well marked furrow
that remains to this day, "to witness if I lie." The remaining
version with some differences of detail represents the same eccen-
tric pessimism (which we are presumably to attribute to the greater
spiritual insight of the lady s supernatural character) as the cause
of the husband's not unwari'anted annoyance and of his breach of
the agreement.
The lady of the Van Pool, whatever her practice, had in theory
some relics of old-fashioned wifely duty. She did not object to the
chastisement which the law, at all events in England, allowed a
husband to bestow, provided always it were in her opinion de-
served; but she refused to bear "causeless blows." The Partridge's
wife, on the other hand, declined to be stinick at all; and in another
Welsli legend — that of Llyn Nelferch, in the parish of Ystradyfodwg,
in Glamorganshire, not many miles from the Van Pool — the water
fairy is even more exacting. Three simple disagreements, without
blows, are sufficient to separate her from her earthly hasband : this
is incompatibility of temper with a vengeance ! ^
A hero of tlie Welsh border, Wild Edric, of whose historic
reality as one of the English rebels against William the Conqueror
there is no doubt, has gathered about his name a considerable
accretion of myth. One story, given by Walter Mapes, relates that
he succeeded in capturing a supernatural maiden and dragging her,
despite a furious resistance, from a dance in which she was engaged
with a number of companions. She brooded in sullen silence for
three whole days ; but on the fourth she suddenly exclaimed to her
new master, who was endeavouring by caress and persuasion to
reconcile her to her lot : " Good luck to you, my dear ! and you
will be lucky, too, and enjoy health and peace and plenty, so long
as you do not reproach me on account of my sistei*s, or the place
from which you snatched me away, or anything connected with it.
For on the day when you do so you will lose both your bride and
your good fortune ; and when I am taken away from you, you will
pine away quickly to an early death." He pledged himself to
fidelity ; and to their splendid nuptials nobles came from far an<l
near. The chronicler, writing little more than a century after-
wards, tells us that King William heard of the wonder, and bade
Transactions of the Aberdare Eisteddfod, 225*
THE PHYSICIANS OF MYDDFAl. 1 1 1
the newly wedded pair to London, where he was then holding his
court, that he might test the truth of the tale. They proved it to
him by the evidence of many witnesses from their own country as
well as by the lady's superhuman beauty, and he let them return
in peace. One evening, after many yeara of happiness, Edric
returned late from hunting and could not find his wife. When he
had spent some time in vainly seeking and calling for her, she
appeared. " I suppose," he began angrilj^ " it is your sisters who
have detained you so long ; have they not ? *' At the mention of
her sisters she vanished ; and neither her husband's self-reproaches,
nor his tears, nor any search could ever find her again.-
Going somewhat further afield we may note one or two Eastern
variants. In the great Sanskrit epic of the Mahabhdrata we are
told that King Santanu, walking by a river side one day, met and
fell in love with a beautiful girl, who told him that she was the
river Ganges, and could only marry him on condition that he never
questioned her conduct. To this he, with a tinily royal gallantrj',
agreed ; and she bore him several children, all of whom she threw
into the river as soon as they were bom. At last she bore him a
boy, Bhfshma ; and her husband begged her to spare his life,
whereupon she instantly changed into the river Ganges and flowed
away.** Tawhaki, a mythic hero of the Maories, was beloved by a
girl of heavenly race named Tango-tango, who gave him their little
daughter to wash. Evidently he did not like the work, for, while
can-ying out his wife's instructions, he made a very rude remark
about the child. Hearing this. Tango-tango began to sob bitterly,
and at last rose up from her place with the child and took flight to
the sky, where Tawhaki, after many disappointments and indigni-
ties, was allowed to rejoin them, but not to bring them back to
earth.* In the Bantik legend, cited above, the husband is for-
bidden to tear out one white hair which Outahagi, his wife, has.
He disobeys after she has given birth to a son ; and she vanishes
in a tempest and returns to the sky. Taking the child on his back,
he succeeds in climbing after her and finding her again.
The catastrophe of the normal Swan-maiden story, is the re-
covery of the magical dress, which enables the wife to return to
her distant home. This catastrophe is not the one adopted in The
- Miss Burne Sfiropslnre Fdk-Lore, 59, citing Walter Mapes, Do Nugis
Cur. Dis. ii., ch. 12.
•** Punjab N. d' Q. ii. 207. In this form the story is found as a tradition, pro-
bably derived from the Mahdbhdrata.
* Sir George Grey Pdynesian Mythology, 66. Taylor New Zealand and
Us Iiduibitanis, 138.
112 ARCHEOLOGY.
Physicians of Myddfai ; and I shall accordingly leave aside
all examples of it, profoundly interesting from their weird and
poetic beauty though many of them are. There is, however, one
observation which will not be irrelevant. In Swan-maiden stories
the recovery of the dress is rarely, if ever, made the subject of an
express prohibition to the hero. At most he is advised by a friend
not to let his beloved obtain, or even see, her cast plumage. And
yet, the catastrophe is as inevitable, and as fully foreseen from
the beginning, as the breach of an explicit taboo. Both alike are
the work of doom. A legend of the Loo-Choo Islands, expresses
this feeling in its baldest form. A farmer sees a bright light in his
well, and on drawing near, beholds a woman diviner and washing
in the water. Her clothes, strange in shape, and of a ruddy sunset
colour, are hanging on a pine tree near at hand. He takes them,
and thus compels her to marry him. She lives with him for ten
years, bearing him a son and a daughter. At the end of that time
her fate is fulfilled, she ascends a tree during her husband s absence,
and having bidden her children farewell, glides off on a cloud, and
disappears.^ This story approaches nearer to the Swan-maiden
type than those we have been considering ; the heroine's departure
occurs during her husband's absence, and possibly the cloud is a
reminiscence of the retrieved clothing which may have been lost
from some earlier version. But the point emphasized is the fulfil-
ment of fate, a point certainly present alike in the noirnal story
and in those variants we have been considering, though more or less
latent.
Returning to Europe, I need only mention Mdlusine, whose
&ti})ulation was that she should bepennitted to spend her Saturdays
alone. An Ksthonian tale which I have cited elsewhere® sets before
us a mer-maid, who conversely to the cases under consideration,
takes the hero to dwell with her below the seas. She passes her
Thursdays alone. Here we are on the threshold of another series
of traditions, such as those of Olger the Dane, Ossian, and Thomas
the Rhymer. Their investigation is foreign to our purpose, and
having simply indicated their connection with the group we are
reviewing, I pass on.
In Wales, the tale of the supernatural bride, is by no means con-
fined to the Van Pool and Llyn Nelferch. In one case given by
Pi-ofessor Rhys, the heir of the owner of Corv\Tion in Upper
Arllechwedd, Carnarvonshire, fell in love with a fairy of ** the
''• Dennys Tlie FM-Lore of CTiiiui, 140.
^ Kreutzwald, Ehstnittche MOtxhen^, 212, cited Folk-Lore Jounud, iii. 231.
THE PHYSICIANS OF MYDDFAL 113
bottomless pool of Corwrion," and the marriage took place upon
two conditions — first, that the husband was not to know his wife's
name, though he might give her any name he chose ; and, second,
that if she misbehaved towards him, he might now and then beat
her with a rod, but that he should not strike her with iron, on pain
of her leaving liim at once. " This covenant was kept for some
years, so that they lived happily together, and had four children, of
whom the two youngest were a boy and a girl. But one day as
they went to one of the fields of Bryn Twrw, in the direction of
Penardd Gron, to catch a pony, the fairy wife, being so much
niuibler than her husband, ran before him and had her hand in the
pony's mane in no time. She called out to her husband to throw
her a halter, but instead of that he threw towards her a bridle with
an iron bit, which, as bad luck would have it, struck her. The
%vife at once flew through the air, and plunged headlong into
Corwrion Lake. The husband returned sighing and weeping to-
wards Bryn Twrw (Noise Hill), and when he reached it, the twrw
(noise) there was gi-eater than had ever been heai*d before, namely,
that of weeping after * Belene,' and it was then, after he had struck
lier with iron, that he first learnt what his wife's name was."^
I trust I may be acquitted of a joke if I say that here
the terms of the taboo are striking, and may well detain us
A short time. It is so diflBcult for us to put ourselves into the
mental attitude of savages, that we do not understand the objection
which they almost all entertain to mentioning their own per-
sonal names. The objection itself is, however, well-known ; but
it is not always manifested in exactly the same form. In
some cases a man only refuses to utter the name himself, while
he w^ill utter another's name readily enough. Sometimes it is
deemed an unpardonable thing to call another by name; he must
l>e addressed, or spoken of, by an epithet. And frequently
ii man s real name is a profound secret known only to himself, all
others knowing him only by some epithet or title. Sometimes it
is only forbidden to relatives by marriage to speak one another's
nauios. Thus in various ways etiquette has prescribed a number of
customs limiting the utteranca of names among savage and bar-
barous peoples all the world over. The origin of these rules and
-customs seems to Lave been the dread of sorcery. A personal name
was held to be a part of its owner ; aoid, just as the possession of a
lock of another's hair, or even a paring of his nail, was believed to
<;onfer power over him, so was the knowle<lge of his name.
' Cijm m n/ilor, i v. , 201 ,
n
114 ARCHAEOLOGY.
Similarly men in the lower culture have a great fear of having
their likenesses taken, and eveiybody is familiar with the belief
that a witch, who has ma'^e a waxen image and given it the name
of any one whom she wants to injure, can, by sticking pins in it,
or melting it in a flame, inflict pain and even death upon the
person whom the doll represents. The Welsh have been no freer
from the superstitions of witchcraft than their neighbours; and,
though there may be no direct evidence of the fact, the analogy of
the beliefs of other countries will suggest that among those super-
stitions must have been one which looked with dread on the
injurious uses that might be made of one's name by an enemy. If
this be 80, the fairy of Corwrion might naturally fear for a man
of another race, albeit her husband, to become possessed of her real
name. Some other stories in Professor Rhys' collection show that
this is the stage of thought to which the prohibition to know her
name is to be referred. It is related at Waenfawr, near Carnarvon,
that a youth broke into a dance of the Fairies on the banks of the
Gwyrfai, near Cwellyn Lake, one moonlight night, and canied off"
a maiden. She refused to wed him, but consented to remain his
servant. One evening, however, he overheard two of her kindred
speaking of her, and caught her name, Penelope. When she found
that he had learnt her name she gave way to giief ; evidently she
now knew that her fate was sealed. On his importunity being re-
newed she at length consented to marry liim, but on the other con-
dition, to be discussed presently, that he should not strike her with
iron.^ A similar tale was related in the vale of Beddgelert, wherein
the stolen lady would only consent to union with her ravisher if he
could find out her name. When he had discovered it, she asked in
astonishment, " O moi^tal, who has betrayed my name to thee ? "
Then, lifting up her tiny folded hands, she exclaimed: "Alas! my
fate, my fate ! "® In a variant the maiden, pressed by her human
lover, promises to marry, provided he can find out her name. When
he succeeds in doing this, slie faints away, but has to submit to
her doom.^^ It is cleai- from these narratives that the knowledge of
the fairy's name confeiTed power over her which she was unable to
resist. This is surely the interpretation also of the Danish tale of a
man from whom a Bill- troll had stolen no fewer than three wives.
Riding home late one night afterwards he saw a great crowd of
Hill-folk dancing and making merry, and among them he recog-
nised his three wives. One of these was Kirsten, his best beloved^
and he called out to her and named her name. The troll, whoso
8 Ibid, 189. « Ibid, v., 69. lo ibid, 66.
INDEX NOTES. 115
name was Skynd, or liurry, came up to him and asked him why he
presumed to call Kirsten. The man explained that she had been
his favourite wife, and begged him with tears to give her back to
him. Tlie troll at last consented, but with the pix)viso that he
should never hurry (skynde) her. For a long time the condition
was observed ; but one day, as she was delayed in fetching something
for her husband from the loft, he cried out to her : " Make haste,
Kirsten ! '' (Skynde dig, Kirsten) ; and he had hardly spoken the
words when the woman was gone, compelled to return to the troll's
abode.^^ Here we have the phenomenon in a double form ; for not
only does the husband regain his wife from the troll, by pronounc-
ing her name, but he loses her once more by inadvertently
summoning her captor.
1 Keightley, The Fairy Mytlwlogyy 121.
E. Sidney Hartland.
(To he caiUlm(€iL)
INDEX NOTES.
3. — Roman Remains (ante p. 40) — ii. Gloucestershire.
[The Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucester Archoeological
Society y vols, i-x., and Witts* Archaeological Handbook of Gloucester
are completely indexed for Roman Remains in the following list : — ]
Almondsbury, entrenchment. BrvsUA and Oloiic. Arch, Soc,, ii. 18.
Benge WORTH, coins, pottery, &c. Bristol and Olonc, Aixh, Soc.y ix. 22.
BiBURY, villa, with pottery, coins, &c. Witts* Haiulbook of Glouc, 65.
BiCKNOR, coins, &c. Bridol and Oloiic, Arch. Soc.y iv. 305.
BiSLEY, villa, rcUh pottery, glass, bronze implements, knives, coins, &c. Arch.
Assoc. y i. 44, ii. 324 ; Ardi^. Jottrn.y ii. 42 ; Bristol and Gloitc. Ardi. Soc.y
V. 11, 14, 38-39.
BrrroN, square camp, villas. Bristol ami Olonc. Arch, Soc.y ii. 28, 88, iii. 88 ; Cott.
Nat. Field a»(6, vi. 231.
Blackminster, coins, &c. Bristol a)u£ Glouc. Arch. Soc.y ix. 22-23.
Bourton-in-the-Water (Salmonsbury camp), villa, gold signet ring, coins, iron
sword blades, glass, pottery, &c. Bristol aiid Gloiic. Arch. Soc., vii. 16,
71-72 ; Cott. Nitt. Field a»t/>, vi. 209 ; Witts' Handbook of Glow. 44, 56.
Bristol, coins, inscribed pigs of lead. Bnstol and Gloitc. Ardi. Soc.y iv. 320-321 ;
vi. 36.
Brockworth, roadways, potter}'. Bristol and GIohc. Arch. Soc.y vii. 131-132.
Cbrxey (North) some few remains. W^itts' Handbook of Glouc.y 33.
Chedworth, villa, imth bath, pottery, bronze, silver, lead, pig iron, &c. Bristol
and Glouc. Arch. Soc., ii. 19 ; Cott. Nat. Field Cluby iv. 201, 233 ; Gent.
Mag., 1865, u. 302-303.
Chipping Campden, coins. Bristol and Glow. Arch. Soc.y ix. 135.
Chipping Sodbury, camp. Arch.y xix. 165 ; Bristol atui Glow. Arch. /Scc, viii.
74-78 ; C<M. Nat. Fidd Clnhy iii. 54, vi. 219.
Cirencester, extensive remains of station (Corinium) with walls, pavements,
villas, sculpture, inscriptions, pottery, coins, &c. Arch., xviii. 124-125 ;
Arch. Jonrn.y vi. 321 ; Bristol and Glotic. Arch. Soc.y ii. 14-15, iii. 256,
viii. 183, 185, 309-313; Wilts' Arch. Soc.y xiv. 186-192; Ge)it. Mag.,
116 ARCHJWLOGY.
1835, ii. 302 ; 1836, i. 296 ; 1837, i. 580-588 ; 1838, ii. 180 ; 1849, ii.
357-360 ; 1850, i. 25-26.
Oleeve (Nottingham Hill, Camp), coins, laiicc licarls, &c. ArcJt., xix. 171 ;
Briistd and Gluuc. Arch, >o.-., iv. 205 ; Cott. Nat. Field Cinh, vi. 209
Cold Aston, entrenchment. BriMd and Glwu'. Airh. Soc., iv. 207.
CoLEFORD, coins. Iiriist<il and (Uouc. Arch. S^x'., vi. 109.
CoLESBOL'RN (Combend Fann), villa, ipt7/i pavements, iron fragments, coins,
human skeletim, &c. Arch., ix. 319-322, xviii. 112-113.
Crab-Tree Hill, C(»ins. Bristol and Ghmc. Arch. StM'.y vi. 108.
Cromhall, villa ivith coins, pottery, &c. Arrh. Jonrn., xvii. 332.
Da( J LING WORTH, villa. Witts' ILindfHMtk of Olonc, 61.
Dean (forest of), iron-cinders, coins. BridU and (rbmc. Arch. Soc.y ii. 216-234,
vi. 35, 107-122, ix. 72.
DoDiNCJTON, villa, pottery. Leland's It in., vi. 75 ; Witts' Handhoi^k of (Monc, 62.
Dowdeswell, camp. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. S(h:., iv. 203.
Dryhill, villa with coins, pottery, glass, stylus, &c. Bridd and Glvuc. Arch.
>Srir., iv. 208 ; Witta^ Ha ndbiHjk of Glouc. 60.
Gloucester, wall, foundations, interments, urns, pavements, coins, inscriptions,
&c. Arch., X. 132, xviii. 121; Brhftol and Glonc Arch. tSoc., i. 153-166,
ii. 210-215 ; vi. 345-352 ; Cott. Nat. FiM anh, vi. 154 ; FriH^. .Srw.
Antiq., 1884, 149; Gent. Ma4j., 180(i, ii. 8(59-870; 1843, ii. 420; 184(),
• ii. 517 ; 1854, i. 486-487 ; 1855, ii. 42.
Haresfieli), camp, villa, 3000 coins, horse shoe, iVic. Arch., xix. 169 ; Cott.
Nat. FiM Club, vi. 211 ; Witts' Handhmh ofGlonc, 62.
Hempstead, camp, interments, coins, potteiy. (-ott. Nat. Field Clnh, vi. 227.
Henbury, camp (Blaizecastle), coins. Arch., xix. 162 ; Bristol and Glow.
Arch. 8fH^., iii. 15, 83 ; Cott. Nat. FiAd Clnh, vi. 231.
Horsefield, slave chain, &c. Gent. Ma<j., 1817, ii. 272.
Kineton Quarry, interments, buildings, pottery, &c. Bristol and Glouc. Arch,
Soi'., vii. 76-77.
Kingscote, villa, with coins, statue, &c. W^itts' HandlnHjk of Glonc, 63.
KiNtisHOLM (near Gloucester), interments, unis, pottery, ctjins, &c. Arch. vii.
376-381, X. 132, xviii. 121-124 ; Gent. Maq., 1815, ii. 271-272 ; 1853, ii. 39-
40.
KiN'4j's Weston, camp. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc., iii. 83.
Lark's Bush, coins. Witts' HandlHmk of Gbnu.^ 21 ; Cdt. Nat. Field Clnh, vi.
214.
Lec:khami»ton Hill, camp, bronze helmet, 8|)eai' head, coins, pottery, &c. Arch.,
xix. 171 ; Arch. Jonrn., xii. 9; Arch. Assix\,i. 43; BrisUA and Glouc. Arch,
S(H.'., iv. 206 ; Cott. Nat. Field Clnh, vi. 209.
LvDBROOK, coins. Bristol and Glonc. Airh. Httc., vi. 108.
Lydney, entrenchments, villa, temple, pottery, coins from Augustus to Arcadius,
lead-inscribed tablet. Arch., v. 207-208 ; P/vx*. >Sf>o. Antiq., 2nd ser., v.
m ; Bristd and Glouc. Arch. Soc., vi. 30, 40, 75-79, 210-221 ; Antiq.
Kepert, i. 134, ii. 389.
Moreton-in-the-Marsh (near) camp, coins, &c. W'itts' Arch. Uandhook of
Glonc., 4.
Newlani> (near) coins, cinders. Bristd and Glonc. Arch. >Sch*., vi. 107.
Oldbury on Severn, c<uns. Arch., xix. 163 ; (*<dt. Nat. Field Clnh, vi. 229.
Paixswii?k, Kimsbuiy Camp, tank, coins, sword, spear heads, pottery, &c., villa.
Arch., xix. 169 ; Bristol and Glonc. Arch. *Sfx-., iv. 205, v. p. 54 ; Cott. Nat.
Field Clnh, vi. 211.
Peni'ark Hole, lead mine. Bristol and Glonc. Arch Six\, iv. 320-328.
Kt>i)MARTON, villa, pavement, coins, pottery, tibuhe. Arrh., xviii. 113-116.
IXDI'JX XOTES.] 117
St. Briavels (near), coin of Vespasian. BrUtd atul Glone. Arch. Sttc.y vi. 107.
Spoonley Wood, villa, potteiy, columns, coins, spoons, &c. Witts' HtirnVrjoh
of GloHc, 70.
Staunton, coins, &c. BrUtol and (Uonc. Arch. S<jc.y v. 69 ; vi. 19 ; vii. 227.
Stinchcombe, villa, liairpins, trinkets, iVrc. Witts' Handbook of Glon^.y 65.
Stow-in-the-Wold, interments, masonry, coins, &c. Bristol and Glouc. Arch,
Soc., vii. 72.
Stroud (Brown's Hill), villa, tiles, coins, potteiy, &c. Witts' Haitdbook of
Glo\ic. 66.
SrDELEY, villa, rings, beads, statue, fibulae, &c. Witts' HamUtook of Glouc. y 66.
Swell (Upper and Nether), villa, pottery, Cf)ins, &c. Bristol and Glouc. Arc\
Sac., iv. 209 ; vii. 72-74, 76 ; Witts' HandUmk of Glouc, 66.
Tetbury, coins. Rudder's Glour., 727 ; CoU. Nat Field Club, vi. 219.
Uley, coins. Arch., xix. 167-K^J9 ; Arch. Journ., xi. 328; Cott. Nat. Field Cbt^^y
vi. 213.
Upper Slaughter, interments. BriMd and Glour. Arch. Soc.y vii, 77-80 ; Gen*^
Miuj., 1864, L 365.
Whittington (Wycomb), villa, wUh coins, potteiy, tibuhe, stylus, knives, keys, &c.
BristoL aiul Glouc. Arch. Si»c., iv. 209; v. 188 ; Gent. May., 1863. ii. 627;
1864, i. 86-88 ; ii. 85-87, 432.
WiTCOMB, villa, with small steelyard, ivory comb, st(me mortar, iron ploughshare,
fibulte, buckles, &c. Arch., xix. 178-183 ; Bristol and Glouc., iv. 34 ;
Cott. Nat Field Hub, v. 247.
WiTHiNGTON, villa, pavemeiits, pottery. Arch., xviiL 118-121 ; Gent. Ma^j., 1811,
ii. 80. *
WooDCHESTER, villa, frescoes, statuary, pottery, glass, coins, human bones, &2
Bridal atyl Glouc. Arch. Soc, v. 14, 142-147.
WoTTON, inscriptions, urns, coins, &c. Gent. May., 1824, ii. 165 ; 1838, i. 302.
4. — Foreign Periodicals (Arch^olooical Papers).
Revue Celtique, Vol. IX., No. I.— La L^gende de la conception de Cuchulainn
(Translation from L.N.H. and Eg., 1782), L. Duran.— The Voyage of
Snegdus and Mac Rialga (Text, from Yellow Book of Lecan, and Trans-
lation), Whitley Stokes. — L^gendes des Monnaies Gauloises, A. de
BaHliUemy. — Recherches sur 1 origine de la propri^U^ fonciere et des nonn
de lieu en France, No. 3, H. D'Arbois de Juhainrille. — N^otes <m Wels'i
Consonants, M. Nctthtn. — Quelques inscriptions de Saintes contenant
des noms gaulois, R. Caynat. — Un monument in^dit de la liturgie celtique,
F. E. Warren. Melanges. — Bibliographie.
M^LUsiNE, Vol. IV., Nos. 1, 2. — Les trois clercs et le chat, l($gende chr^tienne
do rirlande, H. Gaidoz. Lo Suicide, H. Gaahtz. Les rites de la con-
struction, //. Gaidoz. Deux jeux Strasbcmrgeoie, A. Barth. Les contei
Brdtons et les publications populaires, E. Ernnnlt. Les Esprits-Forts de
Tantc^uit^ classique, H. Gaidoz. Les fac^ties de la Mer, H. Gaidoz.
Bibliographie — La fascination (suite), M. J. Tuchmann. La flfeche de
Nemrod, E. Lefibure. L'enfant juif, version Irlandaise, H. Gaidi>z. Lv
procedure du Jeun, H, Gaiiloz. Le mondo fantastique en Haute
Brdtagne, .4. Grain. Les chansons populaires en Haute Bretagne (avec
musique not<5e), A. Grain. Oblations k la mer et presages (suite)-—
Bibliographie.
5. PAPERS CONTRIBUTED TO THE ARC HiEO LOGICAL SOCIETIES OF
THE UNITKD KINGDOM DURING 1S86-1887.
(Continued from inuje 44.^
[Journal of British Archoeological Association, vol. xliii. ; Journal
of the Anthropological Institute, vol. xvii. (archfeological papers
relating to Britain) ; Archseologia Cambrensis, 5th series, voL iv. ;
118 ARCHAEOLOGY.
Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society, new series, vol.
iii. ; Folk-lore Journal, vol. v. ; Journal of the Historical and Archte-
ological Association of Ireland, 4th series, vol. viii.]
Allen (J. Roinilly), Early Cliriatian monuments of the Isle of Man. Joiirn. Brit.
Arch, Aswc, xliii. 240-266.
[Anonymous] Lordship of English and Welsh Huntington, Herefordshire.
Arch, CiimlK oth ser. iv. 149-160.
Interesting Discovery at Llantwit Major. Arch. Camh. 5th ser. iv.
If 1-155.
Llandaff Cathedral : Cliurch Goods. ArcJi. Camh. 5th ser. iv., 225-
235.
Babccck (W. H.), Ameii^an song-games and wonder-tales. Folk- Lore Jintnu v.
134-139.
Banks (R. W.), The marriage ctmtract of King Edward II. Arch. Cumh. 5th ser.
iv., 53-57.
King Edward II. in South Wales. Arch. Cumh. 5th ser. iv. 161-182.
Beddoe (J., M.D.), The statiu'e of the old races of England as estimated from
the Long Bones. Jonni. Anthrop. Lid. xvii., 202-209.
Birch (W. de Gray), Notes on the will of King John. Journ. Brit. Arch. Asmtc.
xliiL, 335-339.
Present Condition of the Roman Remains at Bath. Jmnii. Brit.
Arch, A ante, xliii., 145-148.
B?ack (W. G.). Folk-tales of North Friesland. FM-Lore Jom-n. v., 335-338.
Bloxam (M. H.), The Sculptured Sepulchral Effigy of a Priest in St. Mary's
Church, Swansea. Arch. Camh, 5th ser. iv., 155-157.
Bowditch (C. P.), Negro Songs from Barbadoes. Folk-Lore Joiirn. v. 130-133.
Bumo (Mifs Charlotte S.), Some simple methods of promoting the study of
Folk-lore, and the Extension of the Folk-Lore Society. Folk-Lore Jonru.
V. 62-65.
Chichester (Rev. A.), Notes on the Churches of St. Clement and St Mary, Sand-
wich. Joiun. Brit. Arch, Assoc, xliii. 340-343.
Clodd (Edwird), Tabulation of Folk-Tales. Folk-Ixne Jovrn. v. 70.
Clouston (W. A.), Two South Pacific Folk-Tales. Folk-Lore Jonni. v., 254-257.
Colles (Dr. A.), A witches' ladder. Folk-Lore Joiini. v., 1-5.
Courtney (iMissM. A.), Cornish Folk-Lore. Fdk-Lorc Journ. v., 14-61, 85-112,
117-220.
Cuming (H. Syer), Traders' signs on old London Bridge. Joitnt, Brit. Arch,
As8i>c. xliii., 162-173.
Da vies (Rev. John), List of W^elsh Royalists who ct>mj>ounded for their Estates
in the time of Cromwell. Arch. C<imh. 5th ser. iv., 122-130.
Davies (Rev. J. D.), Weobley Castle, alias the Castle of Llanrhidian. Aixh,
Camh. 5th ser. iv., 13-23.
, Penny Crick Tumulus in G()wer. Arcfi, Camh, 5th ser. iv., 299-300.
Deedes (Rev. C.}, The ancient Church Bells of Halstead and its neighbourhoo<l.
Essex. Arch, l>oc. new ser. iii., 64-73.
Ducie (Right Hon. Earl of). Exhibition of tliree Marestones or Hagstones. Journ,
Anlhro}). Inst, xvii., 135-137.
Durham (Lord Bishop of). Inaugural address. Jom-n. Brit. Arch. Assoc, xliii., 1-12.
Eastwood (J. W , M.D.), Roman Roads of Durham. Jouru. Brit. Arch. Assoc.
xliii., 155-161
notes on Sockbum and Dinsdale. Jouru, Brit, Arch. AsstK, xliii.,
344-347.
Egan (F. W.), Irish Folk-Lore. Folk-Lore Jonrn, v., 11-13.
Foot (Arthur W.), In piam Memoriam Rev. James Graves. Jouru, Hid. and
Arch, Assoc, of Tretand^ 4th ser. viii., 8-27.
Frazer (J. G.), A Witch's Ladder. Folk-Lore Journ, v., 81-83.
Gamwell (S. C.i Margam Abbey. Arch. Camh. 5th ser. iv., 1-13.
Caster (Dr. M.), Modem Origin of Fairy Tales. Fdk-Lorc Joxmi, v., 339-351.
BE VIEWS. 119
Glynne (Sir. S. R), Notes on the Older Churches in the Pour Welsh Dioceses.
Arch. Ginib, 5th ser. iv. 274-289.
Harker (J., M.D.), The Consecrated Well of Lancaster Castle Hill. Joiim, Brit,
Arch. Assoc, xliii., 348-352.
Hartland (J. C), Japanese New Year Decorations. Fdk-Lore Jwirn. v., 154-156.
Hodgson (Rev. T. F.), Raby. Jo\irn. Brit. Arch. Assoc, xliii., 307-327.
Hooppell (Rev. R. E.) Ancient Roman Balance recently found at Bainesse
Catterick. Jonni. Brit. Arch. Assoc, xliii. 238-239.
Vinovia. Jonrn. Brit. Arch. Assoc, xliii, 111-123, 299-306.
I'anson (J.\ St. Wilfred. Jonrn. Bnt. Arch. Assoc, xliii., 275-290.
Jenkins (Rev. Canon R.), Historical Notes relating to the Church or Minster
of St. Mary and St. Eadburg, in Lyminge, co. Kent. Jonrn. Brit. Arch.
Assoc, xliii., 363-369.
Kinahan (G. H.), Cornish Folklore. FolMore Joum. v., 324-327.
Donegal Folklore, ibid. 66-69.
King (H. W.) Inventories of Church Goods, 6th Edw. VI. Essex ArcJi Soc.
new ser. iii., 36-63.
King (Capt. J. S.), Folklore and Social Customs of the Western Somali Tribes.
Folklore Jonrn. v., 322-323.
Kirby (W. F.), The Forbidden Doors of the Thousand and One Nights. Folk
lore Jonrn. v., 112-124.
(To he coivtinned.)
REVIEWS.
The Hallstatt Period in Uppeb Bavaria. (Dib Huqelorabbr zwischen
Ammer-und Staffelsee, geoffuct, untersucht und bescbrieben von
Dr. Julius Naue. Stuttgart [Enke] 1887.)
Since the publication of Von Sackens* work on the Cemetery of Hallstatt,
no more valuable contribution to our knowledge of the important period
in Central European Culture which takes its name from that prehistoric
station has been published than the present volume of Dr. Julius Naue on
the barrows of the hilly Upper-Bavarian region that lies between the
Ammer and Staffelsee. It ia a part of the country already well-known in
the annals of Prehistoric Archaeology from the discovery in the neighbour-
ing Wurmsee of the pile settlement described by Von Schab, and the sur-
prising occurrence, in association with the early indigenous remains both
there and on the neighbouring Boseninsel, of Greek pottery, including
specimens of the earliest ware imported by the Greek colonists into Italy,
fragments of a Corinthian Kyllx, and of the late florid work that charac-
terises the decadence of Tarentum and the imitative taste of the Apuliaus.
The district itself stands in immediate relation to two main lines of ancient
thoroughfare across the Alps that brought the Bavarian uplands into
communication with Northern Italy and the head of the Adriatic, — the
central passes of Tyrol, once followed by the Via Claudia Augusta^ and
that more easterly line through the Tauems, which skirts the salt-bearing
ranges where Hallstatt itself is situate. These researches into the pre-
historic burial-places of this region derive, therefore, a special interest from
their bearing on ancient lines of commercial intercourse between the
North and South.
120 ARCHjEOLOGY.
Dr. Naiie's work shows, in many respects, a marked scientific advance
on that of his predecessors in the same f:eld. He has not been content
with giving a general summary of tha contents of the barrows — more than
three hundred in number — that he has so conscientiously explored, but he
has also given a short account of the contents of each individual grave — a
point of primary importance too often neglected by explorers whose relic-
hunting zeal outruns their patience in keeping a scientific record of
their observations. How well one knows the result ! — the inevitable ** Atlas,"
and edition de luxe— a, museum successfully "stuffed" — and a whole
chapter in the remote history of an European race irrevocably mutilated 1
Dr. Naue knows his business, and we feel confident that the painstaking
report of the results of his excavations here presented, together with the sixty
plates embodying the principal objects discovered, will nowhere meet with
a warmer appreciation than in this countiy.
The graves excavated and described by Dr. Naue are all in barrows,
and in this respect present a marked contrast to those of Hallstatt, wliich
are all in the flat earth. Though the bulk of them belong to the earlier
and later Hallstatt Periods, some reach back to the Bronze Age, while
others extend to the period that succeeded that of Hallstatt, in which iron
was exclusively in use for implements and weapons. In the pure Bronze
Age we find stone-barrows, sometimes covering small vaulted chambers, and
containing mostly skeleton interments during the earlier part of the period
and cremation deposits in the later part. In the succeeding Hallstatt period,
both forms of burial co-exist, though towards the close cremation again
predominates. The stone-barrows now give place by transitional stages to
mounds of earth, which in the later Hallstatt period greatly preponderate.
In the succeeding Iron Age, the earth-mound is universal, and the dead arc
in all cases burnt.
A strange phenomenon in the burial forms observed is the partial in-
terment of the skeleton — a practice the existence of which was noticed by
Von Sacken in the Hallstatt Cemetery. In the Bavarian barrows it ap-
pears to have been proportionally even more frequent, and Dr. Naue has
been able to authenticate sixteen cases as against ten amongst the three
times more numerous Hallstatt graves. Another remarkable feature of
these barrows is the frequent deposition of a young boar as a food-offering
beside the human remains — an usage of great interest in its relation to the
religious notions of the Celts and other European peoples.
The inventory of tlie tombs, like their construction, presents some
marked contrasts when compared with those of Hallstatt. The indigenous
population of this Upper Bavarian region was not so rich in imported
articles as their contemporaries of the Salzberg. Only a few examples were
discovered of the bronze situias, the ** cordoned " buckets and vases in which
the graves of the Hallstatt ealt-miners were so rich. Some, again, of the
most characteristic indigenous products of the Hallstatt graves are con-
spicuous here by their absence — the swords, with the horse-shoe and
antennsc-like handles, a type diffused from Tarquinii to Assyria and the
Caucasus in one direction, and in the North and West to Scandinavia and
Britain, the elegant bracelets with their shell-like bosses, the double-spiralled
fibula) which call up comparlEons with those of Southern Italy, of Greece
and intervening Illyrian tracts. Tlie clapper-like pendants suspended by
HE VIEWS. 121
small chaius from various oniaments oiilj occur here in the case of a single
crescent-shaped fibula. On the other hand, the " barrel-shaped " bronze
arm-bands or bracelets which are characteristic of these finds are wholly
wanting at Hallstatt itself, though their distribution may be traced west-
wards through Wtirtemburg, Alsace and Switzerland to Eastern Fmnce. In
other cases again, there are strong evidences of local manufacture, as, for
instance, in the peculiar bronze nails employed in rivetting the hilts to the
iron blades of the swords. These have cup-shaped ends, with a small spike
in the middle, a fonn which has not been hitherto discovered in other
Hallstatt districts, being unknown even upon swords of the same period
from other parts of Bavaria.
Among the most important objects brought to light in these excavations
were the remains of three chariots, a wooden shield of oblong form with two
honi-like bronze bosses in the middle and other smaller bosses round, but the
most remarkable of all was a wooden cup found inside a bronze vase which
itself had been enclosed in a basket. This cup, made of the wood of the
wild pear-tree, was of elegant form, like a Kylix without handles, and
ornamented with a series of fine raised ribs, one of which, round the lower
part of the foot, is actually cut free from the body of the cup, and forms a
moveable ring. This wooden Kylix which, when first discovered, was in an
almost perfect condition, is a masterpiece of the ancient turner's skill and
stands quite alone amongst relics of the kind. It seems to have contained
a food-oflering for the dead in the shape of honey and mead or whey-cheese.
The bronze vase or Situla in which this truly marvellous relic was found,
though answering in its general aspect to those found at Hallstatt and
elsewhere, shows, in place of the angular and truncated cone-like outline
usual in these vessels, a rounded and more elegant contour. It seems to
me that in this modification of form we have a certain indication that this
**Late Hallstatt" grave reaches down to a considerably later date than is usually
assigned to the close of this period in Central Europe. It preser.ts striking
points of resemblance in contour to a Situla with a " North Etruscan '^
inscription found in the Val di Cembra near Trent, as well as to others
of the third and still more of the fourth period of the Cemetery of Este,
It belongs, in fact, to a date nearer 300 than 400 b.c.
One of the most interesting graves discovered, belonging to the
transitional age between the Bronze and early Hallstatt periods, was
that containing the skeleton of a woman with her diadem, the ambtr
beads of her necklace, her breast-pins, bracelets, and ankle-rings still in
their places. The diadem consisted of a semi-circular bronze ring with
a hook at one end and an eye at the other for fastening it to a band
behind, and with remains of threads at intervals round its girth showing
that it had been sewn on besides to the front of a kind of veil. There were
traces besides on the body of a mantle and a tunic of finer material be-
neath it. The diadem, of which another example was found, is, however^
especially interesting as, taken in connexion with the traces of the veil, it
shows that the women of the district had adopted a style of coiffure pre-
valent amongst the ancient Greeks, Etruscans, and their neighbours, and of
which Helbig in his Homerische Epos has given some interesting illustrations.
It is probable that the Ampyx or diadem, the cap and the twisted strings
{plekt^ anadesm}) that bound it, which, with the veil or Kridemnony Golden
122 ARCHEOLOGY.
Aphrodite gave to Androniach^, bad all their counterparts in the headgear
of theso barbaric wives.
It is in the personal ornaments indeed that the influence of Southern
fashions on this site are peculiarly visible. Among the fibular we notice,
with local variations, the influence of the types of Villanova and of the Certosa
of Bologna, and the " kettledrum " variety that may be traced southwards as
far as Campania. But even here we do not find the evidence of direct
importation that might have been expected. There is nothing to set beside
the products of Mediten'anean industry found in the great Hallstatt
Cemetery. The painted vases exhumed from the graves are of that in-
digenous geometrical style the diffusion of which seems to be conterminous
with the region in which the so-called " Hallstatt" culture may be regarded
as at home. But we do not trace any direct influence of the Greek designs
and fabrics, which, as we know from the discoveries made in the neigh-
bouring Wurmsee, found their way to this Bavarian region in prehistoric
times. Neither have these painted vases any immediate relation to those
discovered in contemporary cemeteries of the old Venetian and Euganean
districts of Northern Italy. For anyone, however, who wishes to study these
interesting types of painted vases, characteristic of a large Central European
tract extending from Upper Austria to Alsace, Dr. Naue's book affords a
rich material, — no less than ten coloured plates being devoted to the illus-
tration of this, in some respects, the most important part of his discoveries.
The prevailing colours are red, white, brown, and a lustrous black due to the
employment of graphite or black lead, and one of the most characteristic
ornaments is a kind of festoon pattern which one would willingly compare
with the still more pronounced festoons on one of the Wuraisee vases.
An iron sword with a bronze handle found in one of the graves belonging
to the Later Hallstatt period, together with a " cordoned " bucket (cista a
cordoni) of the more recent type and a bronze vase, stands out in striking con-
trast to the other swords discovered, and suggests some interesting enquiries.
The hilt of this sword is fixed to the iron blade by two tong-like processes
and the centre of the handle swells into a knot. The sword itself is
decidedly shorter than the other Hallstatt blades. Dr. Nauc has justly
laid stress on the great resemblance that these characteristics present to
the typical " Late Celtic " sword, or, as it is known on the Continent, the
sword of La T6ne. He compares it with a sword of the same kind found
at Anet in the Canton of Bern and a few other analogous examples from
liate Hallstatt deposits, and goes so far as to regard it as the prototype of
the swords used by the historic Gauls and Britons. The far-reaching im-
portance of this conclusion, if substantiated, will be patent to Archaeologists.
It would go far to show that the ancient culture of the Gaulish tribes
stands, in fact; in a filial relation to that which is revealed to us in these
** Hallstatt " cemeteries. But this is a couclusion which on a broad view of
the evidence before us it seems impossible to accept. That there are
certain features which are common to the Later Hallstatt group and the
earliest finds of Late Celtic character such as we know them from Moravia
to Champagne is undeniable. There is no reason to reject the view advanced
by Dr. Naue and supported by the high authority of Undset, that the
sword in question represents a type which had been partially, at least,
adopted by the Hallstatt peoples at a comparatively late date. But it
REVIEWS. 123
seems preferable to see in such an adoption the operation of an external
influence common to both the Later Hallstatt and the T^ne groups. The
Gaulish swords found at the station of La T^ue and elsewhere betray
in certain cases in the ornaments of their hilts and sheathes rudimentary
traces of an antecedent stage of development, not to be found in those of
Hallstatt, but which find at least their partial explanation in some known
Oriental forms. The sheathes again of the " Late Celtic " swords with
their terminal animals show an independent link of connexion with
Assyrian and Persian forms, which is Avanting in their Hallstatt co:mter-
parts. A comparison of date, moreover, is fatal to the hypothesis that the
earliest of the " Late Celtic " swords represent a development of one of the
latest Hallstatt types, itself of very exceptional occun-ence. The tomb, for
instance, in which the sword in question was discovered contained a bronze
bucket of the many-ribbed kind, which in all probability brings down its
date to the latter half of the fifth century, b.c. The Situla of another of
these Late Hallstatt graves belongs, as already pointed out, to a still more
recent date. On the other hand, judging from the archaic character of the
beaked CEnochoh associated with some of the earliest " Late Celtic " finds,
the culture they represent must be carried back at least to the early part
of the fifth century, before our era. It was even at the moment that it
first rises to our view a culture with a very distinctive character of its own,
«nd a fully foi*med ornamental style, in its essential features wholly
independent of Hallstatt traditions. It is before all things a parallel and
intrusive culture, in some districts superseding the earlier Central European
arts, which in other parts seem to have prolonged awhile their separate
existence. If, as there seems good reason for believing, the appearance of
this new form of culture represents the advance of invading Gallic swarms,
we may find in its rapid diffusion an explanation of the ruin that seems to
have befallen the Hallstatt peoples, and of which we have a striking evidence
in the later remains of this Bavarian region. In these later barrows, which
represent what Dr. Naue calls " the transitional age of pure iron," we find
indeed the same general form of interment and funeral usages that show
the continuous presence of the same race, but the graves themselves are
sparse, wea]x>ns are no longer found, and ornaments are poor and rare, the
pottery, though in part reserving the same shapes, degenerates in fabric
and loses its gay colouring. These are the memorials of a subject and
down-trodden race, thinned in numbers, impoverished and disarmed.
Arthur J. Evans.
Le Moyen-Age: Bulletin Mknsuel d^Histoire et db Philologib;
•direction : A. Marignan, G. Platon, M. Wilmotte (Paris, A. Picard.) — ^This
excellent periodical is doing for France one of the things the Archoeoiogical
^Review hopes to do for England. No. 3 begins a complete title index to
the publications of the provincial learned societies of France. The im-
portance of this index to the student of French history cannot be easily
overestimated.
Ibistot^-
— :o : —
THE BAKERS OF YORK AND THEIR
ANCIENT ORDINARY.
THE supplies and sale of food were in early ages a subject of strict
regulation by law in England, care being taken that regular
inquiriesj[^sliould be made in the Sheriffs' Tourns, and in the Leet
Courts, whether the miles and articles were kept and enforced.
In corporate towTis it was the duty of the municipality to oversee
the matters relating to food ; and the companies, into which the
members of each trade have always had a tendency to combine,
naturally fell under their supervision. Among these, the craft of
the bakers must have been one of the most important, some form of
bread — " the staff of life " — being a necessity. The statutes for the
•* Assize of Bread and Ale," the " Judgment of the Pillory," and
" Concerning Bakei's," are usually dated in the 51 Henry III., A.D.
12G6, but these no doubt supplemented earlier laws then existing.^
The " Black Book " of the Coventry bakers (temp. Henry VIII.)
refers to their Ordinances established from the 6th year of John
downwards.* An " Assisa Panis " with some curious orders exists
in London of the 21st of Edward I. (1293) ; and, no doubt, among
the records of other English towns there may be relics which would
show the antiquity of the recognised craft. There are two shapes
in which these may be found, in the books belcmging to the com-
panies themselves, — consisting variously of an Ordinary or Ordinall,
an Account book, and a book or books containing the entry of mem-
bers and apprentices, &c. — and in the records of the governing muni-
cipality, which registered the oixlinances imposed or confirmed in the
Court of the Mayor, and the arbitrations which were made there of
disputes in the companies. This last class represents the outer
government of the company as a unit, the first gives details of their
internal management. The records of cities and towns are fairly
^ The Bakers of Paris — (2Vi/enie^i>/'j*, /.e., boulangers) -were a very ancient com-
pany, their ordinances are given in ** Le Livre de Metiers " of Etienne Boilenu,
who was appointed Provost of Paris in 1254. Comparison between the English
and the French articles is interesting and instructive, and may help, in spite of
diflference in dates, to clear up some obscurities ; in many points they are alike
or analogous. See the splendid edition brought out by MM. R. Lespintisse et
Fr. Bonnardot for the City of Paris, 1879, pp. xix.-xxv., 1-15. French bread
was known and made in London as early as 16 Edward I. (1288).
- W. G. Fretton in MUhEmjinml, March, 1880, p. 122.
1
\ V,V tb4f oiucaji mciirii^t^
!Uvetli4r<lmc«tmc.ifmt,. ¥rjta>iltt<i'jixvit iimii.xT'
THE BAKERS OF YORK. 125
preserved, and their value is becoming more and more recognised ;
but it is probable that, owing to the decay and obliteration of the
companies or craft gilds in nearly every town except London,^ the
private books of the companies for the greater number have been
lost, destroyed, or suffered other vicissitudes. The notices and
orders relating to the bakei-s* crafts that are printed in various local
histories or other works are more frequently taken from the muni-
cipal records ; Coventry (as above-named), and Bristol, which
possesses a book of the Bakers' Company from 1499 to the time of
Queen Anne,^ are exceptions. From the mode in which the ordi-
nances were framed, however, the one record would be, generally,
but a repetition of the other, — the " Ordinary '' being a fair copy of
the old and succeeding ordinances made for the use of the craft's
officers. The Black Book of Coventry was suc'i a one, made in the
reign of Henry VIIL, the Ordinary of the York Bakers is another
example, written out in the years 1595 and 1590.^
This York Ordinary gives the complete working rules of the
ciaft in that city for a period of more than 300 years ; they are now
printed entire (a few formal headings and lists of names only being
omitted), with a few additions taken from the Accounts of the same
body, and from one of the books of the City. They are, it will be
seen, considerably fuller than, though in the main resembling, the
ordinances of the bakers of Exeter, printed in " English Gilds " (p.
334) from a Roll of the Mayor s Coui-t of 1483 ; indeed, so far as I
am aware, they are more extensive than any set of bakei-s* ordinances
yet printed.^
•■* The present Bakers' Company in London was incoiiM »rated in 1501), and
does not claim an older date, but it is scarcely to be doubted that it existed long
before the incorporation ; the book De Assimt Fanis still existing at the Guild-
hall is a proof of it. Sec extracts printed in the Ai)pendix to Riley's Mnnimenta
OibL Loml. (Rolls Series), Vol. III.
* The contents of this MS. were described by Mr. Francis J. Fox in a i>aper
read at Bristol in 1878.
^ For the use of the two books of the Bakers' Company «.)£ York, which came
t^> an end about 1836, I am indebted to Joseph Wilkinson, Est^., of that city,
who rescued them from destruction. Both are folios ; one, the Ordindnjj is
dated 1595 to 1832, the other, a thick volume of Acconntsy from 1584 to 1835.
'' A few indications (by no means complete) as to Bakers in a few other towns
may be useful for comparison, with the earliest date given of each : — Newcastle,
1342 (Brand's History, II., p. 316), Ordinary lost; Norwich, 1533 (Blom field,
III., p. 200), two books of ordinances and accounts exist in private hands;
Canterbury, 1393 (W. Welfitt's Minutes of* Records, Nos. i., xxv.) ; Southamp-
ton (History, by J. Silvester Davies, pp. 264, 2<)5) ; Nottmgham, 1395 (Records,
1., pp. 270, 316, III., 88, 358, 364) ; Winchester, 14th cent. (English Gilds, p.
355) ; Worcester, 1467 (Eng. Gilds, 381) ; Bristol, cir. 1479 (Ricart's Kalendar,
Camd. Soc, p. 82, Nicholl's and Taylor's Bristol Past and Present, p. 277). As
to London, besides extracts from the Assisa Panis (21 Ed. I. to 16 Hen. VI.),
126 HISTORY.
Adam Kettle well, clerk to the bakers of York, as he himself
informs us, seems to have set himself to work in 1595 to copy on
seveml quires of parchment the old laws of his company/ Beginuing^
with three clauses, of which he omits the dates (the first two are
older than the third, as they speak of " keeper " of the craft), he
gives from 1480 down to his own year the minutes of the Lord
Mayor s Court, including usually the names of the city officers and
others present, so far as relate to the bakers. We thus get, with
little repetition, an historic view of how their rules were made and
altered, and why they were altered, from time to time. Evidently
in 1 595 the time had come for a complete overhauling and reform ;
a fresh body of ordinances, embodying some old and new, was
drawn up by the company, submitted to two aldermen and two
gentlemen to be " considered upon," and then, after further con-
sideration, was confirmed in the Lord Mayor's Court.® It must
have been this important occasion that gave rise to Kettlewell's
labours ; after his time there is but one further entry, for 1G87,
which, however, is characteristic of the change in apprenticeship
gradually taking place.
On the blank leaves at the beginning of his quires, Kettlewell,.
who took a pride in his work, and ornamented every leaf wnth
scrolls and fine initial letters, with here and there his monogram
A.K., in 1599 wrote out the Assise — or fixed prices of bread —
Brccording to the Statute 51 Hen. III., but amplified for local use,
in plain large signs, red and black, that all might understand.
(Many of the bakers, even their auditors of accounts, could not
write at this period, witness their marks in lieu of signatures in the
Book of Accounts. Query then, could they read ?) The following
ai'e the first few lines : —
" The trewe Assies of the weight of white Breade from xij[d]
a Quarter of wheate vnto xxs. a Quarter, to be weyed by the
Fai-thinge Loofe, and so after the rate, viz. : —
Riley's Jfi(Hini€Hf a O'dd, Loml, contains many articles, &c. — e.g.y Lib. Albns, rules
for the Assay, pp. 349-354; Bakers* Hali-niote Ordinances, pp. 356-358, continued
in Lib, Cndumarum I., p. 104 ; other ordinances, pp. 2G4, 266, 361, 702-706 ;
Lib. Olid. L, pp. 86, 105, 284, 292. See also Strype's ed. of Stow's Sun'ey,
Bk. v., pp. 336-343, for much valuable information.
^ See note to the pi*ologue.
® In the Account book under date 11 Aug. 1595, is the company's order to
their searchers ** to proceed with their ordenarye to be amended and newlie
made," and an item for the 2 March following, paid "when the ortlenarye was
confirmed and established to be made in a Booke and enrolled. " This is the
the origin of the present volume ; the new ordinances begin with §. 55.
THE BAKERS OF YORK. 127
The Quarter at
[shillinpfs, pence]
t
t
tt
> >
tt
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
The farthinge Loof shall weay
[pounds, ounces, pennywts.]^
GOO
0 0 0
xvj
o o o Y ' '
o o o -^ I •
>
00
VIIJ
•••• I ■
xiiij . . 8 q
>»
The table is continued (as usual in Stow and elsewhere) down
to wheat at 20s., with the farthing loaf weighing only 6 oz. 2 dwt.;
the date and names of the then four searchers being appended. It
may be well to remark that the prices of bread were thus fixed by
law, the size and weight of the loaves therefore vaiied, and had to
be adjusted according to the price of wheat, after a fixed allowance
had been made to the baker — so much per quarter for his expenses
and profit. What the actual price was to be in each town was left
to the mayors and bailiffs, &c., of towns to set at periodical times,
according to certain given calculations, and this was called setting
the Assize. This system lasted till recent times ; in London till
1822, in the country a few years later ; in the Account book of the
York bakers such items as " spent at putting of a price,** " spent
when sent for to Lord Mayors at putting of a price," " when we got
our price," frequently occur among the searches' disbursementa
during the 18th century ; and even so late as 1834 we get a chargo
for " working Assise paper out," surely one of the last.^^
On the two leaves following the Table of Assise are drawn the
eight pictures of processes in baking, of which the photo-types, re-
duced about two-fifths, accompany this paper. They are sketched
with a firm hand, and shaded with tints washed in of grey, green,,
and a little red. They appear to be contemporary with the Eliza-
'•* The original weights were called poxmdsy aliUlhujSy and peuce^ see uiany of
the following ordinances (e.^., § 1, 8), but theirmodem equivalents, here indicated
by a hand of the last century, are pounds, ounces, and pcnnyweiglits. See the
Act 31 Edw. I., ** Assise of Weights and Measures." The word ounce was in
use by Elizabeth's time, **peny wytt lofe " at Northleach wrongfully weighed
**nomor but nyteene unsis" in 1578 (N. & Q., Ser. VI. v., p. 69), and in 1557
at Chester the assize of the halfpenny white loaf was set at '*syxe ounces and
halfe " (M.S. Harl. 2105, fo. 306). The s q in the fourth line abi»ve seem to
mean half and quarter.
10 The Act 3 George IV. c. 106 (1822) directed that bread should be sold by
weight only, in London ; 6 & 7 Will. IV. c, 37 (1836) abolished the old Assise
entirely.
128 HISTORY.
l>ethan ortlinances, the handwriting of tlie distichs resembling that
of Kettlewell. Tlie subjects of these interesting sketches are :
1. '* He that giueth measure
God blessethe with treasure. ''
Two men measuring meal from a sack into a strike or bushel
measure, the one to the left is stroking the meal ofT the top, slant-
ing-wise.
2. '* It makes a poore man
To sell flower for bran.''
The meal is being " boulteJ " or sifted in a " bulte " or bolt cloth ;
this was a special cloth for the purpose of separating the fine
Hour from the bran, which last seems to fall on the floor at one
side of the heap of flour, a brush being ready to sweep it together.
3. ** Looke well to thy season
With coimninge and reason."
Hero the dough is being pre{)ared in a trough.
4. ** Be just with thy weigh tes,
God plagus false sleights."
The < lough is being weighed on a table into pieces of the riglit size
for loaves.
5. ** God blesseth trewe labour
With plentye and favour.*
Tlie baker appears to be working the dough pieces into shape on a
moulding-board or table. (On such a board as this the London
bakers committed the ingenious frauds, by cutting holes and ab-
stracting morsels of dough after the weighing, narrated in Lib,
Cust. III. p. 416.)
iS. *'" Be still, quicke, and kinde,
Reward thou shalt finde."
1'hese words seem to be addressed to the loaves, which,"after being
marked c)r cut across wuth a knife, are being set to " prove " or
partially r!se.
7. ** Pricke not at thy ])leasure.
But in trewe honest measure."
I'resumably these are the same loaves being pricked before they go
into the oven, to prevent their rising too high (i.e., to let out the
gas of the leaven used). If this were done too much it might affect
llie >\ eight of th j bread.
8. ** Be watclifull and wise,
In goodnesso to rise."
THE BAKERS OF YORK. 129
The bread, ready pricked, is being transferred from the moulding-
board to the oven, where it should earn the benediction —
** Whoso followethe theis preceptes well,
In heauen shall haue a place to dwelJ."
In the frontispiece to Lib. Citst of London, vol. iii., is given a fac-
simile of four small illustrations from the early Assisa Panis,
one of which represents the London punishment of a fraudulent
baker being drawn on a hurdle, another shows bread being put into
the oven. They are not so good as the York drawings.
Which of these processes represents that which was insisted
upon in the earlier ordinances, that it should be " well sodden,** it is
not easy to say. (See § 1.) At the date of these pictures, the
ordinance (76) of 1595 deals with "sodden cakes" and "sodden
bread *' as a special make. It may then have gone out of use, like
main bread, and both being old-fashioned were specialized. (See
§ 53.) Possibly it refers to bread made without yeast, the dough
of which would require long standing before it was baked. Sodden^
the past participle of seetJie, or boil, does not seem to apply here,
unless it mean " soaked,'* />., baked slowly and long, a term still used.
" Levayn breed,** which was used at the feasts of the Gild of the
Lord's Prayer in 1399, and at those of Corpus Christi in 1519
(" pane voc. Levand* brede **), perhaps similar to the " pajiis levatus "
or simnel of the London Assisa panis of 1293, had probably by the
end of the sixteenth century pushed the old sodden bread out of
the field.
On another leaf are the arms of the Company. Then, bound up
with the parchment quires are several of paper, both before and
after, thus leaving many blank leaves, at the very beginning of
which Kettlewell in large hand informs us that " This Booke was
made in the eighte and thirty yeare of y® reigne of our soueragne
Ladye Queue Elizabeth, &c., 1596," at the "costes and chardges"
of the " misterye, science, and occupacion of the Bakers " of York,
whose names he gives, to the number of fifty-four, besides the four
searchers and himself.
The blank leaves have been filled at later times, with indices to
the ordinances, an inventory of plate, books, frc, belonging to the
company in 1774, and various memoranda useful in the history of
the trade, the most interesting of which gives some correspondence
between the company and Mr. Charles Turner, the member for
York, as to a Bill introduced into Parliament in 1779, proposing to
enable persons to set up as butchers and bakers without having
I
130 HISTORY.
served an apprenticeship. The bakers of London and York opposed
this, and it was thrown out. At the end of the volume are nume-
rous signatures of adhesion to the ordinances, since 1G95, and memo-
randa of admissions to the company down to 1832.
In tho Liber Memorandum |-of York, the chief of the old books
of the city, the Assisa panis and other memoranda or enrolments
relating to the bakers are found. Among these are several slightly
differing from the earliest copied by Kettlewell, and perhaps rather
older ; they are undated. The following extracts present points of
interest. The French are probably of the early years of Richard II.,
that in English is rather later, of the beginning of Edward IV.
PISTOREa BAKERS.
[On a leaf tacked to fo. liij.]
A leur treshonore et tresreverent S'* Mair de la citee Deuerwyk.
Supplie humblement voz poueres conciteins et veisyns, les gentz
del artifice de Pestours Deuerwyk, pur ceo qils ount ordeignez entre
eaux certaines ordinances et constitucions quelles serrount profit-
ables a la commune poeple de la citee auauntdite, et en amendement
du dit artifice et auxi encrecement de la profit del Chaumbre du dit
Mair, Que plaise a vostre tres reuerente S***- par lavis de vostre sage
counseille qe les poyntz desoubz escriptz purrount estre regestrez en
la dite chaumbre en la manere et fourme qensuyte.
Enprimes, ordeigne est et assentuz par touz les mestres del
artifice avaunt dit qe nuUy de mesme lartifice porta no face porter
a ascune hukester ascun payne a lour measons, sur peyne de xld.,
appaier lune moite au dit chaumbre de counseille et lautre moite
al oeps de mesme lartifice.
[There are six other ordinances, of which the la^t is : — ^]
Item qe null pestour vende aucune roundell ne Iscu ne chime ^^
d^ payne delmayne a null regratier de payn pur metter a vent, sur
payne de dymy markes a payer, ont xld. a la chaumbre et xld. a la
pagyn de ditz pestors de Corpus xpi ; et de ceste ordinance tenir
devant le Meir and auters bonez gentz feurent les Meisters du dite
artifice serementez.
[Fo. liij. v»] Md. yat ye bastard wastell and symnelles, ye whilk
sail have allowance [sail weghe], ijs. in ye ferthyng, iiijs. in ye hal-
peny, lesse yen ye cokett ; and touchant payne demayne, wastelles,
and symnelles, yat yai sail weghe lesse yen ye basterd symnelles
vjs in ye halpeny and xijs in ye peny.
^^ These two words are obscure ; possibly I may have inis-read them.
>lllori*. and to b*
THE BAKERS OF YORK. 131
The York Bakkks' Ordinary, 1595-6.
Off Assise of bread in the Cittye of York beiuge not well kejjte, to the '^ *^p '"*• " •
Oomplaynte of tlie people of the same, greatlye conipleauinge, the
Maio.- and Baliffes beinge bente to haue a remedye in this behalfe, to ther
power, did assigne and vpon oathe made did constitute Symon Gower and
Nicholas Foukes kepers and Surveyours of the Bakers of the sayd Cyttye.
To whom it was enjoyned by the sayd Maior and Baliffes That the Assise of
Breade in all theis Articles be firmelye obserued in forme which hereafter
followethe : — ^^
1. Firste, — That the Assise of Breade be maintayned and obserued »«''"•• »n*riw.
accordiuge to the sellinge of Corne, And that euerye Baker haue his owne
proper marke wherwith his Breade shalbe marked, vpon payne of xld.
And that he have a good bulte clothe accord inge as becomethe for Wastell,
Simnell, Payndemayn and Cocket. And that no Baker put to his Bread
lesse or more of levayn, or of whote water or anye other thinge by the
which his Breade shall weighe more than it ought to weighe, if it were
well sodden and baked. And that no Baker sell bread after that he haue yi,^ "**•*• "^
kept it more than six dayes from the tyme that he haue made it. The «<>»»• *•!«»**•"•.
bread shalbo weighed of euery manor every weeke ones, accordinge to the
assise of our Soueraigne Lord the King. And if it be founde that that
bread be well sodden and well baked, and weigh lesse than y* assise ^ub.kdMid«odd«
rcquircth, euerye tyme that the bread weigheth of the Farthinge lesse than *■»«•»§ weight.
it ought to do, and that within the weight of ijs. vjd., the Baker shall be
grevouslye amercicd. And if the lacke of weight exceed ijs. vjd., the i*^,^^,„d
baker shall haue judgement of the Pillarye without redemption. And his twEenuuW
bread from thcnsforth to be marked twise with his marke. And if he
-offende the secounde tyme he shall haue agayne like judgement and his
bread marked likewise. And if he offend the third tyme, his oven if it be
Jiis owne oven shalbe pulled downe, and all his bread shalbe forefait, and
he shall forswear the office of a Baker for euer. And this is to be knowne, * "*""'
•whan his bread is of good corne, and good bulting, and well sodden, and
well baked and weighe lesse than the assise of ijs. vjd. But if the bread ,,,^^^,^iu ^^^^
be of evill come, evill sodden or baked, that it ought to weighe according orno^t^wjnukrf^
to the assise, althoughe that bread weighe to full weight it shall be forefait fccwte.
neuerthelesse. And if the bread bo of Farthinge, two loaves shalbe sold
for a farthinge. And if the bread be of halfepenny, two loaves shalbe
«olde for a halfepenny. And in the same manner shall forefaite y* breades
which are holden and kept more than six dayes from the tyme that they
l>e sodden. And all tlie sayd things faith fully e to be obserued and
mayntayned it was enjoyned to the sayd kepars of the kynges behalfe by
Indenture, <fec.
2. And to this Ordinance is added that the Searchers of Bakers for the gJ^Slfflt'^fo'uS
tyme beinge haue power freely to searche and exercise ther office, And if JSS'SSir."**'^*
anye baker of the Cittye be con vie te, that at euerye tyme that he be dis-
obedient or rebellinge against his searchers, or shall troble them in
exercisynge and executinge of ther office, than he shall lose and paye euery
time vjs. viijd., to be applied to the uses aforesayd.
3. Memorandum, The seconde daye of Julye in the ninetenthe yere ^f ^^,*^ ^^,^. ^ ^
the reigne of Kinge Edward the Fourth were assembled in the Counsel! s;"23Jj;*J^**JJ;
•Chamber of Ousebrige the rigiit worshipfull Sr Willm. Wellis, Maior, Miles toiuduun.
Metcalf, Recorder, John Gilliot, John Marshall, Willm. Snawsehill, Richard
Yorke, Christofer Marshall, Willm. Lambe, Thomas Wrangwishe, John
Tonge, John Fereby, Robt. Amyas, Aldermen, Robt. Gyll and Willm,
Tayte, Sheriffes of the same Cittye, Thomas Cator, Thomas Allan, John
Lightlope, Willm. Todd, Nicholas Pei-son, and Willm. Spence of the xxiiij**;
1^ An ornament occurs here, which, as well as the initial letters of this and the
next leaves, O and F, written with flourish, bear the date 1595.
132 HISTORY.
And ther and then, forsomuche as dyuerse and mikell breades baked in the
contrye, and to this Cittye brought for to sell dyuerse tymes of the yeare,
the whiche breade often tymes bene chawfed, vnhelefuU and evill seisyned,
and also not of weight accordinge to the Assise therof ; And moreover the
sayd breades in covert wise brought to the bowses of the huck8tei*s of this
Cittye to be solde, and vnder colour of that, dyuerse and mykell breades
•I'tt^tbT^S!!^* be baked within the same Cittye and called Contrye breade ; the which
toDfiiMbr^ ^ breade by coloure of that same are not searched, ne maye not be searched,
SShis&Lib^^iSI!! as right would : — For that cause and other it is fully ordeyned and
oBHidiiinftk.iuu.1 establyshed firmelye to be kept from tliis daye forwarde, That no Baxter of
the Con try, his wife nor servante, ne none other in his name, beare ne
cause to beare anye manner breades vnto the bowses, wyndowes or
habitacions of any huckster within this Cittye, suburbs and precincte of
the same ; but that bread and all breades by them to this Cittye brought
to sell, they beare it vnto the kynges Market called Thursdaye Market,
ther to be sould and in none other place : ne that they open ne sell none
ona« braid Dot to no daye before seaven of the clocks be full striken at Ousebrige in the
ttMdodt.Mid to b« mominge, to then tent that dewe and lawfull search maye be made of all
the sayd breades by the searchers therof ordeyned and made by commaunde-
ment of the Maior of this sayd worshipfull Cittye for the tyme beinge^
vpon payne of forefaiture of iijs. iijd. without pardon to the Chamber.
4. Item, the same daye and place it is ordeyned, enacted, and stablished
firmelye to be kept from this daje forward, That no huckster of this Cittye,
Hnrkiteniiottoiniy suburbs, aud prociucts of the same, presume ne take vpon him to enter the
SSS^iCSbSSu!^ sayd Market to buy anye manner of contrye bread as is above sayd, no daye
thaeiook. bcforc tho howrc of nyne be fullye stricken of the said Clocke of Ousebrige,
ne that they buy none, but in the said playno Market, upon payne of fore-
fature of iijs. iiijd. as is abouesayd, as well to the sellar as the buyer w^ute
pardon, that lawfully proved, by suche persons, as shall thereto be limytt by
the Maior for tymebeinge to searche all the said breades, aud the defaults
therof all and euery of them to bring before the Maior, Chamberlaynes or
common Clerke for tyme beinge. And he or she that is rebcll or disobediant
to the sayd Searchers in ther search lawfully done, forefayte and pay with-
out pardon yjs. viijd, as above sayd, toctes quoties^ ic.
5. Item the same daye and place it fully is enacted and established by
the sayd Maior and all aboue sayd, firmelye to be kept from this daye for-
warde. That no baker of the cittye ne of the contrye, his wife ne his
servant, ne none other in his name presume, ne take upon them to entre
«oiM upon th* Par*, thc Commou Market of this Cittye called the Pavement no Market daye in
amtbeioNs ) o ^j^^ ycarc, to buyc anye manner come before xij be fully strikne of the
clocke of Alhallowes of the Pavement, upon payne of forfaiturc of vjs viijd
tociens guotiens^ that to be payd withoute pardonc to the Chambre of this
Cittye of every person that shall offende in that behalfe.
4.©. itfs. 6. Memarandum^ that the fiftenthe daye of November in the two and
twentyo yeare of the reigne of Kingc Edward the Fourthe, were assembled
in the Counsell Chamber of Ouse Brige the right worshipfull S' Richard
Yorke, Maiore, Miles Metcalfe, Recorder, John Marshall, William Snawsell,
Thomas Wrangwishe, John Ferreby, Willm. Welles, Robt. Amyas, and
John Newton, Aldermen, Thomas Cator, Thomas Allayn, Willm. Chymney,
Thomas Skotton, Willm. Spence, Robert Gyll, Willm. Tayte, John Hagge,
and Michaell White of the xxiiij'*', — And than and there, it was ordeyned by
them, by the whole consent and assent of all the bakers of this Cittye, and
Wight ofhorM lui gjjj^g|.Qj^ WxqX as longe as the price of beanes bene at iiijs. or above, that
cverye baxter of this Cittye shall sell three horse loaves for jd. And that
every horse loaf shall weighe three poundes. And if the price of
beanes bo under iiijs. that than every baxter of this Cittye shall sell
three horse loaves for jd. And every horse loafe shall weighe fouro
f oundes weight. The sayd ordy nance to endure, as long as it shall
THE BAKERS OF YORK. 133
please the Maior and his bretheren, and the counsell of this Cittye for the
tyme beinge.
[ The following arbitration aud group of ordinances as to the tiplers and
huckstei-s is headed by the date 16 Feb. 31 Henry VIII., and a list of the
mayor, recorder, eleven aldermen, two sheriffs, and ten of the " twenty-
four " who were present in the council chamber on the occasion.]
7. Wher as strife, variance, and debate, ever synce that Maister Robt. ^'^' "*<>•
Whitfeld Alderman was Maior of the sayd Cittie, (that is to save) tenn
years by paste or ther aboutes, for that that dyuerse franchised mens gw'* brtirtw «
wifcs of this Cittye called Tipplers ever since that tyme have used to bake ^
white bread to sell, against the auncient statutes and ordinances of the
Common bakers of the sayd Cittie, and to the vtter distruccion of that
Occupacion ; Wher-vpou the whole Occupacion of the sayd Bakers by a
full consent of late haue compleaned them to the king our most dread t£iS!^rSlmu
soueraigne Lord, and to his most honorable Counsell at London, And ther- '*™***-
vpon it pleased his grace by thadvise of his sayd Counsell to direct e his
most gracyouse letters to his Counsell established in the Northe partyes ; KJSS'^^S?/*
to make full ordre and direccion for the maintenance of the sayd Occupacion, *>»«^.
Neuerthelesse the sayd Bakers consideringe that they are franchised men
of the sayd Cittye and bounden by their franchised oathes to obeye the
ordre of the Lord Maior and his bretheren of the sayd Citty, and for the
good preseruacon of the liberties of the same ; therefore, all they did per-
Bonallye come before the right worshipfull William Dogeson, Maior of the
sayd Citty, and after a gentle and lovinge sorte, haue submitt them to be
ordered in the premisses as he and his bretheren shall devise and advise
for the weale and profitt of the occupiers of the said Occupacion. And ther
vpon the sayd Maior by good deliboracion hath examined the premisses at
dyuerse tymes, And by thaduise of Wm. Tankerd, Recorder of the sayd
Cittye aud his bretheren, Aldermen of the same, for quietnes hereafter to
be had betwixt the sayd Occupacion and other the inhabitantes of the sayd
Citty, called Tiplars and Hucksters, do awarde iudge and decree, as here- iJJSj,;J£? £.'
after followethe, aud firmelye hereafter to be obserued and kepte for euer,
and ther vpon it is concluded, condiscended, decreed and fully determyned
by the sayd presens. That the sayd Bakers shall from nowe-forthe exercise,
vse, aud occupio ther occupacion in all thiuges accordinge to ther auncient
ordinuunces in the sayd Citty used; — sauinge that they and ther successors
shall permitt and suffer the sayd Tiplars for the common weale of the HSS^iJK^hi
kinges subjcctes to bake whyte broad, to sell to the kinges sabjectes as ^""^^
hereafter is plainlye specified and declared in certayne Articles vnder
written :
8. First it is ordeyncd and decreed by the sayd Maior, his bretheren,
and Recorder, by the consent of all the sayde Occupacon of Bakers, that it JJf'JJ^iJ^^
shalbc lawful! to the sayd Tiplars from nowe forthe to bake white bread to morjti»Mith«i«iM;
sell to the kinges subjects within the sayd Cittye, and the penny loafe of
eucry of the sayd tiplars to holde more in weight by vjs. than the penny
loaf of the sayd common bakers. The halfe penny loaf iijs. and the
Farthen loaf xviijd., upon payne of euery of the sayd tiplers or anye of
them offcndinge the sayd weight in their sale breade to forfaite therfore
iijs. iiijd. as often tymes as the sayd tiplers or any of them shall happen
to offende theriii, to be payd to the common Chamber of the sayd Cittye
and the sayd Occupacon of bakers by euen porcions.
9. Item, It is ordeyned and decreed by the s:iyd Maior his brethren
and Recorder, by consent of all the sayd Occupacion, that the sayd Tiplers
and euery of them, ther servantes and factors, shall putt to sale the sayd SSldlo&toihOT
whit bread onelye in a certaine market place of the sayd Cittye called ^' "*^**'
Thursdaye Markett, and in no other place or places within the sayd Cittye,
and but onelye on thre market days, that is to say Tewsdayo, Thursday,
and Saturdaye, vpon payne of euery one that hereafter dothe contrarye to
134 HISTORY.
forefait iijs. iiijd. for euery suche default, to be pajd to the sayd common
Chambre, and the sayde Occupacion of bakers by euen porcions.
10. Item, it is ordeyned decreed and fiillye determined by the said
Maior, hia Brethren, and Recorder, that the sayde ti piers, and euery of
*to1Srh« the tipiSI them and ther successors from nowe fortho, shall peaceablye suffer the
Searchers of the sayd Occupacon of bakera for the tyme beinge and their
successors to searche their saile bread, and that the searche thereof shalbc
made by the sayd searchers onely on the sayd thre market t dayes, and
within the sayd markett called Thursdaye Markett, ther as the sayd tiplars
are accustomed to stand. And which of the sayd tiplers liearafter shall
happen to disobeye the searche to forfaitefor everye suche default iijs. iiijd.,
to be payde as is aboue sayd by even porcions.
11. Item, it is ordered and decreed by the sayd Maior, his bretheren,
and Recorder, that the hucksters of the said cittye and suburbs of the
SrSSThSMu *"* same from nowe forthe shall not buye nor take into ther bowses or shoi)])es
any biead of the sayd tiplars to sell againe to anye of the kinges subjects ;
but that the sayd hucksters and their successors shall biiyc all such brcade
as they intend and purpose to sell againe onely of the sayde common bakera
upon payne of every huckster that hereafter shall doo the contrarye to for-
faite vjs. viijd. for every suche default, to be payd to the sayd common
chamber and occupacion by even porcions.
SMchmortiMbak. 12. Itcm, it is ordered, decred and fully determined by the sayd pre-
S^toLft^tba tip-sence, withe the consent of the sayd Occupacion, and to thentcnt that the
* **■ said tiplers shall not hereafter excuse them by ignorance nor otherwise for
lackc of knowledg ho we that they ought to weighe ther sayd bread, ther-
fore it is agreed by the said prcsens with the consent of the sayd Occupacion,
Tliat the searchers of the sayd bakers for the tyme beinge, imediatlye after
that they haue taken their price of the sayd Maior and his successors, shall
deliver to the sayd tiplers, or to some of them openly e in the sayd market-
place ther as they have vsed and bene accustomed to sell their sayd bread,
a trewe weight of lead or stone, wherby the sayd tiplers shall have periitte
knowledge what weighte the sayd bread shall conteync. And every tipler
to make other previe to the sayd weight. And over and besyds that the
Searchers of the sayd bakers for the tyme beinge shall deliver the trewe
counterpace of the sayd weight into tlie Common Chambre of the sayd
cittye, ther to remano in the custodye of the Chamberlaynes of the sayd
citty for the tyme beinge, to thentent that the sayd tiplars of the same
citty shall not be deceyved hereafter of ther sayd weight, by no manner of
meanes.
13. Item, it is oixiered and decreed by the sayd presens, for amitye and
quietnes hereafter to be hadd and to continewe, betwene the sayd occupa-
common bakm not ciou and the Said tiplers, that none of the sayd common bakers from hence
taMd" (wb!!!l) %I forth shall make any sale of ther bread in that place of Thursday Markett,
upimmtoitMid. ^i^g^ ^g ^jjQ g^^,^ common tiplers have vsed and appoynted to stand with
ther sayd bread.
14. Moreover, it is concluded, ordered, agreed and fully determined by
the said Maior, his brethren, and Recorder, that the said tiplers and
2!S{lo)^S!3ube? hucksters and ther successors from nowe forth shall have no more libertye
MjMtijen •• b abore ^or frccdome in anye thing conceminge or belonginge the occupacion of
the said bakers, but onelye as is above expressed and declared ; anye
Acte, ordinance or vsage heretofore had, made, or vsed, to the contrarye
not withstandinge.
L. TouLMiN Smith.
{To he continne'L)
RICHARD i:s CHAXGE OF SEAL. 13.j
RICHARD THE FIRST'S CHANGE OF SEAL.
** With the superficial student and the empiric politician, it is too common
to relegate the investigation of such changes to the domain of archeeology. I
sliall not attempt to rebut the imputation ; only, if such things are archteology,
then arclwBology is history." — Stubrs. Preface to R, Hoicden, IV., Ixxx.
HISTORICAL research is about to pass, if indeed it is nob
already passing, into a new sphere — the sphere of Archae-
ology. The central idea of that gi-eat advance which the present
generation has witnessed in the domain of history has been the re-
building of the historical fabric on the relatively sure foundation
of original and contemporary authorities, studied in the purest
texts. Chronicles, however, are not inexhaustible ; for many
periods they are all too few. The reaper has almost done his work
the turn of the gleaner has come. The smaller quellen of history
have now to be diligently examined and made to yield those frag-
ments of information which will supplement, often where most
needed, our existing stock of knowledge.
But this is not our only gain as we leave the bi'oad highways
trodden by so many before us. Those precious fi^agments which
are to form our spoils will enabla us to do more than supplement
the statements of our standard chroniclers : they will afford the
means of checking, of testing, by independent evidence, these state-
ments, of submitting oui* witnesses to a cross-examination which
may shake their testimony and their credit in a most unexpected
manner.
As an instance of the results to be attained by archaeological
research, I have selected Richard the First's celebrated change of
srnl. Interesting as being the occasion on which the three lions
first appear as the Royal arms of England — arms unchanged to the
present day — it possesses exceptional historical importance from
the circumstances by which it was accompanied, and which led,
admittedly, to its adoption.
Historians have agreed, without the least hesitation, to refer
this event to the year 1194, and to place it subsequent to the truce
of Tilliferes or about the beginning of August. " That Richard I.,"
writes a veteran student,^ "adopted a new seal upon his return
from the Holy Land is a matter of notoriety." Speed, in fact, had
shown the way. We are told by him that " the king caused [1194]
a new broad scale to be made, requiring that all charters granted
1 Canon Eaine, Historice Ihiaelme^isis Scriiytm-es Tres (Surtees Soc.), p. 379,
136 HISTORY.
under his former seale should be confii-med under this, whereby he
drew a great masse of money to his treasurie." ^ The Bishop of
Chester, with his wonted accuracy, faithfully reproduces the state-
ment of Howden (the original and sole authority we shall find for
the story), telling us that "Amongst other oppressive acts he
[Richard] took the seal from his unscrupulous but faithful
chancellor, and, having ordered a new one to be made, proclaimed
the nullity of all charters which had been sealed with the old one."*
Mr. Freeman similarly places the episode just before " the licenses
for the tournaments" (20 August, 1194), and consistently refers to
Dr. Stubbs's history.* Miss Norgate, in her valuable work, om*
latest authority on the period, assigns the event to the same date,
and tells us that " Rog. Howden's very confused account of the
seals is made clear by Bishop Stubbs." ^ Mr. Maitland, in bis noble
edition of " Bracton's Note-book," gives a ca^e (II., 69) in which a
charter sealed " secundo sigillo Regis Ricardi " was actually pro-
duced in coui-t (1219), and explains that " Richard had a new seal
made in 1194," referring to Howden for his authority.®
It should be observed that all these writers rely merely on
Howden, none of them throwing any light on the process of confir-
mation, or telling us how it was eiSected, and whether any traces of
it remain. An independent writer, Mr. Boivin-Champeaux, in his
monograph on William Longchamp, discusses the episode at some
length, and asserts that the repudiated documents were " assujettis,
pour leur revalidation, k une nouvelle et codteuse scellure." Like
the othsrs, however, he relies on the authority of Howden, and
consequently repeats the same date.
In the course of examining some ancient charters, I recognised
one of them as nothing less than an actual instajice of a confirma-
tion consequent on this change of seal. But its incomprehensible
feature was that the charter was confirmed on the 22nd Ausfust.
1198, having originally been granted, "sub primo sigillo," so
recently as the 7th January preceding. How could this be possible
if the great seal had been changed so early as August, 1194, and if
the first seal, as stated by Dr. Stubbs, was " broken " on that occa-
2 Speed's History (1611).
8 CQ)i8t, Hist., I., 506.
* Norman Cmiquest, V., 693. Compare Tlie Office of the Historical Professor,
pp. 16-17 : — " In a long and careful study of the Bishop of Chester's writings
.... I have never found a flaw in the statement of his evidence. If I have
now and then lighted on something that looked like overaight, I have always
found in the end that the oversight was mine and not his. "
* 3tufla^id under the An^eviii Kings, II., 343.
- * I have been able to identify this very charter.
RICHARD i:s CHANGE OF SEAL. 137
sion ? Careful and prolonged research among the charters of the
period (both in the original and in transcripts) has enabled me to
answer the question, and to prove that (as, of course, the above
charter implies) the change of seal did not take place in 1194, but
in 1198, and between January and May of that year.
Original charters under the second seal, confirming grants under
the first, are distinctly rare. I have found, as yet, but one in the
Public Record Office, and only two at the British Museum. But of
originals and transcripts together I have noted twenty-four. The
dates of the original grants range from 10th October, 1189, to 7th
January, 1198 (1197-8), and of the confirmations from 27th May,
1198, to 5th April, 1199.^
In a single instance there is fortunately preserved not only the
text of the confirmation charter, but also that of the original grant^
From this we learn that the charter of confirmation did not neces-
sarily give the wording, but only the gist (" tenor ") of the original
grant. We are thus brought to the instructive formula invariably
used in these charters :
" Is erat tenor Carte nostre in primo sigillo nostro. Quod quia
aliquando perditum fuit, et, dum capti essemus in alem[annid*], in
aliena potestate constitutum, mutatum est, Huius autem inno-
vationis testes sunt Hii," etc., etc.
We may here turn to the passage in Howden [Ed. Stubbs, III.,
267] on which historians have relied, and see how far the reasons
for the change given in the charters themselves correspond with
those alleged by the chronicler.
"Fecit sibi novum sigillum fieri, et mandavit per singulas terras
suas, quod nihil ratum foret quod fuerat per vetus sigillum suum ;
turn quia cancellarius ille operatus fuerat inde minus discrete quam
esset necesse, turn quia sigillum illud perditum erat, quando Rogerus
Malus Catulus, vicecancellarius suus, submersus erat in mari ante
insulam de Cipro et prsecepit rex quod omnes qui cartas habebant
venirent ad novum sigillum ad cartas suas renovandas."
In both cases we find there are two reasons given ; but while
one of these is the same in both, namely the temporary loss of the
seal when Roger Mauchien was drowned, the other is wholly and
essentially different The whole aspect of the transaction is thus
altered. To illustrate this I shall now place side by side the in-
^ This is the only confirmation I have found later than 3rd March. If the
date can be relied on, it is of special interest as being the day before the king
died.
« Charters to W. Briwerre, 22 June, 1190, and 11 March, 1199 (1198-9),
transcribed in the Great Coucher (Duchy of Lancaster).
138 HISTORY.
dependent glosses of the Bishop of Chester and of M. Boivin-
Champeaux :
Richard's first seal was lost when Siir deux exemplaires usiiels du
the vice-chancellor was drowned be- grand sceau, le premier, que portait
tween Rhodes and Cyprus in 1190; le vice-chaucelier Mauchien, avait
but it was recovered with his dead ^te perdu lors de I'ouragan qui, en
body. The seal that was now broken vue do Cbypre avait assailli la flotte
must have been the one which the Auglo-Normandc, le second 6tait
chancellor had used during the king's reste en Anglcterro ; mais il avait
absence. Richard, however, when he subi, par suite de la revolution du
was at Messina, had allowed his seal 10 octobre, de nombreuses vicissi-
to bo set to various grants for which tudes. Richard se prevalut de ces
he took money, but which he never circonstauces jointes au desaveu de
intended to confirm. Therefore pro- la treve do Tillieres pour publier
bably he found it convenient now to un edit aux termes duquels tons les
have a new seal in lieu of both the actes publics passes sous son rfegne,
former ones, although he threw the qui, avaient etc? legalises avec les
blame of the transactions annulled anciens sceaux etaient frapp^s de
upon the chancellor. The importance nullito et assujettis, pour leur re-
of the seal is already very great, validation a uno nouvelle et cou-
(Const. Hist., I., 506, note.) tense scellure. Cette ordonnance
aurait pu, k la rigueur, se colorer,
si elle n'avait conceme que les
actes accomplis pendant Texp^i-
tion et la captivite du roi ; mais la
comble de Timpudence et de Tini-
quitc etait de Tappliquer mtoe a
ceux qui avaient precede son depart
ou suivi son retour (p. 223).
Thus both writers assume that there were two seals, one which
remaineil in England with the chancellor, anrl one which accom-
panied the king to the east. They further (though Dr. Stubbs is
somewhat obscure) hold that the two excuses given refer respectively
to the two seals, thus discrediting both. But when we turn to the
charters themselves, we find but one seal mentioned, and to that
one seal alone both the excuses refer. The king explains that on
two occasions it was, so to speak, " out on the loose " — (1) when his
vice-chancellor was drowned ; (2) when he himself was captured
in Germany. This was, of course, the seal which accompanied him
to the east.® The king makes no allusion to any other or to the
chancellor. Such charters and grants as are known to us all proceed
from the king himself, either before he left Messina or after he had
reached Germany on his return. No charter or grant of Lon^-
champ, as representing him, is known. In short, the whole of our
^ Dr. Stubbs, indeed, writes, as we have seen, that " the seal that was now
broken must have been the one which the cliancellor had used during the king's
absence. " But Longchamp liad been ejected from the chancellorship in October,
1191, whereas Richard limits the period of abuse to the duration of his capti-
vity, which did not begin till 20 December, 1192.
RICHARD i:s CHANGE OF SEAL. 139
record evidence points one way : the charters which the king pro-
claimed must he confirmed, and which we find brought to him for
that purpose were those wliich he had himself granted, and no
other. Lastly, even had we nothing before us but the passage in
Howden which all have followed, I contend that it may, and indeed
ought to be, read as referring to a single seal. But it is, as Miss
Norgate justly observes, " very confused/' from its allusion to the
chancellor s use of the seal. That allusion, however, would most
naturally refer to the truce of Til litres, and not to the use of a
separate seal in England. Therefore even if we accepted, which I
do not, Howden*s .statement, it would not warrant the inference
that has been drawn.
Again, when Miss Norgate writes of the " withdrawal of the
seal from William," and when Dr. Stubbs tells us that the king
" took the seal from " him, these statements may have two mean-
ings. But M. Boivin-Champeaux is more precise : ** L'emploi de
ces proc^dds emi)ortait le m^pris et la violation non seulement de
tous les actes strangers au chancelier, mais encore de tois ceux ou
il avait mis la main. II ne pouvait d^cemment conserver les
sceaux. Le roi les luis enleva." This is a distinct assertion that
Longchamp was deprived of his ofiice. Yet all our evidence poinis
to the conclusion that he remained chancellor to the day of his
death.
Dismissing Howden for the time, and returning to the testi-
mony of the chaiiers, we have seen that they point to the event we
are discussing having taken place in 1198, between the 7th of
January, at which date the fii"st seal was still in use, and the 27th
of May, when charters were already being brought for confirmation
under the second seal. Passing now from the charters to the seals
still in existence, we learn fi-om Mr. Wyon*s magnificent work ^^
(which has appeared since I completed my own investigation) that
the first seal was still in use on the 1st of April, 1198," while an
impression of the second is found as early as the 22nd of May,
1198.^2 Thus our limit of time for the change is narrowed to 1
April — 22 May, 1198.^^ The evidence of the charters and of the
^0 The Great ikah of Emjland (Stock), p. 149.
^ ^ Its impression is attached to a charter tested at Tours, now at Lambeth
Palace. If the date of this charter is correctly given, it is an imjjortant contri-
bution to the itinerary of Richard.
I'-i Ibid., p. 19.
^^ It is singular that Mr. Wyon, while giving these data, should himself
assign the change to ^^ circ, 1197," and still more singular that he should else-
where (p. 20) accept the usual passage from Howden (III., 267).
140 HISTORY.
seals being thus in perfect harmony, let us see whether this limit
of date corresponds with a time of financial difficulty. For so
desperate a device as that of the king's repudiation of his charters
would only have been resorted to at a time of extreme pressure.
What do we find ? We find that the time of this change of seal
corresponds with the great financial crisis of Richard's reign. The
Church had at length lost patience, and had actually in the Council
at Oxford (December, 1197) refused supplies. The " want of
money," in Miss Norgate's words, was "a difficulty which . . . .
must have seemed well-nigh insurmountable." Preparations were
being made for a huge levy at five shillings oxx every ploughland.
It was at this moment that the desperate king repudiated all the
charters he had granted throughout his reign, and proclaimed that
they must be *' brought to him for confirmation ; in other words ....
paid for a second time."^*
Let us now look at the other chroniclers. R. Coggeshall is inde-
pendent and precise :
"Accessit autem ad totius mali cumulum, juxta vitaB ejus
terminum, prioris sigilli sui renovatio, quo exiit edictum per totum
ejus regnum ut omnes cartse, confirmationes, ac privilegiatse
libertates quae prioris sigilli impressione roboraverat, irrita forent
nee alicujus libertatis vigorem obtinerent, nisi posteriori sigillo
roborarentur. In quibus renovandis et iterum comparandis in-
numerabilis pecunia congesta est " (p. 73).
This is in complete accordance with the now ascertained fact
that Richard changed his seal, and regranted the old charters,
within the last year of his life. Similarly independent and precise
evidence is afibrded by the Annals of Waverley :
"Mcxcviii. Anno x. regis Ricardi prsecepit idem rex omnes
cartas in regno suo emptas freormari, et novo sigilli sui impressione
roborari, vel omnes cassari, cujuscunque dignitatis aut ordinis
essent, qui vellent sua protectione defensari, vel universa bona sua
confiscari." ^
Further, we read in the Annals of Worcester ^® and in the llisioria
Major of M. Paris (II., 450-451)^^ that in 1198, "circaque festum
1* Mifls Norgate (1194). II., 343.
^^ Annales Monastici, II., 251.
i« Ibid., IV., 389 (Vespasian E, iv.)
^^ Faust. A. 8. fo., 136. It is a striking instance of the confusion and
blundering to bo met with even in our best chronicles that M. Paris (Chron. Maj,
ii., 356) has an independent allusion to the king's change of seal (as a '' factum
Ricardi regis enorme ") in which he gives us a circumstantial account of the
event and of the Prior of St. Alban's going over to France to secure the con-
RICHARD i:s CHAXGE OF SEAL. 141
sancti Michaelis, mutatsB sunt cartse quas prius fecerat rex
Ricardus, novo sigillo suo." Now this Michaelmas fell just in the
heart of the period within which the process of confirmation is
proved to have been going on.
We see, then, that the evidence (1) of the seals, (2) of the
charters, (3) of the circumstances of the time, (4) of other chroniclers,
all concur in pointing to the spring of 1198. And now we will
lastly appeal to Howden against himself. After telling us of the
king s proclamation on the refusal of the religious to contribute to
the carucage in the spring of 1198, he adds :
" Praeterea pnecepit idem rex ut omnes, tam clerici quam
laici, qui cartas sive confirmationes habebant de sigillo suo veteri
deferrent eas ad sigillum suum novum renovandas, et nisi fecerint,
nihil quod actum f uerat per sigillum suum vetus ratum haberetur "
(IV., 66).
This passage, which ought to be compared with Coggeshall, is
merely ignored by Dr. Stubbs. Miss Norgate, however, boldly ex-
plains it £U) " a renewal of the decree requiring all charters granted
under the king's old seal to be brought up for confirmation under
the new one" (II., 356). But the passage stands by itself, as
describing a new measure.^
The only conclusion to be drawn from this cumulative evidence
is that the earlier passage in Howden (1194), which has been so
universally accepted, must be rejected altogether. Against the
facts I have adduced it cannot stand.
Incredible though it may seem that a court official, a chronicler
80 able and well informed, indeed, in the words of his editor, " our
primary authority for the period,"^® should have mis-stated so grossly
an event, as it were, under his own eyes, we must remember that
" Howden's personality is to a certain degree vindicated by a sort
of carelessness about exact dates." ^ Yet even so, " few are the
points," our supreme authority assures us, " in which a very close
examination and collation with contemporary authors can detect
chronological error in Howden." ^^ Nor, of the eight anachronisms
laboriously established by Dr. Stubbs, does any one approach in
firmation, *' cum effusione multie pecuniae et laboris,*' but assigns it to the year
1189. How den's error pales before such a blunder as this, which has been
accepted without question by the learned editor, Dr. Luard.
1 8 Howden, by placing it wrongly (p. 66) after Hubert's resignation (p. 48),
to which it was some two months previous, has misled Miss Norgate into the
belief that it w^as the work of his successor, Geoffrey.
1^ Stubbs's Hotcden, TV., xxxii.
20 Ibid., p. XXV.
^^ Ibid,, p. xxxi.
142 HLSrORV.
magnitude the error I bave here exposed. The importance of
every anachronism in its bearing on the authorship of the chronicle
is by him clearly explained.
How far does the rejection of this statement on the change of
seal affect the statement which precedes it as to the truce of
Tillik'es ? Howden places the latter and the former in the rela-
tion of cause and effect :
" Deinde veniens in Normanniam moleste tulit quicquid factum
fuerat de supradictis treugis, et imputans cancellario suo hoc per
eum fuisse factum, abstulit ab eo sigillum suum, et ferit etc."
(III., 267).
This is rendered by Dr. Stubbs in the margin : " He annuls the
truce and all the acis of the chancellor passed under the old seal."
The passage has also been so read by M. Boivin-Champeaux. (p. 221) ;
but if that is the meaning, which I think is by no means certain,
Howden contradicts himself. For he speaks five months later of
the tinice (" Treuga (juaj inter eos statuta fuerat duratura usque ad
festum omnium sanctorum ") as not having stopped private raids
on either side.^ R. de Diceto, mentioning the truce (II., 120), says
nothing of it being annulled, nor does R. Newburgh in his careful
account. On the contrary, he implies that it held good, though
the terms were thought dishonourable to Richard (IL, 4*20). I
should, therefore, read Howden as stating simply that Richard was
much annoyed at ('* moleste tulit **) its terms, and was wroth with
the chancellor for accepting them.
In addition to connecting the received date for Richard the
First's change of seal, the evidence I have collected enables us, for
the first time, to learn how and to what extent the confirmation of
the charters was effected. We find that it was no sweeping process,
<»rried out on a single occasion, but that it was gradually and
slowly proceeding during the last eleven months of the king's life.
Here, then, is the explanation of another fact (also hitherto over-
looked), namely that only a minority of the charters were ever con-
firmed under the second seal.^ For the kings death abruptly
stopped the operation of that oppressive decree, which was being so
reluctantly obeyed.
^^ iii., 276. This distinctly implies that the truce had been nominally in
full force. Note that it is here spoken of as **ft/i All Saints," while in the
document itself (iii., 259) it is made for a year from All Saints. Here is some
confusion.
-^ I have not found a single charter of municipal liberties, though the reign
was so rich in them, among these confirmations.
INDEX NOTES. 143
It should be superfluous for me to add that, in thus correcting
previous statements, I have not impeached the accura,cy of our
greatest living historian, who could only form his judgment from
the evidence before him. The result of my researches has been to
show that the evidence itself breaks down when submitted to the
test of fact.
J. H. Round.
INDEX NOTES.
I. — The Old Palace of Westminster.
Cage-Chamber — Great Seal delivered in the Caffe-chaumbre (elsewhere Kage-
chambre), Mar. 4th, 1343. Close Kdl, 17 Edw. III., Part 1.
Clock (The Great) — John Nicole, keeper of the great clock in the Palace o
Westminster, 1390. I8»ue EoU, 14 Ric. II., Michs.
Council Chamber of Parliabient — Great Seal delivered in the Council
Chamber of Parliament, next to the Great Chamber of Parliament, Jan.
3l8t, 1460. Close Edl, 28 Hen. VI.
Garden Chamber — Order to paint the King's great cellar, the chamber in the
garden, and the small tower outside the chapel ; and make a chimney in
the said chamber, which shall be called Antioch, 1251. Close Bdl, 35
Hen. IIL
GLASIER.S IxKUJE — Quodam shade voc' Glasiers Logge, in occid' infra Pal' nostrum
Westm', 60 by 20 ped. Close Boll, 23 Hen. VI.
Green Chamber — Great Seal delivered to the King in his Green Chamber,
June 9th, 1318 ; delivered to new Chancellor (Bishop Hothum of Ely) in
the White Chamber, Whit Sunday. Close Roll, 11 Edw. IL
KiN(j's Chamber — Make in the King's chamber at Westminster the four
Evangelists upon lions, and colour them well, and decently paint them :
St. John the EvanRelist in the eastern jMrt of the chamber, St. Matthew
in the west, St Luke in the south, St. Mark in the north. The same to
be done in the Queen's room and those adjoining, and in that of Edward
the King's son. Make two seats, one for Edward, and one for the King's
daughters, 1243. Close Roll, 27 Hen. III., Part 1.
For the King's chamber in Westminster Palace, the night before he
was knighted, viz. : — Jan. 31st, 1327. Red carpets with shields of the
King's anns in the comer, five ; samitelle cushions, six ; bankers, four
red with green border, one ^een, four murrey and blue, three to match
the carpets. Roll of Great nardrobe, for Coronation and Palace, 1327.
33/5.
Kino's Inner Chamber — Great Seal delivered in the King's inner chamber,
Jan. 28th, 1327. Close Roll, 1 Edw. Ill,
King's Private Chamber — Great Seal delivered in the King's private chamber,
newly made between the Council Chamber and the Chapel annexed
thereto, June 16, 1349. Close Roll, 23 Edw. III., Part 1.
New Chamber — Great Seal delivered in the Newe Chaumbre, Oct 14, 1347.
aose Roll, 21 Edw. III., Part 2.
The New Chamber, next to the inner Chapel of the Palace. Close
Roll, 24 Edw. III.
Oriol Chamber — Great Seal delivered in chamber called La Oriole, next to the
new chapel, Feb. 13, 1344. Ooae RoU, 18 Edw. III., Part 1.
144 HISTORY,
OuLE Chamber— The Eong's chamber in the private Palace, called the Oule
Chamber, Jan. 26th, 1372. Close Edl, 46 Edw. III.
Parliament Chamber— The chambre of the grete counsail called the p'lement
chambre, within the Kynges palois at Westminster, 1469. Patent Boll,
9 Edw. IV.
Queen's Chamber — For coloursand pictures made in the Queen's chamber at
Westminster, from Easter to Pentecost, 1239, £11 Os 6d. LihenUe Boll,
23 Hen. III.
Order to provide marble columns for the Queen's chamber, 1259.
aose BoU, 43 Hen. III.
Queen's Council House— House in Westminster Hall called the Queen's
Council House, 1470, Fhics Boll, 9 Edw. IV.
Star Chamber — Camera Stellata, 1355. Close BoU, 29 Edw. III.
The Stemechamere, Sept. 30, 1422. aose Boll, 1 Hen. VI.
The Sterred Chamber, 1443. Paieid Boll, 32 Hen. VI.
Tower — John, Duke of Bedford, is granted leave to occupy the new tower at the
entrance of our hall at Westminster, near the Iteceipt Office, Nov. 25,
1410. Fateiit BoU, 12 Hen. IV.
White Chamber — Great Seal delivered in the King's chamber called the White
Chamber, on the water of Thames, in his PaLice of Westminster, Apr. 2«,
1340 ; delivered to new Chancellor (Bishop of Chichester) in the Painted
Chamber, July 12th. Close BoU, 14 Edw. JIL, Part 1.
White (New) Chamber— -The chapel next to the New White Chamber towards
the water ; Nov. 27, 1356. aose BoU, 30 Edw. IIL
A. Holt.
CORRESPONDENCE.
DESTRUCTION OF OLD COINS.
In the Virgin Islands the local currency of "cut money" is a curious
feature. It consists of old Spanish dollars cut into halves, quarters, and
eighths roughly stamped with the word Tortola, and a number of ancient
and much-worn Spanish coins the distinguishing marks on which are
difficult to decipher. There are also in circulation about £10 worth of
copper coins which go by the name of " Dogs." These coins are French
struck in the reign of Louis XVI, for the colony of Cayenne. The above
information is quoted from Beports on Bltie Books Jor 1886 (c — s 249 of
1888) and it will, I think, be of use to numismatists.
G.
REVIEW.
Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries. An attempt to illustrate
THE HISTORY OF THEIR SUPPRESSION. By F. AlDAN GaSQUET, Mouk of
the order of S. Benedict. Vol. I. (second edition), 1888, pp. xxxii., 478.
The truer method of the modem school of historians and students of in-
stitutions, which at once fosters and justifies the increased bent for archse-
REVIEWS. 145
ological study, namely, the writing of history ** from the records," receives
a new and prominent illustration in the work undertaken by the Rev. F.
A. Gasqiiet. Has "bare justice hitherto been done to the memory of the
monastic order^ in England ] " is the question he sets himself to answer
from original documents. The story of the spoliation of the monasteries
in the sixteenth century, of the greed of king and courtiers, of the rapaci-
ous stretching after wealth robbed from religious houses by shifts the most
dishonourable, baseness and cruelty almost incredible, has been known to
very few. Glimpses afforded to thoughtful students, however, made them
more than suspect the real facts ; " no page so black in English history ''
was the verdict of one under whose eye fell the dealings which led to the
extinction of the gilds and fraternities. The labours of the late Mr.
Brewer and of Mr. Jas. Gairdner have done much to open men's eyes on the
subject. The English spirit of fair play is in the present day ready to
recognise the value of the abbeys and monasteries, and the important part
they played in the development of our social life and character ; and we
trust that Father Gasquet will find this remark borne out by the welcome ac-
corded to his book, already gone to a second edition, notwithstanding his
belief in general that "a wholesome horror of monk and monastery has
been imparted with early knowledge at a mother's knee," and that the
truth has been so long warped that it is hai-d to set it right. There is no
doubt that this treatise is an important contribution to our knowledge of
one side of the Reformation hitherto little worked out.
The book, though based rigidly upon facts drawn from public docu-
ments and authorities, is written in an attractive style. In the Introduc-
tion is given a sketch — which might surely have been much fuller— of the
daily life in a monastery of the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries, and of the
benefits to the people generally which the existence of the religious houses
in their midst brought in art, literature, agriculture, and social life. In
the two first chapters the author endeavours to estimate the causes which
led to the admitted abuses and the decay of teaching and disinterested service
which had crept into the Church ; foremost among them he places the
terrible depopulation caused by the Black Death in 1349. That is to say,
he goes back two hundred years for the origin of deterioration from which
the country never fully recovered until its effects led up to great social
and religious revolution. The important results from this great sickness
have been often pointed out ; the monastic orders naturally shared in them
with their countiymen. But even under disadvantages the institutions of
the country went on working, among the rest the bishops kept up their
visitations to the monasteries, by an examination of the records of which
Father Gasquet finds how carefully the duty of supervision was exercised.
The details in these show that " the moral reputation of the monastic and
conventual establishments was considered of the first importance." In his
examination of the " Charges against the Monks," the author in several
cases points out how the findings at these bishops' visitations confute the
accusations made by the interested commissioners of the king and Crom-
well.
Tracing the precedents for suppressing monasteries tiirough the treat-
ment of ** alien priories " by the earlier kings, the author brings out the
story through a series of monographs or episodes, clustering bis facts
K
146 HISTORY.
round the principal persons engaged. We thus begin with Wolsey and his
preliminary dissolutions, move on to the Holy Maid of Kent, the resistance
of the Friars Observant, and the cruel dealings with the Carthusians.
The execution of Bishop Fisher and Sir T. More, in 1535, left the field
open for the scheme of dissolving the monastic bodies ; and the reports of
the royal " visitors " sent through the land, the character of these men,
Layton, Ap Rice, and Legh, and the means employed to get up the case in
order to influence Parliament, receive here new investigation and proof. In
justice to the fair fame of large bodies of our past couutrymen and women,
it is time that these facts and the false stories hitherto believed against
them should be set straight. For, though out of evil good was brought
forth by the great reformers, the lesson set by truth about the matter now
must be fearlessly read. Great and noble movements cannot be the better
for evil beginnings.
A masterly account of Thomas Cromwell, to the suddenness of whose
fall we owe it that his private papers and accounts, undestroyed by him^
now help to tell the tale against him and his royal master, and of the base
instruments he employed, fill the concluding chapters of this first instal-
ment of Father Gasquet's work. In a second volume he promises the history
of the suppression itself.
A useful map and list showing the houses of the Cartliusians and of
the four orders of friars at the time of the suppression is appended.
The Annales Cambria) and the old Welsh Genealogies from Harl. 3859
are printed for the first time with diplomatic fidelity, line for line, letter
for letter, contraction for contraction, by Mr. E. G. B. Phillimore in Vol.
IX., pt. i., of Y Cymmrodor, just issued. The genealogies in question
have never been printed in their entirety, save in an utterly untrustworthy
form in the Cambrian Quarterly Magazine for 1832. — A. N.
Xitetatute*
— : o :—
TUAR FERGE FOIGHIDE DHE.
AN IRISH RELIGIOUS BALLAD.
THIS " Godly Ballat " will, I think, be valued by all who take
an interest in the old Irish tongue, and in the religious his-
tory of the Irish people. It is, I believe, the first thing ever printed
in Irish ; and no copy of it is known to exist save that from a
photograph of which this transliteration has been made. The
ballad was printed in 1571 by " mai'ghisdir Seon uiser in baileatha-
cliath, over against the bridge." It was printed in the same year,
and from the same type, as John a Kearnagh's Irish Catechism, one
of the very rarest treasures that can bless the eyes of the book-
hunter. The font of Irish type used in printing this catechism,
and intended also for an Irish version of the Bible and Prayer Book,
was sent over to Ireland by Queen Elizabeth. The ballad before
us was the first fruits of that historic press. It is in the form of a
broadsheet, printed on both sides, and embellished with a beautiful
border. In this form the ballad was sent over to England, appar-
•ently as a compliment to Queen Elizabeth's ecclesiastical adviser
Archbishop Parker, among whose papers in the library of Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge, it was discovered a few years ago by
the late learned and much beloved Henry Bradshaw. My attention
was first turned to it by Mr. Talbot Reed ; and to the courtesy of
the reverend S. S. Lewis, M.A„ F.S.A., the learned and obliging
librarian of Corpus Christi, I am beholden for the photograph from
which I have worked. The transliteration has been carefully
•<lone ; but in the work of translation I have now and again had
-cause to fear that either I, or Mr. Seon Uiser's typography, may
have been guilty of an occasional slip. And it is right to add that
my translation is purely tentative. Now and then the English
words fall into a sort of broken rhythm. But this is quite
accidental. To catch the meaning of the original is all that I have
^xttempted ; and in one or two places it is, I fear, more than has
been accomplished. But in the endeavour to get at the meaning of
the original I have done my best ; and I have, moreover, though in
vain, earned my difficulties into " the larger hope " of such lights of
148
UTERATUni:.
Celtic learning as are within my reach. The transliteration, as has
been said, was made from a photograph ; but by the kind favour of
Mr. liCWis, I had an opportunity of having my transcript compared
with the original broadsheet, which, though in good preservation,
is not, however, always distinct in such vital details as points of
aspiration and the difterentiation of " f," " s," and " r." The punctu-
ation of the Irish text, although mechanical, is not misleading.
Dimn an .ho o Philip mJmc cvinii chros-
aigh ann a dtainheutav tiiarHS(jbhail
naihmhaa laithe aiihhr<iich (upts an
modh ara dtiocfa criosd do chum an
bhretheamhiiaiit, agus ita briafhra
adeniand,
Tuar ferge foighide dhe,''
biodh anoirchill onfhinne :
Adhiomga ag fas re gach fear,
gras nach dionghna fa dlierearlh.
Ts hi anfhearg mhall is nieasa,
achiall is cuis fhaitcheasa :
Tiocfa riu gan tochd fa athoil,
olc nocha du gandioghuil.
An cheandsachd cliaitheas rinde,
is grian angar dhilinde :
Leanfaidh se fos iia folta,
a thoB II i he is ioninholta.
Anegcoir les da locadh,
do bhregnaid se an seanfhocal :
Oe ta neart de ar gach duine,
a cheart is he is eagluidhe.
Fogus da fherg ahadhaint,
dhuinn ni cuirthe agcunntabhairt :
La na toghamia dho theachd,
achomarrdha ata ag toigheaclid.
Dereadh do naimser mas fhior,
dob fhaide o fherg anairdriogh :
An domhan a ne ina an iudh,
robhadh don te do thuicfuidh.
Tiocfaidh na siona saobha,
nach aimseara iontAobha :
Bheth dhfholtaibh de nar ndeaghaidh,
nochdair he lo a airrgheanaibh :
Sncachda nach edir dhfhulang,
gaoth is gairbhe urughall :
Cioth teneadh na dhiaigh dha dliail,
biaigh an dereadh an doinlmain.
Bed na criond agus an chre,
ar lasadh alio an fhinne :
Gebha cumha na clacha,
nach balugha alasracha.
Achd ge mor ngabhadh do ghebh,
o fhuachd thall is o thenedh :
Go buain a gabhal on ngren,
an talamh ni fhuair oilbeni.
A lay here from Philips mn of Conn
Cross f in ir]ii/^h is set fotih a tale of
the fearfiditess of the drend daiL an<J
the waif in irhich Christ tJiall come
to the jndgment, and the irords in
Irislt.
Let the wrath-omen of God's jwitience
lie in wait for the race ;
His displeasure gathering for each man
whom grace saves not at the last.
It is the slow wrath that is worst,
cause it is truly of terror :
Will come, of his will, to confound them,
ill that befits their avenging.
The long-suffering on us bestowed
a sun (1) is of long indignation :
Shall follow it surely the wages —
its commencement not most com-
mended.
Most vile liolds he thy sin (?)
it hath belied the old saying,
Th(mgh on each man be God's j)ower,
his justice is most to Vo feared.
Near to his wrath is his law,
to us unassigned was not sent
The day that lieralds his advent :
his sign is a-coming.
If 'tis truly the end of the time,
farthest from wrath of the hij^h kini;
Then yester- world e'en as to-daj^'s
were to whom understandeth. (?)
Will come the mad tempests,
the times untoward :
From retributi(m8 of God on our track
he shall be shewn with his spoilings(?)
Snows that endured cannot be,
winds of fiercest blast,
Smoke, after him, of fire, close in
pursuit,
shall be in the end of the world.
Shall be the globe and the glebe
afiiame all over the world :
Be it the stones that bewail,
yet none the less is their flaming.
But great though the tonnent they get
from cold there and (here) from fire,.
From the sun for ever de^mrting,
the earth got no hurt.
TUAR FERGE FOIGHIDE DUE.
149
Fcarfaid luibhe gach lerge,
deora fola foirrdherge :
Fachan na fola duinue,
fola ar nather oruiniie.
Is fhaide ina feadh radhairc,
rachas uainn fa bhfiormamaint :
An fhair^e as afalaidhfcn,
raghaidh anairde dhfhoilem.
A luchd thuillte na teneadh,
ar bliar gciond do cifcdhear :
Sgcul is cruaidhe dhagcluinte,
beul gach uaighe osluigthe.
Gach anaiu is he abhunadh,
tiocfais trathd ha niothughadh :
La an tobhaighar ceand a chuirp
gearr o nfholaidh a hadhuint.
Ni f uicfe anani na deaghla,
michel maor <an tigheama :
Asiol uile agus eubha,
duine dhiobh nach duiseubha :
Suidhfidh aneullaibh nimhe,
OS ciond na nord naingUdhe :
Gairni sliluaghaidh ar chachcuire,
fath uamhain a iondhsuighe.
Will mark you each path
blood-tears right red :
Revealing the blood to us,
blood of our father upon us.
Further than eye can see
wi 1 1 go up from us under the firmam ent
The sea and the void —
shall go up from us into the void-space.
Ye people deservinff the fire,
by your guilt shall be seen—
Tale the hardest to hear,
every grave open-mouthed.
Of each soul 'tis the trust
that will come to him time of reviv-
ing—
The day when set free (?) shall bo also
the corpse,
near to the void that is closed.
Shall find not one soul awanting
Michael, the steward of God :
Of her seed all and Eve
shall none be un-wage-paid :
He shall ride the heaven-clouds
*bove the order of angels.
Calling peoples of every estate
in much dread before him.
Note. — The key-note of the ballad will, I think, be found in Revelation
vi. IG : Agus a dubhradar ris na sleibhtibli agus ris na cairrigibli, Tuitibh
oruinu, agus folchuidh sinn o ghnuis an ti ata na shuidhe sa gchaoir, agus
0 fheirg a Nuain. '* The wrath of the Lamb " was, forty years ago, a
favourite topic of pulpit declamation in the great Gaelic gatherings of the
North Highlands. It seems to me to bo not uncongenial to the Celtic
mind. It held a high place in what the late Dr. John Kennedy well
named the ** Religion of Ross-shire." Often and often did my hair stand
on end, as preachers of weird power, like the late Mr. John Macrae of
Knockbain, launched forth torrents of burning Gaelic eloquence on this
awful topic of a true friend's love turned at last into an unconquerable
thirst for inexorable, eternal avenging — the old blood-feud of the Celt bap-
tized into the sanctities of his new religion.
In old Middle Irish tuara is used in the sense of aliment or sustenance*
1 once thought of so translating the first line of the poem, making " God's
patience " an occasion, or source of nourishment, for his anger. But the
thought was too dreadful to be seriously entertained ; and I was thankful
to find that no dictionary of modem Irish to which I had access gives the
word in that sense.
The Irish text given above may be accepted as a correct transliteration
of Usher's broadsheet, in which, following manuscripts of the period, the
word De is printed without a capital letter.
Donald Masson.
OT hard to tell, truly," answered the maiden. " I was ].>rought
ip," said she, "in ancient virtues, in lawful beha\aour
150 LTTEBATURE.
THE WOOING OF EMER.
An Irish Hero-Tale oe the iith Century— Translated by Prof. K. Meyer.
(Contimied from ixuje *iO.)
""VTOThardtc
-L^ up," sai(
in keeping chastity, in equal .... of a queen, in stately form, so
that to me is attributed eveiy noble stately foi'm among the hosts of
... women." "Good are those virtues, truly," said Cuchulaind. "Why
then," said he, " should it not be fitting for us both to become one ?
For I have not hitherto found a maiden capable of holding converse
with me at a meeting in this wise." " A question. Hast thou a
wife ? " said the maiden, " For under my protection .... after
thee." " Not so," said Cuchulaind. " I may not marry,'* said the
maiden, "before the sister who is older than I am, viz., Fial,
m
daughter of Forgall, whom thou seest near me here. She is an ex-
cellent handworker." "It is not she, truly, with whom I have
fallen in love," said Cuchulaind. '*Nor have I ever accepted a
woman that has known a man before me, and I have been told that
yonder girl has slept with Carpre Niafcr^ once."
While they were thus convening, Cuchulaind saw the breasts of
the maiden over the bosom of her smock. Then he said : " Fair is
this plain, the plain of the noble yoke." Then the maiden spoke
these words : ' " No one comes to this plain," said Emer, " who does
not slay as many as a hundred (comatnm n-aircid) on each ford from
the Ford of Scennmenn at Ollbine, to Banchuing Arcait^ where swift
Brea breaks the brow of Fedelm.*) " Fair is this plain, the plain of
the noble yoke," said Cuchulaind. " No one comes to this plain,'*
said she, (^who has not achieved the feat of slaying three times nine
men with one blow (j^enid grainde)^ oh calf of the cow . . . . , so as
to preserve a man in the midst of each nine of them." " Fair is this
plain, the plain of the noble yoke," said Cuchulaind. " No one
comes to this plain," said she, f who does not meet Benn Suain, the
son of Roscmelc, from summer's end to the beginning of spring, from
the beginning of spring to May-day, from May-day to the beginning
of winterj"" '• It is said, it shall be done," said Cuchulaind. " It is
offered, it is granted, it is taken, it is accepted," said Emer) " A
question. What is the account of thee ? " said she. " I am the
nephew {nia) of the man that disappears in another in the wood of
Badb," said he. " And what is thy name ? " said she. " I am the
hero {uAadiC) of the plague that befals dogs," said he.
^ High Kiiig of Erin.
2 A iiame for part of the Boyne.
THE WOOIKG OF EMER. 151
After those noble words, Cuchulaind went from them, and they 3 io
did not hold any further converse on that day. When Cuchulaind
was driving across Bray, Loeg, his charioteer, asked him : " Now,"
said he, " the words which thou and the maiden Emer spoke, what
did you mean by them ? " " Dost thou not know," answered Cuchu-
laind, " that I am wooing Emer ? And it is for this reason that we
disguised our words, lest thb girls should understand that I am
wooing her. For, if Forgall kuew it, we should not meet with his
consent'St Cuchulaind then repeated the conversation from the 2.^
beginning to his charioteer, explaining it to him, to beguile the
length of their way.
** By Intide Emna which I said when she asked me ' whence hast / ^
thou come ( ' I meant from Emain Macha. It is called Emain Macha
from this. Macha, the daughter of Sainreth Mac in Botha,
wife of Crundchu, son of Agnoman, ran a race against two steeds ^ < i/'ni
ot* the king, after she had been forced to it by a strong injunction. ^'^ *^*c
She beat them, and bare a boy and a girl at one birth. And from
those twins {emuin) is called, and from that Macha is named the
plain of Macha. "li Or again, it is from this that Emain Macha is, as ^0
it is in the following tale. Three kings were reigning together over
Erinn. They were fix^m Ulster, viz. Dithorba, son of Diman, froui
Uisnech of Meath, Aed the Red, son of Baduni, son of Aircet
the Bald, in the land of Aed, Cimbaeth, son of Findairget, from
Finnabair of Mag Inis. It is he who brought up Ugaine the Great,
son of Eochu the Victorious. Then the men made an agreement,
that each of them was to reign seven years. Three times seven
sureties were pledged between them, seven druids to revile them for
ever; or seven poets to lampoon, and satirise, and upbraid them ; o?-
seven chiefs to wound them and burn them ; unless each man gave U[>
his reign at the end of seven years, having preserved true govern-
ment, viz. the produce of each year, without decay of . . . of anj kind,
and without the death of a woman from concubinage. Each of them
reigned three times in his turn, during sixty-six years. Aed the Red
was the first of them to die, or rather he was drowned in Ess
Ruaid, and his body was taken into the sid there, whence Sid
Aeda and Ess Ruaid. He left no children, except one daughter,
whose name was Ma.cha the Red-haired. She demanded the king-
ship in its due time. Cimbaeth and Dithorba said they would not
give kingship to a woman. A battle was fought between them.
Macha routed theoL She was sovereign for seven years. Mean-
while Dithorba had fallen. He left five noble sons behind, Baeth
and Brass and Betach, Uallach and Borbchass. These now demanded
152 LITERATURE.
the kingship. Macha said she would not give it to them, 'for
not by favour did I obtain it/ said she, * but by force in the battle-
field/ A battle was fought between them. Macha routed the sons
of Dithorba, who left a slaughter of heads before her, and went into
exile in the wilds of Connaught. Macha then took Cimbaeth to her as
her husband, and leader of her troops. When now Macha and Cimbaeth
were united, Macha went to seek the sons of Dithorba in the shape
of a leper, viz. she smeared herself with rye-dough and . . . Slie
found them in Buirend Connacht, cooking a wild boar. The men
asked tidings of her, and she gave them. And they let her have
food by the fire. Said one of them : * Lovely is the eye of the girl,
let us lie with her.' He took her with him into the wood. She
bound that man by dint of her strength, and left him in the wood.
She came back to the fire. 'Where is the man who went with
thee ? ' they asked. ' He is ashamed to come to you,' she replied,
' after having lain with a leper/ * There is no shame,' said they,
* for we shall all do the same.' Each man took her into the wood.
She bound every one of them, one after the other and brought them
all in one chain to Ulster. The men of Ulster wanted to kill them.
* No,' said she, ' for that would be the ruin of my true government.
But they shall be thralls, and shall dig a rath round me, and that
shall be the eternal seat of Ulster for ever.' Then she marked out
the dun for them with her brooch, viz., a golden pin on her neck,
i.e., a brooch on the neck of Macha (eo iintna muin Macha?) Hence
is Emain Macha in truth.
p " Tlie man, I said, in whose house we slept, he is the fisherman of
^ Conchobor. Roncu is his name. It is he that catches the fish on
"*^ \ his line under the sea ; for the fish are the cattle of the sea, and the
I sea is the plain of Tethi^a. a king of the kings of the Fomori.
^ ^ " The cooking-hearth, I said. A foal was cooked for us on it.
A foal is the ruin of a chariot to the end of three weeks ^ . . . and
-^^^ * , there is a geBS on a chariot to the end of three weeks for any man
] to enter it after having last eaten horse-flesh. For it is the horse
' that sustains the chariot.
•^ <^ Between the I'wo Mountains of the Wood^ I said. These are the
two mountains between which we came, viz., Sliab Fuait * to the
west of us, and Sliab Cuilinn* to the east of us.> We were in Oircel^
between them, t.^., the wood which is between them, viz., on the
road I meant between the two.
^ N<jmadj a period of nine nights.
2 Dd cotot feday now the Fews {fiodh) in Co. Armagh.
•* Now Slieve Fuad, Co. Armagh.
* Now Slieve GuUion, Co. Armagh.
* Now Forkill, Co. Armagh ?
THE WOOING OF EMER. 153
" The road, I said, viz., from the Covering of the Sea, i.e., from ^
the Plain of Murthemne.^ The sea was on it for thirty years after
the deluge, whence is Teme Mara, i.c., the shelter, or covering of ^
the sea. Or again, it is from this that it is called the Plain of ' ^\^i
Murthemne, viz., a magic sea was on it with ... in it, so that Oajc/^
one could sit on it, so that a man with his armour might sit down
on the ground of . . . until the Dagda came with his club of anger,
and sang the following words at it, so that it ebbed away at once :
Silent thy hollow head,
Silent thy dirty body,
Silent thy . . . brow.
*^ver the (ireat Secret of the men of Dea, i.e., a wonderful ^ ^
secret and a wonderful whisper^ It is called the Marsh of
Dol luid^ to-day. DoUuid, son of Car pre Niaf er, wa^ wounded by Matu.
Before that, however, its name was Great Secret of the Men of Dea, ^
<;because it was there that the gathering of the battle of Moytura i^
was first planned by the Tuatha De Danann, for the purpose of <^*^\
throwing off the tribute which the Fomori exacted from them, viz.,
two-thirds of corn and milk and offspring
*\ " Over the Foam of the Two Steeds of Emain. There was a 7
famous youth reigning over the Gaels, fie had two horses reared
for him in Sid Ercmon of the Tuatha Dea.^ Nemed, son of Nama,
was the name of that king. ^ Then those two horses were let loose a^
from the Sid, and a splendid stream burst after them from the Sid,^
and there was great foam on that stream, and the foam spread over C^''
the land for a great length of time, and was thus to the end of a ^^'^ v^
year, so that hence that water was called Uanub, f.^., foam on the
water, and it is Uanub to-day.
^" The Garden of the Morrigan, I said, that is Ochtur Netmon. ^
The Dagda gave that land to the Morrigan, and she lived there. >
After a year she killed Ibor Boiclid, son of Garb, in her garden. ' *^
The . . . which her garden gre^rwere ... in that year, for the '')'
son of Garb was her relation.
J^ " The Back of the Great Sow I said, that is Druimm n-Ebreg. 7
For the shape of a sow appeared to the sons of Milid on every hill
and on every height in Erinn, when they came over and wanted to Hu^
land in it by force, &fter a spell had been cast on it by the Tuatha
^TDe Danann.
*' The Glen of the Great Dam I said, i.e., Glenn m-Breogain, viz. ' *
Glenn m-Breogain and Moy Bray were named after Breoga, son of
Breogann Sendacht, son of Milid. It was called Glen of the Great
^ Co. Louth, between Dundalk and the Boyne.
2 Now Dolly's Green in Co. Meath ? According to Hennessy, Chron. Scot. p.
388, it is now Girley, near Kells.
.^\
1)4 LITERATURE.
Dam, because Dam of Dile, son of Smirgoll, son of Tethra, wlio was
king over Erinn, lived thei'e. This Dam died in ... a woman
... of Moy Bray to the west to the mouth . . .
' ' ^ <^" The road, I said, between the God and his Seer, viz., between
Mac Oc of the Sid of the Brug and his seer, viz., Bresal^as a seer
^*^ ' to the west of tlie Brug. Between them was the one woman, the
wife of the Smith.^ That is the way I went. Alairne, then, is
between the hill of the Sid of the Brug in which Oengus is, and the
Sid of Bresal, the druid.
/ }. 'N " Over the Marrow of the Woman Fedelm I said, ie.y the Boyne.
It is called Boyne from Boand, the wife of Nechtan, son of Labraid.
She went to guard the hidden well at the bottom of tlie dun with
the three cupbearei*s of Nechtan, viz., Flex and Lesc and Luam.
. Nobody came without blemish from that well, unless the three cup-
bearei^s went with him. The queen went out of pride and oyer-
' n bearing to the well, and said nothing would ruin her shape, nor put
a blemish on her. She passed left-hand-wise round the well to
deride its power. Then three waves broke over her, and smashed
her two thighs and her right hand and one of her eyes. Slie ran
out of tlie Sid to escape from this injury ; until she came to the
sea. Wherever she ran, the well lun after her. Segais was its
name in the Sid, the river Segsa from the Sid to the Pool of Mochua,
the Arm of the Wife of Nuadu and the Thigh of the Wife of Nuadu
after that, the Boyne in Meath, Manchuing Arcait it is called from
the Finda to the Troma, the Marrow of the Woman Fedelm from
the Troma to the sea.
p " The Boar (tviath) I said and his Dam, that is Cleitech and Fessi.
For triath is the name for a boai', the leader of herds ; but it is also
i^HMut I ^ name for a king, the leader of the great hosts. Cleitech then
' is .... of battle. Fessi, again, is a name for a great sow of a
farmer s house. A boar and his dam, and between a boar and his
I sow then we went.
<** The King of Ana, I said, and his Servant {jjnia), i.e., Cerna»
through which we passed Sid Cirine was its name of old.y Cema is
y S«^ its name since the .... viz., Enna Aignech, slew Cerna, the king of
Ana on that hill, and he slew his steward in the east of tliat place.
Gnia was his name, from which is Rath Gniad in Cerna ever. On
Gese, the king of the sons of Enme, did Enna do it, for there was
gi'eat friendship between Gese and Cerna.
'•^ N/ <^ "The Washing of the Horses of Dea I said, i.e. Ango. The
^^'^ Washing of the Horses of Dea was its name originally, because in
^ ^ it the Men of Dea washed their horses when they came from the
^ i.e., Goibniu, the smith of the Tiiatha D^ Danann.
i
,J
THE WOOING OF EMER. 155
battle of MoyturaA It was called Ange after the king whose hoi ses
the Tuatha T)e Danann washed in it.
" The four-cornered Mannchuile I said, that is Muin Chille. It
is there where Mann the farmer was. There was a great mortality
of cattle in Erinn in the reign of Bresal Brecc, son of Fiachu {^H*\i)
Fobrecc of Leinster. Then Mann made large deep chambers under-
ground in the place which is called Uachtar Mannchuile to-day.
And . . were made to keep off the plague. Afterwards he gave an
entertainment to the king with twenty-four couples to the end of
seven years. Mannchuile, then, are the comers of Mann, i.e.
Ochtar Muinchille. „
" Great Crime again, I said, %.e. Ailbine.^ There was a famous
king here in Erinn, viz. : Ruad, son of Rigdond, of Munster. He
had an appointment of meeting with foreigners.^ He went to the
meeting with the foreigners round the south of Alba^ with three
ships. Thirty were in each ship. The fleet was arrested from A
below in the midst of the sea. Throwing jewels and precious
things into the sea did not get them off. Lots were cast among
them for who should go into the sea(and find out what it was that
held them fast^ The lot fell upon the king himself. Then the
king Ruad, son of Rigdond, leapt into the sea. The sea at once ^K
closed over him. He lighted upon a large plain on which nine *»<<j ^u
beautiful women met him. CThey confessed to him that it had been ^<- ^
they that had arrested the ships, in order that he should come t^
them. And they gave hioi nine Vessels of gold to sleep with them
for nine nights, one night with each of them.> He did so. Mean-
while his men were not able to proceed quickly through the power
of the women. Said one woman of them it was her time of con-
ceivinof. and she would bear a son. and he should come to them to
fetch his son on his return from the east. Then he joined his men,
afid they went on their voyage. They stayed with their friends to
the end of ;seven>years, and then went back a different way and
did not go near the same spot. And they landed in the bay of
Ailbine. There the women came up to them. The men heard
their music in their brazen ship. While they were stowing their
fleet, the women came ashore and put the boy out of their ship on
the land where the men were. The harbour was stony and rocky.
Then the boy . . . one of the stones, so that he died of it. The
women saw it and cried all together : Ollbine, Ollbine ! Le, * great
crime.' Hence it is called Ailbine.
^ ^ Now the river Delvin, which forms the northern boundary of Co. Dublin.
'^ Oaill, i.€., probably, Norsemen.
^ Great Britain.
{To be ccrtUimted,) KUNO MeYEB.
156 LITERATURE.
INDEX NOTES.
3. OLD ENGLisic DRAMA (continued from page 77) — (ii.) Udal
{Nicholas) Ralph Roister Douter, 15G6.
Abye, abide the consefiuences, rue it, ii. 4.
Alderman, allusion to dignity of, iv. 5.
Backare cjuod Mortimer to his sowe, a proverb [** Backare probably means back
there or go back," W. D. Cooper,] i. 2.
Beds, feather, use of referred to, i. 4.
Bees in the head, choleric [Nares], i. 4.
Bibbler, a term addressed to a man, iii. 5.
Blauchcpouder lande, a place referred to, i. 4.
Borde, a jest or sport [Nares], i. 4, iv. 3.
Borow, protect or guard, iv. 7.
Breast, voice [Nares], i. 2, iii. 3.
Brymme, fierce, iv. 6.
Burbolt, a birdbolt [** a short thick arrow with a blunt liwul chiefly made use of
to kill rooks : it a])pears to have been looked upon as an emblem of dull-
ness," W. D. Cooper], iii. 2.
Buske, a copse or bush, [cf. busket in Nares], i. 4.
By-and-bye, immediately, [it is so used in the North of England, W. D.
Cooper], iii. 4.
Calais, by the amies of Caleys, an oath, iii. 4, -vi. 7.
Choploge, angry words, iii. 2.
Cock's precious, an oath, iv. 8.
Cocke, by cocke, an oath [**a corruption of the sacred name " W. D. Cooper,] i.
2, ii. 3, iii. 4.
Cocke's precious potsticke, an oath, iii. 4.
Costarde, head [Nares], iii. 5.
Cotssold lyon, a sheep, iv. 6.
Cough me a mome, iii. 2.
Coyle-cuff [cf. Tim Bobbins "Glossary of Lancashire Dialect" ; Brockett's "Glos-
sary of Northcountry words '*], iv. 3, 7.
Cracking, boasting [Nares], i. 1.
Curtsie, fonnorly applied to any kind of obeisance of man or woman, iii. 3.
Devil's name, Ttmi Titivile, i. 1.
Dialect, sentence spoken in, " chad not so much, i chotte not whan ; nere since
chwas bom, chwine," meaning **I liad not so much, I wot not wlien ;
never since I was bom I ween," i. 3.
Dice playing, i. 1.
Dress, articles of alluded to, ii. 3.
Facing and cracking, vaunting and boasting, i. 1.
Facts, feats or deecls, i. 2.
Fitte, a song, ii. 3, iii. 3.
Flocke, iii. 3.
Force, no force, no doubt, iv. 3.
Geare, business, i. 3, ii. 2.
Gitteme, a lute or guitar, ii. ] .
Crog, by gog, an oath, iv. 8.
Gog's anues, an oath, i. 4.
Gog's dear mother, an oath, iv. 7.
Good, a good, in earnest, heartily, iii. 4.
(xosse, by gosse, an oath, iii. 4.
Graffe, a lout, i. 1.
Guy of Warwicke, referred to, i. 2.
Hoball, iii. 3.
Jetting up and down, walking with an air or swing, iii. 3.
INDEX N^OTEa. 157
Jutte, a jostle, iii. 3.
Kock's nownes, god's wounds, an oath, i. 4.
Launcelot du Lake, referred to, i. 2.
Letter-writing, iii. 6.
Lilbume, iii. 3.
Lobc(^ke, anything clumsy [Nares], iii. 3.
London, St. Paul's, ii. 4.
London government, iv. 3.
Louted, mocked or despised for a lout, iii. 3.
Lozelle, a pitiful worthless fellow [Nares s.v. Ivsd] iv. 3.
Lubbe, i. 2.
Lumbarde's touche, a Lombard's touchstone to try gold and silver, ii. 2.
Lute, ii. 1.
Mankine, masculine, iv. 8.
Minion, iii. 3.
Mome, a fool or blockhead [Nares] iii. 2, v. 2, 5.
More and lesse, rich and poor, prd.
Mumfision, a character referreil to, i. 4.
Musical instruments, ii. 1.
Noise, music, i. 4.
Oaths, see ** Calais '' ** cock " ** gog '' ** gosse " ** kock."
Passing-bell, allusion to, iii. 3.
Pastance, passe-temps, pastime, sport, ii. 1. iii. 3. iv. 6. v. 2.
Polling, plundering [Nares] iii. 5.
Potguinie, a small gun, iv. 7.
Prankie cote, iiL 3.
Pn)verbs : in docke, out nettle, ii. 3 ; tide tarrieth for no man, i. 2 ; Backare
(luixl Mortimer to his sowe, i. 2; whip and whurre never make good
furre i. 3 ; soft fire maketh sweet malt, i. 3 ; play the devil in the horologe,
iii. 2 ; let the worlde pass, iii. 3 ; no grass hath growne on my hele, iii. 3,
iv. 5 ; all things that shiueth is not by-and-bye pure gold, v. 1.
Pygs nie, pigsny, a burlesque term of endearment, [Naresj, i. 4, iii. 4
Raker (Jacke) a song-maker alluded to, ii. 1.
Rather, earlier, iii, 6.
Recorder, a flageolet, iL 1.
Ring, gift of from a lover, ii, 1.
Roundyng, whispering, [more properly " roun," Nares] i. 4.
Route, assemble, iv. 7.
Sadly, seriously, [Nares] i. 4, iv. 3.
Sectour, executor, iiL 3.
Sens, already, iii. 5.
Shent, scolded, sometimes ruined or destixiyed [Nares] i. 2, 3, 4, ii. 2, iii. 2.
Sirrha, applied to a woman, i. 3, iv. 8.
Songs sung by the characters, i. 3, 4, ii. 3, iii. 3, v., 6.
Spill, destroy, iiL 6, iv. 3.
Spindle, i. 3.
Spouse, betrothed lover, ii. 1.
Stomaked, disliked or resented, iv. 3.
Stounde, a tumult or bustle [time, u^oment, occasion, exigence, Naies] iii. 5.
Sword hilt, a cross, oath taken by, iv. 3.
Thumb, each finger is a thumb, clumsy, i. 3.
Titivile (Tom), a name for the devil, L 1.
Tom boy, epithet applied to a girl, ii. 4.
Trey ace, iii. 3.
Uneth, with difficulty, scarcely, [Nares] iii. 5.
Wealth, welfare, iv. 1.
158 LITERATURE.
Whirle, whorle, i. 3.
White Sonne, an expression of endearment, [to this day white-headed boy is an
expression of fondness in Ireland though the locks of the individual to
whom it is applied may be black as the raven's plume, W. D. Cooper] i. 1.
Whurre, scolding, i. 3.
4. Glossaries appended to Books {contimied from p. 78)
1. — Words, Phrases, and Customs.
I Williams (Rev. J.)i -A. Glossary of terms used for articles of British dress and
yi.cc^ armour. Archa^ologia Camhren^us, vol. iv., pp. 9-12, 94-100, 160-167,
""^ 291-294; second series, vol. r., pp. 111-180 [afterwards published sei)ar-
ately, 8vo., 1851, pp. vii. 68. J "The Glossary classifies alphabetically
the several names which our British forefathers applied to the diflferent
portions of their garments and military weapons, supplies the reader with
their English synonyms, and in the case of the majority cites corro-
borative passages from documents in which the original t.erms occur."
Pref., p. iv.
WiLBRAHAM (Roger), An attempt at a Glossary of some words used in Cheshire.
Archcpologia, vol. xix., pp. 13-42.
Parochial Account of Llanidloes : chapter xi. Local woi-ds and phrases.
Poioys Laiul Clnh, vol. x., pp. 277-311.
2. — Legal and Record Terms.
Sims (Richard), a manual for the Genealogist, Topographer, Antiquary, and
Legal Professor. London, 1888, 4to. ** A brief glossary of dates and
terms most commonly met with in ancient records," i)p. 498-503. ** A
glossary of Latin words, phrases, tenns, &c. , which occur in the public
records and other ancient MSS. not included in any modem dictionary
compiled from various sources," pp. 527-542.
Having noticed the very useful beginning of a list of books containing a
** Glossary,'' might I suggest the advisability of adding the Elizabethan and
Jacobean, «&c.. books containing the same. I ought to be able to give more,
but can '>nly send you at present these three :
St. Batman nppon Bartholome [Glanvylel, 1582, fol. ** A necessarie cata-
logue of the most hardest olde English words, &c." Sig. qq. 6, the leaf before
the Text.
Jos. Sylvester's translation of Du Bartas, 1611. "A briefe Index of the
hardest words,'* p. 653 (before the History of Judith). Also ** A Table of the
Signification, &c.," following the same history, p. 757. [The same are in the
edd. of 1621, 1641, and probably in all.]
Regd. Peacock, Bishop of Chichester, Treatise pro\yhuj Scripture io he the
Rule of Faith writ by [the name'] before the Befo^-rtrntUm. About the year
M.C.D.L. Printed in'4to, 1688. At the end is '*An Alphabetical Table of
the more obsolete English words, &c."
Br. Nicholson.
EDITORIAL CORRESPONDENCE.
Organization oy Local Arch^ological Research.
To THE Editor of the ARCHiCOLooicAL Review
Sir, — Last summer, in conversation with. one or two friends who were,
like myself, much interested in provincial archaeology, and much vexed at
CORRESPOXDENCE. 159
the desultory unsystematic and overlapping character of much that is
attempted both in investigation and publication by our county societies,
I proposed that the Society of Antiquaries should be invited to call us to-
gether in conference. The idea was favourably received. From several
coimty archajologists, of far greater repute and experience than myself, to
whom I ventured to make a like proposition in writing, an equally sym-
pathetic response was obtained. It was proposed to address a respectful
joint request to the President and Council of the parent Society, that it
would please them to summon such a gathering. For reasons that need
not here be specified it was decided to defer prosecuting this plan till the
current yeai*.
It was, therefore, with peculiar pleasure that I read in the firat issue
of the Arch(Zological Review, a like idea elaborated and excellently expressed
in the opening " Editorial Note." We all want more direction and system
in our archrcological researches. I cannot conceive that aught but good
could accrue from a general conference under the auspices and authority
of the Society of Antiquaries. I should not propose, in any joint petition,
to dictate to the Society in any way the details of such a conference, or
how representatives of the different societies, or individuals unconnected
with any special organisation, should be invited, but if the idea com-
mended itself to the President and Couticil, I am sure they are to be fully
trusted to carrv it to a wise conclusion.
Your own way of arguing the necessity for the joint and systematic action
of antiquaries leaves hardly anything more to be said, but I may point out
how in the department of ecclesiology, in which I am primarily interested,
such imited and methodical action on matters like bells, and church plate,
if adopted but a few years ago, would have saved us from some poorly done
work and improved materially all that has been accomplished. Specialists,
too, like Professor Browne and Mr. Romilly Allen in early sculptured stones,
or Baron de Cosson and Mr. Hartshome in effigies, would find their work
rendered so much easier of satisfactory accomplishment, by the compila-
tion of careful catalogues throughout our English shires.
Fired many years ago by the first edition of Canon Isaac Taylor's in-
imitable " Words and Places," I endeavoured to collect all the field names
of my own comparatively small county of Derby, but was fairly baffled and
beaten by expense and difficulties after a little more than half the work
was accomplished. I then, however, learnt enough to tell me that if this
branch of local etymology was thoroughly and consistently followed out
throughout England- — each county society collecting its own and having
them entered on the large ordnance survey maps, with duplicates of the
whole deposited in the Society of Antiquaries — that a wonderful flood of
light would be cast for intelligent eyes on the early colonisation of our land,
on its development, progressive trade and successive resources, as well as on
general folklore, and many kindred subjects, such as could never be gleaned
by the closest study of the mere names of towns or hamlets.
For these reasons, and for many yet more important, so well marshal-
led by yourself in the March issue of the Archaological Review^ it is earn-
estly to be hoped that common action in the cause of historic, as well as
of pre-historic archsoology will soon be taken, and, as the best preliminary to
such a course, allow me to strongly urge a general call upon the Society
160 COJiBESPOA'DEyCE.
of Antiquaries in the direction indicated. J think such a request should
be made before the close of the summer session (June), so that a conference
might be summoned, if deemed advisable, in the ensuing autumn or winter.
As I have already some names, perhaps you will allow me to say that I
shall be glad to receive others, and I hope that you, Sir, will do the same ;
or I shall be equally pleased to send my name, with those I have obtained,
to any one else or to any committee that may be formed for a like object.
J. CuAULts Cox. LL.D., F.S.A.
Barton-le-Street Rectory, Malton.
[We shall be pleased to receive the names of those who wish to support
Dr. Cox's admirable proposal, and we feel quite sure that the Society of
Antiquaries will support the movement. — Ed.]
Editorial Note.
We are arranging for a system of inter-communication between
ourselves and the Archajological Societies of Great Britain, France, Ger-
many, Italy, Denmark, India, America, <kc., with a view of keeping up a
complete record of Archteological work. Secreturies of societies are in-
vited to communicate with us.
Many correspondents have questioned the propriety of indexing the
contributions to Archajological Societies under the anthers' names. The
plan of indexing under subjects was tried and given up, and the present
plan was recommended to the compiler by Mr. A. W. Franks and Mr. H.
B. Wheatley. When the full index of subjects is given upon the comple-
tion of the work, we think all will agree that the present is the best and
only plan. All we ask of them is to suspend their judgment initil then.
NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS,
All communications should he directed to " The Editor, Archaeological Review,'" S70 Strand
W.C.
The Editor cannot undci'take to return r^'ected MSS. unless a stamped directed envelope is
sent for that purpose,
J. H. Round— letter on the Rapes of Sussex unavoidably postponed.
H. H. Huworth — letter on the Rapes of Sussex, next month.
THE
Arch^ological Review.
Vol. I. MAY, 1888. No. 3.
EntbropoIoai2*
— :o : —
. THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS.
(Continued from page 91.)
IN most stories, a knowledge of the beast-language stands its
possessor in good stead. In a Kalmuck tale two dragon-frogs
•<lam up the source of a river and only allow it to flow on condition of
receiving annually a human victim. The fatal lot having fallen on
the Khan, his son takes his place and goes with his devoted friend
AS a sacrifice to the frogs. But the prince understands the language
of all creatures and liears the frogs saying to eacli otlior "If they
wei*e only to knock our heads off with a stick, and if the prince
were to eat nie, the golden-yellow frog, and liis friend were to eat
you, the emerald-green frog, they would spit nothing but gold and
gems, and there would be no need of victims to the frogs liere-
after." Tiie piince takes the hint, and the result answei*s to the
prediction.**-* This story of the release of tlie water seems to bo
nnother form of that myth of the slaying of the \\\y^ who had
swallowed the waters which Mr. Andrew Lang has traced in North
America. Australia, and the Andaman Islands.^^ Again in an
*^ B. Jiilg, KalmukMk4> Miihrch^n^ die Siddhi-kiiry no. ii. (p. 10 sq.) ; Siujaif
Jroin the Far Ea«t (London, 1873), p. 18 .ff/r/. In the latter version tterjyethU take
the place o{fro{fg. Jiilg translates DrachenfrOsche in the tirst instance and theti
FroiKh and FrOsche always.
^® A. Lang, M\ith, Hiimd^ and Heligitui, i., p. «30 tupj. A tril>e of rndians on
the Orinoco is said to have kept frogs under vessels for the puq^oso of obtaining
from them rain or tine weather, as occasion required ; if their prayers were not
^iuswored, they beat the frogs. See C-olotMa, heimj a (jeoijraiiJncai^ dc, ac<'ofint
4ij' that couidnj, (London, 1822), v«)l. i. p 042 .<</.
1.
1 62 ANTHROPOLOGY.
Indian story a knowledge of the language of animals, winch he has
learned from the goddess Kali, saves a prince from a great crime
which he was about unconsciously to commit.^^ In other Indian
.stories heroes woo princesses on the strength of their knowledge of
the animal-language.^^ A Zulu who understood the language of
birds was able to predict the nature of the seasons through informa-
tion recsi ved from a wagtail.^^ In an old English version of the Gesfa
Rovtanorum three knights are sent by the Emperor Ancelmus to
take a castle. One of the knights, "a grete gever of counseille,'*^
understands the " passing swete sonet-song " of a nightingale, which
warns him that thieves are lying in wait in the wood.^* In a
Tibetan story, " Oxen as Witnesses," a ploughman is done a very
good turn by the oxen with which he ploughs ; but it is not quite
clear whether the language in which they address him is human oi*
bovine.^^
Sometimes, however, thia gift of tongues proves dangerous or
even fatal to its possessor. A friend of Porphyry's had a slave-
boy w^ho knew the language of all birds ; but his motlier, fearing^
lest the youthful prodigy should be sent as a present to the
emperor, fouled his ears, and he never understood the bird-
speech again.^ In an Esthonian story, a youth, craving after
knowledge, learns the bird-speech and other strange lore ; but
all his knowledge proves unsatisfying, and he pines away.^^ In a
folk-tale of Bengal, a woman enjoys " the rare faculty of under-
standing the language of beasts," whereby she finds gi*eat treasure ;.
but neither her husband nor anyone else knows of her accomplish-
ment, so bhe incurs the suspicion of being a Rakshasi, or vampyre, and
*^ The Dravidian NigJits EiiierUdnments : heimj a tramflation of Madanakam-
arajahkadai ; by Pandit S. M. Natesi Sadri (Madras, 1886), p. 60 sq.
^*- The KdtJia Sfirit Sdgara, translated from the original Sanskrit by C. H.
Tawnoy, i., p. 499 ; ii., p. 276.
^^ Callaway, Nursery Tales of the Zvlns^ p. 130 sqq.
^* Gestu RomaiiarHTn, Old E'iujlUh Versiwis, edited by Sir Frederic Madden
(London, 1838) p. 47 (p. 55 of Herrtage's edition, London, 1879). The corre-
sponding story in the continental Latin version of the Gesta Jtiomanorum is no.
130 (p. 484 ed. Oesterley), but it does not contain the incident of the nightin-
gale.
^^ Ttbetnn T<d4>s, Schiefner and Ralston, no. xxx. On p. 317 it is said that
not long after the creation of the world **even brute beasts could speak," which
makes for human bmguage ; but on p. 318 it is said that the oxen could not
.speak the language of men.
**° Porphyry, De abst, iii. 3 Kaiiuhur^t uf t^ Zraittufn^affis, Cp. the way in
which swallows are thought to cause blindness, Basile's Felamero}ie (Liebrecht)
i. p. 403, ii. p. 59.
*^ Fr. Kreutzwald, Ehslnische MUhrch^n^ avs dem Ehstnisclten iihcrsetzt von
F. Lowe (Halle, 1869), p. 25 sqq.
THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS. 163
is knocked on the head.*^ In a Mongolian stoiy a king sends his son
to the Diamond Kingdom of Central India to bo educated. He is
accompanied by the minister's son. On their return from the
Diamond Kingdom they pass through a thirsty desert, where the
prince, understanding the voice of a crow, finds water. The
minister's son, jealous of the prince's superior wisdom, kills him.^®
Thus far we have had examples of the possession of the animal
language. We have now to see the ways in which a knowledge of
that language is actjuired. Of course when a person has animal
blood in him, as often happens in folk-lore, it is natural enough that
lie should understand the language of his kindred. Thus a child
found in a wolfs den and said to be a wolf-child, understands the
wolves when they howl \^ and a Russian epic hero, whose father
was a serpent, understands the language of birds, beasts and fishes.*^
But the usual means of acquiring the animal language are (a) magic
rings, (b) magic plants, and (c) serpents.
(a). In *' the story of Cambuscan bold," besides the present of "the
wondrous horse of brass " for Cambuscan, the king of Araby and
Inde sends to Canace a magic mirror and ring.
" The vertu of this ryng, if ye wol heere,
Is this, that who so lust it fur to were
Upon hir thomb, or in hir purs to here,
There is no foul that fleeth under the heven.
That schc ne schal understonden his steven,
And know his meuying openly and ple3rn,
And answer him in his langage ageyn :
And every gros that groweth upon roote
Sche schal eek know, to whom it wol do boote,
All be his woundes never so deep and wyde.'' *'-
In a German story^*^ a prince comes to a castle where all the
people are fast asleep. In a hall of the castle he finds a table, and
on the table a golden ring. A silver inscription on the table declares
that whoever puts the ring in his mouth will understand the
language of birds. Afterwards the prince puts the ring in his
mouth and thas, by undei'standing what three crows are saying, he
is saved from death and recovers his eyesight.
*^ Lai Behari Day, Folk-tale^ of Bengal ^ no. x.
^^ Jiilg, SUiflhi Kiir, (Innsbruck 18U8), no. xv. ; Sagas from the Far EaM,
p. 157 ft'iq ; X. Marniier, CoiUen populaires de diffirent^^ pciy^y 2me S^ri^, p. 252
«o Sagas from the Far Ea^, (London, 1873), p. 277 s<i,
*^ A. Rambaud, La Rn^ie ipiqiie, p. 31.
«- Chaucer, Squier's Tide, vv. 10460—10459.
"^ J. W. Wolf, Deutsche HammUlhrchen (Gottingen and Leipzig, 1851), p.
148 sqq.
1 64 A NTHROPOL OG Y.
(b). A Swabian legend says that tliree witclies of Heiligenthal
culled simples in the woods and fields, and one of these simples im-
parted a knowledge of the language of animals.*^ In an Italian
story a man plucking some grass at random, suddenly finds that he
understands what the birds are sajdng. He heai-s one of them tell
where a treasure is to be found. He then drops the grass and
immediately ceases to understand the birds ; he looks for the grass
but never finds it again. However, he finds the treasure in the
place described by the bird.^ In an Esthonian story a girl has
learned in her youth the language of birds from an old woman, and
her eldest sister impajrts a knowledge of the bird-language to a
prince by giving him to eat a cake composed of meal, pork, and
certain herbs, the magic virtue residing in the herbs.*^ In Brittany
there is a plant called the golden herb {herhe (V or) because it bhines
from afar like gold. If any one happens to tread on it, he at once
falls asleep and understands the language of birds, dogs, wolves, &c.
The plant is seldom found, and never but at the peep of dawn ; it
can be gathered only by holy people and with certain mystic
rites.®^
But the plant which is most commonly supposed to impart a
knowledge of the languacje of animals is the feni. In a German
story®® a cowherd loses his cows, and as he trudged through the
grass in search of them, his great shoes (such as people wore long
ago) got filled with fern seed.^ Suddenly he heard the calf saying
that a certain ale-house would sink into the ffiound. The do*;
asked, " How long will it last ? *' and the cock answered, " Till
the end of the week." But the cowherd shook the fern seed out of
his shoes and heard no more. And in a week's time down sank the
f-* Birlinger, VidlidhiimlirheH aus Schwahen, i. i>. 1.
"^ Morlini, Xorelhte, no. (JO.
«" Fr. Kreutzwald, hhMiuHche Mahn-JwH, (Halle 1861»), pp. i. 7, 14 .w/.
Caubcniatis (ZindiMfU^al Mifthtdogn, i. p. 162) wi-oiigly attributes the magic in-
fluence to tlie pork. The words are plain : "3fe/n Sihucinfjfeischhtchen von
Qtdern , . . . 'wtn- mit Zanherh'avteni (jefiillf, icelche ench In (hn Stand itetzcu.
AUeit zit verstehen, iras die klvgeu Vikfel nnter einandei' redeny
**' Laisnel de la Salle, Croyames et legettdes dn centre de la Frtniee, i. p. 233,.
quoting Villeniarfju<5, Bai-zaz-Breiz, i. pp. 102, 187.
"** Kuhn, MiirVische Swjen itnd Miihirhen^ p. Gl.
'^'•^ Beenefare which (the story being given in the original dialect) Kuhn ex-
plains to be Bainfan-€H, which again Lucas in his German dictionary explains to
bo "common tansy." But Kuhn and Schwartz {Nmddtitti<the Sagcn, Miihrchin
utid Gebrtiiichej p. 487) referring to this same story, speak of the plant in ques-
tion as Fammme, i.e. fern seed. I therefore take it so in the text. The word
Peer which I translate *' cow "seems to=/<?/m **cow." See Curtius, G^nVc/i,
Etymd^^ p. 282. For in the dialect in which the story is written, p repeatedly
takes the place of f ; c.f^ eloopeu - (jehtufen, deejw^tii'fi.
THE LAXGUAGIt: OF AXIMALS. 165
ale-house into au abyss. Similar stories are told by the South
Slavonians and the Wends. In the South Slavonian version^^ a
cowherd lost two of his oxen on the Eve of St. John (Midsummer
Eve), which is the only time when fern seed possesses this maofic
power. At last he espied his oxen lying on a bed of fern. Ap-
]iroaching theai softly he was surprised to hear the older ox telling
the younger ox that he (the elder ox) would be killed in the
autumn, and that in the spring tiieir master would be attacked by
;\ snake, and could only b3 saved by the cowherd. All came to pass
iis the ox had foretold, but the cowherd never knew how just at
that moment he had understood the ox language. The reason was
that fern seed had fallen into his shoe without his noticing it ; for
if he had seen it, he certainly would not have understood what the
oxen said. In the Wend story^^ a man was herding horses, and the
bloom of the fern, which blooms only at midnight, fell into his
shoe. Next morning when he came home he told his friends what
the geese had been talking ab :)ut. This was noised abroa 1, and the
squire sent for him. To smarten himself up he took ofi' his shoes
and put on better ones, and from that moment he knew nothing of
the goose language.
Of the many other mystic properties of the fem,^^ there is only
one which it is desirable tD mention in connexion with the language
of animals. Fern seed or fern bloom is supposed to render the
person who carries it invisible ; but it is found only on Midsummer
Eve, when it shines like burnished gold, but quickly fades and falls,
not to be found again.^ The stories told of the invisibility con-
ferred by fern-seed resemble those told of its power of revealing the
language of animals. A man was looking for a strayed foal on
Midsummer Eve ; and as he went through a meadow, fern-seed fell
^^ Krauss, Sciyen niui Miilirchen der Siiddiiven^ ii. no. 169.
^ * W. von Schuleiibui^, Wetuii»c1ie Volkssayen niul Gebrdv<^^, (Leipzig 1880),
p. 82, cp. p. 269.
^'•^ Cp. Grimm, DeiitxJte Mythdogie^^ p. 1012 ; Wuttko, Der dentsche
Voikmberglanl^^' sees. 123-125 ; Grohmanu, AhenjlaxtheH u. GebrUiiche ans Bdhmei^
itud Miihreii^ sees. 673-676 ; H. Friend, Flmcers and Flototr Lon^^ pp. 60, 78,
279-283, 360-3G2 ; Gubernatis, Mythdwjie dea Flantes, i. p. 188 sg., ii. 143 sqq ;
Boeder- Kreutzwald, Der Eltsteii aherglUuhisdi^ Gebi'Uiiche &c., pp. 2,74, 87, 144 ;
Kuhn, Herahkunft des Feit^rs,' pp. 192-197 ; Zingerle, SitteUy GebrUacI^^ niul
Meinutujen des Tiroler Volkes,^ sees. 882, 1573 ; Von Alpenburg, Mtjthen nnd
Scigen Tirols, p. 407 «"/. ; Birlinger, Volksthumlichea ans Sch'icahen, i. pp. 333 ag.
:>40, ii. p. 103 ; Meier, Deutsche Sugen aiut Schw^abeny p. 243 sq.; Ralston, 8(nigs
nf the Russian People, p. 98, sq.; Reinsberg-Diiringsfeld, Fest-Kaleitder aus
BiShmen, p. 311 sq,
^•'* Wuttke sec. 123 ; Vonbun, Beitrdge zvr dentschen Mgthalogie, p. 133
s/. ; Friend, p. 362; Gubernatis, Mgth. d. Plmdes, ii. 144 sq.\ Kuhn, Uerab-
knnfty 19C, ; Grohmann, Abei'glanhei\y sec. 675.
1 66 ANTHROPOLOGY.
into his shoes. In the morning he came home and sat down in the
parlour. But it seemed strange that neither his wife nor anybody
else paid any heed to him. Then he said, " I did not find the foal
after all." Every one in the room shuddered visibly, for they
heard the man's voice but did not see him. His wife shouted his
name. He stood up in the middle of the room and said, " What are
you shouting for ? Here I am close beside you." This only added to
the general alarm. But now he felt something like sand in hicf
shoes. Scarcely had he taken them off and shaken them, when he
stood visible before the eyes of all.^*
(c) But most commonly it is a serpent w^hich conveys a know-
ledge of the language of animals. The ways in which it does so
are various. The application of the magic influence may be external
or internal, and the external application may be made either to the
ears or to the mouth. Applied to the ecxrs, the charm seems meant
to impart the power of understanding the speech of animals :
applied to the mouthy it may give the additional power of speaking
the animal language. But this distinction is not perhaps to be
pressed.
We begin with the application of serpents to the ears. Tho
way in which the Greek soothsayer Melampus became master of
his art was, according to Apollodorus,"^ as follows. He was staying
in the country, and in front of the house was an oak-tree, in which
serpents had made their lair. The servants killed the old sei-pents
and Melampus gathered sticks and burned their carcasses. But the
young serpents he reared. And when they were grown, one day
as he slept, they crept on his shoulders and cleansed his ears
with their tongue. He started up in a fright, and lo ! he under-
stood the voices of the birds as they flew overhead, and from
"* Grimm, D,M. p. 1012 ; Kuhn, jSa</cn, Gebriin4ihe nnd Miihrch^n av.s
WestfaleUf i. p. 276 ; L. Bechstoin, Thiiriiiger Sagetthvch, '^ no 67. For a differ-
ent story to the same effect, see Kuhn, Miirkische Smjen mid MUhrchen p. 2(X>
sq, (a peasant, driving with his wife, gets down ; fern-seed falls into liis shoes, he
becomes invisible, and sits invisible beside his wife in the waggon ; on taking off
his shoes he reappears). Again similar stories are told of how fern-seed gives
a knowledge of hidden treasure. In an Austrian story a man is looking for his
lost cow on Midsummer Eve ; fern-seed falls into his shoes ; the existence of an
underground treasure is revt;aled to him ; he hurries home to get tools with
which to dig it up ; takes off his shoes, and forgets where the treasure is
(Vemaleken, Mythen mid Brdnche des Vdll'es iu Oesterreich, p. 310). There are
similar Russian stories. In one of them it is the man's wife, who, seeing that
his feet are wet, tells him to change his stockings ; he does so, with the result as
b3fore. In another, it is the devil who persuades the man to change shoes with
him. Gubematis, MytIwlo(jie des PlaiUeHy i. p. 189, Cp. Toppen, Ahtrylauhe atw
Masnren ^, p. 72 sg,
7 5 ApoUodorus, BiUiotheca, i. 9, 11 ; Pliny, N. H. x. 137.
THE LANGUAGE OF AXUJALS. 167
-what he learned from them he was able to foretell events. But
it was not the birds only that he understood. For once being
caught cattle-lifting he was laid by the heels by Bias, the owner of
the cattle ; and as he lay in durance vile he heard the worms in the
roof talking to one another. One worm said, " How much of the
beam have we eaten through ? " and the other said, " Oh ! there is
only a little bit left." So he warned Bias that the house was
coming down, and scarcely had they cleared out, when sure enough
down it came.^^
The account given by the scholiast on ApoUonius Rho<lius
(i. 118.) of the way in which Melampus learned the language of
animals is fuller than that of Apollodorus ; and from it we learn
that when the serpents were killed, Melampus was not in his own
house but was staying with a friend, and that the killing of the
serpents (or serpent) was the doing of his friend and not of
Melampus, who, on the other hand, piously burned the serpent's
body and reared its young. Thus the burning of the serpents in
Apollodorus must have been, not a mark of contempt, but a solemn
funeral rite ; and so the benefit which the young snakes afterwards
conferred on Melampus may have been meant as a return quite
as much for the respect he had shown to their parents as for the
lives they themselves owed to him. Helenus ard Cassanclra
acquired their prophetic power in like manner. As children they
were left overnight in the temple of Apollo, and in the morning
serpents were found licking their eafs.^^ Porphyry says that
perhaps we and all men might understand the language of all the
animals if a serpent had washed our ears.^*^ Tiresias received a
knowledge of the language of birds from Athene who cleansed his
ears ;^® and when we remember how closely Athene was associated
with the serpent,*^ we can hardly be rash* in including Tiresias
among the serpent-taught seers, or rather hearers. The sacred
snakes in the temple of Athene*^^ may very well have done for
Tiresias what the snakes did for Helenus and Cassandra in the
7« Apollodorus, i. 9, 12.
7^ Schol. on Euripides, Jffccit5a, v. 86; Schol. on Homer, llia/l^ vii. 44;
Tzetzes, SclioL. in Lycophr. i. p. 266 »2'> ed- Miiller. It is implied in these
]>a88Ages that there were serpents in the temple of Apollo. For another example
of sacred snakes in a sanctuary of Apollo, see Aelian, Natnra Animnlium, xi. 2.
The soothsayer lamus was a son of Apollo and in his youth two snakes fed him
with honey. Pindar, Olymp, vi. 46.
"** Porphyry, De abst. iii. 4.
^^ Apollodorus, iii. 6, 7.
^^ See Bahr on Herodotus viii. 41.
^J- Besides Bahr I.e. see K. Botticher, Die Tektantik dSr HeUenen,- p. 389.
1G8 A XTHBOPOLOG Y.
temple of Apollo. This application of serpents to the ears seems to
be exclusively classical ; at least I have found no example of it outside
of Greek and Latin literature.^- The reason why soothsayei-s are sup-
posed to be specially acquainted with the language of birds is that
omens are very commonly taken from birds. In Greek, Arabic, and
Dyak the words for " bird " are used in the sense of " omen.** ^
The mouth as the point of application of the serpent-charm
appears in a Slavonian story,®* which runs thus. A shepherd
tending his flock heard a hissing, and perceived a serpent in the
midst of flames. He saved the serpent fi-om the fire, and the gi-ate-
ful snake led him to the abode of his^ father, who was king of the
serpents. On the way the rescued snake said to the shepherd^
" My father will offer you silver, gold, and gems. But don't take
them. Ask only to understand the Janguago of animals. He will
make a pother about giving it, but in the end you will get it." But
when the shepheixl asked the king of the serpents for the animal-
language, the king said, " That is not for you ; if I give you it and
you tell any one, you will die on the spot." But the shepheid
persisted, so the king spat thrice into the shepherd's mouth ^ and
the shepherd spat thrice into the kings mouth. Thus the
shepherd received the language of animals,^^ and as he went back
®- At Wubuni Abbey there is a Greek marble relief representing two ear»
with a serpent at each, the head of each serpent resting just above the top of
each ear. The inscription is mutilated, the only word to be made out with
certainty being etxapisthpion. Tlie tablet is probably a thank-oflfering for
the cure] of some defect of the ears. See Archiioloijische Zeitnmjj 1864, plate
facing p. 211.
**•* Aristophanes, Birdsy 720 ; Wellhausen, Regie ambischen Heidentumes, p.
148 ; Joxoiud of the Straits Branch of the Rayed Asiatic tSocietHf No. 10, p. 229.
^* W. S. Karadschitsch, ViilkinrUihrchen der Serben (Berlin 1854) ; Serbian
Folk-t<de8y selected and translated by Madam Csedomille Mijatovies, edited by
the Rev. W. Dent<m (London, 1874) ; Leger, Cmites Popidaires Slaves, (Paris,
1882), no. xi ; Krauss, Sayeu iiud Miihrchen der Siidslareuy (Leipzig, 1883), i.
no. 97.
**^ Or her ; the rescued snake is male in the versions of Krauss and Leger,
female in that of Karadschitsch.
^^ In the Banks' Islands (Melanesia) serpents are said to put their tongues
into the mouths of men who are theii* familiars. Journal of the Authropologicaf
liuititutey X. p. 277. To spit upon the idol's tongue is a mode of salutati(m in
West Africa. A. Bastian, Die deutsche Expeditimi an der Loantjo-Kiiste, i. p. 90.
®" With the opening of this Slavonian story compare the following. In a
Swahili tale, a woman befriends a snake, who in return takes her to its parents,
with whom she lives many days. When she is coming away, the snake whom
she befriended warns her to accept no present from the snake-parents save the
father's ring and the mother's casket. The snake-parents offer her wealth, but
she persists in asking for the ring and casket. The snake-parents are very
sorry and give her the ring and casket unwillingly. The ring has the
ni«'igic virtue of supplying clothes, food, and a house at discretirai ; the virtues of
77/ A' LA A7/ 1 ^A GK OF A XIMA LS. 1 6<Y
he undei'stood the voices of the birds, the grasses, and indeed, of
everything in the world. Hearing two ravens describing a buried
treasure he dug it up, became a rich man, and married a wife.
Once on a time he went on a journey with liis wife. He rode a
horse and she rode a mare, and the mare fell behind the horse.
TThe horse called out to the mare, ** Step out faster. How you lag
behind ! " But the mare answered, " It is easy for you, since you
only carry one ; but I carry three, for my mistress is pregnant and so
am I." The man understanding thi s conversation laughed. His wife
asked him why he laughed, but he ref us3d to tell her, saying that it
would cost him his life to do so. But she persisted So when they
were come home, wearied with her importunity, he ordered his.
coffin and lay down in it, ready, as soon as the fatal words had
passed his lips, to give up the ghost. Seeing his dog sitting beside
the coffin he called to his wife to throw the dog a bit of bread.
The faithful dog would not look at it, but the cock came and picked
at it. " Oh you brute ! ** said the dog to the cock, " to be guzzling
like that when your master is dying." " Let him die," f-aid the cock,
" the fool ! 1 have a hmidned wives and yet by a judicious system
of punishment I keep them all in the most exact order ; he has but
one and he can't make her hold her tongue." At thess words the
man stepped out of his coffin, took a stick, and beating his wife
black and blue prevailed on her to stop.
This tale may bo traceJ, with variations of detail, right across
the old world from Italy and Finland on the one side to Annam on
the other.
An Indian version of it is quoted by Bastian^ from the Nonthu
kpakaranam — ^a collection about which, unfortunately, I have been
able to obtain no information. A kino: saves tho dautjhter of a
Naga prince from marrying beneath her rank; and in gratitude
the Naga prince teaches the king the language of animals. His
the casket are not specified. (E. Steere, Swahili T<dcsy London, 1870, p. 40^
sqq). In a Taranbschi-Tartar story, a young man saves a serpent from death.
The serpent tiikes his benefactor to his father, the serpent>king, and advises the
young man Ut ask for the serpent-king's ring. The serpent-king in gratitude
for the kindness done to his son offers the man gold and silver, but he refuses
and asks for the serpent-king's ring. The king is very sorry and tries to
persuade the young man to take anything but the ring ; at last, however, he
gives it. The ring is a wishing-ring ; whatever the c)wner of it desires, he gets.
(W. RadlofiV Proben der VdhHiUet-atuv der ii^i'dlichen Tiirhi^hen Stiimme vi. i>.
172 sqq.) In an Indian story, a young man treats a serpent kindly; the rest
follows as before, the serpent-king remarking as he gives the ring, " This ring I
would not have given even to Indra if he had requested this of me." (I7ic
Ihrntidian Nujhts EnteiiainmeiUs, by Pandit S.M. Natesi Sastri, pp. 23-^7.)
**** Zeihchnft ffir Ethiuiloyief i., p. 162.
170 ANTHROPOLOGY.
wife asks him why he laughed, and he gives himself up for lost,
till he learas a lesson from the billy-goat and his treatment of his
goat-wives. In this version the Naga prince answers to the king
of serpents in the Slavonian version, for the Nagas were mythical
beings, half human, half serpentine in form ; indeed Naga often
stands for a common serpent®®
We next (if indeed next, and not first) maet the story in the
Arabian Nights. ^'^ There was a certain merchant, whom God
endowed with a knowledge of the language of beasts and
birds. He dwelt in the country, and in his house were an
ass and a bull. Now the ass had little to do and fared
sumptuously, but the bull toiled at ploughing. So when the bull
bewailed his hard fate, the ass told him t > feign sickness and then
he would be allowed to stay at home in peace. But the merchant
hearkened to these words and laid them up in his heart And next
day when the bull flopped down under the weight of the plough as
though he were weak and ill, the merchant commanded and they
took the ass and put him to the jilough, and he drew it up and
down all day long till the evening. And the next day he did like-
wise, and his neck was galled and raw, and he himself was reduced
to an extreme state of weakness. When he came back in the
evening, the bull thanked and praised him for his noble conduct
But the ass said, " Know that I am one who would give thee good
advice. I heard our master say, *If the bull rise not from his
place, take him to the butcher that he may kill him.' I am there-
fore in fear for thee, and so I have given thee good advice, and
peace be on thee." So next day when his driver came, the bull
pranced and shook his tail and bounded about ; and the
merchant beheld him and laughed till he fell backward. Then
his wife asked him why he laughed. But he said, " Ask me not,
for if I tell thee I must surely die." But she urged him. So he
sent for the kadi that he might make his will. And he went into
the stable that he might perform his ablution before he died.
There he heard the dog reviling the cock and sajdng, " Art thou
happy when our master is going to die ? " But the cock replied,
" By Allah 1 our master has little sense. / have fifty wives ; and I
please this one and provoke that ; while he has but one wife and
cannot manage her ; why does he not take some twigs of the
^^ Monier Williams, Beligiwis Life and ThoMghts in India, p. 321 sj. Of
course the mytliical Nagas are to be distinguished from the tribes of the same
name in Assam.
^^ Lane's translation, vol. i., p. 10 sqq. (ed. 1859).
THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS. 171
mulbsrry-tree and beat her till she dies or repents ? " And the
merchant did so and bsat her till she repented, and they lived to-
gether in the happiest manner till death.
In Europe the story seems to appear first in the Latin Novellae of
Morlini, published at Naples in 1520, and reprinted by Jannet at
Paris in 1855. In this Neopolitan version^^ a man is leading his
wife on a she-ass, and the ass's foal follows lagging behind. Tlie
foal remonstrates with its mother for going so fast, and the mother
answers much as the mare answers in the Slavonian tale. The
husband who understands the speech of reptiles and quadrupeds
(it is not said how he learned it) laughs on hearing this conversa-
tion, and the rest follows as in the Arabian and Slavonian stories.
A few touches of local colour are put in " to give artistic verisimi-
litude to a bald and unconvincing narrative ; ** thus a confessor is
substituted for the kadi, and the cock's speech is embellished with
a quotation from the Politics of Aristotle.
The story, translated from Morlini, next appears in the second
part of the Italian tales {Piacevo/i Notti) of Straparola, published
at Venice in 1554.^
The Slavonian version, first published in the original by Kara-
dschitsch in 1852, has been already given.
The Annamite version, differing considerably from all the fore-
going, was published in 1885.^ A man once saw two sei*pents in
their hole. Tlie female was casting her slough, and the male
waited on her. Another time it was the male that was casting his
slough ; but instead of looking after liim the female went gadding
about. Indignant at her misconduct the man shot her. The male
serpent discovered her slayer by the arrow, and lay in wait to kill him.
But the man happened to tell his wife what ho had seen ; the
serpent, listening in the background, recognised the justice of the
man's conduct, and out of gratitude brought him his precious stone.
All serpents have such a stone in their mouths, and whoever pos-
sesses it understands the language of animals. But the man durst
not tell his wife of the new gift he had acquired, for if he did so,
the stone would vanish. One day his wife went into a corner of
the house where there were some ants. The ants scrambled out of
her way, and the man heard them say to each other, " Come, let us
climb up to a place of safety." He laughed. His wife wished to
^^ No. Ixxi., De Piit^olano qui animalium hyq^idam M^igehaL
®'- The French translation of Straparola by Louveau and Larirey has been
often reprinted. I have used the edition of 1857 (Jannet, Paris).
®** No. Ixix. of Landes' Coiht^ et lefjeudes Aniuimites, in Cochiiicfwie Fnnvgaisey
Excursions et BecmiiuiissanceSy x., no. 23, Saigon, 1885.
172 ANTHROPOLOGT.
know why he laughed, but he steadily refused to tell her, and sht-
died of vexation.
The]^Tarantschi-Tartar version was published in 1886.^ A man
learns the animal speech from a man who knows the languages of
all animals, and who warns his pupil that if he divulges the secret
he must die. Thus warned, the man hears the dog and cat talking,
and laughs, and when his wife plagues him with asking why he
laughed, he beats her and she stops asking. But one day he hears
the ass and the oxen talking, as in the Arabian Nights* version ;
the ass advises the oxen, who have been ploughing, to feign sick-
ness ; one of the oxen does so ; the ass is put to the plough in his
stead, and after ploughing tells the ox that their master will kill
him if he continues to feign illness. Hearing this the man laughs ;
his wife asks him why. In vain he tells her the fatal consequences
of answering her question. She persists ; so he tells her and
dies.
Lastly, the Finish version appeared, in a Gennan translation,,
in 1887.^ A hunter saves a serpent from being burned in a stove,
;uid the serpent out of gratitude teaches the hunter the language of
birds, animals, plants, and trees ; but warns him that if he reveals
the secret he must die. Fi'om hearing the fir-trees talk he finds a
great treasure, becomes rich, and marries. One day he heai's a
mother sparrow telling her young ones to pick the seeds from the
plants and not from the ground. At this he laughs ; his wife
pesters him to tell her why ; he lies down to die, but hearing the
cock making the usual speech (in this case not addressed to a dog
but delivered as a soliloquy) about his fifty wives, he jumps up and
makes a grab at his wife s head. She escapes, but troubles him no
more with questions.
In a Russian story,®® a hunter saves a serpent from burning an<l
i^eceives from him the animal language on condition of revealing it
to no one under pain of death. In a French story a shepherd
can-ies a strayed serpent, who is the king of animals, back to the
** wood of the animals,'' and receives the lannruasje of animals on the
usual condition.^
So far the animal-language has been the free gift of a living
serpent. But oftener it is acquire* I by eating of a serpent.
Democritus, as reported by Pliny, said that whoever ate a
^* W. Radloff, Proben der VdhHitteridnr dev nonUichen Tiirkischen Stummc^
vi., p. 250 sqq. (St. Petersburg, 188(5).
^^ FinnMie MlihrcJien, iibersetzt von Eiiiniy Schreck, Weimar, 1887.
^^ Gubematis, Zoolofjical Mythjloijn^ ii., p. 405.
^' E. Kolland, Faune Fopnlalre th la Fmnce, iii., p. 40 sj.
THE LAXGUAGE OF ANIMALS. 173
seii^eiit would understand the language of binls."^ Pliilostratus
thought that tlie Arabs gained a knowledge of the bird-language by
oating the heart or liver of a sei7)ent,^ and he says that in the same
way the people of Paraka in India undei*stood the language of
animals in general.^^ Miss Gordon Gumming has been informetl
tliat " to this day both Arabs and Hindoos eat the heart and liver
of serpents, hoping thereby to acquire a knowledge of the language
of animals." ^^^ But perhaps her informant ha^l Philostratus in his
mind. So far as the Ai*abs are concerned, Prof. Wellhausen ^^ seems
to know no later authority than Philostratus. It is a German and
Bohemian superstition that whoever eats sei'pent s flesh under-
stands the language of aniraals.^^ The Lithuanians say that
whoever boils a white serpent and eats it with the soup, become *
omniscient.^'^ The Wends tell of a man who through eating a
white serpent understood what the birds said.^^ In a Syi-ian story
a dervish has drunk serpent- water ; hence serpents cannot bite him,
and he talks w4th both serpents and birds in their respective
languages.*^ In tlie Edda, Sigui'd kills the di-agon Fafnir and
roasts his heart on a spit. Putting his finger to it to see if it is
roasted enough he burns his finger and sticks it in his mouth. But
tlie moment that Fafnir s heart's bl(X)d touches his tongue he under-
stands the language of birds and knows what the eagles on the
bi'anches are saj'ing.^^^ The same story occurs in the Volsung Sagii,
tixcept that nuthatches take the place of eagles.^^ Saxo Gram-
maticus^^'* tells how RoUo, jjeeping through a crevice, saw his
mother Craca preparing a peculiar dish. Three snakes hung on a I'ope
and the juices flowincj from their mouths furnished the sauce. Two
•.»M Pliiiy^ Xtii. ///x/., X., sec. I.*i7. cp. /'/. xxix., sec. 72. See below, note
on i>. 180.
'J'* Philostratns, Vii. Jyn*//., i., 20.
!'>« //>., iii., 0.
'^^ Miss C. F. Gordon Cunnning, In thv IMMes (London, 1883), p. 54.
*^- J. Wellhausen, Rt'.<tt' urnhMwu HeUlenUnnen (Berlin, 1887), p. 147.
H»ohart (Hkvo'jmnn, p. 22, e<l. 1(582) c|uot«8 an Arabic writer to the same
c'tfect, but the writer seems to have copied Philostratus.
lo;; Wuttke, Iki' tUntt^schi' J^M^^ilfenjlunU'y' sec. 153 ; Grohuiann, AlkcrtjlaulHia
lutil GelmiiK'he <r»M Bohmen iintl Mfihren, no. 1658.
^®* Veckenstedt, Do.' Mifthin, Sitip'u, mid Li'goufeH thr Zumttiteu^ (Heidel-
bci-g, 1883), ii., p. 160.
^^^ W. von Schulenburg, WimlMu! Volk^^ftKjeii nud (ri'hrUnche nns dem
Sf/iweimld (Leipzig, 1880), p. 9(5.
lotf Piym und S<xjin, Siji'Mie Saijen nnd MdkirhcH^ p. 150 »([,
^^' Die Edda, iibersetzt von K. »Simrock, pp. 180, 309.
***** Volfi^niffn- II nd 1ia(fnarA-S<i*j<i, iilnirsetzt von F. H. von der Hagon-
( Stuttgart, 1880), p. 63 sq,
*"'•* Ri4orh Danlai, bk. v., p. 193 .</., ed. Miillcr.
174 ANTHROPOLOGY.
of the snakes were blaxjk ; the third was white. The white one
hung a little higher than the other two and was fastened by a knot
in its tail, whereas the black ones had a stiing i-unning through
them. When his father Regnar and his step-brother (Craca's son)
Eric came, they all sat down to table. Craca put before Eric and
Rollo a single dish containing the flesh of the black and white
snakes. The end of the platter containing the black snakes was
put next her own son Eric ; but Rollo hai)pening to taste the black
snake, turned round the dish and ate the black snake, leaving the
white for his brother. From eating the black snake, Rollo acquired
universal knowledge, including an understanding of the speech of
animals both wild and tame, much to the disappointment of his
step-mother Craca, who had intended the black snake for her own son
Eric. The virtue here attributed by Saxo to a black snake is unique ;
in all other cases, where the colour of the serpent is mentioned, it is a
white snake whose flesh has this magic virtue.^^^ In Norway, Sweden,
and Jutland down to the present century the flesh of a iv/iite snake
was supposed to confer supernatural wisdom.^^^ We are almost led
to conjecture that Saxo lias interchanged the rolls of the black and
white serpent ;^^^ this conjecture is borne out by the precedence
apparently given by Craca to the white serpent in the process of
cooking, as described by Saxo.
There are a number of stories in wliich, as in Saxo, the maoic
serpent is eaten by a person for whom it was not intended. In a
Breton story "^ a workman, lodging with an old dame who passed
for a witch, one day brought her a snake which he had killed.
She cooked it ready for eating, and when she was out of the house,
the man ate a bit of it. Going out of the house he was surprised
to find that he understood the language of the birds. He told the
dame what had liappened, she breathed into his mouth, and after
that he ceased to understand the bird-language. The way in which
Michael Scott was supposed to have become a wizard is somewhat
similar. Being attacked by a white serpent he killed it by dividing
it into three pieces at a blow. The landlady of the house at which
he stopped for the night, hearing of this, offered a reward for the
110 Except in X. Mamiier's Coides pop^daires de differaites pays^ 2me s^rie,
p. 56, where the serpent is blue with a green head. But in Waldau's version
(of which Marmier's version appears to be an amplification) there is no mention
of the snake's colour (Bdhmisches Marchenhuch, p. 13).
m Miiller on Saxo Grammaticus, vol. ii., p. 146.
11^ The only example I know of virtue attributed to a Uack snake is in tlie
Panchatantra (ii., p. 369, Benfey), where the stetm from a black snake boiling
in a pot restores the sight of a blind man.
11'^ Sebillot, Traditimis et snjperstUwus de la Haute-Bretagne, ii., p. 224.
THE LAXGUAGE OF ANIMALS. 175
middle piece of the white serpent. It was brought to her. In the
night the landlady, thinking every one was asleep, cooked the ser-
pent and from time to time she dipped her finger in the saucepan,
upon which the cock crew. But Michael Scott was watching her
and out of curiosity he too dipped his finger in the sauce and ai)plied
it to the tip of his tongue. Immediately the cock crew and Michael
Scott's mind " received a new light to which he was fonnerly a
stranger," including a " knowledge of ' good and evil ' and all the
* second -sights ' that can be acquired.""*
In a German story"^ a wise king eats of a white serpent every
day after dinner. Hi3 servant, out of curiosity, one day tastes the
white serpent and immediately understands the language oK
animals. In a Bohemian tale"^ an old woman brings a serpent to
a king, telling him that if he ate it he would understand the
language of all animals. He does so, but his servant, who has strict
ordei's not to taste the serpent, disobeys his orders, tastes, and at
once his ears are opened and he understands the language of animals.
He betrays his knowledge by laughing at a remark made by a
horse ; but the king pix)mises to spare his life if he will bring
him the maiden with the golden hair. In a German legend
of the origin of the Seeburger lake near Gottingen it is said that
long ago theie was a wicked lord whose servant once brought
to the castle a silver- white serpent instead of a fish. The lord, who
knew a little of the beast-language, was pleased for he was aware
that whoever ate of such a serpent would attain to a complete
mastery of that language. He ate his fill of the white serpent, and
his servant, against orders, tasted the little that was left. Soon the
wicked lord heard the birds saying that the castle was doomed to
immediate destruction. He asks his servant what the cock is say-
ing ; the servant in his alarm betrays his knowledge of the bird-
language ; his master cleaves his skull, and rides away. At sunset
tlje castle sinks into the ground, and where it stood there stretches
a broad water."*^ In another Geniian story a girl who had eaten of
a serpent foretells, from hearing what a cock says, that an ale-house
will sink into the ground that very day and be replaced by a deep
water."**
*** W. Grant Stewart, The popular superditwrn and festive anmsemeida of
the Hifjhlanders of Scotland (New ed., London, 1851), pp. 53, 56.
^^* Grimm, Khuler-nnd Han^mUhrcheny no. 17.
*^*^ A. Waldau, BUhmisches Mdhrcheubnch, p. 13 sqq. ; X. Marmicr, Contes
popidaires de diffcrentes paijn, 2me B^rio, p. 55 sqq.
* ^ "^ Grimm, Devtuche Sa^feuy - no. 132.
^^^ Kuhn und Schwartz, Norddeutadie Sayen, MUfnc\en laul OebriiiicJie, p.
154. Cp. the German story above, p. 164 ȣ.
17(5 AXTHIlorOLOGY.
Ill the Tyrol there ixrc stories ^^** of a Doctor Tlieophi*astus, a
marvellous physician and a master of the black art who with great
difficulty caught a Hasehuunfty i.e. a white serpent, the taste of
which impai'ts a knowlerlge of the lanii^uage of all creatures and so
sharpens the eyes that they can see through rocks into the veins of
^old and gems deep down in the earth. When at last Dr. Theo-
phrastus has caught the white snake, he orders his senant to boil it
4ind to be sure not to taste it. The servant tastes it and betrays
his knowledge (as in the casa of the husband and wife) by laughing
at the talk of two magpies, whereupon his master kills him.^^^
There is a very similar story in Hohemia.^-^ In a Bavarian story
the servant, who is charfjed witli cooking the wonder-workins:
isjrpent, changes it, eats it himself and gives his master something
else ; the servant undei'stands the language of animals and plants,
And is killed by liis master.^-^ In an Austrian story the servant
who has tasted of the white serpent betrays himself by his know-
ledge of the goose -language, but the story has not the usual tragic
-cnd.^^ In a Highland story a drover goes to England to sell cattle
with a hazel staff in jiis hand. He meets a doctor who asks him to
go and bring him a wand from the same hazel tree from which the
-drover got his staff. Also he was to watch at the foot of the hazel
tree till seven serpents came out ; he was to let the six pass but the
seventh he was to put in a bottle and bring to the doctor. The
4lrover went and cut some boughs from the hazel tree. Then he
watched at the hole ; si x brown and l>arred seqients came out ; he
*'*' Y«»ii Alpenburg, Mijthrn und 5<#j/oi Tli'oL% p. 302 .S'y</. D<)ct<>r The<.>-
phi'asbuH is probably Pjimcelsua, whoHe real name was Thoophrastus Bonibant
von Hoheiiheini. A Swabian legend tells liow Theophnnftus Ptinicchus gut feni-
seed, E. Meier, D^'ntsrht' »S»<^w<, SififH nmt (U'hiiinch*' ai'n Sihi'ytfu'ii, p. 244.
^'^ In another version (von Alpenbui"g /.<•.) the senant betmys himself by
his 8ui>eniatural sight ; in another by his knt»wledge of the language of plants.
In this last veraion the doctor and his servant come to a meadow, and ]is soon as
the flowei*s and plants see the doctor they all begin t«) hhoiit out the medical
properties which they respectively possess. The servant hiughs at a remark <»f
a little red flower and is killed, as before. On this j)lant language, Jicquired by
trvsting of the Hmnilwnnny cp. Alpenbui-g, up, c/f., p. 378. In a Swahili tale a
man bec<mie8 a great jdiysician by drinking the second skimming of the cooked
b.»dy of the King of the Snakes. The nature of the knowledge which he thus
ac<iuh'ed may be inferred from the medical knowledge posaesse*! I)y the King of
Snakes in his life-time ; on a ceHain island when the trees saw the Snake-king
they each declared what they wore goixl for ; one s*iid : "1 am medicine for the
head,'' anotlier ** I am medicine for the feet," &,z, E. Steere, Stnthili. Tales, pi>.
345, 361. Thus the Swahili doctor h}\s an exact parallel in Dr. Theophrastus, so
far as a knowledge of simples goes.
1-* Grohmann, sec. 1658.
'-*- Sepp, Altbii yerMu' r SttgciiJU'hiif': (Mmiichy 187()), p. 015 .h/.
'-•* A. Peter, VolhMhnmlicheH nu:i ih^stvrreirliiMf'h-Srhtt'sirii, ii., p. 33 s/y.
THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS. 177
let them pass ; last came a white snake, which he bottled up and
carried to the doctor. The two make a lire with the hazel sticks
and put the snake in a pot to boil. The drover is ordered not to
let the steam escape, so he wraps paper round the pot lid. But
steam begins to come out at one place, so the drover, thinking to
push the paper down, puts his finger to the place, and then his
ringer to his mouth, for it was wet with the bree ; and " lo ! ho
knew everything, and the eyes of his mind were opened." Presently
the doctor came back, lifted the lid, put his finger in the steam and
sucked it. But the virtue had gone out of it, and he saw that the
drover had tasted it. " Since you have taken the bree of it, take
the flesh too," said he in a rage, and flung the pot at him. So the
drover was allwise and became a great doctor.^^
The idea that the magic serpent, whose flesh imparts a know-
ledge of the language of animals and plants, is to be found under a
hazel tree, occurs also in Germany ,^^ where indeed, as we have seen,
the serpent is often called the " hazel-worm " {Haselwumi), The
coincidence is not merely a verbal one, for in Gaelic (from which
the Highland story is translated) the hazel is caltuinn. With re-
gard to the white serpent. Miss Gordon Gumming says that " it is
believed by some of the old Highlanders still to exist in the land —
a faith which is occasionally confirmed by the appearance of a
silvery gi'ey specimen." ^^
Occasionally the animal language is acquired by a combination
of serpent and plant, as indeed is, to some extent, the case when
the serpent is to be found imder the hazel A Bohemian receipt
1-* J. F. Campbell, Poptdar Tales of the West Highlands, ii., p. 361 sqq.
In Chambers' Pop\dar Rhymes of Scotlaiid, p. 77 sqq., a similar story (but with-
out the hazel) is told of Sir James Ramsay of Banff, how by sucking his
fingers, which he had burned in cooking a white serpent for his master, he found
tliat his eyes were opened and he could see through everything ; so he became a
great doctor because ** he could clearly see what was wrang in folk's insides."
Again Gilleadha became a famous doctor in much the same way (Campbell, op.
cit. ii., p. 366). ' Again some giants bade Fingal roast a fish for them, tlireatening
to kill him if he burned it. Seeing that one small spot was burning he put his
finger on it and then put his burned finger in his mouth ; a gift of omniscience
was the result (^>. p. 362 sq.) From such cases of wisdom acquired by sucking
the fingers, Liebrecht (Gervasins voii, Tilbxiry, p. 156) ingeniously proposes to
explain the Egyptian Harpocrates, who was represented sitting on a lotus flower
with his finger in his mouth. Cp. Callaway, Beligioxis system of the Amazidu, pp.
290 note, 381.
^^* Sepp, Altbayerischer Sagenschatz, p. 615 ; cp. Kuhn, Heixibkunft des
FenerSy - p. 201 sq. In the Tyrol, on the contrary, it is said that snakes do not
lurk under hazel bushes, Zingerle, Sitteih Brd'uche iitui Meinungen des Tircler
VolkeSy''^ no. 886. In Sweden it is thought that snakes lose their poison by
contact with a hazel, Kuhn, cp. cit. p. 202.
120 c, F. Gordon Cumming, In the Hebrides, p. 54.
M
178 A^^THROPOLOGY.
for learning the language of geese is to cut off a serpent's head>
split it, and put a pea in the split, then bury the head in the
garden ; eat the first pod of the pea-plant which grows from the
pea in the serpent's head, and you will understand the language of
geese.^*^ In a poem of the Lebed-Tartars a young man receives
from a serpent's mouth a bit of a plant which he puts in his mouth,
and immediately understands the language of serpents, and he and
the serpent talk to each other.^^
The last mode of learning the animal language which we shall
notice is peculiar, though the plot of the story is closely similar to
the " husband and wife " story which we have traced across the
old world. The story is a Tartar one, from the village of Sait.^^
An old beggar who takes no thought for the morrow throws daily
into the sea the remains of his food, and upon the bread thus cast
on the waters the fish grow fat. The thing comes to the ears of
the lord of the fishes who sends for the free-handed beggar to
reward him. As the fish are conducting him through the sea to
their lord, they say to him, " the king of fishes will offer you gold
and silver ; do not take them, but say * Let me kiss your tongue.'"
The fish-king did as the fish had foretold. The beggar refuses the
proffered wealth and asks only to kiss the king's tongue. The
king, after expostulating, allows the beggar to do so, but warns him
that by this means he will receive a knowledge of the language of
all creatures, which he mu?jt reveal to no one under pain of death.
By overhearing the talk of two birds, the beggar discovers a
treasure which makes him a rich man. His sudden wealth excites
the suspicions of his wife who threatens to inform the police. The
old man is in a strait. His friend, the king of the fish, discerns his
embarrassment and sends two birds to give him a hint The
beggar hears the cock saying to the hen : •' Eat j- our meat and
put on your clothes, and never mind where the food and clothes
come from ; that's my business, not yours." The lesson is not lost
on the beggar ; he takes a whip and soon brings his wife to a better
frame of mind.
In reviewing the chief means of attaining the animal language,
namely, rings, fern-seed, and serpents, we may notice some
points of contact between them. First, as to rings. We have seen
(p. 168, note) that serpents confer wishing-rings upon their bene-
factors just as they confer the gift of tongues. Now it is a common
^27 Grohmann, Eec. 1414.
i-^s W. Radloff, Prohen i., p. 322.
129 jrf^ i^.^p, 492 «y(^.
THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS. 179
idea that serpents have precious etones in their heads,^^ and in the
Annamite story we have seen that the gift of the animal language
is a special property of these stones. We may conjecture, there-
fore, first, that rings bestowed by serpents contain these serpent-
gems ; and second, that rings which confer the gift of animal speech
are serpent-rings, that is, contain serpent-gems. This conjecture is
confirmed by a second parallelism which holds between magic rings
and serpent-heads (or the gems in the serpents' heads) ; both alike are
capable of rendering their possessor invisible. This was the property
of the magic ring of Gyges,^*^ and it was equally a property of the
gems found in the heads of the serpents near Paraka by the Indians,
who also acquired the speech of animals by eating the heart and liver
of these same serpents,^^^ and it is still supposed to be a property of
serpents' heads in Bohemia.^^ It is said to be a common opinion in
Wales, Scotland, and Cornwall that about Midsummer Eve the
snakes meet in companies and by joining beads and hissing pro-
duce a glass ring, which whoever finds shall prosper in all his
undertakings ; and these rings are called snake-stones.^^ If this
idea could be proved to be wide spread, we might perhaps suppose
that this ring is the wishing-ring bestowed by serpents on their
benefactors ; but in the absence of such proof it is better to sup-
pose that these wishing-rings contain the gems from the serpents*
heads.^^ However, the time when these sflass rings are formed
(namely. Midsummer Eve) is remarkable, because, as we have seen,
this is precisely the time when the animal language is supposed to
be acquired through fern-seed.
The connection of the fern with serpents in folklore is im-
doubted. In Germany the fern is sometimes called the adder-plant
(Otterkraut) and any one who carries it is thought to be pursued
by adders till he throws it away.^^ The Lithuanians also call the
fern the serpent-j^lant, because the king of the serpents is supposed
to fetch the bloom of the fern on Midsummer Eve to be his crown.^
1^0 See Benfey, PauUchatantra, L, p. 214 note.
^^^ See Stallbaum on Plato, BejnibliCy 369 d. It is a curious coincidence
that both in Plato and in Chaucer the magic ring is associated with a horse of
brass.
i-'-J PhUostratus, VU. Aj)oU., iii. 8.
133 Wuttke, Derdentsche Vdksaherglanlye^' sec. 153.
^'** Brand, Popular AiUiqnUies, I., p. 322 ^Bohn's edition^
135 We might unite the two hypotheses by supposing that the glass ring
formed by the serpents on Midsmnmer Eve is composed by the fusion of the
gems in their heads. But this would be going too far from the facts.
i3« Grimm, Deutsche Mythdogiey p. 1013 ; in Bohemia snakes are thought to
lurk under ferns, Kuhn, Herahhmfl des Feuer$,\ p. 196 n.
137 Veckenstedt, Die MytheUy Sctgen, mid Legended der Zamaiten (Litauer),
II., p. 180.
180 ANTHROPOLOGY.
la a Litlmanian legend, a queen finds by night the serpents fighting
with the other animals for the fern ; she plucks the fern, wound;*
herself in the thigh with her sword, puts the fern into the wound
the wound closes on it, and immediately the queen becomes omni-
scient.^^ This probably took place on Midsummer Eve, the time
when the fern possesses its magic properties. Similarly in Russia
the person who catches the golden bloom of the fern on Midsummer
Eve should cut his hand with his knife and insert the fern into
the wound ; then all secret things become visible to him.^^® Again,
the same parallelism which exists between rings and serpents,
exists between fern-seed and serpents; for fern-seed as we have
seen (p. 165) like serpents' heads renders the wearer invisible.
The reason why the serpent is especially supposed to impart a
knowledge of the language of birds appears from a folk-lore con-
ception of the origin of serpents. According to Demoeritus as
reported by Pliny ,^*^ serpents are generated from the mixed blood
138 Jrf. i., p. 116 «^.
130 Ralston, Swi,g8 of the Brissian People, p. 98 8(i. For rubbing the magic
substance into a wound, cp. Callaway, Beligioiut system of the Amazuln, pp. 313,
380 ; E. flolub, tieben Jahre in Siid- Afrika, vol. ii., p. 361 ; Rochefort, Hist,
nat. et mor. des lies AntiUes, p. 566 ; Du Tertre, Hidoire (jhierale des Aiddles^
vol ii., p. 377.
140 Pliny, Ned. Hid., x. 137. The reader may well be startled at findmg
folk-lore biology attributed to Demoeritus, one of the most enlightened men of
antiquity, and who in his conception of physical causation stands nearer the
most modem physicists than any other of the ancients. Some of the ancients
themselves were staggered by the portentous absurdities fathered on the
philosopher, and justly suspected that some of the works which passed for hia
were spurious. See Aulus Gellius x. 12 ; Pliny, Nat. Hint. xxx. 10. Grounds,
I believe, could be shown for holding that some of the worst of these absurdities
are taken from the works of Bolus the Mendesian, a nominal adherent of the
school of Demoeritus, especially from his work. On Sympathies and Antipathies.
It is directly stated by Columella (vii. 5, 17) that a work of this writer
was falsely attributed to Demoeritus. The Symjxithies and Antipathies of Bolus
are probably the source of the nonsense put down to Demoeritus in the
Oeoponica ; and as one of the charms there ascribed to the philosopher (xiv. 5)
consists in the use of the name Adam, we may suspect that Bolus the Men-
desian was acquainted with the Jewish writings, to whicli as an Egyptian he
might easily have access. He would thus belong to the Alexandrian age.
Obviously the idea that, serpents being formed from the blood of birds, any
one who eats a serpent will understand the bird-language, would be perfectly
in place in a folk-lore work on "sympathy and antipathy." The passage in
Columella would seem to show that Suidas is wrong in distinguishing between
Bolus the Democritean and Bolus the Mendesian ; for a work of Bolus the
Mendesian could hardly have been ascribed to Demoeritus, if the writer had not
belonged to Demoeritus' school. Unless, indeed, we suppose that Bolus the
Mendesian was confounded with Bolus the Democritean and the latter with
Demoeritus. This is perhaps the preferable hypothesis ; for Bolus the Mende-
sian was (according to Suidas) a Pythagorean philosopher, and the Pythagorean
school gave more scope for folk-lore than the Democritean.
THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS. 181
of diverse birds. This explains why serpents should understand the
language of birds ; they do so, because they are blood relations of
birds, having the blood of birds in their veins. If we ask why
serpents are thought to be formed of the blood of birds, we
may conjecture that the idea originated in the observation
that serpents eat birds and birds* eggs. Hence on the folk-lore
principle that in eating of an animal's flesh one absorbs the animal's
mental qualities, (1) the serpent acquires the bird language, (2)
any one who eats a serpent also acquires the language of birds.
From the language of birds to the language of animals in general
is not perhaps a long step in folk-lore. The idea that birds are
pre-eminently talkers appears in the practice, observed by some
Turkish tribes in Asia, of giving to children who are long of learn-
ing to speak the tongues of certain birds to eat.^*^
It is much less easy to say why fern-seed is supposed to impart
a knowledge of the language of animals. In a Thliringen story, a
hunter procures fern-seed by shooting at the sun at noon on Mid-
summer day ; three drops of blood fall down, which he catches on
a white cloth, and these drops of blood are the fem-seed."^ If we
could suppose that the blood thus falling from the sky was the
blood of birds, all would be plain. But still this would not
explain the special association of fern-seed with Midsummer
day. From this association, coupled with the fact that the
hunter shoots at the sun at noon on this day of all days in
the year, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that fern-seed
has a solar connexion. It would seem to be the blood of the
sun rather than of birds.^*^ But if this is so, why should it
convey a knowledge of the language of animals ?
J. G. Frazer.
1*1 Vdmb^ry, Das Tnrkmrdk, p. 218.
1*- L. Bechstein, TliUringer Sageiibxich^ (Leipzig 1885) no. 161 ; Id. Dentaches
Sa<fctibHchy no. 500. For drawing blood by shooting at the sun, cp. K. Miillen-
hoff, Sagen Mdhrchen wul Lieder der Herzo(fth<lmer ScJilestoig-Holstein find
Laneiibxirq^ no. 492.
i*£ Kuhn supposes that the fern is an embodiment of the lightning (Herab-
knnfi des Fetters'^ p. 194 sqq). But this would leave its connection with Mid-
summer day as mysterious as ever.
182 ANTHROPOLOGY.
NOTES FROM PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS.
No. 2.— Races of Formosa.
THE population of Formosa is peculiar and somewhat interesting,
being composed of four distinct elements : — 1. The indepen-
dent savages ; 2. The Pepohuans, or reclaimed savages ; 3. The
Hakka immigrants from the mainland ; 4. The non-Hakka Chinese,
also immigrants from the mainland.
The independent savages, perhaps of Malay race, and divided
into a large number of clans, inhabit the whole region of forest-
covered mountains of central and eastern Formosa. Their time
is pa.ssed in hunting, but they do not lead a wandering life, and do
not depend entirely on the proceeds of the chase for subsistence.
Those of the men who, through age or infirmity, are unable to hunt,
till the ground with the women, raising crops of millet and other
food for the rest of the tribe. The women also weave cloth of two
kinds, known as " savage cloth " and " pine-apple cloth," the first a
sort of grass cloth, the latter a fabric made from pine-apple leaf
fibre. These people live together in villages, and in spite of the
extreme hostility which they not unnaturally bear to the encroach-
ing Chinese, are by nature civil and polite. In the constant skir-
mishes between the Chinese borderers and the aborigines, the day
is by no means always to the former ; indeed, the savages appear
sometimes to regain lost ground.
Scattered throughout nearly the whole length of the island, and
generally inhabiting the sterile and hilly lands at the foot of the
great mountain ranges, where they are neither free from the covet-
ousness of the Chinese settlera, nor always secure from attack by
the untamed aborigines, are the Pepohuans, or reclaimed aborigines
of the plain. They are the ancient pre-Chinese inhabitants of the
flat lands, from which they have been gradually driven by the
Hakka and other Chinese settlers, until they now are being pushed
on to the very verge of the savage territory. Large and well-built
physically, they are mild and inoffensive in disposition, and seem to
have received Christianity and teaching from the Dutch in the
seventeenth century. They have been ousted from their lands and
pressed further and further east by the Chinese, principally by
meaxis of foreclosed mortgages. The Chinese are always rea^y to
lend on the security of land, and the Pepohuans, a careless race, arc
INDEX NOTES. 183
equally ready to borrow, but not to pay, and in this way most of the
land has changed hands. On the east coast, commencing about 23
miles south of Kelung, and extending some 14 miles further to Suao
Bay, lies a fertile and beautiful plain or valley. Its popular name
is Ka[>sulan. Bounded inland by a semi-circle of mountains, the
valley is one vast rice field, studded with Pepohuan villages, and
recent reports mention that Christianity is spreading rapidly
amongst this population. The Hakkas, or Cliinese immigrants, not
being the agi*icultural Fuhkien men, form a strongly marked and
important feature of the Formosan population. They have many
thriving villages on these border marches, where they live indepen-
dent of the Chinese administration. Up to 1874 many of the large
Hakka villages would not even allow an official to enter their
fortified precincts. The rule of the Chinese magistrate reduced it-
self to the industrious and orderly population (mostly people from
Fuhkien) of the western plains, official aid being sought for at times
only in serious cases of lawsuits (not criminal cases which were
settled according to lynch law), by one or the other of the parties
in the numerous self-governed villages.
These independent village commimities carried on the barter trade
with the savages, in which no outsiders could participate. Even
official communication with the savages in most instances was only
carried on through the independent savages and Pepohuans. Some
change has taken place since that time, however, and aborigines in
small numbei*s may now be met with at the capital of the island
and ut other large places.
It appears the savages have always had in their mountain fast-
nesses regular lines of communication from north to south, for in
1874 central points of converging paths, evidently much frequented,
were found, and information then obtained confirmed the great
extent of country these paths traversed. [Report c — 4248 of 1885.
Mr. O. Taylor has collected some important notes on " the Folk-lore
of Aboriginal Formosa," see Folk-lave Journal, v. 139-153.]
INDEX NOTES.
2. Foreign Periodical Publications. 1888.
Bancroft (H. H.), Proofs of Aboriginal Culture. American Antiq, x. 21-26.
Boaz (F.), Tribal Divisions of the Eskimos of North-Eastem America. American
AiUiq, X. 40-41.
BUttikofer (I.), Einiges iiber die Eingebomen von Siberia. Int^r, Arch, fiir
Ethtwg, ii, 33-48, pL 3, 4.
184 ANTHROPOLOGY.
Crooke (W.), The Gipsy Tribes of the North- West Provinces of Oudh. Indian
Antiq, xvii. 68-75.
Eells (M.), Puget Sound Indians. American Antiq. x. 26-36.
Langkavel (B.), Pferde und Naturvolker, Iider. Arch, fiir Ethnog, ii. 48-60.
Nissley (J. R.), A Mound Builder's Cave. Amei^ican Aidiq, x. 43.
Peel (W. L.), Le Crooodile Amoureux. Conte Malgache. MiUmue, iv. 69-70.
Peete (S. D.), Archeeology and Ethnology of Michigan. American Antiq. x. 36-39.
Schmeltz(J. D. E.), III. Nachtrage zu: J. D. E. Schraeltz und Dr. med. R. Krause:
Die ethnographisch-anthropologische Abthcilung des Museum Godefroy.
Inter. Arch. fUr Ethnog. ii. 00-67.
REVIEW.
Social History op the Races of Mankind. Second Division. Oceano-
MELANESIAN8. BY A- FeATHERMAN. LoNDON (TrUBNEr) 1888. 8vO.
pp. xxxii. 420.
This is the third of Mr. Featherman's valuable series of books dealing with
the social history of mankind. It treats of the Tahitans, Marquesans,
Nukahivahs, Pomotoos, Waihus, Tongas, Rotiimas, Samoans, Maoris,
Hawaiians, Malagassees, Ipalaoos, Palos, Chamoires, Tarawas, and Radak-
raliks. No one who knows how great is the labour of collecting facts on
the history and practices of savage races can be otherwise than grateful for
this brave attempt to place within easy access the best information at hand.
Mr. Feathermau comes equipped for his task with untiring industry, con-
siderable skill in the condensation of large masses of materials, and a
critical faculty for detecting flaws in the sources of the evidence. These
qualities were indeed indispensable for anything like success in such a
gigantic task, and on the whole success has been achieved. But we cannot
help wishing that Mr. Featherman had been more careful in his use of
terms and had adopted a uniform method in the description of each race,
such, for instance, as Sir William Hunter adopts in his statistical account
of the districts of India. The anthropologist certainly requires to know of
each race (I) geographical distribution, (2) flora and fauna of the district,
(3) physical details of the people, (4) history if any, (5) legends of
previous conditions, (6) habitations and domestic economy, (7) implements
of war and of domestic use, (8) religious ideas, (9) mythology, (10) super-
stitions, (11) manners and customs, (12) laws, (13) government, (14) tribal
organisation, (15) terms of relationship, (16) language. Of course, there
are other points in the life-history of a race which are of great importance,
but the above ai'e recognised standard requirements, and it would have
been well if Mr. Featherman had devoted sections distinctly to each sub-
ject. Again in the use of terms we question whether Mr. Featherman is
always correct. For instance the father among the Tahitans is said (p. 51)
to exercise " patriarchal authority " in his family. Does Mr. Featherman
mean to convey by this all that Sir Henry Maine included imder this
REVIEWS. 185
terra 1 if not wo think that the term should have been modified. On p. 119
it is stated that " the intellectual knowledge of the Tongas was of a low
order. They believed that the earth was flat and was bounded on all sides by
the horizon ; that the sun, the moon and stars passed in their own course
across the sky, and retunied by an unknown route to the point whence
they started ; that the spots on the moon represented a woman in a sitting
posture occupied in beating bark cloth," &c., &c. Mr. Fcatherman surely
does not mean to imply that these beliefs necessarily connote a low order
of intellectual knowledge. Similarly on p. 137, the word " chapel" is used
in a very curious passage and is explained away in a note; "this expression
is simply conventional from want of a better word ; but the ancient
Tongas had really no houses of worship and consequently no chapels."
Exactly : but then what word is the proper one to be used in the text
which is a description of the sacrifice of a child for the recovery of a great
chief from sickness?
Possibly it may be considered that these blemishes are not of sufficient
importance to bring prominently to the front. But we hold that exact
terminology is more needed in this branch of science than in almost
any other. Mr. Feathermau so frequently and pertinently points out
where mission reports are not to be trusted for critical details, especially
where religious matters are being discussed, that we should have liked him
to have translated the mission language into its proper scientific equiv-
alents, where he could do so with safety after the comparison of the various
texts of different authorities. This is really what we expect of him. His
book practically represents a kind of harmony of savage history and life,
and so well do we consider that his work is done on these exact lines that
we all the more think it proper to point out where we think he has fallen
short of a high standard. Probably no one knows better than Mr. Feather-
man himself the pit- falls into which most students may be led by the loose
language of mere travellers, and it is to books like his that we look for guid-
ance and assistance.
Of the races here described all are interesting and important to the
student of anthropology. Their almost universal habit of occasional
licentiousness point to a period represented by Mr. M'Lennan's theory of
promiscuous intercourse, and though the subject is perhaps too unpleasant
to dwell upon at length in a special way, it is brought very conspicuously
before the student when its prevalence among different races is brought
out in constant juxtaposition as one peruses the various facts connected
with these oceanic races. In truth the true value of Mr. Featherman^s
labours con only be measured when they are brought to bear upon the
elucidation of a subject which any one is desirous of discussing for the
first time. In a compendious form the student is presented with carefully
sifted facts about a group of people who belong to one type, and it is his
own fault if in the future be conducts his researches without the aid which
the survey provided by "Mr, Feathermau must supply.
In every case Mr. Feathermau appends a bibliographical list of the
works from which he has compiled his information, and we do not find that
he has missed any book of importance from his list, nor do we find where
we have been able to test his work tliat he in any way steps outside the
boundaries of his authorities.
Hrcba^oloG^.
— :o : —
OUR NATIONAL MONUMENTS.
IT requires no demonstration tliat the preservation of our
National Monuments, historic and pre-historic, is an object of
national interest and imp3rtance. We have long spent the public
money freely in the acquisition of the ancient monumental relics
of alien peoples — in Egypt, Chaldea, Assyria, Greece, Asia Minor,,
and other places. By thus rescuing them from the barbarous hands
of the existing occupants of the soil, we have induced the Govern-
ments of such countries as Egypt, Turkey, and Greece to protect
their monuments by legislation. But although we have thus enforced
the lesson that the people that fails to preserve the anti-
quities of thd soil which it possesses is deemed to be deficient
in civilisation and culture, we have b33n among the last of
European nations to have recourse to legislation for the protection
of our own antiquities. While we have been acquiring and pro-
serving the monumental remains of many foreign countries, those
of our own land have been left uncaxed for. Our pre-historie
monuments have been most inconsiderately and remorselessly
dealt with. Those that stood in good land have been rooted out a&
encumbmnces. Those situated on, or near to lands in process of
improvement have been utilised &s building materials for farms or
fenc3s, or used in the construction of drains or roads. As this has
been going on since land began to be improved, the numbers
that now exist bear but a small proportion to the numbers that are
on record, as having been in good preservation within the last 150
years. And it is not only the minor monuments that have thus
suffered. Many of the larger and more important constructions of
pre-historic origin have been hopelessly mutilated or totally de-
stroyed in quite recent times
The necessity for some kind of protection of our ancient
monuments being thus apparent, and the propriety of giving
practical effect to the national interest in them, by legislation^
having been conceded by the passing of the Ancient Monuments
Protection Act of 1882, it now becomes a question of some import-
ance whether that Act is in any measure accomplishing its purpose.
OUR NATIONAL MONUMENTS. 187
To this question it might have been answered, as matter oE fact,
that during the five years in which the Act has been in operation^
so many monuments had been brought under its protection, so
many more had been visited and reported upon by the Inspector of
Ancient Monuments appointed under the Act, and negotiations with
the owners of so many were in progress. But no Report from
which such information might be obtained has yet been issued by
the Board of Works, to which the administration of the Act has
been committed.
But if we have no means of knowing how the monuments have
been dealt with by the Boai'd of Works in Great Britain, there are
some indications as regards Ireland, which may assist us in forming
conclusions as to the action of the Board of Works there. A large
numbar of monuments, similar in structural character to many of
those that come under the Ancient Monuments Act in Great
Britain, were made " National Monuments '* by the Disestablishing
Acts in Ireland, and these were placed under the guardianship of
the Irish Board of Works, which also has been entrusted with the
administration of the Act of 1882 in Ireland. It is instructive to
notice what has been the effect of committing the care of such
monuments to a Board of Works.
On the island of Innis Muiredach, off the coast of Sligo, there
is a very remarkable group of remains, of special interest and
value in an archaeDlogical point of view in connection with the
transition from the Pagan to the Christian style of arcliitecbure in
Ireland. This group of remains includes three small churches ;
three circular bee-hive c/oghauns, or dwellings, built of stones put
together without cement; several altars or "praying stations," and
a large number of inscribed and sculptured monuments of the
early Christian period — all enclosed within an oval cashel wall of
massive construction. The characteristic features of this class of
constructions are well known to archaBologists ; and if it were
necessary to deal with any example in the way of conservation,
the direction of an experienced archaeologist would have prevented
these characteristic features from being misinterpreted, obscured, or
obliterated. Even an archaeologist may err from want of definite
knowledge, but he could hardly err so far as to suppose it to be his
duty to pull down part of the height of one side of a structure, in
order to carry out a " restoration " of the other side. Let the
following statement «how how the Board of Works has conserved
the remains on Innismurray :
188 ARCHAEOLOGY.
" It is greatly to be deplored that when rebuilding, or repairing, a con-
siderable portion of the cashel wall, the Board of Works' conservcrs
appear to have mistaken certain spaces between the inclines [which are a
well-known and most characteristic feature of these structures] for the
bases of niches. The wall should not have been meddled with, It would
have been enough just to clear its b:is9 of fallen stone? and rubbish. As it
is in the restoration, certain niche-like recesses for which there is no pre-
cedent or authority, extending from the ground to the summit of the wall,
have been constructed. To add, if possible, to the absurdity of this
modern design, within each recess has been deposited a cross-inscribed
memorial stone, which should never have been removed from the grave
over which it had stood, or lain, for perhaps a thousand years
The cashel has been neither restored, nor conserved ; it has been trans-
formed. The wall all round is now nearly of a uniform height. There has
been much building up, and there has been no little throwing down of
original work, so that at present, the structure, with its newly designed
and erected Cyclopean gateway and other incougniities must be looked
upon at least as misleading to future antiquarian students." — W. F.
Wakeman in the Journal of tJu Royal Historical and Archaeological
Association of Ireland, Vol vii., p. 199.
The indications of the manner in which the unique remains in
the Aran Islands have been dealt with are similar ; but in this case>
the writer, who supplies the information, is so far from disapprov-
ing of the Board's system of ''restorations,'* that he gives them the
commendation of being "carried out with judgment and skill."
Dun Aengus, the most remarkable Pagan fortification in the king-
dom, has been " restored." Dun Eochla, with its encircling outer
wall, is " completely restored." Dun Eoganacht has been " restored."
Dubh Cathair, the most interesting fort on the islands, has been
" very successfully restored." A " cyclopean wall," 20 feet high and
15 feet in width, encloses a number of bee-hive houses, which have
been " skilfully restored." Teglach Enda has been cleared of sand
and " restored as far as practicable." So the statement goes, round
the whole group of remains in the Aran Islands. Fortunately for
the interests of science, we have the detailed descriptions of Petrie
and Miss Stokes, and the splendid photographs of Lord Dunraven's
work on " Ancient Irish Architecture," to show what the structures
were before their " restoration " by the Board of Works. But even
this cannot compensate for the mischief that may be done by
zealous " restoration " of these primitive structures by the labourers
of the Board of Works, uncontrolled by any pretence of archaeolog-
ical supervision or restraint. Misapplied zeal in " restoration " is
fatal to the interest of such structures, either as national monu-
ments or materials of science.
But if the monuments in Ireland are sufferin^r through mis
OUR NATIONAL MONUMENTS. 189
directed zeal, the case as regards Great Britain is, that the Act of
1882 is ineffective in its nature, and defective in its provisions. Its
inefficiency is due to its permissive character. It remains inopera-
tive until the owner of a monument takes the initiative Even the
particular monuments enumerated in the schedules appended to the
Act are not thereby placed under its protection. There is a
provision by which any monument " of like character to those
scheduled " may be declared, by an order in Council, " to be deemed
to be an ancient monument to which this Act applies,*' but when
this is done, it only brings the monument into the position of one
which has been scheduled, and those scheduled are not brought under
the operation of the Act unless by the voluntary offer of the owner.
To be scheduled, or named in an order of Council, would probably
b3 a kind of guarantee to the owner that his offer to give over his
monument would be accepted ; but it is not clear that any monu-
msnt which miy be offered to the Board of Works will be accepted.
They are not bound to accept a particular monument, simply be-
cause it may be offered to them. Probably they would request tho
Inspector to report upon it, and would be guided by his judgment.
And there may be cases in which it might be deemed unadvisable
for the Board to adopt monuments of no special scientific interest,,
which may yet be of great public interest. In the case of many
such monuments, it is probable that the mere reputation of the Act
having been applied to them would sufficie to prolong their existence,
while the reputation of being rejected would almost certainly
hasten their destruction. This applies specially to rude stone
monuments standing in cultivated lands.
Even in the case of those monuments for whose preservation it
is desirable on all grounds to provide effectual security, the Act
provides none. It does not pretend to protect such monuments,
because they are worthy of preservation and stand in need of
protection. The principle on which it proceeds is not the adoption
of monuments whose preservation it is desirable in the public
interest to secure, but the adoption of those whose preservation
the owners may desire to secure at the public expense. It doea
not propose in any way to affect or diminish the owner's pro-
perty, interest, or estate in the monument, but simply upon hia
own request to relieve him of any responsibility, or expense, in
respect of its preservation. And yet, though the monument is thus
to be maintained at the public expense, it neither becomes public
property, nor is it made accessible to the public. The owner simply
shifts the burden on to the shoulders of the public and retains hia
190 ARCHAEOLOGY.
exclusive rights of possession and use. While the Board of Works
might set up a notice-board announcing that " this monument is
maintained at the national expense, and protected by law," the
owner might put up another, announcing that " this monument is
private property ; trespassers will be prosecuted."
If it be right to legislate for the protection and preservation of
ancient monuments, it cannot be wrong to do it effectively. And the
experience of those countries in which such legislation has been
longest in operation is, that it cannot be done effectively without
making the monuments public property. If the land on which
they stand were acquired, for the public, at its agricultural value,
the owners would have no reasonable ground of complaint The
process of acquiring them would necessarily be gradual, and the
whole amount required to pay for the land would not be great.
Some owners would doubtless be patriotic enough to hand over
their monuments ; but it might expedite their general acquisition,
if they were made exempt from sale or transfer ; and, as in Den-
mark, the crown lands might set the example. But legislation of
this kind could only proceed safely on well ascertained knowledge
of the number, nature, position and condition of the monuments to
be thus provided for. It would have been desirable, indeed, that a
commission of inquiry into the number, character and circumstances
of the monuments should have preceded the legislation which has
taken place. If that had been done, it is probable that the enact-
ment would have taken a form more effective for the protection of
those which it was desirable in the public interest to preserve.
It is not impossible that a psrmissive Act, worked by a zealous
administration, might produce something like the desired result, in
time ; but it is contrary to experience that it should do so. The
Inspector might in a few years visit all the sites of ancient monu-
ments in Great Britain, and issue a report enumerating and de-
scribing: them, and recommending: those which it is most desirable to
bring under the operation of the Act. But this does not seem to be
any part of his duty under the Act as it stands. So far as appears,
he is not bound to inspect any monument not placed, or proposed to
be placed, by the owner, under the care of the Board of Works.
What is really wanted is an accurate knowledge of what is
necessary to effect the object aimed at by legislation — ^how
many monuments there are in the country which it is desirable in
the public interest to preserve, and what are the special circum-
stances which have to be considered in relation to the manner of
their preservation. This knowledge can only be obtained by some-
MUSEUM OF CHRISTIAX ARCHAEOLOGY. 191
thing equivalent to an archaBological survey of the country. A
survey which is to become the basis of legislation must necessarily
be such as to command the confidenca of the Government and of the
public. It may be said that the cost of such a survey by quali-
fied experts, would be out of all proportion to its public utility.
But one result of it might be to save the nation the cost of such
*' restorations " as have been already referred to, and to reduce the
number of monuments that might otherwise be taken over from the
owners, by ensuring that no monument would be recommended for
protection, which had not been ascertained to possess an archaeo-
logical character entitling it to be regarded by the nation as worthy
of preservation.
France is proceeding with a statistical enumeration, classifica-
tion, and description of its ancient monuments, as well as with their
acquisition for the public by voluntary sale, and that failing, by ex-
propriation. Denmark has long set the example of a zealous and
enlightened policy with respect to her national monuments. Even
so poor a country as Norway possesses in the admirable work by
Xicolaysen — Nor.ske Fornlevninger — a complete enumeration and
scientific description, parish by parish, not only of all the existing
monuments, but of all the relics that have from time to time been
found in association with them. Such a record as this is needed
for each of the three kingdoms, as a scientific basis for the Archaeo-
logy of Britain.
Joseph Anders )X.
A MUSEUM OF CHRISTIAN ARCHEOLOGY
FOR GREAT BRITAIN.
THE management of our museums affects us very deeply, and I
should like to ask the plain, straight-forward question, do wc
get our money s worth out of them ? I maintain that the educational
results of the collections in the British Museum, for instance, is
infinitesimally small, compared with the sums spent on the purchase
of objects and the salaries of the officials. There are no doubt many
reasons why this is so. One is that the collection is looked upon by
the curator^ as a sort of happy hunting-ground, provided by a
^ I am speaking generally, not of any individual curator.
192 ARCHAEOLOGY.
generous public for liis special gratification, and in the course of time
the fact that it has been acquired by the nation at great expense
entirely fades from his view, so that the real owners appear, to his
distorted imagination, as meddlesome intruders, who come bothering
him with futile questions. Great improvements might be made in
our public museums by arranging the collections more intelligently,
by labelling every object fully, by having complete catalogues, and,
lastly, by giving lectures on the various subjects illustrated.
The chief object of the present article is to call attention to
the systematic way in which the authorities who are responsible for
the management of the British Museum and the one at South
Kensington, neglect our national antiquities, more especially those
belonging to the Christian period. What is the reason that neither
of these institutions have set apart a gallery exclusively for the
exhibition of objects illustrating Christian art in Great Britain and
Ireland ? The system of arrangement adopted at the British
Museum of placing everything of the same material and age together
although convenient in some ways for the curator, is very confusing
to the student, and leads to such an absurdity as a bell shnne of
the Celtic Church being classed with a candlestick of Arab work-
manship, because both happen to be of bronze and both are of the
mediaBval period. The authorities of the South Kensington Museum
deserve much credit for the admirable handbooks issued under their
direction, but it is characteristic of the preference shown for foreign
and classical art, over that of our own country, that Miss Margaret
Stokes' work on " Early Christian Art in Ireland " should have been
brought out as the last instead of the first of the series. At South
Kensington a whole gallery is devoted to Persia, another to Japan,
and a third to Ancient Greece, but casts of four pre-Norman crosses
and a 12th century font, huddled together in one comer of a room
containing a medley of miscellaneous objects, are considered quite
sufficient to teach the progi'ess of Christian art in Great Britain
from the rude attempts of the Celts who erected the Ogham-
inscribed monuments to the glorious masterpieces of the 13tii
century.
Believing that it would be quite hopeless to attempt to reform
any of the museums now existing, I wrote to the Times (Jan. 24th
1888), suggesting the formation of an entirely new one devoted
exclusively to the Christian Archseologj' of this country, and, from
the encouragement I have received in various quarters, I am in
hopes that the project may be eventually carried out Mr. John P.
Seddon sent a letter in reply to mine {Times, Jan. 25th 1888), as
MUSEUM OF CHRISTIAX ARCHJCOLOGY. 193
follows : — " Such a museum as that suggested by Mr. J. Romilly
Allen in your journal of this day is indeed a crying national want,
but I would extend its scope by calling it * The Museum of Christian
Archaeology and Art for Great Britain.* It should be on the type
of that established at the Trocadero in Paris for French archaeology
and art by the late accomplished architect, M. Viollet-le-Duc. No
expensive building would be needed, but a considerable space in a
central position. One such space is now available south of and close
to Victoria Street, Westminster. It might be surrounded by houses
with four approaches through them at the cardinal points, built
with plain brick wall and glass roofs, with a central hall and sur-
rounding ring of galleries, each quadrant of which would be a com-
plete gallery in itself. The contents of the Weitrainster Archi-
tectural Museum in Tufton Street would form a nucleus of such a
collection of comparative British Christian antiquities and objects
of art, than which finer or more interesting are not in the world.
I long to see the foundation of such a museum, which would be the
most practical step yet taken towards the true technical education o£
England." I need hardly say that I most haartily endorse Mr.
Seddon s views, and think his practical suggestions of great value.
Prof. I. O. Westwood of Oxford, in a private communication,
writes: — "I quite agree with you about a museum of Christian
Archaeology. Twenty-five or thirty years ago I had the same idea,
and suggested at our own Ashmolean Society that the plan of the
Vatican lapidarium, of having the pagan objects on one side of the
museum or gallery, and the Christian ones on the other, should be
adopted, but the idea was pooh-poohed."
It seems strange that in an educated community it should be
necessary to point out the advantages to be gained by carrying out
such a scheme, and to insist on the fact that, being Englishmen and
Christians, the Christian antiquities of our native land should take
precedence of works of foreign or pagan art, however beautiful.
The great obstacle in the way of making the public understand the
high value of our national Christian monuments, both from an
historical and artistic point of view, is that they are spread over so
large a geographical area, and often hidden away in remote country
church-yards, where they are not seen from one year s end to another;
but could the whole series be brought together into one room, by
means of casts or photographs, I am sure that everyone would feel
the utmost astonishment, not only at their great number, but at the
extraordinary capacity shown by the designers of the ornamental
features of the sculpture.
194 AiirH^EOLoar.
Those who have studied Christian art know that the sources
from which oar information is derived vary at different periods and
in different geographical area^. Thus, in the firat four centuries
Christian art was confined ahnost exchisively to paintings on the
walls and roofs of the Cata,combs at Rome ; in the fourtii and fifth
centuries the sculptured Sarcophagi of Italy and the South of Kranc i
furnish us with most of our information on the subject ; and in the
sixth century Christian art is chiefly exhibited in the mosaic decor-
ations of churches at Rome and Ravenna.
Far the most interesting period to us, however, is after the fall
of the Roman Empire, when Britain ceased to b3 pagan ; for from
the seventh to the eleventh centuries the materials for the study of
Christian ai-t are not found abroad (except perhaps in the Carlovingiaii
ivories), but in our own country on the pre-Norman sculptured
stones and in the miniatures of the Hiberno-Saxon ]\f SS. As the
culture of a nation may to a certain extent be gauged by the care
with which it collects and preserves its scientific materials, it may
be well to enquire what steps have been taken to prevent the early
crosses of Great Britain and Ireland from destruction, and to utilise
them for purposes of archaeological research by bringing together a
series of photographs or casts in one place, where they can all be
studied and compared.
First, as to the preservation of the pre-Norman sculptured
stones, nothing has been done either to protect them from the
weather or the hand of the spoiler. A bill dealing with ancient
monuments has been passed through Parliament, and a Govern-
ment Inspector appointed, bub the bill aims at acquiring the monu-
ments as public property ; and whilst the Inspector is negotiating
with the owners, the work of taking photographs and casts of the
sculpture is being entirely forgotten. From a scientific point of
view, an archceological survey is really more important than th'j
acquisition of the monuments themselves. The loss to science is
comparatively small w^hen a monument has been destroyed if a
good cast, photograph and measured di'awing have been made
previously. I do not, of course, in the least mean to set up an
excuse for the destruction of ancient monuments, but I wish to
show that there is more immediate necessity for collecting casts of
them than preserving the originals. One of the chief objects of the
proposed Museum of Christian archaeology would be to make a
representative series of casts and photographs of all the prc-
Norman sculptured stones in Great Britaia Although there are
something like five hundrc 1 such monuments in existence, the only
MrSElWf OF CHRISTfAX ARCHAEOLOGY. 195
casts that I have seen are a few at the Crystal Palace, in the
South Kensington Museum, the Ed:*"l»argh Museuin, and the
Architectural Museum at Westminster. The largest collections of
the stones themselves are in the York Museum, in the Museum of
the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and in the
Cathedral libraiy at Durham.
It is a curious piece of inconsistency on the part of the authori-
ties who direct our public institutions that the early Irish and
♦Saxon MSS. should be so highly esteemed m all libraries that are
fortunate enough to possess any specimens, and yet the sculptured
f^tones of the same period which are equally valuable should not be
thought worth even getting photographs of. The sculptured stones
are of the greatest use in supplementing the information obtained
from the MSS. Some scripture subjects, for instance, like the
Temptation of Adam and Eve and the Sacrifice of Isaac, do not
occur at all in the Irish MSS., although they are common on the
crosses. Our knowledge of Runes and the early Northumbrian
dialect is derived chietiy from the pre-Noi-man crosses and not from
the MSS. of the same period.
There are a large number of problems connected with these
monuments awaiting solution, such as the explanation of the
mysterious symbols found on the upright cross slabs of the West of
^Scotland ; the origin and development of the characteristic fonns of
Celtic ornament, .chiefly consisting of interlaced work, key
patterns, and spirals; the relative place to be assigned to the Celtic,
«Scandinavian and Saxon element in the art of the sculpture ; and
the date of the introduction of the Ogham and Runic alphabets.
These problems can only be attacked when a complete series of
•casts or photographs of the monuments has been gathered together
in one gallery of a Museum of Christian Archaeology where a com-
parison may be instituted between all the different specimens.
t^Juch a collection would be of value on other grounds for teaching
history the progress of Christianity in Great Britain by its monu-
ments. The palaeographer would be able to study the lettering of
the inscriptions ; the philologist would find a wide field of research
open before him in the early forms of the provincial dialects ; the
ornamental designer would learn much from the endless variety of
patterns suggesting new combinations and developments ; the
architect and sculptor would have beautiful models of sepulchral
monuments which might be adapted to modem requirements with
a<lvantage ; and the symbolism of the figure sculpture would enable
196 ARCHJWLOGY.
the student of religion to ti'ace the evolution of the various
doctrines of which they are the outward manifestation.
If our national art in sculptui"e and metal work is ever to be
revived it must be by developing what has pi-eviously existed in
this country, and not by making bad copies of Pagan Classical
models, for which we never can have any real sympathy except by
ceasing to be Englishmen and Christians.
It is impossible at present to describe all the other bi*anches of
Christian art such as Norman sculpture, 13th and 14thcentuiy wall
paintings, stained glass, and wood carving, but I think enough has
been said to show that a Museum of Christian Ai'ch^ology for
Great Britain is most urgently needed.
J. EoMiLLY Allen.
THE PHYSICIANS OF MYDDFAL
(Cwttiiiueil from ante, p. Ho.)
WE have examined the personality of the heroine, the Lady of
Little Van Pool, and found reason to believe that she was
one of a numerous and interesting class of fairy heroines known as
Swan-maidens. Foi*, although her swan-plumage is nowhere refer-
red to, it is not always expressly mentioned in cognate stories.
Other tests of swan-maidenhood are present : and in some Welsh
variants we have even found expressions which clearly point to the-
heroine's true bird-character.
We have enquired into the taboo and its breach, — the " three
causeless blows.'* The taboo in stories of this group is not always
in the same terms ; and sometimes it is merely implied. In any
case the husbands breach of it is inevitable: it is his doom. In the
kindred tale of the bride of Convrion, in Carnarvonshire, the taboo
was a double one : the hero was forbidden, first, to know his wife's
name, and, secondly, to strike her with iron. In reference to the tii'st
part of the prohibition I quoted examples to show that the objection
on the fairy's part to the knowledge of her name was founded on
the archaic superstition that that knowledge would confer undue
power over her, a dread common to many races in a low stage of
culture and connected with the belief in sorcerv.
THE PHYSICIAXS OF MYDDFAL 197
We next turn to the other horn of the taboo — ^the condition against
striking with iron. Mr. Andrew Lang has remarked, following Dr.
Tylor, that here the fairy mistress is " the representative of the
stone age." This is so ; and the reason is because she belongs to the
realm of the supernatural. When the use of metals was dis-
covered, stone implements were discarded in ordinary life ; but for
ages afterwards knives of stone were used for religious purposes.
We know, for instance, that the Hebrews, to seek no further, em-
ployed them in their sacred rites ; and when King Solomon built
the temple ** there was neither hammer, nor axe, nor any tool of
iron heard in the house while it was in building." The retention
of stone instruments in religious worship was doubtless due to the
intense conservatism of religious feeling. The gods, having been
served with stone for so long, naturally objected to change ; and
the implements whose use had continued through so many revolu-
tions in ordinary human utensils had acquired a divine character.
Changes of religion, however, brought in time changes even in
these usages. Christianity was bound to no special reverence for
knives and arrowheads of flint. But they seem to have been still
vaguely associated with the discarded deities, or their allies^ the
Nymphs and Oreads and Fairies of stream or wood or dell, and
with the supernatural generally. A familiar example of this is
the name Thunderbolts, or Elfbolts, given by the country people in
this and other lands to these old world objects, whenever turned
up by the harrow or the spade. Now the traditional preference on
the part of supernatural beings for stone instruments is only one side
•of the thought which would, as its reverse side, show a distinct
abhorrence by the same mythical personages for metals, and chiefly
(since we have long passed out of the bronze age) for iron. Not
only do witches and spirits object to the horseshoe ; axes and iron
wedges are equally distasteful to them — at all events in Denmark.
80 in Brittany when men go to gather the herhe dor, a medicinal
plant of extraordinary virtue, they go barefooted, in a white robe
and fasting, and no iron may be employed ; and though all the
necessary ceremonies be performed only holy men will be able to
And it. The magical properties of this plant, as well as the rites
requisite to obtain it, disclose its sacredness to the old divinities.
It shines at a distance like gold, and if one tread on it he will
all asleep, and will come to understand the languages of birds,
<log8 and wolvea^^
^ ' Thorpe : North4>ni Mythologif, ii., 275, 277. Stephens : The Literature of
the Kijmrtj, 248, citing the Barzaz Breiz.
198 ARCILKOLOGY,
The lady of Corwrion pool was not alone, as we liaNe already
seen, among the elvish heroines of Carnarvonshire in her objectioa
to beino: sti*uek with iron. One of tlie stories from Beddcjelert
cited above relates that the manner in which the hero secured his.
lovely prize was by running off with her to his house, hotly pur-
sued by the Fairy Family ; but when the pursuers reached the
house " the door had been bolted with iron, wherefore they could
not get near her or touch her in any way," and the damsel had ta
remain. And in the other story the condition of marriage was^
not only that the bride was not to be touched with iron, but also
that there was to be neither bolt of iron nor lock on the door. In
like manner (though illustration can hardly be needed) a Scandi-
navian legend given by Grimm, tells of an elf-girl captured by a
man by throwing steel between her and the hill wherein she
dwelt ; and another relates that a lucky youth rescued his bride
from a troll, who had stolen and was about to wed her, by shoot-
ing with steel over her head, whereupon the whole wedding party
of trolls vanished, leaving the maiden and a splendid silver bridal
crown which the troll had already placed upon her head.^^ Iron or
steel, being not only the newest but also the most powerful weapon
of mankind for the purpose of material progress, is obnoxious^
l^eyond all other metals to those mysterious powers whose kingdom
reaches from the depths of a darksome Past, and whose authority
is becoming daily more and more curtailed through the conquests
man is enabled to make by means of this weapon.
The legend of Corwrion has preserved in the form of the taboa
a note of antiquity which fails us in The Physicians of Wyddfai.
In the more backward races the taboo appears generally simpler in
form, or, as we have seen, is absent altogether. The Malagasy heroine
cannot stay on earth after the mortal injury inflicted upon her by
her husband's relatives. The New Zealand lady is offended be-
cause Tawliaki complains of the evil odour of her child. In this
latter case perhaps we have the germs of a taboo, since the child
may be supposed to have partaken of her mother's celestial nature,,
for she no doubt belonged exclusively to her mother's kin.^* The
wife in the story from Loo Choo flies off when her fate is fulfilled.
1'^ Grimiu, Teutonic M[(tholo(j[i^ tr. by Stally brass, ii., 4GG, ii. Thorpe, op. cit.
ii. 9. The maiden, in a story cited earlier, lays down the condition that she
is not to be struck with steel or clay. I can only attribute the prohibition of
clay to her watery origin ; but it is perhaps worth further enquiry.
Cim^mrodory v. 94.
1* Taylor, op. cit., 337. Compare the Shropshire fairy's pi-ohibition against
bein^ reproached on account of her sist jrs.
THE PHYSICIANS OF MYDDFAL 199
So, in a Bornoeso tradition quoted by Mr. Farrer, tho heroine in
taken up to the sky hesause her husband has struck her, there
having been no previous prohibition ; and in an American tale she
goes simply b3cause she wishes to return home.^^ Among most, if
not all, of tlie races who tell these stories, the marriage bonds are
of the loosest description; and there is, therefore, nothing very
remarkable in the supernatural bride's conduct. We might expect
to find that, as peoples advance in civilisation, and marriage becomes
more regarded, the reason for separation would become more and
more complex and cogent. Am I going too far in suggesting that
the resumption by the bride of her bird or beast shape marks a
stage in the development of the myth beyond those just cited, and
the formal taboo, where the human figure is not abandoned, a later
stage still ? It is clear that the fairy of Corwrion's taboo could
never have been invented until the Welsh had passed into the iron
age ; and if the prohibition in the legends of the Van Pool and Llyn
Nclferch ever contained the mention of iron, this could not have
been dropped before the abhorrence of mythical personage > for that
metal had itself been forgotten. Whetlier or not this was the
actual history of these two legends, the Carnarvonshire story seems
to retain in the form of its prohibition a more antique form than
theirs ; and its indications above noticed of the heroine's bird-char-
acter confirm tliis surmise.
On the other hand I must not omit to refer to one curious relic
of an earlier state of culture which appears in Mr. Re3s' version of
The Physicians. The maiden s father gives her as a dowry as
many sheep, cattle, goats and horses as she can count of each with-
out drawing breath ; and she in reckoning them counts by fives,
thus: One, two, three, four, five — One, two, three, four, five — as
many times as possible in rapid succession until her breath is ex-
hausted. In the Cambro-Briton version her dowry is seven cows,
two oxen and a bull — in all, ten animals ; and here again we may
not be wrong in seeing a reference to the same archaic mode of
enumeration.
Though the lady of Llyn y Fan might never return to her hus-
band she was drawn back to earth by the care of her children. In
the same way also the Carnarvonshire fairies of various tales are
compelled by maternal love to revisit the scenes of their wedded
life; ami the hapless father hears his wife's voice outside the
window chanting pathetically :
15
Farrer, Primitive Mt.nn^rs nn I CusUmin, 2C0.
SOO ARCHAEOLOGY.
** If my son should feel it cold,
Let him wear his father's coat ;
If the fair one feel the cold,
Let her wear my i>etticoat I "
Whatever he may have thought of these valuable directions, they
hanUy seem to us sufficient to have brought the lady up from "the
bottomless pool of Corwrion " to utter. The mother s visits to her
children are, however, a frequent termination to stories of this type ;
and occasionally the tie which compels her to return is taken ad-
vantage of by the forsaken huslmnd to obtain possession of her
again ; '® but I think not iri any case where an express taboo has
been broken. In a legend of Llyn y Dywarchen, or Lake of the
Sod, not very far from Beddgelert, the water-nymph subsequently
appeal's to her husband, conversing with him from a floating turf,
while he stands on the shore.^^ Here the motive of the reappear-
ance is the unusual one of conjugal, rather than parental, affection.
The story of The Physicians of Myddfai is so called from the
heix)ine*s son«^, who, by means of her instructions, became cele-
])rated in medicine. These instructions were, as we have already
seen, conveyed during her visits to earth after she had deserted her
husband. Oa one occasion she accompanied them to a place still
called Pant-y-Meddygon (the hollow, or dingle, of the phj'sicians),
and there pointed out to them the various plants and herbs which
grew around, and revealed to them their medicinal vii-tues. And
the legend tells us that in order that their knowledge should not
be lost, the physicians wisely committed the same to writing for
the benefit of mankind throughout all ages. A collection of medical
recipes purporting to be this very work still exists in a mediaeval
manuscript preserved at Jesus College, Oxford, which is now in
course of publication by Professor Rhys and Mr. J. Gwenogfryn
Evans, and is known as the Red Book of Hergest. An edition of
the " Meddygon Myddfai," as this collection is called, was published
by the Welsh MSS. Society seven-and-twenty years ago, with an
English translation.^^ It professes to be written under the direction
of Rhiwallon the Physician and his sons Kadwgan, Griffith, and
Einion ; and they are called " the ablest and most eminent of the
physicians of their time and of the time of Rhys Gryg, their lord,
and the lord of Dinevor, the nobleman who maintained their rights
' '' Poestion, LapjUandmhe Mfirclwn^ 65.
1 ' Cymru Fu, 474
' ® The Physicians of Myddvai — Meddygon Myddfiii — translated by John
Pugho, Esq., F.R.C.S., and edited >)y Rev. John Williams ab Ithel, M.A.
1801.
THE PHYSICIANS OF MYDDFAL 201
and privileges, in all integrity and honour, as was meet.*' This
nobleman was Prince of South Wales in the early part of the thir-
teenth century ; and his monumental effigy is in the Cathedral of
St. David's. I have been unable to ascertain the real age of the
manuscript ;^^ but whether or not it dates from the thirteenth cen-
tury, the thing to be noticed for our present pui*pose is that it con-
tains no reference to the legend of the Van Pool. The published
volume contains also another and longer recension of the work,
which is ascribed in the colophon to Howel the Physician, who,
writing in the first person, claims to be " regularly descended in
the male line from the said Einion, the son of Rhiwallon the Physi-
-cian of Myddvai, being resident in Gilgwryd, in Gower." This re-
cension, therefore, is presumably later in date than the former ;
and the manuscript from which it was printed is said to have been
a transcript made in 1743 "from the book of John Jones, Physician
of Myddfai, the last lineal descendant of the family." The remedies
it contains, though many of them are antique enough, and super-
stitious enough, are of various dates and sources ; and, so far from
being attributed to a supernatural origin, they are distinctly said to
** have been proved to be the best and most suitable'for the human
lx>dy through the research and diligent study of Rhiwallon " and
his three sons. This negative evidence tends to show that the con-
nection of the Van Pool story with the Physicians is of compara-
tively recent date.
And yet it is but natural that the offspring of a mythical
creature like the Lady of the Lake should be men of extraordinary
])Owers. The children of the gods of Greece were demi-gods.
M^usine gave birth to monsters of ugliness and of wickedness.
So tlie heroine of the Llanberis legend had two sons and two
daughters, all of whom were remarkable. The elder son became a
great physician, and all his descendants were celebrated for their
proficiency in medicine. 'J he second son was a Welsh Tubalcain.
One of the daughters invented the small ten-stringed harp, and the
other the spinning-wheel. " Thus," we are told, " were introduced
the arts of medicine, manufactures, music, and woollen work ! *'
If, then, there were a family at Myddfai renowned for their leech-
craft, and possessed of lands and influence, as we know was the
fact, their hereditary skill would seem to an ignorant peasantry to
demand a supernatural origin ; and their wealth and material
^^ Since the above was written, Mr. J. Gwenogfryn Evans has kindly
examined the MS. for me, and informs me that its date is between 11580 and
1400.
202 AliCHJWLOGV.
power would not refuse the additional consideration which a con-
nection with the legend of the neighbouring pool would bring
them. At all events, such a conclusion to the legend would be in
harmony with that of similar stories, and would satisfy the mindri
of men who are in a state of culture to accept a tissue of marvels on
a narrative of facts.
Here we might terminate our review, aheady too prolix, of this
interesting saga. But it would be incomplete without the mention
of a sequel^hitherto unrecorded. One day last summer, a collier of
Tavern y Banwen, near Capel Coelbren, a station in a wild district
on the Swansea and Brecon Railway, related to Mr. Lly warch Rey-
nolds, Mr. David Lewis (both well-known Welsh antiquaries},
and m}\self several folk-tales, and, among othei*s, The Physicians
of Myddfai. His version contained only one remarkable variation,
namely, that after narrating the lady's retirement to the pool, hi^
added : — " They determined to drain the lake with the object of
finding her ; and they began, when up started out of the lake a man
hairy and ugly to behold, who cried out :
* Os na chai louydd yn y lie,
Fi fodda, dre 'Berhonddu I '
(* If I do not get quiet in the 2>lHce,
I will drown the town of Brecon.')
Frightened by this, they gave up the search."
The foregoing couplet presented the obvioas difficulty that tho
town of Brecon was many miles away on the other side of the
mountains. I therefore made inquiries at Ystradgynlais, on the
Brecknockshire side of the Vans, and was informed by a friend
there that he had discussed the couplet in question with an old
man who died the year before last, aged 94, and who was a perfect
mine of folklore. This old man stated to my friend that the second
line of the couplet should rxui : — " Mi fodda, i Blaensawdde '*
(I will drown Blaensawdde). Blaensawdde is the village
where the bereaved husband lived ; and its mention would
accordingly make the couplet clear. Further research, how-
ever, leads me to suspect that we have in this tag to the
story a modern transfer to the Van Pool of a legend more pro-
perly belonging to Llyn Cwmllwch, a small tarn lying under the
Brecon Beacons. It is told of that piece of water that the inhabit-
ants of the neighbourhood formed a plan to drain it ; and, indeed,,
had gone so far that they had all but completed their work, when a
sudden tempest broke over them, and a gigantic figure, whose hair
CHirri:xHAM A village coMMiwirr. 20;^
and beard were three yaixls long, emerged from the midst of tlio
pool, and ordered them to desist from their purpose, or else he
would drown the town of Brecon and all the vale of Usk.^ If my
conjecture be right, this transfer is an example of the ease witli
which stories already located migi'ate to a fresh site, and adapt
themselves to new scenes. The process is before our eyes. The
practical spirit of the nineteenth century, slowly finding its way
into remote districts, would easily suggest the determination to
solve the mystery and win back the lady by one stroke, and with
a legend of another lake in the same mountainous district ready
made, the dove-tailing would be si)eedily — nay, unconsciously —
accomplished. Such cases of ti*ansfer have occuiTed over and over
in the past, and must be occuiTing daily even yet. When we meet
with an instance in which it can be traced with tolerable certainty,
that instance is valuable.
To sum up the results of our enquiry : we have found the saga
of The Physicians of Myddfai to be a Swan-maiden myth in a late
stage of development. It is connected with a family which rose to
power and influence early in the thirteenth century, and professes
to account for the medical skill and knowledge displayed by the
membei*s of that family. But inasmuch as the writings of the
family, of various dates, but originating at a period when men did
not hesitate to ascribe every extraordinary ability and attainment
to supernatural aid, contain no reference to the story, it is probable
that its connection with the i'amily is compai-atively recent. More-
over, the story is still living as a folk-tale, and is apparently even
yet possessed of suflScient vitality for growth.
E. Sidney Hartland.
CHIPPENHAM AS A VILLAGE COMMUNITY,
(Continued from nnfcj p. lOS.)
3 THE STRUCTURE OF THE COMMUNITY.
We may now safely turn to the evidence which shows us the
structure of the community and the survivals of its archaic origin
still obtainincr. And we will consider fii-st the basis of member-
ship.
-^ Croker, Fuinj Legends and TrmVitimiS of the Sonth if Ireland, iii., 253.
204 A RCHyEOL OG Y.
The homestead is clustered together in a village, and not distri-
buted into tribal households, scattered over the country side. The
plan of Chippenham shows us that through the centre of a tongue
of land formed by the windings of the River Avon, a roadway from
Bristol to Calne was cut, and along the sides of this roadway, in
English fashion, the village community of Chippenham constructe<l
their homesteads.^^ These formed the initial points of all rights, and
this archaic rule left its imprint on municipal custom, when in 1835»
it was reported that the freemen are " those who occupy what are
now called burgage tenements,**^^ and " if a burgess ceases to reside
in the town, it is usual for him to resign." ^^
What kind of tenements these were, and how nearly they answered
to 01^3 description of the homesteads of the archaic community
can fortunately be ascertained from the document already quoted,
datinfj from James I/s reicjn. It is there stated that " no inhabitant
or householder within the said boroufjh takin<j or who is to take
any benefit of the said borough lands by virtue of these presents,
shall at any time hereafter divide his tenement, house or habitation
into divei's parts or habitations, or into more habitations than one."^*
(clearly therefore we have here as the homestead of King James's
time, something far larger than the ordinary village or town house ;*^
and it is not too mucli to suggest a comparison with the enclosed
homestead and its " gerstun," *' stodfald,*' " oxena gohaeg," " sceap-
haramas,*' " flax-lmmmas,** which Dr. Nasse has collected from the
charters,*^ and which arc within recent times typical of Kentish
farm houses.^^ It appears, then, that Chippenham was, so recently
ns the early seventeenth century, a collection of farm homesteads
rather than a town in the ordinary sense of the term.
In order to obtain some idea as to how this cluster of homesteads
in a village held together before the days of chartered privileges, we
must turn to the name of a portion of the land still held by the
corpoi'ation. This land is called " Englands " and is situated very
near to the town and close to the site or reputed site of the King's
Villa, which tradition assigns to the spot now occupied by the pre-
' ^ Compare the description given by Davis in his Atjrirjdture of Wilts of the
situation of Wiltshire villages in general, p. 9.
^"^ Mnnkiptd Coi'jMnntion Commissions
'« Ibid.
J« Ibid.
20 This may be compared with the burgage tenements of other municipali-
ties. At Westbury there were **61 burgage tenements cr>vered by 140 houses/*
And other examples occur of a like nature.
-' Nassers Atjricultiiral Cttmm^inihj of the Middle Ages, 16-17.
2 2 Arch. Cau^. iv., 217.
CHIPPENHAM A VILLAGE COMMrXITV. 205
raises adjoining the new county court, including perhaps the Angel
Inn.^ In a survey of Chippenham, dated 1275 (i. Edw. I.), this
land is called " Hinlond," and Canon Jackson very appropriately
identifies it with the inland or home ground of the Anglo-Saxons.
Dr. Leo says of this word, ** an Anglo-Saxon estate was usually
divided into two parts ; one of which was occupied by the proprie-
tor or usufructuary himself with his establishment, and the other
was ceded to the greater part of the servants in return for rent
and service, as a i-eward for their assistance or as the means of sup-
port to those who were not freed men. The portion so surrendered
was called litland and that occupied by the owner himself inland^
or hldfordcs inland" ^^ This is of course in accordance with Mi*.
Seebohm s reading of the evidence, when he points out that " the
lord s demesne land was called in the Exon Domesday for Cornwall^
the thane's inland ; so, too, in a law of King Edgar s the tithes arc
ordered to be paid *as were on the thane s inland as on geneat land,'
showing that the distinction between the two was exhaustive/'^
But our evidence proves that in modem times, that is certainly
since the reign of Queen Mary, this inland, translated so fi'eely
hy the authorities just quoted as lords demesne land, belonged
at Chippenham to the village community itself without the inter-
position of any manorial lord. The only question is then, did it
belong to the village community at any earlier period, and especi«
ally at a period which enables us by strong historic probability to-
suggest that it had so descended age after ago from the date when
the market village first carved out its clearing in the forest ? Such
a period is represented by the Domesday survey. What is recorded
there Mr. Seebohm proves is true of the early Anglo-Saxon period.*^
In Domesday, then, Chippenham is termed a " manerium." -'^ The
king held it, and it provided one night s entirtainment with all its
customs. Here is the community acting in its corporate capacity.
It was, moreover, absolutely free — non geldavit, nee hidata fuit.
Its land consisted of 100 carucates ; in demesne were IG carucates
and 28 serfs, the villani (48), bordarii (45), cota'ii (20), and swine-
herds (23), holding, inter omnes, GG carucates. Thei*e were also 12
mills and 100 acres of meadow, wood 4 miles square, and pasture 2
miles long and 1 mile broad. We have here a description of the
-•* Jackson's Uidory of Chippe)il\am, p. IG.
'-* Local Nomenclature of the Anylo'Sajron^^ p. 54.
-'^ Seebohm*8 English Viilage Commnniiy, p 135 and cf. p. 150.
-" See cap. iii. of the English Village Communitg.
2 7 This term is an important distinction from the other term us jd in Domes-
day for a community, villa. See Ellis's Introduction to IJomcsdai,
206 AliCHJJOLOaV.
" inlan<l/' the ' outland," and the surrounding meadows, jwisture,
and wood. Tlie sun^ey goes on to say that Bishop Osbem held 2
hides, Ulviet 1 hide, Edric half a virgate, and in other folios it is
recorded that Roger de Berchelai held 1 hide, i Wrgate of the
<leinesne, and Rainald Canut held 1 hide of the king. Now, these
special holdings were certainly taken from the demesne lands : in
one case it is expressly said so, and they therefore represent the
earliest transfer of lands held in common to a tenui-e in severalty.
But however early this tendency to break up the old system
was, thes3 grants did not exhaust the 16 carucates of the demesne
or inland ; and the holder of the remaining lands must therefore
have been the manerium in its corporate capacity. One expression
in the Domes lay account of Chippenham indicates the existence of
gi'oup holding, as distinct from individual holding, namely, inter
<>!nnes, by which term the holding of the 66 carucates of the villani,
&c., is recorded. I am inclined to think that this and other similar
expressions in Domesday meant a holding in common, not a
<iuantity of land held by many individual tenants ; and therefore
if we translate this method of holding into its proper historic
e<iuivalent, we get the individual group [of kinsmen] holding their
possessions in lineal descent from those times when to divide a
family holding was almost the last, not the first, resort of the co-
heirs of an estate. And hence the suggestion that the manerium of
(yliippenham held the demesne lands as a group-holding is borne
out by Domesday evidence itself.
Our next point in this survey of the connnunity is to ascei-tain
whether the same continuity of custom which mai-ks the method of
holding lands and of cultivation, and which thereby tends to show
that the charter of Queen Mary did not create the institutions it
legislates u]ion, marks also the system of self-government existing
at Chippenham. Before the reign of Mary there is evidence that
within the manor and under the jurisdiction of the bailiff there was
not only a pillory and a prison, but also a gallows.^^ And when we
come to the byelaws enacted after the granting of the charter, there
is exactly the same species of jurisdiction, though nothing in the
charter but general clauses grants or suggests the powers assumed
to exist. The system of self-government of Chippenham alike
before and after incorporation was practically the same, and it
bears further witness to the archaic origin of the community. In
the 39th of Elizabeth a set of byelaws was framed by the bailiff and
J)urgcsses, "with the consent of the chief commons," a consent
-" Jackson's HUtonj of Cluppt^nham, p. 20.
CHirPEXHAM A VILLAGE CinLUUXirV. 207
wliicli certainly takes us back for its origin to a time prior to the
cliaHer. These byelaws provided, inter alia, under penalty of fine
and disfranchisement, for the attendance of all the inhabitant
householders on the bailiff and burgesses when summoned for the
composition and maintenance of good order within the borough.
Offenders were interdicted for transgressing against the regulations
from buying or selling within the borough on pain of fine and im-
prisonment. Bakers offending against the assize were to be set in
the pillory ; every tippler setting up a tippling shop to be bound
by recognizances ; and there were other similar regulations for
butchers, brewei-s, chandlers, and others. Every burgess was re-
quired to have in his house a staff and a club, and every other
inhabitant houseliolder a club, to come forth whenever need should
require. No inhabitant within the borough was allowed to " seek
for reformation or justice to be ministered in any matter touching
good order in the borough" at any court other than at the bailift'
and burgesses " upon pain every offender to lose his and their whole
freedom.''^
These enactments are curious, and as evidence of archaic con-
tinuity of self-government are of great value. But the true force
of their evidence as to archaic oricnn lies in the sanctions enforcinc:
the law. These were not dependent upon the national executive,
but were strictly communal in their character, and one of them,
" that the offender shouM also be debarred of all benefit out of the
1)orough lands until he submit himself," has its counterpart all
over India and among other peoples who live in village com-
munities.
4. THE SYSTEM OF CULTIVATIOX. •
Thus far, then, the community of Cliippenham presents an in-
teresting example of the archaic village community, free, and inde-
pendent from any lord's influence other than that of the king, the
national representative. The period which witnessed its probable
siK)liation of lands kept alive the archaic customs of holding and
cultivating lands, and wuth this kept alive its right to the lands
themselves. And hence without any real break in the continuity
of its history as a land-owning and land-cultivating community, we
can now puss on to consider the exact nature of the customs which
regulated itsS internal economy.
-'•^ MtmifijMd O^i'poratina ComnuMion^ ii., 1247.
208 AIICHJWLOGV.
Tlie lands set out in Queen Mary's charter are as follows : —
A messuage, the moiety of a yard-land and four parcels
of land called Poxes in Rowder Dowu ... ... 120 acres
Arable land in the common field of Chippenham ... 21 acres
A mead called West Mead ... ... ... 30 acres
Close of pasture called jB^)iY/^(ii(/jf ... ... ... 17 acres
A close in Chippenham called J^Mr/ercf ... ... 4 acres
A coppice cjilled i^*?'*(/('/- Doini Cop/>i>e ... ... 21 acres
213 acres
Pasture in Chippenham called Bolticroff, admeasurement
not set out.
These lands, however small in extent, represent the full require-
ments in kind of a village community of the most perfect type, and
it is suggestive that the community of Chippenham should thus
have obtained in the reign of Queen Mary so archaic a provision.
Turning first to the ai-able land, it is surely significant that the
old bundle of acre-strips known as a yard-land should appear
among the lands. If the yard-land here was the same as it was
in other manors nearly all over the country, the \'illagers of Chip-
pe!iham possessed one relic, at all events, of the most ancient
form of cultivating land.^ They evidently carried out the archaic
practice most fully in their 21 acres in the "common field of
Chippenham." It must be remembered that the limited body
created by the chai-ter, and not the general body of freemen
known by prescription only, enjoyed this arable land ; and when
they cultivated [their own scattered strips they wei*e mixing with
others who were likewise engaged, but who represented the descen-
dants of the once undivided ownership of tlie common field of
Chippenham. In later times this partial survival of archaic cus-
tom had parsed away, for in 1835 there was no mention of the
arable land in the common field, but in its place appears *' about
six acres of lan<l which the corporation have of their own property "
and from which they received rent.^^
The meadow land was used even so late as 1835 in a very
archaic fashion. From the Commissioner's report it appears that
the land called " West Mead/' was laid down in meadow, and
the grass divided annually among the bailifi'and burgesses and the
ninety-seven first freemen on the anciatry. An acre was first set
out for the bailiff* and twelve burgesses, and the remainder was then
•^^ See ante p. 39 for the meaning of the t«nn yard-land m Wiltshire and its
archaic provisions.
•*i Mnn, CoriK Com. ii. 1248.
VHIPPJJXHAMA VlLLAdECOMMrSlTY. 209
JiviJed into quarter-acres called " farthingdolcs," and eacli of the
ninety -seven freemen was entitled to one. No one was allowed to
enter the mead until the bailiff had cut his acre ; but after the
bailiff had carried away, any one was at liberty to cut his farthing-
dole when it suited himself, and application was made to the sub-
.)>ailiff who, if necessary, trod down a path to the sjxicified farthing-
dole. The freemen were said to be much attached to this mode of
occupying their property."*^
Now observing from what has already been said tliat the bailiff
was the " headman " of the Chippenham community, the archaic
rsignificance of his cutting the first acre is best shown by some
Hindu customs. At the chief Hindu festival connected with ajn-i-
-eulture the Raja goes through the form of ploughing and sowing
before any one else commenced these operations, and this was con-
sidered to take away the sin which tilling the land is supposed to
ccmvey.**
After the grass is cut in the West Mead the wliole is stocked in
^ouunon by the freemen and freeholders, the freeman l>aying 41 to
.the corporate fund for every beast which they put in, and the
freeholders putting in three beasts for every acre free of any
-charge.
Besides this pasture the land known as " England's " was stocked
by the freemen, each putting in 2 horses or G beasts; and, probably,
this took the place of the older pasture ground called Boltscroft
which is now lost to the corporation though by what means is not
now ascertainable. Then there is the forest or woodland, which
is represented by the coppice called Rowder Down coppice and the
Barleaze close. Further evidence of common pasture is to be obtained
from the Hundred Rolls (ii. p. 50G), where we have the following
entry, " communa de Chippenham habet in bruariis viii ([uarant
in longitudine et in latitudine iiii quarant ; eadem villa habet in
morisco," etc., etc.
Thus then the arable land with its relics of archaic allotment
into yard-lands, the meadow land with its still surviving custom of
tribute by the headman, the pastures and the forest held in com-
mon, make up together the exact requirements in kind of the an-
cient village community. That in extent they were far short of
*- MnnicliKd Corp. Cora. ii. 1248.
•^•^ Bidclulpk's TrU>€s of ih^ Himloo Kowih, p. 106. Such a ceremony by
the headman is by no means confined to the agricultural community of the
Aryans, as may be proved by tlie feast of the Zulus, where the king sacrifices a
bullock, and so renders it lawful to cut the naw-ripe mealies (South Afriatn
FM-lorc Journal, L 134 ; Antiquanj, v. 138).
O
210 ARCBJ^OLOGY.
the requirements of the ancient village community is due to the-
conflict between archaic right? and more modem necessities.
We have noted that the evidence points to Chippenham as an
example of the free village community, and Professor Nasse quotes-
the Hundred Rolls as being one proof out of many that ** it is not
to be seen who could have been lord of the manor on this pastura
communis, and we must assume that the common pasture must
have belonged actually to the villata, i.e, either to the possessors of
the different feoda or to all the libere tenentes,"^ a conclusion re-
markably coinciding with all the other e\ddence here drawn to-
gether that in Chippenham we have an example of a village com-
munity not under the dominion of a lord, but free and independents
G. Laurence Gomme.
'^* AtjrlcHHnrnl ConimnnUy of the M'uUUe Ages, p. 60.
INDEX NOTES.
C. AnCHiEGLGGICAL SOCIETIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM, 1886-1867.
{Continued from page 119.)
Langriahe (Richard), Irifih Church Bella. Jmmx, HUt and Arch, Assoc, of
IreUtml, 4th eer., viii., 28-45.
Laver (H.). On the Antiquity of some Footpaths. Enex Ai-ch, /Svc, new ser.
iii., 78-80.
On an ancient Mazer at Holy Trinity Church, Colchester. Et^se^r
Arch. Soc. new ser. iii., 76-77.
On a Roman Villa at Alresford Lodge, excavated June, 1886.
EiHtex Arch. Soc. new ser. iii., 136-139.
Roman Roads near to and those radiating fiom Colchester. Essex
Arch. iSW. new ser. iii., 123-136.
Roman Tessellated Pavement, found on the east side of Head Street,.
Colchester. Essex Arch. Soc. new ser. iii., 140.
Laws (E.), The Old Quay House, Penally. Arch. Camh. 5th ser. iv., 146-148.
Leland (C. G.), The Witches' Ladder. Folklore Joiim. v., 257-259.
Lewis (A. L.), Stone Ciicles near Aberdeen. Jonrn. Anthrop. Inst, xvii., 44-
57.
Lewis (David), Notes on the Charters of Neath Abbey. Arch. Camh, 5th ser.
iv., 86-115.
Lipscomb (Rev. H. C), Staindrop Church. Journ. Brit. Ai-ch. Assoc, xliii.^
138-144. ^
Lloyd (H. W.), Old RAg. Arch. Camb. 5th ser. iv., 48-53.
Lowndes (G. A.), An Inventory of tlie Household Goods of Sir Thomas
Barrington, Bart., at Hatfield Prior}', in 1626. Essex Arch. ISoc. new ser.
iii., 165-176.
Lubbock (Sir J. and H. H. Vivian), Description of the Park Cwm Tumulus.
Arch. Camh. 5th ser. iv., 192-201.
Lynnm (C), Escomb Church, Bishop Auckhind. Jovrn. Brit. Arch. Assoc^
xliii., 44-46.
INDEX NOTES. 211
Lynam (C). * White Ladies/ Staffordshire. Jonrn, Brit, ArcJi, Assoc, xliii.,
215-216.
Mann (R.\ Roman Villa at Box in Wiltshire. Jonrn, Brit, Arch, Assoc, xliii.,
47-55.
Mansfield (M. T.), Chinese Legends and Superstitions. Folklore Jonrn. v.,
124-129.
Martm (T. P.), Oysterniouth Castle. Arch, C<imh, 6th ser. iv., 182-192.
Martinengo-Cesaresco (Countess), Negro Songs from Barbadoes. FoUdoi^e Jonrn,
V. 510.
Mitchell-Inncs (N. G.), Chinese Birth, Marriage, and Death Rites. Folklore
Jotfrn. v., 221-245.
Morgan (T.), The twentieth legion as illustrated by Consular Denarii. Journ.
Brit. Arch. ^iwoc. xliii., 2H7-274.
Notes on a Roman Villa near Yatton, Somerset. Jonrn, Brit. Arch,
Assoc, xliii., 353-362.
Morris (G. Rowley), Documents relating to the Tithes and other- Property be-
longing to the Dean and Chapter of Asaph. Arch, Camb. 5th ser. iv.,
29-47.
Murrsiy-Aynsley (Mrs. J. C), Secular and Religious dances of certain primitive
peoples in Asia and Africa. Folklore Jonrn. v., 246-273.
Nichi»l8 (F. M.), Colchester Castle. Essex Arch, 8oc. new ser. iii., 1-35.
Peacock (Miss Mabel), Folklore from Boddam-W^hetham's Roraima and British
Guiana. Folkhre Jonrn. v., 315-321.
Picton (Sir J. A.), Ethnology and development of the bishopric and county
palatine of Durham. Jttnrn. Brit. Arch, Assoc, xliii., 133-137.
Pitt-Rivers (Lieut. Gen.), Settlement excavated at Ru^hmore. JoTcm. An'hrop.
Inst, xvii., 190-201.
Prichard (Rev. Hugh), Compound Walls in North Wales : Caer Drewyn,
Penygaer, Craig y Dinas and Tre'r Ceiri. Arch, Camh. 5th ser. iv.,
241-259.
Pritchett (J. P.), the works of the Nevilles round Darlington. Journ. Brit.
Arch, Assoc, xliii., 217-237.
Robinson (Capt. T. W. W.), The Castle of Barnard. Jonrn, Bnt. Arch, Assoc,
xliii., 27-43.
Robinson (G. E.), Unrestored Churches. Arch. Camb. 5th ser. iv., 24-29, 116-
122.
Round (J. H.), S(»me documents relating to Colchester Castle. Essex Arch, Soc^
new ser. iii., 143-154,
Scarth (Rev. Pi*el). H. M.), Roman altars preserved at Rokeby and the Roman
stations at Greta Bridge and Piers Bridge. Jonrn. Brit. Arch. Assoc.
xliii., 124-132.
Simpson (Rev. W. S.), St. Vedast. Jonrn. Brit. Ardi. Assoc, xliii., 56-81.
Smith (C. Roach), Note <m the altar to the Sulevaj found at Colchester. Esssx
Arch. SiK\ new ser. iii., 141-142.
Roman Cliiohestcr. Journ. Brit. Aixh. Assoc, xliii., 13-20.
Stalilschmidt (J. C. L.), The Will of Miles Gray of Colchester, Bell Founder.
Essex Arch. S(n'. new ser. iii., 74-75.
Surtees (F. R.), Oonyers of Sockbum. Jonrn. Brit. Arch. Assoc, xliii., 149-154.
Sutton (T. S.), Ne^ith Abbey. Arch. C<tmb, 5th ser. iv., 81-85.
Tnyliir (G.), Folk-lore of AlK)riginal Formosa. Folk- Lore Jonrn. v., 139-153.
Thomas (Rev. Archdeacon), The Carmelite priory, Denbigh. Arch. Camb. 5th ser,
iv. 200-273.
Trevor-owen (Rev. R.), Llyfr Silin yn Cynnwys achau amryw Denlusedd yn
Ng\^'yned(l, Foyrys, etc. Arch. Cumh. 5th ser. iv., 58-73, 131-145, 214-224.
Williams (S. W.), Llansaintffread, Llanhamlack, and Llantigan Churches. Ardi.
Camh. 5th ser. iv., 202-213.
Report on Excavations at Strata Florida Abbey, Cardiganshire.
Arrh. Camh. 5th ser. iv., 290-299.
212 ARCH^K0L()<;Y.
Woxl (F. M.), notice of Lees Prioiy, Essex, witli tlescription of its underground
l)a8»igeH. JoKin. Brit. Arch. Awtfc. xliii., 21-20.
AVooJhouse (T. J., M.D.), notice of n i.ewly compiled register of tombs in Fulhani
Churcli. Jonrii. Brit. Arch. Afistic. xliii., 328-334.
Wood-Martin (W. G.), The i-ude 8t<»ne nsonuments of Ireland. Journ. Hint, and
Arch. AsitiM'. of Ireland, 4tli ser. viii., 5i)-94.
Woods (Cecil C), The liattle of Agherim. Jonrn. Hint, and --1 rch. AsMtc. of Irehind.
4th ser. viii. 4(>-49.
7. — Foreign Periodicals, 18S8.
(Continned frtrin jhuji: JJi,)
Basset (R.), Fi>lk-Loro Wolof. Mehmne iv., 57-59, 1)1-1)4.
B^dier (T.), La composition de Fierabras. Koiiutnia xvii. 23-52.
Butler (J. D.), the French two-barred cross. Am*>ric(tn AiUiq. x. 44.
Oagnat (R.), note sur uneplacjue de bronze decouverte aCremone. Her. Arch. xi.
3rd ser. 29-30.
Oartailhac (E.), L' incineration des morts ii I'age de la pierre. Mat. pimr ikrr.'r
a Vhiift. de Vhtrtnme 3rd ser. v. 1-8.
Deloche (M.), Etude sur ((uehiues cachets ot anneaux de lY'iKxiue merovingicnue
(s^iite) Rer. Airh. xi. 3rd ser. 23-28.
DTenha (G. F.), Folk-Lore in Salsette. Indinn Aitti^. xvii. 13-17, 50-54.
Dikshit (S. B.), The twelve year cycle of Jupiter. Indian Antiq. xvii. 1-7.
Gaidoz (H.), Quelques recueils de contes populaircs. M('hi{<itic, iv. (M5-G9.
Hoernle (A. F. R.), The Bakhshali Ms. In^Han Atdiq. xvii. 33-48.
Kielhoni (F.), Ohamba copperplate iuscrii>tion of Somavarmadova and Asatadeva.
Indian Antiq. xvii. 7-13.
Loquin (A.), Etudes bibliogra])hi(|ues sur les Melodies jwpulaires de la Franco.
Mdhisiney iv. 49-67.
Loth (I.), L'($tenuiement chez les Anciens Ciallois (text ex Lib. Nig. Caer. iuul
• translation). Mchminvy iv. 62-05.
Muntz (E.), L'antijiape Clement vii., essai sur riiistoire des arts a Avignon, vers
la fin du xve si<Scle. Htr. Arch. xi. 3rd ser. 8-18.
Ormeaux (A. L. Des.), observation sur le mode d'emploi du mors de bronze do
Mceringen. Bev. Arch. xi. 3i"d ser. 52-00.
Peete (S. D.), Palaeolithics and Mound builders, their age and date. A^nerican
Antiq. X. 40-50.
Psichari (T.) et H. (iaid(»z, Les deux nrbres entrelaces. Mclmine, iv. 00-02,
85-91.
Reinach (S.), L'Hermes de Praxit^le. Her. Arch. xi. 3nl ser. 1-4.
statuette de femnie gauloise au miisee britanniipie. Her. Arch. xi.
3rd ser. 19-22.
Chronic^ue d* orient. Her. ArcJi. xi. 3rd ser. 01-97.
Renan (E.), Inscription phdnicicnne et gi-ecque decouverte au Piree. Hev. Arch.
xi. 3rd ser. 6-7.
Rdvillout (E.), une confr^rie egyi)tienne. Her. Airh. xi. 3rd ser. 37-51.
Rodgers (C. 1.), the rupees of the Suri dynasty. [Illustrated.! Indian Antia,
xvii. 04-68.
Sudre (L.), Sur une brand e du Roman de Renart. Homania, xvii. 1-27.
Tichiuann (I.), La Fascination. Mil *sine, iv. 77-85.
liJJVIEW. 213
Wadia (Putlibai D. H.), Fulk-Lore in Wesbeni India. huVmn^ AuiUi. xvii. 75-81.
Wilson (Thomas), Epitome of prehistoric archaeology in Western Eurf)pe. Amer-
icnn Anti'i. x. 1-21.
Z. Un recueil de proverbos bosniaqucs. Mehmne^ iv, 73-70.
REVIEW.
TuE CouNTiNo-ouT KnYMEs OP CHILDREN' : their Antiquity, Origin, and Wide
Distribution. A Study in Folk-Lore, by Henrv Carringtox Boltox.
London (E. Stock). 1888. Small 4to., pp. xii. 121 (3).
This is a wclcoiue and valuable addition to the working folk-lorist*s library,
though its value might easily have been greatly increased by a little extra
research on the author's part. Just half the book is occupie 1 by the
rhymes themselves, arranged according to countries, and, within the coun-
try group, under fairly convenient headings. Speaking under correction,
it is the fullest collection we know of. But whilst the author has ranged
the world from China to Peru, he has neglected some easily accessible
sources. The rieli folk-lore literature of Italy is represented by five ex-
amples, and this, although Pitr^ has devoted a whole volume (published in
1879) to children's games. Franco again has but twenty examples, M.
Holland's works, notably his Rimes et Jtuj: de Venfance (1883) being
entirely ignored. But as far as Germany and England are concerned,
the collection is fairly full, and there are a number of American examples
taken down from the cliildren themselves. The author's acquaintance with his
subject is of a ratlier " got-up " nature, or he could never quote a familiar
rhyme in sucli a vile shape as
Tinker, Tailor,
Soldier, Sailor,
(wenthmaiiy Apothecary,
Ploiighboy, Tliief,
where his ear should have told him that the underlined w^ords could not
possibly be right.
The introductory chaptei*s are interesting and pleasantly written, but
like much else that comes from the States the author's theories are at
times as critical as could be wished, at times curiously naive and unso-
phisticated. On the whole, Mr. Bolton inclines to the "borrowing theory;"
he thinks the modern counting-out rhymes are descended from the original
formuhe used in divination ceremonies in Pagan times through the inter-
mediary of mediteval charm-literature. It never seems to have occurred to
him that the boys and girls of the past played at games as children do
now, and in probably much the same way, and that it is much more likely
the contemporary rhymes come down from the children than from the
elders of antiquity. Not that the connection he i)oint3 out between divi-
214 ARCHAEOLOGY.
nation-practices and counting-out games is illusory, but the games instead
of being the detritus of the former, are far more likely representatives of the
earlier stages of culture out of which the practices in question proceeded.
Of course, as in the analogous case of Marchen, the mass of children's rhymes
is a complex and an ever changing one ; in it are to be found, side by side,
echoes of the most archaic savagedom and of yesterday's newspaper. Each
race shapes this material differently, and special historical circumstances,
the German immigration into the States for instance, the effects of which
are well brought out by the author, may cause the rhyme-complex of one
race to modify that of the other. But in this even more than in other
departments of foils-literature resemblances between different groups should
not be held to imply a direct influence of the one on the other, nor should
the quest after definite origines be pushed too far.
Mr. Bolton's work will make it easier to compile the book on the sub-
ject, and until that is compiled will usefully fill its place.
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE PHYSICIANS OF MYDPFAI AND THE "THREE CAUSELESS BLOWS."
(Ante P' 109.)
Mr. Hartland has pointed out the significance of the incident of the
three causeless blows in the Welsh legend, and has given some curious
paralleh from savage folk-lore. I think it is worth noting that the Dyaks
of Borneo had such a legend, particularly as it clearly indicates totemism.
The Bishop of Labuau says " there is a fish which is taken in their rivers
called a ptittin, which they would on no account touch under the idea that
if they did they would be eating their relations. The tradition i-especting
it is that a solitary old man went out fishing and caught a jtuttin, which
he dragged out of the water and laid down in his boat. On turning round
he found it had changed into a very pretty little girl. Conceiving the idea
that she would make, what he had long wished for, a charming wife for
his sou, he took her home and educated her until she was fit to be married.
She consented to be the son's wife, cautioning her husband to use her well.
Sometime after her marriage, however, being out of temper, he stnick her,
when she screamed and rushed away into the water, not without leaving
behind her a beautiful daughter, who became afterwards the mother of the
race." — Jonm. Ethntjlogical Society, new scries, ii. 26-27.
O. L GOMME.
Ibtetotig*
— :o: —
THE BAKERS OF YORK AND THEIR
ANCIENT ORDINARY.
(Coiiiinxied from page 134.^
'* Gentyll bakers, make good breade ! for good breade doth comforte,
-confyrme, and doth stablysahe a mannea herte." — A. Borders Dyetary, chap, 12,
[10 March 5, Edw. VI. ; seventeen persons]
Assembled in the Counscll Chamber upon Ousebrige of the sayd Cittye ad.issi.
the dayeand yeare above sayd, >Yhen and wher it was agreed and confirmed
by the sayd presens emongs other thinges as followethe.
15. Item, that from hensforth suche a? be free of bakers crafte within i-ke r* im
this Citty, shall not bake after xiijd. or xiiijd. to the dowzen for the hiwkj*«4«fteT«uj«i,
huckster to sell againe, but shall put such advantage in ther bread to sell
after xijd. the dowzen, vpon pain to evcrj-e suche as bake or sell to the con-
trarye, hereof to forefayt^ vjs. viijd., toU'ens quotiens^ tliane halfe to the vse
•of the Chambre, and thother halfe to the sayd Occupacion.
[23 May, 5 Edw. VI.]
16. Item, It is further agreed That from henceforthe no baker of this A.D.155:.
•cittye, shall sell any bread to any huckster within the same to sell agayne, f„*,*hSdE.£*bL!d
iipon payne to euery bak ester vjs. >iijd. And euery huckestcr sellinge it HJdli25ip5dawM
-agayne xijd., ioiit% quoties., «tc.
[5 Feb. 6 Edw. VI.]
17. item. It is further agreed, that accordinge to the auncient custome ^-^-^'"^
i;he bakers of this Cittye shall make weekly Maynbread, sufficient to seme JJlJS;**^ *• •*
the Cittye withe, upon payne the whole Occupacion to forefaitc iijs. iiijd.
to the vse of the common Chambre, totuns quotiens,
[19 August 6 Edw. VI.]
18. Item. It is further ordeyned and agreed by the sayd presens with ^ ^- ''^•
the consent and assent of the whole crafte of the bakers, that whosoeuer of
them doo frome henceforthe offende against any statute or ordynaunce
•conceminge ther occupacion, he shalbe fyned and punished for euery suche JS{'J£I!l!|*^ *"*
offence accordinge to the sayd statutes and ordenaunces, withoute any
manner of ease or redemption.
19. Item, That none of them from henceforthe shall sell any bread to
any huckster to sell againe, vnto a further ordre be taken herein, vpon [«« ahuwux oi
payne of forefayture of iijs. iiijd. toties quoties^ And that they put their ^* **'*
advantage to ther bread accordinge to the late agrement thcrof.
20. Item. It is agreed that the Bow[l]e bakers shall haue waniinge by bowi*i»km.
the Searchers of the sayd occupacion and one of the Maior*s officers to
keepe ther Assise to them gyven, and to be gyven, as hath bene
accustomed; vpon payne of forefaitinge for euery tyme iijs. iiijd. or els
iieuer after to bake to sell, withoute anye manner of ease or redemption.
21. Item, Tliat no mancr of baker or other from henceforthe, bake anye jj^totaktN»:i«d
boulted bread to sell, upon payne of iijs. iiijd. to be forefaited as is above-
:8ayd.
[12 Feb. 1 Mary ; thirteen persons,]
Assembled in the Counsell Cliamber vpon Ousebrige, the daye and *-^*'^
yeare aboue sayd. When and wher for the amendment of the occupacion
None to bu}- bmul
216 HISTORY.
of common bakers of this city, and to avoydo occasion of daylye com-
playnte and varians betwcnc them and tie Tiplers cr lk)lbakers of tlio
same, —
It was ordeyned and agrceil by tbc saj'd prescns with consent of the
Maistcrs of tlie sayd Occnpacipn hereafter named, that is to saye [twenty-
three names] : —
22. Tluit from lienceforthe, it shall not be lawful! for anve inhabitant
within this ('ittye or suburbs of the same, by them seines, ther servants or
if*t£upui^«r"«^l others by their comaundement, to buy any bread of the tiplers or boU-
•uiymarilit" ' ' bakcra aforsayd, in any other place but onelye in Thui*s(laye Market, at the
dayes therfore lymytted, vpon payne that as well euery such inhabitant aoo-
buyinge against this ordinaiuice, as the tipler selling the same, upon dew^e
l^rcscntment or profe, shall forfaito iijs. iiijd. a peece, totiem quotiens ;
thouo Imlfe of whiche forfavture shall be to the C'hamber, and thother half
to the Grafte.
j4«fh.rito.ea«&e. 23. Item, that the searchers of bakers mayo lawfully take suche bread
as they perceyue so bought, from anye that hathe bought, or do carye the
same, to thentent they mfiye make dewe presentment therof. And if any
of the sayd inhabitantes, ther servants or others caryinge or conveyingo
anye of the same bread in ther skirt or otherwise, will not suffer the sayd
Searchers peaceably e to take the same to be presented as is aforsayd, but
it dothe withstand and deuye, than euerye the sayd inhabitants, for whom
the sayde bread is so bought, shall vpon presentment or other dewe profe,
forefait for euery suche withstanding or denycr iijs. iiijd. totits qvoties, <tc.,
to be equally imployed in forme aforesayd.
24. Item, it is further agreed by the sayd presens with consent afore-
th!?JaySar£t, *° sayd, tluit tlic sayd common bakers of this Citt3e maye frelye come to
Thursdave Markett Crosse and ther sell ther bread, as other the sayd
iSnSlniwiZ *"** tiplars or bolbakers maye do, makine good bread and kepinge like Assise
therof, as the sayd tiplars are bound to doo, anye ordenauuce or decree
heretofore made to the contrarye hereof notwithstandinge.
25. Item il is also ordeyned and agreed by the saj'd presens. That the
sayd tiplers or bolbakers shall not sell anye bread at the sjiyd Thursdayc
tJpwJi *Md ^T*!?. Markett in any of the dayes to them lymited, but oncly frome seaven of
bakm must tell. ^|^^ clockc iu tlic momingo vnto twelve of the clocke at noono ; vpon
payne of forefayture of all suche bread as shalbe foimde vusolde or
vndelyvered at the sayd Markett Crosse after the sayd howre of twelve of
the Minster clocke striken ; and to be taken so forefaited bv the Searchers
or others, good men of the sayd Occupacion and brought to the Chambre
vpon Ousebrige, ther to be devided, thone halfe therof to thuse of the
Chambre, and thotlier halle [to thuse of] of the sayde crafte, — anye ordre
or decre heretofore made to the contrarye notwithstandinge.
[18 May, 1 Mary]
^^„ ,354 20. Item, That no maner person of this cittye shall buj' any spiced
Non* to buy »i.iccd cakcs iu St. Marigate or elswher, upon payne of forefayture xxd., as often
"**•• as they so doo, thone halfe to the Chambre, and thother halfe to
thoccupacion.
[30 July, 8 Eliz. ; sixteen persons assembled]
27. Moreouer the day and yere aboue sayd at the humble request of
Lancelot Williamson, Nicholas C'lerke, and Willm. WillsoM, searchers of
the misterie of free Inkers of this cittie and good men of the same crafte,.
It was ordeyned and aggreed by the sayd worshipfull presens, with consent
of the sayd occupacion, that for the bettor quyetnes, honestye and profitt
of the sayd crafte, the searchers of the sayd misterye for the tyme beinge,
with advise of the moste discreet of thoccupacion, shall haue frome t\'mo
to tyme thordre, punyshment, and fynes, of thot!endcrs againste certayne
articles of ther ordinaunces, here vnder written and specified, yeildinge
A.I>. 1:mO.
teken to have c«-r.
t«)iie anM, payiDse' aud i)avingc verelv to the Chambrelaynes of this Cittve to the common.
THE n A KICKS OF YORK. 217
vac xs. at Mavtiniiids and Pcnthecoste equally. Provided alwais that if
any nej^ligence, disseution, misordre or doiibc shall at any tyme arise or
happen by reason of the premisses eniouges the sayd occiipacion, thqn the
Lorde Maior for the tyino beinge, to haue the correction, <.>rdre, and
redresse therof, accordinge to his good discretion, — this sayd agreanient in
anye wise notwithstandinge.
28. Fii-ste if anye of tkoccupacion beinge lawfully warned by ther
Searchers to come to ther assembles in ther common place accustomed, for notcomyngtoamm-
good ordre of thoccupacion, do make default, he to forfayte xvd., totits
quotles ; excepte onlye, he haue a cause reasonable of his absens.
29. Item if anve of the sayd crafte be disobedient, or of misbehavore ^ mtabehatrioar w
•', /«! !• 1 11 11 tlbobedletio* to the
agamste ther Searchers for the tyme benige at ther assembles, or els wher, •erciu".
making ther searche, or executinge ther office, — ^to forefaite for euerye
such offence xxd.
30. Item, if anye of the sayde crafte sh:dl happen to brawlo or revile brawnnw with or
one an other at anie ther assembles in the common place, or els whear, —
to forfaite for euerye such offenc xijd., toties quoiies.
31. Item, if any pei'son of the sayde occupacion shall chause not to v^e n»quietntyecroMt%
himself quyctly at the Crosse, withoute any misordre, — to forfaite for
everye such oft'ence xxd.
32. Item if any of the sayd crafte of free Bakers shall go hawkin:^ H.wkinje.
with ther Bread, either in the citty or suburbs, — to forefaite therefore xxd.
33. Item, if anye of the sayde occnpacion of free Bakei-s shall entise Shl'rl'.ppSSK'irn
the apprintice of anye other free baker frome him, or sett anye other "'°^'*'-
apprintice a worke, without lycens of the searchers and agreraent of the
NIaistcr of the sayd apprentice, vpon dewe profe, — to forefaite iijs. iiijd.,
toties quodes.
34. Item, if anye of the sayd crafte shall take or keope in his house Kepinwc Rppremta*-
anye suchc apprentice of the sayd occupacion, as his maister haith putt p"*""™*'-
awaye, and cannot tell good cause why, —to forfaite six shillings, eight-
pence.
35. And it is now agreed and ordeyned by the sayd worshipfuU presens
with consent of all the good men Maisters of the sayd free Bakers, that no Not to be fr« j*fon-
manner of person shall be Irome henceforthc admitted or allowed a free **^*''"******""'"^'
baker within this cittye, onelesse he haith b en seaven yeres apprentice
within the sayd Cittye at the same crafte, npon paync conteyned in the
statute therfore latelyc provided, thexecucion hereof reserued to the Lorde
Maior for the tyme beinge, and his bretheren thaldermen.
[31 Dec, 10 Elizabeth; thirteen persons,]
3B. Assembled in the Counsell Chambre upon Onsebridge, the daye a.p. imt.
and yeare aboue sayd, when and wher for the better ordre emonges the
bakers to be from henceforthe kept, it is agreed, that no bakers wife of?'" **•*•»* *'*',.'^
r^ ' n y tiuv In the niHrket
this cittie come into the Corne Markett vpon the markett daye, to buye jjJJ^^^^Jjj^ *»"»-
any manner of corne as wheat, rye, or beanes, onelesse her husband be
seike, or furthe of the cittye, so that at no tyme ther be aboue one of a
house of anye of the sayde bakers in the markett to buye any corne ; upon
payne to forefaite xxd., toties quotles.
37. Item, that none of the sayd occupacion shall resort to any Taveme, ^.^^ti^^ ^„ ^
Inne, Ailehoiise, or Tiplinghouse, vpon anye Soiidays or other holyc ^ayes *;^^^i[j^2, a'^?h3?
in tyme of divine service or sermons, vpon payne of every one oii'endinge, •'^j'I-
to forfaite for every offence xijd., the one halfe to the common Cliambre,
t»nd thother halfe to the presenter.
[26 Jxdy, 23 Elizabeth ; thirteen pei-8ons,J
Assembled in the Counsell Chamber vpon Ousbrige the daye and yere a.d.wsi.
aboue sayd, when and wher vpon humble suite maydo by the Searchers
and good men of the occupacion of baker's of this cittye, that is to saye,
Christofer Dixon, Willm. Peter, Willra. Kinge, and Richarde Wilson,
Searchers of the sayd Occupacion, it was nowe agreed by theis prcsente,
218 HISTORY.
with tlie consent of the sayd Searchers and other good men of the sajd
Occupacion, that the articles ensewing should be added to this ther Ordinal!,
and to be observed and kept for ever, vidlt :
SSiiSidbhlthiillt ^^' ^^^^^i ^^ ^s ordeyned, that no maister of the sayd occupacion shall
SuitaS^""****** ®^^^ ^" worke at tho sayd occupacion auyc stranger, or other that hath not
bene an apprentice thereat and served his apprentisl ippe within this cittye
>vith some brother of the sayd occupacion, vpon payne of xxs.; the one
halfe to the common Chamber of this cittye, and the other halfe to the
sayd occupacion.
iSTTJlSSr w*SI ^^* Item, that if anye jurneyman of the sayd occupacion, which haith
«n other. |jjg jyuinge amougcs the maisters of the sayd crafte, in helpinge them to
bake when ther need is, dothe promise anie maister to come, and helpe bim
to bake at tyme appointed, and the sayd jomeyman go to an other to
worke, and disapoint the maister he promised before to helpe, — ^shall for-
fiiite for every offence iijs. iiijd. to be payd and deuided as is aforesayd.
^l!m3^nxJrS^ 40. Item, it is ordeyned, that if anye free bakers of this citty disobayc
**^- anye law full or reasonable commaundemeiit given to them by the bedell
of the sayd fellowshippe of free Bakers on tlie behalf of the Searchers of the
sayd fellowshippe for the welth of the sayd craft<j, — shall forfaite for every
t»ffence iijs. iiijd., to be payd as affore sayd.
Okkiogeon tbeHofi- 41. Item, it is ordeyned that no psrson of the misterye or crafte of
^'^ bakers from henesforthe shall bake anie manner of bread vpon the S.)ndaye
to be sould, exccpte a speciall comaundemeut be geucn in tyme of great
necessitye, — upon paine of every person so offending to forfaite xxs. for
cverye offens to be i)ayd as affore sayd.
£Siirll?M tohiw' ^^' Item, that no baker within this cittye shall neither baike nor
«nb<Kur. boult in anie Inkepers house wuthin this Cittye of Yorke or suburbs of the
smie, vpon payne to forfaite vjs. viijd., so ofte as he or they shall offend,
to be payd and devided as affore sayd.
taM^^d foJ thJ? ^^' Item, it is ordeyned, that no inkeper, harborer nor hostler within
4(CBtM nor gnt bones ^^jg citty c or suburbs of the same make or bake anye manner of bread in
ther howses (ryebreade for ther families excepted), but that they buy ther
bread for to sell to ther gwests, and for ther gesto horses, of the common
bakers of this cittye, so that every loofe of bread be marked with the
niarke of the baker of whom the saym bread was bought, to thend and
intent that everye person maye knowe that the bread is of the right assise,
of such value as it ought to be, wherby the inkepers, harborers and ostelers
maye advouche the siile of their bread by the marke of the baker. And if
anye inkeper, harborcre or hosteler have anie bread found in ther hoivses
in anye other manner then the manner aforesayd, that they and everye of
them shall forfait for everye offens xls. to be payd and deuided as is afore-
sayd.
Drrad takiw h«^i. 44. Item, it is ordeyned, that all suche bread as hereafter shall be
found b3rne about hawkingc within this Cittye or suburbs to be sould,
shalbe forfeited to the Chamber of this Cittye and disposed at the dis-
cretion of my Ijord Maior and Cliamberlaj^ns for tl.e tyme beingc accord-
ing to the vsages and old customes of this (Cittye.
2r''iIr**SlIr""Ml 45. Item, it is ordeyned, that what soeuer person or persons of the sayd
«w»p»«. fellowshippe being chosen Searchers, at the entriugo of ther ofiSce shall
fynd sufficicnte sewertye for to aunswere the treasure belonginge to the
sayd fellowshippe of bakers, and to make a trewc and juste accompt at the
goinge furthe of searchershippe of all their receptcs and paymentes by
them made, vpon payne of euery one offendinge herein to forfaite xls., to
be payd in fonne affore sayd.
Nunc to tiik« up. 46. Item, it is ordeyned, tliat no brother of the said occupacion, after
CnTocJSpw ftlJre his first scttinge up as maister, shall take any apprinticc vnto suche t^Tne
iSSSnS^^^ "'*** as the sayd brother hathe bene foure yeares maister of the sayd crafte of
bakers, upon pi\yne of xxs. to bs deuided and payd as aforesade. And at
THE BAKERS OF YORK. 219
theud of the sayd fower ycares it shall be lawfuil for the sayd brother to
take oue apprentice and no mo, vnto such tyme as the said apprentice
liave served six yeares and a halfe of his apprentishipe, upon payne of
fortye shillingcs, to be payd as afore sayd,
47. Item, it is ordeyned that no inhabitantes in this cittye or suburbs of nom to \mk»
the same not beinge a fre baker bake any spiced caikes to sell, but onelye ^'»!iC5lS!S\
the fre bakers of the same Cittye, vpon payne of xls., to be payde aud
deuided as afforesayd.
[14 June, 25 Elizabeth; sixteen persons,]
48. Assembled in the Counsell Chamber upon Owssbrige the daye and a.d.iui.
yeare aboueaayd, when and wher it did appeare to theis presentes, that
ther is one article in the bakers ordinall, that no inhabitantes within this
cittye aud suburbs of the same not being a free Baker, shall bake anye
spiced caikes to sell, but onely the free Bakers of this Cittye, vpon payne
of xls., thone halfe to the common chamber of this Cittye, and the other
halfe to the sayd occupacion, in which Article it appeared to theiso
presentes, that ther was some inconvenience : —
It is nowe thcrfore agred by theis presentes that no manner of person or
persons shall from henceforth bake anye suche spiced cakes within this
Citty or suburbs of the same, but onelye the free Bakers of this Citty, hom to b^w ipio«d
oneles suche person or persons do compound and paye suche fine to the sayd SSl^SlSSi'ilS!
occupacion of Bakers, as the Lord Maior of the sayd Cittye of Yorko for **""**•
the tyme beinge, and his Bretheren Aldermen, shall set downe, — upon
j)ayne of xls, thone halfe to the common Chamber and thother halfe to
the sayd occupacion.
[26 Feb., 31 Elizabeth]
49. It is agreed bv the Lord Maior and Aldermen then in the counsell a.d. i»«.
o •' Nona to tak* •ppm •
('hambor assembled, that none of the sayd occupacion of bakers shall within £!II«?£Shi?4 ""^
foure yeares next after suche tyme as he shall sett up a^ maister in the SJS;P,'pi',iJ * *•"
sayd crafte, take any apprentice into his service, to exercise any parte of
his trayd, except he be the child of a free cittizen of this cittye ; which it
shalbe lawful! for them to take at anye tyme, so that the sayd npprentico
be bound for no less terme then eleaven or twelve yeares as his age shall
require, at tiie discrecion of the Lorde Maior for the tyme beinge, because
and reason the powre children of this Cittye are to be placed in service,
vpon payne of euerj'e one ofiFending herein to forfaite xls for eueryc offence,
to be payd and deuided, thone halfe to the common Chamber, and thother
halfe to the sayd occupacion.
[5 Dec, 32 Elizabeth]
50. And nowe wheras my Lord Maior aud thisCourte are informed that -^J**'*
dyiiei*s bakers of this cittye, viz. Raulfe Hardy e, John (Jarthe, and Richard
Clerke haue of late vsed to sell course mealeto the powre of this Cittye, and
that they haue mingled and made up the same with branne, chesell, [chesell,
fcand orgravell] and suche like stuffe, And further that they do commonlye
vse to buye evill corne and to mingle Rye, Barley, Beanes and Gates together
and to grind the same into meale, and so to sell the same to the poore,
which appeareth to this Court to be a mere deceipt to the buyer and verye
hardlye to them to be knowen ; for the avoydinge wherof It is this daye
agreed that frome henceforthe, no maner of baker or bakers what soever
within this C'ittye, shall grind any maner of come or grayue what soeuer
into meale, to the intont to sell the same in meale, nor that the sayd
bakers or anye of them shall from henceforthe, sell or cause to be sould Ji^**^Slt"JMte
anye maner of meale whatsoever, (wheat-meale and beane-meale being fyne •nSuiem^io.
and good onelye excepted) upon paine of euerye baker doinge the contrarye,
to forfaite for euerye ofiFence xls, to be payd and deuyded, the one halfe to
the common Chaml^er, and thother halfe to the presenter.
51. And further it is agreed that from hcncforthe no maner of milner ^^ „y„^ ^ ^„
or milners within this cittie or suburbs thereof shall from henceforth sell Siu'i'Ji^SJSiSS*
220 HISTORY,
nuy manor of imilter come niealc, but oiiclyc in o[)cn market t and by
weight, upon payne of euery pei-son to forfaite, for euerye husliell sulde in
anyc other maner xs, to be pa yd and deuided as is aforesavd.
[19 June, 37 Elizabeth]
Li». isbs. 52. Wheraa the bakinge of maine bread in this Cittye is of late ahuost
left of, or cleanc given oner, which is tliouglit. to be by reason that spyced
cakes are of late grownc into greater vso then heretofore haith bene, which
Mayne Breade (as it is reported) is not in use, nor baked in anyc other
Cittie or place forthe of this cittye in England, and haith bene vsed in
this Cittye tyme out of niynde of man, and is one of the auucientest
matters of noveltyc to present men of honor and otliers repai-inge to this
cittve withall that caun be hadd heare, it is therforc tlioujjlit meet ancl
convenient, that the same shalbe still continewed and kept in vso and not
to be suffered to decaye nor to be layde downe. Whervpon it is no we
agi'ced by theis presentes, that the mayne bakers of this Cittye shall
nayntLreade. cmougcst tlicm bako cucryc Frydaye morningo from henceforthe tenu
shillings worthe of Mayne Bread at the least, good and fyne stuffe suche as
hatlie bene accustomed, to be sould to suche as will buye the same, vpou
payne of vj* viij** for euerye defjxult. And it is further ordred that if it do
not sell before fyve of the clocke in the after none of the same day, that
then the same mayne bakers shall send to tlie Lord Maior, Aldermen,
SherifTes and xxiiij, at fyve of the clocke in the after none of the same daye,
(viz) to the Lord Maior and Aldermen euery of them foure pennye worthe,
and to the Sheriffos and xxiiij euerye of them two pennye worthe, of suche
parte tlierof as shall at that houre be vnsould, who shall take and paycjor
the same. And that the searchei's of the bakers shall be chardged to se
this order performed on the bchalfe of the sayd bakers, to make present-
ment of the defaultes of the sa3'd Bakers therin, thone halfe of all which
fynes shalbo to the common Chamber and t bother to tiie Company of
Bakci-s.
«<metobiii>c>pte««i ^^'^' Also it is agi'oed that none shall from henceforthe bake anie spiced
hlibe'oulw^.&o!* cakes to be sould within this Cittye but suche onelie as shalbe allowed
theirunto by this Court, and bound to perfonne suche condicons and orders
as shall be sett downe by this Court in that bchalfe, upon payne of vjs.
viijd. to be forefated for euery tyme doinge contrarye this order, to be
payed and deuided to tiie Common Chambre and Companve of Bakers
equal lye.
xo *pioe.i «k» fit 5-1:. Item, it is agi-eed, that no spiced cakes shall be soldo vnto nor
U^nkSS^HnJ^ vsed at or in anye funeralles, christenings, drinkings witii the Lord Maior,
a»cn«. SherifFes, Aldermen, or Chamberlaynes after ther eleccions, nor in anye
tavernes or innes ; and that taverners shall vse Maynbred, iiewe v.hite bread
or suche like in ther bowses, and no cakes, v]>on payne ot euery person
offendinge or doinge contrarye to lose and forefaite for euerye offence or
tyme so offendinge or doinge vjs. viijd., to be payd and deuided as affore-
sayd. And that the Searchers of the sayd comj)anye of bakers shall bane
auctoritye to searche and present the offenders and defaultes in thisbehalfe.
[12 March, 38Eliz.; eighteen persons, the two "gentlemen" named
below not being among them,]
*-^*^'- Assembled in the counsel] Chamber upon 0\>se Bridge, when and wher
it is agreed. That the Articles hereafter followinge heretofore preferred by
Willm. Kinge, John Hargill, John Brownleese, and John Harrison, Searchers
5?IIlS"aS3"!Il!lSe^^^^ <jf *^G bakers and other good men of the same to this Courte, to be added to
"••' ther Ordenary ; whiche were then referred to the worshipfull Maister Robt.
Askwith, Maister Thomas Mosley, aldermen, Perce vail Brookes, James
Mudd, gentlemen, to be by them j>erused and consydercd vpon, beinge
nowe by them perused and considered v])on, and delivered againe into this
Court, and here openlye redd, and considered vpon by this Court, shalbe
added vnto the Bakers' Ordenarve as hereafter followethe, viz.: —
THE BAKERS OF YORK. 221
55. First, it is ordeyned, that the whole Coinpanie of the sayd occiipa- tiectiooof«cwiim.
cion shall ou the Momiaye next after the feast of St. James thappostlo
jissemble thenisjlves in ther best or most decent apperrell in St. Anthonics
Hall, and ther by their most voices chose foure Searchers to continewe for
a yeare then next followinge. And so from yeare to yeare shall yearlye
vpon tlie sayd Monday e euerye yeare make tlie like choise, to continewe
for a yeare in forme aforesayd. And he that is wanieri to the sayd JEiSS."**"*'**'**
tjlection and makethc default of his appearance (except a lawfull lett), or
Cometh not decentlye in his best or most dccente apperrell, shall forfaite ^^^ ^^^^ ^j^.
for euery default xijd. And if anye so chosen searcher shall refuse, he shall J'nt »« •t*n»»e.
forefaite xxs.
56. Also at every such assemble the old and newe searchers and suclie
AS have I ene searchers, shall before ther departure by taer most voyces wwkm or pirfukin
chose two Pagiant Maisters of the sayd companye, and if nny cliosen '""**^-
Pagiant Maister shall refuse to stand, he shall forefait xs., and an other
shalbe chosen in his place, which forfaitures shall be, thone halfe to the
€omon Chamber, and thother halfe to the sayd occupacion.
57. Item, that euery brother of the sayd occupacion shall upon con-
venient and sufficicnte warning geuen to him by the bedell of the sayd omtyng* u> oirMnge
fellowshippe, come to the manage and offeringeof a brother or younge man 1!*)!!*^**' "^^ * **^
of the sayd fellowshippe, or to the buriall of a brother or suster of the
same companie, vpon payne to forfaite to the vsc of the same fellowshippe
at every tyme iiijjl. (a hiwfull and convenyente excuse, or word left with
some of the searchers, alhvayes reserved and excepted).
58. Item, it is ordeyned, That no baker or other persons do make,
bake, vtter or sell anie kindes or sortes of bread in the comon wealthe but ui^^^i t« -« »«k«i. '
Jsuche which the statutes and auncicnt ordinaunces of this Realme do allowe
them to bake and sell ; that is to saye, they niaye bake and sell Mayne
Bread, Simnell bread, AVastell, whit, wheaten, Iwulted, houshold and
horse breades (leuen cakes in Lent except), and none other kindes of bread
to put to sale vnto her Maiestien subiectes, vpon payne to forefeit the same,
and to be fined therfore at the discretion of my Ix)rd Maior.
59. Item, it is ordeyned, that the sayd bakers shall make and bake fur-
thinge whit bread, halfepennye whit, penny whit, halfe penny wlieaton, a»«'««fpricw.
penny wheaton bread, penny houshould, and two penny houshould loves,
and none of greater sise (sodden bread and ryebread onelye excepted) vpon
payne of forefeiture vnto the poore all suche gi-eate bread which they or
anye of them shall make to sell of greater sise (the tyme of Christenmas
alhvayes excepted).
60. Item, it is ordeyned, that euery of the sayd bakers shall sell and r^rJ.'*"'' *** ^*
deliuer vnto inholders, hostelers, and victulei*s in horsebread but three
loves for a pemiye, and xiij. penny worthe for xijd., upon payne of vjs. viijd.
to be equally payd and devided as aforesayd.
61. Item chat no ]jersou of the sayd misterye or crafte from henchfortlic >•„ uk.„ge ou .sw-
bake anye marnier of bread or Manchett Caikes on the Sondaye to be sould iSSU. "***** ^^
(except a speciall connnaundement be giuen to them for tj^me of great
necessitye for some (Jiu'isteninge, funerall, banquitt or such like, and crave
licence of the Searchers of the sayd baikers or two of them at the leastc
for the tyme beinge), vpon payne to euerye person offendinge or doinge
contrarj'e this ordinance to forefaite at everye tyme xxs., to be deuided in
maimer and forme aforesavd.
62. Item, that no person of the said occupacon from henceforthe sell '''•••'' .»»*". .T~
to the mholders, harborers, hostlers, or to anye other manner of customer
but thirtene pennye worthe of breade for xijd. And to give none other
«;ifte nor reward prevelye nor openlye or more weight then the iust assise,
for the oppressinge of the brethereu of the same fellowshippe, upon payno
of imprisonment, and to make fyne at euerye tyme ho offendetho this
ordenance iijs. iiijd., equal lye to be deuided as is aforesayd.
222 HISTORY.
N^hhwkjrBK*. ^3 Item be it ordeyned, That all sucho brcad as hereafter shall bo
found carryed about in liawking or otherwise (except to the market cross
on the dayes mentioned to be sould, or to a customer which haith it by
tayle and spoken for), and also tiiat all suche bread^so caryed towardes the
Market, or to anye customer as shalbo sould by the wave, or as shalbe caryed
to anye luholder, Tipler, Huxter or Victallers house to be sould (except before
excepted) shalbe forefaiteJ and dispose! at the discrecion of the LordMaior;
and the partye offendinge shall also forefaite and paye for the same defalt
or offence iijs. iiijd. at euerye tyme so offendinge, to be deuided as affore-
sayd.
Ming « ft« bro. g^ It^m, It is ordeyned, that when soeuer it shall happen anye person
which shall haue serued in the sayd occupacion seauen yeares apprintice at
the leaste in this citty, or which is the sonn of a fre baker, and tliat haith
bene brought vp and suflicientlye instructed in the sayd occupacion, shalbe
desyerous to be made free of the sayd occupacion, that the same person
J^«»»jjj«J^«> shall give knowledge therof vnto the Searchers, to thentent that they maye
•*■• examine him, leame, and try whether he haue trewlye serued his terme, or
haue bene brought vp therin as afforesaid and be sufficientlye instructed,
and an hable, good, and cunninge workeman therin or no, and of good name
and fame. And if he be found so to haue done, and be an hable, good, and
cunninge workeman therein, then to be admitt, and not otherwise ; which
person before his admittance shall paye and do all such duetyes as by law-
is admitted. And shall at his first settinge vp bake a batche of bread, and
entreat the Searchers to come and se the same, whether it be well, iawfullye,
and workmanlie wrought and done or no, vpon paine of vjs. ^ iijd., to be
deuided as afforesayd.
MM* to fMtjT* nn 65. Item be it oi*deyned, that none of the sayd occupacion shall
other Buuis sirviiiiu*. %/ ' t/ l
receyue an other man*s servant of the same occupacion reteyned within the
tyme of his retendre in service, without the licence and agreament of hi3
maister, upon payne of forefaiture of xxs., to be payd and deuided as affore-
sayd unto the sayd comon Chambre and companye towardes the mainten-
ance of the sayd occupacion, without mittigacion.
66. Item, that no maister of the sayd occupacion shall set on worke,
Kot any tn aet on tcachc, or iustructc, auie person in the said occupacion which haith not
• *' *■ served seaven ye.ires therin at the least as an apprintice (except he become
bounden Apprintice to him that so settethe him on worke) ; nor shall take
or receyue anye jorneyman into the sayd occupacion to serue with him,
except the same haue serued seaven yeares at the least as an apprintice in
the sayd occupation of bakers, or be a fre baker's sonn, seruinge in the sayd
occupacion, vpon payne of every maister doinge the contrarye to fore!'aite
and paye xxs., equallye to be deuided as afforesaid.
67. Item, it is ordeyned that none of the sayd occupacion shall set any
Nowoouui tobeatt woman on worke of the sayd occupacion of bakers to leame the same (ex-
OB worke, tmt.&c. ^^^^ ^j^^ ^^ ^j^ ^.j£g ^^ doughtcr) vpou p.\yne to forefnit for every tyme so
doinge vjs. viijd. to he payd and deuided as afforesayd.
68. Item, it is orde[y]ned. That if anye maister of the sayd occupacion,
havin<^e one apprintice or moe happen to dye, that no maister of the same
mittiw ii>rr ■iHii ill v '
tfMwSoNnuiateru occupaciou shall hyer anie suche apprintice or apprintices as hiered servant
or otherwise at his owne will, but that the whole occupacion or most of them
with the Searchers shall meet and conferr together and appointe vnto such
apprintice or apprintices suche Mr or Maistres as shall be moste fitt
and meet to serue furth ther yeares withall ; and if anye Mr do take or hyer
anye suche apprentice or apprintices other then suche Mr or Maistres as
the same apprintice or apprintices shall ba so appointed unto, euerye suche
Mr shall haue the same apprentice or apprentices taken from him by the
sayd searchers and placed agaue as is afforesayd, and shall forefaite and paye
SntSd^h^T for euery tyme so doinge iijs. iiijd. to be deuided as aforesayd. Provided
alwayes, that it shall and maye be lawfull to and for anie wedowe which
THE BAKERS OF YORK. 223
waa the wife of auie Mr or fre Brother of the said occupaciou to kccpe a
jomeymau or workeman havinge seriied his apprintishippe in this Cittye,
or thapprintice of her husbandes, to soruo forthe his yeares diirin«(e her
widowchead, so it be by the consent of the Lord Maior and searchers of
the same occupacion ; anyo thingo to the contrarye in this article not with-
stand in ge.
69. Also it is ordeyned, That whosoever of the sayd occupacion is dis-
obedient against the searchers in ther searche, or at anie other tynie, or ^^^^^^ ^
doth missuse his searchers or anie of them vnreuerentlie or vndecentlye ▼•»»§• ""y.
cither in word or in deede, or doth disclose anie lawfull secretes, and the
s.ime proved ; or if anie of the sayd occupacion shall vse him selfe disorder-
lye in talke at the common place or at anie other ther assembles, and shalbe
once warned by the searchers to hould his peace, and dothe not ; or shall
revile, rebuke, miscall, orgiue vndecent or vnseamelie words, or abuse any
other brother of the same occupacion by faciiige, imbracinge, or makiuge of
assaltes or affrayes in the presentes of the searchers, or shall departe from
ther common place or assembles in anger, withont license of the searchers,
and will not be govisrned by the sayd searchers in all causes which are law-
full belonging to ther occupacion ; shall payo euerye tyme so ofiTendiugc
vjs. viijd., to be devided in maner and forme afforesayd.
70. Item. It is also ordeyned that if ther happen anie contrauersie to ,^^*** ""'"^
fall or be betwene anie of the said occupacion, they nor none of them shall
attempt any suite of lawe one against another without licence of the
searchers, before they haue corapleyned themselves therof to ther searchers
and companj'e, nor before the searchers and companye and other whom
they shall call to them have hadd the hearinge of the same controneraies :
to thintent to ende the same without expenses in lawe, if they cann ; vpou
payne of euery one doinge contraye to this order to forefeit and payo vjs.
viijd, thone halfe to the common Chamber and thother halfe to the sayd
occupacion (complayntes to my Lord Maior excepted).
71. Also it is ordeyned that if any of the searchers of the sayd occu- pwhw. not uojrm
pacion be found perciall, remisse, or necligent, or not indifferent in his
office, or shall fauor or ben re withe anye person or persones in ther offences,
or will not execute the sayd ordeuannces indifferently and with effecte, that
then upon proof ther of hadd before the other searchers and suche other
as haue bene searchers, every suche searcher so in defalt shall lose and fore-
feite at euery tyme so doinge to the said companye xxd. or lesse, at the dis-
crecion of the afforenamcd persons.
72. Item, that no maister of the sayd occupacion shall keepc anye person som to be k»pt ti
as apprintico vnbounden the space of two monethes next after his 6rst **""'**
c:)minge, upon payne of vjs. viijd., to be payde and deuided as afore-
sayd.
73. Item, when any Mr of the sayd occupacion shall take apprin-
tice bound by indenture, the same Mr shall bringe and shewo the same •hojj^ynT indeniHr
. J •' t T i> t .,....., to ihe •erchtrt.
nidcntures vnto the searchers, or to two of them, withm xuij. daycs
next after the sealinge of the same, and ther to regester the same ; and the
same Indentures shalbe made onelyo by the Gierke vnto the sayd Bakers,
and by none other, painge therefore xijd, upon payne of xiijs. iiijd. to be
payed and deuided cquallie as is afforesayd.
74. Also it is agi'eed. That euery Mr which shall take apprentice shall mroinngindeBtim
within two monethes next after the sealing of his indentures enroll the
same in the common Regester of this Cittye, and shall paye for the same
enrolment viijd. to the common Clerk and common Chamber, equallye to
bo deuided, vpon payne of vjs. viijd.
75. Also it is is agreed that it shalbe lawfull for any baker of this g,,,,^„,„^,^
cittye to bake sodden cakes or sodden bread at suche assize as shal bij
aj^pointed by my Lorde Maior for the tyme beinge for the same, without
incurringe anye penaltye in that behalfc. theis Oordenaunccs, or any thingc
I Set' WLC. -W I
224 nisroRY.
ill tlie same or in auvc of them contevnccl to the coutrarve iu ciiivcuiae
V K «/ «/
not withjitaudinge.
[19 Dec. : 3 James 11 : twentj-seveu pei>ous,
A.i>.i«.7. Assembled in the Conncell Chamber npon Owse Bridg the day and year
as above said, when and wliere vpon the hnmble petition of Robert Jeeb,
liklmuud Rogers, (jJeorge Robinson, and John Anstin, Searchers, and other
good men ot* the occnpacion of bakers in this citty, for y* avoyding of
(livers inconveniences and ditterences that of late have arisen amon^ret the
brethren of the said company concerning ye right vnderstanding of the
words of a ccrtaine article in tlie 27 folio hi this ordinary al>ont their
takeuig apprentices, and for y* avoyding of such differences that for y*
fnture may hajien amongst them tliis ensneing order wjis made, vizt.
NuDciotakenpiwrwi. 7G. Oi'dcred, that no maister or other person of the said Comi>any shall
hMrn ibur jMni aet tako aiiv apprciitice vntill sucli maisters or other person haue sett up and
up or h«»e had a •ii-i -.ii #«• 11 1.
fMnrnr n|.|.ivntH* exerciscd liis trade as a maister by the space of fonrc ycares,and that then it
shall be lawful for such maister to take one apprentice and no more nntill such
apprentice haue serued six yeares and a halfe of his apin-enticeship, whether
y* boy so to be taken a])prentice bo the sonne of a freeman of this Citty
or the Sonne of a foreiner ; upon paine to forfeit and pay for every
offence against this article three i)ouiii six shillings and eight pence, wherof
one halfe is to be paid to the common Chamber, and the other halfe to the
company e aforesiiid. Prouided all way es that it shall and may be law^full
for the Lord Mayor and aldermen of this (.^itty to putt any poore freeman's
Sonne at the onlj' charge and charity of the (Utty to be an apprentice to
any person of the said Company at their discretions, according to the Act
of Parliament in this c.iso provided, anything in this or any other article
eontained to the contrary notwithstanding.
Varied as are the subject matters of these oidiiianccs, they fall
for the most part into a few broad groups. Based to begin with
upon the statutes ascribed to Hen. III., they follow the lines thei-e
lai<l down pretty closely, in spite of the variations brought about
by time and new customs. The principal object was that there
should be settled prices, weights, and sorts of bread, so that the
people might always be well supplied, and be protected against fraud.
Within the company, the behaviour of the members, their relations
to one another and their officers, were the object of regulations
strictly enforced, while the enrolment of new members and the
whole question of apprentices received much attention in the
ordinances of the IGth century (sec. 32-35, 38, 4G, 49, G4, G8, 72-74,
7G). A few concern the employment of servants or journeymen
(sec. 39, Go, GG, G8), and of women (sec. 07).
GovEUNMENT OF THE Craft. — We do not find the exact constitu-
tion of the company laid down by ordinance, but it may be gathered
that it consisted of master-bakers and apprentices and journeymen ;
that in the caily part of the loth century (before A.D. 1480, see sec.
1-3) the city appointed two "keepers" or surveyors to overlook
t'lem, on account of the complaints made, but that their regular
THE BAKERS OF YORK. 225
officers appoiated annually among themselves were four Searchers,
whose authority was enforce 1 by penalties (sec. 2, 10, 29, 55, 69).
They had to examine the quality and weight of the bread for sale
weekly (sec. 1, 3, 10), take the price from the Mayor and, it is to be
presumed, make it known to the rest of the company ; ^ when the
tipplers were admitted to some share of bakera' privileges, they had
to receive the price and weight from the Searchers (sec. 12). These
officers had also the care of " the treasure" of tho company, and had
to give sureties (sec. 45) ; their accounts were carefully kept and
yearly audited. Tlie " treasure " cjn-jisted of '* stock " or money in
hand, " brother head money," " benevolences," and of fines incurred
for bad behaviour at meetings or elsewhere, for bad bread, baking
at forbidden hours, or otherwise breaking the ordinances. In early
times the fines were divided between the company and the city,
but in 1566 the company compounded for the greater part by
agreeing to pay 10s. a year to the city (sec. 27). Their payments
included offerings at burials and marriages of brethren, to which
all were invited (sec. 57), assistance t> poor brethren, searching
inns, quarterly dinners (always accompanied by minstrels), the
" pageant " or play, rents, legal and other expenses. In the sixteenth
century they also hal the duty of examining apprentices who had
served their time, whether they were fit and capable to be admitted
as masters (sec. 64), and in other ways exercised important authority
over apprentices (sec. 33, 63, 73). It was the Searchers who acted
for their fellows — being instructed at their " common place " or
general meeting of the company (sec. 28) held in St Anthonys
Hall 2 — when new ordinances had to be drawn up, of which we get
an interesting picture in the prologues of 1581 and 1595. Or when
disputes arose (as happened in 1540, sec. 7), the Searchers were to
do their best to arbitrate,^ and not allow the disputants to go to
law (sec. 70). On the other hand these officers themselves were
punishable for neglect of duty (sec. 55, 71).
Besides these, the company had a beadle (sec. 40) and a clerk
(sec. 73) ; also two pageant masters, who ware chosen by the votes
of the old and new Saarohera (sec. 56). The duty of these latter
was t ) collect contributions from the members towards the play of
The Ldst Sapper, the twenty-seventh in the great cycle of religious
plays performed at York, which it fell to the province of the Bakers
* In the acsounts of 1629, John Wilson waa fined "for taking his price
himself.**
- Rented from the city for the purpose.
^ Of. Ordinances of York Marshalls, printed in the Antijtiaryj March, 1835^
p. 108.
P
22G HISTORY.
to set forth.* They also had the care of the pageant or movable
stage ; for the house in which it was kept the Searchers received
rent from another company, who shared it for the like pur-
pose.
Sale of Bread. — The bakers in towns everywhere found their
privileges continually encroached on by two classes of persons —
the tipplers or innholders (innkeepei's) and the country bakers or
" foreigners/' those who made bread without the city boundaries.
The countiy bakers, perhaps being freer from oversight,^ seem to
have made their bread cheaper, sometimes better (see Axbridge
ordinances of 1599, Hist. MSS. Report iii., 302 b). The cities, to
protect their bakers, imposed restrictive laws ; these, in times of
difficulty, when the company proved restive against the mayors
authority, and bread in conseciuence ran short, they were glad to
relax, and, as at Bristol in 1G13 and Chester in 1557,® invited the
country bakers to bring in their bread to sell. In York the country
bakers were parmitted to sell openly at a fixed place on certain
days and hours (sec. 3, 4, 5), si that the Searchers might examine
t!ie bread, and thus ensure its due (juality. The huckster or
middleman, buying from the producer to soil by retail, was the
trouble in this as in other trades, from his (or her) tendency to fore-
stall, and to buy unfairly from countryman or tippler ; so that we
here find huckstering of bread entirely put down for a time, though
the later ordinances show that the attempt was not permanently
successful (sec. 11, 15, 16 19, 4 A, 63).
The quarrel with the tipplers or bowl-bakers became serious .
evidently if they might make white bread or horse bread for
serving their guests and guests' horses as they liked, without super-
vision, there might b3 great frauds practised. The bakers struggled
for some time, even appealed to the king s council in London, but
at length, after arbitration, had to admit the tipplers to part of their
privileges ; the same kind of restrictive rules, but greater, were
* See further, York Play8(ed. by the present writer), 1885, pp. xxiii., xxxv.,
xxxvi., xxxviiL-xlii., 233.
^ At Cauterbury in 1488 the brewers and bakers *' inliabitc themselves oute
of the same cite libei'tye and fraunchise thereof for that the uiayre of the fore-
seid cite shuld haiie none oversight ne correccion of tlieym for their defautes
and mysbehaviours in their seid occu|)acions and mystyres." Welfitt, No. xxv.
« Nicholls & Taylor's Bristol Past and Present, I., p. 277 ; HarL MS. 2105 fo.
326. The Chester bakers would not accept the assize price set by the mayor ;
they appealed to the king's council of the Welsh marches, ho to the London
measure and assize ; and not until some had been imprisoned and others dis-
franchised did they give in.
THE BAKERS OF YORK. 227
laid upon them as on country bakers^ (sec. 7-14, 20, 22, 24,
25, 43).
It was part of the provision against taking undue advantage
that fixed the hours for sale, and that forbade the bakers to send
their wives to sell or buy for them unless they were ill (see. 36).
The lawful advantages were the portion of meal given to the miller
for grinding the corn, called moulture^ or moulter (sec. 62), and the
surplus which the baker gave to a purchaser in gross, viz., a
thirteenth loaf to the dozen, occasionally a fourteenth (sec. 15, 19, 60,
02), as an inducement to buy. This is the " baker's <lozen," which
has been such a puzzle to the learned ! (Se3 Notes and Qu., Ser. I.,
iii. 153, 520, xi. 154 ; Ser. IV., ii. 464.)
Sorts of Buead. — The taste for different kinds of b:-eal or
•cikes changed in coarse of time, and we find here signs of attempts
— which were probably useles=5 — to compel restoration of the old
makes, as with main bread (sec. 17, 53) and sodden bread (sec. 76).
Three chief sorts are dealt with by the statute of 12(56, cocket^
tvustel, and simnd, the one better than the other, with some varieties,
besides bread of trdi' or treet.^ In our ordinances we find not only
these (except trete bread), but " bastard " wastels and simnels, evi-
•<ldntly from th3ir greater weight of not such good or rich quality
as their originals (extract from Llh, Memorandum), Payne
'dem^iyne or ddm^fyne, otherwise mains or nviyne bread (Lib. Mem.,
and sec. 17, 52, 58), in Latin 2>«His dominicn^ (/.e., lord's bread)^^ was
a bread or, as we should now say, cake of fine or rich quality, used
in gifts for kings and nobles, at feasts, and for the well-to-do
•classes. Eilward IV. and his attendants were treated with " pane
dominico et levanij " when they came to York (R. Davies' Extracts
from York Records, 1843, pp. 68, 261), and it was us3d at the feasts
of Corpus Christi. As our ordinances show, it was (though mis-
takenly ^^) considered a dainty special to York. But the taste for
" ** Tipplers" were those who kept ale-houses, *'ty piers that sell ayll,"
Davies, York Records, 188; at Lydd (Kent) they were called *' taveme kepers"
(Hist. MSS. Rep. v., p. 530 ; see also Axbridge, ib. iii., 302).
^ At York *' moulter " seems also to liave signified the grist or meal in
general. See Drake's Eboracuni, p. 190.
'-^ The meaning of '* cocket '* applied to bread is somewhat obscure. It seems
to have been plain bread, perhaps unleavened. Wastel is the French gastd or
gfiteau (^^gastel a presenter" occurs in Etienne Boileau, p. 9, Art. xxxii.).
Simnel, slmmianYr.^ simliwUna {ct, slmilafju^em), Lat., seems to have been a
kind of cake; it was ** twice baked" (bis coctus) in 12C6, and there were
several varieties. See Way's Prompt. Parvulorum, note to sifniMl.
^^ See Ducanage, s.v. (lominiaiSy where he also gives demaine, [or as the old
law books say demesne].
^ Mn 1288 the Aldermen and bakers of Lond(m ordered ^S|Uod panis Franceis,
228 HJSTOll Y.
"spiced cakes," which apparently pushed out the mainc bread, had
its way, and finally the trade was foiced to admit them and to-
permit a 5s. licence to be taken out to Lake them (sec. 26, 47, 48, 53>
54). Leaven bread and home cakes, before spoken of, seem to have
been in use during Lent (see sec. 59). Mavchet cakes are named once
(sec. 61) ; houtte/nddy rye, and sodden bread were perhaps for family
use (sec. 58, 59, 75. See before, p. 129 ; also an instructive chapter
on bread in A. Borde's Dyetanj, 1542. Elarly Eng. Text Soc, 1870,
p. 258. "Soden bread" is mentioned p. 261). The to arte and treet
breads of London^*- do not seem to have been used here, nor the
"black bread," called *' home-baked bread," of Canterbury (Welfitt*
Minutes of Records, No. I.)
Horse-bread was made of bean meal for horses (sec. 6, 43, 58^
60. See Eng. Gilds, p. 366). A writer in Notet^ and Queries states.
that recipes were given for horse-bread as late as 1785 in the third
edition of the " Spoitsman*s Dictionary," and that, made of oats, it
is still used in Sweden and Switzeiland (N. & Q. Ser. VII., ii. 240,.
386). We now use dog-cake, if not horse-bread.
qui dicitur poiify (|uod sit de eodem bultello quo wast^llus est, et taiitum
ponderabit sicut wastellus nmodo ; et quod panis doiiiiiiicus, qui dicitur demeine^
ponderabit wastelluiu quadrnntis, salvo pondere iiij denariorum pro coctione.*'
Lib. Albus, 353.
^- The London Liber de Assise Fanh, before referred to, which I have seen
since the first part of this paper was in print, is not a book of ordinances, but is-
really a record of the work done by the regular ansayers of bread (" assaia tores ")
from 1293-1438. Bread of the various sorts was bought by them or their ser-
vants at four places in the city and tested, prices were fixed and fines made if
the bread was found in default. The *' formal columns of figures" referred to-
by Riley (Mun. Gild, ill., Introd. p. x.) are thus of considerable interest ; they
are arranged under the classes of bread. A Si4)arate head is always given to-
pania albusy under which are ranged "iraM^ jutnis levafnH^ a,nd pan in bismis ; the
second head is given to tvrta or invuis mixtilloiiis. Did this Ixmdon bread of
mixed meal resemble that which a century and a half later was forbidden in.
York i See sec. 50. In Edward lll.'s time the Londoners had " a white bread
called *bunne,' " as well as French puff. Mini. Gihl. iii., p. 423.
Several varieties occur in other places, at Lydd in Kent temp. Hen. viii.,.
the ** common kyndes of brede be whyte, ravell [whitey-brown], and bn>wne "
(Hist. MSS. Com. Rep. v., 631). At Bridport we find a bread called *' rangatus'*
(lb. vi., 494 b), and at Southampton in 1696 "raunged bread," that is ranged
or sifted (Davies' Hist, of Southampton, p. 265) ; this was a white bread,,
possibly the same as the **boulted bread" of York. Cf., sec. 1, 21.
L. TouLMiN Smith.
CORUESPOXDEXCE. 229
CORRESPONDENCE.
The Sussex Rape&
\tmU pp. 54-59.]
The problem discussed by Mr. Sawyer is as interesting as it is obscure.
I would venture to advance some criticisms on tlie tlieory he propounds.
(1) Mr. Sawyer holds that this division "was doubtless introduced by
the latter [the Normans] into the country soon after the Conquest " {ante
p. 55), and *' shortly before the compilation of Domesday " (p. 56). This
is against all analogy. We do not find the Normans introducing these
divisions, or indeed any new divisions, elsewhere in England. Again, if
this division was a "relic of the Scandinavian ancestors of the Normans"
'(p. 55), why did they forget all about it in Normandy and only remember
it when they conquered England long afterwards ?
(2) The Rapes were not coterminous with the Norman fiefs, but very
much the reverse. The great Sussex feudatories are found holding manors
in one another's llapes. Why then should the Normans introduce a
division conflicting with their own feudal division 1 Further, we read of
Steyning, in Domesday (I., 17): — "Insuper adhuc xviii hidaj ct vii acra3
foris rapum quae nunquam geldavennit;" bo also of a non-hidated estate at
(ioring: — "Foris rapum est et extra numerum hidarum. Nunquam
geldavit " (I., 28). Now " nunquam " unquestionably carries us back be-
yond the Conquest. Does not this involve the carrying back of the Rape
itself also]
(3) One of Mr. Sawyer's arguments is that "the sea-coast of Sussex
was formerly markei by several important fiords or estuaries, .... but
of these only one, the Ouse, from the coast to Barcomb, forms the bound-
ary of a rape." But ought we to infer that "early and half-civilised
settlers like the Saxons would certainly choose physical boundaries, such
as rivers, if they ha 1 introduced the rape as a laud division?" On the
contrary, it appears to me that each settlement would sail up one of these
" fiords or estuaries " and settle round its head. Thus it w^ould become
the starting point of the settlement.
(4) Mr. Sawyer argues from the names which the Rapes at 'present
bear that the origin of the Rapes themselves cannot be older than the
Conquest. But he will find that in Domesday the Rapes are indifferently
referred to eitlicr by the names of their chief townis or by those of they: lords,
jnuch as, mutatis mutafifUs, was the case with the wards of London/ That,
if of Saxon origin, the Rapes would probably have borne " the patnmymic,"
m// : that " Bramber " Brfl/re{t\\e of Domesday) may be derived from
"Braiose*s Burgh," and that ** Chichester" was the "castle of Clssa" are
suggestions on which, at the present day, no comment is needed.
It may fairly be urged that the above criticisms lead to a merely
negative result. Nor do I claim to be able to solve this difficult problem.
This much, however, may be pointed out. Sussex is allotted in Domesday
on quite exceptional principles. Instead of a number of tenants iw captte,
forming a graduated series, we have (excluding the Terra Regis and the
church lands, — neither of them of great extent) the whole county
virtually owned by five Norman lords, four of whom gave their own names
to four of the Rapes in Domesday. And yet, as I said, each held lands in
the rape of the others. These lords, according to Domesday, succeeded not
to similar magnates, but to a crowd of smaller holders. The only explan-
ation that suggests itself is that the Normans found the county divided
into Rapes and that the Conqueror gave to five of his leading followers, by
liapes, all such land in the county as did not belong to the Crown or to the
(Jluircli. Difficulty would probably arise from the complicated Anglo-
Saxon tenures, the cajyut of a manor in one Rixpe having dependencies in
.another. This would account for the exceptions to the rule.
230 HJSTOin'.
As to the suggestion that " the ISapcs were set out with a rope or by
a surveyor *' (p. .'^G), do those who advance such views reah'zc tlie size of
the districts with which thay have to deal I Mr. Freeman has tackled this
ijuestion in liis WiUiam BufuSy but his evi<ience consists, as I have else-
where shown, of confusing **the Lowy of Tuubridge" with the "Rape of
Lewes," and of evolving therefrom a " Lowy of Lewes," round which he
plays with a '*ropc." It s6ems to me far more probable (though at present
we are really in the dark) that the " Rapes " are of great antiquity, but
that the polity with which they were connected disai)peared at an early
period with the development of the kingdom. The fact that, as Mr.
Sawyer points out, they had no courts of their own, would account for
their not possessing old Anglo Saxon names. In short they appear to me
to have been mere survivals. But I hope that someone may be found U*-
come forwanl and enlighten us on the subject.
J. H. RouNi>.
Siu, — I do not wish to intrude into a controversy in which I have no-
claim to be heard, but I would venture to raise a small protest against
the conclusion of Mr. Sawyer about the origin of the Sussex rapes. His-
paper has interested me much, but he has by no means convinced me that
he is right in attributing that form of local division to the Normans, or
rather to the Normans of the 1 Ith century. No such division is known in
Normandy. The Normans again had forgotten their noithern language
when they invaded England and spoke French, and it is very mdikely that
they should have named the divisions of the County of Sussex by a
Scandinavian name which they did not use beyond the channel and have
applied this nomenclature nowhere else in England. Nor again does it
seem probable that if they had originated the division they should have
begun iis the Domesday Siu'vey shows they must by ignoring the Chichester
rape altogether.
It seems to me very clear that the rapes of Sussex were divisions already
o-usting there when the Normans landed.
On the other hand the name is so clearly of Scauflinavian origin that I
liave always attributed the division to Scandinavian settlers.
It is becoming the fashion among certain students to minimize the^
enormous effects of the piratical descents of the northern rovers in the 9thi
century and of their colonization in the 10th.
It is overlooked that if we accept the proprietor' names in some parts of"
England at the date of the Conquest as a guide, we must postulate a very
large Danish element among the great landowners at that time.
My object in writing is to plead for the theory that the rapes of Sussex
are divisions first adopted by the Scandinavian Settlers in the end of the 9th
or beginning of the 10th century, who, it seems extremely probable to me,
largely colonized the maritime strip enclosed between the Weald and the Sea.
Hastings, as Mr. Sawyer says, is probably so called from the pirate Hasting
or Eystein. Arundel or Arundal is a most characteristic Scandinavian*
place name as the Dales of Cumberland and Westmoreland and Yorkshire
show; Pevensey, like many other ey's in England, is also a most characteristic
Norso form, e.</. Jersey, Guernsey, Mersey, Lindesey, etc. etc. etc. Lewes I
would also make a Norse name and compare it w^ith Lewis in the Hebrides,,
the well known I^wis of the Crofters. This disposes of four out of
the six rape names in Sussex. I must not take up your space with
enlarging on this tempting theme, but perhaps you may find room for this,
small protest which will not be fruitless if it leads to a closer examination
of the topography of Sussex in order to ascertain how much of Norse blood
there wjis in tlu county when the Conqueror landed there.
March 20th, 18SS. Henry H. Howorth.
literature.
— :o: — •
*
THE WOOING OF EMER.
As Irish Hero-Tale op the 11th Century, Translated from the
Orioinal MS.
(CoiitinU4'd from pmje Ljj,)
It
n
" npHE Remnants of the Great Feast I said, that is Taillne.^ It is
-■- there that Lug Scimaig gave the gi*eat feast to Lug, son of
Ethle, to comfort him after the battle of Moytui'a, for that was his ' i^/)
wedding feast of kingship. For the Tuath Dea made this Lug
king after Nuadu had been killed. As to the place in which their
remnants were put, he made a large hill of them. The name was
Knoll of the Great Feast, or Remnants of the Great Feast, i.e., Taillne
to-day.
" Of the daughters of Tethra's nephew, viz., Forgall tl e Wily ii^
tlie nephew of Tethra, king of the Fomori, viz., the son of his sister, *
for nia and a sister's son is the same, and a champion is also calle«l
nin,
" As to the account of myself I gave hei*. There are two rivers
in the land of Ross,- Conchobor is the name of one of them, and
Dofolt {{.e.f without hair, bald) the name of the other. Now the
Conchobor falls into the Dofolt, viz., it mixes with it, so that
they are one river.
" I am the nephew (nia) of that man, viz. of Conchobor, i,e, I am
the son of Dechtire, Conchobor 's sister, or I am a champion of
Conchobor's.
" In the Wood of Badb, i.e. of the Morrigu, for that is her wood,
viz. the land of Ross, and she is the Battle-Cix)W and is called the
Wife of Neit, i.e. the Goddess of Battle, for Neit is the same as God
of Battle.
" The name I said I had : * I am the hero {ni\adn) of the plague
that befals dogs.*^ I am vnnda, i.e. I am a strong warrior of that
plague, viz. I am wild and fierce in battles and fights.
^ Now Tel town, co. Meath.
2 A district in co. Moath, near Teltown. The two rivers are tributaries of
the Black water.
•** Gloss : that is true, for wihl fierceness, tliat is the plague which befals dogs.
232 LITERATURE.
" When I said : * Fair is this plain, the plain of tl.c noble yoke/
it was not the plain of Biuy that I pi-aised then, but the shape of
the maiden. For I beheld the yoke of her two breasts through the
opening of her smock, and it is of that I said ' plain of the noble
yoke,' of the breasts of the maiden.
" When she said : ' No one comes to this plain, who does not kill
as many as argat, viz. argat in the language of the poets means * a
hundred ' ; that is the interpretation, and this is what it means,
that it is not easy to carry off the maiden, unless I slay a hundre<l
men at each ford from Ailbine to the Boyne, together with Scenii-
menn the Wily, the sister of her father, who will change hei-self
into every shape there, to destroy my chariot an<l to bring about
my death," said Cuchulaind.
" Geni grainde she said, i.e., she would not come with me, unless
I jumped the hero's salmon-leap across the three ramparts to reach
her. For three brothers of hers will be guarding her, viz.. fl^ur
and Scibur and Catt, and a company of nine each of them, and I
must deal a blow on each nine, from which eight will die, but no
stroke will reach any of her brothers among them ; and I must
carry her and her fostersister with their loa<l of gold and silver out
of the dun of Forgall.
" Bend Suain, son of Rose Melc, which she said, this is the same
thing, viz., that I shall fight without harm to myself from Samuin,
i.e.f the end of summer. For two divisions were formerly on the
year, viz., summer from Beltaine (the first of May), and winter
from Samuin to Beltaine. Or sanifum, viz., suain (sounds), for it is
then that gentle voices sound, viz., sdm-son ' gentle sound.' To
Oimolc, i.e., the beginning of spring, viz., different (ime) is its wet
(Jolc), viz., the wet of spring, and the wet of winter. Or, oi-melc,
viz., 0), in the language of poetry, is a name for sheep, whence oilxi
(sheep's deatli) is named, ut dicitur coinhd (dog's death), echbd
(horse's death), daineha (men's death), as hath is a name for * death.'
Oi-melc, then, is the time in which the sheep come out and are
milked, whence oisc (a ewe), i.e., oi-sesc, viz., a barren sheep. To
Bddine, i.e. Beltine, viz., a favouring fire. For the druids used to
make two fires with gi*eat incantations, and to drive the cattle be-
tween them against the plagues, every year. Or to Be/din, viz., Bel
the name of an i<lol. At that time the young of every neat were
placed in the possession of Bel. Beldine, then Beltine. To
Bron Trogain, i.e. Lammas-day, viz., the beginning of autumn ; for
it is then the earth is afflicted, viz., the earth under fruit Trogan
is a name for * earth.' "
THE WOOING OF EMEB. 233
Cuchulaind went driving on his way, and slept that night in
Emain Macha. Then their daughters told the lords of land of the
youth that had come in his splendid chariot, and of the conversation
which he and Emer had held ; that they did not know what they
had said to one another, and that he had turned from them across
the plain of Bray northward. Then the lords of land tell Forgall
the Wily that, and that the girl had spoken to him. " It is true/*
said Forgall the Wily. " The madman from Emain Macha has been
here to converse with Emer, and the girl has fallen in love with
him, and that is why they talked to one another. But it shall
avail them nothing. I shall hinder them from getting what they
wish." Thereupon Forgall the Wily went towards Emain Macha in
the garb of(a foreigner^as if it were an embassy from the King of V/
the Foreigners that came to confer with Conchobor, with an offering
to him of golden treasures ofythe White Foreignei*s,y and all
sorts of good things besides. Their number was three. Great
welcome was made to him then. When he had sent away his men
on the third day, Cuchulaind and Conall and other chariot-chiefs
of the men of Ulster were praised before him. He said that it was
true, and that the chariot-chiefs performed marvellously, but that
were Cuchulaind to go to Domnall the Soldierly in Alba, his skill
would be the more marvellous, and if he went to Scathach to learn
soldierly feats, he would excel the warriors of all Europe. But it
was for this that he proposed it to Cuchulaind, that he might not
come back again. For he thought that if Cuchulaind was in her
friendship, he would get death thereby, through the wildness and
fierceness of the warrior yondei*, and .... Cuchulaind consented to
go, and Forgall bound himself that were he to go in that time, he
would give to Cuchulaind whatever he wished.
Forgall went home, and the wan-iors arose in the morning and
set themselves to do what they had vow^ed. They went, namely
Cji^chulaind and Loegaire the Victorious and Conchobor, and Conall V
Cemach, say some, went with them. Cuchulaind then went across
Bray to visit the maiden. He spoke with Emer before he went in
his ship. The maiden told him that it was Forgall who had desired
him in Emain to go to learn soldierly feats, in order that Emer and
he might not meet. And she told him to be on his guard wherever
he went, lest he should destroy him. Each of them promised the
(jther to keep their chastity until they met again, unless either of
* The Irish name for the Norwegians. The Danes were called Black
Foreigners.
cUti.'^
234 LirERArriii:.
them should get death thereby. They l»xde faivwell to each othei\
and he turned towards Alba.
When they had arrived at Doninairs, they were taught by him
to blow a leathern bellows under the flagstone of the small hole.
They would perform on it till their soles were bhiek or livid. They
were taught another thing on a spear, on which they would jump
and perform on its point, viz., the champion s coiling round the points^
of spsars, or dropping on its hesul. Then the daughter of Domnall,
DornoUa by name, fell in love with Cuchulaind. Her fi)rm was very
gruesome, her knees were large, her heels turne 1 before her, her
feet behind her, big dark-grey eyes in her head, her face as black
as a bowl of jet. She had a very strong forehead, her rough bright-
red hair in threads round her head. Cuchulaind refused to lie with
her. Then she swore to be revenged on him for this.
Domnall said Cuchulaind would not have true knowledge
of what was taught until he went to Scathach, who lived east-
ward of Alba. So the four went across Alba, viz., Cuchulaind, and
^'*^ Conchobor, the King of Ulster, and Conall Ccrnach, and Loegaire
t'.ie Victorious. ThenObefore their eyes appeared unto them Emain
Macha. Now Conchobor and Conall and Loeijaire were not able to
gv> past it. <The daughter of Domnall had raised that vision in order
V to sever Cuchulaind from his companions to his ruin. -This is what
other vei*sion3 say, that it was Forgall the Wily who raised this
vision bofore them to make tiiem turn back, so that Cuchulaind
through his returning should not fulfil what he had promised him
in Emain, and thus would he be shamed thereby ; or were he per-
adventure to go east to leani soldierly feats, both known and
unknown, .... of Aife, he should all the more get death through
being alone. Then, of his own will, Cuchulaind went away from
them on an unknown road . . . For the powei-s of the girl were
great, and she wrought evil against him, and severed him from his-
companions.)'
,^1^ p Now, when Cuchulaind went across Alba, he was sad and gloomy
r »i and weary for the loss of his comrades, nor knew he whither he
should go to seek Scathach. For he had promised his comrades not
to retuni again to Emain, unless he had reached Scathach, or found
death. When he saw that he was astray and ignorant, he lingered.
\/ While he was there, he beheld a terrible great beast like ajion
coming towards him, which kept regarding him, nor did him any
hann. Whatever way he went, the beast went before him, and
moreover it turned its side towards him. Then he took a leap and
was on its neck. He did not guide it then, but went wherever tha
BEVIEW. 235
beast liked. Four days fchey went in that wise, until they came to
the bounds of dwellei-s, and to an island where lads were rowing on a
small loch. They laughed at the unwonted sight of the hurtful beast
yonder doing service to a man. Cuchulaind then leaped off, and the*
beast parted from him, and he blessed it.
KuNO Meyek.
{7o be continited.)
REVIEW.
Prrrauu's Popular Tales, Edited from the Original Editions, wiTir
Introduction, «kc., by Andrew Lang, M.A. Oxford (Clarendon
Press), 1888. Sm. 4to, pp. cxv. 153.
This is Folklore in her silver slippers. In this luxurious edition of Per-
rault's enchanting tales we have, in all the glories of type, paper, and
binding, careful reprints of the stories as originally issued, with fac-
similes of the frontispieces, and a bibliogi-aphical account such as is dear
to the hearts of all booklovers. Nor is this all. The Editor has also given
lis a charmingly written sketch of Perrault's life and an elaborate dis-
sertation on the several tides. To students of Folktales this dissertation
is of course the chief value of the work ; and we may say at once that it
displays every grace of exposition and all the leamiiig and acumen of
which Mr. Lang is so great a master.
Among these important studies of stories it is difficult to select any fur
special reference. One of the most interesting, however, is Puss in Boots )
and the totemistic origin of the tale at which Mr. I^ug points is certainly
startlinj'. It is true he is too cautious to commit himself to a theorv on
the subject ; but the facts he has brought together are eminently sugges-
tive. After tnicing the story through a variety of forms he sets before us
an absti*act of Sultan Darai, the Swahili Puss in Boots, the hero of which
is not a cat, nor a fox, but a gazelle. Sultan Darai, whom the gazelle has
by its supremo cleverness raised from a dustheap to a royal dais, treats his
benefivctor with ingratitude. When it falls sick he refuses to see it, orders
coarse food to be offered it, and leaves it to die of sorrow. With its death,
however. Sultan Darai is himself reduced again to his old dustheap, and all
the world takes the side of the gazelle, which is honoured with a public
funeral. Now the Swahili, who tell the tale in this fonu, are partly of
Arab descent ; and it appears that there is a certain tribe in Southern
Arabia, a clan of which is named from the gazelle, and there was another
tribe which solemnly buried a gazelle when found dead and nicumcd for it
seven days. Totemistic interpretations are placed u|>on these facts :
perhaps not without reason. And at all events it is desirable to examine
236 LITERATURE.
again with care all the Puss iu Boots stories, if not every kind of Grateful
Beast stories, in the light of this suggestion. The Buddhistic theory is
wholly indequate ; and, as Mr. Lang points out, the facts relating to the
talc of Puss in Boots, so far as they have been ascertained, yield it no
support whatever, if indeed they are not absolutely hostile.
Mr. Lang, however, dwells upon the moral of the story, and goes so far
as to say that " out of France, or rather out of the region influenced by
Perranlt*s version of the story, a moral usually does inform the legend."
Hero we must dissent. In the first place we plead that until a larger
number of variants has been recorded and compared, such a generalisation
is unwarranted. Secondly, we think that the recorded variants do not bear
out this generalisation. Mr. Lang only refers to nine, of which five have
a moral of some sort and four have none. But he has overlooked one of
Afanasiefs Russian stories which, if De Gubernatis' abstract be accurate,
has no moral. Of two Tartar variants not mentioned by Mr. Lang, one
given in the fourth volume of the Folklore Journal^ p. 32, has a moral,
and the other given by RadlofF, Vol. i. p. 271, has none. A moral seems
usual in the Italian variants (compare Pitre's Novel I e Pojtolari Toscaii^'y
No. 12) ; but M. Sebillot found one in Upper Brittany without a moral ;
and it is by no means certain that this variant had been influenced by Per-
rault. The question of moral or no moral may have an important bearing on
the origin of the story : hence we have thought it worth while to indicate
the reasons w^hy we cannot at present accept Mr. Laughs cautiously worded
opinion on that point. This, however, in no way detracts from the value
of his studv of the storv of Puss in Boots.
We cannot now examine at len<>:th the other essavs in Mr. Lanor's
admirable introduction to this volume. Most of them are as worth v
of careful consideration as the one we have now dealt with ; and
the whole introduction forms a valuable supplement to the Editor's
larger works, and a contribution to the science of Folklore which no
student can venturi to overlook. It is true that Mr. Lang's conclusions
are no further advanced by the discussion ; he still declines to propound
any definite comprehensive theory of origins. But we do not hesittite to
lay great stress on his searching criticism, not only of previous theories,
but also of the details of individual stories. He never lets us forget the
advantage of looking at the latter in connection with other branches of
Folklore, an example which we heartily commend to his fellow-workers.
NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.
All communieaiions should U directed to " T?ie Editor, Arehceological Review;,-'' i70 Strand
W,C.
The Editor cannot undertake to return rejcctei MSS. unless a stamped directed envelope i*
sent for that purposf.
THE
A RCH^O LOGICAL ReVIEW.
Vol. I. JUNE, 1888. No. 4.
Hntbyopoloo^.
— :o: —
THE ORIGIN OF THE ESKIMO.
rnHEIlE are perhaps no people on the face of the earth whose
-*- characteristics separate them more completely from the
o^her races of mankind than the Eskimo. They ai'e, in the first
place, extremely homoojeneous in physical featuies, in language, in
social habits, in religion, and in modes of life. Their home is in the
most inhospitable regions of the northera hemisphere. Nowhere
do they keep far from the coast, and throughout their entire range
they shun, or are compelled to shun, the wooded zone. Yet though
divided into tribes, and grouped into broader sections, the Eskimo are
everywhere the same people, from the eastern point of Siberia to
the eastern shores of Greenland. As a rule they neither marry
with nor give in marriage to the people on their southern limits, and
wherever they maintain any relations with them, these relations are
of the most unamiable order. But when we examine the range of
this singular people moie closely we discover that they do not ex-
tend throughout the entire Polar Basin. Wherever the seal is found,
there the Elskimo finds food, light, warmth, clothing, and imple-
ments of the chase, not to speak of shelter, harness for their dog-
sledges, and the materials for forming their admirably fashioned
boats and canoes. But though within the circuit occupied by
them the tribesmen have their range circumscribed only by the
seal, — these northem'^^limits in Smith's Sound being coterminous
with the Phocn hiapida — they are only inhabitants of a comer of
?vU .4 XTHROPOLOa Y.
VNia» utljoinin^ Behring Strait, and in no respect belong to Europe,
liuui^jh fn>ni the White Sea eastward, there are all the conditions
wliich render life comfortable for these maritime hunters. On the
cv»atrary, the coast of Arctic Europe and Asia is occupied at
intorvals by Lapps, Samoyedes, Ostiaks, Tungus, Tchukchi,
Koriuks, Kamtskadales, and t) some extent by tlic Giliaks, whose
mo>t southern range is the Sea of Okliotsk. None of these tribes
♦uo wholly maritime. Most of them only frecjuent the coast at
I'ortttin seasons, and, unlike the Eskimo, the majority are herdsmen
ns wt'll as rtsliers, possessing, as they do, great herds of reindeer,
miimals which though abundant in the Eskimo country, that people
liave never tamed either for pastoral purposes or for dragging their
hiedges. Finally, not one of the races mentioned are in any way
related to tlie Eskimo. They differ from them in faith, in habits,
and wlierever we can obtain any glimpse into their antecedents,
liave a history widely different from them. In short, they
agree with them in one respect only — they all inhabit the
Arctic bounds of the northern hemisphere. Hence where Schrenk
and Seeland have grouped under the title of " Pala?asiatics "
(as having been pushed back by tlie later invading Mongols),
the Yukahirs, the Ainos, the Kamtskadales, the Koriaks, the
Tchukchi, the Eskimo, the Ostiaks, Om^ks, Anaules, Kottes and
other tribes which have disappeared — they jumble together a mass of
European, Asiatic, and American laces, who differ in everything
except in the inhospitality of the country wliich they inhabit.
Over nearly the entire extent of the Asiatic shore and the whole
of that of Northern Europe we lind not a trace of this people ; and
so characteiistic are the stone and bone implements of the Eskimo,
their durable huts of earth and stone, the circles of stones marking
the sites of their summer skin tents, and their gi*aves, that it is
impossible for them to live long in any quarter without leaving
records of this character behind them. Any old village place in
Greenland yields, within a few inches of the surface, scores of flint
and chaledony arrow heads and splinters, steatite pots and lamps, or
their fragments, and bone and ivory tools of every description ; and
in old inhabited spots the KokkenmoJdings are many feet in thick-
ness. It is only when we come to the region beginning at Cape
Shelagskii and extending to the East Cape of Siberia that we find
any traces of them. Tliis tract is now^ held by the coast Tchukchi,
but it was not always their home, for they expelled from this
dreary stretch the Onkilon or Eskimo race who took refuge in or
jiear less attractive quarters between the E*xst Cape and Anadyrskii
THE OliiaiX OF THE ESKIMO, 239
Bay, just as the Yakuts by the shores of the Kolyma drove forth
the Omoks, the Shelags, the Tungus and the Yukahirs who
formerly inhabited it. The only true Asiatic Eskimo existing at
the present day are those who dot the shore fi'om the East Cape
ro'.md by Plover Bay to Cape 01utor.sk and probably to Kolyutschin
Bay and beyond ; though the ethnography of that region is very
complicated ; the Tchukchi and the Eskimo having evirlently, for
the lirst time in the history of the latter race, more or le-is
amalgamated, so that in his earlier works Dr. Rink was led to class
the Tchukchi among his western branch of the Eskimo, a mistake
for tlie cDrrection of which we are indebted to the researches of
Dall, Nor<lenskjold and others. This linguistic amalgam or alloy
is seen in various of the neiorhbourinof districts of Alaska and North
Eastern Asi i. In siich localities a vocabulary collected at random
may be purely Eskimo or purely not Eskimo, or a mixture con-
taining words in different languages and dialects. For instance,
Mr. Pilling notes that in the vocabularies collected by Nordenskjol I
near Behring Strait, Sandwich Island words occur. These must
have been imported by the sailors of whaling vessels which annually
visit these regions, though by this time they have become incor-
porated in the Indian and Eskimo dialects.^
(2.) The moment, however, we cross Behring Strait, we are in a
tme Eskimo country, and with very little break — and then only
when the nature of the shore and the ice are unfitted for the home
(jf sea-hunting and fishing tribes — we do not lose sight of them
until we reach the East Greenland coast. Wherever man has gone
he has either come upon some of these ir;c«r« «»)^«» or the remains of
their former habitations. We can trace their migration by the stone
huts, the stone circles, the " house places," the graves, the abandoned
sledge-runners often of bone, or of wood, which is almost undecay-
able in the Arctic air, or by other unquestionable proofs of the
northern wanderei's having passed tliat way or having occupied it
when their numbers were greater than at present. Even yet, they
^ Wcjrds have been introduced ))y the Russians who for so many yeara had
possession of the territory now known as Alaska. One of them is tlie term
appHed to the double and treble seated kayak peculiar to certain tribes of the
Alaska Eskimo. The vmiakj or open skin boat, is also useil by certnin tribes
• »n the north-east of Asia who apply to it the Kamschtskan term of bitlar. This
word has now got incoqwrated, Mr. Petroflf tells us, into all the dialects of Alaska
wherever Russian influence once extended, under its diminutive biffarku which
was applied by the Muscovites to the kayak. The Eskimo liave also adopted
the wonl in the form of hidali^ which is however used to designate only the two
or three hatch kayaks, a variety peculiar to the Aleutian islands. From Bristol
Hay westward and nortliward the single kayak and the umiuk only are used.
240 A XTHROPOLOG Y.
are quite equal to the capabilities of their chosen laud. The ex-
plorer is often amazed at the spots which they occupy. He will
"hook on" to an ice-tloe in a blinding storm of snow, and as the white
landscape peers through the drift he is apt to imagine that he has
arrived at a land *' where no man comes or hath come since the
making of the world." But by-and-b^-e the shower abates. Then
he notices that what looked like black specks on the shore are in
motion, and pop in and out of the snow banks. In a few minutes
they gather in knots, and before he is well aware a dozen dog
sledges, with men, women and children, are skimming over the ice
to the vessel, or rowing in umiaks, or paddling in their kayaks,
their joyous shouts of " timmoo ! pilletay ! " echoing through the
rarified Arctic atmosphere. Instead of the ship having anchored in
a desolate bay, it had come abreast of a comparatively populous,.
anl extremely merry Eskimo hamlet. Over the entire Arctic
Archipelago these Eskimo are scattered, and though, as we have
mentioned, groups with certain broad characteristics can be noted,
they are in all essential features the same people from Behring
Strait to the Greenland shore of Denmark Strait. However, the
tribes near the western limit of the race approximate in many of
their characteristics and in their implements and habits to the
neiorhbourinff Indian tribes, while the further the tribes remove
fi'om Behring Strait the more highl}'^ finished are their hunting
weapons ; though their social organisation becomes ruder and ruder,.
or at least not so complex, the further they are separated from
the last named sea.
The Eskimo are therefore an essentially American people, with a
meridional range greater than that of any other race.^ The
Indians have wandered through an infinitely greater number of lati-
tudes. But apart from the fact that they do not cross Behring Sti'ait,
the eastera limit of the other American aborigines is on the western
side of Hudson Bay, Newfoundland, and part of Labrador, west of
the Eskimo range.
It is also clear that this migi*ation has always been from west
to east, as also has been that of the Indian tribes ; the aborigines of
the New World have thus reversed the course of colonization so
far as this applies to the white man s roamings. It is indeed by no
means certain that the Eskimo had completely occupied the region
they now dot until about the close of the 14th centmy. When
Red Erik and his Icelandera discovered and settled in South Green-
^ The Englidh and Arabs may be excepted, their spread being due to other
causes.
THE ORIGIN OF THE ESKIMO. 241
land, they do not appear to have found any Eskimo in prior posses-
sion. But in the year 1379, the " Skrellings/' the " parings of man-
kind/' made their appearance, and from that day gave the Norse-
men so much trouble, that to them, it has been suggested, the
desertion of the country until the beginning of last century was
<lue. The legends of the Greenlanders are full of stories relating to
their ancestoi*s of the *' Kablunak," or whites. Hence it appears that
the tribe thus suddenly bursting in upon the South Greenland
settlements, wtis one of an unusually large size, which had succeeded
in passing the glaciers of Melville Bay, or had probably been
for ages previously living further Noi*th. It is, however,
<.Troneous to imagine, as is usually done, that this was the first ap-
pearance of the Eskimo in South Greenland. The evidence of Are
Torgilsson who flourished from 1068, to 1148, and was therefore
well acquainted with Erik's companions, is positive in proof of the
earliest adventurers finding " fragments of canoes, and articles
wrought of stone, showing that the same race of people who in-
habited Vinland, and whom the Greenland settlers called Skrellings,
must have roamed about here.'* Still later in 12G6, Thorgil
()n*abeinsfortre met with men on the East Coast, though, as I have
attempted to show elsewhere, the probabilities are, that this shore
was peopled by wanderers who after crossing the Northern con-
tinent by Smith's Sound, where traces of their possession are
found, doubled, with the musk ox, the ermine and the lemming, the
Northern coast of Greenland, a feat which is still to be accom-
plished by the more modern Arctic explorer.^ These wanderings
are still in progress. As one hunting or fishing ground gets too
populous, a few families, or as many as will fill one umiak, or flat
open skin boat, move to some other quarter, and there in time
< stablish a tribelet. Their migrations could never have been in
large bodies like those of the Kalmucks in KJlG and 1671. The
'lifiiculty of providing food for any great number, would forbid this.
They also shift their quarters according to the facilities for summer
and winter game, in this respect consulting the migrations of the
seals, catacea, reindeer and birds. The people who at one time in-
habited the Archipelago west of Davis Strait, have of late years re-
moved to Ponds Inlet, and southward, for the sake of bartering with
^ On this subject I may be allowed to refer the reader to the Arctic Papers
of the Royal Geographical Society (1875), and my Editions of Rinks Danisfi
iheodaiid (1877), and Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo (1875). The
«;oneral characteristics of the people are given in my Peoples of Oie Woiid^
vol. i. pp. 14-32, and the article " Eskimo " in the Ennjdoixvdia Britwinica^ 9th
edition.
242 A NTHROPOLOG Y.
the whalers, and for the same reason, a large settlement was formed
in the vicinity of Cumberland Sound, though the Eskimo race is, in
ray opinion, a decaying one. On the shores of Behring Strait, and
the border of Baffins Bay and Davis Strait, what has euphemisti-
cally been called " civilization," is rapidly decimating the people.
In Smith's Sound, there is merely a remnant. In Danish Green-
land a pure-blooded Eskimo is extremely rare, and even the mixed
race is not increasing, while the East Coast is occupied by only
one or two families. These facts enable us to understand how the
Eskimo have strung themselves along the Arctic shore from one
side of America to another. Hunger, the struggle for existence,
and the physical law of the impossibility of " two bodies occupying
the same space at the same time'' have in their case, as in the case of
all other nations, been the factors at work in promoting the dispersal
of this widely spread race.
(3) These data are merely the necessary preface to an attempt
towards the solution of the problem of the origin of the Eskimo.
Did these hyperboreans come from Asia, or are they evolutions,
differentiations, as it were, of some of the other American races ?
That all of the American peoples came originally from Asia, is I
think an hypothesis for which a great deal might be said. Unless
they originated there, or were auctothonic, an idea which may at
once be dismissed, they could scarcely have come from anywhere
else, since admitting Madoc and liis mythical voyage, even
the Welsh do not claim for their countrymen the distinction of
being the progenitor of all the tribesmen from Cape Bismarck to
Capo Flattery. But the central question is whether the Eskimo
are of a later date than the Indians, or are really Indians compelled
to live under less favourable conditions than the rest of their kins-
folk. The latter will, I think, be found to be the most reasonable
view to adopt. Mr. A. F. Chamberlain has the courage to affirm that
the Eskimo were the dolichocephalic people who formerly ex-
tended over a great portion of North and perhaps of South America,
but who have been uitruded upon, and pushed back by more warlike
and aggressive races. This writer even endeavours to ti-ace a re-
semblance between the Eskimo and the Botocudos and other
South American tribes, and even between them and the so-called
fossil men of Brazil. Regarding this hypothesis there is nothing
more to be said, except that it is unsupported by anything ap-
proaching to piXK)f, and might with equal force be made to apply to
many of the other American tribes, to the Hydahs and Kaloshes for
example, who adopt the hideous lip deformities of the Botocudos,
THE ORIGIN OF THE ESKIMO. 248
though in their case, only the women practise the insertion of
labrcts in the under lip, and even they are beginning to abandon
this characteristic trait.
The Elskimo language belongs to the American group, thougli
this fact by itself is not very conclusive of anything. Various
efforts have been made to trace a relationship between it and some
other American tongues, and only recently this has been vigorously
attempted in the case of the Iroquois. The resemblance is, how-
ever, more fancied than real, the supposed likeness in certain words
being simply some of those alluring phonetic similarities which so
often lead amateur philologists astray, and give rise to ethno-genea-
logico.1 theories of the most amazing character. The Elskimo and
the Indian have always kept apart; when they meet there is
generally a fight, and the Indian has usually the worst of the en-
coimter. The Eskimo are, however, great traders, and their coun-
try supplies articles which are not found in some of the
adjoining Indian territory. Hence, in the Iroquois tongue there
may perchance be found some Eskimo expressions for which then*
own dialects afford no equivalent. One of these is kangnusak,
copper in the Gi'eenlandic dialect, {kannooyak in that of the Copper-
mine River), which as a substantive is in Iroquois, kanatyca.
Again Dr. Brinton notes that the following passage occurs in the
MSS. of Christopher Pyrlaeus of date 1749. '' Tschiechrohne
heissen die Gronlander [*' Greenlanders " being of course used as a
generic term for "Eskimo"]; .... Tscliie^ ein Sechund. Die
drei obgenannte Seneker wussten nicht nur von den Gron-
landem, sondem auch ihrer Contry (jiic), Landsart, Kleidung,
Nahrung," etc. The Iroquois, we know, pushed their war parties as
far south as the present State of Louisana ; it is clear that they
carried them as far north as the shores of the Frozen Ocean ; indeed
from what Heame and Franklin tell us, there w^as guerilla warfare
going on between the Indians and the Eskimo in or about the
Hudson Bay I'egion. We also know, apart from pure Eskimo
words being found in various Indian languages, that the Eskimo
must at one time have wandered far afield in their trading expedi-
tions, for we read in the Icelandic Sagas of the Greenland vikings
meeting with them to the south of Newfoundland.
It is therefore more than possible that without accepting any
such wild hypothesis as that of the Eskimo having been settled on
the Virginia coast when the Tuscaroras arrived early in the four-
teenth century,* that in various of the Indian languages, of Canada
* Brinton : Mifihs of tJie New World, p. 24.
244 ANTHROPOLOGY.
and Alaska, and even of Britisli Columbia, Eskimo words — and vice
versa — may be found. However, though it is impossible to accept
the sweeping conclusions which Mr. Chamberlain has formulated,
it is quite in accordance with facts to believe that the Eskimo arc
of American origin. They are, we know, settled on the eastern
point of Asia, so tliat it is open to suggest that these people, or
tliose who were expelled by the Tchukchi, were the ancestors of
those who afterwards spread across the opposite American con-
tinent. This, however, is less likel}' than that the American Eskimo
migrated across Behring Strait, and extended a little away along the
Siberian shore. To this day the Americans cross to Asia, and on
an island in Behring Strait thei'e is a regular fair held for
exchanging the products of the two quarters of the world. But
the Asiatic Eskimo never cross to America. Why, if the Eskimo
were originally Asiatics, they did not extend eastward, it is difficult
to understand. They are a bold people, quite able to hold their
own, and though the races mentioned now and then frequent the
Siberian and European coasts, they are not maritime in the sense
that the Eskimo are, and most likely only reached the polar sea in
comparatively recent times. The land was therefore free for the
Eskimo to take possession of, and is (^uite as attractive from their
point of view as that on the American coast, which is their true
home. The Eskimo, moreover, use the dog for dragging their
sledges : if they had come from Asia it is in the highest degree pro-
bable that they would have brought the reindeer across the ice with
them, or would have tamed the wild ones on the American coast.
On the other hand, the Eskimo bear a striking resemblance in
their habits, in their utensils, in their dress, and in their domestic
economy, to the neighbouring Indians of Alaska. This likeness we
have seen grows less and less as they recede further and further
from Alaska, until in Greenland the Eskimo assimilate to the Alas-
kan Indians least of any of their race. This remarkable physical re-
semblance I noticed when, for the first time, I saw the heavy-faced
Indians of Queen Charlotte Islands and the North West American
coast. Only two yeare before — namely, in 1861 — I had passed the
best part of a summer among the Eskimo of the Western shore of
Baffins Bay and Davis Strait, so that the recollection of that people
was still fresh in my memory. For the next four years I was very
familiar with almost every tribe of Indians between California and
Alaska. But it was only on the British Columbian and Vancouver
coast that the Eskimo resemblance struck me markedly, and then
mainly in the immediate vicinity of the Eskimo teiTitory south of
THE ORIGIX OF THE ESKIMO. 245
Behring Strait, and on the outside or Pacific shores of Vancouver
Island. There I saw to my amazement the inflated sealskin used
as a drag in killing whales, and salmon speai's identical in plan
with those of the Eskimo in daily use among the fishing tribes. In
1867 I was in Greenland, and though the Eskimo of that region are
now very mixed, another opportunity presented itself of comparing
the two races. Still later I found that my friend Dr. Rink, who
was for so many years Governor of South Greenland, and has only
recently retired from the Presidency of the Royal Board of Trade,
had been engaged in working out the idea of the Eskimo having
sprung up in Alaska. This he has subsequently done with a wealth
of detail which is at his disposal alone. His views have aroused
much discussion in America. The theory he has advocated is no
more than a theory. It has not been demonstrated, and will
require the help of many other investigators before this can be done.
However, though some of the facts which he adduces in favour of
the Eskimo having been evolved from the Indians south of them
admit of a different explanation than that which he supplies,
there can be little doubt as to the merit of the investigations which
he has made, and their superiority over any previous attempt of a
similar character.^
At the time when the Elskimo anived on the American Arctic
coast, their practical identity in customs, language, and other traits
prove that they were a homogeneous body of people, — members
most likely of one tribe or sept. At that time their religious ideas
and their implements were most probably the same as they are at
present. They had the Kayak and the sledge. It is all but
proved that they lived in large square houses, had domesticatc<l
the dog, which is practically the Arctic wolf, and it is more than
possible that they had certain festivals which referred to tlie
seasons or the sun. At that time they were fishermen, and were
accustomed to the use of boats before they came to the frozen sea.^
This much we can gather from the habits common to all of them, from
the root words in their language, and from the legends which are so
generally distributed amongst them. Where that country of origin
^ '*0m Eskimoenics Herkumst" (Aaarboy for itord. Old. og Hid, 1871, i>p.
269-302): **Dialecte8 do la langue esquimaude " (Compte-reiidH du Co^igrh in-
ternational des Amei-icanigteSj 1883, pp. 328-337) and other papers, but more
particularly his *^ Eskimo Tribes," which forms vol. xi. of the '* Meddelelser om
Gronland " (1887). I may perhaps be pennitted to speak with some authority on
the latter volume as the learned author did me the honour of submitting the
manuscript to me day by day a» he wrote it.
• Boas, Science^ vol. x., p. 271.
246 ANTHROPOLOGY.
was, may yet be ascertained by means of a study of the folk-lore of
the Alaska Indians, and the names of animals in the different
dialects. Meantime Dr. Rink seems not far from the truth when
he indicates the rivers of Central Arctic America as the region from
whence the Eskimo spread northward. Those of Alaska were
probably the courses down which they spread, though the Mackenzie
is not to be left out of the reckoning when this question is con-
sidered. They still frequent the lower reaches of these rivers, and
a canoe or boat-using people would naturally adopt water ways in
new migrations, as indeed do most of the tribes in this densely
wooded or pathless region.
However, from whatever quarter they came, it is all but cei'tain
that when they took to the dreary region which is now their home,
they were one body and came down one river. This may have
Jiappened thousands of years ago, though it was not effected all at
once. At Point Barrow they must have been settled for a long
period, since at the depth of twenty-six feet the American Ex-
pedition, which wintered there in 1882, found a pair of wooden
goggles. At the same time the suggestion that the Eskimo followed
up the retreating ice cap at the close of tlie glacial period is quite
unsuppoHed by anything in the shape of evidence. It is not at all
improbable that the original progenitors of the race may have been
a few isolated families, members of some small Indian tribe, or the
decaying remnants of a larger one. Little by little they were ex-
pelled from their hunting and fishing grounds on the original river
bank, until, finding no place amid the stronger tribes, they settled
in a region w^here they were left to themselves. This hypothetical
histoiy is paralleled by what is known of many other tribes. All
Indian history is full of similar instances of small septs being driven
from their hunting grounds by stronger invaders. Indeed, the
chronicles of the Eskimo themselves bear witness to the likeli-
hood of this process having been their lot in earlier life.
The fact of the Eskimo language having no relations with that of any
neighbouring tribes is not at all remarkable. In the course of many
centuries a savage tongue — and especially an Indian one — is apt to
change. But if the explanation of the Eskimo leaving their original
home which I have ventui'ed to offer is approximately correct, the
chances are that they were members of some small tribe who spoke
an entirely different language from their neighbours, and that this
isolation, this foreign element, had much to do with the prejudice
which led to their expulsion. At this very day there are plenty
of such detached communities, and the languages spoken in North
THE ORIGm OF THE ESKIMO. 2A1
West Amenca are so diverse that it is easy to understand the
existence at some remote period of one more.
(4.) I shall not follow Dr. Rink in his elaborate investigation of
the changes which the leading implements, articles of dress, houses.
&c., of the Eskimo have undergone since the time the people began
their wanderings from the shores of Alaska, eastward and west-
ward, as the% are so fully given in the memoirs mentioned that I
can add very little to what he has written. Suffice it to say that
there are almost no characteristics of the Western Eskimo which
cannot be more or less fully detected among those of the Easi Dr.
Boas, who passed some time among the Davis Strait Eskimo, affirms
that the use of masks representing mythical beings which is so
curious a feature among the North- Western American tribes, is not
entirely wanting in the Eastern Eskimo country, and that the giving
away of property at certain festivals — the well-known " i)otlatches "
of the Western coast Indians — and the use of the singing-houses with
a central fire and places for the people all round the walls, may also
1x5 traced as far as Davis Strait. " It is even possible that the
plan of the stone or snow houses of the Central Eskimo with
elevated platforms on three sides of a central floor must be traced
Ijack to a square house similar to those of the Western tribes."
The " Kayak " Dr. Rink regards as an Arctic imitation of the birch
bark canoe, covered with a skin deck to protect against the
waves, and on some of the Alaska rivers the Eskimo still em-
ploy the birch bark canoe, though whether this is an evidence of
their primitive culture or merely because birch bark is more easily
obtained than seal skin is open to discussion. It is, however, not
until we an^ive in Greenland that the kayak can be regarded as
perfect. North of the Yukon the " bidar " or double kayak is em-
ployed, though the single one is also in use, and, indeed, it is not
until we paas the Mackenzie that the single kayak is exclusively
used. One peculiarity of the Eskimo has only recently been noticed.
That is the wearing of the brass and silver rings of which
they are so fond on the middle finger. In Paul Egede's Eskimo
Dictionary (1750) Kiterdlek is defined as " annulus, quia Groenlandi
annulum in medio digito gestare." The same habit, Mr. Mardoch
tells us, is in vogue at Point Barrow, the people there like the Green-
landers naming the ring from the finger, and the same fashion seems
to prevail at the Mackenzie. Evidently, therefore, the Eskimo
before their dispei'sal ornamented their hands with rings which they
wore on the middle finger, and not on that which for ages the white
race has considered as the ring finger."^ I shall not touch on the
^ Murdoch, Scieiice^ Vol. zi. p. 24.
248 A NTHROPOLOG Y.
folk-lore, beyond saying that tlie entire nation has much in common.
This, however, is not disputed. It has also been found that many
of the Alaskan stems, which are lost in the common language, still
survive in the sacred dialect of the priests.
(5.) What Dr. Rink places most emphasis on is the similarity
between the Elskimo implements in North- West America and those
of the neighbouring tribes. Their houses, their sweating baths, their
dialects, their masks, &c., are especially dwelt upon. The inflated
seal skin or " drogue " employed as far south as the Aht people
of Western Vancouver Island is even more remarkable, for this
method of impeding the movements of the struck whale is every-
where found among the Eskimo. Nor are the spears less remark-
able. They are used for spearing salmon, but in the arrangment
for the point of " unshipping " as a sailor would say, they are
identical with the Eskimo hai'poon. They have a movable barb to
which a line is always attached. When the lish is struck, the shaft
is removed, and the salmon drawn in by the line to which the
point is fastened. In deeper w^ater, however, when the chance of
missing the fish is greater owing to the refraction of the water they
use a spear which has a double or additional head springing from
the upper part of the shaft with its separate line attached. This is
identical with the Eskimo spear with subsidiary points only, with
this difference that the subsidiary point is a detachable harpoon head.
The similarity of the Eskimo and the Indian spear is further shown
by the fact that both use a few small bladders tied to the line in
order to weary the fish by the effbit of ch-agging them under water.^
Curiously enough ancient spear heads found in the caves of Dor-
dogne with their posterior terminations tapered like the bronze
weapons, were not unlikely used in a similar manner, and both in
Denmark and in England weapons not widely dissimilar have been
unearthed. Something similar has indeed been found in India, and
to this day the Hooghley fishermen harpoon tortoises with speai-s
not widely different from those described.
(6.) The question, however, comes to be, whether these similarities
between the weapons, &c., of the Western Eskimo and the West-
em Indians are to be ascribed, as Dr. Rink thinks, to the former
people having taken with them to their Arctic asylum the know-
ledge and the memory of the peculiarities mentioned, or to the one
race simply imitating theother owingto their living in such close prox-
® These spears are figured in Proc, Scot Soc. Antiqiutries, 1870, p. 295, and
are more fully described in my friend Gilbert Sproat*8 Scenes and Studies of
Savage Life (p. 221).
THE OBIGIN OF THE ESKIMO. 249
imity. Both these theories have much in their support, though the
American ethnologists, so far as they have criticised Dr. Rink's views,
seem inclined to the idea of the Eskimo having been influenced
by the Indians. The reverse may, of course, have been the case —
the Eskimo may have influenced them, and customs which MM.
Boas and Murdoch regard as Indian may be in reality Eskimo,® for
several of their habits, such as labrets, are so peculiar that they
arc not explicable on the hypothesis — ^applicable to implements,
houses and dress — that two peoples placed in similar circumstances
might adopt similar modes of life.^®
Nevertheless, though we may admit the reciprocal influence of the
Alaska Indians and Eskimo — ^and the influence, if influence there has
been, was unquestionably reciprocals^ — it is not so easy to see in what
respect the Eskimo could have affected the Indians so far south of
these limits as on those of Vancouver Island. I do not place much
moment by the traditions which Dr. Rink quotes as evidence of
Eskimo influence on that part of the coast. The Aht stories of men
lost in venturing to brave the mysterious dangera of the unknown
interior of a fjord, cliflfs able to clasp men, female murderers who
took the shape of birds, or the sun and the moon as nomads, have,
indubitably, elements also found in the Eskimo mythology. The
story of the dog, who was the ancestor of certain tribes ; the stories
of children, who were deserted by their parents, and by-and-bye
became prosperous by the aid of spirits, or the idea that animals are
men clothed in the skins of beasts, are also common to the myth-
ology of the North West Indians and Eskimo. But some of these tales
are so widespread that they may be common to the entire Ameri-
can races; some even are Asiatic — Aino, for example. It may,
however, be added that in one of the Iroquois traditions,
collected by the late Mi*s. Erminie Smith, there is a tale of
a monster who used to sit on a rock, watching people pa^^ing, and
^ Mr. Turner (^4 /HCitcftH NatnmlUt, Auguat, 1887), in criticising a brief paper
of Dr. Rink's which 1 communicated to the Anthropological Institute {Jmirnol,
August, 1867, p. 68), lays stress on the fact that the Eskimo are not so exclu-
sively a coast people as is usually supposed. This circumstance does not, it seems
to me, at all effect the main argument.
^^ The best accounts of the Alaska Eskimo are those of Mr. Dall, in CwUri-
Mio)is to American Ethixclwjy^ Vol. i., and Mr. Petroff in his Alaska^ ih
FopuUttion, Industries^ mid ResowrceSf pp. 124-160 {Tenth Census of the United
Statesj Vol. viii).
^ ^ The influence of the Indians upon the Eskimo is shown by the fact of the
Oughalakhmute (north and south of the Copper River), having abandoned the
manufacture of the kayak, and apparently forgotten its construction, owing to
the mixture with the neighbouring Kalosh or Thlinket. This case, however^
stands alone.
250 ANTHROPOLOGY.
when he saw men, he would call out : " Kung-Ka, Kung-Kuin," i,e.,
** I see thee, I see thee." Now the Greenlanders have a similar
legend in which a girl, who fled to the fabulous inlanders, got one
of them for her husband, and when, in the course of their wander-
ings, this individual sighted a settlement, he shouted : " Kung,
Kung, Kujo/' words unintelligible to the present Greenlanders.
These may, however, ba coincidences. Yet the existence of distinct
references in the mythology of the British Columbia Indians, to a
countiy in the west, where the sea is always covered with ice, where
the nights are very long, and where the people use skin boats, com-
bined with the identical character of their most remarkable im-
plements, leads us to the conclusion that the relationship is of a
closer description than might, at first sight, bo imagined. That the
Eskimo spread as far south as Vancouver Island is, I think, ex-
tremely improbable, but that the Ahts and others races came from
a region in the north in close proximity to the country of the
Eskimo, with whom they were previously acquainted, is more
than possible. This, however, is mere speculation, and need not
be further dwelt on in an article which does not claim much
more than to restate other men's views. What is the re-
lationship between the two great branches of the North American
peoples still remains to be discovered. But as the New World is no
longer dependent on the Old one for trained ethnologists, we may
rest assured that something of importance will be brought to light
before many years elapse.
(7.) It may, however, be taken as proved (a) that the Eskimo
are in no respect and never were a European people ; (h) that they
are not and never were an Asiatic one, except to the small extent
already described ; (c) that the handful of people settled on the
Siberian shore migrated from America, and (d) that it is very
probable the Eskimo came from the interior of Arctic America,
Alaska more likely than from any other part of the world.
It is also clear that they migrated eastward until Greenland was
reached, but that the migration was not of the nature of a sudden
dispersal, if a dispersal at all, but simply the hiving off of a few
families at a time as the necessity of finding fresh hunting and
fishing grounds became pressing. Sometimes the migration might
have been stimulated b}^ tribal quarrels, or by the presence of
other races in their rear, as happened when the Onkilon were ex-
pelled by the Tchukchi.
But whatever view may be held on the subject — ^and opinion is
gradually growing in the direction just indicated — none can be held
THE ORIGIN OF THE ESKIMO. 251
which ascribes a European or even a wide Asiatic range to the
Eskimo. Yet a doctrine was promulgated not long ago, and is
still held in certain quarters, which would make the Eskimo
essentially a European people. I refer to Professor Boyd Dawkin's
well-known theory that the Palaeolithic men who inhabited Europe
towards the close of the Pleistocene Age were the people with whom
the preceding pages treat, and that they were gradually extermin-
ated or driven from Europe by the Neolithic folk, who about that
period made their appearance.^^ This is a conclusion so sweeping
that it is hard to accept it without the clearest piX)ofs. And these
proofs have never been forthcoming in sufficient cogency to permit
us to accept it on the mere authority of the author, deservedly
great though that unquestionably is. If the Neolithic man drove
Ids Palaeolithic brother before him, we must expect to find traces of
him on the way north. But these traces have not been discovered
though a people so fond of carving and who used weapons of flint
and bone might be depended upon for leaving behind them many such
aids to their future historian. They did not make their homes in
Orkney or Shetland, in the Faroes or in Iceland, in Jan Mayen or
Spitzbergen, and the Lapps and Samoyedes of the Arctic shore of
Europe are not of the Eskimo family. It is also impossible to
imagine that an inland people could cross the Atlantic to Green-
land, as no savage has done so yet — even if the history of the
Eskimo sketched in this paper did not prove that Greenland was
l)eopled from the west, not from the east. This test, therefore,
fails us at the very outset. Again, the Palaeolithic man did not
burn his dead any more than the Eskimo do. Are the skulls of
these folk of the Eskimo type ? We have the highest authority —
that of MM. Hamy and Quatrefages — for saying that they are
not. They belong to the same type as those of the Berbers of
North Africa, who were also the original though now extinct in-
habitants of the Canaries and TenerifFe, and were in former times,
as they are still in North Africa, one of the most widely spread of
peoples.^^ The evidence adduced by Mr. Dawkins — of whom I
desire to speak with all the respect due to an admirable investi-
gator and writer — ^is indeed by no means satisfactory, even if it were
not refuted by facts so irresistible as those mentioned. The
data on which he relies are mainly the similarity of the harpoons,
^2 Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. xxiii., p. 183 ; and Early
Man in Britain^ pp. 233-245.
^3 This question is lucidly discussed from the geological point of view by
Professor James Geikio in his Prehistoric Etirope, p. 547. See also Quatrefages*
Unman Species, p. 311.
252 A XTHUOPOLOGY.
fowling spears, marrow spoons, and scrapers, " the habit of sculp-
turing animals on their implements, the absence of pottery, the
same method of crushing the bones of the animals slain in
hunting, and their accumulation in one spot, the carelessness
about the remains of their dead relatives, the fact that
the food consisted chiefly of reindeer, mixed with the flesh of other
animals, such as musk-sheep, and especially the small stature, as
proved in the people of the Dordogne caverns by the small handled
dagger figured by MM. Lartet and Christy."
Some of these " characteristics " are by no means com-
mon to the Elskimo race ; numbei"s of them, indeed all tho
most salient, are found among people in no way related to the
Eskimo, and who live, and have alway lived, in widely different
paits of the world. Many of the implements or drawings of them
were submitted to me for my opinion before they were described
in MM. Lartet and Christy's great Reliquice Aquitanicce. Some of
them looked like Eskimo tools : sevei'ul were just as near others in
use among the Western Imlians, who inhabit a country not unlike
Palaeolithic Europe. People must, of coui-se, live on what they can
get Hence the evidence deduced from the ancient Europeans de-
vouring reindeer and musk oxen as some of the Eskimo do — though
seal is the food of the majority, simply because there is nothing
else to be had — may be left out of the reckoning. Again, the
Eskimo are far more careful about their dead than hosts of other
savages who could be named (the Tierra del Fuegians for example),
while it is a traditional error to affirm that the Eskimo are a re-
markably small race of men: this idea arises from their style of dress;
while, as a detail, the Cro-Magnon bones show the Palaeolithic folk
to have been rather tall. As for the habit of sculpturing animals
on their implements, that is not peculiar to them ; indeed this taste
declines as we pass from Alaska to the East, until in Western
Greenland there is not much evidence of the people having at any
time possessed gi'eat skill in carving. However, the recent Danish
expedition to the east coast has met with a small isolated tribe
who almost rival the Alaska and Northern British Columbia Indians
in their deftness for carving on bone, and ornamenting their
weapons and domestic utensils. But instead of illustrating the
animals of the chase or their own life, this East Greenland sept
excel in small reliefs representing for the most part animals and
mythological beings after the style of those marvellous works ex-
ecuted by the Hydahs, Kaloshes and other North- West American
tribes on the ear bones of whales, and on pieces of soft slate.
SONSHIP AND IXHIUUTAXCE. 253
This leaves us where we were. Many other peoples, the Poly-
nesians and Papuans, for example, are infinitely more adroit in
cai-ving than the Eskimo, who only use bone as the material for
their rude art because they have no w^ood. What artistic skill is
displayed by the Greenlanders is in the shape of rude drawings on
the white tanned seal skin of their summer tents ; but these are in
no way superior to the paintings on the wigwams of the Plain In-
dians, or on th3 lodge boards or posts of the tribes to the west of
the Rocky Mountains. I have had the honour of being limned on
all three, and the caricatures were quite recognisable, as the artists
were good enough to explain. Robert Brown.
SON SHIP AND INHERITANCE.
THE purest form of the most archaic system of reckoning kin.
ship, namely, thi'ough the female line, is best illustrated by
an example from one of the hill tribes of India — the Kocch — Mr.
Hodgson describing how the mother is the heatl of the family, how
the daughters succeed to the mother's property and the sons have
no part or right in the succession, but leave their maternal home
and live w^ith their wives. ^ Between this form of succession and
its exact opposite — the system of reckoning kinship through mcdes,
familiar to all of us, both in the parallel to the above and in the
several varying types — there must liave been many transitional
stages which, when examined, would serve to throw light upon
tlie processes which marked the perio.l of change from female to
male kinship.
One of the earliest results of such an examination seems to direct
attention to the fact that the fii^st innovation upon pure female kin-
ship could not have been the assertion of husband-rights, and in
all probability wcus the recognition of sonship. If we consider two
very general modes of succession : ( I ) by a wife's son by any husband
among tribes practising polyandry, and (2) by sister's son among
tribes practising polygamy, we are forced to look upon the husband
as a temporary co-owner of the property with liis wife or sister, and
to conclude that the determining factor in the rule of succei?sion
^ Hodgson's Easdijs on Indian Subject s, i. 110. Mr. McLennan, Studies in
Ancient Hitdory, pp. 116-118, quotes many tribes who adopt this form of suc-
cession, and the reader will know tliat it is found in varying degrees of form in
many parts of the world.
254 ANTHROPOLOGY.
was certainly not paternity. It was, on the other hand, not exactly
maternity, because under the oldest system this would have led on
to daughter succession. The new element is clearly therefore the
recognition of sonship. That sonship preceded the full establish-
ment of male kinship is a proposition which meets the theory of
the case remarkably well, the only question is, can it be substantiated
by evidence ? In the first place, an essential argument in its favour
is that it is a force which can certainly account for the downfall of
female kinship, because the influences which its operation would
generate would all tend towards the recognition of males. In the
second place, it can be shown that the transition period from female
to male kinship may be traced by customs yet surviving, and that
these customs are best explained by a reference to the eai'ly import-
ance of sonship.
Two such customs have been already touched upon by authori-
ties. Bachofen w£ts the first to point to the remarkable custom of
the couvade as a ceremonial which marked the change to male
kinship — the father taking upon himself the attributes of the
mother in order to demonstrate his relationship to the child.^ Mr.
McLennan in his remarkable study of "sonship among the
Hindoos,"^ proves beyond a doubt that early sonship was by no
means necessarily connected with paternity, but that a father hav-
ing by contract or purchase obtained a wife, the children of that
wife were ipso facto his children, though it did not follow that he
was their father — that is, while the wife's right to her children was
based upon blood-kinship, the husband's was based upon contract,
and hence implies the non-recognition of blood-kinship. What I
am anxious to note in these two phenomena of early history — the
couvade and Hindoo sonship — is, that though kinship had nominally
})assed over to the male side, yet still the older rights of female
kinship were in reality the determining force by which succession
by a male, though thix)ugh a female, was settled. In order to follow
this out more narrowly we will set down the conditions by which
cai'ly sonship was surrounde<l. These conditions are as follows :
i. female kinship absolute [accompanied by female succession.]
ii. modifications arising from, and marked by, recognition of
sonship, viz. :
' Lang Ctistom and Mytl^ ii. 223 ; Frazer Tvtemiam, 78, and other authorities
follow Bachofen in this explanation. Of. Pearson's Ethics of Free Uimightj 407.
« The Patriarchal Theory, 266-312.
SOXSHIP AND INHERITAXCE, 255
(a) male going to wife's home producing succession by
(1) wife's son by any husband,
(2) wife's son by a particular husband.
(h) male receiving wife at his own house producing suc-
cession by
(3) sister s son,
(4) wife's son.
In the three first of these conditions maternal sonship is the deter-
mining factor of succession ; in the fourth, where it has passed from
sister's son to wife's son, paternal sonship is recognised and true
kinship through males is established. But in all four conditions it
must be noted that the constant factor is not maternity or paternity,
but sonship.
Now if we consider the custom of the couvade and its applica-
bility to the above conditions, it must, I think, be seen that the
man practising couvade represents not his wife but his sister — in
other words, it marks the ti'ansition from succession by sister's son
to succession by own and wife's son. The father is of the same
blood as his sister, who has hitherto had the right of giving succes-
sion, and his wife is of alien blood. By this symbolic act he passes
the blood of his sister to his own son, and thereby secures the suc-
cession to him.
Similarly if we consider the process of transition from the stage
where a wife's son by any liusband could succeed, to the stage where
a wife's son by a particular husband took the succession, we shall
find it marked by equally significant customs derived from the
strong influence of female kinship. We may consider them in con-
nection with the conditions set forth above, wherein the male takinor
up his abode in his wife's house and being of alien blood to her,
would be out-valued by his children. Thus we have the idea
among the New Zealanders, and in many parts of Polynesia, that as
soon as a son was born he was recognised as superior to his pro-
genitor.* Sir John Lubbock has collected many examples of the
custom of parents being named after their eldest son, which indi-
cates a similar origin.* Indeed, the rights of children, established
in Aryan codes of legal custom so soon as they are bom and extend-
ing to vested rights in the father's property,® seem all to be derived
* Polacks, New Zealandei's, i. 27 ; Lubbock, Ori(fin of CivUi^mi^ 465.
* Origin of Civilisaiimi, 466-467.
« Ibid., 464 ; J. G. Frazer in Academy, March 6th, 1886.
256 ANTHROPOLOG Y.
from their kinship with their mother, the father and his acquired
position being considered an encroachment upon the more ancient
cx)ndition of things, and, therefore, hedged round by customs, all of
which tend in the direction of limiting his powers in questions of
succession.
The full force of this will appear in the custom whereby the son
succeeds to property or title during the lifetime of his father.
Among the Marquesas, and in Tahiti, the king abdicated as soon as
a son was born to him, " while landowners under similar circum-
stances lost the fee simple of their land, and became mere trustees
for the infant possessors." ^ I fancy the terminology here used by
Sir John Lubbock is hardly applicable to the condition of savagery
to which he is referring, but it properly indicates the scope of the
custom because we meet with it among civilized nations. We will
first notice the custom as it exists in India, because it will help to
explain the significance of the survival in European custom. In the
Kangra district of the Punjab, among the people of Spiti, the father
retires from the headship of the family when his eldest son is of full
age, and has taken unto himself a wife ... on each estate there is
a kind of dower-house with a plot of land attached, to which the
father in these cases retires. When installed there he is called the
Kang Chumpa (small-house man).^ The same custom is observed in
Ladak with scarcely any variation.^ The Scandinavian- parallel
to this has been described by Mr. Du Chaillu, in a passage which
I think contains portions of the old formula and rights attending the
ceremony. " On a visit to Husum, an important event took place,
when, according to immemorial custom, the farm was to come into
the possession of the eldest son. The dinner being ready, all the
membera of the family came in and seated themselves around the
board, the father taking, as is customary, the head of the table. All
at once. Roar, who was not seated, came to his father and said :
* Father, you are getting old ; let me take your place.* * Oh no, my
son,' was the answer, * I am not too old to work ; it is not yet time :
wait awhile.* Then with an entreating look Koar said, * Oh, father,
nil your children and myself are often sorry to see you look so tired
when the day's labour is over : the work of the farm is too much
for you ; it is time for you to rest and do nothing. Rest in your old
age. Oh, let me take your place at the head of the table.' All the
faces were now extremely sober, and tears were seen in many eyes
" Origin of Cipilizaiioiiy 465.
" Tupper's Punjab Ciistomcinj Law, ii. 188.
» [Moorcrof t and Trebecks TraitU i. 320] M*Lomian Stwlies in Anc. HUf.,
108.
SOySfflF AND INHERITANCE. 257
* Not yet, my son.* * Oh yes, father.* Then said the whole family :
* Now it is time for you to rest' He rose, and Roar took his place
and was then the master. His father, henceforth, would have no-
thing to do, was to live in a comfortable house, and to receive yearly
a stipulated amount of grain or flour, potatoes, milk, cheese, butter,
meat, &c."^®
In Wurtemburg and Bavaria similar customs are found. On
larger peasant farms in Wurtemburg " the eldest son commonly
succeeds to the whole property, often in the father's lifetime. When
the parent is incapacitated by age from managing his farm, he retires
to a small cottage, generally on the property, and receives from his
son in possession contributions towards his support both in money
and kind."^^ There can be no question that in these examples of
life succession we have different types of the same original, and
it is probable that the ceremonial in the Scandinavian custom,
extraneous and unnecessary as it appears to be, is the survival of
some old formula that is perhaps lost in the other examples.^^ But
if the retention of the formula in the European type points to it as
being more perfect in form, the Indian examples preserve a far more
important link with the past. In the former the son succeeds be-
cause his father is too old to continue his labours ; in the latter the
son succeeds when he is of full age, and is married. This is very
.significant taken in conjunction with the fact that, both in Spiti
and in the contiguous district of Ladak, the form of marriage is
polyandry,^^ and that too in a state of decadence. If we may con-
clude that the decadence of polyandry, meaning therefore, the
decadence of kinship throu2jh females, brings about the accentuation
of the position of sonship, resulting in life succession, we may also
conclude that the European examples take us back to the period
when polyandry had only just fallen into decadence.
10 Du Chaillu'B L(i)\d of the Midnight Shu, i. 393.
11 Cobden Club Essays, PrinioyenHnre, 79-80.
1 ^ 111 Ardiaolotjla, L. 203. I ezplainod this custom as a survival of the practice of
getting rid of the aged and infirm, and though it now appears to me to be rather
<lue to the influences of sonship, as I have noted them in this article, it may well
be, taking all the circumstances into consideration, that both these primitive
practices had a share in determining the origin and persistence of this custom.
The curious part is that in no case is the mother mentioned. This may be by
accident, but if she retained her place in the son's household, either actually or
symbolically, the origin of the custom would be unquestionably settled. It is
not unimportant to note that in South Africa the mother of the eldest son, after
she has ceased bearing children to her husband, leaves her husband and lives
with her son. See Report oi\, Native Laios and Citdoms (Cape of Good Hope
Parliament), appendix part ii p. 72.
1^ M*Lennau's Studies in AiicitiU History, 97 ; compare Tapper's Punjab
CuMomary Law, ii. 191.
R
258 ANTHROPOLOGY.
It seems clear that the facts connected with early sonship want
close examination. The rights of sons in savage and early barbaric
society were very far from being insignificant, though there is
nothing to bring about this state of things except the necessities of
early society. Among many of the backward races we find an un-
due recognition of sonsliip and an undue degradation of daughter-
ship, as for instance, in the Peshawar district of India, where the
birth of a male child is an occasion of great rejoicing and feasting,
and the birth of a female is considered as a misfortunc,^^ and this
forms an instructive commentary upon the world-wide practice of
female infanticide. What the full causes of female infanticide were
we may probably never be able to decide, but probably one of the
most powerful was the accentuation of sonship.
G. Laukence Gomme.
1* GaztUwr of the Peshaxcar District, 1883-4, p. 87.
CORRESPONDENCE.
The Hacks of Formosa.
{^Aiitt pp. 182-183.]
Sir, — With reference to the races of Formosa and their antiquities, about
which you have published an extract from a Parliamentary paper in your
last issue, I beg to remark that we know much more about them than the
report seems to imply. Your readers may consult : Fonnose et ses habitants,
by Mr. Girard de Rialle, in Revue d'Anthrojyologie, Paris, 1885, vol. viii.,
pp. 58-77, 247-281, and my later Formosa Notes, in MSS., Lanffuages and
Races, reprinted (London, D. Nutt, 8vo, 82 pp. and 3 plates) from the
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1887, vol. xix.
Terrien de Lacouperie.
May 2, 1888.
Htcbaeoloo^*
— :o : —
RECENT DISCOVERIES OF PRE-HISTORIC
REMAINS IN SPAIN.
SPAIN has hitherto been almost a sealed book to English archsB-
ologists, partly because of the supinenoss of her rulers, who
have offered no encouragement to the prosecution of research, and
partly because books written in Spanish, are not readily mastered
by English readers; therefore the noble work just published in
French by two young Belgian engineers — MM. Henri et Louis
Siret — will be doubly welcome. It is entitled '* Les Premiers Ages
du M^tal dans le Sud-Est de I'Espagne,'' and consists of a S|)endid
folio of seventy plates illustrative of all the objects discovered, with
a short description of each plate, accompanied by a large volume of
letterpress.
The brothers Siret having been employed in engineering opera-
tions in the provinces of Almeria and Murcia, undertook on their
own account the exploration of many prehistoric sites in the south-
east comer of Spain, between Carthagena and Almeria, extending
for about 75 kilometres in length, by 35 in width, inland from the
Mediterranean coast.
Referring to a map, we shall see that this part of the coast
would be just that likely to be approached by vessels from the east,
and as it is an undoubted fact that the Phoenicians had consider-
able intercourse with Spain in very early times, we should expect
to find traces of them in many parts; but whether these finds are of
Phoenician origin or ancient Iberian, remains to be proved.
Some of the discoveries of MM. Siret go back to a period ante-
dating the aiTival of the Phoenicians ; they belong to the Neolithic
jxge, all the implements found being of polished stone, and there
being no trace of metal. Nevertheless, even in these early times,
the inhabitants of the Iberian peninsula were not without a certain
amount of civilisation, for in addition to flint implements of a form
almost universal, we find traces of pottery roughly ornamented, and
of shells bored for necklaces and pendants ; there are also stones
for grinding com and traces of burial by inhumation. In other
graves also of the Neolithic period, though perhaps of a rather later
date, these things are supplemented by large vessels of pottery with
260 ARCHAEOLOGY.
perforated handles ; sharks* teeth ; large cowrie shells perforated ;
round beais cut from shells, resembling those forming the wampum
of the North American Indians, and still used in the South Sea
Islands ; also shell-bracelets made of rings cut from large shells,
similar to those still in use in New Guinea, the Admiralty Islands,
and many other groups of the Pacific. Some of these bracelets
appear to have been cut in two, and holes bored at each end for sus-
pension. There seems to be a total absence of anything denoting
religion or superstition among these very early relics, unless the
curious object resembling a rude cross, and which M. Siret has com-
pared with some of the owl-headed divinities of Dr. Schliemann,
may represent some sort of fetish. This object belongs to a very
early period, but among the later relics are a few small animal
forms in pottery, similar to those which may be seen in the British
Museum among the Cypriote remains, and which have also been
found in Swiss Lake dwellings, and among numerous other pre-
historic finds, and which may either have been intended to represent
animal fetishes or totems, or possibly may have served as children's
toys.^ The sepulchres of these very early prehistoric people of
South-East Spain, seem to have resembled those common to Neo-
lithic peoples in other parts of Europe — that is, the dead were
buried in a crouching position, either in natural rock shelters or
caves, or in rude stone cists consisting of slabs of stone, roughly
placed together, perhaps sometimes covered with a mound of earth,
and having vessels of half-burned clay, flint weapons, and orna-
ments of shell, or beads of stone or bone, buried with the body. At
a later period the dead were sometimes cremated and sometimes in-
humed, whilst the relics found with the human remains show an
advance, not only in the shape and quality of the ])ottery, but also
in the beads, shells, and flint implements in use, and there are traces
of the begiiming of a knowledge of metals in ornaments and imple-
ments of native copper, and a few articles of bronze, chiefly beads
and bracelets, probably of foreign origin, perhaps showing the com-
mencement of Phoenician intercourse. Tlie copper articles are,
however, undoubtedly of native manufacture, since scoriae of copper
have been found, and also the moulds into which the metal was run,
but the teachers of this advance in the ai*ts of civilisation were
most likely foreigners.
From this transition stage, the progress in art of these prehistoric
^ Bishop Callaway, whose experience among the Zulus is so well known,
recently gave me a small clay model of an ox made by a native Zulu boy, and
used essentially as a toy, not a totem. — Ed.
PRE^HISTORIC BEAfAIXS IX SPATiV, 261
Spanish people as discovered by MM. Siret increases rapidly in inter-
est, for they have found in this early age of metal, not only th^
sepulchres, but the villages of these ancient people situated on hills,
with well-built walls of stone and mud, forming strong fortifications,
within which were the houses, also enclosed in walls ; and in these
houses, in addition to various utensils in pottery, were found the
remains of the food of the inhabitants, consisting of corn and
vegetables, enclosed in vessels of baked earth, showing that they
had become agriculturists as well as metallurgists. These veasels
contained barley and wheat, and that which had probably been
bread ; also peas or beans, fruit, flowers, and leaves of trees, olives,
a pod of carouba, fragments of linen and of mats and cords made of
esparto grass. All these articles were calcined, showing that the
habitations had been destroyed by fire, which seems to have been
the common fate of so many prehistoric dwellings everywhere,
either the result of accident or of invasion, but which, however
caused, has had the good result of preserving these perishable
articles for the benefit of prying archaeologists.
Within the walls of these fortified villages the remains of the dead
were inhumed,sometimes within the houses, in little chambers of hewn
slabs of stone carefully joined, but enclosed in large urns of pottery,
measuring sometimes a metre in length by 60 to 70 centimetres in
diameter at the largest part, and 40 to fifty at the mouth. In this
great urn the body was placed in a crouching position, the knees
drawn up to the breast and the chin resting on the hands ; occa-
sionally two bodies were found in the same urn, a male and a female,
and with them small urns, probably food vessels and arms of bronze
or copper, such as swords or halberts of a peculiar form, whilst the
bodies were profusely adorned, especially those of the women, with
ornaments of various kinds, necklaces consisting of beads of serpen-
tine, steatite, bone, ivory, shells, fish vertebraB,gold, copper and bronze;
rings of silver on the fingers, bracelets of copper, silver or bronze
in spirals on the arms, ear-rings of silver and bronze, and circlets or
coronets of silver on the forehead. The latter are especially curious,
and would seem to be unique, so that a more detailed description may
interest our readers. They are found only on the skulls of females,
and are formed of a band of silver, gradually increasing in size to-
wards the front, and terminating not in a point but in a prolonged
projection, ending in a round boss. These diadems or coronets are
found sometimes standing up, and sometimes with the round part
down over the nose.* Their use was evidently to confine the veil,
'f^ These curious coronets rocall to the mind forcibly the scriptu.*e phrase lifting
262 ARCHJ£OLOGY.
fragments of cloth adhering to the skull beneath them, whilst
similar fragments, in various positions, show that the dead
were enveloped in some sort of grave-clothes. The mouth of
these urns, which were generally found lying on their side,
was carefully closed by a large stone, or sometimes by another
urn. Peculiar interest attaches to the discovery of so many articles
of silver, because it has been generally supposed, that silver was
unknown in the early ages of metal, and did not make its appear-
ance much before the iron age,^ but the MM. Siret have found in
the course of their investigations seven of the coronets or diadems
described above in silver, buried with the dead, 400 bracelets, rings
and ear-rings in the same metal, and also several implements and
rivets for weapons. The weapons are of bronze and copper, the
latter predominating, proving that these interments must be referred
to the early bronze age, although flint arrow heads and saws were still
used. No particle of iron has been found, no coins, no inscriptions;
and very little gold in comparison with the silver, the record being,
only 8 bracelets, rings -and ear-rings of gold, as against the 400 of
the same ornaments in silver. The silver diadems seem to be some-
thing quite apart, but we must observe that diadems in gold, some-
what similar in design, although without the distinctive ball, have
been found in other parts of Spain, and they all seem to bear an
affinity to those curious anmdce of gold, found occasionally in
Britain, Ireland, and in Etruria.
These discoveries are also remarkable for the number of articles
in copper, which include 70 axes and 30 arrow-heads in addition to
many knives, poignards, awls, beads and ear-rings in the same metal,
which as antiquaries know is seldom found pure among the ancient
implements and weapons of Europe, but much more frequently in
America Then again among the beads many are made of steatite and
serpentine, which latter we believe to be an unusual material, and
although abundant in Spain must be very difficult to work and to
bore, especially with flint or even bronze tools. The borings were
sometimes from one end only, and sometimes from both ends ; meet-
ing in the middle, and one bead is figured in the plates, in which the
two borings do not coalesce. Probably some of the small finely
pointed flint implements were used for this purpose.
It is a matter of great interest to ascertain whether these fortified
up the horn, and we wonder whether here also the upturned coronet denoted
exaltation in rank.
^ M. de Rougemont in L'age du hraitze en VOccident says it is a very remark-
able fact that silver is entirely absent north of the Alps in the bronze age, whilst
known very anciently in the East.
PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS IN SPAIN. 263
hill-villages on the sea coast, with their singular remains, are relies
of the aborigines of the Spanish Peninsula, in a state of gradually
developing civilisation, or whether they are the remains of a foreign
settlement, established in the peninsula for the sake of the metals
obtainable from the surrounding country, and fortified against the
natives ? The latter is of course the hypothesis which will be most
readily accepted, the known connection of the Phoenicians with the
Iberian Peninsula, their commerce along the shores of the Mediter-
ranean, and their skill in metallurgy, would naturally lead to the
conclusion that the MM. Siret have unearthed some early Phoeni-
cian settlements ; another point in favour of which, is the evident
honour bestowed upon women by these unknown people. Not only
are they buried with care with all their jewels, but also sometimes
in the same urn with the man who presumably was their husband.
These ladies with their veils and diadems, bracelets and ear-rings
were doubtless princesses, perhaps even, judging from the story of
Dido, they may have been leaders of the various expeditions, and
founders of colonies, as represented by the hill villages ; a curious
point in connection with which may be here noticed. Sculptures
representing Phoenician galleys were discovered by Layard, and are
figured in the " History of Art in Phoenicia and its Dependencies "
by Perrot and Cliipiez. In these galleys, two in number, the centre
of the upper deck is occupied in both cases by women wearing veils,
confined by a metal band or fillet, which might readily be taken to
represent the diadem of the Spanish ladies, discovered by MM.
Siret ; the warriors sit behind these ladies bareheaded, their shields
hanging on the side of the vessel, and the rowers are seated on a
lower deck. This would seem to show that Dido was neither the
first, nor the last of her race, to go forth like the queen bee from
the parent hive to found new colonies in foreign lands, but that it
was common for Phoenician warriors or merchants, to be axjcom-
panied on their expeditions by their wives. This, if proved, would
be a very important factor in maintaining the purity of the race,
and a compajrison between the skulls of the dwellers — ^male and
female — ^in these fortified hill-villages, with those in the older
neolithic settlements in the same locality, should enable anthropo-
logists to speak authoritatively as to the identity or dissimilarity
between them, and to decide whether the later remains are those of
foreigners, and if so, to what race they may be assigned.*
But whether aboriginal or foreign, it is clear that the brothers
^ MM. Siret have been able to obtain 80 skulk in good preservation from
the various settlements.
264 ARCH ECOLOGY.
Siret have made some very important discoveries, marking the
progress from a purely neolithic stage, to one in which bronze had
become common, but iron was unknown, and where, contrary to that
which has been usually observed elsewhere, silver was more
common than gold. This is accounted for by the fact that at a
place called Herrerias at the foot of the Sierra Almagrera, about
three Kilometres from the Mediterranean coast, spongy masses of
native silver have been found at a depth of only 40 metres.
In all probability this deposit was known to the Phoenicians, who
Sir John Lubbock believes were acquainted with the mineral fields
of Spain and Britain between 1500 and 1200 B.C.,^ and we are told
in the article upon Phoenicia in the Encyclopaedia Britannica
(New Edition) that "The great centre of Phcenician colonisation was
the Western half of the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic coasts to
the right and left of the straits. In especial the trade with the
Quadalquiver Tai'shish (or Tartessus) made the commercial greatness
of the Phcenicians, being rich in fisheries (tunny and murcena), but
also in silver and other metals, and vessels returning from Spain
had often silver anchors." ®
Another point which would seem to connect the relics found
with the Phoenicians, is the presence in some of the later graves, of
beads apparently of glass, nevertheless the MM. Siret incline
to the opinion that the relics they have discovered are those of
an advancing indigenous civilisation, fostered and influenced by
intercourse with Phoenicia, and this is also the opinion of Dr. John
Evans, who looks upon these finds as some of tiie most important
of modem times, in which opinion all who examine these splendid
volumes will agree. But we cannot help expressing a belief that
further investigations, and especially skull measurements, will show
that although the earlier neolithic settlements were in all probabil-
ity indigenous, the fortified hill- villages of tlie bronze age, represent
foreign settlements, probably very early Phoenician, but possibly
Greek, Egyptian or Etruscan. Pomponius Mela relates that Cadiz
was founded by the Tyrians not long after the siege of Troy, and
these relics would seem to belong to a period quite as remote,
judging from the total absence of iron, coins and inscriptions. The
changes in the mode of sepulture point to a long period of time
and to foreign intercourse, for nothing is so persistent among races
^ See Frehidoric Time^t p. 69.
^ Considering the number of shells found there is a curious absence of imple-
ments of fishing. We do not remember a single fish-hook represented in tho
plates.
PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS IN SPAIN. 26;>
as burial customs; and here we get, first, simple inhumation in
caves ; then cremation and inhumation apparently co-existing, in
cists covered with rough stone slabs ; and lastly, a return to in-
humation, but in urns again enclosed in cists constructed with care,
of slabs of hewn stone. Urn burial is very widely distributed, but in
most cases the bones placed in the uras were cremated. Here, how-
ever, the bodies were buried entire, and sometimes two in one um
as before noticed, children were also buried in smaller urns. The
Phoenicians are known to have had various forms of burial, that in
urns being one, and in the British Museum may bo seen two im-
mense urns from the Necropolis in Rhodes, in which probably the
body was buried entire, a custom which the Rhodians may have
derived from Phoenicia, and which points to a similar origin for the
Spanish examples. In Ireland also if we mistake not, large burial
urns have been found containing unbumt bodies, and singularly
enough there are many other striking analogies between the finds
of MM. Siret and many Irish antiquities, giving a semblance of
truth to the ancient Irish legends which bring the earliest inhabit-
ants of the Emerald Isle from Spain, and many of the later
colonists, Fomorians, Neraedians, Firbolgs, Tuatha de Dannans, etc.,
either from Spain or the East — by which term may be understood
Greece or other Mediterranean countries. This is a subject which
has never yet been properly investigated, but which is full of
interest ; we are too apt to ignore or ridicule ancient legends, which
often contain buried grains of truth of infinite value in elucidating
the mysteries of prehistoric ai'chseology.
We must not omit to notice the finely made pottery which
forms such an important part of the collection of the MM. Siret,
the specimens numbering 1300. The earlier vases are of coarse
clay, yellow or red in colour and roughly oi*namented with dots and
lines, but the later are elegant and varied in form, black or reddish
brown in colour, and although showing no trace of the potter's
wheel, are skilfully turned by hand, whilst the gi-eat urns used
for burial must have required immense skill and care in the manu-
facture ; spindle-whorls are also found.
A jury of archaeologists at Barcelona, in awarding a
prize to MM. Siret, thus sums up the scope of the work :
" The prize work written in French and enriched by great
volumes of plates, in which are drawn with great perfection,
the protohistoric objects spoken of in the text, is of con-
siderable scientific value and importance, and is wortliy of being
placed in the first rank of works of the kind. It passes in review
266 AUCHJEOLOGY.
and examines the noteworthy discoveries recently made by the
authors in many localities in the South East of the peninsula,
describing in a wonderful way the art of building, the metallurgy,
the arms and utensils used by the primitive inhabitants of Spain,
making known to us an advanced civilisation at so remote a period,
as to justify the eulogies of Strabo on the riches and intellectual
culture of the Turdetans. The manner of life, religious and politi-
cal, the worship of the dead, whose remains were retained close to
the domestic hearth, the use of the precious metals, gold and
silver, at the same time as stone, and of pure copper and bronze, have
opened up new ideas in regard to the protohistory of man in
ancient Iberia. If science, which is always based upon facts, can
obtain in other parts of Spain discoveries as noteworthy as these,
explored, discussed and explained in as masterly a manner as by the
authors of this prize work, the jury does not doubt that the
systematic theories which treat of the first inhabitants of the
peninsula will soon become clear and evident certainties."
A. W. BUCKLAND.
THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF VILLAGE
COMMUNITIES IN RUSSIA.
rilHE chief difficulty in treating the question of the origin and
-*- growth of village communities in Bussia lies in the want
of documentary information before the beginning of the sixteenth
century, at which period the system of serfdom was already opera-
tive.^ This coincidence of village communities and serfdom seems
to give reason to those who, with Fustel de Coulanges and
Seebohm, proclaim the servile character of the first. It is not to be
marvelled at, therefore, if some Russian historians. Professor Chi-
cherin amongst others, have taken the same view as to the origin of
the "mir," and have tried to establish that it was a posterior
invention, introduced by and in the interests of the landlords. If
we ask ourselves, what advantage such a system of land-holding
^ The recent researches of Professor Kluchevsky of Moscow, have established
this valuable fact, that long before the time of Boris Godunov, the chief creator
of serfdom in Russia, personal dependence was established and maintained not
so much liy law as custom.
VILLAGE COMMUNiriES IN RUSSIA. 267
could serve, we are unable to answer this question otherwise than
by referring to the principle of mutual responsibility in the fulfil-
ment of the agricultural work and the payment of natural rents,
^vhich united all the serfs of one manor in a sort of corporate society.
But what reason have we to affirm that this principle could not
have been established without any reference to periodical redis-
tribution of shares among the villagers ? Have we no instances of
it in the Roman municipal corporations, in the fiscal arrangements of
ancient France, or modern Mussulman countries, not to speak of
India, where it has been maintained without interruption from the
time of the great Mogul ?
But we have no reason to think that mutual responsibility
and the system of village communities were introduced in Russia at
the same time, the former being the necessary result of the latter. The
interest of the landlord, as well as of the state, required only the
establishment of the first, and had nothing to do with the mode of
allotment of ground among the villagers. And if a proof of what
.so.ems to be a self-evident proposition is wanted, we may mention
the fact, that mutual responsibility in matters of taxation, as well
JUS in the fulfilment of servile obligations, was maintained for cen-
turies even in those parts of Russia where the village community
system was inoperative ; as, for instance, in New Russia, comprising
the southern governments lying on the shores of the Black Sea.
Although the theory I have just criticised is, on the whole, a
failure, we must acknowledge to its chief propounders the merit of
having brought forward a considerable number of facts, leaving no
doubt as to the non-existence in mediaeval Russia of the system of
run-rig allotments, which chiefly chai^acterises the now prevailing
form of communal property. On the whole, we have no right to
say that the village community was unknown to our remote fore-
fathers, but we may assert, without fear of being contradicted, that
they completely ignored the present mode of allotment of shares, all
the information that the old Cadasters (the so-called piscovii
knigi) give us on this subject pointing to the contrary.
Now, if we ask ourselves, what was the prevailing system of land-
holding in the centuries previous to the period of documentary
information, we shall not be far from truth in saying that it was
the same which characterises every patriarchal society : I mean the
undivided ownership of the house-community, something like the
one that under the name of " Zadruga or Bratstvo," is still operative
among the southern Slavonians, and is recorded in Latin documents
of the thirteenth century in Poland, under the name of " communio
268 ARCHJEOLOGY.
fratrum et parentum/' Family communities of this description are
to be found as survivals in some interior governments of Russia, as
those of Koursk, Ore and Saratov, and, what is of much greater
importance, they are mentioned in the Prawda of Jaroslav (a sort of
Mirror of Justice, very like the Leges Barbarorum of the continental
Germans) and constituting the oldest Russian code (twelfth century).
Tliis sort of community is known to the Prawda under the same
name as South Slavonian documents, especially those of Dalmatia,
employ in speaking of the family community, the name of Verv.*
As this word is far from being the only one the legislator has
borrowed from the south Slavonic dialect, the supposition of Pro-
fessor lOuchevsky as to the nationality of the person entrusted
with the work of codification seems to be very plausible. The
newly converted Russians, being ignorant of the art of writing, a
foreigner, acquainted with the use of the Slavonic alphabet, was
charged with the difficult task of codifying the legal customs and
princely orders, thus presenting us with the fii'st very unsystematical
summary of our law. Not sufficiently versed in the tongue of the
people for whom he had to write, the compiler sometimes used ex-
pressions that were familiar to him in the country from which he
came. Among them we find the one that renders the idea of
family-community. The text, where it is to be found, speaks of
persons leaving the community (the " verv ''), in which they have
lived before. It establishes the rule, that in such a case their
previous associates have nothing to pay for them in future, all their
pecuniary responsibilities have to be supported from thence entirely
by themselves. A prescription of the same kind may be found
in the Lex Salica. [tit, de chrenecruda.] Not a single word
is said in the Prawda about the rights of individuals on the undi-
vided property of the family or " verv." The legislator had not to
interfere with questions of every-day life, too well known to those
who had the benefit of his work. His task was limited to the
establishment of rules for cases of litigation ; and the family pro-
perty, not being subjected to partition, was therefore not brought
within the sphere of his observations.
Not much more is to be found about the mode of family owner-
ship in the cadasters, or better to say rolls of the hearth-tax of the
fifteenth or sixteenth centuries ; besides the fact of mentioning the
house community as the direct subject of taxation, those documents do
not say a single word on the subject we are anxious to ascertain. The
^ llie same name is to be found in the statute of Politza, a mediseval Dal-
matian Republic.
VILLAGE COMMUXITIES IX RUSSIA. 269
term they employ to design the house community is the same as that
we find in the old French cadasters, the so-called " d^nombrements de
f cux," it is the word " ognische/* corresponding to the French " feu "
(Hre), and implying the idea of persons living together and preparing
their food in common.
Newly discovered documents of the 16th, 17th, and 18th cen-
turies, coming from the northern parts of Russia, wiiere serfdom
has always been very little known, often employ a similar term, the
term of " pechische " or " hearth," to designate persons of the same
V)lood, living under the same roof, and possessing property in
common. As to this property in special, it is said to belong toT^he
whole community, bub to be ruled by its chief alone, the father or
eldest brother. No alienation of it can be made, unless with the con-
sent of all the full-aged members of the family, and only in case of
necessity, common to all the members of the brotherhood. Division
is not to be allowed as long as the father is alive, unless he is the
first to promote it. As soon as the father is dead, the brothers may
go to division. In such a case each married couple sets up a separate
home, and is admitted to an equal part in the fields belonging to the
dissolved community, pasture and wood still remaining the object of
common use. The result of division is, thei'efore, not the creation of
private property in land, but the establishment of equal shares in the
undivided family land. As the quality of the ground is sometimes
unequal, the principle of the equality of shares means, that every
married member of the brotherhood has the right to have his share
in every field belonging to the community, and that this share is to
be of the same amount as that of any other mai*ried couple of
the bi'otherhood. Periodical redistribution is nut required, and
the right to sub-divide the individual shares being admitted,
inequality of possession becomes soon the general characteristic
of the dissolved family. * To obviate the e\41 afforded by the system
of successive sub-divisions, the necessary result of which is the parti-
tion of property in shares too small to be cultivated with advantage
separately by each household, the following measure is applied.
Newly established households, instead of making a demand for
partition, leave their abodes and occupy the still uncultivated land
in the forest or the waste, which belongs in common to all the
families descending from the same root.
After the lapse of several generations, inequality of shares
becomes an established fact, and the ground capable of
cultivation being totally occupied, a feeling favourable to
redivision of the once common property in equal shares, begins to
270 ARCHjEOLOGY.
t
grow day by day. As soon as the majority, composed of the
youngest members of the dissolved brotherhood, accepts the
idea of a new redistribution, any further opposition becomes fruit-
less, and the redistribution follows, opposed by few, favoured
by many. After several years, the same causes leading to the
same results, a new redistribution of shares takes place, and bj'
periodical redistributions of land become a general rule.
Anyone acquainted with the system of land-holding in the North-
Westem Provinces of India and in the Punjab finds no difficulty in
ascertaining the perfect similitude, which exists between the process
of dissolution that family property undergoes in India, and the
one it follows in Russia.
The quarrels which, according to the testimony of English
settlement officers, regularly occur between the present holders of
land shares and those who require a redistribution — quarrels which
in India have even a special name, the name of " kum o beshee" —
illustrate in a plausible way the state of feeling contemporaneous
with the first establishment of the run-rig system in Russia^
Up to this point we have followed the growth of the village com-
munity system only in the northern provinces of Russia, where it
could not have been obstructed in any way by the establishment of
personal servitude. It is time to ask ourselves if the proceas of
evolution we have described is limited to this region alone, or
if it exists also in the middle and southern provinces of the immense
Empire of the Czars.
The statistical accounts, composed by order of our provincial
assemblies (zemstva) have furnished us recently with a large amount
of materials, illustrating the successive growth of the now existing
system of village communities in the most remote parts of Russia.
Under other names, the same stages of development are to be
ascertained in little Russia, where the "mir-system" (whose exist-
ence at the time of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, is
established by the survey made by the order of Rasoumovsky) was
preceded by family ownership, which, according to the statutes of
Lithuania of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, was in a
state of progressive dissolution. The name those documents give to
the members of a dissolved brotherhood is " siabri ;" they are con-
sidered to be holders of unequal shares in a property that began by
being a common stock to all of them.
In those parts of Russia, where military colonies have been
established during the last centuries for purposes of defence, sur-
vivals of the previous stages of the common ownership in land are
VILLA GE COMMUNITIES IN R USSIA . 271
still in existence. Such is the case in the southern districts of the
governments of Koursk and Voronej, which in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries were still the southern limit of the Russian
power ; such is also the case among the Cosaques of the Don, of the
Terek, and of the Black Sea, among whom periodical redistributions
of land are either unknown or of recent origin, the prevailing system
allowing each household to appropriate such an amount of land
as will correspond to its wants, the land so taken in possession
being free of any previous occupation or abandoned and left uncul-
tivated.
The origin of the village communities and its consecutive
growth being now briefly explained, we may turn our attention
to the description of the now prevailing system, the system of the
" mir."
It su[)po3es the existence in the village area of at lecist four fields,
one used as waste, one for winter, one for summer com, and one for
fallow. The scarcity of land, and the prodigious increase of popula-
tion, have recently become in several parts of Russia the origin of
a new system of land holding, very unfavourable to loiral economy ;
it consists in eliminating one of the four fields — the waste, and
dividing it in equal shares among the existing households. The
consequence of this is the diminution in the number of breeding
cattle, and an increasing difficult}' in cultivating the soil with the
few oxen or horses still kept by each household.
Where the ground is of unequal fertility, the number of the
fields very often surpasses by many the four ordinaiy ones ; each
household receiving in that case equal shares in each. Sometimes
an agreement takes place, the result of which is that certain
households receive their shares in one field, and others in
another.
Pastures and wood remain, as a rule, undivided, the villagers
having the right to use them exclusively for their own need. As
a consequence of this rule, foreign cattle cannot be allowed, on any
account, to mix with the village stock. Where such regulations —
very similar to those followed in Switzerland as to the " Allmends "
and " Alps " — are unknown, the rich soon turn to their own profit
the right of communal pasture and exhaust the waste ground by
sending on it a larger number of sheep or cattle than it can afford
to sustain.
Periodical distributions of shares in the common forest happen
here and there in the few communes that have received allotments
of wood at the time of emancipation, or succeeded in keeping them
272 ARCHyKOLOGY.
untouched. Saying this, I have specially in view the middle and
southern pai"t of Russia, where fuel is, as a rule, very rare. As to
the northern provinces, forest-ground is in such abundance that
a system veiy like tlie wild culture of the days of Tacitus, in-
cluding the burning up of whole miles of wood, is still in exist-
ence. Its name is podsechnoie chosiaistvo.
As in mediaeval England and old Finance, the corn ajid meadow-
lands, when harvest is at an end, become common waste, and are
used as such by all the members of the same community from the
end of August to the end of April.
Before finishing this paper, I w^ish to say a word or two as to the
way in which redistributions of gix)und are made. These re-
distributions are of tw^o kinds. Some ought to be called local
readjustments ; others present a character of generality. The first
occur in single cases, when a new household is admitted to a share
of a yet unoccupied ground, or exchanges its allotment for one
l)elonging to a neighbour ; the other happens at fixed periods, the
shortest of which is three years, the term of a complete rotation of
crops under the existing three fields' system, and the longest nine-
teen or more years, the number of years that separate the old
census of the population from a new one. In the last case, the
number of shares corresponds, as a rule, not to the number of
actually living souls, but to the one that was counted in the last
made census.
Local arrangements procure, nevertheless, to some communities
the possibility of adjusting the shares of their members according
to their well-understood interests. The remark has been made
that in provinces where the ground is rich, which is the
case of the middle and southern governments, wliere the black
ground (chernosem) is to be found, the distribution of shares is
made according to the number of actually living souls ; the revenue
afforded by agriculture surpassing the amount of expenses produced
by taxation. The revei*se is the rule in those parts of Russia where
the gix)und is poor, the taxes absorbing more of the revenue of the
household than it can get from the ground it occupies, and nobody
wishing to take the lot left free by the death of some one of the
members of a surtaxed family.
Not every spot of village-gix)und is subject to redistribution :
the homesteads constitute the inalienable property of the house-
holds. Orchards, gardens, and, in a few places, some of the meadows
cannot pass into the hands of new owners in case of a general
redisti'ibution.
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IX RUSSIA. 273
As a rule, the meadows follow a different course of rotation to
the agi'icultuial ground ; and, at all events, constitute separate fields
ill the village area, in which every householder has a right to have
his share, equal to that of his neighbour.
In a paper, whose destiny is to be read by archa3ologists, I will
n(>t indulge in the description of the vices and advantages of the
existing system of peasant-ownership in Russia. But I will
ask for a moment the attention of the reader to a peculiar com-
munistic feature in the manners of the country-people, intimately
allied with the prevailing mode of land-holding, and having its
parallel in mediaeval England — I mean the moral obligation which
compels every peasant to help his neighbours in the accomplishment
of agi-icultural work, especially in harvest time. This sort of
" communal help " (obschtinnia pomochi, such is the name under
which this work done in common is known in Russia), reminds us
of the " love-boons," or " angaria) autumni," so often mentioned in
rentals and couH-rolls of the thirtc^enth and fourteenth centuries.
The same feeling of mutual reponsibility, the origin of which is to
I>e looked for in the system of owning land in common, is the source
from which springs another very curious institution — namely, that of
lands belonging in undivided ownership to the whole mir. Such
lands are cultivated by all the households of the same village, and
their yearly produce is regularly brought to the " common stor-
age " (obschestvenni ma^asini), and ecjually distributed among all
the householders in case of dearth.
Xo special poor or " school-lands " (" armen und schulguter "),
similar to those " biens des pauvres " and " biens des dcoles " of
Switzerland or France, are known to exist in Russia ; but a certain
niunber of acres, not subject to redistribution, is assigned to the
clergy in each separate village, where a regular ministry has been
aj) pointed. This is not at all the case of eveiy village, but only of
those which have a sufficient number of householders to keep the
priest in a condition not very remote from that of an ordinary
])easant. The number of householders that constitutes a village
into a parish is fixed by law at different standards in the differ-
ent parts of the Empire. This law has been strictly maintained
until the Government experienced that the want of regular
eh'rgy was the surest ally of schism, dissenters rapidly augment-
ing in numbers in the parishes left without spiritual aid.
Maxime Kovalevsky.
.s
274 ARCH.KOLOGY.
INDEX NOTES.
8. Roman Remains in London. — i. North Side of THAMEa
THIS index forms a complete topographical record of discoveries
in London. The authorities used are — C. Roach Smith's
CataZogue of London Antiquities^, Collectanea Antiqnu, and III an-
t rations of Roman London ; Titers Cat (dog iie of Antiquities found
on tlie site of the Roytd Exchange; Price's Roman Antiquities
Mansion House, Historical Descriptian of Guildhall, Bastion of
London Wall, and Rvnw.n Tessellated Pavemevt, Bucklersbiory ;
Transactions and Proceedings of evening meetings of London and
Middlesex Archaeological Society; Archa'ologia ; Proceedings of the
Society of Antiquaries ; Archaeological Journal ; Journal of British
Arch aeological Associ ation ; 6V n tie nui n 's Magaz in4i ; Numi-s^niot /c
Chronicle; British Museum; Guildhall Museum; Museum of
Practical Geology; Camden's Britannia; Horsley's Romana
Britannia; Leland's Collectanea ; Wien's Parentalia-; and the
local histories.
Abchurch Laxb, Lamps and pottery (iindescribcd). Brit. Miis. ; Guild, Mnn,
Addle Stkbet, Bronze key. Brit. Arch. Asaoc.^ xii. 120.
Aldermanbury, City wall, P<»stern, remains of blind arches, tiles, etc. Rom,
Lmid., 17.
Aldersoate Street, Glass bottle perfect. Guild. Mus.
Aldoate, Traces of the city wall ; Samian ware (undescribcd). Brit. Mivn. ;
Gent. Mag,, 1861, i. 046.
America Square, City wall, exposed at depth of C feet 6 inches, identical in
form with the fragments discovered in the Tower precincts. Brit, Arch,
Assoc., xxxvi. 464.
Barc^e Yard, Ornamented silver hair pin, figure of Venus (undescribed), and
other perscmal ornaments, pincers, and Samian ware. Brit. M^is. : Guild,
3ftM. ; Brit. Arch, Assoc., xxxvi. 237.
Bartholomew Close, bronze handle of chest. Brit. Mus.
Bartholomew Lane, Mosaic pavements. Cat. Ant. Royal ExcJi., 31.
Basing Lane, Pottery, tiles, walls. Ms. Diary, by E. B. Price.
Basinohall Street, Bronze sheep or horse beils, crucibles. G^xUd, M\i9,
Bath Street (In rear of New Post Office), depth 15 feet, light and brown Mor-
taria, Samian, and Upchurch pottery. Brii. Arch. Assoc., xxxiii. 265.
Bethnal Green, Leaden coffin, ornamented, containing human remains, jet hair
pins, etc. Coll. Aniiq., iii. 45, 62 ; Froc. E. M, L. d? M. ArcJi, Soc,y
1861 ; Gcid. Ma<j., 1862, ii. 614-16 ; Brit. Mm.
Bevis Marks, Figure in Oolitic stone attired in Phrygian cap with pallium or
cloak, sculptures from a bastion of the city wall, inscribed st^mes, statu-
ary, architectural fragments. Cat. Loud. Aidiq. ; Rom. Land., 47 ; Arch,
Irust., xlii. 154 ; Price's Guildhall ; Antiquary, 1885, iL 33.
Billiter Square, bronze fibula?. Baily MSS. ; Guild. A/its.
Billiter Street [Roman level, 12 to 16 feet], lamp and stand, tiles, mortar,
pottery. Arch., xxix. 153 ; Gvild. Mus.
Birchin Lane, Mosaic pavements, figure of a sea horse found in 1857, portion
only uncovered, Samian and other pottery, with other pavements. Arcli,
xxix. ; Proc. E, M, Lou. and Midd. Arch, ^oc., 1861, 33 ; Price's TesB.
Fav., 1869, 17.
B1SHOP8OATE Street, Coins, church vaults arched with equilateral Roman bricks.
INDEX NOTES, 275
depth 14 feet, contained human remains, iron horse shoes. Allen's Lon.,
i. 25 ; Qn'dd. Mms,
Blackfriars (Excavations between the Deanery and Blackfriars), bronze
statuette of Diana. Malcolm's Lond, Red., iiL 509.
Blomfibld Street (Moorfields), Amphone and pottery, interment by crema-
tion, largo glass bottles and wooden cist containing bones, also a wooden
keg or c?(/Ki, vase, ^ iron horse shoes. Brit. Arch, ^moc. ,1807; Guild.
Mtis. ; L. ami Midd. Arch, Soc.^ iii. 517 ; Proc, Soc. Antiq., 2ud ser. vi.
170.
Bow, Pottery, with stone coffin, from the Roman way leading from Bethnal
Green to Old Ford, and thence across the sea to Essex. Contained
human remains, lime, &c. L. aiul Midd. Arch, Soc., i. 192.
Bow Church, Causeway disclosed in preparing the foundations for new steeple,
in thickness four feet, beneath it Roman bricks and debris. Wren's
Faretvtalia, 265.
Bow Lane (Cheapsido), Tile tomb,- depth 12 feet, skeleton, coin of Domitian
in its mouth. Geiit. Mag., 1840, i. 420 ; Bom. Loud., 58.
Bridge WATER Square, Fine glass lachrymatory. Gnild. Mus,
Broad (New) Street, Coffin of load bound with iron bands, depth 14 feet.
CoU. AiUiq., vii. 180.
Broad (Old) Street, Amphorse, leaden pipe found in 1854, depth four feet,
portion of supply or waste-pipe to the baths of a Roman dwelling, the pipe
in lengths of nine feet ; mosaic pavement on site of the Excise Office.
Arch, xxxvi. 203-213; Brit. Arch. Assoc, xi. 73; Froc. Soc. Antiq. 1st ser.,
1854, 114 ; Fri>c. E.M.L. and M. Arch. Soc., 1860, 3 ; Mus. Fract. Qeol.;
Rom. Lond., 55.
Broker Row, Blomfield Street, remains of city wall, fifty feet or more.
AntitjiMry, 1885, ii. 180.
Brook'8 Wharf ^Thames), Bronze amiillre, glass, flesh and other hooks ; fish-
ing tackle, keys, etc. Guild. Mus.
BucKLERSBURY, Mortaria, pins, pottery, bone draughtsmen, fine tessellated
pavements, depth 19 feet. Price's Bom. Tesselld. Favemeat ; Guild.
Mus.
Budge Row, inscribed stone, Samian ware. Guild. Mus.\ Gent. Mag., 1857, iii.,
69 ; Hubtier; L. and Midd. A}xh. Soc., i. 34, vii. 22 ; Froc. Soc. Antiq.,
iv., 113.
Bush Lane, frescoes, pavements, tiles, debris of dwellings, walls of great
strength.'^ Arch. xxix. 156 ; Lml. atid Midd. Ai-di. <S£c., iii., 213 ; liom.
Lnd., 14.
Butler's Wharf (Thames), Bronze pins, personal ornaments and pottery.
Guild. Mus.
Camomile Street, pavements found in 1707, depth four feet, sculptures from a
bastion of the city wall, sepulchral monuments, statue in Oolitic stone of
a ** signifcr " or sbindard-bearer, fragments of emblematical figures, in-
scribed stones and architectural details, wall, depth 8 feet, 10 feet high,
width 9 feet. Gent. Mag., i. 415-417 ; Price's Bastion of Lotidon WaUj
1880 ; Brit. Arch. Assoc., xxxii. 490-493 ; Dr. Woodioard, Letter to Sir
C. Wren, 12-14.
Cannon Street, bronze lamp of rare form, statuette of Hercules. Froc. Soc,
Aid., iii. 100 ; British Arch-. Assoc., vii. 58.
Cannon Street (" Station S.E. Railway"), apartments with tessellated floors ;
external wall, 200 feet long, 10 feet high, and 12 feet thick, ^ numerous
cross walls. L. and Midd. Arch. Soc., iii. 213.
^ Pliny. H. N. xiv. 27. This burial, probably intended as a limitary mark. The site
being on the line of division between the parishes of St. Stephen's, Coleman Street, and St.
Botolph's, Bishopsgate. It may also be mentioned that an immense number of human
skulls were found throughout this street.
^ In Paternoster R«)w, a tile tomb was found with skeleton beneath a tessellated navo-
mcnt, and deposited, therefore, at a period long anterior to the construction of the building
above it. These interments mark the limitation and gradual increase of the Roman city.
* The enormous walls here described are probably like those adjoining in Scot's Yaril
which are referred to by Gale Com. Ant. Iter., p. 89, and Maitland, p. 12. The wall
described by Gale as mine crassUudinis et firmitatts leemi identical with the former ; the
tessellated pavements and other vestigia of houses are evidently connected with the latter.
* The foundations of the present station rest upon these solid blocks of masonry.
•276 AUCH^EOLOGY.
Can'NON Stkeet (Now), Amphorfe, coins, debris of buildings, pavemcnt«,.
and walls, depth 12 feet, flue-tiles and frescoes, human skeleton with
coffin nails, lamps, and pottery, stone mouldings. Bi'lt. Arch. AnaoCr
vii. 436 ; x. 191. Mvs. Frac. Ged.
Cateaton Street axd Lad Lane (Gresham Street), Amphone, glass, lamps, fine
Durobrivian and Samian pottery, tessellated pavements,^ partially un-
covered only, depth \) feet, toys in term cotta. Gent. Miuj.^ 1843; 21-22,
190-191, ii. 81 ; Bi\t. Ardi. Ass*k., iii. 335 ; Mu». Prart. Ged. ; FrtH-,
Soc. Antiq.y ii. 126.
Chequer Court, broken tiles, many inscri})ed. Arrh.^ xxix. 157.
Church Lane (Whitochapel), sepulchral stone inscribed, depth 6 feet. Giuf,
Ma<j., 1784, ii. 672 ; Bom. Loud, 24.
Claptox, sarcophagus in marble, inscribed. L. ou^I MiiJ. Arch. Site., iii. 191,
212 ; Gent. Mag., 1867, ii. 793.
Clement's Lane, coins, lamps, pottery, pavements, depth 12 feet near the
church, inscribed stones. Brit. Mns.; B(mi. Loud.; L. and Midd. Arrh.
Soc., i. 32 ; Arch., xxiv., 350 ; xxviii. 142-152.
Clerkenwell (undergroimd railway), urns. Balhj MSS. ; Guild. A/uh.
Cloak Lane, sepulchral stones (Purbock), inscribed. Cdl. Autitj., i. 139 ; Geid,
Mag., Brit. Arch. Assi»c., ii. 351 ; Brit. Mvh.
CouK Lane, bronze armlets found on the wrists of skeleton, dei)th 12 feet, Mor-
taria, pestle of terra cotta and pottery. Brit. Arch Atmn:., vii. 87 ; Guild.
Muh.
Coleman Street, Bone comb, urn of dark ware with cover. Biiily A/SS. ;
Brit. Mus. ; Guild. Mus.
College Street ( Do wgate Hill), tessellated pavement near Dyers* Hall (depth I'S
feet 8 inches), coins and pottery. Gent Mag., 1839, ii., 636.
Corbet Court, Samian ware. Bailg A/SS.
CoRNHiLL, fine Samian vase, embossed and of unusual kind, the figures and
ornaments having been separately moulded and affixed while moist, the
glaze added and fixed afterwards. '* Cat. Lou. Autiq., 29; Arch., xxix.
274 ; Brit. Mus.; B4nn. Loud., 97.
Ckipplegate, the city wall, with Imstion, encased with later work. /^om.
Loud., 17.
Creed Lane, Mortaria and other pottery, fine Samian ware. Gvut. Mag., 184^5,
i. 190-191. Mus, Piart. Ged.
Crooked Lane, Amphone, armlets, early coins, fused glass, pavements, potteiy.
Sins, personal ornaments, styli, tiles. Arch., xxiv. 191-202 ; Guild.
fu8. ; Hist. ai\d Autiq. *SV. Michael Cntokcd Laue, p. 19 ct. seq.
Crosby Square (Bishopsgate), cover of marble cippus, traces of inscription,*
mosaic pavements, depth 13 feet. .4 rr/i., xxviii., 397; Gent. Mag., 1836,
L 369-372 ; Brit, Arrh. Assoc., xxxiii. 106 ; Bom. Lwid., 57 ; Guild. Mus.
CuLLUM Street, debris of buildings, frescoes, walls, mosaic pavements, potteiy,
depth 11 feet 6 inches. Arch., xxix. 153 ; Baihj A/SS.
Culvert's Brewery (Thames), bone dice. Guild. Mus ; Price's Bom. Antiq.
Dai/tton, near to Shrubland Road, Queen's Road, unis. Brit. Arch. Aiunx'.^
iv. 79.
Dowoate Hill, tessellated i»avemcnts, Upchurcli ware. Allen's Hist. Lnud.,
i. 6 ; iii. 508 ; Baily A/SS.
Draper's Hall, largo urn with handles. Baihj A/SS. ; GuiUl, Afus.
Duke Street (Aldgate), foundations of the city wall, together with projecting
bastion referred to as perfect in the year 1753. Maitland's Hint. Litud,
Earl Street (near the Bible House), enamelled fibuhe. GuUd. Mus.
Eastcheap, Amphone, coins of the first centuiy, armour part of a Roman
lorica, pottery. Sec, a well at a tlepth of 10 feet, flue tiles, debris of
buildings, walls, mortaria, pavements, Samian ware. Gent, A fag., 1833,
i. 69-70, ii. 524 ; Brit. Arch. Ass^^c., i. 148 ; Arch., xxiv. 190, 202.
* The pavements in thiit locality were in unusually large numbers, and of all varieties ;
qnantities of the **Spicata Testacea ''or *' herring bone '' i>attern, a Iform still in use with
■tables and outhouses in the present day.
' This description of pottery is of exceptional rarity ; some fine examples are in the poB<
session of Mr. Ransom at Hitchin.
' Drawing in possession of John B. Ganluer, F.8.A.
JXDKX XOTES. 277
EiKiKWARB Road, indications of the Roman roml, leading in a line from Pad*
dington to Harrow-on-the-Hill. Brit. Ardi, Asm)c..^ xxxi., 218.
£nl»ell Street, leaden sepulchml cist, with bones and silver coins found in 1854.
Ptitc. S(fc, AnfUj., 2nd ser., ii. 376, 377 ; Brit. Mus.
Ewer Street, glass lachiymatory (perfect). Brit. 3//m.
Fenchirch Street, coins, fibulae, frescoes, glass, i^*c., leaden sepulchral cist with
bones, pavements, depth 12 feet, silver medallion, with figure of house-
dog spnnging, terra cotta female head, tiles ornamented. Arch., xxix. 53 ;
Brit. Arch. Assoc., xxviii. 283, xliii. 102 ; Oent. May., 1834, i. 156, 159 ;
Mhs. Pract. Ged.; Brit. Mus.; Bom. LomL, 59 ; L. aiJl Midd.Arch,Soc.^ iii.
216; Guild Mus.
FiN<H Lane, tessellated i)avement, remains of buildings. Brit. Arch. Assoc., i.
64.
FiNsBi'RY, bronze three-legged pot, axe head, glass and jxittery. Giiild. Mus. ;
Brit. Arch. Assoc., xxv. 166,
FiNsBrRV Circus, circular plate of metal, representing the iK)pular story of
Romidus and Remus, inscribed st<me. Arch. Inst., i. 115; Gent. May.,
1837, 361 : Bom. Loiul, 26, 76 ; GnUd. Mus.; Coll. Autiq., i. 134.
Fish (Old) Street Hill, arch turned with tiles built on stones laid on wooden
piles. Brit. Arch. Assoc., i. 45.
Fleet Ditch, site near the old prison, depth 15 feet, coins, pottery, &c. Conyer's
MSS. in Bib. Sir Hans Sloane ; Maitland Hu. Lmi., 504.
Foster Lane, altar now in Goldsmiths' Hall, figure of Diana, depth 15 feet,
found in 1830. Arch., xxiv. 350, xxix. 14o ; Coll. Antiq., i. 130, 134;
Bom-. Litu/L, 48 ; Vest Bom. LoiuL; Hidmer, vii. 22.
Founders Court (Lothbury), pavement near to the Church »)f St. Maj^ret's,
found in 1835. Arch., xxix.
Friday Street, Samian ware. Mus. Prac. Geol,
(ioldsmith Street, bronze scale beam. Guild. Mus,
^rooDMAN's Fields, cemetery, coins, glass, urns containing bones, sepulchral
stone inscribed. Coll. Antiq., i. 141 ; Gent. Ma(i.-, 1843, iL 416, 417 ; Htih-
ner, vii. 23 ; Malcolm Loud. Bediv., iv. 450 ; Bom. Land., 24.
'Oracechurch Street (site of St. Beliefs Church), beads in numbers, combs,
bronzes, fine hand of statue, &c., left liand of bronze statue,^ heroic size,
Durobrivian and Sauuan pottery, ghiss, sevei*al portions of bowls, &c., in
blue and green glass, many illustrating the practice of ^* pillar moulding, ''
walls across the roadway, depth 22 feet, 4 feet thick. (\U. Ant. Boy(d
Ejcch.,^ p. xii. ; Guild. Mus.; Bom. IahuL; Brit. Arch. Assoc. xxiL 109,
xxiv. 76, 78, xxvi. 72.
•Guildhall, excavations at East End, small alabaster female head. Guild.
Mus.
Gutter Lane, coins, pottery. Arch., xxviii. 142, 152.
•Guy's Hospital, Samian ware. Baily A/SS.; Guild. Mus.
Hackney, urns containing coins ranging from Julius Ciesar to Constantino,
stone coffin, inscription illegible, found in 1773. Gent. May., 1853, p. 891> ;
Robinson's Hist, of Ha/'kuey, p. 29.
Hampstead, sepulchral urn with calcined bones and lamp, found in 1774. GeuL
. M(ig., 46, p. 169 ; Park's Hid, Hampstead, p. 12.
Hart Street, Crutched Friars, sculpture De(e A/atres. Cdl. Autiq. i. 136, 137 ;
Brit. Arch. Assoc., i. 247 ; ihiil. ii. 249 ; Wright's (yt, Bomau a^id'Sttj^ou,
289 ; L. and Miild. Arch. aSoc., i. 32 ; Bm. Lnd., 33 ; Guild Afns.
Ha ydon Square, Minories, Sarcophagus, depth 15 feet. Bom. Loud., 46 ; Brit.
Mus.
HoLBORN, Mosaic pavement, sepulchral urns, bone whistles, fibuhe, glass beads,
leaden lamp stand. Gent. May., 1807, i. 415, 417 ; 183ii i. 549 ; Grew's
Cat. of the rarities helonyiny to the Boyid Soc., 1681, 880 ; Gent. A fay.,
1869, 70 ; Guild. A/us.
HoLBORN Bridge, indications of roadway in directicm of London stone. Gale's
Itiri^rary, 64 ; Camden Brit.
HoLBORN Bridge (new street). Anchor (3 feet 10 inches high), bottles, Samian
and Upchurch pottery. Gent. Mag., 1843, ii. 416, 417.
• Found on rite of the well known hostelry, the " Spreiul Eagle."
' A most useful work of reference.
278 ARCHAEOLOGY.
HoLBORN Circus (Mccking'a Premises), ampulla with handle. Baihj AfSS. ;
GuUd. Mus.
HoLBORN Hill, oakon case, 2 feet 9 inches 8(j[uare at a depth of 18 feet, cim-
taining urns, chan-ed bones and pottery. Arch.^ xxix. 147.
HoLBORN A^ALLEY, bone whistles, bronze fibulte, leaden himp stand, i>ottery.
Guild. Mns.
HoLBORX ViADicT (Pars<»nage House, St. Andrews Church), seven vases.
BaUy MSS.
Honey Lane Market, coins, pottery, pavements, depth 17 feet, mortariuin
frescoes, walls of masonry. GetU, Mag., 1836, i. 135-136, 369, 372; L. and
Mldd. Arch. Soc., 1861, 69 ; Guild. Mus.
HouNDSDiTCH, masonry, debris of a bastion built against but not bonded iiito
the city wall, sculptures from the locality utilised as building material.
Brit. Ai'ch. Assoc., xxxvii. 87 ; Guild. Mus.
HuGGiN Lane, pavements in grey and white tessere.^^ Froe. Soc. Antiq., 1st
ser., ii. 184.
Idol Lane, potteiy. See. Buihj MSS.
Islington (Bamsbury Park), coins, pottery and tiles, presumed traces of pm?-
torium or camp, Geitt. Ma<j., 1823, ii. 489; 1824, i. 5; Hone's Every Day
Book, ii. 1506 ; Allen's Histoid of London, i. ; Nelson's Hist. Idiug-
ton ; Lewis' Hist, Isliu/fton, 2 et seq.
Ivy Lane, Pottery. Proc, E. M. L. and M. A. Soc., 1860, 3.
King's Arms Yard, marble Palette. Brit. Mus.
Knight Rider (Little) Street, arch turned with tiles (perfect), depth 14 feet^
frescoes, tiles, walls, &c. Brit. Arch. Assoc., i. 254.
K.MiiHT Rider (Great) Street, bricks, wall, &c. Airh., xl. 49.
Lambeth Hill,^^ wall of great strength and solidity, depth 9 feet. Bom. Lotid.^
18.
Laurence Pountney Lane, Samian ware, walls constructed entirely of tiles. ^ -
A/us. Frac. Geol.
Leadenhall Market, Inscribed tiles, Frescoes in quantities, walls of great
thickness, one with circular apex at southwest end ; foundations and
pavements extending over a large area. Illustrated descriptions as yet
unpublished. ^3 Brit. A/us.
Leadenhall Street, ^ * Frescoes, Tessellated Pavement (East India House) depth
9 feet, Samian and other Pottery, (mems or millstones. Bayley. Lou.
and Midd. i., 95 ; Brit. Mus. ; Emn. Lond.,bl ; Gent. Afag., i., 83 ; Brit,
Arch, Assoc., ii., 341.
Lime Street, Samian Vases, perfect, incuse pattern, rare, in Museum of W.
Ransom, Esq., F.S.A., Hitchin,^' Urn containing a hoard ^^ of silver
coins, depth 17 feet, with pottery, &c. ; specimen of charred wheat,
Upchurch Ware, glass. Guild. Mns. ; Num. Chron., ser. iii,, 58-60^
269-281 ; Mus, Frac. Geol
Liverpool Street, pottery, terra cotta figure of Fomoua, mask of a larger
figure not yet identitied. Guild, Mus.
le In large quantities an«l only partially cleared.
n This wall extended as far as Queenhithe, it marked the southern limit of the city,
contained friezes, entablatures, sculptured marbles, and other relics from Ihc ruins of earlier
buildings.
>- Indications in this country of early work.
IS Accurate plans and drawings, taken at the time of the excavations, are in the posses-
sion of John £. Gardner, F.S.A. As bearing on the early history of this particidar site, to-
be referred to hereafter, it may be remarked that it has never yet been private property.
^* Some rare descriptions of glass discovered here, vuc, fragments of dark olue and
streaked in variegated colours. Another variety an opaque white, the handle of a
small vase, with boss representing a lion's head.
1' This belongs to a period of which few such deposits are known, the majority of such
hoards discovered in Britain usually belonging either to an earlier or later date.
'*< Mr. Ransom possesses what is now probably the finest private collection existing in it»
integrity, of ** Koman Antiquities from the City of London.^' Many of the objects are un-
usually fine specimens of their class, some of great rarity, and all as yet are unpubUshed.
It is gratifying to know that so unique and interesting a collection has fallen into such
goo<l hands.
(To he co^ntimml.)
INDEX XOTES. 279
9. Arch^ological Societies, 1886-87.
[Proceedings of the Society of Anticjuaries, 2acl series, vol. xi. ; y
Cymmrodor the magazine of the Hon. Society of Cymmro-
dorion, vol. viii. ; Derbyshire Archjeological Society, vol. x.]
HisliMp (G.), The Leaden Bullae of the Roman Pontiffs. Proc, Soc, Antiq, 2n(l
ser. xi. 260-270.
Booth (J.), On the Early Descent of the Ferrers. Dtrbifshire Arch, Soc. x.
148-150.
lirowne (Rev. G. F.), An Incised Stone in the Tower of Skipworth Church,
Yorkfl. Froc. S(tc. AiUiq. 2nd ser. xi. 171-173.
Brown (J. A.), A Palaeolithic Workshop Floor discovered near Ealing. Froc.
<Sf>c. Antup 2nd ser. xi. 211-215.
Oiive-Browne (Rev. J.), Paving Tiles found in the Church of All-Saints', Maid-
stone. Proc, Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 202-203.
ChaniUer (Prof.), On the Value of Court Rolls. Froc. Soc. AiUiq. 2nd ser. xi.
72-77.
Cheales (Rev. H. J.), Roman and other Remains found at Willoughby, Lincoln-
shire. Froc. i^oc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 65-09.
Clinch (6.), Pakeolithic and Neolithic Implements found at Rowes Farm, West
Wickham, Kent. Froc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 161-166.
C/olomb (Colonel), A Letter from Thomas Shephard to Hugh Peters, 1645.
Froc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 348-359.
CJoo[>er (Major C), A Singular Figure of Car\'ed Bone, &c., found in Bedford-
shire. Froc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 311.
Cowper (H. S.), Prehistoric Remiins from L incashire and Westmoreland. Froc.
Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 227-231.
(/OX (Rev. J. C), The Rhymed Cln*onicle (»f Jt»hn Harestalfe. Dcrbysfiire Arch.
Site-. X. 71-147.
D.iy (R.), Bronze Weapons found in Lough Erne. Pit»o. Soc. AtUiq. 2nd ser.
xi. 157-158 ; 249-250.
Dawkins (Pr«.>f. B.), A Hoard of Bronze Articles found at Eaton, near Norwich.
Froc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 42-51.
Duka (T.), An African Ivoiy Anklet and a Chinese Cup fonned out of Rhino-
ceros Horn. Froc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 62-64.
Evans (J.), A Bronze Hrwird from Felixstowe, Suffolk. Froc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd
ser. xi. 8-12.
An Onyx Cameo bearing the Head of Medusa. Froc. S(K. Antui.
2ntl ser. xi. 396-397.
EvauH (J. G.), Pedigrees from Jesus College MS. Ci/inmroilor viii. 83-92.
Ferguson (R. S.), Inscribed Stone found at Cjistlenook, near Whitley Castle,
Northumberland. Froc. Sffc. AtUiq. 2nd ser. xi. 27-29.
Fletcher (G.), Tideswell Dale Quarry. Derby^liire Atxh. Soc. x. 1-8.
Fowler (Rev. J. T.), A Roman Steelyard of Bronze discovered at Catterick,
Yorks. Fnjr. St»:. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 317-318.
(J. (D. G.), Folk-lore of Wales [the Call of the Raven Imitated— Cliildren's
Play of Blindman's Buff.] Cijmmrminr viii. 228-229.
(■reen (E.), An Inlaid Picture Frame with the Instruments of the Passion.
Froc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 181-185.
Hill (Rev. G. R.), A Small Flint Knife and Piece of Glass found at Chollerford,
Northumberland. Froc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 187-189.
Hancock ( T. W.), Ancient Welsh Words. C[immrodor viii. 200-208.
Hart (W. H.), Calendar of the Fines for the County of Derby from their com-
mencement in the reign of Richard I. Derbifuhire Ardi. Soc. x. 151-158.
Hi|4gin8 (A.), Thirteenth Century Ivory Bc»x or Pyx from Sicily. Froc. Soc,
Antvfi. 2nd ser. xi. 318-330.
Hope (W. H. S.), The Great Mace, Standing Cup, and Snuff-Box belonging to
the City of Westminster. Fritc. S<>r. A ittiq. 2nd ser. xi. 36-41.
280 ARrH.KoLOGY.
Hoi)e (W. H. S.), A Reniarkablu Stone found on the 8it«» of Roche Abbey, near
R<»therham. Pro.;, tiin'. Antlj. 2nd ser. xi. 1^45-248.
'— The Seals of English Bishops. Pro*-. >SrH*. Autni. 2nd ser. xi. 271-306.
Hudd (A. E.), A Roman Interment disoovere<l near Farm borough, Somerset-
shire. Proc. S(}C. Aiituj. 2nd ser. xi. 313-314.
Kerry (Rev. C), Annals of Horseton and Hoi*sley. Lhrhiisliire Arch. S^h-. x.
l<)-27.
Kirby (T. F.), Excavations at Winchester Cathedral Chinvh. Proc. Soc. Anii*j.
2nd ser. xi. 99-l()2, 411-413.
Waterwork Panels recently discovered at Winchester College.
Proc, Soc. Ant'ui. 2nd ser. xi. 190-199.
Le:uler (J. D.), Report of Discovery of Cineraiy Unis at Cr«»okes, near Sheftiehl.
Proc. Soc. Aniiii^ 2nd ser. xi. 390.
Lloyd (H. W.), Notes on the Life of St. David, the Patron Saint of Wales.
CijmmrrHlor viii. 25-4<).
Micklethwaite (J. T.), An En^lirih Cope at Pienza. Pr"r. Sor. Ant hi. 2nd ser.
xi. 398-401.
Middlet<m (J. H.), A Bronze Statuette from Egypt of tlu; (hkI Phtah. Prit*'.
Soc. Aidiq. 2nd ser. xi. 332-335.
Mitchell (F. J-X A Roman Pavement lately uncovered at Oaervvent, Monmouth-
shire. Proc. Stfc. Anluj. 2nd ser. xi. 195-19(J.
Money (W.), Roman Remains on Sbmcombe Down, Berks. Proc. Soc. Aatu[.
2nd ser. xi. 410-4n.
Moore (E. S.), Rcmian and other Articles f<»und at Felix^rdwe, Suffolk. -Pro<*.
SiK. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 12-14.
Norris (H.), A Numl>er of Roman and Medi;eval Objects f.-un*! at Hamden Hill,
Somerset. Pnn: S'n\ Anfl'j. 2nd ser. xi. 8(5-88.
Owen (J.), Riice and Nationality, ('fjunnroihtr viii. 1-24.
Payno (G.), A Carved Beam or Panel upon the Front of a House at Haleswortli,
Suffolk. Pror. >V>o. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 307.
Roman Lead Coffin found at Plumstead. Pn>c. «S"\ Antiq. 2nd ser.
xi. 308-309.
Peacock (E.), Charter of E<lward I. and Foresters Account amongst the Muni-
ments of Berkeley Castle. Proc. Sin'. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 255-258.
Documents Relating to tlie Observance of the Gunpowder Treason
and Plot. Prix\ Sim:. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 391-395.
Price (F. G. H.), The Opening of a Barrow in Ctdwin.st^ ^n, Glamorganshire.
Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi, 4;K)-438.
Price (J. E.), An Inscribed Roman Tile discovered in Warwii-k Lane, Newgate
Street, Ik mdon. PrtH'. S(n'. An'iq. 2nd »er. xi. 178-179.
Renaud (F.), Foui-teenth Century Tile Pavement in Pri«»r .lohn de Crauden*s
Chapel at Ely. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 203-20C..
Robinson (J. C), On Some Examples of Byzantine Art. 7'/v.. . Stn:. Antiq. 2nd
ser. xi. 88-92.
Savage (Rev. E. B.), A Cup-marked St^jne at Ballagawne, Arbory, Isle of Man.
Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 239-241.
Scartli (Rev. H. M.), Account of a Roman House discovei-ed at, Wemberhani in
Yatton, Somerset, and a H(mrd of Coins at Kingston- Seymour. Pror.
Soc. Aiitiq. 2nd ser. xi. 29-32,
Sculptured Stone found at Bath. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 102-105.
Sitwell (Sir G. R.), A Picture of the Iron Trade in the Seventeenth Century.
Derbyshire ArcK Soc. x. 28-4(>.
Smith (Cecil), A Chalcedony Gem Engi-aved with the Apollo of Kanachos.
Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 251-255.
Waller (J. G.), A Remarkable Incised Slab at Seclin, near Lille. P/<x\ jSrw*.
AntUi. 2nd ser. xi. 237-239.
Ward (J.), Tideswell Dale Quariy. J>*'rlnftJure Arch. Si>t\ x. !«-15.
SLLMMARY OF DIS( '0 VARIES. 281
Ward (J.), Barrows at Haddon Fields. Ikrhiisiiu'c Arch. S(}C. x. 47-55.
VVatkin (W. T.), Uoman Remains at Little Chester. iJerhynJiire Arch. Soc. x.
159-163.
Westwood (Prof.), An Anglo-Saxon Sepulcliral Slab at Stratfield, Mortimer,
Berks. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 2nd ser. xi. 224-226,
Remains of a Fine Norman Cross Shaft at Sheffield. Proc. Soc. AiUiq.
2nd ser. xi. 226-227.
Worsley (J. E.), Discovery <»f an Ancient Grave on Ty-clwyfau Farm, near Llan-
faerfechan. Pntc. Soc. A utiq. 2nd ser. xi. 428-430.
Yeatman (Pym), The Recufjants t)f Derbyshire. Dnhij^hirt ArcJi^. Soc, x.
56-70.
QUARTERL Y REPORT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL
DISCOVERIES IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
Prehistoric Rcmaim. — At Ventnor, near where the Crown Inn stood,
isoine digging brought to light the remains of the wild boar, wild bull, and
wild deer, accompanied by the frontal limb of an antler, which bore signs
of having been sharpened and polished by a sharp-edged flint. — Mr. J.
Sylvester has been excavating on his estate at Slade, near Peterafield, and
has discovered many prehistoric flint flakes and scrapers, bones of animals
and men. Two of three tumuli have been opened, and burnt
bones have been found on a layer of black earth, with fragments of
a single urn. There are also three curious parallel banks of earth across a
valley, formed of gravel, there being a layer of white clay above the natural
soil. Mr. Sylvester is continuing his excavations, and he promises to com-
municate to us the results. — A tusk of the great hairy elephant has been
unearthed from the cliff* near Swalecliffb between Whitstable and Heme
Bay. — The Rev. W. D. Purdon obtained from the alum-shales in the Lias
of Lofthouse, near Whitby, a skull of a pterodactyle, which is extremely
rare, besides which the present specimen displays parte previously un-
known.— Some prehistoric remains are reported to have been found at
Dunstable.
British Jiemaitis. — About ninety gold coins of the Iceni have been dis-
covered in a crock at Freckenham, near Mildeuhall, Suffolk. The crock is
of coarse black sun-dried, or slightly- baked clay, ornamented apparently
by the rough scratchings of a stick. The types of the coins are principally
those described in Evans' Ancient British Coins (plate xiv., Nos. 12, 13,
and 14.)
Roman Eeinains. — A pewter vessel, silver ring, and nearly 1500 coins
rom temp. Constantine to Gratianus, were found early in the year at East
Harptree, Somerset. — A large quantity of i)ottery, including some Samian
ware in a fragmentary condition, has been found in the excavations for the
new markets in Carlisle Pieces of red Salopian and the black Durobriviau
pottery were also found, together with a small circular crock, richly enam-
282 ARCHyKOLOGY.
elled. The soles of several sandals, thickly studded over with nails, were
also discovered. On the pottery was displayed well-known potters' marks,
ADV0CI8I and orvcvro and xiii. With these objects was a whetstone of
quartzite of beautiful finish, which is believed to be of Roman workman-
ship.— A series of Roman coins were also found near Peterborough, and a
collection of leaden dumps, supposed to have been used in playing some
popular game, but which were probably used as small change at a time
when nothing less than a silver penny was in circulation. — The excavatoi**
engaged on the District Railway which passes under the site of the church
St. John-the-Baptist-upon-Walbrook, London, came upon some remains
which were no doubt part of the floor of a Roman villa. — In clearing the
site for the new Post Office in St. Martin's-le-Grand, London, the workmea
came upon what is believed to be the best specimen yet discovered of the
old Roman wall. One side of the space was covered by a disused grave-
yard, which was being made available for a recreation ground, and the other
side of the space was laid bare by the workmen in preparing the foundation for
the new Post Office building. The discovery has been treated with great
care, and many parts of the wall, which would be exposed to view for about
a hundred feet, were in an excellent state of preservation, though in other
parts the old wall had been much interfered with, large gaps having been
cut through and brickwork inserted. The attention of the Government
having been called to the subject, Mr. Plunkett stated in the House of
Commons that it would be possible to preserve what remained of the old
Roman wall, so that the whole of it should remain as undisturbed aud
complete as it was to-day, and exposed in sections and visible for inspection
and study by antiquaries. It is so unusual to get the Government to recog-
nise the importance of preserving these things that we ought to be thank-
ful that so much has been accomplished. — Several coins of Hadrian,
Gratian, Nerva, and Constantino, were discovered in the coprolite-diggiuga
at Hanseton, Cambridgeshire. There were also several bronze aud brass
rings, buckles, pins, iron knives, forks, and two carved bone handles. —
A part of a large Roman pavement has been found beneath a house at Glou-
cester.— Perhaps the most interesting relic of the Roman i>eriod discovered
this year is the pavement at Salisbury by Mr. F. G. Nicholls. Salisbury is the
mediaeval city founded upon the desertion of old Sarum, the ancient Roman
city, and the question arises, therefore, was Salisbury founded upon its
present site, because already there existed on the spot relics of a former
settlement ? The pavement may be simply the remnants of a villa resi-
dence in the open fields ; but its connection with Salisbury is certainly a
subject which needs investigation.
Anylo-Sojcon Remains. — Among the antiquities found early in the year
near Peterborough was a remarkable fibula of early Saxon date, the ham-
mer of Thor being represented in a conspicuous position.
ChurclveSj Crosses^ d'c. — Mr. Stephen Williams of Rhayader has beeit
excavating on the site of the Cistercian Abbey of Strata Florida in Cardi-
ganshire. A number of fragments of pillars, mouldings, and encaustic tiles,
have been dug up, but unfortunately nothing systematic was attempted.
However, the Society of Antiquaries have had their attention drawn to the
CH UliCH IIESTORA TIOX. 283
bubject, and Mr. St. John Hope is to direct future operations. — The church
of Acton Bumell, in Shropshire, is threatened with restoration, which,
luckily, is waiting for funds. It was built by the celebrated Bishop Bur-
ncll, Chancellor to Edward I., hai-d by his castellated house at Acton Bur-
nell, in Shropshire, the scene of the Parliament which met at Shrewsbury
in 1283, and adjourned here and passed the statute De Mercatoribus. It
i^j a highly interesting example of the transition between Early English and
Decorated, and doubtless requires some repairs. But it does not need the
whole of the plaster to be stripjied off the inside walls, and the rude stone
pointed, and the wooden belfr}', standing upon massive timbers going down
to the floor of the church, to be abolished, and supplanted by a new one
perched upon the roof timbers. — It is proposed to restore the ancient parish
church of Yelling, near St. Neots. The church evidently occupies the site
of an older building, for there are portions of a Norman building still to bo
seen. In the south aisle, built into the wall, and under an arch, is a well-
preserved Norman tomb.— The Abbot's Gateway at Peterborough is under-
going restoration. The gateway leads from the precincts to the Bishop's
palace, and is an interesting structure. — An attempt is being made to
" restore " the abbey church of Shrewsbury. The nave of the ancient
church of the Benedictines is all that remains, and Mr. J. L. Pearson is to
build up to the original scale of the ancient church. — Another abbey church
is in the hands of the restorers, Thorney Abbey. The first Duke of Bed-
ford gave 14G tons of stone from the old monastery towards building the
chapel of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Five bays of the Norman
nave of the church, and a portion of the west front, were saved from the
wreck. The ruined fabric underwent a kind of restoration in 1638. Forty
yeara ago another restoration took place. Then were added to the church
two transepts, north and south, which makes the ground-plan of the sacred
edifice the exact shape of the letter T. The present restoration will
probably be as good a perfonnance as can well be expected, because it is
in tlie hands of Mr. J. T. Micklethwaite. — In an old rockery in a house near
Chester, on the Duke of Westminster's estate, the remains of a tabernacle
cross were found and identified by Mr. Alfred Rimmer as the remains of
Cliester high cross, broken up many years ago. The date is about 1350.
The Duke at once gave it to the city, and the Corporation have taken steps
for its restoration in the Market Square at Chester. — Several Norman arches
of great interest, and a spiral Norman staircase leading to the basement,
have been uncovered at Noi*wich Castle during the process of removing the
prison buildings.
CHURCH RES TOR A TION,
The Destruction of Ancient Monuments and of interesting Architectural
Kemains by the process of modem Church-Restoration is constantly being
brought under the notice of the Society of Antiquaries of London, and that
body has issued a circular letter which is calculated to do some good,
though we fear not till the Govenunent steps in and declares the Parish
(.luu'ches to be national historical monuments, which are not to be touched
t>84 ARCHAEOLOGY.
except under the supervision of specially appointed surveyors, will there be
■any real conservation of our ancient monuments. Why does not the
Society of Antiquaries promote a bill hi Parliament for the purpose of
taking charge of historical monuments 1 Sir John Lubbock, Mr. Elton,
Mr. Howorth, Mr. Leighton, and many of its Fellows are members of Parliar
nient, and would certainly assist.
In the meantime the circular letter before us sets forth that it is con-
stantly the case that on visiting a " restored " Church it is found that
monuments and painted glass, of which the existence is recorded in County
Histories, have not only been removed from their original positions, but
are no longer forthcoming ; that inscribed slabs from tombs have been used
to bridge over gutters or to receive hot-air gratings, or have been covered
with tiles ; that the ancient fonts have been removed, the old Communion
Tables destroyed, the Jacobean oak pulpits broken up or mounted on stone
pedestals, and not unfrequently the old and curious Communion Plate sold.
The architectural features and proportions of the Churches have in innum-
erable instances been modified, especially so far as regards the East windows,
und the character of the Chancels generally.
The Society strongly insists on the great historical value of our ancient
Parish Churches, every one of which contains in its fabric the epitome of
the History of the Parish, frequently extending over many centuries. What
would appear to the Society to be the duty of the guardians of these
National Monuments is not to ** restore " them, but to preserve them — not
to pretend to put a Church back into the state in which it may be supposed
to have been at any given epoch, but to preserve so far as practicable the
record of what has been its state during all the period of its history.
The Society does not overlook the necessity of adapting the buildings
to the wants of the present day, but it contends that the greatest part of
the mischief that has been done to our Churches has not added to the con-
venience of the buildings, which is in no way aided by destroying the more
recent portions of a Church and re-building them in a style which imitates
the older portions, nor by the destruction of furniture and monuments only
Iwcause they are not of the date which is assumed to be that of the Church.
Now work done to suit new wants and not pretending to be other than it
is will carry on the history of the building in the same manner as did the
old, and the Society has no wish to prevent that from being done. It only
urges that the ancient record should not be wiped out to make room for
the new, nor falsified by making the new a servile imitation of the old.
Uniformity of style was very rarely a characteristic of our old Churches,
And a part of the building or a piece of furniture in it is to be judged, not
by its conformity to this or that style, but by its fitness for its place and
for the work it has to do.
It is feared that the use of the word Restoration has itself been the
eause of much mischief, and has made men think that the destruction of
the later features of a building is a gain by itself, and the Society therefore
ui^es that these later features are just as important in the history of the
building as the older, for it is by them that its continuous history is re-
<K)rded. To replace them by modem imitations of the earlier work not only
destroys so much of the record, but discredits what is allowed to remain
by confusing it with that which is not what it professes to be.
Ibistorig.
— : o : —
DOMESDAY MEASURES OF LAND.
THOSE who have perused "Domesday Studies"^ will have
observed that two papers of marked originality and ability
are contained in the first vohnne, which deal with that notoriously
difficult problem, Domesday measures of land. These are Canon
Isaac Taylor s " The Plough and the Ploughland," and Mr. O. C.
Pell's " A N(»w View of the Geldable Unit of Assessment in Domes-
day." It is with certain points in the latter that I propose to
deal.
Mr. Pell has studied the subject of his paper long and deeply :
he has gone into the subject far more thoroughly than I, or perhaps
anyone else, can profeas to have done. To criticise his views, there-
fore, may seem somewhat presumptuous. Yet his earnest efforts
to solve a hitherto insoluble problem assure one that he will not
object to a discussion on the theory he propounds.
In Canon Ttiylor s lucid paper he has kept the extra compli-
cation caused by the use of the " Anglicus Numerus " (the practice
of counting twelve as ten) well in the background. The problem
is difficult enough as it stands, witiiout this distracting addition,
and when we can agi'ee upon our first principles, we can then
advance in due coui*se to the modifications involved by the "Anglicus
Numerus." Unfoi-tunately, Mr. Pell deems it necessary to place
this difficulty in the forefront of his argument, and thus to lead us
to giddy heights of calculation which few brains, from what I hear,
can successfully scale.
Let me start from a point of perfect agreement. Mr. Pell and
I have both independently andved at the conclusion that the
" geldable hide of Domesday " contained 120 acrea I further say
that this hide contained four geld virgates, each of thirty geld
acres, and that this never varied. Mr. Pell, on the other hand,
holds that this * certainly is a fallacy" and that "the virgate of
the Domesday hide was as often as not 20 or 24 [acres] ; and six of
20 acres and five of 24 aci'es are just as often to be met with as ^
of thirty." I must regi'etfully observe on this, that if there is one
thing more certain than another in Domesday, it is that the
* Domesday Stmlies, LoiiginaiiB, 1888.
286 HISTORY.
''virgate" was essentially and always the quarter of the geldable
bi<le.*
But while Mr. Pell rit^htly urges that '* the Domesday geldable
hide, &c., bad one and the same meaning all over England ....
had a fixed and certain meaning/* and while he reminds us " that
the terms made use of in reference to the lands on which the
taxation was laid must have been of a kind so certain and so sure,
that when any portion of the survey was sent to the King's officers,
it would caiTy on the face of it the information required, without
the need of a local interpreter to explain the meaning," — ^yet, as we
shall see, he advances the theory that the geldable " hide ** repre-
sented an area of terra Iticrahilis varying from 120 to 288 acrea
The fact is, as I have elsewhere explained, that even if we
admit (as many would not) that the measures of assessment in
Domesday, viewing it merely as a i*ate book, are now virtually
clear, the true difficulty yet remains. It is when we endeavour
from these measures of assessment to deduce the actual areas, or to
fix, so to speak, the relation of assessment to area, that we find
ourselves all at sea. Canon Taylor has attempted the task for
the cainicates in the East Riding of Yorkshire, and appears, witliin
that limited area, to have attained marked success. Mr. PelFs more
ambitious and far-reaching scheme comprises both hides and
carucates, and is, indeed, of universal application.
Now when we find, as we do in Domesday, the relation of
geldable hides to area continually and widely varying, we have
only two alternatives. Either we must infer, as I do myself, that
there was no necessary relation between area and assessment ; or,
we must allow ourselves considerable license in assigning a denot-
ation to the word " hide." It is the latter course that Mr. Pell has
adopted. If I have extracted his meanin^^ aright, he requires us to
accept the following axioms, by which he is enabled, in every case,
to connect assessment with area.
(1) The Domesday hide of 120 acres represents in two-field
manors {I.e. including fallow) an area of 240 acres of arable land.
(2) The Domesday hide of 120 acres represents in three-field
manors {i.e. including fallow) 180 acres of arable land.
^ See, for instance, tlie returns passim of the geld paid in 1084, otherwiae
known as the ** geld-inquest." And note that at Wichampton, Dorset, the *' J
hide'* of that survey equates the **1J virgate" of Domesday (79 b. 1.) But,
indeed, the fact is self-evident. For if, as Mr. Pell insists above, '*the terma
made use of in reference to the lands," etc. etc., wliat could be the uao of a
t«rm of assessment (*' virgata ") whicli might mean a quarter, a fifth, or a aixth
of the hide unit, and which would need, in every Ciise, *'a local interpreter to
explain its meaning ** ?
DOMESDAY MEASURES OF LAXD. 287
(3) But as (he holds) the fallow land or '* idle shift '* was sometimes
" eMra hidam and not geldated/* and sometimes, on the contrary,
infra hidam, — though "under what circumstances and why/' says
Mr. Pell, "this should have been the case, it is hard to say," — the
Domesday hide would, in the latter case, represent no more, in
either manor, than 120 acres.
(4) If reckoned by the Angllcus numerus these three areas
would respectively represent 288, 21G, and 144 acres.
(5) But the six areas at which we have arrived do not exhaust
the list For not only may the "hide" in two adjacent manors
represent quite different areas, and be reckoned by the smaller or
by the greater hundred, but even in one and the same manor, it
may (? if convenient) bo reckoned at one place by the ordinary
countinor, and at another " Ancflico numero." ^
(6) By a far more surprising postulate, Mr. Pell asks us to admit
that when Domesday gives ns an assessment in terms of hides and
virgates, or in terms of hides and acres, it means one thing in
one place, and in another something utterly different. Keeping
still to Cambridgeshire, as Mr. Pell's special county, we find two
manors assessed thus : —
" In Mellebume 11 hidc« et 1 virgata " (191 b).
"Burewelle Ibi X hidfe et 1 virgata" (192 b).
In the first case, according to Mr. Pell, Domesday means what it
says, viz., two hides and a virgate ; in the second, it means ten times
a-hide-and-a-virgate, viz. : — ten hides and ten virgates. So, too,
when Domesday assesses two manors thus : —
" In Badburgh II hidas et dimidiam et xxiv acras "
(194 a).
" Escelforde pro ix hidis et xxiv acris se defendit " (191 a).
Mr. Pell asks us to admit that, in the first, Domesday means what
it says, viz. 2^ hides + 24 acres, but that in the second its meaning
is : 9 times a hide and 24 acres, or, as lie expresses it, " 9 (1 hide
+ 24 acres)." And for this he gives us no reason. But, further,
he claims that in the first instance, the hide should be reckoned "by
•* For instance, of four Cambridgeshire manors we read in Domesday : —
'* Belesham. Ibi sunt IX hidw .... In dominio V hid® " (190 b.)
**Dodinton pro V hidis In dominio II hidoe et dimidia'' (191 b.)
" Burewelle. Ibi X hidse et I virgata In dominio III hidre et XL acre"
(192 b.)
** Ely pro X hidis In dominio V hide" (192 a.)
For the first case Mr. Pell claims to reckon nane of the '* hides " by the
Ai^jlicMS munerna ; in the next, to reckon only the first (5 hides) ; in the next
to reckon oidy the second (3 hides and 40 acres) ; in the next, to reckon both !
288 HISTORY,
the greater hundred/' while, in the second, it should not. And for
this also he gives us no i*ea.son.
(7) By way of climax to these postulates, we are asked to believe
that the Domesday survey was draw^l up on two different, naj'^
opposite systems. We are told by Mr. Pell that " in most " counties
*''■ the standard geldable hide or carucate is phiced first, and then the number of
iernn therein is stated. But in Doi-set, Middlesex, Yorkshire, Wiltsliire, Sussex,
etc., the returns are the reverae of this : the * terra ad carucaiu ' appears to be
the standan^l geldated area of 120a ; and the word * hide ' in Dorsetshire, etc.,
and the temi * car. terne ad gelduni ' in Yorkshire, are used to express the area
of one ploughland in tlie manor ; so that the terms *" terra est car.' in Dorset,
and * car. potest ibi ere ' (x/V) in Yorkshire imply what the gehlable hide implies
in other counties, viz. 120a of taxed land.'*
It is proverbial that figures can prove anything, but really, if
any mathematical mind will compute the number of combinations
and permutations which the concession of these axioms would
render possible, it will be pretty obvious that, with such achnissious
one could prove any theory on earth.
I shall address myself at once to this last i^ostulate, because it
is the most extravagant of all, and the most easily disposed of. As^
Mr. Pell justly observes : —
**A document like the Domesday book was a * schedule' for the purposes
(»f ascertiiining the assessment of the whole country, or the number of pound-
paying units therein ; so we must natumlly think of it as formed cm one and the
same plan of coiuithig throughout the whole," etc. et<;. '
Yet he asks us to believe that for a few counties, scattered, diffei-ent,
and so widely apart as Yorkshire, Middlesex, and Dorset, the survey
was formed on a separate plan, outwardly the same as the general
plan, but, in fact, diametrically opposite. To show how bewildering-
such a scheme would be, I append some specimen measures from
Mr. Pell's own instances —
Yorkshire. ** In Cheroam VIII carncatje ad geldum, Et iiii* cjiructe possunt
esse '' (307 a. )
Lincolnshire. ** In Scot^ro .... VIII* carucatie terrre ad geldum.
Terra ad XII carucas " (34o b.)
DoR-sET. '*Pidere (T.R.E.) geldabat pro X hidis. Terra est VI*
carucis"(82b.)
SOMER.SET. *'Geveltone T.R.E. geldabat pi-o VIII* hidis. Terra est VllI
carucis" (90 b.)
According to all Domesday scholars the first figures, in every
case, are those of the assessment for geld. A glance at these four
instances will shew how obvious tliis is. Mr. Pell, however, asserts
that, on the contrary, the carucate "ad geldum" of Lincolnshire
meant the assessment for geld, but the cainicate " ad geldum " of
Yorkshire meant just the reverse, and had nothing to do with the
* IhmeAtUnj Stiidifit, p. 350.
DOMESDAY MEASURES OF LAXD. 239
geld : the " geldabat pro x hidis " of Somerset meant : " paid geld
on so many hides (of assessment)/* but the "geldabat pro x hidis"
of Doi'set meant just the reverse, and had nothing to do with the
geld ! According to him the geld-assessment was denoted by tlie
figures over which I have placed an asterisk. But he goes further
still. He holds that in one and the same county the uniform
formula may be sometimes read one way and sometimes the other,
that is, may sometimes mean what it says and may sometimes
mean the reverse.^
Middlesex (Tyburn) " Pro V hidis se defendit, Terrae est III*
carucis"(I28b).
(Tottenham) "Pro V* hidis se defendit Terra est X
carucis"(130b).
Here, in the first instance, according to Mr. Pell, the geld-
assessment is the second figure; in the second, it is the first.
Returning, however, to Dorset, as the typical county for this
hypothesis, we first note that Mr. Pell is unfortunate in having here
the testimony of the Exon Domesday. The formula there employed
is that a manor " reddidit geldum pro x hidis. Has possunt arare
II cainicae." Mr. Pell quotes this formula throughout, but in the
case of Dorset, as we have seen, contends that the manor "paid geld'*
not (as the formula implies) on x units of assessment, but on //.
In fact he asks us to read the formula topsy turvy. It is difficult
to treat seriously so eccentric a theory.
Fortunately, however, in the case of Dorset, we have at hand a
test from which there can be no appeal. This is the so-called " geld-
inquesf of 1084. As this record is concerned solely with the
collection of the tax, it has nothing to do with area. We can there-
fore be certain that, in its figures, we are dealing with units of
assessment Now if we take Hugh de Port s manor of Compton, in
the Hundred of Frampton, Dorset, we read " geldabat pro X hidis.
Terra est VIII carucis." According to Mr. Pell this should mean
that it was assessed at 8 geldable units, but our record proves on
the contrary that the assessment, as we should expect, was 10. The
Count of Mortain's manor of Shilvington (80, a 1) "geldabat pro
una hida et una virgata. Terra est I carucse." In our record it is
assessed at 5 virgates. At Wichemetune "habet Hubertus unam
virgatam terrse et terciam partem unius virgatse ** (79 b 1), Our
record assesses him at \ hide.^ Thurstan Fitz Rolf's manor
^ '^The returns in this county are mostly, though not all, made as in
Dorset. '»
^ These three cases have a special value, in giving us 4 virgates as the notori-
T
290 HISTORY.
of *Stockc*i geldabat pro I hida"an(l **pro III virgatis teme*'
(80 b. 2). In our record his assessment is '* VU virgataa" In
the same hundred the Abbot of Abbotsbury holds two manors:
" Widctone geldabat pro 1 1 hidis et dimidia. Terra est IIII
carucis." "Atrerro geldabat pro 11 hidis. Terra est II caruci&"
According to Mr. Pell, this should imply a geld-assessment of 6
units for the two. According to everyone else it would imply
A\, We turn to our record and we find that the assessment is 4i.'
Again the Abbey of Holy Trinity of Caen held the manor of Tar-
nint of which we read: — "Tarente (T.R.E.) geldabat pro X hidis.
Terra est VIII carucis " (79 a 1). Here again our record proves
that the assessment was not 8 but 10 units,^ as indeed,I must repeat, is
iiiinsparently clear from the language of Domesday itself. It is
needless to multiply such tests as these. So fai' as Mr. Pell's elabor-
ate calculations are Imsed on this amazing hypothesis, they are not
merely weakened : they arc simply blown to pieces.
Let us now tuni to the practical application of Mr. Pells theories
to Domesday. He argues that "the Norman King's officers" had
" two ways" of "fonning from the primary returns an assessment
wliich would be of one imiform standard.''® It is with the first of
these I now deal Mr. Pell writes: —
** In some cases they appear to have stated the number of hides, terne atl
car., or carucatas, or areas, at one-sixth less of the actual number, six hides or
car. being reckoned as five Of instances of the first method of reduc-
ti(.u there is that of Clifton in Yorkshire, D. Bk. Tom. I. fol. 31.3a.**
Quoting in cxtenso the Domesday entry, he asserts that manor:*
amounting in the aggi*egate to 18 carucatcs less a bovate are reck-
oned in Domesday as 15 'cainicates less a bovate. " If," he adds^
" tor the purposes^of^simplicity, we add a bovate to each side of the
efjuation, we shall then have 18 carucata) in area reduced by the
king's officers to 15 carucatje ad geldum." ^^ Now, if this were so^
it would certainly aflford a striking confirmation of Mr. Pell's
hj'pothesis, and we cannot wonder that as a test case, he works out
'* the details of this manor." Unfortunately, however, for him, the
very figures he quotes from Domesday convict him of error, for the
ous equivalent of the hide. Another case in point may here be cited, namely
that of ** Den tune," Sussex (Domej^cfaij, I., 2f)) where 2 J hides + two hides and
two virgates = 6 hides.
7 Of which he paid on 3^ and was excused (according to rule) the one which
was on his demesne.
^ Of which 3 hides 3J virgates were assessed on the dominium^ and 6 hides j^
virgate on the villani,
® Domesilay Studies, p. 353.
10 IhifJ, p. 354.
DOMESDAY MEASUIIES OF LAND. 291
aggi'egate of the items amounts to 18 carucates p!iis a bovate ; so
that if " we add a hovate to each side of the equation/* we have to
account, not for "18 carucates/' but for 18 carucates ////J tiuo bovates.
This flaw is beyond dispute. But we must go further still. Before
we can admit that, acconling to Domesday, three and three makc^
five, we must have overwhelming evidence of the fact. Where is
it ? Our evidence points in the very contrary direction. Let Mr.
Poll examine the entries relating to ** Fostun *' (following Clifton).
t4> "Massan" and to "Welle" (312 a), to "Witwn" and to "EUintone*'
(:]ll b), to "Catrice" and "Scuruetone" (310 b), and to "Ghellinges"
(809 a)," and in all these cases, taken at random, he will find that
the total given by Domesday is in strict accordance with the aggre-
gate of the factors. Wliat then is the explanation of the Clifton
case ? We have seen that the deduction of a sixth will not, aa
alleged, account for it. The true explanation I take to be this :
it is simply one of Domesday s blunders. Take for instance the
Soke of Gayt<m in Lincolnshire. Tlu^re (338 b) the items are given
in full and their aggregate is 24i car. \\ bo v. Yet Domesday
totals it as 25 J car. I^ bov. Even on the very same page as Clifton
w»? have 48 car. " ad geldum " reckoned up as totalling 50 car. " ad
geldum." And if this is possible, whei*e the items are given, it is
so a fortiori, where they are omitted and subsequently, as in the
('liftou case, added by interlineation. Thus, still on the same page
(303 a), we have six manors assessed collectivelj" at 32 "carucatao
ad geldum." Then comes the interlineator, who gives their re-
spective assessment (amounting to 41.! car.) which, by the way, he
liiiiiself totals as 41 car. After such an instance as this, found by
tht* very side of Clifton, it will probably be admitted that my ex-
planation is, to say the least, Jegitimat<>,^- and that the solitary case
to which Mr. Pell so confidently appeals '•* is shown to be nothing
more than a Domesday blunder.
I will now glance at what I consider Mr. PelFs most dangerous
postulate, and examine, as a typical case, his treatment of the
Murwell entry: —
*^ Burewelle tenet abbas de RauiBey. Ibi X liidto ct I viigata. Terra est
X VI carucis. In doniinio III hide et XL aero " (i>owu'.W(o/, I., 192 b.)
Here Mr. Pell claims: (1) that "X hidje et I virgata" should be
tnken to mean 10 hides + 10 virgates, " 10 {\ h. + 1 v.)," but that
* ^ This is a strong case, because the aggregates amount to 27^ carucates and
71 \ carucates and are absolutely correct.
* * For other instances of Domesday bhmders, see the instances given by
Cation Taylor (Dometotay Stndien^ p. I7r>,^ and myself (i^///, p. 123).
^^ Dome^f'nj St in fit's, pp. 188, 3o<i, etc.
292 HISTORY.
"Ill hidaB et XL acre" should only mean 3 hides + 40 acres; (2)
that " X hidae et I virgata) '' slioiild be reckoned by the ordinaay
hundred, but "III hide et XL acre" should be reckoned (Anglico
numero) by the "greater hundred;" (3) that "I virgata'* means,
not a quarter of the (geldable) " hida," but " the virgate of th«»
manor." ^*
That the first and last of these propositions are erroneous is
matter, not of opinion, but of absolute demonstration. Tlie assess-
ment of Burwell parish had been 15 hides. The assessments of its
component manors were these : — ^"'*
h. V.
Ramsej' Abbey,
10. 1.
Count Alan,
91
Ditto, ditto.,
1. L
Charteris,
1
Hardwin d'eschalers,
1
7.»
1.5. 0.
It is obvious, from these figures, that the Ramsey Manor was
assessed at ten hides plus one virgate, not at ten hides p/ns ten vir-
gates, and, further, that this virgate was the fourth of a geldable hide
(30 acres), not the " virgate of the manor " (here 24 acres). ^® But, this
being so, what are we to say to Mr. Pell's elaborate calculations,
based on these two erroneous propositions, and satisfactorily
accounting, by their help, for every acre in the manor ?
Further, when we read that "Buruwelle pro XV hidis se
defendit " [? defendebat ^"] et modo pro X hidis," ^® we have an in-
stance, surely, of the correctness of the view that assessment was
not necessarily dependent on area, i.e., against Mr. PelTs theory.
The case of Shelford is almost as strong. Of the Abbot of Ely's
maner there we read in Domesday : — " pro IX hidis et XXIIII acris
se defend[it]." Here again Mr. Pell claims to render this as "9 (1 h.
+ 24 a.)," viz. 9 hides plus 9 times 24 acres. But as he here reckons
• ^* Cambridge Antiqnnnan StfcU'ti/s Commnnicathns, pp. 83, 98 ; Domcsdaij
Studies, pp. 332-3.
^* Hamilton's Inqnmfio Comitatns CuaUdyririiensiSj pp. 5-6
18 *<The real virgate was 24'* acres, in this case, writes Mr. Pell, wli«»
accordingly computes his 10 virgates at ** 240 " acres.
17 This looks to me like an erroneous extension, and a further hint that in
this so-called " original return " (Birch's Dome.'idai/ Book, p. 41) we have nothing;;,
as I believe, but a copy, which should be used with caution.
^^ Hamilton, p. 4.
DOMESDAY MEASURES OF LAND. 293
tlu- hides by the ordinary hundred, he views the additional 24 acres
jis merely converting them into hides "by the greater hundred"
(Aiif/lico numero). Really the Anglicus numerus is Mr. Pells "Deus
I'x macliina." What possible right can a commentator have to say
tiiat on the very same page, Domesday uses " liida " and " hida et
XXIIII acre " as equivalent terms of assessment, and to assume for
the purpose, that " hida " is in the first case, and is not in the second,
reckoned Anglico nuniero ? As a matter of fact, if we take Domes-
day to mean here what it says, the aggi'egate assessment of the
niiinors is within 7 acres of the 20 hides at which the parish is
jisbcssed — a discrepancy of only 1 per cent.^^ But Mr. Pell's reading
would involve a discrepancy of nearly 200 acres.
These criticisms are of special impoi-tance in their bearing on
Mr. Pell's interpretation of " the only direct statement in Domesday
book itself, from which the area of the carucate can be inferred."*^
The entry runs: "In communi terra sti. Martini sunt cccc acrse et dim.
(|ua) fiunt II. solinos et dim." (2.a.). This can be rendered : " four
hundred acres and a half," or (as Canon Taylor does) " four hundred
acres and a half (hundred)/* or (as Mr. Pell does) " four hundred times
ail acre and a half." In this last case, its phrase would be a strange
substitute for " DC acre." I am not, however, at all sure that we have
a right to assume that this passage is intended to give us " the area
of the carucate." It was not the intention of Domesday Book to
artbrd miscellaneous and familiar information ; and to state that
so many acres would make so many " solins " would be a mere im-
pertinence at a time when the fact would be known to everyone.
It seems at least possible that these " solins " may be units of
assessment independent of area.
The last case I shall discuss should be Mr. Pell's strongest, for it
is that of his own Wilburton Manor, and he has gone into it in
^^ivat detail. The Domesday entry is : —
* * Ibi V hidie. Terra est vii. carucisl In dominio iii hida3 et i virgntji, et
il)i iii caruciu. Ibi iiii sochemanni et ix. villani cum iiii carucis," (192 a).
Here, says Mr. Pell, the "V hidfo" were reckoned Anj^/ico numcro,
that is, were hides of 144 acres, but the " III hidse " were not, and,
therefore, were hides of 120 acres. The "Illhidoe et I virgata,"
^ •* It is important to observe that, althougli Mr. Pell accepts the Domesday
iLsscssment ("IX hide et XXIIII acre"), Mr. Hamilton's Inquisition oi which
tlie authoiity has been upheld as higher, gives that assessment as *' IX hide et
XXIX acre " (p. 47), which, of itself, would be destructive of Mr. Pell's
hypothesis. In any case the discre^vincy (5 acres) confirms my view that in
tlie Inqiiisitio and the Exchequer Domesday we have merely two independent
(Miiiipilations from the original returns.
•-«> Canon Taylor (D<meMhnj SfudieH, p. 100).
294 JUSTiHtr.
moreover, does not mean three hides and one virgate, but
three hides and three virgates (this is the fallacy I ex-
posed under Burwell). And as these were hides of 120 acres and
virgates of 24 acres (which was here "the virgate of the manor"),
the " III hidsB et I virgata " really means three units of 144 acres,
i.e., three hides Anglico numero?^ That is to say, that "III hidse ct
I virgata" means " three hides and three virgates," which means
three hides (" Anglico numero ") ! Now, all this jugglery, I venture to
think, is sheer illusion. Domesday gives us fivit hides as the assess-
ment of the manor, and 3| hides as that portion of it which was on
the dominium. The balance, IJ hides, was, as olsrwhere, on the
homines. The meaning is quite plain : the explanation quite
simple.
Then, as to the ploughs. The Domesday formula is singularly
clear : " Terra est x carucis. In dominio y caruca) : Villani, &e, x -y
carucas." So here : " There is land for seven car\u\h . In demesne
are three caricccv. The sochmen and villeins have four carucoe.^
But Mr. Pell quotes by the side of this what he terms " the primary
return, contained in the hiqulsitio Eliensisy This description is
misleading. The Inquisitio stands, at best, on the same footing
with Domesday, as an abstract from the same original returns,
and is more probably, in my opinion, a mere copy of an abstract.
Here, however, is the relevant entry : " VI carucis ibi est terra.
nil cai'ucsB in dominio. IlII carucae hominum." Now, those
entries cannot both be right, and this entry is on the face of
it corrupt, for whereas the Domesday formula involves an equa-
tion 22 (7=3 4), we have here: 6 = 4f4. The "VF should clearly
be " VII," and the fii-st " IIII " should clearly l>e " III." In-
deed, if Mr. Pell had referred to Mr. Hamilton's edition of the text,
he would have found that two out of the three MSS. read " VII "
for " VI." He has, however, accepted the spiu-ious entry, and ex-
plained it with as much ease as the genuine one in Domesday: —
'* Thsse six car, of the ' InquiBitio Eliensis of 120 juxta estimatiouem
Anglorum ' 6 (144), exactly equal 864 acres " [the acreage to be accounted for] ;
** or, as Domesday Bk. puts it, 3 lord's car. of 144 (120 * Anglico numero') plus 4
average car. of 108 acres to tenants exactly make the 864 acres. The eight
21 Domesday SUidies, pp, 334-6, 365-6,
2* See, in illustration of this, the manors preceding and succeeding it in the
IixquisUio^ Charteris, for instance, is specially interesting as containing the
equation: III caruc« = VI boves + II carucas et II boves. Here we have the
eight oxen vividly equating the ox team (' * caruca "), and tlius confirming my
declared conviction '* that the * Civnica ' of Domesday stands for a normal team of
tight oxen " (Domesday Studies, p. 209), whether on the dominium or not.
REVIEW. 295
ploughs of the lord and men of the Inquisitio Eliensia have an average ten-a uf
108 each over the manor,*' etc., etc.^*
What can we say of such a case as this ? Here, in Mr. Pell's
own stronghold, he selects a test by which to prove the same rule
as at Clifton, and, here as at Clifton, satisfactorily, by his own pro-
cess, accounts for the exact amount entered in the record. But
when we find as we do in both cases, that the amount is purelj'
imaginary and based on a mere clerical eiTor, what becomes of tlie
process ? The credit which it has gained by accounting so exactly
for any entry that can be found in Domesday is surely at an end.
The proof, if I may be allowed the expression, of his great Domes-
Jay cryptogram, is found to consist, in each case, of a series of
arbitrary assumptions, which break down, as we have seen above,
when exposed to the test of fact.
It is the very importance and originality of Mr. Pell's process
which has led me to criticise it so closely. For, as has been said :
"' This erudite essay involves results, if its conclusions be accepted,
of no oidinary historical and ethnological importance." Nor, even
if we have to reject Mr. Pell's main thesis, need we therefore be un-
irrateful for his arduous labours or for the li^ht his researches have
thrown on primitive measures of land.
J. H, Round.
'^ Domesday Sttulies, p. 355.
REVIEW.
KNtiLAND IN THE FIFTEENTH CeNTURY— By THE ReV. W. DeNTON, M.A.
London (Bell & Sons), 1888, 8vo. pp. viii. 337.
The author of this book, who was Rector of St. Giles', Cripplegate, con-
•ccmiug which parish he published a small volume of Records in 1883, died
while the last proof-sheets of the work were awaiting revision, so that
though he practically finished his labour of love, he did not live to enjoy
its completion. We are informed in the Preface that lie had also collected
materials for a sketch of the ecclesiastical state of England in the fifteenth
century ; this, had it been written, might have been a valuable introductory
study to precede the recent work of Father Gasquet on the suppression of
the monasteries. The book actually before us is a solid one, bristling with
authorities and references to a wide range of printed matter. The writer
lias not gone to many manuscript sources, but has made diligent use of
the recent numerous publications which contribute to his subject. So
much material has within the last twenty yeard been made accessible, that
296 HISTORY.
there is ample scope among these fur a " Description of England " as old
Harrison would have called it.
There is not, however, about this book the clear view and arrangement
of Harrison, and the method adopted, without any broad guiding lines or
principal divisions, gives it amidst such a crowd of details, at first sight,
the effect of patchwork ; and this in spite of certain groupings of sub-heads.
Probably had the author lived ho might have indicated his intention >
what we find is a somewhat miscellaneous survey of rural life, agriculture^
produce, and highways, the condition of the labourers and middle classes,
the state of the nobility and aristocracy. Ecclesiastical matters are little
touched on. More than a third of the volume is occupied by an intro-
duction in two parts, the first of which is devoted to a sketch of the
institutions and social condition of the people in the thirteenth century,
the period of great achievement, intellectual and material progress, con-
stitutional liberty, wuse jurists, growing commerce and art. This was the
golden time of tlie middle ages in England ; which suffered eclipse —
according to our author — by the death of Edward I. in 1307. " In his
tomb was buried the promise of the continued prosperity of this country.
The one hundred and eighty years lying between his death and the acces-
sion of the house of Tudor were years of violence and suffering to the
people of England."
The key-note is here given to the main idea of the second part of the
introduction, which traces the decline of the country after Edward's death,
the destructive effects of the French and Scotch wars, the ravages of famine,
murrain, and " black death," the consequences of mis-government, and the
poverty and sufferings of the people, culminating in the battle of
Bosworth. Throughout England the progress of society in material wealth,
which was so marked a feature of the reign of Edward I., had not merely
been arrested ; civilization and refinement had gone back, and England at
the accession of Henry VII. was far behind the England of the thirteenth
century. " What was ti-ue of morals and material wealth was true also of
art," which " in all its forms had become debased with the debasement of
the artist." With the accession of the Tudors, a series of dictators suited
on the whole " to the condition of society then so sadly out of joint, and
a kingdom which seemed on the point of dissolution," the author closes
his introductory survey. In spite of the black pictiu-e which, though no
doubt true in the main, seems to us somewhat over-drawn, this second
part commends itself as one of the best portions of the book, full of thought-
ful study and inference. Particularly interesting are the first dozen pages,
in which the disastrous effects of the victory at Bannockburn in retaaling
the development of civilization in Scotland and her union with England,
and the retrograde policy of Bruce, are forcibly pointed out.
The body of the book opens with the difficult subject of population,
which from all available data is estimated to have varied a little under
or over two millions from the time of the Conquest, rising till the death of
Edward II., then falling off, lowest about 1377 ; not 2\ millions in 1485.
Passing to the rural aspect of England, the picture given of the forests and
fens, moors and morasses, which covered the country on every side,
prepares us for the statement that "between the times of the Norman
Conquest and the battle of Bosworth field, the progress of agriculture in
REVIEW. 297
Kngland was almost as imperceptible as the growth of its population." A
curious section on manures and the yield of the land brings out that *' it
was clear at the end of the fifteenth century that the fertility of the arable
land of England was well-nigh exhausted." This led to the wide-spread
conversion into sheep-pastures which caused much misery and lamentation
in the next century, but which in the end restored productiveness to the
land still retained by it. Enclosures of waste, game and game lawa, roads
and bridges, water carriage, highway-men and foot-pads, — all these about
which much interesting information is gathered together may be said to be
connected with the land and soil ; so is a section on travelling, leading ta
another on the wages to members of parliament (which were partly to cover
the expense of their journey to and fro). An excursus on the history of
posting letters winds up this first chapter.
It is unnecessary to go through the two remaining chapters, which deal
in the same way with such topics as health, food, wages, taxation, the poor,
farm and home life, and the different grades of the middle classes ; then
with the nobility, their retinues, wealth, and relative position iu the king-
dom, treating of several individual instances by way of illustration, such
as the Dukes of Northumberland and Norfolk, Sir John Paston, and
Cardinal Kemp. The volume is a very storehouse of information, the
fruit of much erudition and research, which often oversteps indeed the
limits of the matter in hand. The historical student of manners and
society, who finds his materials for a given epoch often fragmentary, rarely
complete, is forced to resort for comparison and illustration to the known
facts of earlier or later date ; the temptation is great to build up inferences
thereon, which no doubt may be frequently done with justice, but they
should be received with caution. Again, it is an old story that it is dan-
j^erous to generalise on one example ; in a book of this sort it would be
strange if all such rocks were avoided. Speaking of honey in the four-
teenth century, it is said to have ** almost disappeared from the markets,
because the bees had died from mumiin." There may be another founda-
tion for the statement. Of the two authorities given one shows that a
murrain greatly destroyed the bees at one place in Norfolk during twenty
years (1371 to 1391) and then entirely ceased. Roger's Ilistcyry of
Prices is cited to show that honey disappears from the list from 1307 to
1328. Rogers, however, says nothing about murrain. Again, the "cada-
vorators," or buyers of the dead in time of pestilence, are only found in one
village.
The circumstances under which the book appears make such fault-find-
ing distasteful, and these remarks are merely made as wann'ng, A few
misprints, such as Simon for Simeon Luce twice, the omission of Levi in
the late Leone Levi's name (p. 129), Rye for New Romney (p. 86, note)^
have escaped the corrector's eye. More serious is the error in the refer-
ence to the 5th Report of the Hist. MSS. Commission (p. 86, note 2) as to
the independent making of treaties of peace between the shipmen of the
Cinque Ports and of France. This statement appears to require support.
Xtteratute.
— :o : —
THE WOOING OF EMER.
An Irish Hero-Talb of the 11th Gbntcry, Translated from the
Original MS.
(Condiided from pugc SS5.)
He then went on, and came to a large house in a great glen. There
he met a maiden of fair make in the house. The maiden addressed
him and bade him welcome. " Welcome thy coming, oh Cuchulaind ! *'
said she. He asked whence she knew him. She answered that
they both had been dear foster-children with Ulbeccan Sexa, " when
I was there and thou learning sweet speech from him," said she.
The maiden gave him to drink and to eat, and then he turned from
her. He then met a brave youth who made the same welcome U»
him. They exchanged converse batween them. Cuchulaind was
asking to know the way to the dun of Scathach. The youth taught
him the way across the Plain of Ill-luck which lay before him. i On
the hither half of the plain the feet of men would stick fast. On
the further half the grass would rise and hold them fast on the
points of its blades. > The youth gave him a wheel, and told him to
follow its track thence across one-half of the plain. Then he gave
him an apple, and told him to follow the ground where the apple
would run, and that in such wise he would reach the far end of the
plain. Thus Cuchulaind went across the plain. He then proceede<l
further. The youth had also told him there was a large glen before
him, and a single naiTOw path through it which was full of monsters
that had been sent by Forgall to destroy him^ and that was his road
to the house of Scathach across terrible high strong districts. Each
of them then wished a blessing to the other, Cuchulaind and the
youth Eochu Bairche. He it was who taught him how he should
win honour in the house of Scathach. The same youth also foretol<l
him what he would suffer of hardships and straits in the Cattlespoil
of Cualgne. He also told him what evil and exploits and contests he
would achieve against the men of Erinn.
Then Cuchulaind went on that road across the Plain of Ill-luck
• THE WOOING OF E}fER. 291)
and through the Perilous Glen as the youth had taus^ht him. This
was the road which Cuchulaind took, to the camp where the scholai's
of Scathach were. He asked where she was. " In yonder island/*
said they. "Which way must I goto her?" said he. "By the ^^^
Bridge of the Cliff," said they, " and no man can cross it before he has ^^ ^
achieved valour." For on this wise was that biidofe. It had two ^'^
low heads and the mid space, and whenever anybody would leap on
its one head, the other head would lift itself up and throw him on
his back. This is what some versions relate here, that a crowd of
the warriors of Erinn were in that dun learning feats from Scathach,
viz. Ferdia, son of Daman, and Noise, son of Usnech, and Lochipor,
son of Egomas, and Fiamain, son of Fora, and an innumerable host
besidas. But it is not told in tliis version that they were there at
that time. Cuchulaind then tried three times to cross the bridge,
and could not do it. The men jeered at him. Then he grew mad,
iind jumped on the head of the bridge, and made the hero's salmon-
leap so that he got on ibs midst. And the other head of the
bridge had not yet fully raised itself when he reached it, and threw
himself from it, and was on the ground of the island.
He went to the dun, and struck the door with the shaft of his
spear, so that it went through it. Scathach was then told. " True,"
said she, ** someone who has achieved valour somewhere else." And
from her she sent her daughter to know who the youth w^as. Then
Uathach, the daughter of Scathach, went foi-th. She looked at him,
but did not speak to him, so much did the striking shape which she
saw on the youth move her desire. She went back to where her
mother was. and praised to her the man whom she had seen. " The
man has pleased thee," said her mother, " I see it by thee." " It is
true,'* said the maiden. " He has pleased me," said she, " but sleep
thou with him to-night, if that is what thou askest." " It is indeed
not unpleasant to me," said Scathach, " if it be thy own will." Then
the maiden served him with water and fooil, and looked to his
pleasure. She made him boldly welcome in the shape of a servant (?)
viz., profiting by it Cuchulaind took hold of her, and broke her
finger. The maiden shrieked. The whole household came to help,
and the people of the dun arose. Then ai'ose also a champion against
him, viz. Cgchar Cruifne, a warrior of Scathach's. He and Cuchu-
laind attacked each other, and fought together for a long time.
Then the champion remembered his feats of valour, and Cuchulaind
returned them as if he had been taught them from his youth, and
the champion fell by him, and he struck his head off. Sorrowful
was the woman Scathach at thia Then Cuchulaind said to her he
300 IJTEIiA TURE.
would take upon himself the work and service of the man that hail
fallen, so that he was the leader of her host and her champion in
his stead. And Uathach then came and conversed with Cuchu-
laind.
On the third day the maiden advised Cuchulaind, that if it was
to achieve valour that he had come, he should go through the hero's-
salmon-leap at Scathach, where she was teaching her two sons, Guar
tind Cett, in the great yew tree, wlien she was there ; that he should
then set his sword between her two breasts until she gave him his
three wishes, viz., to teach him without neglect, and that he might
wed her (Uathach) without the payment of the wedding gift, and to
tell him what would befal him ; for she was a prophetess. Then
Cuchulaind went to the place where Scathacli was. He placed his
two feet on the two edges of the basket of the cUss, and bared his
sword, and put its point to her heart, saying : " Death over thee ! '*
said he. " Thy three wishes from me ! *' said she, " viz. thy three
wishes as thou canst utter them in one breath.'* " They shall be
taken," said Cuchulaind. He then pledged her. Other vei-sions here
say that Cuchulaind took Scatliach with him to the shore, and lay
with her there, and slept with her, and that it was then that she
sang this, prophesying to him everything that would befal him,
saying : " Welcome, oh "... . etc. But that is not told thus after
this account. Uathach then slept with Cuchulaind, and Scathach
taught him skill of arms.
During the time that he wjis with Scathach and the husband of
Uathach, her daughter, a certain famous man who lived in Munster,.
viz. Lugaid, son of Nos, son of Alamac, the renowned king, and
fosterbrother of Cuchulaind, went eastward with twelve chariot-
chiefs of the high kings of Minister, to woo twelve maidens of
the men of Mac Rossa. All these were betrothed to men before.
When Forgall the Wily heard this, he went to Tara, and said to
Lugaid that the best maiden in Erinn, both in shape and chastity
and handiwork, was living with him unmarried. Lugaid said it
pleased him well. Then Forgall betrothed the maiden to tlie king^
and the twelve daughters of the twelve lords of land in Bray
besides to the twelve under-kings that were together with Lugaid.
The king went along with Forgall to his dun for the wedding.
When now Emer was brought to Lugaid to sit by his side, she took
in both her hands his two cheeks, and laid it on the truth of
his honour and his life, and confessed that it was Cuchulaind she
loved, that Forgall was against it, that it was loss of honour for
any one that would take her to wife. Then, from fear of Cuchu-
THE WOOIXG OF EMER. 301
laind, Lugaid did not dare to sleep with Emer, and he returned
home again.
Scathach was at that time carrying on war against other tribes,
over which the Princess Aife was ruling. Then the two hosts
assembled to fight. Cuchulaind was put in bonds by Scathach, and
a sleeping potion had been given him before, that he might not go
to the battle lest anything should happen to him there. A^ a
precaution (?) she did this. Then forthwith out of his sleep started
Cuchulaind after an hour. While anybody else would have slept
twenty-four hours with this sleeping potion, it was only one hour
for him. He then went with the two sons of Scathach against the
three sons of Ilsuanach, viz., Guar and Cctt and Cruife, three
warriors of Aife's. Alone he met them all three, and they fell by
him. There was a meeting in battle on the next morning, and both
hosts went until the two arrays were face to face. Then went the
three sons of Esse Enchinde, viz. Cire and Bire and Blaicne, three
other wairiors of Aife, and began combat against the two sons of
Scathach. They went on the path of feats. Scathach uttered a sigh
at this, for she knew not what would come of it, first, as there was
no third man with her two sons against those three, and then she
was afraid of Aife, because she was the hardest woman-warrior in
the world. Then Cuchulaind went up to her two sons, and sprang
on the path, and met them all three, and they fell by him. Aife
challenged Scathach to combat. Cuchulaind went up before Aife,
and asked what it was she loved most. Scathach said : " What she
loves most," said she, " is her two hoi-ses and her chariot and her
charioteer." Cuchulaind and Aife went on the path of feats, and
began combat there. Then Aife shattered Cuchulaind's weapon so
that his sword was no longer than his fist Then Cuchulaind said :
" Ah," cried he, " the charioteer of Aife and her two horses and her
chariot have fallen down in the glen, and have all perished ! " At
that Aife looked up. Then Cuchulaind approached her, seized her
at her two breasts, took her on his back like a shoulder-load, and
carried her w^ith him to his own host Then he threw her from him
to the ground, and placed his bare sword over her. And Aife said :
*' Life for life, oh Cuchulaind ! " "My three wishes to me ! " said he,
"Thou shalt have them, as they come with thy breath," said she.
" These are my three wishes," said he, " thou to give hostage to
Scathach, without ever afterwards opposing her, thou to be with me
this night befoi-e thy dun, and to bear me a son." " I promise it all
thus," said she. It was done in that wise.
Cuchulaind then went with Aife and slept Vith her that night
302 LlTERATUliE.
Then Aife said she was with child, and that she would bear a boy.
" I shall send him this day seven year to Ennn," said she, " and da
thou leave a name for him." C Cuchulaind left a golden finger-ring-
\/ for him, and said to her that he should go and seek him in Erinn,
when the ring would fit on his fingepP And he said that Conla was
the name to be given to him, and told her that he should not
make himself known to any one, that he should not go out of
the way of any man, nor refuse combat to any man.
Thereupon Cuchulaind returned back again to his own peoplr,
and came along the same road. He met an old woman on the road
who was blind of her left eye. She asked him to beware and not be
on the road before her. He said there waa no room for a footing
for him, save on the cliff of the sea which was beneath him. She
besought him to leave the road to her. Then he left the road,
except that his toes clung to it. When she passed over him she hit
his great toe to throw him ofli* the path down the clift*. He noticed
it, and leapt the hero's salmon-leap up again, and struck the
woman's head oflT. She was the mother of the three last warriors
that had fallen by him, viz., Esse Enchinde, and in order to destroy
him had come to meet him.
Thereafter the hosts went with Scathach to her own land, and
hostages were given to her by Aife. And Cuchulaind stayed there
for the day of his recoveiy.
After the full lore of his soldierly arts with Scathach had passed
for Cuchulaind — as Veil the apple-feat as the thunder-feat, the blade-
feat, the /o6n-fcat, and the spear-feat, the rope-feat, the boJy-feat,
the cat's- feat, the salmon-feat of a chariot-chief, the throw of the
staff, the jump over . . . , the whirl of a brave chariot-chief, the
spear of the bellows,^ the hoi of swiftness, the wheel-feat, the otliar-
feat, the breath-feat, the bnttj geme, the hero's whoop, the blow
. . . , the counter-blow, running up a lance and righting the body
on its point, the scythe-chariot, and the hero's i wisting round the
1 This weapon (gai hulga) is thus described in the Book of Leinster, p. 87a :
" It was set upon the stream and cast from between the toes. It made the wound
of one spear in entering the body, and (embedded) it had thirty barbs to open,
and could not be drawn out of the body unless it was cut open." With this
weapon Cuchulaind killed Ferdiad in the Tdin B6 CUalgne. "His charioteer set
the spear on the stream, and Cuchulaind caught it between the toes of his foot,
and threw a cast of it at Ferdiad so that it passed through the firm deep iron
girdle of refined iron, and broke the great stone, which was as lai^e as a niill-
stcme, in three, and passed through the defences of his body into liira, so that
every joint and ever}- limb of him was filled with its barbs. * I have enough
nnw,' said Ferdiad."
THE WOOING OF EMLIi. :;u:i
points of speai*s, — then came a message to hira to return to his own
land, and he took leave. Then Seathach told him what would befal
him in the futui\5, and sang to him in the seer s large shining ken,^
and spake these words : " Welcome, oh victorious, warlike . , , ^
Then Cuchulaind went in his ship to reach Erinn. This was
the crew of the one ship, viz., Lugaid and Luan Da Mac Loich and
Ferbaeth and Larin and Ferdiad and Drust, son of Serb. They
went to the house of Ruad, King of the Isles, on Samuin night.*
There were there before them Conall Ceniach and Locgaire Buadach
levying the tribute; for there was tribute at that timefrom the Islcsof
theForeigners tothemenof Ulster.*'^ ThenCuchulaind heard a wailing
- Inibas Fontsnal, Tliis is the name of a mode of divination thus described in
Comiac's glossary, written about 900 a.d. "The ImlxtsForosnai%Qt& forth whatever
seems good to the seer {file) and wlmt he desires to make known. It is done
thus. The seer chews a piece of the red flesh t>f a pig, or a dog, or a cat,
and then pbices it on a flagstone behind the d<M>r. He sings an incantation
over it, offers it to the false gods, and tlien calls tliem to him. And he leaves
them not on the next day, and chants then o\\ his two hands, and again calls
his false gods to him, lest they should disturb his sleep. And he puts
his two hands over his two cheeks till he falls asleep. And they watch
hy him lest no one overturn him and disturb him till everything he want«
to know is rev^Aled to him, to the end of nine days, or of twice or thrice that
time, or however long he was judged at the offering. "
^ It is impossible at the present stage of our knowledge of Irish to translate
this poem. In it Seathach tells Cuchulaind of tlie part which he will play in the
famous Cattlespoil of Cualgne, when the *' kine of Bray will be lifted," when he
will be ** alone against an immense herd." ** The warriors of Cruachan, thou
shalt scatter them." ** Thy name shall reach the men of Alba." " Thirty yeai*»
I reckon the strength of thy valour. Thence further I do not add."
* The eve of the first of November, All- Halloween.
^ The following passage from the Book c>f Leinster (p. 171b) is of great value
for our knowledge of tlie intercourse between the ancient Irish and the Scandi-
navians : — "And send also (says the Druid Cathbad to king Conchobor of Ulster)
news and messages to thy absent friends, to Conall the victorious where he is
levying tribute and tax in the lands of Lewis {Le6dm\ in the Shetlands
(/)we Cadd) and in the Orkneys (Ii\se 0){c]), in the lands of Scythia and Dacia and
Gothia and of the Northmen (Nmiinnauu), voyaging in the Sea of Wight {Muir
n-Icht) and the Tyrrhene Sea, and plundering the roads of the Saxons. And
send news and messages to thy absent friends to the meadow-lands of the Norse
(i'o iathaih GnUecda, co Galliathaib tm n-Gall), viz., to Amliib (or Olaib), the
grandson of Inscoa, the king of Lochlann, to Findmor, son of Rofer, the king of
the seventh part of Lochlann, to Bdre of the men of the Faroer (Sciggire), to the
dun of the Fishercarls (Pi8carcarla\ to Bro<lor Roth and Brodor Fiiiit, to
Siugraid Soga, the king of Siidiam, to Sortadbud, the king of the Orkneys, to the
seven sons of Romrach, to fiUl, to Mael, to Muile, to Abram, son of Romrach, to
Cot, son of Romrach, to Celg, son of Romrach, to Mod, son of Herling, to
Conchobor the victorious, son of Artur, son of Bruide, son of Dungal, to the son
of the king of Alba, and Clothra, daughter of Conchobor the Famous.'* Several
Irish chiefs were then sent on this errand, with the Norseman Cano to guide
them across the strait of the sea and the great ocean. They land in Lewis where
they find Conall who sends on the summons to the meadow- lands of the Norse,
V
^^"l
304 LITERATURE.
before lura in the dun of the king. *' Wliat lament is that ? " said
Cuchulaind. " The daughter of Ruad is taken as tribute to the
Fomori," said they. " It is therefore that the wailing is in the dun."
" Wliere is the maiden ? " said he. " She is on the shore below," said
they. C?uchulaind went until he was near the maiden on the
strand. He asked tidings of her. The maiden told him fully.
" Whence do the men come ? " said he. " From that distant island
yonder," said she. " Be not here in sight of the robbers." He
remained there awaiting them and killed the three Fomori in single
C^wWv»6^ combat. ^But the last man wounded him at the wrist. The maiden
j*^^^ gave him a strip from her garment round his wound.) He then
went away without making himself known to the maiden. The
maiden came to the dun and told her father the whole story.
Thereafter Cuchulaind came to the dun like every other guest
Then Conall and Locgaire M^elcomed him. Many in the dun boasted
of having killed the Fomori, but the maiden did not believe them.
A bath was then prepared by the king, and each one was brought Ui
her separately. Then Cuchulaind came like everybody else, and the
maiden recognized him. " I shall give the maiden to thee," said
Kuad, " and I shall pay her wedding-gift myself." " Not so," said
Cuchulaind. " Let her come this day year to Erinn after me, if it
be pleasant to her, and she \n\\ find me there."
Cuchulaind then came to Emain and told his adventures there.
When he had cast his fatigue from him, he set out for the rath of
Forgall to seek Emer. He was a whole year near it, but could not
approach her for the number of the watch. He came then at the end of
the year. " It is to-day, oh Laeg," said Cuchulaind, " we have our
meeting with the daughter of Ruad, but we know not the exact
place, for we were not wise. Let us go," said he, " to the border
of the land." When they were on the shore of Loch Cuan,^ they
y beheld two birds on the sea. Cuchulaind put a stone in his sling
and aimed at the birds. The men ran up to them after having hit one
of the birds. When they came up to them this is what they saw,
two women, the most beautiful in the world. These were Derbfor-
gaill, the daughter of Ruad, and her handmaid. " Evil is the deed
thou hast done, oh Cuchulaind," said she. " It was to meet thee we
came, though thou hast hurt us." Cuchulaind sucked the stone out
These at once bring together a large host and fleet, and come to Lewis. Then
all set sail for Ireland. When they reach the strait of the Mull of Kintyre
{snitiiair twi 3fdi7e €hh\d Tire, i.e. the North Channel), a tremendous gale
scatters their fleet, and they land in Ireland in tliree different places.
** Strangford Lough.
THE WOOING OF EMEU 305
of her with its clot of blood rouad it. " I shall not wed thee now,'*
.said Cuchulaind, " for I have drunk thy blood. But I shall give
thee to my ompanion here, viz., to Lugaid of the Red Stripes."
And it was done thus.
C Cuchulaind then wanted to go to the rath of Forgall. And the \J
scythe-chariot was prepared for Cuchulaind that day. It was called
scythe -chariot (carpat serrda) from the iron scythes that wera
from it, or again because it was first invented by the Serians. ^
He then arrived at the rath of Forgall, and jumped the
hero's salmon-leap across the three ramparts, so that he was
on the gi'ound of the dun. And he dealt three blows in the
liss, so tliat eight men fell from each blow, and one man escaped in
the midst of each group of nine, viz., Scibur and Ibui* and Cat, thres
brothers of Emer. Forgall then made a leap on to the rampart of
the rath without, in fleeing from Cuchulaind, and he fell and was
without life. Cuchulaind took Emer with him and her foster-sister,
with their two loads of gold and silver, and took a leap back again
across the third rampart with the two maidens and went forth.
Cries were raised around them from every direction. \J
Scennmend" rushed aorainst them. Cuchulaind killed her^ on the ^
ford, which is hence called the Ford of Scennmend. Thence they ^^^ *
c>ime to Glondath. There Cuchulaind killed hundred men of them. *5^ ^r
"Great is the deed(r//o/K/) which thou hast done," said Emer, "to have ^
killed hundred armed able-bodied men." " Glond-ath shall be its ^, ,
name for ever," said Cuchulaind. He reached Cru Foit (Blood-turf).
Its name was originally Rae-ban (White Field) until then. He dealt
great angry blows on the hosts in that place, so that the streams of
blood broke over it on ea^ch side. " The height is a turf of blood
through thee to-day, oh Cuchulaind," cried the maiden. So hence it is
called Crdfoit, viz., Cr6-f6t, i.e.. Turf of Blood. The pursuers overtook
them at Ath n-Imfuait on the Boyne. Emer left the chariot.
Cuchulaind made a chase on the shore, so that the clods flew from
the hoofs of the horses across the ford northward. He made another
chase northward so that the clods flew from the hoofs of the horses
over the ford southward. Hence it is called Ford of the Two Clods,
from the clods hither and thither. Now Cuchulaind killed one
hundred on each ford from Ath Scennmend at OUbine to the Boyne
of Bmy, and he fulfilled all the deeds that he had vowed to the
maiden, and he came safely out of it, and reached Emain Macha
towards the darkness of that night. Emer was brought into the
' Forgall's sistor.
« MS him.
S'
1/
306 LITERATURE
Red Branch to Concliobor and to the men of Ulster, and they bade
her welcome. There was a ffl-im evil-tongued man of the men of
Ulster in the house, viz., iwicri^f the Venomous Tongue, the son of
Arba. It was then he said : " Forsooth, it will be disagreeable to
Cuchulaind what will happen to-night, viz., the woman whom he
brought with him will sleep with Concliobor. For with him is the
deflowering of virgins before the men of Ulster ever." Cuchulaind
grew mad when he heard that, and shook himself so that the cushion
burst which was under him, and its feathers were flying about the
house. He went out then. " This is very hard," said Cathbad, " but
it is an ordinance to the king to do everything that Bricriu has said.
Cuchulaind will slay him that will sleep with his wife." "Let
Cuchulaind be called to us," said Conchobor, " to know if we can
soothe his wrath." Then Cuchulaind came. " Arise," said Concho-
bor, " and bring me the herds that I have in Slieve Fuait." Then
Cuchulaind went, and drove together whatever he found in Slieve
Fuait of swine and stags, and of every sort of fowl game
besides, and drove them in one drove with him to the meadow of
Emain. Then his wrath had departed from him. A council was
held by the men of Ulster about this affair. This was the resolution
they arrived at, that Emer was to sleep that night with Conchobor,
and Fergus and Cathbad in one bed with them to watch over the
honour of Cuchulaind, and the men of Ulster should bless him if he
accepted it. He did accept it, and it was done thus. Conchobor
paid Emer's wedding-gift on the morrow, and Cuchulaind's honour-
price was paid, and he slept then with his wife, and they did not
separate after that until they both died. Then the chieftainry of the
youths of Ulster was given to Cuchulaind, These were the youths
in Emain at that time, about whom the poet spoke, setting forth
their names : —
The youths of Emain, the fairest host,
When they were in the Red Branch,
Furbaide — white the rod — with Cuscraid and Comiac.
Conaing, Glasni, Glan, Fiachaig, and Findchad,
Cuchulaind, hard as steel and bright, the victorious son of Dechtire.
Fiachna, Follomain was there, Cacht, Mane, Crimthand,
The seven Manes of Sliab in Chon, Bres, Nar, Lothor,
The six sons of Fergus were there, Ilarchless, llland,
Fiamain, Bunne, Bri, Mul, Claidbech, Conri,
Laegaire Cass, Conall Claen, and the two Ethers noble and fair.
Mesdiad and Mesdedad, the beloved children of Amargen Giunnach,
Comchraid the eon of Cas, from Sliab Smoil, Conchraid the son of Bad Bemad
Broin,
Conchraid the son of the Derg, the son of Find, Conchraid Suana the son of
Sailcend.
INDEX NOTES. 307
Aed the son of Findderg, Ollach Brec, Aed, the son of Findach, a host of
strength,
Aed tlie son of Conall, Cirrid Oath, Aed the son of Dond, Aed the son of Duach,
Fergus the son of Lete, a bright festival, Fergus the son of Dorg, the son of
Dare.
Fergus the son of Ross — the verses say — Fergus the son of Dub, the son of
Orimthand.
Q The three sons of Traiglothan — strong renown — Siduad, Currech and Carman.
The three sons of Uslend of the Battles, Kaise and Anie and Ardan.
The three Flands, the three Fmds, the three Conns of Ciul, the names of the
nine sons of Sceol.
The three Faelans, the three CoUa Cain, the three sons of Niall, the three sons
of Sitgal.
Lon and lliach, the most beautiful men, tlie foster-brothers of Cormac Crichid.
The three Dondgas the sons of Mac Rossa, the three Dungas, the three Daelgos.
The poets of Coniiac Ciul, the nine sons of Lir, son of Eterscel,
His three pi^iers — fair the deed — Find, Eochaid, and Illand.
His horn-blowers of music next, the two Aeds and Firgein.
Three jesters to make sharp remarks, Athime and Dree and Drobel.
His three distributers of renown. Find, Eruath, and Fatemain.
Three grandsons of Cletech — bright perfection — Uath, Urud and Aslinge.
Aed Eochaid, renowned of Emain, the two fair sons of Ilgabla,
The son of Bricriu who with the youths of Emain.
KuNO Meyer.
INDEX NOTES.
5. — Old English Drama.
III. Jonson (Ben), Every man in his hvmovr, a comoeclie acted in
the yeere 1598, by the then Lord Chamberlame his seruants. London
1G16. [Wheatley's divisions of act and scene are used.]
Account-books, merchants, iii. 3.
Adjection, addition, iv. 8.
Almanacks, iii. 4.
Apple squire, an attendant on women, iv. 10.
Apricots, growing of,- at Hoxton, i. 2.
Archery at Finsbury, i. 1.
Arthur (King), sword of, alluded to, iii. 1.
Bacon (Roger) alluded to, i. 4.
Ballad singer, a term of contempt, iv. 2.
I^ison, a cup, i. 5.
Bed-staff [a wooden pin stuck anciently on the sides of the bedstead
to hold the clothes from slipping on either side — Johnson] used as
weapon, i. 5.
Begging in Mooriields, ii. 4, 5.
Beer, ii. 5.
Bencher, an idler on tavern benches, iv. 2.
Bevis (Sir) of Hampton, horse of, ill. 4, sword of, i i. 1.
Black art, magic, necromancy, iv. 6.
Blue waiters, aUusion to servants' livery, ii 4«
Books on hawking and hunting, i. 1.
308 LITERATURE.
Boots, use of, noticed as a novelty, i. 5.
Bottom of packthread, ball of stiing, iv. 6.
Breakfast, bell ringing for [this would be somewhere about seven o'clock
in the morning— Wheatley] ii. 2.
Breeches, allusion to the wearing of, ii. 2.
Brokers in Houndsditch, iii. 5.
Brown bill, a sort of pike with hooked point, iv. 8.
Burdello, a disorderly house, 1. 2.
Burgullian, a bully, iv. 4.
Cannibalism, iii. 4.
Caps, flat, ii. 1.
Caps« worn by women, iii. 3.
Caract, the old form of carat, iii. 3.
Caraza (Hieronymo) alluded to, i. 5.
Cards, game of Gleek alluded to *' trick vied and revied ''— [Gifford] iv. £•
Cat, nine lives of, iii. 1.
Caterwauling, iv; 2.
Ceruse, a paint for the face, iv. 8.
Child's whistle, iii. 2.
Cob, the head of a hemiig, i. 4.
Cockscomb, a term of reproach, i. 1.
Coins, angels, iv. 9 ; a cross, iv. 9 ; guilders, iii. 1. ; halfpenny, ii. 1. ;
shillings [of Edward IV. used for the game of shutfleboard — WheatleyJ
iii. 6. ; a teston, iv. 2. ; three farthing piece, ii. 1. ; Siwinish, ii. 1.
Conduit, tankard bearer at a, i. 3.
Coney catching rascal, a sharper or cheat, iii. 1.
Constable, the, iv. 10.
Copesmate, companicm and friend, iv. 9.
Cophetua (King) allusion to, iii. 4.
Oostamionger [costar originally a sellar of costards or large apples —
Wheatley] costermonger, i. 3.
Coystril, a scoundrel, iv. 2.
Cross, a penny which was st^imped with a cross, iv. 9.
Cullion, a scoundrel, iii. 5.
Culverin (demi) a cannon of four inches bore [Wlieatley] iii. 1.
Cypress, chiefly represented by what we now call ci*ai)e, i. 3.
Deptford, Sir Fmncis Drake's sliip [**Tho Golden Hind,"— Wheatley]
i. 3.
Dor, uj impose upon [Gifroi*d], iv. 8.
Drake (Sir F.), old ship of, i. 3.
Dress of a merchant, ii. 1.
see **boot8," ^'caps," ** shoes," ".slops," *'8t«>ckings," '*st<miacher. "
Drinking at ale houses, iv. 6, 8.
Drum, the, iii. 2.
Ducking ponds at Islington, i. I.
Duelling, i. 5.
Dumps (in), out of spirits, iii. 7.
Durindana, the sword of Orlando, iii. 1.
Earrings, woni by men, iv. 9.
Ember weeks, iii. 4.
Excalibur, the sword of King Arthur, iii. 1 .
Exchange-time, the meeting-time for business. /.*'., ten o'clock [Giflford],
ni. 3.
Fackins (by my), an oath, by my Faith, i. 3.
Fasting days, iii. 4.
Fayles, game of [an old table game, one of the numerous varieties of
backgammon — Gifl*ord] iii. 3.
Fencing, i. 5 ; terms of, iv. 7.
Finsbury, archery at, i. 1.
Fish, kinship with, iii. 4.
Fire, burning of the world by, iii. 4.
Fleering, mocking, iii. 3.
INDEX NOTES. 309
Fleming sword, iii. 1.
Flemings, fondness of, for butter, iii. 4.
Flcsht, excited, ii. 5.
Foist, a cut purse, iv. 4, 7.
Food, refinements of, ii. 5.
Foppery, badinage, foolery, iv. 2.
French custom of swearing, iii. 5.
, W(»rd8, objection to using, i. 5.
Freshwater (Mr), a byword for a raw foolish person [Wheatley] v. 2.
Frippery, old clothes shop [(iifford], i. 2.
Games, see ** cards," **fayles" ** shove groat," **tick tiick."
Garagantua, large, giant like [derived from the name of Rabelais' giant,
was a favourite word in Johnson's day — Wheatley] ii. 2.
George Castriota (1414- 14(57) chief of £}>irus alluded to, i. 3.
Ging, company, ii. 2.
Gleek, game of airds, see "cards."
(Jorge t, a defence for the neck worn by soldiers, v. 1.
Gown, sergeant's [the badge of his office —Wheatley] iv. 11.
Gramercy, much thanks, i. 3.
Grogans, coarse woollen cloth, ii. 1.
Halberdier, iii. 5.
Hang bys, hangers on, iii. 1., iv. 2.
Hanger, the strap attached to the girdle in which the dagger hung, i. 5.
Hannibal, a malapropism for cannibal, iii. 4.
Harrot, an old form of herald, i. 4.
Hawking, accoutrements for, i. 1.
Hawking and hunting, books on, i. 1.
Hay, a hit [from the Italian liai, Wheatley], iv. 7.
Helter-skelter, i. 4.
Herring alluded t<> as the king of fish, i. 4.
Higginbottom, an unknown character alluded to, ii. 4.
Hoddy-doddy, a shoi-t, clumsy person [any one made foolish— Wheatley].
iv. 10.
Hogsden, Hoxton, alluded to, i. 1, 2.
Holofemes, iv. 2.
Hoyday, heydey, an exclamation, iv. 2.
Hum-drum, dull, heavy follows, i. 1.
Inginc, wit or understanding, v. 3.
I mi signs, Green Lattice, iii. 7 ; the Stjir, iv. 2 ; W^ater Tankard, iii. 7 ;
Windmill, i. 2 ; iii. 2 ; v. 3.
Islington, ducking-ponds at, i. 1.
Jet, attraction of straws by, iii. 3.
Jet rings [groat virtue was attributed to jet in former times — Wheatley],
ii. 4.
Kissing, iii. G.
Kyd (Thomas), The SjHniiiiJi Tr(ujed\j^ alluded to, i. 5.
Lance knights, foot soldiers, ii. 4.
Latin pn)nunciation, iv. 2.
Lattice [the windows of alehouses were furnished with Littices of various
colours — Gifford], iii. 0.
La\*Ti, used for ruffs, ruffles, t^-c, i. 3.
Leek porridge, a IckkI, iii. 4.
Legs, covering for the, i. 3.
Leystals, dmighills, ii. 5.
Linstock, a pike with a match at the end used by gunners, iii. 1.
London, Artillery Garden, iii. 5 ; Bridewell, iii. 6; Christ's Hospital or
bluo-coat school, ii. 1 ; Colman Street, iii. 2, 5; Custom-House
Key, iii. 2 ; the Exchange, ii. 1 ; iii. 3 ; iv. 7. ; Fleet Street,
ii. 2 ; Guildhall, i. 2 ; Houndsditch, iii. 5 ; Mile End, ii. 5 ;
iv. 6 ; Moorfields, ii. 4 ; iv. 6 ; Moregate, i. 3 ; Old Jewry,
310 LITERATURE.
London (coiUiuKed) —
i. 2, 3, 4 ; Shoreditch, iv. 7 ; Thames Street, iii. 2 ; Tower, iv. 8 ;
Tumbull, iv. 7 ; the Wall, iv. 6 ; Whitechapel, iv. 7 ; aee
'*Fin8bury,'» **Hog8den,'» '* Islington," ^'Paul'sman," "Picthatch."
, citizens of, visiting Islington, i. 1.
, fields near, iii. 2.
, government, see ** constable," **mace," ** sergeant."
, ordinaries, ii. 5.
, pounds, the counters, ii. 1.
, taverns, the Windmill [which stood at the comer of Old Jewry
towards Lothbury — GiffordJ, i. 2 ; iii. 2 ; v. 3.
Mace, carried by city sergeant, iv. ii.
Maw, stomach, hence a great appetite, iii. 4.
Main, great, iii. 3.
Malt-horse, a heavy horse, i. 5.
Manners of youth, ii. 5.
Mash, a muddle, iv. 1 1.
Marlowe's Hero atid Leatider, quoted, [see Gifford's note] iv. 2.
Marriages at the Tower of London, iv. 8.
Melancholy, a sign of gentility, i. 3 ; iii. 1.
Merchants' wares, ii. 1.
Middlesex, property in, i. 2.
Mechanical, behmging to a handicraft, hence base, mean, i. 2.
Minion, darling, iv. 3.
Millaner, merchants [supposed to be derived from the fact that tliese men
dealt in merchandise chiefly imported from Milan — Wheatley], the
origin of the modem milliner, i. 3.
Mithridate, an antidote against poison, iv. 8.
Monastic lands, allusion to practice of courtiers begging, [^* YouUl be
begged else shortly with concealments '' — Oifford], iv. 2.
Money, the craving for, ii. 6.
Montanto, a brotid sword used by fencing masters, iv. 7.
Morglay, the sword of Bevis of Hampton, iii. 1.
Motley (to wear), [servants were by way of punishment for notorious
faults stripped of their liveries and compelled to appear in a parti-
coloured coat — Giiford], ii. 4.
Motte, a proverb, iv. 2.
Much, a favourite expression of contempt, used ironically for little
[Wheatley], iv. 6.
Mun, must, i. 1.
Mushrooms, ii. 5.
Musket rest [the old musket was so lai*ge and unwieldy a weapon that it
required a support before it could be used by the soldier — Clifford],
ii. 5.
Musse, mouse, a favourite term of endearment, ii. 3.
Nicotian, a name for tobacco [derived from the name of the introducer,
John Nicot -Wheatley], iii. 5.
Kupson, fool or simpleton, iv. ().
Oaths, body of me, i. 4, 5 ; iii, 5 ; body o' Caesar iii. 5 ; iv. 2 ; by my
fackins [by my faith], i. 3 ; as I am a gentleman and a soldier, i. 4, 5;
iii. 1 ; for George, ii. 1, 2 ; gad's-lid [God's eyelid], i. 1 ; (Jod's i)re-
cious, iii. 7 ; v. 2 ; by the harrot's [herald's] books, i. 4 ; by Her-
cules, iii. 6 ; by tliis light, iv. 5 ; mack [apparently unmeaning,
Wheatley], iii. 4 ; by the foot of Pharaoh, i. 4, 5 ; ii. 2 ; iii. 5 ; iv.
i^» 7 ; by St, George, i. 4, 5 ; iii. 1, 5 ; iv. 2 ; 'sdeath, ii. 1 ; iv. 7 ;
'sdeyns, ii. 1, 3 ; iv. 3, 11 ; 'sfoot, ii. 4 ; 'slid [God's eyelid)], i, 1,
3 ; ii. 4 ; iii. 1, 4 ; iv. 4, 5, 10 ; 'slight [by this light], iii. 2 ; iv. 2,
6 ; 's lud, iv. 1.
Oaths, whether his oath can bind him, not lawfully taken [that is, unless
taken in fonu before a legal magistrate — Wheatley], iii. 3.
Ordinaries, London, ii. 5.
Parboiled, boile<l through, iv. 1.
INDEX NOTES. 311
Parcel, the diminutive of part, iii. 7.
Paul's man, a frequenter of the middle aisle of St. Pauls Cathedral, the
common resort of gos8ix)ors of every description — [Giflford], dram.
IHirs.
Pawning, the practice of, alluded to, iii. 6 ; iv. 9.
Pell-mell, iii. 1.
Petrionel, a carbine or horse pistol, iii. 1.
Pewter, housewive's, i. 3.
Pict-hatch, a notoripus haunt of abandoned characters near Charterhouse
(Wheatley], i. 2.
Pismire, ant or emmot, iv. 7.
Planet-struck, iv. 7.
Playwrites, i. 5.
Poetry, unpn>fitableness of writing, i. 1.
Posy upon rings, ii. 4.
Potlings, iv. 2,
Provant, a provider, iii. i.
Proverbs, care'll kill a cat, 1, 4 ; he has the wi-ong sow by the ear, iL i.
claps his dish at the wrong man's door [see Ray], ii. 1 ; as he brews
so shall he drink, ii. 2 ; a crafty knave needs no broker [see Bay],
iii. 5 ; 1 have eggs on the spit, iii. 6 ; a toy to mock an ape, iv. 2.
Provost, iii. 5.
Pyed, parti-coloured, i. 5.
Quacksalvci'S^ mountebanks, ii. 1 ; iii. 5.
Rabelais, alluded to [see '' Qarogantua,"] ii., 2.
Radish, eating of with wine, i, 5 ; iv., 9.
Rake-hells, dissolute fellows, iv., 3.
Ratsbane, a poison, iii., 5.
Reforinados, disbanded soldiers, iii., 5.
Rheum, caprice, iii., 4.
Rings, jet, ii., 4.
Rising, early, i., 4, 5.
Rook, a cheat or sharper [Wlieatley], i., 5.
Rosaker, a poison, iii., 5.
Rosewater, used with fruit at breakfast [Wheatley], ii., 3.
Round, gentlemen of the, soldiers whose office it was to go round and
inspect the sentinels, &c. [Gifford], iii., 5.
Russet, iv., 9.
Sack, wine, iii., 7.
Sadness, seriousness, i., 3.
St. Domingo, island of, iii., 5.
St. John's Wort, the plant so-called, iii., 5.
Scanderbag, Iskander-beg, Prince Alexander, i., 3.
Scot and lot, iii. , 7.
Scot-free, iii., 7.
Scroyles, scrophulous, mangy felllows [from O. Fr. escroxiMes — Wheatley],
i., ].
Serjeant-major, the officer now called major [Wheatley], iii, 5.
Serjeants-at-mace of London, iv., 9, 11.
Seven Wise Masters, alluded to, iii., 5.
Shoes, shininff, alluded to contemptuously, ii., 1.
Shove-groat shilling, a smooth shilling used for tJie game of shuffleboaixl,
ui., 5.
Signs of taverns, see *' inn."
Silver stuffs, ii., 1.
Slop, tumbrel, the wide Dutch breeches common in Chaucer's time and
re-introduced in the reign of Elizabeth [Wheatley], ii, 2 ; iv., 2.
Smoking, see '^ tobacco."
Snails used for food, ii, 5.
Snuflf, use of alluded to, i., 1 ; iv., 2.
Sod, boiled [past part of seethe is sodden], iv., 9.
Soldiers, beggpg of dischaiged, ii., 4, 5.
Song, "up tails all," refenmce to, i, 4.
312 LITERA TUBE.
SoH, quantity, ii., 4.
Sx)anish coins, ii., 1.
Stajije, customs of, prol.
Stiilc, to stale himself, to make himself cheap and common, ii., I.
Stockings (woollen and silk), i., 3 ; iv., 9.
Stomacher (wrought) an article of female dress, i., 3.
Stopple, i., 4.
Straw, binding the leg with, i., 3.
Strig<mium, beleaguering of, iii., 1. .
Suburb, i., 3.
Swearing, see "oaths."
Swinge, beat or chastise, ii., 2 ; iv. 11.
Sword, use of in London streets, ii., 2.
Sword names, iii., 1.
Sword play, i., 5.
Tabacco, *' filthy roguish," i., 4, 5 ; iii., 5.
Tall, bold or courageous, iv., 7, 8, 11.
Theatre, as common as a, ii., 1.
Three farthing piece, a coin struck in 1501, ii., 1.
Tick-tack, game of [a ccmipliciited species of backgammon — Gifford],
iii., 3.
Ti-he, a word used to express the art of laughing or tittering [Wheatley],
i., 4.
Tightly, quickly, smartly, ii., 2.
Tobacco, iii., 6, 17.
Tokens, tavern, i., 4.
Tonnels, the throat, i., 4.
Trecher, traitor, iv., 9.
Tiojan, brave, iv., 4.
Trundle (John), printer, alluded to, i., 3.
Truss, to tie the points or strings of a man's hose, i. , 3.
Turkey company, allusion to, i., 2.
University scliolarship, i., 1.
Unthrift, a prodigal, iii., 7.
Upsolve, solve it up, i. , 4.
Varlet, a sorgoant-at-mnce, iv., 9, 11 ; v., 2.
Vinegar, iii., 6.
Venetian courtezans, ii. , 5.
Wars, of Bohemia, Hungaria, Dalmatia, Poland, ii., 4.
Wealth of London, iv., 7.
Welkin, the sky, iv., 7.
What-sha-call-him, i., 3.
Whetstone, iv., 2.
Whistle, a child's, iii., 2.
Wusse, certainly [a corruption of wis. A. S. gewis — Wheatley,] i., 1 ; iv., 2.
Youth, manners of, ii., 5.
NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.
All communications shculd he directed to " The Editor, Arclunoloiiicdd Review,-^ 270 Strand
W,C.
The Editor cannot undertake to return r^ectei MSS. unless a stamped directed tnvelupe ij
sent for that purpose,
W. C. Lane (Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.) — Thanks for your admirable suggestion.
It shall be adopted for the Subject Index at the end, but it would be too
late to introduce the figures into the index now partly printed off.
THE
Arch^ological Review.
Vol. I. JULY, 1888. No. 5.
HntbtopolO0i2»
— : o : —
SURVIVALS OF IRANIAN CULTURE AMONG
CAUCASIAN HIGHLANDERS.
AS soon as leaving Rostov you cross the Don, the Tanais of the
ancients, you are said, by the local Cosack inhabitants, to be
in Asia. All the people of the Caucasus have butone namein the minds
of the Cosacks, namely that of Asiatics. It seems that on the whole
this popular nomenclature is far from being so wrong as is gen-
ei*ally supposed ; recent researches bring us to the conclusion
tliat in the earlier part of the Middle Ages, a powerful people known
under the name of " Ass " or " Oss," the forefathers of the modem
" Ossetes," did occupy a good part of the southern steppes of the
present Russian Empire.
A Russian philologist, whose speciality is the study of Sanskrit,
Mr. Vsevolod Miller of Moscow, has recently discovered that more
than one personal surname to be found in the Greek inscriptions
coming from the southern parts of Russia, and collected by Mr.
Latkin, has a definite meaning in the Osset language, which has
much in common with the Persian and other Iranian dialects. It
seems also that the name under which the old Tanais is known in
our days, is the same employed by the Ossetes to designate " water "
in general, " rivers " and " springs " in particular, the name " Don."
X
314 AXTHROPOLOGY.
I do not see any reason for fighting against the supposition that
the name of Asia itself conies from the people that were known to
inliabit its European border from the times of grey antiquity, the
Ossetes or the Ass, who are mentioned by Byzantine authors.
Although the most numerous, the Ossetes are by no means the sole
people of undoubted Aryan descent to be found among the inhabitants
of the Caucasus; the " lesides," not to speak of Kourds and Armenians,
are also Aryans, and this fact is the more interesting because it is
generally accepted that the " lesides " are the oldest inhabitants of
the Caspian shore that had to be fought by the conquering Arabs
who introduced the Coran. Obliged to remove to high mountains,
these lesides are still to be found in the neighbourhood of the Ai'a-
rat. They speak their own dialect, very like that of the Kourds, and
although officially recognised to be Christians, still mention the
names of " Ormusd *' and " Ahriman."
Even among people of noii- Aryan blood, the Georgian tribes of
the Chevsurs, Pschavs and Tuschins, inhabiting the highest valleys of
the central chain, more than one survival of Iranian culture is to be
found, as will appear by a minute research into their religious creed
and the different ceremonies followed on occasion of burials, marriages,
and other solemn circumstances of life.
This early influence of Iranian culture ought not to be con-
founded with the posterior infusion of Persian customs and
institutions. The Shahs having been more than once the recognised
rulers of the Georgian kingdom, and principalities dependant upon
Persia having existed for whole centuries on the Caspian shore, no
wonder that more than one feature of Persian habits, mode of life,
and legal ideas, has been preserved as well in Georgia, Jis in tlie
Daghestan, specially on the lx)rderof the sea from Derbent to Bakou
and Lencoran. The inliabitants of each of the cities just named
are the undoubted successors of Persian colonies. Even the Jews,
living in the neighbourhood of Derbent, speak a Persian dialect
which, according to Professor Vsevolod Miller, gives us a fair idea of
what Mediaeval Persian must have been.^ The " Talisch *' of the Len-
coran province, as well as the Tats, establibhed in the villages
surrounding the famous city of Bakou, possess even in our daj's,
some legal customs, the origin of which is to be looked for in
Persian legislation. Cruel punishments, totally unknow^n to the
customary law of surrounding tribes, as the gallows, cutting the
^ Some of the Jewish families of Derbent having niigiatcd to the Northern
Caucasus, we find in the borough of Nalchik, situated not far away from the
Elbrous, a whole set of persons still using Mediaeval Persian.
IRA MAX cri/rnRK. 315
bo<ly of a criuiiiial to pieces, and decapitating the king, etc., are the
remnants of this draconian legislation, now only preserved in the
memory of aged men, but a few years ago applied by the Zhans
and tributary princes, as for instance by the hereditary schamchale
of Torky and the elective Uzmi of Kaitag.
The same Persian influenc(^ may be ascertained by a minute sur-
vey of the matrimonial regulations of the Ossetes, the most numerous
and prevailing tribe of the Noi them Caucasus. These people, whose
southern ramifications go as far as Gori, a town situated on the
southern side of the central chain, in the Government of Tiflis*
call themselves "Iron," a fact strongly militating in favour of
my presumption that they are but a detached branch of the people
of old Iran.
'J'hree different sorts of sexual relationship are known to exist
among them ; concubinage, marriage contracted for life, and free
union for a limited number of years. ' I have net much to say of
the first, concubinage being generallj^ entered into with female slaves
very frequently during the period directly preceding the establish-
ment of the Russian Government among the Ossetes. As to the
last two modes of sexual relationship, they ai*e both inaugurated in
the same way, I mean by purchase, the wife being regularly
bought from her parents ; the pa^^ment is a larger one in the first
case, and a smaller in the second. No religious rites are performed
when marriage is contracted only for a couple of years. A powerful
or rich family is not likely to give its consent to such a union, but
it seems quite acceptable to less prosperous people. The wife
obtained on such terms is generally spoken of among the Ossetes
as a wife by name (nomoulous) ; her children, the so-called " cav-
dasai-ds," occupy a position which is neither that of legitimate
off-spring, nor of bastards. They are supposed to belong to the
family of their father as a common stock. In case of a division,
they cannot be forced to follow one person in preference to
another, and select as a rule their new master by themselves,
choosing him from among the legitimate heirs of their father.
If the legitimate family is extinguished, the cavdasards are called
to the inheritance of the family estate.
A peculiar feature of this very strange mode of matrimonial
existence is the right accorded by custom to the legal proprietor
of the nomoulous to let her out to strangers, under the express con-
dition that the children she might bear will be considered as
his own. This reminds us of the " niyoga "^ marriage of the Hindus,
" See as t<i detftiU the learned work of Mayiie, Ulmhi Law and Cmtom,
3 1 6 ANTHROPOLOa Y.
with this difference, however, that the Hindu custom obtained only
in the case where the legal husband was likely to die without an
heir to his family and estate.
The peculiar interest which these matrimonial regulations of
the Ossetes have for our inquiry appears as soon as we confront
them with tlie information which French travellers of the seventeenth
century, Chinon, Chardin, and Tavernier, give us of the Persian
law concerning marriage.
I will quote Chinon as the one who first treated the subject in
detail ; Chardin and Tavernier repeating only what he had said
before them : " lis ont trois sortes de manages," the French Jesuit
informs us, speaking of the Persians of his days. "Le premier
est un qu*ils appellent ' Mouttia,' comme qui diroit usage, et e'est
celui par lequel les femmes s obligent k eux pour un terns ddtermin^
a condition de quelque recompense. Et aprez ce tems ils sont ob-
liges de les laisser aller s'ils ne font de nouveau un autre contract.
Ces mariages de prostitution se font avec peu de c^rdmonie, parceque
le tout ne consiste qu'i dire trois paroles, qu'ils appellent ' Sigue.'
lis nomment la seconde sorte de mariage * Cass^ ' comme qui diroit
propre : et en effet, ce sont leurs propres esclaves, dont ils se peuvent
servir comme il leur plait, nonobstant les repugnances de leurs
mattresses . . . Le troisi^me se nomme ' Necach * . . . C'est \k leur
plus noble mariage," etc.^
Let me add two more peculiar points to this curious informa-
tion. I will apply for these to the Chevalier Chardin, whose de-
scription of the Persian Empire is certainly the most detailed and
trustworthy travellers account that has ever been written. Ac-
cording to Chardin a marriage for time can easily become a marri-
age for life, as nothing stands in the way of hiring a woman for
the term of ninety years. As to the children begotten from such
marriages Chardin points to the fact, that in the absence of legal
inheritance, they are authorised to divide among themselves the
inheritance left by their father.**
Although marriages for a limited time aie, as a rule, admitted
by the Coran, under the name of ** Mota," this Arabian custom
has been preserved to our days only among the Schiites, Suimites
having already abolished it under the Khalifat of Omar.^ The
Ossetes being neither Christians nor Sunnites, the prevalence of the
3 Rdatiom Nonvelles dn Leraut, Lyon, 1671 (p. 105), the name of tlio
author is indicated only by the initials.
* Journal dii Voymje dn Clievidier Chardin en Perse et anx Indes OricntaleSy
Londres, 1G86, vi., p. 268.
* See Wilkon, Das MatHarchnt Itel den alien Araheru,'p. 1-33.
IRAXIAN^ CULTURE. 317
"iMota" among them cannot be explained otherwise than by the theory
of a direct influence of Persian civilization, the Shahs having been
more than once the acknowledged rulers of Georgia, of which the
Ossetes were tributary dependants. The cases just mentioned refer
only to a later Iranian influence. Those I intend to mention now
will, I hope, leave no doubt that the old culture of several Caucasian
tribes is of the same root as that possessed by the followers
of the Avesta. First of all let me mention some legal customs, the
origin of which, as far as I know, can only be explained by re-
ference to the Zend-Avesta.
A residence of several weeks among the native tribes of Daghestan,
whose geographical situation itself speaks in favour of their intimate
intercourse with Persia, has opened my eyes to the great importance
which ought to be attributed to old Per3ian influences in this
recently reduced province of the Russian Empire. One feature
specially must be mentioned here : the wide prevalence of " endoga-
my," so characteristic of the ancient Persians, and not to be found
among other tribes of the Caucasus, who have the greatest horror
of any marriage even among persons of the same blood, or better to
say, possessing the same family, sometimes even the same gentile
name.
This prevalence of endogamy cannot be accounted for by re-
ligious influences, Mahomedanism being adverse only to inter-
marrying with infidels ; it is also not to be considered a general
feature of the Caucasian tribes, as it is not to be found among the
Chechens and Tartars, the nearest northern and southern neigh-
bours of the Daghestanians. It is more probable therefore that it
has been imported here in very remote antiquity, when it was
a common feature among the Iranian tribes.®
How far endogamy still prevails in the Daghestan may
be seen from the fa<;t, that in cases where the number of un-
married female relations is very limited, and no appropriate
match can be made within the same family or tribe, no marriage
with a foreign girl is admitted unless she becomes previously by
way of adoption a member of the family of her bridegroom.
The fact that the Ya9na precisely expresses its predilection
for marriage with consanguines ("Connubium cum propinquis
laudo "), as well as the prevalence of endogamy among the modem
'' As to the prevalence of endogamy among ancient Persians, see the able
pax>er of Rodolphe Dareste, member of the Institute, entitled " Le droit ancien
des Perses," Paris, 1887, as also Abel Hovelacque*s interesting chapter on
marriage among the old Persians (UAvesta, Zoroastre et le MazdSismef Pans,
1880, p. 461-469).
318 ANTHROPOLOGY.
Parsees/ those faithful followers of the Zoroastrian creed, leave no
doubt as to the high antiquity and thoroughly Iranian origin of the
matrimonial prescriptions imposed by custom on the Daghestanian
tribes.
I could mention also some other legal points, on which the
customs of the Caucasian tribes are similar to the rules proscribed
by the Avesta. But, unfortunately, we know little of what one
might call the jurisprudence of the Avesta, the gi'eater part of the
work having been lost, and I am afraid for ever. On the other
hand, the few legal notions contained in the preserved parts of the
sacred books of the old Persians, and specially in the Vendidad,
only give such vague and general definitions and precepts that it is
not easy to say if these could not also be foun<l among people
who had no connection whatever AviMi Iranian culture. This is pre-
cisely the case with tlie rules that regulate the law of contracts.
It is well known liow much the Avesta insists on the necessity of
keeping covenants. Few words have reached us applying to the
way in which, according to Iranian legislation, the covenants
ought to be contracted. The symbolic act, imposed on such occa-
sions, is the one of shaking hands. Now, it is precisely the same
wliich is recognised as binding by the customary law not only of the
Ossetes, but also of the eastern tribes of the Caucasus, and specially
the Daghestanians. Although I am very much inclined to think
that the Avesta has something to do with this general recogni-
tion of the binding power of such an act as hand-shaking, I
must confess, at the same time, that its importance for the liability
of contracts is just as well accepted by people whose culture has
not been directly influenced by the Avesta, among others by the
Russian peasants and Russian customary law.
If the survey of legal customs, still in existence among the
different tribes of the Caucasus, only enriches us with a small num-
ber of facts, directly proving the influence of tlie Iranian culture, a
detailed account of their religious rites, manners and habits leaves
no doubt as to the prevalence among them at some very remote
period of their history, of the same religious creed as that wliich
was familiar to the people of the Avesta.
I have already said a word or two about the belief in the good and
bad genius, still entertained by the lesides of the Erivan provinca
Their daily prayer, described by Mr. Egiasarov, is on this point
' Speaking of the Parsees, AiKjuetil du Peyron Siiys : the alliance they like
beat is the so-called ** Khesclis "or '^ Khetoudas/' it is the marriage of cousins.
Khetoudas, meaning the fact of ''giving one's relation."
IJM^'IAX CULTUBE. 319
highly cliaracteristic, as it mentions the hope, generally entertained
!)y the followers of the Avesta, that the good spirit will at the end
have the best of the bad one, and that in this way an end will be
put to their eternal struggle.
I shall say no more on this subject, but leave it to those
interested to read the able paper of the young Russian scholar,
who was one of my best pupils at the University of Moscow.®
What I intend to do next is to call the attention of the reader to
a very small, but exceedingly interesting tribe of the Caucasus,
the Chevsurs, whom I investigate*! during last summer. The
chief interest w^hich, until lately, this peopb had in the eyes of
Russian Archaeologists, was its supposed descent from the crusaders.
It is a fact reported by the Georgian Chronicles, that at the time of
the crusade, the end of which was the establishment of the Latin
principality in Constantinople, a considei'able number of crusaders
took the way of Georgia. During their journey through the moun-
tains they were met by native tribes, dispersed and partly enslaved.
A few of them were happy enough to escape from bondage by
taking refuge in the highest valleys of the central chain.
This was the fate of the supposed ancestors of the modern
( 'hevsurs, and some inducement to believe it seems to be given by
the fact that they still wear crosses on different parts of their dress
and appear on solemn occasions in a knightly attire. But this attire
being of the same kind as that used in the Daghestan, and there
(existing no doubt as to the Persian origin of this tribe, the theory of
the Latin origin of the Chevsurs must at all events foi'sake this sort
< >f argument. It is true that the swords of the Chevsurs are very
like those of mediaeval Europe, not curved as the oriental ones, but
straight, and that some are covered with genuine or counterfeited
Latin inscriptions ; but this fact is easily accounted for by reference
to the Genoese colonies established on the Black Sea, and their con-
tinual commercial and military intercourse with the native
I'aces.
As to the dress of the Chevsurs, the chief characteristic of
which are the multifarious crosses that adorn it, Georgian scholars
have assured me that it is very like the one worn by the ancient
guard of their kings.®
^ See the bulletins of the Imperial Geographical Society, Caucasian Section,
(a. 1880), where the papers of Mr.Egiasarov first appeared.
^ Monsieur Chantro in his voluminous work on the Caucasus is the last
writer who has rei>eated the old tale about the Chevsurs being direct descendants
of Crusaders. Although I strongly opiK>se this view, I must mention the fact,
that in more than one comer of the Caucasus a legend is still preserved about a
320 ANTBHOPOLOGY.
A fact that seems to militate strongly against the supposed Latin
origin of the Chevsurs is their language, which is no other than the
old Georgian, the same in which the Holy Scripture has been trans-
lated.
Similarly, the manners, and the general mode of life, as well
as the religious rites and superstitious beliefs, to which we will
now turn our attention, speak more in favour of the prevalence
among them of early Iranian, than of mediaeval Latin culture.
Let us first mention one peculiar and very characteristic feature:
I mean the great importance they attach to physical purity. The
objects they consider impure, as also the modes of purification
which are still in use among them, remind us of more than one pre-
scription of the Avesta. To start with, I will mention the fact that
women at the time of menstruation and pregnancy are considered
by the Chevsurs to bo impure. To escape the bad influence which
any contact with them might produce, such women are ordered to
retire from the household and to pass their days and nights in
buildings specially made for that purpose; as a rule, at some dis-
tance from the homestead.
The child once born, his mother after a stay of several days in
the building, where she passed the time of her confinement, is
allowed to return home, but not before she has washed herself with
the urine of cows. After this the building is regularly destroyed.
The body of a dead person is also considered to be impure. No re-
lation can touch it ; strangers of low birth, known under the name of
"Narevi/' take the body of the deceased and bring it to a place
specially prepared for it and situated in the middle of the court.
The same " Narevi " have also to manage everything relating to the
burial. They perform all this work for good pay, living all the
time by themselves, taking their food in private and having no
permission to address anybody on account of their supposed un-
cleanness. After the body has been exposed in fresh air, during
five or seven days, it is covered first with white, and then with red
cloth, and deposited in the gi'ave. This mode of burial is of com-
paratively recent origin, but survivals of an earlier one are still to
be found. During my journey through the valleys inhabited by tlie
foreign people, called Frenghi. To those who would like to translate this woixl
by Franchi (French), I will mention only this fact, that among Latin inscrip-
tions, found on the swords of Caucasian natives, the following is the most com-
mon one — "Fringia.** I do not know the meaning of this word, but I think
that the name Frenghi is more likely to come from the inscriptions found
on the spades, than from French colonist*, established in the valleys of the
Caucasus.
IRANIAN CULTURE. 321
Chevsurs, I visited on several occasions their old burial places.
They are, as a rule, situated on the summit of hills. In shape they
are like a prolonged quadrangle ; they are constructed of stones put
together without cement, and have two entrances, one on the
southern and one on the northern side. Let us get into one of
them for a moment to have a view of its interior arrangements.
On both sides of a passage way which is left free, stone ledges at a
certain level from the earth are to be seen with the mummified
lx)dies of the deceased either sitting or lying on them. Difierent
objects, belonging to everyday life, but no armour, are found in
these burial places, where the wind freely enters and birds are
likely to come.
The high importance of all the details we have given, will be at
once perceived as soon as we have confronted them with the re-
ligious rites prescribed by the Avesta and still in use among the
Parsees of India.
First of all, as to the uncleanness of women at the time of preg-
nancy and menstruation, the Avesta contains the following pre-
scription ; I will make my quotations out of the French translation,
given to the corresponding text by Mr. Hovelacque, the well-known
Zendish scholar. " Si une femme aperqoit du sang quand trois
nuits se sont ^coulees, elle doit se placer dans \m lieu solitaire, jusqu*
a ce que quatre nuits se soient ^coul^es. Si la femme voit du sang
quand quatre nuits se sont dcoul^es, elle doit se placer dans un lieu
solitaire jusqu' a ce que cinq nuits se soient dcoulees,"etc.'^ And,a8 an
illustration of the practical way in which these more or less theo-
retical prescriptions were executed in e very-day life, let me give
another quotation, this time from Tavemier and relating to the
Guebres, the still preserved followers of the Zoroastrian creed :
*' Des que les femmes ou les fiUes sentent qu' elles ont leurs
ordinaires, elles sortent promptement de leur logis, et vont de-
meurer seules a la campagne dans une petite hute faite de trois
clayes, avec une toille pendue au devant et qui sert de porte. Pen-
dant le temps que cela dure on leur porte tons les jours h. boire et k
manorer.'* ^^
To conclude, I will mention that the urine of cows used by Chevsur
women is precisely the mode of i)urification recommended by the
Avesta, and still in use among the few remaining followers of this
creed, as may be seen in the accounts given of them by travellei's of
the seventeenth and following centuries.
^^ Abel Hovelacque, op, cit. p. 392.
1 1 Six Voyages «n Turquie, en Perse et mix Indesy Paris 1670-79, x. iii., p. 437.
322 A XTHliOPOLOGY.
Further, if we turn our attention to the idea that the Avesta en-
tertains as to the impurity of a dead body, we shall be brought to the
conclusion that it is precisely the same as the one we have men-
tioned, speaking of the Chevsurs.
The books v.-viii. of the Vendidad treat of this subject at length ;
the mode of bmnal they recommend coincides exactly with the
general idea about the impurity of any man who has touched the
corpse. It is, therefore, only on the lowest class of people that the
duty of taking the body of the deceased to the place of his eternal
rest is imposed by law ; any relation with them, either by direct
contact or by taking food in common, is totally prohibited as imply-
ing pollution. If we compare this mode of burial with the one
recently in use among the supposed crusadei's, we cannot help recog-
nizing their perfect identity. Neither deposition in the grave, nor
cremation of the dead body is admitted by the Avesta, both caus-
ing, according to its authors, pollution of the chief elements, fire
and earth. Anquetil du Peyron is correct in his statement, wlien
he gives the following description of the places of burial, the so-
called Dakhme, still in use among the present adherents of the
Zoroastrian creed : " UAvesto ordonne de porter le corps des morts
sur des montagnes, ou dans des endroits eloignds des villes et de
touto terre habitue. II faut que ces endroits soient au moins a
trente gS.ms (90 pieds) du feu, de I'eau," etc.
The following passage of the sacred book of the Zends might be
applied without reserve to the Chevsurs : " Cr6iteur ! oii devons
nous porter les cadavres, ou devons nous les ddposer ? Ahura
Mazda r^pondit : O saint Zarathustra, aux lieux tr^ elev^s, oii les
chiens et les oiseaux camassiers peuvent le mieux les apercevoir.*'
But before the corpse is brought to its place of eternal rest it has
to pass several days and nights on a plot of ground in the vicinity
of the homestead, where the deceased was living. This place must
be situated at a certain distance from the fire and the water, to
make impossible any pollution of these elements. The dead body,
according to the Avesta, must wear no dress so that the flesh might
easily be consumed by dogs and carnivorous birds. When this has
been done and every sort of uncleanness has disappeared in this
way, the dead body is considered to be purified. The bearers of the
corpse, the na9akasa, take it to the dakhma, or the burial place,
which has much in common, as to its building and interior con-
struction, with the ancient burial places of the Chevsurs. Here the
bodies are either lying or sitting with their backs close to the wall,
JRAXIAX CULTURi:. 323
always at a certain distance from the ground floor, for the purpose
of preserving the earth from pollution.
To make an end of this rather too minute description of the
funeral ceremony of the two people, whose mutual relationship we
are anxious to ascertain, 1 will mention the fact that after the lapse of
several generations when the body has fallen to pieces, its bones
are ordered by the Avesta to be placed in a common grave, situated
beneath the dakhma. The same custom has also recently prevailed
among the Chevsurs, who in our days cannot explain its origin, except
by referrinf]^ to the scarcity of evenly situated gi'ound and the neces-
sity of making room for the bodies of newly deceased persons by
removing the old ones.
I am far from having exhausted this subject, but the field of
our enquiries is so large and we have so many more rites and habits
to study and to compare, that I prefer at once to abandon the
Chevsurs and to turn my attention to their next neighbours — the
Pschavs, whose religious rites present even a greater similitude with
those spoken of in the Avesta.
It is not ceremonies and habits that I intend next to examine,
but religious beliefs, and especially the idea entertained as to future
life. Although, officially, the Pschavs are considered to be Christians,
and have temples of their own and an ordinary clergy, they, like the
Chevsurs, neither go to church nor acknow^ledge the regular ministry,
who seem to be totally superseded by self-made priests, the so-called
Chevsburies or monks of the valley. Few words will be required to
make quite clear to the reader what sort of people these monks ai'e,
and what part they play in the preservation of ancient customs
and beliefs. Tradition says that Christianity has been imported in
this part of the Caucasus, as in many others, by a half-mythical
and half-historical Queen of Georgia, Tamara. It is extraordinary
what a prominent part this lady plays in the legendary history of
the Highlandei'S, appearing at once in the character of a Christian
missionary and of a handsome witch, just as cruel to her lovers, as
the well-known Gennan Lurley. "Slie was," to speak with a Russian
poet, who has fairly reproduced the popular creed, " charming like an
angel, but beseeching and angry like a devil." Whatever she might
have been, there is no doubt as to the prominent part she is supposed
to have taken in the life of the Highlanders and especially in their
conversion to Christianity. Every time, when natives came to speak
to me about it, in whatever remote comer it might have been, the
name either of Santa Nina or of Tomara was invariably pronounced,
unless Jesus Christ himself was mentioned, as by the southern Svane-
324 ANTHROPOLOGY.
tians who pretend that he started for their country to preach the Gos-
pel, but that frightened by the cold and bad roads he turned back and
did not adventure his life in the n)ountains. To preach Christianity
among the Pschavs, Tomara selected a Greek monk by the name of
Kopala, who, not being able to accomplish this difficult task by
himself, selected among the natives a certain number of persons,
who from their places of abode in the depths of mountainous
valleys received the name of chevsburies or monks of the valleys.
I must say that what legend tells us about Kopala and his
monks does not impress on our minds the idea of Christian mission-
aries, but rather of a sort of Iranian priests or " magi " engaged in
a continual struggle with bad spirits, wearing the same name as the
one under which they are known to the Avesta, the name of "devi,"
and veiy frequently appearing in the shape of serpents. The religi-
ous rites which chevsburies are called upon to perform, are a mixture
of those prescribed by the sacred books of the Christians and those
of the ancient Persians.
Every time when an ablution with water is performed by them
on the body of a new-born cliild, it is difficult to say if we have
before us the solemn celebration of a Christian rite, or the applica-
tion of the following rule, plainly stated in the Avesta : " When a
child is bom, let first his hands be washed, and then his whole
body," probably on account of the impurity to which he was ex-
posed in the womb of his mother.
There is a more direct likeness between the holy sacrament and
the fact that sick persons generally are induced, among the Pschavs,
to swallow a cup of beer wnth a small piece of bread tlirown
into it.
As to the sacrifices by which the chevsburies on certain days
periodically return honour to God and the Archangel George,
much better known by those people than Jesus Christ himself,
they are of a thoroughly Pagan character. The officiating chevs-
bury, like the Persian magus, divides the flesh of the victim (an ox, a
cow, or a sheep) among the assistants, leaving nothing to the
divinity. Such proceedings remind us of the well-known text of
Strabo about the ancient Persians ; " Sacrificant in loco mundo pre-
cati et adducta hostia coronata, ubi magus qui sacrificium admin-
istrat, cames in portiones distribuerit, sua quisque accepta abeunt
nulla parte diis relicta; dicunt enim deum nihil velle praeter hostiae
animam," (ed. Didot, p. G23).
The fact, that in the accomplishment of his sacrificial duties,
the chevsbury, otherwise called decanose, is attended among the
IHAXIAX CULTURE. 325
Chevsurs by a special help-man, wearing the same name of "dfisfcur,"
as the one given to the higher clergy by the Avesta, must also be
mentioned here, as militating in favour of the supposition, that
clicvsburies are the direct successors of the Persian " magi." The
chief business of these dasturs is to prepare a sort of black-beer,
very like the English porter. This beer is distributed to the people,
who, as a rule, make such good use of it, that towards the evening
everybody is generally drunk, women only excepted, these '* impure
persons " not being admitted to the places consecrated to divinity.
Let me say now a word or two of these places themselves.
They arc, as a rule, situated on some mountain or hill, and consist
of a stone building with two separate rooms, one occupied by large
pots, which serve to prepare the beer; the other being the ordinary
abode of the attendant or " dastur." No images or sculptural re-
presentations of God or saints are to be seen in them. As a rule,
old trees surround the place of the people's meeting, nobody daring
to touch anything of which divinity itself or the saint is considered
to be the legal proprietor. Now, compare this description with
what Herodotus tells us about the Persians being opposed to the
representation of tlie divinity by statues, possessing no temples or
altars, and we shall find one more reason to think that the religi-
ous creed of the Pschavs and the Chevsura has a great deal in com-
mon with the one prescribed by the Avesta.
A special discussion on the belief entertained by these people as
to future life, will, I liope, leave no doubt as to the intimate con-
nection between the Iranian culture and the one we find among
these Georgian Highlanders. But before entering into any details
on this subject, I consider it suitable to assure the reader that he
ought to have no fear as to the accuracy of the statements that will
be brought forward. I am perfectly conscious of the fact, that a
cautious reader is generally adverse to believe every thing that a
tiaveller is supposed to have seen with his own eyes or heard by his
own ears. And very often the cautious reader is right, the popular
prejudice against " Travellers' Tales " being justified by experience.
Always in a hurry, just as busy to have his breakfasts and dinners
served at the right hour as to get information from the best imagin-
able sources, a traveller too often relies on the impossibility of any
control of the assertions he makes. " AUez voir poury croire," he is
sometimes inclined to say with the French poet Musset, whose
statements concerning the East, where he confessed never to have
been, are just as correct as many and many a stoiy told by fcreigneri
about the Highlanders of the Caucasus. Not relying too much myself
32G ANTHIWPOLOGY.
on the accuracy of travellers' reports, I have no right to claim
greater respect for my own statements. But what I have to say
is not exclusively the result of observations, made during a short
journey. I have been happy enough to meet with a native school-
master, who, during years and years, went on collecting information
on liis country people.^^ Russian officials, and among them the
coroner Chudadov, who passed two years among the Chevsurs and
Pschavs, also favoured me with their manuscripts and printed ac-
counts. In this way I have completed my personal observations
by the researches made on a large scale by students thoroughly aware
of the language and the local conditions of the people among whom
they usually reside. It is for this reason that I think more
credit may be given to what I have to say on the very deli-
cate questions, which shall presently be treated, questions the very
nature of which requires a great amount of cautious and minute
study.
The Pschavs, like the majority of the tribes inhabiting the Cau-
casian Isthmus, believe that the life which awaits us beyond the
grave is very like the one we lead : the souls of the deceased
ancestors cannot exist without meat, drink or light, which living
generations must of course afford them by the way of sacrifice.
The prayers the Pschavs use on commemoration feasts plainly state
their uiv:>de of feeling as to this point: " Our dear deceased," so urns
the text of this prayer, " miy you enjoy the cakes we prepare for
you, and may your souls rejoice at the sight of the fire we have
lighted on your behalf. You may make what use you like of every
thing we otter you ; keep it for yourself, or divide it with those of
our dead relatives whose names we are unable to remember at this
moment, to honour them with sacrifice. Let also nobody touch
your cakes without your permission."
Th^ regular abode of the deceased is known to the Pschavs
under the name of Schavet (or eternal darkness). The soul does not
reach it immediately after leaving the body : during several days
it is supposed to be making its journey to this place of eternal rest.
This journey is also adventurous and not to be eflTected without
help. The souls want certain guides, who are no other than the
souls of anciently departed relations. The name of these guides is
"Mchcbri." As to the "Schavet" itself, the imagination of the
Pschavs represents it as an immensely large abode, where no
other light is to be S3en but twilight, which is therefore
known to them under the name of "light of the deceased."
^*- The name of this gentleman is Mr. Rasikaschvili.
IBANfAN CULTURE. 327
A large river prevents the access to the Schavet and can be crossed
only through a nan*ow bridge as strait as a hair. The souls of the
good alone succeed in making the passage, the others fall down into
eternal pain.
More than one feature in this description of the life beyond the
grave, and of the way by which it is attained, remind us of the
Avestian creed about the souls passing several days in the neighbour-
hood of the deceased body and reaching the place of eternal rest
through a nan^ow bridge called the Tchinvat, and which in the
Avesta has the same character of a tribunal, where good and bad
actions are weighed and the souls of the deceased are admitted to
enjoy either eternal happiness or eternal pain.
In accordance with Zoroastrian theology the Pschavs believe also
in a sort of headman being appointed to i-ule over the souls, which
on their first appearance respectfully bow to him, but the natives are
not precise in their statements as to the functions of this headman,
although the most important one, the judicial, is just the same as
Mithra, Oi'aosa and Rasnu, according to the Avesta, are supposed to
possess in common. To conclude on this subject I will call the
attention of the reader to the fact that the name by which the
Pschavs designate the place of eternal rest is exactly the same as that
which the Avesta use5 whilst speaking of the bridge the souls have to
cross (Schavet, Tchinvai)
Although the religious creed of the Pschavs might furnish us
with many more cases of contact with the one professed by the
Avesta, I prefer to terminate this paper by a minute description of
the worship, which the Ossetes even on a larger scale than the
Pschavs and the Chevsui's profess towards the souls of their deceased
ancestors.
In a special work, under the auspices of the Geographical
Society of St. Petersburg,^^ I have entered on this subject at gi'cat
length. I will not do it again and sliall limit myself to the repi^o-
duction of such arguments only as directly establish the corres-
pondence of this worship with the one spoken of by the Avesta. I
mean the worship of the Fravashis. But first let me say a
word of these last. It is well-known what a prominent part the
" souls " are called to play in the religious belief of the Aryan nations,
but specially of the Iranian branch of them.
^^ The precise title of the book I mention is Modet^i Custom and Aiu:ieid
IjitWy Moscow, 1886. A fair and able account of it has been given in the Jounud
lies SavanU of last year by Mr. Rodolphe Dareste, member of the Institute. Mr
Morgan has favoured me also with a paper read in the Royal Asiatic Society. A
French edition of my bo»»k will appear next autumn.
328 A NTHJiOPOLOa Y.
Instead of stating my own opinion on this subject, I prefer to
quote what Mr. Harlez, the well known translator of the Avesta,
has to say about it. " La conception la plus g^n^rale, paraissant le
plus frequemment," according to this author, " est celle qui pr^sente
les Fmvashis comme les manes des morts. Ce doit etre la plus
ancienne car elle appartient au temps Aryaque. Les Fravashis sont
les ames des morts divinise^s, comme les manes latins, les Pitaras
v^iques. De nombreux textes lattestent. Ainsi nous lisons au
Ya;9na xvii. 41 * Nous honorons les lumiferes eternelles du sein des-
quelles habitent les ames des morts qui sont les Fravashis des
Saints/ Comme tels les Fravashis protegent specialement leurs
families, leurs demeures; ils y reviennent pour voir si on les honore*
ce qu on desire d'eux," etc.
To this general statement let me add a few texts in the translation
given to them by Mr. Harlez himself.
"Honorons les bons, puissants et saints Fravashis des justes qui
I'eviennent au vi^ (which according to Mr. Spiegel means a village,
inhabited by pei-sons of the same gentile name) — d^sirant connaiti-e
le secours qu' on leur demande : * Qui veut chanter nos louanges,
qui veut nous ofFrir un sacrifice, qui nous exaltera, nous b<?nira ?
Qui nous traitera avec reconnaissance dune main pourvue de
viande et de vetements ? Duquel d'entre nous proferera-t-on le
nom ? De qui d'entre vous honorera-t-on Tame par un sacrifice ?
Auquel de nous prfeentera-t-on cette offrande qui lui soit une
nourriture que Ton mange, une nourriture indestructible ^jamais, a
toujours.' Si quelque homme leur oftre un sacrifice d'une main
munie de viande et de vetements, avec une priere qui atteigne la
(vraie) puret^, alors les puissants Fravashis des justes, contents, non
offenses, non lesds, les comblent de benedictions. 11 y aura alors dans
cette maison de (nombreux) troupeaux de b^tail et(gi'oupes)d*hommes,
il y aura des chevaux rapides et des chars solides. II sera stable
dan sa sagcsse Vhomme qui nous offre constamment des sacrifices,'*
etc. (x). 1^
Mr. Harlez is of opinion that this ancient belief of an undoubted
Aryan origin was in later days not so much supplanted as enlarged
by a new one of Assyro-Babylonian origin. The attributes of
Fravashis were thereby applied either to pei'sons still living, or
about to be born, or to several celestial spirits and even to abstract
beings or those supposed to be such, (x).^-*
Wo shall not follow the French scholar in this part of his learned
1* (x). Yesht, xiii. sees. 49-52, (Harlez, Avesta \y. 488).
^* (x). Introduction, p. cxxii.
IBAXIAX CULTURE. 329
researches. It will be quite sufficient for our purpose to have
mentioned the fact that the most ancient notion entertained by
Iranian populations as to the nature of Fravashis is the one of souls
belonging to deceased ancestors.
Now, this is precisely the same creed, which the Ossetes entertain
as to their ghosts. I will ask the reader to keep in mind the text of
the A vesta whilst reading the following account of the ancestor
worship of the Ossetes. If he does so, he will no doubt be puzzled
by the extraordinary likeness existing between the Persian and the
Caucasian creed.
To proceed with order, I will begin by stating that every time
when an Osset family has sustained a loss in the person of one of
its relatives, large expenses must be sustained on account of the
funeral and commemoration feast ; besides the yearly ones, there are
special commemorations, made in favour of the recently dead parent.
On each, sacrificial cakes are presented, some meal and brandy
thrown into the hearth, the consumption of it by the fire being con-
sidered as a sign that the offerings have been accepted by the soul
of the deceased. Some other practices are also followed to make
more palpable the presence of the ghost among the guests called to
honour him. Amongst others, one that may be described in the
same words as those which the Frenchman Chinon uses in his
account of the Gufebres. The family having made a wooden manikin
of the deceased, dresses it in the same way in which he was
known to dress on solemn occasions. The manikin is then placed on
a seat near to the hearth, before which the whole family takes its
meals. The part reserved for the soul thus honoured is swallowed as
a rule by one of the next of kin,^^ who in this way must eat and
drink for two.
During the night preceding the new year, Ossetian widows pre-
pare the bed of their dead husband, and expect his appearance
sitting before a burning light. A misfortune happening to one of
the members of the household is regularly attributed to the non-
accomplishment of the duty of feeding ancestor souls which is in-
cumbent upon all.
These ancestral spiiits are considered to be revengeful, and to
punish their careless relatives they thrust on them every sort of evil.
But as long as due sacrifices are made in their honour, the ancestors re-
main the surest allies of the household, ready to fight every one of
its foes, and to send happiness and luck to its members.
More than one legend is still current in which deceased persons
^ * Chinon, Rdatvn^s du Levant y p. 405.
Y
330 ANTHROPOLOGY.
are represented as helping the living generations against the secular
oppasers of the Ossetes, the Kabardian and the Tartars.
I will enter into no further details, and only recall to the memory
of the reader the general conclusions to which we have come.
It has been shown that beginning by the Caspian shore, and
finishing by the valley watered by the river Don, civilisations with
undoubted features of Iranian culture have existed for centuries,
that more than one tribe among the Highlanders of the Caucasus
still maintain in their religious beliefs, their habits, and juridical
customs, multifarious survivals of this ancient civilisation, that in
this way an uninterrupted chain may be established between
countries still occupied by people of Iranian blood and the southern
steppes of the Russian Empire, where, during the earlier part of the
middle ages, Iranian nomadic tribes are known to have passed over
and over again, leaving no other traces but a few Iranian words de-
ciphered in Greek inscriptions.
Does not this bring us to the conclusion that Iranian tribes
probably belonging to the stock that migrated from Central Asia to
the steppes of Southern Russia took their permanent abodes in
different parts of the northern Caucasus, sending their rami*
fications to the mountainous villages ? This conjecture might
gain in credibility if archaeologists were to give it their
support by the discoveries maxle in old tombs and burial places.
As far as my own experience goes, I feel inclined to think
that the results of excavations are very much in favour of the
theory here expressed. Not only in the southern branches of the
central chain have burial places like the Iranian " dakhme " been
found (I speak of those existing in the land of the Chevsurs), but
also on the northern side of the chain, some 10 miles away from
the Elborouz, in a place called Chasaout, where, on two different
occasions, mummified bodies of men and women in a sitting or lying
position have been discovered, each time in groves cut out in the
rock, at a considerable height, and possessing entrances large
enough to give a free access, not only to the wind, but also to car-
niverous birds.
Accustomed as they are to other modes of burial, the natives
generally account for the existence of such groves by referring to a
prevalent belief of pestiferous persons having been secluded in them
and left to end their days. But the story everywhere told, as well
in the land of the Chevsurs, as in the neighbourhood of the Elborouz^
is no more to be relied on as soon as it is acknowledged that
the old burial places of the Chevsurs are the old " dakhme " of the
JUNIOR-RIGHT IN GENESIS. 331
" Zends," and their religious rites and moral precepts a direct re-
production of those contained in the Avesta.
We do not dare to guess at the time when the migrations of
people like the Ossetes have taken place. But we feel inclined to
think that they happened in very remote antiquity, probably before
the time when the text of the Avesta had been written. The proof
of it lies, according to my opinion, in the fact that the religious
creed of these people, and especially their ancestor worship, is much
older than the one mentioned in the Avesta, first of all because it
contains no trace of any posterior influence of Assyro-Babylonian
origin, and then on account of the great likeness it has with the
worship of Indian Pitaras and Latin Manes, both descended from
one common Aryan stock.
All that I have just said has no pretence to be an undoubted
truth. The archaeology of the Caucasus is only in its boyhood,
rich in problems and suppositions, but not in established facts.
What seems to be out of question is the existence among other
elements of Caucasian culture of one, the presence of which cannot
be explained otherwise than by reference to Iranian civilisation.
This is the chief point we have tried to establish.
Maxime Kovalevsky.
yUNIOR-RIGHT IN GENESIS.
IT is scarcely necessary in these pages to explain that the term
junior-right implies a system of tenure in which a father's
property descends to the youngest son. It thus forms the exact
contrast to primogeniture, and to express this opposition the term
" ultimogeniture " has been suggested (Elton Origins, 185), while in
Germany the usual name is Jungsten-recht The special English
expression is " borough-English,*' which is said to have been derived
from a local use at Nottingham where there were two tenures of
land in 1 Ikiw. III., *' and the usages of these tenures were such that
all the tenements whereof the ancestor died, seised in burgh-
332 ANTHROPOLOGY.
Engloyea ought ix) descend ix) the youngest son and all the tene-
ments in burgh'Frawiwoyes to the eldest son as at the common law."
Mr. Elton, from whom I take this quotation, devotes a learned
chapter to this subject in his Origins of English History {CheLp.
viii. pp. 183-221). He has traced the custom in South-East Elng-
land, Wales, France, where it is termed MaineU} parts of Germany,
Fricsland, Hungary, and among the Tchuds, and Mongols, while
Liebrecht, Zur Volkskunde, (pp. 431-2) refers to further examples
in Scandinavia, New Zealand, Australia, and Zululand.
On the origin of this custom learned opinion is not yet decided.
Mr. Elton connects it with another custom of a similar nature, by
which the sacred hearth passes by preference to the youngest, but
this only leaves an opening for an explanation which will con-
currently explain both customs. Mr. Lang is inclined to see in it
the natural preference for the son of the latest and ex hypotkesi
best-beloved wife in polygamous marriage ; (Grimm-Hunt, Introd
p. lix). Unfortunately primogeniture is as often as not the rule
among polygamous nations (Hindus, Chinese, Jews, Arabs), and
the explanation would still leave unexplained why the youngest
son of the youngest wife was the heir. I would venture
to suggest that the custom would naturally arise during the
latter stages of the pastoral period, when the elder sons would in
the ordinary course of events have " set up for themselves " by the
time of the father's death. The youngest son would under those
circumstances naturally step into his father's shoes, and acquire the
jmtria potestas and, with it, the right of sacrificing to the family
gods by the paternal hearth.^ Its occuiTence now-a-days is
chiefly among nomad tribes, and when found elsewhere it bears
evident marks of a " survival." The English custom might have
arisen in an analogous way during the time that the Teutonic in-
vaders were successively founding '*tun** after "<un" a^ the
Paddings, the Kennings, or the Islings grew up and left the settle-
ments of their father Padd, Kenn, or iEsel, to found new ones at
Paddington, Kennington (where the custom is still to be traced,
Blount-Hazlitt Joe, Tenures, 177), or Islington (where it also occurs,
Elton p. 193).
As with other instances of ancient laws and customs which have
died away into mere "survivals," junior-right has its item of interpre-
^ Not droit de jnveignerie which is merely a "cadet appanage." Mr. Lang,
who uses thifl term by preference, has overlooked Liebrecht's correction in the
NachtrUge to his Zur Volkskunde p. 514.
*-* I observe that this is also Mr. Gomme's explanation in Arc/Kjedogia, vol. 1.
214. Cf. too Robinson's Gavelkind : Appendix, quoted by Elton, 199.
JUmOR'RIGHT IN GENESIS. 333
tation to offer ix) the meaniDg of folk-tales. Mr. Lang in particular
has extorted yeoman's service from a conception which tells so
strongly for his main hypothesis (Grimm-Hunt i.e., Cupid and
Psyche p. xxxii, Perrault pp. xcvi-ix). The "formula" of the
youngest bom who succeeds with tasks which elder children have
failed to accomplish is familiar to us in " Cinderella " and in " Puss-
in-Boots/' and is included by Hahn in his summary of incidents
occurring in Aryan folktales as " No. III. Geschwister-formeln.
Formel vom besten Jungsten " {Alhan. und neugr. Mdhrclien i. 51
ap. Liebrecht I. c. 432). It is natural to connect this with junior-
right which is a legal " Formel vom besten Jtingstcn." At the same
time, Mr. Lang points out, with his usual scientific caution, that
these tales involve preliminary failures which would naturally be
undergone by the elders ; (Perrault L c). I may add that at the
root of their undertaking the exploits first, is involved rather the
right of primogeniture. And generally the reason why the success
of the youngest is striking, is because of its opposition to our pre-
conceived notions of the right of the eldest to succeed in life.^
The same opposition is, I am about to suggest, at the root of a
number of tales with which we are even more familiar. The tra-
ditions of the beginnings of their race given by the Hebrew sages
in the book of Genesis are full of the formula " the youngest is
best." This does not show itself in the very earliest history of all,
for reasons which may later detain us. But the moment we begin
with the history of the sacred family of the Terahides we find al-
most at every stage the youngest son possessing the birthright, as
may be seen from a short abstract of their genealogy in which the
youngest children are printed in thick type : —
3 This prepossession seems scarcely justified by facts. Among the eminent
** English Men of Science" whose nature and taurture were investigated by
Mr. F. Galton, 26 out of 99 were eldest sons and 25 youngest, while 22
were both eldest and yomigost, i.e. qnly sons, (p. 33). I may perhaps add here
that from a very large induction I have made of the occurrence of successful
youngest sons and daughters in folk-tales, I am rather inclined to doubt any
connection with junior-right. No question of succession occurs in them as in
the stories of Genesis.
334
ANTHROPOLOGY.
GENEALOGY OF THE TERAHIDES.
Terah.
I
Ilaran. Nahor.
I //
1 Lot. 3 Iscah. 2 Milcah.
I
Seven other Sons (xxii. , 21 , 22) Bethue .
Abraaam/
Hagar. — * — Sarah.
T I
r
I
Ishmad. IsaaO.
Leah.
Laban.
Bebekah.
Rachel.
— »
£sau. Jacob.
Leah. — * — Rachel.
I I
Reuben. Simeon. Levi. Judah. Joseph. Bex^amin.
Amram.
I
I I I
Aaron. Miriam. Moses.
Manasseh. iElpliraizn.
Er.
Onan. Shelah.s=Tamar= Judah,
I
I
I
L Pharez. "j^Zarah.J
Jesse.
I
Seven other Sons (1 Sam. xvii 12, 14) David. =Bathsheba.*
I
1 i I ,7^1
Shimea. Shobab. Nathan. Solomon.
AccordiDg to this genealogical tree all three patriarchs were
youngest sons. And the position of Jacob (Israel), the epony-
mous father of the race, is especially noteworthy. He is the
youngest son of Isaac, who was the youngest son of Abraham,
Terah 's youngest son, and of Rebekah, who was the youngest
daughter of Bethuel, who was the youngest son of Nahor.
Thr> other names printed in thick type will come up for treat-
^ Abram must have been younger than Haran since he is everywhere re-
garded as a contemporary of his nephew Lot. The order "Abram, Nahor,
Haran " uccurs in the latest source of the Pentateuch. (Gen. xi. 27.)
^ Theoretically, I presume, on the Levirate principle Pharez and Zarah
would count ns sons of Shelah though begotten by Judah. Or would they have
been regarded as carrying on the rights of Er ?
^ Besides six other wives whom he married before at Hebron (1 Chr. iiL 1-3)
and by each of whom he had offspring all older tlian Bathsheba's chUdren.
JUNIOR RIGHT IN GENESIS. 335
ment in due order and, where necessary, with the evidence by
which their " ultimogeniture " is established. But at present I
would call attention to the general law which comes out so clearly
in the above genealogical table. Almost every name of importance
in early Hebrew history is that of a youngest son or daughter :
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Rebekah, Rachel, Judah, Joseph, Benjamin,
Ephraim, Moses — the whole sacred history of the early Hebrews is
here. And these names are connected for the most part with a
question of succession of the most vital importance for the whole
religious future of the world, as the Hebrews thought, and as
history shows they were justified in thinking. The birthright
question forms the kernel of the whole patriarchal history and yet
it invariably goes with the youngest son. Surely these traditions
must have arisen in a state of society in which succession went by
junior-right.
Yet by the time these traditions were written down, the
impression in favour of the eldest son was firmly established.'
This is shown not alone by references in the genealogies of Genesis,
(xxii. 21, XXV. 13, xxxv. 23, xlvi. 8) but still more by the attitude
taken up by the narrators towards cases where the first-born did
not obtain the birthright. They felt bound to show that what was
seemingly the rule in patriarchal times — the birthright of the
youngest — was really the exception to the rule with which they
were familiar — ^the birthright of the eldest. It was important to
show this from the sacerdotal point of view, since the whole main-
tenance of the priests depended on the system of first-fruits.
(Deut. xviii. 4.) This sacro-sanctity of the first-born comes out
strongly in the principle laid down in the earliest legislation (Ex.
xxxiv. 19.) "All that openeth the matrix is mine," i.e., belonged to
the priests ; ^ this is extended in the next verse even to the children
of men when it is said " All the first-bom of thy sons thou shalt
redeem.'*® Thus while all later legislation went towards the
sanctification of the first-born, the earliest traditions were in favour
7 Into the once vexed question whether Hebrew law sanctioned primogeni-
tuie in the modern sense we need not enter. The Deuteronomic legislation
clearly gare the preferential share of a double portion to the eldest son. (Deutw
xxi. 17.)
® Wellhausen (History ^ p. 155) and Kuenen {Hexaifiicky pp. 29, 30) argue elabo-
rately that, in this legislative code, the priests had no more share than anyone
who joined the sacrificial banquets. We would ask : what did they live upon
then % At any rate the passage is sufficient to show the sanctity attaching to
the first-bom in the earliest written legislation. •
^ This custom is kept up to the present day by orthodox Jews who pay a
Amall sum as a '* redemption of the [eldest] son.''
336 ANTHROPOLOGY.
of the youngest. It was thus of crucial importance to the sacer-
dotal scribes from whom we have received these traditions to
reconcile them with the sanctity of the eldest on which all Jevrish
society and especially the whole system of the priesthood rested.
It says something for their general trustworthiness that the
traditions — though telling against them — have reached us unfalsi-
fied, and that the reconciling stories can be separated from the
traditions to which they were applied. It is not suggested that all
or any of these reconciling stories were invented for the purpose.
Our hypothesis explains only why they were inserted in the sacred
narrative. The need of reconciliation, it is contended, caused them
to be selected from the mass of legends which no doubt existed about
the early fathers of the race. In particular our hypothesis would
explain the admission of many narratives in the sacred text which
seem at present to be purposeless or worse until we place ourselves
in the position of the narrators and appreciate the necessity they
felt of explaining away the junior-right system so manifest in
the earliest traditions. It is otherwise difficult to explain their
existence in a book which from the first was intended to be a moral
guide.
The expedient adopted for the purpose of reconciling tradition and
law varies in different cases. With Ishmael and Isaac the inferiority
of the handmaid to the mistress is the leading idea which serves to
solve the difficulty. This should not obscure to us the fact that
Ishmaelites are included as of natural right among the Abrahamides
(xxv. 12-18),^^ and that many touches of tradition show Ishmael of
equal legitimacy with Isaac (xvii. 18, 20, 26 ; xxv. 9.) The touch-
ing prayer of Abraham, " O that Ishmael might live before thee,"
(xvii. 17), and the fact that Ishmael joins with Isaac in arranging
the burial of their father (xxv. 9) is sufficient to establish thia
The next case of Jacob is especially interesting, because he
is himself such a striking instance of a youngest son whose parents
and grandparents are also youngest children. There are no less
than two accounts to explain why, though the younger, he has
the birthright. One of these, told with admirable skill, is probably
founded in the last resort on a folk-etymology of the name " Jacob,
the Supplanter^^ or Deceiver," and tells how Jacob supplanted
10 Where quotation is merely by Roman and Arabic numerals, these refer to
the corresponding chapter and verse of Genesis.
^ ^ It is possible that this name of the patriarch may be due to the Canaanitea
calling the Israelites, very appropriately, **sons of the supplanter" — acoording^
to Semitic idiom, supplantcrs. Our own ** Whig " and ** Tory " are sufficient to
show that an opprobrious epithet may ultimately be adopted by the persons on
JUNIOR^RIGHT IN GENESIS 337
Eisau by deceiving their father Isaac (ch. xxvii.). But tliere is
another and probably later version (xxv. 29-34), in which Esau's
privileges were disposed of to Jacob in a legitimate way by pur-
chase, though under circumstances which fully confirm Jacob's
reputation for cunning. The object of both narratives is clear — to
explain why the birthright passed to the younger brother against
the pre-possession of the narrator and of his audience in favour of
the elder. The later custom and the earlier tradition had to be
reconciled ; both were sacro-sanct to the minds of the narrator and
any explanation that reconciled them would commend itself as
" what must have been." ^^
The sons of Jacob afford, strange to say, several instances of
junior-right. Different traditions represented different sons as
youngest This fact clears up, to my mind, some of the most
puzzling of the narratives in Genesis. When we are dealing with
Jacob's sons, the realities underlying the narratives are the tribes
in actual existence in Canaan. The " sons of Leah " and the " sons
of Rachel " probably indicate early confederations of the tribes,
while the " children of the handmaids " indicate some inferiority of
the position of their respective tribes in the respective leagues.
There is also some priority or superiority involved even in the two
batches into which Leah's children are divided by the narrative of
the mandrakes (xxx. 17-21.) Now of the first batch Judah is the
youngest, and with Judah was to be the sceptre. Hence the need in
later tradition to account for his elder brothera Reuben, Simeon and
Levi being disinherited.^^ Two of the most unedifying of the Biblical
stories are told in order to explain this. Reuben had defiled his
father's handmaid (xxxv. 22j ; Simeon and Levi had used treachery
towards their sister's betrothed (ch. xxxiv.) I may add here that
another Biblical narrative of the same complexion is probably con-
nected with junior-right The obstetric details about the birth
ofPharez and Zarah (xxxviii. 27-30) evidently depend for their
whom it was first bestowed by opponents. It is certainly significant that there
is no patronymic in Hebrew corresponding to Jacob as there are such derived
from Israel and Judah (" Israelite, Jew.")
^ ' Much of the Hagada or Talmudic legends about Biblical personages is due
to the same kind of logic which is by no means yet extinct among us and is indeed
perfectly justifiable if hypothesis be distinguished from fact.
^\ The entry in 1 Chron. v. 1, shows how anomalous it seemed to later con-
ceptions to find the birthright not with the eldest. *' For he was the first-bom,
but inasmuch as he defiled his father's couch, his birthright was given unto the
sons of Joseph, the son of Israel ; and the genealogy is not to be reckoned after
the birthright." (R.y. or '*but he [Reuben ?] is not to be reckoned in the
genealogy as first-bom." Q.P.B.)
338 ANTHROPOLOGY.
interest upon the fact that Pharez, from whom was descended
David — himself a youngest son — was really the younger though he
makes his appearance first. The still less edifymg details about
Onan earlier in the chapter, may also be possibly explained in a
similar way.
With Rachel and her children the case is somewhat different,
though Rachel herself may remind us that junior-right occurs,
at anyrate in " Cinderella " and other folk-tales, among daughters
as well as sons. It is therefore natural that Jacob should wait
longer for the more important sister, the heiress Rachel ; Laban's
substitution of Leah (xxix. 23) would otherwise lose all point. It
is Rachel too who takes away the Teraphim or ancestral gods
of the hearth (xxxi. 19, 30) — a distinct point of connection
with junior-right (cf. Elton, I.e. pp. 211-6 and especially p.
221). But as regards her sons there seem to be " survivals "
of two traditions which would tend to give the birthright
to each. Benjamin seems to be in every respect an after-
thought among the tribal heroes. It is difficult to say what under-
lies the idea of his having been born in Canaan, after Joseph had
gone down into Egypt. But it may be suspected that the
importance thus given to Benjamin, who under the junior-right
system would have the birthright, may be dated during the brief
supremacy of the Benjamite Saul at the beginning of the eleventh
century B.c.^* If so, this would be the only Hebrew tradition the
origin of which can be definitely dated.
But it is round Joseph that Hebrew tradition clings most loving-
ly, Joseph the eponymous hero of the Kingdom of Israel pcur
excellence. His very name indicates his importance, " he that adds/'
Mehrer des lieichs. It is therefore only natural that in the
earliest traditions formed under a junior-right system, he is
regarded as the youngest and therefore the rightful heir. And
equally natural is the attempt to explain his position from the
later standpoint of primogeniture by means of special interference
of Providence in his dreams, &c. Yet the " coat of many colours "
(really the " coat with long sleeves " suitable for the pampered heir
who did no work) and the jealous envy of his brothers would be
clearly, on our hypothesis, elements in the earliest traditions about
him. It may also have been a touch of the earliest account which
^* That junior-right may have lasted on to this time is shown by the
fact that David himself was the youngest son of Jesse, and Solomon seemingly
David's. It is natural that an archaic mode of succession should linger on latest
in the royal family. I may add that Moses was the youngest son of Amiam.
JUNIOR-BIGHT IN GENESIS. 339
rapresents, in one of the two versions of which our text is composed,
the next heir, Judah, chivalrously desiring to save his rival That is
a touch woiihy of the Hamdsa or the Kitab al-Agkani, The other
tradition which makes Reuben the would-be rescuer was probably
formed later when primogeniture had become the ruling conception.
There is yet another narrative of Genesis which receives an ex-
planation from the conception of a change of tenure from junior-
right to primogeniture as the Israelites exchanged their roving
life for one in which sons became more stay-at-home and the more
experienced one would naturally fill his father's place. The
narrative relates to Joseph's sons or the tribes they represent. Of
the two Ephraim though smaller in territory was by far the more
influential Yet tradition once more represents the best son as the
youngest. And once more later conceptions felt that this needed an
explanation in a society where the eldest son had prior rights and the
eldest generally was sacred to the Lord. The explanation is
afforded in the quaint scene in which Jacob persists in blessing
Ephraim with the right hand, the hand of might and power, though
he had to cross his hands in order to do so, and though Joseph calls
attention to the seeming mistake (xlviii. 13-19).
Thus we have seen that many of the out-of-the-way incidents
in the lives of the patriarchs, and almost all those that have especially
shocked the theologians, receive an explanation on the hypothesis that
junior-right was once the rule of succession in early Hebrew
society, and that these tales are introduced to explain the superiority
of the youngest in tradition when that of the eldest had been estar
blished in law. Indeed if the truth of an hypothesis can be
measured by the number of facts it can explain, our hypothesis
would compare favourably with any of the multitudinous sugges-
tions that have issued from German seats of learning during the
past half-century. A well merited suspicion attaches to explanations
which seem to explain too much.^*^ I hasten to disarm this in the
present case by pointing out that our hypothesis does not apply to
any of the earlier narratives of Genesis. The reason for this is
tolerably obvious. A nation has legends about its eponymous
heroes long before it deals with cosmological problems. This is
^^ It may not be discreet, but it is certainly fair, that I should point out the
weightier objections. The cases where junior-right does not occur in the
genealogies of Genesis deserve attention, and it would be desirable to have
some confirmatory evidence of the existence of junior-right among other Semites.
I may revert to some of these points on another occasion. The lai^er question
of the so-called authenticity of the narratives of Genesis I assume to be settled
in the sense given to it by all scholars whose views deserve attention in the pre-
sent state of Biblical science.
340 ANTHROPOLOGY.
only one of many indications which serve to show that the Hebrews
had traditions about Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob long before they
speculated about the origin of the world, (i.) of man, (ii.) of sin, (iii.)
of death, (iv. 1-15) of the arts (iv. 20-22.) and of the diversity of
language (xi. 1-10.) The absence of any reference to junior-
right in these legends would seem to indicate that they arose after
the nomad stage and in Canaan probably under Assyrian influences.
I was at one time in hopes that this theory — now propounded
for the first time — would serve as a crucial test to distinguish be-
tween the rival hypotheses which now divide the world of Biblical
criticism as to the composition of the Pentateuch or " Hexateuch "
as it is the fashion to say. Of some fourteen passages relating to
the subject Dillmann and Wellhausen agree as to the attribution of
all but two (xxii, 25, xlvi., partly cf. Dillmann ad locos): they differ
only as to the relative ages of the sources. Our theory, if sub-
stantiated, scarcely enables us to decide between them. The two
divergent stories how Jacob got the birthright seem to come from
the same source, so that the divergencies of tradition existed prior
to any literary fixation. But even had it not been so, it would not
necessarily follow that the source that contained the earlier tradi-
tion was written down earlier. Mr. Fenton in the preface to his
admirable little work Early Hebrew Life — the most suggestive con-
tribution to Hebrew Archaeology made of recent years in England —
has pointed out analogous cfiises in India where later codes contain
earlier customs. The fact is, literary criticism per se tells us but
little as to origins : hence the unprolific character of recent Biblical
work. If a tithe of the industry and acumen that have been ex-
pended on the discrimination of the parts of the Pentateuch re-
spectively due to the Jahvist and the Elohist, had been devoted to
the Realien of the Old Testament, Biblical Archaeology would not
be in its present chaotic condition. It is on the application of the
methods by which Dr. Tylor and his school have done so much to
elucidate origins that the future of Biblical Archaeology depends.^^
It may help to reassure some of my readera if I go on to say that
in my opinion Biblical Archaeology has very little bearing on Bibli-
cal Theology. Whether junior-right prevailed in early Israel or
not, does not afiect one jot the ethical genius of the greater
prophets and their significance in the world s history. The idylls
of the patriarchs will always have their charm whatever be the
1^ By a somewhat similar method 1 believe I have helped to solve another
intricate Biblical problem— that of the Nethinim (Bahyl. and Orient, Eecord^
Feb., March, 1888).
JUXIOR-RIGHT IX GENESIS. 341
discoveries we may make as to the ideas underlying them. If to
some persons it may seem jarring to find "Cinderella" or " Puss in
Boots " adding their quota of elucidation to the Book of Books, I
would remind them that the most elaborate of recent works on The
Orl{fiivt of English History seeks instruction from similar folk-
tales. It is at any rate appropriate that in the pages of the
ArcJtceological Review recourse should be had to those anUes fahellce,
the elucidation of which has cast as much light on the study of
origins as any other department of Archaeology.
As I have somewhat wandered into general topics in the last few
paragraphs, I may perhaps be allowed to summarise the special in-
<iuiry in which we have been engaged in the form of a number of
Theses which I seek to establish or connect together.
(1) It is assumed that the Hebrews, like other nations in the
pastoral stage, had a system of succession corresponding to "Borough
English" by which the youngest son succeeded to his fathers flocks
and propei-ty, the elder ones having probably provided for them-
selves before their father's decease.
(2) It is known that under the Israelite theocracy the eldest son
had preferential rights which were supported by the priesthood
who depended for their maintenance on the sanctity of the first-
bom.
(3) It is known that the patriarchs and tribal heix)es were re*
presented by tradition as yoimgest sons, certainly in the cases of
Isaac, Jacob, Benjamin, Ephraim, probably in those of Abraham,
Judah, Joseph. It is more likely that such traditions arose under
(1) than (2).
(4) It is assumed that in order to reconcile (2) and (3) the
priestly writers of the Pentateuch adopted the following narratives.
(a) The illegitimcwy of Ishmael.
(6) The winning of the birthright by Jacob (two versions).
(c) The disgrace of Reuben.
((/) The offence of Simeon and Levi.
{e) The death of Onan.
(/) The prenatal struggle of Pharez and Zarah.
{g) Jacob blessing Ephraim.
I shall be curious to see what kind of anti-Theses or rival hypo-
theses can be supplied to explain in an equally natural manner the
same series of seemingly unnatural occurrences.
I may add that our hypothesis, if substantiated, would enable ns
to distinguish between earlier and later elements in the stories relat-
342 ANTHROPOLOGY.
ing to Ishmael, Jacob, Rachel, and Joseph. It would likewise fix a
terminus a qioo for the rise of the legends relating to Benjamin in
the eleventh century B.C. It would establish the important prin-
ciple of Biblical criticism that traditions in the hands of the priests
were not falsified but only others added in order to Tnake them chime
in with current conceptions. Finally, it would confirm earlier
opinions as to the groat age of the main body of the patriarchal
legends since it tends to show that they arose in the nomad or pre-
Canaanite period when succession went by junior-right.
Joseph Jacobs.
NO TBS FROM PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS.
No. 3. FIJIAN LAWS OF DESCENT.
THE foundation of power and authority among the Fijians rests
in the highest living male ascendant of the tribe, or in other
words in the head of the family. The administration of their
laws, the almost entire absence of individual rights, and the connec-
tion of their proprietary rights and personal relations are in many
points analogous to the ancient village communities of India. The
kinship of the Fijians is strictly agnatic, and not cognatic
Their laws of succession and marriage are based upon this ancient
system, and their ideas as to social rights and wrongs, proprieties
and improprieties, are probably the causes of the system itself. By
this system the patriarchal chief, head, or father of the family or
tribe, was and even now in many parts of Fiji is answerable for the
delicts of his sons. An offence committed by an individual of his
tribe against a member of another tribe was as a rule resented upon^
or condoned by, the whole family of the offender. Frequently a
whole family was decimated or destroyed for one man's offence, for
it is a rule of this archaic law not to recognise individuals. The
Chief of the tribe is also charged in a great degree with a liability
to provide for all the members of his family, who, in fact, form one
common brotherhood. Out of this liability or duty has, I conceive,
arisen the right and power of " lala," or service tenure.
The rule of succession is also based upon the principles of Agnatic
law : when a Fijian dies the brother of the deceased and not the son
succeeds. The brother, as next in order to the common root,
becomes the head and ruler of the family, administers the common
property, and assumes the family rights and responsibilities. Should
NOTES FROM PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS. 34S
this brother die, the next, if there be one, succeeds, and so on until
there are no more. The succession then reverts to eldest son of the
eldest deceased brother, to whom the sons of all the other brothers are
subordinate; while a chief inherits or is chosen from among his kins-
folk in this order of succession, he 7)iay be passed over because of
mental or bodily defect, or notoriously foolish conduct, &c.
This order of succession has existed from time immemorial, and
any forced departure from it would break up the present family
arrangements. The worst feature about it is that it may lead to
the deaths of younger brothers and nephews. In the two great
Mahommedan families, where " the uncle succeeds to the throne in
preference to the nephew, even though the nephew be son of the
elder brother," younger brothers generally come to an untimely end.
Among the old Celtic clans a law something like this prevailed, for
the uncle was preferred to the grandson as ruler.
With regard to abduction, it must be remembered that by their
peculiar system every Fiji woman is of right the wife of some
particular Fiji man ; also, that every woman is by law " tabu'd," or
forbidden to some particular man or men. The children of brothers,
i.e,y brothers by the same father and mother, never intermarry ;
they are held to be of the same stock, of the one family and blood ;
the right to property or the fact of property as between '* veitanoa "
being held in common must not be overlooked. If the introduction
of British law creates " the individual " who is hardly known to
Fijian law, that which is now a lawful custom will become felony.
These children when of opposite sexes hardly ever speak to one
another. The words uncle and nephew are unknown ; the former
are all " fathers," and the latter are all " sons."
The children of hrothera and listers may intermarry ; they are
"viewatini," that is people who may lawfully cohabit together.
There is no word in the language signifying wife.
Now, if a woman is enticed away, or carried off by a man
of a family, other than that to which she by positive right
belongs, not only is her father and all his family outraged and
insulted, but so also is the man and all the family into which she
should have intermarried. The offence must be instantly condoned
according to tribal usage, or a conflict between the two families
may break out at any moment.
A woman may be ciuried off by a man belonging to her intended
husband's family, and this wrong also creates a great disturbance,
sometimes as great as the first mentioned one. — J. B. Thurston,
Correspondence reUxting to Fiji (c— 1624), 1876, pp. 38-40.
344 ANTHROPOLOGY.
INDEX NOTES.
3. Foreign Periodicals.
Altrichter (K.), em BegrabnLssfeld bei Brunn, Kr. Ruppin. ZtiU, fur Ethtwi.
xix. 509-512.
Beauchamp (W. M.), Onondoga Tales. Jonm, American Fclk-lore^ i. 44-48,
Becker (P.), Unseburger Hausume. Zeits. fur Ethncly xix. 505-607.
Boas (F.), certain songs and dances of the Kwakiutl of British Columbia. Jonm.
Amerienn Folk-lore^ i. 49-64.
Bolton (H. C), The Counting out Rhymes of Childi*en. Joxirn. American
Folk-lore. i. 31-37.
Boule (M.), Essai de pal^ontologie stratigraphique de l' homme. Bev, (T AtUhr.
xvii. 272-297.
Brinton (D. G.), Len&p^ conversations. Jonrn. American Folk-lore. L 37-43.
Brown (T. J.), Prehistoric Artificial Terraces in Ohio. Amerienn Antiq. x. 167-
174.
Briickner ( ). Die Lage von Rethra auf der Fischerinsel in der Tollenae.
ZeU. fiir Ethiu>l. xix. 492-503.
Buschan (0.), Riosen von Froiwaldau. Zeit.fiir Ethiwl. xix. 562-564.
Cermdk (K.), die unterste Culturschicht auf dem Burgwalle Hrddek in Caslau.
Zed. filr Ethnol xix. 466-480.
eine neolithische Station in der siidlichsten Ziegelei zu Cdslau. Zeit.
fiir Ethnol. xix. 522-525.
Crane (T. F.), The diffusion of popular Tales. Jonrn. Americxin Folk-lore. i. 8-16.
Dorsey (J. O.), Songs of the Hecucka Society. Jonrn, American Fotk-lot^ i.
65-68
A Teton Dakota Ghost Story. J<»trn. American Folk-lore. i. 68-72.
Ponka Stories. Jonrn. Am^erican Fdik-U/re. i. 73.
Abstracts of Ponka and Omaha Myths. Jonrn. American Folk-lore. i.
74-78.
Eels (M.), Indians of Puget Sound, part vi. American Antiq. x. 174-178.
Eye (A. von), die brasilianischen Sambaquis. Zeit. fiir Ethticl. xix. 531-533.
Florkowski (C), das Graberfeld von Kommerau, Kr. Schwetz, Westpr. ZeU,
fiir Ethnol. xix. 512-520.
Friedel (E.), Bronzekessel von Hennickendorf, etc. Zeit. fiir Ethi^. xix. 534-
541.
Hamy (E. T.), Notice sur les fouilles execut^es dans le lit de la Liane en 1887.
l{evn£ rf' Anthropologies xvii. 257-271.
Hartwich ( ), Schadel aus der Nachbarschaft von Tangermiinde. Zeit. fur
Ethnol. xix. 480-482.
neue Funde auf deni neolithischen Graberfelde bei Tangermiinde. ZeU,
fiir Ethnol. xix. 741-743.
Hoemes (M.), La paldoethnologie en Autriche Hongrie. Ber. d' AtUhr. xviL
333-347.
Holder ( ), Photographien und Gypsabgiisso von Kopfen, bezw. Schadeln.
Zeit. fiir Ethnol. xix. 482-483.
Holl (M.), Ueber die in Vorarlberg vorkommenden Schadelformen. MUt. der
Anthropologischen GesellscJiaft in Wien. xviii. 1-24.
Jentsch (H.), Niederlausitzer Graberfunde. Zeit. fiir Ethwl. xix. 461-466.
Gefassformen des Lausitzer Typus und Einzelheiten aus dem heiligen
Lande bei Niemitzsch. Zeit. fiir EtJinol. xix. 507-509.
Joest (W.), Die Philippinen-Ausstellung in Madrid und eine verkrUppelte
Zwergin. ZeU. fiir Ethiiol. xix. 450-451.
Kober ( ), Photographien von Indianeru der westlichen Stamme. ZeU, fur
EthiuA. xix. 729-730.
INDEX NOTES. 345
Landois (H.) und B. Vormann, Westfalische Todtenbaume. Arehiv fiir
Anthrop. xvii. 339-362.
Luschan (F. v.), Schadel von Nagy Sap (Ungarn). Zeit. fur Ethnol, xix. 565-566.
Meuso ( ), Anthropologie der Volker vom mittlereii Congo. Zeit fur Ethnol,
XLX. 624-650.
Newell (W. W.), Myths of Voodoo Worship and Child Sacrifice in Hayti. Joiniu
American Folk-lore, i, 16-30.
Oesten (G.), Ueberreste der Wendenzeit in Feldberg und Umgegend. Zeit, fiir
Ethnol. xix. 503-505.
Peete (S. D.), The circle as a sun symbol. American Antiq. x. 135-153.
Quedenfeldt ( ), Pfeifspracho auf der Insel Gomera. Zeit, fiir Ethnol, xix.
731-741.
Salkf»wski ( ), Westafrikanische Geldringe. Zeit. fiir Ethnol. xix. 723.
SchHifliausen (X.), Die Physiognomik. Arehiv. fur Anthropologie. xvii. 309-338.
Schuchardt (T.), ladeit aus Borgo Novo in Graubiindten. Zeit, fiir Ethnol, xix.
561-562.
Schwoiiifurth ( ), Kieselartefakte aus neuen agyptischen Fundstatten. Zeit,
fur Ethnol. xix. 561.
Seler(Ed.), Geriitho und Oniamente der Pueblo-Indiana. Zeit. fiir Eth^wl, xix.
599-604.
Stoltzenberg-Luttmersen ( ), Ausgrabung der Asoburg. Zeit, fiir Ethnol,
xix. 525-528.
Taubner ( \ Bildzifierschrift aus einem alien Brunnen bei Neustettin. Zeit,
fiir Ethnol. xix. 520-522.
Tupiiiard (P. ), Les dcmi6res Stapes de la gdn^alogie de I'homme. Rev. d* Anthr,
xvii. 298-332.
Tucker (W.), Nature worship in ancient and prehistoric religions. Americnn
Antiq. X. 154-157.
Virchow (R.), Schadel von Merida Yucatan. Zeit fiir Ethnd. xix. 451-455.
Jadoitkeil von S. Salvador, Central Amerika. Zeit. fiir EthnoL xix.
455-456.
assyrische Steinartefakte, namentlich solche aus Nephrit. Zeit. fiir
Ethnol. xix. 456-461.
Archaologische Erinnerungen von einer Reise in Siid-Oesterreich.
Zeit. fiir Ethnol. xix. 541-559.
Antimongerathe aus dem Graberfelde von Koban, Kaukasus. Zeit. fiir
Ethnol. xix. 559-561.
der Schadel und das Becken cines Buschnegers und der Schadel eines
Karbugers von Surinam. Zeit fiir Ethnol. xix. 615-624.
physische Anthropologie von Buschmannem, Hottentotten und Omun-
donga. Zeit fiir Ethnol. xix. 656-666.
Wintemitz (M.), Der Sarpabali, ein altindischer Schlangencult. Mitt der An-
thntpologischen Gesellttchaft in Wien. xviii. 25-52.
Etcbaeoloa^.
— : o : —
A GRIMM'S TALE IN A SHETLAND
FOLKLORE VERSION.
FROM the lips of the people the brothers Grimm gathered thpse
" Children's and Household Tales " which now form one of
the most charming treasures of Germany's primitive popular
fiction. Their preservation, through so long a lapse of time, seems
to-day little less than a wonder. *' The seats near the fire-place
and the kitchen hearth ; steps leading to the loft ; holidays still
kept ; pasture commons and forests with their quietness ; before all,
untroubled fancy : these were the hedges that saved these tales
and secured their being handed down from one age to the other/*
So it is said in the preface to the edition of 1819. And with
great truth the Grimms add : — " What a far more complete and
intrinsically richer collection would have been possible in Germany
in the fifteenth century, or even yet in the sixteenth at the time of
Hans Sachs and Fischart I "
In the third, augmented edition the various translations are
mentioned. Here, the remark is made that, among them, the
English one merits the preference, both as the fullest, and because
a tongue so akin to that of the original is the most fit for rendering
it The scientific value of these popular traditions is also dwelt
upon — " a value which has been proved by many a surprising trait
of kinship with old divine sagas, so that German Mythology has
not seldom had occasion to refer to them, and to find in their
consonance with those myths an evidence of an original close con-
nection."
How now if it were found that remnants of these very same
tale-treasures are still hidden in out-of-the-way corners of this
country ?
From three Shetland friends there have come to me, for years
past, many important stray waifs of folklore. Some of these
comraimications have shed a sudden light upon various hitherto but
dimly discernible points in the ancient creed of the Teutonic race.
Ori<dnally of Norse stock, and, down to a comparatively recent
GRIMMS TALE IN SHETLAND. 347
time, of Noi-se speech, the Shetlaaid people have in a remarkable
degree preserved their taste for the " old tales." Upwards of four
hundred years ago — as they are fond of reminding the willing
hearer — their country was given in wadsett, or redeemable pledge,
by the Kiug of united Denmark, Norway and Sweden to the
Scottish Crown ; and in this way, in course of time, their island
f^roup, as well as the Orkneys, passed into the hands of England.
As Northmen, distinct both from the Scots and the English, they
still feel in their eagle's nest.
To get at the half-sunken Nibelung hoard of runic rimes, spell-
songs, and gruesome water- tales which yet glow in the fancy of the folk
of that Northern Thule, is, generally speaking, by no means an easy
task. There is a feeling of secretiveness, a notion that " these
things must not be published." In some cases, where old cronies
are concerned, who still do a stroke of business with spell-songs and
wortcraf t, there is a strong dislike to publication, as it is held to be
hurtful to their interest Others, even if more enlightened — say,
sea-faring men who have got rid of the superstitions of their class
— do not want the strange stories to go out to the world, and to
have them " brought up against themselves " by other sailors in the
way of taunting ridicule. If only these people could be made to
see the time kinship of the old tales, and their corresponding poetic
value 1 Are the German people ashamed of the Mdrchen still told
in many a thorpe and hamlet, and which such lights of learning as
the brothers Grimm most carefully put together ? Why, looked at
in the proper way, Shetland would only get further renown by the
fullest storing up of all the jetsam and flotsam that can still be
recovered from popular tradition.
I was therefore, glad when, last summer, an old Shetland
friend who had given me from personal recollection many a
valuable Water-Tale current in his youth, wrote to me that he well
remembered a version of a Grimm s Tale, as once told among the
people of his neighbourhood. A translation of the German book
he had only latterly seen for the first time. Immediately, the early
remembrance came up in his mind. It is Mr. Robert Sinclair,
formerly of Lerwick, now living at Melbourne, in Australia, to
whom I owe the text of this Shetland story. The tale itself is the
one marked " No. 30 " in the German work of the brothers Grimm.
On turning to one of the English translations of Grimm, I
found " No. 30 " given under the somewhat altered title :
"The Spider and the Flea." In another, recently published,
it is called in still more refined language : " The Lady-bird
348 ARCHjEOLOGY.
and the Fly." Unfortunately, the last translator, a lady,
seems to be strangely in error as to the origin of some of these
tales ; for she says : — " They contain a complete translation fix)ni
the German of the Household Stories, or Fairy Tales, collected by
the brothers Grimm from various sources, and of many of which
they were the authors." Now, the importance of those Talcs con-
sists in their having been all taken down from popular tradition.
The Grimms were not the authors of any of them.
However, the title : " The Lady-bird and the Fly " may not be
objected to, as Mrs. PauU's translation is declared to be " specially
adapted and arranged for young people," and ideas are somewhat
strict, in this country, as to the mere mention of certain insects.
On their part, the brothers Grimm almost invariably took and
gave things as they had found them. They did not feel entitled to
an over-finikin suppression of naturalistic detail. Hence they
straightway spoke of the story in question as that of " Ldiisclien
und Flohchen.*'
Still, let it be " The Lady-bird and the Fly," and the tale will
thereby not become less enjoyable. Without further ado, I now
place here the Shetland text. If the reader will compare it with
the German tale, he will first observe that the dravuitis persoiice
are, in the Shetland version, somewhat different from those in the
German story. Again, whilst the latter begins in prose, and then
breaks off", now and then, into verse, the Shetland talc begins with
a verse showing both the statf-rime and the end-rime.
DA FLECH AN' DA LOOSE SHACKIN' DIR SHEETS.
DA Flech an' da Loose lived tagedder in a hoose ;
An* as dey sh(K)k dir^ sheets,
Da Flech ahii anappered,- an' fell i' da fire,
An* noo da Loose she greets. •*
Da Crook* he saw da Loose greetin', an' says he ta» da Loose : — " Loose ! Loose !
why is du** greetin' ? "
** Oh ! da Flech an' I wer' shackin* wirj sheets.
Da Flech shii snappered an' fell i' da fire.
Noo what can I du bit** greet ? "
" Oh ! dan I'll wig- wag back an* foro^ I ** says da Crook.
Sae da Crook wig-waggit, an' da Loose she grett.
Da Shair saw da Crook wig-waggin* ; an' says ho ta da Crook : — ** Crook ! Crook 1
why is du wig-waggin' ? "
** Oh ! da Flech an' da Loose wer* shackin' dir sheets ;
Da Flech shii fell i' da fire an' brunt. ^^
An* noo da Loose she greets, an' I wig- wag.'*
* Their, * she stumbled, ' weeps. , ■•Jpot-hook. » to.
* Art thou. 7 our, ® do but, • sway back and forwards.
JO Was burnt.
GRIMM'S TALE IN SHETLAND. 349
** Oh 1 dan," says da Shair,ii
** I'll jimp o'er da flor. "12
Sao da Shair sho jinipit ; da Crook wig-wag^t ; an' da Loose she grett.
Da Door he saw da Shair jimpin* ; an' says he ta da Sliair : — ** Sliair ! Shair ! why
is du jimpin* o'er da flor/"
** Oh ! da Flech an' da Loose wer' shackin' dir sheets ;
Da Flech fell i' da fire, an' da Loose she greets.
Da Crook wig- wags, an' so I jimp."
** Oh ! dan I'll jangle upo* my harrs."^^
Sue da Door jingle- jangled ; da Shair he jimpit ; da Crook wig-waggit ; an* da
Loose she grett.
Del Midden 1* he saw da Door jinglin' ; an' says he ta da Door : — ** Door ! Door !
why is du jingle-jangling upo' dy harrs ?"
** Oh da Flech an' da Loose wer' shackin' dir sheets,
Da Flech fell i' da fire, an' da Loose she greets ;
Da Cix>ok wig- wags ; da Shair he jimps ;
An' I jingle-jangle upo my harrs. ^'
** Oh ! dan," says da Midden, " I'll scricg o'er wi' maeds."^*
Sae da Midden he scriegit ; da Door jingle-jangled ; da Shair he jimpit ; da
Crook wig-waggit ; an' da Loose she grett.
Da Bum^*^ he saw da Midden scriegin', an* says he ta da Midden : — ** Midden !
Midden ! why is du scriegin' o'er wi' maeds ?"
** Oh ! da Flech an' da Loose wer' shackin' dir sheets,
Da Flech fell i' da fire, an' da Loose she greets ;
Da Crook wig- wags ; da Shair he jimps ;
Da Door jingle-jangles ; an' sae 1 scrieg o'er wi' maeds."
'* Oh ! dan I'll rin wimple-wample."^^
Sae da Bum ran wimple- wample ; da Midden he scriegit ; da Door he jingled ;
da Shair he jimpit ; da Crook wig-waggit ; an' da Loose she grett.
Da Loch saw da Bum rinnin' wimple- wample, an' says he ta da Bum : — *' Bum !
Burn! why is du rinnin' wimple- wample ? "
'* Oh ! da Flech an' da Loose wer' shackin' dir sheets,
Da Flech fell i' da fire, an' da Loose she greets.
Da Crook wig- wags ; da Shair he jimps ;
Da Door jingle- jangles ; da Midden scriegs o'er wi* meads —
An' sae I rin wimple- wample. "
** Oh ! dan I'll swall o'er my brim."
Sae da Loch he walled an' he swalled;^® da Bum ran wimple-wample ; da
Midden he scriegit ; da Door he jingled ; da Shair he jimpit ; da Crook wig-
waggit ; an* da Loose she grett — when doon comes da Fliid^®, an* sweeps awa'
da Hoose an' da Loose, da Crook an' da Shair, da Door an' da Midden wi' da
maeds, a' doon i' da miiddow whare-® da Bum ran wimple-wample. An' sae
ends da storie o* da Flech an' da Loose.
Thus, in the water everything perishes, even as from the water,
according to many an ancient creation doctrine, everything has
arisen. " Everything flows," said the old Greek philosopher.
" chair. " floor. " upon my hinges, {ffjarr, in Norse.)
» Dunghill. ^ swarm over with maggots. " Bourne.
1' I will run meandering, going this way and that way. Comp. Wimble, Old
English and dialect word = rapid, fleet. To wample = to rise up.
^^ Welled and swelled. (Comp. German : iiberschwdlen. ) ^' down comes the flood.
''^^ All down into the meadow where —
350 ARCHJEOLOGT.
In the German tale, Lousikin and Fleakin are, so to say, man and
wife. They lived tocjether in the same household ; and when brew-
ing beer in an egg-shell, Lousikin fell into it and " burnt itself.** It
is not said that it was burnt dead. At the end, Lousikin even re-
appears, but only in order to be swept away by the flood, like every-
thinor else.
In the Shetland tale. Loose (or Liis) and Flech are both of the
female sex, whilst even the lifeless things are treated as of the mas-
culine gender. It is not Loose, but Flech that comes to grief. The
latter falls, not into an egg-shell, but into the fire itself, and does not
appear any more. It is burnt for good.
In the German tale, it is the Door, the Besom, the Waggon, the
Dunghill, the Tree, the Maiden with the Water-jug, and the Foun-
tain from which the water flows, that follow each other in succes-
sion. These are seven things or beings : a holy number. They are
all, like the hero and the heroine, spoken of in the fondling diminu-
tive. In the Shetland tale, the acting forms and figures are the
Crook (pot-hook), the Chair, the Door, the Midden with the Maggots,
the Bourne, the Loch, and the Flood. Again the same holy number.
In both tales, the story is gradually developed from the house
away into open Nature. But in the Shetland story the Maiden is
wanting. No human being enters there into the general grie£ It
is as if in the German story there were a marked feeling of the
universal kinship of all things, animate and even inanimate. This
is a trait often met with in Teutonic folklore.
Finally, in the Shetland story, as in the German one. Water is
the great equalising power in which everything is carried away.
So we have here, perhaps, one of those Water-tales in which the
Teutonic stock is especially rich.
A few words more as to some details. The " Crook " is the pot-
hook which is linked on a chain, and hung over the fire in the
middle of the house. The same contrivance could formerly, and can
no doubt still now, be seen in many a Geiman peasant house,
even as in Shetland.
From the Crook to the Chair, from the Chair to the Door, from
the Door to the Midden, from the Midden to the Burn, from the
Bum to the Loch, and then to the Flood, is certainly, in the Shet-
land tale, quite a regular line of connection, bringing matters, from
the inside of the house, gradually into the open to the final
catastrophe.
There are, in the Shetland story, several words of close relation
with German, either as it is written, or as it is spoken in dialects.
GRUnrS TALE IN SHETLAND. 351
When the Flech 'snappers," that reminds us of tlie Franconian
dialect word : uvischnappen, in the sense of : to stumble. When
the Crook " wig-wags," we may easily think of the German dialect
word : ivickelwackeln. So also, the maeds (maggots) arc the German
Miulen. In pronunciation, the Shetlanders lack the English "th."
" The," with them, is da — as in German : der, die, das, " Thou,"
with them, is dii — as in German. " Then " is dan — ^as in German :
dan7i,
Harra has been explained already in a foot-note as a Norse
word. The same holds good for scrieg (to swarm, to run over, to
jump) — another local form of which, a Shetland friend tells me,
is scried, and which corresponds to the Old Norse : skrida, " To
tjcrieg" is of the same root as the German Heu-schrecke (grass-
hopper or hay-swarmer, as it were) ; schrecken being an old, and
still a dialect, word for : ** to jump," or " to make jump." (See
Luther's translation of "Job," xxxix. 20. The English translation,
which has the words, "make the horse afraid as a grasshopper,"
instead of "make the horse jump as a grasshopper," is an erroneous
one.) The Heu-schrecke is, therefore, also called Heu-springer, or
Bjyrengling,
A truly Teutonic humour is contained in the description of how
Loose and Flech are " shaking tlieir sheets." The dirtiest of the
Shetland peasantry may at one time, so I am told, have tried to rid
themselves of vermin by shaking the bed sheets over glowing
<5mbers. A cleanlier generation then humorously put the recollec-
tion of this habit into a story of these very insects, making thevi
^ager for the decencies of life in the same unsophisticated manner.
Now, how did this tale wander to the far North ? Was it
brought there by German seamen ? The relations of the Hanse
towns with Shetland are of ancient date. In the new Town Hall
At Lerwick, the recollection of this old intercourse is visible in a
stained glass window sent as a present, some five or six years ago,
by the town of Hamburg. On this subject a Shetland friend
writes : —
" The painted window bears a Latin inscription setting forth
that it is given in memory of friendly offices afforded in the past to
seamen and fishermen of that city's marine. Above are the arms
of Hamburg, and all around is an emblematic border of nets, fish,
seaweed, shells, and so forth, while a copy of an old engraving of
Hamburg in the la^t century occupies a central place in the window.
About the same time the city of Amsterdam gave a similar one,
which is placed in the same room. The inscription is almost
352 ARCHAEOLOGY.
identical with that of the Hamburg window. Up to the early part
of this century, the chief trade was with Hamburg. I have seen
fire-places in old houses here fitted with Dutch or German blue and
white tiles which had been brought direct hither. When I was a
boy, many old people here spoke Low Dutch fluently, and it is only
forty years ago since foreign coins passed current here in the shops
along with English money. I can recollect, as of yesterday, being.
asked in the street : " Qiiaet jy oude Jan Hooford oop die Heine
Straafe ? " (" Do you know old John Gifford in the narrow lane ? ")
I don't know the correct spelling, but that is about the sound. And
the skippers of the busses^ were known familiarly all over the town
by name, coming as they did every year to Lerwick.
Considering this old and long intercourse, one may naturally be
inclined to think that the Shetland version of the tale here given is-
based on a German one, being brought over by Hanseatic skippers.
Or are we to look upon the northern story as the remnant of a com-
mon inheritance from a still older Germanic past ? Be that as it
may, at all events every one who prizes folklore traditions must feel
a strange thrill when suddenly finding a piece from the jewel-
casket of Grimm's Tales, in a somewhat changed setting, lying on
the shore of the Northern Thule.
Karl Blinix
^ Herring boats.
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS.
In the study of rude stone monuments of a prehistoric age, it seems to me
that archrcologists have arrived at a period when they should make \ip their
miuds to depend upon individual scientific research for a solution of the
problems to which these monuments have given rise, and no longer to pin
their faith to authors whose knowledge is superficial, and whose theories
are based upon no solid and sure foundation. Error propagates error, and
the conjectures and erroneous conclusions of writers who have no doubt
deservedly been credited with great scientific wisdom in other branches of
antiquarian pursuits, have contributed much to retard the progress of this
particular study. It is very discouraging and most mortifying to contem-
plate what a trifling progress has been made in regard to the science of
prehistoric monuments since the ITtli century, when attention was directly
called to them.
One thing is quite certain that the requisite knowledge is not to be
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 353
acquired in a day ; it is the result of a long, close and patient study ; it
must be the devotion of a life. If a comparative anatomist is to be re-
garded as a trustworthy guide and teacher, ho must not be satisfied with
merely gazing at skeletons through the glass frames of museum cabinets.
If a botanist or numismatist would take his place as an experienced and
erudite leader in his own special field of labour, ho must be much more
than a mere collector of specimens and coins. And so it must be as re-
gards the expositor of megalithio monuments. The reason why so little
knowledge prevails among Archaeologists in the British Isles and on the
Continent is not far to seek. Writers upon the subject of megaliths
commonly display the most profound ignorance of the monuments; and if
they have the skill to wield the pen of ready writers, and embellish their
productions with numerous woodcuts, which are only copies of sketches
found in the works of other scribblers, and which they imagine will illus-
trate and support their conjectures, they are esteemed sound teachers, and
are quoted as infallible authorities. No work of recent days has been
productive of greater injury to the cause than the plausible theories and
fallacious arguments contained in a volume on '^ Rude Stone Monuments
in all Countries, their age and uses." This book is frequently appealed to
and quoted by home and foreign authors as if it were a rich and valuable
store- house of facts ; whereas it is nothing of the kind, and every copy
should be committed to the flames. The truth has been so greatly ob-
scured and distorted, that it is not easy, indeed it is impossible, for
students, who have a desire to learn and have not the leisure or oppor-
tunity to test the accuracy of plans and descriptions, to avoid being misled.
Tliis is a certainty, to which we are led, by noticing the fatal mistakes
which are constantly made by youthful inquirers, and even by reputable
antiquaries. Tlie late Mr. Worsaae and others have not been free from this
imputation. Had these writers been better informed, we should never
have heard of Druids' altars ; Free-standing and earthfast dolmens ;
Tripod dolmens ; Demi dolmens ; Dolmens erected upon the summit of
artificial mounds ; Phallic monoliths ; sacred circles ; Kut circles in the
Jordan valley likened to Stonehenge ; receptacles or basins on the covering
stones of dolmens for receiving the blood of human and other victims ; all
which appellations indicate a deficiency of knowledge which is perfectly
amazing, and a blind acceptance of the statements of authors whom I have
the temerity to censure. One of these undiscerning gentlemen, when
describing the monuments of Moab, laments his inability at the moment
" to consult Mr. J. Fergusson's beautiful hook on Rude stone monuments,
having left the book in England," and hopes to be able " to correct and
supplement his Report at a future period, after reference to this (^reat
architectural authority" (The italics are mine.) This passage fully
justifies the remark made above that mcgalithic science would have a
chance of progressing in the right direction, if a clean sweep could be made
of every existing copy of this most mischievous book and destroyed.
I have had to endure many mournful reflections since Mr. Fergusson's
book was published, not only on account of its argument which is
ingenious, and its inaccurate and exaggerated representations of many of
the monuments in the numerous woodcuts it contains, but because I fore-
saw that the reputation of its author would give it a fictitious value in the
354 AECHyEOLOGT.
estimation of ill-informed students. And this has com^ to pass. The con-
sequence has been that many books and pamphlets have been printed
relating to mcgalithic monuments which are filled with fanciful theories
more or less in accordance with the views of Mr. Fergusson. respecting
their true construction, and the uses for which these structures were
originally erected.
Where then, it may be asked, is a student to look for sound teaching
when he is warned that he is surrounded by so much error 1 This question
may be solved in the following way. Let him use his own eyes, and re-
solve not to consult beautiful books. Let him closely observe and compare
the monuments, measure them and plot them to scale. Let him be in no
hurry to draw conclusions, and give no opinion, until he has accumulated
hundreds of ground plans, sections and elevations. Should he be unable
to do this, then let him turn his attention to some other subject.
The above has been written not for the purpose of discouraging inquirers,
but to make them cautious, and for the purpose of pointing out the only
true method by means of which sound views upon this subject may be
acquired. While other branches of archaeological science have progressed
with fairly rapid strides, it is a fact which cannot be gainsaid that the
knowledge of rude stone monuments has been nearly at a stand-still for
two centuries. The truth is not to be arrived at by argument, but by
careful and patient observation, experience, and common sense.
W. C. LuKis.
EXHIBITION OF EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.
As this exhibition will continue open at the Egyptian Hall until July
14, it will be well to indicate to antiquaries what classes of objects
are comprised in the collection.
The most striking feature is a series of about thirty portraits of Egyp-
tians, Levantines, and Romans, dating from tbe second and third centuries
A.D. These are painted in coloured wax on very thin cedar panels, appearing
much like oil paintings. Their art is excellent, ranking with the best class
of Pompeian paintings ; and in many cases they are in fine condition.
Some of the most brilliant were kept at the Bulak Museum. These
portraits were all discovered on the faces of mummies by Mr. Flinders
Petrie in his excavations in the great cemetery of the Fayum province at
Hawara ; and there are several examples of the munamies, shewing the
manner in which the portraits were bandaged on. Some of these are also
brilliantly decorated. The earlier stage of gilt and painted cartoniiage
coverings is well represented ; some of the gilt heads being remarkably
well modelled. Of the embroideries found with the mummies there are
many examples. There is also a large number of wreaths and bunches of
dried flowers, which were laid on the mummies, both in the coffins of
INDEX NOTES. 355
Ptolemaic age, and iu the open earth burials of Roman times. Five wooden
sarcophagi stand in the middle of the room, some with the mummies still
in them. On the tables are several Greek funereal inscriptions ; various
toys found in gravest-dolls, toilet boxes, glass flaskets, a toy-mirror, beads,
«kc. ; several glass vessels, including one upright tall glass covered with
wheel-cut patterns ; parts of a casket with carved ivory panels ; various
tools — mallet, drills, combs, knives, saucers of paint, ka. ; wooden tickets
with Greek inscriptions, which were attached to the mummies ; a maguifi-
cent flint knife, and various lesser ones, probably made about 1400 b.o. ;
some carved wood amulets, &c. ; ,sevoral kinds of late Roman minimi, with
the jars belonging to them ; a leaden cinerary urn ; a quantity of pottery
some with owners' names incised, Isaky lakeb, &c, ; many examples of
leather shoes, gilt and decorated, papyrus sandals, and one pair of cork
soles ; while of papyri there are several samples from the large collection
made during the excavations, including the papyrus containing part of the
second book of the Iliad, and the earliest known example of printing by an
inked stamp.
On one side stand the fragments of the great colossi mentioned by
Herodotus, which were unearthed at Biahmu last January. Besides the
above (which have been all discovered by Mr. Petrie this year in the
private work which he has carried out with the assistance of some friends),
there is a collection of other antiquities purchased in Egypt; mostly glazed
amulets and ushabtis, and a series of scarabs with royal and private names.
INDEX NOTES.
10. Roman Remains in London, i. North Side of the Thames.
((hntiiw^ from amie p. 278^.
Lombard Street, animal bones, coins, &c., depth 15 to 22 feet. Evidences
of a densely populated djuitrict, Fibulse,^^ bronze dish with handles,
tessellated pavement, depth 12 feet, near Sherbourne Lane, breadth
East to West 20 feet, found in 1785, observed again in 1840, when
coins of the early Emperors, Amphorso, flue tiles and other pottery were
discovered ; cartloads of pottery removed to mend the roads at St.
George's Fields. Arch., viiL ; Hughson's London^ i., 34 ; (hnt. Mag.,
1807, i., 415-417 ; CfuUd Mxu. ; Brit. Arch. Assoc., xxiv., 186 ; Maitland
HUt. Loiid. (Entick. 1145).
London Stone, Camden Brit. ed. 1607, 304 ; Gale. Iter. Brit., 89 ; Arch., xxxiii.,
115 ; Wrens ParetUalia, 265, 266; Proc. Soc. AiUiq., i. 293-295; Stow,
84 ; Liber De Aiitiqiiis Legibiis, 636; Hardyng^s Chro^Mes, 41 ; Tess, Favt.,
55, 66.
London Wall, aqueduct, (subterranean), depth 19 feet, arch composed of fifty
tiles, coins, drinking cups and other pottery, rings, <&c., Samian ware,
Ac. Arch., xxix., 152; Qt^\t. Mag., 1836, L, 135-137 ; Brit. Arch.
Assoc., xxiii., 91; Stow, 3-5 ; Smith's Topog. Loi\dUyn, 1815 ; Woodward's
Letter to Sir C. Wren, 12-14.
17 This particular find of Broochei was so large that the quantity on one spot led to th#
conjecture that the site had been occupied by a «feweUer in ancient times.
356 ARCHEOLOGY.
LoTHfiURY, coins, lamps, pottery, sandals and shoes, reticulated and plain
tessellated pavements, depth 12 feet. Arch., xxviii., 142-152 ; Brit. M\%t^\
Earn. Loud., 66; Mus. Pract. Geol. ; Ge^U. Mag., 1843, iL, 532-533.
Love Lane, Samian pottery, undescribed. Mtis. Frac. Gecl.
LuDOATE Hill, sepulchral monument with inscription, altar with inacriptioiiy
sculpture, &c. Arch.y xli., 46 ; O&id. Mcm., 1806, ii., 792 ; CM. Atdiq.,
i., 131 ; Malcolm Loiui. Eediv^ iv. 381 ; Hiibiier, vii. 23 ; ChiUd M^u. ;
Camdeiij i., 92 ; CoU. Antiq., i., 127 ; Hordey, 331 ; lUnn, IxfticLy 22 ;
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.
Maiden Lane (Battle Bridge), sepulchral stone inscribed in memory of a soldier
of the twentieth legion. Cat. Lond. Antiq, ; Rom. Lond. ; GefU. Mag.,
1842, ii., 144-146 ; Hithur, vii., 22 ; Hone's Eveiy-Day Book^ iL, 1566.
Mansell Street (Whitechapel), small leaden coffin (ornamented with beaded
pattern) containing the remains of a child, near it cinerary urns, skeletons,
beads and bracelets, in bronze and jet. P^-oc. Soc. Aiitiq. let ser., 349-57;
Proc. E. M. L.d; Midd. A. Soc. 1860 p. 81.
Mansion House (sewage excavations). Bronzes, figure of Mars, draughtsmen,
fibula, keys, Samian and other pottery. GuUd Mus. ; Brit. Arch. Astoc^
XXV., 392.
Mark Lane, Axe, with cinerary urns and pottery. Granary for com found in
1676, depth 28 feet. Leland Cd., i., 71. ; Brit. Arch, Assoc., xxiv., 288;
Baily Mss.
Milk Street (Cheapside), beads, bronze mask, pottery. Baily Mss. ; OuSd,
Mus.
Mill Yard (Goodman's Fields), pottery. Brit. Arch. Assoc, vii., 168.
Milton Street, bronze three-legged pot. Baily Mss.
MiNCiNO Lane, BUme base and capital of column, tessellated pavement, depth 12
feet, quantities of pottery, concrete, and tiles ; below a secoft-d floor of
gravel, lime, and tiles, resting on tlie natural soil between the floon
fragments of stone were found. This is a unique illustration of two
distinct periods of building in the Roman city. Coins of early date, bone
pins, pottery, and also remains of buildings. Free. 3. M. Z/ft. <£: Midd.
Arch. Soc, 1861, p. 91 ; Brit. Arch. Assoc., xi., 442.
MiNORiES, interment by inhumaticm, pottery, drain and roof tiles, leaden coflSn.
Brit. Arch. Assoc., ix., 161 ; xiii. 239 ; Froc. Soc. Antiq. ^ Ist ser., iiL,
17.
Monument, remains of baths, tessellated work, tiles, &c. Gtut. Mag., 1831,
i., 95.
Moor Lane, iron horse shoes, keys. Brit. Arch. Assoc., xxii., 120 ; xxiii., 448 ;
L. <t' Midd. Arch. Soc., iii.
MooRFiELDs (Railway Excavations), fine Upchurch ware. Baily Mss.
MooRGATE Street ('* Swan's Nest'* in Great Swan Alley, on the bank of the
watercourse, Wallbrook) ; a pit or well containing coins, boathook, and
bucket handle ; pottery of various kinds, depth 20 feet. Arch., xxviiL,
142-152 ; Ibid., xxix. ; L. d: Midd. Arch. Soc., iii., 506, 607 ; Cai. LofuL
Autiq.j 17 ; Brit. Mm.
*
Newcastle Street (Farringdon Street), coins, pottery, iron stylus. Bi-it. Arch'
Assoc., 1844, 08 ; Num. Chron., vii., 192.
Newgate, portions of the city wall, Mortaria, pottery, tiles, &c. Lmid db Midd.
Arch Soc., i., 195 ; Price's Aniiq;\dties.
Christ's Hospital, fragments of stone column. Arch., xxviii., 411.
Angel Street and Butcher Hall Lane (King Edward Street), beads,
bones, coins, pottery, traces of the city wall. Arch,, xxiv. Gtnt. Mag.,
1843, i., 21, 22 ; ii., 81, 416, 417.
Nicholas Lane, level 12 to 15 feet, amphone, beads, coins, lamps, glass, pottery,
urns, tiles and walls, inscribed stone, Provincia Britanniae, inscribed
slab, depth 11 feet. Brit. Mm. ;Coll. Antiq., iii., 257; Gent. Mag., 1850,
114; JJiibi^er, vii., 22, 23; Bom. Loiui., 29; Arch., viii., 129; Afiis.
Fraet. Gecl.
Northumberland Alley, pavement, depth 12 feet, in the collection of the Society
of Antiquaries of London, a fragment is preserved.^® Arch., xxxix., 491-
502.
IS Mr. Albert Way's Catalogue of the Antiquities in the possession of the Society ctf
Antiquaries, 1847, 12.
INDEX NOTES. 357
KoTTiNG Hill, stone coflin containing skeleton and bones, depth 6 feet. Oent.
Man., 1841.
Old Bailey, city wall in a line with the prison, a perfect votive arm in terra
cotta, from Bishop's Court. Ouild. Mus. ; Frice's Rom. Antiq.
Old Ford, coins, leaden coffin containing human skeleton with lime, lid orna-
mented with cable moulding ; stone coffins, pottery, &c., near the Saxon
Road and Coborn Road, Bow, 60 yards south of the Roman way, depth
30 inches only ; vase of potteiy filled with coins of Allectus. Bnt, Arch.
Assoc. y i. 327 ; Proc. E. M. L. mid M. A. Soc.^ 81 ; Proc. Soc. Antiq. ^
1840, 1st ser. 57 ; L. (ukI Midd. ArcJi. Soc, iii. 207 ; I^nm. Chron.y ser.
ii., 304, 306.
Pa^cras Lane, pavements, pottery, &c. Gent. Ma<f., 1795, 986.
Paternoster Row, coins, Samian and other pottery, tessellated pavement,
tile tomb [see aidrC p. 275, note 2]. Ai'ch. xxvi., 396 ; xxix., 155 ; Kom,
Loiid., 57 ; BaUy Mas.
Petticoat Lane, torso of statue in white marble, depth 17 feet. Brit, Arch,
Assoc. J i. 329 ; Vest. Bom. Loiid.
Philpot Lane, bronze water cock (Epistomium), glass, Samian ware, and other
pottery. Brit. Arch. Assoc.^ ix. 190 ; Miis. Prcvc. Geol. ; Rom. Lond.^ 145.
Playhouse Yard (near to Apothecaries' Hall), inscribed stone. Coll. Antiq.^ i.
125 ; Hubn^r, vii. 22 ; Rom. Loiid., 27.
Princes Street (Bank), coins, fibulae, keys, knives, needles in brass and bone,
spatulte, styli, curious ornamented object resembling the modem steel
for sharpening knives. Arch., xxviiL 140, 152.
Postern Row, city wall. Gent. Ma^. , 1843, i. 607, 608 ; Price's Rom. Antiq.
PcJDDiNO Lane, hypocaust, strong walls of tile and stone, pavements, inscribed
tile, amphone. Arch., xxix. 154 ; Proc. Soc, Antiq., 2ud ser., xii. 128.
Queen Street (Cheapside), bronze figure of an archer found in 1842, horse
furniture and finger ring, lamps, Samian and Upchurch ware. Arch., xxx.
543, 544 ; Fairholt, Miscellanea Graphica, No. 8 ; L. and Midd, Arch,
Soc, i. 134.
Queen Victoria Street, Arcafinnlis or limitary mark, depth 30 feet ; artisans'
tools, beads, candlesticks, chains, coins, fibulse, and a varied collection of
personal ornaments in bronze, glass, hinges, horse furniture, keys and
knives, lamps and lamp stands, manacles, perfume boxes, sandals and
shoes ornamented and plain ; Strigils, Styli, Samian, Durobrivian, and
Upchurch pottery in miantities ; potters' marks, many yet unpublished ;
**st<me pine"^" or Pintis pinea of Linneus, its fruit raiv. Coote's
Ronuins of Britain, 435; Brit, Arch. Assoc., xxix. 85; Price's Rom. AiUiq,
Ratcliffb Hir.HWAY, bronze fibula. Brit, Arch. Assoc., x. 91 ; Proc. Sf/c. Antiq.,
iii. 15 ; Trans, L. and M, Arch. Soc, iii. 15.
Royal Exchanue, pit 19 feet deep,-° filled with refuse of animal and vegetable
matter, bones, coins, fibuhe, lamps, glass, sandals and shoes, ''^^ Samian
pottery, Styli in bronze and iron, Strigils, writing tablets (pugillares).
Arch., xxix. 268 ; CcU. Ant, Royal EoccJi , 39 ; Brit. Arch. Assoc, vii. 82 ;
Guild. Mus. ; Num. Chron., iii. 193 ; Rom. Lo)id., 13, 137.
St. Martin's-in-the-Fiblds, brick arch found in 1722, depth 14 feet ; stone
coffin containing ashes and glass, in digging foundations for the portico.
Brayley's Lmi. and Midd,, i, 90 ; Camden Britt,, ii. 93.
^^ A large proportion of these objects were discovered while excavating for the premises of
the National Safe Deposit Company's offices, and those found in its site are preserved in
their integrity in a separate case at the Guildhall Museum. It is seldom that such relics
connected with the Roman cuisine are discovered ; this fruit, which was considered to have
been introduced into this country in the year 1548, is still an article of sale. It is referred
to by Apicius in his recipes for sauces for boiled fish. Arch., xli. 283, 324.
'<" At this time a singular notice was posted at the Royal Exchange to the effect that if
coins or other objects were delivered to the authorities, the workmen would be rewarded ;
but if found secreting th^ same, they would be prosecuted for felony.
^^ It may be remarked that all collections of Roman relics from the city are exceptionally
rich in sandals and shoes, both in reticulated patterns and plain ; they abound in certain
localities. Leather yields to the destructive action of atmospheric air and moisture, and it
is only in localities where the air has been excluded that such can be preserved ; the most
favourable sites have proved to be Lothbury, Princes Street, site of the Exchange and river
bed.
358 ARCHEOLOGY.
St. Martdi's le Grand, artisans' tools, bone Bi>oonB {Cochlearia)^ bronze fibula,
keys, objects in Terra Cotta, viz., lamp with four spouts, and figure of
Yen us, crucibles, quern or hand mill, upper and lower stones perfect,
city wall, perfect section, 100 feet exposed. Guild Miut. ; 3rit, Ard^
Assoc., xxix. 202 ; Froc. Soc, Aidiq,, ser. ii., iv., 4G6 ; X. o^id Midd,
Arch. Soc., iv. 124 ; Atheiutum, 28 April, 1888.
St. Mary at Hill, bones, bricks, coins, and pottery, found in 1774. Arck^ iv,
356 ; Malcolm, Loiid. Red., iii. 619.
St. Marylebone, coins, large bronze key. Brayley, Ixni, aivd Afidd.^ L 91 ;
Camden Britt, ii. 93.
St. Mildred's Coitrt (Poultry), fibulae, pottery, tessellated pavement, the de-
sign much enhanced in effect by the introduction of coloured glass,-*
Statera or steelyard (plated). Mvs. Pract. Ged. ; Arch. Assoc, ^ x., iii. ;
Guild. Mu8.; L. aiid Midd. Arch. Soc., iii. 217.
St. Paul's, Bones, coins, potters kilns found in 1677, depth about 15 or 16 feet,
contained perfect specimens of bottles, dishes, lamps, urns, &c., psTe-
ments, Samian pottery. Cdl. Antiq., vi. 173 ; Geitt. Afctg., 1843, iL
632-533 ; 1841, ii. 263-265 ; Parentalia, 286 ; Sloane MSS. Brit. Miu.,
968 fol. 105 ; Rom. Loud., 79.
St. Peter's Hill, Wall of brick in courses with rubble, depth 5 feet 10 inches.
Arch., xl. 48.
Scots Yard, Pavements, depth 30 feet, a wall of great strength crosaed the
street diagonally, in width it measured 20 feet. Arch. , xxix. 156 ; Bom.
Lond., 14 ; L. and Midd. Arch. Soc., iii. 213.
Seething Lane, Bronze arm, fragments of a statue of heroic size found at the
bottom of a well, tessellated pavements adjoining foundation of St.
Olave's Church. Proc. Soc. Antiq. ; ChiUd. Mns. ; Arch., xxix. 153.
Seraion Lane, Beads, bronze objects (undescribed). Guild. Mvs.
Shadwell, Bones, leaden coffin, pins, urns, &c. Brayley Lotid. afid Midd.y L
89 ; Maitland Hist. Loixd., 782 ; Brit. Mvs.
Sherbourne Lane, Pavement, depth 12 feet, width 20 feet, east to west, length
not ascertained, others at divers levels, walls with other debris of bu3d-
ings, many peif orated by flues. Arch., viii. 116-132; xzxix. 492; Price's
Tess. Par., 18.
Shoe Lane, Pottery, Samian ware, numerous potters' names. OeiU. Mag..
1843, 639.
Skinner Street, Samian bowl, embossed. Guild. Mus.
Snow Hill (Railway Excavations), earthenware dishes. BaUy Mss.; GuQd.
Mus.
Spitalfields, Glass ossuary or um, with handle.-** (St. Mary Spital Church-
yard)— Excavations in 1676, coins, glass, pottery, stone coffins. Maitland
Hist. Loud., 746 ; Stmi\ 64.
Steelyard (Dowgate), Embankment of great strength and durability, many of
the timbers as much as 18 inches square, a bronze figure of *' Hope," coins^
fish hooks, glass, keys, knives, hanging lamp, with six spouts, pins,
spoons, Strigils, sandals, and shoes in quantities. L, and Midd. Arch.
Soc., iii. 77.
Suffolk Lane, Buildings of superior class, frescoes, a fragment representing a
youthful head, winged. Bi-it. Arch. Assoc., iv. 388 j Proc. Soc. Antiq ,
Ist ser., 1855, 194.
Swan Lane, Bronze statuettes, figures of Minerva and Fortune, likewise a
**Lar." Brit. Mm.
Thames (Barnes), bronze statuettes. Brit. Arch. Assoc., iL 100.
(Battersea), pewter cakes stamped syagrivs and the Christian mono-
gram. Arch. Inst., xvi. 38 ; xxiii. 283 ; Hiibner, vii. 22, 23, 1221 ; Proc
Soc. Anti(f, 2nd series, iL 234 ; Bnt. Mus.
(Hammersmith), spear heads. Bmhj Mss. ; Guild. Mus.
(Putney), iron sword (Parazonium), with remains of bronze sheath —
ornamentation, birds with foliage, Romulus and Remus suckled by the
wolf, found in 1873. Brit. Mus. [See note 30.]
^ Drawing in tbe possession of John E. Gardner, F.S.A.
2* Presented by Sir Christojiher Wren to the Royal Society. Parentaiia, 265. This pro-
bably belonged to the Ancient Cemetery, described by Stow " as Lolesworth. now
Spittleficld.'^
INDEX NOTES. 359
Thames Street (Lower), Coal Exchange, remains of dwelling-house, bath, hypo-
caust, 4&C., &c., pins, pottery, and tiles, depth 10 feet 2 inches from sur-
face, and 1 foot above high water level, finger rings with perfume box.
Froc. Soc. Antiq.f Ist ser., 1848, 240; 2nd ser., ii. 163 ; BrU. Ardu
Assoc., iv. 38.
(South Side), enbankment depth 10 feet to 20, formed of trees,
oak and chestnut. Hist, aiul Antiq. St. MkhaeVs Crooked Laiie, p. 14.
(near London Bridge), Amphorse, coins in numbers, gold, silver, and
brass, among them leaden examples, Nero and Aurelian bronzes, figures
of goats, peacock, head of wolf or dog, head, portrait of Hadrian, bronze
instrument, a pair of brays or forceps for the nose of a victim ; on the
shanks are busts of the (lods presiding over the days of the week, viz.^
Cybele, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Ceres on one side, on the other
Juno, Mars, Diana, Apollo and Saturn, all indicated by their peculiar
attributes ; statuettes of Apollo, Mercury, Priest of Cybele, Jupiter and
Harpocrates ; wooden piles encrusted with conglomerate and coins. Brit,
Mas.; ArcJi., xxiv. 190, 202 ; xxv. pi. 24 ; Coll. ArUiq., ii. 60; iii. vii. ;
Brit. Arch. Assoc., i. 285, iv. 67 ; Ram. Loi\d., 21, 66, 68, 69, 72, 76 ; Qeiit
Mag., 1827, ii. 69 ; 1835, i. 491, 493 ; Num. Chran., iv. 147, 168.
Threadxeedle Street, tessellated pavements-* found in excavating the foun-
dations of the French Protestant Church in Threadneedle Street to pre-
pare for the Hall of Commerce in 1841. Brit. Mas. ; Bomt. Land, 56.
Three King's Court (Lombard Street), bends of glass, bone draughtsmen, bronze
objects, lamps, padlocks. ChiiU. Mus.
Throgmorton Street, Samian ware un described. Mus. Fract. Geol,
ToKEXHOUSE Yard, bronze fibuhs, handles of boxes or caskets, knives, lamp and
stands, trimmer for lamp, spindles and whorls, locks and keys, pottery,
fine Upchurch ware (site of the New Auction Mart). Baily Mss. ; L. and
Midd. Arch. Soc., iiL 217, 219 ; CuUd. Miis. ; Brit. Mm.
Tower, inscribed stone sepulchral, found in 1777 ; coins, ingot of silver,
stamped ; inscribed stone, depth 18 feet ; hand of colossal bronze statue ;
leaden coffin, portion of the City wall,-' pavements, pottery, traces of
dwellings towards the river, sculptures, tablet inscribed. Hiibner, vii.
23; Cdh AiUiq., i. 140; OeiU. Mag., 1784, 403; Arch., v., 292; Rom.
Land., 25, 31, 65 ; Brit. Arch. Assoc., vii., 241 ; xxxviii., 127, 135, 447 ;
Rom. Land., 15-27.
Tower Hill,- ^ sepulchral stone, inscribed. Brit. Mus. ; Arch. 7«^i., ix., 4 ;
Brit. Arch. Assoc., viii., 241 ; Ram. Land., 28 ; HObn^r, vii., 23.
Trinity Court (Basinghall Street), pottery, late period. Baily Mss. ; Guild.
Mns.
Trinity Square, city wall, length removed for railway purposes, 73 feet, tessel-
lated pavement on concrete bed, supported by a substructure of oak
piling. BHt. Arch. Assoc., xxxviii., 447.
Vineyard Street (Minories), city wall : writing of this portion of the wall Dr.
Woodward says: "This is the most considerable remain of Roman
workmanship yet extant in any part of England that I know of." Arch.y
xl., 299.
Wallbrook, bronzes, bones and horns of oxen, cinerary urns, lamps and
pottery. Brit. Arch. AssiK., ix., 82 ; ChUld. AfiM.
Warwick Lane, coins, cinerary urns, pins, pottery in quantities ; perfect
leaden Ossnarid^'^ or cists containing bones, glass vase with handles, tiles,
one inscribed urn with cover cut from a solid block of stone, contained
bones and a coin of Claudius; tile from site of the present ** Cutler's
24 Mr. Roach Smith remarks that as thene pavements were found beneath Threadneedle
Street, it is excluded from any claims as a thoroughfare of remote antiquity.
'^ Drawings in possession of John E. Gardner, F.S.A., unpubhshed, & fine piece of the
wall is yet preserv^ in the vaults of Messrs. Barbers' Warehouses, near Trinity Square.
^ The recent discovery of this portion of the Wall proves the accuracy of the statement
given by Coke in his Institute — *'The Ancient Wall of London extended through the Tower;
all that part on the west is within the City and Parish of All Saints, Barkins. Therefore
Weston the principal and Sir Gervas Elweys the accessory, in the murder of Sir Thomas
Ovcrburv, committed in the Tower on the west of the City Wall, were tried in the City of
London.
'■^ This specimen taken from the City Wall bears a ourioas inicription ; it is now at
Guildhall.
360 ARCHAEOLOGY.
Hall," perfect and inscribed. Arch.^ xlviii., 221-248; Brit. Aftis, ; ChtOd.
Mils, ; Brit. Arch, Assoc.y xliii, 102; Froc, Soc. AiUiq.y 2nd aer., xi. 178;
Guild. Mus.
Watling Street, an ancient way terminating at Dover, continued from Stone
Street, South wark, at the point known as Dowgate, thence along present
way to Aldersgate, whence it quitted the city. Brayley^s L€n\, atul Midd.,
i., 71.
Well Street (Jewin Street), silver coins, bones, urns, &c. Num. Chron.^ ix. 85;
Brit. Arch. Assoc., ii. 273.
We.st Smithfieli), sepulchral remains, wooden coffin with pottery at the crown
of the skull ; Ampullaj, Mortarium, and Patera, at left hand of the inter-
ment ; Armillie, cattle or horse bells, glass, stone coffins, now in St, Bar-
tholomew's Hospital. Gent. Mag., 1843, i. 520 ; L. andMidd, Arch Soc
iii. 37.
Whitechafel (Red Lion Street), sepulchral deposits. ArcJi., xxviii. 403.
Whitecross Street, quern of Purbeck stone. L. and M. Arch. Soc.^ iv. 130;
Guild. Mus.
White Hart Court, Samian bowls. CcU-. Loud, Antiq., 36.
Winchester or Poulett House (old Broad Street), beads, lamps, circular pave-
ment, upon it charred coins, corn, and pottery. Arch, xxxix. 492.^®
Guild. Mus.
Windsor Court (Monkwell Street), pottery, portion of tower of City wall
Baily Mss. ; Guild. Afns.
Wood Street (Cheapside), at the comer of St. Michael's Church, mosaic pave-
ments in profusion, foundations of the church upon them,2» ridge tile in-
scribed. Brit. Mus.; Gent. May., 1834, 157 ; Price's Tess. Pavet.^ p. 23.
ii. — South of the Thames.
Bear Garden (Southwark), Gladiators' tridents, Samian and other pottery.
Brii. Arch. As.sik., xxii. 312.
Blackman Street, Samian bowl. Baily Mss. ; Guild. Afns.
Church Street (Bermondsey), Amphora3, coins, Samian bowls, depth 12 to 14
feet. Brit. Arcli. Assoc., i. 312.
Denmark Street, large vase. Baily Mss. ; Guild. Mus,
Deptford, On the banks of the Surrey Canal, coins in quantities. ^^
Deptford Road, Bricks, the hand of an ancient terminus with two faces a
**Simpulum," and urns in the immediate vicinity. Brayley's Lotid. and
MUld. i. 77 ; Leland Itin.^ viii. 7.
Deveril Street (Southwark), Site of cemetery, amphone and other pottery,
bronze mirrors, urns, with calcined bones. Gent. Maij., 1835, i. 82 • iL
,'103 ; Arch., xxvi. 467 ; xxviii. 412.
Kino's Head Yard (South wark), Amjihorie, coins, bird (tetra cotta) in form of
a whistle, filters, keys, mortaria. Brit. Arch. Assoc., xxxv. 216 ; xxxviL
211 ; xxxviii. 101.
New Kent Road, Coins and pottery. Brit. Arcfi, Assoc., xiii. 321.
Newinoton Road, Water pipes, '^^ near to St. Mary's Churcli. Allen Hist.
Lond., i. 37 ; Brit. Arch. Assoc., xxxi. 211.
^ In this communication there is included a carefully prepared List of Tessellated PftTe-
rocntK found within the city limits.
^ This was also the case at the site of St. Gabriel which formerly stood in Fenchurch
Street. At the depth of 12 feet a tessellated floor was seen in 1833, and between Kood Lane
and Mincing Lane a brick floor was found.
^ These really came from l^ndon liridge. The same as many found in the ballaat spread
on the towing path between Hammersmith and Barnes, as well as at Putney. This fact is
to be recorded as a prevention against unwarranted theories which may be founded in con-
nection with such discoveries at these places.
31 Probably Roman. Allen writes that in 1824 a iK)rtion of the Roman Road from St.
Thomas-a- watering to Stangate was discovered near Newiugton Church.
INDEX NOTES. 361
Park Street (South warkX ir<>nwri)rk, nriils, piles, timbers, and other indications
of a platform of a Roman jetty or landing place, facing Dowgate *mi the
opposite side of the river. Brit, Arch. Assoc, j xxv., 80.
Sr. Saviour's Church (Southwark), Amphorae and other pottery, coins,
glass, personal ornaments, tessellated i)avement, adjoining the church.
Ge^U. Ma^., 1825, ii., 033-634 ; 1832, i., 399-400 ; ii., 17 ; 1840, i., 191-192.
St. Thomas' Hospital (and adjoining), lamps, pavements, and pottery, depth 7
to 8 feet, tessellated floor with passages and walls, ^1 built on piles ; upon
the floor a number of coins of the early Empire, lamps, pottery, SuC.
Arch., xxix., 149 ; Ralph Liu'Asay Etys, of Sonthioarkj 1839.
SouTHWARK, pewter dishes inscribed MartlniiH, inm sickle (rare, smaller than
those now in use, but similar to example at Pompeii) Funchia or trident
used by the Gladiators in combat, styli, A'c. Cat, Load, Antiq., 72 ;
Brit. Mus.
SouTHWARK Street, wooden piling, depth 12 feet, driven straight into the
earth, they varied from 5 to 11 feet in length, and many were as thick
as 12 inches s<|uare ; pottery, walls, &c. Brit. Arch. Assoc,, xxii., 445.
L. and Midd. Arch Soc.^ iii. 213.
TooLEY Street, (near to St. Olave's Church), coins, mortaria and other pottery.
Gent. Ma4j., 1833, i., 482 ; ii., 194.
Tnion Street (South wark), i)ottery. Gent. MoAj.y 1825, ii., 633, 634.
J. E. Price.
11. Foreign Arcuj^ological Societies.
Andree (R.), Swinigel und Hase. Zvit. fiir Ethnul, xix. 674-075.
Ringwall im Homegebirge. Zvit, fiir Ethnol, xix. 727-729.
Bjirtels (M.), Siidslavische Dorfanlagen und Hiiuser. Ztit, fiir Ethiujl. xix.
666-668.
Dorfanlagen im Kreisse Neidenburg Ostpreussen. Zeit. fiir EthnoL,
xix. 676-678.
Bastian (A.), Sammlung des Leutnant Wissmann. Zeit. fiir Ethnd, xix. 682-688.
Priestor-Konigthum. Zeit fiir Ethnol. xix. 711-712.
Behla (A.), 3 neu entdeckte Rundw^le in der Umgebung Luckau's. Zeit, fiir
Ethnol. xix. 609.
Berger (V.), Die Kirche zu St. Georgen in Niedorheim. Mitth. der K, K, Central
Comm. xiv. 40-41.
Binzer (Hr. v.), Ausgrabungen im Sachseuwalde. Zeii, fiir Ethn^tl. xix. 726-727.
Boeheim (W.), Alte Glasgemalde in Wiener- Neustadt. Mitth. der K. K. Central
Comm. xiv. 22-25.
Brausewetter (F.), aus dem nordostlichen Bohmen. Mitth, der K, K, Centnd
Comm. xiv. 26-30.
Deschmann (K.)* Neueste Funde romischcr Steinsarge in Laibach. Mitth, der
K, K. CeiUral-Comm. xiv. 5-7.
Die alt en Glasmalereien der Kirche des heiL Laurentius zu St. Leonard im
Lavantthale. Mitth, der K, K, Central Comm. xiv. 30-32.
Die St. Johannes- Kirche zuTaufers im Miinsterthale. Mitth. der K. K. Central
Comm. xiv. 37-40.
Emerson (A.), The portraiture of Alexander the Great ; a terra-cotta head in
Munich. American Journ. Arch. iii. 243-260.
Evans (S. B.), The sculptured stone of Tezcuco. American Antiq. x. 179-186.
Frothingham (A. L.), Letter from Ri>ma [recent discoveries]. American Arch
Journ. iii. 387-392.
(jrhirardini (G.), Intomialle Antichita scoperte nel fondo Baratela. Notizie de^li
scavi di Aniichitd, Genn. Feb. 1888. Pp. 1-42. 71-127. PI. 1.12. Rome.
Cioodycar (VV. H.), Egyptian origin of the Ionic capital and of the Anthemiuu.
Am^ricnn Journ. Arch. iii. 271-302.
2 a
362 ARCHAEOLOGY.
Greini)ler ( ), die Dreii*ollen-Fil>eln von Sakrau. Zeit, fiir Efhnol, six.
654-055.
Helm (Otto), Herkunft dcs BeniBteins an einigen Fibeln im Museum zu Ellagen-
furt. Zeit. fiir EfknU. xix. 604-605.
Ilg (A.), Lunz und Unigeliung. Mifth. der K. K, Central Camm, xiv. 41-47.
Jagor ( ), Ausstellung von den Philippinischen Inseln in Madrid. Zeit. fiir
EthnoL xix. 730-731.
Jenny (S.), Bauliche Ueberroste eines Privatbades in der Oberstadt von Brigan-
tium. Mitth. der K, K. Central-Comm. xiv. pp. 3-5.
Glasgemalde aus Vorarlberg. Mitth. der K. K. Centred Conitn. xiv.
18-22.
Jentsch (H.), niederlausitzische Alterthiimer. Zeit. fiir Ethnd. xix. 721-722.
Kaufmann (R. von), das Graberfeld von Schlaupitz, Kr. Rcichenbach Schlesien.
Zeit. fiir Ethnd. xix. 678-682.
•
Lenike (E.), prahistorische Bogi-abnissplatze in Kerpen, Ostpr. 2jeit. fiir Ethnol.
xix. 609-613.
Lewis (T. H.), The old fort eai-tliworks of Greenup county, Kentucky. Am^i-
can Journ. Arch. iii. 375-382.
Marquand (Allan). A Silver Patera from Kourion. American Jonnh. Arch. iii.
322-337.
Meniam(A. C), Painted sepulchral stclai fix>m Alexandria. American Journ.
Arch. iii. 261-2(J8.
Greek inscriptions published in 1886-87. Atnerican Jaum. Aixh. iii.
303-321.
Muck (M.), Die Bronzcschatz von grehin gradae in der Herzegovina. Mitth. der
K. K. Central Comm. xiv. 7-15.
Miiller (R.), Die Capello des graflichen Schlosses in Reichenberg. Mitth, der
K. K. Central Comm. xiv. 1-3.
Olshausen ( ), iiber Graber der Bronzozeit in Hintei*ponunern untersuoht
durch Dr. W. Konig in Stettin. Ziit fiir Ethnol. xix. 605-607.
neue (ilasgemnien vom Typus der Alsener und iiber Verwandte der
Briesenhorster. Zeit. fiir Ethnd. xix. 688-711.
Ramsay (W. M.), Anticjuitiesof Southern Phrygiaand the borderlands. Ameri-
can Journ. Arch. iii. 344-3(58.
Schierenberg (G. A. B.), das Mithraeum in Ostia und das in den Extemsteinen.
Zeit Jiir Ethnol. xix. 608.
Schonbrunner (F.), die Tempera-Gemiilde auf der Riickseite des Verduncr Altares
in Klostcmeuburg. Mitth. der K. K. Central Comm. xiv. 33-34.
Schreiber (T. ), Mittheilungen aus italienischen Museen. A merican Jovrn. A rch .
iii. 369-374.
Schulenburg (W. von.), Hauser init Eulenlochem in der Priegnitz und Westfalen.
Zeit. fiir Ethnol. xix. 5()7-r)68.
Schwartz (W.), Alte Hausanlagen. Zeit. fiir Ethnol. xix. 668-671.
Traube(H.), ein neuer Fund von ausstehcndeni Nephrit bei Roichenstein in
Schlesien. Zeit. fiir Ethnol. xix. 652-654.
Ueber verschiedene Kunstdenkmale Tyrols. Mitth. der K. K. Central Comm.
xiv. 35-37.
Virchow (R.), das alte deutsche Haus. Zeit, fiir Ethnol. xix. 568-580.
Ward (W. H.), Notes on Oriental Antiquities, iv. an Eye of Nabu. v. a Babylonian
Bronze Pendant, vi. the Stone Tablet of Abu Habba. American Jo^mi,
Arch. iii. 338-343.
— Aesyro-Babylonian forgery, ii. the S'un-god on Babylonian Cylinders.
American Joini\. Arch. iii. 383-380,
JXD/'JX NOTES. 3G3
Woddiiii; ( \ Alterthiinier vmi Gulbieii, Kr. Rosenberg, Ostpi^usseii. Zeit.
fiir EthiuiL. xix. ()75 ($70.
Wilson (T.), Epitome of prehistoric Archaeol(»gy in Western Europe, part iv.
American AiUiq. x. 168- !<»♦>.
Wiilz (A.), Beitra^re zur Cfcscliichte der OolMjlins iin Dome zu Trient. Mlhh,
der K. K. Central (.'(unni. xiv. 15-18,
W(kkI (H. G.), The Bostcm Cubit. Americfui Jouni. Arch. iii. 269-270.
12. Archaeological Societies of Great Britain, 188G-18S7.
f Tiunsactions of the Somersetshire Archaeological Society, vol. xiii ;
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol.
xxi. (that is ix. n.s. ; for vol. xx. see ante pp. 41-4j4!)].
Acland (Rev. C. L.), some stone ciix;les on the side of a hill at the east end of
Quendale Bay, Shetland. Fioe. S(tc. Antiq. Scot., xxi., 282-284.
Anderson (J.), notice of an urn and four arrowheads of flint fr>und in a cist at
Dairsie, Fifeshire. Froc. S^*c. Antiq. Scot., xxi., 132-133.
Bain (J.), Two original seals of James, iirst Lord Hamilton, one attached to a
document dated in 1457, the other to an oiiginal truce between England
and Scotland, on September 28, 1473. Froc. iSoc. Antiq. Scot,, xxi.,
203-205.
Bates (E. H.), Leland in Somersetahsre, 1540-1542. Somerset Arcli. Soc., xiii.,
60-136.
Batten (John), The early owners of Limington. Somerset Arch. Soc., xiii., 137-
145.
Beddoe (J.), Report on Roman Remains discovered at Northstoke. Somenit*'t
Arch. Soc., xiii, 149-150.
Black (G. F.), a sculptured stone in the Isle of Man, with representation of
Sigurd Fafni's Bane. Froc. S*»\ Antiq. Scot., xxi., 325-338.
Boyd (D. A.), and J. Smith, notice of a i*ock surface, with cuj) marks and other
sculpturings, at Blacksliaw, West Kilbride, Ayrshire. Froc. Soc, Antiq,
Scot. J xxi., 143-151.
Cliristison (D.), the Pre-historic Forts of Peeblesshire. Froc, Soc, Antiq. Sc^tt.,
xxi., 13-82.
(^irsiter (J. W.), notice of a canoe recently found in the Island of Stronsay,
Orkney. Froc. Soc, Antiq. Scot., xxi., 279-281.
the bronze weaiM)iis of Orkney and Shetland, and of an iron age
deposit found in a cist at Moan, Harray. Froc, Soc. Antiq. Scot., xxi.,
339-346.
Duns (Prof.), Notes on Easter Ross. Froc. Soc, Antiq. Scot,, xxi., 165-169.
Ferguson (R. S.), notice of a penannular brooch of silver, with ends like thistle
heads, f(iund at Casterton, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland. Frot\ Sifc,
AiUiff Scot, xxi., 141-142.
< rammack (Rev. J.), notice of a bronze censer found under the floor of the Old
Church of Garvock, Kincardmeshire. Fi-oc, Soc. Antiq. Scot., xxi., 180-
182.
(■oudie (G.), the Danish claims upon Orkney and Shetland. Fto:. So\ Antiq.
Scot., xxL, 236-251.
Gow (J. M.), notes in Balquhidder: Saint Angus, curing wells, cup marked
stones, (KG. Froc Soc, Antiq. Scot.y xxi., 83-88.
Hamilton (G.), notices of rock sculpturings of cups and circles in Kirkcudbright-
shire. Froc Soc Antiq, Scot,, xxi., 151-160.
Hutcheson (A), a burial plac^ of the bronze age at Bamhill, near Droughty •
Ferry. Froc Soc, AiUiq. Scot,, xxi., 316-324.
364 AR(JHJ£OLOGY,
Irvino (J. T.)) scnue pre-historic burial places and standing stones in the Jslnud
of Yell, Shetland. Pioc. S<>r, Antiq. iSw*., xxi., 215-219.
Kinglake (R. A.), in menioriain Thomas Hut ton Knyston. S&merset Arch, St>c.,
xiii., 167-107.
Lockhart (Rev. W.), a deed {cirea 122<)) settling a controversy between the
Rector of St. Cuthbert's, Hales (Colinton), and the Church of St. Cuth-
bert's, Edinburgh, in regard to the Teinds '*De Craggia et Goi^n."
Proc. S4>c. AiUlq. <Spo^, xxL, 275-279.
Lovett (E.), the Gun Flint Manufactory at Brandon, with reference to the
bearing of its processes upon the modes of flint working practised in pre-
historic times. Proc, Soc. Antiq. Scot., xxi., 206-212.
MacAdam (W. J.), notes on the ancient iron industry of Scotland. JProc. Sftc.
Aiitiq. Scot., xxi., 89-131.
Maxwell (Sir H. E.), further excavation of St. Ninian's Cave, parish of Glasser-
ton, Wigtownshire. Pr(tc. iSoc. Antiq. Scot., xxi., 137-141.
Miller (P.), three Micmac Flint arrow-heads from Merigomish Harbour, r»n the
northern coast of Nova Scotia. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., xxi., 212-214.
was the town of Edinburgh an open and defenceless one previous to
1450 i Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., xxi., 251-260.
Morgan (Professor C. L.), the stones of Stanton Drew : their source and origin.
Somerset Arch. Site., xiii., 37-50.
Paul (J. B.), Beggars* Badges, with notes on the licensed mendicants of Sc<it
land. Proc. Soc. Antiq. St:ot., xxi., 169-179.
Paton (Sir N.), Clach-na-Bnitach the stone of the Standard. Proc. Sue, Antiq.
Scot., xxi., 226-236.
Poynton (Rev. F. J.), notes on a Roman burial-place discovered at Northst4)key
in December, 18S7. S^nnfrmt Arch. Sin\, xiii., 146-148.
Search (Rev. Prebendary), Writigton, a sketch of parochial history'. ♦Stwmi'^'f
Ardi. SiH",., xiii., 1-18.
Soton (G.), Ruthwell Cr(»ss. Pro<\ S(h:. Antiq. Scot., xxi., 194-197.
four stained-glass shields of arms and a monumental slab in St.
Magdalene's Chai>el, Cowgate. Pnn-. Soc. Antiq. Scot., xxi., 266-274.
Sim (G.), Aberdeen Treasure Trove. Pr(n\ Soc. Antiq. Scot., xxi., 223-225.
Taylor (John), Cliurch of the Tcmi)le or the Holy Cross, Bristol. Somci-Mi't
Arch. /Soc, xiii., 51-59.
Walker (J. R,), Scottish Baptismal Fonts. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., xxi., 344>-
448.
Weaver (Rev. F. W.), Somersetshire notes, heraldic and genealogicaL Sinnrr^tt
Arch, Soc., xiii., 19-36.
Wilson (Rev. G.), notice of urns in Wigtownshire, with notes on implements.
Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., xxi , 182-194.
Wilson (D.), St. Margaret's Chapel, Edinburgh Castle. Pntc. Soc. Antifj, Scot,^
xxi., 25)1-316.
Ibtstotig-
— :o : —
THE HISTORY OF THE WORD HEARSE IN
ENGLAND.
WHEN we hear the word heai*se used in convei*sation, or meet
with it in lx)oks, we picture to oui'selves the funeral car in
which a dead body is carried to the grave. So entirely have the
other meanings of this word dropped out of use and memory, that
we have encountered more than one pei'son of education and culture
who has been not a little puzzled to interpret certain passages in
our earlier literature in which it occurs with significations widely
differing from the one at present in use.
Hearse is derived from hevpicem^ the ace. of hirpsx, a harrow.
In tliis sense we occasionally meet with it in English. In Lord
Ik^rner's Translation of Froissart we are told in one place that " The
archers .... stode in the manor of a herse, and the men of armes
in the botome of the batayle," an<l in another that " at thende of
this hedge, when as no man can go nor ryde there be men of armes
afote and archers afore them, in maner of a herse, so that they woll
nat be lightely discomfy ted." ^ We are also informed that the de-
\ ice on a certain " standerd was a herse of golde, standyng on a
l»ed goules."^ That is in the language of modern heraldry gules a
harrow or. We also find it used by soldiers in a different but nearly
related sense. Sir Richard Burton informs us that " Herse is the
njd military name for a column as opposed to haye, a line. So we
read that at the far-famed Cressy, the French fought * en battaile i
haye,' the English drawn up * en herse.' " ^ The Scotch never gave
the world a translation of the Holy Scriptures in their own tongue,
but we owe to one of that nation the best version of the works of
Rabelais in existence. Sir Thomas Urquhart makes his author say,
when describing the terror caused by Philip of Macedon*s prepara-
tion for the siege of Corinth, that the people " fastened the herses,
sarasinesks and cataracts.'** Here a portcullis is obviously meant,
^ Ed., 1523, vol. L, ch. cxxx., 150., ch. clz., 195.
* Ibid, vol. ii., ch. clxxi., 501.
' El Mediiwh and Meccahy ii., 6.
* GargatUnay Book iii. PrcJ. Ed. 1858., p. 290.
366 HISTORY.
The late Mr. Charles Hartshome uses horse in a similar manner. In a
paper on Orford Castle he says, " The entire absence of the Herse is
very unusual, and can only be explained, under the supposition that
th?ro was one at the porch of entrance, now fallen/** Mr. Hartshome
may have had in his mind the way in which Csesar and Sallust
use a kindred word, " Erat objectus portis eritius."* '' Eminebant
in modam ericii militaris veruta binum pedum/* ^ Vossius, com-
menting on the former passage, says, " Est trabs, cui infizsB pinnae
ferr<*B ; et saepe versatilis." ®
As late as the davs of Caxton, hearse in the sense of harrow
seems to have been familiar, for we read in his Ovid* 8 Met amor"
phoftiJi of a man who " kembyd his hecr with a hierche in stede of a
combe." •
The earliest ecclesiastical use of the word seems to have been to
indicate the triangular candlestick made of bars crossing each other
like the " bulls " and " slots " of a harrow. It was used in the ser-
vice of tenehrce and probably on other occasions. The number of
candles in the hearse are said to have varied from seven to thirty-
two. Sometimes the shape of the hearse was modified ; it ceased to
be like a harrow, and assumed the form of a triangular stand on a
foot, it then was used to contain foui*teen yellow wax candles and
one of white wax in the middle. The yellow candles were symbols
of the eleven faithful apostles and the three Mary's, the white
candle representing our blessed Lord. In the tenebrw service four-
teen psalms were chanted, and as each was ended a taper was put
out, and the white taper, still burning, was hidden near the altar.*®
Some of these hearses seem to have been very elaborate affairs, in
which in latter times, it is probable, the harrow-like form had been
completely lost. In Strj'pe's Memorials of the Refoi^mation we read
of " an herse of four branches with gilt candlesticks and two white
branches and three dozen staff torches." ^^ These triangular candle-
sticks seem to have been much like the harrows employed by
farmers in the middle ages, and thenceforward almost without
change of structure down to the early years of the present century.
They were commonly used in triplets and united together by a
chain or thick piece of rope. A good representation of this old-
fashioned implement may bo seen in (Tiiillim's Display of Heraldry^
* Archctologia, xxix., 02.
• Com. de Bdl. Civ. ///»., iii., c, 07.
' Fragm. lih., iii.
« Davis's 0««r, LmjtL But, 171.'^ p. 5(m.
*• B. xiii. c. 15.
1" Sipuxliis Exm\, A.D. 1287, In Wilkins* Concilia^ ii., 139.
^> Ed., 1665, iv., p. 376.
HISTORY OF THE WORD HEARSE. 367
where the reader is informed that a family of the name of Harrow
bear "Ermyn three harrows eonjoyned in the nombril of the
escocheon with a wreath, argent." ^* The wreath is a mere fancy of
the author or of some previous herald from whom he has copied.
It is the cord or chain by which the triplet is locked together.
These harrows were commonly very rude and simple things ; except
on stony land the teeth — called tines or tushes — were of wood, pins
of oak or ash. The farmer took a supply of them to the field with
him in his pocket, so that when one was broken it could be im-
mediately replaced.
Now that hearse had become familiar as a term to distinguish a
structure in the form of a harrow used for supporting candles, it
was natural to transfer the word to that light frame of wood, also
decked with candles, which it was the custom to place over a dead
body in church before the funeral rites began, for the purpose of
supporting the pall. These frames were part of the ordinary fur-
niture of a parish church in unreformed times. I am not aware
of a solitary example having been preserved, nor is it probable that
any should have been, for they were of a light and fragile nature
so as to be easily carried about. They are, however, very often
mentioned. From a memorandum in the Churchwardens' Account
Books of Louth in Lincolnshire of the year 1522, it appears that
the bellman on each occasion of the hearse being used was to have
one penny and no more, for setting it, that is, for placing it over
the body.^^ In the little church of Awkborough, in the same county,
near the confluence of the Trent and the Humber, there was, in
1565, a hearse which the churchwardens for some reason or other
regarded as superstitious, and consequently sold to one of the
villagers who "put it to prophane vse."" At Newton, another Lin-
colnshire village, a hearse had been sold the year before to a man
who had broken it in pieces.^ Rich cloths or palls were thrown
over these hearses when service was going on. There are many
references to them in Mr. Daniel Tyssen's Inventories of the
Churches of Surrey.^^ Robert Burton, declaiming on the tale of the
12 Fifth lEA., 1679, p. 214.
1 ^ A few extracts from these most interesting documents have been printed
with shameful inaccuracy. The writer made a full transcript of them some years
ago. He trusts soon to be able to print the whole without abridgment. They
began in the year 1500.
1 ^ Peacock, Eng. church Furniture^ p. 36.
» » Ibid, 118.
i« pp. 17, 40, 44, 46, 47, 60, 51, 67, 90, 116, 119, 131, 164 : of. Archaclogia,
xliii., 240 ; Money, ch. Goods in Berks, 41 ; Jui>p, Carpenters Co.^ 20.
368 HISTORY,
wicked rich man, tells us that " he perisheth like a beast . . . for
all his physitians and medicines inforcing nature, a sownin^ "wife,
families, complaints, fronds, teares, dirges, masses, naenias, funerals^
for all orations, counterf ect hired acclamations, elogiums, epithaphes,
hcrses . . . and Mausolean tombs, if he have them at least, he dies
like a dog, goes to hel with a gnilty conscience and many a poor
roan s curse/' ^^
The parish bier was sometimes furnished with a head or lid of
this kind, of a curved form, something like the head of an old-
fashioned stage-waggon. A bier with a lid of this sort existed in
Northorpe church, in Lincolnshire, in the early part of this century,
but is now destroyed. There were, I have heard, two others at
Campsall in Yorkshire, which are also said to be lost.
A few specimens remain of hearees of this kind made in metal,
and permanently affixed to tombs for the purpose of supporting the
lights and the rich cloths with which the piety of our forefathers
were wont to decorate the tombs of the dead. A very beautiful
hearse of this sort still canopies the tomb of one of the Marmions in
Tanfield Church, Yorkshire. It has attached to it sconces for hold-
ing seven candles, two on each side and three on the ridge.^*^ The
effigy in the Warwick Chapel of Richard, Earl of Warwick, who
<lied in 1439, possesses one of these frames: it is smaller than the
Tanfield specimen, but is executed in brass. The contract with
the makers informs us that it was meant to " beare a coverinor."^^
o
Portions of what must have been a remarkably beautiful hearse
of this kind are now preserved in the Museum at South Kensington.
They were removed from Snarford Church, Lincolnshire, many
years ago. The general character and ornamental details make it
probable that it is of fifteenth century date. A representation of it
is given in the writers English Church Furniture.^ The author of
Morte Arthur was well acquainted with these hearses and their
uses. He writes of
** A toiiibe tljat new was dyghto
♦ ♦ ♦ « « •
These on an her.se suthely to saye
With ail C tappers lyghtea."-^
From thej^e permanent hearses, the transition was almost
imperceptible to those large teiapomr \" structures of timber hung
^^ Aiiati/iny of Melmvcholif, 2nd ed., 1624, p. 267.
^ ** BepoHs of Ass. Archihc. Soc, 1851, 250.
i« Parker, Gloss. Architec. 1850-1, 250.
-0 p. 126.
" Roxb. Club, p. 114.
HISTOIIY OF THE WORD HEARSE. 369
with rich cloths and banners, under which the corpses of great
people were placed when they rested for the night on th3 long
journeys which often had to be taken to the place of burial.
Minute a,ccounts of many of these structures have been preserved.
There is an engi'aving of one in Nichols lUxistrationa of Manners
and Expenses in England?^ And of another in the Vetasta Afonu-
inentaP In the rubrics of some foreign churches this kind of hearse
is spoken of under the name of " castinim doloris." The Italians
know it as " catafalco," the French as "chapelle ardento."-* Wyclitt*
in an invective against the pompous funerals of the rich, speaks of
** ful rich heei'ses & grete festis after."*^'* Chaucer in his Dream had
before him a canopy of this kind —
** In an abbey of nunnes wliicli were blakc
Ordeint and said was the servise.
Of the prince and of tlie (|ucen,
So devoutly as might been,
And after that about tlic lici'scs,
Many orisons and vcrHes
Without note full softely,
Said were and that full heartily,
That all the night till it was day,
The people in the church can pray
Unto the holy Trinity,
Of those souls to have pity."-*'
It is said, but I have not come upon the passage, that Jeremy
Taylor speaks of the heai'se being strewn with flowers.^ This is
ahnost certain to have been the case. Flowers were constant access-
ories of worship in olden times, and even during the commonwealth
whun religious symbolis!n was more deeply under the ban of public
opinion than at any other time, there are instances of churches being
decorated with flowers. Philip Henry, in his diary, mentions a case
of this kind and tried to hinder it, but happily was unsuccessful.**
Dr Rock gives several examples of torches and candles being
wreathed with flowers.** As this was evidently a common practice,
it is probable that the lights burning on the hearse would be so
decorated.
-" Laxt leaf.
^•» Vol. iv. pi. 18.
-* Rock. 6%. of our Fitthnn, II. 4%.
•* Of Ai\t\chi^ and hU Meyn^f, 152.
2« Line 1806.
^^ Walcott, Sa4:nd Arcfuedogy, 312.
*® Lee's, Diaries and Letters of Ph, Henry ^ p. 53.
2* Church of our Fathers, ii. 425., iii. i. 274., iii. ii. 98.
370 HISTORY.
The funeral car originally differed little from the stationary
canopy, except that it had wheels and was of a smaller size. When
prayer for the dead ceased to be a part of the national religion, this
became the pDpular meaning, and the older significations have been
well-niorh forcjotten. Miltou uses the word in the modem sense.
** Oentle lady, may thy grave
Peace and quiet ever liave ;
After tills thy travel sore
Sweet rest sieze thee evermore.
Here bo tears of perfect moaii
Wept for thee in Helicon,
And some flowers and some bays
For thy herse to strew the ways."^^
In the reign of William III. the hearse, as we know it, had
become common, and was, as at present, let out for hire. The Lon-
don Gazette of 1090 contains an advertisement setting forth that
'* If any have occasion for a coach or hearse to Deal, Dover, or any
other place upon the road, they may be furnished." ^^
Heai'se is sometimes used as a figure of speech for a corpse —
** Now grew the battell hot, bold Archas pierses
Through the mid-hoast and strews the way with herses.*''*
And a writer in 1659 says: "The thunderbolt of judgment,
levelled at his life, he yet with a passive valour . . . with a con-
stancy which might cast a blush on the ghost of an ancient Roman
heai-se, but continues his resolution." ^
I have met with a sin^^le instance, though there may be
many more, where it seems to stand for a cart or carriage, if not,
indeed, for a beast of burden, without any reference to either the
harrow, the candlestick, or a dead body. Homce advises LoUius,
when his friend has a mind to take his dogs and cattle laden with
nets into the fields for sport, to cheerfully make one of the com-
pany.^ Robert Hyrde paraphrased this passage in his translation
of Vivcs Instruction of a Christian xooman, in these words. They
are printed as prose, but seem to be meant for verse. " If he list to
hunt .... do thou not sit to make verses, but cast uppe thy
30 Fpitaph on March, uj Wiitchest^r,
3^ Mmlvj. col. 4.
3« Th. Heywood Brit^iines Troy c. iij, st. 86. fol. 72.
33 The Utvhappy Marksman in Harl MUc, iii. 9.
3* Epist. lib. 1. 18.
REV JEW. 371
muses, and follow the herses, carrying the nets and lead forth the
dogs.*'^
The word, in the latter pai*t of the sixteenth century, acquired
a further meaning, as lich hangings were wont to be hung around
stiitionary or temporary hearses. These products of the loom or the
embroidery frame acquired the name of the thing they covered. A
writer of the year 1581 speaks of " all other marchaundize that wee
buy from beyond the sea, as sylkes, wynis, oylis, . . . and all
hearses and tapestiy." ^
The above is but an imperfect history of a curious word. I have
only titujed, and that in part, its adventures in England. Its fate
in continental lands has not been less intiu-esting.
Edward Peacock.
3« 1592. 8i^\ R fol. 4.
»« Stafford, Exam, of dmplainhj i. p. IG (ed. 1876).
J?Ey/ElK
An Introduction to English Economic History and Theory : The Middle
Ages. By W. J. Ashley. London (Rivingtons) 1888. 8vo, pp.
xni. 227.
A WORK of this kind has been very much needed. Kcouomic history has been
adequately, though of course not finally, dealt with in the works of Gneist,
Maine, Nasse, Seebohm, and others ; economic theory has been worked up
by writers from Adam Smith to Fawcett. That both history and theory
needed bringing into contact is a thought that has occurred to many of us,
but it has remained for Mr. Ashley to carry out this necessary piece of
work.
Setting to work with the known factors of his subject, Mr. Ashley first
treats of the manor and village community from the eleventh to the
fourteenth century. He lays emphasis upon the fact which has not been
sufficiently insisted upon by historians that ** till nearly the end of the
fourteenth century England was a purely agricultural country. Such
manufactures as it possessed were entirely for consumption within the land.
The only articles of export were the raw products of the country ;" and
after a very succinct description of the details of agricultural life^ the well
known divisions of the land into acre and half-acre strips held by a group
372 HisTonr.
of tenants in intermixed tenure in the common field, the powers and duties
of the tenants in admitting new tenants, in their right to the soil and in
their dues to the lord, he summarizes the economical position of the countiy
by pointing out that "the fundamental characteristic of the manorial
group was its self-sujfficienci/, its social independence^** and its " corporate
unity." This again is a phase of manorial life which has not been sufficiently
insisted upon by historians ; and we cannot help thinking that with these
two important conclusions brought now mto proper historical prominence
the future work of those who seek to investigate the early history of this
country will be considerably lightened.
In working out the details of manorial history Mr. Ashley has been
studiously careful not to overstep the boundaries of his own special study.
It is only incidentally that he touches upon points which illustrate some
of the larger subjects with which an inquiry into manorial history must of
necessity be concerned. For instance, the well known theories which
divide students of the subject into two opposite camps, those who follow
Seebohm and those who follow Maine and Von Maurer, find very little
assistance from Mr. Ashley. He summarizes very usefully the arguments
for and against Mr. Scobohm's theory with a bias we should infer in favour
of it ; and in this he lays great stress upon the fiict that " it is the uniform
agricultural system, the system of joint compulsory labour that is so diffi-
cult to explain on the old hypothesis " of free village communities Iiaving^
gradually become subject to such extremely onerous burdens. We do not
now wish to enter into the controversy, but it is worth while bearing in
mind that tlie uniformity of the agricultural system only becomes apparent
in the eleventh centur}*, and that then it is reduced to this appearance of
uniformity by the officialism of a strong central government which no more
understood the inner life of the communities than Elizabeth's com*
missioners understood the Irish social system, than the long hue of
Anglo-Indian oflftcials understood the Hindu social system. To read the
early reports on ludiiin matters, one would suppose there was but little
diflference between the Hindu village community and the P^nglish manor as
it existed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. There is talk about
the lord of the manor and the tenant, whereas there existed only the head-
man of tlie village and his fellow villagers. We protest most strongly
against legal and official documents being made to do duty for history. To
take one phase of our village life, that of the open democratic assembly,
held in London itself down to the reign of Henry III. in spite of the
Guildhall, there is not a single reference to such an institution in Domes-
day nor in any legal document. Yet it is ditficult to believe that a com-
munity which possessed so distinctively a primitive feature of early Teutonic
freedom could have been of itself unfree. The history of the London
folkmoot proclaims the true nature of the struggle. It was not for
freedom on the part of a serf-bound community, but against free institu-
tions on the part of successful commercialism backed up by a chartered
constitution, and in this we have a distinct reversal of the theory held by
the followers of Mr. Seebohm. Again let us take the argument of uniform-
ity from another standpoint, namely, the endeavour to see if uniformity
is possible under any other condition than that of compulsion from a
higher authority. This can be done only by an appeal to comparative
REVIEW. 373
history. Over and over again in this domain of study we are met with the
proposition that like causes produce like results, until one is forced to
conclude that throughout thew^orld the course of social development has been
largely along parallel lines wherever it has been brought under scientific ob-
servation. ( I ranting then free village communities belonging to one stock
group following therefore the same sort of life and possessing in the main
the same system of economic theory; granting the conquest by these
communities of a country already occupied by other people not widely
separated from themselves in economic ideas ; granting subsequent contact
with other peoples of kindred race and development ; granting the gradual
though slow dove'iopment of a nationality out of these aggregated com-
munities ; and where is the difficulty for the rise of a tolerably uniform
system ] Then if we add to the facts of uniformity, the facts of parallel
social customs in widely distant lands, the difficulty seems to us to be not
fio great as it is made out to be. Of course it is not possible to go deeply
into this question now. Let us note however that in the Ditmarsh free
village community every one was free to employ himself on his own account
for three days in the week, the remainder of the week being due to the
community, while among the wild races of India each adult is liable for
three days* work in each year without pay at the chiefs bidding. Surely
here we have evidence of compulsory labour unaccompanied by serfdom.
When we pass on to Mr. Ashley's second chapter, the merchant and
eraft gilds, we are impressed with the same idea that the economical side
of early English history favours the theory of a descent from free village
communities rather than from village communities in serfdom. Wo meet
with bodies of men trading together, not as a company of traders like
those of the present day, putting capital together, but as naturally cun-
Ktituted communities who work or trade together because they have not
yet arrived at the stage of thought w^here it is conceivable that an in-
dividual could separate himself from his fellows. It is communism based
upon the living characteristics and conceptions of the archaic family,
having therefore historical continuity for its origin, and not legislative or
commercial creation. Mr. Ashley quotes the famous example of Totnes
to prove that the ancient gilds included a very considerable number of
persons, and that blood relationship was one of the means of becoming
entitled to membership. We cannot get away from such a conspicuous
example without going back to the well known facts of archaic society
for an explanation of its singular provisions. The economic conditions of
early Gild history are clearly shown by Mr. Ashley to be based upon the
theory of mutual help and responsibility, each member being bound to
submit to regulations for the common good, and to come to the assistance
of his fellow-members. '' If a gildsman of Southampton were put into
prison in any part of England, the alderman and steward, with one of the
ecbevins, were bound to go at the cost of the gild to procure his deliver-
ance. At Berwick ' two or three of the gild ' were bound to labour on
behalf of any one in danger of losing life or limb, though only for a few
days, at the gild's expense. Individuals were not to monopolize the ad-
vantages of trade." Such regulations are possible only upon the assump-
tion that the gilds took up the older family life of the people at the point
where the old family life bad oome to an end. They were not the isolated
374 HJSrORY.
invention of one locality, and they werc'not tho legislative invention of state-
oraft, being found to be *' common to the \v'hole society of the time," as
Mr. Ashley points out ; such a common institution must have been derived
from a previously existing institution, quite as common to the whole
society of tho time, and the only institution which can possibly answer to
such a state of things is the archaic family, broken into by Christianity on
the theory of marriage, broken into by the theories of the civil law, broken
into by the growing nationality of the country, but still a living influence
upon the action and thought of the people at large, vrho have never yet at
any time or in any country, advanced so far in economic or political know-
ledge as tho govcrnord of the nation which they inhabit. Old clan in-
stincts existed to a considerable extent, and maintained the idea that the
men of other towns were foreigners ; there was no capital in the countxy
to take men's thoughts away from their local surroundings, there was only
abundance of labour power which, at first occupied within the domains of
its own local community, at last came to look beyond. Internal trade was
simply tho exchange of surplus commodities between one independent
village and another. The overstepping of this boundary was first made by
Ihe weavers. Weaving hitherto done by the women of each community
to supply the clothes for members of the community only, began early to
break the bounds of locality, and accordingly we find that the weavers* gild
was the first of the craft gilds to be formed ; and yet it is singular that
even in recent times the older system had not yet entirely disappeared, for we
know of several examples in Scotland where, at the beginning of this cen-
tury, each community was clothed by the work produced from the hand-
looms of the women of the community. The economical phase which this
state of things presents to the enquirer is admirably put by Mr. Ashley
when he states that " what existed was scarcely more than a trade be-
tween certain towns, an inter-communal or inter-municipal commerce,'*
as contrasted with the national commerce of tlie present day.
Finally Mr. Ashley puts before us an exposition of the existing economic
theories and legislation, which is of the highest value and interest. Here we
think Mr. Ashley has done almost unique service, especially as he treads
upon nearly virgin soil. How clearly he grasps the true position of things
is best shown by the opening statement of his third chapter that " the
social development with which hitherto we have been dealing may in a
sense bo called spontaneous ; wo have now to see how the forces of Church
and State took hold of the growing society and attempted to control its
activity.^' The self-growth which Mr. Ashley indicates by his term spon-
taneous is a factor of large importance in understanding the early history
of society, and it is this very self-growth which marks tho borderland of
archaic society and political society. The Church was not antagonistic to
the self-growth of early society. Cosmopolitan as were its doctrines and
faith, its theories, where they touched upon economics, were wholly con-
sistent with a state of things which eschewed individual gain, which con-
demned commercial ideas, and which ran very near to pure conmiunism.
The communism of the early Church was philosophical in its origin, but it
is easy to understand how well it fitted in with the historical communism
of the early societies with which after the fall of the Roman empire it was
destined to come into close contact. When St. Ambrose exclaimed, " that
REV FEW. 375
which is taken by theo beyond what woiikl siitficc to thee is taken by
violcuce . . . thinkest thou thou comniittcst no injustice by keeping to
thyself alone what would be the means of life to many ] . . . It is the
bread of the hungry thou keopest, it is the clothing of the naked thou
lockest up ; the money thou buriest is the redemption of the wretched,''
ho proclaims ideas and theories perfectly at one with those held by the vast
mass of the people of his age. His opponents were the new school of jurists
who had become steeped in the revived studies of Roman law, which, belong-
ing to a more advanced society, could not at once be accepted by such a
backward society as the villagers of mediajval England belonged to. We
shall not follow Mr. Ashley into this portion of his disquisition. To the
economist it is a most valuable chapter of information from a source w hich
has been almost a scaled book to him hitherto ; to the historian it is some-
thing more. It tells of a phase of social history not hitherto quite recog-
nised to have existed at all ; it tells of a phase of political history which
for the first time is capable of adequately explaining the cause and justifi-
cation of the usury laws, the cun-ency provisions and other important
subjects ; finally it tells of a phase of church history which must bid pause
those who are gradually giving up belief in the secular life or secular history
of the Church. For our own part we have long recognised that the over-
spiritualizing of the Church in later days has done it incalculable harm both
in its teaching and its position. This is not the place to insist on this
question, but it is useful to turn to Mr. Ashley's pages for a chapter
in church history which throws an unexpected light upon the early secular
characteristics of its position and powers. In all these researches it must
be borne in mind that the historian does not touch upon the political side
of the question, for to quote Mr. Ashley's prefatory note, " History seems
to be proving that no great institution has been without its use for a time
and its relative justification. Similarly it is beginning to appear that no
great conception, no great body of doctrines which really infiuenccd society
for a long period was without a certain truth and value, having regard to
contemporary circumstances."
Xttetatute.
— : o : —
HIAWATHA AND THE KALEVALA.
IN the year 1855, the literary world in Europe and America was
surpriserl by the appearance of Longfellow's Indian poem,
'* The Song of Hiawatha." The metre was unfamiliar to English
ears, and was supposed by many at the time to be the invention of
Longfellow himself. This led to its being ridiculed and parodied
in various forms.
But it is impossible to glance at Prof. Schiefner's German ver-
sion of the Finnish epic poem known as the Kalevala, published in
1852, without perceiving at once that Longfellow borrowed the
metre and style of his " Hiawatha " from this source, though the
two poems have comparatively little in common beyond occasional
though very obvious points o£ similarity; and my friend Dr.
Gamett has kindly called my attention to some passages in Long-
fellow's own diary for June, 185V which show positively that
Longfellow was reading the Kalevala at that time (probably in
Schiefner's version, then quite recent), and meditating an Indian
' poem in the same metre.
Btit Longfellow was not the first writer to employ this metre in
English. In 1850, five years before the publication of " Hiawatha,"
Kenealy published the first incomplete vereion of his remarkable,
but little-known, poem, " The New Pantomime,** under the title of
" Goethe.*' Here we find very nearly tlie same metre employed
occasionally in several scenes, as, for instance, " Tarbarus of Hades,"
where the lost spirits in the Styx appeal in vain to the avenging
angel for mercy ; and again in " The Witch's Star " (called in later
editions "The Witch's Masque"), where Goethe is tempted by
Calypso, Armida, and Alcina, in the train of the Witch of Endor.
As a specimen, I quote the Witch of Endor's welcome to Goethe
and llephistopheles :
** We shall be indeed delij^hted
Such fair travellers to welcome.
Lo, I wave my wand of magic,
And a banquet spreads before ye.
1 This seems to dispose conclusively of the date of 1842, assigned to Hia-
watha, on what grounds I know not, in some editions of Longfellow's works.
HIA WATHA AND THE KALEVALA. 377
These youiig Cupids, crowned with roses,
Aiid with lilies, in whose eyelids
Shines the softness of the moonlight,
^nd with wings of gold and purple
Waving melody, will serve ye.
Sit, brave sir, beside this ladye,
On this bank of fan-like flowern.
You, Sir Voland, couch beside iiie ;
While we banquet, sweet Calypso
Will with magic lays enwcave us
In a rosy spell of rapture."
Tlui materials of the Kalevala were orally collected by Dr.
Elias Lbnnrot in Finland, and were afterwards woven by liirn with
additions of his own into a connected whole. The first recension was
published in 1835, and contained 32 runos or cantos, and about
1 2,000 lines ; and the second, published in 1849, containel 50 runos
and about 22,800 lines. There are complete translations of the first
recension in Swedish and French ; and of the second in Swedish
(two), German (two), French (one), Russian (one), and Hungarian
(one), besides numerous abridgments, episodes, and fragments in
various lanofuaores.
The Kalevala beai-s evident signs of having been composed, or
rather, perhaps, altered and added to, in different ages. The greater
part is pre-Christian, and exhibits a system of nature-worship,
animism, and magic. The highest deity is Yumala,* which name is
employed wherever Christian induences crop up in the poem ; and
Schiefner usually translates the word " God ; " but Yumsila likewise
seems to be identified with Ukko, described as an old man dwelling
in the sky — a representation not very dissimilar to the Middle Age
conception of God the Father. Nature-gods of the second grade
are Tapio and his family, the gods of the forests ; Ah to and Vellamo,
the chief god and goddess of the waters ; and various others. The
sun and moon and the seven stars of the Great Bear are frequently
mentioned ; but the heavenly bodies do not appear to be worshipped,
though the sun and moon are distinct personalities. The evil
powers are Tuoni or Mana, the Pluto of the North (the name Kalma
is also used for Death) ; Hiisi or Lempo, the miscliief-maker, &c.
The gods are constantly appealed to, and sometimes lend their
aid to one combatant until they are gained over, or perhaps forced
by incantations to go over to another. All nature is animated :
iron, the product of the milk of the cloud-maidens, is represented
as the brother of tire and water; and apparently, though the
^ Jumala. The Finnish j, as in most Continental languages, is our con-
sonental y, which I substitute for it, though it must be observed that y ia a
Finnish vowel, and = ii in Qerman.
2b
378 LITERATURE.
passage is somewhat obscure, likewise of the heroes ; the bear is
looked upon with great reverence ; the serpent is dreaded as having
been formed from the spittle of the hag Syoyator, by Hiisi, after
the Creator had declared that nothing but evil could come of it;
and trees and boats bewail their evil destiny with human voices.
Even the beer stored in casks for a wedding calls upon the ^ests
to drink it. But notwithstanding the deeply-rooted belief in
magic and in nature-gods which we find in the Kalevaia, prayers
are usually addressed to Yumala, or Ukko, and rarely to other
gods, except when they relate to matters specially belonging to
their jurisdiction. We find notliing like indiscriminate fetish-
worship.
The accounts of the creation and of the birth of the heroes are
not always consistent or complete. In the first Runo, after a pre-
amble differing from, but occfiisionally somewhat resembling that
of Hiawatha, the Virgin of the Air is described as descending into
the sea, where she is impregnated by the winds and waves. It will
be remembered that Longfellow's Nokomis falls from the moon to
the prairie, where she brings forth Wenonah, who is seduced by
Mudjekeewis, the West- Wind in person ; and their son is Hiawatha
In the Kalevaia, a duck builds her nest on the knees of Ilmatar,
the daughter of the air, as she is floating, and the broken eggs form
the heavens and the earth. After this, the goddess fashions the
world,* and brings forth the immortal minstrel Vainamoinen, who
clears and cultivates the land.
We likewise hear of daughters of Creation, and of sons and
daughters of the sun and moon, the latter of whom busy themselves
with weaving, an art frequently mentioned, and held in high honour
in the poem.
There are four principal heroes in the Kalevaia. The first is
the above-mentioned Vainamoinen. He is always called
Vaka Vanha Vainamoinen.
The second word means " old " ; but translators and com-
mentators are by no means agreed about the exact meaning of vaka-
I prefer to translate
Vainamoinen, old and steadfast.
Schiefncr*s rendering, here, is one of his worst, he translates
" alt imd wahrhaft."* This is peculiarly inappropriate, for Vaina-
^ In many original ballads, however, the Creation is attributed to Vaina-
moinen.
* Paul, in the latest Gorman version, has ** brav and bieder,*' which is still
farther from the original ; the Swedish translator ^nder the line *' Gamle
HIAWATHA AXD THE KALEVALA. 379
moinen is very much in the habit of saying " the thing that is not/'
without any occasion whatever, and when he has one of these fits often
upon him, it takes a long time before he comes to the end of his
fabrications, and allows the truth to be ultimately forced from him.
He was born old,^ and although he woos several young girls he can-
nofc persuade any of them to become his wife, notwithstanding his
wealth and wisdom, and the natural anxiety of the mothers of the
young ladies that he should succeed in his suit. One of the girls
leaps into the water, and becomes a mermaid, and another prefers
his brother, Ilmarinen, who is younger and handsomer. In the
latter part of the poem, Vainamoinen is represented as the father of
his people, and as leading the expedition undertaken by the heroes
to carry off the Sampo, or talisman of plenty, from Pohyola (Lap-
land), and counteracting all the evils which Louhi, the witch-queen,
endeavours to bring upon his country in revenge. Sometimes, too,
he plays the part of Orpheus, and charms all beings with his
music. In the final Runo, Vainamoinen is dethroned by the
child of the virgin Maryatta, takes to his boat, and sails away for
ever, like Hiawatha. Vainamoinen, however, has his weaknesses,
and though " steadfast " is a term which is often applicable to him,
he can bo unmanly enough at times. On his first expedition to
Pohyola, his horse, as light as a pea-stalk, on which he is riding over
the water, is shot under him by Youkahainen, whom he has de-
feated in a singing duel, and whose sister Aino has thrown herself
into the water, in consequence of being pledged by Youkahainen to
Vainamoinen. The latter, after being tossed about by the waves for
some time, is at length borne away by an eagle, and set down in a
swamp opposite the castle of Pohyola. where he weeps for three
days and nights, until Louhi is informed of the strange sounds.
She starts off in her boat, and offers him her daughter, if he will
forge the Sampo for her ; but he is so thoroughly homesick that he
begs her to send him home, and promises to send his brother
Ilmarinen the smith instead. Ilmarinen suspects foul play, and
refuses to go ; but Vainamoinen entices him to the top of a magic
tree, from whence he is wafted to Pohyola on the wings of the
wind. Nothing is more curious in the Kalevala than the almost
omnipotent power of the heroes at one moment, and their absolute
impotence to overcome even a trifling obstacle at another time.
Tiygge Wainamoineu/' aiid the French translate vaka by ''imperturbable, or
**ferme."
"' In the last Runo, however, the son of Maryatta reproaches him with the
misdcedtt of his youth.
380 LITERATURE.
Thus, Yainainoinen, notwithstanding this miracle, was quite unable
to rescue himself either from the water or the swamp without the
aid of the eagle and Loulii. The heroes dread most of all being
lost in the swamps and forests^
The Sampo was forged by Ilmaiinen for Loulii, from various
magical substances with which she supplied him. There has been
much discussion as to what this talisman (the name of which re-
minds us of the Sanpo River in Thibet) actually was. It appears
to have been a kind of mill with three sides, on which com, salt,
and money were painted, and it had a brightly-coloured cover, to
which great importance was attached. Three measures were also
painted on it, and it used to grind three supplies of com, for food,
sale, and storage respectively. When Louhi hid it in a cavern of
the stone mountain of Pohyola, it threw out three roots, and fixed
itself 30 lirmly that the strongest heroes could not even stir it till
they had ploughed it up by the roots.
Ilmarinen, the second of the heroes, the Vulcan of the Kalcvala,
is represented as young, handsome, strong, and industrious, and
much more honest and straightforward than Vainamoinen. I lo wever,
he is a bad sailor, and dreads the dangers of the water. He declares
frequently that he forged the dance of heaven ; but he fails in some
of his enterprises. When Louhi steals the sun and moon, and
hides them in the mountain, where not even Ukko can find them,
Ilmarinen forges a new sun and moon, but they will give no light;
and when he has lost his first wife, the daughter of Louhi, to whom
he was tenderly attached, and for whose love he had performed
many great deeds, he transforms her recalcitrant sister into a sea-
gull, and then forges himself a third wife of gold and silver, to
which he can impart no warmth, and which nearly freezes him to
death.
The third hero of the Kalevala is Lemminkainen, also called
Ahti, KaukolaBinen, or Kaukomieli. He is a dandy, like Longfellow's
Pau-Puk-Keewis, to whom he has some points of resemblance, and
whoso name may be derived from one of his epithets. One of
Schiefner s lines, of frequent occurrence,
** Er, der schone Kaukomieli,"
corresponds exactly to Longfellow's
** He, the handsome Ycnadizze."
He is described as young and handsome, with black hair, and of
immense strength, but rash, impetuous, and foolhardy, and liable,
like Vainamoinen, to allow hiniself to be grievously discouraged in
HIAWATHA AND THE KALE VA LA. 381
adversity. He is a proficient in magic, but much inferior in this
respect to his mother, for whom he has the deepest affection and
reverence, which is the redeeming feature in his character.
Wherever he goes he makes havoc with the fair sex, and there-
fore, notwitlistanding liis high breeding, and at times courtly
manners, Louhi expressly refuses to invite him to her daughter's
wedding with Ilmarinen ; but he afterwards declares that only bad
men go where they are invited, and good men invite themselves
with their swords ; so he forces his way through all manner of
magical perils into the castle of Pohyola, which has been very
strongly fortified against liim, grossly insults the inmates, and after
an unsatisfactory magical combat with the chief, finally slays him
by stratagem in a duel with swords, and is then compelled to fly
for his life in the shape of an eagle.
Kullervo, the fourtli hero, does not belong to the brotherhood
of the others. His father, Kalervo, and his uncle, Untamo, are at
variance, and Untamo ravages Kalervos farm, drives him away,
and brings up the infant Kullervo as a slave. But Kullervo vows
vencjeance acrainst Untamo in his cradle, like the heroes of some of
the Danish ballads,*^ and Untamo makes fruitless efforts to destroy
him. At last he abandons the attempt, and tries to turn liis slave's
superhuman strength to his own profit. But the oae thought of
Kullervo's life is revenge, and he can do no useful work either for
Untamo, for Ilmarinen, to whom Untamo sells liim, and whose wife
he delivers over to the wolves and bears; nor even for his own
father ; and all his efforts at work only result in mischief. Kul-
lervo is a more guilty (Edipus, pursued by the fearful consequences
of his own and others' misdeeds, until he and nearly all his friends
and enemies are involved in utter ruin and destruction.
His youthful feats evidently suggested these of Kwasind to
Longfellow, although Longfellow, as usual, has avoided any very
close imitation. Thus, when Untamo orders Kullervo to build a
fence, he rears it to the clouds, but leaves no gate by which it is
possible to pass it. In the corresponding passage in Hiawatha,
Kwasind and his father find a forest-path blocked :
'* We must go back," said the old man,
*' O'er these logs we cannot clamber,
Not a wood-chuck could get through them,
Not a squirrel clamber o'er them."^
But Kwasind easily clears away the obstructions. We find the
^ Compare ** Sir Loumor " (Prior's Danish Ballads, voL i. p. 29), &c.
' This passage, like several others in Hiawatha, exhibits a more clumsy
versification than we ever find in Longfellow's models.
382 LITERATURE.
same vague general resemblance, with the details carefully altered,
in other feats related of Kullervo and Kwasind, although the
characters have nothing in common beyond their superhuman
strength.
The Kalevala presents us with many passages of great delicacy
of sentiment and expression, and sometimes of much pathos. Its
moral tone, especially with reference to the domestic virtues, is far
higher than we might expect to meet with in a poem of similar
archaic character. There is hardly an immodest expression to be
found in the whole book, not even in the account of the many
amours of Lemminkainen. On the other hand, the descriptions of
the various monstrous giants, beasts, birds, serpents, and fishes
occasionally encountered by the heroes are generally full of
grotesque and childish exaggerations. Thus we are told, concern-
ing the great bull that was slaughtered for Ilmarinen's wedding-
feast, that it would take a weasel a week to traverse his yoke, a
swallow a whole day to fly from the tip of one horn to the other,
and a squirrel more than a month to run from his shoulder to the
tip of his tail. Some of the serpents might vie with those of the
Mahabharata ; and Lemminkainen finds the outer wall of the castle
of Pohyola forme:l of wattled serpents, like the Hall of Serpents in
Nastrond, described in the Edda, except that their heads are turned
outwards instead of inwartls.
However, resemblances between the Kalevala and the Edda are
not very numerous. The ash Yggdrasil had three roots ; so had
the Sampo ; and the Sampo itself suggests the mill in the Mill-
song (Qrottasougr), and was likewise sunk in the sea. The con-
stituents of which it was formed, too, though not the same, have
some resemblance to those used by the dwarfs in the manufacture of
the chain Gleipnir. It has been suggested that either Louhi or
Lemminkainen is analogous to Loki ; but I can see no resemblance
between them. The real analogue of Loki is Hiisi, of whom we
often hear in the Kalevala, though we do not make his actual
acquaintance. Least of all can Louhi be identified with Loki, be-
yond the (probably accidental) similarity of name ; for Louhi is a
careful housewife and a good mother, and, except that she sets
almost impossible tasks before her daughter s suitors (and she was
fully justified in doing her best to get rid of Lemminkainen), she
does not appear as the enemy of the heroes, until she is roused to
fury by the loss of her husband and two of her daughters, and the
robbery of the Sampo, which last calamity reduces her country to
poverty and wretchedness. The misery of Pohyola and the places
HIAWATHA AXD THE KALE VALA. 383
which Louhi sends upon Vainamoinen and his people seem to me
to indicate the date of this portion of the poem as about the latter
half of the fourteenth century, when the Black Death, which would
probably enter Finland from the north, and the atmospheric and
terrestrial disturbances which accompanied it, would still be fresh
in the minds of the people. Other portions of the poem are doubt-
less of different periods ; and the last Runo, which exhibits curious
traces of Christianity, is no doubt one of the latest of all. Mar-
yatta, the shepherd-girl, is impregnated by swallowing a magic berry,
and is sent by Ruotus (Herod), one of the head men of her village,
who is represented as a rich fop and a bully, into a stable, where
her child is bom. Afterwards, when the child disappears from her
lap, she inquires after him of a star, the moon, and the sun. The
two first refuse to tell her, complaining that he created them to keep
cold vigil through the night ; but at last the sun directs her to him.
There is much local colouring in the Kalevala. Foreign
countries are rarely mentioned at all, even those most nearly
adjacent ; and the sea is much less often alluded to than the vast
lakes, swamps, and forests. The domestic economy and the daily
lives and occupations of the Finns are portrayed in a very lively
manner. We obtain a clear insight into the Finnish household,
and the duties and relations of its various members. Women are
usually treated with great respect, and are the companions and
equals of their husbands. Occasionally, it is true, we hear of scold-
ing wives and brutal husbands ; but they are the exceptions, and
not the rule. Parents and children live together on affectionate
terms, and men frequently seek counsel from their mothers, another
j>oint of similarity between the Kalevala and the Danish Ballads,^
in which latter, heroes often appeal to their mothers, or even to their
nurses, in cases of difficulty.
Lonnrot has been called by his admirers the Finnish Homer,
and some of the admirers of the Kalevala have gone so far as to
compare it to the Iliad, which it certainly resembles in having been
put together from the national ballads of a people. However,
parallels occasionally occur, the most noticeable being perhaps the
relations between Lemminkainen and his mother, who mourns
over him sometimes like Thetis over Achillea Sometimes, too, she
speculates about his proceedings in a very similar way to that in
which Helen in the third book of the Iliad, ponders over the fate of
her brothers.
« ** Habo and SiguUd," (Pric.r., i. p. 216) ; *' Knight Stig's Wedding," ii. p.
339.
381 LITERATURE.
The metre of the Kalevala is approximately that of Hiawatha,
but Finnish is a very compact language, and tlie short lines
usually consist of three words only, sometimes two, and rarely four.
In any Western European language, many more words are often
required, so that it is difficult to give the exact force of the original.
Nevertheless, a metrical translation could easily be made, both
eftective and fairly exact, whereas any ])rose translation 'would con-
vey no real idea of the original. And although Schiefner's is the
oldest translation of the second recension, and not always quite
correct (as we have seen in his erroneous rendering of *' vaka ")
it is still, on its own intrinsic merits, apart from its being probably
the edition used by Longfellow, ])eculiarly well adapted to form
the model of an English version. The Swedish versions are in the
same metre, and read equally smoothly ; so, 1 believe, is the Hun-
garian ; the French is in prose.
It is somewhat remarkable that a poem like the Kalevala, so in-
teresting to students of almost every branch of antiquarian and
ethnological research, and to those who love literature for its own
sake, should not be better known in England, though it has not
infrequently fonncd the subject of magazine articles, and is some-
times noticed in books on Folk-Lore, as,' for instance, in Mr
Andrew Lang's Custom and Myth, pp. 156-170.
W. F. KlRBY.
All communications should be directed to *' The Editor, Archizoloyical Review ,"* i70 Strand
W.C,
The Editor cannot undertake to return rty'ected MSS. unless a stamped directed envelope i»
sent for that purpose.
THE
Archaeological Review.
Vol. I. AUGUST, 1888. No. 6.
Hntbtopolooig*
— :o : —
EXOGAMY AND POLYANDRY.
IN the January number of the Historical Review, a paper by the
late Mr. McLennan is published which elaborates his theory,
mentioned but slightly in Studies in Ancient History (p. 75), as to
the origin of exogamy. "We believe," he says at the latter re-
ference," this restriction on marriage to be connected with the practice
in early times of female infanticide, which, rendering women scarce
led at once to polyandry within the tribe and the capturing of
women from withoui" To emphasize the fact that it was "a
limitation on the exercise of the right of marriage among kindred,"
Mr. Donald McLennan brings forward some curious evidence for the
purpose of proving that though the right of marriage was restricted
by the laws of exogamy, the right of less regular intercourse was not
thereby abolished If this evidence is to be accepted, it will have
an important bearing upon the origin, not only of exogamy but of
polyandry. For clearly if the right of less regular intercourse than
marriage survived after the introduction of exogamy into polyandrous
society, such a right is of course assumed to have existed with purely
polyandrous society. Here we are met with Mr. McLennan's de-
finition of polyandry as '' a modification of promiscuity."^ It would
seem that we most either give up this definition of polyandry, or
^ atuditi in AncicnJt HiiUmj, pp. 94-96.
2c
386 ANTHROPOLOGY.
refuse to accept Mr. Donald McLennan's application of periodical
promiscuity as evidence bearing on the origin of exogamy. If we
examine the custom of periodical promiscuity, it will, I think, assist
us in determining which of these alternatives is necessary.
Mr. Donald McLennan instances the tribes about Port Lincoln
in South Australia, the Turra tribe also in South Australia, tribes
in the Adelaide district, and the tribes of the Riverina district,* as
evidence that at some periodical festival class rules of marriage
established by exogamy did not operate, and that hence exogamy
did not necessarily limit anything but marriage rights. What we
have first to note is, that such festivals are in many cases held for
the express purpose of creating marriage ties between the sexes, and
not for over-stepping the bounds which already regulate this
institution. Thus among the Australian tribes themselves, the Wa-
imbios, " when there was a great gathering at corrobborees, wives
were exchanged but always within class limits."* The Watch-an-
dies too are described by Mr. Oldfield as holding a grand semi-religious
festival in the spring, for the express purpose of instituting marriage
rights, one peculiarity of the customs then practised being the
construction of artificial pits in the ground where the males reside
during the festival.* This very singular custom is to be found else-
where, namely, among one of the tribes of India, the Bhondas of
Jaypur. " A number of youths, candidates for matrimony, start off
for a village where they hope to find a corresponding number of
young women and make known their wishes to the elders, who re-
ceive them with all due ceremony. They proceed to excavate an
underground chamber, if one is not already prepared, having an
aperture at the top admitting one at a time ; into this the young
gentlemen with a corresponding number of young girls are intro-
duced when they make their selection, after which they ascend out
of it, each holding the young lady of his choice by the forefinger of
one of her hands."^ In this case presumably -exogamy as betweep
village and village is held to be the rule. Two other instance? niay
be quoted from India, where the class rule is not so observable,
though judging by the almost universal practice it undoubtedly exists.
The Meris of the plain in the Lakhimpur distinct have a custom
whereby " at one season of the year the adult unmarried males and
females of a village spend several days and nights together in one
^ Historical Review, pp. 99-100.
3 Fiflon and Hewitt's Kaniilaroi a^ui JTicniai, 290.
^ Joum. Ethivological 8oc,^ new ser. ii. 230. These pits are oariooBly
Uescribed by Mr. OldHeld as examples of the grossest forms of phallic worship.
• Lidian Antiquary^ ii. 237.
EXOGAMY AND POLYANDRY. 387
large building, and if couples manage to suit each other they pair
off and marry."* Among the Coorgs " on some great day, a family
would call together the whole grama (village), that is. all the
families of one of the rice- valleys girt with fann houseai^ to a feast
The youths would have their ears pierced by the carpenters for
earrings, and the maidens had rice strewn upon their heads. This
was in those days called the marriage feast. The whole community
feaste<^l together, and the young people were now at liberty to go
in search of husbands and wives.**^
We meet with the same kind of thing among the Kafirs of Natal,
among whom, at the festival of circumcision and arrival of woman-
hood, tlie two sexes mix indiscriminately with the result that if
children are born the parents are married.®
These examples are perhaps sufficient to show that the periodical
festivals to which Mr. Donald McLennan has given prominence,
must not be taken as proof of an over-riding of exogamous
marriage rights, and a return to endogamous promiscuity. By far
the greater number of these festivals, and they occur nearly all over
the world, are held for the express purpose of instituting marriage,and
they are identified, as in the case of the Bhondas, with the rule of
exogamy. May we go a step beyond this tentative result and ask if
they explain any stage in the history of primitive marriage ?
If we take temporary monandry to be the earliest marriage-
condition, answerable to Mr. McLennan's theory of promiscuity, and
polyandry to have arisen out of this, the conditions of Nair poly-
andry, as the earliest form, are important to note. The Nair
woman has attached to her two males or four or perhaps more, but
she is free to cohabit with any number of men ; a Nair man may be
one in several combinations of husbanda® This is quite in accor-
dance with the facts of polyandry elsewhere, as for instance, among
the Kandyans of Ceylon where the evidence proves a man to have
had fifteen wives, and a woman thirteen husbands.^^ But we get a
further important fact in connection with Nair polyandry, namely^
that cohabitation takes place according to rulea What these rules
were we do not quite know, except that their object was to regulate
* Hunter's SlatisticoL Acccv/iU of Asaam^ i., 343.
^ Richter'8 Manxud of Coorg, p. 132.
s MacLean's Kafir Laws atul Oiutoma^ 98, 101, 126.
^ Studies in ancient History^ 100, 101. This accoant is derived from slightly
different versions given in Asiatic Besearches^ v., 13, Hamilton ArcowU of iJkc
East IiuiieSf i., 308, and Buchanan's Journey^ iL, 411, but which Mr. McLennan
accepts as ** consistent with the three accounts."
^^ Joum. Ethnological /Soe., ii. new ser. 292,
388 ANTHROPOLOGY.
the period during which each husband lived with the common wife.
Let us assume that pure polyandry had ceased to obtain in any
given society, and new forms of marriage had taken its place, and
we may well conceive that a periodical marriage festival might
mark the new stage. As a matter of fax;t, polyandry has ceased
in all the tribes that have been cited as affording examples of
periodical marriage festivals. If these festivals answered Mr. Donald
McLennan's explanation, they would at least be found generally,
if not always, to obtain within polyandrous tribes who capture their
wives from without. But this is not the case. As these festivals
are not found amongst existing polyandrous tribes, nor amongst bride
capturing tribes, and as in the case of the Coorgs and the Kafirs they
are found when tribal development has passed forward to the
stage of reckoning kinship through males and of polygamy, there
seems to be evidence that the influences which brought about such
rites show us both exogamy and polyandry^ in a state of decay, in-
stead of, according to Mr. Donald McLennan, *' exogamy operating
within its original limits."^^
It is most singular that this proposition may be best shown by
the evidence of British custom, and it will doubtless not be un-
acceptable to the student if the case under this head is stated rather
fully. We will first notice the evidence for the existence of poly-
andry in Britain, and will then examine some survivals in custom
which can be best explained, or perhaps may be only explained, by
the theory of their direct descent from polyandry.
Mr. McLennan relied upon the well-known passage in CaBsar
relating to British custom for proof of an exceedingly rude type of
polyandry, only less rude indeed than the earliest type of all, Nair
polyandry ; but Mr. Fison objects to this evidence on the ground
that it really proves group-marriage as he shows it to have prevailed
among the Australian blacks.^^ It seems clear, however, that Mr.
McLennan's reading of the passage is correct, particularly in view
of the clause, habentur liberi a quibus primum virgines quaque
ductae sunt, which can only mean that there being doubt about the
paternity of the children they were considered as belonging to him
who firat espoused the woman.^^ If it were a group act — several
men marrying several women — no such arrangement could be ap-
plicable. Accepting Mr. McLennan's view, then, what we have next
"^"^ Historical Beview, p. 101.
^^ Fison and Howitt's Kamilaroi <md Kumai, p. 146.
1* Compare Strabo'g account of Arabia (xvL 4) quoted in Robertson's Kith-
ship in early Arabiaj 133, and bee notes to the Irish NeimiuSf p. Iv.
EXOGAMY AND POLYANDRY. 389
to enquire is — does Caesar's notice exhaust the evidence as to
British polyandry ?
It seems to be confirmed by the remarkable story reported by
Dion (B. Ixxvi. Sec. 16) which is as follows : " The wife of Argen-
tocoxus, a certain Caledonian, said to Julia Augusta, who taunted
her, that mixcdly they united with their husbands : ' we accomplish
these things which necessity demands from nature much better
than you Romans ; for we have openly intercourse with the best
men ; but you, secretly, the worst men pollute with adulteries.' "
Other classical authorities allude to the practise of an almost
unregulated promiscuity from which Mr. McLennan has by evidence
proved polyandry was developed. It seems more probable that
these descriptions are the extreme "moralist" views of classical
writers rather than strictly accurate descriptions, but wliether they
tend to prove " utter promiscuity *' or whether they really refer to
a misunderstood system of polyandry the evidence is material to
the matter now in view. Strabo (bk. iv.) says : " The inhabitants of
Hibernia, more wild than the Britons, esteemed it decent to live
openly not only with other women, but even with their mothers
and sisters ; " and St. Jerome likewise observes that the nation of the
Scots {i.e, Irish) had not particular wives. Again Solinus
referring to the island of Thule says, " they used women in
common; certain mamage to none. Even the King of the Hebrides
had no wife of liis own, but took hy tv/rns the use of any woman
he desired ; so that he could neither wish nor hope for children."
(Solinus c. 22.)
A curious passage in Giraldus Cambrensis may, perhaps, contain
a tradition of the purer polyandry in Wales, " Tegengl is the name
of a province in North Wales . . the same word also was the name
of a certain woman with whom it was said each brother had an
intrigue, from which circumstance arose this term of reproach
* To have Tegengl, after Tegengl had been in possession of his
brother.' "" There are also traces of it among the Eddaic lays
where it is attributed to Woden and his brothers and where though
it is considered as disgraceful it is proposed to Brunhild.^* It
seems to be some confirmation of the view that these references
point to the existence of polyandry in Britain, that it was most
probably accompanied by female infajiticide, the cause in Mr.
McLennan's opinion of its first and universal institution, for it is
permissible to suggest as parallel evidence, in want of direct evi-
^* Deacriptioih of Wales^ lib. L, cap. xiv.
** Yigfuflson and Powell's Sigfred Arminhis and other papers, p. 84.
390 ANTHROPOLOGY.
dence, the custom once surviving among the Prassians of Icilljng
all the daughters except one.^^
We may next examine some survivals in custom with a view
of ascertaining whether the evidence of polyandry from the early
authorities is confirmed by such evidence. Now there is a custom
well known to have existed in Scotland in comparatively recent
times, known by the name of hatid-fasting, and an examination
of the various forms of this custom will, I venture to think, supply
a curious chapter in the history of polyandry, aiid will help ns to
understand the periodical festivals which Mr. Donald McLennan
has sought to identify with exogamy.
The word so far from being identified with Scotland is pure
Saxon, luiTid'fcestan and hand-foistung being found in Saxon speech
and in the cognate Icelandic, Swedish and Danish langua^ges/^ to
mean a pledge by giving of the hand. A definition is to be found
also in the Glossariv/m Suio-Gothicum : " hand-faestning, promissic
qu8B fit stipulata manu, sive cives fidem suam principi spondeant,
sive mutuam inter se, matrimonium inituri, a phrasi faesta hand'
quae notat dextram dextrae jungere." These facts clearly take the
word out of the limited range of Scottish custom and place it as
a custom of the Gothic races who overran Scotland and England
alike.^^
In turning to the evidence of the custom, apart from the name,
of hand-fasting, it is found to be most commonly marriage by a
simple pledge, which did not mean a marriage sanctioned by the
Church, though indirectly recognized by the state. Pennant points
^* See Elton Origins of Eiiglisli History, p. 92.
*^ See Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, 8. v.
^® A very suggestive passage occurs in Mr. Freeman's account of the
marriages of the Norman Dukes, which is worth quoting : " Rolf and Popa were
probably married, as the phrase was, 'Danish fashion,' which, in the eyes
of the Church, was the same as not being married at all. A woman in such
a position might, almost at pleasure, be called either wife or concubine, and
might be treated as either the one or the other. Her children might, as
happened to be convenient, be branded as bastards or held as entitled to eveiy
right of legitimate birth. Rolf put away Popa when he married King Charlee'
daughter, and when King Charles' daughter died, he took Popa back again. So
William, Popa's son, put away Sporta, the mother of his son Richard, when he
married Lindgardis of Vermandois. This strange laxity with regard to marriage
though spoken of as something specially Danish, was in truth hardly more
Danish than Frankish. The private history of the Frankish Kings, Merwings
and Elarlings alike, is one long record of the strangest conjugal relations. Or-
dinary concubinage is not amazing anywhere ; what stands out speciAlly con-
spicuous in the history of these kings — nowhere more conspicuous than in
the history of these kings— is the liberty which they assumed of divorcing their
queens at pleasure, and sometimes of having several acknowledged queens at
once." Freeman's Noim. Conq. i. 203, 204.
EXOGAMY AXD POLYAXDRY. 391
out an instance in the reign of James IL of Scotland when James
Sixth Earl of Murray took advantage of the custom with Isabel
Innes daughter of the laird of Innes.*® In Brand's PopvJUir
Antiquities is quoted a curious passage from The Christen StcUe of
Matrimiony, 1543, from which it may be inferred that the custom
was pretty general at that time. In Ireland it existed apparently
in a very rude form. A couplet from Derricke's Image of Ireland,
1581, says:
Now ere the lorde aitts downe
With concubine or wife
Whereof he often makes exchaunge
In compasse of his life ;
and a marginal note explains that the " Irishe Earne euery yeare
once or twice peraduenture make exchaunge of their wines, as
thei like them so will thei keepe them for thei will not be
bounde to them." Campion in his Historie of Ireland, (p. 23)
says, "they can bee content to marrie for a yeare and a day
by probation and at the yeare's end to returne her home uppon
any light quarrells if the gentlewoman's friendes bee weake and
unable to avenge the injurie." O'Donovan in his notes to the
Book of Rights, (p. 243) mentions a current tradition at Telltown,
County Meath, which records that all " marriages which took place
in the Kingdom were celebrated there in Pagan times, but the con-
tract lasted for twelve months only, at the expiration of which the
parties might separate if they pleased,"*^
In Wales the same custom prevailed as we learn upon the
evidence of Giraldus. He relates that " they do not engage in
marriage until they have previously tried the disposition and
particularly the fecundity of the person with whom they are
engaged. An ancient custom also prevails of hiring girls from their
parents at a certain price and a stij^ulated penalty in case of relin-
quishing their connection."*^ This custom certainly lasted down to
the reign of Edward I., for it is to be identified with that loose-
ness of the marriage bond which was one of the offences against
Llewellyn recorded by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1282.^
Except the fact that the handfast marriage lasted for a year and
a day these examples of the custom do not afford much clue to its
^ ° Tour in ScoUandf p. 81. Millar in his Origin of Banks, 1806, mentions
existence of the custom in Scotland, p. 20.
'^ The Irish Nenniiis, pp. 179, 182, gives an early example of this loosenes
of the marriage tie.
^^ Giraldus Cambrensis, Description of Wales, lib. iL, cap. vi.
2 2 O'Curry's Manners^ etc of AncieiU Irish: introd. p. clxxviiL
392 ANTHROPOLOGY.
origin. Pennant advances a foolish theory that it originated '* from
the want of clergy in this county in the days of popery." A writer
in The Statistical Account of Scotland has something more si^piificaiit
to say. Noticing that the example he quotes occurred at a plaiCe "only
a small distance from the Roman encampment of Castle-o*er/ he
goes on to ask, '' may not the handfasting have taken its rise from
their [the Roman] manner of celebrating marriage, ex usu, by uirhich
if a woman with the consent of her parents or guardians lived with
a man for a year without being absent three nights, she became his
wife?"23
The suggestive analogy between the Roman law and the
Scottish custom indicates the true question which must be asked
concerning the origin of this custom, is handfasting a degraded
relic of a once well-established law of civilized society, or is it sur-
vival, pure and simple, of archaic custom which had not succumbed
to the reforming powers of Christianity ? If we consider that the
Roman law of usus, so far as it affected marriage, was a provision of
the Twelve Tables and that at the time of Gaius it ha^d already
fallen into desuetude (i. Ill) it is diflScult to see how it could have
been transplanted to the distant colony of Britain, and that too,
not as a decaying law, but as a law vigorous enough to assert itself
among alien people and for centuries after its meaning had been
lost. Neither can it have descended from a local observance of
the later Roman law which became incorporated into Scottish law,
because in the code of Justinian it no longer finds a place. We
therefore fail to find any explanation of the custom of hand-
fasting as a degraded relic of a once civilized ceremony and we
are forced to make the only alternative enquiry, is it a survival
in more or less completeness of archaic custom once prevalent among
rude tribes ? And it may be pointed out here, that if this
should actually be the case, the history of this custom may prove to
supply a clue to the origin of the Roman law of usus. The two
cases would then be put thus. Among the Romans the rude prac-
tice of their barbarian ancestors got filtered down to the smallest
dimensions, and in this shape was allowed a place in their earliest
code of law, only, however, to exist in a decaying state until
eventually it dropt out all together. In Britain the self same rude
practices of barbarian ancestors became stereotyped into local
custom, and without at any time having the force of national law
lived on to a later age in much the same fashion as its parallel
existed in early Rome. But then there would be an archaic form
2® Sinclaii^s Statistical Account of Scotland, xii., 615.
EXOGAMY AND POLYANDRY. 393
of the custom from which both Roman and British examples have
descended, and it is this form we must discover before it is possible
satisfactorily to enter upon any enquiry as to its origin.
There certainly exist forms of the ceremonial attached to hand-
fasting which have been strangely overlooked. To my mind they
supply some important details which are absent from the simple
forms more generally known. The first example is to be obtained
from the Eskdale custom. The earliest account of it that I have
met is to be found in Pennant's Tour in Scotland, 1774. A nearly
identical account is given in Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland,
1794, and this has been transcribed into Ellis's edition of Brand's
Popular Antiguitiea. Pennant's version is as follows : " Among the
various customs now obsolete the most curious was that of Hand-
fisting, in use about a century pasi In the upper part of Eskdale,
at the confluence of the white and black "Esk, was held an annual
fair where multitudes of each sex repaired. The unmarried looked
out for mates, made their engagements by joining hands, or by
handfisting, went off in pairs, cohabited till the next annual return
of the fair, appeared there again ajid then were at liberty to declare
their approbation or dislike of eeuch other. If each party continued
constant, the handfisting was renewed for life ; but if either party
dissented, the engagement was void, and both were at full liberty
to make a new choice but with this proviso, that the inconstant was
to take charge of the offspring of the year of approbation." A still
more curious form of the custom obtained in the parish of Campbel-
town, which we are told formerly consisted of four distinct
parishes, two of which were respectively dedicated to St. Cowie and
St. Couslan. " These two saints held very different ideas in respect
to marriage. Couslan inculcated the indissolubility of the marriage
tie, and if lovers could not majry, their joining hands together
through a hole in a small pillar near his church was held an
interim tie of fidelity so strong and sacred that no one would ever
break it." This ritual at the stone is extremely interesting as a
survival from pre-Christian times. But now we turn to the dis-
trict presided over by Cowie. He is said to have instituted " an
annual solemnity at which all the unhappy couples in his parish
were to assemble at the church : at midnight all present were
blindfolded, and ordered to run round the church at full speed. At
a particular moment the word cabhay (seize quickly) was pro-
nounced, upon which every man laid hold of the first female he met
with, who was his wife till the next aimiversary."**
*^ Guthrie's Old SecUuh (htdomi^ p. 168. With these two remarkable cus-
394 ANTHROPOLOGY.
These examples of handfast marriages, aa they may be called,
throw an altogether different light upon the subject. Qettimg rid of
the modem terminology we unquestionably have here remnants of
old tribal custom. What is first to be noted is, that these examples
no longer identify the practice with the mere will or fancy of in-
dividuals. It is essentially a tribal act taking place at fixed inter-
vals. Such a form must necessarily be older than the instances of
individual handfast unions, and we may therefore safely tnm to it
for an explanation of the origin of the custom.
Supposing the custom to be in full operation, the following im-
portant points are presented for consideration as the result of its
normal working :
(1) The periodical [annual] practice of the custom.
(2) The obvious fact that the " unhappiness " of the temporary
union is only a modern gloss upon the old practice of
changing wives.
(3) The possibility of all the women in course of time, the
custom being regularly kept up, becoming handfasted
to all the men.
(4) The consequent uncertainty, during the normal operation
of the custom, of male parentage.
(5) The necessity therefore of an original recognition of kin-
ship through females, though in the modern practice the
inconstant takes the child.
But all these practices are so little removed from the Nair type
of polyandry with its system (1) of periodical regulation between
a wife and her several husbands and (2) of both wives cmd husbands
entering into several combinations of marriage groups, that it
seems only necessary to seek for an explanation of the stoppage of
female infanticide and the consequent restoration of a balance in
the numbers of the two sexes to account for the institution of these
periodical marriage festivals. In the case of the Scottish examples
now under examination this may be traced to the surrounding
civilization which favoured the state of inter-tribal peace, the
consequent restoration of a balance between the sexes, and which
recognised monogamy as the only form of marriage.^ The poly-
toms may be compared another which existed at Canway, Argyllshire. On
Michselmas day, every man mounted his horse unfurnished with saddle and took
behind him either some young girl, or his neighbour's wife, and they rode from the
village to a certain cross and back again. After the procession, the females en-
tertained the companions of their ride. Guthrie, ibid 166.
'^ Skene's Cdtic Scottand iii. 138, says, '* The lax relations between the
still survived must have been checked and controUed."
^M^^
EXOGAMY AND POLYANDRY. 395
androus tribe which met this tide of new influences would have to
fall back upon customs partly answering to their own stage of
development and partly answering to the new theory of social
morality, and in this way would evolve a system which might
perhaps be termed handfast-polyandry.
This seems to me to be the only reasonable conclusion to be
obtained from a consideration of the evidence as it appears in
British custom. The clear parallels which the handfast ceremonial
supplies to the savage festivals must go a long way in determining
the origin of both the civilized and savage custom as a crystalliza-
tion of customs arising from outside influences. If we took the
savage examples in some detail, it would be found that nearly all the
conditions set forth in the British survivals were paralleled. For in-
stance, there is much to show that all savage tribes who have these
festivals exhibit a state of arrested progress. The Australians on the
evidence of Messrs. Fison and Howitt show this ; the Indian tribes of
the Miris and the Coorgs are certainly influenced from the plains, and
while now following more advanced customs, show distinct traces of
pure polyandry and female kinship ; the Kafirs of Natal, while recog-
nizing male kinship and practising polygamous marriages, also reveal
traces of the older system. The periodical marriage festivals could
not be the result of tribal legislation, and without this cause for its
existence it needs some other powerful and general cause which might
well be found in a polyandrous society meeting an outside force
which checked its normal development and turned it aside into a
bye-path.
We will take the Coorg example in detail. (1) Its periodical
marriage festival is a close parallel to the British handfasting.
(2) Existing custom shows advanced notions of social organization
such as we know the Teutonic conquerors of Britain shewed, namely
kinship through males, succession being to sons, grandsons, brothers,
brothers' sons, daughters, daughters' sons, cousins and adopted sons
in the order named ; ^ the family group consists of two or three
generations under the headship of the senior male member.*^ (3) Sur-
vivals of more ancient custom show that women held property and
could choose their husbands ; ^ that blood feuds between clan and
clan existed ; ^ that exogamy was practiced, bride and bridegroom
being of two different village communities;^ that bride-capture
2« Richtei^s Man\ud of Coorg, 131.
«7 Ibid,, 121.
«8 Ibid,, 120-121.
" Ibid., 128. 30 Ibid., 134.
396 ANTHROPOLOGY.
was once pmctised ; ^^ and finally that polyandry was practised.'^
And (4) the tide of opposing influences from a higher sarrounding'
civilization is shown to have influenced social developnient in Coorg
by the fact that '' the present marriage rites conform to the Hindu
usages/'^ and are therefore the result of Hindu civilization upon
the ruder people.
If we carefully consider these points, it will be found that the
Coorg forms an exact parallel to the British evidence all along the
line. If, then, the British and the Coorg may be taken as types of
periodical festivals at which marriage rites are instituted ; if we
there see exogamy ajid polyandry in a state of decay, not in a state
of normal working ; and if we can point to the probable cause of
this decay, it seems impossible to admit, with Mr. Donald McLiennan^
that periodical festivals, such as he has drawn attention to, illustrate
the rule of " exogamy operating within its original limits."
G. Laurence Gomme.
^^ After the wedding the bride is locked up in her mother's house for two
months as a close prisoner. i&uZ., 124.
^^ Col. Wilks in his ^t^^on/ o/3ft/dore . Mr. Richter denies that polyandry once
existed, but there is no reason to doubt the evidence of the authorities he quotes
— see Manual of Cooi'g, 139 — except on the ground of the immorality of the
proceeding, which is of course not scientific argument. Cf. McLennan, p. 97 ;
hyJian Antiquai'yy ii. 182.
»» Richter, pp. 133, 134.
NOTES FROM PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS.
No. 4. Native Tribes in the Interior of Lagos (West AriacA).
THE Jebus, Ibaddns, Oyos, and Modakekes do not make
human sacrifices. The Ifes are the only people of the
countries through which the late mission passed, in which
human sacrifices were made, and who have not declared for the
abolition of the custom. The Ifes consider themselves the fathers
of mankind, the conservators of the world, and the special priests
of the deities, and say if they do not propitiate the gods the whole
world will spoil
According to Ondo custom 16 human sacrifices at the very least
would have been made on the occasion of their King's death and
funeral
One is to be killed when the corpse is washed, a second at the
NATIVE TRIBES OF LAGOS. 397
gate leading to the King's harem, a third and fourth at the en-
trances of the two council meeting courts, a fifth near the pathway
in the King's street, and a sixth at the market place. All these
immolations would have been made before the day of the funeral.
When the burial takes place at least 10 persons and a cat would
have been buried either alive or dead in his grave to attend (as
they believe) his spirit in the unseen world. The commissioner
was told that the number of victims on this occasion might have
been much larger as the late King had reigned long and became
very wealthy. After the burial, and during the three lunar months
which must elapse before a new King be installed, several of the
King's wives and slaves who had been eyed by the Chiefs for
some misbehaviour might be hunted out and murdered in cold
blood. Even the ceremonies of installing a new King are accom-
panied with some human sacrifices.
The men of Jebu are, as a rule, tall and independent-looking,
and although for the most part they wear the usual country cloth,
it is not unusual to see the fiowing robes and loose trousers after
the Mabomedan style.
The women in general are short and ugly, and given to dis-
figuring themselves by streaking their faces with the juice, which
resembles lamp-black, of the fruit of a tree called Buje, or by dye-
ing them red with camwood, or yellow with a paste made from
sandstone, the last-named substance producing a most ghastly
appearance. We saw some women who had dyed their feet with
camwood to resemble red slippers ; others had one nostril pierced
and a red bead inserted. They wear the ordinaiy native cloths,
and their ornaments consist of braas chains, iron, brass, lead and
bead bracelets, Niger-glass armlets, and strings of beads and cowries.
The population seem much addicted to revelry ; drum-beating and
singing were kept up pretty well all night during the time the
commissioners were in the capital.
A good many blacksmiths were at work in the town making
hatchets, &c., from iron bars imported from Lagos; with the emblem
of their sacrifice to Ogun (god of iron), a dog's head, nailed up in a
conspicuous place in their workshoj)s.
So far as could be ascertained the Jebus do not kill human beings
for sacrifice, but they have an annual sacrifice at Jebu Ode to
Obanta (Oba=King, Nita = in the street, i.e., god of state), when a
man and a woman are sent into the bush as scape goats for the
nation, and are supposed to be taken by the god. As a matter of
fact, however, the scape goats generally manage to make their way
398 ANTHROPOLOGY.
to a village called Aha, not far from Oru, which is inhabited solely
by people who have undergone a similar trial, where they live
unmolested, but they are not allowed to return to any town or
village in Jebu. If the victims die in the bush, it is said that the
god has accepted them, and if they reach the village it is merely
put down to the god's rejecting them. It is supposed that the
Awujale has private human sacrifices, but we could learn nothing
definite about this.
While the commissioners were conversing it came on to rain
slightly and the orderly opened and held over them an umbrella.
The Balogun, who was sitting on a camp stool close by us, suddenly
discovered the umbrella and darted ofl^ with his stool some two
or three yards distance in a terrible fright lest the shadow of the
umbrella should fall on him.
The umbrella in Jebu is the symbol of sovereignty, none but
the King being allowed to use one, and so sacred is this privilege
considered that, we were infoiTQed, it is death for any Jebu to use
an umbrella, and it was amusing to see how people started away
from us lest the shadow even of our umbrella should fall upon
them.
In Ibadan in every street are fetish houses, small, round, mud struc-
tures, with cone-shaped, thatched roofs, some of them capable of
holding a couple of persons, and in these devotees sit and meditate;
while others are much smaller, and have little wooden images in
front of them, which are generally liberally streaked with the blood
of a fowl offered in sacrifice, and inside the fetish houses there is
generall^'^ a small pot of water, an offering to the god.
Many of the women dye their faces and feet red, but do not
disfigure them like the Jebus with buje, and the hideous yellow
paste is seldom seen. Their ornaments, which are few, are prin-
cipally silver and brass rings, brass, bead and cowrie armlets, and
charms. The children have brass ear-rings and anklets and numer-
ous charms. The men's ornaments are similar to those of the
women, and both dress in the usual native cloths, the Mahomedans,
of course, adhering to their peculiar dress.
Many of the wealthy Chiefs have upwards of a thousand wives,
and minor individuals as many as they can aflbrd to keep. The
senior Christian in Ibadan had had 17 wives before being baptised,
but had managed to dispose of them all but one.
The eldest son is heir to all his father's property, and on his
father's decease takes his wives, save his own mother, who goes to
NATIVE TRIBES OF LAGOS. 39»
live with the deceased's eldest brother unless the son provides a
separate house for her.
Girls are given in marriage by the parents, but a King or Chief's
daughter marries or lives with whom she pleases and changes her
consort as often as she likes. A woman under the rank of a Chief's,
daughter, on becoming a widow, goes to live with her late husband's
relatives, and if she marries again the second aspirant to her hand
and heart has to pay to these relatives a dowry equal to that which
was paid by the first husband for the lady.
Laws in Ibadan are passed by the Council of Chiefs, in
which any member may propose a law, all questions being de-
cided by the majority, subject, however, to a veto in the Head
Chief. They are promulgated by being proclaimed by the town
criers, and their enforcement is left to the Chiefs in their
several quarters of the town. Cases of life and death are heard
by the Head Chief in Council, who alone can pass sentence of
death. If a criminal is condemned to death for murder or seri-
ous wounding, he is handed over to the Ogbonis, and executed by
them in their house, and the head nailed to the tree in the market
place, which is counted a curse. The body is not shown, but sup-
posed to be thrown into a pit, said to be in the Ogboni's house.
Theft is seldom punished by death, the imposition of a fine or im-
prisonment in fetters being the usual penalty, but when sheep or
horse stealing or burglary become prevalent an example is made,
and the condemned prisoner is executed by the stool of the god
Ogun in the market place by the sword bearers of the Chiefs, who
place the head on the stool where it remains, but the body, unlike
that of a prisoner executed by the Ogbonis, can be bought and re-
moved by the relatives of the deceased, and this form of execution
is considered the least degrading. Minor cases are heard and de-
cided by each Chief in his own quarter of the town, but heavy fines
and imprisonment in fetters can only be inflicted by the Head
Chief. There are no police, the apprehension of ofienders being left
to the people at large. When thieves are known to have entered
the town — and it is curious how quickly their presence is discovered
— ^the public criers go round warning people to look after their be-
longings and to shut up their houses well at night
The Bale is the Head Chief of the town, and is chosen by Chiefs,
subject to the approval of the Alafin. He appoints the Balogun
(war Chief), Otun Bale (right hand of the Bale), Osi Bale (left hand
of the Bale), both civil Chiefs, and the Seriki (second war Chief),
and a host of minor dignitaiiea At the present time the titles of
403 A NTHROPOLOG Y.
Bale, Osi Bale, and Seriki are in abeyance, the Chiefs who had held
them having died during the present war.
In former times when the Ibadans began a war they paid the
Ifes to oflFer a human sacrifice at He Ife to Ogun (god of war and
iron) on their behalf, but when the present war, which commenoed,
one may say, with the revolt of the Ekitiparapo and the raids of
the Egbas into Ibadan territory, broke out it was not considered of
sufficient importance to require a sacrifice. Later, when the war as-
sumed a more serious aspect than had been expected, the Chiefs
wished the customary sacrifice to be ofiered, but the then Are, being
a Mahomedan, overruled them, and none was made. When, how-
ever, the Are died at Kiji camp, in August 1885, a slave was sacri-
ficed, the Ibadans attributing their inability to overcome their
enemies to the neglect they had shown to the god of war. The
last time on which human beings are said to have been sacrificed at
the funeral of a Chief was on the death of the late Basorun (tho
highest title next to AlaGn in the Yoruba country) in 1867, but
whether there really was any human sacrifice on that occasion is
uncertain; we could learn nothing to make us consider it otherwise
than mere rumour. It may therefore be said that the Ibadans do
not practise human sacrifice, for even in the instance of the war
sacrifice, they retain the services of the Ifes to perform the rite.
Ibadan (Iba = ambuscade, Odan=grass field) was originally m-
habited by the Egbas, who were driven out by the Jebus and Ifes
about the year 1813, and took refuge at Abeokuta (Abe = undei^
Okuta= stone), their present town. When the Yoruba country was
invaded by the Fellatahs about 1820-1 many of the Yoruba people
settled in Ibadan, and subsequently increasing in numbers they
waged successful wars against the Jebus and Ifes, and compelled
them eventually to leave the town.
The musical instruments of the Ibadans consist of drums (ilu)»
cow horns (ipe), wooden instruments, a cross between a trumpet
and a fiute, and a rude imitation of the guitar, a two-stringed in-
strument named molu. The flutes are of three kinds, the fami
{ami about two feet in length, giving a loud sound as of a trumpet,
the ekutu somewhat shorter and less powerful, and the fere, not
unlike in size and tone to the English fiute, but in all three kinds the
holes in the cylinder are stopped by the fingers and not by keys,
and the music produced, both by flutes, drums, horns, and guitars,
is most discordant to European ears, although there is a certain
amount of harmony in it, and time is observed. The dancing in-
dulged in is much the same as is found in all African countries, and
NATIVE TRIBES OF LAGOS 401
consists mostly of posturing, a single man or woman dancing only
at a time.
It was formerly the custom among the Fiditi for the eldest
son, who bore the title of Aremo, to reign with his father, at whose
decease he was supposed " to go to sleep," i.e., to kill himself, the
Yorubas having a proverb that " a man cannot serve the father and
the son,'' and the successor to the throne, who must be a descendant
of a person who had worn the crown, was chosen from another
branch of the royal line. The late Ala£n Adelu, however, declined
on his father's death either " to go to sleep " or to cease to reign,
hence his rupture with the Are, and the destruction of Ijaye.
On the death of Adelu, his son, Lawani, attempted to follow
his father's example, but he had proved himself so cruel and
overbearing when he was Aremo that the Oyos would not have
him as King, and he was forced to fly. The present Alafin, who is
a brother of Adelu, was then elected King, so that the ancient cus-
tom of succession has been completely set aside in these last-named
rulers.
Mr. Johnson told the commissioners that in interpreting before
the Alafin he had to be most careful to choose his words, as court
etiquette was most strict in reference to the language used, and
words which have more than one distinct meaning, of which there
are many in the Yoruba language, cannot be spoken if one of the
meanings is in any way objectionable.
The Alafin is supreme judge and decides all cases of importance,
and he alone can pass sentence of death. The Basorun, the Chief
next in rank to the Alafin in the whole Yoruba country, resides at
Oyo, and advises the King. The title is hereditary, there being a
Basorun line, but the individual of the line who is to bear the title
is selected by the Alafin. The Alafin also appoints the Are Onaka-
kanfo (generalissimo), who may be a native of any place and reside
where he pleases. The honour has generally been bestowed on
some wealthy and troublesome Chief to keep him quiet. There is
no Bale in Oyo, the King residing there, but there ai'e innumerable
Chiefs of different grades and titles.
Human sacrifice is not practised, so far as we could ascertain,
among the Oyos, but the Oyos have a proverb that "when the King
dies the ground spoils," i.e., there are many burials ; and there is
little doubt that the principal wives and slaves of an Alafin disap-
pear at his death. They are supposed to kill themselves ; whether,
however, they really make away with themselves or are slaughtered
was not made quite clear. There is a cuiious legend that the
2d
402 ANTHROPOLOGY.
body of a deceased Alafin is cut up and buried in different parts of
the town, but nothing authentic could be learnt on this point.
Father Baudin has been travelling about the Yoniba country for
a number of years, and is said to be a perfect master of the Yomha
language. He has written a book of his experiences, and has also
compiled a Yoruba-French dictionary, and he is thoroughly con-
versant with the customs of the country, and the rites of fetishism.
The marks worn on the faces of Yorubas are of five distinct
kinds, denoting the principal families; and these, again, are divided
by slight differences in breadth or direction. The Abaja marks are
divided into two classes, the Abaja Mefa ^ ^, six horizontal cuts on
the cheek, being peculiar to the Alafin and his family, and the Abaja
Mejo = =, eight horizontal lines on either cheek, worn by all
slaves bom in the royal household. The Abaja Mejo marks are
also used by the Basorun line, but the cuts are not so broad or deep
as those worn by the royal slaves.
The Keke marks are also of two kinds, the Eeke and the Eeke
Olowu or Olowu Odan. The first are also perpendicular marks
down each side of the face, and are worn by the Olokunesin, and
one or two other tribes. The second are only to be found on
middle-aged or old people, now having gone out of fashion, and
consist of short perpendicular cuts in lines from the sides of the
head to the jaw, where they turn inwards to each side of the mouth.
The marks worn by the Onikoyi, Olugbon, and Aresa, three vassal
Kings, and their people are = four parallel horizontal cuts on each
cheek. The Pele, 1 1 [ and the Gombo = marks are peculiar to the
Mahomedans, but are fast dying out, the Mahomedans having given
up marking their children. The first are three short perpendicular
cuts on either cheek, and the second three parallel horizontal lines
on either cheek. The Abaja Olowu cuts 11', three short perpendic-
ular and three short horizontal marks, on the cheeks are worn by
the Own people, who formerly used the Olowu Odan marks.
There was^a sevei^ thunderstorm while the commissioners were at
the interview, and a house was struck by lightning and set on fire in
Mesi Ipole, the flames being plainly visible in the Ibadan camp. All
the Ogbonis in the Ibadan camp turned out and paraded the streets
with drums beating and loud praisings of Sango (god of thunder)
who had deigned to visit the earth in the form of lightning. If a
person is killed by lightning in the Yoruba country the body is
considered almost sacred and the spirit is supposed to have gone to
Sango. If any one is stunned by lightning and the Ogbonis hear
of it they very quickly despatch the unfortunate creature to SaDgo,
NATIVE TRIBES OF LAGOS. 403
saying that it was clear that the god wanted the person and, there-
fore, it was not right for such a person to continue to live. There
is a story told of a woman at Ibadan, who was struck by lightning
and stunned, but who recovered in a short time from the shock.
The Ogbonis did not hear of this occurrence for some days after-
wards, but immediately on being informed of it some of their
society proceeded to the woman's house. They found the woman
quite recovered and employed on household duties, but they politely
informed her that she had no business to be alive as she was wanted
by Sango. The woman not unnaturally wished to dispute this,
and an argument on the point ensued, which was settled by one of
the Ogbonis administering a blow with a club on the wretched
creature's head and killing her.
It is not an uncommon thing in these countries for a man
to pawn himself (sell himself) in order to get married, for a wife
casts money, and when one of his sons becomes old enough to
work he exchanges him for himself and becomes free. There were
all manner of legends as to the wonders to be seen at He If e, but it is
almost needless to say that none were seen. The Ifes call themselves
the conser\'ators of the world, and the oldest of mankind, and boast
that all the crowned personages in the world, including the white
man's sovereign, went out originally from He Ife, and it is curious
the deference with which other tribes treat them, although they
may be at war with them. They are a singularly stubborn and
mean tribe, take all they can get and give nothing in return, and
never entertain strangers. In the time when they and the
Modakekes were living amicably they made the latter entertain
Chiefs and others who visited them, and as every one was supposed
to be a descendant of the Ifes they looked upon all strangers who
visited their town in the light of pilgrims who came, as they put it
" to make their house good," that is, to pay reverence to departed
ancestors. On a former occasion when a peace had been made
between the Modakekes and Ifes after a rupture, the latter having
been driven from He Ife, they swore to each other by the god of
iron and war, Ogun, that whoever fired first upon the other in the
future should incur the anger of the god and be overwhelmed.
However, when a rupture took place again the Ifes evaded the oath
by climbing into trees and firing down upon the Modakekes, who
fired back from the ground, and were therefore accused of breaking
their oath, the ground being sacred to the god.
At the entrance to the town on the Oke Igbo side there is a
short avenue with spreading trees and " bush " on either side which
404 ANTHROPOLOGY.
is cilled the groverand in the ** bush " on the left side is situated
the place of execution and where human sacrifices i^ere offered.
There is a curious superstition about the place whicli does not
allow of people passing each other from diflferent directions in the
avenue, and if, therefore, people were leaving the town, anyone
arriving at the entrance to the avenue would have to wait till they
emerged, when they would go on, and people at the other end
would have to wait for them, and so on.
Up to the beginning of the present year, when Governor
Moloney wrote to them so strongly on the subject, the Ondos
offered human sacrifies to their deities. They worship a spirit
called Oro Doko or Male Doko, and they have a yearly custom
which lasts three months. Every ninth day during the custom the
women are obliged to shut themselves up in their houses from 6 am.
till noon, while the men pai'ade the streets beating drums, -wrestling,
dancing, and singing. A woman who appears in the streets during
the forbidden hours does so at the risk of her life, and doffs and
fowls if met with are killed and eaten by the men. — \^Furiher
Correspondence respecting the War between Native Tribes in the
Interior.— C,—^U4t of 1887.]
INDEX NOTES.
4. Foreign Periodicals.
Abel (K.), der Gegenlnut. Zeit fiir Ethncl.y xx., 48.
BarteiB (Max), die Spat-Laktation der Kafferfrauen. Zeit, fiir Ethfiol.^ xx., 79-
82.
Bleicher (M.), et Mathieu Mieg, note sur les sepultures auciennes de Tagolaheim
(Haute- Alsace). MaUrvaxix pour VhUtoire de lliommey 3rd ser., v., 232-
236.
Boaz (F.), Omeatl und H&laqa. ZeU. fiir Ethfwl,y xx., 18-20.
Handelmann (H.), Thorshammer. Zeit. fiir Ethiid.^ xx., 77-79.
Heimann (L.), Sterblichkeit der farbigen Bevolkerung im Verhaltnifls zur
Sterblichkeit der weisseu Bevolkerung in den Vereinigten Staaten
Nordanierikas. Zeit. fiir Ethiiol.,^ xx., 69-76.
Jannasch ( ), die Textilindustrie bei den Ur- und Naturvolkem. Zeit, fiir
Eth^wl., XX., 86-94.
Kropf (A.), die religiosen Auschauungen der Kaffeni und die daniit zusammen-
hangenden Gebrauche. Zeit. fiir Ethnol,, xx., 42-47.
Muschner ( ), die Ortsnamen Niemitsch und Sackrau. Zeit. fiir Ethnol.^ xx.,
76-77.
Pallary (M.), La Station quaternaire de Palikao (Algerie). MatMattx pour
I'histoire de Vhomtne., 3rd ser., v., 221-232.
{Schadenberg (A.), Beitrage zur Kenntniss der im Innem NordluzooB lebenden
Stamme. Zeit fur Eth^wl.f xx., 34-42.
Seler (E.), der Charakter der aztekischen und der Maya-handBchriften. ^eU,
fur Ethvd.y XX., 1-38. •
Tageazeichen in den aztekischen und Maya-handschriften. Zeit. fiir
Ethiiol., XX., 16-18.
Ercbaeoloo^.
— : o : —
ARCHAEOLOGY IN EGYPT.
TO the archceologist who wishes to understand those past
civilizations of the West, which have built up our present life
and history, the very basis of enquiry must be that grand and long
enduring power of Egypt which has underlain them all. Greek art
and literature had their foundations fixed in Egypt ; and without
that civilization from the Nile it would have been impossible for
them to have had the same form, or fulfilled the same functions in
the world, that we now see in history. Carthage, Rome, and the
West all profited by the labours of Egypt through the Phoenician
commerce, which propagated that skill and knowledge which the
Phoenician nation itself was incapable of originating. In later days,
Egypt was the most fertile soil for the growth of Greek thought ;
and to the Alexandrian school belongs the glory of having started
into perfect being the present conceptions of geometry and geography,
which we have only been able to build upon and enlarge.
Moreover, from its peculiarities of climate and circumstances, the
Nile valley has preserved to us more of its past greatness than per-
haps any other land. Its temples, tombs, and houses are in many
cases almost exactly as they stood thousands of years ago. And
this preservative power has perpetuated not only its own remains,
but those of other nations entrusted to it. In no other country can
we readily unearth the manuscripts, the textiles, the embroideries,
or the paintings of Greek and Roman life, in the same perfect con-
dition in which we find them in Egypt.
While many seats of ancient civilization are almost closed to
research by the paralysing power of Turkey, the case is different
under the government of the Khedive. Although exploration in
Egypt was practically forbidden to outsiders under the influence of
Mariette, the more enlightened views of Prof. Maspero, and the in-
crease of Ejiglish control in the country have loosened the former
restrictions almost as far as reason will permit. The law stands as
it has long done ; and the rule is that one-half of all antiquities
406 ARCHJtJOLOGY.
discovered belongs to the government, as in Turkey. But in practioe,
now, accidental discoverers, on giving notice of their finds, are to be
fairly rewarded, if anything is required for the national museum at
Bulak : while systematic excavators, if approved by the department
of antiquities and the Ministry, are allowed to work on condition of
yielding to the government such a selection of objects as may be
needed for the museum ; everything found belonging nominally to
the government until remitted to the finder. Under the present
regime this system works fairly enough, for no one could reasonably
wish to see Egypt stripped of all its treasures, and the country
deprived of the power of retaining a representative collection of the
former labours of its population. The only real grievance of the
excavator on parting from his finds, must be in the insecure condi-
tion for their preservation in the country ; rain, inundation, and
robbery having all damaged the national collection in its present
unsuitable storage.
The state of the country is favourable for work : there is security
for life and property, and the people are willing to take very low
wages ; 7^d a day, or 2d a cubic metre, being a rate which will secure
any number of men required. The fellahin are a very tractable
folk; and when once assured of a master's honesty, justice, and
determination, there is no difficulty in dealing with them. Having
noticed now what may be done, we will turn to what is being done.
The Department of Antiquities works for the Museum in any
site that is deemed most promising ; but practically the government
work is limited to Memphis and Thebes, other sites receiving far
less attention. Of such excavations no complete official record is
kept, and only isolated accounts appear from time to time in
Egyptological publications. Much of the work is conducted by
Arab overseers, and there is scarcely ever any continuous super-
vision of a European manager. Under these circumstances a large
part of the objects do not find their way to the government ; and,
as the workmen are not rewarded for their finds, this is not at all
surprising. Of foreign work a small amount of excavation is done
by the French School of Egyptology in Cairo; but most of the
labours of that institution are given to copying and publication
under the excellent rule of Maspero, that every member must copy
one complete monument each year. In short, it is more a school for
the language than for the archaeology of the country as a whole.
The publications of the Tomb of Seti L, and other remains, by the
Mission Archseologique Fran9aise, are fine pieces of work. Of
English enterprise the Egypt Exploration Fund is the corporate
-1 nCH.EOLOGY IX EGYPT. 407
representative ; and the discoveries of Pithom, Naukratis, Daphnae,
and Goshen, are among its principal resalts. There is besides this
full scope for private excavations ; though unfortunately, the present
writer seems to be the only person — Enjylish or otherwise — who
systematically uses such opportunities. Provided the Egyptian
government is satisfied on the principal points of good faith in the
agreement, of due diligence in the preservation of all the antiquities
ft)und, and of proper care for the archaBological results, as distinct
from mere plundering, no difficulties, I bflieve, would be placed in
the way of research in a specified locality — at least in the Delta.
With regard to the manner of work necessary, it should always
be borne in mind that no excavator is justified in partiality for one
class of antiquities ; the business of an excavator is to preserve every-
thing that is found which can be of archaeological value ; and his
first duty is to attend to its safety, and to register the particulars of
its position, so far as they can be understood and explained. To
ransack an ancient site solely with a view to one object, is as
unscientific as the work of treasure-hunters ; and there is a similar
store of future curses awaiting all those who dig with one point
only in view, and destroy eveiything else ; whether that^one point
be gold, jewellery, armour, statuary, inscriptions, skeletons, or any
other speciality. As the science of archaeology advances, more and
more details will be understood, and more will be required of the
worker ; to destroy three-quarters of the history remaining to us in
the course of reaching one quarter is wholly unjustifiable. The first
duty of an excavator is then to consider, not his immediate wants
and w^ishes, but the responsibility which he undertakes in opening
up a place, and destroying for ever the evidences of objects, and
their collocation. He should always remember that if he does not
diligentl}^ observe and note all that can be seen as work goes on, the
information is being wantonly thrown away by him, and he is doing
perhaps vastly more harm than good.
If an excavator's first duty then is to observe, his first principle
must be the scientific use of the imagination, while always main-
taining a freedom from bias, or any wish to prove one thing or
another. Nothing is so useful as free speculation, exercising the mind
in constructing every theory which will account for the known facts.
When beginning on any site the facts are generally but few,
and a large field of possibilities is open. On reviewing in imagina-
tion all solutions which will account for these facts it is seen in
what directions their critical points will lie ; what spots will show
decisively which view is correct. The great value of framing
408 ARCHAEOLOGY.
several hypotheses is that the evidentiaHmportance of most trifling
details is far more readily seen and remembered. If "we know
what we expect to find in a given place according to various
hypotheses, we are the more ready to seize on minute indications
which prove or disprove a point, although they would seem quite
meaningless and unnoticeable if the mind were not already lying
in wait for a decision. Of course it need hardly be repeated that
the casting out of bias is necessary before all things ; to be burning
to get some result, but to be quite indifferent what the result shall
be, or which way it shall tell, is the needful condition of mind for
all research. This is so often misunderstood that there is the more
need to be explicit on the matter. Never make a hole without
knowing what you expect to prove or disprove by it ; and always
bear in mind what the reason is for every man's work in the place;
this is the golden principle for an excavator.
In Egypt the rainless state of the coimtry — such slight rain as
falls not sufficing to maintain any close vegetation — renders work
easier than in other lands. The outlines of mud brick walls can be
noticed on the surface of the ground ; and the whole plan of a
building may sometimes be made fi'om colour alone, w'^ithout any
remains above the surface. Hence the first inspection of a site will
often show enough to guide future work. The all-important index
to periods is to be seen in the pottery. To go over a town without
knowing the different styles of the several periods is to go over it
blindfold. When once the peculiar colours, pastes, decoration, and
forms of each age are known (and there is unhappily no museum or
collection in which this can be learned), then the age of every
patch of ground, and of every stratum is labelled, and can be read
off, to within a single century in some cases. To establish a home
for a complete series of Egyptian pottery, all dated and with
localities fixed, is the most urgent need at present of practical
archaeology in Egypt ; but sad to say I do not know of a single
place in the world where such collections would even be properly
housed and arranged if they were sent in, though in perfect con-
dition and carriage paid. If there is anywhere such a museum I
can assure it of hearty support ; but so far, it seems as if collections
had not yet grown out of the " curiosity " stage, when gold and
pearl are the attractions, and scientific research must take its chance.
The key to dealing with the native diggers is a silver one ; the
main principle being to claim and take possession of all that is
found, while at the same time giving the finder as much as he
would be likely to get if a native dealer came round and bought
ARCHJiOLOG Y IX EG YPT. 409
things from him. To pay in fact by results as well as by time.
The 10 per cent, or so, extra over and above the wages, is fully dis-
counted by the men, and more so, in their reckonings ; and it is
equivalent to a higher rate of wages in attracting better men.
Such payments, moreover, ensure the most careful preservation of
everything found, and as much caution as a man can give to avoid
breaking what he turns up. Of course not more than half or a
third of what is shown is worth keeping ; but to look over it is a
small tax on time, compared with the chances of getting important
things which do not look very attractive. Care is of course needed
to hit the mean in valuing things, and to ensure getting everything
while avoiding having things foisted into the work. The safeguard
against this consists in giving exactl}'^ the same for anything no
matter where it comes from, so that there is no temptation to lie
about it ; and when men know that a single lie or concealment
detected will deprive them of profitable and coveted work, they
will hesitate to mislead you without cause.
The subjects for research will determine in most cases the place
and manner of working, though no good opening which occurs
accidentally should be slighted. These subjects we will now con-
sider. History — political and chronological — takes the lead ; and
here the old familiar lacunse still await us. The dark periods of
the Ist-IIIrd, the Vllth-Xtb, the XlVth-XVIIth dynasties still
need clearing; also the royal succession between the Ramesside
times of the XXth dynasty and the renascence of the XXVIth is
still very obscure in parts. It is not probably to any one great
find that we must look for light on these points, so much as to
isolated discoveries here and there which will gradually fall into
place. Of the earliest times Abydos ought to show traces ; but like
the other primaeval settlement of Memphis, it has been so overlaid
with later remains that it is hard to find any part in which to
search for the first three dynasties. It must, however, always be
remembered that although great stress has been laid upon the
agreement between Manetho's history and the lists of kings at
Abydos, Kamak, and Sakkara, yet all these lists belong to the
official edition of State history promulgated under the XlXth
dynasty; hence all that their agreement proves is what the
accepted historical beliefs were in 1400 B.C., after a series of
great convulsions and periods of barbarism. How much value we
are then to assign to this list for facts which occurred nearly as
long before its compilation as we live after it, is obviously a matter
for discretion. It may be a true and correct record, and so far the
410 ARCHAEOLOGY.
monumental evidence has not contradicted it ; bat as there is a per-
sistent silence of the dated monuments for the first three dynasties
— for hitherto not a single fragment has been certainly proved to
be contemporary with that cycle — we must at least pause before we
give full weight to the copies of a list compiled thousands of years
later than that Of the IXth dynasty Mr. Griffith appears to have
found evidence at Siut, as yet unpublished, and more may be looked
for at Heracleopolis. While the later chasm of the Hyksos period
has been partially filled by the statue of ELing Raian, the piece of
an obelisk of Apepi, and the Hyksos heads and fragments found by
M. Naville at Bubastis. Probably other towns of the E. Delta may
contain similar traces to these, and to those found by Maidette at
Tanis ; it is much to be hoped that Bubastis will be exhaustively
finished, and that similar sites may then be attacked. For the
later history Thebes is the main source, but isolated monuments in
other parts of the country are very valuable as pointing out the
range of dominion of various kings.
For geography the most useful data are obtained by a small
amount of excavation, enough to unearth one or two monuments
with the place-names, at many different sites. In Upper Egypt
there are few, if any, questions of importance outstanding ; but in
the Delta a large part of the capitals of the nomes are still in doubt
Some — such as the capitals of the Libyan, the Arabian nome, and
Am Pehu, and the cities of Buto, and Naukratis — have been lately
determined, but much still remains to be done for the capitals as
well as the lesser towns.
Language, hitherto, has been much more thoroughly studied
than any other branch of Egyptology, probably because it can be
worked on at any time in the quiet of a European study, and does
not need the bodily fatigue and expense of other researches. Far
more time indeed has been devoted to this one branch than has
been given to all the other subjects put together ; but important as
it is, it is not by any means the whole of Eg}^ptology, any more
than the study of eyes or of teeth is the whole of comparative
anatomy.
Mythology also has had a full share of attention, and is now in
a stage in which the historical development of it in various periods
is the only line for farther advance in safety. Lanzone's mytho-
logical dictionary — when finished — will be a repertory of all the
forms and names of divinities known at the present time. Naville's
critical edition of the Book of the Dead gives the various readings
of the large body of good hieroglyphic copies. Maspero's recent
ARCHEOLOGY I.V EGYPT. 411
lectures afc the College de France have opened up the pyramid texts
And the cult of Ra^ And such work as Dumichen's publication of
the greatest of all the Theban tombs, is also most valuable for
study. My last season's work at Hawara has shown the late con-
tinuance of mummification into the I Vth or Vth cent., A.D., and also
the habit of decorating the mummies with portraits and preserving
them for years amongst the living, a custom which belongs to the
Roman age of the Ilnd and Ilird centuries.
In social history there is a great need of farther work. How
the nation lived, what its organization was at diflferent periods,
what were the relations of civil and military power, the changes of
laws (of which our knowledge is almost all of the latest age), the pro-
portion of idle hands, the occupations of the leisure classes, the
system of barter or trade, the co-existence of different races in the
nation, all these and many other problems are scarcely touched on
yet, except in the Ptolemaic times, and somewhat under Ramessu II.,
by Revillout ; and here lies one of the most interesting fields for
further research. Domestic life also needs elucidating, particularly
in its historical changes ; the forms of houses, the use of utensils,
the food used, the disposal of refuse, and the habits of the people
are only known to us in scattered examples. Systematic observa-
tion in the ruins of towns of various ages is much needed for this
subject. Maspero's charming volume on Egyptian Archaeology
touches more than any other book on this, beside being the only
general work on the whole of Egyptian antiquities.
Architecture has been well studied in some periods, though
scarcely anything is known about others. When we consider that
not a single temple or royal tomb is known of that most splendid
period the Middle Kingdom, or Xllth dynasty — and that only a
single temple is known of the old kingdom — it is evident how great
our ignorance still is. In obvious facts of construction, moreover,
various recent books of repute can all shew some strange blunders
and oversights; length for breadth, granite for limestone, pavement
for foundation, rock for built stone, are some of the sort of mis-
takes which are continually to be met with. The most urgent
work in this line at present is a careful excavation and plan-draw-
ing of the remains of any temples before the X Vlllth dynasty.
In Art there are also very similar gaps and deficiencies, in spite
of all the attention given to it. What is needed is far more his-
torical discrimination, and a more definite tracing of the development
of various forms and designs. Every century had its special style,
its own colouring — especially of glazes — and its peculiar fashions.
412 ARCHJKOLOGY.
and all these need to be treated separately and not all massed
toorether as "Pharaonia" Another branch of discrimination greatly
needed is that of the various schools of work. The differences
between the statues in different materials, though of one period, is
striking. Those in black granite are usually the finest in execu-
tion ; next to them comes the limestone school of Memphis ; then
the red granite school of Assuan : and worst of all the sandstone
school. To lump all of these together is much as if all pictures
painted in one century were classed together, whether Venetian or
Lombard, Flemish or French, Spanish or English. We need to find
the quarry of each statue, and then to classify Egyptian sculpture
according to its schools as well as by its periods.
We will now briefly consider what isolated subjects might well
be taken up by any one worker, without requiring excavation.
The tomb paintings have never been systematically worked through;
and any one who would collect and classify all the information
from all sources on any one point would do good service. The
forms of metal vases, for instance, are abundantly shown, and are
often of beautiful design ; such objects have been so generally
melted up that a series of dated drawings would be our only source
for a history of Egyptian metal working, from the bronze vases of
the old kingdom, and the gold and silver ones of Theban paintings,
to those shown in temple ceremonies in the late times. Jewellery
again needs a similar collective treatment, down to the necklaces
and earrings on paintings of the Roman age, and a comparison of
all examples in various museums. Woven patterns also are a good
field of research, as they are often drawn on figures, and represented
on the roofs of tombs. A most important matter is the variation
in the forms of hieroglyphs: fashion had almost as much to do with
these as with anything else, and the styles of various ages are quite
recognisable ; but a serious classification of the variations is neces-
sary on an historical basis, in order to train the eyes of those who
— relying on copies — are quite oblivious to the importance of monu-
mental style in questions of age. Tlie curious primitive rock
drawings of Upper Egypt much need collecting, with due regard to
their degree of weathering. The matter of foreign races and their
types I have done in bulk, though not so fully as is yet desirable ;
more casting and photographing would be well spent on this sub-
ject. The glazed vases are being now classified and treated as a
whole, by an English authority ; and of the historical scarabaei I
have collected drawings which I hope to publish before long. The
other scarabaei in general still need a cataloguer.
ARCHJEOLOGY IN EGYPT. 413
One of the most broadly important aspects of Egyptology is the
contact of Egypt with other nations, or Egypt's place in history.
Unfortunately no positive contact is yet known before the age of
the recently discovered tablets of Tell el Amarna, which give in
cuneiform writing the names of various Babylonian kings, contem-
poraries of Amenhotep III. and Kbunaten ; Kurigalzu and Dush-
ratta being coeval with the former, and Burnaburias with the
latter. This is of special value in the Kassite dynasty, as Burna-
burias had been dated about 1430 RC, (Sayce), and Kbunaten
according to the probable chronology reigned just about this period,
or, perhaps, half a century earlier. It seems so far possible that
Tii, the celebrated wife of the grand monarch Amenhotep III., is the
daughter of Dushratta, to whose marriage one of his letters to
Amenhotep refers. Doubtless much more will be ascertained when
all these tablets are translated and compared. The well known
connections of the XlXth dynasty with the Khita, of the XXIInd
dynasty with Rehoboam, and of the XXVth dynasty with Assur-
banipal need not be recapitulated. The contact with the Greeks,
and the influence of Egypt on Greek art and manufactures has
been greatly cleared by the discovery of Naukratis and of Daphnae,
the two great settlements of the archaic Greeks in Egypt, in the
Vllth century B.C. These explorations show that those Greek
settlements had each its own distinct school of potters, and that
they painted vases in styles peculiar to each city ; also that metals,
and especially iron, were largely smelted and wrought in these
places, and that writing was employed at an early period. In
everything the substance is Greek, while the influence is Egyptian.
In still later times Egypt was again the stem on which Greek
thoucrht was grafted, and thus arose the wondrous school of Alex-
andria, the active and pregnant labours of which body will never
be effaced from our modem science. Though our immediate descent
of civilisation may be through Rome and Greece, yet Egypt will
always remain the grand ancestor of us all.
W. M. Flinders Peteie.
AVENTICUM, THE ROMAN METROPOLIS
OF HELVETIA.
OF the thousands who annually travel through Switzerland,
few, perhaps, would b3 able to siy where the chief town of
Roman Switzerland was situated, and it has been seldom visited even
414 ARCHEOLOGY.
by British Archaeologists, who have but a slight conception of the
character and importance of its remains. This may, perhaps, in
some measure be accounted for by the fact that, though in former
days a city of great splendour occupying a site on the principal
line of route between Italy and Gaul, it now lies out of the beaten
track, and remains buried in great part beneath the ground.
Avenches, the modern French name for the ancient Aventicmu^
lies about a mile and a half S.E. of the picturesquely situated little
lake of Morat in the northern part of the Canton de Vaud. It can
be reached by rail from Lausanne via Payerne in two hours, or by
steamboat from Neuch^tel in about the same time. The town is
situated on an elevation on a pleasant, cheerful, healthy and undu-
lating plateau, which, with its sturdy industrious peasantry, its
thriving farms and lovely lakes, presents the appearance of a huge
garden thickly dotted with picturesque houses, amid fertile and
highly cultivated fields and pastures, interspersed with tree-
crowned hills.
In however slight a sketch of the archaeology of this place, it
would be wrong to omit referring to the interesting prehistoric
epoch, which is presented by the numerous lake-dwellings dis-
covered in the adjoining lake of Morat, more especially as there is
evidence in them of a connecting link between historic and prehis-
toric Aventicum. Upwards of sixteen of these lacustrine sites
have been found in this lake, and the numei'ous relics discovered
there shew that they existed from the period of the early stone age
till the time of the Roman invasion, or even still later. Those
interested in the subject would do well to visit the margin of the
Morat lake at the promontory named "Bee de Greng," distant about
one hour's walk from Avenches, where can be seen hundreds of piles
projecting from the lake bottom, on which the ancient people, who re-
sided there long before the Christian era, fixed platforms of timber
and thereon built their dwellings. The piles at this spot extend over
an area of 4,900 square ft. for the most part in the lake (the waters
of which have receded of late years), thus forming a large station or
village. A great number of objects have been found buried in the
mud amongst the piles, consisting of implements of stone and bone,
such as hatchets, chisels, needles, awls, besides a vast quantity of
the bones of animals, pottery and so forth, being the accumulated
d^ris of centuries, and which mainly have dropped from time to
time from the platforms and houses built on them, or been cast down
at the period of the final destruction of the village. 1 collected several
specimens there ; among them being several fragments of pottery of
AVENTICUM. 415
a crude form, some of them of the kind peculiar to the early stone
age. This earliest variety is a coarse, dark red kind of earthenware
containing numerous grains of quartz, and there are 12 or 15 vari€-
ties shewing the rude kind of ornamentation adopted by these early
people on their hand-made utensils. I was fortunate also in fishing
up, from a depth of 3 ft. in the water, a curious little vase. It is of
black ware, smooth, displaying some elegance of form, and with a
delicate design encircling it : it no doubt belongs to the age of
bronze, this site having been inhabited at that period, as well as
during the earlier stone age, as proved by the discovery there of
numerous bronze spear-heads and similar objects peculiar to that
epoch. A bone needle recovered from this spot, also some
charred wheat and bones of animals, including a skull of the
extinct marsh cow(Bos brachyseros), were given to me by the steward
of Count Portal es, whose chateau and well- wooded grounds lie close
to the lake. At the station on the lake at Montellier, half an hour's
walk north of Greng, in addition to other relics usually found at
these sites, there were discovered at a great depth a large number
of vases, which shew by their design and ornament a greater degree
of taste and skill than have been seen elsewhere in the Swiss lake
dwellings. Some even resemble the specimens of the potter's art
found in Etruscan tombs, and it is a noteworthy fact that in the
very locality where the Romans foundeil their Helvetian metro-
polis there existed, even in prehistoric times, the evidence of a
state of civilisation more advanced than in any other place in the
province. A connecting link between the prehistoric and Roman
period of this ancient metropolis was established also by the discovery
within the walls of Aventicum of a bronze die for the largest type
of Gallic gold coin, afibrding positive evidence of the early progress
of the district. This die can be seen in the Museum at Avenches.
Tacitus, writing about a.d. G9, speaks of the Helvetians as originally
a Gallic people, renowned for their valour and exploits in war, and
he designates Aventicum " Caput gentis," ^ or capital of Helvetia.
It acquired this title most probably on account of its comparatively
advanced state of civilisation, as already indicated, and its conspic-
uous position on the main route between Italy and Germany. It was
also the centre of a net-work of very perfect and much frequented
military roads, this city and Nyon (Colonia Equestris) situated on
the shores of the lake of Geneva, being the only points of departure
for mile-stones in Helvetia. Although it is referred to by Tacitus,
Julius Caesar, who vanquished the Helvetians at Bibracte near
I Tacitus, Hist 68.
416 ABCH^JOLOGY.
Autun (then within the boundaries of Helvetia) in B.G. 58., does
not mention Aventicum. Tacitus relates how the ferodoos
Cecina, the lieutenant of the Emperor Vitellius, -was provoked
by the Helvetians, who, not having heard of the death of Galba^
were unwilling to acknowledge his successor as Emperor, where-
upon Cecina took the opportunity of a quarrel between the
2 1st Legion and the Helvetians to march eagerly against them.
Tacitus goes on to remark that of late years it may be said
of the Helvetians that the history of their ancestors was their
only glory, and that now their spirit, though fierce while
danger was at a distance, began to drop when it "was near. To
oppose Cecina, the Helvetians chose Claudius Severus to command
their forces, but they neither knew the use of arms nor methods of
discipline, and perceiving that a contest must lead to their destruc-
tion, they fled, were overtaken and slain. Cecina, having desolated
the surrounding country, laid siege to Aventicum, the capital city
of the Helvetians, when the inhabitants sent deputies to him to
ofler terms of surrender. Their submission was accepted, and Julius
Alpinus, one of the leading chiefs, charged with being the author
of the war, was executed. The rest were left to the mercy and
reseatment of Vitellius. The Helvetians sent ambassadors to the
new Emperor, who menaced and abused them. At length Claudius
Cossus, one of the deputies, and a remarkably eloquent man, appealed
to the Emperor and his soldiers and so moved them to compassion
that, says Tacitus, after torrents of tears and begging for milder
treatment, they obtained immunity and their city was saved from
destruction..
But it was not till the time of the immediate successors of Vitel-
lius that Aventicum reached its zenith, the great patrons of the
Helvetian metropolis being said to be Vespasian and Titus, whose
busts now occupy a prominent position in the local musemn. It is
generally asserted that Sabinus, the father of Vespasian, carried on
a banking business at Aventicum, and that he died there, also that
his son Vespasian and grandson Titus were bom there ; but on
referring to Suetonius, an almost contemporary historian, I find he
simply states that Sabinus (son of Titus Flavins Petro) was bom at
Reate (the modern Rieti) in the Sabine moimtains, and after re-
turning from Asia, where he had been honoured with the title of
" the honest tax farmer," became a usurer among the Helvetians,
where he lived the remainder of his life. All historians, however,
agree in considering Aventicum as his place of residence in Helvetia,
and assign to Sabinus an inscription found there which speaks of a
.4 VENTICUM. 417
man who liad dono much good in that town. The first line of the
inscription and the name of the person in whose honour it was
written is wanting, but it records the fact that he had filled the
office of quaestor in Asia, and subsequently acquired very de-
servedly the title of patron and protector of Aventicum.* Such
being the case, the Emperor Vespasian, who was born five years
before the death of Augustus, at the village of Phalacrine, near
Reate, may not improbably have passed some time in this city in
his youth or early manhood, although it is known his main educa-
tion was conducted in Italy under the care of his grandmother,
TertuUia. It is also probable that he would reside there sometimes
en route to Germany and Great Britain. Of the Emperor Titus
Suetonius asserts that he was bom near the Septizonium at Rome.
It is remarkable that of the many inscriptions found at Aventicum
none bear the names of Vespasian or Titus.^
There is no reason to doubt, however, that both of these
emperors showed a great predilection for the place, and that in
their time and through their influence Aventicum became a popu-
lous and important city, and a large number of their coins have
been found there. It contained when most prosperous some 50,000
or 60,000 inhabitants (the modern town has less than 2,000) ; its
public buildings were of great magnificence, as shown by the mas-
sive and elaborately sculptured fragments of friezes, remains of a
theatre, amphitheatre, and other objects still to be seen there.
Succeeding emperors likewise favoured Aventicum in difierent
ways. An inscription now built into the exterior of the wall of
the modem church of Avenches indicates this to have been the case
as regards Trajan, while Hadrian is known among other things to
have renewed the milestones which had existed there since 128
After the Antonines the Roman infiuence in Helvetia declined,
and St Jerome, writing in the fourth century, dates the destruction
of Aventicum by the Alemanni as having occurred in A.D. 264,
while Ammianus Marcellinus who, in A.D. 360, was in the suite
of the Emperor Julian the apostate when he travelled through
Gaul, states that he foimd the city of Aventicum, recently so glori-
ous, now deserted, and its half-ruined edifices attesting its former
splendour. Subsequently the whole province was overrun by hordes
of Burgundians and Germans, the extent of whose conquests may
^ Mommsen, Intc, 177.
^ Mommsen, hiscrip, fdUot vd gtupectct, p. 114.
*• See InBC. in Museum of Lausanne.
2e
418 ARCHJEOLOGY.
be recogaised in some measure in the division of languages which
now prevail in the Gennan and French Cantons.
The great wall of defence which surrounded Aventicum is con-
sidered by Mommsen to have been erected previous to the accession
of the emperors. It was about 4 miles in circumference and of a
nearly octagonal outline ; it was 25 ft. high, and 12 ft. thick on the
low-lying land where the soil was loose and marshy^ and 4 ft. thick
on the rocky liigher land. Towers were built in the walls at
regular intervals of about 200 yards, numbering about 80 ; they
were 40 ft. hit^h and of two stories. These towers were sin^Iar in
being continuous on the exterior with the straight line of the wall ;
that is to say, without projecting at all, but convex towards the in-
terior only, as if intended to supress sedition from within no less
than reject attacks from without. A similar unusual construction
was observable in the Roman towers erected in the ancient walls
which once surrounded Wiesbaden in Germany, and in some others
along the banks of the Rhine. Twenty of the towers at Aventicum
were still standing in the last century, but at the present time one
only remains, and that evidently almost entirely a restoration.
But it is interesting as preserving the shape of the original. Some
conception of it may be formed by examining the ground p!an and
sketch of its elevation with the picturesque bits of the old wall ad-
joining it on both sides. The old wall can be traced in almost its
entire circuit, and some very lengtliened and striking portions of it
remain (one being close to the railway station), though in a ruined
condition. The outside cut stones have nearly all disappeared,
leaving only the concrete core intact.
Both the wall and its towers have been utilised as a stone
quarry for the erection of farm-houses and chcLteaux for many
miles around ; the part near the village of Donatyre having,
all except its foundations, disappeared in this way. It is not
known how many gates were originally in this wall, but portions
of five have been found. They were guarded by two round towers,
one on each side, which were connected above the gateway by means
of a gallery.
Only one-twentieth part of the large and very undulating space
enclosed by these walls of defence is occupied by the modem town,
the remaining portion consisting of cultivated land. At its lowest
poiiiion it is 1320 feet above the sea-level, 1500 feet at Avenches,
1400 at the Foinim, and 1600 at Donatyre. No systematic excava-
tions were made there till two years ago, and then only on a small
scale. But the discoveries then made, as well as others in the course
A VENTICUM. 419
of previous incidental excavations ia past times, suffice to convince
us that many treasures lie still buried in the soil. The site is ad-
mirably adapted for excavating, on account of the complete absence
of any modem buildings over a considerable extent of its surface.
When the small proprietors who own the land now dig only a short
distance below the surface, they invariably, as I have myself seen,
meet with foundations of buildings, remnants of hypocausts, frag-
ments of pottery, of which I collected some specimens, and not in-
frequently objects of value.
But I will now refer to some few of the more important remains
and discoveries already made, a few of which are in situ, and others
are collected in the museum, forming altogether a very interesting
and important series of objects well worthy the attention of the
Archfeologist.
The tirst object that cannot fail to strike a visitor to Avenches
is a columnar-looking structure in the middle of a grass field just
below the present town, and on the site of what has been identified
the ancient Forum. This structure is 40 feet high, and consists of 15
blocks of white Jura marble, built up without any cement, each stone
being most evenly cut ; the blocks are very massive, 3 J feet high, and
run right through the structure. The summit is crowned with the
remnants of a Corinthian capital, and about ten feet from the ground
there are clear indications of the spring of an arch, facing north, and
just below it the commencement of an ornamental cornice. Much
discussion has arisen as to the nature of this structure. It has been
thought to have been a portion of a triumphal arch, the facade of a
temple dedicated to Bacchus or Apollo, and other theories have been
put forward ; but the most credible opinion seems to be that held by
Bursian and Hagen, who consider that it belonged to a kind of open
portico, forming an arcade along that side of the Forum.
Not far from the column lies a huge maas of an entablature of
white Jura marble, displaying a rich Corinthian frieze, on which is
sculptured two winged griffins facing each other, each with a
fore-paw on a beautiful two-handled amphora standing between them,
while their tails encircle candelabra, the same combination of
griffins, amphora and candelabra being variously repeated. This
fragment is 10 feet long, 4^ feet high, and 4 feet deep. At a little
distance from this was found a Corinthian capital of elaborate
design, bearing on its plinth one word of an incomplete inscription
in gilt bronze letters, " Lugones." This word Lugones is found in
an inscription in the town of Osma in Old Castillo, as the name of
420 ABCH^OLOGY.
a protective divinity of a confraternity of shoemakers,^ and it is
probable that the monument of which this fragment formed a part
was dedicated to this tutelar god.
Passing hence across the 250 paces occupied by the space (now a
green meadow) identified as the site of the Forum, there are seen
facing us two crumbling masses of ruined walls about 80 feet apart.
These have been recognised as the extremities of the two wings of
the substructure, which supported the tiers of seats of the fan-shaped
auditorium of the theatre. On examination these remains are
found to consist of radiating walls, G or 7 of which remain on the
south extremity, and 2 or 3 on the north, the intervening portion being
a huge turfed mound surmounted by patches of brushwood. Suffi-
cient foundations have been found to justify the constiiiction of a
ground plan. Some inscriptions have been found amid the ruins of
the theatre, in one of which the letters were eight inches high, also
a quantity of personal ornaments, needles, buttons, brooches, &a,
and so distributed as to lead to the conclusion that the spectators,
to whom they belonged, must have fled from the theatre suddenly,
as if in a panic.
Not far from this have been discovered the remains of four
large edifices, designated by the inscription upon them as " Schola,"
a word which sometimes signified in Imperial Rome a place of re-
union of confraternities or corporations. One built of snow-white
marble, a column of which is preserved, was erected in honour of
C. Valerius CamiUus. Another was in honour of Q. Cluvius Macer.
These persons belonged to two of the most influential and dis-
tinguished Helvetian families at the end of the last century B.a
Their connection with Aventicum is identified by inscriptions
found there, of which no less than nine bear the name of the family
of CamiUus. Of the latter " schola," some very beautiful massive
marble friezes have been found, as well as the site of the building
itself, which had a double row of fluted marble columns, and was
ornamented with statues, its facade being 106 feet long.*
A third " schola " was an academy founded, as recorded in an
inscription, by two Greeks named Hy genus and Hermes, and is
curiously enough dedicated to the Emperor Augustus in combination
with Minerva and Apollo.*^ In connection with the same building
' Tetscherin Die SchUtze van Aveiiticum,
^ According to Appius the historian, it was in the house in Helvetia of the
head of this same family of Camillus just named, and where he had fled for pro-
tection, thatDecimus Brutus, one of the murderers of Julius Csesar, waa given up
and decapitated.
7 Bonstetten, p. 6.
A VENTICUM. 421
there appears to have been a College of Physicians, as shown by the
same inscriptions on a slab now built into the church wall, facing
the central street of the town of Avenches. We may conclude from
the existence of this academy that the inhabitants cultivated the
intellectual as well as the beautiful. In the fourth "schola," situated
at a short distance from the former, was found the fine inscription
of the NautsB Aramici, 10 feet long and 2 feet broad, referring to
the existence of a corporation of boatmen, and to the house erected
for them, at their cost, in honour of the Imperial family, which
granted the site by a decree of the Senate. Besides being archi-
tecturally important, this erection is of great interest on account of
the knowledge it aflfords us of the existence of this club house for
sailors. It is known that there was formerly a canal, still traceable,
between the lake of Morat and the town, about one mile apart. By
this means communication was maintained between the three con«
tiguous lakes of Morat, Neuch&tel, and Bienne, and the traffic, especi-
ally in building materials, must have been both large and profitable,
when it is considered how extensive were the constructions of the
city, including its va^t wall with its towers, its mansions, and public
edifices. The building stone has been proved by Professors Agassiz
and Desor to be of precisely the same character as is found in the
Jurassic limestone quarries of Concise and Hauterive, on the shores
of the lake Neutchd,tel, and the visitor to Avenches can observe that
some of the large pieces of chiselled stone lying about near the
theatre are full of the fossils peculiar to that geological formation. I
found a small polished slab of this marble, as it is called, on a heap of
macadamising stones by the road-side, close to the theatre, in which
may be clearly seen the fossils of the shells of the genus Natica, such
as telong to these Jurassic rocka As might be anticipated in regard
to a Roman city, remains have been found in several places of baths,
and a few also of aqueducts ; and judging from what I saw of an
excavation, in search of building stones, going on in a field near the
railway station, the drainage system must have been very elaborate*
The conduits were hollowed out in a series of large slabs of chiselled
Jurassic limestone, which were made so as to fit with the greatest
accuracy.
The mosaics found at Avenches are both numerous and beauti-
ful, connoisseurs considering them equal to the finest specimens of
this kind of Roman decoration, not excepting the celebrated one of
the victory of Alexander in the Naples Museum. The designs re-
present the usual scenes of Orpheus playing on his lyre surrounded
by wild animals ; Theseus killing the Minotaur ; Dionysius and
422 ARCEJEOLOGY.
Ariadne, and so on. One of ihe mosaic pavements bears the name
of the Greek artist Prosthasius ; and another evidence of the
employment of Greek artificers at Aventicum is an inscription re-
cording the Greek name of Polynices, who was a worker in gold
and silver, who attained all the honours of the corporation of
caipenters to which he belonged.®
At the entrance of the modern town is an enclosed space, contcdn-
ing amongst other things the site of the amphitheatre and an
uncouth looking tower-like building, formerly a granary, but now
adapted to the purposes of an archaeological museumu A deep oval
hollow, now covered with rich verdure, with here and there a fruit
tree, still preserves the outline of the amphitheatre. On the out-
skirts of this space stand some ruined lofty walls, forming a portion
of the exterior of the amphitheatre, which must once have been a
stately building. A few tiers of the large slabs which served as
seats also remain in situ, likewise one of the vaulted arcades on a
level with the arena. It is estimated that ten thousand spectators
could have been accommodated in this building.
On a platform close to the entrance of the Museum, and com-
manding a fine view of the Lake and Jura mountains, are collected
together the massive elaborately sculptured pieces of entablature
already referred to, several marble columns, stone-sarcophagi, am-
phorsB, &;a
The Museum contains a very interesting collection of more than
2,000 objects, besides 700 coins, nearly all of which have been
foimd within the walls of Aventicum. Some of them are labelled,
but no catalogue printed or written is obtainable, and I am bound
to add that I have never visited a town where I had greater diffi-
culty in gaining personal information as to the antiquities or re-
ceived less encouragement to investigate them ; and, as I said
before, the literature on the subject is scattered here and there in
the form of pamphlets and magazine articles, in French or more
especially in German. One small case in the Museum contains ob-
jects from the pile-dwellings of the adjoining lake, and there is the
usual collection of toilet articles, utensils, bronze and marble
statues, bricks bearing stamps, one being that of the 21st Legion,
which was of such ill omen in the local history ; there are also a
fragment of a griffin s wing in gilt bronze, 12 pounds in weight,
and a large relief in stone of the wolf and twins, besides mosaics,
pottery, vases, and other things too numerous to mention.
^ Mommsen, L^sc, 212.
.1 VEXTICUM. 423
There is one object there, however, to which I am tempted to
refer at greater length. It is called a votive hand, and was found
in a drain within the walls of Aventicum in January, 1845. It is
the only specimen of the kind in Switzerland, and only 14 votive
hands are known to exist ; this one surpasses them all in the richness
and variety of its ornamentation. A German writer, Herr Meyer, in
his description of it, remarks that at the very first sight it has an ap-
pearance of mystery, seeming connected with some form of religious
worship — three fingers are seen to be raised a^ if in the act of
taking an oath, and its whole surface is adorned by images of gods
and animals. It is an ex voto, dedicated to a temple by a mother
on behalf of her newly bom child. The elevation of the thumb
and first two fingers was used in the religious ceremonies of Pagan
Kome, and subsequently adopted by Christians. It is here in-
tended to signify that the mother desires to commend her cliild at
once to the protection and providence of the gods. This votive
hand, like all the others discovered, is dedicated to Phrygian or
Egyptian deities. It is indeed as charming as it is graceful. Its
delicate elegance and the softness and beauty of contour of the
finders and their joints render it an accurate representation of a
woman's hand, an object which painters as well as sculptors and
modellers find so difficult to represent, as may be so often seen in
the stiflF or swollen restorations of ancient statues. It is a right
hand, as used in making a vow, and it rests on a circular pedestal
ahout 4 inches high : on the tip of the thumb is modelled a fir-
cone ; on the digital joints of the 2 fingers not raised is a youthful
head with the wings of Mercury, and at the side of the hand below
it is the head of a ram. At the base of the index and middle
fingers is a small half length figure of Bacchus, his forehead
crowned with vine-branches and grapes, while his arm is gracefully
curved over his head, the lower part of the chest and shoulders
being clothed in a chlamys (scarf). On the palmar surface of the
same two fingers, projects the bust of an aged god, bearded, and
wearing a Phrygian cap ; it is that of the god Sabazius, according
to Prof. Gerhard. Below the chest of the god is what looks like a
small package divided into four parts by the string which encircles
it ; a similar unrecognisable object is often seen on ancient vases ;
it strongly resembles a cake of oblation. On the dorsal face of the
hand, approaching the head of the ram is a frog, and below it a
climbing tortoise, by the side of which is u two handled cup, and
obliquely below it a lizard also climbing. On the joint of the
thumb is a clotlied bust of Cybele, as indicated by her walled
424 ARCHJEOLOGT.
crown, with a tympanum on one side of her head, which is a cus-
tomary attribute of that goddess. The lower part of the hand near
the wrist is twice encircled by a serpent, in such a manner that the
head of tlie reptile arrives just at the middle of the palm of the
hand ; below the head of the serpent is a little bell. The ulnar
side of the hand is ornamented by a branch of oak, whereon acorns
and leaves are easily distinguishable. Below the serpent on the
dorsal part of the hand are placed the figures of the mother and her
infant. These terminate the series of objects, the number and
variety of which render this unique specimen so remarkable.
The serpent here represents the life which never ends ; and is
also a symbol of medical virtues, or of gods who were supposed to
be the sources of healing.
Mingled with the divinities of Rome, we find on this bronze
those of Asiatic and Phrygian origin, such as Cybele and Sabazius,
who were often worshipped in common and their favours sought by
means of coarse mysteries and turbulent feasta Cybele was con-
sidered to be the creatress of the world and the author of the
blessings which it brought forth ; and Saba.zius the god of the sun,
whose rays of light vivified everything. Their worship among the
Romans shews the influence which the oriental cult gradually exer-
cised over that people, proving even more attractive than that of
Bacchus and Mercury, both of whom are also represented here.
There are, in fax;t, four divinities whose combined influence would
be considered to extend the largest amount of protection over the
child. A similar custom is observed now in giving a child the
names of diflerent saints as patron-protectors. Cybele has here as
her attributes the bell, the pine-cone and branch of oak, while '
Sabazius is known by his Phrygian cap, strong beard and serious
countenance. A votive hand in the Museum at Naples is dedicated
to him, on which his figure is represented in a sitting posture.
Bacchiis has the attributes of a crown of vine leaves and the
Cantharus, while the head of a ram betokens Mercury, as protector
of flocks. The lizard, frog and turtle are such as are often repre-
sented on amulets for the protection of children from infirmity and
disease. A serpent on an amulet was considered to act as a talisman
against the evil eye, and is often seen thus depicted on the pillars of
shop entrances at Pompeii. The superior workmanship of this
bronze entitles it to be considered a production of the first century^
a date corroborated by the fact that Aventicum at that period was
an opulent and cultured city.
The different writers whose works I liave consulted in reference
AGRICULTURAL DIALECT WORDS. 425
to Aventicum are unanimous in regretting that some systematic and
efficiently supervised excavations had not been made on so eligible
and interesting a site. At last, in September 1885, an " Association
Pro Aventico," as it is called, was founded at Freiburg, under the
auspices of the Historical Society of Roman Switzerland. In
December of the same year the association commenced excavating,
and continued their operations the following winter when, although
they were on but a small scale, some interesting discoveries were
made. The work was begun on the site of a tomb which had been
discovered a few years previously, its contents being the bones of a
young girl, some children's playthings and two glass vases ; and
they have brought to light a series of other tombs along the sides
of the old Roman road outside the gate which leads to Payernes,
in addition to which were objects of personal adornment, coins of
Domitian, and Hadrian and several lamps, on one of which was
impressed the word " Fortis." But what excited considerably the
surprise and interest of Aventican Archaeologists in connection with
these more recent discoveries was the possibility that Pagan and
Christian tombs could be mingled in the same necropolis ! For the
young girl whose tomb has just been referred to is considered to
have been a Christian, on accoimt of the words " Vivas in Deo "
being seen on the rim of one of the two glass vases found there.
Much discussion has been indulged in by Swiss Archaeologists with
reference to two points, namely, if the words ** Vivas in Deo '^
on the vase are sufficient to entitle the occupant of the tomb in
which it was found to be called a Christian, and secondly, if the
tombs of Pagans and Christians are ever found mingled in the same
necropolis, the writers just referred to assuming that such latter
occurrence is incredible.
E. J. Miles, M.D.
AGRICULTURAL DIALECT WORDS.
NO. 2. — DURHAM.
THIS glossary is compiled from J. Bailey's Agriculture of
Durham, 1810, pp. 370-379, 410-412. The only published
Durham Dialect word-list is F. T. Dimsdale*s Glossary of Provincial
426 AUCHjEOLOGY.
Wonls used in Teesdale, 1849, and with this the Bailey list has
been compared where the two glossaries contain the same word. It
has also been compared with Britten's Old Cmmtry and FarTrhing
Words gleaned from Agricidtwral Books, 1880. Professor W. W.
Skeat, who has kindly looked through this list, says " the words
are nearly all known to readers of dialect," but the spellings are
different. " Thus this writer uses u for oo, whereas w in Kngliah
is commonly eu as in 2>w^^^, endure^ and distinct from poor.*' All
editorial notes are placed between square brackets. Where the
county is named in Mr. Britten s agricultural word-lists, it has been
noted here. From these editorial notes may be ascertained the
additions to the printed Durham dialect words.
Ad LINGS, earnings [Teesdcde Glossary ; see Britten, "Addle," Yorks].
Amel, between.
AiiDER, fallow quarter [Britten].
Arles or Earles, earnest money [Britten, Scotland].
Arnut, eartli nut.
Bain, ready, near [Teesdcde Glossary],
Batts, islands in rivers, or flat grounds adjoining them.
Bkck, a brook or rivulet [Teesdcde Glossary; Britten].
Berrier, a thresher.
Biucj, four-rowed barley.
BiNK, a seat of stones, wood, or sods, made mostly against the front of a houae
[Teesdale Glossary],
Blash, to plash [to throw water or dirt, Teesdale Glossary],
Bleb, a drop [of water, also a blister or rising of the skin, Teesdale Glossary],
Braugham, a collar which goes round a horse's neck to draw by. [See Britten,
**bragham*' (bratfam), Devonshire ; " barfin," Yorks ; ** barmame," Dur-
ham, from A.S. heorgan to protect, and hame,]
Brake, a large harrow.
Brent, steep [Teesdale Cflossary],
Brissel, to scorch or dry very hard with fire.
Bumble-kites, bramble berries (fruit of Rubus fructioosus). [Teesdale Glossary
gives *' Bummel-kite "].
Burn, a rivulet.
Bute or Boot, money given in bartering horses, etc., to equalize the value.
BusE, a stall ; as cow-buse, hay-buse [Teesdale Glossary ; Britten, " boose **},
BusTE, a mark set upon sheep with tar, etc.
Byer, a cow-house [Britten, ** byre."]
Cam or Comb, remains of an earthen mound [Teesdale Glossary ; Britten, Yorks,
a bank].
Oarr, flat marshy ground [Teesdale Glossary; Britten, Yorks., lowlands].
Chisel, bran [Teesdale Glossary^ s.v. Chizzle].
Choups, heps, the fruit of briars.
■Olag, to adhere or stick together [Teesdale Crlossary],
Cope, to barter or exchange [Teesdale Glossary],
Cope or Coup, to empty or turn out [Britten, Scotland].
CouL, to scrape earth together [Teesdale Glossary],
Cow-WA, come away.
Crine, to shrink, pine.
Crying, weeping.
Daft, foolish, stupid, insane [Teesdale Glossary],
Darking, listening obscurely or unseen [Teesdale Glossary},
Dene, a dell or deep valley [Teesdale Glossary],
Dioht, to dress, to clean.
AGRICULTURAL DIALECT WORDS. 427
Doff, to undress [Teesdale Qlosstiry]*
Don, to dress [Teesdale Glossary],
Dowp, a carrion crow.
Draf, brewers' grains [Teesdale Glossary.]
Drawk, to saturate with water.
Dreerood, a long and weary road.
Dub, a pool.
Ear or a niere, a kidney [Teesdale Glossary, M.E. nere ; the n is radical. —
W.W.S.]
Earles, see "arles."
Elsin, an awl [Teesdale Glossary],
Ennanters, in case of.
Fell, a moor or common [Teesdale Glossary],
Fettle, t<> make ready [Teesdale Glossary].
Flacker, to flutter or quiver [Teesilale Glossary^ b.v. Flecker].
Flaid, frightened [Teesdale Glossary],
Flit, to remove from one dwelling to another.
Foo, aftermath [Teesdale Glossary ; Britten].
Fond, silly, foolish [Teesd<de Glossary].
FoRSE, a cascade.
Froatino, anxious unremitting industry.
FusiN, nourishment [u as in ruby ; Shakespeare's foiswi. Tempest ii. i. 63—
W. W.S. ; Britten, " foison, fuzzen, or fuzen."]
Gaiting, a sheaf of com set up on end to dry [Teesdale Glossary; Britten,
Nhumb.]
•Gait /or cattle, the going or pasturage of an ox or cow through the summer
[Britten, Yorks.]
Gait or Gate, a path, a way, a street [Teesdale Glossa/iy],
Gar, to oblige to do anything.
Garsil, hedging wood.
Gavelock, an iron lever. [Britten, "gablock," Nhumb, Norfolk, and Suffolk].
Gear, stock, property, wealth [TeesdaU Glossary].
Gears, horse trappings [Teesdale Glossary],
Gee or Ree, go off or turn to tlie right, used by carters to draft horses [Tees-
dale Glossary. Britten under *^ horses " gives all the terms used in
directing, but he does not include ** ree "].
Gill, a small valley or dell [Teesdale Glossary].
Gimmer, an ewe sheep from the first to the second shearing [Teesdale Glossary ;
Britten, Durham].
Glair, mirey puddle.
Glif, a glance, a fright [Teesdale Glossary, a transient view].
Glore, to stare [Teesdale Glossary],
Gob, the mouth [Teesdale Glossary],
GopiNG, as much as both hands can hold, when joined together.
GouK, a cuckoo.
Grain of a tree, a branch [Teesdale Glossary ; IceL greiiiy branch, arm, fork. —
W.W.S.]
Grape, a three-pronged fork for filling rough dung [Britten, ** graip,'* Scotland].
Greeting, weeping.
Groats, shelled oats [Britten].
Grosers, gooseberries.
Hard corn, wheat and maslin [Teesdale Glossary],
Haver, oats [Teesdale Glossary ; Britten].
Havermeal, oat-meal [Teesdale Glossary] ; hence the haversack of soldiers
which was formerly used for carrying their oatmeal.
Hames, H'yawms, the two pieces of crooked wood, which go round a horse's
neck to draw by. This is pronounced **yawmes'' with the aspirate
H before it. A in this and many other provincial words is sounded like
*' yaw ; '* as yal, ale, and where so sounded is marked &.
Haughs, HoLBis, flat grounds by the sides of rivers.
Heck or trop, come here or turn to the left, used by carters to draft horses
(neither of these words is given by Britten in his terms used in directiiig
lorses, S.V. ** horses."]
428 ARCHjEOLOGY.
Heft, a haunt.
Hell or bail, to pour [Ttesdale Qloasary],
Hemmel, ashed for cattle [Teesdale Glossary; Britten, "hemel," a sinall yard
for cattle.]
HiNDBERRiES, raspberries [Rubus Idseus].
HiPE, to rip or gore with the horns of cattle [Teesdale Glossary].
HoGO, a young sheep before it be shorn [Tee^ale Glossary ; Britten].
Hopple, to tie the legs together [Teeadale Glossary],
HowK, to make a hole or cut earth with a spade.
Howl, hollow [Teesdale GlossaTy],
Humbling barley, breaking off the awns, with a flail or other instrumeut.
HusE, a short cough [Teesdale Glossai-y, hiisy].
Ikos, low wet grounds [Britten].
Inkling, an intimation [Teesdale Glossary].
Kave, to separate the short straw from com with a rake and the foot.
Kemping, to strive against each other in reaping com [Britten, Scotland].
Kemps, hairs amongst wool.
Ken, to know (Teesdale Glossanj).
Kenspeckled, particularly marked, so as to be easily known [Teesdale Glosmtry],
Keblop, a calfs stomach salted and dried to make rennet [Teesdale Glossary],
Kevel, a large hammer for quarrying stones [Teesdale Glossary],
Kite, the beUy.
Kittle, to tickle [Teesdale Glossary],
Lake, to play [Teesdale Glossary],
Late or lait, to seek [Teesdale Ulofsary],
Lemurs, ripe nuts that separate easily from the husk [also spelt learners or
leemers. — W. W. S. ].
Leam, a flame.
Leif, rather.
Letch, a swang or marshy gutter.
Lib, to castrate [Teesdale Glossary],
Lick, to beat, to chastise [Teesdale Glossary],
Lio, to lie [cf. Britten, ligs, W, Yorks].
Lino, heatn (erica vulgaris) [Teesdale Glossai-y],
LiNGET, active, strong, and able to bear great fatigue.
Linn, a cascade.
Loach, a leach.
Looking corn, weeding com [Teesdale Glossary],
Lop, a flea [Teesdale Glossary].
Lop-loach, the leach used by surgeons to draw blood. Some of Shakespeare's
commentators have been much puzzled to explain the carrier's expression
(in Hen. Y.) that ^* your chamberlie breeds fleas like a loach." A North
country reader understands it to mean, that the fleas bite as keen, or
suck blood like a leuch, loach, or lop-loach.
Lowe, a flame.
Lyery, abounding with lean flesh especially on the buttocks [Britten ; from
A.S. lira J flesh, muscle. — W.W.S.].
Mang, barley or oats ground with the husk, for dogs and swine meat [Teeddale
Glossaiy].
Maugh, a brother-in-law.
Maumy, mellow and juiceless [Teesdale Glossary],
Meal of milk, as much as a cow gives at one milking [Teesdale Glossary],
Mel-supper, a supper and dance given at harvest home [Teesdale Glosaary],
Mis-tetch, bad habits [Teesdale Glossary],
MouDY-WARP, a mole [Teesdale Glossary],
Netve, the fist [Teesdale Glossari/].
Keivel, to strike or beat with the fist.
NoLT or NouLT, neat cattle [Teesdale Glossary, The form noli is very doubtful —
W.W.S. ]
Piggin, a wooden cylindrical porringer, made with staves, and bound with hoops
AGRICULTURAL DL4.LECT WORDS. 429
like a pail ; holds about a plat [Britton, a payl with one handle standing
upright].
Plenishing, household furniture.
Prod, a prick [Teesdale Glossarif].
PiTBBLE, plump, full ; usually said of corn or grain when well perfected.
Quickens or Quicken Grass, a general name for all creeping or sboloniferous
grasses or plants, which give the farmer so much trouble to era licate.
Rated, approaching to rottenness.
Reb, see ** Gee."
Reins, balks of grass land in arable fields. [Seebohm's VUlage Commnnity,
381-382.] ^, ^
Rice, hedginj? wood [Britten, the shrouds or tops of- trees or fellings of coppices].
Ripe, ready, quick to learn [Teesdale GlosiKiry],
Rin, to belch, also to plow out grass land [Teesdale Glossary, with first meaning
only].
RowTiNG, bellowing of an ox [Teesdale Glossary],
RuNCH, a general name for wUd mustard, white mustard, and wild radish.
Rung, a round of a ladder [Teesdale Glossary].
Samcast, two ridges ploughed together [ree^^ioZe Glossary ; sam means together:
cognate with Gk. afxa, — W. W.S.J.
Sare, much, greatly : as sare hurt, sare pained [sare or sair is the Northern
form of sore. — W.W.S].
Scaling, spreading mole hills or dung [Teesdale Glossary],
Scallions, young onions [Teesdale CUossary],
Seiyes or Sparts, articulated rush.
Sheer, to reap or cut [Teesdide Glossary].
Shive, a slice of bread [Teesdale Glossary],
Sills, strata of minerals [Teesdale Glossary],
Sipings, the draining of a vessel after any fluid has been poured out of it.
Skeel, a cylindrical milking pail with a handle made by one of the staves being
a little longer than the rest [Teesdale CUossary],
Skelp, to slap, to strike with the open hand [Teesdme Glossai'y^
Skirl, a loud and continued scream or shriek.
Skugg, to hide.
Slape, slippery [Teesdale Glossary],
Slocken, to quench thirst [Teesdale Glossary],
Smash, to crush.
Snell, sharp, keen : as snell air.
Soss, to lap like a dog [Teesdale Glossary],
SpIit of rain, a great fall of rain.
SpAned, weaned [Teesdale Glossary],
Sparts, see '* seives."
Spukling, rut made by a cart wheel [Teesdale Glossary],
Stark, stiff, tight, thoroughly.
Stee, a ladder [ree^c^oZe Glossary ; Britten, Yorks.].
Steek the heck, shut the door [Teesdah Glossary],
Steer, a three-year-old ox [Teesdale Glossary].
Steg, a gander [Teesdale Glossary],
Stell, a large open drain.
Stint, in stocking grass land is equal to an ox or cow's grass [Teesdale Glossary],
Stirk, a yearling ox or heifer [Teesdale Glossary ; Britten, young cattle.]
Storkin or Storken, to grow stiff : as melted fat cooled again.
Stot, a two-year-old ox [Teesdale Glossary ; Britten].
Stour. dust [Teesdale Glossary].
Strippings, the last part of a cow's meal said to be richer than the rest [Tees-
dale Glossary],
Swameish, shy, bashful.
SwARTH, sward, the surface of grass land.
Swathe, a rt>w of mown grass as left by the scythe [Britten].
Stdf, hanging low iioYn\\Teesdale Gloiary^ meaning long].
S\kis, a small brook.
Syles, princii)al rafters of a house.
Tawm, a fishing line made of hair [Teesdale Glossary],
430 ARCHjEOLOGY.
Team, to empty a cart by turning it up, to pour out.
Tewing, teazing, disordering, harassing [Teefdah Glossary, tew, to fatigue].
Threave, twenty-four sheaves of com, etc. [Teesdale Glossary ; Britten],
Thud, a heavy stroke {Teesdah Glossai-ij],
TiTB, as tite, as soon [i.e., tite occurs in the phrase " as tite," t.e., as soon].
Titter, rather, sooner.
Trod, a beaten footpath [Teesdale Glossary],
Trop, see " heck."
TwEA, two [Teesdale Glossary],
TwiBLiNG, slender, weak [Teesdale Glossaryy twible, to walk unsteadily].
Unletes, displacers or destroyers of the fanners* produce.
Wankle, uncertain [Teesdale Glossai-y],
Ware-corn, barley or oats.
Wattles, teat-like excrescences which hang from the cheeks of some swine [Tees-
dale Glossal^].
Whano, a leather thong [Teesdale Glossary , giving meaning of " a large piece aB
of bread and cheese." I suspect these two whangs are totally different-
words. —W. W. S. ].
Whig, soured whey with aromatic herbs in it, used by labouring people as a cool-
ing beverage [Britten].
Whyb, or QuEY, a heifer [Teesdale Glossary; Britten, Yorks.].
Win, to get ; as winning stones, to get stones in a quarry [Teesdale Glossary],
Wizened, dried, shrivelled, shrunk [Tces^/oZe Glossari/],
Wo, stop or stand still, used by carters to draft horses [Teesdale Glossary ; Britten]»
Yaits (aits) oats, hence probably gaitings [?] from yaitings, single sheaves of oats.
Yak (ayk). oak.
Yal, ale [Teesdale Glossary],
Yammer, to cry like a dog in pain.
Yan (ane), one.
Yancb (ance), once.
Yap, ape.
Yarnut, amut, earthnut.
Yat, gate [Teesdale Glossary],
Yaude, a horse [Teesdale Gu>ssary],
Yedders, slender rods that go along the top of a fence and bind the stakes to-
gether [Teesdale Glossary^ 8.v. yether. The Southern English ef/ier, A.S,
erfor.— W.W.S.].
Yerd, a fox earth.
Ybrning, rennet [Teesdale Glossaryy s.v. yemin].
YouL, to howl like a dog [Teesdale i[}lossary],
Yuke, to itch.
CORRESPONDENCE.
DERIVATION OF PLACE-NAMES.
From a book which Professor Skeat speaks of as the most worthless book of
its class that be is acquainted with, but I, with more respect, describe aa-
the most imaginative book on place-names 1 have seen — viz., Edmunds'
Tracts of History in Names of Places — I learn from "the half-Norse^
Nunthorp, that there were nunneries in pre- Norman times, and that they
held estates." I had previously supposed that the rather migratory body
of nuns, who settled here for a few years before they shifted their
quarters to Baysdale about the year 1260, or later, had then given the
prefix Nun to the name which, in the Domesday pages, stands simply
CORRESPONDEKCE. 431
Torp. But, of course, I defer to Mr. Edmunds' superior " imagination.'^
In like manner, I learn from the same authority that the word " combe " —
which is always by natives of the district pronounced coom — is not found
anywhere in the Anglian or Norse districts, which have other British words
marking the places retained by the " Indigenes." This, too, — I do not
mean the obscurity about the retention indicated — has perplexed me a
little. I had imagined that the North-Riding moorlands, Ryedale, Rose-
dale, Danbydale, were all in " the Anglian or Norse districts," and that
place-names always, by natives of the district, pronounced cooms, might
have something to do with combe. Pace Mr. Edmunds, it is even so. I am
acquainted with from fifteen to twenty local names within the area roughly
indicated above, or within the Fumess Abbey district, all of which involve
the element coom, combe, or coomb. Some of these names are of great
written antiquity — as RavenecumVie, in a document printed in the Whitby
Chartulary belonging to about the year 1200 ; and others of them are in
constant use to this day. Such is the case with two separate places in this
parish, and in one of them the combe-making process is — to the eye of the
observer — in still continued operation. There is, within a linear half-mile
of this house, a place called " the Cooms " by the "natives," within the area
of which I have, during the last decade, seen subsidences, involving many
hundreds of tons of earth, evidently proceeding. A tithe of the " imagina-
tion " involved in Mr. Edmunds' book will enable anyone to conceive a
moorland ridge of half a mile or upwards in width, coming to an end
abruptly on reaching the valley of the small river running at right angles
to the general direction of the ridge in question. These ridges, thus abruptly
cut across, and of which there is no lack in the entire district, are usually
called "nabs" or "nab-ends," and they present to the eye a sufficiently steep
slope, with more or less of a talus at the foot, perhaps a hundred or a
hundred and fifty feet below the end or " brae " of the ridge. Calling on
our imagination still further, we have to conceivethehalf of a basin scooped
out in this half-mile-wide nab-end, the diameter of the basin being about
two thirds of the whole width, and the total depth of it, where the original
face-line of the cliff may be assumed to have run originally, scarcely less
than a hundred and twenty feet. This half-basin is " the Cooms," the name
extending, in its application, some little way into the valley. In the coui-se
of my careful and exact watching of the changes going on within the area
of our half-basin during the last seven or eight years, I have seen enough
to assure me that the processes in operation for the creation of this combe,
demand a series of ages, rather than of centuries, only ; and the grave-
hills I have opened on the moors around are, as it may be said, babies in
years in comparison with our Cooms (or Coums, as more usually spelt here).
What language the pilers of those burial mounds spoke, there is none to
say ; but there can be no doubt that the abiding name under notice is a
survival from the tongue of some former " natives of the district."
The mischief done by the writers of such books as this Names of Places
is a real mischief, and from its nature not easily remedied. For it is the
application of ignorant but more or less plausible guessing to the tahtda
rasa of ignorant but receptive minds ; and, the impression once produced,
the representations of historical investigation and sober sense have no scope
for influence, and are summarily rejected. And yet, one would think that
432 ARCHEOLOGY.
flome of the incobereut rarablings of the unscientific deriver of place-names
were too nonsensical and inconsistent to obtain a moderately thoughtfol
person's regard. To take but one illustration from that curious medley of
unsifted statements, professing to be "historical,'' and really authentic
recital, called Old Yorkshire^ take the account that is given of Ciolear : —
** Anciently Gudlagesarc, i.e., Guthlac's Scar. Gol, a corruption of Guthlao^
an O.E. or D. personal name. Car, an abbreviation of scar, D. a steep
precipitous rock, derived from sk^ra, to cut." The most trivial amount of
investigation would have sufRced to show the compiler that the suffix arc
belonged to a group of forms, all apparently variations of one and the same
stem-word ; and the most embryonic amount of knowledge of the laws of
philology would have averted the preposterous identification of tear with
car, and car with arc ; to say nothing of the almost equally astounding
'* corruption " of Guthlac into Gol ! Of course, when one plays tricks of
legerdemain with words after this fashion, anything becomes possible to the
operator, and Boston admits of easy resolution into Celtic 60, an ox, and
Teutonic Um — a derivation gravely propounded and printed some years ago
by a Liverpool luminary in the derivation line ; Aislaby (Hesselby in the
'* pronunciation of the natives of the district ") into Hazel village ; Danby,
Ingleby, and Picton into the villages or towns of the Danes, the English,
and the Picts ! ^
But the case of Golcar is perhaps one of the most startling, and, at the
same time, one of the least justifiable of the vagaries of the imaginative
deriver of place-names. The suffix is found in the forms arg^ arc^ ctrgo, erck,
erghy arghcy arge^ etc., as well as ergum, argum, /urrguMy and the like ; and not less
than six or seven of these forms are met with in Domesday, while these
last named forms in um are so slightly removed from their original, hargvm^
that a scholar, only slightly conversant with the implements of his profes-
sion, might easily have made a reasonable conjecture as to the real origin
of the entire group of such terminations. And truly there is some
"History " in such a " Name of a Place : " for " the korg was an altar of
stone erected on high places, or a sacrificial cairn built in open air, and
without images ; for the harg itself was to be stained with the blood of the
sacrifices ; and hence such phi*ases as to * break ' the horgs, but * burn ' the
temples. The horg worship reminds one of the worship in high places of
the Bible. . . The worship on horga seems to be older than that in temples,
but was in after times retained along with temple worship." (Vigfusson's
Icelandic-English Dictionary). The references or quotations from Old Norse
writings in which the hof, or temple, and the horg are placed in antithetical
connection, are really most numerous, and with the Domesday triad, Ergone,
Ergune, Ergun (now severally Arram, Erriholm, and Airyholm) to compare
with such collocations as " hofum ok horgum,'' it seems strange that the true
connection of arc, argo, arge, ergum, hergum, and so forth, should have
escaped the observation of even such derivationists as Edmunds and the
" Old Yorkshire " investigator. Possibly one of the most ciuious connec-
tions is found in the Cleveland Ergum, now Airyholm. That is the name
of a farmstead at the foot of Roseberry Topping. The hill thus named is
1 This is not imagination. A man, educated at Eton and Oxford, travelling along
the Cleveland line, told me he had seen the most interesting ethnological meiiKMnalt
jn the names of those stations he had passed — the tiitee named in the text !
CORRESPONDENCE. 433
known to have been, from 1100 onwards for four centuries and more, called
Odinberg, or by some variation of that name. By what course of transition,
or whether in virtue of some survival of an all but obsolete reminiscence
of an elder appellation, Othenberg or Othenbruch gave place to Roseberry,
there is nothing whatever to show conclusively. But the old Horg has
survived through all, indifferent alike to the undiscriraiuating phonology of
the Norman scribe of 1186, and the more reckless processes of later or
modern accommodation and corruption. There seems to be some *' Trace
of History " indeed in such a name so associated ; and when it is collated
with the Whitby Thingwala, with Klifslond, Klfflond, (the name of the district
including either), or with the endless place-names in 6//, throp^ toft^ thivaite,
um, and the like, the history is not hard to read. It needs not that we
should resuscitate the wielders of those four Danish swords and the mighty
Danish battle-axe dug up at Kildale to tell us that Cleveland (and with
Cleveland more than one or two other districts of important area in North
Yorkshire) were almost as Old Danish as Old Denmark itself in jurisprud-
ence, religion and language : these plac 3-names do that with a singular
emphasis and a most striking forcefulness. Rightly read, that story of
Styrkar the Staller fleeing from the disastrous field of Stamford-bridge —
however mythical in some of its aspects the account of the battle may be
held to be — declares to us the unmistakable fact that the language of the
Yorkshire husbandman (bondty hUshondi) of 1066 was an entirely intelligible
dialect of his own tongue to the Northman of the period, even if we are justified
in applying such a word as "dialect" at all in the case. And surely, Thing-
wal, Odinsberg, with its horg, Grimesarge (Grim's harg), Gudlagesargo or
Gudlagesarc (Guthlac's harg), Stratesargum (Streets harg), Gusandarghe
(Gusinsharg), Fegea argh (Vegsharg) speak quite as plainly as to the polity,
civil and religious, of the Danish-speaking people.
Illustrations of the same sort are literally without number, and attended
in no small proportion of instances with analogous misapprehensions and
consequent blunders and corruptions. There are in this parish, besides the
cardinal name, Danby, which the imaginative folks we are speaking of in-
terpret by " the village of the Danes," (therein ignoring alike the meaning
of the suffix and the identity of the prefix), Butterwick (disguised as But-
terwits), Clitherbecks (one of the two becks implied being almost the most
rollicking beck of my acquaintance), a natural Houe {Jiaugr) of large size^
and the like, Danby Head and Danby Botton. To be sure, we have Dale-
end now instead of the Norse form Dah-mynni or Dales-mouth, but Dale-
head as sounded by a true dalesman — another pure Norse word — as if still
written as it was originally spoken ; while Botton is yet as thoroughly old
Danish as is dahhotn itself. And yet the lawyer and the modem local
topographer must needs convert it into " bottom," while Professor Phillips
(who might have known better), transmogrifies it into Burton ! Doubtless
there is a sort of ingenuity in the change ; but then it is a perverted in-
genuity. It is true the " natives " sound word " wo*d," and bird " bo'd,*
and hurt " ho't ; " but that is hardly a justification for reversing the pro-
cess and transforming botton into burton. But this is what the professor
lias done in his Rivers^ Mountains^ <Crc, and the same charge lies at the
door of the nomenclators of the Ordnance Survey, who print Burton Cross
for what was written Bothine in 1205, and Burton Howe for Botton Howe
2f
434 ARCHEOLOGY.
in the close vicinity of Phillips' Burton Head. Tf only there were an In-
dex Expurgatorius of such books as we have glanced at, and the compilers
were " set " a hundred lines for every blundering guess they made, what a
slackening there would be in the flow of production.
J. C. Atkinson.
Danbt Parsonage,
INDEX NOTES.
13. Roman Remains in Sussex.
(C. I. L vii., pp., 17-20.)
Note. — The chief abbreviations used are :
Dall. Hist. J. Dallaway's Hist, of Chichester, 1816.
Dall. Chich. — ^Dalla way's Topography of the Rape of Chichester, 1815.
Cartw. Anciidel, Bramher — Dallaway's Top. of the Rapes of Anindel and BTram-
her, re-edited by E. Cartwright, 1830-2, 2 vols.
Horsfield— T. W. Horsfield's Hist, of Sussex, 1836, 2 vols.
Lower — M. A. Lower'a Hist, of Sussex, 1870, 2 vols.
Dixon — Dixon's Oeotogy of Sussex, ed. 2, 1878, (see Arch, J&um. viii., 12).
S. A. C. — Sussex ArchsBological Collections, vols. i.-xxxv.
Coll. Ant. — C. Roach Smith's Collectanea Antiqua, 1843-80, 7 vols.
Chich. Tr. — Transactiojis and Museum of the Arch. Institxde, Chichester, 1853.
(See S. A. C, viii., 284.)
Arch. Joum. — Journal of the Archaohgical Institute, vols, i.-xliv.
Assoc. Jdim, — Jounud of the British ArcJi, Association, vols, i.-xlii.
Aixh, — Archctologia, vols. i.-l.
0. M. — Oefvtleman^s Magazine.
O. S. — Ordnance Survey (six-inch and twenty-five-inch sheets).
The first nine publications I have searched myself ; for the rest
I have been mainly dependent on published indices. Through the
kindness of Sir Charles Wilson, T have been able to look at some
of the Ordnance Survey "Namebooks" for Sussex. The antiquities
marked on the Ordnance maps are taken, sometimes from local
enquiries made by the surveyors, more often from publishe<)
authorities, e.g., Horsfield. I do not suppose that my list is com-
plete, but it is full enough for a beginning, and, I hope, omits very
little of value. References in brackets denote passages borrowed
from the work named immediately before, though I have not
always been able to trace a statement to its fountain-head. I have
purposely omitted many references, particularly those printed by
HtLbner. Those who use this list should remember that it is some-
times impossible to go behind the published accounts, that all
manner of remains are apt to be thought " Roman," and that the
occurrence of coins, &c., does not necessarily prove the presence of
INDEX NOTES. 435
Roman soldiers or settlers. I shall be grateful for any corrections
or additions to my list
F. Haverfield, Lancing College, Shoreham.
AxBOURNE (near Hurstpierpoint), coins, &c. S. A. C, xiv., 176.
Aldbington, urns, fibulw, &c. Horafield 1. 160 (a vogue notice, probably be-
longing to Portslade brickfields).
Alfriston, coins. Lower i., 6. (Possibly the coins are really British).
Anomerino, bath, urns, inscribed patene, coin. Dall. Arniuid i., 73 (Hors-
field ii., 141).
Arundel. The alleged road and station do not exist, nor are there any Roman
remains here (Tiemey*s Aruudd (1834) 30-33, Assoc, Jonrn, xxxii. , 488).
The station ad decimnm lapidem (S. A. 0. ix. 112) rests only on the
spurious Richard of Cirencester. The Arun is probably Ptolemy's Tri-
snntona {Arch. xlviiL, 390).
AviSFORD (near Walberton), stone coffin with glass, bones, sandals, lamps, paterse,
&c. 0, M. 1817, i., 464, DaU. Amiuld 80 (Horsfield ii., 117), CoU, Ant.
i., 123 PL, Dixon, p. 91, S. A. C, xL, 130.
Beauport Park (near Battle), ironworks, pottery (inscr. Albvciani, cp. C. I. L.
1336-44), ligula, coins of Hadrian and Trajan. S. A. C. xxix, 169 PI.
Bbddinguam, coins of Antonines. Horsfield i., 340, Letoes i., 70. Lower i, 41
says **many remains.''
Beedinu (Upper) Hill, tumulus with coin of Commodus, Samian ware (inscr.
Sabilla.ni or -Lini) urns. Cartw. Bramber, 221, Horsfield i, 59, and
Le'ifjes i., 44 PI. ['* Sabiliani " may be an error for '* Sabiniani," C. I. L.
1336-960J.
BiONOR, large villa, figured mosaics, Samian ware, inscribed tiles, bricks, gold
ring, &c. Ard^. xviii., 203 PL, xix., 176 PL (DaU. ArttnoM, 263 PL),
Lyson's Bdiq, Bi^. Bam. iii., PL See alao G, M,, 1811, ii, 616, 1812,
ii. 487 (not 437), S. A. C. viii. 292, xviii., 99, xxx., 63 PL, Arch. Jmmi.
xxxvii., 154., A990C, Jaum. xlii., 67 PL (Side-road, S. A. C, x., 169^
xL, 132).
BnjJNusHURST, pottery, tesserae, &o. S. A. C. xi„ 145, Lower L, 52.
BiNDEBTON, urn, tiles. S. A. 0. xxiL, 65.
Blatchinoton (East), urns under the church probably Roman. S. A. 0. xiii.,
309 (xv., 243, Asfoc. Joum. xlii., 46).
Blatchinoton (West), foundations, fluetiles, bricks, stucco, hand-mill, coins of
Tetricus. Q. M., 1818, ii. 107 (Horsfield L, 157), S. A. C. xxviL, 70,
O. S. 65-8.
BooNOR Mill, first brass of the elder Agrippina. Dixon, 71 PL, Wright Cdt
Roman atid Saxon (1861), p. 190, places a villa here.
BoRMER (near Falmer\ cemetery, vases, glass, instrumenta, coins. S. A. 0.
xiv., 67, xviii., 66 PL
BosHAM, foundations and coins (near Broadbridge Ho and Swan Inn); tiles,
bath, coins (near church — supposed basilica^ alleged amphitheatre and
walls. S. A. 0. xviii., 1. (Lower i., 63^, Monographs by Smith, Long-
croft, O. S., 61, 5 and 9.
Botolph's (down near), bricks, pottery. (?) Cartw. BrambeVj 216 (Horsfield
ii., 231).
Brambbr, supposed bridge, probably post-Roman ; coin (in castle). S. A. 0. ii.,
73 ; xvi., 243. The localisation of Portus Adumi here or near Shoreham,
is based onlif on the similarity of Adtimns and '* Adur.'^ The Adur is said
(S. A. C. xxvii., 98) to have been originally called Alder (cf. Domesday
" Eldretune ")• See Magna Britannia (1730) 536, ** The >. Adumi, we
suppose, gives ground for the conjecture that the river is called Adur."
The form '* Adur" may be the invention of an antiquary.
Brighton (Furze HillX coin of Constantius XL (found by C. G. Allum, Esq.).
See also Prbston, Whitbhawkb, Rottinodsan.
BuNCTON, tiles in church walls. Lower L, 88.
Caburn, Moumr, pre-Roman camp, a little pottery and oyster shells on surface.
Arch, xlii, 38 PL ; xlvi., 424 PL ; Arch. Jounk xli., 76.
Oakxham, coins of 3rd and 4th cent. A$9oc. Jotirn. iL, 199, 442 {Chieh. Tr^ 66.)
436 ARCHJi:OLOGY.
Chanctonbury, pre-Koman camp, Roman pottery and Samian ware, coins of
Claudius and Nero, bricks. Evans' Picture of Wwthiivg (1787) p. 65,
Arch, xlii., 44 PI., S. A. C. xxiv., 154, xxxiv., 220.
Chichester (Recjnum or Regni— the exact name is doubtful), walls, inscrip-
tions, pavements, pottery, instrumenta, coins 54-270 a.d. Besides the
rest below, see for — L Urns and pottery. Assoc, Jouni., iv. 185 PL ;
S. A. C, X. 180 ; aiich. Tr., 67. Froc, Soc. Aivt. (II.), v. 39 ; Wright's
Vricwimm 299 PI. ; ii. Inscribed patene. C. I. L., 1336 (501, 530, 823,
898) ; Jcmrn,. Arch., xxxviL 150 ; iii. Inscription (site unknown). Arch,,
xli. 185 (comp. xliii. 288 ; Chick. Tr. 97) ; iv. Fig. of Priapus, Proc. Soc,
Ant. (II.), V. 180; v. Mortarium, Brighton Mus. [The '* caput statute "
quoted by Hiibner (p. 17) from Arch,, xxvi. 466, is there said to be
medieval.]
North Street (near, not under, Council Chamber), inscr. of
Cogidubnus. C. I. L., 11 ; Chich. Tr., 34. Mommsen Stoats-
redit, ii. 792 n.
C. I. L. 10.
West Street, jmvement. Dall. Hist., 5 ; Horsfield, i. 42,
East Street. C. I. L. 12 (cp. Efh, EpUfr,, 3, p. 114) ; Dally Chich.
(htide, p. 5 (1831).
pavement at St. Andrew's Ch., pottery, &c, near.
Chich, Tr., 67 ; Lower, i. 102.
pottery kilns. Proc, Soc, Ant, (II.), viL 292.
pavement. S. A. C, xxxii. 230.
waterpipes. O. S., 61-7.
Bishop's Palace, pavemetit, coins of Nero and Domitian. Ma>ffna
BrUannia (1730) 5, 489 ; Dall. Hist., 5 ; Camden, L 193.
inscription. Arch, J mini,, xliii. 286.
Cathedral, pavement. Horsfield, i. 42 ; S. A. C, xix. 198; Assoc,
Jonm,, XXXV. 94.
St. Olave's Ch., bricks, urns. S. A. C, v. 223 ; Assoc, Jotirih.^
xxiv. 215 ; 0. M., 1852, i. 164, 272 ; but the remains are not
Roman. Chich. Tr., 73.
St. Pancras, pottery. Arch. Jonm., xxxvii. 150.
Cattlemarket, ligula (inscr.). S. A. C, xxiv. 295.
Walls, Roman. Assoc, Jonm., xlii. 96, 120.
Eastgate, Roman (?) work, existing 1770. Chich. Tr., 97.
inscription near(C. I. L., 14), and miliary column. D^ilL
Hist., 5.
Southgate, inscr. C. I. L. 13-15.
pottery, coins, near. Assoc. «7bitni., iv. 158; G. M. 1836,
ii. 418.
Palace Field (near Canal), pottery, hand-mills, glass, 700 silver
coins. G, M„ 1830, ii. 228.
The Broil, earthwork, perhaps Roman ; conduit pipes, &c. DalL
Hist., 177 ; Arch., xlii. 48 ; S. A. C, x. 169 PL ; Arch. Jwm^.,
xiv. 357.
[For the aUeged amphitheatre, see Assoc. Jmmu, xxxiL 489 ;
Grayling well not Roman.]
Chiddinoly, ironworks, pottery, coin of Severus. S. A. C. ii., 175 ; xiv., 208.
Ohilorove (near Chichester), skeletons, glass, rings, bronze, urns. Aixh. xxxi,
PL, ix. (Chich, Tr., 68), Dall. Chich., 168 (Horsfield iL, 83).
Chitcomb, ironworks, pottery, bricks. S. A. C. xxix., 175.
OissBURY, pre-Roman camp with slight traces of Roman pottery and coins on sur-
face, and at Leechpool in the valley near. Evans' WorUiing, 65, Cartw.
Bramber, 32, Arch, xlii., 47 PL, xiv., 337, S. A. C. iii., 179. [The
"station " alleged Assoc. Jonrih, xxxiv., 311, does not exist, nor does the
"prsetorium."]
Olayton (Rectory garden), figured mosaic, bath. (?) Horsfield L, 161, 239 ;
G, M., 1818, ii., 107. [Found about 1810 and reburied by the Rev. —
Halliwell ; since re-opened, but known to the present rector only by tra-
dition.]
(near) quern ; coins of Antonines Commodus, and pottery. S. A. C.
ii., 76, xiv. 178 ; G, M,, 1781, 306 ; 1818, iL, 107. ; Horsfield Ltwt$ L 70.
Cocking, stone quarried at. S. A. C. x., 175.
CoLp Waltham (Watei-sfield hamlet), urn with 1700 brass of Gallienus &&
DaU. Arundel L, 289 (Horsfield ii., 152) ; S. A. C. xi., 137.
TN'DEX NOTES. 437
OucKFiELD (Highbridge Hill), urn, bones, and paterae. S. A. O. ill. 142.
Danny, see Hurstpierpoint.
Dbnsworth (near Funtington), stone and tiled coffins, inscribed pottery, glass,
coins of Hadrian, sandals, pieces of illegible marble inscription. Q. Jf.,
1868, i., 632 ; S. A. C. x., 169 PL, xxxii., 197 {.Arch. Jourii. xv., 153,
xvi., 101 PL), C. I. L., 17, 1276., O. S., 61, 1. [The entrenchments
near, O. S. 48, 9, and 13, are hardly Roman.]
Devil's Dyke, pre-Romau camp. Arch, xlii., 42. [Coins alleged. Lower ii., 108].
DiTCUUXG, 2>i'o-Roman camp and road ; coin of Tiberius. Arch, xlii., 30, 40 ;
Hoi-stield i., 237 (the coin should road TI. not T).
DoNiNGTON, st<^)ne coffin with pottery, &c. Dall. C7^ic/^., add 64.
DuNCTON, bath, pavement, tiles, &c. G. Af., 1812, L, 381, 1816, ii., PL Dall.
Ai-xituiel, 279 PL (Horsfield ii, 170).
Earnley (Almodington), urn with 840 denarii, Caracalla to Gallionus, G. M,y
1836, ii. 418. S. A. C. xi., 127.
Eastbourne (Seahouses), villa, bath, pavement, coins (266-300 a.d.). Phil.
Tram., 351 {Eadhonrtie Guide (1787) 133-146, DaU. Hut., xxii., Horsfield
L, 65) ; S. A. C. ii., 257, xiv., 126 ; Assoc. Jonra. xxxv., 218.
(The Wish), pottery. S. A. C. xvL, 308. [The alleged station S. A. 0:
ix., 166 is now given up ; the piles mentioned in the Wiide can hardly be
Roman.]
(cliffs near), hoard of 680 coins (253-276 a.d.) S. A. 0. xxxL, 203
(Num., Chron., 1881, 27.)
EcKENPiELDs, coin of Victorinus. Gordon's Hmihig (1877) 20.
Edbukton (down S. of), urns. Cartw. Bramber 240 (Horsfield ii. 224).
EwHURST (Sommersbury), glass. Arch, Jonrn. xxxii, 478.
FiNDON (Tormur Hill), urns. Cartw. Bramber ii., 96 ; Dixon, 91 ; (Lower i.,
178 ; Assoc. Jonnv., L, 149). Brighton Museum.
FiRLE Hill, pottery, coins of Domitian, Hadrian, &c. S. A. 0. xx., 52 ; xxii.,
76 ; Horsfield Letoes i., 48, 70.
Flshbourne (NbwX bath, pavement, bricks, coins, um. G. M., 1805, ii. 926 ;
Horsfield ii., 52. [More in two places, found 1863.]
Glating Beacon. The alleged Roman camp does not exist S. A. C. xL, 128 ti.
Glynde, coins of later empire, ford. Dall. Hisi. xxiii. ; Horsfield Letoes i., 70,
ii., 112 ; S. A. C, xiii., 65, xx. 52 ; Arch, xlii., 36.
Hampnett (West), bricks and tiles built into the church. S. A. 0. xxL, 33 PL
[Assoc. Jouiii. xxiv., 213 PL).
Hangleton, silver coins of Valerian, &c., in tumulus. S. A. C. ix., 124,xxxiv., 167.
Hardham, camp, cemetery with ashes, pottery, fibulae, coins of Hadrian, bricks,
tiles in church walls. Dall. Armiddy 295 (Horsfield iL, 153) ; S. A. C«
xL, 138 PL, XV., 243, xvL, 52 PL, xxxii, 179 ; CoU. AiU. vi., 252 PL
Harting Beacon, coin of 326 a.d., pottery. Gordon's Harting, p. 18.
Hastings, cjimp, coin of Theodosius. S. A. C. ix. 366, xiii., 308, xiv., 64 ;
Assoc. Joitrti. xxiii., 41, 181. In 11th cent, called Hastingchester.
HoLLiNGSBURY HiLL, prc-Roman camp. Arch, xlii., 39.
HuRjJTPiERPOiNT, churchyord and neighbourhood, clay ring (?), urns, ooins,
patene. S. A. C. xiv., 178 ; Oiich. Tr. 73.
Danny Park, tessellated pavement, foundations, pottery, bronze orna-
ments. S. A. C. X., 210, xiv., 178 PL
I PING, urns under church. Assoc, Journ. xlii., 45. [Near this parish is a Gold
Harbour Farm.]
Lancing Down, tumulus with walls and flooring of small room (16 feet sq.) and
painted stucco, ashes, bones, coins (Claudius to Grallienus). Also under
the tumulus graves with fibulse, colts, beads, dagger, urns, boihes, comb,
British coins, &c. G. M., 1828, ii, 631, 1830, ii., 17 PL (Cartw. Bram-
ber, 388 PL ; Horsfield ii., 207) ; Cdl, Ai\t. L, 93 PL ; O. S., 64, 8 ;
Assoc. Joimh. i., 149. [The accounts disagree, i. as to site, iL as to coins
found. Possibly the sceattas^ of G. M. are a mistake. The British coins,
1 The plate contain! four ooini, one a aoeatta, one Brituh, two undistinguiBhable with
certainty. Cartwright speaks of nmny sceattas.
438 ARCH3:0L0Gt.
Evan's Aivtutni British dn^is, pp. 110, 169, 183>5, were probably found
here in the graves. The '* Roman Ditch " marked in O.S. one-inch 1881
is now given up by Ordnance authorities.]
Lavant, coins, alleged earthwork. S. A. 0. x.. 169 PL, xxiL, 65.
Lbwes, urn with bones, coins, fibulse. Horsfield Lewes i, 67, 76. S. A. C. zzi,
91 ; Assoc. Journ. L, 230. There is ho evidence of Roman occupation or
town ; the statements made, S. A. C. xii., 3, and Lower iL, 17, seem to
be much exaggerated.
(Combe place), urn. S. A. C. xxii., 194.
LiTTLEHAMPTON, bottle jx^ssibly Roman. Froc. Soc, AiU, (IL), v. 39.
M ARESFiELD (Oldland), ironworks, inscribed pottery, coins of 00-250 A.D., glass,
fibula. S. A. C. ii., 172 PL, xxxuL, 260.
MiDinjR4ST, coins. Assoc. Journ, xxii., 358.
Newhaven, pre-Roman camp with some Roman pottery and kitchen- midden,
&c. Arch. xliL, 34. S. A. C. xviiL, 167 ; Jotim. Arch, iv., 210 ; Journ.
Anthrop. IiisL^ 15, clxxxviL (1886)
(near), foundations, tiles, pottery, coins (Hadrian to Gallienus).
S. A. C. v., 265 PL Jbttni. Arch, ix., 286.
Pagham. See Selsea.
Parham Hill, coins of M. Aurelius and Maximus. Dixon, 92 PL
Pbtworth, coin of 268 a.d. S. A. C. xix., 143.
Pevensey (anderida), walls, masonry, pottery, coins from Carausius to Gratian.
Repcni (1858) by C. Roach Smith {Coll. Aid. viL, 166). See also Horsfield
L, 310 ; S. A. C. vL, 265 PL ; Q. M., 1852, iL, 130 PL ; Jo\m^. Arch, iv.,
213.
Plummer's Plain (in St. Leonard's Forest), onyx cameo. S. A. C. xxv., 228 PL
Polegate, pottery, coin. S. A. C. xx., 233.
Poor Man's Wall. See Devil's Dyke.
PoRTSLADE (N.W. of railway staticm, in Brickfield), urns with bones, Samiaa
and Durobrivian ware, lachrymatories, fibula, clayballs. Brighton
Museum, and in possession of J. E. Hall, Esq.
windmill, supposed villa, pavement, bone awls, Samian and other
pottery, tiles, key. Brighton Museum.
Preston (near Brighton) — Springfield Road, pavement, pottery, graves, urns,
flass, coins (160 a.d.), loose urns, fibuke. Assoc. Joum,. xxxiiL, 518 ;
Proceedings of Brighton N.H.S., 1876 ; Friend's Brighton Almafute^
1885, 166. Froc. Soc. AiU. (II.), vii., 294.
Prinstead, silver coin of 40 b.c. Ardi. Jo^int. xiii., 96.
Pulborougu. i. Broomer's Hill, 4 lead pigs inscribed. C. I. L., 1215, and reS,
there, ii. Holmstreet (Marehill), bricks, circular foundations, and iiL
Borough Farm, foundations, stucco, tiles. Dall. Ammiel, 358 PL (Hors-
field ii., 164 PL). S. A. C. xi., 140 PL iv. Cold Harbour, coin. S. A. 0.
xi., 139.
Ranscombe Camp, tiles, Samian pottery on surface. Arch. xlvL, 474, 489.
Rottingdean (ehore near), supposed glass factory. Wright's Celt Mmnan afui
Sax(/ii (1861), 230.
RuMBOLDSWYKE, bricks and urns in chiuxih, and near. Assoc. Journ. xxiv., 215 ;
S. A. C. xvii., 255 PL
Rye, coins. Reynold's Itiuer. (Appendix.)
St. Roche Hill or Trundle (near Singleton), pre-Roman camp, gold coin of
Nero. Arch, xlii., 48 ; Dall. Hist, xxiii. n. ; O. S., 61, 3 and 2.
Seapord, possiblv Roman camp with tumuli, pottery (inscribed V. E.), coins of
Hadrian, &C., fibulas, nails ; cemetery ; ampulla, gold coin of Yalentinian.
Joim^. Authrop. List, vl, 287, x., 130 ; Arch, xlii., 34 ; S. A. C. xxxiL,
167 ; Assoc. Jouru. ii., 344 ; S. A. C. xxi., 218 ; vii. 73 PL
(Sutton), tiles in church wall. S. A. C. xiii., 309; xv., 243; xviiL, 141
(supposed saltpan).
(near), urn. S. A. C, ix., 368 PL
Sedlescombe, ironworks, coins. S. A. C. ii., 175.
INDEX NOTES. 439
Selsba. Mill — coins of Hadrian, Aurelius, &c. Dixon, 18 PI. Rectory — tiles,
bricks, pottery. Dall. Chick., 5.
Shobbhah (near), coins. Dall. Hist xxiii. (vague notice).
SmmoN, earthwork, tiles, pottery, vase handle. S. A. C. xxvi., 267 ; Arch,
Joun}. xxxii., 332.
SuNFOLD, foundations, tiles, stucco, coins (80-300 a.d.). 0. M. (1841) ii., 261 ;
S. A. C. xi., 146 ; O. S., 13, 2.
South Downs, Cainps on. Arch, xlil, 27-76; Arch. Journ. xli., 58; Assoc. Joxi/nu
xlii., 159, and reff.
uncertain site near Brighton, urn with 1000 denarii of Ant. Pius.
Relhan Hist. (1761) p. 8 (hence other Onuks, and 0. M. 1761-249) ;
Gough's Camden i. 200 ; Horsfield i., 178 ; Dall. Hist, xxiii.
SouTHERHAM, urn, cuins. Horsfield Lewes i., 70.
South Stoke, bronze statuette. Proc. Soc. Antiq. (II) vii., 339.
SouTHWicK (N.E. of), bricks, pottery. Cartw. BravnJber, 69 ; Horsfield ii., 218,
Stanmer, bronze Cupid. Arch, xxix., 372.
Steyning (downs above to W.), barrow with skeleton, 50 coins of lower Empire,
stylus (?). Cartw. Bramber, 170.
Stoneham (near Lewes), coins of Nero, Trajan. Horsfield Lewes i. 70.
Stoneyriver (near Hardham), coin. S. A. C. xi, 139.
Storrington (Redford hamlet), 1800 coins of lower Empire. S. A. 0. viii.,
277 ; xi., 140 ; Arch. Jourih. xxiv., 70.
Sullinoton (Sandgate), Roman (?) weapons. Cartw. Branityer^ 128. (Horsfield
ii., 239) ; S. A. C. i. 57 ; Lower ii., 192.
Sutton (near Stane st.), pottery. S. A. C. xv., 242.
(near Seaf ord). See Seaford.
Thundersb ARROW Camp, Roman (?) and British pottery. O. S.
TwiNEHAM, urn, spear head. S. A. C. xix., 195. Remains of buildings of un-
certain date. S. A. C. xxxv., 195.
•
Warburton (near Arundel), glass vessel, bones, coin of Vespasian. Dixon, 91.
Washington Hill, coin of Faustina. Dixon, 92 PL
Watebsfield. See Cold Waltham.
Wefham, coins. Dall. Hist, xxiii.
Westergate (near Chichester), stone coflin, with pottery, fflftss^ronze instru-
menta. Arch. Joum.^ xi. 125, PI. ; Chich. Tr., 65 PL [Now in British
Museum.]
Wbstfield, cinderheap, coins. S. A. C, ii. 219, xxvii. 228.
White Hawke Hill (Brighton racecourse), pre-Roman camp, urns, ooins.
Relhan Hist, p. 8 ; Horsfield, i. 59 ; LeweSy i. 43 ; Arch., xlii. 39.
WiQGONHOLT, graves, urns, Samian ware, coins (60-220 A.D.), patera. DalL
Amiidd, 274 ; (Horsfield, ii. 162) ; S. A. C, ix. 112, xi. 139. Arch.
Jwcrti.y xii. 278.
WiLLiNGDON, coins. Horsficld, i. 290 ; (Lower, ii. 249).
Wilmington, pottery, key (?), coin of Nero. S. A. C, xxv. 231 PL ; Horsfield,
L327.
WiNCHELSEA, Hiibner (C. I. L., p. 17) calls the walls Roman, referring to W. D.
Cooper's Histonj, but the latter mentions tu> Roman remains.
WisTON, foundations, pavement, tiles. S. A. C, ii. 313 PL ; Assoc. Jot^ni.,
iv. 386.
WoLSTANBURY, pre-Roman camp, arms, brass of lower Empire. Q. M., 1806,
ii. 900 ; Horsfield, L 59, Lewes, i. 70 ; S. A. C, xiv. 178 ; Arch., xlii 42.
Worthing (Park Crescent), burial urns, with coins of Diocletian and Constan-
tine. Dixon, 91.
(shore), coins of Vespasian to Postumus, pottery, bones of animals.
Dixon, 75 PL ; S. A. C, i. 27.
(East Chesswood), burial urns with bones, Samian ware (one inscr.),
coin. S. A. C, xxxiL 233, xxxiv. 218 PL ; Arch. Jowni., xlL 172.
(Broadwater), urns, Samian ware, glass, shoes and nails. Dixon, 89.
BOADS —
1. Stane Street : London to Chichester through Dorking, Slinlold,
Billingshurst, Pulborough, Hardham, Cold Waltham. Dall. Hist,,
440 ARCHAEOLOGY.
xvii. (Horsfield, i. 57) : S. A. C, xi. 128 PL, xix. 162 ; Asioc. Janni,^
xxxii. 480. The statement sometimes made that this road ran through
Arimdel is erroneous ; the alleged continuation towards Selsea (S. A. C.
xi. 27) is equally unfounded in fact.
2. Chichester to Bittern (Hants). Anton. Itin., 478. This road seems
not to have been explored, except at New Fishboume perhaps.
The following roads rest on insufficient evidence : —
3 Chichester to Pevensey. S. A. C, vi. 103, xiii 55«i-., xx. 233; and in
parts, Chichester to Cissbury. Assoc, Jmirn., xxxiv. 311. Steyning
and Edburton. S. A. C, i. 77, ii. 64, 315, v. 112. Shoreham to
Lewes. Relhan Histoi'y^ p. 8 (hence many writers). Lewes to New-
haven. Horsfield Xeirw, i. 67 (against). Beddingham. S. A. C,
xxi. 30. Newhaven to Seaford. xvii. 141. Lewes to Pevensey.
Assoc. Jouni^.y vL 91. None of these passages contain any real evidence
for the existence of the supposed road, for which the spurious Richard
of Cirencester seems mainly responsible. Hiibner is therefore pro-
bably rash in marking it as certa sed nondum exploratxx. There are
traces of British roads at Glynde and Ditchling (-47vA., xlii. 30-35) which
the Romans may have used.
4. London to Newhaven or Pevensey. Dall. Hist., xvi. (Horsfield, i. 38).
This continuation of the Ermyn St. was invented by Richard of Ciren-
cester, and has no real existence whatever.
5. Aldringjion, Portslade, Clayton, St. John's Common to Bromley (Kent).
G. Af., 1781, 306, 1818, ii. 107 ; S. A. C, iL 76, xiv. 178. It ia certain
that a road made with flints was traced in 1781 near Clayton and St.
John's Common, and about 1860 near Hurstpierpoint ; the rest is con-
jecture. The road which EUiut placed at Street (Burrell MSS. ; Hors-
field i. 232) seems to be supported only by the name.
6. Lewes, Heathfield, Burwash, Etchingham, into Kent. S. A. C, xxvii.
163. This is apparently mere conjecture so far as Sussex is concerned.
7. A road running east through Midhurst to Lewes resta on nothing
better than a mistaken interpretation of the '^ Anonymus Ravonnas."
14. Akch^ological Societies of Great Britain, 1887.
[ArchcBologia CanticmaMmg transactic/iw of the KentArchcBclogical
Society, vol. xvii. ; Sussex Archceological Collections, vol. xxxv.]
Arnold (A. A.), Quarry House on Frindsbury Hill. Ardi, Cant, xvii, 169-180.
— ^ — Roman remains and celt found near Quarry House, Frindsbury. Arch
Cant., xviL, 189-192.
Rochester Bridge in a.p. 1561. ArcJi. Cant., xvii., 212-240.
Attree (Capt. F. W. T.), Wivelsfield. Smsex Arch. Coll., xxxv., 1-60.
Brock (E. P. L.), Ancient Stained Glass in Westbere Church. Arch. Cani,^
xvii., 1-3.
Oowper (J. M.), Accounts of St. Dunstan's, Canterbury (continued from voL
xvi). Arch. Cant., xvii., 77-152.
Dalison (Mrs.), Dalison documents : letters of Thomas Stanley of Hampton.
written between 1636 and 1656. Arch. Cant., xvii., 353-372.
Dowker (G.), Roman remains at Walmer and Ramsgate. Arch. C(tnt., xvii.,
4-5.
— ^— Saxon cemetery at Wickhambreux. Arch. Cant., xvii., 6-9.
Roman remains recently found at Canterbury. Arch. Cant. xvii.»
34-37.
Duckett (Sir G. F.), additional materials towards the History of the priory of
St. Pancras at Lewes, ihissex Arch. Coll., xxxv., 101-126.
Expense book of James Master, Esq. Arch. Cant., xvii., 321-352.
INDEX NOTES. 441
Fenton (J. A.), Worthing two hundred years ago. Sussex Arch, Coll.j xxxv.»
93-100.
Gomme (6. L.), Boley Hill, Bochester. Arch, Caiyt., xvii., 181-188.
Hussey (E.), Scotney Castle. Arch. Canty xvii., 38-48.
Payne (G.), Roman leaden coffin discovered at Plumstead. Arch, Cai^i.y xvii.^
10-11.
Potters' names and marks on pseudo Samian ware found in Kent.
Arch. Cant, xvii., 153-160.
Pearman (Rev. A. J.), Rainham Church. Arch. Cant., xvii., 49-65.
Return of aliens resident at Cuckfield and Lindfield in 1793. Sussex Arch,
CoU., XXXV., 173-178.
Robertson (Rev. Canon Scott), sculptured head of a knight. Arch. Caiit., xvii.,
37.
Church plate in Kent. Aixh. Cant., xvii., 241-320.
Cobham Hall : letters to the Duke of Lenox, a.d., 1667-72. Arch,
Cbnf., xvii., 373-391.
Furniture and pictures at Cobham Hall in 1672. Arch. Catvt., xvii.,
392-410
Rye (W. B.), the ancient Episcopal palace at Rochester and Bishop Fisher*
Arch. CaiU.y xvii., 66-76.
Rochester Bridge, a poem written in Al.d., 1601. Arch. Cant, xvii.
161-168,
Salisburv (E.), report on the records of New Romney. Arch. CaiU., xviL, 12-33,
Sawyer (F. E.), Extracts from the Sussex Assize Roll, 1279. Stissex Arch. CoU.^
XXXV., 89-92.
Glossary of Sussex Dialectal Place Nomenclature. Sussex Arch. CoU.j
XXXV., 165-172.
Crown presentations to Sussex Benefices temp Charles II. Sussex Arch,
Coll., XXXV., 179-188.
Smith (C. R.), discovery of a hoard of Roman coins at Springhead. Arch. Cant,
xvii., 209-211.
Stenning (Alan H.), return of the members of Parliament for the county and
boroughs of Sussex. Sussex Arch. Coll. , xxxv., 127-164.
Wadmore (J. F.), Thomas Smythe of Westenhanger, commonly called Customer
Smythe. Arch. Cant, xvii., 193-208.
Whistler (Rev. R. F.), the annals of an English family. Sussex Arch. CdU.y
XXXV., 61-88.
15. Foreign Periodicals.
Arbois de Jubainville (H. D), Le char du guerre des Celtes dans quelques textes
historiques. -Ber. Archealogitpie, 3rd ser., xi., 194-199.
Becker (P.), Altertliiimer aus der Provinz Sachsen. Zeit. fiir EthnoL, xx., 48-52*
Buachan ( ), Graberfeld bei Gleinau a. d. Oder (Schlesien). Zeit. fiir Ethnol.f
XX., 55-66.
Clermont-Ganneau (M.), Sarcophage de Sidon reprdsentant le mythe de Marsyas.
Bev. Archiologique, 3rd ser., xi., 160-167.
Contrat de 1581 relatif aux ouvrages de menuiserie de la Basse-cour du ch&teau
de Saint-Germain. Bev. ArcMol<xj'uj\ie, 3rd ser., xi., 214-220.
Comont (Frantz), Les Dieux ^temels des inscriptions Latines. Bev. ArchMvgique,
3rd ser., xi., 184-193.
Emerson (A.), an engraved bronze bull at Metaponto. American Jwim. Arch.^
iv., 28-38.
Focke (W. O.X Drachenstein bei Donnern. Zeit. fiir EthnoL, xx., 30-32.
442 ARCHEOLOGY.
Ouillemand (J.), Lea Inscriptions Gauloises : nouvel essai d'interpr^tation.
Rev, ArcMologiqiiey 3rd ser., xL, 200-213.
Jcntsch (H.), Eisenfunde aus Sachsen und der Lausitz. Zeit.fur Ethnol,^ zx.,
52-54.
Launay (L. de), Histoire G^ologique de M^telin et de Thasos. Bev, ArehMagiqiUj
3rd ser., xi., 242-253.
Marguand (A. ), Early Athenian- Ionic capitals found on the Akropolis. America/ii
Jminx, Arch., iv., 42-44.
Merriam (A. C), Letter from Greece [progress of Archseological disooyery in
Greece.] American Joum, Arch.^ iv., 47-57.
Monceaux (P. ), Fastes dpony miques do la ligue Thessalienne. Bev, Archioloffique,
3rd ser., xi., 221-241.
Mtintz (Eugene), L'antipape Clement vii ; essai sur Thistoire des arts k Avignon
vers la fin du xive siecle. Bev. Archiologiquey 3rd ser., xi., 168-183.
Nagel (A.), Eroffiiung eines Hiigelgrabes bei Matzhausen, Bez.-Amt Buiglen-
genfeld. Zeitfiir Ethiiol.j xx., 25-28.
K. (S.), Liste des oculistes Romains mentionn^ sur les cachets. Bev, Archidoqi-
qiiey 3rd ser., xL, 254-268.
jReinach (S.), an inedited portrait of Plato. Ameincan Joum. Arch., iv., 1-5.
Ramsay (W. M.), Antiquities of Southern Phrygia and the Border lands.
luquities 01
. Arch.f iv.,
Ameri<Mn Joum. Arch., iv., 6-21.
Schliemann (H.), Uralteste Tempel der Aphrodite. Zeit. fur Ethiwl,^
20-23.
die Mykener Konigsgraber und der prahistorische Palast der Konige
von Tiryns. Zeit. fur Ethiwl., xx., 23-25.
Seler (E.), die Kuinen von Xochicalco. Zeit. fiir Mhiu>l., xx., 94-111.
Trowbridge (S. B. P.), Archaic Ionic capitals found on the Akropolis, American
Jmirn. Arch., iv., 22-27.
Tillefosse (Ant. H^ron de), Figure en terre blanche trouv^ a Caudebec-1^
Elbeuf. Bev. ArchSologique, 3rd ser., xi., 145-159.
Virchow (R.), Polirtes Steinkeil aus Homblendeschiefer von Piirschkau in
Niederschles. Zeit. filr Eihiid., xx., 28-29.
Ward (W. H.), notes on Oriental antiquities : VI. Two Stone Tablets with
Hieroglyphic Babylonian writing. Avnerican Jmini, Arch., iv., 39-41.
Thk Story op the Nations : Assyria. By Z. A. Ragozin. New York :
Putnam's Sons, 1887. 8vo. pp. xix., 450.
Mdb. Ragozin has followed up her admirable account of ancient Chaldea
by an equally admirable account of Assyria. Though not a professed
Assyriologist, she has made use of the best and latest works bearing on the
history and language of Assyria, and has produced a volume which the
Assyriologist himself will read with pleasure and profit. She possesses good
REVIEW. 443
judgment, historical imagination, and a pleasant style, and the very fact
that she does not approach the subject from the point of view of a specialist
makes her the better historian. She has no favourite theories to defend or
•overthrow, and no temptation to allow unimportant details to obscure the
general features of the narrative.
The best commentary that can be furnished on the labours of Assyrian
students in these latter years is afforded by a comparison of this book with
those written upon the history of the ancient East thirty or forty years ago.
The discoveries of the last few years have opened up a new world of life
and thought and civilisation and made us familiar not only with facts but
also with conceptions of which our immediate forefathers never even
dreamed. Half a century ago the very site of Nineveh was questioned;
and all that was known about its history was derived from a few stray
notices in the Old Testament and the legends that passed current in the
classical world. Now we can read the story of Sennacherib's campaign
against Judah told in his own words, we can follow the armies of Tiglath-
ptleser I. as they marched through Western Asia four centuries earlier, and
we can study the same literature that the scribes and scholars of Nineveh
once studied, measuring the depth of their knowledge and the profundity
of their scientific lore.
It is perhaps startling at first sight to find how little the world has
changed since the days when Sennacherib transferred the royal library of
Calah to its new habitation in Nineveh. The books it contained were duly
numbered and registered, and the librarian was enjoined to lend them to
any rf»ader who required their use. But these arrangements were of old
standing. The libraries of Assyria were but imitations of those of
Babylonia, and the literature that was stored in them consisted for the
most part of copies of older Babylonian works or else of commentaries upon
them. Like the Babylonians the educated Assyrian was required to know
Accadian, the extinct language of primitive Chaldea, and the grammars,
vocabularies, reading-books, and interlineal translations of Accadian litera-
ture that were provided for the purpose recall to mind the Latin manuals
of our own school days.
During the last ten years such excavations as have been made in the
lands of the Tigris and Euphrates have taken place in Babylonia rather
than in Assyria. Our knowledge of Assyrian history, as separate from that
of Babylonia, has consequently received but little addition. Perhaps the
only new facts of importance that have come to light are the existence of a
aecond Tiglath-pileser the father of Raman-nirari IL, making the Tiglath-
pileser of Scripture the third of his name, and the fact that the last, or
almost the last monarch of Assyria was called Sin-sarra-iskun. But the
history of the closing days of the Assyrian empire still remains shrouded in
mystery.
Before parting from Mde. Ragozin's book it is necessary to say a word
or two in praise of the excellent and well-chosen illustrations which are
profu:iely scattered through its pages. They add greatly to the interest of
the volume.
A. H. Satob.
444 HISTORY,
1bi8tori2.
VILLENAGE IN ENGLAND DURING THE
FIRST HALF OF THE XVIIth CENTURY.
REVIEWING the last two volumes of Mr. Tborold Roger's splen-
did work on the history of agriculture and prices, the
Ailienczv/m states in the following manner the current idea as to
the complete disappearance in England of personal servitude, during
the second part of the 16th century :
" Slavery, serfdom, bondage, villenage, call it by what name you
will, has existed throughout the greater part of the island from
time immemorial. Slowly, however, without revolutionary violence
for the most part, bondmen became free; a few old manorial
customs remained, but in the Tudor times serfdom may be said to
have expired. The last conveyance of bondmen with the land we
have seen is in the reign of James I., but it is probably only a
egal form copied from older documents." (Athenceum, May
i2th, 1888.)
A petition which I have been fortunate enough to find amongst the
State papers of the Commonwealth preserved at the Record Office,,
gives a formal " dementi " to this somewhat sweeping statement
Slavery, it is true, is not mentioned there, as it had already disappeared
centuries before ; but villenage, totally differing from it by its origin
and legal character, and not having been repealed by statute, is repre-
sented as being still alive in more than one corner of the country.
The petition we are quoting is not the only document of the 17th
century where villenage is mentioned. We find traces of it in the
paiish register of Hartland, embracing the period from 1638 to
1650. One of the chief characteristics of villenage is the payment
of heriots. This payment is mentioned more than once in these
parochial documents (Fifth Report of the Historical Mss. Com-
mission, p. 574). The heriots are bitterly complained of in the
petition we are now publishing. It seems that the progress of
society, instead of bringing a certain improvement in the matter,
had, on the contrary, rendered this sort of payment more heavy and
VILLEyrAGE IX ENGLAND. 445
burthensome to the peasants, the landlord leaving aside any moral
considerations, and insisting exclusively on the peculiar character
of the obligation.
One of the chief claims of the Long Parliament to the gratitude
of succeeding generations is certainly the fact that it brought for-
ward a bill for the abolition of every vestige of personal bondage.
Dissolved by Cromwell it was prevented from bringing to a right
conclusion one of its noblest designs.
Instead of taking in his own hands the interests of the English
peasantry, Cromwell, notwithstanding the petition presented to him
by the oppressed villeins, declared in a special act ** that all rents
certain and heriots, due to mesne Lords or other private persons,
shall be paid ; and that where any relief, or double ancient yearly
Rent, upon the death of an ancestor was in such cases formerly due
and payable, a double ancient yearly Rent onely in lieu thereof
shall now be paid upon the death of an ancestor, as in free and
common soccage ; and that the same shall be recovered by the like
Remedy in Law, as Rents and Duties in free and common soccage."
(An act for the taking away the Courts of Wards and liveries,
London, 1657.)
So far was villenage from being completely obsolete in the years
directly preceding its legal abolition by Charles the Second, that
contemporaneous pamphleteers openly expressed the desire " that
some courte may be thought of how, without injury or wrong to
the propriety of landlords, the duties and services with which most
lands are charged may be taken off at a reasonable composition, as
the infamous marks of servitude, and badges of the Norman yoke
and tyranny." ^
These remarks will help to explain the following, hitherto un-
published petition to the reader, who, we have no doubt, will
consider it as a precious document, capable of throwing a new light
0n the social condition of the English labourers during the great
«poch of the religious, social and political commotions attached to
the name of Oliver Cromwell.
"N. 35. To his Highness the Lord Protector of ye Commonwealth
of England, Scotland, and Ireland, etc., and to his most
honorable Councell.
The humble petition of the well affected yet oppressed tenants
of Thomas Dykes, Esq., of Warthold, in the Ccuntie of Cumberland
and other divers Landlords in the aforesaid Countie . . .
^ A modest Plea for an Eqxud Commai^rcealth^ 1659.
446 HISTORY.
Wherefore in ye assurance wee have of your Highnes Ayme to
God's glory, and the good liberty and benefit of his people, wee are
now constrained to present our sad and lamentable grievances unta
your Highnes pious consideration by reason of those intoUerable
pressures which wee have continually yet upon our backs by those
many delinquents who are landlords over us and our estates, who-
by their owne power and wills breake all our customes and unrobes
us of all our ancient and iust priviledges in laying such yokes upon
our necks, that neither wee nor our estates are able to beare, in
keeping us absolute vassalls and bondslaves to their tyrannous and
perverse wills, and ourselves and posterities miserable and slavish
Beggers to Eternity. Yea, and that which is ye sorrow of sorrows
to our spirits, the Tirants doe more and more aggravate their op-
pressions upon us under pretence that your Highnes doth encour-
age, and is engaged to maintaine those their illegall lawes and op-
pressions upon us which our faith is very opposite to believe, and
in whome wee hope the Lord hath wrought a more heavenly prin-
cipal!, etc/'
The petitioners mention in the course of their address that they
had " humbly made their addresses to ye late parliament : in con-
sideration thereunto an intended act for yat purpose was 2 severall
times read in ye House, but the House being dissolved could not
perfect this."
" N. 35. A particular of ye insufferable grievances imposed upon
ye Tenants under ye Tirannous and Delinquent Landlord
Thomas Dykes of Warthold, Esq. and other Delinquent
Landlords in the Countie of Cumberland (11 August 1651).
(1) The said Thomas Dykes of Warthold, Esq. and other land-
lords in the county of Cumberland, compells the tenants at the death
both of Landlord and tenant to pay some 30s. and some 40a fyne^
whereas the auncient customs of fynes was but to pay one yearly
value.
(2) The Landlord, etc., doe compell the said tenants to be bound
to grinde at his and their milnes, and if otherwise they doe refuse,
then the said Landlord, etc., doe amerce their said tenaunts at their
manner courts, where their power and will are a law, and after-
wards commence suits against them either in Comon Law or Chan-
cery to their great ruine uules the said tenaunts doe give the said
Landlord what agreement or composition the Landlords shal be
pleased withall to buy their owne peace.
VTLLENAGE JN ENGLAND. AAl
(3) The said Landlords compell their said tenaunts to carry them
all manner of carriages, viz. as Milstoues to their Milnes, Coales and
other fewell to their houses, etc.
(4) The said Landlord, etc., compells the said tenaunts to cut
downe their come in time of Harvest, and often to bring in the
same to be lodged in their houses, whereby their tenaunts come doth
often perish for want of their industry.
(5) The said Landlord, etc., doth enioyne the said tenaunts to
furnish their said Landlords with certaine number of Henns and
other poultry to uphold their superstitious ffeasts at Christmas and
Easter soo called.
(6) The said Landlord, etc., will not permit the said tenaunts to
ffell a tree in their owne grounds or hedges though planted by
themselves for ye repay re of their owne houses, unless they bribe
their Landlord for a lycense (yea, and often the said Landlord or
their betrust officers, which are all in generall malignants and De-
linquents, will for a price of money give unto his or their friends
any Timber Wood that grows in their tenaunts hedges or grounds to
any foraigner^ or stranger that lives in another parish or county,
and the poor tenaunt not daring to make complaint).
(7) The said Landlord, etc., will not permit the said tenaunts to
dig up any Lyme stone for ye tillage of their owne grounds, for
their better subsistence and ye generall increase and good of ye
nation, whereby the poore people are kept in continuall Beggery,
and the land kept barren and unfruitfuU against ye generall increase
of ye commonwealth.
(8) The said Landlords doe most unhumanely impose one most
cruell tyranny more upon ye said tenaunts (which surely had its rise
from Jophott), especially as its abuses (to wit) that destructive
custome of Herriots, the originall and abuses whereof were and are
as f oUowes :
The said Landlords formerly having some lands in their owne
power of disposall, which afterwards they came to sell to their
tenaunts upon conditions of iiyne and herriot, soe yat at ye death
of ye tenaunts, an heire being in minority, the widow or guardian
were to give the Landlord one Herriot as a composition for ye ffyne
till the heire came himself to maturity of yeares, which custome
hath of long time bene tyrannously abused as followeth, viz.
(1) That if a tenant (sic) have a parcell of ground conteyning
' The application of tho term ''foreigner " to the inhabitant of another village
at to late a period aa the Commonwealth affords curious evidence of the isolation
of villages from each other.
448 HISTORY.
20 or 30 acres more or lesse, and the same he is through necessity
constreyned to sell by severall parcells, and in case the said tenant
doe parcell the said ground into 20 parcells more or lesse to soo
many severall persons, the said Landlord will have a heriot for
every one of ye parcells, which is tyrannicall oppression.
(2) If ye heire of ye partie deceased who did so parcell the said
ground as aforesaid shall desire to repurchase the said parcells
againe to his estate, yet at his death his widdow or childrens
guardians are by ye then Landlord compelled to pay so many
herriots as it was formerly sold into parcells by his said ffather if
their be soe many goods belonging to ye person deceased.
Like in Copyhold land, where ye Landlord and their delinquent
stewards will not accept of a fyne unles the tenaunt doe take so
many copyes and surrenders for so many parcells as the said land
was parcelled in ye sale or purchase thereof though all in one field
and tenor under one Landlord of purpose to make ye fee to ye said
Lord or his delinquent stewart excessive.
These and other like intollerable grievafices seriously weighed in
ye ballance of your pious justice, wee pray a Christian regulation
hereof, who shall have cause to Magnify the Lord for you.
and ever pray, etc."
The same state of things is shown to have existed in Cheshire
and Lancashire, from which counties the following petition was sent
to Cromwell : —
" To his Highnes the Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and
Ireland.
The humble petition of divers well affected persons in Lanca-
shire and Cheshire counties against oppressing Landlords
(August 1654).
That your petitioners having from ye beginning of those warrs
faithfully served ye Parliament freely hazarding their lives and all
that was deare unto them to maintaine ye interest of ye common-
wealth against ye bloody papists and Cabaleires, and hoping yat
when ye Lord sliould have subdued their Enemies, your petitioners
and many others should have been sett free from future bondage.
But soo it is that to their great greife ye yokes of their oppressors are
not yet broaken, but when your petitioners had by their opposicion
to them heated them in wrath and Mallice 7 times hotter then they
were before were given upp to their Mercy. Who have already
begun to oppress their cruelty by turning some of your petitioners
VILLENAGE m ENGLAKD. 449
out of dores, and threatning ye like to ye rest and ye oppresed for
their servise done to ye Parliament, which will not only weaken
the Nation by Depopulaeion of the Northeme counties of many of
your faithfully cordiall friends, but greatly dishearten many Thow-
sands of such under your happy government, The redress of which
great grievance now through ye providence of God lyeth in ye
power of your Highness to assert.
Wherefore your petitioners most humbly pray that your High-
ness will bee pleased to take their sade condicion into consideracion,
And yat ye Act intended and drawne upp for releife of tennants
against oppressing Landlords and read twice in ye late Parliament,
but never brought to a periode by reason of their dissolncion may
againe bee revived and established by Your Highness ordiiiancy.
Your Highness would please by your order to impower ye persons
whose names are expressed in the draught of an order hereto an-
nexed, being gentlemen of knowne integrity, and most of them
having very many tenants of their owne as commissioners to heare
ye grievances of oppressed tenants, Ajid to examine upon oath
matter of fact between them and their landlords in the said coun-
tyes respectively and to certify to your Highness ye true state of
your petitioners complaynt, And that in the meane tyme all pro-
ceedings at Law ioT Ejection of such tenants may bee superceeded
until certificate bee made from ye saide commissioners. Provided
such certificates be returned before ye Slst Day of January 1()54.
And not only your petitioners but many Thousand others shal
be in duty bound to pray, etc.
John Jollie in ye behalf of ye petitioners/*
There can be no doubt that these petitions reveal a state of
things in the northern counties which our best authorities have
been slow to recognise. The plain truth is that all conclusions
arrived at before manor rolls, legal documents in contested cases,
and Parliamentary papers referring to tlie condition of the peasant
class, are made accessible to students, must of necessity be of a
tentative character. But it becomes all the more a pressing duty
of the various societies devoted to archaeological and historical
inquiry to cease for the time publishing theory after theory, and to
commence earnestly tlie work of publishing documents, by which
alone the true state of things can be arrived at.
Maxime Kovalevsky.
2g
450 HISTORY,
THE BOOK OF ACCOUNTS OF THE
BAKERS OF YORK.
rilHE following specimens from the Book of Accounts of the
I York Bakers, furnish some interesting illustrations of
the ordinances already printed in this Review (ante pp. 124,
216). If the date of the payment sometimes precedes that of the
ordinance, it indicates that the regulation was in force before it
was registered or renewed. The figures between brackets refer
to the corresponding ordinances : —
1585. Receipts.
" Item of Henrye Cowper for his brotherheade monye 20d.
Of the pynners and paynters for theire paidgion rent 16d.
Fyiies rec. at Owse bridge [le. in the Mayor's court]
Inprymis of Thomas Kames for lacke of weight 4d.
Item of Adam Symson Inholder (of. sec. 42, 43) 4d.
„ of Robt. Cooke Inholder 6d.
of Mr. Met tarn Inholder • 8d.
„ of Willm. Nicholson for lacko of weight 2d.
„ of Thomas Rames for evill stuff and lack of weight 6d.
„ of John Yaite for lacke of weight ij sundrye faultes 4d.
„ Henrye Cowper for lacke of weight in a horse lofe 8d.
Fyiies rec. at St. Anthony Hall [at the Company's meeting]
Inprimis rec. of Wm. Wilson for openinge his shoppe on
Sondaye (sec. 41, 61) Id.
Item of Raiphe Herdye for the lyke offence [and seven
others for the like] Id.
„ of Steven Robson for brawlinge in the market with
Raufe Herdye (sec. 30, 31, 69) 8d.
„ of Kaufe Herdye for the lyke offence againste Steven
Robson with evill speaches to hym 4d.
„ of William Tyndall for sayinge to his brother Steven
Robson * thou ' in the common plaice (sec. 30, 69) 2d.
„ of Willm. Nicholson for disobedyence ("^ec. 29, 69) 2d.
„ of John Metcalfe, jemaman, for disapointinge John
Yaite when he was hyered to hyme (sec. 39) 4d.
„ of Willm. Skelton to the vse of the occupacon for the
goodwill of Thomas Nicholson prentis (sec. 65, 68) 3s. 4d.
„ of Chads Skaife, sercher, for bayking on Sonndaye
(sec. 41, 61) 6d.
„ of John Yaite for disobedyence or gayncsainge the
Searchers in the common place 4d.
,; of John Daver for not comynge to the common place
(sec. 28) 2d
„ of Willm. Nycholson for charginge tholde searchers of
wrongs in there accompts, and was not 4d.
y, of Willm. Wayte for geving moulter at castle m\\s 2d.
[and five others, the like ; cf. sec. 61]
„ of Steven Lonsdell for Kiddall his prentis assigned to
hym by the searchers and occupacion in the com on
place (sec. 68) 5& 0.
" of Cunande Walles from promyssinge Gregorye Smith
to bayk, and came not (sec. 39) 4d.
„ of Richerd Wilson for comynge behinde the hower
(sec. 28) 2d.
„ of Richerd Wright for * thowinge ' Wm. King, searcher
(sec. 29) 4d.
„ of Henrye Cowper for mysorder at Trinitie supper
(sec. 30, 69) 4d."
THE BAKERS OF YORK. 451
Again in 1586 fines were set at St. Anthony's Hall —
" Rec. of Thomas Beweiner for geviuge moulter att Castle
mylls 4d.
„ of Willm. Fell for evill words spoken by hys mother
(sec. 30) 4d.
,, of John Dynsdell for maykinge the mylner privye
what he maide of thre bushels of Rye 4d,
,, of John Watmau for brawlinge with Wm. Langton
wyfe in Thursday market 2d,
,, of Willm. Waite for fewer default whiche was arbi-
trated by fewer brether of thoccupacion (sec. 70) 4d.
Rec. of Mathewe Roger which was electe and choseu
searcher and wolde not stande (sec. 55) 20d.
„ of Willm. Bcckewith for contributer to the occupacon
to baike spiced caikes for this yere (sec. 47, 48, 53) 5s.
„ of Robt. Wyseman for baikinge Horuo caikea in Lente
on dayes which was not fastin daies (cf. seo. 58) 2d."
In 1587 fines were set in the Mayor s court for many cases of
light weight — " a light rye loofe/* " a light bowted^ loofe," "a light
crose lofe," " a light white lofe," " a light horse loofe," " for spiced
caikes baiking/' &c. In their own hall the same year were fined
" Mathew Roger for not comynge to go to church with Mr. Ketiland
at his mariage as he was warned by the Searchers " (sec. 57), " for
brawlinge at castle mylls/' " Wm. Nicholson for not comynge to go
to churclie with Thomas Haxuppe at his mariage" (sec. 57), " Mathew
Staynton for baykinge in the cuntrye " (sea 3).
On the other hand, the following are payments : —
1584 "to John Jackeson the officer for goinge with searchers to
searclie Innes (cf. sec. 43) 12d,
to the bridgemaisters for padgion-howso rent 12d.
at the offrande of Thomas Slater (sec. 57) 4d.
to myiistrells straungers at John Garthe Maundaye
dynncr 12d.
to the bedall of St. Anthonye [the Hall rent] 38. Od.
bestowed of John Dixson by consent in the comon place
when he wente to Baithe 38.4d.
to my lorde mare concerninge the playe 3s. 4d.
1585 " For two sewte of newe weights 9b..
for a payre of newe brasse scaylles 38.
at the offrande of John Mylner wife (sec. 57) 4d.
15S7 " Laide furthe at the offrande of Mr. Ketiland mariage 4d.
1588 " At John Collye offrand
at Joiin Dinsdell wife offrand
at John Grymo reckcninge dynner to mynstrels by con-
sen tte 16d.
for parchment to maike ij leaves to putt vnto the ordynall
to sett doune the newe orders 3d.
to Thomas Roger *-* the dark for maikinge vpe this our
accompt 8d."
* This word occurs several times ; in 1688 it is ** bowlted " and ** boulted."
It seems to mean a loaf of ** boulted " or sifted flour. Compare sec. 21, 42.
* Adam Kottlewell appears to have become clerk in 1693 ; he was paid in
that year for **the refonnacon and certaine articles to be added vnto our
ordenarye ; " and in 1595 for ** his paynes in ingrossinge the same booke."
452 HISTORY.
Besides the olFerings at marriages and burials of brethren
charity was sometimes given, as in 1593, " to a strainger havinge a
pasport and beinge a baker, as he affirmed, 6d. ;'' and in 1595 it
was ordered by the company, at their common assembly, that three
of their number " shall be free at the foure ordenarye dynners and
dischardged of all other dewtyes in respecte of their povertia"
These are among the interesting matters to be found in these
two old books, which it is hoped may form a not useless contribu-
tion towards the liistory of an English craft or company.
L. TouLMiN Smith.
REVIEW.
Bbrwick-upon-Twbed. The History of the Town and Guild. By John
Scott. London : Elliot Stock. 1888. 4to, pp. xv., 495.
There are many reasons why we should expect that — " Our town of
Berwick-upon-Tweed," as its style ran in royal proclamations, should
readily furnish materials for a great book : its strategic value as a frontier
garrison, commanding the eastern route from England to Scotland, as
Carlisle commanded the y* estern one ; its status as a free town, indepen-
dent alike of both kingdoms ; and its position at the mouth of a great
river, within easy sail of the ports of Western Europe, all render it certain
that the historian of Berwick-upon-Tweed, whether he be of the old-
fashioned drum and trumpet school, or whether he loves rather to trace
the history of municipal institutions and their gradual development, or
to follow to their causes the fluctuations of commercial prosperity, will find
plenty of material to his hand, and there will be stuff remaining over for
those who like to deal with ecclesiastical matters. With all these various
branches of history Mr. Scott has concerned himself, and the result is a
great and valuable work, that is, perhaps from its very fullness, a little
overpowering : while the necessity of going over the history three or four
times, general history, guild history, ecclesiastical history, <kc., is apt a
little to confuse : it would have been better had Mr. Scott emphasized by
subtitles, or other means, these various divisions.
Berwick and Carlisle readily occur to one*s mind in connection with
one another : they have many points of resemblance ; both are frontier
fortresses of great strategic value as commanding routes by which wheeled
carriages, and therefore armies, could pass from one kingdom into the
other : both sprang into importance, when the present boundaries between
England and Scotland were established : both have seen great English
armies assemble under their walls for the invasion of Scotland : both are
indissolubly connected with the history of Edward I. : one is the capital of
the Western Marches, the other of the Eastern : English Parliaments have
assembled in both places : both depended largely for their prosperity upon
their garrisons, and when these were broke in 1603, in consequence of the
union of the two kingdoms, both places fell into poverty : both places were
occupied for Charles I. in 1639, and both had, a little later, to endure
being garrisoned by Scots. But the resemblance must not be pressed too
REVIEW, 453
far : the one town, Berwick, is situate in the English kingdom of Bernici
and the other, Carlisle, in the British kingdom of Strathclyde : Carlisle
has a long history prior to its re- foundation by the Red King, and its
soil is replete with Roman antiquities; no mention is found of Ber-
wick until the 9th century, and Mr. Scott can find no evidence that it was
a place of any importance until the 11th century ; no Roman relics occur
there; Carlisle has always been for military, for civil, and for ecclesiastical
purposes, the capital of the district around it, though the boundaries of that
district liave from time to time been varied ; but for all these purposes Ber-
wick has been, time and time, overshadowed by its neighbours of Bamborough,
Newcastle, and Durliam : at this day Carlisle retains its supremacy and is
a manufacturing town and a great railway centre : so is Newcastle, but
Berwick is a mere road -side station, whose coasting trade has been diverted
by the railway into other channels, and we are sorry to find Mr. Scott
writing sadly — " trade does not flow to the old town, and at no period in
its history have the signs of decay been more legibly written on it than in
the year 1887."
Berwick was at the zenith of its prosperity in the 13th century : the
Chronicle of Lanercost under date of 1296 writes of it: "Ipsa civitas
quondam adeo populosa ac negotiosa exstiterat, quod merito altera Alex-
andria dici poterat, cujas divitisQ mare, et eequsQ muri ejus.'' It had more
ships, and more foreign commerce than any other port in Scotland, and
through it went to the continent, the export of wool, woolfells, and hides
collected from the great basin of the Tweed, in which were situate the
wealthy farming and tmding monasteries of Melrose, Dryburgh, Jedburgh,
and Kelso, which last place was connected with Berwick by a good road,
practicable for wheeled conveyances. The Scotch kings had a palace in
Berwick, and frequently resided there ; perhaps in consequence of this the
eastern or Berwick route between the two kingdoms was more used than
the western through Carlisle. In 1286 Berwick paid into the Scotch
exchequer X2,190 annually, a sum equal to about one fourth of the whole
customs of England. These halcyon times passed away : the death of the
Maiden of Norway gave Edward I. an excuse for interfering: in 1296 he
besieged, captured, and destroyed Berwick, and massacred the inhabitants:
he made it into a fortress, and Berwick was caught up into the current of
history ; for the next 300 years it was conspicuous only for its share in
the calamities of war: its wool trade dwindled away, and little of its export
trade remained but that in salmon, when, in 1482, Berwick, after various
vicissitudes^ passed for ever from under Scotch rule into English possession
and government.
About one half of the volume now under review is devoted to the
general history of Berwick from its first mention in the 9th century
down to its decadence in 1887. The garrisons that held Berwick appear
to have been as great a terror to those they were supposed to protect, as
to those they were expected to fight, and we read of them frequently as
"thievish and ill-behaved." In 1560 statutes were signed by Queen
Elizabeth for the Town and Castle of Berwick, in which offences by the
soldiers were dealt with, with considerable severity. Some of the statutes
are curious : every soldier is to have a jacket of white and green : the
playing at dice or cards for money, or "at marbles but for beer, ale, or
454 HISTORY.
wine," was prohibited to the soldiers, as also was the keeping of " curr
dogges or bitches : " one can understand one of Queen Bess's musketeers
keeping a disreputable little cur dog, but one does not readily realise him
at a game of marbles : still, in the reign of William IV. an order was in
the order books of H. M.*s guards that the ensigns were not to plaj
marbles with the drummer bojs. These Elizabethan soldiers, who gar-
risoned Berwick, required some pleasure to sweeten their lot with : " the
sourness of the northern air " made them ill, as Sir John Brende tells in a
letter to Cecil, while the Queen's victuallers fed them on condemned pro-
visions, to wit, "naughty herrings," of which they had 396 barrels: the
pay however was liberal, only it was not forthcoming. No wonder men
would not stay in Berwick longer than they could help — to be deprived of
their games at marbles, their little wee dogs, and their liberal pay, to be fed
on stinking herrings and to breathe sour air. Lord Grey of Wilton was
appointed governor in 1560, and he purged the town : he sent away ** 269
abominable Damoselles " ; at the suggestion of John Knox he imported
learned and godly men to preach, the Dean of Durham and Mr. Sampson,
and he laid a cess on the garrison for payment of their fees. The fortifi-
cations of Berwick, which Edward I. had made, were by the reign of Queen
Elizabeth obsolete and decayed : Grey started to reform them, and the
work was completed by his successors — Bell Tower, of which a photograph
is given, is now the only remnant of that old line of fortification which
Edward I. built and Bruce did much to strengthen. Henry Lord Hunsden,
Queen Elizabeth's cousin, was appointed in 1568 Governor of Berwick, and
Warden of the East Marches : he w%as more given to hanging than either
hunting or hawking : he suppressed Leonard Dacre's rebellion, and he and
after him Sir Robert and Sir John Carey did much to reduce the thievish
and murderous propensities of tlie Borderers (of which Mr. Scott gives
some inst&nces) by severely punishing some, and by treating others in a
spirit of generous confidence. With the death of Elizabeth came the acces-
sion of James VI. of Scotland to the English throne, and the union of the
two kingdoms, which ultimately resulted in the pacification and civilisation
of the wild country between Carlisle and Berwick, into portions of which
Camden and Cotton in L599 dare not venture on account of the " rank
robbers thereabouts." James visited Berwick on his road to London, and
was received by the inhabitants with great loyalty, but they soon found, as
also did Carlisle, that " Union " spelt ruin for the good town of Berwick.
The garrison was reduced to 100 men : the ordnance was sent to the Tower
of London ; the walls dismantled, and the high personages, governor and
others, who dwelt and spent their money in Berwick, departed : no longer
did the Crown, as in Queen Elizabeth's time, spend annually in Berwick
the sum of £30,000 : the glory had departed, and in 1623 the merchants
of Berwick plead their poverty and misery in two petitions, which 'we have
not room to quote, but which may well be compared with a similar petition
that the merchants of Carlisle in 1617 presented to James I.^ Mr. Scott
says that " from this time (1603) the history of the town rapidly dimin-
ishes in importance, and what remains shall not detain us long." Mr.
Scott's account of Berwick during the Commonwealth is extremely inter-
* See Municipal Records of the City of Carlisle : Ferguson & Nanson : Carlisle,
1887, p. 95, A longer one (unprintcd) is among the muniments at Carlisle,
JRUVJEm 455
eating, but we must refrain from going into it. In 1715 and in 1745 the
tide of war rolled awav from Berwick.
In the portion of his book which Mr. Scott devotes to the general his-
tory of Berwick are many interesting items as to wages, prices of provi-
sions, the prevalence of the plague in Berwick, &c. : those curious in
municipal pageantry can cull some interesting items : — thus in 1760 one
Henry Coole has to make a public apology for an assault on the Mayor,
"in which Mr. Mayor's White Hod, the insignia [sic] of his office was
broken : " at Carlisle the insignia of the Mayor is also a white rod ; it was
so in the days of Queen Elizabeth, and is so now : according to Rid path's
Border History the staff of the Mayor of Berwick was handed over to
James I. on his visit to that town : the book before us says the governor's
staff was. A very interesting picture is given of the last of the Town
Waits — interesting as showing the cloak gown or livery, which Berwick
supplied to these officiates. We do not exactly gather what are the muni-
cipal insignia of Berwick : four sergeants at mace are mentioned, and
maces, which in 1651 had the arms of the commonwealth put upon them,
and also halberts : whether the maces exist now does not appear ; the
halberts do. Berwick possesses a sufficiently ugly major's chain, which
they purchased in 1836 with funds raised by the sale of a silver bowl, a
silver tankard of the date of 1686, and a silver oar! The Mayor, be-
sides his chain, also possesses a purple gown.
The second part of Mr. Scott's book is called ** Guild History of Ber-
wick," and is followed by a number of disconnected chapters which deal
with ecclesiastical history, charities, schools, bridges, fisheries, and many
miscellaneous matters, including the Jubilee of 1887 : this part of the
book would have been better of more careful arrangement, and a note on
the Berwick Mint is sandwiched in between the general history and the
jmild historv in an odd manner.
Municipal history would have been a fitter title for the second part of
the book than guild history : Mr. Scott gives no information as to the for-
mation of the corporation or guild, which up to 1835 ruled Berwick ; we
presume none now exists, but it probably originated in a guild mercatory
established by the colony of Flemings, whom the wool trade at a very early
date attracted to Berwick : we do not gather whether Berwick had also
separate trade guilds like Carlisle or Newcastle : we gather from the book
before us no history of any prolonged struggle, as at Carlisle and other
places, between the oligarchic Guild Mercatory or Corporation and the de-
mocratic trade guilds. Apparently the Berwick guild was in a full
blown state in the reign of David I., under whom Berwick became
a royal burgh, and a member of the Court of the Four Burghs, Berwick,
Roxburgh, Edinburgh, and Stirling. The laws of the Four Burghs
have been published by various editors, and Mr. Scott in his seventh
appendix gives a very interesting set belonging to Berwick that
had up to his time escaped the cj'e of historian or archceologist ;
Mr. Scott considers they were codified in 1249. The second rule is :
" We order that all particular gilds from hens furth in o"" burghe had
be abrogat and down aw^ay and the catell on to them reasonably belongyn
shal be gewyn vnto o' gilde and from hens furth that no man presume to
procur any other gilde w* in oure burghe but all gang together w* on
456 mSfORT.
assent and trew lowff." This would seem to point to a straggle between
the Guild Mercatory and the Trade Guilds, in which the first obtained a
decided victory, and, like Aaron's rod, swallowed up the others. The
government of the town by them was vested in twenty-four feering men (a
term Mr. Scott does not explain) a mayor, and four bailifis ; but the
powers of these officials were until 1 603 largely controlled by the military
authorities, and the mayor was a paid servant of the Crown. A charter
which was granted by James I. extended the powers of the guild or cor-
poration, and abrogated the control of the military authorities. From the
books of the guild and the records of the court leet Mr. Scott has made a
large number of extracts, which throw much light on the manners and
social customs of Berwick : we do not see that they differ much from what
occur in the records of other towns, Carlisle for instance : a series of ex-
tracts as to the salmon fisheries are of course peculiar to Berwick. In
1685 the authorities of Berwick purchased a new silver mace for X36 lis,
but their poverty compelled them to sell it in 1697 for £30. Chronic
debt and extravagance seem to have ever been the failing of the govern-
ing body of Berwick, and it was high time that they were superseded by
the present corporation under the Municipal Corporations Reform Act.
The ecclesiastical history of Berwick Mr. Scott tells us is obscure : in
the Reformation times it had four churches, but only one now remains,
and the sites of the vanished three are not all identified. The mendicant
orders must have found a happy hunting ground in Berwick : the Red,
Black, Grey, and White Friars, all had houses, and there is a sugges-
tion that the Austin Friars were there also : by the way Mr. Scott uses
the terms " monks " and " friars " as if they were the same. There were
also one or two nunneries and sundry hospitals. The post-Reformation
history of the parish church is interesting, as showing that though the
Berwickians might belong to England, yet they were very Scotch : — thus
when the parish church was rebuilt in the middle of the 17th century they
galleried it all round, and the Bishop of Durham had much difficulty in
getting the east gallery removed and a communion table and chancel pro-
vided : he had also to insist upon a font : steeple the church has never
yet had, and the bells are hung in the town hall.
The book is so full of matter that we part with it with great reluct-
ance : we have no space to even touch upon the histories of the bridges,
the tolls, the fisheries, or the castle, to all of which our author devotes
chapters. He gives some valuable appendices, but his index is deficient :
for instance he ofttimes mentions Carlisle in his text, but it is not to be
found in his index : nor does " railway " appear, though we do read in the
book something about the railway and the detriment it has worked to the
town's prosperity ; these are trifles, due perhaps to the indisposition which,
we learn with regret from the preface, hindered Mr. Scott from attending
closely to the proof sheets.
Richard S. Ferguson.
AU communicati'jM siiculd ht dirtrUd to " The Editor^ Arehaoloffical BevieWf** t70 Sirand
W.C.
The Editor cannot undertake to return rejeetei MSS. unless a stamped directed envelope i$
sent for (hat purpose.
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PAPERS.
Abbaji (Wm. a.). The Parochial Chapel of St. Leonard, Langho, in
Billington. Lane, and Chesh. Hist, Soc, 3rd. ser. iii. 33-50.
Memorial of the late T. T. Wilkinson, F.B.A.S., of Burnley.
Zanc. and Chesh. Ilist, Soo., 3rd ser. iv. 77-94.
Account of a Eoman sculptured slab, found at Ribchester.
Lane, and Chesh. Hist. Soc., 3rd ser. iv. 190-193.
AcLAND (C. L.). Liber ScholeB Colcestriensis. Essex Arch. Soc, ii.
N.s. 91.
Notice of some Peruvian antiquities obtained from a Burial-
Mound at Arica. Proc. Soe. of Antiq. Scotl., ix. 234-238.
Acton (Mrs. Fbances Stackhoitse). Description of a Roman villa
discovered at Acton Scott, near Church Stretton, in Shropshire,
in 1817 J with an account of further researches made in July,
1824. Arch.f xxxi. 339-345.
Adam (John). Account of a Canoe of Oak found in the Castle Loch
of Closebum, Dumfriesshire. Proc. Soc. of Antiq. Scotl. ^ vi. 458.
Adams (G. G.). On bronzes, their casting and colouring. Journ.
Arch. Assoc, xxv. 145-148.
Medals commemorative of events in British History. Journ.
Arch. Assoc, xxxiv. 360-368.
On two coronation medals of King George I. Journ. Arch.
Assoc, XXXV. 271-275.
Adams (Rev. J.). On the Roman Station of Spincc. Journ. Arch.
Assoc, xvi. 70-73.
A Geological sketch of the Valley of the Kennet. Wilts
Arch, and Nat. Mist. Soc, xi. 268-286.
Chronicles of Cornish Saints. Poi/. Imt. of Corn. : St.
Culy, ii. 314-323; St. Potrock, iii. 1-9; St. Constantino, iii.
82-88; St. Samson, iii. 89-98; St. David, iii. 155-161; St.
Bunan, iv. 140-143; St. Cranlock. iv. 272-277; St. Gunwallo,
V. 145-147.
Z INDEX OK ARCH.£OLOGICAL PAPERS.
Adamson (Kev. E. H.). Notices of Dr. Thomlinson, founder of the
Thomlinson Library. Arch. JElianay x. (n.s.) 80-87.
Henry Bourne, the Historian of Newcastle. Areh. .^liana,
xi. (n.s.) 147-163.
Adahsok (John). An account of the discovery at Hexham, in the
county of Northumberland, of a brass vessel, containing a number
of the Anglo-Saxon coins called Stycas. Arch.^ xxv. 279-310;
xxvi. 346-348; Areh. ^liana, 4to. iii. 77-111.
Addington (Rev. H.). The Monumental Brasses of Bedfordshire.
Areh, Joum.f xl. 303-315.
Addy (S. 0.). The Sheffield Thwitel. Yarks Areh. Joum,, viii.
59-64.
Contributions towards a history of Norton in Derbyshire.
Derbyshire Areh, Soe., ii. 1-27.
Inventory of furniture at Beauchief Hall 1691. Derbyshire
Areh, Soc,, iii. 56-66.
Some ancient documents relating to Totley Dore and
Holmfield, near Dronfield. Derbyshire Areh, Soe,, ii. 95-108.
Charles Balguy, M.D. (1708-1767). Derbyshire Arch.
Soc, vi. 11-30.
A list of the vills and freeholders of Derbyshire. Derby-
shire Arch, SoCy vi. 49-74.
Inventory of Bobert Marples, 1676. Derbyshire Areh.
Soc., ix. 22-32.
Ade (C). On Anglo-Saxon coins found near Alfriston. Sussex Areh.
Coll., i, 38-42.
On some urns lately found in a tumulus at Alfriston.
Sussex Areh, Coll., ii. 270-271.
Ade (John Stephen). Roman Key. Suss. Areh. Coll., xxv. 231.
Adee (S.). Observations on an Altar with a Greek Inscription, at
Corbridge, in Northumberland. Arch,, ii. 98-99.
Adnitt (H. W.) Bibliographical list of the writings of Thomas
Churchyard. Shropshire Arch. Soe., iii. 51-68.
Agnew (H. C). On some remains of Ancient Greek Writings on the
Walls of a Family Catacomb at Alexandria. Arch., xxviii.
152-170.
Airy ([Sib] George Biddell). On the place of JuHus Caesar's departure
from Gaul for the invasion of Great Britain, and the place of his
landing in Britain, with an appendix on the Battle of Hastings.
Arch., xxxiv. 231-250.
INDEX OF ARCH.iGOLOGICAL PAPERS. O
Airy ([Sib] Geoboe Biddell). Landing of Caesar in Britain: obser-
vations on the question of the spot at which Csesar landed, as
affected by the communication received from the Admiralty on the
Tides in the Channel. Arch., xxxix. 303-308.
AxEBMAN (John Yonoe). Boman Antiquities found in London.
Arch,, xxvi. Appendix, 461.
Account of the Opening of an Ancient British Barrow in
IfSns Wood, near Canterbury. Arch,, xxx. 57-61.
Account of an Ancient Fibula found at Stone, in Buckingham-
shire. Arch., xxx. Appendix, 545-547.
Ancient Fibula or Brooch found at Abbeville. Arch., xxxi.
Appendix, 467-469.
Ancient Tomb formerly in the Church of Hempstead Norris,
in Berkshire. Arch., xxxi. Appendix, 478-479.
On the celebrated monument at Ashbury, in the County of
Berks, called '* Wayland Smith's Cave." Arch., xxxii. 312-314.
Account of a group of Tumuli on Berkhampton Down,
Wilts. Arch,, xxxii. Appendix, 457.
On Gnostic Gems. Arch,, xxxiii. 133-135.
On the condition of Britain from the descent of Csesar
to the coming of Claudius, accompanied by a map of a portion
of Britain in its Ancient State, shewing the finding of indigenous
Coins. Arch,, xxxiii. 177-190.
As to the use of the enamelled vessel discovered in one
of the Bartlow tumuli. Arch., xxxiii. 343-345.
On the discovery of Boman and other Sepulchral Remains
at the village of Stone, near Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire.
Arch., xxxiv. 21-32.
On some of the Weapons of the Celtic and Teutonic Baces.
Areh., xxxiv. 171-189.
On some **Roundells" or Fruit Trenchers of the time of
James I. Arch., xxxiv. 225-230.
An account of excavations on the Site of Potteries (Ancient)
in the Western District of the New Forest. Arch., xxxv. 91-99.
Ancient Gold Ornaments described. Arch., xxxv. 190-193.
Some account of the Anglo-Saxon Burial Ground of
Harnham Hill, near Salisbury. Arch., xxxv. 259-278, 475-479.
Note on the opening of some ancient British barrows
in South Wales. Arch., xxxv. 480-483.
Notes on a variety of objects discovered during the progress
of excavations for sewerage in Salisbury. Arch., xxxvi. (1),
71-73.
4 INDEX OF ARCH.£OLOGICAL PAPERS.
Akermav (John Yonoe). Note on the Angon of Agathias. Areh,,
xxxvi. (1), 78-79.
Notes of Antiquarian research in the summer and autumn
of 1854. Arch,, xxxvi. (1), 176-186.
Account of silver rings and coins discovered near Worcester.
Arch,, xxxvi. (1), 200-202.
On the distaff and spindle as the insignia of the female sex
in former times. Arch., xxxvii. (1), 83-101.
An account of the discovery of Anglo-Saxon remains at
Kemble, in North Wilts, with observations on a grant of land at
Ewelmo, to the Abbey of Malmesbury by King Ethelstan in
the year 931. Arch,, xxxvii. (1), 113-121.
An account of researches in Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries at
Filkins, and at Broughton Poggs in Oxfordshire. Arch., xxxvii.
(1), 140-146.
Some account of the possessions of the abbey of Malmesbury,
in North Wilts, in the days of the Anglo-Saxon Kings, with
remarks on the ancient limits of the forest of Braden. Arch.,
xxxvii. (1), 257-316.
An account of the investigation of some remarkable
Circular Trenches and the Discovery of an Ancient British
Cemetery, at Stanlake, Oxon. Arch., xxxvii. (2), 363-370.
Ecport of researches in a Cemetery of the Anglo-Saxon
period at Brighthampton, Co. Oxford. Arch., xxxvii. (2),^
391-398. Second Report. Arch., xxxviii. (1), 84-97.
A view of the ancient limits of the Forest of Wych-
wood. Arch., xxxvii. (2), 424-440.
"Furca et Fossa"; a review of certain modes of capital
puuishment in the Middle Ages. Arch., xxxviii. (1), 64—65.
Note on the origin and history of the Bayonet. Arch.,
xxxviii. (2), 422-430.
Keport on researches in Anglo-Saxon Burial Ground at
Long Whittenham, Berks, in 1859. Arch., xxxviii. (2), 327-352 ;
xxxix. (1), 135-142.
Notes on the ** Hwiting Treow " of the Anglo-Saxons.
Arch., xHi. (1), 124-126.
On Pilgrims' Signs found in Salisbury. Wilts Arch, and
Nat. Hist. Soc, iii. 94-97.
Aldersey (R.). An original paper endorsed '' Thomas Shakespeare's
BiU." Arch., xiii. 403.
Alexander (Col. Sir Jas. Edwd.). Account of the embalmed head
of Oliver Cromwell. Trans. Ghsgow Arch. Soc, ii. 36.
INDEX OF ARCU.£0IX)OICAL PAPERS. 5
Alexandeb (Col. Sir Jas. Edwd.). Extract of a letter giving an
account of Staigh Fort, in the County of Kerry. Arch, Scot,
ii. 305-7.
Notice regarding an ancient oak panel from Stirling
Castle, on which is carved the head of a King of Scotland.
Arch. Scot, iii. 308-9.
An account of the excavations at Cambuskenneth Abbey,
in May, 1864. Froc, Sac. of Antiq, Scott, vi. 14-25.
Opening of the Fairy Knowe of Pendreich, Bridge of
Allan. Froc. Soc. of Antiq, Scott, vii. 519-523.
Alexander (R. C). Edington or Yatton, the Ethandun of Alfred's
Victory. JFilis Arch, and Nat Mist Soc, v. 193-207.
Allan (Robert). An account of a recent Excavation at Pompeii.
Arch, Scot, iv. (1857) 126-129.
Allan (Rev. W.). The Cricklado Mint. Wilts Arch. Soc., xix. 283-298.
■ Roman Embankment at Cricklade. Wilts Arch, Soc, xii.
126-129.
Allen (Rev. J.). The Earlier Registers and Parish Accounts at
Hawkshead, Westmoreland. Cumh. and Westmort Antiq, Soc,
iv. 33.
Allen (J. Roiollt). Notes on Interlaced Crosses. Joum. Arch,
Assoc, xxxiv. 352-359.
■ The Prehistoric Rock-Sculptures of Hkley. Joum. Arch,
Assoc, XXXV. 15-25.
Notice of Sculptured Rocks near Hkley, with some remarks
on Rocking Stones. Joum. Arch. Assoc, xxxviii. 156-164.
The Crosses at Hkley. Joum. Arch. Assoc, xl. 158-172,
409-417.
Notes on a Cist with Axe-Head Sculptures, near Kil-
martin, Argyleshire. Joum. Arch. Assoc, xxxvi. 146-150.
Notice of prehistoric remains near Trailing, in Forfarshire.
Joum. Arch. Assoc, xxxvii. 254-261.
On the Circle of Stones at CalderstoneSy near Liverpool.
Joum. Arch. Assoc, xxxix. 304-316.
On recent discoveries of pre-Norman Sculptured Stones.
Joum. Arch. Assoc, xli. 267-277.
On the Norman Doorway at Alne Church, in Yorkshire.
Joum. Arch. Assoc, xlii. 143-158.
Pre-Norman Crosses at Halton and Heysham, in Lancashire.
Joum. Arch, Assoc, xlii. 328-344.
Notes on Wooden Tumbler Locks. Froc, Soc of Antiq.
Scott, xiv. 149-162.
\
6 INDEX OF ARCHJEOLOOICAL PAPERS.
Allen (J. Romillt). Notes on Fire-producing Machines. Prae. Soe.
o/Antiq. Scotl, xiv. 229-253.
Note on a Standing Stone near Ford, Argyllshire. Ptoe.
Soc, o/Anttq. Sootl, xiv. 346-348.
Notice of three Cup-marked Stones, and the discovery
of an TJm, in Perthshire. JPtoc, Soe, of Antiq. SeoiL, xv.
82-92.
Notice of Sculptured Stones at Kilbride, Kilmartin and
Dunblane. Froe, Soc. of Antiq. SeotLy xv. 254-261.
Notes on some undescribed Stones with Cup-markings in
Scotland. Proe, Soe, of Antiq, Seotl,, xvi. 79-143.
On the discovery of a Sculptured Stone at St. Madoes, with
an analysis of Interlaced Ornament. Proe, Soe, of Antiq, Scoti,^
xvii. 211-271.
Description of Two Wooden Tumbler Locks from Fouchow,
China. Proe, Soc, of Antiq, Scotl., xvii. 439-444.
Notes on Early Christian Symbolism. Proe, Soe, of Antiq,
Scotl, xviii. 380-464.
Notes on Celtio Ornament — ^the Key and Spiral Patterns.
Proe, Soe, of Antiq, Scotl,, xix. 253-308.
Description of some Cairns on Barry Island, Olamorganshire.
Arch, Camh,, 4th ser. iv. 188-191.
Notes on Porthkerry Church, Olamorganshire. Arek,
Camh,, 4th ser. vii. 45-48.
On an Inscribed Ogham Stone at Little Trefgame. Arch.
Camh., 4th ser. vii. 54-55.
Camrose Church. Areh, Camh,, 4th ser. viii. 214-219.
Pembrokeshire Churches — Johnston. Areh. Camb,j 4ih
ser. ix. 194-199.
Crosses at St. Edren's Church, Pembrokeshire. Arch. Camb,^
4th ser. xiv. 262-264.
The Past, Present and Future of ArchsBology. Ar^. Camb.^
5th ser. i. 232-242.
and J. 0. Westwood. Discovery of two Ogham Stones at
Castell YiUia, and Four Crosses at St. Edren's, Pembrokeshire.
Areh, Camh,, 5th ser. i. 46-50.
Allen (Rev. S. J.). Inscription on the bar of a Purse or Pouch.
Arch,, xxiv. 353.
Allen (Rev. W. 0. B.). The Flemings and their Chimneys in Pern*
brokeshire. Joum, Arch, Auoe,, xli. 117-123.
Allen (Rev. W* T.}. St. Briavel's Castle. Bristol and OUme, Arek.
Soc, iii. 325-364.
INDEX OF ARCH^SOLOOIGAL PAPERS. 7
Allen (Rev. W. T.). Discovery at St. Briavers Castle. Bristol and
Ohue, Arch, Soe.y vii. 318.
Discovery of Interments at St. Briavel's. Bristol and Oloue.
Arch, Soc.y viii. 356.
Kotes on the Parish Chnrch and ancient Beligious Founda-
tions of Ledencia Parva or St. BriavePs. Bristol and Olouo. Arch.
Soc, ix. 72-102.
Will of William Whittington of St. Briavel's. Bristol and
Olouo. Arch. Soc, x. 304-312.
Allies (Jabez). On a remarkahle Sepulchral vase and other
antiquities discovered near Scarborough, and preserved in the
Scarborough Museum. Arch.y xxx. 458-462.
^— - On an Ancient Bronze Ornament found at Perdeswell,
near Worcester. Arch., xxx. Appendix, 554-555.
Almack (Richabd). On the Seal of the Dean and Chapter of Lichfield.
Arch., xxviii. Appendix, 461.
— — ^ Letter of Sir Thomas Stanhope, of Shelford, Co. Notts, to
Lord Treasurer Burghley, respecting the Funeral of his Mother,
Anne, Lady Stanhope. Arch., xxxi. 212-215.
On orders of Queen Elizabeth as to Com and Scarcity
in 1586 and 1594. Arch., xxxii. Appendix, 410-419.
Remarks on the Paston Letters. Areh., xli. (1), 33-37.
Sign of the White Swan, Clare. Buri/ and West Suffolk
Arch. Inst.f i. 50-52.
Some account of Melford Church. Suffolk Arch. Inst., ii.
73-83.
Eedington, alias Ketton, and the Bamardiston Family.
Suffolk Areh. Inst., iv. 123-182.
AiCEBY (J. S.). Is the Cavern at Pridhamsleigh, near Ashburton,
worth exploring? Devon Assoc., iv. 438-440.
■ Notice of supposed Acoustic Jars found in the Parish
Church of St. Andrew, at Ashburton. Devon Assoc, vi.
203-205.
The Accounts of the Receiver of the Corporation of Totnes
in the year 1554-5. Dev. Assoc, xii. 322-331.
Aksbt (P. F. S.). Stones found at Swincombe (Dartmoor), probably
connected with Ancient Mining there. Devon Assoc, iv. 1 36-1 37 .
■ Some hitherto unrecorded Hill Fortresses, near Ashburton.
Devon Assoc, vi. 261-265.
■ Sketch of Ashburton and the Woollen Trade. Devon
Assoc, viii. 323-350.
The Gild Merchant of Totnes. Devon Assoc, xii. 179-191.
8 INDEX OF ARCHJBOLOOICAL PAFBRS.
Amyot (THOui^s). Observations on an historical fact supposed to be
established by the Bayeux Tapestry. Aroh.^ xix. 88-95.
A defence of the early antiquity of the Bayeux Tapestry.
Arch., xix. 192-208.
An inquiry concerning the Kings of the East Angles,
from the Murder of Ethelbert in 792 to the Accession of
Edmund the Martyr in 855. Arch,, xix. 302-307.
An inquiry concerning the death of Richard the Second.
Arch., XX. 424-442 ; xxv. 394-397.
Remarks on the Population of English Cities in the Time of
Edward the Third. Arch., xx. 524-531.
Letter accompanying drawings of the Priory Ghite and
Font at Kirkham, in Yorkshire, and of the interior of
the Room at Bolton Castle in which Mary Queen of Scots was
confined in 1568. Arch., xxi. 160-163.
Account of the Instrument of Legitimation granted by
Mary Queen of Scots to her brother James, afterwards Earl
of Murray. Arch., xxi. 164-169.
Two Letters : one from Pope Pius the Fourth to Mary
Queen of Scots, to assist by her Prelates at the Council of Trent ;
the other, from Sir Benjamin Tichbome to King James the
First, concerning the Staying of the Execution of the Lords
Cobham and Gray and Sir Griffin Markham. Arch., xxi. 1 70-1 74.
Letter accompanying a transcript of two Rolls con-
taining an Inventory of EfPects formerly belonging to Sir
John Fastolfe. Arch., xxi. 232-280.
Letter respecting a Seal of Milo Fitz -Walter, Constable
of England in the time of Henry the First. Arch., xxi.
Appendix, 554-5^7.
Transcript of a Chronicle in the Harleian Library of
MSS. No. 6217, entitled <<An Historical Relation of Certain
Passages about the End of King Edward the Third, and of his
Death." Arch., xxii. 204-284.
Ain)BRSON (Db. a.). Notice of the discovery of a Sculptured Stone
at Logierait, Perthshire. Proc. Soc. of Antiq. Scotl., xii. 561-564.
Andebson (Sir C. H. J., Bart.). A few words on Towers and Spires.
Arch. Joum., xxxvi. 373-377.
Andebson (Geoboe). On some of the Stone Circles and Cairns in the
Neighbourhood of Inverness. Arch, Scot., iii. 211-222.
Andebson (James). An account of Ancient Monuments and Fortifica-
tions in the Highlands of Scotland. Arch., v. 243-266; vi.
87-99,
D9DEX OF ARCH2B0L00ICAL FAFBRS. 9
Andebsov (Ji^MEs). An account of the manner in which the Lammas
Festival used to be celebrated in Mid-Lothian about the Middle
of the rsth Century. Arch. Scot., i. 192-198.
Anderson (John). Enquiry into the Origin of the Merchota Mulierum.
Arch, Scot., iii. 56-73.
— — — - On the site of Macbeth's Castle at Inverness. Arch.
Scot., iii. 234-244.
Anderson (Rev. John). Note of Sculptured Stone in the Churchyard of
Dornock, Dumfriesshire. Proc. Soc. of Antiq. Sootl,, x. 240-241.
Anderson (Joseph). Notice of the excavation of the Brochs of Yar-
house, Brounaben, Bowcrmadden, Old Stirkoke, and Bunbcath in
Caithness, with remarks on the period of the Brochs, and an
appendix containing a collected list of the Brochs of Scotland,
and early notices of many of them. Arch. Scot., v. 131-198.
Notice of a carved Ivory Ciborium, the property of James
F. Gibson-Craig, Esq. Arch. Scot., v. 336-338.
On the Chambered Cairns of Caithness, with results of recent
Explorations. Proc. Soe. of Antiq. Scotl., vi. 442-461.
On the Homed Cairns of Caithness ; their Structural
arrangement, contents of Chambers, etc. Proc* Soe. of Antiq.
Scotl., vii. 480-512.
On the Homed Cairns of Caithness. Memoirs Anthrop. Soc,
iii. 243.
Notice on the Excavation of "Kenny's Cairn" on the
Hill of Bman, Cam Eigh, near Yarhouse; the Warth Hill
Cairn, Duncansbay; and several smaller sepulchral Cairns in
Caithness. Proc. Soe. of Antiq. Scotl., ix. 292-296.
Description by Ahmed Ibn Fozlan (an Eye-witness) of
the Ceremonies attending the incremation of the dead body of a
Norse Chief, written in the early part of the tenth century.
Proc. Soc. of Antiq. Scotl., ix. 618-531.
Notes on the evidence of Spinning and Weaving in the
Brochs or Pictish Towers supplied by the stone Whorls and the
long-handled ** Broch Combs'* found in them. Proc. Soe. of
Antiq. Scotl., ix. 648-561.
Notes on some entries in the Iceland Annals regarding
the death of the Princess Margaret, **The Maid of Norway,"
in A.n. 1290, and **The false Margaret," who was burned
at Burgen, in a.d. 1301, etc. Proc. Soe, of Antiq. Scotl., x.
403-419.
Notes on the Relics of the Viking Period of the Northmen
in Scotland. Proe. Soe. of Antiq. Scotl.j x. 636-594.
10 INDEX OF ARCHJEOLOGIOAL PAPERS.
Anbebsov (Joseph). Notes on some Polished Stone Discs of unknown
use, in tho Museum. Froc. Soc. of Antiq, ScotL, x. 717-719.
Notice of a small figure in Jet of St. James the Greater,
recently presented to the Museum by James Gibson-Craig, Esq. ;
with notes on ''Pilgrims' Signs" of the Middle Ages, and a Stone
Mould for casting Leaden Tokens, found at Dundrennan Abbey.
Proc. Soc, of Antiq. Scoihy xi. 62-80.
Notes on the survival of Pagan Customs in Christian
Burial ; with Notices of certain conventional Representations of
** Daniel in the Den of Lions," and "Jonah and the Whale,"
engraved on Objects found in early Christian graves, and on the
sculptured Stones of Scotland, and Crosses of Lreland. Froe. Soe,
of Antiq, Scotl, xi. 363-406.
Notice of a Flint Arrow-head in the Shaft, found in
a Moss at Fyvie, Aberdeenshire, with notes in illustration of
the maaufacture of Arrow Shafts with Flint Tools. Froc. Soc.
of Antiq, ScotLy xi. 508-513.
Note on four small Flasks of Terra Cotta ; bearing Kepre-
sentations of St. Menas, from Alexandria. Froe. Soc, of Antiq,
ScoiL, xii. 98-101.
Notes on the structure, distribution, and contents of the
Brochs, with special Eeference to the Question of their Celtic
or Norwegian Origin. Froe. Soc, of Antiq. Scotl,^ xii.
314-355.
Notes on the character and contents of a largo Sepulchral
Cairn of the Bronze Age at CoUessie, Fife, excavated by William
Wallace, Esq., in August, 1876, and 1877. Froe. Soe, of Antiq.
Scotly xii. 439-461.
Notices of a Mortar and Lion-Figure of brass dug up in
Bell Street, Glasgow, and of six Lion-shaped Ewers of brass (the
Manilla of the Middle Ages). Froe, Soe. of Antiq. ScotL, xiii.
48-66.
Notice of a small Cemetery, containing deposits of
Cinerary Urns and burnt Bones, on the Estate of Bal-
bimie, in Fife ; and of a similar Cemetery also containing
deposits of Urns and burnt Bones, at Sheriff-Flats, Lanark-
shire ; with notes on the Classification of the different varieties
of Urns found in Scotland. Froc. Soc, of Antiq. Seoth, xiii.
107-124.
Notice of a remarkable find of Bronze Swords and other
Bronze Articles in Edinburgh ; with Notes on Bronze Swords
found in Scotland. Froe. Soc. of Antiq. ScotL, xiii. 320-333.
INDEX OF ARCHJBOLOOICAL PAPERS. II
Andebson (Joseph). Notes on the contents of two Viking Graves in
Islay, discovered by "William Campbell, Esq., of Ballinaby ; with
notes of the Burial Customs of the Korse Sea-EIings, as recorded
in the Sagas and illustrated by their Grave Mounds in Norway
and Scotland. Proe. Soo, of Anttq. Scotl., xiv. 51-89.
Notice of Ancient Celtic Bells at Glenlyon, Fortingall and
Inch. Froc, Soe. of Antiq. SeotL, xiv. 102-108.
Notice of an Ancient Celtic Eeliquary exhibited to the
Society by Sir Archibald Grant, Bart., of Monymusk. Froc,
Soe. of Anttq. Scotl., xiv. 431-435.
Notice of a fragment of a Silver Penannular Brooch,
ornamented with Gold Filigree "Work and Amber Settings,
found at Achavrole, Dunbeath, Caithness, in 1860, and of two
Silver Brooches, the property of Aodrew Heiton, said to have
been found in the neighbourhood of Perth. Froo. Soo. of Antiq.
Scotl., xiv. 445-452.
Notes on the Ornamentation of the Silver Brooches found
at Skaill, Orkney, and now in the Museum. Froc. Soo. of Anttq.
Scotl, XV. 286-298.
Notice of a Bronze Spearhead found near Duddo Castle,
Northumberland. Froc. Soe. of Antiq. Scotl., xvii. 93-98.
Notice of Urns in the Museum that have been found with
articles of use or ornament. Froc. Soe. of Antiq. Scotl., xvii.
446-459.
Notes on some Continental Museums in France, Germany,
and Belgium. Froc. Soe. of Antiq. Scotl., xviii. 36-48.
Notice of the Gold Ornaments found at Lower Largo, and of
the Silver Ornaments, etc., found at Norrie's Law, near Largo.
Froc. Soe. of Antiq. Scotl., xviii. 233-247.
Notice of an Enamelled Cup or Patera of Bronze found in
Linlithgow. Froc. Soe. of Antiq. Scotl., xix. 45-50.
Notice of a small Cemetery of the Bronze Age recently dis-
covered at Shan well, Milnathort, Eioross-shire. Froc. Soe. of
Antiq. Scotl., xix. 114-117.
Notice of a Bronze Cauldron found, with several Kegs of
Butter, in a Moss near Eylcakin, in Skyo ; with notes of other
Cauldrons of Bronze found in Scotland. Froc. Soe. of Antiqi
Scotl., xix. 309-315.
Ecport on Excavations in Caithness Cairns. Memoirs
Anthrop. Soe., iii. 215-242.
Note on a Skull from the Cairn of Get, Caithness. Memoirs
Anthrop. Soe., m. 243.
12 INDEX OF ARCHJEOLOOICAL PAPERS.
Akbebson (IloB££T E.). Plan of the remains of the Ancient Chapel-
Eoyal called Kirkhengh, St. Andrews, with a DescriptiTe Notice.
Communicated, with Historical Notices of the Provostry of
Kirkheugh, by David Laing. Proe, Soe» of Antiq, Scotl,, iv.
74-86.
Notice of working drawings scratched on the walls of the
Crypt at Roslin Chapel. Proe, Soe. of Antiq, Seotl,^ x. 63-64.
Observations on the Structure of St. Giles. Proe, Soe, of
Antiq, Scotl, xvi. 284-288.
ANDRf: (J. Lewis). Leaden Fonts in Sussex. Suaex Areh, CoU.f
xxxii. 75-80.
Wamham, its Church Monuments, Eegisters, and Vicars.
Sussex Areh, Coll,, xxxiii. 139-151.
Sussex Domestic' Architecture in its humbler aspects. Sussex
Arch, CoU,y xxxiv. 39-56.
Andrew (Thomas). Notes on a Carved Stone Head found in the
Parish of Whitstone. Dev. Assoc.j x. 388-391.
AimREW (Rev. Prebendary). Note on Tideswell Church. Derbyshire
Arch, Sac, v. 117-128.
Annan (Robert). Notes on the Antiquities of Eanross-shire. Proe,
Soe, of Antiq, Scotl, iii. 375-388.
Anslow (Robert). Shropshire Students and Pilgrims at Rome a.d.
1505-1773. Shrops, Arch, Soe., vii. 335-348.
Appleton (E.). Archaeological Notes of Tavistock and Neighbourhood.
I^ans, Dev. Assoc, i. (5), 122-127.
Architectural Notes of Torre Abbey, Torquay, 1874.
IVans, Dev. Assoc., vi. 496-500.
The Economic Geology of Devon. Trans, Dev, Assoc,, vii.
234-246.
Encroachment of the Sea at Westward Ho. Trans, Dev,
Assoc, ix. 227-233.
Notice of a Wooden Effigy found at Dartmouth. Dev.
Assoc, xii. 226-7.
Archbold (J.). Roman Remains found at Adderstone, near Bam-
burgh, Northumberland. Arch, ^liana, n.s. ii. 14-16.
Archibald (C. D.). Observations on some Ancient Pieces of Ordnance,
and other Relics discovered in the Island of Walney in Lancashire,
Arch , xxviii. 373-392.
Armfield (Rev. Succentor). The Ancient Roof-Painting in Salisbury
Cathedral. Wilts Arch, and Nat. ffist, Soe, xvii. 129-135.
Armstead (J. P.). Will of George Whatloke of Clare, 1539. Bury
and West Suffolk Arch, Inst., i. 187-190,
INDBX OF ARCHJEOLOOICAL PAPERS. 13
Abhstead (J. p.). Some Account of the Court Leet of the Borough of
Clare, with Extracts irom the Verdicts of the Headboroughs.
Suffolk Arch. Inst, I 103-112.
Abhstboitg (Robebt Bbttce). Kotes on the Old Church and Cemetery
of Airthy Stirlingshire. Froc. 8oc, of Antiq. ScotL, xiii.
165-170.
Notes on a Feud between the Elliots and the Scotts, during
the years 1564, 1565, and 1566. Proe. 8oo, of Antiq. ScotL,
XV. 93-100.
Abmstboko (Majob Wtlllau B.). Notice of an Ancient Door Knocker
with Armorial Bearings, from Muness Castle, TJnst, Shetland.
Froe. Soc. of Antiq, Scotl.y xv. 101-103.
Abhytage (G. J.). Extracts from Dodsworth's MSS. relating to
Brighouse, Clifton, Kirklees, and Hartshead, in the Wapentake
of Morley. Yorks Arch, Joum., vi. 73-79.
Monumental Inscriptions, St. Oswald's Church, Guiseley.
Yorks Arch. Joum,, vi. 80-91.
Abnold (A. A.). Roman Cofiin of Lead at Chatham. Areh. Cant,
xii. 430-31.
Abnold (Bev. F. H.). Manor of Appledram. Sussex Areh. Coll.,
xviii. 74-86.
On a flying visit of George, Prince of Wales, to Chichester
in 1716. Sussex Arch. Coll., xix. 145-148.
Fact and Legend concerning Harold. Sussex Arch. CoU.,
xix. 71-82.
The Nine Months of Harold's Reign. Joum. Arch. Assoc,
xxiii. 167-167.
Memorials of the " Lady Percy " of Shakspeare, and her
husbands, Hotspur and Lord Camoys. Sussex Areh. Coll., xx.
120-131.
Lordington House: its Owners and Associations. Sussex
Arch. Coll., xxi. 73-89.
Notes on a Biography of Simon de Wells, Bishop of Chichester
1204-1207. Sussex Arch. Coll., xxii. 178-184.
Eacton. Sussex Arch. Coll., xxiii. 1-19: Bacton Monu-
mental Inscriptions. Ibid., xxiii. 314-317.
The Ayres' Ceiling at Petworth. Sussex Arch. Coll., xxiv.
115-119.
Sussex Certificates for the Boyal Touch. Sussex Arch. Coll.,
XXV. 204-212.
Memoirs of the Bev. E. Turner, M.A. Sussex Areh. Coll.,
XXV. 213-219.
14 INDEX OF ARCH.£OLOOICAL PAPERS.
Abnold (Bey. F. H.). Qnintain in Sussex. Sussex Arch, CoU.^ xxv.
231.
" Nine Men's Morris." Sussex Areh, CoU,y xxv. 234.
— — Heronries, Sussex. Sussex Areh. Coll,, xxvii. 100-116.
■ Thorney Island. Sitssex Arch, Coll., xxxii. 1-18.
Cawley the Eegicide. Sussex Arch, Coll., xxxiv. 21-38.
AB170LD (G. M.). Gravesend in Days of Old. Arch. Cant.^ xi.
xlii-lv.
Abnold (Thoicas). An Attempt to explain some of the Symbols on
the Sculptured Stones of Scotland. Prac. Soc* of Anitq. SeotL,
xii. 101-103.
The Sculptured Sepulchral Slabs in Old Pentland Church-
yard. Proc. Soc. of Antiq. Seotl.^ xiv. 49-61.
An Account of St. Columba's Abbey, Inchcolm, accompanied
with plans. Arch. Scot.j v. 45-70.
Abitott (Key. S.). Contributions towards a Parochial History of
Hollington. Sussex Arch. Coll., xxi. 138-158.
Abtht (Elliott). Observations on the Griggirrys of the Mandingos.
Arch., xiiL 227-229.
Abtis (Ebwabd Ttbbell). On a Bronze Casket. Areh.y xxxii.
Appendix 396.
Report on recent Excavations made at Sibson, near Wads-
ford, Northamptonshire. Jbum. Brit. Arch. Assoc, ii. 164-169.
AsHBY (Rev. ). A Dissertation on a singular Coin of Nerva.
Arch., iii. 165-184.
AsHFiELD (Chables Joseph). Ou the Flora of Preston and its Neigh-
bourhood. Lane, and Chesh. Hist. Soc, x. 143-164 ; xii.
127-134; K.s. ii. 75-80; w.s. v. 181-186.
AsHPiTEL (Abthxtb). Ou Choirs and Chancels, particularly as to their
use in the south of Europe. Arch., xxxvii. (1), 122-133.
The City of Cumae, and the recent Excavations there.
Arch., xxxvii. (2), 316-334.
Chester Cathedral. Joum, Areh. Assoc, v. 177-186.
Repton Church and Priory. Jowm. Arch, Assoc, vii.
263-283.
On the Architecture of Newstead Abbey. Joum. Areh.
Assoc, ix. 30-39.
On Rochester Cathedral. Joum. Arch. Assoc, ix. 271-285.
On the History and Architecture of Manchester Cathedral.
Joum. Arch. Assoc, xi. 177-198.
The Original Drawings of Sir Christopher Wren for
St. Paul's Cathedral. Zond. and Middl. Areh. Soc, iii. 39-51.
INDEX OF ARCHJSOLOOICAL PAPERS. 15
AsTUB (THOMi.8). An extract relating to the Burial of King
Edward lY., from a MS. of the late Mr. Anstis. Areh., i.
360-357.
Extract from the Will of Thomas Earl of Ormond, dated
July 31, 1515. From the Register called Holder in the
Prerogative Office. Arch,, iii. 20-21.
An Account of the Events produced in England by the Grant
of the Kingdom of Sicily to Prince Edmund, second son of
Henry III., with some Remarks upon the Seal of that Prince.
Arch., iv. 195-211.
On the Radical Letters of the Pelasgians and their Deriva-
tives. Areh.f vii. 343-361.
Observations on a Charter which is indorsed, in a Hand
co-eval with it, '' Hac est Carta Regb Eadgari, do Institutione
Abbatie Eliensis, & duplicatus.'' Arch,, z. 226-240.
On the Tenures, Customs, etc, of the Manor of Ghreat Tey.
Areh., xii. 25-40.
Proclamation for regulating the Price of Silver Bullion, and
the Value of the Money of the Kingdom, 29 Sept. 4 Edward IV.
(a.d. 1465), De Pcrcussione Monetae. Areh,, xii. Appendix,
404-407.
Observations on Stone Pillars, Crosses, and Crucifixes.
Areh., xiii. 208-222.
Copy of a Curious Record of Pardon in the Tower of London.
Arch., xiii. 313-314.
Observations on the Anachronisms and Inaccuracies of our
Writers respecting the Times of the Assembling of Parliaments,
and of the Dates of Treaties, Grants, Charts, and other Instru-
ments, as well Public as Private. Arch., xiv. 162-167.
AsTLEY (E. F.). St. Martin's Priory, Dover. Jaum. Areh. AsBoe,,
xl. 52-55.
AsTLET (Snt Jacob, Kirr.). Instructions for Serjeant Major General
of his Majesty's Army, commanded by my Lord General, to make
his speedy repaire to Kew Castle. Areh. ^liana, k.s. i. 87.
Ath£btok (Henbt). The Manufacture of Cobalt. Ltme. and Che»h.
EUL Soe., vii. 40-49.
Atxivson (G. M.). Clifton Camps. Somerset Areh. and Nat. Siet.
8oe., XV. 27-29.
A Kitchen Midden in Cork Harbour. Jbum. Anthrop.
Inst., i. 213-214.
On a Stone known as the Imokilly Amulet. Soy. Mist. Soe.
of island, 4th ser. iii. 440-444.
16 INDEX OF ARCHJEOLOOICAL PAPERS.
Atkinsok (Key. J. C.) The Danish Aspect of the Local Komenclatare
of Cleveland. Joum, Anthrop. ImL, ill. 115-120.
Notes on the Salting Mines of Essex. Arch* Joum,^ xxxvii.
196-199.
Existing Traces of MedisBval Iron Working in CleTsland.
YorJcB Arch, Joum.j viii. 30-48.
Atkinson (William). On some Earthworks near Eamont Bridge.
Cunib, and West, Ant, and Areh 8oe,j yi. 444.
Attree (F. W. T.). Monumental Inscriptions in Ditchling Chnrch
and Churchyard. Sussex Arch, Coll., zxviii. 132-147.
Early Wills at Lewis. Sussex Areh, Colh, zxzii. 123-140.
History of the Parish of Wivelsfield. Sussex Arch. Coll.,
XXXV. 1-60.
Austen (Rev. John N.). Notes on some Vestiges of Roman Occupa-
tion in Dorset. Areh, Joum., xxiv. 161-170.
Austen (Henby E.) Mural Paintings, Chelsworth Church. Bury
and West Suffolk Areh, Inst., i. 146-147.
Austin (Maj. T.). Hock Basins, Logan Bocks, and Tolmens. Bristol
Nat, Soe,, i. 65-68.
Ayeltno (S. T.). History of Restoration House, Rochester. Arch,
Cant, XV. 117-126.
AwDRY (Rev. Edwabd C). Monumental Brasses in some of the
Churches near Chippenham. Wilts Areh, and Nat, Hist. Soc.^
xu. 233-241.
AwDBY (Rev. W. H.). Ludgershall Castle and its history. Wilts
Arch, and Nat, Hist, Soc, xxi. 317-330.
Axon (William E. A.). Biographical Notice of Ann Lee, a Manchester
Prophetess, and Foundress of the American Sect of the Shakers.
Lane, and Chesh. Hist. Soc., 3rd ser. iii. 51-76.
The Wardley Skull House. Lane, and Chesh, Antiq, Soe,,
i, 31-38.
The Legend of the Disguised Knight. An Essay upon the
incident in the Romance of King Horn of the Bride recovered by
the ring dropped in the cup, with parallel English, French,
Italian, German, Swedish, and Sanskrit Stories. IVans, .Roy,
Soc. of Lit., 2nd ser. ix. 440-475.
The extent of ancient Libraries. JRoy, Soc, of Lit., 2nd ser.
X. 383-405.
The Ballads and Songs of Yorkshire. Proe, Manchester Lit,
Club, 1872-4, 57-60.
A Manuscript Volume by Thomas Barritt. Papers of
Manchester Lit, Club, ii. 156-159.
INDEX OF ARCHiEOLOOIOAL PAPEKS. 17
Axon (William E. A.). Kotice of a passage in Clement of Alex-
andria on the Origin of certain Arts and Customs, and their
introduction into Greece. Froe, of Lit. and Phil, 8oe. of Man-
Chester, xvi. 46.
Atloffe (Sib Joseph). Copy of a draught of a Proclamation in the
year 1563, relating to persons making Portraits of Queeh
Elizabeth. From the original Draught in the Paper Office, in
the handwriting of Secretary Cecil, with his Corrections, and
among his Papers. Arch,, ii. 169-170.
■ An Historical description of an Ancient Picture in Windsor
Castle, representing the Interview between King Henry YIII.
and the Prench King Prancis I., between Gulnes and Ardres, in
the year 1520. Arch., iii. 185-229.
An account of some ancient English Historical Paintings
at Cowdry, Sussex. Arch., iii. 239-272.
An account of the body of King Henry I., as it appeared
on opening his Tomb in 1774. Arch., iii. 376-413.
Atbton (William). Notice of recent discoveries at Chester. Lane,
and Chesh. But. 8oc., i. 79-83.
Atscotjgh (Rev. S.). Copies of two MSS. on the most proper mode
of Defence against Invasion by Mr. Waad. Arch.^ ziii.
169-184.
Copy of « MS. in the British Museum (Harl. MSS. 6844,
fol. 49), entitled '* An Expedient or Meanes in want of Money
to pay the Sea and Land Forces, or as many of them as shall be
thought expedient without money in this year of an almost
universal povertie of the English nation," by Fabian Phillips.
Arch., xiii. 185-192.
B. (A.). On the Antiquities and Etymology of Eglwyseg. Arch.
Camb., 3rd ser. xi. 133-136, 369-370.
B. (C). Account of an ancient Seal found near St. Beuno's College,
St. Asaph. Arch. Camb., 3rd ser. ix. 244-246.
B. (C. C). Monumental Slab at Haverfordwest. Arch. Camb., 3rd
ser. ii. 282.
The Kjokkenmoddings of Denmark. Arch. Camb.f 3rd ser.
viii. 57-60.
An Account of the British Settlement called Greaves Ash in
Northumberland. Arch, Camb., 3rd ser. viii. 201-208.
On Beehive-shaped Huts in the Hebrides. Arch, Camb., 3rd
ser. viii. 283-288.
18 INDEX OF AllCIIJEOLOOICAL PAPERd.
B. (G. C.)* The Hospital of St. Lawrence De Fonteboj, near Bodmin.
Arch. Camb., drd ser. ix. 177-182.
B. (£. L.). Ancient Customs and Superstitions in Wales. Areh.
Camb,, 8rd sor. i. 233-237.
Eemarks on an Iron Celt found on the Berwen Mountains,
Merionethshire. Arch, Camb,, 3rd ser. i. 250-252.
Kecords of the Lordship of DySija Clwyd and Ruthin
Castle. Arch, Camb., 3rd ser. ii. 146-150, 290-301 ; iii. 96-99.
Ancient Mill, Euthin. Arch, Camb,, 3rd ser. ii. 284-285.
Eoman Eoads in Denhighshire. Arch. Camb., 3rd ser. y.
125-129.
Breton Antiquities. Arch, Camb,, 3rd ser. v. 181-188.
Breton Colts. Arch. Camb,, 3rd ser. vi. 211-219.
Flougastel Calvary. Arch, Camb., 3rd ser. v. 254-256.
Carved Stone Hammer. Arch. Camb,, Srd ser. vi.
307-309.
Celtic Monuments. Arch, Camb,, 3rd ser. vii. 46-71.
Calvary of St. Thcgonnec, Brittany. Arch. Camb,, 3rd ser.
vii. 293-294.
Bronze Articles, supposed to he Spoons. Arch. Camb., Srd
ser. viii. 208-219.
Beehive Hut, Bosphrennis, in the Parish of Zennor, Corn-
wall. Arch. Camb,, 3rd ser. ix. 120-129.
The Bock Dwellings in Le Yendomois. Arch. Camb,, Srd
ser. ix. 228-244.
Cochwillan, Caernarvonshire. Arch. Camb,, Srd ser. xii.
303-305.
Uncertain Bronze Implements. Arch. Camb., Srd ser. xii.
476-477 ; 4th ser. ii. 320-323.
The Lomarec Inscription. Arch, Camb,, 4th ser. iii. 10-21.
Supposed Musical Instrument, Cardiganshire. Arch. Camh.^
4th ser. x. 1-7.
Llanfair Caereinion. Areh. Camb., 4th ser. xi. 145-147.
Welsh Fonts. Arch. Camb,, 4th ser. xi. 214-217.
Pen Caer Helen. Arch, Camb., 4th ser. xiv. 192-195.
B. (G.). Local Tokens issued in Ulster. Ulster Jbum. Areh,, ii.
29-31, 230-232; iii. 172-175; iv. 239-241.
Old Belfast. Ulster Journ, Arch,, iii. 260-264 ; v. 144-1 50 ;
343-344.
On the early use of Aqua Vitae in Ireland. Ulster Journ,
Arch., vi. 283-293.
Bruce at Connor. Uhter Journ, Areh,, vii. 40-45.
INDEX OF AKCH^OLOOICAL PAPERS. 19
B. (G. T. 0.)* Ancient Lords of Mechain. Areh. Camh,, drd ser. iz.
157-163.
B. (J. T.). Lostwithiel. Areh. Camh,, 3rd ser. xi. 157.
B. (M. H.). Sepulchral Eecumbent Effigy in Llannwchllyn Church.
Arch, Camh,, 5th ser. ii. 192-195.
B. (R. W.). List of Radnorshire Magistrates in 1732. Arch, Camb,,
3rd ser. xi. 158-159.
Miscellaneous Papers relating to Herefordshire and Radnor-
shire. Arch. Camb,, 3rd ser. xii. 152-155; 201-209.
Sir Robert Harley*s Narrative. Arch, Camb., 3rd ser. xii.
446-460.
Brampton Brian Castle, Herefordshire. Arch, Camb,, 3rd
ser. xiii. 138-149, 374.
Extracts from State Papers relative to the County of
Radnor. Arch, Camb., 3rd ser. xv. 30-32.
Notes on the early History of the Manor of Huntington,
Herefordshire. Arch, Camb,, 3rd ser. xv. 226-246 ; 4th ser. i.
46-50.
On the Family of Vaughan, of Hergest. Arch, Camb,, 4th
ser. ii. 23-34.
On the Contents of a Tumulus on Ty Ddu Farm, Llanelieu.
Arch, Camb,, 4th ser. ii. 327-330.
On the Crannog in Llangors Lake. Arch, Camb., 4th ser.
iii. 146-148.
The Pour Stones, Old Radnor. Arch, Camb,, 4th ser. v.
215-217.
Some Radnorshire Bronze Implements. Arch, Camb., 4th
ser. vi. 17-21.
Prehistoric Remains in the Edwy Valley, Radnorshire. Arch,
Camb., 4th ser. vi. 246-255.
■- Tomen Castle, Radnor Forest. Arch, Camb,, 4th ser. vi.
339-341.
On a Shield Boss found at Aboredwy. Arch, Camb., 4th
ser. vii. 48-49.
Bryngwyn, Radnorshire. Arch, Camb,, 4th ser. vii.
212-217.
The Castles of Grosmont, Skenfrith, and Whitecastle. Arch,
Camb., 4th ser. vii. 299-311.
Early Charters to Towns in South Wales. Arch. Camb.,
4th ser. ix. 81-101.
An Earthen Vessel found on the Coast of Anglesey. Arch,
Camb., 4th ser. ix. 224-225.
20 INDEX OF ARCH.SOLOGICAL PAPBB8.
B. (R. W.)* Notes on Eecords relating to Lampeter and Cardigan-
shire. Arch. Camh,f 4tli ser. ix. 292-802.
Llanddwyn. Arch, Camh,, 4th ser. x. 30-32.
On a "Wooden Female Head found at Llanio. Arch. Camh.,
4th ser. x. 81-85.
The Boundary of Herefordshire temp. Hen. III. Arch,
Camh.f 4th ser. x. 302-304.
The Grange of Cwmtoyddwr. Arch. Camh.^ 4th ser. xi.
30-50-
■■■ Inspeximus and Confirmation of the Charters of the Abbey
of Wigmore. Arch, Camh., 4th ser. xiii. 137-149.
Cartularium Prioratus S. Johannes Evang. de Brecon. Arch.
Camh., 4th ser. xiii. 275-308.
The early History of Hay and its Lordship. Arch. Camh.,
4th ser. xiv. 173-192.
On the descent of the Estates of Walter de Clifford. Arch.
Camh., 5th ser. i. 65-67.
An Account of Bronze Implements found near Brecon.
Arch. Camh., 5th ser. i. 225-227.
On the Ancient Tenures and Services of the Land of the
Bishop of St. David's. Arch. Camh., 5th ser. ii. 65-71.
On a Bronze Dagger found at Bwlch-y-Ddau Eaen, Brecon-
shire. Arch. Camh,, 5th ser. ii. 156.
On the early History of the Land of Qwent. Arch, Camh.,
5th ser. ii. 241-256.
Caerphilly. Arch. Camh., 5th ser. iii. 161-174.
Baar (Bev. Hermann, Ph.D.). On Hamlet and Eaust. Liverpool
Lit. and Phil. Soc, Froc, xvi. 135-150.
On the Life and Writings of SchillOT. Lane, and Chesh.
Stat. Soc, N.s. iii. 21-40".
On the Moral Ideas of Shakspeare. Lane, and Cheih, Mist.
Soc, N.s. iv. 149-176.
Babington (Charles C). Description of the ancient Hill Fortress of
XJleybury. Arch. Journ., xi. 328-9.
-^^— A Catalogue of Tradesmen's Tokens known to have been
issued in the County of Cambridge during the latter part of the
17th Century. Camh. Antiq. Soc, i. 15-28.
On some Eoman Pottery found near Eoxton, Cambridgeshire,
Camh. Antiq. Soc, i. 43-46.
On some Antiquities found in Corpus Christi College in the
year 1852. Camh. Antiq. Soc, i. 51-54.
INDEX OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL FAFRRS. 21
Babinqton (Charles C). On the Foss, or Devil*8 Ditch, near Brandon,
and that near SwafFham in the County of Norfolk. Camh. Antiq,
Soc, i. 95-96.
An Account of the Excavation of Tumuli near Bincombe
in Dorsetshire in 1842. Camh. Antiq, Soc, i. 141-144.
On the West Mere at Wretham, near Thetford in Norfolk.
Camh, Antiq. Soc, i. 339-341.
On a Bronze Falx found in the Fens. Camh. Antiq. 8oe.,
i. 361-362.
On Anglo-Saxon Eemains found near Barrington in
Cambridgeshire. Camh. Antiq. Soc, ii. 7-10.
On a Flint Hammer found near Burwell. Camh. Antiq.
Soc, ii. 201-202.
On a Skull of Bos Primigenius associated with Flint Implc'
ments. Camh, Antiq. Soc,, ii. 285-288.
On Eoman Interments by the sid6 of the so-called Via
Devana near Cambridge. Camh. Antiq, Soc, ii. 289-292.
On some Eemains of the Hospital of St. John the Evangelist
at Cambridge. Camh, Antiq, Soc, ii. 351-363.
On the Musea or Studiola in Dr. Legge*s building at Cains
College. Camh. Antiq, Soc, iii. 177-180.
On Caer-carreg-y-fran, Carnarvonshire. Arch. Camh., 3rd
Bcr. ii. 56-59.
On -a Fort called Penlan, near St. Davids. Areh. Camh.,
3nd scr. iii. 25-26.
On Gaer Fawr, and a supposed Eoman Eoad near Welsh-
pool. Arch. Camh., 3rd ser. iii. 149-151.
Firbolgic Forts in Aran. Arch, Camh., 3rd ser. iv. 96-103.
Ancient Fortification near the mouth of the Valley of Llan*
beris, Carnarvonshire, with a few remarks on the line of the
Eoman Eoad from Conovium to Segontium. Arch. Camh., 3rd
ser. vii. 236-243.
Cyclopean Wall, near Llanberis. Arch. Camh., 3rd ser. xi.
277.
On an ancient Font near St. Davids. Arch. Camh., 4th
ser. vii. 49-53.
On the supposed Birth of Edward II. in the Eagle Tower
of Caernarvon Castle. Arch. Camh., 4th ser. x. 63-65.
Several Antiquities in North Wales. Arch. Camh., 4th ser.
xi. 314-316.
On the Circular Chapel in Ludlow Chapel. Arch. Camh.,
4th8er. xiii. 126-128.
22 INDEX OP ARCn-«OLOQICAL PAPERS.
Babington (Rev. CnuHcniLL). Notice of a Greek Imperial Coin
found at Cambridge. Camh. Antiq. Soc, ii. 1-5.
On an unpublished Coin of Carausius and two Unpublished
Coins of AUcctus. Cambridge Antiq. SoCy ii. 235-238.
On theKoman Antiquities found at Rougham in 1843 and
1844. Suffolk Insi, of Arch,, iv. 257-281.
Account of Roman Silver Coins found at Lavenham, Suffolk,
in June, 1874. Suffolk Inst, of Arch., ii. 414-416.
On various Greek Inscriptions from Telos, Cos, Attalia, and
the region of the Elack Sea, copied by Captain Spratt. Jtoi/. Soc,
Lit., 2nd ser. x. 112-135.
Bagkal-Oakeley (W.). Monmouth. Arch. Camh., 5th ser. iii. 12-27.
Roman Coins found in Monmouthshire ; Caerlcon and
Caerwcnt. Arch, Camh,, 5th ser. iii. 224-227.
Baigent (Francis Joseph). Ibberton Church, Dorsetshire, and its
Painted Glass. Arch., xlviii. 347-354.
Discovery of a Roman Leaden Coffin near Bishopstoke,
Hants. Proc. Soc. Antiq. , 2nd ser. ii. 327-329.
Discoveries of Medioeval Paintings. Joum. Arch, Aisoc,
vi. 76-80.
On the Church of St. John, Winchester, and the Paintings
discovered on the North Wall. Joum. Arch, Assoc., ix. 1-14.
On the Martyrdom of St. Thomas of Canterbury and other
Paintings, discovered at St. John's Church, Winchester, 1853.
Joum. Arch. Assoc, x. 53-87.
On some Ornaments discovered in Winchester College.
Joum. Arch. Assoc, x. 159-162.
On the Family of De Lymeraton and its Heiress, the
Foundress of the Tichbome Dole. Joum, Arch, Assoc, xi.
277-302.
On the Parish Church of Wyko near Winchester. Joum,
Arch. Assoc, xix. 184-212.
Bailey (George). Notes on some Old Houses of Derby. Berhy Arch.
and Nat. Hist. Soc, i. 92-96 ; ii. 28-32.
The Old Shambles, Chesterfield. Berhy Arch, and Nat.
Mist. Soc, iii. 132-136.
The Stained Glass at Norbury Manor House. Derhy Arch,
and Nat, Hist. Soc, iv. 152-158; v. 64-68.
Reminiscences of Old Allestree. Derby Arch, and Nai, Hist,
Soc, vii. 168-184.
On a Painted Glass Window in Morley Church, Derbyshire.
Derby Arch, and Nat, His^, Soc, viii. 143-149; ix. 33-38.
INDEX OF ARCH^OLOGICAL PAPERS. 23
Baily (Charles). On Sepulchral Crosses in Derbyshire, and more
especially at Bakewell. Journ. Brit, Arch, Assoc, ii. 257-
260.
• Remarks on a Leaden Ampulla in the York Museum.
Joum, Arch, Assoc, vi. 125-126.
On an Inscription and Figures at Goodiich Castle, Hereford-
shire. Jout*n, Arch, Assoc, vii. 56-61.
Priory Church, Tutbury. Joum, Arch, Assoc, vii. 390-396.
Bain (Joseph). On the Sufferings of the Northern Counties of
England and their Chief Towns, including Ripon, from the
Invasion of the Scots under Robert de Brus, between the years
1314 and 1319. Arch. Joum,, xxxi. 269-283.
Original Documents of the Time of Edward I. Arch,
Joum,, xxxiv. 87-88.
Original Document concerning Guildford Castle. Areh.
Joum,, xxxiv. 297.
Writ to Hereford, temp. Edward I. Arch, Joum., xxxiv.
443-447.
Grant by Ingelram Lord of Coucy to the King, of the
Reversion of the Lands of Johanna, who was wife of John
de Coupeland, deceased, 41st Ed. III. Arch, Joum,, xxxv.
166-168.
Return to the Royal Writs to Sheriffs of Counties, Northamp-
tonshire, temp, Edward I. Arch, Jourr^,, xxxv. 295.
Notes on a piece of Painted Glass within a Genealogical
Tree of the Family of Stewart. Arch, Joum,, xxxv. 399-
401.
Notes on the East "Window of the Choir of Bothwell
Church, and its Armorial Shields. Proo. Soc of Antiq, ScotL,
viii. 395-403.
Notices of the unprinted Chartulary of the Priory of St.
Andrew, of Northampton, and of Charters by the Scottish Kings
and Princes, as Earls of Huntingdon, and other Nobles contained
therein. Froc Soc of Antiq, ScotL, xiv. 338-346.
Note on an Original Document in the Handwriting of
William Brydone (or Brydon), in all probability the Town Clerk
of Selkirk, who fell at Flodden. Froc Soc of Antiq, Scotl,, xx.
336-337.
Bainbridge (William). Account of the Roman Road called "The
Maiden Way.'* Arch, JEliana, iv. 36-63.
Baikes (Thomas). The Valley of the Mersey previous to the Norman
Conquest. Lane, and Chesh, Hist. Soc, v. 131-141.
24 INDEX OF ARCHJEOLOGICAL rAPKRS.
Baker (Arthur). Mcliden Church. Arch, Camh.y 5th ser. ii.
206-207.
Baker (G. B.). Urns found at Ditchingham. Norfolk and Norwich
Arch, Soo,, vi. 186-188.
Baker (Rev. Sir Henry). Monkland Church. Joum, Arch. Assoc,
xxvii. 365-372.
Baker (Rev. R. S.). A Roman Frontier ; the Nene Valley and the
Origin of the name Northampton. Arch, Joum,, xxxv.
339-352.
Baker (Sir Samuel). The past and future of the Nile Basin.
Liverpool Lit, and Phil, Soc, Proc, xxviii. 141-161.
Baker (Rev. S. 0.). Notice of some Excavations made at Mincholnej,
in 1873 and 1874. Somerset Arch, and Nat, Hist. Soc, xix.
122-126.
Baker (Rev. Thos.). Account of a discovery of some Remains of
Trees, within Sea Mark, at Whithum, Co. of Durham. Arch,
jEliana, ii. 100.
Baker (Thos.). Roman Villa discovered at Bisley, Gloucestershire.
Arch, Joum., ii. 42-45.
Baker (Thos. John Lloyd). An Account of a chain of Ancient
Fortresses extending through the South -"Western part of
Gloucestershire. Arch., xix. 161-175.
Baker (W.). Bridgwater High Cross. Somerset Arch, and Nat,
Hist, Soc, i. 63.
Bridgwater Old Bridge. Somerset Arch, and Nat. Hist.
Soc, i. 64.
The Canninffton Park Limestone. Somerset Arch, and Nat.
Hist, Soc, iii. 125-131.
Geology of Somerset. Somerset Arch, and Nat, Hist. Soc,
i. 127-139.
Balfour (David). Note on a small Gold Ring of twisted Wires,
found in a Pict*s House, at Shapinshay, Orkney. Proc Soc. of
Antiq. Scoil., viii. 407-408.
Bally (E. -E.). On Bronze Colts found near Cumberlow, Baldock,
Herts. Joum, Anthrop, Inst,, vi. 195-196.
Balman (Thomas, M.D.). On Longevity in England. Liverpool Lit,
Phil, Soc, xviii. 67-72.
Banks (Sir Joseph, Bart.). Extracts out of an Old Book relating
to the building of Louth Steeple and repairing the Church, etc.,
from about the year 1500 or 1501 to 1518. Arch., x. 70-98.
Account of a Roman Sepulture lately found in Lincoln-
shire. Arch., xii. 96-98.
lin)EX Of ARCHi^OLOGICAL PAPERS. 25
Banks (Sir Joseph, Bart.). Copy of an original MS. entitled "A
Brcviate touching the Order and Goyemmente of a Nobleman's
House, etc." Arch., xiii. 315-389.
Copy of a MS., entitled "A true Collection as well of all
the Kinges Majesties Offices and Fees in any of the Courtes at
Westminster, as of all the Offices andFeesof his Majesties Honorable
Household ; together with all Fees appertaining to Captaines
and Souldiers, having charges of Castells, Bullwarkes, and
Fortresses within the Realme of England : and likewise the Offices
and Fees of his Highnes honorable Houses, Farkes, Forestes, and
Chases within the said Realme." (Anno 1606.) Areh,, xv. 72-91 .
Ordinances respecting Swans on the Kiver Witham, in the
County of Lincoln; together with an Original Koll of Swan
Marks, appertaining to the Proprietors on the said Stream.
Arch., xvi. 153-163.
A Description of a Roman Vault discovered in the Suburbs
of the City of York. Arch,, xvi. 340.
Observations on an Ancient Celt found near Boston in
Lincolnshire. Arch., xix. 102-104.
Banks (R. W.). The early History of the Forest of Radnor ; with
some account of Sir Gelli Meyrick, one of its former possessors.
Arch, Camh,, 3rd ser. x. 14-29.
Account of the Siege of Brampton Bryan Castle. Arch.
Comb., 3rd ser. x. 282-243.
Funeral of the Hon. Edw. Harley, of Eywood, Hereford*
shire. Areh. Camh., 3rd ser. xi. 183-186.
On the Welsh Records in the time of the Black Prince.
Arch. Camh., 4th ser. iv. 157-188.
Herefordshire and its Welsh Border during the Saxon period.
Areh. Camh., 4th ser. xiii. 19-40.
Cartularium Prioratus S. Johannis Evang. de Brecon. Arch.
Camh., 4th ser. xiv. 18-49, 137-168, 221-236, 274-311.
Banks (Rev. S.). Catalogue of Subscriptions for relief of Sufferers
from the Cattle Plague in 1747, in the parish of Cottenham.
Cambridge Antiq. Soc, iii. 107-110.
Banks (T. Lewis). The Parish Church, Egremont. Cumh. and
West. Ant. and Arch. Soc, vi. 163.
Banks (W. S.). Entries relative to the Bunny Family in Normanton
Parish Register. York Arch, and Top. Joum., iii. 8-25.
Bannister (Rev. J.). Nomenclature. Joum. Royal Inst. ofCornwaU,
ii.pt. vi. 104-116.
Jews in Cornwall and Marazion. Jtoy. Inst. Com. ii. 324-342.
.26 INDEX OF ARCHJEOLOOICAL FAPEIUS.
Barber (C). On the Characteristics of the English School of Painting.
Liverpool Lit, and Phil. Soc. Proc, v. 87-100.
Barber (Fairless). On the Roman Station at Slack. Arch. Joum.^
xxiv. 289-299; Yorh Arch. Journ., i. 1-11.
The Book of Rates for the West Riding. YorU Arch,
Jouni,, i. 153-168.
The West Riding Sessions Rolls. Torks Arch, Jaum., v.
362-405.
Barclay (Rey. Dr. George). Account of the Parish of Haddington.
Areh. Scot., i. 40-121.
Barclay (Robert). On Agricola's Engagement with the Caledonians
under their Leader Galgacus. Arch. Scot., i. 565-570.
Barsam (C). Ancient Graves at Hallstatt. Eoy. Inst, of Com., i.
pt. iv. 60-63.
Ancient Inscrihcd Stones at Tregony and Cuhert. JRof/. Inst.
of Corn., ii. pt. v. 47-58 ; Arch. Camh., 3rd ser. xii. 417-429.
The Inscribed Roman Stone at St. Hilary. JBoy. Imt. of
Com., V. 366-375 ; Arch. Camh., 4th ser. viii. 298-309.
Barker (Thomas). The Rates of Wages of Servants, Labourers and
Artificers, set down and assessed at Okeham, within the County
of Rutland, by the Justices of the Peace there, the 28th day of
April, Anno Domini 1610. Arch., xi. 200-207.
Barker (W. L.). Hungerford. Wilts Arch, and Nat. Mist. Soe.f
xi. 140-159.
Barkly (Sir Henry). The Earlier House of Berkeley. Bristol and
Glauc. Arch. Soc, viii. 193-223.
— — — The Berkeleys of Dursley during the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries. Bristol and Glouc. Arch. Soc, ix. 227-276.
A Gloucestershire Jury-list of the thirteenth century.
Bristol and Glouc Arch. Soc, x. 293-303.
Kirb/s Quest. Part I., Its History. Part II., The Return
for Gloucestershire. Bristol and Glouc Arch. Soc, xi. 130-154.
Dursley, its Lords, etc. Bristol and Glouc. Arch, Soc, zi.
221-242.
A Domestic Outrage in Gloucestershire, about the year 1220.
Bristol and Glouc Arch. Soc, xi. 331-335.
Barnard (John). Observations relative to a supposed Roman Station
at Harlow, Essex. Arch., xix. Appendix, 409-411.
Barnes (Henry). Account of the Discovery of the Matrix of an
Anglo-Saxon Seal. Arch., xxiv. Appendix, 359-361.
Barnes (Rev. William). Ancient Dorset. Arch. Joum., xxii.
278-294.
INDEX OF ARCHJEOLOOICAL PAPERS. 27
Barnes (Rev. William). On the Origin of the Hundred and Tithing
of English Law. Joum, Arch, Assoc, f xxviii. 21-27.
Somerset. Somerset Arch, and Nat, Hist, Soc, xvi. 73-81.
Ealdhelm, First Bishop of Sherborne, and the Meeting of
the English and Britons and their Two Churches in Wessex.
Somerset Arch, and Nat, Hist, Soc, xx. 85-97.
Barxett (John). Account of the Remains of Tetbury Priory,
Gloucestershire. Arch,, xxxi. Appendix, 513.
Barnwell (E. L.). Ancient Gaulish Money. Areh, Camh,, 3rd ser.
vii. 213-230.
Saint Michael's Mount, Camac. Areh, Camb., 3rd ser. x.
47-57.
Bronze Spoon-shaped Articles. Arch, Camh,, .3rd ser. x.
57-61.
Relic of Ann Boloyn. Arch, Camh,, 3rd ser. x. 133-134.
Old Radnor Font. Arch, Camh,, 3rd ser. x. 146-150.
Bronze Implements. Arch, Camh,, 3rd ser. x. 212-231.
Bodrhyddan Memoirs. Arch. Camh., 3rd ser. x. 320-328.
Chun Castle. Arch. Camh,, 3rd ser. xi. 187-195.
Notes on the Perrot Family. Arch, Camh,, 3rd ser. xi.
1-32, 101-132, 229-260, 371-381 ; xii. 64-72, 167-182, 311-358,
478-515.
On the Stone Monuments in the Isle of Man. Arch, Camh,,
3rd ser. xii. 46-60.
The lately discovered Crosses at St. Davids. Arch. Camh,,
3rd ser. xiii. 67-69.
Domestic Architecture of South Pembrokeshire. Arch,
Camh,, 3rd ser. xiii. 193-204, 363-374; xiv. 70-84.
Mairked Stones in Wales. Arch, Camh,, 3rd ser. xiii.
150-156.
Alignments in Wales. Arch, Camh,, 3rd ser. xiv. 169-179.
Incised Stono, Burghill, Herefordshire. Arch. Camh,, 3rd
ser. xiv. 179-181.
Relics of Dinas Mawddwy. Arch. Camh,, 3rd ser. xiv.
201-204.
Cromlechs in North Wales. Arch. Camh,, 3rd ser. xv.
118-147.
Notes on some South Wales Cromlechs. Areh. Camh,, 4th
ser. iii. 81-143; v. 59-73 ; 5th ser. i. 129-144.
Ornamented Celt. Arch. Camh., 4th ser. ii. 20-23.
Tre.'R Ceiri. Arch, Camh., 4th ser. ii. 66-88.
Bronze Boar. Arch, Camh,, 4th ser. ii. 168-167.
28 INDEX OF ARCHJEOLOOICAL t>APERd.
Barnwell (E. L.). Tomen-y-Mur. Arch, Camh,, 4th ser. ii. 190-202.
On some Ancient "Welsh Bells. Arch. Camb,, 4th ser. ii.
271-275.
Canna's Chair. Arch. Camb,, 4th ser. iii. 235-239.
Wooden Font, Efenechtyd Church. Arch, Camh., 4th ser.
iii. 257-261.
On some Ancient Welsh Customs and Furniture. Arch.
Camh, 4th ser. iii. 329-338.
Some Details of the Broad ward "Find." Arch. Camb., 4th
ser. iii. 345-355 ; iv. 80-83.
Primaeval Merioneth. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. iv. 84-95.
Coped Coffin Lid, Bridgend. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. iv.
192-195.
The Treiorwerth Tumulus. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. iv.
195-197.
The Brcdwardin Cromlech. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. iv. 275-276.
Unexplained Stone Articles. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. iv.
348-354.
The Nevem Rock Cross. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. iv. 370-374.
Grave in Wenlock Ahbey. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. iv.
374-881.
Ancient British Canoe. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. v. 147-151.
The Brackets in Rowleston Church. Arch. Camb., 4th ser.
V. 156-158.
Bronze Thuribles in Wales. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. v.
159-160.
Eglwys y Gwyddel, Merioneth. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. v.
234-242.
French Megalithic Eemains. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. v.
320-329.
The Bhosnesney Bronze Implements. Arch. Camb., 4th ser.
vi. 70-73.
Pembrokeshire Cliff Castles. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. vi. 74-86.
The Caergwrle Cup. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. vi. 268-274.
On Pillar Stones in Wales. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. vi.
299-306.
Stackpool Antiquities. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. vii. 41-44.
. A Coin found near Garthewin. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. vii.
145-148.
The Kidwelly Mace. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. vii. 182-190.
Early Remains in Carmarthenshire. Arch. Camb., 4th ser.
viii. 81-96.
INDEX OF ARCHJBOLOGICAL PAPERS. 29
Babitwell (E. L.). Tlie date of Llanthonj Abbey. Arch. Camh.,
4th ser. viii. 150-152.
' Pembrokeshire Houses. Arch, Camh,, 4th ser. viii. 309-815.
Bendy Newydd Nantmor, Roman halting place. Arch,
Camb.f 4th ser. ix. 101-113.
Craig-y-Dinas. Arch, Camh,, 4th ser. ix. 217-221.
The Carnarvon Talisman. Arch. Camh.y 4th ser. x. 99-108.
Bronze Vessel. Arch. Camh., 4th ser. x. 140-142.
Supposed Musical Instrument, Cardiganshire. Arch. Catnh.,
4th ser. x. 188-192.
The Abermeurig Cup. Arch. Camh., 4th ser. x. 222-225, 267.
Supposed Leper Cups and Bronze Vessel. Arch. Camh., 4th
ser. X. 283-286.
The Chambered Mound at Plas Newydd. Arch. Camh., 4th
ser. xi. 81-96.
Querns. Arch. Camb., 4th ser. xii. 31-43.
MedisDval Pembrokeshire. Arch. Camh.f 4th ser. xii.
158-164.
Pembrokeshire Antiquities: CareWi Hodgson, Upton. Arch,
Camh., 4th ser. xii. 238-246.
Church Stretton. Arch. Camh., 4th ser. xiii. 174-175.
Dolwyddelan Castle. Arch. Camh., 4th ser. xiv. 49-56.
Biographical Notice of M. H. Bloxam. Arch. Camh.,, 4th
ser. xiv. 84-88.
The Letterston Piscina. Arch. Camh., 5th ser. i. 32-35.
The early Antiquities of the County of Montgomery. Fowys
Land Club, iii. 415-452.
Babon (Rev. John). On a Hoard of Gold Nobles found at Bremeridge
Farm, Westbury, Wilts. Arch., xlvii. 137-156.
On a Leaden ** Bulla " found at Warminster. WilUArch.
Soc, xvii. 44-45.
On the Study of Anglo-Saxon and its Value to the
Archffiologist. Wilts Arch. Soc., xvii. 336-346.
Some Early Features of Stockton Church. TTilts Arch.
Soc, XX. 107-122.
On the Church of St. Peter, Manningford Bruce, with
Illustrations from other Early Churches. Wilti Arch. Soc, xx.
122-137.
Sculptured Stone at Codford St. Peter, and Heraldic Stone
at Warminster. Wilts Arch. Soc, xx. 138-144.
Early Heraldry in Boyton Church. Wilts Arch. Soc, xx.
145-154.
30 INDEX OF ARCH^SOLOOIGAL PAPERS.
Babbikoton (Daines). Observations on the Welsh Castles. Arch.,
I 278-292.
Observations on Csesar's Invasion of Britain, and more
particularly his passage across the Thames. Areh.f ii. 134-158.
Some Account of Two Musical Instruments used in Wales.
Arch.^ iii. 30-34.
Mr. Fegge's Observations on the Growth of the Vine in
England considered and answered. Arch,, iii. 67-95.
On the Expiration of the Cornish Language. Arch., iii.
278-284 ; v. 81-86.
—^ Observations on the Corbridge Altars. Arch,, iii. 324-331.
On the term Lavant. Areh,, iv. 27-28.
Observations on the Apamean Medal. Areh., iv. 315-330.
Observations on Patriarchal Customs and Manners. Areh.,
V. 119-136.
Observations on St. Justin's (or Justinian's) Tomb. Arch,,
V. 143-146.
Thomas Morell Honoratissimo Viro. Arch., v. 182-187.
Observations on the Earliest Introduction of Clocks. Arch,,
V. 416-428.
Observations on the Vitrified Walls in Scotland. Arch.,
vi. 100-103.
Observations on the Practice of Archery in England. Arch.,
vii. 46-68.
Particulars relative to a Human Skeleton, and the Garments
that were found thereon when dug out of a Bog at the foot of
Drumkeragh, a Mountain in the County of Down and Barony of
Kinalearty, on Lord Moira's Estate, in the Autumn of 1780.
Arch,, vii. 90-110.
On the Progress of Gardening. Arch,, vii. 113-130.
An Account of certain remarkable Pits or Caverns in the
Earth, in the County of Berks. Arch., vii. 236-243.
Observations on a Picture by Zuccaro from Lord Falkland's
Collection supposed to represent the Game of Primcro. Arch,,
viii. 132-133.
Observations on the Antiquity of Card-Playing in England.
Arch, viii. 134-146.
Observations on the Grey Weathers in Berkshire, and tho
Crypts in Canterbury Cathedral. Arch,, viii. Appendix,
442-446.
An Historical Disquisition on tho Game of Chess. Arch,,
ix. 16-38.
INDEX OF ARCH.SOLOGICAL PAPERS. 31
Baerington (Daikes). On tho Origin of the Arms belonging to the
two Honourable Societies of the Inner and Middle Temple ; the
Pegasus and the Holj Lamb. Arch,, iz. 127-136.
£ ARROW (Benjamin). Notes on the opening of the Tumuli on Ashey
Down. ' Journ, Arch. Assoc, x. 162-165.
Barry (Major). Letter from, to John Swinton, concerning Bessie
Bell and Mary Gray. Arch, Scot, ii. 108-110.
Barthelemy (Abb]^) and Charles Combe. Eemarks on Mr. Bryant's
Vindication of the Apamean Medal. Arch., iv. 347-355.
Bartlbet (Rev. S. E.). History of the Manor and Advowson of
Brockworth. Bristol and Glouc, Arch. Sac, vii. 131-171.
The Manor and Borough of Chipping Campden. Bristol
and Glow. Arch. Soc, ix. 134-195, 354-355.
The Priory of St. Mary, Bromfield, Salop. Records of Ohmc.
Cathedral, ii. 42-60.
Bartlet (Benjamin). The Episcopal Coins of Durham, and the
Monastic Coins of Beading, Minted during the Keigns of
Edward L, II., and III., appropriated to their respective
Owners. Arch,, v. 335-339.
Bartlett (Rev. J. Pemberton). The Ancient Potteries of the New
Forest, Hampshire. Arch. Journ,, xxx. 319-324.
Barton (Thomas). Antiquities discovered at Little Cressingham,
Norfolk. Norfolk and Norwich Arch, Soc, iii. 1-2.
Notices of the Town and Parish of Watton. Norfolk and
Norwich Arch, Soc, iii. 394-414.
Roman Discoveries at Ashill. Norfolk and Norwich Arch,
Soc, viii. 224-230.
Barttelot (Sir "W. B.). Extract from the Return of Members of
Parliament, 1290-1702. Sussex Arch. Coll., xxx. 190-197.
Bate (C. Spence). On the Discovery of a Romano-British Cemetery near
Plymouth. Arch., xl. (2), 500-510; JDev. Assoc, i. pt. 3, 123-133.
On a Barrow in Constantine Bay. Devon Assoc, i. 140.
An Attempt to approximate the Date of the Flint Flakes
of Devon and Cornwall. Devon Assoc, i. 128-136.
On a Cornish Ejokkcnmodding. Devon Assoc, i, 138-139 ;
ii. 283-284.
Prehistoric Antiquities of Dartington. Devon Assoc, iv.
491-516.
The Clitter of the Tors of Dartmoor. Devon Assoc, iv.
517-519.
A Contribution towards determining the Etymology of
Dartmoor Names. Daon Assoc, iv. 520-535.
32 INDEX OF ARCH-TSOLOGICAL PAPEUS.
Batk (C. Si'K.xce). Eesearclit's into sonic Antient Tumuli on Dartmoor.
Devon Ajisor., v. ol9-o 57 ; vi. 272-27t5.
On tlio ()rij;inal Map of tlio lloyal Forest of Dartmoor,
illustrating the IV'ranilmlatiuu of llonry III., Ti-lO. Devon
Ansoe,, Y. 510-548.
rri'liistoric? luturnicnt at Trutliil in Sheviock. J?oy. Inai, of
Cornwall, vii. L3G-138.
lltpurt on tlie Antiquities of Dartmoor. Journ, Anihr<kp,
Itul,, i. A])])enclix, c-cxxi.
Batkly (John). Goriest on Cliurcli. Journ, Arch, Assoc, xxxvi. 435-44 1 .
13atkmax (Tuomas). On Ornaments of Kimmeridgc Coal, and on some
Ornaments of J(.»\vclliry, presumed ol'tho llomano-British period,
found in Tumuli in Derbysliiri'. Journ, Arch, Assoc, ii. 234-238.
Xc^tes on Saxon Kemains from BakewcU Church, Derby-
shire. Journ, Arch, Amoc, ii. 303-305.
Remarks upon a low of the Barrows opened at yarious
times in the more Hillv Districts near Bakcwell. Journ, Arch.
Assoc, f vii. 210-220.
Discoveries of Romano-British and Saxon Remains iii
Xottinghamsliire. Journ, Arch, Assoc, , iii. 297-300.
On Early Burial Places discovered in tho County of
Nottingham. Journ, Arch, Assoc, viii. 183-192.
On Excavations at Gib Hill Tumulus. Journ, Arch. Assoc,
XV. 151-153.
Bati:s (T. H.). On the Local Terra " Erith." Arch, JEliuna, n.s. vii.
181-1H3.
Batt (IIkv. X. (i.). The Abbey of Evesham, illustrated by the livcf*
of a Triad of its Abl.»ots. Jcurn, Arch. Assoc, , xxxii. 193-202.
Batti:n (E. (!nr<noLM). Gaulden. Sumrrstt Arch. Soc, xxiii. 70-87.
Henry Yll. in Somersetshire. Sonurset Arch, Soc, xxv.
49-79.
Baitkn' (Jokn). Somersetshire Sequestrations. Somerset Arch. Soc^
xvi. 13-34.
Trent. Sotncrset Arch. Soc, xx. 113-139.
Battex (John, Jun.). Somerset shirt- Sequestrations during tho Civil
"War. Sotntrsci Arch, Soc, iv. 00-77.
Bax (A. R.). Inscrii)tions in the Churchyard of Willingdon. Sussex
Arch. Coll., xxxiv. 22l-2:jr).
Baxtkk (S. T.). Simie Lombardic (Jold Ornaments found at Chiusi.
.i.rih. J:jiiiif.. xxxiii. 10:j.ll().
Baxiki; .; Willi vm;. IMiii-Oniii.-.i] Lcitir^ from, to tho lute Dr. Geeky
A\}scn lii^l ent'.rLd :it Cambriili;o. Arch., i. 205-211.
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