Google
This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on Hbrary shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.
It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.
Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.
+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.
About Google Book Search
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web
at|http : //books . google . com/|
^/.. ^ ^^
.^
..^
V .- .-- i. sf? '
^;»,» /<
/. ^ ..^ A^ ^^^^ A
^ , . ^h^ ^ --^ ^J' ^
t
>rS<^ ' t:-^
^/^
- ^j-
lU-s.
y
/t-r^Tf'
4. ^ c^^rcA^'i
'/'^
THE
ARCHITECT'S AND BUILDER'S
POCKET- BOOK
OF
MENSURATION, GEOMETRY. GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS, TRIGG
NO METRICAL FORMULAS AND TABLES. STRENGTH AND
STABILITY OF FOUNDATIONS, WALLS. BUTTRESSES,
PIERS, ARCHES. POSTS, TIES, BEAMS, GIRDERS,
TRUSSES, FLOORS, ROOFS, ETC.
IN ADDITION TO WHICH IS
A GREAT AMOUNT OF CONDENSED INFORMATION:
STATISTICS AND TABLES RELATING TO CARPENTRV, MASONRY.
DRAINAGE, PAINTING AND GLAZING, PLUMBING, PLAS-
TERING, ROOFING, HEATING AND VENTILATION,
WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS, CAPACITY AND
DIMENSIONS OF NOTED CHURCHES,
THEATRES, DOMES, TOWERS,
SPIRES, ETC.,
WITH A GREAT VARIETY OF MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION.
BY
FRANK EUGENE KIDDER, C.E., Ph.D.,
OONBULTINO ABCHITEOT, DEITVSB, OOLO.
ILLUSTRATED WITH OVER 500 ENGRAVINGS, MOSTLY FROM ORJGINAL DESIGNS
TWELFTH EDITION,
REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED.
INCLUDING A GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS — ANCIENT AND MODERN.
FIRST THOUSAND.
NEW YORK:
JOHN WILEY & SONS,
53 East Tenth Street.
Engin. Library
I SI
coftriqht,
By F. B. KIDDEB,
Press of J. T- Little & Co^
A.8tor Place, I-iew Y(«k.
.'/
CfliS Booft
IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED TO THOSE WHOSE KINDNESS
HAS ENABLED ME TO PRODUCE IT.
TO MY PARENTS,
WHO GAVE ME THE EDUCATION UPON WHICH IT IS BASED;
TO MY WIFE,
FOR HER LOVING SYMPATHY, ENCOURAGEMENT, AND ASSIST-
ANCE;
TO ORLANDO W. NORCROSS
OF WORCESTER, MASS.,
WHOSE SUPERIOR PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE OF ALL THAT
PERTAINS TO BUILDING HAS GIVEN ME A MORE
INTELLIGENT AND PRACTICAL VIEW OF
THE SCIENCE OF CONSTRUCTION
THAN I SHOULD OTHERWISE
HAVE OBTAINED.
TWELFTH EDITION.
The following revisions and additions have been made in this
edition : ,
The chapter on Fireproof Floors has been entirely rewritten and
ext.ended to conform to present practice, and several pages of re-
visions and additions have been made in Chapter XXV.
Several pages of tables relating to iron beams have been omitted,
and other tables substituted in their place. New tables have been
added in Chapter XI., giving the strength of H -shaped and rectan-
gular cast-iron columns, and of the new ** Gray " steel column. A
special article on the Strength of Cast-iron Bearing Plates has been
added to Chapter X., and new tables are given in Chapter VI. for
the Strength of Masonry.
There are also several changes in Part III., particularly a revision
of the article on Steam-heating, and several new pages giving the
cost per square and cubic foot of public and private buildings.
Altogether there are about one hundred pages of revised and new
matter in this edition.
F. E. Kidder.
Denver, Mcvreh 1, 1895.
PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION.
Within the past four years the introduction of steel in building
construction has been so rapid, and the changes thereby occasioned
in the tables relating to the strength of materials so great, that it
became necessary to revise all that portion of the book which
relates to iron and steel coi^struction. After undertaking this
revision, it was found that the changes would be so groat as to
necessitate resetting a large portion of the book, and the author
then decided to improve the opportunity to rearrange Part 111., and
to make certain additions thereto that he has had in contemplation
for some time. The present edition, therefore, is largely a new
book, all of Chapters XXIIl. and XXY., and nearly all of Chapters
XL, Xlll., and XIV., being rewritten, and one hundred pages of
new matter added io the second part alone.
Part 111. has been rearranged and enlarged by about eighty
pages of miscellaneous information of especial value to architects,
and a glossary of sixty pages added as an appendix.
The new matter contained on pages 746-773, it is believed, will
be of especial interest to architects and draughtsmen, as the data
there given are not readily accessible elsewhere. It will be noticed
that in the list of Noted American Architects there are many dates
wanting; if such readers as may be able to supply them will kindly
inform the author, he will be greatly obliged.
The author is always pleased to receive criticism and suggestions,
and is ever willing to give further explanation of any portion of
the book that may not be readily understood.
F. E. KiDDEB.
Denver, Col., November 3, 1891.
PEEFAOE.
In preparing the following pages, it has ever been the aim of
the author to give to the architects and bnilders of this country
a r^erenee hook which should be for them what Trautwine's
** Pocket-Book" is to engineers, — a compendium of practical
facts, rules, and tables, presented in a form as convenient for
application as possible, and as reliable as our present knowledge
will permit. Only so much theory has been given as will render
the application of the formulas more apparent, and aid the stu-
dent in understanding, in some measure, the principles upon
which the formulas are based. It is believed that nothing has
been given in this book but what has been borne out in practice.
As this book was not written for engineers^ the more intricate
problems of building construction, which may fairly be said to
'iome within the province of the civil engineer, have been omitted.
Desiring to give as much information as possible likely to be of
service to architects and builders, the author has borrowed and
ouoted from many sources, in most cases with the permission of
the authors. Much practical information has been derived from
the various handbooks published by the large manufacturers of
rolled-iron beams, bars, etc. ; and the author has always found the
publishers willing to aid him whenever requested.
Although but very little has been taken from Trautwine's
" Pocket-Book for Engineers," yet this valuable book has served
the author as a model, which he has tried to imitate as well as the
difference in the subjects would permit; and if his work shall
prove of as much value to architects and builders as Mr. Traut-
wine's has to engineers, he will feel amply rewarded for his
labor.
viii PREFACE.
As it is impossible for the author to verify all of the dimensions
and miscellaneous information contained in Part III. , he cannot
speak for their accuracy, except that they were in all cases taken
from what were considered reliable sources of information. The
tables in Part II. have been carefully computed, and it is believed
are free from any large errors. There are so many points of in-
formation often required by architects and builders, that it is
difficult for one person to compile them all; and although the
present volume is by no means a small one, yet the author desires
to make his work as useful as possible to those for whom it has
been prepared, and he will therefore be pleased to receive any in-
formation of a serviceable nature pertaining to architecture or
building, that it may be inserted in future editions should such
become necessary, and for the correction of any errors that may
be found.
The author, while compiling this volume, has consulted a great
number of works relating to architecture and building; and as he
has frequently been asked by students and draughtsmen to refer
them to books from which they might acquire a better knowledge
of construction and building, the following list of books is given
as valuable works on the various subjects indicated by the
titles: —
" Notes on Building Construction," compiled for the use of the
students in the science and art schools. South Kensington, Eng-*
land. 3 vols. Rivingtons, publishers, London.
"Building Superintendence," by T. M. Clark, architect and
professor of architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
J. R. Osgood A Co., publishers, Boston.
" The American House Carpenter" and ** The Theory of Trans-
verse Strains," both by Mr. R. G. Hatfield, architect, formerly of
New York.
** Graphical Analysis of Ro Trusses," by Professor Charles E.
Green of the University of 3higan.
"The Fire Protection '*' ' by C. J. H. Wcjpdbury, in-
spector for the Factory urance Companies. John
Wiley & Sons, publisl
PREFACE. ix
** House Drainage and Water Service,*' by James C. Bayles,
editor of "The Iron Age" and "The Metal Worker." David
Williams, publisher, New York.
"The Builders' Guide and Estimators' Price-Book," and "Plas-
ter and Plastering, Mortars, and Cements," by Fred. T. Hodgson,
editor of " The Builder and Wood Worker." Industrial Publica-
tion Company, New York.
"Foundations and Concrete Works" and "Art of Building,"
by E. Dobson. Weale's Series, London.
It would be well if all of the above books might be found in
every architect's ofl&ce; but if the expense prevents that, the
ambitious student and draughtsman should at least make himself
acquainted with their contents. These works will also be found
of great value to the enterprising builder.
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
It is now a little more than two years since " The Architect's
and Builder's Pocket-Book" was first introduced to the public.
Daring that time the author has received so many encouraging
words and suggestions from a large niunber of architects and
bonders, that he desires to acknowledge their kindness, and to
express the hope that the book will always merit their com->
mendation.
When preparing the book for publication, especial care and
tiiooght were given to the second part of the book; trusting
that, if once well done, it would need but little revision for a
number of years. The first part, also, it is believed, is quite
complete in its way. For Part III., however, the author found
time merely to compile such matter as he believed to be of practi-
cal value to architects or builders, thinking that, should the book
prove a success, this part could be easily revised and enlarged;
and, since the second edition was published, the author has de-
voted such time as he could command to revising such portions
as upon investigation seemed to require it, and preparing addi-
tional matter.
It is the intention of the author, seconded by the publishers,
to make each edition of the book more complete and perfect
than the one preceding, in the hope that it may in time become
to the architects of the present day what Gwilt's "Encyclopaedia"
was to those of former days. The great diversity of informa-
tion, however, required by an architect, or those having to do
xii PREFACE.
of time to devote to the work, to make such a book as complete
as could be desired.
In the Preface to the first edition it was requested that those
who might have information or suggestions which would increase
the value of the book would kindly send them to the author, or
advise him of any errors that should be discovered.
Several persons generously replied to this invitation ; and several
small errors have been corrected, and additional information
given, as the result. It is believed, however, that there are yet
many who have thought, at. times, of various ways in which the
book could be improved, or have in their private note-books
practical data or suggestions which others in the profession would
be glad to possess; and it is hoped all such will feel it for the
interest of. the profession to forward such items to the author.
Any records or reports of tests of the strength of building
materials of any kind will be especially appreciated.
To the list of books given in the former Preface the author
would add the following, which have been of much assistance
in the preparation of the pages on steam4ieating, and in his
professional practice : -^
"The Principles of Heating and Ventilation, and their Prac-
tical Application," by John S. Billings, M.D., LL.D., Sanitary
Engineer, New York.
"Steam-Heating for Buildings; or, Hints to Steam-Fitters, by
William J. Baldwin, M.E. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
"Steam." Babcock & Wilcox Company, New York and Glas-
gow.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
PAOV
AbithmbticaIi Sign? and Characters 3
Involution ■ . 3
Evolution, Scjuark and Cube Root, Rules, and Tables . 4
Wkiqhts and Measures 25
Thk Metric System 30
Scripture and Ancient Measures and Weights .... 33
Mbnsuration 35
Geometrical Problems 68
Table of Chords o . 85
Hip and Jack Rafters 04
Trioonombtrv, Formulas and Tables ..•»••«,. 95
PART II.
Introdiiction i . , ^ . . 123
CnAPTEK I.
Definitions of Terms used in Mechanics 125
CHAPTER II.
Foundations •••.. IIM)
CHAPTER III.
Masonry Walls 149
CHAPTER IV.
Composition and Resolution of Forces. — Centre o
Gravity ..,,..,
XIV CONTENTS.
CHAPTER V. p^^^
Bbtainikg Walls • • • . 167
CHAPTER VL
StRBNGTH OF MaSONBY 171
CHAPTER VII.
Stability of Pibbs and Buttbessbs < 187
CHAPTER VIIL
Thb Stability of Abches % 191
CHAPTER IX.
Rf^istancb to Tension 206
CHAPTER X.
Resistance to Shearing and Strength of Pins . • • • • 238
Pbopobtions of Cast-Ibon Beabino Plates 242a
CHAPTER XI.
Strength of Posts, Struts, and Columns 2ia
CHAPTER XII.
Bbnding-Moments 290
CHAPTER XIII.
Moments of Inertia and Resistance, and Radius of Gy-
ration 2&7
CHAPTER XIV.
General Principles of the Strength of Beams, and
Strength of Iron Beams 829
CHAPTER XV.
Strength of Cast-Iron, Wooden, and Stone Beams. —
Solid Built Beams 871
CHAPTER XVI.
CONTENTS. XV
CHAPTER XVII. „,_
Stbekoth and Stiffness of Continuous Girders .... S92
CHAPTER XVIII.
Flitch Plate Girders 401
CHAPTER XIX.
Tr^tssbd Beams 404
CHAPTER XX.
Riveted Plate-Iron and Steel Beam Girders 410
CHAPTER XXI.
Strength of Cast-Iron -Arch-Girders 422
CHAPTER XXII.
Strength and Stiffness of Wooden Floors 425
CHAPTER XXIII.
Fire-Proof Floors • . 488
CHAPTER XXIV.
Mill Construction 466
CHAPTER XXV.
Materials and Methods of Firf^Proof Construction for
Buildings 467
CHAPTER XXVI.
Wooden Roof-Trusses, with Details . 486
CHAPTER XXVII.
Iron Roofs and Roof-Trusses, with Details of Construc-
tion 510
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Thbory of Roof-Trusses 521
CHAPTER XXIX.
JqIMTS 550
xvi CONTENTS.
PART III.
PA
Chimneys 5
Rules for Proportioning Chimneys £
Examples of Large Chimneys 5
Wrought-iron Chimneys 5
Flow of Gas in Pipes, and Gas Memoranda 5
Piping a House for Gas 5
Stairs and Tables of Treads and Risers 5
Seating Space in Theatres and Schools 5
Symbols for the Apostles and Saints 5
Dimensions of the Largest Ringing Bells 5
Dimensions of the Principal Domes 5
Dimensions of Clock Faces 5
Height op Buildings, Columns, Towers; Domes, Spires, etc. 5
Capacity and Dimensions of Churches, Theatres, Opera
Houses, etc 5)
Dimensions of English Cathedrals 5
Dimensions of Obelisks 5'
Dimensions of Well-known European and American Build-
ings 5
Length and Description of Notable Bridges 6
Lead Memoranda 6
Weight of Wrought-iron and Steel (Rules) 6
Weight of Flat, Square, and Round Iron 6
Weight of Flat Bar Iron 6
Weight of Cast-iron Plates 6
Weight of Lead, Copper, and Brass 6
Weight of Bolts, Nuts, and Bolt Heads 6
Weight of Rivets, Nails, and Spikes 6
Weight of Cast-iron Pipes 6
Weight of Cast-iron Columns 6
Weight of Wrought-iron Pipes and Tubes 6
American and Birmingham Wire Gauges 6
Galvanized and Black Iron, Plain and Corrugated . . 6
Memoranda for Excavators and Well Diggers .... 6
Memoranda for Bricklayers, Tables, etc ^ 6
Measurement of Stone Work 6
Description and Capacity of Drain Pipe 6
Tables of Board Measure of Lumber 6
'iling Memoranda e
BANDA FOR PLASTERERS 6
CJONTENTS. XVU
PASS
IXDA FOR Roofers 653
:lics of Plumbing 6S9
LXDA FOR PaIXTERS 666
tSQ COXDCCTORS 667
[CAL DEFixmoys and Formula ? . . 660
AND Requirements for Lkcandbscext Lightinu . . 675
f Glass : Price List, etc .... 687
TUM 6QS
lsphalt 6M
T of Freight Cars 607
• of Substances per Cubic Foot 697
OSS AND Weight of Church Bells TOO
' AN'D Cost of Buildings 701
LSD Tear of Building Materials 7TO
T of Cisterns axd Tanks T08
• AND Composition of Air T06
isoN of Thermometers 706
OF Iron caused by Heat 707
J Point and Expansion of Metals 708
toPERTiES of Water TOO
PTioN of Water in Cities 711
bscence on Brickwork 712
noN OF Rain-water Conducttors to Roof Surface . 712
TE Strength of Sulphur, Lead, and Cement . . . 713
ient of Friction 714
vE Blue Prints of Tracings 715
L Wool 716
TE ILvrdness of Woods 718
ooD LuMHER Grades 718
x)wer 719
' OF Castings (Rules) 719
)F Drums and Pulleys (Rules for) 7t30
• of Grindstones 720
.ANEOUs Memoranda 721
IONS of Pianos, Wagons, Carriages, etc 722
' of Sash Weights, Lumber, etc 723
[VK FoRCK OF Blasting Materials 724
OF the Wind 725
iutes 725
erators 726
AL MoULiiiNOS 728
jissicAL Orders ... 729
XVlll CONTENTS.
PAGS
List of Noted Foreign Architects 740
List of Noted American Architects , » 746
Architects of Noted Buildinos 753
Cost of Buildings per Cubic Foot 700
Cost of Buildings per Square Foot leOg
Charges and Professional Practice op Architects . . 7607*
Standard Building Contract 764
Architectural S(-hools and Classes in the United States 769
Travelling Fellowships and Scholarships 772
List of Architectural Books 774
^fTEAM Heating 776
Residence Heating 807
APPENDIX.
Glossary of Technical Terms, Ancient and Modern, used
BY Architects, Builders, and Draughtsmen . . . I-53
Legal Definition of Architectural Terms 54-58
PART L
PRACTICAL
Arithmetic. Geometry, and Trigonometry.
Rules, Tables, and Problems
PEACTICAL
ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRY.
SIGNS AND CHARACTERS.
The following signs an() cliaitictjrt; 3tre generally nsed to denote
and abbreviate the several mathematical operations : —
The sign = means equal to, or equality.
— means minus or less, or subtraction.
+ means phis, or addition.
X means midtiplied by, or multiplication,
-r means divided by, or division.
2 ( Index or power, meaning that the number to which
* c they are added is to be squared (^) or cubed {^),
: is to 1
:: so is [ Signs of proportion.
: to J
J means that the square root of the number before
which it is placed is required.
A^ means that the cube root of the number before
which it is placed is required.
' the bar indicates that all the numbers under it are
to be talien together.
{) the parenthenis means that all the numbers between
are to be taken as one quantity.
. means decimal parts; thus, 2.5 means 2^^, 0.46
means ^^.
® means degrees, ' minutes, '' seconds.
•*. means hence.
INVOLUTION.
To square a number, multiply the number by itself, and the
product will be the square; thus, the square ofl8 = 18xl8 = 324.
The cube of a number is the product obtained by multi-*
plying the number by itself, and that product by the number
agftin; thus, the cube of 14 = 14 x 14 x 14 = 2744.
4 EVOLUTION.
The fotirtli power of a number is the product obtained
by multiplyini; tlie number by itself four times; thus, the fourth
power of 10 = 10 x 10 x 10 X 10 = 10000.
EVOLUTION.
Square Boot. — Rule for determining the square root of a
^umber.
1st, Divide the given number into periods of two figures each,
conunencing at the right if it is a whole number, and at the
• • • « •
decimal-point if there are decimals; thus, 10286.812(5.
2d, Find the largest square In the left-hand period, and place its
root in the quotient; subtract the said square from the left-hand
period, and to the remainder bring dowu the next period for a new
dividend.
3d, Double the root already foiuid, and annex one cipher for a
trial divisor, see how many times it will go in the dividend, and
put the number in the quotient; also, in place of the cipher in the
divisor, multiply this final divisor by the number in the quotient
just found, and subtract the product from the dividend, and to the
remainuer bring down the next period for a new dividend, and
proceed as before. If it should be foiuid that the trial divisor
cannot be contained in the dividend, bring down the next perio<l
for a new dividend, and annex another cipher to the trial divisor,
and put a cipher in the quotient, and proceed as before.
KxAMPLB. 10236.8126 ( 101.17 square root.
1
20l]0236
201
2021 ) 3581
2021
20227 ) 156026
141589
14437
Cube Root. — To extract the cube root of a number, point off
the number from right to left into periods of three figm*es each,
and, if there is a decimal, commence at the decimal-point, and point
off into periods, going both ways.
Ascertain the highest root of the first period, and place to right
of number, as in long division; cube the root thus found, and sub-
fi-* he first period ; to the remainder annex the next period :
lae root already found, and multiply by three, and annex
CUBE ROOT.
two ciphers for the trial divisor. Find how oftrn this trial divisoi
is contained in the dividend, and write the result in the root.
Add together the trial divisor, three times the proiuct of the first
figure of the root by the second with one cipher annexed, and the
square of the second figure in the root; multiply the sum by the last
figure in the root, and subtract from the dividend ; to the remain-
der annex the next period, and proceed as before.
When the trial divisor is greater than the dividend, write a cipher
in the root, annex the next period to the dividend, and proceed as
before.
Desired the ^493039.
493039 ( 79 cube root.
7 X 7 X 7 = 343
7x7X3 = 14700
150039
7X9X3= 1890
9X9= 81
16671
150039
Desired the ^4035a3.419.
403583.419 ( 73.9 cube root.
7 X 7 X 7 = :343
7x7x3 = 14700
7X3X3= 630
3X3= 9
15339
73 X 73 X 3 = 1598700
7a X 9X3= 19710
9X9= 81
1618491
Desired the ^158252.632929.
60583
46017
14566419
14566419
158252.632929 ( 54.09 cube root
5 X 5 X 5 = 125
5X5X3 = 7500
5X4X3= 600
4X4= 16
8116
540 X 540 X 3 = 87480000
540 X 9X3= 145800
9X9= 81
87625881
33225
32464
788632929
788632929
TABLE
OF
SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, AND
RECIPROCALS,
yroiii 1 to lOS"^*
The following table, taken from Searle's " Field Engineering,'*
will be found of great convenience in finding the square, cube,
square root, cube root, and reciprocal of any number from 1 to 1054.
The reciprocal of a number is the quotient obtained by dividing 1
by the number. Thus the recipixxjal of 8 is 1 -r 8 = 0.125,
SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS,
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
10
17
10
10
20
Ll
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
82
33
34
85
36
87
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
61
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
Squares.
Cubes.
Square
lioots.
1
1
1.0000000
4
8
1.4142136
9
27
1.7020508
16
64
2.0000000
25
125
2.2300680
36
216
2 4494897
49
343
2.6457513
64
512
2.8284271
81
T-J9
. 3.0000000
100
1000
8.1622777
121
1331
8.3166248
144
1728
8.4641016
169
2197
8.6055513
196
2744
8.7a3E74
225
8375
8.8729833
256
4096
4.0000000
289
4913
4.1231056
324
5as2
4.S42C407
361
6859
4.3588989
400
8000
4.4721360
441
92G1
4.1825757
484
10348
4.0904158
529
12167
4.7958315
576
13824
4.8009795
625
15025
6.G0C0000
676
17576
5.C0C0195
729
19683
6.1CG1E24
784
21952
6.2015026
^1
24389
5.3851648
900
27000
6.47T2256
961
29791
5.5677614
l(m
82768
5.C568&42
1069
85937
6.7445626
1156
89304
6.8309519
1225
42875
6.9160798
1296
46656
6.0000000
1369
50653
6.0G27625
1444
54872
6.1644140
1521
69319
6.2449980
1600
64000
6.3245553
1081
68921
6.4001242
1764
74088
6.40)7407
1849
79507
6.5574C85
1036
85184
6.f>l;r496
2025
91125
6.703!D039
2116
97236
6.7G23G00
2209
10G823
6.C55G&46
2304
110592
6.9282032
2401
117049
7.0000000
2500
125000
7.0710G78
2001
132651
7.1414284
2704
140608
7.2111026
2809
148877
7.2801099
2916
1574G4
7.3484692
3025
16C375
7.41G1C85
8136
175016
7.4830148
3249
185103
7.5498344
8364
195112
7.6157731
8481
205379
7.6811457
8600
216000
7.7469667
3721
226081
7.810^197
3844
238328
7.8740079
Cube Roots.
Reciprocals.
1.0000000
1.000000000
1.2599210
.500000000
1.4422496
.S333333J^
1.5874011
.250000000
1.7099759
.200000000
1.8171206
.166006667
1.9129312
.142857143
2.CCC0000
.125000000
2.0800637
.111111111
2.1544347
.100000000
2.2239601
.090909091
2.2894286
.083233333
8.8513347
.076923077
8.4101422
.0714!C8571
S.4G62121
Mimm&t
2.5198421
.062500000
2.5712816
.05882Rr29
2.6207414
.05.5555556
2.6684016
.C5i2631579
2.7144177
,050000000
2. -J 589243
.C4701SC48
2.8020393
.04M54545
2.8438670
.04C478£G1
2.C844991
.041GCe667
2.C340177
.c-:ccooooo
2. £624900
.l£8461538
8.CC0G00O
.0&70C7037
8.CCG5669
.035714286
8.07^168
.C3448275©
8.1072325
.033333333
8.1413806
.032.968065
8.1746021
.03J250000
8.207C343
020303030
8.23S0118
.029411765
8.2710603
.0:^571429
8.S019272
.027777^78
8.332£218
.027027027
B.ZQIOTU
.0£C315789
8.3912114
.025641026
8.4199519
.025000000
8.44021':"2
.0:4390244
8.47CC266
.023809524
8.C03G981
.023255814
8.5C0C483
.02272727^
8.55C8C33
.022222222
8.58£Oi79
.021739130
8.G088261
.021276600
8.G342411
.fl£G833aS3
8.6593057
.020406163
8.6840314
.020000000
8.7G&4298
.019607843
8.7325111
.019280769
8.7502858
.018867925
8.7797031
.018518519
8.8029525
.018181818
8.8258624
.017857143
8.8185011
.017543860
8.8708766
.017241379
8.8929965
.016949153
8.9148678
.016666667
8.9364973
.016393443
8.9578915
016129080
CUBE ROOTS, AND RECIPROCALS.
9
No.
Squares.
Cubes.
Square
icbots.
Cube Roots.
Reciprocals.
C3
3969
250047
7.9372539
8.9790571
.015873016
64
4096
262144
8.0000000
4.0000000
.015625000
65
4225
2^46^
8.0a225V7
4.0207256
.015384015
60
4856
267490
8.12403^
4.011^101
.015151515
67
4489
800763
8.1853528
4.0315480
.014923373
68
4624
314432
8.24G2113
4.0816551
.014;05882
69
4761
328509
8.3066239
4.1015661
.014492754
TO
4900
813000
8.3666003
4.1212S53
.014285714
71
6041
357911
8.42G1493
4.1408178
.014084307
73
51&1
873248
8.4852814
4.1601C76
.0138888GD
78
5329
889017
8.5440037
4.1793390
.013698630
74
5476
405224
8.6023253
4.1988364
.013513514
75
5625
421875
8.6602540
4.2171633
.013333333
76
6776
438976
8.7177979
4.2358236
.013157895
77
5929
45G533
8.7749614
4.2543210
.0121:87013
78
6061
474552
8.8317600
4.2726586
.012820313
79
6241
493039
8.8681944
4.2906404
.012058228
80
6400
B12000
8.9442719
4.3068695
.012500000
81
6561
631441
9.0000030
4.3007487
.0123450; 9
82
6724
5513C8
9.0353851
4.3144815
.012193122
83
6889
671787
9.1101836
4.3320707
.012016193
84
7056
692704
9.1G51514
4.3795191
011901762
8S
7225
614125
9.2195445
4.3968296
.011761706
86
7396
636056
9.2730185
4.4140019
.011027907
87
7569
658503
9.3278791
4.4310176
.011494253
88
T?44
681472
9.3806315
4.4479G02
.011363636
89
7921
7019G9
9.4339811
4.4647451
.011235955
90
8100
■reoooo
9.4868330
4.4814017
.011111111
91
8281
733571
9.5393920
4.4979114
.010089011
98
8164
778683
9.5916G30
4.5143574
.010369565
93.
8649
801357
9.6430508
4.5306519
.010752688
94
8836
830584
9.6958597
4.5468359
.010638298
96
9025
857375
9.7467943
4.5629026
.010326316
96
9216
884786
9.7979590
4.5788570
.010416667
97
9409
912373
9.8188578
4.5917009
.010309278
98
9604
941192
9.8994019
4.6101363
.010204062
99
9601
970299
9.9498744
4.6260650
.010101010
100
10000
1000000
10.0000000
4.6415888
.010000000
l(Ml
10201
1030301
10.0498756
4.657C096
.OOOJ00990
lOS
10404
1061208
10.0995019
4.6723287
.009803923
108
10609
1092727
10.1488916
4.6875482
.000708738
104
10816
1124864
10.1980390
4.702GG94
.009015385
106
11025
1167625
10.2469508
4.7176940
.009328810
106
11236
1191016
10.2956301
4.732G235
.009133962
107
11449
1225013
10.3440604
4.7474594
.009*45791
108
11664
1259712
10.3923018
4.7622032
.00:259259
109
11881
1295029
10.4403065
4.7768562
.009174312
110
12100
1331000
10.4880885
4.7914199
.009090909
111
12321
1367631
10.5356538
4.8058955
.009009000
112
12544
1404928
10.5830052
4.8202815
.008928571
118
12769
1442897
10.6801458
4.8315881
.003849338
114
12996
1481544
10.C770783
4.8188076
.008771930
116
13225
1520875
10.7238053
4.8629442
.008095652
116
13456
1560696
10.rr03296
4.87C9990
.008C20C90
117
13689
1601613
10.8166538
4.8909732
.008317009
118
139^
1643032
10.8627805
4.9048681
.008174576
119
14161
1685159
10.9087121
4.9186847
.008403361
190
14400
1728000
10.9544512
4.9324242
.008333333
m
14641
1771561
11 MJXm
4.9160674
.008261463
Itt
14884
1815848
11.0153610
4.9596757
.008196^1
198
16189
1660667
11.0905365
4.9731898
.008130081
IM
15376
1906624
11.1355287
4.9866310
.008064516
10
SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS,
No.
Squares.
Cubes.
Square
Koots.
Cube Roots.
Reciprocals.
123
15625
1953125
11.1303399
6.0000000
.006000000
126
15876
20C0376
11.2^9723
6.0132979
.007936508
127
16129
2048383
11.2094277
6.0265257
.007874016
128
1G3S4
2097158
11.3137085
6.0396843
.007818500
129
16641
8146689
U.8578167
6.0537748
.0077S1968
laa
16900
2197000
11.4017548
6.0657970
.007698306
131
17161
2248091
11.4455231
- 6.0787531
.007638588
1C2
174S4
2299968
11.4891253
6.0916434
.007575758
133
17G39
2352637
11.5325G26
6.1044687
.007518797
VA
17056
»106104
11.5758369
6.1172299
.007462687
1C5
18225
8160675
11.6181^00
6.1299278
.007407407
1:3
18196
2515456
11.6619038
6.1425638
.007858041
1:7
18769
2571853
11.7040099
6.1551367
.007S99&nO
108
19044
262807^
11.7478401
6.1676498
.007^16377
lo9
19321
8685619
11.7896261
6.1801015
. .007194845
140
19600
8744000
11.8321596
6.1924941
.00n48887
111
19881
880S221
11.874&121
6.2048279
.00^02199
112
20164
8863288
11.9168753
6.2171034
.007048854
143
20449
89^1207
11.9582607
6.2293215
.006998007
144
20736
8985984
12.0000000
6.3414828
.006944444
145
2102s
8048625
12.0415946
6.2535879
.006890668
146
21316
8112136
12.0630460
6.2656374
.006848615
147
21609
8170523
12.1243557
6.2776321
.006808781
148
21904
8241793
12.1055251
6.2895725
.0067^6757
14d
82201
8307949
12.2005556
6.3014598
.000711409
150
22500
8375000
12.»174487
6.3132928
•006600067
151
22801
8142951
12.2882057
5.3?.>0740
.0066SS517
153
23104
8611808
13.3288280
6.3368088
.006678047
153
23409
8581577
12.3693169
6.3481818
.006536048
154
23716
8652264
12.4096736
6.8601064
.006498606
155
^1025
8723875
12.4496996
6.3710R54
.006461018
156
24336
8796416
13.4899060
6.3632126
.000410860
157
24649
8869603
12.5299611
6 3916907
.000909187
158
24964
8944813
12.5096051
6.4061208
.000839114
159
25281
4019679
12.6095203
6.4175015
.006880806
160
85600
4096000
12.6491106
6.4888368
.000850000
IGl
25921
4173281
12.0885775
6.4101218
.000311180
1G2
26244
4251528
13.7279221
6.4513618
.000178640
1G8
86569
4330747
13.7671453
6.4625550
.000184800
164
26896
4410944
13.8062486
6.4787087
.000007801
1G5
27225
4492125
13.^52326
6.4848065
•006000600
166
87556
4574296
12.8840987
6.4958647
.006081000
167
27889
4657463
12.9228480
6.5068784
.005866084
168
88224
4741633
12.9014814
6.5178484
.O0G9S8881
169
28561
4826809
13.0000000
6.6887748
.006017100
170
88900
4913000
13.03«<4048
6.5396588
.006008058
171
29241
6000211
13.07GC968
6.5501991
.006847968
172
29584
5068448
13.1148770
6.5618978
.006818868
173
29929
6177717
18.1529164
6.5780546
.006780617
174
80276
6268024
18.1909060
6.6827703
.006747180
175
80625
6359375
13.2287566
6.6984447
.008714866
176
80976
M5irr6
18.2664992
6.6040787
.000661818
177
81329
6545233
18.3041847
6.6146734
.OO6O40n8
178
81684
6639753
13.3116641
6.6352268
.006017998
179
82041
6735339
13.8790683
6.685740B
.006686608
180
82400
6832000
13.4164079
6.6468109
tymmmmmmm
181
82761
6929741
13.4536240
6.6566588
.0068tMB08
182
83124
6028568
18.4907376
6.6670511
.O0O4O4B05
1{»
83489
6128187
13.5277493
6.6774114
.006104481
184
83856
6229504
18.5646600
6.6877840
JXMMTSO
185
84225
6331685
18.6014705
6.6060198
J000lfl040^
186
84596
6481856
13.6381817
6.7088675
jOQBoni'
Ct'BE ROOTS, AND RECIPROCALS.
a
No.
Squares.
Cubes.
Square
Roots.
Cube Roots. '
!
Reciprocals.
187
84969
6639203
13.6747943
5.7184791
.005347594
188
85814
6644672
13.7113092
5.7286543
.005319149
180
85721
6751260
13.7477271
5.7387936
.005291005
190
86100
6R50000
13.7840488
6.7488971
.005263158
191
86481
6067871
13.8202750
6.758CGn2
.Cai235602
103
86864
7077888
13.8564065
5.7689982
.0052C8383
108
87249
7180057
13.8924440
5.77899G6
.005181347
194
87636
7801384
13.928S883
5.7889604
.005154689
195
88025
7414875
13.9642400
5.7988900
.005128205
106
88416
7529536
14.0000000
5.8087857
.Oa5102041
197
88809
7645373
14.035C088
5.818&179
.005076142
193
89204
7762392
14.0712473
5.8284767
.OCr,050505
199
89601
7880599
14.10673G0
5.6382?^
.005025126
200
40000
6000000
14.1421356
5.8460855
.005000000
2C1
40401
8120601
14.17744C9
5.8577660
.004975124
203
40604
8^42408
14.2126704
5.^674643
.004950495
208
41209
6365427
14.2478068
6.8771307
.004926106
204
41016
^89664
14.28285G9
5.8867653
.0(M901961
205
42025
8615125
14.3178211
5.8963685
.004878049
2oa
42436
8741816
14.3527001
5.9050400
.004854369
207
42849
8869743
14.8874946
5 9154817
.004880918
203
43264
8098912
14.42J:2C.'31
5 9^9921
.004807692
200
48681
0128820
14.45683i:3
5.9344721
.004784689
210
44100
0281000
14.4918767
5.9439220
.004761905
211
44521
0308031
14.525&90
5.£CcS4l8
.004739386
212
44C44
0528128
14.5GQ2196
5.9G2';&20
.004716981
218
45369
0668597
14.5945195
5.9720926
.004694836
214
45796
06C0344
14.6287288
5. £814240
.004672897
215
46225
9988875
14.6G28783
5.91:07204
.004651163
216
46656
100776C0
14.69CC8e5
6.CC0C0C0
.004629630
217
47089
10218313
14.73C9109
6.CC£24C0
.0046C8295
218
47524
108GC2S3
14.7(Via:£l
6.C184C17
.C04587156
219
47961
10606459
14.798C4£6
6.G27G5G2
.004566210
220
48400
10648000
14.8323070
6.0868107
.004545455
21:1
48841
10708801
14.eCCCGC7
6.C459435
.0045248.87
223
49284
10041048
14.898C&44
6.Cn50489
.004504505
2:^8
49128
11060507
14.9331845
6.CC41270
.004484805
2;:4
fiOlTB
11230424
14.96(K£05
6.0731779
.004464286
225
60025
11890C25
15.C0CCC00
C.C822020
.004444444
226
51076
11548176
15.03S2CG4
6.0911994
.004424779
227
61529
11G07(«3
15.0CC5192
6.1C01'<02
.004405286
298
61964
11C52C52
15.CCCCC89
6.1C01147
.004385C65
229
62441
12006969
15.1E274C0
6.1180S32
.0043CC812
290
62000
121G7000
15.1657509
6.1269257
.004347826
281
533G1
12326391
15.108C&12
6.1857924
.004829004
im
68824
124enG8
15.2315402
6.144C337
.004310345
238
54289
12649337
15.264S375
6.1{:S4495
.004291845
234
547n6
12G129M
15.2970585
6.1C22401
.004273504
2ii5
55225
12977875
15.3297007
6.171C068
.004255319
236
55096
18144256
15.3622915
6.1707466
.C04237288
287
601C0
13812053
15.3948043
6.1884628
.C04219409
238
£6044
18481272
15.4272486
6.19n544
.004201681
2S9
57121
18651919
15.4596248
6.2058218
.004184100
240
57600
18824000
15.4919334
6.2144C50
004166667
241
58061
18897521
15.5241747
6 2i:ccr43
.CC414C378
2i2
58564
14170488
15.. '5503402
6.2310797
.C04182231
243
59040
14848907
15.5HR4573
6.2402515
.004115226
244
50536
14526784
15.G204994
6.^487008
.004008861
243
60025
14706125
15.C524758
6.2573248
.004081083
'VM
60516
14886036
15.C84*)871
6.2058206
cc-^ccrx4i
r
61G00
15069223
15.71C0:>:G
! 6.274S054
.C0404r:r3
^
^504
152S2092
15.7480157
1 6.2827613
.004a32258
SQUAKES, CUBES, SQUARE HOOTS,
„.
ftsr
Cube Boots. S
iJlfl
1S.77W7338
e.WllDM
wwimu
sso
15.8113883
<I.W9<)a53
00400000Q
t.dcmaas
oosgstOM
e.aesaM
15:b058737
a.8iM703B
lS,»3rjr!3
B.xaoM
SiU
e.su^r
UK
lO! 031:2] ue
siaajsoii
0CO8910S1
IB.0CS3;»1
fl.3G009«8
WB7SM0
m
m
10.13U1KI
B.ssaaota
OOSSUIM
003831418
xa
ittiauofos
ist.
offiw
i6.i.T!aa»
i.mim
mnw»
aa;
0(B74O3ie
m
in.aroTOJi
8,*173037
OOJiMSU
aea
1S.40I3185
B.4K3148
oo3;m»
■m
IB!4a!»77S
8^4712736
f
l«.4»itiW
8,4ri«J3«
«H0T04n
ie!fi[W).<i
IKI3UieS85
10.B831S40
ODSKsesM
2Tfl
la.fliaaiTT
8,5106300
taxasm
10.6433i:0
B.siama
oaxioioe
a;s
0(Ki58uai
280
16.7S3i!0OS
o.seisss
ocispwo
iB.Tastow
ani
283
001533668
«81
wisoiiiifao
oisvaia^a
oosaiiK
2d5
Ht.8319l30
6.5aCWH3
ooBosra
SSS
m
OLtuiijjoe
m
17.tO»38M
6.C10I0CO
oosMsm
iTinrei*
8;8418Ma
oojiiaiao
r,i40iii»i
e.wBSOM
xH4oi3ai
Wi
£9e
M33;s3;s
S97
Y-asntaxs
e:oriBio3
0(B.-)07«B
SZB
r.aciWTOs
e.orowx)
Oft-;i-->T05
T..T!CW<1
€.C3*3KI5
toi
-,;yy^iu
CTOlTMa
303
7.3.-|!urii
8.70B17S9
003311SS8
803
.iom^
G.nSfiJOO
ae3(n330
C0398M74
;4e4»t'ia
oliaiaias
0U:378(>8S
,4M8.V.7
0.7380011
(X0387W4
li.74j!ni6T
(Mao^aa*
308
!ftiui»«
oonsiuras
3je
)i3«*i3<B
.soisius
e.TBWJifi 1
CUBE ROOTS, AND RECIPROCALS.
13
No.
Squares.
811
96721
312
97344
313
97969
314
98596
315
99225
316
99656
317
100489
818
101124
319
101701
830
102400
821
103041
a22
103G84
323
104329
324
104076
325
105625
326
106276
327
106029
328
107584
329
10B241
390
108900
331
109561
332
110224
338
110389
334
111556
335
112225
336
112806
337
113569
338
114244
339
114921
Z40
115600
342
343
344
315
346
U7
»8
249
350
351
852
353
354
£55
356
357
G58
SCO
CCl
862
363
364
3t3
366
367
8G8
300
116964
117C49
118336
119025
119716
120109
121104
tiimi
12^j00
l;3o^01
123004
124G09
125316
120025
12ci736
127449
1J:J881
120G00
l.^Jt-21
131044
1317G9
102136
133225
133956
l.T^l^^l
13G1C1
130900
137641
138984
Cubes.
Square
llootB.
80080231
17.6351921
80371328
17.6635217
80664297
17.6918000
80959144
17.7200451
81255875
17.7482398
81554496
17.7703888
81855018
17.8044938
82157432
17.8G25515
82461759
17.8605711
82768000
17.8885438
8307G161
17.9104729
83386248
17.9448584
83698267
17.9722008
84012224
18.0000000
84328125
18.0277504
84645076
18.0554701
84965788
18.0831418
85287552
18. 1107703
85011280
18.1383571
85087000
18.1659021
862&10i)l
18.19&4054
86594G08
18.2206072
86UJXC37
18.2482S76
87250704
18.2750009
87595371>
18.30G0052
87983056
18.33aXK3
88272753
18.35755i«
88614472
18.3847768
88958219
18.4119526
89304000
18.4390889
89051821
18.46CiJw3
40001CC3
18.4932120
40363007
18.520e.:92
40707584
18.54r;J;V0
41063025
18.5741756
414217S6
18.60107:2
41781023
18.C27C:,00
42144102
18.G547L81
42508549
18.0815417
42875000
18.7062860
43243551
18.7340040
43614206
18.7G1CC30
43966977
18.788^042
44361864
18.814^>077
44788875
18.8414137
45118016
18.8679G23
4'>499203
18.894 4- Jo6
4.>'«2712
18.0:»>/i9
46268279
:0.9472953
Cube Boots.
Reciprocals.
46666000
4701.':-.M
474370Ji
47832117
482285!!
48627125
40027?v90
5024^109
50653000
510G?fll
6147rj8l8
t 18.9736660
. )O.(XX>0C/j0
I 19.0262076
I 19.0525.'i89
10.0787^0
■i9.l04a7r:2
19.1311CV,
ia.l5?^Ml
10.2093727
19.2353W1
19.2Gl.r.08
19.2fJ7S^15
I r
6.7751690
6.782;;J29
6.7896013
6.7968844
6.8040921
6.8112847
6.8184620
6.8250242
6.8327714
6.8899087
6.8470213
6.8641240
6.8612120
6.8682855
6.6753443
6.8y23e88
6.8694188
6.690i.'345
6.9034;;59
6.C1042S2
6.91739&4
6.9213556
6.0313006
6.9Ui2S21
6.9451496
6.9520583
6.9589434
6.0058198
6.9?26826
6.9795S81
0.0^03081
6.9031006
7.0(KXX)00
7.00GrOC3
7.(mo',vi
7.C20a400
7.0»n053
7.0388197
7.0405806
7.0472967
7.0M0(M1
7.060C0f;7
7.0C737C7
7.0740440
7.080r/JH8
7.0H7.'>ni
7.C039^(J9
7.ioor/>c>
7.1071087
7.11378G6
7.1200074
7.1260360
7.13aiai>
7.1400370
1405695
7.1030901
7.15950f«
7.1660X7
7.1725809
7 1790544
7.1tV>K2
7.1919663
.003215434
.003205128
.003191888
.003184718
.003174608
.003164557
.0CJJ151574
.00:il44(i51
.003134796
.008125000
.00311526S
.003105590
.0()::C05976
.0(3X80420
.00PXJ70923
.00.'XX;74fc5
.000058104
.00.'X>187a)
.003009514
.00;»30808
,co::x;i204«
.000003003
.crj:W4012
.0(U;b5075
.002976100
.W)20073i:9
C029585J:0
.002949853
.002941176
.002932551
.C02923977
.00291545a
.ar290C977
.002898551
.002890173
.002881844
.002873503
.002865330
.002857143
.C02849003
.caAioooo
.cojjC2j;gi
.C..:<'.iilfJ59
.002810001
.C-'.-^/Jlli.'O
.c/)<j7««j:>i
.0^f.r785515
.002777778
.f.0J7700«?
.a/;w^e2431
.(/.ZTTAf-il
.C;r/47253
.r. ,2739728
.C 0/732210
.r//:r72i706
.002710027
.002702708
.0026.75172
^.--i
i\
11
f
1
1
No.
1
CtA«. '
BqiMra 1
CUbaBootiL
Becfprocak
i
zn
13919
5i^sb::7
i»si»n9 :
T.lSBtfGO
.000680065
' a-.i
la*^
5iilir.;ii
19 33Wnt i
Tjmsn
AȣUX^i
i:5
14i«£S
&*:*«:i73
ida6i»i«r E
7.21UIS9
JUOBSBUBSi
V.i
i4iaf:« ■
53lC7o76
IdSWnM r
Tjunas
.00^0674
£77 i
142:2> '
.Vi.>i>j:d
19.41M8»
T.SHMM
ir-j i
14A*4
&;..i';ia
19.4t2S21
T.»>ttflB
.ttEGisecs
&T5P
14£k41 :
5UiabUUA
i.>.4d:ae8S
T.Msna
.000688622
5SN)
lUlO) '
WtTSWO
19.4995807
T.MSISK
.00001679
Tvl
i«:»:i
5r;>i«;>«i
19.5lStS>l3
T.MSOMB
.0QEBE9l6i8
5 &"2 i
UZJ^
t5T42«8
19.M4San
T.S556I15
.000617801
! &<J !
\V^j:Q
Ki?i*r
19.570RKV)
7.aa2i6a
.0QB610066
fr>4 1
Uli^A \
&>^1«>4
19.5956119
7.2;4;;sN
. .OQB0M167
3Ki
\4?-:£&
67'.»>.':25
19.6214169
.00007408
3^ 1
14^SW
6751iM.-.«
19.646fct27
T.2B10TM
.000600674
Zhl
I4'y7e9
6::'>.»><3
19.C:2?15«
T.SSTSfilT
.QOKBOOTO
&v3
\:*i:M
£ :-!i-.-r2
19.6iK7l5«
7.;£9d63a0
.000577380
doSf
15132^
5cou:ibC9
l^.T^BXSSi
T.29980a8
.QOOBRMOft
300
152100
5050«i«)
19.7484177
T.ao6i4as
.OOOBOdOO
&01
i.:j^:.i
w^r<'^ii
19.7:37199
7.3123a»
.OaBBffi45
'iC-i
1.>>X>4
G^i302S8
19.7569609
7.318G114
OQOB6U0D
3:>j
l&i449
6o«^.^7
19.8!24iS78
7.S2I828K
.00064080
8!4
155.^
ClKii:^
19.8494333
7.3310900
.000606071
a5
15(Xr25
61t>2ah75
19.8746069
7.3372390
.000631646
3ri6
15CS16
62U09136
19.8997487
7.8431906
.O0E82BO68
J>i;7
15TC09
6257U773
19.9^M8588
7.3195966
.000618000
£JH
15>404
63.>44;92
19.9499373
7.855TK54
.OOESlOaB
31/9
15U201
68521199
19.9749t>44
7.36191:8
.000500006
400
IWOOO
61000000
20.0000000
7.3680680
.008800000
Hil
l(>A\ijl
64-1 ;ion
2U.024SI>44
7.&;41979
.000498^6
4(r2
161tX>4
&l'J04.-.-08
20.0499:377
7.St03227
.OU018S66O
40:)
10:^409
6545a>27
20.074i:,':09
7.Sl^64373
.000481800
4r>i
1C:£216
C5939204
20.0997512
7SU25418
.060478018
405
1GU^25
60130125
20.1:^113
r.3&86363
.000160186
4iA
lOiKiO
6002:3116
20.1494417
7.404?,»6
.GQ0468O64
407
](35m9
67410143
20.1742410
7.4107950
.000457900
4<i8
lGr>lf>4
G;yi«':il2
20.1«)aU9
7.41Ce.:95
.COMSOKO
409
107281
6&41?d29
20.2237464
7.4)^29142
.000444868
410
168100
68921000
20.^&15C7
7.4289589
.000480001
411
1G<''I*;J1
604^:0531
20.^531849
7.4*49938
.000138000
412
10'J744
60aS4528
20.2977b31
7.4410189
.00242n84
413
170509
70444097
20.S2iM014
7.4470342
.00^21866
414
insoo
70967944
20.a469e99
7.45S0S99
.002415400
415
172225
71473375
20.8/15488
7.4590859
.002400680
410
173056
71991296
20.8960;81
7.4050223
.002408846
4!7
1738(<9
72511713
20.4205779
7 4709991
.CG2S980e2
413
174724
730JM(:32
20.4450483
7.47C9G04
.002392844
419
1755G1
78560059
20.4694896
7.4829242
.002386685
430
170400
74088000
20.4939015
7.4888TO1
.002880962
4^1
177-^1
74M84C1
20.5182845
7.4948118
.002375297
4:ii
i:roH4
75151448
20.5426386
7.6007406
.002369663
4lKl
17R{)29
775G80CG7
20.5069038
7.5066607
.002364066
4^i
179776
70225021
20 5912603
7.5125715
.002358491
425
1W)025
7G7a'3025
20.6155281
7.51&4780
.002352941
4:(i
1814:6
77008776
20.6897674
7.5218652
.002»47418
4^7
IP^'X'O
778M483
20.6039788
7.5806M82
.002*11920
42\
IKJIKI
7W02753
20.6881609
7.5861221
.002336440
4^J
i»-1041
7)»fia580
20.7128152
7.5419667
.002331002
4.'X)
1&1900
79507000
20.7364414
7.6478488
.002^2558'
431
1857C1
8(X)G2991
20.7C05395
7.5536888
4US
IBGCa*
80621568
20.7846097
7.5595268
«»
1874K9
81182787
20.8086520
7.5038548
4»l
188356
81746501
20.8826667
7 5ni743
-"\
■
^^^
^SAIIB •
"-.
^J
CUBE ROOTS, AND RECIPROCALS.
15
i No.
4C5
Squares.
Cabes.
Square
Boocs.
1
Cube Root&
BeciprociUs.
1302S3
^312^^75
i)a.&-'665JK
7.570»^
.0ai£9t^M
43a
1'jG0l)6
83tiK18j6
20.biM>ldO
7.&iK>*65
.OOfciftWSrS
437
100009
83^3453
20.9O4M5a
7.5fW57ya
.v.X]fcSJi^0:5)
433
1j1S44
&ia2;c?2
d0.9ei844;o
7.5i^4;>i;53
.vX122S3UK>
43d
iJjt^iSl
81604519
20.9ai^(>3
7.U)01385
.OOB^fTTOOA
440
19^500
85181000
20.97617:0
7.6060019
.WS73757
441
101481
85766121
21.0000UOO
7.6116626
.a)22G7o74
412
ia>15l
86350333
21.(123^)00
7.6174116
.ae»2443
443
193249
8698S907
21.047565^
7.6231519
.0^^2257336
444
19na6
87528384
21.0713075
7,62888:57
.0<)225aj52
445
19^025
83121125
21.0050231
7.6346007
.a)224n91
446
193916
887ir»536
21.1187121
7.640^13
.a)iM2152
447
199300
89314623
21.1423745
7.6400272
.a>2237i:50
448
203704
80J15392
21.1600105
7.6517217
.o.>:i52iiJ
440
201601
90518349
21.1896201
7.657413J
.002227171
450
20K00
91125000
21.?1320f54
21.£30;0;\i
7.6630943
.0^3322222
451
203401
91733151
7.66870;.5
.002217205
45fi2
204304
8eJ3454«
21.2002016
7.67443LI)
.0112212389
453
2(B209
92^50377
21.28370C7
7.680aCi7
.rtK2075(K5
1 454
206116
93570304
21.3072753
7.6S57a>3
.002202(H3
455
207085
94i9G;:ro
21.8307-J:)0
7.6913717
.002197802
456
207036
94818310
21.3541505
7.6970023
.0021029ti2
457
203349
95443003
21.3775583
7.7036246
.003188184
453
2o:r;64
9oonni2
21. 400*5 JO
7.70t^2583
.00218:5 UKi
453
210681
9o70257J
21.4242853
7.7138443
.002178649
460
211600
97336000
21.4476106
7.n94426
.002173013
4'Jl
212531
9rJ7;3181
21.4709106
7.?250:)25
.O;)2100107
4G3
213444
080111^:3
21.4041853
7.7:500141
.002101502
463
214369
902a2:U7
21.5174:543
7. 7301877
.ar215082r
464
215296
90307344
21.5406502
7.7417582
.002155172
465
216225
100544025
21.5fl3a')87
7.7478109
.0021505315
466
2m56
101 1940 JO
21.5870331
7.7528006
.00211592:)
467
218089
101847553
21.6101823
7.7584023
.002141328
468
210024
102503232
21.03.3:3077
7.7G;59361
.0021:50752
469
219961
103101703
21.6564078
7.7604620
.002132106
470
220900
103828000
21.6794834
7.7749801
.002127860
471
221841
104487111
21.702534-4
7.7804004
.a)2123142
473
222784
10515404.5
21.7255010
7.7850028
.002118644
473
223729
105823817
21.748JC32
7.7014875
.002114165
474
S24676
103406424
21.7715411
7.7060745
.00210l»705
475
225625
107171875
21.7044W7
7.80215:58
.(X)21 06263
476
223576
107850176
21.8174212
7.H070254
.(X)2100810
477
227529
108531&33
21.8403207
7.81:5:5892
.(X)2()96I30
473
223 134
100215.>52
21 8632111
7.8ir4iI56'
.()>■.■»( )92«.»:»()
479
229441
109002230
21.8800680
7.8212042
.(X»'J()K7(yia
480
230400
110592000
21.0089021
7.8297353
.002083:5.33
481
251301
111234(;U
21.9517122
7.8'5510W5
.u)i^)7m)^
482
23i3:^
lli0801O;5
21.0.5-4-19.U
7 Hia5910
.(X)J0710.S'.)
48;}
2:iVH9
112078587
21.9772010
7.8100134
.iA)nniY.m
4H4
251258
113379904
23.0000000
7.8514214
A%innmui
4a'3
2]5ii5
11408412.5
22.02271.55
7.850H2;a
.<);)2(MJ1K50
480
2:50196
114791250
22 0151077
7.8022212
.002057013
487
2:571 GO
115501303
22.0(V<();05
7.80701:50
,(j020.5:j.'i>«
4S8
25S144
1102i:r2
2,v()^r;r2n
7. 8720'.) 14
JHWiiUHf)
4S'3
2:50121
11003010)
LMUJin
7.87K5(;sl
AHMHMM
490
210100
117040000
22.1350430
7.8837:552
.002040816
1 401
2110S1
im3707il
22.1585103
7.8800016
.(XWOJWMKiO
i 492
24J0r>t
110095483
22.1810730
7.8044463
.002^X52.720
493
24-'5040
110823157
22.203608:)
7.8097917
.002028:508
'94
241036
12nfMr784
22.2261108
7.9061204
.002021201
%
245025
121287375
22.2485055
7.9104.599
,002020202
i^
240010
122028086
22.2710575
7.9157832
.002010129
16
SQUARES, CU15ES, SQUARE ROOTS,
:>\7
r.H
51'.)
n.v)
:..-,!
.v»i
rci5
r>5rt
No.
Squares.
Cubes.
Square
Roots.
497
217009
12276a473
22.2934908
4,U
21<S()0-1
123505993
22 315913a
4J0
:W9001
124251499
2;S.338S079
500
2.50000
125000000
22.3606793
r>,;i
251001
125751501
22.3830293
252)01
120506008
22.4033365
50.)
25.*J009
127203527
22.4276015
501
251010
128024064
22.449»443
51)5
2.55025
128787623
22.4722051
503
2.5<)0.*JG
129554216
22.41M4438
mr
2,57049
130323843
22.5166003
5o;j
25S(X)-4
131096512
22.5388553
oo-j
259081
1318?2229
2J.5GI0283
510
200100
132651000
22.5831796
511
201121
133432S31
22.0033001
512
2G2144
134217728
22.6274170
513
2G:U()9
1.35005097
22.6495033
511
2<H19a
135790744
22.0715081
515
2(5.5223
136590f;75
22 6036114
516
2002.50
13r38S096
22.715a-331
617
207289
l.*)8188413
22. 7370.3 JO
518
2()H;W4
1:389918.32
22.7590134
519
209.301
139798359
£2.7815713
620
270100
1-40608000
23 80a50ft5
521
271441
141420701
22.rr>4244
272^184
142236018
22.8473193
52.^
27.'J529
113055607
22.K091933
524
271576
1-43877824
22.8910403
525
275025
144703125
22.9128783
52«
2^(>076
14.55.31,576
22.9:340899
527
277?29
14(>36:3ia3
22.9504800
528
2mS784
147197972
22.r.7r.2.5(XJ
52U
279811
148035889
23.0000000
5.30
2S0(N>0
148877000
23.«17289
5;u
2^1901
1497212:)1
£3.0134:372
5:i2
2S;5()24
1.5(V)08708
23.0051252
rm
2S1089
151419437
23a^67928
5:U
2S.51.50
1.5227'3;304
2:5.1084400
5.15
2S«;2*i5
1.5.3130375
25.1300670
WW
2sr2^»<i
153990650
2:5.15167:38
5;J7
2^s;}«;«)
1.548341.5.3
25 1732603
5.18
2s:)114
1,55?20S72
23 194WrO
iJiiQ
2«.*i)521
156590819
23.21G3r33
5!0
201C,(»
1.57464000
23.23T9001
5U
2'.fJ.J.si
1.5S;M0421
23.25941X57
512
2.i:{7i;4
15'W20088
23.2S089:]5
M.i
2*.) I ' 19
16.1030(17
2:3..3t>23<504
5U
2'.i.-:i:ii>
1609891K4
23.3238076
5 15
29 ."'>•.'.>
161878025
2:3.34.52:351
5HJ
2'.tM0
1627n:33<J
23.3606429
,31 ''4
3ul . '1
:i'>:;;',iti
:3<m;i)4
::ii.-,s<)'j
.'iiMi'.llO
;ii»N)25
:«)9i:)6
3HV219
311:3<>1
lt>;366732.3
164.566,592
16U6»14J
106375000
107281151
l(}.^19(}«i(H
169112:377
17(K»146t
1T0953875
inK7»)16
1?2H0K6IM
173741112
23.3880:311
2.3.-l(y:):/'9i
t:a. 4307490
23.4520788
23.473J3892
23.4tH(5.sift>
23.51.59.521)
2:5..53?20I6
23.55K13H0
83.6706S23
S3.600M74
ss.esssosao
Cubo Roots.
Rcclprooala
7.9210994
.00201207;3
7.9264085
.002008032
7.9317104
.0Q20O4OUJ
7.937005S
.002000000
7.9422931
.001996008
79475739
.001992002
7.0528477
.001988073
7.9381144
.001984isr/
7.9633743
.001980196
7.9686Sn
.001976286
7.9738r31
.001973387
7.9791122
.001968.')(>1
7.9843444
.001964637
7.9895697
.0019607&1
7.9947883
.00105694/
8.0000000
.001953125
8.C032049
.0011M9318
8.0104032
.001945525
8.0155946
.001M1740
8.0207794
.001937984
8.0259574
.001934236
8.C3112M7
.C0193a503
8.0362935
.001926783
8.0414615
.001933077
8.0466030
.001919383
8.0.517479
.001915709
8.0508862
.001912046
8.0020180
.001908397
8.0671432
.001904762
8.0722020
.0)1901141
8.0773743
.001897533
8.a"24K00
.0)189.3930
8.0875794
.001890359
8.0920?23
.001886793
8.a»77.589
.0)1883233
8.1028.390
.001879699
8.1079123
.001876173
8.1129803
.a)l«?2659
8 118a414
001869153
8.12309(52
0)1863073
8.1281447
.0)1862197
8.1331«70
.0)l858r33
8.1382230
.001855283
8.14.32.529
.001851853
8.14t^V03
.0)1JM8Jl-J
8 1.532939
.On.»U5013
8.1.5S.3(X51
.0;iH416£l
8.16.3:3102
.OM838235
8.i(5.s:>o::2
.0)18*48(:3
8.i7:i::< ^)
.OUW31503
8.1782^ 3
.0M8281.51
8.18.32;:. 5
.c :-^:jsn
8.1882441
.0U18-n494
8 1932127
.001Sl8ir-3
8.19t317,5.3
.0»1814«ii
8.2031319
.OI181159&
H. 2080823
.0)l.s<K3H
8.2130371
.INUHO5031
8.21790.57
.0)1801803
8.233R9K5
.0017118561
8.237H351
.001793333
8.2327463
.(X)1?J3115
CUBE KOOTS, AND IIECIPROCALS.
17
No.
^Squares.
Cubes.
559
313481
174676879
5G0
313600
175616000
5G1
314721
176558481
562
315844
177504328
6G3
316969
178453547
504
318096
179406144
6C5
319225
180362125
5C6
320356
181321496
EG7
321489
182284263
5G3
322624
183250432
509
323761
184220000
570
324900
185103000
571
32G041
186109411
572
327184
187149248
573
828329
188132517
574
329476
189119224
575
330625
190109375
576
331776
191102976
577
332929
192100033
578
334084
193100552
579
335241
194104539
580
836400
195112000
581
337561
196122941
582
338724
19713r368
583
330389
198155287
684
341056
199176704
585
342225
200201625
586
343:96
201230056
587
344569
202262003
588
345744
2032974?2
589
346921
204336469
590
348100
205379000
591
349.^1
206425071
592
850464
207474688
593
351649
208527857
594
352836
209584584
595
354025
210644875
590
355316
211708736
P97
356409
212776173
t08
a->7604
213847192
C39
358801
214921799
603
360000
216000000
CO I
SG1201
217081601
C02
SG2404
218167208
C33
CG3G09
219256227
604
SG4S16
220348864
605
3GG025
221445125
60G
CGr236
222545016
6'J7
SG3449
223648543
COB
8C9G64
224755712
609
370881
225866529
610
372100
226981000
cn
373.J21
228099131
612
<:71544
229220928
613
3757G9
230346397
614
37G996
231475544
615
37S225
232608375
G16
379456
23^3744896
617
380G89
2348a5113
618
3«1924
236029032
619
383161
237176659
&30
384400
238328000
Square
Icoots.
Cube Roots.
23 6431806
8.2876614
23 6643191
82425706
23.6854386
8.2474740
23.7065392
8.2523ri5
23.7276210
8.2572633
23.7486842
8.2621492
23.7697286
8.2670294
23.7907545
8.2719039
23.8117018
8.2';bY/26
28.8327506
8.2816355
2J.853?S09
8.2864928
23.8746728
8.2913444
23.8956063
8.2961903
23.9165215
8.S010304
23.9374184
8.3058651
23.9582971
8.3106941
23.9791676
8.3155175
24.0000000
83203853
24.0208243
8.8251475
24.0416300
8.3299542
24.0624188
8.3347558
24.0831891
8.3895509
»4. 1039416
8.3443410
24 1246762
8.3491256
24.1453929
8.3539047
24.1660919
8.8586784
24.1867732
8.2634466
24.2074369
8.3682095
34.2280829
8.8729668
24.248ni3
8.8777188
24.2693222
8.8824653
24.2899156
8.8872C65
24.3104916
8.3919423
24.3310501
8.8966729
24.3515913
8.4018981
24.3721152
8.<061ie0
^.3926218
8.4108S26
^.4131112
8.4165419
24.4335834
8.4S02460
24.4540385
8.4240448
24.4744765
8.4296883
24.4948074
8.4348267
24.5153013
8.4390098
24.5356883
8.4486877
24.5560583
8.4483605
24.5704115
8.4530281
24.5907478
8.4576006
24.6170073
8.4623479
34.63r3,00
8.4670001
24.a576560
8.4716471
24.0779254
8.4762892
24.6981';«1
8.4809261
24.7184142
8.4855579
24.7386338
8.4901848
24.7588368
8.4948065
24.7790234
8.4994233
24.7991935
8.5040350
24.8193473
8.5086417
24 8394847
8.5132435
24.8596058
8.5178403
24.8797106
8.5224321
24.8997992
8.6270189
Reciprocals.
001788909
.001785714
.001782531
.001779359
.001776199
.001773050
.001769912
.001766784
.001768668
.001760563
.001757469
.001754386
.001751313
.001748252
.001745201
.001742160
.001789130
.001736111
.001783102
.001730104
.001727116
.001724138
.001721170
.001718213
.001715266
.001712329
.001709402
.001706485
.001703578
.001700680
.001697793
.001694915
.001692047
.001689189
.001686341
.001683502
.001680672
.001677852
.001675042
.001672241
.001669449
.001666667
.001668894
.001661130
.001658375
.001655629
.001652893
.001650165
.001647446
.001644737
.001642036
.001639344
.001636661
.001633987
.001631321
.001628664
.001626016
.001623377
.00162C746
.001618123
.001615509
.001612903
^.^
20
SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS,
No.
Squares.
Cubes.
Sqiiaro
Boots.
Cube Roots.
Reciprocals.
745
555025
413493625
27.2946881
9.0653677
.001342282
V4G
650510
415100936
27.3130006
9.0o94^20
.001340483
T47
•558009
416832723
27.3313007
9.0734726
.COl&'WfiRR
743
559504
418508992
27.3495887
9.0775197
.001836898
749
561001
420189749
27.3678644
9.0815031
.001335113
750
562500
421875000
27.8861279
9.0856030
.C01fi38883
751
504001
423564751
27.4043792
9.0696392
.0. 1331658
752
565504
425259008
27.4226184
0.0936719
.G01o20787
753
507009
42695YYVV
27.4408455
9.0977010
.C01828D21
754 '
5G35I6
428661064
27.4590604
9.1017265
.C01S26260
.755
570025
430368875
27.47'r263S
9.1057485
.1015:24503
756
571536
432081216
27.4954542
0.1097669
.t<;lS22751
757
573049
4337930i>3
27.5186330
9.1137818
.C01821004
v:>8
. 574501
435519512
27.6317998
9.1177931
.001319261
759
576081
43?i45479
27.5499546
0.1218010
.101317623
730
B77600
438976000
27.5680975
0.1258053
.C01315789
7G1
579121
440711081
27.5862284
9.1298061
.C01314060
732
580044
442450728
27.604*475
9.1338a34
.101312886
703
532109
444194047
27.62.4540
9.1377971
.001310616
7(>4
583096
445943744
27.6405499
9.1417874
.001306001
7J5
585225
447697125
27.6586:334
9.1457742
.001807190
706
580756
449455096
27.6767050
0.1497576
.C01805483
7G7
583289
451217063
27.6947648
9.1C37375
.001803781
708
63D824
452984832
27.7128129
0.1577189
.001802068
709
591361
454750009
27.7808492
0.1616809
..C01300890
770
592900
45653;3000
27.7488?39
C. 1656505
.001298701
.101297^17
771
594441
458314011
27.7668668
0.1fc962x;5
772
595984
400099648
27.7848880
0.1735852
.C01296837
773
597529
401889917
27.8028775
0.1775445
.001293661
774
599076
403684824
27.8208555
0.1815003
.001291990
7.5
000625
405484375
27'. 8388218
0.1854527
.C012C0823
7r6
002176
467288576
27.8507706
0.1894018
.C01288660
777
603729
469097433
27.8747197
0.1983474
.001287001
778
605284
470910952
27.8926514
0.1972897
.C012fc5347
779
606841
472729139
27.9105715
0.2012286
.C01288697
780
608400
474552000
27.9284801
0.2051641
.001282061
781
609901
470379541
27.9463772
9.2090962
.001280410
732
611524
478211708
27.9642029
9 2180250
. 001278772
733
613039
480048687
27.98213?2
0.2109505
.001277189
7.S4
614056
481890304
28.0000000
0.2206726
.001275510
735
610225
483730625
28.0178515
0.2247914
.C01273886
'm
617796
485587656
28.a356915
9.2287068
.001272265
737
619369
4874434C3
28.a535203
0 2826189
.C01270648
788
620944
489303872
S8.(ynii:i77
9 2365277
.C0126C036
789
622521
491109069
28.0891438
0 2404833
.001267427
790
6^4100
493039000
28.1069386
9.2443855
.0012a')823
791
825081
494913071
28.1247222
9 2482344
.C01C64223
•592
02?264
490793088
28.1424946
0.2521300
.0015:62626
75)3
628a49
49867?257
28.1602557
9.25602^
.001261034
794
630436
600566184
28.1780056
0.2599114
.C0K.';0446
795
632025
602459875
28.1957444
9.2C87973
.101257862
796
633616
604358336
28 2134720
9.207(;7'.;8
.C012E6281
797 .
635209
600261573
28.2311884
9.2715592
.C0i:c£4705
798
636804
608169592
28.2488938
9.2754*52
.001253133
799
638401
610082399
28.2665881
9.2798081
.001251564
830
640000
512000000
28.2842712
0.2831777
.001250000
801
641601
51392i»01
28.30194*4
9 2870440
.001248439
orv)
643204
615849608
28.3196045
9.2909072
.001246883
644809
517^1627
28.3372546
0.2W7071
.001245830
646416
CI 0718464
28.a548938
9.2980239
.001243781
648025
6210C0125
28.3725219
9.8024775
.001242236
649636
623606616
28.3901391
9.3063278
.001240695
CUBE ROOTS, AND RECIPROCALS.
21
No.
Squares.
Cubes.
Square
Roots.
Cube Roots.
Reciprocals.
S07
651249
625557943
28.4orr4r>4
9.3101750
.001239157
{.03
652864
527514112
28.4253408
9.3140190
.0012:37624
809
654481
529475129
28.4429253
9.3178599
.001236094
010
656100
531441000 .
28.4604989
9.3216975
.001234568
811
657721
533411751
28.4780617
9.3255320
.001233046
812
659344
635387328
28.4956137
9.3293634
.001231527
813
660969
537367797
28.5131549
9.3331916
.001230012
8lt
662596
539353144
28.5306852
9.3370167
001228501
815
664225
641343375
28.5482048
9.340aS86
.001226994
810
665856
&43a38496
28.5657137
9.3446575
.001225490
817
667489
545338513
28.5832119
9.3484731
.001223990
813
660124
54734^432
28.6006993
9.3522857
.001222494
819
670761
549353259
28.6181760
9.3560952
.001221001
830
672400
651368000
28.C)856421
9.3599016
.001219512
621
674041
553387661
28.6530976
9.3637049
.001218027
G22
675684
555412248
28.6705424
9.3675051
.001216545
823
677329
557441767
28.6879766
9.3713022
.001215067
GU
678976
559476224
28.7054002
9.3750963
.001213592
8,35
680625
661515625
28.7228132
9.3788873
.001212121
826
682276
563559076
28.7402157
9.8826752
.001210654
62?
683929
565609283
28.7576077
9.3864600
.001209190
823
685584
567663552
28.7749891
9.3902419
.001207729
829
687241
6097^2789
23.7923601
9.3940206
.001206273
830
688900
671787000
28.8097206
9.3977964
.001204819
8U
690561
573a56191
28.8270706
9.4015691
.001203369
832
692224
575930308
28.8444102
9.4053387
.00120192:3
833
693889
678009537
28.8617:394
9.4091054
.001200480
a3i
695556
680093704
28.8790582
9.4128690
.001199041
a35
697225
582182875
■28.8963066
9.4166297
.001197605
836
698896
6&4277056
28.9136646
9.4203873
.001196172
837
700569
686376253
28.9309523
9.4iU1420
.001194743
833
702244
588480472
28.9482207
9.4278936
.001193317
839
703921
590589719
28.9654967
9.4316423
.001191895
840
705600
592704000
28.9827535
9.4353880
.001190476
841
707281
694823321
29.0000000
9.4391807
.001189061
&i2
708964
696947683
29.0172363
9.4428704
.001187648
&i3
710649
699077107
29.0344023
9.4466072
.001186240
844
712336
601211584
29.0516781
9.4503410
.001184834
845
714025
603351125
29.0688837
9.4540719
.001183432
846
715718
605495736
29.0860791
9.4577999
.001182033
&47
717405
607645423
29.1032644
9.4615249
.001180638
848
719104
609800192
29.1204396
9.465^70
.001179245
849
720301
611960049
29.1376046
9.4689661
.001177856
850
722500
614125000
29.1547595
9.4726824
.001176471
851
724201
616295051
29.1719043
9.4763957
.001175088
'852
725904
618470203
29.1890:390
9.4801061
.001173709
853
727009
620650477
29.2061637
9.4838136
.001172333
854
729316
6228358G4
29.2232784
9.4875182
.001170960
855
731025
625026:375
29.2403830
9.4912200
.001169591
856
732736
627222016
29.2574777
9.4949188
.001168224
857
734449
629422793
29.274502:3
9.4986147
.001166861
858
7:36164
631628ri2
20.2916:370
9.5023078
.001165501
fm •
737881
6338397; 9 •
29.3087018
9.5059980
.001164144
860
739600
636056000
29.3257566
9.5096854
.001162791
861
741321
638277:381
29.3428015
9.5ia3699
.001101440
862
743044
64050:3028
29.359a3a5
9.5170515
.001160093
863
744709
042735G47
29.3768610
9.5207:303
.001158749
864
746496
644972544
29.3938769
9.52440<;3
.001157407
865
748225
647214625
29.410882:3
9.5280794
.001156069
860
749956
649461896
29.4278779
9.5317497
.001154734
867
751689
651714:363
29.4448637
9.5354172
.001153403
868
7534^4
0539?2032
29.4618397
9.5390818
.001152074
22
SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS,
No.
Squares.
Cubes.
Square
Hoots.
Cube Rootq.
Reciprocalfl.
8G9
7551C1
056234909
29.4788069
9.i>127437
.C01150748
870
756900
C58503000
29.4957624
9.5464027
.001149425
871
758641
G607/()311
29.5127091
9.5500089
.001148106
873
760384
G63054&18
29.52^^1
9.5537123
.001146789
873
762129
6«5;iS8G17
29.5465734
9.5578630
.001145475
874
763876
667627021
29.5634910
9.5610106
.001144165
875
V65625
669921875
29.580;««»
9.5646569
.001142867
876
767376
672221376
29.5972972
0.5682982
.001141553
877
769129
674526i:«
29.6141858
0.6719377
.001140251
878
7708&4
676836158
29.6:310648
9.5755745
.0011380ri2
879
7?^641
679151439
29.6479342
0.5792065
.001137650
880
774400
681472000
29.6647939
0.5828397
.001186864
881
776161
683797841
29.6816442
,9.5864682
.001135074
882
7779^^
6HJ128968
29.6984848
9.5900939
.001138787
883
779689
68W65387
29.7163159
9.5937169
.001182803
884
781456
690807104
29.7:321375
9.5973373
.001131222
885
783225
693154125
29.7489196
9.6009548
.001129944
886
781996
695506456
29.7657521
9.6045C96
.001128668
887
786769
697864103
29.7825452
9.6081817
.001127896
888
788.'>44
700227072
29.79932B9
0.6117911
.001126126
889
790321
702595369
29.8161090
0.01539r/
.0011^4650
890
792100
704969000
29.8328678
9.6190017
.001128606
891
793881
707347971
2:9.8496231
9.(2i26C30
.001122834
S»i
795661
709732288
29.8663690
9.6262016
.001121076
893
797449
712121957
29.8831056
9.0297975
.001110621
894-
799236
714516984
29.8998328
9.6333007
.001118668
895
801025
716917:375
29.9165506
9.G369812
.001117818
896
802816
719323136
29.9332591
9.C40oC90
.001116071
897
804609
?217a4273
29.9499583
9.044ir>42
.001114827
898
806404
?241 50792
29.9666481
9. 0477^67
.001113686
899
808201
?-«}5?2699
29.983328/
9.051S1G6
.001112847
900
810000
729000000
80.0000000
9.6.'>48938
.001111111
901
811801
731432701
30.0166620
9.05846^4
.001109678
902
813604
733870808
30.0333148
9.6G2O403
.001108647
903
815409
736314327
30.04995&1
9.0656096
.001107420
901
81?216
738763264
30.0665928
9.6691762
.0011C6195
905
819025
741217625
30.0832179
9.0727403
.001104072
906
820836
743677416
30.0998339
9.0768017
.001103758
907
822649
746142643
30.1164407
9.6798601
.001102580
908
624464
748613312
30.1:330383
9.6834166
.001101822
909
826281
751089429
30.1496269
9.0869701
.001100110
910
828100
753571000
30.1662063
0.G905211
.001006001
911
829921
756058031
30.1827765
0.(5940094
.001097695
912
831744
758550528
30.1093377
9.6976151
.001096491
913
883569
76104R497
30.2158899
9.7011.583
.001096200
914
835396
763551944
30.2:3^1329
9.7046989
.001094002
915
837^25
766060875
80.^489669
9.70S»369
.001092896
916
839056
768575296
80.2654919
9.7117r23
.001001708
917
840889
771095213
80.2820079
9.71.5:30.51
.001090618
918
842724
773()20632
30.2985148
9.71H?C>51
.001089335
919
844561
776151559
30.3150128
9.7223631
.001088130
920
84(M00
778688000
30.3315018
( 9.72588a3
.001086967
921
848241
781229961
30.3479818
9.7294109
.001085rr6
922
850084
783'/7V448
30.3614529
9.7820:309
.0010^4599
923
a51929
786330467
30.380915i
9.7:3(M484
.G010K3423
924
853776
788889024
30.3973(W3
9.7:399634
.001082251
925
855625
79145:^125
30.41.38127
9.7434758
.001081081
926
857476
794022776
80.4302481
9.7469857
.001079914
927
a59329
796.597983
80.4466747
9.7.504930
.001078749
928
861181
799178752
30.4630921
9.7539J)79
.001077586
929
863041
80176.')0«9
30.4795013
t). 7575002
.001076426
'WO
864900
804357000
30.4956014
9.7610001
001075269
CUBE ROOTS, AND RECIPROCALS.
23
f
No.
Squares.
Cubes.
Square
Roots.
Cube Boots.
Reciprocals.
031
866761
806954491
30.5122926
• 0.7644974
.001074114
932
868624
809557568
30.5286750
0.7679922
.001072961
933
870489
8121l>6237
30.5450487
0.7714845
.001071811
{m
872356
814780504
30.5614186
0.7749743
.C01070664
935
874225
817400375
30.57r;697
0.7784616
.C010C9519
93G
87(3096
820025856
80 5941171
0.7819466
.001068376
937
877969
822656953
30.6104557
0.7854288
.001067236
938
879844
8252936ra
80.6267857
9.7689087
.001066098
939
881721
827936019
30.6431069
9.7923861
.001064963
940
883600
830584000
80.6594194
9.7958611
.001063830
941
eii5481
as;3237621
30.6757233
9.7993336
.001062699
942
887364
835896888
80.6920185
9.8028036
.001061571
943
889249
888561807
30.7083051
9.8062711
.001060445
944
891136
841232384
}.0 7245830
9.6097362
.001059322
945
893025
843906625
80.7408523
9.8131989
.001058201
946
894916
846590536
80.7571130
0.8166591
.001057082
947
896809
849278123
30.7733651
0.8201169
.001055966
948
898704
851971392
80.7896086
9.6235723
.001054852
949
900601
854670349
30.80J:8436
9. 62'. 0252
.001053741
950
002c00
857375000
£0.8220rOO
9.6CC4757
.001052632
951
904401
860085351
£0.8382879
9.62o9238
.001051525
952
906304
862801408
£0.8544972
9.&37Se95
.001050420
953
908209
865523177
30.870€e81
9.84C8127
.CC1049318
954
910116
868250664
30.8866904
9.6442526
.001048218
955
912025
870983875
80.9020743
9.8476C20
.001047120
956
913936
873722816
£0.9192497
9.6511260
.C0104€025
957
915849
876467493
•£0.9354166
9.6545017
.C01044932
958
917764
879217912
80.9515751
9. 657 9929
.001042641
959
919681
881974079
30. 9677251
9.6614218
.CC1C42753
960
921600
884736000
50.9828668
9.6648483
.C01041667
961
923521
C87503681
31.0C00C0O
9.6662724
.CG1C4C563
962
925444
£90277128
31 .0161248
9.6716941
.GClOSSSOl
963
927869
898056347
31.0322413
9.8751135
.C01038422
064
929296
£95841344
31.0483494
9.8785305
.C010S7344
965
931225
898632125
31.0644491
9.6819451
.C01C2G269
966
933156
901428696
31.0805405
9.6863574
.C01C25197
967
935080
904231063
31.0966236
9.6687673
.C01C34126
968
937024
907039232
31.1126984
9.6921749
.001022058
969
938961
909853209
31.1287648
9.6955601
.€01031192
OTt)
940900
912673000
31.1448230
9.686C6E0
.C0103C928
C71
942841
915498611
31.1608729
9.{;Ci:£6£5
.C01C298C6
972
944784
918330048
31.1769145
9.CC57817
.001C26607
973
946729
S21 167317
31.19294';9
9. £0917 76
.C01C27749
974
948676
924010424
31.2089731
9.9125712
.C0102GG94
975
950625
926859375
31.2249900
9.915CC24
.C010i:5G41
976
952576
929714176
SI. 2409987
9.9102513
.C01G24CC0
977
954529
932574883
31.2569992
9.9227379
.C01023541
978
956484
035441352
SI. 2729915
0.C2C1222
.001022495
979
958441
938313739
£1. £889757
9 12C5042
.C01021450
960
960400
941192000
31.S04D517
9.S328839
.001020408
961
962361 .
044076141
31.£2C91£'5
9.C2G2013
.001019268
082
964324
046966168
S1.33CS7fi2
9.9SC6263
.C01016S20
983
966289
949862087
31.3528SC8
9.9430C92
.001017294
964
968256
952763904
31.3687743
9.1MG3797
.001010260
965
970225
955671025
31.2&47097
9.9497479
.00101C228
966
972196
958585256
31.4CGC3G9
9.9531128
.001014199
967
974109
961504803
31.416.'35G1
9 9564775
.001012171
mo
976144
964430272
31.4324673
9 9598389
.001012146
060
978121
967361669
31 .4483704
9.9631981
.001011122
090
980100
970299000
31.4642654
9.9665549
.001010101
001
982081
973242271
31.4801525
9.9699095
.001009062
092
984064
976191488
81.4960315
9.9732619
.001006005
24
SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, ETC.
No.
Squares.
Cubes.
Square
Roots.
Cube Root!.
Reciprocals.
903
930)40
979140057
31.5119025
9.9766120
.001007049
901
9.5303J
9:?2107784
31.5277055
9.9799599
.00100603G
905
900025
983074875
31.5436:^
9.9833055
.0010(»Q25
906
932010
9330479:30
31.5594077
9.9866488
.001004016
937
904000
991020973
31.5753008
9.9899900
.001008009
903
930004
994011902
31 591i;.i80
9.9933289
.001002004
909
903001
9070029:)0
81.C009813
9.996665G
.ooiooion
1000
1030000
lOOOOOvWJO
31.G22r7GG
10.0000000
.001000000
1001
1002001
1003003001
81.6885840
10.0033322
.0009990010
1003
1004004
1006012008
31.6543836
10.0006022
.0009960040
1003
1006009
1009027027
81.6701752
10.0099899
.0009970090
1004
1008016
1012.)48064
31.6859590
10.0133155
.0009960159
1005
1010025
1015075125
81.7017349
10.0166889
.0009950249
1006
1012036
1018108216
81.7175030
10.0199601
.0009^)358
iao7
1014049
1021147343
81.7332033
10.0232791
.0009880487
1003
1010004
1024192512
81.7490157
10.0265958
.0009990635
1009
1018031
1027243729
81.7647603
10.0299104
.0009910603
1010
1020100
1033301000
31.78049r2
10.0332228
.0009900990
1011
1028121
1033364331
81.7962232
10.0365330
.0.309891197
1012
1024144
1036433r2.3
31.8119474
10.0396410
.0009681423
1013
1026169
1039503197
81.8276609
10.0431469
.00098n663
1014
1028196
1042593744
31.8433666
10.0404506
.0009861933
1015
1030225
1045673 J75
81.8590646
10.0497521
.00096»2217
1016
1032256
1048772336
31.8747549
10.0580514
.00Og642S»)
1017
1034289
1051871913
81.8904374
10.0568485
.0009688843
1013
1033324
1054977.i-32
81.9061123
10.0596435
.0009823188
1019
1038361
1058039850
31.9217794
10.0629364
.0009818643
1020
1040400
1061203000
81.9374388
10.0662271
.0009608982
1021
1042441
1064332201
31.9530906
10.0695156
.0009794319
10-iZ
1044484
1067402643
31.9837347
10.0728020
.0009784796
1023
104a529
1070539167
31.9843712
10.076086.3
.0009775171
1024
1048576
1073741824
32.(000030
10.0793884
.0009766625
1025
1050325
1076390025
82 0156212
10.0826484
.0009766098
1028
1052576
1080045576
82 0312:313
10.0859282
.0009746689
1027
1051729
1083200S33
32.0483407
10.0892019
.0009787098
1028
1056734
10383733/2
iJ2.0824'331
10.0924755
.0009727886
1029
1053S11
10335473 D
82.0783333
10.0a57469
.0009718173
1030
1060900
1092727033
32.0936131
10.0990163
.0009708738
1031
1062961
1095312731
32.1091837
10.1022835
.0009699381
laiJ
1085024
1099104703
32.1247503
10.1055487
.00 9689988
1033
1067039
1102302337
32.1403173
10.1088117
.0009680548
1034
1089156
1105507334
82.1558704
10.1120726
.0009671180
1035
1071225
1103717375
82.17141.59
10.1153314
.0009661886
1036
1073296
1111934053
82.1869539
10.11&5882
.0009658510
1037
1075:369
1115157653
32.2024314
10.1218428
.0009643808
1038
1077444
llia333372
82.2180374
10.1250953
.0009633911
ia39
1079521
1121622319
82.233.5229
10.1283457
.0009624639
1040
1031600
1124364000
32.2490310
10.1315941
.0009616885
1041
1083681
1128111921
82.2645316
10.1348403
.0009606148
1042
1035764
1131:306038
82.2800248
10.1380845
.0009596929
1043
1087349
11*4626507
82.2955105
10.1413286
.0009587738
1044
1089936
11378a31J?4
82.8109888
10.1445667
.0009578544
1045
1092025
1141166125
82.3264598
10.1478047
.0009569378
1046
1094116
1144445336
82.8419233
10.1.510106
.0009.560229
1047
1096209
11477130823
32 a573794
10.1.542744
.0009551096
1048
1098304
1151022592
32 37289m
10.1575002
.0009541985
1049
1100401
1154320649
32.3882605
10.1607:359
.0009532888
1050
1102500
1157625000
82.40:37035
10. 1839836
.0009523810
1051
1104601
11609:35651
82.4191:301
10.1671893
.0009514748
::o2
1106704
1164252(k)8
a2.4345l?r>
10.1704129
.0009505708
105.3
1108809
1167575877
32.44^)615
10.1738:344
.0009490676
1054
1110916
1170905464
32.4653662
10.1768639
.OOO9487n06
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 25
WBIGHTS AND MEABURBEl
Measures of Len^b.
: Inches = 1 foot-
feet = 1 yard — 38 inches,
i yards = 1 rod = 188 inches = 18i ft.
' rods = 1 turlong = 70-20 inches = fiflO ft. = 220 yds,
furlongs = imile = 63360 inches - 13280 ft. = 1760 yds-,
yard = 0,0006682 of a mile. [= 320 rods,
ounteb's chain.
7.92 Inches = 1 link.
100 links = 1 cliain = 4 rods = 00 feet.
80 chains = 1 mile.
6 feet = 1 fathom. 120 fathoms = 1 cable's length.
I Deoimals of a
26 MEASURES OF SURFACE ANT) VOLUME.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND NAUTICAL.
1 degree of a great circle of the earth = GO. 77 statute miles.
1 mile = 2046.58 yards.
.siio?:makers' measure.
No. 1 is 4.125 inches in length, and every succeeding number la '
-^Mii of an inch.
'J'here are 28 numbers or divisions, in two series of numbers, vis., ■
iroui 1 to 18, and 1 to 15.
MISCELLANEOUS.
1 palm = 3 inches. 1 span = 9 inches.
1 hand = 4 inches. 1 meter = 3.2800 feet.
Measures of Surface.
144 square inches = 1 squanj foot.
9 square feet - 1 square yard = 1296 square inches.
100 square feet = 1 square (architects' measure).
LAND.
30i square yards ~ 1 stjuare roJ.
40 square roils = 1 square rood =1210 square yards.
4 square roods | — 1 acre = 4840 s<^iuare yards.
10 square chains S = 100 sfiuare rods.
040 acres ~ 1 scjuare mile = 3007000 square yards =
208.71 feet square = 1 acre. 1 102400 sq. rods = 25C0 sq. roods.
A Heciion of land is a square mile, and a quarier-acction is ICO
acres.
Measures of Volume.
1 gallon liquid measure = 231 cubic inches, and contains 8.330
avoir.liii)o:s pounds of distilled water at 39.8° F.
1 gallon dr>' measure = 208.S cubic inches.
1 bushel ( WlncheHicr) contains 2150.42 cubic inches, or TJ.CSft
],ounils distill«Ml water at 39. ^° F.
A heape.l bushel contains 2747.715 cubic inches.
DRY.
2 pints = 1 quart = 07.2 cubic inches.
4 quarts = 1 gallon = 8 pints = 20H.8 cubic inches.
2 gallons = 1 pe<^k = 10 pin Is = 8 quarts = 537.0 cubic inches.
4 pecks = 1 bushel = 04 pints = 32 quarts = 8 gals. = 2150.42
1 chaldron = 30 heaped bushels = 57.244 cubic feet. |cu. ia
1 cord of wood =128 cubic feet.
MEASURES OF VOLUME AND WEIGHT. 27
IJQUID.
4 gills == 1 pint.
2 pints = 1 quart = 8 gills.
4 quarts = 1 gallon = .32 gills = 8 pints.
In the United States and Great Britain I barrel of wine or brand]^
= 31i gallons, and contains 4.211 cubic feet.
A hogshead is 03 gallons, but this term is often applied to casks
ftf various capacities.
Cubic Measure.
/^r^^r 1728 cubic inches = 1 foot.
27 cubic feet = 1 yard.
In measuring loood, a pile of wood cut 4 feet long, piled 4 feet
high, and 8 feet pn the ground, malting 128 cubic feet, is called a
cord. /^--^ "/ /i'>- -/^. -- S'i^>^
16 cubic feet make one cord foot.
A perch of stone is lOJ feet long, 1 foot high, and li feet thick,
and contains 242 cubic feet.
A perch of stone is, however, often computed differently in dif-
ferent localities; thus, in Philadelphia, 22 cubic feet are called a
perch, and in some of the New-England States a perch is computed
at 16i cubic feet.
A ton^ in computing the tonnage of sliips and other vessels, is
100 cubic feet of their internal space.
Fluid Measure,
60 minims = 1 fluid drachm.
8 fluid drachms = 1 ounce.
16 ounces ~ 1 pint.
8 pints = 1 gallon.
Miscellaneous.
Butt of Sherry = 108 gals. Puncheon of Brandy, 110 to 120 gals.
Pipe of Port = 115 gals. Puncheon of Bum, 100 to 110 gals.
Butt of Malaga = 105 gals. TTo'?=?hoad of Brandy, 55 to 00 gals.
Puncheon of Scotch Whis- Hogshead of claret, 4(5 gals.
key, 110 to 130 gals.
Measures of Weiglit.
The standard avoirdupois pound is the weight of 27.7015 cubic
inches of distilled water weighed in air at 39.83^, the barometer at
30 inches.
28 MEASURES OF WEIGHT.
AvoirdupoiSy or Ordinary Coiumercial Weight.
16 drachms = 1 ounce, (oz.).
16 ounces = 1 pound, (lb.).
100 pounds = 1 himdred weight (cwt. ).
20 hundred weight = 1 ton.
Tn collecting duties upon foreign goods at the TJnite<l Sta
custom-houses, and also in freighting coal, and selling it by who
«jale, —
28 poimds = 1 quarter.
4 quarters, or 112 lbs. = 1 himdred weight.
20 hundred weight = 1 long ton = 2240 poimds.
A stone = 14 pounds.
A quintal = 100 pomids.
The following measiu*es are sanctioned by custom or law :
32 poimds of oats = 1 bushel.
45 poimds of Timothy- seed = 1 bushel.
48 poimds of barley = 1 bushel.
50 pounds of rye = 1 bushel.
56 poimds of Indian corn = 1 bushel.
50 poimds of Indian meal = 1 bushel.
60 pounds of wheat = 1 bushel.
60 pounds of clover-seed = 1 bushel.
60 pounds of potatoes = 1 bushel.
56 pounds of butter = 1 firkin. ^
100 pounds of meal or flour = I sack.
100 pounds of grain or flour = 1 cental.
100 pounds of dr>' fish = 1 quintal.
100 pounds of nails = 1 cask.
196 pounds of flour = 1 barrel.
200 pounds of beef or pork = 1 barrel.
Troy Weij^ht.
USED IN WEIGHIXG GOLD OR SILVER.
24 grains = 1 pennyweight (pwt.).
20 pennyweights = 1 ounce (oz.).
12 ounces = 1 pound (lb.).
A carat of the jewellers, for precious stones, is, in the Uni
States, 3.2 grains: in London, 3.17 grains, in Paris, 3.18 grains i
divided into 4 jewellers' grains. In troy, apothecaries', and av(
dupois weights, the grain is the same.
MEASURES OF VALUE AND TIMK. 29
Apothecaries' Weiglit.
USED IN COMPOUNDING MEDICINES, AND IN PUTTING UP
MEDICAL PRESCRIPTIONS.
20 grains (gr.) = 1 scruple ( 3 ).
;^ scruples = 1 drachm ( 3 ).
8 drachms = 1 ounce (oz.).
12 ounces = 1 pound (lb.).
Measures of Value.
UNITED STATES STANDARD.
10 mills = 1 cent.
10 cents = 1 dime.
10 dimes = 1 dollar.
10 dollars = 1 eagle.
The standard of gold and silver is 900 parts of pure metal and
100 of alloy in 1000 parts of coin.
The fineness expresses the quantity of pure metal in 1000 parts.
The remedy of the mint is the allowance for deviation from the
exact standard fineness and weight of coins.
*e»'
Weigrlit of Coin.
Double eagle = 516 troy grains.
Eagle = 258 troy grains.
Dollar (gold) = 25.8 troy grains.
Dollar (silver) = 412.5 troy grains.
Half-dollar = 192 troy grains.
5-cent piece (nickel) = 77.16 troy grains.
3-cent piece (nickel) = 30 troy grains.
Cent (bronze) = 48 troy grains.
Measure of Time.
365 days = 1 common year.
366 days = 1 leap year.
60 seconds = 1 minute.
60 minutes = 1 hoiu*.
24 hours = 1 day.
A solar day is measured by the rotation of the earth upon its
ji :1s with respect to the sun.
in astronomical computation and in nautical time the day com-
mences at noon, and in the former it is counted throughout the 24
hours.
In cixil coinputation the day conunences at midnight, and is
divided into two portions of 12 hours each.
A solar year is the time in which the earth makes one revolution
around the sun; and its average time, called the mean solar year,
is 305 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 49.7 seconds, or nearly 365i days.
A mean lunar month, or lunation of the moon, is 29 days, 12
hours, 44 minutes, 2 seconds, and 5.24 thirds.
30 THE CALENDAR. — ANGULAR MEASURE.
The Calendar, Old and New Style.
The Julian Calendar was established by Julius Csesar, 44 B.C.,
and by it one day was inserted in every fourth year. This was the
same thing as assuming that the length of the solar year was 305
(lays, 6 hours, instead of the value given above, thus introducin;:
an accumulative error of 11 minutes, 12 seconds, every year. This
calendar was adopted by the church in 325 A.I>., at the Council of
Nice. In tlie year 1582 the annual error of 11 minutes, 12 seconds,
had amounted to a period of 10 days, which, by order of Pope Greg-
ory XIII., was suppressed in the calendar, and the 0th of October
reckomnl as the 15th. To prevent the repetition of this error, it
was decided to l(^a.ve out three of the inserted days every 400 years,
and to make this omission in the years which are not exactly divisi-
ble by 400. Thus, of the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000, all of which
arc leap years according to the Julian Calendar, only the last is a
leap year according to the licfoinned or Greyorian (/alendar. This
Ileformed Calendar was not adopted by England until 1752, when
1 1 days were omitted from the calendar. The two calendars are
now often called the Old Sft/lc. and the New Style.
The latter style is now adopted in every Cliristian country except
liussia.
Circular and Ang^iilar Measures.
tSEl) FOK MEASUUINO ANGI^ES AND ARCS, AND FOR DBTSH-
MININO LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.
CO seconds (") = 1 minute (').
00 minutes = 1 degree (°).
360 degrees = 1 circumference (C).
Herouds are usually subdivided into tenths and hundredths.
A iiilnute of the circumference of the earth is a geographical
mile.
D('(j}'pes of the earth's circumference on a meridian average 69.7.6
common miles.
THE METRIC SYSTEM.
Thf nn'frir. fii/Moni is a system of weiu^lits and measiu'es based
r.pon a unit called a meter.
The meter is one ten-millionth part of the distance from the
equator to either pole, measured on the earth's surface at the level
jl the sea.
THE METRIC SYSTEM. 31
The names of derived metric denominations are formed by pre-
fixing to the name of the primary unit of a measure —
Milli (miU'e), a thousandth,
Centl (sent'e), a hundredth,
Dec! (des'e), a tenth,
Deka (dek'a), ten,
Hecto (hek'to), one hundred,
Kilo (kil'o), a thousand,
Myria (mir'ea), ten thousand.
This system, first adopted by France, has been extensively adopteq
by other countries, and is much used in the sciences and the arts.
It was legalized in 1866 by Congress to be used in the United States,
and is already employed by the Coast Survey, and, to some extent,
by the Mint and the General Post-Office.
Linear Measures.
The meter is the primary unit of lengths.
Table.
10 millimeters (mm.) = 1 centimeter (cm.) = 0.393*7 in.
10 centimeters = 1 decimeter = 3.937 in.
10 decimeters = 1 meter = 30.37 in.
10 meters = 1 dekameter = 393.37 in.
10 dekameters = 1 hectometer = 328 ft. 1 in.
10 hectometers = 1 kilometer (km.) = 0.62137 mi.
10 kilometers — 1 myriameter = 6.2137 mi.
The meter is used in ordinary measurements; the centimeter or
jnillimeterf in reckoning very small distances; and the kilometer y
for roads or great distances.
A centimeter is about ^ of an inch ; a meter is about 3 feet 3
inches and | ; a kilometer is about 200 rods, or $ of a mile.
Surface Measures.
The square meter is the primary unit of ordinary surfaces.
The are (air), a square, each of whose sides is ten wicie/vs, is
the unit of land measures.
Table.
100 square millimeters (sq. mm.) = 1 square ) _. ^ -^j-- j^^l^
centimeter (sq. cm. ) S
100 square centimeters = 1 square decimeter = 15.5 sq. inches.
100 square decimeters ^ 1 square I ^ ^55^ .^^ ^^ j jgg y^^
IMTEB (sq. ni. I )
Axao
100 centUrea, <x sq. meters, = 1 AR
A square meter, or one emttari, tl
Bquare yards, and a hectare Is ftboot St X'
CnMol
The cubic meter, or itert (stair), t> the
Tablk.
1000 cubic inillimM«ra (en. mm. ) = 1 cut
The atere is the tuune given to the i
wood and timber. A t«ittli of & itae Is
are a JefciMtere.
A cubic meter, or etere, Is about 11 cub
feet.
Liquid and Dry M<
The liter (leeter} is the primary unit
and is a cube, each of whose edgee is a t(
The kectnliter Is the unit In meaanring
fruits, roota, and liquids.
Table.
10 milliliters (ml.) = 1 centiliter (d-)
lO-centinters = 1 decUlter
10 deciliters = 1 lttbb (1.)
10 liters = 1 dekaliter
10 dekaliters = 1 BECTOLITEB (hi
10 hectoliters = 1 kiloUter
A centiliter is abotit i of a flidd oonee; a (Iter Is about liV H
quarts, or I'.f of a dry quart; mJieetoUter Is about 2) bmheb; a
The gram it the primary unit of wel^its, and Is tbs
vacuum of a cubic ceutlmeter of dlaUUed water at Uw
«f SU.2 degrees FkhrenbdL
ANCIENT MEASURES AND WEIGHTS.
SZ
Table.
10 milligrams (mg.) = 1 centigram
10 centigrams
10 decigrams
10 grams
10 dekagrams
10 hectograms
10 kilograms
10 myriagrams
10 quintals
0.1543 troy grain.
1.543 troy grains.
15.432 troy grains.
0.3527 avoir, ounce.
3.5274 avoir, ounces.
2.2046 avoir, pounds.
22.046 avoir, pounds.
220.46 avoir, pounds.
= 1 decigram =
= 1 GRAM (g. ) =
= 1 dekagram =
= 1 hectogram =
= 1 KILOGRAM (k.) =
= 1 myriagram =
= 1 quintal =
= 1 TONNE AU (t. ) = 2204.6 avoir, pounds.
The gram is used in weighing gold, jewels, letters, and small
quantities of things. The kilotjram, or, for brevity, kiloy is used
by grocers; and the tonneau (tonno), or metric toji, is used in find-
ing the weight of very heavy articles.
A gram is about 15i grains troy; the kilo about 2i pounds avoir-
dupois; and the metric ton, about 2205 pounds.
A kilo is the weight of a liter of water at its greatest density; and
the metric ton, of a cubic meter of water.
Metric numbers are written with the decimal -point (.) at
the right of the figures denoting the unit; thus, 15 meters and 3
centimeters are written, 15.03 m.
When metric numbers are expressed by figures, the part of tha
expression at the left of the decimal-point is read as the number
of the unit, and the part at the right, if any, as a number of the
lowest denomination indicated, or as a decimal part of the unit;
thus, 46.525 m. is read 46 meters and 525 millimeters, or 46 and 525
thousandths meters.
In writing and reading metric numbers, according as the scale is
10, 100, or 1000, each denomination should be allowed one, two, op
three orders of figures.
SCRIPTURE AND AKCIfilTT MEASURES AKD
"WEIGHTS.
Scripture Long: Measures.
Inches.
Feet.
Inches.
Digit
= 0.912
Cubit
= 1
9.888
Palm
= 3.648
Fathom
= 7
3.552
Span
= 10.944
Egryptian Longr Measures.
Kahad cubit ^ 1 foot 5.71 Indies. Royal cubit s= 1 foot 8.66 inches.
-J^.ZOrZ IdJL^'iZ^ AyZv "TTE^aHT^
>^. = -'trr. C-ra = 1 a.406
^-± A!kxiziirUi5 Tiiia* = 11.11912
'■»•- f 415.1
l-:r.-^:i^- z:±^ = -.>^ I 431 J!
^ = ;,-i^.' r>r.w>-. = ije.5
■ : .• :i.*r. -jk ■ .tr . ■» ^ ": tk .-• -^ .-"■;:;■> i-x. ^•.i\«:. i:-r ibe maw wdghL
Miscellaneous.
lii' 7: -r:lir: f-»: = l.I-H Hobn-w o::b!X =1.817
MENSURATION. - DEFINITIONS.
85
Fig.l
A Curved Line.
BflllNSTJRATION.
Definitions.
A point is that which has only position.
A plane is a surface in which, any two points heing taken, thfi
straight line joining them will be wholly in the
surface.
A curved line is a line of which no portion is
sti-aight (Fig. 1).
Parallel lines are such as are wholly in the same plane, and have
the same dii-ection (Fig. 2).
A broken line is a line composed of a
series of dashes ; thus, . fig- 2
An angle is the opening between two Parallel Lines,
lines meeting at a point, and is tenued a riyJit angle when the two
lines are perpendicular to each other,
an acute angle when it is less or
sharper than a right angle, and ob-
iune when it is greater than a right
angle. Thus, in Fig. 3,
A A A A are acute angles,
O O O O are obtuse angles,
K K R R are right angles.
Polygons.
A polygon Is a portion of a plane bounded by straight lines.
A triangle is a polygon of three sides.
A scalene triangle has none of its sides equal; an isosceles tri*
angle has two of its sides equal; an equi-
lateral triangle has all three of its sides
equal.
A right-angle triangle is one which has a
right angle. The side opposite the right Fig. 4.
angle is called the hypothenuse; the side on Right-angle Triangle.
which the trian^e is supposed to stand is called its bane, and the
other side, its altitude.
FI9.6.
Triangle.
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
lso8C«les Triangle. Bquilateral Triangl«
GEOMETRICAL TERMS.
.1.
quadrilateral is a polygon of four sides.
Quadrilaterals are divided into classes, as follows, — the irape'
zium (Fig. 8), which has no two of its sides parallel; the trapezoid
(Fig. 9), which has two of its sides parallel; and the paralleloyram
(Fig. 10), which is bounded by two pairs of parallel sides.
\
/
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
A parallelogram whose sides are not equal, and its angles not
right angles, is called a rhomboid (Fig. 11); when the sides are all
equal, but the angles are not right angles, it is called a rhombvtt
)Fig. 12) ; and, when the angles are right angles, it is called a rectan-
gle ( Fig. 13). A rectangle whose sides are all equal is called a square
(Fig. 14). Polygoils whose sides are all equal are called regular.
L
I
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
Besides the square and equilateral triangles, there are
The i)entaf(ow (Fig. 15), which has five sides;
The hexagon (Fig. 16), which has six sides;
The heptagon (Fig. 17), which has seven sides;
The octagon (Fig. 18), which has eight sides.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.
Rg. 17.
\ /
Rg. 18.
The enneagon has nine sides.
The decagon has ten sides.
The dodecagon has twelve sides.
For all polygons, the side upon which it is supposed Co stand h
called its base ; the pei*pendlcular distance from the highest side oi
GEOMETRICAL TERMS.
37
angle to the base (prolonged, if necessary) is called the altitude ; and
a linf. joining any two angles not adjacent is called a diagonal,
A perimeter is the boundary line of a plane figure.
A circle is a portion of a plane bounded by a curve, all the pointi
of which are equally distant from a point witliin called the centre
(Fig. 19).
The clrcurnference is the curve which bounds the circle.
A radius is any straight line drawn from the centre to the cir-
cumference.
Any straight line drawn through the centre to the circumference
on each side is called a diameter.
An arc of a circle is any part of its circumference.
A chord is any straight line joining two points of the circumfer-
ence, as bd.
A segment is a portion of the circle
included between the arc and its
chord, as A in Fig. 19.
A sector is the space included be-
tween an arc and two radii drawn to
its extremities, as B, Fig. 19. In the
figure, (U) is a radius, cd a diameter,
and db is a chord subtending the arc
bed, A tangent is a right hne which /
in passing a curve touches without
cutting it, as fg, Fig. 19.
Fig. 19.
Volumes.
A prism is a volume whose ends are equal and parallel polygons,
and whose sides are parallelograms.
A prism is triangular f rectangular, etc., according as its ends
are triangles, rectangles, etc.
A cube is a rectangular prism all of whose sides are squares.
A cylinder is a volume of uniform diameter, bounded by a cm \o 1
surface and two equal and parallel circles.
A pyramid is a volume whose base is a polygon,
and whose sides are triangles meeting in a point
called the vertex,
A p3rramid is triangular, quadrangular, etc., ac-
cording as its base is a triangle, quadrilateral, etc.
A cone is a volume whose base is a circle, from
which the remaining surface tapera uniformly to
a point or vertex (Fig. 20). P»fl- 20.
Conic ucUona are the figures made by a plane cutting a cone.
38
MENSURATION.
An ellipse is the section of a cone wlien cut by a plane passing
obliquely through both sides, as at «6, Fig. 21.
A paxcthola is a section of a cone cut by a plane parallel to its
side, as at cd.
A hyjnrhola is a section of a cone cut by a plane at a greater
angle through the base than is made by the side of the cone, as
at i'lu
In the ellipse, the tranarerse axis, or loju/
diameter f is the longest line that can be drawn
through it. The conjugate axis, or short di-
ametery is a line drawn through the centre,
at right angles to the long diameter.
A frustum of a jyyramid or cone is tliat
which remains after cutting off the upper part
of it by a plane parallel to the base.
A sphere is a volume boimded by a curved
surface, all points of which are equally dis-
tant from a point within, called the centre.
Mensuration treats of the meas:urement of llnesy surfaces,
and volumes.
^Flg.21. ^
To compute the area of a square, a rectangle, a rhombus^ or a
rhomboid.
Rule. — Multiply the length by the breadth or height; thus, in
either of Figs. 22, 23, 24, the area = ab X be.
Fig.23
To coinpiite the area of a triangle.
c Rule. —Multiply the base by the alti-
tude, and divide by 2; thus, in Fig. 25,
ab X cd
area of abc = 2
'^ To find the length of the hypothenuse qfa
right-angle triangle when both <idef
are knoion. . ..
MENSURATION. - POLYGONS.
39
Fig.26
KuLE. — Square the length of each of the sides making the right
angle, add their squares together, and take the j^
square root of their suiu. Thus (Fig. 2(3), the
length of at* = 3, and of 6c = 4; then
a6 = 3 X 3 = 9 + (4 X 4) = 0 + 10 = 25.
^25 = 5, or a6 = 5. a
To find the length of the base or altitude of a right-angle triangle,
when the length of the hypothenuse and one side is known.
Rule. — From the square of the length of the hypothenuse
subtract the square of the length of the
other side, and take the square root of
the remainder.
To find the area of a trapezium.
Rule. — Multiply the diagonal by the
sum of the two perpendiculars falling
upon it from the opposite angles, and
divide the product by 2. Or,
ah X (cfi-f (70
2
= area (Fig. 27).
To find the area of a trapezoid (Fig. 28).
Rule. — Multiply the sum of the two par-
allel sides by the perpendicular distance between
them, and divide the product by 2.
To compute the area of an irregidar polygon.
Rule. — Divide the polygon into triangles
by means of diagonal lines, and then add to-
jrether the areas of all the triangles, as A, B,
and C (Fig. 29).
To find the area of a regular polygon.
Rule. —Multiply the length of a side by
Jie i>eri)endicular distance to the centre (as
.((>, Fig. 30), and that product by the nunibcH-
of sides, and divide the result by 2.
To compute the area of a regular polygon
tohen the length of a side only is given.
Rule. — Multiply the square of the side by
the luoltipUer opposite to the name of the
polygon in column A of the following table: —
a
Fig.30
40
MENSURATION. -POLYGONS AND CIRCLES.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Name of Polygon.
No. of
BldeB.
Area.
liadius of
circum-
scribing
circle.
Length of
the side.
Radius of
inscrilxKl
circle.
Triangle . . .
3
0.43d013
0.5773
1.732
0.2887
Tetragon . .
4
1
0.7071
1.4142
0.5
Pentagon . . .
5
1.720477
0.8506
1.1756
0.0S82
Hexagon . . .
6
2.598076
1
1
O.SOti
Heptagon . . .
7
8.633912
1.1524
0.8677
1.0:J8:j
Octagon . . .
8
4.828427
1.3066
0.7653
1.2071
Nouagon . . .
9
6.181824
1.4619
0.684
1.3737
Decagon . . .
10
7.094209
1.618
0.618
1.5383
UudecagOD . .
11
9.36564
1.7747
0.5634
1.7028
I>odecagon . .
12
11.196152
1.9319
0.5176
1.86(5
To compute the radius of a circumscribing circle when the length
of a side only is given.
Rule. — Multiply the length of a side of the polygon by the
number in column B,
Example. — Wliat is the radius of a circle that will contain a
hexagon, the length of one side being 5 inches ?
Ans, 5X1=5 inches.
To compute the length of a side of a polygon that is contained in
a given circle, when the radius of the circle is given*
Rule. — Multiply the radius of the circle by the number opposite
the name of the polygon in column C
Example. — What is the length of the side of a pentagon con-
tained in a ch'cle 8 feet in diameter ?
Ans. 8 ft. diameter -^ 2 = 4 ft. radius, 4 X 1.1756 = 4.7024 ft.
To compute the radius of a circle that can be inscribed in a given
polygon, when the length of a side is given.
Rule. — Multiply the length of a side of the polygon by tl>«
number opposite the name of the polygon in column D,
Example. — What is the radius of the circle that can be inscribed
in an octagon, the length of one side being 6 inches.
Ans. G X 1.2071 = 7.2420 inches.
Circles.
To compute the circiunference of a circle.
Rule. — Multiply the diameter by 3.1416; or, for most purposes,
by 3 j is sufficiently accurate.
Example. — What is the circumference of a circle 7 inches in
diameter ?
A\is. 7 X 3.1410 = 21.9912 inches, or 7 X 3} = 22 inches^ tht
error in this last being 0.0088 of an inch.
MENSURATION. — CIRCLES. 41
To find the diameter of a circle when the circumference is given.
Rule. — Divide the circumference by 3.1416, or for a very neai
approximate result multiply by 7 and divide by 22.
To find the radius, of an arc, lohen the chord and rise or versed
sine are given.
Rule. — Square one-half the chord, also square the rise; divide
their sum by twice the rise; the result will
be the radius.
Example. — The length of the chord ac.
Fig. 30J, is 48 inches, and the rise, ho, is 6
inches. What is the radius of the arc ?
Ans, Rad = '-^i±J^ = ?^±^ = 51 ins. "«• 304-
2bo 12
To find the rise or versed sine of a circular arc, when the chord
and radius are given.
Rule. — Square the radius; also square one-half the chord; sulx
tract the latter from the former, and take the square root of the
remainder. Subtract the result from the radius, and the remainder
will be the rise.
Example. — A given chord has a radius of 51 inches, and a
chord of 48 inches. What is the rise ?
Ans, Rise = rad — ^md^ — ichord2 = 51 — v^2601 - 576
= 51 — 45 = 6 inches = rise.
To compute the area of a circle.
Rule. — Multiply the square of the diameter by 0.7854, or mul
tiply the square of the radius by 3. 1416.
Example. — What is the area of a circle 10 inches in diameter V
Ans. 10 X 10 X 0.7854 = 78.54 square inches, or 5 X 5 X 8.1410
= 78.54 square inches.
The following tables will be found very convenient for finding
the circumference and area of circles.
44
MENSURATION. — CIRCLES.
ABEAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES
{Advancing by TentJis, )
Diam.
.JO.O
Area.
Cirenm.
Diam.
35.0
Area.
Cireom.
Dian.
40.0
Area.
CireiiB.
706.8583
94.2478
962.1128
109.9557
1256.6371
125.6637
.1
711.5786
94.5619
.1
967.6184
110.2699
.1
1262.9281
125.9779
.2
716.3145
94.8761
.2
973.1397
110.5841
.2
1269.2848
126.2920
.3
721.0662
95.1903
.3
978.6768
110.8982
.3
1275.5573
126.6062
.4
725.8336
95.5044
.4
984.2296
111.2124
.4
1281.8955
126.9203
.5
730.6167
95.8186
.5
989.7980
111.5265
.5
1288.2493
127.2345
.6
735.4154
96.1327
.6
995.3822
111.8407
.6
1294.6189
127.6487
.7
740.2299
96.4469
.7
1000.9821
112.1549
.7
1301.0042
127.8628
.8
745.0601
96.7611
.8
1006.5977
112.4690
.8
1307.4052
128.1770
.9
749.9060
97.0752
.9
1012.2290
112.7832
.9
1313.8219
128.4911
31.0
754.7676
97.3894
.36.0
1017.8760
113.0973
41.0
1320.2543
128.8053
.1
759.6450
97.7035
.1
10-23.5381
113.4115
.1
1326.70-24
129.1195
.2
764.5380
98.0177
.2
1029.2172
113.7267
.2
1333.1663
129.4336
.3
769.4467
98.3319
.3
1034.9113
114.0398
.8
1339.6458
129.7478
.4
774.3712
98.6460
.4
1040.6212
114.3540
.4
1346.1410
180.0610
.5
779.3113
98.9602
.5
1046.3467
114.6681
.5
1352.6520
180.3761
.6
784.2672
99.2743
.6
1052.0880
114.9823
.6
1359.1786
130.6903
.7
789.2388
99.5885
.7
1057.8449
115.2965
.7
1365.7210
ISl.OOU
.8
794.2260
99.9026
.8
1063.6176
115.6106
.8
1372.2791
131.3186
.9
799.2290
100.2168
.9
1069.4060
115.9248
.9
1378.8529
131.6827
32.0
804.2477
100.5310
37.0
1075.2101
116.2389
42.0
1385.4424
131.9469
.1
809.2821
100.8451
.1
1081.0-299
116.5531
.1
1392.0476
132.2611
.2
814.3322
101.1593
.2
1086.8654
116.8672
.2
1398.6685
132.6752
.3
819.3980
101.4734
.3
1092.7166
117.1814
.3
1405.30.)1
132.8894
.4
824.4796
101.7876
.4
1098.5835
117.4956
.4
1411.9574
133.2036
.5
829.5768
102.1018
.5
1104.4662
117.8097
.5
1418.0254
133.5177
.6
834.6898
102.4159
.6
1110.3645
118.1239
.6
1425.3092
188.8318
.7
839.8185
102.7301
.7
1116 2786
118.4380
.7
1432.0086
184.1460
.8
844.9628
103.0442
.8
1122.2033
118.7522
.8
1438.7238
1^.4602
.9
850.1229
103.3584
.9
1128.1538
119.0664
.9
1445.4546
1»4.7743
33.0
855.2986
103.6726
38.0
1134.1149
119.3805
43.0
1452.2012
186.0886
.1
860.4902
103.9867
.1
1140.0018
119.6947
.1
1458.9635
136.4026
.2
86).6973
104.3009
.2
1146.0844
120.C088
.2
1465.7415
186.7168
.3
870.9202
104.6150
.3
1152.0927
120..3230
.3
1472.5352
186.0310
.4
8^0.1588
104.9292
.4
1158.1167
120.6372
.4
1479.3446
186.3461
.5
88/. 4131
105.2434
.5
1164.1564
120.9513
.5
1486.1697
136.6598
.()
886.6831
105.5575
.6
1170.2118
121.2655
.6
1493.0105
186.0734
.7
891.9688
10>.8717
.7
1176.2830
121.5796
.7
1499.8670
187.2876
.«
85)7.2703
106.18.58
.8
1182.3698
121.8938
.8
1506.7393
187.6018
.9,
902.5874
100.5000
.9
1188.4724
122.2080
.9
1513.6272
187.0150
34.0
907.9203
106.8142
39.0
1194..5900
122.5221
44.0
1520.5308
188.2301
.1
9i:{.2688
107.1283
.1
1200.7246
122.8363
.1
1527.4502
188.5443
.2
918.63:31
107.4425
.2
1206.S742
1-23.1.'>04
.2
1534.3853
188.8584
.3
924.0131
107.7566
aJ
1213.0396
123.4646
.3
1541.3360
130.1726
.4
929.4088
108.0708
.4
1219.2207
123.7788
.4
1548.3025
199.4867
.5
934.8202
108.3849
.5
1225.4175
124.0929
.5
1555.2847
iao.8000
.6
940.2473
108.6991
.6
1231.6300
1-24.4071
.6
1562.2896
140.U63
.7
945.6901
109.0133
.7
12:J7.8582
1-24.7212
.7
1569.2962
1404202
.8
951.1486
109..3274
.8
1244.1021
125.0354
.8
1576.33ft6
140.7484
.9
956.6228
109.6416
.9
1250.:i617
125.3495
.9
1583U)700
141.0575
MENSl "BATION. - CIRCLBS.
AREAS AND CIBCnMFBBENOBS OF CIBCLBS.
{Aii»aHcing by Tenthi.)
MENSURATION. - CIRCLES.
AREAS AND CIBCUMFERBNCES OP CIRCLBa
{Adtnncia'j On Tenlli».)
s'si«7.4S27 ■
7 M8T,74T4
■21«,0W,'.
■■'
4UT.4S18
43Se.lM>
»a.TSM
43T0.seu
warn
ii8!ti6eo
aujan
>
MH.sau
mmi
"'■'■'*"
MENSURATION. - C'lRCLBS.
&BEAB AND CIRCUMFEBENCES OF CIRCLB8.
(Adoancing by Tenths.)
48
MENSURATION. — CIRCLES.
AREAS AND CIRGUMFEBENGES OF CIRCLES.
{Advancing by Tenths, )
Diam
90.0
Area.
Circum.
Diam.
Area.
Circum.
Diam.
97.0
Area.
CirCBD.
6361.7251
282.7433
93.5
6866.1471
293.7389
7389.8113
304.7345
.1
6375.8701
283.0575
.6
6880.8419
294.0531
.1
7405.0559
305.0486
.2
6390.0309
283.3717
.7
6895.5524
294.3672
.2
7420.3162
305.3628
J3
6404.2073
283.6858
.8
6910.2786
294.6814
.3
7435.5922
305.6770
.4
6418.3995
284.0000
.9
6925.0205
294.9956
.4
7450.8839
305.9911
.5
6432.6073
284.3141
94.0
6039.7782
295.3097
.5
7466.1913
306.3053
.6
6146.8309
284.6283
.1
6954.5515
295.6239
.6
7481.5144
306.6194
.7
6461.0701
284.9425
.2
6969.3106
295.9380
.7
7496.8532
306.9336
.8
6475.3251
285.2566
.3
6984.1453
296.2522
.8
7512.2078
307.2478
.9
6489.5958
285.5708
.4
6998.9658
296.5663
.9
7527.5780
307.5619
91.0
6503.8822
285.8849
.5
7013.8019
296.8805
98.0
7542.9640
307.8761
.1
6518.1843
286.1991
.6
7028.6538
297.1947
.1
7558.3656
308.1902
.2
6532.5021
286.5133
.7
7043.5214
297.5088
.2
7673.7830
308.5044
.3
6.546.8356
286.8274
.8
7058.4047
297.8230
.3
7589.2161
308.8186
.4
6561.1848
287.1416
.9
7073.3033
298.1371
.4
7604.6648
300.1327
.5
6575.5498
287.4657
95.0
7088.2184
298.4513
.51 7620.1293
309.4400
.6
6589.9304
287.7699
.1
7103.1488
298.7655
.er
7635.6095
309.7610
.7
6604.3268
288.0840
.2
7118.1950
299.0796
.7
7651. lOM
310.0752
.8
6618.7388
288.3982
.3
7133.0568
299.3938
.8
7666.6170
310.3894
.9
6633.1666
288.7124
.4
7148.0343
299.7079
.9
7682.1444
310.7085
92.0
6647.6101
289.0265
.5
7163.0276
300.0221
99.0
7697.6893
311.0177
.1
6662.0692
289.3407
.6
7178.0366
300.3363
.1
7713.-2461
311.3318
.2
6676..5441
289.6548
.7
7193.0612
300.6504
.2
7728.8206
311.6460
.3
6691.0347
289.9690
.8
7208.1016
300.9646
.3
7744.4107
311.9602
.4
6705.5410
290.2832
.9
7223.1577
301.2787
.4
7760.0166
312.2743
.5
6720.0630
290.5973
96.0
7238.2295
301.5929
.5
7775.6382
812.5885
.6
6734.6008
290.9115
.1
7253.3170
301.9071
.6
7791.2754
812.9026
.7
6749.1542
291.2256
.2
7268.4202
302.2212
.7
7806.9284
818.2168
.8
6763.7233
291.5398
.3
7283.5391
302.5354
.8
7822.6971
818.6309
.9
6778.3082
291.8540
.4
7298.6737
302.8405
.9
7838.2815
818.8451
93.0
6792.9087
292.1681
.5
7313.8240
303.1637
100.0
7853.9816
314.1503
.1
6807.5250
292.4823
.6
7328.9901
303.4779
.2
6822.1.'>69
292.7964
.7
7344.1718
303.7920
.3
6836.8046
293.1106
.8
7359.3693
304.1062
.4
6851.4680
293.4248
.9
7374.5824
304.4203
MENSURATION. — CIRCLES.
49
AREAS OF CIRCLES.
^ADVANCING BY EIGHTHS.)
AREAS.
Diam.
0
0.0
0.1
0-1
o.|
H
o-#
O.f
O.J
0.0
0.0122
0.0490
0.1104
0.1963
0.3068
0.4417
0.6013
1
0.7854
0.9940
1.227
1.484
1.767
2.073
2.405
*i.761
2
3.1416
3.546
3.976
4.430
4.908
5.411
5.9.39
6.491
3
7.068
7.669
8.295
8.946
9.621
10.32
11.04
11.79
4
12.56
13.36
14.18
15.03
15.90
16.80
17.72
18.66
5
19.63
20.62
21.64
22.69
23.75
24.85
25.96
27.10
6
28.27
29.46
30.67
31.91
33.18
34.47
35.78
37.12
7
38.48
39.87
41.28
42.71
44.17
45.66
47.17
48.70
8
50.26
51.^
53.45
55.08
56.74
58.42
60.13
61.86
9
63.61
65.39
67.20
69.02
70.88
72.75
74.66
76.58
10
78.54
80.51
82.51
84.54
86.50
88.66
90.76
92.88
11
95.03
97.20
99.40
101.6
103.8
106.1
108.4
110.7
12
113.0
115.4
117.8
120^
122.7
125.1
127.6
130.1
13
132.7
135.2
137.8
140.5
143.1
145.8
148.4
151.2
14
153.9
156.6
159.4
162.2
165.1
167.9
170.8
173.7
15
176.7
179.6
182.6
185.6
188.6
191.7
194.8
197.9
16
-201.0
204.2
207.3
210.5
213.8
217.0
220.3
223.6
17
226.9
230.3
233.7
237.1
240.5
243.9
247.4
250.9
18
254.4
258.0
261.5
265.1
268.8
272.4
276.1
279.8
19
283.5
287.2
291.0
294.8
298.6
.302.4
306.3
310.2
20
814.1
318.1
322.0
326.0
330.0
334.1
338.1
342.2
21
346.3
850.4
854.6
358.8
363.0
367.2
371.5
375.8
22
380.1
384.4
388.8
393.2
397.6
402.0
406.4
410.9
23
415.4
420.0
424.5
429.1
433.7
438.3
443.0
447.6
24
452.3
457.1
461.8
466.6
471.4
476.2
481.1
485.9
25
490.8
495.7
600.7
605.7
510.7
515.7
520.7
525.8
26
630.9
636.0
641.1
646.3
551.5
656.7
562.0
567.2
27
572.5
677.8
683.2
688.5
693.9
599.3
604.8
610.2
28
615.7
621.2 .
626.7
632.3
637.9
643.5
649.1
6.54.8
29
660.5
666.2
671.9
677.7
683.4
689.2
695.1
700.9
30
1
706.8
712.7
718.6
724.6
730.6
736.6
742.6
748.6
1
31
754.8
760.9
767.0
773.1
779.3
785.5
791.7
798.0
32
804.3
810.6
816.9
823.2
829.6
836.0
842.4
848.8
33
855.3
861.8
868.3
874.9
881.4
888.0
894.6
901.3
34
907.9
914.7
921.3
928.1
934.8
941.6
948.4
955.3
35
962.1
969.0
975.9
982.8
989.8
996.8
1003.8
1010.8
36
1017.9
1025.0
1032.1
1039.2
10i6.3
1053.5
1060.7
1068.0
37
1075.2
1082.5
1089.8
1097.1
1104.5
1111.8
1119.2
1126.7
38
1134.1
1141.6
1149.1
1156.6
1164.2
1171.7
1179.3
1186.9
39
1194.6
1202.3
1210.0
1217.7
1225.4
1233.2
1241.0
1248.8
40
1256.6
1261.5
1272.4
1280.3
1288.2
1296.2
1304.2
1312.2
41
1320.3
1328.3
1336.4
1344.5
1352.7
1360.8
1369.0
1377.2
42
1385.4
1393.7
1402.0
1410.3
1418.6
1427.0
1435.4
1443.8
43
1452.2
1460.7
1469.1
1477.6
1486.2
1494.7
1503.3
1511.9
44
1520.5
1629.2
1537.9
1546.6
1655.3
1564.0
1572.8
1581.6
45
1590.4
1699 J)
1608.2
1617.0
1626.0
1634.9
1643.9
1652.9
50
MENSURATION. - CIRCUMFERENCES.
CIRCUMPBRBNCBS OP CIRCLES.
(advancing by eighths.)
CIRCUMFERENCES.
Diam.
0
0.0
04
o-i
0.|
O.J
0-1
Of
O.J
0.0
0.3927
0.7854
1.178
1.570
1.963
2.356
2.748
1
3.141
3.534
3.927
4.319
4.712
5.105
5.497
5.890
2
6.283
6.675
7.068
7.461
7.854
8.246
8.639
9.032
3
9.424
9.817
10.21
10.60
10.99
11.38
11.78
12 17
4
12.56
12.95
13.35
13.74
14.13
14.52
14.92
15.31
5
15.70
16.10
16.49
16.88
17.27
17.67
18.06
18.45
6
18.84
19.24
19.63
20.02
20.42
20.81
21.20
21.60
7
21.99
22.38
22.77
23.16
23.56
23.95
24.34
24.74
8
25.13
25.52
25.91
26.31
26.70
27.09*
27.48
27.88
9
28.27
28.66
29.05
29.45
29.84
30.23
30.63
31.02
10
31.41
31.80
32.20
32.59
32.98
33.37
33.77
34.10
11
34.55
34.95
35.34
35.73
36.12
36.52
36.91
37.30
12
37.69
38.09
38.48
38.87
39.27
39.66
40.05
40.44
13
40.84
41.23
41.62
42.01
42.41
42.80
43.10
48.68
14
43.98
44.37
44.76
45.16
45.55
45.94
46.33
46.73
15
47.12
47.51
47.90
48.30
48.69
49.08
49.48
49.87
16
50.26
50.65
51.05
51.44
51.83
52.22
52.62
63.01
17
53.40
53.79
54.19
54.58
54.97
55.37
66.76
66.15
18
56.54
56.94
57.33
57.72
58.11
58.51
58.90
60.29
19
59.69
60.08
60.47
60.86
61.26
61.65
62.04
62.48
20
62.83
63.22
63.61
64.01
64.40
64.79
66.18
66.58
21
65.97
66.36
66.75
67.15
67.54
67.93
68.32
68.72
22
69.11
69.50
69.90
70.29
70.68
71.07
n.47
71.88
23
72.25
72.64
73.01
73.43
73.82
74.22
74.61
76.00
24
75.39
75.79
76.18
76.57
76.96
77.36
77.75
78.14
25
78.54
78.93
79.32
79.71
80.10
80.50
80.89
81.28
26
81.68
82.07
82.46
82.85
83.25
83.64
84.03
84.48
27
84.82
85.21
85.60
86.00
86.39
86.78
87.17
87.57
28
87.96
88.35
88.75
89.14
89.53
89.92
90.32
00.71
29
91.10
91.49
91.89
92.28
92.67
93.06
93.46
03.85
30
94.24
94.64
95.03
95.42
95.81
06.21
06.60
96.90
31
97.39
97.78
98.17
98.57
98.96
99.35
99.76
100.14
32
100.53
100.92
101.32
101.71
102.10
102.49
102.89
103.20
33
103.07
104.07
104.46
104.85
105.24
105.64
106.03
106.42
34
106.81
107.21
107.60
107.99
108.39
108.78
109.17
109.56
36
109.96
110.35
110.74
111.13
111.53
111.92
112.81
112.71
36
113.10
113.49
113.88
114.28
114.67
115.06
116.46
115.85
37
116.24
116.63
117.02
117.42
117.81
118.20
118.60
118.90
38
119.38
119.77
120.17
120.56
120.95
121.34
121.74
122.13
39
122.52
122.92
123.31
12:J.70
124.09
124.49
124.88
125.27
40
125.66
126.06
126.45
126.84
127.24
127.63
128.02
128.41
41
128.81
129.20
127.59
129.98
130.38
130.77
131.16
181 J5
42
131.95
132.34
132.73
133.13
133.52
133.91
134.30
184.70
43
135.09
135.48
135.87
136.27
136.66
137.05
187.4ft
187.84
44
138.23
138.62
139.02
139.41
139.80
140.19
140.60
l¥iM
45
141.37
141.76
142.16
142.55
142.94
143.34
148.78
tuja
MENSURATION. - CIECLES.
51
AREAS AND CIRCUMPBRBNCES OP CIRCLES.
From I to 50 Feet.
(advancing by one inch.)
IHam.
Area.
Cimim.
Diaffl.
Area.
Circnm.
Diam.
Area.
Circum.
Ft.
Feei.
Ft, In.
Ft.
Feet.
Ft. In.
Ft.
Feet.
Ft. In.
1 0
0.7854
ill
5 0
19.635
15 8t
15 llg
9 0
63.6174
28 3^
1
0.9217
1
20.2947
1
64.8006
28 6}
2
1.069
3 8
2
20.9656
16 21
2
65.9951
28 9
3
1.2271
3 11
3
21.6475
16 5j
3
67.2007
29 f
4
1.3062
4 2|
4
22.34
16 9
4
68.4166
29 3
5
1.5761
4 5
5
23.0437
17
5
69.644
29 7
6
1.7671
4 8
6
23.7583
17 3
6
70.8823
29 10
7
1.9689
4 11
7
24.4835
17 6
7
72.1309
30 1
30 4
8
2.1816
5 2
8
25.2199
17 9|
8
73.391
9
2.4052
5 ^
9
25.9672
18 3
9
74.662
30 7i
10
2.6398
5 9
10
26.7251
18 3
10
75.94^
30 lift
11
2.8852
6 2|
11
27.4943
18 7
11
77.2362
31 Ijj
20
3.1416
6 Si
60
28.2744
18 104
10 0
78.54
31 5
1
3.4087
6 6
1
29.0649
19 1
1
79.854
31 83
2
3.6869
6 9
2
29.8668
19 43
2
81.1795
31 in
3
3.976
7
3
30.6796
19 7*
19 10
3
82.516
32 2i
4
4.276
7 31
4
31.5029
4
83.8627
32 5|
5
4.5869
7 7
5
32.3376
20 1|
6
85.2211.
32 8j
6
4.9087
7 10^
6
33.1831
20 ^
20 8|
6
86.5903
32 111
7
5.2413
8 1
7
34.0391
7
87.9697-
33 2|
8
5.585
8 4l
8
34.9065
20 111
8
89.3608
33 65
9
5.9395
8 7jr
9
35.7847
21 2}
9
90.7627
33 91
10
6.3049
8 10|
10
36.6735
21 5,
10
92.1749
34 f
11
6.6813
9 l|
11
37.5736
21 8i{
11
93.5986
34 3|
30
7.0686
9 5
7 0
38.4846
21 llj
11 0
95.0334
34 6|
1
7.4666
9 8^
1
39.406
22 3
1
96.4783
34 9.^
2
7.8757
9 11
2
40.3388
22 61
2
97.9347
35 1
35 43
• 3
8.2957
10 2
3
41.2825
22 91
3
99.4021
4
8.7265
10 5
4
42.2367
23 1
4
100.8797
35 7.
5
9.1683
10 8}
5
43.2022
23 2i
5
102.3689
35 lOJ
6
9.6211
10 llj
C
44.1787
23 ^
6
103.8691
36 l|
1
10.0346
11 3
7
45.1656
23 9|
24 1}
7
105.3794
36 45
s
10.5591
11 6
i;
46.1638
8
106.9013
36 71}
9
n.0W6
11 9
ft
47.173
24 4J
9
108.4342
36 10|
10
r.5403
12 k
12 3
10
48.1962
24 7}
24 lOf
10
109.9772
37 25
11
ij.om
11
49.22,36
11
111.5319
37 51
4 0
12.5664
12 6J
8 0
50.2656
25 li
25 4|
12 0
113.0976
37 83
1
13.0952
12 9|
1
51.3178
1
114.6732
37 111
•;
13.63>3
13 1
2
52.3816
25 7j
2
116.2607
38 ^
3
14.1862
13 4
n
i>
63.4562
25 11
3
117.859
38 5i
4
14.7479
13 7
4
54.5412
26 2
26 5
4
119.4674
38 8|
5
15.3206
13 10
5
55.6377
5
121.0876
39 0
6
15.9043
14 1
6
56.7451
26 8
6
122.7187
39 3a
7
16.4986
14 4
7
57.8628
26 llJ
7
124.3598
39 ^
8
17.1041
17.7205
14 7
8
58.992
27 2i
8
126.0127
39 9,
9
14 11
9
60.1321
27 51
9
127.6765
40 1
10
1S.3476
15 2|
16 6j
10
61.2826
27 9
10
129.3504
40 33
11
18.8858
.11
62.4445
28 i
11
131.036
40 6|
52
MENSURATION. - CIRCLES.
Areas and Circumferences of Circles (Feet and Inches)
.
1
Diam.
Aw.
Cireiim.
Dbni.
Area.
Cirenra.
Diam.
Area.
Cirenn.
Ft.
Feet.
Ft. III.
/Y.
Feet.
Ft.
In.
Ft,
Feet.
Ft. III.
13 0
132.73-26
40 10
18 0
254.4696
56
tii
23 0
415.4766
1> 3
1
134.4:391
41 U
1
256 8303
56
93
1
418.4915
7; 6jj
2
136.1574
41 4^
2
259.2033
57
2
421 518J
IL 9
3
137.8867
41 Ih
3
261.5872
57
4
3
424..')577
4
139.626
41 10.'
42 n
4
263.9807
57
■^1
4
427.6055
7:3 31
5
141.3771
5
266.3864
57
10
5
430.6658
7:3 6^
6
143.1391
42 4i
6
268.8031
58
1
6
433.7371
7;J 9^
i
144.9111
42 8
7
271.2293
58
4
7
436.8175
74 I
8
146.6049
42 IJi
8
273.6678
68
7
8
439.9106
74 4i
9
148.4896
43 2\
9
276.1171
58 lOi
9
443.0146
74 7>
10
150.2943
43 5ft
43 8|
10
278.5761
58
2
10
446.1278
74 10
75 1
11
152.1109
11
281.0472
69
H
11
449.2536
UO
153.9384
43 Hi
19 0
283.5294
69
81
24 0
452.3904
75 4|
1
155.7758
44 2j
1
286.021
59 lU
1
455.5362
75 71
2
157.625
44 6
2
288.5249
60
2
2
458.6948
75 11
3
159.4852
44 9}
45 J
3
291.0307
60
5
3
461.8642
76 2|
4
161.3553
4
293.5641
60
sl
4
465.0428
76 5l
5
163.2373
45 Sl
5
296.1107
60
Hi
5
468.2341
76 8
6
165.1303
45 6{
6
298.6483
60
H
6
471.4363
76 11
7
167.0331
45 9i
7
301.2054
61
el
7
474.6476
77 24
8
168.9479
46 i
8
303.7747
61
9ft
8
477.8716
77 6i
0
170.8735
46 4
9
306.365
61
■ ;
9
481.1065
77 9
10
172.8091
46 71
46 111
10
308.9448
61
31
10
484.3506
78 1
78 3}
11
174.7565
11
311.5469
62
6j
11
487.6073
15 0
176.715
47 1ft
20 0
314.16
62
9|
25 0
490.875
78 6ft
78 9i
1
178.6832
47 4
1
316.7824
62
n
1
494.1516
2
180.6634
47 73
2
319.4173
63
4
•••
2
497.4411
79 1
70 8|
3
182.6545
47 10-
3
322.063
63
3
600.7415
4
184.6555
48 2ft
4
324.7182
63
lU
4
504.051
70 7
■
6
1S6;6684
48 5
5
327.3858
63
If
6
507.3732
79 n
6
18^6923
48 8,
0
330.0643
64
n
6
510.7063
80 1
7
19;X726
48 11
7
332.7522
64
7j
7
514.0484
80 4
8
192^7716
49 2
8
:j35.4525
64
11
8
517.4034
80 7
9
194:8282
49 5
9
338.1637
65
2i
9
520.7692
80 10
10
190.8946
49 8|
10
340.8844
66
H
10
524.1441
81 1
11
198.973
50 0
11
343.6174
66
8}
11
527.5318
81 5
16 0
201.0024
50 3|
50 (U
21 0
346.3614
«5
lll
26 0
530.9304
81 81
81 11}
1
203.161'.
I
349.1147
66
'A
1
534.3.'379
2
205.2726
Th) 9
2
351.8804
66
H
2
537.7583
82 2|
3
207.S94li
51
3
3.)4.657l
66
9
3
641.18JKJ
82 5 i
4
209.5264
51 31
4
357.4432
66
4
4
544.6209
82 k}
5
211.6703
51 4
5
360.2417
67
6
648.083
82 112
6
213.82.51
51 10
(i
363.0511
67
6A
6
551. .5471
83 3
7
215.9896
52 n
7
365.8698
67
of
7
655.0201
88 Oft
8
218.1662
52 4i
8
368.7011
68
1
. 8
558.5069
83 OJ
9
220.3537
52 n
9
371.5432
6S
3|
9
662.0027
84 i
10
222.551
52 10ft
10
374.3947
68
1
10
665.5084
84 3
11
224.76J3
53 if
11
377.2587
68
10",
11
569.027
84 0|
17 0
226.9806
53 41
22 0
380.13:36
69
1|
27 0
572.5560
84 OZ
1
229.2105
5:1 8
1
:i8'3.0177
69
41
1
576.0940
86 1
2
231.4525
53 in
2
385.9144
69
7I
2
679.6463
85 4
3
233.7055
54 2
8
383.822
69 lOj 1
8
683.2066
85 8
4
235.9682
.54 5
4
391.7389
70
n
4
686.7796
85 11
5
238.2m
54 85
5
394.6683
70
5
5
600.3637
80 1
6
240.5287
.54 llg
6
.397.6087
70
8]
6
603.0587
80 4
7
242.8241
55 21
7
400.558!J
70 111 1
7
607.5026
80 7
8
245.1316
55 6
8
403.5204
71
A
8
601.1793
80 11
0
247.45
55 9
66
9
406.49:35
71
^i
9
004.807
87 4
10
249.7781
10
409.4759
71
85
10
608.4436
87 U
11
252.1184
56 3^
11
412.4707
71
ni
11
612.0(R)1
87 ^
MENSUIIATION. - CIRCLES.
58
Areas and Circumferences of Circles (Feet and Inches).
Dim.
Ft.
28 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
I
8
9
10
11
29 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
30 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
31
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
<
8
9
10
11
32 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Area.
Feft.
610.7536
619.4228
623.105
626.7982
630.5002
634.2152
6:J7.9411
641.6758
645.4235
649.1821
652.9495
656.73
660.5214
664.3214
668.1:346
671.9587
675.7915
679.6375
6H3.4943
687.3.598
691.2385
695.1028
699.0263
702.9377
706.86
710.791
714.735
718.69
722.654
726.631
730.618
734.615
738.624
742.645
746.674
750.716
754.769
758.831
762.906
766.992
771.086
775.191
779.313
783.440
787.581
791.732
795.892
800.065
804.25
808.442
812.648
816.865
821.090
825.3-29
829.579
833.837
838.103
»42.:«)1
846.681
8o0.»85
€irr«in.
Ihim.
Ft.
Ft. III.
87 \\\
'&\ 0
88 21
1
88 5^
2
88 9
3
89 1
89 3j
4
5
89 6j
6
89 9}
7
90
8
90> 3|
9
90 6^
10
90 11
11
91 n
34 0
91 H
1
91 n
91 lOf
2
3
92 r
4
92 4
5
92 »!
6
92 \\\
<
93 2|
8
93 ol
9
9:J S|
10
93 11^
11
94 •>»
:l) 0
94 (5
1
94 9i
95 i
2
3
95 3A
4
95 6|
5
95 9j
6
96 2
i
96 4
8
96 7|
96 lOj
9
10
97 U
11
97 4|
36 0
97 7|
1
97 10|
2
9H 2
3
98 h\
4
98 Sji
5
98 in
99 2|
6
7
99 52
99 8|
8
9
100 0
10
100 3|
11
100 6j{
37 0
100 9^
1
101 \
•>
mm
101 3^
3
101 6}
4
101 10
5
102 U
6
102 4
7
102 1\
102 10{
8
9
103 1
103 4|
10
11
Area.
FeH.
855.301
859.624
863.961
868..'J09
872.665
877.035
881.415
885.804
890.206
894.619
899.041
903.476
907.922
912.377
916.844
921.323
925.810
930.311
934.822
939.342
943.875
948.419
952.972
957.538
962.115
966.770
971.299
975.908
980.526
985.158
989.803
994.451
999.115
1003.79
1008.473
1013.170
1017.878
1022.594
1027.324
1032.064
1036.813
1041. .576
1046..349
10.)1.130
1055.926
1060.731
10f>5.546
1070.374
1075.2126
10SO.059
1084.920
10S0.791
1094.671
109:>.564
1104.469
1109.3S1
1114.307
1119.244
1124.1M9
1129.148
Oirron.
109 %\
109 11^
110 28
110 h\
110 8^
111 0
111 3J
111 6
111 9
112
112
117
117
117
117
118
118
118
\
3ii
112 6|
112 10
113 1|
113 4|
113 78
113 lOf
114 15
114 4^
114 8
114 in
115 2\
115 5#
115 9
115 11
116 2|
116 6
116 9 J
■t
^\
6i
9|
4
74
118 10J
119 \i
Ihan
Ft.
38 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
39 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
40 0
1
2
3
4
•
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
41 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
42 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
I
8
9
10
11
Area.
Feet.
1134.118
1139.095
1144.087
1149.089
1154.110
1159.124
1164.159
1169.202
1174.259
1179.327
1184.403
1189.493
1194.593
1199.719
1204.824
1-209.958
1-215.099
1-2-20.254
1-225.420
12.30.594
1-235.782
1*240.981
1-246.188
1-251 .408
1-256.64
1-261.879
1267.i:i3
1-272.397
1277.669
1282.955
1288.252
1293.557
1298.876
1.304.206
1309.543
1314.895
1320.267
1.325.6-28
1331.012
1.3.36.407
1341.810
1347.-2-27
1352.6.)5
1358.001
130.3.541
1369.001
1374.47
1379.952
13S5.446
1.390.-247
1396.462
1401.988
1407.522
1413.07
1418.6-29
1424.195
14-29.776
1435.367
1440.967
1446.580
Cirfnm.
Ft. In. I
119 4i
119 7j :
119 105
120 2 I
120 5| i
1-20 Hi 1
120 Ui
1-21 2A
121 5J
121 8^
121 in
122 31
122 61
1-22 9^
123 i
123 3ji
123 6J
1*23 9|
124 IJ
1-24 4i 1
124 7H i
1-24 KU \
1-25 if
1-2.)
^
125 7|
1-25 11
1*26 2\
126 bi
1-26 S4
1-26 1l|
1*27 25
127 5,'
1*27 9
1*28 i
1-28 3g
1-28 6j
1-28 9|
1*29 I
1*29 3j
1*29 7
1*29 101
130 U
130 4i
130 7|
130 lOS
131 n 1
131 5 i
131 8^ I
1.31 Hi
132 -2^
132 51
132 HI
132 111
133 3
133 OH
133 91
134 i
134 ^
134 63
134 9|
54
MENSURATION. -CIRCULAR ARCS.
Areas and Circumferences of Circles (Feet etnd Inches).
Diam.
Ft.
43 0
1
2
I
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
44 0
1
2
3
4
' 5
6
7
8
9
10
11
45 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Area.
Feet.
1452.205
1457.836
1463.483
1469.14
1474.804
1480.48.}
1486.173
1491.870
1497.532
1503..^)
1509.035
1514.779
1520.534
1526.297
1532.074
1537.862
1543.058
1549.478
1555.288
1561.116
1566.959
1572.812
1578.673
1584.549
1590.435
1596.:V29
1602.237
160S.155
1614.0S2
1620.023
1625.974
1631.9.33
1637.907
1643.891
1649.883
1655.889
CircBm.
Diam.
Ft. In.
Ft.
135 1
46 0
135 4
135 1,
1
2
135 10
3
136 1
4
136 4i
5
136 7|
6
136 11
7
137 2i
137 5j
137 83
8
9
10
137 lit
11
138 2^
47 0
138 5|
1
138 9
2
139
3
139 31
4
139 6
5
139 9
6
140
7
140 3
8
140 7
9
141 10,
10
141 l|
11
141 43
48 0
141 74
1
141 105
142 l|
2
3
142 5
4
142 8i
5
142 11
6
143 21
7
143 5
8
143 8^
9
143 11
10
144 3
11
Area.
Feet.
1661.906
1667.931
1673 97
1680.02
1686.077
1692.148
1698.231
1704.321
1710.425
1716.641
1722.663
1728.801
1734.947
1741.104
1747.274
1753.455
1759.643
1765.845
1772.059
1778.28
1784.515
1790.761
1797.015
1803.283
1809..562
1815.848
1822.149
1828.460
1834.779
1841.173
1847.457
1853.809
1860.175
1866.552
1872.937
1879.335
Cireum.
Diam.
Ft. In.
Ft.
144 6
49 0
144 9,
1
145
2
145 3i
3
145 6:
4
145 9|
5
146 1
6
146 4
7
146 7
8
146 10
9
147 U
10
147 4
11
147 73
50 0
147 11
148 2
148 5
148 8
148 11
149 2
149 5
149 82
150
150 3
150 6
150 9i
151
151 3|
151 6
151 10
152 1
152 4:
152 Ik
152 10
153 13
153 4i
153 8|
Area.
Feet.
1885.745
1892.172
1898.504
1905.037
1911.497
1917.961
19-24.426
1930.919
1937.316
1943.914
1950.439
1956.969
1963.5
Cireia.
Ft. In.
153 llj
154 2|
154 5)
154 8j
154 llj
155 2|
155 6
155 9J
156
1.56
156 61
156 9^
157 I
Circular Arcs.
To find the length of a circular arc when its chord and height, or
versed sine is given; by the following table.
Rule. — Divide the height by the chord; find in the column of
heights the number equal to tills quotient. Take out the corre-
sponding number from the colunm of lengths. Multiply this
number by the given chord.
Example. — The chord of an arc is 80 and Its versed 6ine is 30,
what is the length of the arc ?
Ans. 30 -r 80 = 0.875. The lenglh of an arc for a height of 0.375
we find from table to be 1.840t«. 80 X 1.34063 = 107.2504 =?
length of arc.
MENSUKATION. — CIHCULAR ARCS.
55
TABLE OP CIRCULAR ARCS.
Hght8.
Lengths.
Hghts.
Lengths.
Hghts.
Lengths.
Hghts.
Lengths.
Hghts.
Lengths.
.001
1.00001
.062
1.01021
.1-23
1.03987
.184
1.08797
.245
1.15.308
.002
1.00001
.063
1.01054
.124
1.04051
.185
1.08890
.-246
1.154-28
.00:J
1.00002
.064
1.01088
.125
1.04116
.186
1.08984
.247
1.15,U9
.001
1.00004
.065
1.01123
.126
1.04181
.187
1.09079
.248
1.15670
.005
1.00007
.066
1.01158
.127
1.04247
.188
1.09174
.249
1.15791
.oo-^
1.00010
.067
1.01193
.128
1.04313
.189
1.09269
.250
1.15912
. .0J7
1.00013
.068
1.01228
.129
1.04380
.190
1.09365
.251
1.16034
.OOS
1.00017
.069
1.01264
.130
1.04447
.191
1.09461
.252
1.16156
.OO.J
1.00022
.070
1.01301
.131
1.04515
.192
1.09557
.253
1.16279
.010
1.00027
.071
1.01338
.132
1.04584
.193
1.09654
.254
1.16402
.Oil
1.00032
.072
1.01376
.133
1.04662
.194
1.09752
.255
1.16526
.012
1.00038
.073
1.01414
.134
1.047-22
.196
1.09850
.256
1.16650
.013
1.00045
.074
1. 01453
.135
1.04792
.196
1.09949
.-257
1.16774
.014
1.00053
.075
1.01493
.136
1.04862
.197
1.10048
.258
1.16899
.01.5
1.00061
.076
1.01533
.137
1.04932
.198
1.10147
.259
1.170-24
.016
1.00060
.077
1.01673
.138
1.05003
.199
1.10247
.260
1.17150
.017
1.00078
.078
1.01614
.1:39
1.05075
.200
l.ia347
.261
1.17-276
.018
1.00087
.079
1.01656
.140
1.05147
.-201
1.10447
.262
1.17403
.019
1.00097
.080
1.01698
.141
1.05-2-20
.'202
1.10548
.26:3
1.17530
.020
1.00107
.081
1.01741
.142
1.05293
.203
1.10650
.264
1.176.57
.021
1.00117
.082
1.01784
.143
1.05367
.204
1.10752
.265
1.17784
.022
1.00128
.083
1.01828
.144
1.05441
.-205
1.10855
.266
1.17912
.023
1.00140
.084
1.01872
.145
1.05516
.206
1.10958
.267
1.18040
.024
1.00153
.085
1.01916
.146
1.05591
.207
1.11062
.268
1.18169
.025
1.00167
.086
1.01961
.147
1.0566?
.208
1.11165
.269
1.18-299
.026
1.00182
.087
1.02006
.148
1.05743
.209
1.11-269
.270
1.184-29
.027
1.00196
.088
1.02052
.149
1.05819
.210
1.11374
.271
1.18559
.028
1.00210
.089
1.02098
.150
1.0.")S96
.211
1.11479
.272
1.18689
.029
1.00-225
.090
1.02145
.151
1.0)973
.212
1.11584
.273
1.188-20
.030
1.00240
.091
1.02192
.152
1.06051
.213
1.11690
.274
1.18951
.031
1.00256
.092
1.02240
.153
1.06130
.214
1.11796
.275
1.19082
.032
1.00272
.093
1.02289
.154
1.06-209
.215
1.11904
.276
1.19-214
.033
1.00289
.094
1.02339
.155
1.06-288
.216
1.1-2011
.277
1.19346
.034
1.00307
.095
1.02389
.156
1.06:368
.217
1.12118
.278
1.19479
.035
1.00327
.096
1.02440
.157
1.06449
.218
1.1-2-225
.279
1.19612
.036
1.00345
.097
1.02491
.158
1.06530
.219
1.1-23:34
.280
1.19746
.037
1.00361
.098
1.02542
.159
1.06611
.2-20
1.1*2444
.-281
1.198S0
.038
1.0a384
.039
1.02593
.160
1.06693
.221
1.12554
.282
1. -20014
.039
1.00405
.10)
1.02645
.161
1.06775
.-2-22
1.1-2664
.283
1.20149
.040
1. 00426
.101
1.0289S
.162
1.068.58
.2-23
1.1-2774
.284
1.20284
.(Wtl
1.00447
.102
1.02752
.163
1.06941
.2-24
1.1-2885
.285
1.20419
.042
1.00469
.10 J
1.02S06
.164
1.070-25
.-2-25
1.12997
.286
1.20555
.043
1.00492
.104
1.02860
.165
1.07109
.-2*26
1.13108
.287
1.20691
.044
1.00->15
.105
1.02914
.166
1.07194
.227
1.1.3-219
.288
1. -20827 1
.0*'>
1.00 ).39
.103
1.0-2970
.167
1.07279
.228
1.13331
.289
1.-20^)64 1
.046
1.0056:3
.107
1.03026
.168
1.07365
.2-29
1.13444
.290
1.21102
.047
1.00587
.108
1.03082
.169
1.07451
.-230
1.13557
.291
1.21-2.'39
.048
1.00612
.103
1.03139
.170
1.07537
.'231
1.13671
.292
1.21377
.049
1.0033S
.110
1.03198
.171
1.076-24
.232
1.13785
.293
1.-21015
.050
1.00665
.111
1.03254
.172
1.07711
.233
1.13900
.294
1.-21654
.051
1.00692
.112
1.03312
.173
1.07799
.'234
1.14015
.295
1.21794
.(►.-.2
1.00720
.113
1.0:3371
.174
1.07888
.235
1.14131
.-296
1.219:33
.05:J
1.00748
.114
1.03430
.175
1.07977
.236
1.14247
.297
1.2-2073
.0.>4
1.00776
.115
1.03 J90
.176
1.08066
.-237
1.14363
.298
1.2-2-213
.055
1.00805
.116
1.03551
.177
1. OS 1 56
.-238
1.14480
.299
1.22:354
.050
1.00834
.117
1.03611
.178
1.0S246
.-230
1.14597
.300
1 .-2-2495
.057
1.00864
.118
1.03672
.179
1.083;J7
.-240
1.14714
.301
1. -226:36
.058
1.00895
.119
1.03734
.180
1.0S42S
.2 41
1.148.32
.302
1.-2-2778
.059
1.00928
.120
1.03797
.181
1.08519
.242
1.14951
.30:j
1.-2-2920
.060
1.00957
.121
1.03860
.182
1.08611
.243
1.15070
.304
1.'2:]063
.061
1.00989
.122
1.03923
.183
1.08704
.-244
1.15189
.:305
1.23206
56
MENSURATION. — CIRCULAR ARCS.
Table of Circular Aros {conciuded)],
Hghts.
.306
lengths.
Hghts.
Ungths.
lights.
lengths.
Ughts.
lengths.
Hghts.
Leigths.
1.23349
.345
1.29*209
.384
1.35575
.423
1.42402
.462
1.49651
.307
1.23492
.346
1.29.366
.385
1.3.5744
.424
1.42583
.463
1.49842
.308
1.23636
.347
1. -29523
.386
1.. 35014
.425
1.42764
.464
1.50033
..309
1.2.3781
.348
1.29681
.387
1.. 36084
.426
1.42945
.465
1.:iO-224 ,
.310
1.23926
.349
1.29839
.388
1.36254
.427
1.43127
.466
1.50416
.311
1.24070
.350
1.29997
.389
1.36425
.428
1.4.3309
.467
1.50608 I
.312
1.24216
.351
1.30156
.390
1.. 36596
.429
1.4.3491
.468
1.50800 ;
.313
1.24361
.352
1.30315
.391
1.36767
.430
1.43673
.469
1.50992 1
.314
1.24507
.353
1.30474
.392
1.30939
.431
1.43856
.470
1.51185 !
.315
1.24654
.354
1.306.34
.393
1.37111
.432
1.44039
.471
1.51378
.316
1.24801
.355
1.30794
.394
1.37283
.433
1.44222
.472
1.51571
.317
1.24948
.356
l.:50954
.395
1.. 37455
.434
1.44405
.473
1.51764
.318
1.25095
.357
1.31115
.398
l.:37628
.435
1.44589
.474
1.51958
.319
1.25243
.358
1.31276
.397
1.37801
.436
1.44773
.475
1.52152
.320
1.25391
.359
1.314:37
.398
1.37974
.437
1.44957
.476
1.52346
.321
1.25540
.360
1.31599
.399
1.38148
.438
1.45142
.477
1.52541
.322
1.25689
..361
l.:31761
.400
1.38.3-22
.439
1.45327
.478
1.527:36
.323
1.25838
.362
1.31923
.401
l.:38496
.440
1.45512
.479
1.52931
.324
1.25988
.363
1.. 3-2086
.402
1.38671
.441
1.45697
.480
1.53126
.325
1.26138
.364
l.:j-2-249
.403
l.:38846
.442
1.45883
.481
1.53322
.326
1.26288
.365
1.32413
.404
1.39021
.443
1.46069
.482
1.53518
.327
1.26437
..366
1.32577
.405
1.. 391 96
.444
1.46255
.483
1.53714
.328
1.2(5)88
.367
1.32741
.406
l.:i9372
.445
1.46441
.484
1.53910
.329
1.23740
..36S
1.32905
.407
l.:39548
.446
1.46628
.485
1.54106
.330
1.26892
..383
1.33069
.408
1.397-24
.447
1.46815
.486
1.54302
:.m
1.270 U
.3'<0
1.33-2:34
.409
1.39900
.448
1.47002
.487
1.54499
.332
1.2719 J
.371
1.. 33399
.410
1.40077
.449
1.47189
.488
1.54696
.3:i3
1.27349
.372
1.. 3:3564
.411
1.40254
.450
1.47377
.489
1.54893
.:«4
1.27502
.373
l.a3730
.412
1.404:J2
.461
1.47565
.490
1.55091
.33>
1.27656
.374
l.:3:3896
.413
1.40610
.452
1.47753
.491
1.55289
.336
1.27810
.375
1.34063
.414
1.40788
.453
1.47942
.492
1.55487
.337
1.27964
..376
1.342-29
.415
1.40966
.454
1.48131
.493
1.55685
.338
1.28118
.377
1.34:396
.416
1.4H45
.455
1.48320
.494
1.55884
.339
1.28273
.378
1.34583
.417
1.413-24
.456
1.48509
.495
1.56063
.340
1.28428
.379
1.. 34731
.418
1.41503
.457
1.48699
.496
1.56292
.341
1.28583
.380
1.:J4899
.419
1.41682
.458
1.48889
.497
1.56481
.342
1.28739
..381
1.3506S
.4-20
1.41861
.459
1.49079
.498
1.56681
.343
1.28895
.382
1.35-237
.421
1.4-2041
.460
1.49269
.499
1.56881
.344
1.29052
.38:3
1.35406
.422
1.42-221
.461
1.49460
.500
1.57<M0
Table of Leiig^ths of Circular Arcs whose Radius
is 1.
Rule. — Knowing the measure of the circle and the measure of
the arc in degrees, minutes, and seconds; take from the table the
lengths opposite the number of degrees, minutes, and seconds in
the arc, and multiply their sum by the radius of the circle.
Example. — What is the length of an arc subtending an angle
of 13° 27' 8", with a radius of 8 fe<»t.
Ana. Length for 13° = 0.2268928
27'= 0.0078540
8"= 0.0000388
1.30 27' 8"= 0.2:J47850
8
Length of arc = 1.8782848 feeL \l
MENSURATION. —CIRCULAU ARCS.
IjeugthB of Circular Arcs ; BadiuB = 1.
I
ziT^T^ri^rj.:* — -.i:sr:a> -if chords. '
• .:f Vir ■■••i-f ,T I,, f- r7»-M '.'§•* rft'tr^i '^f k'llf th€ arf^ and
." '*'r^9t"L it/i-i C7"i [jirtfji. (The vprswl
^^.J-,^ "ri^L* - ■Lit; ^itr^eniii.'alakT N/. Fig. 31.)
, ^- A •-..'.. — J-'im :Iie siTau** of tli«* clionl of "
B-^ -, ;;i-r -ir lt: ?;iijcru!!: "I^e itjo^ire of the versed
iini-. lali ~jL£ii T3¥'jx zjifi si^iujre root of the ;
i
I
-.:... i:' .J. — T'lr -iiirr. .t u-r' ^Iie ir: is •5i>, and the versed '■
^ i.t. •'I- — J'- = =;X4, and \'J3kM = 48, ;
iii -Ifr < z = \ft5^ the chord.
••i"j-( ir f:i f:-: r//*;;! :,itf diiMtter and versed »ine !
I.
ji ■.-:." I" jt* '-rse-i sill' v- i. xai sobtncc the product from |
.:•• li.i^it*. -r -j.-;i -jaijui-ur^ "-i- iiiiarn ot the reiuaiuder from
.^' -r. ;:i.~- .r -.Air. lia.nrL-^r. i:ii ::4Ju uhe ft^aare root of that re-
> ■ ■•. 1-1-
3:. 4 ' ..:. — Titt riiOiHC-r }f a '."jrcfe is !♦». and the vereed
?»j.r .1 ui i.^- .i\ vjiL :r :L.e iIikc i»ik the iTC ?
-i ... .._*_^ = -;;. : i: - Ti = 2S. lOUfS — 28* = 0216.
\ -ii: f = f**. :iif ■-•xiodi oif the are.
r- .1. ' I- I- ••■'■ r ■/ ' - 'I ■«••: jc&ea tAe cAord of the arc
.::. — TLi^ vre <»; iir^ r-x-c or the sum of the squares of the
■■.>«■•: ?..:•' i:: . ;r '-« ' -ir .'iLOri of the arc.
Y;> • \ • ..-.. — 7iH .-li.ri :r iji an: b ^ and the versed shie 30,
V '..i^ > . It- :i:i.ri .c '■'■«^"*' "lit; at:?
'"' " - >" • /■ •■: ■"' V.:""* T.1 'JT}: irA«i the diameter and rerW
•. . ' ■■ . '-.1.
"..•.— Xi ::i~ :j:h i^^i^iiecer by the versed sine, and take tlie
"■. .■■-'■ '■.■«. C ."C l^*z.? V'"^.\1".JJ-.
■ — V" ■'"■ •-■: *->.*f 5i;ujLre oi the chonl of half the arc by
Kv.Y i. — A:.: :Jir? <i;ujLrv of half the chord of the arc to the
o. ar*. . : :L*n: -■ rs •: <!-: . i:l<.I divide this sum by the versed sine.
MENSURATION. —ARCS AND VERSED SINES. 59
Example. — What is the radius of an arc whose chord is 96, and
whose versed sine is 36 ?
Ans. 482 + 362 = o^qqq^ 3(500 -^ 36 = lOO, the diameter,
and radius = 50.
To compute the versed sine.
Rule. — Divide the square of tlie chord of half the arc by the
diameter.
To compute the versed sine ivhen the chord of the arc and the
diameter are given, '
Rule. — From the square of the diameter subtract the square
of the chord, and extract the square root of tlie remainder; sul>-
tract this root from the diameter, and halve the remainder.
To compute the length of an arc of a circle when the number of
degrees and the radius are given.
Rule 1. — Multiply the number of degrees in the arc by 3.1416
multiplied by the radius, and divide by 180. The result will be the
length of the arc in the same unit as the radius.
Rule 2. — Multiply the radius of the circle by 0.01745, and the
product by the degrees in the arc.
Example. — The number of degrees in an arc is 60, and the
radius is 10 inches, what is the length of the arc in inches ?
Ans. 10 X 3.1416 X 00 = 1884.96 -f 180 = 10.47 inches;
or, 10 X 0.01745 X 60 = 10.47 inches.
To compute the length of the arc of a circle when the length is
given in degreesj minutes, and seconds.
Rule 1.^ Multiply the number of degrees by 0.01745329, and
the product by the radius.
Rule 2. — Multiply the number of minutes by 0.00029, and that
product by the radius.
Rule 3. — Multiply the number of seconds by 0.00000448 times
the radius. Add together these three results for the length of the
arc.
See also table, p. 57.
Example. —What is the length of an arc of 60° 10' 5", the
radius being 4 feet ?
Ans. 1. 60° X 0.01745329 X 4 = 4.188789 feet.
2. 10' X 0.00029 X 4 = 0.0116 feet.
3. 5" X 0.0000048 X 4 = 0.000W)6 feet.
4.200485 feet.
MFNSVRATION.--C1RCULAR SEGMENTS, ETC.
7 -:'.:•:-:■: ■:/" -i a^rtf^r of circle ichen the degreea of the
^ ^ .:'•: 'An'! th^ rodvis are given (Fig. 82).
F 5-32
^,.— -^=^-— ^^^ RvLii. — Multiply the number of degrees in
J ' _____r:?i.i ...^ _^ ; ^. .j^^ area of the whole circle, anddi-
Ex-OiPLE. — Wliat is the area of a sector of
A :.r.'-. ^* Lose radius is 5, and the length of the
\
.y .
■--.■»
.: >. A:rA •:: c'.role = 10 X 10 X 0.7854 = 78.54.
78.0 X 00 _ ^^^
TLrr. infa of sector = — ^^ — — 13.09.
" . ■ .•.-•■-.-,. .„ •-.-. :•;- .j.-ijrf'fs and mini(tes, reduce it
>. v. ■ :v.v..:.v V ■ \ :':.v Arxra of the whole circle, and divide
«
I
■ - i. ,--• .: rir^le irhen the length of the
' m * -
— '^. .. ■•:'-• T-r:":. •"»: the arc by half the length of the
X
«' -.«h ■ aw «*,«« ■»« ^«
X %
I .
\
■ - ■* ■ --ir.'/^ irhen the chord and
. :\: -.' 'r'.'j* or diatui'ter of the circle
"» -VN :'•. tw a xcmicircle). — Ascer
>v.:,7 "..A* '.^ :"::o same arc as the segment,
. .-\.. .' \ :-..%".-'-: fonuea l>v the chord of the
■."..-: s-:v:^'r. and late the difference of
■V V
■ < ■•--••-— rV:n a ^mirirrle). — As-
^ -.. . : . : .ir-.,* i*: :he le>5er iH)rtion of the
, Ar.A . : :"..t ul-.ole «.-ii\-le, and the remain-
\ vv
\
.:' . • :*-.; ::n.ujnfen»nce, and the
. V ■ ■ . \ >:::■:* *^v of a sphere of 10 inches
•- > V.:4li^= S1.416 inches,*
- > : . . : :.t: >U7ftic« of sphere
MENSURATION. — SPHERES AND SPHEROIDS.
61
To compute the surface of a segment of a sphei'e.
Rule. — Multiply the height (be, Fig. 38)
by the circumference of the sphere, and add
the product to the area of the hase.
To find the area of the base, we have the
diameter of the sphere and the length of the
versed sine of the arc abdy and we can find
the length of the chord ad by the nde on
p. 56. Having, then, the length of the chord
ad for the diameter of the base, we can easily Fig. 33
find the area.
Example. — The height, be, of a segment abd, is 36 inches, and
the diameter of the sphere is 100 inches. What is the convex sur-
face, and what the whole surface?
Ans. 100 X 8.1416 = 314.16 inches, the circumference of sphere.
36 X 814.16 = 11309.76, the convex surface.
The length of ad = 100 — 30 x 2 = 28.
V1OO2 — 28-^ = 96, the chord cwi.
962 X 0.7854 = 7238.2464, the area of base.
11309.76 + 7238.2464 = 18548.0064,
the total area.
To compute the surface of a spherical
zone.
Rule. — Multiply the height (cd, Fig. 34) ^
by the circumference of the sphere for the
convex surface, and add to it the area of
the two ends for the whole area.
Fig.34
Spheroids, or Ellipsoids.
Definition. — Spheroids, or ellipsoids, are figures generated by
the revolution of a semi-ellipse about one of its diameters.
When the revolution is about the short diameter, they are pro-
late ; and, when it is about the long diameter, they are oblate.
To compute the surface of a spheroid when the apheroid is prolate.
Rule. — Square the diameters, ami nmltiply the square root of
half their sum by 3.1416, anil this procluct by the short diamettn*.
Example. — A prolate spheroid has diameters of 10 and 14
Uiches, what is its surface ?
Ans. 10=2 = 100, and 142 = 19n._
Tlieirsum = 296, andi/-^ = 12.1655.
12.1655 x 3.1416 X 10 = 382.191 square inches.
62 MENSURATION.- CONES AND PYRAMIDS.
To compute the mirface of n ipheroid when the fipheroid is obVite.
KuLK. — Square the diameters, aud multiply the square root of
lulf their smu by :i.l4ie, and tlila product by the long diameter.
To tumipute thf mir/uM iff n ryllndm:
liiiLK. — Multiply tlie ittngth by tiie circumference for the cod
:X sarface, and add to the product the ares o>
e two ends for the whole sm-face.
I compute the HeetiontU urea of a circwtoi
ring (Kg. 35).
Ri'Mf. —Find the area of liotli circles, and
subtract the area of t1ie sinaller from the area
of tlie larger: the remainder will be the area of
Fig.3S the ring.
To i:im\\mti: the Hurfare of a eone.
}{<T^E■ — Multiply the perimeter or circumference of the base by
one-lialf the slant height, or side of the cone, for the convex area.
Add (o this tlie ai'ea of the base, for ilie whole area.
Example. —The diameter of the base of a cone ie 3 inches, and
the slant height 15 inches, what Is the area of the cone f
Ans. 3 X 3,141(i = 8.4248 = circumference of tmte.
6.4*248 X 7i ~ Hi.mi squai-e inches, the convex stu^ace.
3 X 3 X 0.TS54 = T.CI68 3(|iiare inches, the ares of baae.
Area of cone = 77.7.J4 square Inches.
PI jg To enmpute the itiea nf the surfneeof thefiru*-
RULii. — MiUtipty tlie sum of the perinietets
of the two cnils by the sinjit height of tlie fois-
tnm, and <iivide l>y '2, fur the convex surface.
Add tlie area of the lop and bottom surfaces.
To rompiile the nurface ufa pyramid.
Rule, — Multiply the perimeter of llie base
by one-half the slant height, aud add to Uie
product the area of the base.
To i^nmpiite the nvrface of the fruttum <tf It
pyrcmi.l.
lti:i.K. — Multiply the sum of the perimeters of the two ends by
the slant height of the frustiuu, lialve the pnxluct, aud add lo Uie
result the area of the two euds.
MENSURATION. - PIUSMS.
63
BfENSURATION OF SOLIDa
To compute the volvme of a prism,
RiJi.K. — Multiply tlie area of tli^ base by the height.
This rule applies to any prism of any shape on the base, as long
as the top and bottom surfaces are parallel.
To compute the volume qf a prismoid.
Definition. — A prismoid is
a solid having parallel ends or
bases dissimilar in sliape with
qiuidri lateral sides.
KuLK. — To the sum of the
are^s of the two ends add four
times the area of the middle
section pai*allel to them, and ^
nmltiply this sum by one-sixth
of the perpendicular height.
Example. — What is the vol-
ume of a quadrangular prismoid, as in Fig. 37, in which ah = 0",
C(i = 4", ac = he = 10", ce = 8", ^ = 8", and //* = 6" ?
Ans. Area of top
Area of bottom
Area of middle section
6jfJ
2
8 + 6
2
« + ($
X JO = 50.
X 10 = 70.
X 10 = 60.
|50 + 70 + (4 X 60)1 X J^ = 600 cubic inches.
Note. — The length of the end of the middle section, as mn in Fig. 37 =
To find the volume of a prism
truncated obliquely.
Rule. — Multiply the area of
the base by the average height
of the edges.
Example. — What is the
volume of a truncated prism,
as in Fig. 38, where (f = 6
inches, y7i = 10 inches, ea = 10,
ft = 12, (?// = 8, an(l/^ = 8?
Ans, Area of base = 6X10 =60 square inches.
10+12 + 8 + 8
Fig. 38
Average height of edges =
= 9i inches.
60 X 9i = 970 cubic inches.
66 MEiNSUUATlON. — SPHEROIDS, PAUAB0L0ID3, ETC.
the square of the radius of the base phis the square of the lieight
10:3 X 4 X 0.5236 = 341.3872 cubic inches vol-
ume.
Second Solution. — By the rule for fin«l-
ing the diameter of a circle when a chord
and its versed sine are given, we find that
the diameter of tlie sphere in this case is 16.2o
inches; then, by Rule 2, (3 X 16.25) — (2 X 4)
= 40.75, and '!0.75 x 4^ X 0.5236 = 341.3872
Fig. 41. cubic inclies, the volume of the segment.
To cowpiite the volume of a spherical zone.
Definition. — The part of a sphere in-
cluded between two parallel planes (Fig.
42).
Rule. — To the sum of the squares of
the radii of the two ends add one-third
of the square of the height of the zone;
nndtiply this sum by the height, and that
Fig. 42. pi*oduct by 1.5708.
To compute the volume of a nphei'ohh
Rule. — Multiply the square of the revolv-
ing axis by the fixed axis, and this product by
0.5236.
To compute the volume of a parafjolold of revo-
lution (Fig. 43).
Rule. —Multiply the area of the base by half
rifl.43 the altitude.
To compute the volume of a hjperholoid of revolution (Fig. 44).
Rule. — To the s(|Uare of the I'adius of the
base add the square of the middle diameter;
nmltiply tliis sum by the height, and the pix>tl-
uct by 0.5236.
To compute the volume of any Jiyure ^f revo-
^'^'^ lution.
Rule. — Multiply the area of the generating surface by the clr-
cuniference described by its centre of gi-avity.
To compute the volume of an excavation, where the ground uf irrey-
ular, and the bottom of the excavation is level (Fig. 45).
Rule. — Divide the surface of the ground to be excavated Into
equal squares of about 10 feet on a side, and ascertain by ineuu
MENSURATION. — EXCAVATIONS.
67
a
a
A
d
a
d
d
b
Fig.45
d
a
a
a
of a level the height of each comer, a, a, a, ft, 6, &, etc., abo\e the
level to which the ground is to be excavated. Then add togcllier
the heights of all the corneis that only come into one scjuare.
Next take twice the sum of the heights of all the corners that come
in two squares, as 6, h, b ;
next three times the sum
of the lieiglits of all the
corners that come in three
squares, as r, c, c ; and
then four timies the sum
of the heights of all the j^
corners that belong to foiu*
squares, as d, r2, d, etc.
Add togetlwr all these ^
quantities, and multiply
their sum by one-foiuth
the ai-ea of one of the squares. The result will be the volume of
the excavation.
Example. — Let the plan of the excavation for a cellar be as in
the figure, and the heights of each corner above the proposed bot-
tom of the cellar be as given by the numbers in the figure, then the
volume of the cellar would he as follows, the area of each square
being 10 X 10 = 100 sqHai*e feet: —
Volume = i of 100 (a's + 2 b's 4- 8 c's + 4 tZ's).
The a's in this case = 4 + « + :J + 2+1 + 7 + 4 = 27
2 X the siun of the 6's = 2 X (3 + ($ + 1 + 4 + :{ + 4 )= 42
3 X the sum of the c's = 3 x ( 1 + ;^ + 4) =24
4 X the siuu of the *rs = 4 X (2 + 3 + 0 + 2) =52
145
Volume = 25 X 145 = 3625 cubic feet, tlui <iUiintity of eailh to be
exjavatetL
68
GEOMETKICAL PROBLEMS.
OEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
Problem 1 . — To bisect j or flimde into equal partSy a (/hen
Ihu'.ah (Fig. 46).
^ From a and ft, with any radius greater
tlian half of aft, describe ares intersecting
in c and d. The line cd, connecting these
intersections, will bisect a)), and be perpen-
Fig.46
X^
l> diciilar to it.
Pkoblkm 2. — To draw a perpendicular
to a given straiyht line from a point witJf
out it,
1st Method (Fig. 47). —From the point a describe an arc with
sufficient radius that it will cut the line he
« V X in two places, as e and /. From e and /
describe two arcs, with the same radius,
intersecting in g; then a line drawn from
a to fj will be pei-peudicular to the line ftc.
2d Method (Fig.
48). — From any two
» ^ • •s.-w —r^ points, d and c, at some
distance apart in the
given line, and with
radii da and c« respectively, describe arcs cut-
ting at a and e. Di-aw ae, and it wili l)c the
I)erpendicular required. This method is useful
where the given point is opposite the end of
the line, or nearly so.
Problem 3. — To draw a perpendicular to
a straiyht line from a given point, a, in that
line.
>.i
a
Fig.49
1st Method (Fig. 49).— With any
radius, from the given point a in the
line, describe arcs cutting the line in
the points ft and c. Then with b and
c as centres, and with any radius
greater than ab or ac, describe arcs
cutting each other at d. The line Ja
will be the perpendicular desireiL
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
69
2d Method (Fig. 50, when the given point is at the end of
the line). — From any point, 6, outside of the
line, and with a radius ba, describe a semi-
circle passing through a, and cutting the
given line at rL Through b and d draw a
straight line intersecting the semicircle at 6.
The line ea will then be perpendicular to the
line uc at the point a,
3d Method (Fig. 51) or the 3, 4, and 5
Method. — From the point a on the given line measure off 4
inches, ot-4 feet, or 4 of any other unit, and with the same unit of
measure describe an arc, with a as a centre
and 3 units as a radius. Then from b describe
an arc, with a radius of 5 units, cutting the
first arc in c. Then ca will be the perpen-
dicular. This method is particularly useful
in laying out a right angle on the ground, or
framing a house where the foot is used as
the unit, and the lines laid off by straight edges.
In laying out a right angle on the ground, the proportions of the
triangle may be 30, 40, and 50, or any other multiple of 3, 4, and 5;
and it can best be laid out with the tape. Thus, first measure off,
say 40 feet from (c on the given line, then let one person hold the
end of the tape at b, another hold the tape at the 80-foot mark at
a, and a third person take hold of the tape at the 50-foot mark,
with his thumb and finger, and pull the tape taut. The 50-foot
mark will then be at the point c in the line of the pei*pendicular.
Problem 4. — To draw a strali/ht line parallel to a given line
at a given distance apart (Fig. 52).
i
B
d
(
»
Fig.52 I
>
From any two points near the ends of the given line describe
two arcs about opposite the line. Draw the line cd tangent to
these arcs, and it will be parallel to ab.
70
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
Problem 5. — To eonstriici an (vngle equal to a given angie.
With the point ^4, at the apex of the given
angle, as a centre, and any radius, describe the
arc BC, Then witli the point <r, at the vertex of
tlie new angle, as a centre, and with the same
radius as before, describe an arc like BC, Then
with JiC as a radius, and h as a centre, describe
an arc cutting the other at c. Then will cab b*»
equal to the given angle CAB.
Problem 6. — From a point on a given line
to draw a line making an angle qf 6(P with. tJie
(jiven line (Fig. 54).
Take any distance, as ab, as a radius, and, with a as a centre, de-
^crilie the arc 6c. Then with 6 as a centre, and the same radius,
describe an arc cutting the first one at c. Draw from a a line
through (', and it will luake with ab an angle of 60^.
Fig.54
Fig.55
Problem 7. — From a given point, A, on a given line, AE, to
draw a line making an angle of 4^^ with the given line (Fig. 55).
Measure off from A, on AE, any distance, -46, and at 6 draw a
line perpendicular to AE. Measure off on this perpendicular be
equal to Ab, and draw a line from A through c, and it will make
an angle with AE of 45^.
Problem 8. — From any point, A, on a given line, to draw a line
which shall make any desired angle with the given line (Fig. 56).
To perform this problem we must have a
table of chords at hand (such as is found on
pp. 85-'.)3), which we use as follows. Find
in the table the length of chord to a radius
1, for the given angle. Then take any ra-
^ dius, as large as convenient, describe an
arc of a circle be with A as a centre. Mul-
tiply the chord of the angle, found in the table, by the length of the
radius Ab^ and with the product as a new radius, and 6 as a centre,
describe a short arc cutting be in d. Draw a line from A throngl:
&, and it will make the desired aaglc with DE,
Fig.56
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS
71
Example. — Draw a line from A on DE^ making an angle of
440 40' with DE.
Solution. — We find that tlie largest convenient radius for our
arc is 8 inches: so with ^ as a centre, and 8 inches as a radius, we
describe the arc be. Then, looking in the table of chords, we find
the chord for an angle or arc of 44° 40' to a radius 1 is 0.76. Mul-
tiplying this by 8 inches, we have, for the length of our new radius,
6.08 inches, and with this as a radius, and 6 as a centre, we describe
an arc cutting be in d. Ad will then be the line desired.
Problem 9. — To biseet a given
angle, as BAG (Fig. 57).
With ^ as a centre, and any radius,
descrl an arc, as eb. With c and b as
centres, and any radius greater than
one-half of eb, describe two arcs inter-
secting in d. Draw from A a line
through d, and it will bisect the angle BAC,
Problem 10. — To biseet the anyle contained between two linen^
(IS A B and CI), when the vertex of the angle is not on the drawing
(Fig. 58)
Draw fe parallel to AB, and cd parallel to CD, so that the two
lines will intersect each other, as at i. Bisect the angle cidy as in
the preceding problem, and draw a line through i and o which will
bisect the angle between the two given lines.
Problem 11. — Through two given points,
B and C, to describe an arc of a circle with
a given radius (Fig. 59).
With B and C as centres, and a radius
equal to the given radius, describe two arcs
intersecting at A» With ^ as a centre, and
the same radius/ describe the ait; be, which
Fig. 59
will be found to pass through the given points, B and C
72
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
Problem 12. — To find the centre of a given circle (Pig: W)).
Draw any chord in the circle, as ah, and bisect this chord by
the perpendicu/ar cd. This line will pass through the centre
of the circle, and ef will be a diameter of the circle. Bisect ^, and
the centre o will be the centre of the circle.
T*R0BLEM 13. — To draw a circular arc through three gii>en
pointH, as A, B, and C (Fig. 61).
Draw a line from ^ to J5 and from B to C. Bisect AB and BC
by the lines aa and cc, and prolong these lines until they intersect
at 0, which will be the centre for the arc sought. With o as a
centre, and Ao as a radius, describe the arc ABC,
Problem 14. — To describe a circular arc parsing through three
given points^ when the centre is not availaJjle, by means of a tri-
angle (Fig. 62).
B^ Let il, JB, and C
be the given points.
Insert two stiff pins
or nails at A and C.
Place two strips of
wood, SS, as shown
in the figure; one
against A, the other
against C, and in
clined so that tlieir
intersection shall
come at the third
point, B. Fasten the strips together at their intersection, and nail
a third strip, T, to their other ends, so as to make a firm trian^e.
Place the pencil-point at B, and, keeping the edges of the trian^
against A and B, move the triangle to the left and right, and tbv
l>eneil will describe the arc sought.
OEOMETHICAL PROBLEMS.
73
X
%/
/
4
ra
Fig. 63
V
When the points A and C are at the same distance from B^ if a
strip of wood be nailed to the triangle, so tliat its edge de shall be
at right angles to a line joining A and C as the triangle is moved
one way or the other, the edge de will always point to the centre of
the circle. This principle is used in the perspective linear cZ.
PuoBLEM 15. .— To find a circular arc which shall be ianfjent to
a f/iven point, A, on a straiyht lincj and ^
pass through a given point, C, ouUnde the
line (Fig. 63).
Draw from A a line perpendicular to
the given line. Connect A and C by a
straight line, and bisect it by the perpen-
dicular ac. The point whei-e these two
perpendiculars intersect will be the centre
of the circle.
Pkoblbm 16. — To connect two parallel linen by a reversed curve
composed qf two circular arcs of equal radius, and tangent to the
lines at given points, a« A and B (Fig. 64).
Join A and B, and di-
vide the line into two
equal parts at C. Bisect
CA and CB by perpen-
diculars. At A and B
erect i)erpendicu]ars to
the given lines, and the
intersections a and b
will be the centres of the
arcs composing the required curve.
Pboblbm 17. ^On a given line, as AB, to construct a com-
pound curve qf three arcs of circles, the radii of the two siue. ones
being equal and qf a
given length, atid their
centres in the given
line; the central arc
to pans through a given
point, C, on the perpen-
dicular bisecting the^
given line, and tangent
to Uie other two arcs
(Fig. 66).
Draw tlie pttpendlc-
nlar CIX Lftj off Aa^
Bbf aud CCf eiudi equal to the given radius of the side arcs; join
Fig.64
\::
/
/
I /
0
Fig. 65
74
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
ac; bisect ac by a perpendicular. The intersection of this line with
tlie perpendicular CD will be the required centre of the central
arc. Through n and h draw the lines De and De' ; from a and b,
with the given radius, equal to Aa, Bby describe the arcs Ae'sind
lie; from D as a centre, and CD as a radius, describe the arc eCef
which completes the ciu^e required.
Phoblem 18. — To conairuct a triangle upon a given straight
line or bane, the length of the two tildes being given (Fig. 66).
First (an equilateral triangle. Fig. 66a). — With the extremities
A and B of the given line as centres, and AB sasi radius, descril)e
arcs cutting each other at C Joiu AC and BC,
Fig.GGa
Fig. 60 b
Second (when the sides are unequal, Fig. 66b). — Let ADh^ tt.e
given base, and the other two sides be equal to C and B. With /)
as a centre, and a radius equal to C, describe an indefinite arc
With ^ as a centre, and B as a radius, describe an arc cutting the
first at E. Join E ^dth A and 2>, and it will give the required
triangle.
Problem 19. — To describe a circle about a triangle (Fig. 67).
Bisect two of the sides, us AC and CB, of the triangle, and at
their centres erect perpendicular lines, as ae and />e, intersecting at
e. With e as a centre, and eC as a radius, descril)e a circle, aud U
will be found to pass through A and B.
Fig. 67
Problem 20. — To inscribe a circle in a triangle (Fig. tSB),
Bisect two of the angles, A and B, of the triangle by lines cntting
each other at o. With o as a centre, aud oe as a radius, dMeribe »
circle, which will be found to just touch the other two sideiu
GEOMETRICAL rUOBLKMS.
40
PnoBLEM 21. — To inscribe a square in a circle^ and to describe
a circle about a square (Fig. 69).
To inscribe the square. Draw two diameters. AB and CDy r.t
rigliL angles to each other. Johi the points A, 1), B, C, and we
liavc the inscribed square.
To describe the circle. Draw the diagonals as before, intersecting
at E, and, with ^ as a centre and AE as a radius, describe the
circle.
PROBLKM 22. — To inscribe a circle in a fiqvare, and to deticrihe
a square about a circle (Fig. 70).
To inscribe the circle. Draw the diagonals AB and C7>,. inter-
secting at E. Draw the i)eipendicular EG to one of the sides.
Tlien with J^ as a centre, and EG as a radius, describe a circle,
which will be found to touch all four sides of the square.
To describe the square. Draw two diameters, AB and CD, at
right angles to each other, and prolonged beyond the circumference.
Draw the diameter GF, bisecting the angle CEA or BED. Drnw
lines through G and JF* perpendicular to GF, and terminating in
the diagonals. Draw AD and CB to complete the square.
Pkoulem 23. — To inscribe a penta-
gon in a circle (Fig. 71).
Draw two diametei*s, AB and CD, at ^
right angles to each other. Bisect AG ,^
at E. AVith ^ as a centre, and EC as a A|
« radius, cut OB at F. AVith C as a centre,
and CF as a radius, cut the circle at G
and U. With these points as centres, and
the same radius, cut the circle at I and
J. Join /, J, ff, G, and C, and we then
have inscribed in tlie circle a regular pentagon.
pROBt.KM 24. — 7b i»w(!rl6« B rflffntei
SoLUTioH. — Lay off on tiie dm
circle six times, and connoct the p
Prohi.em 25. — To coniitmct a re^
KlriiiuUt line, AB (Fig. TA).
From A and II, wiih a nullus equal
at O. With 0 aa a centre, aiid a rM
circle, and from A and JS lay o'J tU
fci'ciice of tlie circle, and join tbe
result will be a regular liexagon.
Pkoblem 26, — To coimtnict n re,
atraUjkt line, AB (Fig. 74).
Produce the line AB both vaya, an
and Bb, of iudeflnite lei^^' Kaect
B, and niake the length of the Itiiea e
draw lines parallel to Aa, and eijual in
centres G and I) describe arcs, witli i
peiidiculara Aa and Bb In Fand E.
?
E-
Y
'
\
A
Flg.74
I'noni.KM 27.—Toniakeurrj/ultirct
Dian- the diagonals .<1D and BC,
C, and D, with a nuUin cqnal to A
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
77
sides of the square in a, ft, c, d, c, /, h, and L Join these points
to complete the octa^gon.
Problem 28. — To inscribe a regular octagon in a circle (Fig.
76).
Draw two diameters, AB and CD, at right angles to each other.
Bisect the angles AOB and AOC by the diameters EF and Gfl.
Join Af Ey I), 11 J B, etc., for the inscribed figure.
a
Fig.ZS /ig.77
PiiODLEM 29. — To inHcrihe a circle within a regular poh/f/on.
Fimt (when the polygon has an even number of sides, as in Fig.
T7). — Bisect two opposite sides at -4 and /?, and drawylZ?, and
bisect it at C by a diagonal, DE, drawn between two opposite
angles. With the radius CA describe the circle as required.
Second (when the number of sides is odd, as in Fig. 78). — Bisect
two of the sides at A and By and draw
lines, AE and BD^ to the opposite angles,
intersecting at C With C as a centre,
and (J A as a radius, describe the circle as
required.
Pkoblem 30. — To deacribe a circle
without a regular polygon.
When the mmil)er of the sides is even,
draw two diagonals from opposite angles,
as ED and 67/ (Fig. 77), intersecting at
C; and from C\ with CD as a radius,
describe the circle required.
When the number of sides is odd, find the centre, C, as in last
pi-oblem; and with C as a centre, and CD (Fig. 78) as a radius,
describe the cii'cle required.
Fi8.78
GEOMETRICAL PKUBLEH8.
Plioni.EM 31. —To describe an ellipse, the lengtli and hrei
the Uro iiiex, behiji iiieeii.
iH-hlg gh
On All a
as aiamcte
from the
centre, 0, ri
A
the circles.
and CLDK
nZberTf
on the cir.
eiicc of th.
circle, aa
6", etc, an
tlieiii dra»
G
to tlie cen
FiB.79
cutting th,
circle at tht
a, a', a",
elc, respectively.
l,„.ji the points h, b', eU'., dra
parAllel
to the shorter axi
3; ami from the points n, a*, etc
t^
. 1
lines parallel to tht
— .,,,.^^ axis, and inlerset^
\, first set of lines i
\ c", etc These last
\ will be points in
lipse, anil, h; obta
K
v\ ^
I the ellipse can ea
y^ 2n Method (P
^^^ — Take the stmigl
c
of a stiff piece of
FiB.eo
canlboani, or woe
Smm sor
lie point, as ii, lu.ii
rk off „b eqwal to half the sharle)
/
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
79
eter, and ac equal to half the longer diameter. Place the straight
eilge so that tlie point h shall l>e on the longer diameter, and tlie
point c on the shorter: then will the point a be over a point in
the ellipse. Make on the paper a dot at a, and move the slip
around, always keeping the points b and c over the major and
minor axes. In this way any number of points in the ellipse may
be obtained, which may be connected by a curve drawn freehand.
3d Method (Fig. 81, given the two axes AB and CD.) — FroTM
the point Z> as a centre,
and a radius A O, equal to D
one-half of AB, describe
an arc cutting AB at F
andF'. These two points
are called the foci of the
ellipse. jOne property of
the ellipse is, that the
sum of the distances of
any two points on the
circumference from the
foci is the same. Thus
F'D + DF= F'E -f EF
or F'G + GF.] Fix a
couple of pins into the axis A B at F and F\ and loop a thread
or cord upon them equal in length, when fastened to the pins, to
AB, so as, when stretched as per dotted line FDF\ just to reach
the extremity D of the short axis. Place a pencil-point inside
the chord, as at E, and move the pencil along, always keeping the
cord stretched tight. In this way the pencil will trace the outline
of the ellipse.
Problem 32. — To draw a tangent to an ellipse at a given point
on the curve (Fig.
82).
Let it be re-
quired to draw a
tangent at the
point E on the
ellipse shown in
Fig. 82, First
find the foci F
and F'j as in the
third method for
describing an el-
lipse, Hnuk from
1*^'
80
GKOMETRICAL PUOBl.EMS.
E (li-aw lines EF and EF\ Prolong EF' to a, so that Ea shall
equal EF. Bisect the angle uEF as iii 6, and through 6 draw a
line touching the ciu-ve at E. Tliis line will be the tangent
required. If It were tlt?sii*ed to draw a line normal to the ciu've
at E, as, for instance, the joint of an elliptical arch, bisect the
angle FEF\ and draw the bisecting line through E, and it will be
the normal to the curve, and the proper line for the joint of an
elliptical arch at that point.
Problem 33. — To dmto a tarty ent to an ellipse from a yiven
point without the curve (Fig. 83).
Fig.83
From the point T as a centre, and a radius equal to Uio distance
to the nearer focus F, describe a circle. From F' as a centre, and
a radius equal to the length of the longer axis, describe arcs cutting
the circle just described at a and b. Draw lines from F' to a and
/;, cutting the circumference of the ellipse at E and G, Draw lines
from T through E and G, and they will be the tangents reqiiired.
PitOBLEM 34. — To describe an ellipse approximately, by means
of circular arcs.
First (with arcs of two radii, Fig. 84). —Take half the difference
of the two axes AH and CD, and set it off fiom the centre O to (f
and c on OA and OC ; draw ac, and set off half ac tx) d; draw dl
parallel to ac; set off Oc equal to Od; join c /, and draw em and dm
parallels to di and ic. On nt as a centre, with a i-adlus mC, describe
an arc through C, terminating in 1 and 2; and with i as a'oentre,
and id as a radius, describe an arc tlu'ough X>, terminating in points
3 and 4. On d and e as centres describe arcs through A and JS,
connecting the points 1 and 4, 2 and 3. The four arcs' Urns de-
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
81
smhod form approxiuiately an ellipse. Tliis methotl does not apply
satisfaciov^^ when the conjugate axis is less than two-thirds of the
li-ansvei-se axfs;
Rg.04
C
Second (willi arcs of three radii, Fig. 85). — On the ti-ansverse
r.xis AB draw the rectangle AGEB, equal in height to 0C\ half
the conjitgatc axis. Di-aw GD perpendicular to AC. Set off OK
eqnal to OC^ and on AK as a diameter describe the semicircle
82
GEOMETlllCAL PROBLEMS.
ANK, Draw a radiiis parallel to OC, intersecting the semicircle
at N, and the line GE at P. Extend OC to L and to D. Set off
OM equal to PJV, and on D as a centre, with a radius DM, descrilKj
an arc. From A and B as centres, with a radius OX, intersect
this arc at a and h. The i^oints //, a, 2), 6, //', are the centres of
the arcs required. Produce tlie lines a/T, Da, Dh, hW, and the
spaces enclosed determine the lengths of each arc. This process
works well for nearly all ellipses. It is employed in striking: out
vaults, stone arches, and bridges.
Note. — In this example the point IT happens to coincide with the point K^
but this need not nccesuariiy be the case.
The Parabola*
PjtoiJT.KM 35. — To construct a parabola token the vertex A, the
axis AB, and a jjoint, 21, of the curve, are given (Fig. 86).
Construct the rectangle ABMC, Divide MC into any nmnbor
of equal parts, four for instance. Divide ^C in like manner. Con-
nect Al, A2, and ^13. Through 1', 2', 3', draw parallels to the axis.
The intersections I, II, and III, of these lines, are i)olnt8 in the
required ciure.
Pkoblem 36. — To draw a tangent to a given points II, €f Hie
parabola (Fig. 86).
From the given point II let fall a perpendicular on the axis at 6.
JCxteml the axis to the left of A, Make Aa equal to Ah, Draw
(dl, and it is the tangent required.
The lines perpendicular to the tangent are called normals. To
find the, normal to any point 1, harhif/ the tangent to any oUier
point, 11. Draw the normal lie. From I let fall a perpendicular
Id, on the axis AB, Lay off de equal to be. Connect Ic, and we
have the nonnal required. The tangent may be drawn at I bf
iaying off a perpendicular to the uonnal le at L
OKOMKTUICAL PIIOBLKMS. 83
Hie Hyperbola.
The hyi>erbola possesses the characteristic that if, from any point,
P, two sti-aiglit lines be drawn to two fixed points, F and jF", the
foci, their difference shall always be the same.
Phobi.em 37. — To ddHcrihe an hyperbola throvffh a </iven vertex,
a, icith the (jwcu difference ahy and one of the foci, F (Fig 87).
Draw the axis of the hyperbola AB, with the giveji distance ah
and the focus F marked on it. From b lay off bFx equal to aF
for the other focus. Take any point, as 1 on AB, and with a\ as
a radius, and F as a centre, describe two short arcs above and
below the axis. With 61 as a radius, and F' as a centre, describe
arcs cutting those just described at P and P'. Take several points,
as 2, :^, and 4, and obtain the corresponding points P.^, P;,, and P4
in the same way. Join these points with a curved line, am) it will
be an hyperbola.
To draw a tant/ent to any point of an hyperbola, draw linos from
the givi'Ji point to each of the foci, and bisect the angle thus
formed. The bisecting line will be the tangent recpiircd.
84
GEOMETlllCAL PROBLEMS.
The Cycloid.
__^^^_^QQ
The cycloid Is the curve descrribed
by a x>oint hi the circumference of a
circle rolling in a straight line.
Problem ;^. — To deacrihc a cy-
cloid {Fi^. m.
Draw the straight line AB slz the
base. Describe the generating circle
tangent to this line at the centre, and
through the centre of Uic circle, C,
draw the line EE parallel t<: the base.
Let fall a perpendicular from C upon
the base. Divide the semi-circumfer-
ence into any number of equal parts,
for instance, six. Lay off on A B and
. CE distances 0*1', J '2', etc., equal to
Q« the divisions of the circiunferencc.
5» Draw the chords Dl, D2, etc. From
the points 1', 2', 3', on the line CE, with
radii equal to the generating circle,
describe arcs. From the points 1', 2^,
3', 4', 5', on the line BA, and with
radii equal respectively to the chords
2)1, 7)2, D3, D4y 2)5, describe arcs
cutting the preceding, and the inter-
sections will be points of the curve
required.
GROMF-TRICAl. ritOBLEMS. 8B
TABLE OF CHORDS ; Badios = 1.0000.
KG
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
Table of Chords; Radius = l.OCXX) {continued).
M.
1
IV
1J8-
13-
14-
1
.1917
.2091
.2264
.2437
I
.l'>20
.2093
.22*57
.•2440
'2
.1923
.2096
.2270
.'2443
3
.1926
.2099
.2273
.2446
4
.192S
.2102
.2276
.•2449
f»
.19:J1
.2105
.2279
.•2452
1 0
.1931
.2108
.2281
.'2465
1 7
.1937
.2111
.2284
.•2458
! 8
.1^0
.2114
.2287
.•24t>0
J «
.1943
.2117
.2290
.•24<5:i
■10
.1946
.2119
.2293
.•2466
11
.1949
.2122
.22JK>
.•2469
12
.1952
.2125
.22i>9
.•2472
13
.I9.'i5
.2128
.2:102
.•2475
14
.1M7
.2131
.2305
.•2478
15
.1960
.2134
.2307
.•2481
16
.1W>3
.2137
.2310
.2*84
17
.1^)66
.2140
.2313
.•2486
18
.1969
.214.-1
.2316
••2489
19
.1972
.2146
.2319
.•2492
2U
.1975
.2148
.2322
.*^95
21
.197S
.2151
.2:J25
.•2498
22
.1981
.2154
.2328
.•2501
23
.198.1
.2157
.•2331
.•2504
24
.198«>
.2UiO
.2:133
.•2507
2.')
.1989
.216:$
.2:1:16
••2.510
21'.
.IW2
.2106
.2339
.2512
27
.llW:')
.2169
.2342
.•2515
2S
.1998
.2172
.2:146
.•2518
2V
.2001
.2174
^148
.2521
30
.2004
.2177
.2:151
.•2524
31
.2007
.2180
.2354
.2527
'.)■>
.2010
.2183
.2367
.25:10
3-i
.2012
.2186
.2:159
.253:1
34
.2015
.2189
.2:162
.2636
3.-)
.2018
.2192
.2365
.2.v:i8
36
.2021
.2195
.2368
.2.>H
37
.2024
.2198
.•2371
.2544
3K
.2t)27
.2200
.2:174
.2547
3H
.20:iO
.220:1
.2377
.2660
40
.20: UJ
.2206
.2380
.2653
41
.20;i6
.2209
.•2383
.2656
42
.2038
.2212
.2385
.•2559
4ii
.2041
.2215
.'2388
.'2561
44
.2044
.2218
.•2:191
.2664
4i>
.2047
.2221
.2:194
.2567
46
.2t).'>0
.2224
.2397
.•2570
J 47
.2a'»;)
.222ti
.2400
.•2573
.2a'HJ
.2229
.2401
.2f>76
4H
.20.')9
.22;i2
.240«)
.•2679
(K)
.2WJ2
.22:15
.2409
.•2^.82
Til
.20t)5
.2238
.2411
.2585
."•2
.2067
.2241
.2414
.•2587
61
.2070
.2244
.SM17
.2590
fi4
.2073
.2247
.2420
.25it:i
r.5
•>076
.2260
.2423
.2596
f)6
.2079
.2253
.2426
.2599
•u
.2082
.2256
.24'29
.2t)02
r>s
.2085
.2258
.•24:12
.2605
M
.2088
.2261
.24:14
.2»M)8
6tl
.2091
.2264
.'2437
.•2611
16'
.2611
.2613
.•2616
.2619
.2<)'25
.•2ti28
.2631
.•2»>W
.'2636
.'26:19
.♦2642
.'2645
.'2648
.2651
.•2654
.'2657
.'2660
.•2662
.'2605
.•2668
.2671
.'2674
.2677
.'2680
.2683
.'2685
.2688
.2691
.2694
.2697
.2700
.270:1
.2706
.2709
.2711
.'2714
.'2717
.'27'20
.•27'2:j
.'2726
.27^29
.27:12
.27:14
.2737
.2740
.274:1
.2746
.•2749
.2752
.2755
.2758
.•27(50
.•276:i
.2766
.27459
.2772
.'2775
.•2778
.•2781
.•2783
16*
.2783
.2786
.2789
.2792
.'2795
.2798
.•2801
.'2804
.'2807
.'2809
.•2812
.'2815
.•2818
.•2821
.•28-24
.'2827
.2830
.'2832
.'2835
.'28:18
.2841
.•2844
.'2847
.'2850
.'2853
.2855
.2858
.'2861
.2864
.2867
.•2870
.'2873
.•2876 i
.'2878 .
.•2vS81 ,
.•2S84 '
.•2887 '
.2890 I
.•2893 ;
.'2896
.'2899 j
.•2902!
.2904 1
.2907 !
.•2910
.•2D13
.•2916
.•2919 !
.29^22
.•2925
.'2927
.'2930
.'29:i:i
.•29:m
.-29:19
.2942
.-2945
.•2948
.•2950
.295:1
.'2956
17'
.2966
.'2959
.'2962
.'2966
.'2968
.2971
.2973
.2976
.'2979
.2982
.2986
.2988
.2991
.2994
.2996
.'2999
.3002
.3005
.3008
.3011
.3014
.3017
.3019
.3022
.3026
.30'28
.30:11
.3034
.3037
.3040
.3042
.3046
.:1048
.3051
.:1054
.:1057
.3060
.3063
.:1065
.3068
.3071
.3074
.:J077
.:1080
.3083
.3086
.:i088
.3091
.3094
.3097
.3100
.310:1
.3106
.3109
.3111
.3114
.3117
.3120
.312:1
.31-26
.31-29
.3129
.3132
.31^4
.3137
.3140
.3143
.3146
.3149
.3162
.3155
.3167
.3160
.3163
.3166
.3169
.3172
.3176
.3178
.3180
.3183
.3186
.3189
.3192
.3195
.3198
.3*200
.3-203
.3'206
.3'209
.3212
.3216
.3218
.3221
.3*223
.3*226
.3-229
.3'232
.3-235
.3238
.3241
.3'244
.3-246 j
.3-249
.3-252
.3255
.3-258
.3261
.3264
.3267
.3269
.3272
.3275
.3278
.3*281
.3-284
.3287
.3-289
.3-292
.3-295
.3-298
.3301
.3801
.3304
.3307
.3310
.3312
.3316
.3318
.3321
.3324
.33*27
.3330
.3333
.3335
.3338
.3541
.3au
.3347
.3350
.3363
.3356
.3358
.3361
.2i\M
.3367
.3370
.3373
.3376
.3378
.3381
.3384
.3387
.3390
.3393
.3306
.3398
.^1401
.3404
.3407
.3410
.3413
.3416
.:1419
.:1421
.3424
.34-27
:M80
.a433
.3436
.:1439
.:i441
oil 1
.Ol'l 1
.:1447
.3450
.3463
.3466
.3469
.:14<J2
.3467
.3470
.3473
«©•
ai*
.3473
..1645
.3476
.3(U8
.3479
.3660
.3482
.3663
.8484
.3656
.3487
.3659
.3490
^1662
.3493
.3665
.3406
.3668
.S409
.3670
.8502
.3673
.3504
.3676
.3507
.3679
.3510
.3682
.3513
.3686
.3516
.3688
M^'klO
.3690
.3522
.3603
.3626
.3606
.3527
.3600
.3530
.3702
.3533
JNO&
.3636
.3708
.3530
.3710
.3542
.3713
.3645
.3716
.3547
.3719
.3650
.3722
.3663
.3726
.3666
.3728
.3660
.3730
..3662
.3733
.3665
.3736
.3567
.3730
.3670
.3742
.3573
.3745
.3676
.3748
.3670
.3750
.3682
.3753
.3685
.3766
.3687
.3760
.3600
.3762
.3603
.3765
.3606
.3768
mIuOO
.3770
.8602
.3773
.3605
.8776
.3608
.3770
.3610
.8782
.3613
.3786
.3616
.3788
.3619
.3700
.36*22
.3703
.3626
.8706
.3628
.3709
.3030
jsaoi'
.3633
.3805
.36:16
.3808
.3630
U»10
.3642
.3813
.8046
.3816
6
7
8
0
10
11
12
13
U
15
16
17
18
10
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
20
30
81
32
33
34
35
30
37
38
30
40
41
42
43
44
45
40
47
48
40
50
51
52
53
&4
55
56
57
58
50
«0
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
87
Table of Chords;
Radius
= 1.0000 (continued).
M.
aa*
88'
«4-
»5'
«6'
«?•
28*
»9'
30*
3V
32'
M.
0'
(K
.3816
.3987
.4158
.4329
.4499
.4669
.48.38
.5008
.5176
.5345
.5513
1
.3819
.3990
.4161
.4332
.4502
.4672
.4841
.5010
.5179
.5348
.5516
1
2
.3822
.3993
.4164
.4334
.4505
.4675
.4844
.5013
.5182
.5350
.5518
2
S
.3825
•oVvD
.4167
.4337
.4508
.4677
.4847
.5016
.5185
.5353
.5521
3
4
..3828
•«J«I<T(I
.4170
.4340
.4510
.4680
.4850
.5019
.5188
.5356
.5524
4
5
.3830
.4002
.4172
.4343
.4513
.4683
.4853
.5022
.5190
.5359
.5527
5
6
.3833
.4004
.4175
.4346
.4516
.4686
.4855
.5024
.5193
.5362
.5530
6
m
I
.3836
.4007
.4178
.4349
.4519
.4689
.4858
.5027
.5196
.5364
.5532
7
1 8
.3839
.4010
.4181
.4352
.4522
.4692
.4861
.5030
.5199
.5367
.5535
8
9
.3842
.4013
.4184
.4354
.4525
.4694
.4864
.5033
.5202
.5370
.5538
9
lu
.3845
.4016
.4187
.4357
.4527
.4697
.4867
.5036
.5204
.5373
.5541
10
11
.3848
.4019
.4190
.4360
.4530
.4700
.4869
.5039
.5207
.5376
.5543
11
12
.3850
.4022
.4192
.4363
.4533
.4703
.4872
.5041
.5210
.5378
.5546
12
13
.3853
.4024
.4195
.4366
.4536
.4706
.4875
.5044
.5213
.5381
.5549
13
14
.:3856
.4027
.4198
.4369
.4539
.4708
.4878
.5047
.5216
.5384
.5552
14
15
.3859
.4030
.4201
.4371
.4542
.4711
.4881
.5050
.5219
.5387
.5555
15
16
.3862
.4033
.4204
.4374
.4544
.4714
.4884
.5053
.5221
.5390
.6557
16
17
.3865
.4036
.4207
.4377
.4547
.4717
.4886
.5055
.5224
.5392
.5560
17
18
.3868
.4039
.4209
.4380
.4550
.4720
.4889
.5058
.5227
.5395
.5563
18
19
.3870
.4042
.4212
.4383
.4553
.4723
.4892
.5061
.5230
.5398
.5566
19
20
.3873
.4044
.4215
.4:i86
.4556
.4725
.4895
.5064
,5233
.5401
.5569
20
21
.3876
.4047
.4218
.4388
.4559
.4728
.4898
.5067
.5235
.5404
.5571
21
22
.3879
.4050
.4221
.4391
.4561
.4731
.4901
.5070
.5238
.5406
.5574
22
23
.3882
.4053
.4224
.4394
.4564
.4734
.4903
.5072
.5241
.5409
.5577
23
24
.3885
.4056
.4226
.4397
.4567
.4737
.4906
.5075
.5244
.5412
.5580
24
25
.3888
.4059
.4229
.4400
.4570
.4740
.4909
.5078
.5247
.5415
.5583
25
26
.3890
.4061
.4232
.4403
.4573
.4742
.4912
.5081
.5249
.5418
.5585
26
27
.3893
.4064
.4235
.4405
.4576
.4745
.4915
.5084
.5252
.5420
.5588
27
28
.3896
.4067
.42.38
.4408
.4578
.4748
.4917
.5086
.5255
.5423
.5591
28
29
.3899
.4070
.4241
.4411
.4581
.4751
.4920
.5089
.5258
.5426
.5594
29
30
.3902
.4073
.4244
.4414
.4584
.4754
.4923
.5092
.5261
.5429
.5597
30
31
.3905
.4076
.4246
.4417
.4587
.4757
.4926
.5095
.5263
.5432
.5599
31
32
.3908
.4079
.4249
.4420
.4590
.4759
.4929
.5098
.5266
.5434
.5602
32
33
.3910
.4081
.4252
.4422
.4593
.4762
.4932
.5100
.5269
.5437
.5605
33
34
.3913
.4084
.4255
.4425
.4595
.4765
.4934
.5103
.5272
.5440
.5608
34
35
.3916
.4087
.4258
.4428
.4598
.4768
.4937
.5106
.5275
.5443
.5611
35
36
.3919
.4090
.4261
.4431
.4601
.4771
.4940
.5109
.5277
.5446
.5613
36
37
.3922
.4093
.4263
.4434
.4604
.4773
.4943
.5112
.5280
.5448
.5616
37
38
.3925
.4096
.4266
.4437
.4607
.4776
.4946
.5115
.5283
.5451
.5619
38
39
.3927
.4098
.4269
.4439
.4609
.4779
.4948
.5117
.5286
.5454
.5622
39
40
.3930
.4101
.4272
.4442
.4612
.4782
.4951
.5120
.5289
.5457
.5625
40
'.41
.3933
.4104
.4275
.4445
.4615
.4785
.4954
.5123
,5291
.5460
.5627
41
142
.3936
.4107
.4278
.4448
.4618
.4788
.4957
.5126
.5294
.5462
.5630
42
43
.3939
.4110
.4280
.4451
.4621
.4790
.4960
.5129
.5297
.5465
.5633
43
44
.3942
.4113
.4283
.4454
.4624
.4793
.4963
.5131
.5300
.5468
.5636
44
45
.3945
.4116
.4288
.4456
.4626
.4796
.4965
.5134
.5303
.5471
.5638
45
46
.3947
.4118
.4289
.4459
.4629
.4799
.4968
.5137
.5306
.5474
.5641
46
47
.3950
.4121
.4292
.4462
.4632
.4802
.4971
.5140
.5308
.5476
.5644
47,
48
.3953
.4124
.4295
.4465
.4635
.4805
.4974
.5143
.5311
.5479
.5647
48;
49
.3956
.4127
.4298
.4468
.4638
.4807
.4977
.5145
.5314
.5482
.5650
49
50
.3959
.41.30
.4300
.4471
.4641
.4810
.4979
.5148
.5317
.5485
.5652
50
bl
.3962
.4133
.4303
.4474
.4643
.4813
.4982
.5151
.5320
.5488
.5655
51
i 52
.3965
.4135
.4306
.4476
.4646
.4816
.4985
.5154
.5322
.5490
.5658
52
53
.3967
.4138
.4309
.4479
.4649
.4819
.4988
.5157
.5325
.5493
.5661
53
54
.3970
.4141
.4312
.4482
.4652
.4822
.4991
.5160
.5328
.5496
.5664
54
55
.3973
.4144
.4315
.4485
.4655
.4824
.4994
.5162
.5331
.5499
.5666
55
56
.3076
.4147
.4317
.4488
.4658
.4827
.4996
.5165
.5334
.5502
.5669
56
57
.3979
AlbO
.4320
.4491
.4660
.4830
.4999
.5168
.5336
.5504
.5672
57
58
.3982
.4153
.4323
.4493
.4663
.4S:J3
.5002
.5171
.5339
.5507
.5075
58
59
.3085
.4155
.4326
.4496
.4666
.48:j6
.5005
.5174
.5342
.5510
.5678
59
60
.3987
.4158
.4329
.4499
.4669
.4838
.5008
.5176
.5345
.5513
.5080
60
88
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
Table of Chords ; Radius = 1.0000 {continued) ,
0'
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
21
25
26
27
2S
29
30
31
32
•M
34
35
.'it;
37
:is
39
40
I 41
42
43
44
j45
'46
i47
'48
I 49
■50
51
,52
;53
I 54
:6:.
' 5'>
I 57
: 5S
I 59
I 30
5680
5683
56S6
5689
5691
5694
5697
5700
5703
57a5
5708
5711
5714
5717
5719
5722
5725
5728
57:U)
57;j:j
5
'TM
5739
5742
5744
5747
5750
5753
5756
575S
5701
5704
5767
5769
5772
:> M O
577S
5781
5783
5786
5789
5792
5795
5797
5800
5803
5806
5S0S
5811
58 14
5817
5820
5SJJ
5h28
58:;i
:.s:j4
5s:;r»
.'i.s:j9
.■•s4-.;
58 J.')
5S47
.5847
.5850
.5853
.5866
.5859
.5861
.5864
.5867
.5870
.5872
.5875
.5878
.5881
.5884
.5886
.5889
.58;»2
.5895
.5897
.5900
.5'.Ktt
..5903
.5909
.5911
.5914
.5917
.5920
.5922
.5925
.5928
.5931
.5931
.5936
.59:19
.5942
.5945
.5947
.5950
.5953
.5956
.5959
.5961
.5964
.5967
.5970
..5972
.5975
.5978
.5981
.5984
..5980
.59S0
.5992
.5995
.59'.)7
.iUMH)
.004 »6
.0011
.0014
.6014
.6017
.6(r20
.6022
.6025
.6028
.6a-a
.6034
.etm
.6039
.6042
.6045
.mil
.605i)
.605:^
.60r»6
.6058
.60«)1
jMm
.6067
.6»)70
.0072
.6075
.6;»7S
.6t)Sl
.608:)
.6;)8:'.
.6089
.6(K»2
.60{»5
.0097
.61 on
.6103
.6106
.6108
.6111
.6114
.6117
.6119
.6122
.6125
.6128
.6130
.61:^:)
.6i:Mi
.6139
.6142
.6144
.6147
.6150
.6153
.6155
.0158
.0101
.61('>4
.010<\
.010!)
.0172
.0175
.iil7S
.01 SO
I
.6180
.6183;
.6186
.6189
.6191
.6194
.6197
.6200
.6202
.6205
.6208
.6211
.6214
.6216
.6219
.6222
.6225
.6227
.6230
.6233
.6-236
.6238
.6241
.6244
.6247
.6249
.6252
.6255
.6258
.6260
.6263
.6266
.6269
.6272
.6274
.6277
.6280
.6283
.6285
.6288
.6291
.Ui94
.62<H5
.6299
.6302
.6305
.6307
.6,310
.6313
.6316
.(»18
.6321 ■
.6:J24
.r>327 I
.O:i:io I
.<^i:>2
.»):j;j5
.(Viil
.o:n:i
.0:> l«i
r I
37'
38'
.6511
39»
40*
4V
4«'
43*
M.
1
.6346
.6676
.6840
.7004
.7167
.7330
0'.
.6349
.6514
.6679
.6843
.7007
.7170
.7333
i;
.6.%>2
.6517
.6682
.6846
.7010
.n73
.7335
2
.63.54
.6520
.6684
.6849
.7012
.n76
.7338
3
.6:j57
.6522
.6687
.6851
.7015
.n78
.7341
4
.62)60
6.525
.6«J90
.68.54
.7018
.nsi
.7344
5
XuViH .6528
.6693
.68.57
.7020
.7181
.7346
«■
.631^5 i .6531
.6695
.6860
.7023
.7186
.7340
4
.6:J6S , .65:w
.6098
.6862
.7026
.n89
.7352
8i
.6371 1 .6536
.6701
.6865
.7029
.7192
.7354
»i
.6374 .6.5.39
.6704
.6868
.7081
.7195
.7357
101
.a376
.6542
.6706
.6870
.7034
.7197
.7360
11
.6379 ■ .6544
.6709
.6873
.7Cte7
.7200
.73G2
12
.6:182
.6547
.6712
.6876
.7040
.7203
.73«5
13
.0385
.6550
.6715
.6879
.7042
.7205
.7368
14
.6387
.6553
.6717
.6881
.7045
.7208
.7371
15
.6390
.6555
.6720
.6884
.7048
.7211
.7373
16
.6393
.6558
.6723
.6887
.7050
.7214
.7376
17
.0:»6
.6561
.6?25
.6890
.7053
.7216
.7370
18
.6398
.6564
.6728
.6892
.7096
.7210
.7381
19
.«U01
.6566
.6731
.6895
.7059
.7222
.7384
20
.6404
.6569
.6734
.6898
.7061
.7224
.7387
21
.6407
.6572
.6736
.6901
.7064
.7227
.7300
22
.MIO
.6575
.67.39
.6903
.7067
.7230
.7302
23
.6412
.6577
.6742
.6906
.7069
.7232
.7395
24
.6415
.6580
.6715
.6909
.7072
.7235
.7308
25
.6418
.6583
.6747
.6911
.7075
.7238
.7400
26
.6421
.6586
.6750
.0914
.7078
.7241
.7408
27
.6423
.6588
.675:$
.6917
.7080
.7213
.7406
28
.6426
.6591
.6756
.692«)
.7083
.7246
.7408
SO
.0)429
.6594
.6758
.6922
.7086
.7240
.7411
30
.6432
.6597
.6761
.6925
.7089
.7251
.7414
31
.6434
.6599
.6764
.6928
.7091
.7254
.7417
32
.6437
.6602
.6767
.6931
.7094
.7257
.7410
38
.6440
.6605
.6769
.6933
.7097
.7260
.7^2
84
.6443
.6608
.6772
.6936
.7099
.7202
.7425
35
.6445
.6610
.6775
.6039
.7102
.7285
.7427
ao
.6448
.6613
.6777
.6941
.7105
.7268
.7480
37
.6451
.6616
.6780
.6944
.7108
.7270
.7433
38
.6454
.6619
.67X3
.6947
.7110
.7278
.7433
39
.♦U56
.6621
.6786
.6950
.7118
.7276
.7438
40
.6459
.6624
.(.788
.6952
.7116
.7270
.7441
41!
.0462
.6<)27
.6791
.6955
.7118
.7281
.7443
42-
.6465
.60;M)
.0794
.6958
.7121
.7284
.7446
43:
.0407
.66:J2
.6797
.6961
.7124
.7287
.7440
44
.6470
.66:)5
.6799
.6963
.7127
.7280
.7468
45
.6473
.663S
.6802
.6966
.7129
.7292
.74U
46
.6470
.6640
.6805
.61HJ9
.7132
.7205
.7467
47
.W78
.6<U3
.0S08
.6971
.7135
.7298
.7400
48
.6481
.(•)640
.6810
.6974
.7137
.7900
.7402
49>
.6484 Am\)
.0813
.0977
.7140
.7308
.7405
50>
.6487 ' .0051
.0810
.0981
.714:5
.7306
.7468
51
.6tSt| .60 "i 4
.r.8l9
.0982
.7146
.7308
.7471
52'
.fi4l»2 ; .0<r)7
.«>X21
.0985
.7148
.7311
.7478
53,
.r>4y5 1 .ooiKJ
.0824
.6!>88
.7151
.7814
.7476
54
.o49*< 1 sm-i
.r>.S27
.0901
.7154
.7316
.7470
55
.»>;'i<M) .fiOiV)
AW1\)
.6'.>1»3
.7150
.7310
.7481
50;
,0511:; .Oi'is
.0k:12
.0LKH5
.7159
.7322
.7484
57 i
.O'ltMi .OiTl
.ov;5
.6i>.t'.i
.7Hi2
.7325
.7487
68
.0V»'.» .007:')
.ris;;^
.7001
.7165
.7527
.7480
M
.o-.ii
.(•►«>7r»
.0840
, .7(M»4
.7107
.7330
.7402
00
.ble of Chords
; Radius
= 1.0000 (continued)
•
4'
46*
46'
47'
48'
49'
SO"
51-
68-
1
54*
M.
0'
192
.7654
.7815
.7975
.8135
.8-294
.8452
.8610
.8767
.8924
.9080
m
.7656-
.7817
.797:^
.8137
.8297
.8455
.8613
.8770
.8927
.9082
1
m
.7659
.7820
.7981)
.8140
.8299
.8458
.8615
.8773
.8929
.9085
2
wo
.7662
.7823
.7983
.8143
.8302
.8460
.8618
.8775
.8932
.9088
3
i03
.7664
.7825
.7986
.8145
.8304
.8463
.8621
, .8778
.8934
.9090
4
m
.7667
.7828
.7988
.8148
.8307
.8466
.8623
.8780
.8937
.9093
5
m
.7670
.7831
.7991
.8151
.8310
.8468
.8626
.8783
.8940
.9096
6
»ii
.7672
.7833
.7994
.8153
.8312
.8471
.8629
.8786
.8942
.9098
7
il4
.7675
.7836
.7996
.8156
.8315
.8473
.8631
.8788
.8945
.9101
8
>16
.7678
.7839
.7999
.8159
.8318
.8476
.8634
.8791
.8947
.9103
9
»19
.7681
.7841
.8002
.8161
.8320
.8479
.8636
.8794
.8950
.9106
10
>22
.7683
.7844
.8004
.8164
.8323
.8481
.8639
.8796
.8953
.9108
11
»24
.7686
.7847
.8007
.8167
.8826
.8484
.8642
.8799
.8955
.9111
12
»27
.7689
.7849
.8010
.8169
.8328
.8487
.8644
.8801
.8958
.9113
13
30
.7691
.7852
.8012
.8172
.8331
.8489
.8647
.8804
.8960
.9116
14
33
.7694
.7855
.8015
.8175
.8334
.8492
.8650
.8807
.8963
.9119
15
35
.7697
.7857
.8018
.8177
.8336
.8495
.8652
.8809
.8966
.9121
16
38
.7699
.7860
.8020
.8180
.8339
.8497
.8655
.8812
.8968
.9124
17
41
.7702
.7863
.8023
.8183
.8341
.8500
.8657
.8814
.8971
.9126
18
•43
.7705
.7865
.8026
.8185
.8344
.8502
.8660
.8817
.8973
.9129
19
•46
.7707
.7868
.8028
.8188
.8347
.8505
.8663
.8820
.8976
.9132
20
49
.7710
.7871
.8031
.8190
.8349
.8508
.8665
.8822
.8979
.9134
21
•51
.7713
.7873
.8034
.8193
.8:J52
.8510
.8668
.8825
.8981
.9187
22
•54
.7715
.7876
.8036
.8196
.8355
.8513
.8671
.8828
.8984
.9139
23
.57
.7718
.7879
.8039
.8198
.8357
.8516
.8673
.8830
.8986
.9142
24
•60
.7721
.7882
.8042
.8201
.8360
.8518
.8676
.8833
.8989
.9145
25
•62
.7723
.7884
.8044
.8204
.8363
.8521
.8678
.8835
.8992
.9147
26
•65
.7726
.7887
.8047
.8206
.8365
.8523
.8681
.8838
.8994
.9150
27
•68
.7729
.7890
.80 JO
.8209
.8368
.8526
.8684
.8841
.8997
.9152
28
.70
.7731
.7892
.8052
.8212
.8371
.8529
.8686
.8843
.8999
.9155
29
•73
.7734
.7895
.8055
.8214
.8373
.8531
.8689
.8846
.9002
.9157
30
•76
.7737
.7898
.8058
.8217
.8376
.8534
.8692
.8848
.9005
.9160
31
.78
.7740
.7900
.8060
.8220
.8378
.8537
.8694
.8851
.9007
.9163
32
•81
.7742
.7903
.8063
.8222
.8381
.8539
.8697 .8854
.9010
.9165
33
•84
.7745
.7906
.8066
.8225
.8384
.8542
.8699
.8856
.9012
.9168
34
86
.7748
.7908
.8068
.8228
.8386
.8545
.8702
.8859
.9015
.9170
35
.89
.7750
.7911
.8071
.8230
.8389
.8547
.8705
.8861
.9018
.9173
36
.92
.7753
.7914
.8074
.8233
.8392
.8550
.8707
.8864
.9020
.9176
37
.9.)
.7756
.7916
.8076
.8236
.8394
.8552
.8710
.8867
.9023
.9178
38
.97
.7758
.7919
.8079
.8238
.8397
.8555
.8712
.8869
.9025
.9181
39
iOO
.7761
.7922
.8082
.8241
.8400
.8558
.8715
.8872
.9028
.9183
40
m
.7764
.7924
.8084
.8244
.8402
.8560
.8718
.8874
.9031
.9186
41
105
.7766
.7927
.8087
.8246
.8405
.8563
.8720
.8877
.9033
.9188
42
i08
.7769
.7930
.8090
.8249
.8408
.8566
.8723
.8880
.9036
.9191
43
ill
.7772
.7932
.8092
.8251
.8410
.8568
.8726
.8882
.9038
.9194
44
il3
.7774
.7935
.8095
.8254
.8413
.8571
.8728
.8885
.9041
.9190
45 1
•16
.7777
.7938
.8098
.8257
.8415
.8573
.8731
.8887
.9044
.9199
40.
•19
.7780
.7940
.8100
.8259
.8418
.8576
.8734
.8890
.9046
.9201
47,
121
.7782
.7943
.8103
.8262
.8421
.8579
.8736
.8893
.9049
.9204
48 ,
124
.7785
.7946
.sio,-)
.826)
.8423
.8581
.8739
.8895
.9051
.9207
49,
127
.7788
.7948
.8108
.8267
.8426
.8584
.8741
.8898
.9054
.9209
50'
i-29
.7791
.7951
.8111
.8270
.8429
.8.587
.8744
.8900 .9056
.9212
51
•32
.7793
.7954
.S113
.8273
.8431
.8589
.8747
.8903
.9059
.9214
52
35
.7796
7956
.8110
.8275
.S434
.8)92
.8749
.8906
.9002
.9217
53 1
i38
.7799
.7959
.8119
.S27S
.8437
.8594
.8752
.8908
.9064
.9219
54;
m
.7801
.7962
.8121
.8281
.8439
.8597
.8754
.8911
.9067
.9222
55
43
.7804
.7964
.8124
.S283
.8442
.8000
.8757
.8914
.9069
.9225
56
46
.7807
.7967
.8127
.8286
.8444
.8602
.8760
.8916
.9072
.9227
57
48
.7809
.7970
.8129
.8289
.8447
.8605
.8762
.8919
.9075
.9230
5S
>51
.7812
.7972
.8132
.8291
.8450
.8608
.8765
.8921
.9077
.92:32
59 1
154
.7815
.7975
.8135
.8294
.8452
.8610
.8767
.8924
.9080
.9235 60
90
GEOMETllICAL PROBLEMS.
Table of Chords
; Radius =
= 1.0000 1
[continued)
•
M.
55"
66'
67*
68"
50"
eo*
or
62'
«8'
64*
M.
.9235
.9389
.9543
.9696
.9848
1.0000
1.0161
1.0301
1.0460
1.0698
1
.9238
.9392
.9546
.9699
.9861
1.0003
1.0163
1.0303
li)462
1.0601
1
2
.9240
.9395
.9548
.9701
.9854
1.0005
1.0166
1.0306
1.0466
1.0603
2
3
.9243
.9397
.9551
.9704
.9856
1.0008
1.0168
1.0308
1.0467
1.0606
3
4
.9245
.9400
.9553
.9706
.9859
1.0010
1.0161
1.0311
1.0460
1.0608
4
T)
.9248
.9402
.9566
.9709
.9861
1.0013
1.0163
1.0313
1.0462
1.0611
5
6
.9250
.9405
.9559
.9711
.9864
1.0015
1.0166
1.0316
1.0466
1.0613
6
7
.9253
.9407
.9561
.9714
.9866
1.0018
1.0168
1.0318
1.0467
1.0616
7
8
.9256
.9410
.9564
.9717
.9869
1.0020
1.0171
1.0321
1.0470
1.0618
8
9
.9258
.9413
,9566
.9719
.9871
1.0023
1.0173
1.0323
1.0472
1.0621
9
10
.9261
.9415
.9569
.9722
.9874
1.00-26
1.0176
1.0326
1.0476
1.0623
10
11
.926:$
.9418
.9571
.9724
.9876
1.0028
1.0178
1.0328
1.0477
1.0626
11
12
.9266
.9420
.9574
.9727
.9879
1.0030
1.0181
1.0331
1.0480
1.0028
12
13
.9268
.94-23
.9576
.9729
.9881
i.oa33
1.0183
1.0333
1.0482
1.0690
13
14
.9271
.9425
.9579
.9732
.9884
1.0035
1.0186
1.0336
1.0486
1.0633
14
15
.9274
.9428
.9581
.9734
.9886
1.0038
1.0188
1.0338
1.0487
1.0636
15
16
.9276
.9430
.9584
.9737
.9889
1.0040
1.0191
1.0341
1.0490
1.0638
16
17
.9279
.9433
.9587
.9739
.9891
1.0043
1.0193
1.0343
1.0492
1.0640
17
18
.9281
.9436
.9589
.9742
.9894
1.0045
1.0196
1.0346
1.0406
1.0043
18
19
.9284
.9438
.9592
.9744
.9897
1.0048
1.0198
1.0348
1.0407
1.0646
19
20
.9287
.9441
.9594
.9747
.9899
1.0050
1.0201
1.0361
1.0600
1.0648
20
21
.9289
.9443
.9597
.9750
.9902
1.0053
1.0203
1.0363
1.0602
1.0660
21
22
.9292
.9446
.9699
.9752
.9904
1.0055
1.0206
1.0366
1.0604
1.0668
22
23
.9294
.9448
.9602
.9755
.9907
1.0058
1.0208
1.0368
1.0607
1.0666
23
24
.9297
.9451
.9604
.9757
.9909
1.0060
1.0-211
1.0361
1.0600
1.0668
24
25
.9299
.9464
.9607
.9760
.9912
1.006;i
1.0213
1.0363
1.0612
1.0660
2ft
26
.9302
.9456
.9610
.9762
.9914
1.0060
1.0-216
1.0366
1.0514
1.0602
26
27
.9305
.9459
.9612
.9765
.9917
1.00(58
1.0218
1.0368
1.0517
1.0005
27
28
.9307
.9461
.9615
.9767
.9919
1.0070
1.0-221
1.0370
1.0519
1.0007
28
29
.9310
• J7^rO*T
.9617
.9770
.9922
1.0073
1.0-2-23
1.0373
1.0622
1.0070
29
30
.9312
.9466
.9620
.9772
.9924
1.0075
1.0226
1.0376
1.0624
1U)072
30
31
.9315
.9469
.96-22
.9775
.9927
1.0078
1.0228
1.0378
1.0627
1.0076
31
32
.9317
.9472
.9625
.9778
.9929
1.0080
1.0231
1.0380
1.0629
1.0077
32
33
.9320
.9474
.9627
.9780
.9932
1.0083
1.0233
1.0.383
1.0632
1.0080
33
34
.9323
.9477
.9630
.9783
.9934
1.0086
1.0-236
1.0386
1.0534
1.0082
34
35
.9325
.9479
.9633
.9785
.9937
1.0088
1.0-238
1.0388
1.0537
1.0086
36
36
.9328
.9482
.96;}5
.9788
.9939
1.0091
1.0-241
1.0390
1.0539
1.0087
36
37
.9330
.9484
.96:JS
.9790
.9942
1.0093
1.0-243
1.0393
1.0W2
1.0090
37
38
.9333
.9487
.9640
.9793
.9945
1.0096
1.0-246
1.0396
1.0544
1.0092
38
39
.93;t5
.9489
.9643
.9795
.9947
1.0098
1.0248
1.0398
1.0547
1.0004
39
40
.9338
.9492
.9645
.9798
.9950
1.0101
1.0251
1.0400
1.0649
1.0097
40
41
.9341
.9495
.9648
.9800
.9952
1.0103
1.0253
1.0403
1.0661
1.0099
41
42
.934:i
.9497
.9650
.9803
.9955
1.0106
1.0-256
1.0406
1.0664
1.0702
42
43
.9346 .9500
.9653
.9805
.9957
1.0108
1.0258
1.0408
1.0566
1.0704
43
44
.9348 .9502
.9665
.9808
.9960
1.0111
1.0261
1.0410
1.0669
1.0707
44
45
.93.')!
.9505
.9658
.9810
.9962
1.0113
1.026:}
1.0413
1.0661
1J0700
46
4t3
.9353
.9507
.9661
.9813
.9965
1.0116
1.0-266
1.0415
1.0564
1.0712
40
47
.9351) .9510
.9663
.9816
.99<>7
1.0118
1.0-268
1.0418
1.0566
1.0714
47
48
.9359 j .9512
.9660
.9818
.9970
1.01-21
1.0-271
1.0420
1.0560
1.0717
48
49
.93<)1 i .9515
.9668
.9821
.9972
1.01-23
1.0273
1.04-23
1.0571
1.0719
49
50
.9364 1 .9518
.9671
.9823
.9975
1.01-26
1.0-276
1.0425
1.0674
1.0721
50
51
.93(56 ■ .9520
.9673
.0«2»)
.9977
1.01-28
1.0278
1.0428
1.0576
1.0724
61
52
.93()J
.9523
Mid
.9828
.9980
1.0131
1.0281
1.04:50
1.0^79
1.0726
52
53
.9371
.9525
.9678
.9831
.9982
1.0133
1.0-283
1.0433
1.0681
1.0729
63
54
.9374
.9528
.9681
.08:5^$
.99S5
1.0136
1.0286
1.04:15
1.0684
1.0731
64
55
.9377
.9530
.9(^3
.9836
.99S7 1 1.013S
1.0-2S8
1.0438
1.0686
1.0784
65
56
.9379
.9533
.9086
.9S3S
.9990 j 1.U141
1.0-291
1.0440
1.0589
1.0730
66
57
.9382
.95.36
.9689
.9841
.9992; 1.0143
1.0-293
1.0443
1.0591
1.0730
57
58
.9384
.9538
.9691
.9843
.9i>95
1.0146
1.0-296
1.0446
1.0603
1.0741
68
59
.9387
.9541
.9694
.9846
.9998
1.0148
1.0-298
1.0447
1.0696
1.0744
50
60
.9389
.9543
.9696
.9848
1.0000
1.0151
1.0301
1.0460
1.0508
iun4o
00
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
91
Table of Chords ; Radius
= 1.00O0
(continued]
1.
M.
65*
66"
67'
es"
69*
70-
w
78*
73'
M.
0'
1.0746
1.0893
1.1039
1.1184
1.1328
1.1472
1.1614
1.1766
1.1896
1
1.0748
1.0895
1.1041
1.1186
1.1331
1.1474
1.1616
1.1758
1.1899
1
2
1.0751
1.0898
I.IOU
1.1189
1.1333
1.1476
1.1619
1.1760
1.1901
2
8
1.0753
1.0900
1.1046
1.1191
1.1335
1.1479
1.16-21
1.1763
1.1903
3
4
1.0756
1.0903
1.1048
1.1194
1.1338
1.1481
1.1624
1.1765
1.1906
4
5
1.0758
1.0905
1.1051
1.1196
1.1340
1.1483
1.1626
1.1767
1.1908
5
6
1.0761
1.0907
1.1053
1.1198
1.1342
1.1486
1.1628
1.1770
1.1910
6
7
1.0763
1.0910
1.1056
1.1201
1.1345
1.1488
1.1631
1.1772
1.1913
7
8
1.0766
1.0912
1.1058
1.1203
1.1347
1.1491
1.1633
1.1775
1.1915
8
9
1.0768
1.0915
1.1061
1.1206
1.1350
1.1493
1.1635
1.1777
1.1917
9
10
1.0771
1.0917
1.1063
1.1208
1.1352
1.1495
1.1638
1.1779
1.1920
10
11
1.0773
1.0920
1.1065
1.1210
1.1354
1.1498
1.1640
1.1782
1.1922
11
12
1.0775
1.0922
1.1068
1.1213
1.1357
1.1500
1.1642
1.1784
1.1924
12
18
1.0778
1.0924
1.1070
1.1215
1.1359
1.1502
1.1645
1.1786
1.1927
13
14
1.0780
1.0927
1.1073
1.1218
1.1362
1.1505
1.1647
1.1789
1.1929
14
15
1.0783
1.0929
1.1075
1.1220
1.1364
1.1507
1.1650
1.1791
1.1931
15
16
1.0785
1.0932
1.1078
1.1222
1.1366
1.1510
1.1652
1.1793
1.1934
16
17
1.0788
1.0934
1.1080
1.12-25
1.1369
1.1512
1.1654
1.1796
1.1936
17
18
1.0790
1.0937
1.1082
1.1227
1.1371
1.1514
1.1657
1.1798
1.1938
18
19
1.0793
1.0939
1.1085
1.1230
1.1374
1.1517
1.1659
1.1800
1.1941
19
20
1.0795
1.0942
1.1087
1.1232
1.1376
1.1519
1.1661
1.1803
1.1943
20
21
1.0797
1.0944
1.1090
1.123+
1.1378
1.1522
1.1664
1.1805
1.1946
21
22
1.0800
1.0946
1.1092
1.1237
1.1381
1.1524
1.1666
1.1807
1.1948
22
28
1.0802
1.0949
1.1094
1.1239
1.1383
1.1526
1.1668
1.1810
1.1950
23
24
1.0805
1.0951
1.1097
1.1242
1.1386
1.1529
1.1671
1.1812
1.1952
24
25
1.0807
1.0954
1.1099
1.1244
1.1388
1.1531
1.1673
1.1814
1.1955
25
26
1.0810
1.0956
1.1102
1.1246
1.1390
1.1533
1.1676
1.1817
1.1957
26
27
1.0812
1.0959
1.1104
1.1249
1.1393
1.1536
1.1678
1.1819
1.1959
27
28
1.0815
1.0961
1.1107
1.1251
1.1395
1.1538
1.1680
1.1821
1.1962
28
29
1.0817
1.0963
1.1109
1.1254
1.1398
1.1541
1.1683
1.1824
1.1964
29
80
1.0820
1.0966
1.1111
1.1256
1.1400
1.1543
1.1685
1.1826
1.1966
30
31
1.0822
1.0968
1.1114
1.1258
1.1402
1.1545
1.1687
1.1829
1.1969
31
32
1.0824
1.0971
1.1116
1.1261
1.1405
1.1548
1.1690
1.1831
1.1971
32
38
1.0827
1.0973
1.1119
1.1263
1.1407
1.1550
1.1692
1.1833
1.1973
33
34
1.0829
1.0976
1.1121
1.1266
1.1409
1.1552
1.1694
1.1836
1.1976
34
35
1.0832
1.0978
1.1123
1.1268
1.1412
1.1555
1.1697
1.1838
1.1978
35
36
1.0834
1.0980
1.1126
1.1271
1.1414
1.1557
1.1699
1.1840
1.1980
36
37
1.0837
1.0983
1.1128
1.1273
1.1417
1.1560
1.1702
1.1843
1.1983
37
38
1.0839
1.0985
1.1131
1.1275
1.1419
1.1562
1.1704
1.1845
1.1985
38
39
1.0841
1.0988
1.1133
1.1278
1.1421
1.1564
1.1706
1.1847
1.1987
39
40
1.0844
1.0990
1.1136
1.1280
1.1424
1.1567
1.1709
1.1850
1.1990
40
41
1.0846
1.0993
1.1138
1.1283
1.1426
1.1569
1.1711
1.1852
1.1992
41
42
1.0S49
1.0995
1.1140
1.1285
1.1429
1.1571
1.1713
1.1854
1.1994
42
43
i.oajvi
1.0997
1.1143
1.1287
1.1431
1.1574
1.1716
1.1857
1.1997
43
44
1.0854
1.1000
1.1145
1.1290
1.1433
1.1576
1.1718
1.1859
1.1999
44
45
1.0856
1.1002
1.1148
1.1292
1.1436
1.1579
1.1720
1.1861
1.2001
45
46
1.0859
1.1005
1.1150
1.1295
1.1438
1.1581
1.1723
1.1864
1.2004
46
47
1.0861
1.1007
1.1152
1.1297
1.1441
1.1583
1.1725
1.1866
1.2006
47
48
1.0863
1.1010
1.1155
1.1299
1.1443
1.1 58()
1.1727
1.186S
1.-2008
48
49
1.0866
1.1012
1.1157
1.1302
1.1 44r)
1.1 5S8
1.1730
1.1871
1.-2011
49
50
1.0868
1.1014
1.1160
1.1304
1.1448
l.ir)90
1.1732
1.1 S73
1.2013
50
51
1.0871
1.1017
1.1162
1.1307
1.1450
1.1.51)3
1.1735
1.1875
1.2015
51
52
1.0873
1.1019
1.1105
1.13()«
1.14r)2
1.1.505
1.1737
1.1878
1.2018
52
I 53
1.0876
1.1022
1.1167
1.1311
i.i4r)r)
1.150S
1.1730
1.1880
1.2020
53
! .-4
1.0S78
1.1024
1.1109
1.1314
1.1457
1.1000
1.1742
1.1882
1.20-22
54
1 55
1.0881
1.1027
1.1172
1.1316
1.1460
1.1002
1.1744
1.1885
1.2025
55
1 56
1.0883
1.1029
1.1174
1.1319
1.1402
1.1005
1.1740
1.1887
1.20*27
56
, 57
1.0885
1.1031
1.1177
1.1321
1.1404
1.1607
1.1749
1.1889
1.2029
57
58
1.0888
1.1084
1.1179
1.13-23
1.1467
1.1609
1.1751
1.1892
1.2032
58
50
1.0890
1.1036
1.1181
1.1326
1.1469
1.1612
1.1753
1.1894
1.2034
59
60
iMm
1.1089
1.1184
1.1328
1.1472
1.1614
1.1756
1.1896
1.2036
60
92
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
Table of Chords; Radius = 1,0000 (continued).
M.
740
76-
76*
77*
78-
70'
80'
81*
S^"
M.
1.2036
1.2175
1.2313
1.2450
1.2586
1.2722
1.2866
1.2989
1.3121
O'
1
1.2039
1.2178
1.2316
1.2453
1.2689
1.2724
1.2868
1.2991
1.3123
1
2
1.2041
1.2180
1.2318
1.2455
1.2591
1.2726
1.2860
1.2993
1.3126
2
3
1.2043
1.2182
1.2320
1.2457
1.2593
1.2728
1.2862
1.2996
1.3128
3
4
1.2046
1.2184
1.2322
1.2459
1.2595
1.2731
1.2866
1.2998
1^130
4
5
1.2048
1.2187
1.2325
1.2462
1.2598
1.2733
1.2867
1.8000
1.3132
5
6
1.2050
1.2189
1.2327
1.2464
1.2600
1.2735
1.2869
1.3002
1.3134
6
7
1.2053
1.2191
1.23-29
1.2466
1.2602
1.2737
1.2871
1.3004
1.3137
7
8
1.2055
1.2194
1.2332
1.2468
1.2604
1.2740
1.2874
1.3007
1.3130
8
9
1.2057
1.2196
1.2334
1.2471
1.2607
1.2742
1.2876
1.3009
1^41
0
10
1.2060
1.2198
1.2336
1.2473
1.2609
1.2744
1.2878
1.8011
1.3143
10
11
1.2062
1.2201
1.2338
1.2475
1.2611
1.2746
1.2880
1.3013
1.3146
11
12
1.2064
1.2203
1.2341
1.2478
1.2614
1.2748
1.2882
1.3016
1.3147
.12
13
1.2066
1.2205
1.2343
1.2480
1.2616
1.2751
1.2886
1.3018
1.3150
13
14
1.2069
1.2208
1.2345
1.2482
1.2618
1.2763
1.2887
1.3020
1.8152
li
16
1.2071
1.2210
1.2348
1.2484
1.2020
1.2755
1.2889
1.8022
1.3154
15
16
1.2073
1.2212
1.2350
1.2487
1.2623
1.2767
1.2891
1.3024
1.3156
16
17
1.2076
1.2214
1.2352
1.2489
1.2625
1.2760
1.2894
1.3027
1.3158
17
18
1.2078
1.2217
1.2354
1.2491
1.2627
1.2762
1.2896
1.3029
1.3161
18
19
1.2080
1.2219
1.2357
1.2493
1.2629
1.2764
1.2898
1J»81
1.3163
10
20
1.2083
1.2221
1.2359
1.2496
1.2632
1.2766
1.2900
1.8038
1.3165
20
21
1.2085
1.2224
1.2361
1.2498
1.2634
1.2769
1.2903
1.3085
1.3167
21
22
1.2087
1.2226
1.2364
1.2500
1.2636
1.2771
1.2905
1.3088
1.3169
22
23
1.2090
1.2228
1.2366
1.2503
1.2638
1.2773
1.2907
1.3040
1.3172
28
24
1.2092
1.2231
1.2368
1.2505
1.2641
1.2776
1.2909
1.8042
1.3174
24
25
1.2094
1.2233
1.2370
1.2507
1.^2643
1.2778
1.2911
1.3044
1.3176
25
26
1.2097
1.2235
1.2373
1.2509
1.2646
1.2780
1.2914
1.8046
1.8178
26
27
1.2099
1.2237
1.2375
1.2512
1.2648
1.2782
1.2916
1.8040
1.3180
27
28
1.2101
1.2240
1.2377
1.2514
1.2650
1.2784
1.2918
1.3061
1.3183
28
29
1.2104
1.2242
1'.2380
1.2516
1.2652
1.2787
1.2920
1.8068
1.3185
20
30
1.2106
1.2244
1.2382
1.2518
1.2664
1.2789
1.2922
1.9056
1.8187
30
31
1.2108
1.2247
1.2384
1.2521
1.2656
1.2791
1.2925
1.8057
1.3180
31
32
1.2111
1.2249
1.2386
1.2523
1.2659
1.2793
1.2927
1.8060
IJSlOl
82
33
1.2113
1.2251
1.2389
1.2525
1.2661
1.2796
1.2929
1.3062
1^08
38
34
1.2115
1.2254
1.2391
1.2528
1.2663
1.2798
1.2931
1.8064
1.8196
84
35
1.2117
1.22.56
1.2393
1.2530
1.2665
1.2800
1.2934
1.8066
IJSIW
85
36
1.2120
1.2258
1.2396
1.2532
1.2668
1.2802
1.2936
1.8068
1.82U0
36
37
1.2122
1.2260
1.2398
1.2534
1.2670
1.2804
1.2938
1.8071
1.8902
37
38
1.2124
1.2263
1.2400
1.2537
1.2672
1.2807
1.2940
1.8073
1.8204
38
39
1.2127
1.2265
1.2402
1.2539
1.2674
1.2809
1.2942
1.8075
1.3207
30
40
1.2129
1.2267
1.2405
1.2541
1.2677
1.2811
1.2946
1.3077
1.32U0
40
41
1.2131
1.2270
1.2407
1.2543
1.2679
1.2813
1.2947
1.8070
1.3211
41
42
1.2134
1.2272
1.2409
1.2546
1.2681
1.2816
1.2949
1.3082
1.8218
42
43
1.2136
1.2274
1.2412
1.2548
1.2683
1.2818
1.2961
1.8084
1.8315
43
44
1.2138
1.2277
1.2414
1.2550
1.2686
1.2820
1.2954
l.'UKUt
1.8318
44
45
1.2141
1.2279
1.2416
1.2552
1.2688
1.2822
1.2956
1.8088
1.3220
45
46
1.2143
1.2281
1.2418
1.2555
1.2690
1.2825
1.2958
1.3090
1.3222
46
47
1.2145
1.2283
1.2421
1.2557
1.2692
1.2827
1.2960
1.8003
1JI224
47
4S
1.2148
1.2286
1.2423
1.2559
1.2695
1.2829
1.2962
1.3005
1.8226
48
49
1.2150
1.2288
1.2425
1.2562
1.2697
1.2831
1.2965
1.3007
1.8228
40
50
1.2152
1.2290
1.2428
1.2564
1.2699
1.2833
1.2967
1.8000
1.8231
SO
51
1.21.54
1.2293
1.2430
1.2566
1.2701
1.2836
1.2969
1.3101
1.3288
51
52
1.2157
1.2295
1.2432
1.2568
1.2704
1.28.18
1.2971
1.3104
1.8285
52
53
1.2159
1.2297
1.2434
1.2.571
1.2706
1.2840
1.2973
1.3106
1.3237
53
54
1.2161
1.2299
1.2437
1.2573
1.2708
1.2842
1.2976
1.3108
1.3280
54
55
1.2164
1.2302
1.2439
1.2575
1.2710
1.2845
1.2978
1.3110
1.3242
55
50
1.2166
1.2304
1.2441
1.2577
1.2713
1.2847
1.2980
1.3112
1.3244
56
57
1.2168
1.2306
1.2443
1.2580
1.2715
1.2849
1.2982
1.8115
1.8246
67
58
1.2171
1.2309
1.2446
1.2582
1.2717
1.2851
1.2985
1.8117
1.8M8
68
59
1.2173
1.2311
1.2448
1.2584
1.2719
1.2864
1.2987
1.3110
1.8860
50
60
1.2175
1.2313
1.2450
1.2586
1.27-22
1.2856
1.2989
1.3121
1.8259
00
OBOHBTRICAI. PROBLEMS. 93
94
HIP AND JACK RAFTERS.
Lengrtlis and Bevels of Hip and Jack Rafters.
The lines ab and be in Fig. 89 represent the walls at the angle
of a building; be is the seat of the hip-rafter, and (jf of a jack-rafter.
Draw eh at right angles to be, and make it equal to the rise of the
roof; join b and 7^, and hb will be the length of the hip-rafter.
Through e draw di at right angles to be. Upon b, with the radius
bh, describe the arc hiy cutting di in L Join b and i, and extend nf
to meet bi in.; ; then r/j will be the length of the jack-rafter. The
length of each jack-rafter is found in the same manner, — by ex-
tending its seat to cut the line ht. From/ draw yik at right angles
to /r/, also fl at right angles to be. Makefk equal to fl by the arc
Ik, or make u^' equal to (ij by the arc./A-V then the angle at J will be
the top bevel of the jack-rafters, and the one at h- the down bevel.
Backhu/ of the hip-rnftoy. At any conv(Miient place in be (Fig.
8i)), as o, draw mn at right angles to be. From o describe a circle,
tangent to bh, cutting be in s. Join m and h and n and b ; then
these lines will form at s the proper angle for bevelling the top of
the hip-rafter.
TRIGONOMETRY. 95
TRIGONOMETR7.
ot the purpose of the author to teach the use of trigonom-
^hat it is; but, for the benefit of those readers who have
icquired a knowledge of this science, the following con-
formulas, and tables of natural sines and tangents, have
erted. To those who know how to apply these trigono-
iinctions, they will often be found of great convenience
ty.
tables are taken from Searle's "Field Engineering," John
Sons, publishers, by permission.
96
T&IGONUMETRIC i'X>UMUlJLS.
Tkioosomktbic FtTscnonL
ljetA(Fig. lOT) = BJoglo BAC = mre Br^ajid let the radius Af— AB =
We then hATe
dii.f
= DC
eos^
= AC
tan^
= DF
txAA
^HO
wocA
^AD
eosee A
= AG
Tenia -4
= CF= BE
covers^
= i;;.: = i.x
exsec A
= i?Z>
cuerstx! -4
= BG
chord -1
^BF
^kOx^^A
z=Zl=2LC
FicKK.
Ie tbe liglitnan.eltxl triangle ABC iTi|:. 107)
' L-et AB = r, -4C? = ft, end ^C = o
j We then have :
L sin.4
2. eo8.4
S. tan.f
4. col .4
\ 8ec.4
6t
= — =cosi?
c
c
a
b
b
u
f
li
= cotB
= IoxlB
.4 = - = p«*o B
a
c - h
7. Ters -4 = = ch^v^ts B
c
c - h
R. cxaeo .4 =t js ('MeTStv B
^
0, coT««r«^
r - rt
:- vorsin B
10. omtxftHi.l .. - «»\mhW?
u
«U iiriM^
It a =-.ctinA = hUnA
li. b =: ccosA = acot^
ah
a.a .4 c*XiA
H, o =ccos^ = 6cc>t^
i:v 6 =3 c sin J7 r= a tan ^
-- ah
cvuj B t^u B
17. a =3 «' ^c -r 6» kc — ~6r
TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS.
9:
Boixmov OF Oiiu^uB Trumo:
Fio. 10&
GIVEN.
23
A,B,a
23
84
as
2G
tit
28
29
81
as
-A. a, 6
C,a,6
a,b,c
souoar.
C, 6, c
-B, C, c
-<<,;&, O.a
Foiann.«.
' Bin ^
c = -r - - sin (^ 4- B)
Rill ^ = - ■ . 6,
a
O=180«»-U4-P),
-T . sin C.
area
area
sin A
tanHU-J3)="-^^tanHU + P)
K^y^abelnC.
cos
be
«^=/n7^'«-H^yvs
.mA = . — ;
be
vers A =
2 Cf - fc) (a —^c)
6c
J: = ♦'a (« - a> (a — b) (j — c)
a* sin B.tdn C
K:^
»B1U ^
98 TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS.
GENERAL PORHULA.
34 sin ^ = = 4/ 1 — cos^ A = tan A cos A
comic A
35 sin ^ = 2 sin J^ A cos l^A = vers ^ cot J4 -4
36 sin^ = |/ levers 2 -4 = f/j^d'— co8'2\4)
1
37 cos ^ = = V 1 — sina A = cot ^ sin A
BOO ^
as cos ^ = 1 - vers ^ = 2 cos^ Y^A — l = 1—2 sin« ^ ^
0 cos^ = cos» 14 ^ — Bina 14 ^ = i^ 34"+>.i co8"2^
40 t;in^l = -;- ^ ?^" ^ = ^"i^c^'A—l
cot ^ cos A
y cos-* ^ cos^ l+cos2^
^ - . . 1 — cos 2 ^ vers 2 A ^ .. w ^
42 tan -4 = - . = — ^ — -— - = exsec -4. cot JiS jl
sin 2 ^ sm 2 -4 '^
^« i. J 1 cos A , r— : T
« '^'^ = tSn = Bn-3 = ♦'c«»ec'^-l
44 cot u4 = - -as ss ' - .
1 — COS 2 A vers 2 ^ sin 2 ^
45 cot ^ = — ■ ,
40 vers -4 = 1— cos A t= sin -4 tan ^ ^4 = 2 sin* ^ j1
47 vers A — e::r*c A cos A
48
40
exsec A = sec -4 — 1 = tan A tan X^A — — — .-
^* cos A
. .. . /l — cos A /
smH^ = i/ 2 = i/-
vers -4
2
BO Kin 2 A — 2r.Iny(cos-4
kt 1 y ^ /l + COS -<^
Bl cosj.^^ =1 i/' 2 '
53 cos 2 ^ = 2 cos« A — 1 = ccs'^ A — Bin* >i m 1 ^tMn*^
TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS. 09
1
General Fobmula.
tan A J u A 1 — cos^_^ /l — cos ^2
2^ =
2 tan A
1 — tan»-4
. _ sin A l_-f coSj4 1
^ ~ vers A ~ sin -4 "~ cosec A — cot ^
« ^ = — :;
lH^ =
2cot^
J<^ vers ^ 1 — cos A
1+*^1 — ^vers^ 2+ V2(l4-cos']4)
i2A=:2 Bin* -4
,, . 1 — cos^
(1 + cos ^) + V;si (1 4- cos ^)
2 tana ^
3C2 A =
1 - tan« A
iA ± B) = ^nA. cos P ± sin P . cos ji
(-4 ± P) = cos A . cos J? 7 sin ^ . sin ^
4 4- sin P = 2sin J^(4 + P)cos^(^ — B)
4 — sin B = 2 cos ^ M + B) sin ^ (^ — S)
^ -f cos B = 2 cos Ji^ (-4 H- 5) cos JiS (^ — -B)
jB — cos ^ = 2 sin H (^ + J?) sin Ji^ U — B)
A — sin« P = cos» B — cos« A = sin (^ + B) sin (^ — B)
' ^ — 8in« J5 = cos (^ 4- B) cos (-4 — B)
' COS ^ . COS B
COS^.COSB
J
NATURAL SINES AND COSINES.
101
m
6
!. 1
6«»
7
0
8* 1
9
1
9
9
Sine Cosin
Sine Cosin
71045?'. 99462
Sine
Cosin
Sine
Cosin
Sine Cosin
"o ToKTior.owioi
.12187
.99255
7l3J)17
.99027
715643 ".iW760 60
1 !.0874'> .996171!. 104831
.99440
.12216
.99251
.13946
.99023
.15(572 .98764' 59
2J.0H774
.99014 l.ia511
.99446!
.12245
.90218
.13075
.90019
'.15701 .987(50: 5M
8 ! .0H80.-)
.99C12 1.10540
.9944:3
.12274
.99214;
.14004
.99015
1.157:301.98755; 57
4'.0«831
.99609 1.10560
.99410
.12302
.99210
.14033
.99011
i.l57.':8 .98751: 50
5;.0K8C0
.99607
.10597
.99437
.12331
.992371
.14001
.99000
.15787
.98740. So
6
.08889
.99604
.10626
.99434 1. 12360 1.90283
.14000
.99002
; .15816
.98741 1 64
7
.08918
99602
.10055
.99431 .123891.992:30
.14119
.08908
1.15845
.987371 53
8 .0K&17
.99599
.10G84
.99428 .121181.99220
.14143
.98991
1.15873
.98732: 52
9 ; .0»^C .99596
.10718
.90124 .12447'
.992221
.14177
.989CU
;. 15002
.987281 51
10 - .09005 .99594
1
.10742
.99421
.12176
.99219
.14205
.98980
■ .15931
.98?23; 60
11 .09034 .90591
.10771
.99418'
.12501
.90215
.14234
.98982
1 .15959
.98718! 49
lSi.0(K)&3 .99588'
.10800
.99415;
.125331.99211!
.14i>63
.98078
.is'jHy
.98714' 48
18 ; .00092 .99586
.10829
.994121
.12662
.902081
.14292
.98973
.16017
.98700, 47
14 ■ .09121 .99583 1.10858
.994091
.12591
.90204!
.14320
.98900
. .16040
.98701140
15 .09150 .99580 1.10887
.994061
.12620 .99200
.14349
.98965
.16074
.98700) 45
16 .09179 .99578
1.10916
.994021
.12649 .99107
.14378
.08961
.16103
.98695! 44
17 ■ .09308 .99575
1.10945
.09309.
.12(}78 .90103
.14407
.98957
: .16132
.96690 43
16 ' .09287 .905?2
1.10973
.99306:
.12706
.99180!
.144:36
.98953
' .16160
.986801 42
19 : .09306 .99570
;. 11003 .993JW 1
.12735
.99186
.144(54
.96948
• .10189
.98681 1 41
20 .09295
.99567
.11031
.99390
.12764
.99182
.14493
.98911
j .16218
.98676 40
tl .09821
.99564
.11060
.99386
.12TJ)3
.99178
.14522
.08940
'.16246
.96671 80
22!. 09353
.<K)5G2
.110S9
.99ai3i
.12822
.90175
.14551
.989:iG
.16275
.98607: 38
28 .09382 .99559
.11118
.993801
.12C)1
.99171
.145801.98931
.16304
.98602 87
24 .09411 .99556
.11117
.99:^771
.12880
.90167
.14(508
.98927
.16333
.98657' 30
261.09140
.99553
.11176
.90374,
.12008
.99163
.14637
.98923
.16361
.986521 »)
29 .09409
.99551
.11205
.99370,
.12037
.99160
.14006
.98910
.16390
.98048: 84
27 .09496
.99518
.11234
.99:W7
.12066
.99156
.14C05
.98914
.16419
.98(543 8:3
26 .09027
.99545
.11263
.993:{1
.12005
.99152
,14723
.98910
.16447
.98038 82
29 .00556
.99542
.11201
.99»iO
.1:3024
.99148
.14': 52 .98000
1 .16476
.986:3:3: 81
80
.09566
.99540
.11320
.99357;
.13053
.99144
.14781 .98902
.16505
.98629 80
81
.09614
.99537
.11349
.99354'
.13081
.99141
.14810 '.98897
.16533
.98024 20
82
.09612
.995*4
.11378
.99a>l ;
.13110
.99187
.14KJH .98803
.165(52
.98610, 28
88
.09671
.99531
.11407
.99:347
.18i:J0
.9013:r
.14807!. 98880
1 .ia591
.98(514 27
84
.09700
.99528
.11436
.99:M41
.1:31(58
.90120 ,
.14800
.98881
1 .16020
.98600, 20
85 .09729
.99526
.11465
.993111
.13107
.90125
.14025
.98880
1.16048
.98004 25
86
.09758
.90523
.11491
.993:J7
.13226
.9912«>
.1405.1
.98876
■ .10677
.98000,24
87
.09787
.9'J520
.11523
.99*i4
.13254
.901181
.14082
.988n
.16706
.98595: 2:3
88 ! .09816
.99517
.11552
.993:31
.1328:3
.99114;
.15011
.98867
.167:i4 .985001 22 |
88 .09845
.99514
.11580
.99327
.1^312
.991101
.15010
.98863
.107(53
.98585; 21
40
.00674
.99511
.11609
.99324!
.18341
.99100
.16069
.98858
.16792
.98580,20
41
.00006
.09508
.116^
.99390'
.ia370
.99102
.16097
.96854
.16820
.98575 10
42
.00932
.99506
.11667
.99:317
.13:jy0
.99008
.15120
.98W0
;.16W0
.98570 18
48
.09961
.99503
.11606
.09314
.1^427
.99091
.15155
.98845
.16878
.98565 17
44
.00990
.99500
.11725
.99310'
.l&4.-iC
.990911
.16184
.96841
.16006 .98501, 10
45
.10019
.99497
.11751
•993071
.18485
.99087
.15212
.988:20
.160351.98556, 15
46
.10048
.99494
.11783
.99333'
.ia514
.90083
.15241
.988:^2
;. 16964 !.9&'}5ll 14
47
.10077
.9(M91
.11812
.09300
.135:3
.O'joro
.15270
.98827
.10002 :.98,>161 13
46
.10106
.99488
.11840
.99207;
.ia')72
.90075
.152001.98823
.170211.985-111 1:J
49
.iai33
.99485
.11860
.992a3
.I3c;)0
.90071
.15327 .98818
i.i7a"'.0j.985;:(> 11
50
.li)lti4
.99482
.11898
.09290.
.13029
.91H)G7
.15350
.98814
.17078 .98531 10
51
.10192
.9MTD
.11927
.99286'
.136^9
.900^3
.in3R5
.98809
.17107 .98526 9
52
.loe-Ji
.9^170
.HOW
.99283'
.130 17
.oixno;
.ir>iii
.9W'()5
■ .171 :m .98521 S
53
.lieso
.99473
.li985
.992791
.1:3710
.OO(XV)
.15412
.98800
; .17101
.98510
r*
54
.i.WTO
.99470
!. 12014
.99276'
.13711
.9<K)51
.15-171
.98706
: .17103
.9a')11
6
55
.10908
.99467
1.12013
.992^2
.137?:^
.90017
.15.'i<-)0'. 98701
.17222
.98500: 5
66
.10337
.994^^1
..12071
.99209:
.13802
.00013:
.15.V>0 .98787
.172.-)0
.98501
4
57
1086C
.9!»W1
.12100
.99265
.i:38:u
.9;)i):iol
.15:.57 .98782
. 17279 i. 9849(5
3
56
.10695 .99158
; .12129
.992(J2
.138<X)
.aKlT)!
.\X,:m .98778
:. 17308'. 98101
2
50
.10121 .99455
.12158
.99258
.13KS0
.95K):Jl 1
.l.':(515'.9877;J
.17a-«5!. 98480
1
60
.10168
.9M52
i .12187
;Co6ln
1 ■■ ■
.99255
Bine ;
.13017
Cosin
.90027
"Sine"
.1501):. 98709
,.17305 1.98481
1 1 — . . .
JO
/
Oorin
Bine
Cosin
a:
Sine
1 Cosin
Sino
84*
1 88*
8
2»
V*
8(
NATURAL SINES AND COSINES.
103
— 1
I
16«
0
1
2
3
4
5
G
7
8
U
10
11
12
i:)
14
15
10
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
21
25
20
27
28
29
30
31
a2
33
31
35
I 36
I 37
3^
• :iJ
- 40
■
: '»
. 42
. 43
- 41
! -15
' 47
48
t.)
Tit) I
ie«
J7«
18<
Sine
SlnQ j Cmnn Slne^ i Cosln
.ai882^ 9659:3 '."27l)« .9612fi ; .29237
.2W10.98585^ .27592 .96118 .29^*fi5
.25938.90578 .27620 .9(5110 .29293
. 25966 . W r)70 . 27648 . JWl 02 ' . 29321
.25991 .f^'j«'^ ■ .27676 .960!)4 .298-18
1-26022 .SMK65 .2770t .96086 .at)376
.26050 .96547: .27731 .96078; .29404
.26079 .96510 .27759 •96070. .29432
' .26107 .96532, .27787 .96062' .29460
.aJ135 .{MW24 '1.27815 .96054:' .29487
;. 26163 .96517 1.. 27813 .96016j .29515
' .26191 .96.509 ' .27871 .96037 1 .29543
26219 .96502 .27899 .96029' .29571
: .26247 .9(^94 .27937' .96021 1 .29599 .9r)519; .31261
.26275 .96186 .27955 .96013 1 . 29620;. 93511 j .31289
.26303 ■.96179, .27983.96005 .29651 .95502 .81316
.29682.9.>493i .31344
.29710 .95485 1 .81372
.29737 '.95476; .31399
Cosin ' Sine
.95(»j' ^30902
.95623 .301)29
.95613 .80957
.956(X; .:^^)^H5
.9559(> .81013
.(»5588 .31040
.95579 .310(58
.95571, .31095
.9.")562! .81123
.95554 .81151
.95545
.95536
.31178
.31206
. 9-3528 ! .81233
. .26331 ; .96471 1 .28011 ' .95997
.26359. 96163 1.280391.95989
.263871. 9(hl56 i .28067 1.95981
i .26415 .96148
.26443 1.9(»40
.26471 1. 96188
.26500 .9<U25
.26528 '.9(>117
.26556' 96410
.265&tl.96402
.266681.96:379
.26696,. 96371
.26?^:. 96363
.26752'. 96353
.20780 1.96*47
.26808 >. 96340,
.2G836;.06332i
.26861 .96321'
.20892 1. 96:316
.26990,. 96308
.2G948'.9'J:301
.»J976 .9<5293
.27001;'. 96283
.2T03S'.9fl27?
.2ro(K)'.iMW69,
.270681.06261'
.2nl6i. 96253;
.271441.96216;
.271721.962381
.25200. 9C333:
.27228 .9(5222,
.2723(5 .1K;->14
.2<)»lj. 96206
•M 1.27812'. 96198
-■>
. 28095 ' . 95973 . 297(5.-) ' . 95-107
.28123,. 95964
.28I50L959.56
.28178 .95948
.28206 -.95940
.282:31 .959:31
.28263 .95923
.28390 .95915
.28:318;. 95907
.283461.95898
.28374 .95890
.28402 05882
.28429 '.05874
.29793 ,.95459
.29821 '.95450
.29849 .95441
.2J)876 .0.5433
.29904 .95421
; .209:33 .95415
. .29960; .95107 ' .31630
1.2993/1.953031;. 31 648
.31437
.81454
' .81482
'■ .31510
I .81537
I .31505
i .81593
.30015
I .80048
; .30071
.9.');i89i.. 31675
.0.->:380; .8170)
.95872, .81730
.28485;. 95857
.28513 ,.95849
.28511 .ft5841
.28569 !.9.'y5S3
.285971.95821
.28625 '.95816
.28652 ■.95807' .SO.*^
.80348
ii
.28457 '.95805, .80120
1.80164
:. 80182
1.80209
I.80C37
! .80305
■.8C292
.80098 .95363,;. 81758
.28680,. 95799
.287081.95791
.28786 .95783
.287Wi. 95774
.95766
.96757
.95749
.95740
.95782
1.80376
i. 30403
,'.30181
1 .80159
.80486
.28792
■7
.28875
.28903
.28931 .95724; .80597
.9535^4 ; .31760
.9o345 .81813
.95337 1 1.31841
.95328; '.31808
.95319 1;. 31890
.95310'!. 31 033
.95301 1 '.81951
.9539:3 ; .81079
.05281 Ij. 83006
.9.'5275' .82034
.95.3^3 1 .83001
.95357 ■.33089
.95218 ;,. 33116
.952:0 ;.83144
.80514 .OrrSA ' .33171
.8a'>12
.80570
.28959 .95n5
.289871.95707
.80025
.95333,;. £3100
.95313 N. 33337
.95304'i.833.>4
.95195, ,'.33282
I,
.306r)3 .ailRO .32809
2r310 .Wil90 .3:*0iu;.9r)0{)8l .:3(M>«{)i 95177 i.S.':]:)7
.290i2 .950W| .80708 .95:08 ' .338(>4
. 29070 . it'yCm ' . 3or;J0 1 . 951 r.O . ;33:J0:5
.21)098 .9.757:3' . 30708 ;.Ori 150 .;33t19
. 2912(5 . 9500 4 . 3( )791 , . iul 13 . ;334 17
.29154.95650, .3(W19l.9'"31.8:5 .;33t74
.V3 .'SilV:^ .9»51K3
54 .373JK5 .9(5174
55 ■ .27424 .Wl&i
56 , .27452 .9(5158
57 ' .27480 .96160
.'58 . .27508 .96142
.VJ .27580 .00181
tiU j .27561 .96126
j'Cosin; Sine i
.2SJ182 .9rm7\ .30p«10.95l3i .:33.";03
.2lr309 .95639
.20287!. 95(530
Cosia|sine
78^
.30874,. 951 15 .3-i.->3i)
.3(KXW
Osin
9510(5 .33557
Sine : Cosin
r2o
Oosin
.9.5106
.95(X»7
.9.')0^«8
.9507!»
.9r,070
.9s)<)(51
.95053
.95043
.950:3:5
.9.')0::4
.95015
.95006
.94997
.94988
.949r9
.94970
.94961
.91953
.94943
.949:3:3
.04924
.04915
.94906
.94897
.94888
.94878
.948(59
.94800
.9-1851
.948l.'3
.04832
.94823
.94814
.94805
.9-1795
.94780
.94777
.94708
.94758
.94749
.94740
.94730
.94731
.94713
.04703
.94093
.04084
.94074
.94005
.940-ly
.94037
.94037
.94018
.9-40t')0|
.94509'
.9I.7M);'
.9:3.5801
.9-1.571
.91501
.94553
Siup
W
IV
Sine
.82557
.33.584
.33(513
.83089
.83f5<57
..83()<M
.83733
.83749
.33777
.83Hi)4
.338.33
60
Cosin
.945.53
.94543, 59
.945:3:31 .58
.91.53:3
.94511
.*.).4504
.94195
.94-1K5
.91470
57
56
55
54
.5:3
53
.91400! 51
.9145^
.83H.59;. 94-4.47
.33HS7l.944:3;<
.82914;. 94 438
.33{)43 .94418
.339(59 .94409
.94:399
.94300
.948S0
.94370
.94301
.94351
.33097
.38031
.83051
.3:3079
.83106
.831.%1
.83101
.3:3189
.33316
.83244
.83371
.83308
.3a']3(5
.3:3:55:3
.33381
.88408
.38130
.a8108
.83400
.a*35l8
.8:3545
.a3573
' .83000
.3:3037
.33055
.33083
.3:3710
.a8787
.3:3704
.83793
.88J!19
.33816
.3:3874
.3:}:k)1
.S3J39
.330.50
.3:3:i-v;,.91()jo
.aio 11!. 01050
.8ii»;ii.ni(h>o
.84005.. 91010
.Siir.i;j;.94(K)0
.8413<) .93009
.84117;.980H0
.3 1175!. 93970
.3 1303 j. 93000
Cosin Siuo
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
.94251
.04245
.94235
.94335
.94215
.9430(5
.94190
.9418(5
.9417(5
.94107
.94313' 38
.94:3:331 37
.043331 86
.948131 85
.94.8a8l 34
.943o:r 3:3
.943^1; 33
.913741 31
.94304 30
29
28
27
26
25
24
2:3
23
21
20
10
1!5
37
10
15
14
38
13
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
.94157
.94147
.94187
.94137
.94118
.94108
.oioor.
.9108H
.91078
.91008
.04058
70^
NATURAL SINES AND COSINBS,
0° 1
Sine ICoain Sine
-5
OOdOO Ono. .01741>
»
a
s
Mild Ono. 1 .01B03
Ono. .01801
One,
O03W
Ono.
•"igiS
IXe38
One.
wim
One.
10
aaai
One.
!0!0S6
a
00890
.99901
.OlOSS
a
.oau
IS
I
'.osaa
.oaiai
IS
.di9ii
H
17
'.OMt
!eoo9e
.0224C
IS
IS
B
ioOUK
:02M
.00683
.(e^
10
21
n
ioooii
»
23
.OOKIi!
n
*4
.006ft
K
K
'.mg!
B
M
'.wai
.00907
U
.OKK
.09901
n
.OOftll
n
SO
'.max
n
»
:008T!
.99996
:<H618
»
,99096
»
3S
.00906
:o£(i7(
IB
33
.OOOO
.99e-5
.0370;
tr
.OOM
.990%
K
as
.UlOll
llBTOI
IB
86
Inoos
jOBnt
H
ST
'.oimi
.gODH
.taw
>S
38
.Olios
.ooou
.QBSX
a
.OllSl .OOQH
.0^71
n
40
.01101, OOBW
.0SW8
ID
,01103' .99B9S
.OM38
»
.OJOO
IS
43
:oiiaii:TO3aa
.om
17
44
.01880.90903
.0303
It
49
.01300 .wool
.030^
U
46
.01S33'. 90091
.03033
47
.01837.90001
^11!
48
.01396.99090
.0314:
It
4«
.tU4ra .00000
BO
-OMM;. 90089
^OUO!
51
.m4H3.9S9l«
.eua
9
m
.01313 .ou:mo
8
.oi(na.9onm
'.mi
9
u
.oian.oooiw
.03310
9
cm
.oiodoI.eooK!'
.OSMl
8
s»
4
Mivii '.mm
.OICRT .OOOfiB
:0S4.'!;
■
.01719 .Booes
1
]0340(
0
~
Cosln"|l5r
Codn
BJf
ft
X^ %.^>^AA« .A^ftk^S
ri6
174
)03
m
)18
M7
we
.mi9
.09617
.99614
.99612
.99600
.99607
.99604
99602
.99399
.99596
)05 .99594
)84'. 90591
)63 .99588
)92. .09586
121 '.99583
l50 .99580
179 .99578
J08 .00575
S87i.9g3?2
!66 .99570:
295 .99567
&4
)53
.99564
.90562
82 .99359
Ul
MO
109
106
)86
n4
)42
571
roo
789
r87
?16
374
333
361
990
)19
>18
377
106
133
l(»
192
221
230
279
308
W7
366
)95
m
.90556
.99553
.90551
.00548
.99546
.00542
.99i^
.99537
tVuiyn
.99531
.99528
.99526
.99523
.99520
.99317
.90514
.90511
.99506
.90503
.00500
.99497
.99494
.99401
.09488
.00485
.09482
.90479
.09-170
.99473
.90170
.90107
.9n4<J4
.00101
.90458
.99455
168..9S452
iin|siiie
^6«
Sine
71045?
.10482
.10511
.10540
.10360
.10597
.10626
.10655
.10084
.10713
.10742
.10771
.10800
.10829
.10a38
.10387
.10916
.10045
.10973
.110021
.11031
.11060
.110S9
.11118
.11147
.11176
.11205
.11234
.11283
.11291
.11320
.11349
.11378
.11407
.11436
.11465
.11494
.11523
.11652
.11580
.11609
.116®
.11667
.11696
.11725
.11734
.11783
.11812
.11840
.11869
.11898
.11027
: .11030
.li985
1.12014
.12013
.12071
.12100
.121'J9
.12138
.12187
Cosin
Cosin,
.90452:
.99440
.99446'
.99443
.99410:
.99437
.99434
.99431 i
.99428
.99424
.99421
.99418
.994151
. 99412 i
.99409,
.99406
.99402,
.09a')9i
.99306;
.90303!
.993001
.99386;
.99333^
.993H0
.993771
.99374
.99370
.99367
.99334
.99360
.99357,
.99334
.99331!
.90347
.90:»4|
.99311
.993:^7
.99334
.99:i31
.99J27
.99324
.99320
.99:317
.99314,
.993101
•99307 1
.99333'
.99300
.99297-
.99203
.99290
.99286'
.90283
.992791
.99276
.99272
.99209
.90205
.00262
.00238'
.00255,
Sine
2187
2216
2245
2274
2302
23;n|
2360:
2380!
2418'
JW47
12476
2504
2533
2562
2501
2620
2&49i
2(578
2706 i
2735J
2764
2703
2822
2S51
2880
2006
2037
2966
2005
3024
3053
3081
3110
31.'}9
31(i8
3107
3226
32.34
328:3
3312
3341
8370
a309
3427
34.36
3485
3314
35 J3
a372
3G29
3638
30 7
3710
371 1
3773
3802
;38:U
3860
3KS9
8017
Sine Cosin Sino
88<
i|
• I
Cosin
T9^i35
.992511
.9JfcM8
.99-^Ui
.99:^
.99237.
.99233
.99230
.99226
.992221
.09219:
.90215
.00211
.90208
.90204
.99200
.99197
.90103
.00180'
.00186
.99182,
.99178'
.99175
.99171
.99167
.99163
.99160
.99156
.99162
.99148
.991^
.99141
.99187
.9913:3,
.99120 ;
.99123
.99122
.90118;
.99114!
.99110
.99106
.99102
.99008
.99004
.00091
.99087
.90083
.0:X)70
.99075
.90071
.00007
.90063
.000.50
.00(V)3
.00031
.90047
.00013
.00030
.900.^3
.90031
.00027
82<
8^^
Sine Cosin
.99027
.99023
.90019
.99015
.99011
.99000
.09002
.98908
.98994
.98900
.98086
13017
13046
13073
14004
14033
140G1
14aJ0
14110
14143
11177
14205
14234
14263
14292
14320
14349
14378
14407
14436
14464
14493
14622
14351
14580:
14608
14637
14666
14005
14723
14^32
14781
14810
14fc3«
14807
14806
14923
14034
14082
16011
15040
16069
15097
16126
16155
16184
16212
15JM1
16270
15290
15327
15336
15385
13-n I
13113
16171
15,'M)0
13.'):>0
15."i7
in.")«6
inoi5
15613 1
Cosin j
?*
^ine j Cosin
15672}
15701 1
157:301
i57r.y
157871
15816;
158451
15873
15002
15931
.98962
.98978
.98973
.98969
.98965
.98961
.98957
.08953
.96948
.98044
.98940
.98936!!
.989311
.98927ii
.98923
.98919 I
.98914
.98910
.98906
.989002
.98897
.98803
.98880
.98884
.98880
.98876
.988n
.96867
.98863
.98868
.96854
.98840
.98845
.96841
.98836
.98832
.98827
.96823
.98818
.98814
.98809
.98803
.98800
.98706
.98701
.08787
.08782
.98778
.98773
.98769
Sine
01*
15959
15C88
16017
16046
16074
16103
16182
16160
16180
16218
16246
16275
16304
16333
16361
16300
16410
1&447
16476
16605
16538
16362
16301
16620
16&18
16677
16706
16734
10763
16792
16820
16649
16878
16006
16033
160&1
16002
17021-
17030'
17078
17107
17i:36,
1710-11
171031
1 r'.).>k> I
17230!
172701
17308!
173:36 i
17863
.98769 60
.987&4:50
.06700 5^.1
.08755, 57
.08751 ! 60
.98746 5.3
.96741164
.98737,63
.98732 62
.98728 51
.987^160
45
41
43
42
.98718: 49
.98714" 48
.98709, 47
.987011 46
.98700
.98695
.96690
.96686
.96681:41
.06676| 40
.9667l'89
.98667 38
.96662! 87
.98657 86
.96662185
.98648' 84
.986431 83
.98638! 82
.98633
.98629
81
80
.96624 29
.98619 28
.986141 27
.98609 26
.98604^25
.98600 24
.06695
.98590
.98585
.98580
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
Cosin
.98576
.98570
.98565
.96561
.96556!
.96551
.98546! 13
.96541: V2
.miZa 11
.98531 1 10
.98526' 9
.985211 8
.985161 7
.98311
.9a500
.9^301
.98496
.98401
.96486
^^3481
Sine
80*
NATURAL SINES AND COSINES.
, 1 10°
IP i| 12
l;
• II K-
line CMin
SlDS
COBlni Kna
CoBln!
Bii»
Ccnbtl' OMtn
■ol.]786!i:«»81
.1008:
-K^i' Tmrao
«>
I ;.IT393 .<)H4T(
91023
2 .lT4aa.lWI71
llMBt
:ai553
97431
0701B
3:.lTJ51.0K16a
.loie;
9T7W,
.aasHO
.97417
97l»
^|. 17419, .OSlOl
97701
.aaous
07001
5« i
!llM3i
iosissj
96091
0l:i7B87|:«il50
.19253
.88189
:B3a85
«7S08
OflOW
7 .iraw.twm
.l!«a
.981«
.83008
97801
98980
s!.]<391
.lkU4l)
.1030
.wtiia
.(awa
97384
00073 as
.1033
.SSTW
90906 Gl i
10 1 1™:
:iKH3CI
.lOSM
;»8I07
07871
00950. »
,0«425
.fflSIM
077*8
.a»»7
!lft4S3
07743
oooS ^
IS iiTTS;
!S8414
.loite
08037:47
Hi.rra
.W109
07720
oraiB
oooaoiM
.BSHM
97733,
.33930
07888
lii': ?fB
!]»S8
.32948
B^lti
.IBSOO
9mi
.83977
96000 43
.liBOS
osoai
9770S
.asocB
S7B18
oeoce 42
.19683
OSMfl
97008
.23038
9731
SosmUi
so : Tsa?
.isesa
07003
OTKH
9«a87|«
M
.17«
B9M4I
OTBSe'
.83090
07296
00880 30
SHOW
SiWO
.23118
97-JO
90878:18
2a
03038
ITS73
JU14D
JW17S
9affi8
>0
sttsa
eran
08861
s
.2U31
9TS64
06814
» .lain
.sssoo
9683;
S3
W .1B1«
Jseao
ftWU
.23388
IB
!» .1B1«
!o9isi
Ams
Bra»
)ro3fl
071M4
B68aS
SOl.ltKM
.OBsa
97003
.^
975187
06815
30
.98330
07^!!
23Brm
BTSBO
06807
(0
.MOM
07.a8
BG80O
a
0670E
a
a>
!i!aa7D
)7j93
97:3)3
19
30 ilKSM
:OSiM
oraoa:
37 .IMM
,98a«
975KI
mw
06704
38 .lUSI
.uttss
iTsn
»
.vserr
07010
'naim
«
■wiiiaaot
.D&tTS
0WS4I
iraao
33827
OTia
;»sw
41 .18SB8
,98OT
.2HS0
oT%ie
07500
cmos
»
a'.iesm
.IM»1
a
07933,
OIMS
.S308J
onis
IS
4a!.185M
07918
17547
28718
07148
iS«i
IT
wi.isea
.iwaa
.0X00
BTOIOI
97141
10
45l.lHll3li
.ma
.tanu
jmt.
40 .U<UBI
.vsau
msa
.WBM
''^' H
Ksi:
.fti-UO
9mr ffiR
.U«i3
.aun .ma-A^m
1
a) iionc
.turn
.imb«».9W!b:!Sb'
10
M .IIBU
.<H«13'
.aosi!i'.inn»'!.ii»fl)'
U .IBSSJ
.ftt«7>
.xa» .omn .aiWK
230Rt
.iiH«n;
.aunwiLKtw .awj?
)7WJ
23095
M Iwrni .wiwi
.axtanl.BjMBi : .aaaa
JT47B
24033
(B .IUBSHHW
.3MIB..DTK1S ;.3:!Xn
0«..I«H7 .WIMJ
.ann? .07«k)' .a^m:
34079
S7 ,11WBS .BMT9;
.90?» .imwt .awiii
07437
«10S
W..lilUSi .(B174
.»!nt..m>ST .fom
J7450;
91180
.raBj
Rt -i!io5a .mm
.annSj.nHBi. .»H7
M104
:«mi
<W 1 .IDMn .361A3
37487'
21103
CoSS|-Bb.e-
Ocali
-ffiaiciSSi
5^
Oosta
aST
<MB(ak.
~
79-
■ "l
.- 11' 77
7fl
73-
wl
WTW
.aSSST
irmr,^
"mbstI
itai Stool
JoBlDJ Sine 1 Oslul 61na iCoalnl Sio' [;<
• ll
106
NATURAL SINES AND COSINES.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
80»
Sine Cosin
.50000
.50025
.50050
.5007G
.50101
.50126
.5()151
.50176
.50201
..^)0>37
.50252
.50277
.G0a>7
.50352
.50377
.50403
.5042S
.60453
.6W78
20 .60503
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
11
12
43
41
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
ryi
5:J
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
sr
Sine ' Cosin
82«
88«
.60528
.50563
.60578
.60603
.60628
.50651
.60679
.60704
.50729
.50754
.50779
.60804
.50629
.50864
.60879
.50904
.50929
.50954
.50979
.51004
.51029
.51054
.510?J
.51104
.51129
.51164
.61179
.61204'
.61229
.61;354i
.86588
.80573
.80559
.86544
.80530
.80515
.86501
.86486
.P6471
.m^7
.80442
.80-127
.8(J413
.86393
.86384
.8(>369
.86354
.86340
.8(J325
.86810
86205
.86281
.86266
.8(5251
.86237
.80222
.86207
.86192
.80178
.86163
.86148
.80133
.86119
.86104
.860891
.86074'
.86059
.8(5045
.8(5030
.80015,
.86000'
.K-)1)S5
.K->970
.K5956
.K>D41
.8")926
.85911
.K'>896
.F.")S81
.83806
.61279
.5l;)04
.51829
.51854
.51879
.51404
.51429
.514r>4
.61479,
.51504
.85851
.r...iW
.a">so6
.R'>792
)l M .
.a")762
.K-)747
.K">732
.K->n7
51504
51529
51554
51579
51604
51628
51653
51678
51703
6172.i
61753
61778
51803
5182.i
5185^
51877
51902
61927
61952
6i9rr
62002
82020
52051
52076
52101
621C6
62151
52175
52200
52225
52275
522LJ
52324
62349
62374
52399
62423
52448
52473
62498
82522
52547
625?^
62597
52621
52646
5:^71
52096
52720
52745
52770
52794
52819
528'14
62869
52893
62J)18
62i)43
52967
62992 i
.85717
.85702
.85687
.85672
.8r^(5.-)7
.85<>42
.a->027
.a")612
.^55^7
.KV)S2
.85567
.85551
.a5536
.85521
.85506
.85491
.85476
.85461
.85431
.85416
.85401
.avivS
.85;j70
.85355
.avjio
.a-)325
.a"),jio
.a">294
.K-)279
.85264
.ft^>249
.a-i218'
.85203!
.a5188,
.85173,
.851571
.851421
.a-)1271
.85112 1
.85006'
.85081
.a-iOOO
.a-)051 :
.aj035
.a^oos
.81<)89i
.81974
.a4U59
.84948
.8Ji)28
.8J913
.81897
.81882
.84866
.a4851|
.81836
.84820
.84805
Sine
529!)2
63017
53041:
63066
63091
53115
63140
63104
531i:9;
5^14
63263
63312
53337
53.361
&3:»6
6.3411
5^435
531(W
63484
ssm
63.>34
53558
63583
63607
63032
63081
63705
53730
63754
53779
53*^)4
63f^
istm
63877
63{)02
63926
63a')l
53975
64000
54024
540191
W()73
64097
64122
64146
64171
541 a'}
64220
64244
642: ;9
5421W
5l:J17
64:J42
54306
&1391
M415
&4410
&44I54
Cosin
.&4805
.a4789
.&4774
.&4759
.&4743
.&4?28
.a4712
.84697
.84681
.a4606
.84650
.o4635'!
.&1019,'
.&4604l|
.84588 I
.84573 '
.&4557
.84542
.84526
.84511;
.84495
.84480'
.84464
.84448
.84433
.8W17
.84 402
.84386
.84370,
.84:J55
.84339
.84324
.84;yiw
.84292
.84277
.84J61:
.81245
.84^J0
.81214
.84198
.8U82
.84167
.84151
.84135
.84120
.841(V4:
.84088
.84072
.84057
.84041
.84025
.84009
.a-5:^>4
.88978,1
.83%2;!
.839461
.&ia*JO!
.83915 ■
.83899
.888K;J
.88K67
.83676
.83660
.83045
.83629
.83613
.83397
.83581
.83.365
.88549
Sine 'Oosin
544<^ .83867
64488 .88851
54513 .83835
545371.88819
645611.88804
64586 = .83788
fr4610 .83772
64635 .83756
546,39 .83740
546835.83724
54708 .83708
54732
54756
&4781
M805
54829
54a>4
64878
64902
M927
54951
64975
54999!
6501^4!
53048
53072
53097
55121
65145
65109
55194
56218
55242
55206
652J1
53:}15
65:};39
65:}03
65388
66-412
55436
65460
56484
65509
6(>533
65657
65581
65605
65630
53654
55678
65702
65?^5
66750
65775
65799
66823
65847
558n
53895
65919
84«
Sine ICk>sln'
— /
' .65919
.66013
.559(53
.53992
.66016
! .66040
.56064
.66088
.66112
.56186
.60160
.66184
.66308
.66282
.66256
.66280
.66805
.66329
.66853
.56377
.66401
.88583
.83517 ;
.88501 !
.83485 •'
.83469 ,
.88458
.88437.
.83421!
.834051
.83389!
.88873'
.88356
.88;^
.83324
.83806,
.882921
.832761
.83260'
.8:5«4
.83;iS8.
Cosin I Sine ; Cosin bine
fiS**
53«
Cosin I Slue Cosiu Sine
.88318
.83105
.83179
.88103:
.88147,
.88181 !
.88115
.88098
.880^2
.83066
.88050
.880171!
.88001! i
.82{)85;
.82960'!
.821K38 •
.82936 I
.82920 I
.82901 ;
.60125
.66449
.66473
.66497
.66521
.66546
.66600
.66593
.66617
.66041
.66665
.66689
.66713
.66736
.66760
.66784
.66608
.66882
.66856
.66880
'.66004
.668S8
.66052
.66976
.vrooo
.670S4
.67047
.6TO71
.57003
.67119
67«
6e»
.6T148
.5no7
.W191
.67i:i5
.57388
.67862
.57^280
.C?7810
.573U
0)7858
Cosin Bino
.83904 60
.82887 60
.82871 68
.82855 57
.82889 66
.83823 65
.83806 51
.83790 68
.837r3 63
.K757i 61
.83741 60
.837^' 49
.83708 48
.83093 47
.82075 46
.83659 45
.82043 44
.82026 48
.83610 43
.82593 41
.83677 40
.82S6l'fl9
.83544 88
.63538 37
.83511 86
.63495 86
.83478 81
.83463 88
.83446 as
.8^439 81
.8(9413 86
.88806' SO
.83880 38
.88868 37
.88847 30
.68880 89
.88814' 84
.83897; 38
.8838r83
.88304 31
.81^48 30
.88881' 10
.88814; 18
.68198 17
.68181 16
.68165 15
.68148. 14
.63183 18
.83116 13
.88098 11
.88063 10
.880651
.63048-
.83033
.68015,
.819991
.81983
.61965. 8
.61949 $
.81983: 1
.81915 0
NATURAL SINES AND COSINES.
107
85<
Sine Cosin
86<
.673811
.67405!
.67453
.57477;
.67501;
.575iJii
8 .67548.
0
1
2
3
4
6
G
9
.57^-'>"
572'
10 . .5759G
11 . .57619
12 .57043
13 .576C7
14 ■ .67091
15 . .57715
10 .57738
17 .577(52
18 .57786
19 .57810
20 .57833^
21
22
23
24
25'
26
27'
28'
29
80
biJ)i5
81899
81882
81805
81848
81832
81815
81798
81782
817G5
81748
I
81
S2
83
ai
85
86 =
87 J
88
89
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
60
.578571
.578811
.679041
.5TD28'
.57052
.57976
.57999
.58023
.58047
.58070
.5S094!
.C3118:
.CJ141
.58165;
.CS189!
.582121
.58236
.58260
5«383
.58307
.58830'
.58354
.58378.
.58401
.584^
.5f^9
.58472
.68496:
.68519)
.58643
51 .5656;'
62 .6a'i00
63 .58014
M .68037
55 .68661
6«; .686&4
57 .68708
58 .68731
59 .58755-
W .68779'
,C0Bin|
.81731 I
.8m4
.81098
.81081 ■
.81604';
.81647,'
.81031
.81614
.01597
.81580
.81563=
.81546
.815::0
.81513
.81406
.81479.
.814C3
.81443
.r.l4C3
.81413
.81395
.81.078
.81361
.81&44
.81327;
.81310
.81293
.81276
.81C59
.81242
.81225-
.81208
.81191
.81174
.81157
.81140
.81123
.81106
.810H9
.81072
Sine 'CJosin
r5sr;9
.6SSa2
.68826
n.
.a.^19
.5c^^r3
.668961
.63920!
.58943
.58907!
.68990
.69014
.59037
.69061
.59084
.50108
.50131
.59154
.59178
.59201
' .59225
j .59248
.59272
'.59295
' .59318
.50342
.59305
■.59389
.694121
.594361
.59159'
.594831
.8iWS5
.80SC7
.WS'jO
.8i>S33
.r<fcjil6
.fX)?J9
.80782
.80765
.60748
.80730
.80718'
.80096'
.80679
.80002
.800^4
.80027
.80010
87*
88<
'■1
.59506'
' .5a"'>29.
.69552
.69576
.59599
.59022'
.690461
.no(;93
.69716
.59739
■ .6JTG3'
.wm
.5I,'**09
.6JS32,
.6'.>S56
.5:)S79
.6iHK>2
..'):i!»26
.69949
.81055
.59072
.81(»38
.6;»(K>5
.81021
.0«i!l9
.81004
.&x>i-«
.8IKI87
.600«J5
.80;»70
.eoosG
.80953
.60112
.809'36
.001:35
.80919
.601.58
.809(»
.60182
Sine
Cosin
.sa^ro
.8055S
.8a>ii
.805:w4
.805U7
.SO4H0
.80472
.8<>455
.804.-i3
.804::X)
.80403
.80386
.8^
.803.:4
.80316
.80203
.80Z-2
.80204
.80247
.80230
.80212
.80195
.80178
.80160
.8.)143
.&.)125
.80108
.8*K)r3
.8iwi5(;
.800;id
.80021
.TlO-0
.7;mk«
,.7IKi.")l
.70910
.79J-:»9
.7fKsl
Bine
Sine Cosin
7G0182 /40.-'O4
.GtKN)5
.(i0228
.00251
.aK>74 .7
.G(VJii6 .7
Sine 'Cosin
89<
7'
r9846
rosu
07ii3
51776
I .
.6(ui44 ,
.00307,
.0a390
.60414:
.60437
.60400
.60483
.00506'
.C(K529
.60553
.C057C
.cav.:9
.G0G22
.60645
.60008
.t<>>91
.C0714
.ror:>M
.CUTOl
.607H4
.00807
00.^)3 1
.60876
.60809
.60028
.60945
.C09C8'
.ccooi i
C1015I
OIOCS'
ClOCl '
6iaS4'
011C7
.79758
,79741
.79723
.70700
.79688
.7%n
.79053
.70035
.70018
.70000
.70583
.70505
.70.>I7
.70512
.79i04
"•f • —
.7W.')0
.70441
.70iC4
.70-:c;o
. < ■ " »yO
.79^35.
.70318'
.7w:a)
.7120.1
.7r.~Mr
.7f211
.7010.'}
.7oi';o
.70156
.oiyi4
.6l:«7
.613001
.01 nw;
.ou-,>o
.01 t.>i
.01 574 ■
.CI 107 :
.01520
.6l.'>43"
.70105
.70(:-7
.70<.»f;o
.79a"i!
.700:W
.70010
.7M('. S
.TbOJS)
.78962
.7'-0-!l
.7vr:(j
.7^^:>i
.7.'^^73
.7>*-.')5
.7»>:i7
.7^19
.7*W01
.615<;0
.61580.
.61612"
.616:i5
.61058
.61681
.61704
.61720 ■
.01740
.617?J
.61705
.61818
.61&41
.01804
.61887
.61900
.61052
.01055
.01078
.020CJ1
.02024
.02040
.02(X;0
.G2(H0
.02115
.62138
.02100
.0218:3
.02200
.02251
.62274
.02207
. CCS 05
.62.':88
.02411
.624:«
.02-150
.62479
.61130 '.70140 .62502
.6115:3 .7I.1C2
.61170
.61 ICO
.01-^22
.61 '.'-45 1
.C1C(;8!
.01201
.02524
.62547
.62570
.62502
.62015
.6vaS
.C20<X)
.78^■;ll
.78783
.7870o
.78747
.78720
.78711
.78004
.78070
.78058
.780i0
.78622
.786^-'
.78580 '■■
.78508
.78550
.7K532 -
.78514
.78490
.7^478 :
.7t>400
.■:^>442 ■
. 784^4
.784a")
.;-8.387
.78:>;0
.78351
.7833:3
.78315
.78297
.78279
.78261
.78243
.7^5225
.78C06
.78188
.78170
.78152
.7«134
.78110
.78008
.78U79
.78061
.7h04:3
.7H)25
.78007'
.77988
'"""070 .
1 (
.77052
.779:34
G20S:J .7701';
62700 .77697
64"
63-
Cosin ; Sine
62«
.65728
. J.. . I I
.02?'J«j
.C2«10
.02S-I-2
.o-.i^;i
.62KS7
.020.32
Cobiu
.77879
.77h;i
.'.-7X13
.7:.'<01
. < < I T
. < I <0.l
. t ^ i.^1
.(it •/•!
.III 10
Sine
Sine Cosin
.62055
.62077
.om'O
.6:3(n:2
.0C0-i5
.63000
.63113
.0:3125
.63158
.77715, eo
.7701.0 £0
. 770781 £8
57
50
.63180
.0:3203
.C3225
.C3248
.03271
.63203
.63310
, .63338
.63001
.63383
.63400
.634-8
.63451
.0*473
.03400
.03518
.035-10
.0350:i
.63585
.03a'8
.63630'
.0:3053
.03075
.G30i!8
.0:3720
.63742
.63705
.C3787
.CO.'^IO
.63832
.essw'
.0:3677
.C3809
.03022
.0::044
, .0:3900
.C:3G60
.(■4011
.(.10:33
.04050
.64078
.04100
.61123
.041*5
.64167
. 6419*3
.64212
.642:31
.642.V)
.61270
Cosin
.'iTOOO'
.77041 '
. 77023 i
.77005'
.77586
.775i'»8
.77550
.77531
.77513
.77494
.77476
.77458
.77439
.77421144 ,
.77402 1 43 '
.77384' 42
.77306 41
.77347: 40
65
54
.•il
60
40
48
47
40
45
.77329
.77310
.77202
.77273
.77255
.77230
.77218
.77100
.77181
.77162
.7714-4
.77125
.77107
.77070
.77051
.77a0:3
.77014
.7CO-0
.70077
.7CO,'50
.70040
.7-0021;
.7000:3
.':os>4
.70^:1}
.70.^1:.
.7'<>e8
.r-.^i.j
.70702
I -, S^ I
. ((:i <•;
r . ■""• i
. I Jt •' I
.7()735
.7()?17
.7(''50.S
.■;';<;:o
.70001;
.70042'
.7002:J
.70(Xi4
Sine
39
33 ■
37 i
30
3-3 i
34
33
O.)
31 i
30 '
29 I
28 :
20 !
25 :
24
23
21 .
SiO :
19
IS ■
17
10
!.->
11
1:3
li
1!
0
0
5
4:
1
0
51'
60°
NATURAL TANGENTS AND COTANGENTS.
4-
8-
8°
7-
Ta^
rang
Cotang
Tflng_
Cotang
Tang lOo
J
B749
iIImis
:iS
IS
:!SI
s*
.07051
.123B8
b!
s
iiisiea
a'.issa
8.1
:o7iio ;
)S8««
11.3789'
0.40904
;]£G97
B.I
0.88307
.IZ^
iiiaois
.is;:8
7
; 0718
8
06983
ii!iaifl
:i3515
t':
fl
.0^56
K»18
; 0J76
?.■
.10606
oiassw
;i267*
11
own
11. 0837
9.S80I6
.13808
7.
IS
,07314
WlOl
10.0882
B.OAiie
.12i:C3
13
.07273
10.CM9
9.1S028
9.16651
! 12692
7"
!o74ai
09189
B.18093
.isras
7.
IG
.07 Ul
KSIS
10.6183
.0981
9,IOW0
.12^1
17
.07 30
10.8139
. 1011
!07.>J8
0!03370
!i^o
7.
sa
.07 a 1
09336
10:711B
: 1090
0.00063
.12889
ai
.07(107 ;
(^65
J0.6T8S
.11138
.98698
.12809
. 2as9
:07effi 1
lOloilB
:ilJ8T
.2908
7-
SI
.07005
I0.6;S9
.11217
.20t8
7.
25
.OTTi*
10.6462
. 8017
T.
:o77aa
I0:4U13
illEfflS
;81551
.'SOTO
7.-
sa
.07818
0057U
]0,4i3I
.11335
.83^53
. 3106
7.
so
.OTSII
ocaoo
. 8136
7.'
09620
lOisSM
;ilB94
:77«W
.ISWB
SI
.07800
09668
'*'-^
.11423
.nta
. 8196
7.
CJ
X!038
. 8324
J1482
:a
ioToaz
K)T-I6
loiaooa
isSTOl
E5
.OS017
M7r«
10.2294
.86483
. SS13
7.
K6
.OSOlfl
10.1963
. 8848
7.
Kl
05S04
loiinai
:il829
m
.osiai
T.^
IO.108O
.iie.'-.o
.67718
. W33
.08103
.nm
.3461
7.
19952
lo.was
.117I8
43
.08321
.tiacB
.08251
.49188
:i8560
7.
10010
OioOOOT
:iIS06
.18680
lOOCO
9.03101
.IIBSO
:44Foa
40
.4£;95
.')8«3a
47
.40705
.18689
T..
IS
101 ns
0!k14S3
.SEcas
.13808
7..
4»
!o81CT
ioii;7
B.t.in4i
;iir54
.SKM
.ISiSB
00
.08406
10218
B.;8S17
.11963
8.34496
.1K58
.08485
I0SJ8
.laoj!.
B.aE446
.I3JB7
.OKU
9:rji7
.13)42
B.B&:06
63
9-71_H41
S.atffiTB
losses
7.:
10363
! 13131
T.
'.mm
03!a
oioL-aw
.laico
BisSftM
.'l808S
.aim
0422
B.RllOO
s.soura
.18008
68
8.18370
.18906
7.
69
e.I«3B8
.14004
7.'
60
!oer40
Cotang TmiE | C
0310
otang
B:ai-i38
:i8S78
8.14486
.14064
7.
TanB
c«»¥
Tang
Cotang
~T
8S' 1.
84°
88'
.W
NATURAL TANGENTS AND COTANGENTS.
ni
8»
90
10*»
11"»
60
'smg
Cotanff
Tang
.158:38
Cotang
Tang
.17633
Cotang
Tang
.19438
Cotang
14034
7.11537
0.31375
5.67128
5.14455
14061
7.10038
.15803
6.30189
.17003
5.66165
.19468
5.13658
59
14118
7.08540
.1589.J
6.29007
.17093
6.65205
.19493
5.12862
58
:414d 7.07059
.15928
6.27829
.17723
5.64248
.19329
5.12069
57
4173 7.03379
.15950
6.26655
.17753
6.63295
.19559
5.11279
56
43(Xb
7.04105
.15938
6.25486
.irr83
5.62344
.19589
5.10490
55
4232
7.02a'J7 ,
.16C17
6.24321
.17813
5.61397
.19619
5.09704
54
4262
0.91174
.16047
0.23160
.17843
5.60452
.19649
5.08921
53
4291
6.99718
i .icor7
0.22003
.17873
5.59511
.19080
5.08139
52
4321
6.98368
.10107
C.20&51
.17903
5.58573
.19710
5.07360
51
4351
0.96823
.16137
6.19703
.17933
5.57638
.19740
5.06584
50
4881
6.93385
.161C7
6.18559
.17963
5.56706
.19770
5.05809
49
4-110
6.93953
•IClCj 6.17419
.17993
5.55r<7
.l9;;oi
5.03037 148
4440
C.925?o
.16220 6.1G283
.18023
5.51831
.19831
5.042G7
47
4170
6.91104
.10250
0.13151 1
.18053
5.53927
.19vS01
5.03499
46
4499
6.89688
.16230
0.14023
.18033
5.53007
.19891
5.02731
45
4529
6.83278
.16316
6.12309
.18113
5.52090
.19921
5.01971
44
4539 6.8G3T4
.ICOiG
6.11779
.18143
5.51176
.19932
5.01210
43
1588
6.83475 1
.iGc;o
6.10004
.18173
5.60264
.199^13
5.00151
42
1618
0.84083
.16435
6.095:2
.18203
5.49356
.20012
4.99695
41
1648
6.82694
.10435
6.08114
.18233
5.4W51
.20042
4.98940
40
1678
0.81312
.16465
6.07340 '
.182G3
5.47548
.20073
4.98188
39
1707
6.7JK)36
.16495
6.0GC10
.18233
5.400:8
.20103
4.97438
38
1787
6.re5G4
.16523
6.C5143
.18323
5.45751
.20133
4.96G90
37
1767
6.77199
.10355
6.04031 1
.18333
5.44837
.20104
4.95045
36
1796
6.73838
.16585
6.02332
.18384
5.439G6
.20194
4.95201
35
1826
6.74403
.16615
6.01878
.18414
5.43077
.20224
4.94460
34
1856
6.73183
.16645
6.00797 1
.18444
5.42192
.20254
4.93rai
33
1886
6.71789
.10074
5.99720 !
.18474
5.41309
.20285
4.92084
32
1915
6.70450
.1G7J4
5.98G40
.18504
5.40429
.20315
4.92219
31
1945
6.69116
.16731
5.97576 :
1
.18334
5.89552
.20345
4.91516
30
1975
6.67787
.16764
5.9C310
.18564
5.38677
.20376
4.90785
29
Kxe
6.60463
.10794
5.95413
.18504
5.37805
.20406
4.90056
28
Km
6.65144
.16824
5.94000
.18021
5.36936
.20436
4.89330
27
3064
6.6,ia31
.16834
5.93355
.18a51
5.36070
.20406
4.88005
26
S094
6.62523
.16834
5.92283
.180iil
5.35206
.20497
4.87882
25
S124
6.61219
.10914
5.91236
.18714
5.34315
.20527
4.87162
24
S153
6.59921
.16944
5.90101
.18743
5.33487
.20557
4.86444
23
3183
6.53627
.16974
5.89151
. 18775
5.32G31
.20588
4.85727
22
3218
6.57339
.170D4
5.83111
.18805
5.31778
.20018
4.85013
21
3243
6.56055
.17033
5.87080
.18835
5.30928
.20648
4.81300
20
3272
6.54777
.17063
5.86051
.18865
5.30080
.20679
4.83590
19
3802
6.53503
.17033
5.85021
.1«895
5.2oe:5
.20709
4.82882
18
5332
6.52234
.17123
5.84001
.18925
5.28CJ3
.20739
4.82175
17
5362
6.50970
.17153
5.82982
.18935
5.27553
1 .20770
4.81471
16
5391
6.49710
.17183
5.819G6-
.18930
5.20715
.20800
4.80769
15
>121
6.48456
.17213
5.80953
.19016
5.25880
.208':0
4.80068
14
5451
6.47208
.17243
5.79944
.19013
5.25048
.208G1
4.79870
13
5481
6.45961 1
.17273
5.7f;938
.19070
5.24218
.20891
4.78673
12
5511
6.44720
.17303
5.779:36
.19106
5.23301
.20921
4.77978
11
j&lO
6.43484
.17333
5.7G937
.19130
5.22566
.20932
4.ri28C
10
5570
0.42253
.17363
5.75941
.19166
5.21744
■ .20982
4.76595
9
5600
6.11023
.17393
5.71019
.101'.i7
5.200-35
.21013
4.75900
8
TAW
G.:}0y04
.1742:3
5.7:W0O 1
.19227
5.20107
.21013
4.75210
7
5060
G.3S3H7
.17453
5.70074
.19257
5.19203
.21073
4. 745:) 4
6
3r>.S9
6.37374
.17433
5.71992
.19287
5.18480
.21104
4.73851
5719
6.3G165
.17513
5.71013
.19317
5.17671
.21134
4.73170
4
5749
6.34961
.17343
5.700:37 !
.19347
5.16863
.21104
4.72490
31
3779
6.83761
.17573
5.69004
.19378
5.16058
.21195
4.71813
2|
5:^09
6.32566
i .17603
5.68094
.19408
5.15256
.21225
4.71137
1 '
5838
6.81373
.17033
Cotang
1
5.G7128 j
.10138
Cotang
5.141.55
.21236_
Cotang
4.70463
1\
tang
Tang
Tang
Tang
Tang
1
/
sv i
1 SO** 1
79° 1
7
B°
NATURAL TANOEMTS AND COTANGENTS.
NATURAL TANGENTS AND COTANOKNTe.
113
le-
l7» 1
18»
19«
1
/
60
Tang
.30578
Cotang
Tang '• Cotang
.83493 1 8.07768
Tang
.84433
Cotang
nb
3.48741
3.27085
2.90421
w
3.^8850 '
.30606
8.26745
.32524
8.07464
.84466
2.90147
59
■as
3.4'«Tn7 !
.30037
8.26406
.82556
3.07160
.84496
2.89678
58
-m i 3.47596
.80GC9
3.20067
.32588
3.06857
.84530
2.89600
57
100 8.47216
.30700
3.25729
.82621
3.06554
.84563
2.89827
56
138 3.46837
.80783
3.253P3
.82653
3.06253
.84596
2.89055
55
(64
3.46458
.30764
3.25065
.82G85
3.05950
.84628
2.88788
54
m
3.46060
.80796
3.24719
.32717
3.05649
.84601
2.88511
68
w
3.45703
.80828
3.24383
.82749
8.05^49
.84093
2.88240
63
158
3.45327
.80800
3.24049
.82782
3.05049
.84726
3.87970
51
190
3.44951
.80891
3.23714
.82814
3.04749
.84758
2.87700
50
61
3.44578
.80038
3.23881
.82846
3.04450
.84791
2.87480
49
33
3.44202
.80055
3.2:J048
.82878
3.04152
.84824
2.87161
48
84
3.43829
.30987
3.22715
.32911
3.03854
.84856
2.86893
47
16
3.43456
.31019
3.22384
.32043
3.03566
.84889
3.80624
40
47
3.43084
.81051
3.22053
.32973
3.03260
.84922
2.80366
45
79
3.42713
.81083
3 21723
.83007
3.02903
.84a>4
2.86069
44
10
8.42313
.31115
3.21393
.83040
3.02007
.84987
3.85823
43
42
3.41073
.31147
3.21063
.83072
3.02372
.35020
3.85555
42
74
3.41604
.81178
3.20734
.83104 1 3.02077
.35052
3.85289
41
OS
3.41236
.81210
3.20406
.83180
3.01783 i
.35085
2.85028
40
37
8.40R69
.81243
3.20079
.88169
3.01489 '
.35118
3.84758
39
68
3.4Uj02
.31274
3.10752
.83201
3.01196
.85150
2.81494
38
00
3.4J136
.81300
3.10426
.83233
3.00CC3
.35183
2.81229 137
32
3.39771
.31338
3.10100
.832(30
3.00011
: .35216
3.83965 i33
08
8.30406
.81370
3.18775
.33298
3.00319
.85218
2.83702
33
95
8.39012
.31402
3.ia461
.33330
8.00028
.2&:in
2.83139
34
S6
8.38679
.81434
3.10127
.33303
2.09738
.35314
2.83176
33
68
3.3:]317
.81466
3.17804.
.38395
2.99447
.35,^6
2.82914
32
90
3.C7Ga3
.81493
3.17181
.83427
2.99158
.85379
2.82653
31
fn
3.S7594
.31530
3.17159
.83400
2.98868
.85412
2.82301
30
58
8.371M4
.31663
3.10838
.83492
2.98580
.85445
2.82130 !20|
86
8.CJj75
.31594
3 10517
.3S5C4
2.98292
.35477
2.81870
28
16
8.3G516
.31026
3.10197
.Zr^iii
2.98004 '
.35510
2.81610
27
48
8.33158
.81058
3.15877
.33569
2.9m7 1
.35548
2.81360 '26
80
3.r,-;800
.01090
3.ir;,-,58
.33621
2.97430
.85576
2.81091 25
11
8.avi4d
.31722
3.15240
.330,>4
2.97144
.35008
2.60638 24
43
8.33087
.31754
3.11923
.3;^cso
2.96858
.35041
2.80574 23
75
8.ai733
.31786
3.14605
.83718
2.CG5?3
.35074
2.80316 22
06
3.31377
.31818
8.14288
.33751
2.90288
.857V7
2.80050 121
38
8.34028
.31860
. 3.18973
.33783
2.96004
1
.85740
3.79802
20
70
8.33670
.31883
3.18656
.83810
2.95721
.85772
3.79545
10
01 3.33317
.31014
3.13341
.33^48
2.95437
.35805
3.79289
18
33 8.8::365
.31046
3.13027
.33881
2.95155
.35838
2.79033
17
65
8.3r:614
.31978
3.12718
.33913
2.94872 ■■
.35871
2.78r;8
10
97
8.3^264
.32010
8.12400
.33045
2.94591
.35004
2.78623
15
38
3.31914
.32043
8.12087
.33978
2.94309
.35a37
2.78269
14
60
3.31565
.32074
3.11775
.34010
2.94028
.35009
2.78014
13
IM
3.31216
.32106
8.11104
.3-1013
2.93748
.30002
2.VY761
12
34
.S.CIXSS
.32139
3.11153
.34(m'5
2.0.'W(W
.300:«
2.77507
11
56
8.U)o81
.32171
3.10843
.34108
2.93189
.30008
2.77254
10
87
8.30174
.325^3 3.10533
.34140
2.92910
.30101
2.77002
9
19
3.:J.Ki29
.32235 3.10223
.34173
2.92a*J2
.miu
2.707;.0
8
51
3.;::) 183
.3':.:07 3.n:)014
.3 12: '5
2.92.%!
.30107
2.701J,8
7
83
3.'JJ139
.3i,VJ9
a. mm '
.312;]^
2.92070
.3<;i09
2.70217
6
14
3.2S795
,ii::m
3.()ik>98
.34270
2.«17J)9
.;i02:J2
2.75{«)0
5
46
8.38453
.32303
3.CS991 ,
.34:^3
2.91.':C:J
.3<;2(r)
2.75740
4
78
8.2:^100
.32396
3.0S685 .
.343:«
2.012-10
.30208
2.75400
3
00
8.27767
.3'>l28
3.OS.379
,34Ci.8
^:.{:c:.7i
.303:31
2.76246
2
41
8.27436
.awx)
3.0S073 1
.3+400
2.90C96
.30304
2.74997
1
.78
S.2T0R6
.32493
Cotang
3.07708
.344.'i3
Cotang
2.00421 1
.3o;m>7
Cotang
2.74718
_0
ng
Tiuig
Tang
Ta:ig
Tang
/
7
y
TS'*
71° ,1
70« !
114
NATURAL TANGENTS AND COTANGENTS.
20<=
2V
0
Ji
3!
4.
5
6'
7;
8
9
10
11
la
13
14
15
IG
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
23
26
27
2^
23
80
81
82
83
34
85
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
5:»|
53,
51
55
56
57
5ii
59
GO
Tanff
36430
86-163
36106
3G529
36562
86593
36628
36661
36694
36727
36760
:56793
3r>823
30859
30'M)2
3G925
36958
30991
37024
37057
870?0
37123
37157
S7190
3?^^
3?256
87289
37:522
3ra55
87388
87422
37453
37483
37521
37554
37588
37621
37654
37687
37720
37754
37787
37820
37a53
37{}37
37920
37953
3r9«6
3 '1.30
38053
3«»0W]
3S120
'JS153
3^1NJ
3S220
38253
382:46
3rvj20
38*r>3
383S8_
Cotarr:
Cotang
~2.74r48
2.74499
2.74251
2.74004
2.73756
2.73509
2.73i263
2.?3017
2.73771
2.7.1526
2.7^2281
2.7.'3036
2.71792
2.71548
2.71305
2.71003 I
2 70.^19 i
2.70577
2.70333
2.7't034
2.03858
2.00612
2.0J371
2.03131
2.0:\392
2.CJ053
2.CM14
2.0:175
2.0V.:'57
2.orroo
2.67462
67225
069S9
GG752
66516
66281
2.66046
2.a5811
2.0.5376
2.0.5342
2.05109
261875
2.01 ; 13
2 01410
2.01177
2 &3315
2.03714
2.C3483
2.01-152
2.0^21
2.02791
2.62361
2.(;ii32
2.02103
2.01M74
2.01046
2.G1418
2.01190
2.00063
2.(50736
2.0)509
G0«
Tan?r
.38386
C->tanfr
2.a;o09
.88420
2.60283
.8&453
2.60057
.88487
2.53331
.88520
2.53006
.38553
2.59381
.38587
2.59156
.38020
2.C3933
.3"^54
2.58708
.38687
2.58484
.88721
2.68261
.88754
2.68088
.38^7
2.57815
.83821
2.57593
.33854
2.57871
.SS888
2.5n50
.889:1
2.56928
.33955
2.56707
.83983
2.66487
.39023
2.50206
.89056
2.56046
.89089
2.55827
.33123
2.53CL8
.89158
2.55389
.39190
2.r5170
.33?-?3
2.W052
.S3C57
2.51734
.83200
2.5-;516
.333:4
2.54209
.33357
2.51003
.89391
2.53805
.imvi
2.53^48
.33453
2.';3433
.33192
2.:i3217
.33523
2.53001
.33539
2.5:;:8
.33393
2.;"::571
.39023
2.r,:357
.80000
2.fJ142
.30094
2.:;19i:9
.39^7
2.51715
.89761
2.51502
.::3795
2.512S9
.::3H29
2.51076
.83803
2.50304
..^'3896
2.50r;3
.339::o
2.5a«0
.33963
2.:;0e->9
.33997
2.rHWH
..rx)3i
2.10807
.40005
2. :3597
.40008 2.193'-<0
.40133 I 2.l.;i77
.4«)106 , 2.-I ■:);)7
..;;)■»(« ! 2.! wrvS
.4tU;n ' 2..J043
. 40:^07 2 'l".04O
.40301 2.18183
.40335 2.-17924
.40309 2.47716
.40403 2.17500
Cotanf? '1 -.r.i,' Cotaiicj Tang
22»
Tangr
CotanfjT
.40408
2.47509
.40436
8.47303
.40470
2.47095
.40504
2.46888
.40538
2.4668S
.40573
2.46476
.40606
2.46270
.40640
2.46065
.40074
8.45860
.40707
2.45655
.40741
8.46461
.40775
2.4S946
.40809
2.45048
.40843
8.44839
.403?r
8.44686
.40911
8.44488
.40945
8.44280
.40379
8.44027
.<1018
2.43::25
.41017
2.43023
.11081
8.43428
.41115
8.48220
.41149
8.43019
.41183
2.42319
.41217
2.42618
.41251
8.43418
.4121^5
8.42218
.41319
2.42019
.4ia53
2.41819
.413;?7
2.41020
.41421
8.41421
.41455
8.41223
.414'J0
2.410J3
.41524
2.4ai27
.4m58
8.406C9
.41693
8.40133
.416C6
8.40233
.41660
2.40033
.41694
2.89841
.41T-:3
2.890-13
.41763
2.89449
.41797
2.89258
.'118:U
2.29053
■ ..!lC<i5
2.88863
41099
2.88668
i .41933
2.88173
i ..-inr.s
2.88279
.4J003
2.38084
.42086
2.87891
.'!'2070
2.37097
..42105
2.37J04
.42189
r:.37811
.12173
2.37118
, .'422t)7
2.86925
' .42-213
2.86733
.422'. 6
2.86541
.42310
2.86349
.42845
2.86158
.42379
2.86967
i .42418
2.86776
! .42447
2.a'S5W
23<
Tang
«M47
48488
42516
42551
42585
42619
42651
42033
42723
42757
42791
42r28
42800
42694
420S9
48968
42996
48088
48067
48101
4S186
4S170
48205
48383
48274
43308
43a43
43378
46418
43447
46181
48516
43550
48585
48634
48689
43734
48758
48703
48888
48868
48897
48038
48006
44001
44033
44071
44103
44140
44173
44210
44214
442rr9
44314
44349
44884
44418
44468
4(488
44388
Cotang
8.85686
8.85335
8.83205
8.85016
8.84825
8.64686
8.84147
8.81858
8.84069
8 83881
8.83608
8.83606
8.83817
8.88180
8.8891S
8.88756
8.S35TO
8.88888
8.88197
8.83018
8.81886
8.81641
8.81466
8.81871
8.81086
8.80008
8.80718
8.80631
8.80861
2.80167
8.89981
8.80601
8.89619
8.89487
8.89851
8.80078
8.88891
8.88710
8.88588
8.83318
8.88107
8.8T067
887806
8.87686
8.87447
8.87867
8.87068
8.80009
8.86780
8.866R8
8.36374
8.86106
8.86018
8.80&1O
8.85063
8.25186
8.85800
8.86188
8.81056
8 8mo
8.81001
GV
QV
Cotang Tung
NATURAL TANGENTS ANE
> COTANGENTS. 1
15
24«»
25°
' £8°
27^
60
Tangr
.44523
Cotang
Tang
.40631
C'otang
1 Tang
.484 73
Cotang
Tang
.50953
Cotang
2.24004
2.14^^31
2.05C30
1.96;t01
1
.44558
2.24428
.46666
2.14288
.48809
2.04879
.509ii9
1.90120
59
2
.44593
2.24252
.40702
2.14125
.4^345
2.04728
.61020
1.95979
58
8
.44627
2.24077
.46737
2.13963
.4LS881
2.04577
.51003
1.95838
57
4
.44662
2.23902
.46778
2.1SS01
.48017
2.04426
.510CD
1.95698
56
6
.44097
2.23727
.46808
2.18639
.48953
2.04276
.51136
1.95557
55
6
.44738
2.23553
.46843
2.13477
.48989 ; 2.04125 i
.51173
1.95417 :54
7
.41767
2.23378
.46879
2.1.3G16
.49026
2.0C975
.51209
1.05277 i53
8
.44802
2.23204
.4C014
2.181M
.49CG2
2.03P25
.51246
1.95137 ;52
9
.41837
2.23030
.40950
2.12093
.49098
2.0CC:a
.51283
1.94C97
51
10
.44872
2.22857
.40985
2.12832
.49134
2.a3526
.51319
1.94858
50
11
.44907
2.23683
.47021
2.12671
.49170
2.03376
.51356
1.94718
49
12
.44942
2.22510
.47056
2.12511
.49^06
2.0S227
.51393
1.94579 ,'48
13
.44977
2.22337
.47092
2.12350
.492:2
2.03078
.61430
1.94440
47
14
.45012
2.^164
.47128
2.12190
.492^8
2.02023
..01467
1.94301
46
15
.45047
2.21992
.47163
2.12030
.49315
2.02780 i
.51503
1.94162
45
IG
.45082
2.21819
.47199
2.11871
.49351 ! 2.02031
.51540
1.94023
44
17
.45117
2.21047
i A?23i
2.11711
.49387
2.02483
.51577
1.93885
43
18
.45152
2.21475
.47270
2.11552
.494::3
2.02335
.51614
1.93746
42
19
.45187
2.21804
.47005
2.11C92
.494:9
2.021B7
.C1651
1.03608 '41
20
.45222
2.21132
.47341
2.11233
.49495
2.02039
.51688
1.93470
40
21
.45257
2.20961
.47377
2.11075
.49532
2.01891
.51724
1.03332
39
22
.45292
2.20790
.47412
2.1GJI6
.40.:l8
2.01743
.61761
1.93195
38
23
.45327
2.20019
.47448
2.10758
.49604
2.01596
.51798
1.93057
37
24
.45S6J
2.204i9
.47483
2.10600
.49640
2.01449
.£1835
1.92920
36
25
.45897
2.20278
.47519
2.10442
.49077
2.01302
.51872
1.92782
35
26
.45432
2.20108
.47555
2.10284
.49713
2.01155
.51909
1.92645
34
27
.45407
2.100C8
.47590
2.10126
.49749
2.01008
.51946
1.92508
33
28
.45502
2.197G9
.47626
2.09969
.49786
2.00862
.51983
1.92371
32
29
.45538
2.195C9
.47062
2.09011
.49822
2.00715
.52020
1.92235
31
80
.45573
2.19430
.47698
2.09654
.49858
2.00569
.52057
1.92098
30
81
.45608
2.19261
.47733
2.09498
.49894
2.00423
.52094
1.91962
29
82
.45643
2.10092
.47769
2.09341
.49931
2.00277
.52131
1.91826
28
83
.45078
2.18923
.47805
2.03184
.49967
2.00131
.52168
1.91690
27
84
.45718
2.18755
.47840
2.09028
.50004
1.99986
.52205
1.91554
26
86
.45748
2.18587
.47876
2.08872
.SOOiO
1.99841
.52242
1.91418
25
86
.45784
2.18419
.47912
2.08716
.50076
1.99695
.52279
1.91282
24
87
.45819
2.18251
.47948
2.08500
.50113
1.C3550
.52316
1.91147
23
88
.45854
2.18064
.47984
2.08405
.50149
1.C3406
.52353
1.91012
22
89
.45889
2.17916
.43019
2.03250
.60185
1.C9261
.52390
1.90876
21
40
.45024
2.17749
.43055
2.08094
.50222
1.99116
.52487
1.90741
20
41
.45960
2.17582
i48091
2.07939
.50258
1.98972
.52464
1.90607
19
42
.45995
2.17416
.43127
2.07785
.50295
1.98828
.52501
1.90472
18
43
.46080
2.17249
.48163
2.07630
.50331
1.98684
.52538
1.90337
17
4(
.40065
2.17083
.48198
2.07476
.50308
1.98540
.52575
1.90203
10
45
.40101
2.10917
.48234
2.07321
.50404
1.98396
.62613
1.90009
15
46
.46186 2.10751
.48270
2.07167
.50141
1.98253
.52650
1.89935
14
47
.46171 1
2.10585
.48306
2.07014
.50477
1.93110
.52687
1.89801 13
48 .40208
2.10^120
.48342
2.06860
.50514
1.97966
.62724
1.89607 12
49! .4G242
2.1C55 '
.48.378
2.06706
.50550
1.97823
.52761
J. 895;^ 11
£0
.46277
2.16090 i
.48414
2.06553
.50587
1.97681
.52798
1.89400
10
51
.46312
2.15925
.48450
2.06400
.50623
1.97538
.52836
1.8926b
9
1.2
.40348
2.157C0
.4-3486
2.00247
.50060
1.97395
.52873
1.89133
8
53
.46383
2.15596
.43521
2.00094
.50096
1.97253
.52910
1.89O00
7
54
.46418
2.15482
.48557
2.05942
.50733
1.97111
.52947
1.88r.G7
6
55
.40454
2.15268
.48593
2.05790
.50769
1.96969
.62985
1.88734
5
56
.40489
2.15101
.48629
2.05037
.50806
1.96827
.53022
1.88602
4
57
.40525
2.14940
.48665
2.05485
.50843
1.96685
.53059
1.884C9
3
58
.46560
2.147r7
.48701
2.05383
.50879
1.96544
.58096
1.88337
2
59
.46595
8.14614
.48787
2.05182
i .50916
1.96402
.53134
1.88205
1
1
/
.46681
Cotang
2.14451
.48773
2.05030
.50953
1.962G1
.53171
1.88073
_0
Tang
Cotangi
'I'ang
Cotang
Tang
Cotang
Tang
f
66»
e4«
6
30
6!
2»
NATURAL TANGENTS AND COTANGENTS.
NATURAL TANGENTS AND
COTANGENTS. 1
17
*
82* ':
88<»
84» 1!
85»
(io
m
Tangf I Ck>taiig: ' ■
.62487 1.600:43 ,
Tang
.04941
Cotong
Tang j Cotang 1
.67451 . 1.4H2r)6 ,
Tang
.70021
Cotang
0
1.539S6
1.42815
ll
.62527
1.50980
.61982
1.53888; .67493
1.48103
.70UG4
1.42720 50
2| .625U8
1.59826 .
.65024
1.53791 .67536
1.48070
.70107
1.42(:g:} \:a
3 .6:%0d
1.537e:j
.65005
1.53093 .67578
1.47JJ77
.70151
1.42550 57
4 .62649
1.59da0 1
.65106
1.53595 : .67C20
1.47R85
.70194
1.42462 i56
5 .62689
1.59517
.^148
1.53197 . .07ca
1.47792
.70238
1.42^^74 ;55
6 .G2r^
1.59414
.65189
1.53100 :
.677l'5
1.47G99
.70281
1.42286 54
1.42198 53
1.42110 52
7 .68770
1.59311
.652:31
1.63302
.Ci i <8
1.47007
.70325
8 .62811
1.5020^3
.65272
1.5305
.6771:0
1.47514
.70:jf;.8
9
.62852
1.59105
.6>314
1.53107
.67S:i2
1.47422
.70412 1.42022 ;51 1
10
.628S»
1.50002
.05355
1.53010
.67875
1.47330
.70455 1.41931
50
11
.62933
1.53900
.6.5307
1.B2913
.67917
1.47238 .
.70199 1.41817
49
12
.C;^r3
1.5J7J7
.0>4:38
1.52816
.679f»
1.47146
1.47053 '
.70:>42 1.41759
48
13
.63014
1.5S695
.05480
1.52719
.08002
.705S6 1.41C72
47
14
.CSOxS
1.53593
.05521
1.52C22
.68045
1.4C002 =:
.70029 1.415K1
40
15
.030;»
1.58190
.C5563
1.51S25
.68088
1.40S70 :.'
.70073
1.41497
45
16 .63136
1.583^38
.65004 1.52129 1
.68130 1.40778 .;
.70717
1.41409
44
17! .63177
1.58286
.65646
1.62332 :
.68173 1.4GC86 :■
.70700
1.41322
^^
\^\ .fSSXl
1.581W
.6"5C'«
1.52235
.68215 1.4C595 ■
.70804
1.41£:« :42
19- .63258
1.58«3
1 .or^^
\XIV^
.6<*2.:S . 1.40503 .1
.70«4S
1.411 LS
41
2U .C32D9
1.579bl
.OjiVI
1.52013
.68301
1.40411 ;|
.70801
1.41001
40
21
.63810 '
1.57879
.R-seia 1.5194C
.68313
1.40320 ''
.70035
1.40974
39
22
.63S30
1.577:1
.C^oCl ' 1.51850
.CK->6
1.4UJJ9 1
.70.,r9
1.40'-S7
3:^
23
.63121
1.57G.0
.C^S>5 1.51754 .6S4:w;»
1.40137
.710a
I.41.UK)
37
24
.63162
1.57675
.65033 1.51C.-i8 .
.68471
1.40046 ;
.7Ki<:6
1.40714
30
25
.635C3
1.574T4
: .65SS0 1.515C2
.0S511
1.450.'i5 ;
.71110
1.40»;27
35
25
.63514
1.573T2
.66021
1.6l4r» .
.08557
1.45:01 !
.71151
1.4U"10
•:4
27 .63581
\.h"i:i\
.660C3
1.51870
.68000
1.45ii'3 '
.7ir.Pi
1.40:.-4
3:1
2) .63625
1.5n70
.66105
1.51275
.68012
1.450-^2
.7ic:}2
1.40:.:;7
32
29
.63006
1.670C9
.66147
1.51179
.m>h
1.45.v:r2
.712-5
1.4^2^1 '31
ao|
.63707
1.56969
.661S9
1.510c4 ;
.^I'A
1.455U1
.71329
1.40105 "30
1
81
.63718
1.56868
.66230
i.soaas
.68771 ' 1.4*^110
\ .71373
1.40109 20
32
.63789
1.5STC7
.00272
1.50SI*3
.f-^U : 1.45:,.'0
! .71417
1.4'i:r« 'O'i
83
.63830
1.5o007
.00314
l.D£r797 :
.OS857 ; 1.4.-; J ;9 .
.71401
1.80036 27
81 .63071
1.56566
.CC3::6
1.50702
.CS900 . 1.45!:;3 :
.7151)5
l.S0!OC :2*^.
85 .63912
1.56406
.60308
1.5«3C-/7
.0=^342 1 1.45049
.715 J9 1.80701 25
86 .63L53
1.5C3G6
.66140 ■ 1.50:^12 ; .CS0S5 ' 1.4;'.:.S 1
.71503 1.89C79 .21
87 .C39'J1
1.56265
.661S2
1.50417! .C9028 1.4'l=';S ;
.71637 1.89:03 23
8rt .61085
1.56105
.60524
1.50322 .«'>j71 1.44773!
.71081 ' 1.805"7 22
89 .61076
1.500G5
.60506
1.60223 ; .rolU 1.44C^S
.n725 1.89 ni 21
40 .6ai7
1.559C6
.66608
1.50133 i .(^157 1.44598 :
.71769 1.393:;6 :-^
41 .61158
1.55866
.666.')0
1.50038 ' .09200' 1.44508
.71P13 ; 1.39250 'l9
\Ai\ .e4JiH>
1.557W
.60092
1.4JJ44 .«.j0;3 i 1.44413
.71?.-.7
1.8..: ;5 1 ;
43
.61:^0 1.55CW
. Xf-jt '-4
1.4aS49 .Uj2o6 1.44:^:9
1.49^55 .Cj3i9 1.4i2:^
1.49601 .69372 1.4!Ii9 '
.710 :l
1.30 :9 17
44
.6J281 1.55567
.66776
.':i:.46
1.3. 04 10
45
.6i:jii 1.SM67
.66818
.71000
1.3S0U0 1.-
46
.OldGS 1.5986^
. .Oi-CO
1.49566 = .09116 \AV/A
.7-a:.M ■ 1.3->.^4 11
47
.64404 1.5SSG3
.6akl2
1.4:^72 . .ei^;59 i.4p%ro
.7JJ78 l..'i:7:;S IC
43
.64446 1 1.55irj
.6C:^ i 1.4&G73 «! .005.-2 1.43& 1
.72122 l.?J^.-J 1:
49
.61487
1.55071
.er;:;j5 ! 1.49171 : .6X-i5 . 1.4.'?n'2
.72107 1.3'.-. S 11
50
.04538
1.54972
.6r0t23 1.49190 '• .695>)8 X.A^r,^
.72211 1. ;:>;>! u
51
.61509 1 1.54873
.67071 1.49097 | .69^31 1.4CC11
.7225.5 1.3S.r9 9
52
.64010
1.&4774
.67113 1.4>yj3
.€:..; 5 1.4:i:.:5
.72i:/J 1.3SJ11 f=
53
.64052
1 5JC75
.671.5 1.4:i;9
.607:8 i.4;;;-5
.72311 1.3---. J 7
;>i
.61003
l.r^J576
.671 W 1.48.3:6
.60; 01 i.4.>i;7
.72;--J 1.3^145 6
ns
.647^
1.514:3
.67;,i9 1.4-722 - .Cf^- 4 1.4oi.S
. .721':2 i 1.3SC-» 5
56
• .647^5
i.5ij:9
.67::r3 \A:^?J!i 1 .c:.;7 1.4;: .3
.721:7 ; l.:i7:.:'3 4
57
' .64817 : 1.51iSl
.6r.J4 1.4S536 ' .e: 1 1.43 ■)
.72: .1 ' 1.37fe:i 3
.^e
\ .61858
1.541S3
.67J36 1.4S«2
.f/y^i i.4;<>2
.?i: 5 i.37¥«>r 2
.72C:0 : 1.37722 1
.72?;-.! 1 .37cr;s 0
Cotacg] Ting
ES
» .64SII0
1.51035
.67416 1.4«'^9
.Uw 1 7 1 .-x^-- -3
'6C
» .64941
1.589B6
.67451 1.4^j6
.7aei 1.4715
1 f
Cotaogt Tang
1 Cotcn^ 1 Tacg
C^L-a.;: T^EiJ
w
Vf
:
65'
\
34-
_J
118
N.-iTURAl, TAXOKNTS AND COTANGENTS.
36«
Tang I C()t:irijf
0
1
2
3
41
«!
I
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15:
IG
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24:
25!
26
28;
29'
30'
32
33
31
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
15
46
47
48
49
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
/ I
.72654 .
.72699 '
.72713
87=;
Tang I Cotoiig
880
rsj
.72832
.72877
.72921 :
.?^f66
.7:U)10
.7:i055
.73100
.73144
.'.•:J189
.7:fcJ:«
.7;J278
.73323
.73368
.73413
.78457 I
."3502
.V8W7
.7S602
.730:57
.73681
.78?^
.78771
.78816
.78801
.73906
.73ir)l
.78996
311 .74041
.74086
.74131
.74176
.74221
.742()7
.74312
.T4357
.74409
.74447
.74498
.745:« i
.74.')83 ,
.7«528
.74074 I
.74719
.747M
.74810
.74856
50 .74900
.74946
.71991
.75037 :
.75082
.75128
.75173
.75219
.75264
.75310
.75355
Cotang
.a76:J8
.87554
.37470
.S7m\
.37302
.37218
.37134
.37050
.361V>7
.368Ki
.36800
.36716
.366:«
.36549
.mm*
.36383
.36300
.36217
.36134
.36<151
.35968
.35885
.;i")802
.35719
.35637
.35554
.35472
.35389
.35307
.3522-4
.35142
.35060
.;MU78
.34896
.34814
.S-1732
.34650
.34568
.^4487
.34405
.34323
.a4242
.34160
.a4079
.33998
.33916
.33835
.33754
.3:JG73
.335:12
.33511
.33430
.333-49
.33268
.83187
.331f>7
.a'KW6
.32{>I6
.32S('»5
.327^:-)
.32704
Tang Cotang
.75:«5
.75401
.75447
.75492
.75538
.75584
.75(K9
.75721
.75767
.75812
.75a58
.75904
.75930
.75996
.76042
.76088
.76134
.76180
.76226
.76272
.76318
.76364
.76410
.76456
.76502
.7^548
.76594
.76640
.76686
.76738
.76779
.76825
.76871
.76918
.76964
.77010
.77057
.77108
.77149
.77196
.77242
.7W89
.77335
.77382
.77428
.7r475
.77
.776(
.77615
.77661
.77708
.777M
.77801
.77}'48
.7:"!J5
.77941
.779H8
.78a-J5
.78082
.78129
'^'^521
,«r608
.32704
..')24(U
.:J2384
..•12:W4
.:)2224
.321-44
..*J20l>4
.31(K4
.31904
.31825
.31745
.31666
.31586
.31507
.31427
.31348
.3123)9
.31190
.31110
.81031
.30J).-2
.30873
.30795
.80716
.30637
.30558
.30480
.30401
.80323
.80344
.30166
.300.^7
.30009
.29931
.29853
.2U775
.2:»U96
.29<J18
.29541
.29463
.29385
.29307
.29229
.29152
.29074
.28997
.28919
.28842
.28764
.286S7
.2h'C10
.2^T>•«
.2S4.')6
.28:rr9
.2H:W)2
.2:-^.»25
.2X148
.2H)71
Tang
Tang
.78129
.78175
.7««2
.78a(i9
.7X316
.78363
.78410
.78457
.78698
.786^46
.78692
.78739
.78786
.78834
.78881
.78928
.78975
.79022
.79070
.79117
.791W
.79212
.79259
.79306
.798M
.79401
.79449
.79-196
.79544
.79591
.796:)9
.70() 6
.79734
.79781
.798J9
.79877
.79924
.79972
.80020
.80067
.80115
.80163
.80211
.80S58
.80306
.80354
.80402
.80ir)0
.80498
.8rK>46
.8051)4
.80612
.806<i0
.8(rT;M
.807 H6
.WK^4
.80882
.809:k)
.80978^
Cotaug'
63«
62<
61
J»
89» 1
Cotang
. Tang
.80978
Cotang
1.2;9St4
1.23490
1.27917
.81027
1.23416
1.27841 ;
' .81075
1.23^43
1.2776^4 1
.81123
1.28270
1.27688
.81171
1.23196
1.27611
.81220
1.83123
1.27535
.81868
1.88l%J0
1 .27458
.81316
i.assm
1.273S2 !
.simi
l.:S9()4
1.27306
.81413
1.23H81
1.27260
.81461
1.887^
1.27153
.81510
1.88685
1.27077
.81558
1.82612
1.27001
.81606
. 1.8S539
1.26925
.81656
1.88467
1.26A49
.817T)3
1.88801
1.267r4
.81758
1.88821
1.26698
.81800
1.22819
1.26622
.81&49
1.88176
1.26546
.81898
1.88104
1.26171
.81M6
1.88U81
1.C6395
.81995
l.SlflSO
1.26319
.82044
1.81H86
1.26244
.88098
1.81814
1.26169
.88141
1.81748
1.26093
.88190
1.81070
1.26018
.88288
1.81698
l.l^WS .
.88287
1.81588
1.25867
.82836
1.81464
1.25792
.82385
1.818K2
1.25717
.88131
I.8I81O
1.25(M2
.8848S
1.81288
1.25567
.88531
1.81166
1.25492
.88b80
1.810O1
1.25417
.68629
1.21088
1.25343
.88678
1.80051
1.25268
.88727
1.80879
1.25193 :
.88776
1.80608
1.25118
.82885
1.80738
1.25044
.88874
1.80065
1.24969
.88983
1.80BB8
1.^4895
.88978
1.80688
1.2^4820
.89028
1.80151
1.1U746
.88071
1.80879
1.^46?^
.88120
1.80808
1.84597
.88160
1.80887
1.84528
.88818
1.80168
l.»4440
.88868
1.90006
1.W875
.88317
1.80081
1.84301
.88866
1.10053
1.24227
.88416
1.19688
1.84168
.88406
1.19811
1.84079 :
.83514
1.19M0
1.84005 ■
.88561
1.19089
1.83931
.88613
1.19609
1.23858
.88668
1.19688
1.23784
.88718
1.19467
1.23710
.88761
1.19887
1.23637
.88811
1.19S18
1.23563
.88880
1.19816
1.23490
.8sno
1.19177S
Tang
Ootang
Tuig
i
»•
NATURAL TANGKNTS ANB OOTANOKNTS.
aog
Cobine
INIO
"■liiro":"
MOOD
»0»
;is
mM
uaxt
.tfwn
tmr
. 8014
axa
. »m
S
'. 135
' -9R6
M3W
. -BIB
(I8GG
, -ws
l-TTT
ueu
.1-708
ttOOB
.103S 1
15(67
.lOUB
:i-S61
j^
:S
;jK!K
.nsi
jMW
.l-WB
»15B
.ITOIO
UGOS
)!»t5B
iwMB
ffiom
.1ft 09
OtiUO
eToi
s
: 6S.T5
!59SS
- 8329
amis
MISS
: ma
3(UIS
. sger
soaiT
. soia
3a31H
M3S8
■.Isjm'
B0119
SUTO
BGOSl
6^73
'.iss:i
.I530S
.15340
essm
! 15104
maa
.isro?
Mag
Ting
.euMO '
.Bnss I
,HT1W I
.BT3W
.«7a88
■ffrase
.87441
.B74B3
.87RIS
.B;6!»
.STWS
.BTSW
.B7749
.B7801
.B7E66 I
.eaooT
!»uii}
,sai<»
.turn
isMIT
.R«»4
.saaaa
'.ssiua
.SWltf
.tliUI»
I Tanit
r .MWO" "
.WlOU) ;
!w)TS7 I
.own: '
■tKWM ■
.DIW7
' .flOOW ■
. .90993
[ .vimii '
' .SUM
.a9RS4
.OWTO
_.09JOI1
l.OUUI:!
l.WU>»
1.0II5I4
.9I01S
iflim
.91180
.91335
.91290
.MOTU I
.M131 , ,
.IMffiO I
.wi«a :
1 !US1J3
.05139 I SI
..C6SItS»
t.OS:£S!^
t!o5iia .^
i.oaoTS a-
i.onos I
l!lU5H3 I
1.042:9 I
l.OlilS 1
1.G41SH I
I7T3S I !•
ITGTO I .1
120 NATURAL TANGENTS AND COTANGENTS.
PART II.
Strength of Materials, and Stability of
Structures.
UTTRODUCnON.
the chapters constituting this part of the book, the author
ideavored to present to architects and builders handy and
e rules and tables for determining the strength or stability of
ece of work they may have in hand. Every pains has been
to present the rules in the simplest form consistent with
accuracy; and it is believed that all constants and theories
ced are fully up to the knowledge of the present day, some
! constants on transverse strength having but recently been
lined. The rules for wrought-iron columns have lately been
y changed by some engineers; but as the question of the
th of wrought-iron columns has not yet been satisfactorily
I, and as the formulas herein given undoubtedly err on the
ide if at all, we have thought best not to change them, espe-
as they are still used by many bridge engineers.
question of the wind-pressure on roofs has not been taken
as thorough manner as would be needed for pitch roofs of
Teat span ; but for ordinary wooden roofs, and iron roofs not
ling one hundred feet span, the method given in Chap.
I. is sufficiently accurate.
r one wishing to study the most accurate method of obtaining
feet of the wind-pressure on roofs will find it in Professor
's excellent work on " Graphical Analysis of Roof Trusses."
©nclusion, the author recommends these chapters as present-
icurate and modern rules, especially adapted to the require-
of American practice.
EXPLANATION OF SIGNS AND TERMS USED IN
THE FOLLOTVING FORMULAS.
Besides the usual arithmetical signs and characters in general
use, the following characters and abbreviations will frequently be
used : —
The sign y^ means square root of number behind.
^ means cube root of number beliind.
( ) means that all the numbers between are to be
taken as one quantity,
means decimal parts; 2.5 = 2t^, or .46 = iVo.
The letter A denotes the co-efficient of strength for beams one
inch square, and one foot between the supports.
C denotes resistance, in pounds, of a block of any
material to crushing, per square inch of section.
E denotes the modulus of elasticity of any material,
in pounds per square inch,
e denotes constant for stiffness of beams.
F denotes resistance of any material to shearing, per
square inch.
B denotes the modulus of rupture of any material.
aS denotes a factor of safety.
T denotes resistance of any material to being pulled
apart, in pounds, per square inch of cross-section.
Breadth is used to denote the least side of a rectangular piece,
and is always measured in inches.
Depth denotes the vertical height of a beam or girder, and is
always to be taken in inches, unless expressly stated otherwise.
LetKjth denotes the distance between supports in feetf unless
otlu*rwis(» specified.
Abbreviations. — In order to shorten the formulas, it has
()ft(Mi been found necessary to use cerUin abbreviations; such as
bet. Tor Ix'twiMjn, hot. for bottom, dist. for distance, diam. for
diaimtcr, lior. tor horizontal, scj. for square, etc., which, however,
can in no cast' Wiul to uncertainty as to their meaning.
Wli( IV tlie word "ton" is used in this volume, it always means
2(M)0 pounds.
CHAPTER T.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN MECHANICS.
The following terms frequently occur in treating of mechanical
construction, and it is essential that their meaning be well under-
stood.
Mechanics is the science which treats of the action of forces.
Applied Mechanics treats of the laws of mechanics which
relate to works of human art ; such as beams, trusses, arches, etc.
Rest is the relation between two points, when the straight line
joining them does not change in length or direction.
A body is at rest relatively to a point, when any point in the
body is at rest relatively to the first-mentioned point.
Motion is the relation between two points, when the straight
line Joining them changes in length or direction, or in both.
A body moves relatively to a point, when any point in the body
moves relatively to the point first mentioned.
Force is that which changes, or tends to change, the state of a
body in reference to rest or motion. It is a cause regarding the
essential nature of which we are ignorant. We cannot deal with
forces properly, but only with the laws of their action.
Kqiiilibrium is that condition of a body in which the forces
acting upon it balance or neutralize each other.
Statics is that part of Applied Mechanics which treats of the
conditions of equilibrium, and is divided into: —
a. Statics of rigid bodies.
6. Hydrostatics.
In building we have to deal only with the former.
Structures are artificial constnictions in which all the parts
are intended to be in«equilibrium and at rest, as in the case of a
bridge or roof-truss.
They consist of two or more solid bodies, called pieces, which
are connected at portions of their surfaces called joints.
There are three conditions of equilibrium in a structure; viz. : —
I. The forces exerted on the whole structure must balance each
other. These forces are: —
a. The weight of the structure.
h. The load it carries.
126 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
c. The supporting pressures, or resistance of the foundation?,
called external forces.
II. The forces exerted on each piece must balance each other.
These forces are: —
rt. The weight of the piece.
b. The load it carries.
c. The resistance of its joints.
III. The forces exerted on each of the parts into which any
piece may be supposed to be divided must balance each other.
Stability consists in the fulfilment of conditions I. and II.,
that is, the ability of the structure to resist displacement of its
parts.
Streng'th consists in the fulfilment of condition III., that is,
the ability of a piece to resist breaking.
Stiffness consists in the ability of a piece to resist bending.
The theory of structures is divided into two parts; viz. : —
I. That which treats of strength and stiffness, dealing only with
single pieces, and generally known as strength of liiaterialH*
II. That which treats of stability, dealing with structures.
Stress. — The load or system of forces acting on any piece of
material is often denoted by the term " stress,'* and the word will
be so used in the following pages.
The i)} tensity of the stress per square inch on any normal sur-
face of a solid is the total stress divided by the area of the section
in square inches. Thus, if we had a bar ten feet long and two
inches square, with a load of 8000 poimds pulling in the direction
of its length, the stress on any normal section of the rod would be
8000 pounds ; and the intensity of the stress per square inch would
be 80{K) -f 4, or 2000 pounds.
Strain. — When a solid body is subjected to any kind of stress,
an alteration is produced in the volume and figure of the body, and
this alteration is called the ** strain." In the case of the bar given
al)ovo, the strain would be the amount that the bar would stretch
under its load.
The Ultimate Stronprth, or Breaking: Load, of a body
is the load riHiuircd to prothK-e fracture in some specified way.
The Safe Load is the load that a piece can support without
impairing: its strciii^tii.
Factors of Safety. — When not otherwise specified, & factor
of safety means the ratio in which the breaking load exceeds the
safe load. In designing a i)i{^ce of material to sustain a certain
load, it is required that it shall be perfectly safe under all circum-
stances; and henc(^ ii. is necessary to make an allowance for any
defects in the material, workmanship, etc. It is obviona, that, for
USED IN MECHANICS. 127
Is of different composition, different factors of safety will
ired. Thus, iron being more homogeneous than wood, and
»le to defects, it does not require so great a factor of safety,
^in, different kinds of strains require difiPerent factors of
Thus, a long wooden column or strut requires a greater
»f safety than a wooden beam. As the factors thus vary
irent kinds of strains and materials, we will give the proper
of safety for the different strains when considering the
ce of the material to those strains.
iiiction between Dead and Live liOad. — The
dead load," as used in mechanics, means a load that is ap-
j imperceptible degrees, and that remains steady; such as
3;ht of the structure itself.
ive load '' is one that is applied suddenly, or accompanied
.brations; such as swift trains travelling over a railway-
or a force exerted in a moving machine.
\ been found by experience, that the effect of a live load on
or other piece of material is twice as severe as that of a
id of the same weight: hence a piece of material designed
r a live load should have a factor of safety twice as large
lesigned to carry a dead load.
load produced by a crowd of people walking on a floor is
considered to produce an effect which is a mean between
a dead and live load, and a factor of safety is adopted
modulus of Rupture is a constant quantity found in
aulas for strength of iron beams, and is eighteen times the
: the constant " A."
ulus of Elasticity. — If we take a bar of any elastic
1, one inch square, and of any length, secured at one end,
he other apply a force pulling in the direction of its length,
i find by careful measurement that the bar has been stretched
;ated by the action of the force.
if we divide the total elongation in inches by the original
)f the bar in inches, we shall have the elongation of the bar
b of length; and, if we divide the pulling-forre per square
this latter quantity, we shall have what is known as the
s of elasticity.
e we may define the hkkIhIiis of fUintirUij an the pullinfj or
uiing force per unit of .'section divided by the elongation
iresnion i)er unit of Unfjth.
\ example of the method of determining the modulus of
y of any, material, we v^ill take the following: —
)8e we have a bar of wroiight-iron, two inches square and
ten feet long, securely fastened at one end, and to the other end
we apply a pulling-force of 40,000 pounds. This force causes the
bar to stretch, and by careful measurement we find the elongation
to be 0.0414 of an inch. Now, as the bar is ten feet, or 120 inches,
long, if we divide 0.0414 by 120, we shall have the elongation of the
bar per unit of length.
Perfonning this operation, we have as the result 0.00034 of an
inch. As the bar is two inches square, the area of cross-section
is four s(iuare inches, and hence the pulling-force per square inch
is 10,000 pounds. Then, dividing 10,000 by 0.00084, we have as the
modulus of elasticity of the bar 29,400,000 pounds.
This is the method generally employed to determine the modulus
of elasticity of iron ties; but it can also be obtained from the
deflection of beams, and it is in that way that the values of the
modulus for most woods have been foiuid.
Another definition of the modulus of elasticity, and which is a
natural consequence of the one just given, is the number of
pounds that would be required to stretch or shorten a bar one inch
square by an amount equal to its length, provided that the law of
pei-fect elasticity would hold good for so great a range. The mod-
uhis of elasticity is generally denoted by E, and is used in the
detomiination of the stiffness of beams.
Moment. — If we take any solid body, and pivot it at any
point, and apply a force to the body, acting in any direction
except in a line with the pivot, we shall produce rotation of the
body, provided the force is sufficiently strong. This rotation is
produced by what is called the moment of the force; and the
moment of a force about any given point or pivot is the product
of the force into the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the
lin(i of action of the force, or,an common phrase, the product cf
the force into the arm with which it acta.
The Centre of Gravity of a body is the point through
which tlie resultant of the weight of the body always acts, no mat-
ter in what, position the body be. If a body be suspended at its
centre of tjjravity, and revolved In any direction, it will always be
in e<iuilihriinn.
(For centre of gravity of surfaces, lines, and soliils, see Chap. IV.)
CLASSIFJCATION OF STRAINS. 120
CI.A88IFICATION OF STRAINS WHICH MAT BE
PRODUCED IN A SOLID BOD7.
The dififerent strains to which building-materials may be exposed
are: —
I. Tension, as in the case of a weight suspended from one end
of a rod, rope, tie-bar, eta; the other end being fixed, tending to
stretch or lengthen the fibres.
II. Shearing Strain^ as in the case of treenails, pins in
bridges, etc., where equal forces are applied on opposite sides in
such a manner as to tend to force one part over the adjacent one.
III. Conipressiony as in the case of a weight resting on top
of a column or post, tending to compress the fibres.
IV. Transversa or Cross Strain, as in the case of a load
on a beam, tending to bend it.
V. Torsion, a twisting strain, which seldom occurs in build-
ing-construction, though quite frequently in machinery.
130 FOUNDATIONS.
CHAPTER n.
FOUNDATIONS.
The following chapter on Foundations is intended to furnish
the reader with only a general knowledge of the subject, and to
enable him to be sure that he is within the limits of safety if he
follows what is here given. For foundations of large works, or
buildings upon soil of questionable firmness, the compressibility of
the soil should be determined by experiments.
The term ^'foundation" is used to designate all that portion of
any structure which serves only as a basis on which to erect the
superstructure.
This term is sometimes applied to that portion of the solid mate-
rial of the earth upon which the structure rests, and also to the
artificial arrangements which may be made to support the base.
In the following pages these will be designated by the term
" foundation-bed."
Object of Foundations.— The object to be obtained in the
construction of any foundation is to form such a solid base for the
superstructure that no movement shall take place after its erection.
But all structures built of coarse masonry, whether of stone, or
brick, will settle to a certain extent; and, with a few exceptions,
all soils will become compressed under the weight of almost any
building.
Our main object, therefore, is not to prevent settlement entirely,
but to insure that it shall be uniform ; so that, after the structure is
finished, it will have no cnacks or flaws, however irregularly it may
be disposed over the aroa of its site.
Foundations Classed. — Foundations maybe divided into
two classes : —
Class I. — Foundations constructed in situations where the
natural soil is sufficienthj flnn to bear the weight of the intended
structure.
Class II. — Foundations in situations where an artyicicU bear^
ing-stratum must be formed, in consequence of the 9rftne89 or
looseness of the soil.
FOUNDATIONS. 131
Each of these two great classes may be subdivided into two
divisions: —
a. Foundations in situations wliere water offers no impediment
to the execution of the work.
6. Foundations under water.
It is seldom that architects design buildings whose foundations
are under water; and, as this division of the subject enters rather
deeply into the science of engineering, we shall not discuss it here.
Boringf. — Before we can decide wliat kind of foundation it
will be necessary to build, we must know the nature of the subsoil.
If not already known, this is deterininetl,* ordinarily, by digging a
trench, or making a pit, close to the site of the proposed works, to
a depth sufficient to allow the different strata to be seen.
For important structures, the nature of the subsoil is often de-
termined by boring with the tools usually employed for this pur-
pose. When this method is employed, the different kinds and
thickness of the strata are determined by examining the speci-
mens brought up by the auger used in boring.
Foundations of tlie First Class.— -The foundations in-
cluded under this class may be divided into two cases, according to
the different kinds of soil on which the foundation is to be built : —%
Case I. — Foundations on soil composed of mateiHals whose
stability is not aff^cteA by saturation with water, and which are
firm enough to support the weight of the structure.
Under this case belong, —
Foundations on Rock. — To prepare a rock foundation for being
bfuilt upon, all that is generally required is to cut away the loose
and decayed portions of the rock, and to dress the rock to a plane
surfsice as nearly perpendicular to the direction of the pressure as
is practicable; or, if the rock forms an inclined plane, to cut a
series of plane surfaces, like those of steps, for the wall to rest on.
If there are any fissures in the rock, they should be filled with con-
crete or rubble masonry. Concrete is better for this purpose, as,
when once set, it is nearly incompressible under any thing short of
a crushing-force; so that it forms a base almost as solid as the
rock itself, while the compression of the mortar joints of the
masonry is certain to cause some irregular settlement.
If it is unavoidably necessary that some parts of the foundation
shall start from a lower level than others, care should be taken to
keep the mortar Joints as close as possible, or to execute the lower
portions of the work in cement, or some hard-setting mortar: other-
wise the foundations will settle unequally, and thus cause much
injury to the superstructure. The load placed on the rock should
at no time exceed one-eighth of that necessary to crush it. Pro'
132 FOUNDATIONS.
fessor Rankine gives the following examples of the actual intensity
of the pressure per square foot on some existing rock founda-
tions:—
Average of ordinary cases, the rock being at least as strong
as the strongest reil bricks 2000(;
Pressures at tlie base of St. KoIIox chimney (450 feet below
the summit)
On a layer of strong concrete or beton, 6 feet deep .... 0070
On sandstone below the beton, so soft that it crumbles in the
hand 4000
The last example sliows the pressure which is safely borne in
practice by one of the weakest substances to which the name of
rock can be applied.
M. Jules Graudard, C.E., states, that, on a rocky ground, the
Roquefavour aqueduct exerts a pressure of 26,800 pounds to the
square foot. A bed of solid rock is unyielding, and appears at first
sight to offer all the advantages of a secure foundation. It is gen-
erally found in practice, however, that, in lai^ge buildings^ part of
the fowidations will not rest on the rock, but on the adjacent soil;
and as the soil, of whatever material it may be composed, is sure to
be compressed somewhat, irregular settlement will almost invariably
take place, and give much trouble. The only remedy in such a case
is to make the bed for the foundation resting on the soil as firm as
possible, and lay the wall, to the level of the rock, in cement or
hard-setting mortar.
Foundation on Compact Stony Earths, such as Graieel or Sand.
— Strong gravel may be considered as one of the best soils to build
upon ; as it is almost incompressible, is not affected by exposure to
the atmosphere, and is easily levelled.
Sand is also almost incompressible, and forms an excellent foun-
dation as long as it can be kept from escaping; but as it has no
cohesion, and acts like a fluid when exposed to running water, it
should be treated with great caution.
The foundation bed in soils of this kind is prepared by digging a
trench from four to six feet deep, so that the foundation may be
started below the reacli of the disintegrating effects of frost.
The bottom of the trench is levelled ; and, if parts of it are required
to be at different levels, it is broken into steps.
Care shoulil l)e taken to keep the surface-water from running into
the trench; and, if necessary, drains should be made at the bottom
to carry away the water.
The weight resting on the bottom of the trench should be pro*
portional to the resistance of the material forming the bed.
FOUNDATIONS. 133
Mr. Gaudard says that a load of 10,500 to 18,300 pounds per
square foot has been put upon close sand in tlie foundations of
Gorai Bridge, and on gravel in the Lock Ken Viaduct at Bordeaux.
In the bridge at Nantes, there is a load of 15,200 pounds to the
square foot on sand; but some settlement has already taken place.
Ilankine gives the greatest intensity of pressure on foundations
in firm earth at from 2500 to 3500 pounds per square foot
In order to distribute the pressure arising from the weight of the
structure over a greater surface, it is usual to give additional breadth
to the foundation courses: this increase of breadth is called the
spread. In compact, strong earth, the spread is made one and a
half times the thickness of the wall, and, in ordinary earth or sand,
twice that thickness.
Case II. — Foundations on soils firm enough to support the
weight of the strtictiire, but whose fttaMUty l8 affected by water.
The principal soil imder this class, with which we have to do, is
a clay soil.
In this soil the bed is prepared by digging a trench, as in rocky
soils; and the foundation must be sure to start below the frost-line,
for the effect of frost in clay soils is very great.
The soil is also much affected by the action of water; and hence
the ground should be well drained before the work is begun, and
the trenches so arranged that the water shall not remain in them.
And, in general, the less a soil of this kind is exposed to the air and
weather, and the sooner it is protected from exposure, the better for
the work. In building on a clay bank, great caution should be used
to secure thorough drainage, that the clay may not have a tendency
to slide daring wet weather.
The safe load for stiff clay and marl is given by Mr. Gaudard at
from 5500 to 11,000 pounds per square foot. Under the cylindrical
piers of the Szegedin Bridge in Hungary, the soil, consisting of
clay intermixed with fine sand, bears a load of 13,300 pounds to
the square foot; but it was deemed expedient to increase its sup-
porting power by driving some piles in the interior of the cylinder,
and also to protect the cylinder by sheeting outside.
Mr. McAlpine, M. Inst. C.E., in building a high wall at Albany,
N.Y., succeeded in safely loading a wet clay soil with two tons to
the square foot, but with a settlement depending on the depth of
the excavation. In order to prevent a great influx of water, and
consequent softening of the soil, he surrounded the excavation
with a puddle trench ten feet high and four feet wide, and he also
spread a layer of coarse gravel on the bottom.
Foundations in Soft Eurths. — There are three materials in gen-
eral use for forming an aitificial bearing-stratum in soft soils.
134 FOUNDATIONS.
Whichever material is employed, the bed is first prepared by ezca^
vating a trench sufficiently deep to place the foundation-courses
below the action of frost and rain. Great caution should be used
in cases of this kind to prevent unequal settling.
The bottom of the trench is made level, and covered with a bed
of stones, sand, or concrete.
Stones. — When stone is used, the bottom of the trench should
In; paved with rubble or cobble stones, well settled in place by
ramming. On this paving, a bed of concrete is then laid.
Sand. — In all situations where the ground, although soft, is of
sufficient consistency to confine the sand, this material may be used
with many advantages as regards both the cost and the stability of
the work. The quality which sand possesses, of distributing the
pressure put upon it, in both a horizontal and vertical direction,
makes it especially valuable for a foundation bed in this kind of
soil; as the lateral pressure exerted against the sides of the founda-
tion pit greatly relieves the bottom.
There are two methods of using sand; viz., in layers and as piles.
In fonning a stratum of sand, it is spread in layers of about nine
inches in thickness, and each layer well rammed before the next
one is spread. The total depth of sand used should be sufficient
to admit of the pressiu^ on the upper surface of the sand being
distributed over the entire bottom of the trench.
Sand-piling is a very economical and efficient method of forming
a foundation under some circumstances. It would not, however,
be effective in very loose, wet soils; as the sand would work into
the surrounding ground.
Sand-piling is executed by making holes in the soil, or in the
bottom of the trench, about six or seven inches in diameter, and
about six feet deep, and filling them with damp sand, well rammed
so as to force it into every cavity.
In situations where the stability of piles arises from the pressure
of the ground around them, sand-piles are found of more service
than timber ones, for the reason that the timber-pile transmits
pressure only in a vertical direction, while the sand-pile transmits it
over the whole surface of the hole it fills, thus acting on a large
area of bearing-surface. The ground above the piles should be
covered with planking, concrete, or masonry, to prevent its being
forced up by the lateral pressure exerted by the piles: and, on the
stratum thus formed, the fomidation walls may be built in the usual
manner.
Fouiidatious on Piles. — Where the soil upon which we
wish to build is not firm enough to support the foundation, one
of the most common metliods of fonnhig a solid foundation bed is
FOUNDATIONS. 136
by driving wooden piles into tlie soil, ami placing the foundation
wails upon these.
The piles are generally round, and have a length of ahout twenty
times iheir mean diameter of cross-section. The diameter of the
hcjid varies from nine to eighteen inches. The piles should be
straight grained, and free from knots and ring strokes. Fir, beach,
oak, anil Florida yellow-pine are the best woods for piles; though
spruce and hemlock are very commonly used.
Where piles are exposed to tide-water, they are generally driven
with their bark on. In other cases, it is not essential.
Piles which are driven through hard ground, generally require to
have an iron hoop fixed tightly on their heads to prevent them from
splitting, and also to be shod with iron shoes, either of cast or
wrought iron.
Long piles may be divided into two classes, — those which trans-
mit the load to a firm soil, thus acting as pillars; and those where
the pile and its load are wholly supported by the friction of the
earth on the sides of the pile.
In order to ascertain the safe load which it will do to put upon
a pile of the first class, it is only necessary to calculate the safe
crushing-strength of the wood; but, for piles of the second and
more common class, it is not so easy to determine the maximum
load which they will safely support.
Many writers have endeavored to give rules for calculating the
effect of a given blow in sinking a pile; but investigations of this
kind are of little practical value, because we can never be in pos-
session of sufficient data to obtain even an approximate result.
The effect of each blow on the pile will depend on the momentum
of the blow, the velocity of the ram, the relative weights of the
ram and the pile, the elasticity of the pile-head, and the resistance
offered by the ground through which the pile is passing; and, as
the last-named conditions cannot well be ascertained, any calcula-
tions in which they are only assumed must of necessity Ikj mere
guesses.
I^ad on Piles. — Professor Rankine gives the limits of the
safe load on pilesy based upon practical examples, as follows : —
For piles driveil till they reach the firm ground, 1000 pomids per
square inch of ar^ of head.
For piles standing in soft ground by friction, 200 pounds per
square inch of area of head.
But as, in the latter case, so much depends upon the character of
the soil in which, the piles are driven, such a gcneml rule as the
above is hardly to be reconunended.
Several rules for the bearing-load on piles have been given,
Perhaps tho nile most commonly given is that of Major Sanders,
United-States En«jint;er. He experimented largely at Fort Dela'
ware, and in 1851 gave the following rule as reliable for ordinary
pikMlriving.
Sanders's Rule for determining the load for a common
wooden pile, driven until it sinks through only small and nearly
equal distances under successive blows : —
,, , , , . „ weight of liammer in lbs. X fall in inches
Safe load m lbs. = SXslnkin^t iS^blo^v^
Mr. John C. Trautwine, C.E., in his pocket-book for engineers,
gives a rul(i which appears to agree very well with actual results.
His rule is expressed as follows: —
cube root of weight of x 0 O^.*!
Extreme load in _ fall in feet hammer in Ib:^. "'"^^
tons of 2240 lbs. ~ Last sinking in inches -h 1
For the safe load he recommends that one-half the extreme load
should be taken for i)iles thoroughly driven in firm soils, and one-
fourth when driven in river-mud or marsh.
According to Mr. Trautwine, the French engineers consider a
pile safe for a load of 25 tons when it refuses to sink under a liam-
mer of 1344 pounds falling 4 feet.
The test of a pile having been sufficiently driven, acconling to
the best authorities, is that it shall not sink more than one-fifth of
an incli under thirty blows of a ram weighing 800 pounds, falling
5 f(H>t at each blow.
A more common rule is to consider the pile fully driven wlien it
does not sink more than one-fourth of an inch at the last blow of a
ram weighing 2500 pounds, falling 80 feet.
In ordinary pile-driving for buildings, however, the piles often
sink more than this at the last blow; but, as the piles are seldom
loaded to their full capacity, it is not necessary to be so i)articular as
in tlie foundations of engineering structures. A common practice
witli :ircliitects is to specify the lengih of the piles to be usi»d, and
the ])iles ;in» driven imtil their heads are juat al)Ove ground, and
then left to he levelled off afterwards.
Kxamplo of I^ile Foundation. — As an example of the
ni"thf/!l of di'termining the necessary numl>er of plh»8 to 8up]K)rt
a i:iv«'n building, we will determine tho numlKT of piles nM|ulr«Ml
to MUi)port the sidivwalls of a warehouse (of which a vertical sec-
tlon is shown in Fig. 1). The walls aro of brick, and the weight
may be taken at 110 pounds per cubic foot of masonry.
The piles are to be driven in two rows, two feet on centres; and
It is found that a pile 20 feet long and 10 inches at the top will sink
Fig. 1.
one inch under a 1200-pound hammer falling 20 feet after the pile
has been entirely driven into the soil. What distance should the
piles ba on centres lengthwise of the wall ?
■ 4
138 FOUNDATIONS.
Hy calculation wc find tliat the wall contains 157i^ cubic feet of
masonry per running foot, and hence weiglis 17,306 pounds.
The load from the floors which comes upon the wall is: —
From the first floor 1500 lbs.
From the second floor loSO ll>s.
From the third floor 1380 lbs.
From the fourth floor 790 lbs.
From the fifth floor 720 lbs.
From the sixth floor 720 lbs.
From the roof 240 lbs.
Total 6730 lbs.
Hence the total Ayeight of the wall and its load per running foot is
24,0:56 pounds.
Tlie load which one of the piles will support is, by Sanders's rule,
1200 X 240
— ^^"^7~f — — 36000 pounds.
By Trautwine's rule, using a factor of safety of 2.5, the safe load
would be
(^20 X 1200 X 0.023
— *j 5 X (14-1) ~ ^'^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^'^ pounds), or 33600 pounds.
Then one pair of piles would support 72,000, or 67,200 pounds,
according to which rule we take.
Dividing these numbers by the weight of one foot of the wall
and its load, we find, that, by Sandei-s's rule, one pair of piles will
support 3 feet of the wall, and, by Trautwine's rule, 2.8 feet of wall:
hence the piles should be placed 2 feet 9 inches or 3 feet on centres.
In very heavy buildings, heavy timbers are sometimes bolted to
the tops of the piles, and the foundation walls built on these.
In Boston, Mass., a large part of the city is built upon made
land, and hence the buildings have to be supported by pile founda-
tions. The Building Laws of the city require that all buildings
"exceeding thirty-five feet in height (with pile foundation) shAll
have not less than two rows of piles under all external and party
walls, and the piles shall be spaced not over three feet on centres
in the direction of the length of the wall."
^l.s (m example of the load which ordinary piles in the made
land of Boston will support, it may be stated that the piles under
Trinity ('hurch in Boston support two tons each, approKimately.
For engineering works, various kinds of iron piles are used; baft
they are too rarely used for foundations of buildingB to come
within the scope of this chapter. For a description of these
FOUNDATIONS. 139
le reader should consult some standard work on engineering,
good description of iron piles is given in "Wheeler's Civil
jering," and also in " Trautwine's Handbook."
icrete Foundation Beds. — Concrete is largely used
ndation beds in soft soil, and is a very valuable material for
rpose; as it affords a firm solid bed, and can be spread out
> distribute the pressure over a large area.
;rete is an artificial compound, generally made by mixing
cement with sand, water, and some hard material, as bi*oken
slag, bits of brick, earthenware, burnt clay, shingle, etc.
e is any choice of the materials forming the base of the
:e, the preference should be given to fragments of a some-
K>rous nature, such as pieces of brick or limestone, rather
> those with smooth surfaces. {See page liSa.)
broken material used in the concrete is sometimes, for con-
2e, called the agrjregate, and the mortar in which it is incased,
sitrix. The aggregate is generally broken so as to pass
b a li or 2 inch mesh.
imp ground or imder water, hydraulic lime should of course
I in mixing the concrete.
ingr Concrete. — A very common practice in laying con-
1 to tip the concrete, after mixing, from a height of six or
3et into the trench where it is to be deposited. This process
;ted to by the best authorities, on the ground that the heavy
:ht portions separate while falling, and that the concrete is
•re not uniform throughout its mass.
best method is to wheel the concrete in barrows, immedi-
fter mixing, to the place where it is to be laid, gently tipping
position, and carefully ramming into layers about twelve
thick. After each layer has been allowed to set, it should
pt clean, wetted, and made rough, by means of a pick, for the
yer.
; contractors make the concrete courses the exact width
d, keeping up the sides with boards, if the trench is too
This is a bad practice; for when the sides of the founcla-
;s are carefully trimmed, and tlie concrete rammed up solidly
them, the concrete is less liable to ha crushed and broken
it has entirely consolidated. It is therefore desirable that
K:ifications for concrete work should require that the whole
of the excavation be filled, and that, if the trenches are
ted too wide, the extra amount of concrete be furnished at
itractor's expense.
Tete made with hydraulic lime is sometimes designated as
140 FOUNDATIONS.
The pressure allowed on a concrete bed should not exceed one>
tenth part of its resistance to crushing. Trautwine gives as the
average crushing-strength of concrete forty tons per square foot.
Foiiudations in Compressible SoiL— The great diffi-
cully mot with in fonuing a iinu bed in compressible soils arises
from the nature of the soil, and its yielding in all directions under
pressure. (See page 144.)
There are several methods which have been successfully em-
ployed in soils of this kind.
I. When the compressible material is of a moderate depth, the
excavation is made to extend to the firm soil beneath, and the
fomulation put in, as in firm soils.
The principal objection to this method is the expense, which
would often be very grea.t.
II. A second method is to drive piles through the soft soil into
the tlrm soil beneath. The piles are then cut oif at a given level
and a timber platform laid upon the top of the piles, which serves
as a support for the foundation, and also ties the tops of the piles
together.
III. A modification of the latter method is to use shorter piles^
which are only driven in the compressible soil. The platform is
made to extend over so large an area that the intensity of the press-
ure per square foot is within the safe limits for this particular
soil.
lY. Another modification of the second method consists in
using piles of only five or six inches in diameter, and only five or
six feet long, and placing them as near together as they can be
driven. A platform of timber is tlien placed on the piles, as in the
second metho<l.
Tht^ object of the short piles is to compress the soil, and make it
tirmor. ''This practice is one not to be recommended; its effect
bein<i^ usually to pound up the soil, and to bring it into a state
which can best Xh', described by comparing it to batter-pudding." *
V. Still another method is to surround the site of the work with
shccL-piling (flat piles driven close together, so as to fonn a sheet),
to prcvi>nt the esca^Mi of the soil, which is then consolidated by
driving ]>iles into it at short distunires from each otlier. The piles
are then sawn oft' level, and the ground excavated between them
for two or three feet, and filled up with concrete: the whole is tlien
planked ovt;r to re(!eive the superstructure.
The great point to be attended to in building foundations in soils
of this kind is to distribute the weight of the structui'e equally
1 Dobeon on Fouiidatloiirt.
FOUNDATIONS, 141
over the foundation, wtilcfa will then seLlle In a vertical direction,
and cause little Injui-y; wh^'eas any irregular aettlement would
rend the work from top to bottom.
Planking for Poiinaation Beds.— In erecting buildings
□n soft groimd. where a large briiring-siirface ia required, planking
may be resorted to with great advantage, provided tbo timber can
lie kept from decay. If the ground is wet ami the timber good,
there ia little to fear in thia respect; but in a dry aituatlon, or one
expoaed to alternations of wet and dry, no dependence can be
placed on unprepared timber. There are several methods cm-
ployed for the presei-vation of timber, such as kyanlzing oi' creo-
Mting: and the timber used for fouiidatlona should be trcaleil by
one of these methods.
The advantage of timber Is, tliat it will resist a great cross-strain
with very triOing flexure; and therefore a wide fooling may l>e ob-
tained without any excessive spreailing of the bottom courses of
tbe masonry. The best method of employing planking under walls
is to cut the stuff into short lengths, which should be placctd
acroKS Uie foundation, and tied longitudinally by planking laid to
the width of the bottom course of masonry in tlie direction of the
length of the wail, and firmly spiked to the bottom planking.
Another good method of using planking ia to lay down sleepers
on the ground, and fill to their top with cement, and then place tlie
planking on the level surface thus formed. For the cross'timbers,
four-Inch by six-inch timber, laid flatwise, will answer in ordinary
FouiKlations for Cliimiteys. — As examples of tlie foun-
dations i'ci|uired for very high chimneys, we quote the following
front a treatise on foundations, in the latter part of a work on
"Foundations and Foundation Walls," i»y George T. PowelL
Fig. 2 represents the l>ase of a cliimiiey erected in IfS
Chicago Refining Company, 1.51 feet high, and 12 feet aqm
142 FOUNDATIONS.
SooL Tlic bnse, merely two courses of lieavy dlmeiuloD stone, lu
shown, is bedded upon the aurface^ravel near the mouth of the
rivet, there recently deposited by the lake. The inorUr employeil
In the joint between thu stone Is rooting-gr&vel in cement. The
an'a of the base is '£>!; square feet, the woight of chimney, iDcluslvu
of bnse, 025 tons, giving a pressure of 34 pounds to the square
inirh. This foundation provei! to \x; perfecL
Fig. 3 represents the base of a chimney ereelcil in 1872 for tliii
Hcl'orniick Iteaper Works, Clilcago, which is 160 feet liigh, 14 feet
square at the foot, with a round flue of (t feet 8 inches diameter.
FiB- 3.
The base covers 025 square feet; the weight of the chimney and
base is approximately 1100 tons; the pressure upon the ground
(liry liard clay) ia therefore 24^ |>ouniis to the square inch. This
foundation also proved to be perfect in every respect.
Bftitrinif Power of Soils.
{Added to A'Mli JtlditioH.j
In u imjier publislied in tJiu Ameritmn Arehiteet and BuHdinf
JVVjuw, November 3. 188«, hy J'rof. Ira O. Baker, C.R.. on the
Hearing I'owcr of Soils, iio sums up the resulta of his discussion in
tho following liibli', which t;ivus values which seom to the writer to
be both praclieal anil I'vliablu. The remiirks ((blowing the tBl>lc
should al.so bo cart^fully cnnsidifred.
FOUNDATIONS.
r4b
Kind of Matbbial.
Rock— the hardest— in thick lay^ers, in native bed
Hock equal to best ashlar masonry
Kock equal to best brick masonrj'
Kock equal to poor brick masonry
Clay on thick beds, always dry
Clay on thick beds, moderately dry m
Clay, soft
Gravel and course tiand, well cemented
Sand, compact and well cctmeuted
Sand, clean, dry
Quicksund, alluvial noils, etc
Bearing power in tons
per square foot.
Min.
Max.
200
25
30
15
20
5
10
4
6
2
4
1
2
8
10
4
6
2 1
4
0.5
1
" Conclusion. — It is well to notice that there are some practical
considerations which modjiy the pressure which may safely be put
upon the soil. For example, the pressure on the foundation of a
tall chimney should be considerably less than that of the low mas-
sive foundation of a fireproof vault. In the former case a slight
inequality of bearing power, and consequent unequal settling,
might endanger the stability of the structure; while in the latter
no serious harm would result. The pressure per unit of area
should be less for a light structure subject to the passage of heavy
loads— as, for example, a railroad viaduct — than for a heavy struct-
ure, subject only to a quiescent load, since the shock and jar of
the moving load are far more serious than the heavier quiescent
load."
The following list of actual known weight on different soils will
give a very good idea of what has been done in actual practice.
Rock. — St. Rollox chimney, poorest kind of sandstone, 2 tons
per square foot.
Clay. — Chimney, McCormick Reaper Works, Chicago, 1^ tons
per square foot on dry, hard clay.
Capitol at Albany, N. Y., rests on blue clay containing from GO
to 90 per cent, of alumina, the remainder being fino sand, and con-
taining 40 per cent, of water on an average. The safe load was
taken at 2 tons per square foot.
In the case of the Congressional Library at Washington, which
rests on "yellow clay mixed with sand," 2^ tons per square foot
was taken Tor the safe load, ** Experience in Central Illinois shows
that if the foundation is carried down below the action of the frost
the clay subsoil will bear 1^ to 2 tons per square foot without ap-
preciable settling. " *
* In O. Baker, Amerkan Architect, November 8, 1888.
144 FOUNDATIONS.
Sand and Gravel. — "In an experiment in Finance, eiean
river sand, compacted in a trench, supported 100 tons per sqaare
foot.
** The p'.ers of the Cincinnati suspension bridge are founded on a
bed of coarse gravel 12 feet below water; the maximum pressure on
the gravel is 4 tons per square foot.
*'Thc piers of the Brooklyn suspension bridge are founded 44
feet below the bed of the river, upon a layer of sand 2 feet thick
resting upon bed-rock ; the maximum pressure is about 5^ tons
per square foot.
** At Chicago, sand and gra,vel about 15 feet below the sarfaoe
are successfully loaded with 2 to 2.V tons per square foot.
'* At Berlin the safe load for sandy soil is generally taken at 2
to 2^ tons per square foot.
" The Washington Monument, Washington, D. C, rests upon a
bed of very fine sand 2 feet thick. The ordinary pressure on cer-
tain parts of the foundation i^eing not far from 11 tons per square
foot, which the wind may increase to nearly 14 tons per square
foot."*
Foundations on Soft, Yielding Soil, BuUt of Steel
Seams and Concrete. — On page 141 is described the method
of planking for foundations, wliich does very well where the timber
is sure to bo always wot, but, if there is any chance of its ever
becoming dry, iron or steel beams should be used instead. Steel
rails were first used embedded in concrete, but they oflfer, however,
comparatively little resistance to deflection, and for this reason, if
allowed to project beyond the masonry to any considerable length,
the concrete filling is liable to crack, and thus the strength of the
foundation become impaired.
Steel I-beams, more recently used for this purpose, are found
to be superior in every respect. A greater depth can be adopted,
the deflection thus reduced to a minimum and a sufficient saving
effected to more than compensate for their additional cost per
pound.
The foundation should be prepart-d (see illustration, p. 146) by
first laying ji bed of concrete to a depth of from 4 to 1*3 inches and
then placing upon this a row of I-beams at right angles to the face
of the wall. In the case of heavy ])iei's, the beams may be crossed in
two directions. Their distances apart, from centre to centre, may
vary from 9 to 24 inches according to circumstances, i.e,, length
of their projection beyond the masonry, thickness of concrete, esti-
mated pressure per square foot, etc. They should be plaoed at
least far enough apart to permit the introduction of the oonczeto
* Ira O. Baker, American Architect, Novonber 8, 18B8.
FOUNDATIONa 145
filling and its proper tamping between the beams. Unless the
concrete is of unusual thickness, it will not be adyisable to exceed
20 inches spacing, since otherwise the concrete may not be of suffi-
cient strength to properly transmit the upward pressure to the
beams. The most useful application of this method of founding
is in localities where a thin and comparatively compact stratum
overlies another of a more yielding nature. By using steel beams
in such cases, the requisite spread at the base may be obtained
without either penetrating the firm upper stratum or carrying the
footing-courses to such a height as to encroach unduly upon the
basement-room .
MBTHOD OF OALCULATINa THB 8IZI3 AND
LENGTH OF THE BEAMS.^
Let L — Weight of wall per lineal foot, in tons.
and h = Assumed bearing capacity of ground, per square
foot (usually from 1 to 3 tons).
Thei;i -r = IF =? Required width of foundation, in feet.
w = Width of lowest course of footing stones.
p = Projection of beams beyond masonry, in feet.
8 = Spacing of beams centre to centre, in feet.
Evidently the size of beams required will depend upon their
strength as cantilevers of a lengthy, sustaining the upward reaction,
which may be regarded as a uniformly distributed load.
Thus ^ & = uniformly distributed load (in tons) on cantilevers,
per lineal foot of wall,
and ph8 = uniform load in tons, on each beam.
The table on the following page gives the safe lengths p for the
various sizes and weights of steel beams, for s--l foot and 6 rang-
ing from 1 to 5 tons per square foot. For other values of 8 say 15
inches, i. «., 1| i^^t, the table may be used by simply considering b
increased in the same ratio as 8 (see example below). As regards
the weight of beams, it is advantageous to assign to 8 as great a
value as is warranted by the other considerations which obtain.
EXAMPLE SHOWING APPLICATION OF TABLE.
The weight of a brick wall, together with the load it must sup-
port, is 40 tons per lineal foot. The width of the lowest footing-
course of masonry is 6 feet. Allowing a pressure of 2 tops per
* This and the next page are taken by permiBsion from Carnegie, Phipps &
Co.*8 Pocket-book.
FOUNDATIONS.
Bquare foot od tho foundation, what dse ftnd length of steet I-bemu
18 inches dcnCre to centre will be required ?
Am : L -40 ;6 = 2;w = C;a = U.
Therefore ir = 40 -^ 3 = 20 feet, the required lei^h ol beams.
The projection jj = HSl* - 8) = 7 feet.
In order to apply tho table (calculated for « = 1 fool) wc must
consider 6 increased in tho same ratio as «, t'.e., 6 = 3 x 1^ =S
In the eolumn for 3 tons, we find the length 7 feet to agree with
30 inches I-lieams G4.0 pounds per foot.
TABLE OIVINQ SAFE LENGTHS OF FROJECTIOKS p IN FEBT (BSB
ILLl'STRATION). FOK I - 1 FOOT AND VALUES OF ft BAITQING
FROM 1 TO 5 TONS.
Depth lw«tght
>.
Tos
7i
Foot).
u
11
7i
SO SO
\i
%\f,i
!o:o
a
15 7S
15 flO
IS 1 «
11
5 , 10.5
S,B
■m
Wt
li 40
10 ! ai.
6
V li
""a
g ' «
1 ! h.o
m
FOUNDATIONS. 147
The foregoing table applies to sied beams. Values given leased
on extreme fibre strains of 16,000 pounds per square inch.
Chicago Foundations*'" — The architects and builders of
Chicago probabijT have to deal with the most unfavorable condi-
tions for securing a good ^foundation for their heavy buildings of
any people in the world.
1 he soil under the central part of the city consists of a black
loamy clay, which is tolerably firm at the surface, and will sustain
a load of from one to three tons per foot, depending upon locality.
A few feet below the natural surface of the ground the soil becomes
quite soft, growing more and more so the deeper the excavation is
carried, and at a depth of from 12 to 18 feet it is so yielding that
nothing can be placed upon it with any reliance. Nor is this all.
It has been discovered, by many failures in buildings, that there is a
broad subterranean layer of soft mud which lies directly across the
most heavily built portion of the city, extending under the Post-
office, and reaching from the lake to the river, a distance of three-
quarters of a mile.
The first of the larger structures were built with continuous
foundation walls, with wide footings, the width being proportioned
tx) the loads bearing upon them. This method, however, did not
prove successful, as it was foimd that the wall will settle more than
a pier, and the comers of the wall will settle less than the centre.
After experiments of one kind and another, it has come to be the
accepted practice in Chicago of dividing the foundation into iso-
lated piers, the footing of each pier being carefully proportioned
according to the load upon it, its position in the building, char-
acter of the superstructure, etc., so that all shall settle at exactly
the same rate without any crackings or detriment to the super
structure.
The footings of the piers are built of steel beams and concrete,
as described on page 145, except that the beams are often crossed
three and four times ; in this way a great spreading is obtained in
a small height.
In determining the area of the footings, the ground is assumed to
be capable of sustaining a safe load of from 1| to 2^ tons per
square foot. The loads on the piers of the Board of Trade building
vary from 2| to S^ tons per square foot. The size of the footings
under the piers and the corners is made less than under the walls,
to offset the difference in settlement of the different portions of the
building.
•^-.^ ■ ■ ■
* 0. H. BlMkall, in American Architect, p. 147, Vol. XXUI.
148 FOUNDATIONS.
It is found that a heavy pier will sink proportionally more than a
light one, so that the area under the larger piers is made relatively
greater than under the smaller ones.
Again, it is necessary to take into account the material of which
the superstructure is to be built. Thu?, a footing under a brick
wall i^ made larger than a footing under a line of iron columns, so
that if both footings aro loaded with the same weight, thiit under
the columns will settle the most, to allow for the compression in
the joints of the mason- work.
It is impossible to build heavy buildings on the Chicago w)il
without settlement, and the architect must therefore plan his build-
ing so that all parts shall settle equally, and this has been success-
fully done in many of the largest buildings.
In a building where the footings aro proportioned to give a bear-
ing weight on the ground of 2+ tons per square foot, it is esti-
mated that the building will settle about 4 inches altogether.
Piling has been successfully used under several buildings in
Chicago, and there seems to bo no reason why it should not be more
extensively resorted to.
In the construction of the large grain elevators which are seat>
tercd through the city the loads are so excessive, reaching as high
as six tons per foot, that it would be impracticable to support them
on ordinary footings, and piling has been resorted to. The piles
are driven a distance of twenty to forty feet down to hard-pan,
cap[)ed by wooden sleepers, with heavy wooden cross-beams and
solid planking to receive the masonry.
CONCBETE FOOTING FOB FOUNDATIONS. 148a
OONORSTB FOQ!nNQ> FOR FOUNDATIONS.
For the footings of foundations in nearly all kinds of soil where
piles are not used, the writer believes a good concrete to be prefer-
able to even the best dimension stone, for the reason that it acts as
one piece of masonry and not as individual blocks of stone, and if
made of sufficient thickness it will possess sufficient transverse
strength to span any weak place in the soil beneath, if not of large
area.
When the best brands of Portland cement are used, the propor-
tions may be as follows :
One part Portland cement ; 3 parts clean sharp sand ; 5 parts chip
stone, in sizes not exceeding 2 x 1^ x 3 inches. Using these pro-
portions, one barrel of cement will make from 22 to 26 cubic feet
of concrete.
The above proportions were used in the concrete for the founda-
tions of the Mutual Life Insurance Company's Building, New York
City
When the cement is not of the best quality, or other cement than
Portland cement is used, more cement should be used with the
other material. Using a cement made in the West, the author
specifies that one part of cement to two of sand and four of broken
stone should be used, and the result has been very satisfactory.
It will generally be found wise to keep an inspector constantly
on the ground while the concrete is being put in, as the temptation
to the contractor to economize on the cement is very great.
In mixing the concrete, the stone, sand, and cement should be
thrown into the mortar box in the order named , and while one man
turns on the water two or more men should rapidly and thoroughly
work the material back and forth with shovels, when it should be
imiuediatelv carried to the trenches. The concrete should be
deposited in layers not over six inches thick, and each layer \\ell
rammed. If one layer dries before the next is deposited it should
be well wet on top, just before depositing the next layer.
Care should be exercised to see that the trenches are not dug
wider than the desired width of the footings ; and also in mixing
the concrete, not to use more water than is necessary to bring the
mass to a pudding-like consistency, as otherwise the cement may
be washed away.
148^ COST OF CONCRETE.
COST OF OONORSTB.
The cost of labor in mixing concrete, when the proper facilities
are provided, need not exceed three cents a cubic foot, and four
cents is a liberal allowance, with wages at two dollars a day. The
vunount of materials required to make 100 cubic feet of concrete
may be taken as follows : proportion of 1 to 6, 5 bbls. cement
(original package) and 4.4 yards of stone and sand ; proportion of
1 to 8, 3.9 bbls. of cement and 4i yards of aggregates.
The cost of concrete at the present time in Denver is about thirty
cents per cubic foot.
The weight of concrete varies from 130 to 140 lbs. per cubic foot,
according to the material used, granite aggregates making nat-
urally the heaviest concrete.
MASONRY WALLS. 149
CHAPTER III.
MASONRT TV ALLS.
Footingr Courses. — In commencing the foundation walls
of a building, it is customary to spread the bottom courses or the
masonry considerably beyond the face of the wall, whatever be the
character of the foundation bed, unless, perhaps, it be a solid rock
bed, in which case the spreading of the walls would be useless.
These spread courses are technically known as " footing courses."
They answer two important purposes : —
:ist, By distributing the weight of the structure over a larger
area of bearing-surface, tlie Uability to vertical settlement from
the compression of the ground is greatly diminished.
2d, By increasing the area of the base of the wall, they add to
its stability, and form a protection against the danger of the work
being thrown out of "plumb" by any forces that may act against
it. ...
Footings, to have any useful effect, must be securely bonded into
the body of the work, and have sufficient strength to resist the
violent cross-strains to which they are exposed.
Footings of Stone Foundations. — As, the lower any
stone is placed in a building, the greater the weight it has to sup-
port and the risk arising from any defects in the laying and dress-
ing of the stone, the footing courses should be of strong stone
laid on bed^ with the upper and lower faces dressed true. By laying
on. bed is me^nt laying the stone the same way that it lay before
quarryin{]j.
In la3^ng the footing courses, no back joints should be allowed
beyond the face of the upper work, except where the footings are
in double courses; and every stone should bond into the body of
the work several inches at least. Unless this is attended to, the
footings will not receive the weight of the superstructure, and will
be useless, as is shown in Fig. 1.
In proportion to the weight of the superstructure, the projection
of each footing course beyond the one above it must be reduced, or
the cross-strain thrown on the projecting portion of the masonry
will rend ft from top to bottom^ as shown in Fig. 2.
la- boildllig 1st)9e mlMses of work, such as the abutments of
150
MASONRY WALLS.
bridges and the like, the proportionate increase of bearing-surface
obtained by the footings is very slight, and there is generally great
risk of the latter being broken off by the settlement of the body
f
A'
^
P
]
^,/
EEL
^IL
1
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
of the work, as in Fig. 2. It is therefore usual in these cases to
give very little projection to the footing courses, and to bring up
the work with a battering-face, or with a succession of very slight
offsets, as in Fig. 3.
A
'r*
/^''//x'
Hl"l/ -^
Fig. 3.
Footings of undressed rubble built in common mortar should
never be used for buildings of any importance, as the compression
of the mortar is sure to cause movements in the superstructun*.
Jf rubble must be used, it should be laid with cement mortar, £o
that the whole will form a solid mass; in which case the size aiul
shape of the stone are of little consequence.
In general, footing stones should be at least two by three feet on
the bottom, and eight inches thick.
The Building Laws of the city of New York require that ttie
footing under all foundation walls, and under all plejs, columns,
posts, or pillars resting on the earth, shall be of stone or concrete.
Under a foundation wall the footing must be at least twelve inches
wider 1 aan the bottom width of the wall, and under pler% wrtnmnUi
MASONRY WALLS.
151
its, or pillars, at least twelve inches wider on all sides than the
;tom width of the piers, columns, posts, or pillars, and not less
m eighteen inches in thickness; and, if huilt of stone, the stones
ill not he less than two by three feet, and at least eight inches
ck.
Vll base-stones shall be well bedded, and laid edge to edge; and,
Lhe walls are built of isolated piers, then there must be inverted
hes, at least twelve inches thick, turned under and between the
rs, or two footing courses of large stone, at least ten inches
ck in each course.
The Boston Building Laws require that the bottom course for all
indation walls resting upon the ground shall be at least twelve
hes wider than the thickness given for the foundation walls.
footings of Brick Foundations. — In building with
ck, the special point to be attended to in the footing courses is
1 BRICK
^^.
T^^
<5s. -^=i
A
M BRICK
<>^,
'y'yy^' ^^
H%v. %\
E3.
y>- 'ssr
''^^
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
keep the back joints as far as possible from the face of tht:
rk; and, in ordinary cases, the best plan is to lay the footings in
2 BRICKS
'W^Tm
'////"/" =^
y/yy
'''///
\\\ll'^
^^-*-^
'//
v/.
\\\\
''////
;ll///^'^ I //////,, =g'.'
y/
'^^///„
Fee.
;le courses; the outside of the work being laid all headers, and
course pix>jecting more than one-fourth brick beyond the one
>?e ity exo^ in. the case of an eight-inch wail
154 MASONRY WALLS.
inches thick below the top floor, and stone walls not less than six-
teen inches.
The thickness of the walls required by the laws of the cities of
Boston, New York, and Denver, Colo., are shown by the tables on
pp. 155-157.
The Boston Law also contains the following provisions, which
form an excellent guide to architects in other localities :
Section 38. Vaulted walls shall contain, exclusive of withes,
the same amount of material v.a is required for solid walls, and the
walls on cither side of the air-space shall be not less than eight
inches thick, and shall be securely tied together with ties not more
than two feet apart.
Section? 39. In reckoning the thickness of walls, no allowance
shall be made for ashlar, unless it is eight inches or more thick,
in which case the excess over four inches shall be reckoned as part
of the thickness of the wall. Ashlar shall be at least four inches
thick, and properly held by metal clamps to the backing, or prop-
erly bonded to the same.
Section 40. External walls may be built in part of iron or steel,
and when so built may be of less thickness than is above required
for external walls, provided such walls meet the requirements of
this act as to strength, and provided that all constructional parts
are wholly protected from heat by brick or terra-cotta, or by
plastering three-quarters of an inch thick, with iron furring and
wiring.
First and Second Class Buildings.
Section 45. First and second class buildings hereafter bnilt
shall have floor bearing supports not over thirty feet apart. These
supports may be brick walls, trusses or columns and girders. Such
brick walls may be four inches less in thickness than is required
by this act for external and party walls of the same height, pro-
vided they comply with the provisions of this act as to the strength
of materials, but in no case less than twelve inches thick. When
trusses are used, the walls upon which they rest shall be at least
four inches thicker than is otherwise required by sections thirty-siz
and thirty-seven, for every addition of twenty-five feet or part
thereof to the length of the truss over thirty feet.
Section 46. Second class buildings hereafter buHt shall be so
divided by brick partition walls of (ho thickness prescribed for
bearing partition walls and carried twelve inches above the roof,
that no space inside any such building shall exceed in area tea
thousand square feet, and no existing wall in any aeoond
MASONRY WALLS.
165
building shall be removed so as to leave an area not so enclosed, of
more than ten thousand square feet.
Section 47. All walls of a first or second class building meet-
ing at an angle shall be united every ten feet of their height, by-
anchors made of at least two inches by half an inch wrought iron
securely built in to the side or partition walls not less than thirty-
six inches, and into the front and rear walls at least one-half the
thickness of such walls.
The New York Law also provides that the bearing walls of all
buildings exceeding one hundred and five feet in depth without a
cross wall, or piers or buttresses, shall be increased four inches in
thickness for each additional one hundred and five feet in depth
or part thereof; also, in case the walls of any building are less
than twenty feet apart and less than forty feet in depth, or there
are cross walls, or piers or buttresses, which serve to strengthen
the walls, the thickness of the interior walls may be reduced in
thickness at the judgment of the superintendent of buildings. In
comparing the thickness of brick walls in the eastern and western
portions of the country, it should be taken into consideration that
the eastern brick arc much harder and stronger than those in the
west, and that an eight-inch wall in Boston is probably as strong
(to resist crushing) as a thirteen-inch wall in Denver, Colo.
THIOKNBS8 OF WAIX8 REQUIRZSD IN DENVER,
OOI.O.
FOR DWELLINGS, TENEMENTS, OR LODGING HOUSES.
Outside and Party Walls.
Onestorjr, ,.
Two stories..
Three stories.
Four stories. .
Five stories..
Six stories . . .
*»
,
a
>>
Of
t^
B
o
cc
2
■4.9
«
13
8
13
13
17
13
22
17
22
17
26
22
■
t
&
r
c
o
o
•M
■*j
■*a
4->
GQ
CO
QQ
,d
xs
ji
'(H
U
^
to
8
13
13
13
13
13
17
13
13
13
22
17
13
13
13
One story. ..
Two atones..
Three stories.
Foor stories. .
Five stories..
Six stories...
BUILDINGS OTHER THAN THE ABOVE.
13
8
17
13
13
22
17
13
13
26
22
17
13
13
26
22
17
17
13
13
SO
26
22
22
17
n
13
00
CO
z
o
OQ
o
n
m
CD
n
z
M
O
t2
HI
p
g
-<
Q
H
a
OQ
h9
<
O
'd
5 ®
.d S a
« 2--S
"2 a 2
S
g 2 2
^ a 9,
2-2
Wl ^ ♦*
O O ^
• Q. ft. O
o O «iX
^ ^ :: ^ 3J
c c - r o
^^_J_I.
"^ '-> .^ -s
^•' <o ti 00
tn be t« 60
"e — C —
I «M
4> « O
£ c s s
•d "O •«
cos
o «s «s •
•g ^ 4i tS
SQ S 8 S
I
c o
« • 9
GO
o
H-l
(4
:| S
OQ
:a
Q
o
o
o
CO
Q
<
s
a
o
GO
O
I—
u
PQ
"S
c8
h
o
o
. . «a
eight
eight
pper
ja 43 a
9 SS •
2 1 ^ i
1 i A^
s £2^
- 5 ** s
'^ '^ ■** vT
•« "S >, X
floor,
floor,
.floor,
of the
« 0* '^ SJ
%4 ^< %« «^
o o o ^
a e. p. '^
to to
to to
to to
Ithin
H ^ ^ ^
^ ^ %
iissi
^ ^ ^
^sk
I
MASONBY WALL&
U1
Gi
CO
I
g
o
o
CD
00
e
3
O
o
m
o
QO
S
n
a
QO
s
D
O
n
i
o
<
g
o
"S js J4 th
• c fl S
§11 I
ai "aS "a-^ s
?•* flO ^O
o<s •£»« "ca »
SS *pts a-o M
r^5 Sc Sfl c
X g ^ ^
I I 1
^ ^ s
£•
5*-
^t'S
— &
: — '. — : — ; — ; — : — ■" oo
4A ^^ ^A fc^ 4^ ^J Q)
S h h kl li k ki ^S
S O O o O o o ^t»
Kf'^' 'M '^ «-■ '^ ^ V hA
=l§§Si§ il
5 a « « S s * -g Q
»
P
O
Pi
o
I
s
0) V
^ K. V ♦*
* * ■ ^
sa^gss
^^ ^-- >— ^ ^
. 0) <li 1> V
' (li O V o
a) ^
O In ti *4 If
>. k > >
o o o o
SFo o o o
~ c c p e
^ a a c ti
O S CS cS 08
M «i» «•*«■> *-•
^
1
8
d
s.
3
a
o
•3
>
o
a
2
I
-s
«2
•^a as
^1
— D.
-<-■ CO
is
ii
is'a
«a
158 COMPOSITION OF FORCES. ETC.
CHAPTER IV.
COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF FORCZSa^
CENTRE OP GRAVITY.
Let us imagine a round ball placed on a plane surface at A (Fig.
1), the surface being perfectly level, so that the ball will have no
tendency to move until some force is imparted to it. If, now, we
impart a force, P, to the ball in the direction indicated by the
arrow, the ball will move off in the same direction. If, instead of
imparting only one force, we impart two forces, P and Pi, to the
ball, it will not move in the direction of
either of the forces, but will move off in
the direction of the resultant of these
>B forces, or in the direction Ab in the figure.
If the magnitude of the forces P and Pi
is indicated by the length of the arrows,
then, if we complete the parallelogram
ABCDy the diagonal DA will represent the
direction and magnitude of a force which
will have the same effect on the ball as the
two forces Pi and P. If, in addition to the two forces P^ and P,
we now apply a third force, Pg, the ball will move in the direction
of the resultant of all three forces, which can be obtained by com-
pleting the parallelogram ADEF, formed by the resultant!)^ and
the third force Pg. The diagonal R of this second
parallelogram will be the resultant of all three of
the forces, and the ball will move in the direction
Ae, In the same way we could find the resultant
of any number of forces.
Again : suppose we have a ball suspended in the
air, whose weight is indicated by the line W (Fig.
2). Now, we do not wish to suspend this ball by a
vertical line above it, but by two inclined lines or
Fig. 2. forces, P and Pi. What shall be the magnitude
of these two forces to keep the ball suspended in just this position ?
We have here just the opposite of our last case; and, instead of
finding the diagonal of the resultant, we have the diagonal, which
is the line IF, and wish to find the sides of the parallelogram. To
do this, prolong P and Pi , and from B draw lines panUel to thfl^
COMPOSITION OF FORCES.
159
Fig. 3.
to complete the parallelogram. Then will CA be the required
magnitude for P, and CB for Pi.
Thus we see how one force can be made to have the same effect
as many, or manv can be made to do the work of one. Bearing
the above in miad, we are now prepared to study the following
propositions: —
I. A force may be represented fry a straight line.
In considering the action of forces, either in relation to struc-
tures or by themselves, it is very convenient to represent the force
gi'aphically, which can easily be done by a straight line having an
arrow-head, as in Fig. 3. The length of the
line, if drawn to a scale of pounds, shows
the value of the force in pounds; the direc-
tion of the line indicates the direction of the
force; the arrow-head shows which way it
acts; and the point A denotes the point of
application. Thus we have the direction, magnitude, and point
of application of the force represented, which is all that we need
lo know.
Parallelog^ram of Forces, — II. Jf two forces applied at
one point, and actiny in the same plane, be represented by two
straight lines inclined to each other, their resultant loill be equal
to the diagonal qf tlie parallelogram formed on these lines.
Thus, if the Hues AB and AC (Fig. 4) represent two forces act-
ing on one point. A, and in the same plane,
then, to obtain the force which would have the
same effect as the two forces, we complete the
parallelogram ABDC, and draw the diagonal
AD» This line will then represent the result-
ant of the two forces.
When the two given forces are at right angles to each other, the
resultant will, by geometry, be equal to the square root of the sum
of the squares of the other two forces.
The Triaui^le of Forces. — III. If
three forces acting on a point be repre-
sented in magnitude and direction by the
aides of a triangle taken in order, they
icill keep the point in equilibrium.
Thus let P, Q, and R (Fig. 5) represent
thi"ee forces acting on the point O. Now,
if we can draw a triangle like that shown
at the right of Fig. 5, whose sides shall be
respectively {Murallel to the forces, and shall
have thfl^ same relation to each other as do the forces, then the
Fig. 4.
160
COMPOSITION OF FORCES.
forces will keep the point in equilibrium. If such a triangle
cannot be drawn, the forces will be unbalanced, and the point will
not be in equilibrium.
The Polygon of Forces. — IV. If any nwnher qf forcen
actiny at a point can be represented in magnitude xmd direction by
the aides of a polygon taken in order, they will be in equilibriwn.
This proposition is only the preceding one carried to a greatei
extent.
Moments* — In considering the stability of structures and the
strength of materials, we are often obligexl to take into considera-
tion the moments of the forces acting on the structure or piece; and
a knowledge of what a moment is, and the properties of moments,
is essential to the praper understanding of these subjects.
When we speak of the moment of a force, we must have in mind
some fixed point about which the moment is taken.
The moment of a force about any given point may be defined as
the product of the force into the perpendicular distance from the
point to the line of action of the force; or, in other words, the
moment of a force is the product of the force by the arm with lohich
it acVi.
Thus if we have a force F (Fig. G), and wish to determine its
moment about a point P, we determine the perpen-
dicular distance Pa, between the point and the line
of action of the force, and multiply it by the force
in pounds. For example, if the force F were equal
to a weight of 500 pounds, and the distance Pa
were 2 inches, then the moment of the force about
the point P would be 1000 inch-pounds.
The following important propositions relating to forces and
moments should be borne in mind in calculating the strength or
stability of structures.
V. — If any number of parallel forces act on a 1>ody, that the
body shall be in eqvilihrimn, the nmn
P^ of the forces acting in one direction
Fig. 6
P'
Pi
4 4
Fig.7
Pi,Pj, and P3.
must equal the sum of the forces actr
D lug in the opposite direction.
Thus if we have tlie parallel
forces P\ P*, P®, and P*, acting on
the rod AB (Fig. 7), in the opposite
direction to the forces Pi, P„ P„
then, if the rod is in equilibrium, the
sum of the forces P' , P*, P«, and P»,
must equal the sum of the loroet
COMPOSITION OF FORCES.
161
Fa
1
Fs
4^
1^ .. . . 1 ' *■
-2 — ^
^
A ^
S ^
w
.n
^. ^ « _J O^
\
Fig. 8
Fi
. i.
VI. If any nwnber of parallel forces act on a body in opposite
directions, then, for the body to he in equilibrium, the sum of the
moments tending to turn the body in one direction must equal
the sum of the moments tending to turn the body in the opposite
direction about any given point.
Thus let Fig. 8 represent three parallel
forces acting on a rod AB. Then, for the
rod to be in equilibrium, the sum of the
forces Ft and F3 must be equal to Ft.
Also, if we take the end of the rod, A,
for our axis, then must the moment of Fj
be equal to the siun of the moments of
F2 and Fi about that point, because the
moment of Fi tends to turn the rod down
to the right, and the moments of F^ and F^ tend to turn the rod
up to the left, and there should be no more tendency to turn the
rod one way than the other. For example, let the forces F^, F^,
each be represented by 5, and let the distance ^a be represented
by 2, and the distance Ac by 4. The force F, must equal the sum
of the forces F3 and Ff, or 10; and its moment must equal the
sum of the moments of F^ and Fs. If we take the moments around
A, then the moment of F3 = 5 X 2 = 10, and of Fg = 5 X 4 = 20.
Their simi equals 30: hence the moment of F| nmst be 30. Divid-
ing the moment 30 by the force 10, we have for the arm 3; or
the force Fi must act at a distance 3 from A to keep the rod in
equilibrium.
If we took our moments around b, then the force Fi would have
no moment, not having any arm, and so the moment of F2 about
5 must equal the moment of F3 about the same point; or, as in this
case the forces are equal, they must both be applied at the same
distance from b, showing that b must be halfway between a and c,
as was proved before.
Tlie Principle of the Lever.—
Tills principle is based upon the two pre-
ceding prox>osltions, and Is of great im-
portance and convenience.
VII. Xf three parallel forces acting in
one place balance each other, then each ^
force must Ije proportionaX to tJie distance jq
between the other two.
Thus, if we have a rod AB (Figs. 9a,
Ob, and 9c), with three forces, P|, P^,
F9, acting QU it» that the rod shall be balanced, we must have the
15
12
Fig. 9 a
B
Pi
162
COMPOSITION OF FORCES.
following relation between the forces and their points of applica-
tion; viz., —
P, P2 P,
or
vn ' An ' AC
Pi :P^ :Ps ::BC :AB : AC,
This is the case of the common lever, anil gives the means of
detennining how much a given lever will raise.
p Pig.9 b
B
h
Ftg.9o
The proportion is also true for any arrangement of the forces
(as shown in Figs, a, b, and c), provided, of course, the forces are
lettered in the order sho^^Ti in the figures.
Example. — Let the distance AC be 6 inches, and the distance
CB be 12 inches. If a weight of 500 pounds is applied at the point
B, how much will it raise at the other end, and what support will
be required at C (Fig. 9b)?
Ans, Applying the rule just given, we have the proportion: ^
P:, : P, :: AC : CB, or 500 : (P,) :: 6 : 12.
Hence P, = 1000 poiuids; or 500 pounds applied at B will lift 1000
suspended at A. The supporting force at C must, by proposition
v., be equal to the sum of the forces Pi and Pj, or 1500 ponnds
in this case.
Centre of Gravity. — The lines of action of the force of
gravity converge towards the centre of the earth; but the distance
of the centre of the earth from the bodies which we have occasion
to consider, compared with the size of those bodies, is so great, that
we may consider the lines of action of the forces as parallel. The
number of tin? forces of gravity acting upon a body may be consicU
ered as equal to the numbei' of particles composing the body.
The centre of (jratlty of a body may be defined *a8 the point
through which the resultant of the parallel forces of graTlty, actiiif
upon the body, passes in eveiy position of the body.
CENTRES OF GRAVITY. 163
If a iKxly be supported at its centre of gravity, and be turned
about tliat point, it will remain in equilibrium in all positions.
The resultant of the parallel forces of gravity acting upon a body
is obviously equal to the weight of the body, and if an equal force
be applied, acting in a line passing through the centre of gravity of
the body, the body will be in equilibrium.
Examples of Centres of Gravity. — Centre of Gravity of
Lliies. StraiyfU Lines. — By a line is here meant a material line
whose transverse section is veiy small, such as a very fine wire.
The centre of gravity of a uniform straight line is at its middle
point. This proposition is too evident to require demonstration.
The centre of gravity of the perimeter of a triangle is at the
centre of the circle inscribed in the lines joining the centres of
the sides of the given triangle.
Thus, let ABC (Fig. 10) be the given
triangle. To find the centre of gravity of
its perimeter, find the middle points, D,
E, and F, and connect them by straight
lines. The centre of the circle inscribed
in the triangle formed by these lines will g-
be the centre of gravity sought.
Symmetrical Lines, — The centre of
gravity of lines which are sjrmmetrical with reference to a point will
be at that point. Thus the centre of gravity of the circumference
of a circle or an ellipse is at the geometrical centre of those figures.
The centre of gravity of the perimeter of an equilateral triangle,
or of a regular polygon, is at the centre of the inscribed circle.
The centre of gravity of the perimeter of a square, rectangle, or
parallelogram, is at the intersection of the diagonals of those
figures.
Centre of Gravity of Surfaces, Definition. — A surface here
means a very thin plate or shell.
Symmetrical Surfaces, — If a surface can be divided into two
symmetrical halves by a line, the centre of gravity will be on that
line: if it can be divided by two lines, the centre of gravity will be
at their intersection.
The centre of gravity of the surface of a circle or an ellipse is
at the geometrical centre of the figm-e ; of an equilateral triangle
or a regular polygon, it is at the centre of the inscribed circle; of a
parallelogram, at the intersection of the diagonals ; of the surface
of a sphere, or an ellipsoid of revolution, at the geometrical centre
of the body; of the convex surface of a right cylinder at the
middle point of the axis of the cylinder.
Irregular Figures, — 4^ny figure may be divided into rectangles
164
CENTRES OF GRAVITY.
and triangles, and, the centre of gravity of each being found, the
centre of gravity of the whole may be determined by treating the
centres of gravity of the separate parts as particles whose weights
are proportional to the areas of the parts they represent.
Triangle, — To find the centre of gravity of a triangle, draw a
line from each of two angles to the middle of the side opposite: the
intersection of the two lines will give the centre of gravity.
QuadrilateraL — To find the centre of gravity of any quadrilat-
eral, draw diagonals, and, from the end of each farthest from their
intersection, lay ofif, toward the intersection, its shorter segment:
the two points thus formed with the point of intersection will form
a triangle whose centre of gravity is that of the quadrilatenl.
Thus, let Fig. 11 be a quadrilateral
whose centre of gravity is sought.
Draw the diagonals AD and BC, and
from A lay ofif AF= ED, and from
B lay off BH = EC. From E draw
, P a line to the middle of FH, and from
Fa line to the middle of EH. The
point of intersection of these two lines
is the centre of gravity of the quadri-
lateral. This is a method commonly
used for finding the centre of gravity of the voussoirs of an arch.
Table qf Centres of Gravity. — Let a denote a line
drawn f "om the vertex of a figure to the middle point of
the base^ and D the distance from the vertex to the cen-
tre of gravity. Then
In an isosceles triangle D = fa
chord*
In a segment of a circle 2) = 12 X area
2 X chord
m
/
\
V
Segment.
In a sector of a circle, the ver- ) 7^ _ « ^^ _
tex being at the centre J ' ^
In a semicircle, vertex being at )
r • *
X arc
D = 0.4S6R
Sector.
the centre
In a quadrant of a circle D = IB
In a semi-ellipse, vertex being ) /) = 0 426a
at the centre ) * '
In a pai-^bola, vertex at intersection of I D=^hi.
axis wi* \i curve) ' '
In a cone or pyramid D = }a
In a frustum of a cone or pyramid, let h = hei^t of complete
cone or pyramid, Ji' = height of f rustiun, and the vertex be at apei
of complete cone or pyi*amid; then 1> = a/ku^jJ \*
GBNTRES OF GRAVITY. 165
The oommon centre of gi'avity of two figures or bodies external
to esLob. other is found by the following rule: —
Multiply the smaller ai'ea or weight by the distance between
centres of gravity, and divide the product by the sum of the areas
or weights: the quotient will be the distance of the common centre
of gravity from the centre of gravity of the larger area.
Example. — As an example under the above
rule and tables, let us find the common centre of
gravity of the semicircle and triangle shown in
Fig, 12.
We must first find the centres of gravity of the
two parts.
The centre of gravity of the semicircle is 0.425 R Fig. 12
from A, or 2.975. The centre of gravity of the
triangle is i of 8", or 2.666^' from A ; and hence the distance
between the centre of gravity is 2.975" + 2.666", or 5.641".
3|X49
The area of the semicircle is approximately — 5 — > ^^^*^ square
inches. The area of the triangle is 7 X 8, or 56 square inches.
The sum of the areas is 133 square inches. Then, by the above
rule, the distance of the common centre of gravity from the centre
66 X 5.641
or* gravity of the semicircle is Too — = 2.37 ,
or
2.975 — 2.37 = 0.605 inches from A,
Centre of Gravity of Heavy Particles. — Centre of
Gravity of Two Particles. — Let P be the p^^
weight of a particle at A (Fig. 13), and W |
that at C
The centre of gravity will be at some
point, B, on the line joining A and
^;0
e
The point B must be so situated, that if p^ Flo, 13 W
the two particles were held together by a
stiflf wire, and were supported at 5 by a force equal to the sum
of P and W, the two particles would be in equilibrium.
The problem then comes under the principle of the lever, and
hence we must have the proportion,
P+W :P :: AC :BC,
or
PX^
^^■" P + W
If TT = P, then BC = AB, or the centre of gravity will be half-
166
CENTRES OF GRAVITY.
way between the two particles. This problem is of great impor-
tance, for it presents itself in many practical examples.
Centre of Gravity of Several Heavy Particles. — Let Wj , We, TF3,
W4 and Ws (Fig. 14) be the weights of the particles.
Join W] and W2 by a straight line, and find
their centre of gravity ^ , as in the preceding
'Ws problem. Join A with W3, and find the cen-
tre of gravity By which will be the centre of
gravity of the three weights W^ , Wfy and W^.
Proceed in the same way with each weight,
and the last centre of gravity found will be
the centre of gravity of all the particles.
In both of these cases the Unes joining the
particles are supposed to be horizontal lines, or else the horizontal
projection of the real straight line which would join the points.
Ws Fig. 14
RETAINING WALLS. 1^'^
CHAPTER V.
RETAINING VSTALLS.
A Retaining^ Wall is a wall for sustaining a pressure of
earth, sand, or other filling or backing deposited behind it after it
is built, in distinction to a brest or face wall, which is a similar
structure for preventing the fall of earth which is in its undis-
turbed natural position, but in which a vertical or inclined face
has been excavated.
Fig. 1 gives an illustration of the two kinds of wall.
Retaining* Walls. — A great deal has been written upon the
theory of retaining walls, and many theories have been given for
computing the thrust which a bank of earth exerts against a re-
taining wall, and for determining the form of wall which affords
the greatest resistance with the least amount of material.
There are so many conditions, however, upon which the thrust
exerted by the backing depends, — such as the cohesion of the
earth, the dryness of the material, the mode of backing up tlic
wall, etc., — that in practice it is impossible to determine tli(» exact
thrust which will be exerted against a wall of a given heiji:ht.
It is therefore necessary, in designing retaining walls, to be guided
by experience rather than by theory. As the theory of retaining
walls is so vague and unsatisfactory, wc shall not offer any in this
article, but rather give such rules and cautions as have been estab-
lished by practice and experience.
In designing a retaining wall there are two things to be consid-
ered, — the backing and the wall.
The tendency <^ tAe hacking to slip is very much less when it is
^^^ BETAINING WALLS.
in a dry state tlian when it is filled with wnter, and hence eve
pi'M^aution shouliJ be taken to secure good drainage. Besides bi
face drainage, tiiere should be openings left iii tlie waJI for Ike |
water which may accumulate l:>e1iind it to escape aud run off.
The manner in which the material is HUed agaiust the wftll also
affects the stability of the baclcings. ff the ground be made irregu-
lar, as in Fig. 1 , and the earth weil rammed in layers inclined jVom
tlie uatl, tliit pressure will be very trifling, provided that attention
be paid to drainage. If, on the other hand, the earth tie tipped, in
ttie usual manner, in layers sloping toteardu the wall, the full pi
urc of the earth will be exerted against II, and It must be made of
correaponding strength.
Fig.3
FiB.4
Fig.!
The Wall.— lietainingWAlls are generally built with a batter-
ing (sloping! face, as this Is the strongest wall tor a given amonnt
of material ; and, if the courses are inclined towards the back. Ilia
tendency to slide on each other will be overcome, and it will not bs
necessary Ut depend upon the adhesion of the mortar.
Fig-I
FIg.a
The importance of making tlie resistance independent of tiw
ailhesion of the mortar Is obviously very great; as It WonU other-
wise be necessary to delay backing up a n^l until tba iDortar WH
'horoughly set, which might require several uonllni
RETAINING WALLS. it™
e Back of tlie Wall shonld bo left Roagli.— In
ivork It would be well to let every third or fourth course
^t an inch or two. This increases the frietion of the earth
9t the back, and thus causes tlie resultant of the forces acting
d the wall to become nion? nearly vertical, and to fall farther
n the base, giving increased stability. Jt also conduces to
;tli not to make each course of uniform lielglit throughout the
less of the wall, but to have some of the stones, especially near
ick, sufiiciently high to reach up through two or liiree courses,
is means the wliole masonry becomes more effectually inter-
1 or bonded tc^etlier as one mass, and less liable to bulge.
ere deep freezing occurs, the back of the wall should be sloped
rds for threeor four feet belowitstop, aa at OC (Fig. 2), which
1 be quite smooth, so aa to lessen the hold of the frost, and
at displacement.
i. 3, 4, 5, and 6 show the relative sectional areas of walls of
snt shapes that would be required to resist the pressure of a
of earth twelve feet high ("Art of Building," E. Dobson,
The first three examples are calculated to resist the maxi-
thnist of wet earth, while the last shows the modified form
y adopted in practice.
il's for tbe Tlilckness of tlie Wnll.— As has been
. the only practical rules for retaining walls which we have
nplrlcal rules based iiixin experience and practice-
John C. Trautwiue, C.E., who is considered authority on
?ering subjects, gives the following table in his " Pocket-Book
igineers," for the thickness at the base of vertical retaining
with a sand-backing deposited In the usual manner.
• first cohmm coulains the verLiea) Iieight CD (Pig. 7) of tht^
as compared willi the vertical lieiglil of the wall ; which lal fn'
170
KETAINING WALLS.
is assumed to be 1, so that tlie table begins with backing of the
same height as the wall. These vertical wails may be battered to
any extent not exceeding an inch and a half to a foot, or 1 In 8,
without affecting their stability, and without increasing the base.
Proportion of Retaining: Walls.
f
Total height of the earth com-
Wall of
Good mortar,
Wall of
pared with the height of the
cut Btone
rubble,
good, dry
wall above grouud.
in mortar.
or brick.
rubble.
1
0.35
0.40
0.50
1.1
0.42
0.47
0.57
1.2
0.46
0.51
0.61
1.3
0.40
0.54
0.64
1.4
0.51
0.56
0.66
1.5
0.52
0.67
0.67
1.6
0.54
0.59
0.68
1.7
0.55
0.60
0.70
1.8
0.56
0.61
0.71
2
0.58
0.63
0.78
2.5
0.60
0.65
0.75
3
0.62
0.67
o.n
4
0.63
0.68
0.78
6
0.64
0.69
0.79
Brest Walls (from Dobson's "Art of Building").— Where
che ground to be supported is firm, and the strata are honzontal,
the office of a brest wall is more to protect tlian to sustain the earth.
[t should be borne in mind that a trifling force skilfully applied to
onbroken ground will keep in its place a mass of material, which,
if once allowed to move, would crush a heavy wall ; and therefore
great care should be taken not to expose the newly opened ground
to the influence of air and wet for a moment longer than is requisite
for sound work, and to avoid leaving the smallest space for motion
between the back of the wall and the ground.
The strength of a brest wall nuist be projiortionately increase<1
when the strata to be supported inclines towards the wall: where
they incline from it, the wall need be little more than a thin facing
to protect the ground from disintegration.
The preservation of the natural drainage is one of the most im-
portant points to be attended to in the erection of brest walls, as
upon this their stability in a groat measure depends. Xo rule can
be given for the best manner of doing this: it must be a matter for
attentive consideration in each particular case.
STBEKGTH OF MASOKBY. 171
CHAPTER VI.
STRBNGTH OF MASONRY.
By the term "strength of masonry " we mean its resistance to a
crushing-force, as that is the only force to which masonry should
bo subjected. The strength of the different stones and materials
used in masonry, as determined by experiment, is given in the
following table. (For Architectural Terra-Cotta, see page 186a.)
Crushing Resistance of Bricks Stone, and Concretes, {Pressure at
right angles to bed.)
Pounds
per sq. inch.
Brick : Common, Maspachnsetts. 1U,000
Common, St. Louis -. 6,417
Common, Wtibhington, D. C 7,870
Paving, Illinois .... 6,000 to 13,000
Granites : Bine, Fox Island, Me 14,875
Gray, Vinal Haven, Me 18,000 to 18,000
Westerly, R. I 15,000
Rockport and Quincy, Mass 17.750
Milford, Conn 22,600
Staten Island, N. Y 22,250
East St. Cloud, Minn 28,000
Gannison, Colo 18,000
Red, Platte Caflon. Colo 14,600
Limestones: Glens Falls, N. Y 11,475
Joliet,Ill •. 12,775
Bedford, Ind 6,000 to 10,000
Salem, Ind 8,625
Red Wing, Minn 23,000
Stillwater, Minn *. 10,750
Sandttones : T)OTche»ter^N.B. {hrovfii) 9,150
Mary's Point, N. B. (fine grain, dark brown) 7,700
Connecticut Brown Stone ♦ on lied '. 7,000 to 18,000
LoDgmeadow, Mass. (reddish brown) 7,000 to 14,000
'* " average, for good quality 12,000
Little Falls, N. Y 9,850
Medi na, N. Y 17,000
Potsdam. N. Y. (red) 18,000 to 42,000
Cleveland, Ohio 6,800
North Amherst, Ohio 6,212
Beren, Ohio 8,000 to 10,000
Ilnmmcltitown. I*a 12,810
Fond du Lac, Minn 8,750
Fond du Lac, Wis 6,237
Manitou, Colo, (light red) 6,000 to 11,000
St. Vrain, Colo, (hard laminated). 11,505
3Iarble8 : Lee, Mass 22.900
Rutland, Vt 10,746
Montgomery Co., Pa .' 10,000
Colton.Cal 17,783
Italy 12,156
Flagging : North River, N. Y 13,425
Concrete : Rosendale cement 1, pand and stone 7A, 46 months old 1,.544
Portland cement 1, sand and stone 9, 6 months 2,000
* This stone should not be set on edge.
173 STRENGTH OF MASONRY.
The stones in this table are supposed to be on bed, and the height
» to be not more than four times the least side. Of the strength of
rubble masonry, Professor Rankine states that "the resistance
of fjood coursed rubble masonry to crushing is about four-tenths of
that of single blocks of the stone it is built with. The resistance
of common rubble to crushing is not much greater than that of the
mortar which it contains."
Stones generally commence to crack or split under about one-half
of their crushing-load.
Crushing-Height of Brick and Stone. — If we assume
the weight of brickwork to be 112 pounds per cubic foot, and that
it would crush under 450 pounds per square inch, then a vertical
unifonn column 580 feet high would crush at its base under its own
weight.
Average sandstones at 145 pounds per cubic foot would require
a column 5950 feet high to crush it; and average granite at 165
pounds per cubic foot would require a column 10,470 feet high.
The Merchants' shot-tower at Baltimore is 246 feet high, and its
base sustams a pressure of six tons and a half (of 2240 pounds)
per square foot. The base of the granite pier of Saltash Bridge (by
Biiinel) of solid masonry to the height of 96 feet, and supporting
the ends of two iron spans of 455 feet each, sustains nino tons
and a half per squai-e f oot . The highest pier of Rocquef avonr stone
aqueduct, Marseilles, is 305 feet, and sustains a pressure at the base
of thirteen tons and a half jyar square foot.
Worldng-Strengtli of Masonry.— The worlring-streiigth
of masonry is generally taken at from one-sixth to one-tenth of the
crushing-load for piei's, colunms, etc., and in the case of arches a
factor of safety of twenty is often recommended for computing tbe
resistance of the voiissoirs to crushing.
Mr. Trautwine states that it cannot be considered safe to expose
even first-class pressed brickwork in cement to more tlian thirteen
or sixteen tons' pressure per square foot, or good hand-moulded
brick to more than two-tliirds as nmch. {Seepage 181.)
Sheet lead is sometinH^s plac(ul at the joints of stone columns
with a view to equalize the pressure, and thus increase the strength
of the cohnun. Exi)oriments, however, seem to show that the
effect is directly the reverse, and that the column is materiaHy
weakened thereby. '
Piers. — Masonry thai is so heavily loaded tliat it Is necessary
to proporlion it in regard to its strength to resist crushing, is, as a
general rule, in the form of piers, either of brick or Btoue. As
1 Trautwine's Pocket-book, p. 176.
STRENGTH OF MASONRY. 1*^3
these pien are often in places where it is desirable tliat they should
occupy as little space as possible, they are oflen loaded to the full
limit of safety.
The material generally used for building piers is brick: block or
cut stone is sometimes used, for the sake of appearance; but rubble-
work should never be used for piers which are to sustain posts,
pillara, or columns. Brick piers more than six feet in height
should never bo less than twelve inches square, and should have
properly proportioned footing courses of stone not less than a foot
thick.
The brick in piers should be hard and well burned, and should
be laid in cement, or cement mortar at least, and be well wet before
being laid, as the strength of a pier depends very much upon the
mortar or cement with which it is laid: those piei*s which have to
sustain very heavy loads should be built up with the best of the
Rosendale cements. The size of the pier should be determined by
calculating the greatest lead which it may ever have to sustain, and
dividing the load by the safe resistance of one square inch or foot
of that kind of masonry to crushing.
Example. — In a large storehouse the floors are supported by a
girder running lengthwise through the centre of the building. The
girders are supported every twelve feet by columns, and the lowest
row of columns is supported on brick piers in the basement. The
load which may possibly come upon one pier is found to be 65,000
pounds. What should be the size of the pier ?
^iM. The masonry being of good quality, and laid in cement
mortar, we will a^ume 12 tons per square foot, or 166 lbs. per
square inch (see p. 181), for the safe working load. Dividing
65,000 lbs. by 166, we have 891 square inches for the size of the
pier. This would require a pier 20 x 20 inches.
It is the custom with many architects to specify bond stones in
brick piers (the full size of the section of the pier) every three or
four feet in the height of the pier. These bond stones are gener-
ally alx)ut foiu" inches thick. The object in using them is to
distribute the pressure on the pier equally through the whole mass.
Many first-class builders, however, consider that the piers are
stronger without the bond stone; and it is the opinion of the
writer that a pier will be just as strong if they are not used.
Section 3 of the Building Laws of the city of New York requires
that every isolated pier less tlian ten superficial feet at the base,
and all piers supporting a wall built of rubble-stone or brick, or
under any iron beam or arch-girder, or arch on which a wall rests,
or lintel supporting a wall, shall, at intervals of not less than thirty
inches in height, have built into it a bond stone not less than
174 STRENGTH OF MASONRY.
four inches thick, of a diameter each way equal to the diametei
of the pier, except that in piers on the street front, above the
curb, the bond stone may be four inches less than the pier in
diameter.
Piers which support colmnns, posts, or pillars, shonld have the
top covered by a plate of stone or iron, to distribute the pressure
over the whole cross-section of the pier.
In Boston, it is required that '*all piera shall be built of good,
hard, well-burned brick, and laid in clear cement, and all bricks
used in piers shall be of the hardest quality, and be well wet when
laid.
'* Isolated brick piers under all lintels, girders, iron or other col-
umns, shall have a cap-iron at least two inches thick, or a granite
cap-stone at least twelve inches thick, the full size of the pier.
^* Piers or columns supporting walls of masonry shall have for a
footing course a broad leveller, or levellers, of block stone not less
than sixteen inches thick, and with a bearing surface equal in area
to the square of the width of the footing course pluB one foot
required for a wall of the same thickness and extent as that borne
by the pier or colunm."
For the Strength of Manonry WallSj see Chap. UL
The following tables give the results of some tests on bclckf
brick piers, and stoue, made under the direction of the
author, in behalf of the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics Ajbso-
ciation.
The specimens were tested in the government testingi-macliliie
at Watertown, Mass., and great care was exercised to make tlie
te~sts as perfect as possible. As the parallel plates between which
the brick and stone were crushed are fixed in one position, it is
necessary that the specimen tested should have perfectly parallel
faces.
The bricks which were tested were rubbed on a reyolTing bed
until the top and bottom faces were perfectly true and parallel.
The preparation of the bricks in this way required a great deal
of time and expense; and it was so difficult to prepare some of the
hanler bi'ick, that they had to be broken, and only one-half if
:he brick prepared at a time.
STRENGTH OF MASONRY.
175
TABLE
f^howing the UUimaJte and Cracking Strength of the Brick, the
Size and Area of Face,
Name of Bbiok.
Philadelphia Face Brick . . .
• • •
41 U
Average .
(«
Cambridge Btiok (Eastern) .
«< *( ((
Average
Boflton Terra-Ck>tU Co.'s Brick,
l( CI (I ((
((
« It
Average
New -England Pressed Brick .
i( <t «(
««
«i
<i («
11 («
Average
Size.
Whole brick
Whole brick
Whole brick
Half brick .
Whole brick
Half brick .
Half brick .
Half brick .
Whole brick
Whole brick
Half brick
Half brick
Half brick
Half brick
Area of
face in
Bq. ins.
33.7
32.2
34.03
10.89
25.77
12.67
13.43
11.46
25.60
28.88
12.95
13.2
13.30
13.45
Commenced
to crack
under Iba.
per sq. inch.
Net
strength
lbs. per
sq. inch.
4,303
3,400
2,870
6,062
5,831
5,862
3,527
5,918
3,670
7,760
3,398
3,797
9,825
12,941
11,681
14,296
4,655
12,186
11,518
8,593
3,530
13,839
11,406
9,766
7,880
11,670
3,862
8,180
2,480
4,535
10,270
13,530
13,082
13,085
4,764
12,490
The Philadelphia Brick used in these tests were obtained from a
Boston dealer, and were fair samples of what is known in Boston
as Philadelphia Face Brick. They were a very soft brick.
The Cambridge Brick were the common brick, such as is made
around Boston. They are about the same as the Eastern Brick.
The Boston Terra-Cotta Company^ a Brick were manufactured of
a rather fine clay, and were such as are often used for face brick.
The New-England Pressed Brick were hydraulic pressed brick,
and were almost as hard as iron.
From tests made on the same machine by the United States Gov-
ernment in 1884, the average strength of three (M. W. Sands) Cam-
bridge, Mass., face brick was 13,925 pounds, and of his common
brick, 18,337 pounds per square inch, one brick developing the enor-
mous strength of 22,351 pounds per square inch. This was a very
bard-burnt brick.
Three brick of the Bay State (Mass.) manufacture showed an
average strength of 11,400 pounds per square inch.
The New England brick are among the hardest and strongest
brick in the oonntry, those in many parts of the West not having
one-fourth of the strength given above, so that in heavy buildings,
176 STRENGTH OF MASONRY.
where the strength of the brick to be used is not known by actaal
tests, it is advisable to have the brick tested.
Prof. Ira 0. Baker, of the University of Illinois, reported some
tests on Illinois brick, made on the 100,000 pounds testing machine
at the university, in 1888-89, which gives the crushing strength of
soft brick at <574 pounds per square inch, average of three face
brick, 3,070 pounds ; and of four paving brick, 9,775 pounds.
In nearly all makes of brick it will be found that the face brick
are not as strong as the common brick.
Tests of the Streni^li of Brick Piers laid with
Various Mortars/ — These tests were made for the purpose of
testing the strength of brick piers laid up with different cement
mortars, as compared with those laid up with ordinary mortar.
The brick used in the piers were procured at M W. Sands's brick-
yard, Cambridge, Mass., and were good ordinary brick. They were
from the same lot as the samples of common brick tested as
described.
The piers were 8" by 12", and nine coui-ses, or about 224'' high,
excepting the first, which was but eight courses high. They were
built Nov. 29, 1881, in one of the storehouses at the United-States
Arsenal in Watertown, Mass. In order to have the two ends of
the piers perfectly parallel surfaces, a coat of about half an inch
thick of pure I'ortland cement was put on the top of each pier,
and the foot was grouted in the same cement.
March 8, 1882, three months and five days later, the tops of the
piers were dressed to plane surfaces at right angles to the sides of
the piers. On attempting to dress the lower ends of the piers, the
cement grout peeled off, and it was necessary to remove it entirely,
and put on a layer of cement similar to that on the top of the piers.
This was allowed to harden for one month and sixteen days, when
the piers were tested. At that time the piers were four months and
twenty-six days old. As the piers were built in cold weather, the
bricks were not wet.
The piers were built by a skilled brick-layer, and the mortars
were mixed under his superintendence. ITie tests were made with
the government testing-machine at the Arsenal.
The following table is arranged so as to sbow the resalfc of these
tests, and to afford a ready means of comparison of the strength of
brickwork with different mortars. The piers generally failed by
cracking longitudinally, and some of the brick were crushed. The
1 The report of these tests was first pablished in the AmBrican Aidiileel^
June 8, 1882.
STRENGTH OF MASONBY. 17'(
Portland cement used in these tests was known as Brooks, Shoo-
bridge ft Co. 'a cement.
As the aetaal strength of brick piers is a very important coneid-
eration in bnildiog constmetion, the following tests, made by the
United States Government at Watertown, Mass.. and contained in
tbe rrport of the tests mode on the (iovcrnment testing machine
for the year 18B4. are given, as being of much value.
Three kinds of brick were reprasent«d in the conatruction of the
piers, and mortars of different composition — ranging in strength
from lime mortar to neat Portland cement. The piers ranged in
cross-section dimensions from H' x 8" to 16" x IS", and in
height from 16" to 10 '.
The piers were tested at the age of from 18 to 24 months
The following table gives the reaiUts obtained, and memoranda
regarding the size and character of the piers.
«
SSS223SSS2
■3
11
Jiiiiiiiiii
,IIWJI|I.I.I.
1
lii
iiilll^
5
J
1 1
nrl r;::il
• il i I
I
I
180
STRENGTH OF MASONRY.
Tests of Mortar Cubes. — The following tests of 6" oabesof
mortar were made by the United States Gk)veniment at Watertown,
Mass., in the year 1884.
Ttie mortar cubes were allowed to season in the open air, a
period of fourteen and a half months, whpn they were tested.
The age of tlic plaster cube was four months. It should be
noticed that, while the cube? of Rosendalc cement and Hme-mortar
showed a greater strength than when sand alone was mixed with
the cement, with the cubes of Portland cement and lim^-mortar
the reverse was the case, differing from the result obtained by the
author. This shows the necessity of a number and variety of tests.
TABULATED RESULTS, 6" MORTAR CUBES.
Crubhino Stbbngth.
No. of
test.
Composition.
First
crack.
Ultimate
Btrength
persq. in.
Weight
per
CO. ft.
3a
Sb
Zc
1 part lime, 8 parts sand,
ti 4( H
lbs.
Ibe.
185
119
118
lbs.
118
111
106
4a
4b
4c
1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand,
• • « •
11,600
660
606
888
116
180
115
6a
bb
5c
1 part Rofiendale cement, 2 parts sand,
(t It It tt
tt it tt it
4,600
166
186
148
•111
100
107
6a
6b
ec
Neat Portland cement,
kt it
it ti
• • • • • • •
96,000
2,678
8,548
4,887
196
189
185
7a
lb
7c
Neat Ro^endale cement,
it it
it it
11,000
19,000
19,900
481
615
686
94
90
vr
8a
8b
8c
1 part Portland cement, 2 parte lime-mortar, ^
it ti it i(
It it ii it
• • • • • • •
804
196
175
100
110
lOi
9a
9b
9c
1 part Rosendole cement, 2 parts lime-mortar,^
ti it ti ti
it ti it it
PlasttT-of-Paris.
• • • • • •
194
198
16-2
1,981
105
1(«
106
74
Workings Stren^h of Masonry.— The faUowing table
has been compiled as representing the practice of leading engineen,
and the average requirements of recent building laws. The author
believes that the values may be relied upon with eafetf , ftod with-
1 Lime-monar, 1 part lime, 8 parui
STRENGTH OF MASOKBT. 181
out andae waste of materials. For the size of oast-iron bearing
plates on masonry, see page 342&. For strength of architeotnral
terra-cotta, see page 186a.
SAFE WORKING LOADS FOR MASONRY.
Briektoork in isalls or pier»,
TONS FBB SqUABS VOOT.
Bastem. Western.
Bed brick in lime mortar 7 6
** hydraulic lime mortar 6
*' natural cement mortar, 1 to 3 10 8
Arch or pressed brick in lime mortar 8 6
** •* " natural cement 13 9
** ** ** Portland cement 15 12^
Piers exceeding in height six times their least dimensions should
be increased 4 inches in size for each additional 6 feet.
Stonework,
(Tons per square foot.)
Bubble walls, irregular stones 8
** coursed, soft stone %^
** hard stone 5 to 16
Dimension stone, squared in cement :
Sandstone and limestone 10 to 20
Granite 20 to 40
Dressed stone, with |-inch dressed joints in cement :
Granite 60
Marble or limestone, best 40
Sandstone 30
Height of columns not to exceed eight times least diameter.
CoTicrete.
Portland cement, 1 to 8 8 to 15
Rosendale cement. 1 to 6 6 to 10
Hydraulic lime, best, 1 to 6 5
HdUow Tile*
(Safe loads per square inch of effective bearing parts.)
Hard fire-clay tiles 80 lbs.
*• ordinary clay tiles 60 **
Porous terra-cotta tiles 40 **
Mortars.
(In 4-inch joints, 8 months old, tons per square foot.)
Portland oement, 1 to 4 40
Rosendale cement» 1 to 8 18
Lime mort r, beet. . : 8 to 10
Best Portl d cement, 1 to 2. in 4-inch joints for bedding
ixonp tea 70
182 8TBENGTH OF MASONRY.
Actual Tests of the Crushingr-Stren^h of Sand-
stones (made under the direction of the author for the Massachu-
setts Charitable Mechanics' Association). — These tests were made
with the Government testing mac^hine at the United States Arsenal,
Watertown, Mass., and every precaution was taken to secure accu-
rate results.
Wood's Point (X.B.) Sandstone. — This stone is of about the
same color as the Mary's Point stone, but it has a much coarser
gmin, and is not very hard.
Block No. 1 measured 4.03" x 4.03" X 8". Sectional area 16.2
square inches.
Commenced to crack at 50,000 pounds, on the comers, and con-
tinued cracking, along the edge^ and at the comers, until it was
crushed under 80,000 lbs.' pressure, or 4932 lbs. per square inch.
Block No, a measured 4" x 3.«8" X 7.25". SecUonal area 15.02
square inches.
This stone commenced to crack under a pressure of 44,000
pounds, and failed under a pressure of 62,500 pounds, or 3976
pounds per square inch.
Long MEADOW Stone. — The Bay of Fundy Qiiarryhig Com-
pany also quarry a variety of the Longmeadow (Mass.) sandstone,
which is a reddish-brown in color.
Block No. 1 measured 3.S0" x 3.87" X 7.42". Sectional area
14.71 square inches.
This stone showed no cracks whatever until the pressure bad
reached 152,000 pounds, when it conmienced to crack at the cor-
ners. When the pressure reachetl 200,000 pounds, Uie stone sud-
denly flew from the machine in fragments, giving an ultluiato
strength of 13,506 pounds per square inch.
This stone did not fit into the machine vei7 perfectly.
lilock No. f measured 3.30" x 3.07" X 7.5". Sectional area 15.6
square inches.
The stone commenced to crack along the edges under a pressure
of 47,000 pounds. Under 78,(KX) pouuils, a large piece of the stone
split off from the bottom of the block, and under 142,300 pounds*
pressure, the stone failed, cracking very badly. UUimale lUmngUi
per aqiuirc inch 0121 jjtmnilfi.
Bkown Sandstone fhom East Lon«meaj>ow, MAsa. — Quap-
ried by Norcross Brothers tfe Taylor of East Longmeadow. This finii
works several (juarries, the stone differing in the degree of hard-
ness, and a little in color, which is a reddish brown. The different
varieties take the name of the quarry from which they oome.
Soft Saulsbubt Bbownstone. — This stone is one of the
STRENGTH OF MASONRY. 183
softest varieties quarried by this firm, althougli it is about as liard
as the ordinary brownstones. The specimens tested were selected
by the foreman of the stone-yard without knowing tlie purpose for
wliich they were to be used, and were ratlier below the average of
this stone in quality.
Block No. 1 measured 4" X 4" X 7.58". Area of cross-section 16
square inches. Ultimate strength 141,000 pouuci*, or 8812 j>oi/hc/«
per square inch.
Stone did not commence to crack until the pressure had reached
130,000 pounds.
Block No. t measured 4" X 4" X 7.85". Area of cross-section 10
square inches. Ultimate strength 129,000 pounds, or 8062 pounds
per square inch.
There were no cracks in the specimen when it was under 100,000
pounds' pressure.
Hard Saulsbury Brownstone. — This is one of the hardest
and finest of the Longmeadow sandstones.
Block No. 1 measured 4.16" x4.1(')" x 8". Sectional area 17.3
square inches. Ultimate strength 233,iKK) pounds, or 13,520 pounds
per square inch.
Stone did not commence to crack until the T?^*^sure had reachecl
220,000 pounds, almost the crushing-stronjrth.
Block No. 2 measured 4.15" X 4.i:>" x S". Sectional area 17.5:
square inches. Ultimate strength 2,b2,{M) pounds, or 14,650 i^ownd*
per square inch.
This specimen did not commence to crack until the pressure had
reached 240,000 pounds, or 13,953 pounds to the square inch.
The following table is ari-anged to show the sectional area and
strength of each specimen, and the average for each variety of
^tone. The cracking-strength, so to speak, of the stone, is of con-
sideitible unportance, for, after a stone has commenced to crack, its
permanent strength is probably reached ; for, if the load which caused
it to crack were allowed to remain on the stone, it would probably
in time crush the stone. In testing the blocks, however, some in-
equality in the faces of the block might cause one corner to ciack
when the stone itself had not commenced to weaken.
STKENGTH OF MASONRY.
Cell. Q. A. Gillinore, a few yeura ago, tested tbe strength ■
Uiauy vai'ielies of saii<latoiie by (.'I'lisliing Lwo-liiuli cubes. The r
suits obtalnetl by bliii laiigtvl fi-otii 4:t50 pounds to 9830 poanda pi
square inch. Coniparicig the Btrengtli of the stones lealed by tli
author with these values, we find that tlie specimens of liar
Sa»lsbiU7 sanilstone had a strengtli far aluve tlie average for smk
stones, anil tlie oilier specimens have about the same value* i
tliose obtained by Gen. Gllliuore.
We should expect, liowever, smaller values from block) 4" X 4
X n" than fioni two-inch cubes; for, as a rule, small spednMnu (
almost any material show a greater strength than large speclmeiu
It is interesting to note the mode of fractare of the btocki i
browiistone, which was the same for each spechnen. The block
fractui'ed by the sides bursting off; and, when takca fram tin ■!
STRENGTH OF MASONRY. 185
shine, the specimens had the form of two pyramids, with their
aj>exes meeting at the centre, and having for their bases the com-
pressed ends of the block. The pyramids were more clearly shown
in some specimens than in others, but it was evident that the mode
of fracture was the same for all specimens.
KruBK Sandstone. — In 1883 the writer superintended the
testing of two six-inch cubes of the Kibbe variety of Longmeadow
sandstone, quarried by Norcross Brothers. One block withstood a
pressure of 12,590 pounds to the square inch before cracking, and
the other did not commence to crack until the pressure had reached
12,185 pounds to the square inch. The ultimate strength of the
first block was 12,619 pounds, and of the second 12,874 pounds, per
square inch.
Strength and H^eight of Colorado BalldiniT
Stones.
The following are the most reliable data obtainable of the strength
and weight of the stones most extensively used for building in
Colorado.
* Med Ghranite from Platte Cafton, Crushing strength per square
inch, 14,600 pounds. Weight per cubic foot, 164 pounds.
Bed Sandstone from Pike's Peak Quarry, Manitou. Crushing
strength, 6.000 pounds per square inch.
** Red Sandstone from Greenlee & Son's quarries, Manitou
(adjacent to the Pike's Peak quarries). Crushing weight, 11,000
pounds per square inch on bed. Weight, 140 pounds per cubic foot.
* Oray Sandstone from Trinidad, Crushing weight, 10,000
pounds per square inch. Weight, 145 pounds per cubic foot.
t Ldva Stone, Curry's Quarry, Douglas County, Crushing
{trength, 10,675 pounds per square inch. Weight, 119 pounds per
;abic foot. (Experience has shown that this stone is not suitable
for piers, or where any great strength is required, as it cracks very
saslly.)
* Fort Collins, gray sandstone (laminated), much used for foun-
dations.
Crushing strength, bed 11,700 pounds, edge 10,700 pounds per
square inch Weight, 140 pounds per cubic foot. (One ton of
this stone measures just a perch in the wall.)
* SI. Vrains, light red sandstone (laminated), excellent stone for
foundations. Very hard.
♦ From tests made for the Board of Capitol Managers (of Colorado) by State
BnglDeer E. 8. Nettleton, in 1885, on two-inch cnbes.
t Floiii tests made by Denver Society of Civil Engineers, in 1884, also on two-
ndi eobes. ♦• Tested at V. S. Arsenal, Watertown, Mass.
186 STBKNGTH OF MASONRY.
Crushing strength, bed 11,505 pounds, edge 17,181 pounds per
square inch. Weight, 150 pounds per cubic loot.
Eft'ects of Freezing on Mortar.— Both cement and lime-
mortar, mixed with salt, have been used in freezing weather with-
out any bad clfcjts. (See American Architect. v«)l. xxi., p. 2>G.)
Kule for the proportion of salt said to have been used in the works
at Woolwich Arsenal: *' Dissolve one pound of rock-salt in eighteen
gallons of water when the temperature is at 32 degrees Fahr., and
add three ounces of salt for every three degrees of lower tempera-
ture."
durability of Hoop Iron Bond.— I believe that, embed-
ded in liine-mortar at such depth &s to protect it from the air,
hoop iron bond is indestructible*. In cement mortar containing
salts of potash and soda, I doubt its lasting 1,500 years iinooRoded.
— M. C. Meios, May 17, 1887.
Grouting.*
It is contended by persons having large experience In building
that masonry carefully grouted, when the temperature is not lower
than 40' Fahr., will give the most efficient result.
The following buildings in New York City have grouted walls :
Metropolitan Opera House.
Produce and Cotton Exchanges.
Mortimer and Mills Buildings.
Equitable and Mutual Life Insurance Buildings.
Standard Oil Building.
Astor Building.
The Eden Musee.
The Navarro Buildings.
Manhattan Bank Building.
Tho Presbyterian, Gorman, St. Vincent, and Woman's Hospitals.
etc ; also, the Mersey Docks and Warehouses at Liverpool, £ng:
land, one of the greatest pieces of masonry in the world, have been
grouted throughout. It should b(} stated, however, that there arj
niiiny engineers and others who do not believe in grouting, claim-
ing that there is a tendency of the materials to separate and fona
lavers.
* See American Architect, July 21, 1S87, p. 11.
STRENGTH OF MASONRY. 186a
Architectural Terra- Cotta— Weight and Strength.
The lightness of terra-cotta, combined with its enormous resist-
ing strength, and taken in connection also with its durability and
absolute indestructibility by fire, water, frost, etc., renders it
specially desirable for use in the construction of all large edifices.
Terra-cotta for building purposes, whether plain or ornamental,
is generally made of hollow blocks formed with webs inside, so as
to give extra strength and keep the work true while drying. This
is necessitated because good, well-burned terra-cotta cannot safely
be made of more than about 1^ inches in thickness, whereas, when
required to bond with brick-work, it must be at least four inches
thick. When extra strength is needed, these hollow spaces are filled
with concrete or brick- work, which greatly increases the crushing
strength of terra-cotta, although alone it is able to bear a very heavy
weight. *• A i'Olid block of terra-cotta of one foot cube has borne a
crushing strain of 500 tons and over."
Some exhaustive experiments, made by the Royal Institute of
British Architects, give the following results as the crushing
strength of terra-cotta blocks :
Crushing wt.
per en. ft.
1. Solid block of terra-cotta 523 tons.
2. Hollow block of terra-cotta, unfilled 186 *'
8. Hollow block of terra-cotta, slightly made and unfilled. 80 "
Tests of terra-cotta manufactured by the New York Company,
which were made at the Stevens Institute of Technology in April,
1888, gave the following results :
Crushing wt. Crushing wt.
per cu. in. per cu. ft.
Terra-cotta block, 2-inch square, red 6,840 lbs. or 492 tons.
Terra-cotta block, 2-inch square, buff 6,236 *' '* 449
Terra-cotta block, 2-inch square, gray 5,126 " " 369
( (
((
Prom these results, the writer would i)lace the safe working
strength of terra-cotta blocks in the wall at 5 tons per square foot
when unfilled, and 10 tons per square foot when filled solid with
brick-work or concrete.
The weight of tem-ootta in solid blocks is 122 pounds. When
186* STBENGTH OP MASONRY.
made in hollow blocks 1^ inches thick, the weight varies from 6f
to 85 pounds per cubic foot, the smaller pieces weighing the most.
For pieces 12" x 18" or larger on the face, 70 pounds per cubic fool
will probably be a fair average.
For the exterior facing of fire-proof buildings, terra-cotta is non
considered as the most suitable material available.
STABILITY OF PIERS ANP BUTTBESSES. 187
CHAPTER VIT.
8TABII1ITT OF PIERS AND BUTTRESSBS.
A PI Kit or buttress may be cousMered stable when the forces
acting upon it <lo not cause it to rotate or "tip over," or any
course of stones or brick to slide on its bed. When a pier has to
sustain only a vertical load, it is evident that the pier must be
stable, although it may not liave sufficient strength.
It is only when the pier receives a thrust such as tliat from a
rafter or an arch, that its stability must be considered.
In order to resist rotation, we must have the condition that the
moment of the tluiist of the pier about any point in the outside of
the pier shall not exceed the moment of the weight of the pier
about the same point.
To illustrate, let us take the pier shown in Fig. 1.
Let us suppose that this pier receives the foot of a rafter,
which exerts a thrust T in the direction AB» The tendency of
this thrust will be to cause the pier to rotate about the outer
edge b 1 ; and the moment of the thrust about this point will be
T X a lb I, a lb i being the arm. Now, that the pier shall be just
in equilibrium, the moment of the weight of the pier about the
same edge must just equal T X a, 6,. The weight of the pier
will, of course, act through the centre of gravity of the pier (which
in this case is at the centre), and in a vertical direction; and its arm
will be 6|<r, or one-half the thickness of the pier.
Ilcncc, to liave equilibrium, we must have the equation,
T X ttibi = W X bic.
Ihit under this condition the least additional thrust, or the crush-
ing off of the outer edge, would cause the pier to i-otate: hence,
to have the pier in safe equilibrium, we must use some factor of
safety.
This is generally done by making the moment of the weight c(iual
to that of the thiiist when referred to a point in the bottom of the
pier, a certain distance in from the outer tnlge.
This distance for piers or buttresses should not be less than one-
fourtb of tbe thlcknesa of the pier.
18R
STABILITY OF PIERS AND BUITBESSEI^.
Rcpresontiiig this point in the figui*e by h, we have the neceasuj
e(i nation for the safe stability of the pier,
TX ab= W X it,
t denoting the width of the pier.
We cannot from this e<iuation detenuine the dimensions of a
pier to resist a given thmst; becanse we have the distance ah, /,
and W, all unknown quantities. Hence, we must first guess at i\w
size of the pier, then find the length of the line a6, and sec if
the moment of the pier is equal to that of the thrust. If it is not,
we must guess again.
Graphic Method of determining: the Stability of a
Pier or Buttress. — When it is desii-ed to determine if a givon
pier or buttress is capable of resisting a given thrust, the probleiu
can easily be solved graphically in the following manner.
TiCt ABCD (Fig. 2) represent a pier which sustains a given
thnist T at B.
To detennine whether the pier will safely sustain tliis thrust, we
pi-oceed as follows.
Draw the indefinite line liX in the direction of the thnisL
Through the centre of gravity of the pier (which in this case Is at
the centre of the pier) (h-aw a vortical line until it intersects tint
line of the thrust at c. As a force may be considered to act any-
where in its line of direction, we may consider the tlinut and Ih*
weiixht to act at the point c: and the resultant of these two forces
can l)e obtained by laying off the ihnist T from e on eX, and Ui«
wcijrlit of the pier IT, from c on the line cY, lx)th to the same
scale (pounds to the inch), completing the parallelogram, and dimw-
ing the diagonal, if this diagonal prolonged cats the base of the
pier at less than one-fourth of the width of the liase from the outer
eilge, the pier will l>e unstable, and its dhneusious must beduuigiad.
The stability of a pie7' may be increased by adding 10 U* ira%|l
STABILITY OF PIERS AND BUTTRESSES. 186
(by placing some heavy mnterial on top), or by Increasing Its width
at the base, by means of " set-offs," as in Fig. 3.
Figs. 3 (A and B| show the method of determinit^ the stability
^f a buttress with offsets.
The flrst step Is to find the vertical line paaslng throngli the
centre of gravity of tlie whole pier. This is best done by dividing
the bmtresa up into quadrilaterals, as ABCD, DEFG, and GIIIK
(Fig. 3A), finding the centre of gruvity of each quadrilateral by
the method of diagonals, anil then measuring the perpendicular
distances A'g, A'„ X^, from the diSei^ent centres of gravity to the
line KI.
Multiply the area of each qitadrilateral by the distance of its
centre of gravity from the line KT, and add together the areas
and the products. Divide the sum of the latter by the sum of the
former, and the result will be the distance of the centre of gravity
of the whole buttress from KI. This distance we denote by X^.
Example I. — Let the buttress shown in Fig. 3A have Ilia
dimensions given l)etween llie cross-marks. Then the arv& of
the quadrilaterals and the distances from their centres of gravity to
KI would be as follows;
1st area = 35 sq. ft X, = (V.ft-> 1st area x X, - M.2.5
2d area = 23 sq. ft. X, = t'M 2d area x A\ = 67.85
3d ai-ea = 11 sq. ft. X-i = i^.OS 3d area X A',, = 54.45
Total a
L, mi s<|. ft.
Total
t, 155.55
Tlie sum of the moments is IS.^..^; and, dividing this by the total
area, we have 2.25 as the distance Xu- Measuiing tliis to the scale
of the drawing froqj KI, we have a point through which the
Tertic«l line fMlng through the centre of gravity moat pass.
190
STABILITY OF PIERS AND BUTTRESSES.
After this line is found, the metho<l of dctemiining the stability of
the pier is the same as that given for the pier in Fig. 2. Fig. 3B
also illustrates the method. If tlie buttress is more than one foot
thick (at right angles to the piano of the paper), the cubic contents
of the buttress must be obtained to find the weight. It is easier.
howeviT, to divide tlie real thrust by the thickness of the buttress,
which i^ivi's the thrust per foot of buttress.
J^ine of lleniiitsince, — Dcjinition, The line of resistance
or of i>nvs.sures, of a pier or buttress, is a line drawn througli the
centre of pressure of each joint.
The centre of prenftitre of any joint is the point where the
resultant of the forces acting on that portion of the pier above
the joint cuts it.
The line of pressures, or of resistance, when drawn in a pier,
shows liow near the greatest stress on any joint comes to the edges
of tliat joint.
It can be drawn by tlie following method.
Let AIU'I) (Fig. 4) be a pier
whose line of I'esistance we wish
to draw. First divide the pier in
height, into portions two or three
feet high, by drawing horizontal
lines. It is more convenient to
make the i)ortions all of the same
size.
Proloiii: the line of the thrust,
and dr.'iw a verti<'al line through
th(» centre of giiivity of the pier,
intersertiiig tlu* line of thrust at
tin' i)oint (I. From a lay off to a
scah' the thrust T and the weights
of the different ]M)rtions of the pier,
eonnnencing with the w«Mght of the
upper portion. Thus, ir, r(*pn»s<*nt8
the wi'ight of the porti(m alM)ve the
■ ir-*t jiiinl : z'*^ represents the w«»ight
of tin* .s.M'<)n:l iH>rtion; and so on.
Tin* sum (if the /r's will <M|nal the
whole \\«'ii:iil of the pier.
Ilaviiii: iti-oeeeded thus far, etmipMi* a |)Hralleloffraiii, with 7* and
w^ tor it> two sides. Dniw the diagonal, and prolong U. When-
it eius iiii> first, joint will Im' a |N>iiil hi the line of mlitAnoe.
Draw another parallehtgram, with 7' and Wi + lOg for lU iwotklML
Draw the di;igonal intenMH^ting the second Joint at 8. rromud !■
Fi|.4.
.Ji. ^.«kX:>- - ai2 -«■*■ •■rill.— :_. u- v' •■ ij- :i:
*• uLk.*5i*-- ■•:««*•■■ ■♦■ »^- .I'-'i^ ii-.*««** — ;!. '.■;• — Lij;"'- li 'i ..::
r TIIMMT- f 5^»^ *^*» ^ iiftUii**-— *':i;; T*U* v _i'_ v v. -.y.
hulki: V "U^-- uUTtt' »•:. i - ti 1 at. a:T '-• f «•'■" v::.
^ *^^ *■— wfcr- t« jsrjs^tf- * _*•■ *-L ill ;.'zr.?«' lui'-v- ll- i, ...
;^i»*»' - . ^■**^ nil - - * t^ — — -
J/
= ^
-*-
Z'. = *'
^ ■
ZZ J<
w
: ji = ^..,:
^i*
• » •>...■
190
STABILITY OF PIERS AND BUTTEES8ES.
After this line is found, the method of determining the stability
the pier is tlie same as that given for the pier in Fig. 2. Fig. i
also illustrates the method. If the buttress is more than one fc
thick (at right angles to the plane of the paper), the cubic contei
of the buttress must be obtained to find the weight. It is easii
however, to divide the real thrust by the thickness of the buttre:
which gives the thrust per foot of buttress.
J^iiie of Kesistaiice. — Definition, The line of resistan
or of pressures, of a pier or buttress, is a line drawn through t
centre of pressure of each joint.
The centre of pressure of any joint is the point where t
resultant of the forces actmg on that portio.n of the pier abo
the joint cuts it.
The line of pressures, or of resistance, when drawn in a pi<
shows how near the greatest stress on any joint comes to the edg
of that joint.
It can be drawn by the following method.
Let ABCB (Fig. 4) be a pier
whose line of resistance we wish
to draw. First divide the pier in
height, into portions two or three
feet high, by drawing horizontal
lines. It is more convenient to
make the portions all of the same
size.
Prolong the line of the thnist,
and draw a vertical line through
the centre of gravity of the pier,
intersecting the line of thrust at
the point a. From a lay off to a
scale the thrust T and the weights
of the different portions of the pier,
coiuniencing with the weight of the
upper portion. Thus, to i represents
the weight of the portion above the
lirst joint; i02 represents the weight
of the second portion; and so on.
The sum of the to's will equal the
whole weight of the pier.
Having proceeded thus far, complete a parallelogram, with T u
w I for its two sides. Draw the diagonal, and prolong it. Whfi
it cuts the first joint will be a point in the line of resistanc
Draw another parallelogram, with T and Wi+Wt for iU two aldf
Draw the diagonal intersecting the second Joint at %
Fit.4.
STABILITY OF PIERS AND BUTTRESSES. 191
this way, when the last diagonal will intersect the base in 4. Join
the points 1, 2, 3, and 4, and the resulting line will be the line of
resistance.
We have taken the simplest case as an example; but the same
principle is true for any case.
Should the line of resistance of a pier at any point approach
the outside edge of the joint 'neai-er than one-quarter the width
of the joint, the pier should be considered unsafe.
As an example embracing all the principles given above, we will
take the following case.
Example II. — Let Fig. 5 represent the section of a side wall
of a church, with a buttress against it. Opposite the buttress, on
the inside of the. wall, is a hammer-beam truss, which we will sup-
pose exerts an outward thrust on the walls of the church amount-
ing to about 9600 pounds. We will further consider that the
resultant of the thrust acts at P, and at an angle of 60° with a
horizontal. The dimensions of the wall and buttress are given in
Fig. 5 A, and the buttress is two feet thick.
Question. — Is the buttress sufficient to enable the wall to
withstand the thrust of the truss ?
The first point to decide is if the line of resistance cuts the
joint CD at a safe distance in from C To ascertain this, we must
find the centre of gravity of the wall and buttress above the joint
CD. We can find this easiest by the method of moments around
KM (Fig. 5A), as already explained.
The distance Xi is, of course, half the thickness of the wall,
or one foot. We next find the centre of gravity of the portion
CEFG (Fig. 5A), by the method of diagonals, and, scaling the
distance X«, we find it to be 2.95 feet.
The area of CEFG = ^g = 10 square feet; and of GIKL = Ax
= 26 square feet.
Then we have,
X,-\ ^, =26 ^, X X, = 26
Xt = 2.95 ^2 = 10 A^X Xi- 29.5
36 36 ) 55.5
Xo = 1.5
Or the centre of gravity is at a distance 1.5 foot from the line
ED (Fig. 5). Then on Fig. 5 measure the distance Xn = 1.5 foot,
and through the point a dmw a vertical line intersecting the line
of the thrust prolongisd at O. Now, if the thrust is 9600 pounds
for a buttress two feet thick, it would be half that, or 4800 pounds,
lor a buttrass one loot thick. We will call the weight of the
IBS STABILITY OK PIEKS AND BUTTHB88BS.
masonry of whicb the buttreea itDd wall la built IiJO ponnila pef
ciibie foot. Then tbe Ihiiist is equivalenl lo 4800 -^ 150, or Hi
cubic fctt of masonry. Laying tbls off lo a scale from O, in the
illreotion of the Ihnist ami the area of the masonry, :tl> square feel
from 0 on tbe vertical line, completing the rectangle, anil (Irawjug
ilin iliaguiial, we find it cnts ibe joint CD al ti, within tbe Uinlls
of safety.
We must next Qud where theliueof resistaoce cuts tlie base ^fi.
First Hml the centre of gravity of tbe wtiole Ognre, wbUib I*
fuiMiit by ascertaining the distances X,', X3', in fig. 6A, and
making the following computation:
2'.98 A^<
= 24 A,' ■K J,' = 11.62
4'.e5 A,
'= 12 ^,'X ,lV = i»-«
TO 70 1 imw
T„' = 2.35
Then from the line EJi (Fig. 0| lay off the disUncv Xt' =
2'.2.'i, and ilraw through il a vi'rtlcal line iutcraeuliug tbe line of tlie
tiirust at V. Un this vertical fi-uni O'jucasurc down the whole
area 76, and from its extremity lay off tbe thniit T^ U at tl»
STABILITY OF I'lKRS AND BUTTRESSES. 193
proper angle. Di*aw the line O'e intersecting the base at c. Tliis
is the point where the line of resistance cuts the base; and, as it is
at a safe distance in from A, the buttress has sufficient stability.
If there were more offsets, we sliould i^roceed in the same way,
finding where the line of resistance cuts the joint at the top of
each offset. The reason for doing thisis because the line of resist-
ance might cut the base at a safe distance from the outer edge,
while higher up it might come outside of the buttress, so that the
buttiess would be unstable.
The method given iu these examples is applicable to piei's of any
sliape or material.
Should the line of resistance make an angle less tliau 30^ with
any joiut, it might cause the stones above Uie joint to slide on
their bed. This can be prevented either by dowelliug, or by incliu-
lug the joint.
It is very seldom in architectural coustruction that such a case
would occur, however.
194 THE STABILITY OF ARCHES.
CHAPrER vin.
THE STABILITT OF ARCHB8.
The arch is an arrangeimmt for spanning large openings by
means of small blocks of stone, or other material, arranged in a par-
ticular way. As a rule, the arch answers the same purpose as tbe
beam, but it is widely different in its action and in tbe effect that
it has upon tlie appearance of an edifice. A beam exerts merely a
vertical force upon its supports, i>ut the arch exerts both a vertical
load and an outward thrust. It is this thrust which requires that
tho arch sliould be used with caution wliere the abutments are not
abundantly large.
Before taking up the principles of the •
arch, we will define the many terms relating
to It. The distance ec (Fig. 1) is called
the ftpan of the arch; ai, its rise; b, its
crown; its lower boundary Hue, eac, its
9(^t or intrados ; the outer boundary line, pi^l
its back or extrados. The terms "soffit"
and "back'' are also applied to the entire lower and upper curved
surfaces of the whole arch. The ends of the arch, or the sides
which are seen, are called its faces. The blocks of which the arch
itself is composed are called voussoh'-s : the centre one, K, is called
the keystone ; and the lowest ones, .S.S, the tfprintfei'H, In nf*/-
weiital arches, or those whose intrados is not a complete semicircle,
the springers generally rest upon two stones, as RR, which luive
their upper surface cut to receive them: these stones are called
skewhdcks. The line connecting the lower edges of the springers
is called the sprinyhKj-Une ; the sides of the arcli are called the
haunches ; and the load in the triangular space, between the
haunches and a horizontal line drawn from the crown, is called
the spandrel.
The blocks of masonry, or other material, which support two
sucrcssive arches, are called piers : the extreme blocks, which, in
the Cease of stone bridges, generally support on one side emlMuak-
ments of earth, arc calle<l ((hutments.
A pier strong enough to withstand the thrust of ^ther areh,
should the other fall down, is sometimes called an nhnUneni pier.
Resides their own weight, arches usually support a pemnneiit kiad
or surcharge of masonry or of earth.
In using arches in architectural constructions! thit flom of fki
THE STABILITY OF ARCHES. 195
arch is generally governed by the style of the edifice, or by a limited
amount of space. The semicircular and segmental forms of arches
are the best as regards stability, and ai-e the simplest to construct.
Klliptical and three-centred arches are not as strong as circular
arches, and should only be used where they can be given all the
strength desirable.
The strenytJi of an arch depends very much upon the care with
which it is built and the quality of the work.
In stone arches, special care should be taken to cut and lay the
beds of the stones accurately, and to make the bed-joints thin and
close, in order that the arch may be strained as little as possible in
settling.
To insure this, arches are sometimes built dry, grout or liquid
mortar being aftei*wards nm into the joints; but the advantage of
this method is doubtful.
!Brick Arches may be built either of wedge-shaped bricks,
moulded or rubbed so as to fit to the radius of the soffit, or of
bricks of common shape. The former method is imdoubtedly the
l>est, as it enables the bricks to be thoroughly bonded, as in a wall ;
but, as it involves considerable expense to make the bricks of the
proper shape, this method is very seldom employed. Where bricks
of the ordinary shape are used, they are accommodated to the
curved figiu-e of the arch by making the bed-joints thinner towards
the intrados than towards the extrados; or, if the curvature is
sharp, by driving thin pieces of slate into the outer edges of those
joints; and different methods are followed for bonding them. The
most common way is to build the arch in concentric rings, each
lialf a brick thick; that is, to lay the bricks all stretchers, and to
depend upon the tenacity of the mortar or cement for the connec-
tion of the several rings. This method is deficient in strength,
unless the bricks are laid in cement at least as tenacious as them-
selves. Another way is to introduce courses of headers at intervals,
so as to connect pairs of half-brick rings together.
This may be done either by thickening the joints of the outer of
a pair of half-brick rings with pieces of slate, so that there shall bo
the same number of courses of stretchers in each ring between two
courses of headers, or by placing the courses of headers at such
distances apart, that between each pair of them there shall be one
course of stretchers more in the outer than in the inner ring.
The former method is best suited to arches of long radius ; the
latter, to those of short radius. Hoop iron laid round the arch,
between half-brick rings, as well as longitudinally and radially, is
very useful for strengthening brick arches. The bands of hoop iron
which traverse the arch radially may also be bent, and prolonged
In tbe bed-Joints of the backing and spandrels.
196
THE STAlilLlTY OF ARCHES.
By the aid of hoop-iron bond. Sir Marc-lsanibard Brunei
half-arcli of bricks laid in strong cemtint, which stood, pr<
from its abutment like a bracket, to tlie distance of sixty fe<
it was destroyed by its foundation being undermined.
The New- York City Building Laws make the following i
ments regarding brick arches: —
" All arches shall be at least four inches thick. Arches o"\
foot span shall be increased in thickness toward the hauu
additions of four inches in thickness of brick. The first ad<
thickness shall commence at two and a half feet from the c<
tli(^ span ; the second addition, at six and one-lialf feet from I
tre of the span ; and the thickness shall be increased then
inches for every additional four feet of span towards the liai
" The said brick arches shall be laid to a line on the centr
a close joint, and the bricks shall be well wet, and the join
with cement mortar in proyoitions of not more than two <
to one of cement by measure. The arches shall be well |
and pinned, or chinked with slate, and keyed."
Hide for RadUis of Brick Archett. — A good nUe for the
of segmental brick arches over windows, doors, and othe
openings, is to make the radius equal to the width of the Oj
This gives a good rise to
the arch, and makes a pleas-
ing proportion to the eye.
It is often desirable to
span openings in a wall by
means of an arch, when
there is not sufficient abut-
ments to withstand the
thrust or kick of the arch.
In such a case, the arch can
be formed on two cast-iron
skewbacks, which are held
in place by iron rods, as is
shown in Fig. 2.
AVhen this is done, it is necessai^ to proportion the size
rods to the thrust of the arch. The horizontal thrust of the
very nearly represented by the following formula: —
load on arch x span
Horizontal thrust = y x rise of arch in feet'
If two tension rods are used, as is generally the case, the
ter of each rod can be detennined by the following mie: —
^. . . , / total load on arch X span
Diameter lu iiicl.es = y/ ^ x rise of aich in fee»^
THE STABILITY OF ARCIIES.y 107
If only one rod is used, 8 should be substituted in the place of
16, in the denominator of the above rule; and, if three rods are
used, 24 should be used instead of 1(5.
Centres for Arches. — A centre is a temporary stnicture,
generally of timber, by which the voussoirs of an arch are sup-
ported while the arch is being builU It consists of parallel frames
or ribs, placed at convenient distances apart, cui'ved on the outside
to a line parallel to that of the soffit of the arch, and supporting
a series of ti-ansverse planks, upon which the arch stones rest.
The most common kind of centre is one which can be lowered, or
struck all in one piece, by driving out wedges from below it, so as
to remove the support from every point of the arch at once.
The centre of an arch should not be struck until the solid part of
the backing has been built, and the moi*tar has had time to set and
haixlen ; and, when an arch forms one of a series of arches with
piers between them, no centre should be struck so as to leave a pier
with an arch abutting against one side of it only, imless the pier has
sufficient stability to act as an abutment.
When possible, the centre of a large brick arch should not be
struck for two or three months after the arch is built.
Mechanical Principles of the Arch, — In designing an
arch, the fii-st question to be settled is the form of the arch; and in
regard to this there is generally but little choice. Where the abut-
ments are abundantly large, the segmental arch is the strongest
fonn ; but, where it is desired to make the abutments of the arch
as light as possible, a pointed or semicircular arch should be used.
Depth of Keystone. — Having decided upon the form of the arch,
the depth of the arch-ring must next be decided. This is generally
determined by computing the required depth of keystone, and
making the whole ring of the same or a little larger depth.
In considering the strength of an arch, the depth of the keystone
is considered to be only the distance from the exti-ados to the intra-
dos of the arch; and if the keystone projects above the arch-ring,
as in Fig. 1, the projection is considered as a part of the load on
the arch.
There are several rules for determining the depth of the key-
r.tone, but all are empirical; and they differ so greatly that it is
<lifficidt to recommend any particular one. Professor Rankine's
Itule is often quoted, and is probably true enough for most arches.
It applies to both circular and elliptical arches, and is as follows: —
Rankine's Rule. — For the depth of the keystone, take a
mean proportional between the inside radius at the crown, and
0.12 of a foot for a single arch, and 0.17 of a foot for an arch form-
ing one of a series. Or, if represented by a formula,
•Mi) THE STABILITY OP AECHE8.
Bnt, if we sliouM compute the stability of a •eraidreular ardi of
20 foot span, and 1.3 foot depth of keystone, we should find thai
the arch was vei^ unstablp; hen^e, in this case, we must throw tlw
rule aside, and go by our own judgment. In the opinion of the
autlior, such an arcli should have at least 2i feet depth of ucb-
Ttng, and we wiil try the stability of the arch with that thickness.
In ali calculations on tlie arch, it is customary to conaltler tlie
an'U to be one foot thick at rightangles toltsface; for it is evident,
thai, if an arch one foot thick is stable, any utmiberof arches of the
same fliiiiensioiis built alongside of it would be stable.
Graplilc Solution of tlie Stalilllty of tlie Arcli.—
Tlie most convenient luctbod of detennlning the stability of the
arch is by the graphic mutliod, as it is called.
1st Stbi'. — Draw one-half the arch to as large a scale as con-
venient, and divide it up Into voussoirs of i!qual size. In this
exaniiile, shown In Fig. '-i. we have divided the arch-ring into ten
equal voussolrs. (It is not necessary that these should be the
actttal voussolrs of which the arch is built. ) The next step Is to
And the area of each voussolr. Where the arch-rfi^ Is divided into
voussoirs of equal size, this Is easiest done tiy computing th« ana
of the arch-ring, and dividing by the number of voussoira.
Fls.3
Ridi' for 'W'li of •iiif-hiiif vf urdi-rim; is as follows: —
Area in square feet = 0.7854 X (outside radius squared — itaW.c
radius squared).
In this example the wholi' area equals 0.78-Vl X J12.5* — Id*) =
44.2 s<|iiare feet. As tiiere are ten equal voussoira, the area of «*ch
vonssilir is 4.4 square feet.
Having drawn out one-half of the arch-ring, we divide eack Joint
into tliree equal parts; and from the point A (Fig. 8] we lay off to
a scale the area of each voussoir, one below the ot'
THE STABILITY OF ARCHES. 201
with the top voussoir. The whole length of the line AE will equal
the whole area drawn to same scale.
The next step is to find the yertical line passing through the
centre of gravity of the whole arch-ring. To do this, it is first
necessary to draw vertical lines through the centre of gravity of
each voussoir. The centre of gravity of one voussoir may be found
by the method of diagonals, as in the second voussoir from the top
(Fig. 3). Having the centre of gravity of one voussoir, the centres
of gravity of the others can easily be obtained from it.
Next, from A and E (Fig. 3) draw lines at 4b^ with AE, inter-
secting at O. Draw 01, 02, 03, etc. Then, where AO intersects
the first vertical line at a, draw a line parallel to 01, intersecting
the second vertical at b. Draw 6c parallel to 02, cd parallel to 03,
and so on to kn parallel to OlO: prolong this line downward until
it intersects AO, prolonged at D. Then a vertical line drawn
through 1) will pass through the centre of gravity of the arch-ring.
2i) Step. — Draw a horizontal line through A (the upper part of
the middle third), and a vertical line through D; the two lines
intersecting at C (Fig. 3).
Now, that the arch shall be stable, it is considered necessary that
it shall be possible to draw a line of resistance of the arch within
the middle third. We will, then, first assume that the line of
resistance shall act at A, and come out at B'.
Then draw the line CB, and a horizontal line opposite the point
10, between Q and P. This horizontal line represents the hori-
zontal thrust at the crown.
Draw AP equal to QP, and the lines PI, P2, P3, etc.
Then, from the point where AC prolonged intersects the first
vertical, draw a line to the second vertical, parallel to PI ; from
this point a line to the third vertical, parallel to P2 ; and so on.
The last line should pass through B. If these lines, which we will
call the line of resistance, all lie within the middle third, the arch
may bo considered to be stable. Should the line of resistance pass
outside of the arch-ring, the arch should be considered unstable.
In Fig. 3 this line does not all lie in the middle third, and we nuist
see if a line of resistance can yet be drawn within that limit.
2i) Triai.. — The line of resistance in Fig. 3 passes farthest from
the middle third at the seventh joint from the top; and we will next
pass a line of resistance through A and where the lower line of the
middle third cuts the seventh joint, or at B (Fig. 4).
To do this, we must prolong the line <jh, parallel to 07 (Fig. 4),
until it intersects AO. In this case it intersects it at O; but this
18 merely a coincidence; it would not always do so. Through O
draw a vertical intersecting PA prolonged at C. Draw a line
303 THE STABILITY OF ARCHES.
through C &nd D, and the horizontal line p^, oppoalte the point 7:
this line represents the new horizonUkl thrust H,. Disw AP =
pQ, and the lines PI, P2, etc.; then draw the line of resistaniK
)is before. It should pass through D if drawn correctly. This
lime we aee that the line of reslatance Ilea within the middle third,
except jiist a short distance at the springing; and hence we nw}
consider the arch stable. If it had gone outside the middle third
this time, to any great extent, we should have considered the anHi
unatable.
The above Is the method of determining the stability of M
unloaded semicircular arch. Such a case very seldom occurs In
practice; but it is a good example to Illustrate the method, whidi
applies to all other cases, with a little difference in the method of
determining the centre of gravity of loadod arches.
FiB.4
Example II. — Loaded or awcharf/ed semicircular areh.
We will take the same arch as in Example L, and snppoM It to
l>e loaded with a wall of masonry of the same thickness and welgbt
per square foot as tliat of the arch-ring ; the horizontal snrtece of
rhc wall being 3 feet C inches above the arch-ring at the crown.
1st Stei-. — Find centre qfgraHty,
Commencing at Ibe crown, divide the load and aFch-rlng Into
strips two feet wide, making the last strip the width of the areb-
ring at tlie springing. Then draw the joints as shown In Hg, G.
Measure with the scale the length of each vertical line, Aa, Bb,
etc. ; then the area of Aalili Is equal to llie length of An + Bb, M
the distance between them is Just two feet. The area of ffKk li,
of course, FfX width of areh-ring.
In this case, the areas of the slices are as shown by the Ognnt on
their faces (Fig. 5}.
Now <]lvlde the areh-ring into thirds, and from the top of tba
middle thin<, at It, lay oS in succession, to a iHmla, tbe ntut td
THE STABILITY OF ARCHB8. SOB
iKcefl, commencing with the first slice (ram the crown, AaBb.
m areas, when measured off, wilt be represented by the line
2, $ ... B (Pig. 5). From the extremities of this liile, if and 6,
V lines at 45° with a vertical, intersecting at O. B>om O draw
t to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Next, draw a vertical line through the
re of each slice (these lines, in Fig. 5, are nnmlKred 1, 2, 3,
I. From the point in which the line RO intersects vertical 1 ,
t a line paraJle) to 01, lo the line 2. From this point draw a
to vertical 3, parallel to 02, and so on. The line parallel to
will intersect vertical 6 at F. Then through F draw a line
owards at 4^°, iniersecting OB at X. A vertical Hue drawn
ngb X will pass through the ceutre of gravity of the arch-rlog
its load.
I Step. — To find the thnat at thecrojnnand at the i>pringing.
) find the thrust at the crown, draw a vertical line through .V,
a horizontal line through B, intersecting at V, Now, the weight
■ch and load, and the resultant thrust of arch, must act throi^h
point. We will also make the condition that the thrust shall
through Q, the outer edge of the middle third. Then the
at of the arch must act in the line VQ. Opposite 6, on the
ical line throi^h B, draw a horizontal line IT, between KA'
V<i. This horizontal tine represents a horizontal thrust at B,
•h would cause the resultant thrust of the arch to pass through
Now draw the horizontal line BP, equal in length to H, and
I P draw lines 1, 2, 3 ... U. The line P6 represents the thrust
be Mcb at Uie springing. lie amouut In cubic feet of masonry
be detennined by measuring its length to the proper scale.
204 THE STABILITY OF ARCHES.
3d Step. — To draw the line of resistance.
The lines PI, P2, P3, etc., represent the magnitude and dirae-
tion of the thrust at each joint of the arch. Thus PI represents
the thrust of the first voussoir and its load ; P2, that of the flret
two voussoirs and their loads; and so on. Then from the point a',
where the line BP, prolonged, intersects the vertical line 1, draw
a line a7/ parallel to PI; from 6', on 2, draw a line 6V parallel
to P2, and so on. The last line should pass through Q, and be
parallel to P6.
Now, if we connect the points where the lines a'6', 6V, etc., cnk
the joints of the arch, we shall have a broken line, which is known
as the line of resistance of the arch. If this line lies within the
middle third of the arch, then we conclude that the arch is stable.
If the line of resistance goes far outside of the middle, we must see
if it be possible to draw another line' of resistance within the mid-
dle third; and if, after a trial, we find that it is not possible, we
must conclude that the arch is not safe, or unstable.
In the example which we have just been discussing, the line of
resistance goes a little outside of the middle third; but it is very
probable that on a second trial we should find that a line of resist-
ance passed through R and Q' would lie almost entirely within the
middle third. .
The method of drawing the second line of resistance was
explaineil under Example I. ; and, as the same method applies to
all cases, we will not repeat it.
The method given for Example II. would apply equally well for
a semi-elliptical arch.
Example 111. — Segmental archy with load (Fi^ 6).
1st Step. — To determine the centre ofgravify.
In this case we proceed, the same as in the latter, to divide the
arch-ring and its load into vertical slices two feet wide, and compute
the area of the slices by measuring the length of the vertical lines
An, Bh, etc. Having computed the areas of the slices^ we lay them
off in order from R, to a convenient scale, and then proceed
exactly as in Example II., the remaining steps detenAinlng the
tlirust; and the lines of resistance are also the same as given under
Example 11.
In a flat segmental arch, there is practically no need of dividing
the arch-ring into voussoirs by joints radiating from a centre, but
to consider the joints to be vertical. Of course, when built, they
must be made to radiate.
Fig. 6 shows the computation for an arch of 40-loot flpan, and
with a load 13i feet high at the centre. The depth of the arch-
ring is 2 feet 0 inches.
It will be seen, that the curve of pres as lies a iralj irlllifai
-
TIiE STABILITY OF ARCHES. 305
iddle third; uid hence the arch is abundaatlj safe, or stable,
■tild be remarked, that the line of resIstaDce in a segmental
should be drawn through the toteer edge of the middle third
springing.
lii be noticed that the horizontal thrust, and ttie thrust T,
springing, are very great as compared wiih those in a seml-
Lr arch; and hence, aJthough the segmental arch Is the
er of the two, it requires much heavier abutments,
se three examples serve to show tlic method of determining
tUlity and thrust of any arch sucli as is nseA In building.
20(1 RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
CHAPTER IX.
RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
OR THE STRENGTH OF TIE-BOD8, BARS, ROPES, AND CHAINS.
The resistance which any material offers to being pulled apart
is due to the tenacity of its fibres, or the cohesion of the particles
of which it is composed.
It is evident that the amount of resistance to tension which any
cross-section of a body will exert depends only upon the tenacity
of its fibres, or the cohesion of its particles, and upon the number
of fibres, or particles, in the cross-section.
As the number of the fibres, or particles, in the section, is pro-
portional to the area, the strength of any piece of material must be
as the area of its cross-section; and hence, if we know the tenacity
of the material per square inch of cross-section, we can obtain the
total strength by multiplying it by the area of the section in
inches.
The tenacity of different building-materials per square inch hM
been found by pulling apart a bar of the material of known dimen-
sions, and dividing the breaking-force by the area of the croti-
section of the bar.
Table I. gives the average values for the tenacity of building-
materials, as determined by the most reliable experiments.
Knowing the tenacity of one square inch of the material, all
that is necessary to determine the tenacity of a piece of any uniform
size is to multiply the area of its cross-section, in square inches, by
the number in the table opposite the name of the material. Tliii
would give the weight that would just break the piece; but, as what
we wish is the safe load, we must divide the result by a factor of
safety. Most engineers advise using a factor of safety of five f6r
a (lead load, although the New-York City and also the Boston
Building Laws require a factor of six.
Denoting the factor of safety by Sf and the tenacity by T, we
iKive as a rule.
For a rectangular bar,
breadth x depth XT
Safe load = ^;7-^^^ (1)
RESISTANCE TO TENSIOlf.
For a round bar,
„ , , , 0.1854 X diameter squared x T
Safe load = ~ -g — — (2J
ExAMPLBl. — Wliat is the safe load for a tie-bar of wUite pine
B b; 6 inches ?
Ans. Here the breadtb and depth both equal G inches, T — 7000,
and we will let tf = 5; then.
20tf X RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
y
e size of the bar is desired, we have,
iS X load
The breadth = g^^j^^^ (3)
For a round bar,
_. -S X load
Diameter squared = q '^054 v T ^^'
Example II. — It is desired to suspend 20,000 pounds from a
round rod of wrought-iron : what shall be the diameter of the rod
to carry the weight in safety ?
Ans, In this case T = 50,000; and taking 8 at 5, we have
5X20000
Diameter squared = 0.7854 x 50000 = ^-M.
The square root of this is 1.6 or 1§ inches nearly: therefore
the diameter of the rod should be If inches.
Tensile Strength and Qualities of SteeL
The elastic limit of steel should not be less than 40,000 poonds
per square inch for high grade steel, 36,000 pounds for medium
steel, and 30,000 pounds for solt steel.
The ultimate tensile strength of high grade steel should range
between 70,000 and 80,000 pounds per square inch ; of mediom,
between 00,000 and 70,000 ; and of soft steel, between 52.000 and
60,000 pounds per square inch.
The elongation in a length of 8 inches should be not less than 18
per cent, for liigh grade steel, 23 per cent, for medium, and 25 per
cent, for soft stcol.
The reduction of area at point of fracture should be not less than
35 per cent, of tho original area.
Jligh grade steel i85 per cent, carbon) should be used for com-
pression, bolsters, bearing-plates, pins, and rollers.
Medium steel (1j per cent, carbon) should be osed for tension
members, floor system, laterals, bracing, and, unless high gnde
steel is specified, should be used for all steel members except rivets.
Soft steel (11 or 12 j)er cent, carbon) should be nsed in rivets only,
and should bo tested by actually making up into rivets, riveting
two plates together, and upon being nicked and cut cmt should
show a good, tough, silky structure, with no crystalline appeannoe.
Rivet steel should not have over 0.15 per cent, oaifoon.
Steel made by the Bessemer process shonld not re over 0.06
per cent, of phosphorus, and open hearth steel e ow -^ cf 1
RESISTANCE TO TENSION. 209
per cent. The amount of phosphorus allowable should always be
stated in the specitications, as this determines the price of the pig
iron required to make the steel. About 0.04 per cent, of sulphur
is allowable, and sometimes more.*
The Working Streiig^h of steel in bi-idges is generally taken
at 12,000 pounds per square inch, and in roof trusses, and struct-
ures sustaining a steady load, at 15,000 pounds per square inch ;
or, in a general way, the strength of steel is generally taken at
20 per cent, over that allowable for wrought iron under the same
conditions.
standard spxsoifioation, adopted by bridgb-
buhiDErs, for material and workmanship
of iron and steel structures.
quality of materials.
Wn OUGHT Ibon.
Character and Finisli. — I. All wrought iron must be
tough, ductile, fibrous, and of uniform quality for each class,
straight, smooth, free from cinder pockets or injurious flaws,
buckles, blisters, or gracks. As the thickness of bars approaches
the maximum that the rolls will produce, the same perfection of
finish will not be required as in thinner ones.
2. No specific process or provision of manufacture will be de-
manded, provided the materia] fulfils the requirements of this
specification.
Standard Test Piece. — 3. The tensile strength, limit of
elasticity and ductility, shall be determined from a standard test
piece, not less than one quarter inch in thickness, cut from the full-
size bar, and planed or turned parallel ; if the cross-section is
reduced, the tangent between shoulders shall be at least twelve
times its shortest dimension, and the area of minimum cross-sec-
tion in either case shall be not less than one-quarter of a square
inch and not more than one square inch. Whenever practicable,
two opposite sides of the piece are to be left as they come from the
roils, but the finish of opposite sides must be the same in this
respect. A full-size bar, when not exceeding the above limitations,
may be used as its own test piece. In determining the ductility
the elongation shall be measured, after breaking, on an original
length the nearest multiple of a qinirttT inch to ten times the
shortest dimension of the test piece, in which length must occur the
* JTaioeB BUobo, before the Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland.
210 RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
curve of reduction from stretch on both sides of the point o< frut-
ure, but in no case on a shorter length than five inches.
Tension Iron for Open Trusses. — 1. Ail iron to be used
in the tensile members of open trusses, laterals, pins and bolts, ex-
cept plate iron over eight inches wide and shaped iron, must show
by the standard test piece a tensile strength in pounds per square
inch of :
f-rt rxr^n. 7,000 X arca of original bar , ,, . . , .
52,000 r^ — , i- ^.—r-a- (a^ ^ inches),
circumference of onginal bar
with an elastic limit not less ttian one-half the strength given by
this formula, and an elongation of twenty per cent.
Plate Iron. — .*). Plate iron 24 inches wide and under, and
more than 8 inches wide, must show by the standard test pieces a
tensile strength of 4d,C00 pounds per square inch, with an elastic
limit not less than 26,000 pounds per square inch, and an elonga-
tion of not less than 1 2 [)er cent. All plates over 24 inches in width
must have a tensile strength not less than 46,0CO pounds per sqoue
inch with an elastic limit not less than 26,000 pounds per sqoue
inch. Plates from 24 inches to 86 inches in width must have An
elongation of not less than 10 per cent. ; those from 86 inches to 4B
inches in width, 8 per cent. ; over 48 inches in width, 5 per cent.
Shaped Iron. — 6. All shaped iron and other iron not herein-
before. specified must show by the standard test pieces a tensile
strength in pounds per square inch of :
7.000 X area of original bar
50,000-
circumference of original bar*
with an elastic limit of not less than one-half the strength given
by this formula, and an elongation of 15 per cent, for bars fifo-
eighths of an inch and less in thickness, and of 12 per cent, lor
bars of greater thickness.
Hot Bending. — 7. All plates, angles, etc., which are to be
bent hot, in th(> manufacture must, in addition to the above rs-
quirements, be capable of bending sharply to a right angle at a
working heat without sign of fracture.
Rivet Iron.— 8. All rivet iron must be tough and soft^ and
pieces of the full diameter of the rivet must be capable of bending
cold until the sides are in close contact without sign of fracture on
the convoif side of the curve.
Bending Tests. — 9. All iron specified in claase 4 most bend
cold, 180 degrees, without sign of fracture, to a oorve the innflr
radius of which equals the thickness of the pieoa tested- -
RESISTANCE TO TENSION. 211
10. Specimens of full thickness cut from plate iron, or from the
flanges or webs of shaped iron, must stand bending cold, through
90 degrees, to a curve the inner radius of which is one and a half
times its thickness, without sign of fracture.
Niiiiiber of Test Pieces.— 1 1 . For each contract four stand-
ard test pieces and one additional for each 50,000 pounds of wrought
iron will, if required, be furnished and tested by the contractor
without charge, and if any additional tests arc required by the pur-
chas'ir, they will be made for him at the rate of $5J!0 each ; or, if
the contractor desires additional tests, they shall be made at his
own expense, under the supervision of tlie purchaser, the quality of
the material to be determined by the result of all the tests in the
manner set forth in the following clause.
12. The respective requirements stated are for an average of the
tests for each, and the lot of bars or plates from which samples
were selected shall be accepted if the tests give such average results ;
but, if any test piece gives results more than 4 per cent, below said
requirements, the particular bar from which it was taken may be
rejected, but such tests shall be included in making the average.
If any test piece has a manifest flaw, its test shall not be considered.
For each bar thus giving results more than 4 per cent, belov/ the re-
quirements, tests from two additional bars shall be fumishe<l by
the contractor without charge, and if in a total of not more than
ten tests, two bars (or, for a larger number of tests, a proportion-
ately greater number of bars) show results more than 4 pier cent,
below the requirements, it shall be cause for rejecting the lot from
which the sample bars were taken. Such lots shall not exceed 20
tons in weight, and bars of a single pattern, plates rolled in univer-
sal mill or in grooves, and sheared plates shall each constitute a
separate lot.
Time of Inspection. — 13. The inspection and tests of the
material will be made promptly on its being rolled, and the quality
determined before it leaves the rolling-mill. All necessary facili-
ties for this purpose shall be afforded by the manufacturer ; but, if
the inspector is not present to make the necessary tests, after due
notice given him, then the contractor shall proceed to make such
number of tests on the iron then being rolled as may have been
agreed upon ; or, in the absence of any special agreement, the num-
ber provided for in clause 11, and the quality of such material shall
be determined thereby.
Variation of Weiglit. — 14. A variation in cross-section or
weight of rolled material of more than 2^ per cent, from that speci-
fl€d nwy be catiBe for rejection.
212 liESISTAKOK TO TENSION.
Steel.
15. No specific process or provision of manufMetare will be de-
manded, ])rovided tl^c material fullils the regniremg^ts of this
specitication.
Test Bars.— IG. From three seiiarate ingots of each casta
round sample bar, not less than three-quarters of ivn inch in diame-
ter, and having a length not less than twelyo diameters between
jaws of testing machine, shall be furnished and tested by the manu-
facturer without charge. These bars are to be truly round, and
shall be linished at a uniform heat, and arranged to cool onifonnljf,
and fro:n these test pieces alone, the quality of the material ahaU be
determined as follows :
Tensile Tests.— 17. All the above described test baramut
have a tensile strength within 4,000 pounds per square inch of that
specified, an elastic limit not less than one-half of the tenaile
strength of the test bar, a percentage of elongation not leas than
1,200,000 -f- the tensile strength in pounds per square inch, and a
percentage of reduction of area not less than2,40O,O0O -f- thetensQe
strength in pounds per square inch. In determining tbe ductUitj
the elongation shall bo measured after breaking on an original
length of ten times the shortest dimension of the test piece, ia wliicli
lengt h must occur the curve of reduction from stretch on both sidn
of the point of fracture.
Finish and Reduction of Area on Finished Ban.^
IS. Finished bars must be free from injurious flaws or cracks and
must have c workmanlike finii^h, and round or square test pieoee
cut therefrom when pulled asunder shall have reduction of area at
the point of fracture as above specified.
[Number of Test Pieces.— 19. For each contract foor.snch
tests respectively for reduction of area and for bending, and one
additional of each for eax;h 5 J,()()0 pounds of steel will, if zeqoired,
be made by the contractor witliout charge ; and if the porohaaeris
not satisfied that the I'eduction of area test correctly indicates the
effect of the heating and rolling, such additional tests for tenaik)
strength, limit of elasticity, and ductility, as ho may desire, will bo
made for him on test pieces confomiing to the provisions of daoso
8, at the rate of $5.00 each, or, if the contractor desires additional
tests, he may make them at his own expense, under tho saperviuon
of the purchaser, the quality of the material to be determined bj
the result of all the tests in the manner set forth in the fbUowing
clause.
20. Except for tensile strength, the respective : ijpiinaiinli
BESLSTANCE TO TENSION. 213
stated &re for an average of the tests for each, and the lot of bars
or plates from which samples were selected shall be accepted if the
tests give such average results ; but, if any test piece gives results
more than 4 per cent, below said requirements, the particuhir bar
from which it was taken maybe rejected, but such tests shall be in-
cluded in making the average. If any test piece has a manifest
flaw, its U^st shall not be considered. For each bar thus giving
results more than 4 per cent, below the requirements, tests from two
additional bars chall be furnished by the contractor without charge,
and if in a total of not more than ten tests, two bars (or. for a
larger number of tests, a proportionately greater number of bars)
show results more than 4 per cent, below the requirements, it shall
bo cause for rejecting the lot from which the sample bars were
taken. Such lot shall not exceed 20 tons in weight, and bars of a
single pattern, plates rolled in universal mill or in grooves, and
sheared plates shall each constitute a separate lot.
Rivet Steel. — 2l. Rivet steel shall have a specified tensile
strength of 60,000 pounds per square inch, nnd test bars must have
a tensile strength within 4, 03 pounds per square inch of that spe-
cified, and an elastic limit, elongation, and reduction o ' area at the
point of fracture, as stated in clause 17, and be capable of bending
double, flat, without sign of fracture on the convex surface of the
bend.
Time of Inspection. — 22. The inspection and tests of the
material will be made promptly on its being rolled, and the quality
determined before it leaves the rolling-mill. All necessary facili-
ties for this purpose shall bo afforded by the manufacturer ; but, if
the inspector is not present to mak(^ the necessary tests, alter due
notice given him, then the contractor shall proceed to make such
namber of tests on the steel then being rolled as may have been
agreed upon, or, in the absence of any special agreement, the
number provided for in clause IG or 10, and the (luality of such
materia] shall be determined thereby.
Variation of Weigrhts. — 23. A variation in cross-section
or weight of rolled material of more than 2^ per cent, from that
specified may be cause for rejection.
CAhT Iron.
24. Except where chilled iron is specifie 1, all c;astings shall be
of tough gray iron free from injurious cold ^huts or blow holes, true
to pattern, and of a workmanlike finish. Sample pieces 1 inch
aqiuune oast from the same heat of metal in sand moulds shall be
214 RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
capable of sustaining on a clear span of 4 feet 6 inches a centnl
load of 500 pounds when tested in the rough bar.
Workiiiansjiip.
Inspection. — 25. Inspection of the work shall be made as it
progresses, and at as early a period as the nature of the work
permits.
26. All workmanship must be first-class. All abutting surfaces
of compression members, except flanges of plate girders where the
joints are fully spliced, must be planed or turned to even bearings
so that they shall bo in such contact throughout as may be obtained
by such means. All finished surfaces must be protected by white
lead and tallow.
27. The rivet-holes for splice plates of abutting members shall
be so accurately spaced that when the members are brought into
position the holes shall be truly opposite before the rivets are
driven.
28. When members are connected by bolts whioh transmit
shearing strains the holes must be reamed parallel, and the bolts
turned to a driving fit.
29. Hollers must be finished perfectly round and roller-beds
planed.
Rivets. — 80. Rivets must completely fill the holes, have foil
heads concentric with the rivet, of a height not less than ,0 the
diameter of the rivet, and in full contact with the surface^ or be
countersunk when so requiretl, and machine-driven wherever prM-
ticabie.
31. Built members must, when finished, bo true and free from
twists, kinks, buckles, or open joints between the component pieces.
Eye Burs and Pin-hole, and Pilot Nuts.— 82. All
pin-holes must be accurately bored at right angles to the axis of
the members, unless otherwise shown in the drawings^ and in
piec^es not adjustable for len^.th no variation of more than one-
thirty-se3oncl of an inch will be allowed in the length between
centres of pin-holes ; tlio diameter of the pin-holes shall not exceed
that of the pins by more than one- thirty-second inch, nor by more
than one-fiftietli inch for pins under three and one-half inobes
diameter. Eye bars must Ic strai^^ht before boring; the holes
must be in the centre of the heads, and on the centre line of
the bars. Whenever links arc to be packe;! more tiian onemi^tli
of an inch to the foot of their length out of parallel with the
axis of the structure, they must bo bent with a gentle
RESISTANCE TO TENSION. 215
the head stands at right angles to the pin in their intended position
before being bored. All links belonging to the same panel, when
placed in a pile, must allow the pin at each end to pass through at
the same time without forcing. No welds will be allowed in the
body of the bar of eye bars, laterals, or counters, except to form
the loops of laterals, counters, and sway rods ; eyes of laterals,
stirrups, sway rods, and counters, must be bored ; pins and lateral
bolts must be finished perfectly round and straight, and the party
contracting to erect the work must provide pilot nuts where neces-
sary to preserve the threads while the pins are being driven.
Thimbles or washers must be used whenever required to fill the
vacant spaces on pins or bolts.
Tests of Eyes on Full Size Bars.— 33. To determine the
strength of the eyes, full size eye bars or rods with eyes may be
tested to destruction, provided notice is given in advance of the
number and size required for this purpose, so that the material can
be rolled at the same time as that required for the structure, and
any lot of iron bars from which full size samples are tested shall be
accepted —
1st, if not more than one-third the bai*s tested break in the eye ;
or,
2d, if more than one- third do break in the eye and the average of
the tests of those which so break shows a tensile strength in pounds
per square inch of original bar, given by the formula —
g3 pQQ_7,000 X area of origjnal bar _ ,^^ ^ ^.^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^j -^
Circumference of original bar
inches), and not more than one-half of those which break in the eye
fail at more than 5 percent, below the strength given by the formula.
Any lot of steel bars from which full size samples are tested shall be
accepted if the average of the tests shows a strength per square inch
of original bar, in those which break in the eye, within 4,000
pounds of that specified, as in clause 17 ; but if one- half the full size
samples break in the eye, it shall be cause for rejecting the lot from
which the sample bars were taken. All full size sample bars which
break in the eye at less than the strength here specified shall be at
the expense of the contractor, unless he shall have made objection
in writing to the form or dimension of the heads before making the
eye bars. All others shall be at the expense of the purchaser. If
the contractor desires additional tests thev shall be made at his own
expense, under the supervision of the purchaser, the acceptance of
the bars to be determined by the result of all the tests in the
manner above set forth. A variation from the specified dimensions
216 RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
of the heads will be allowed, in thickness of one-tblrty.second inch
below and one-sixteenth above that specified, and in diameter of
OD^ourth inch in either direction.
Piincbiug' and Reaming. — 34. In iron work, the diameter
of the punch shall not exceed by more than one-sixteenth inch the
diameter of the livcts to be used. Rivet-holes must be accurately
spaced ; the use of drift-pins will be allowed only for bringing
together the several parts forming a member, and they must not be
driven with such force as to disturb the metal about the holes ; if
the hole must be enlarged to adnut the rivet, it must be remade;
all rivet-holes in steel work, if punched, shall be made with a punch
one-eighth inch in diameter less than the diameter of the rivet in-
tended to be used, and shall be reamed to a dluneter one-sixteenth
inch greater than the rivet.
Annealing. — 35. In all cases where a steel piece iu which the
Full strength is required has been partially heated, the wlM^e piece
must be subsequently annealed. All bends in steel most be nade
cold, or if the degree of curvature is so great as to require heatings
the whole piece must be subsequently annealed.
Painting. — 86. All surfaces inaccessible after assembling
must be well painted or oiled before the parts are assembled.
37. The decision of the engineer shall control as to the interpre-
tation of drawings and specifications during the execution of work
thereunder, but this shall not deprive the contractor of his right to
redress, after the completion of the work, for an improper decision.
BESISTANOE TO TENSION.
217
TABLE II.
Tables showing the Strength given by tJie Form'tUce of Sections 4,
6, and 88, for Iron Bars of Various Dimensions.
7,000 X area of original bar
For Standard Te«t Pi, ce of Bars, 88,000 - i,- j-^SSiS^e ^^tTri^iiiA bif-
For ey*i8 of Full Size Eye Bars,
7,000 X area of original bar ^^ . ,. . u * ia^u
62,000 ,- —i- c . _i 11- - 5 .0 lbs. per inch of width.
' circumference of original bar
7,000 X area of original bar
For Standard Te^t Piece of Angles. 50,000 - ^jrcuiSference of original h^'
Size of bar.
1
X 1
u
xU
u
xli
2
X 2
2
X \
2
X I
2
X 1
8
X i
8
X J
8
X 1
4
X \
4
X 1
4
xli
5
X }
5
xl
5
xli
5
X li
5
x2
6
X ?
6
x 1
6
xll
6
X U
G
X 2
7
X 1
7
xli
7
X 2
Standard
test piece.
50,250
49,8>0
49,380
48,500
50, GOO
50,090
49,670
,50,510
49,91)0
49,:i80
49,790
49,200
48,070
49,720
49,090
48,500
47,9G0
47,010
49,670
49,000
48,390
47.800
46,750
48,940
47,680
46,560
Eyes of full
size eye
bars.
40,150
49,195
48.G:J0
47,500
49,600
49,090
48,670
49,010
48,400
47,880
47,790
-47,200
46,070
47,220
46,590
46.00* »
45,460
44,510
46.070
40,000
45,390
44,800
43,750
45.440
44,180
48,060
Size of angle.
6 X 6 X i
6 X 6 X J
4 X
4 X
x^
2
f
3.x 3 X i
3 X 8 X li
2 X 2 X i
ii
Standard
test piece.
48,320
47.165
48,750
47,620
49,160
47,870
49,180
48,810
BESISTANCE TO TENSION.
TABIjB UL
Strength of Iron Bode.'
Bxra Tehiilb STBBHaTsn or Round WBODsOT-lHoir Roia i to 4 Ik<
IK DllKETBB, AND TH* WkioHTS PBn FOOT, TBI SaPK BrBBISTH B
lAEEH AT 10.000 PoDNDe PIR SqUABE IhCE.
Tensile Strength and Quality of Wrou^ht-Imm.
The best American rolled iron has a. breaking tenatle itTength of
from fifty thousand to sixty thousand pounds per sqaitre Inch tar
epecimens not exceeding one square inch in section. Ordlnar7bM>-
iron should not brealt under a less strain than fifty thouNnd
pounds per square inch, and sliould not take a set under a Knu
less than twenty-five thousand pounds per square inch. A bar one
inch square and one foot long should stretch fifteen per cent of Ui
length before breaking, and should be capable of being bent, coH,
00° over the edge of an anvil without sign of fracture, ud should
show a fibrous lestnre when broken.
Iron IliJit will not meet these re<[airements fs not suitable for
structures; Imt notliinii is gained by speclfyii^ more severe tMts,
because, in bars of the sizes and shapes usually required for tneb
work, nothinp mon? can be atlaineil with certainty, and coniden-
Eiuus milkers will be unwilling to agree to furnish that which ll la
not practicable to produce.
The aorking-iarerirjtb of wrought^iron ties hi trUM
RESISTANCE TO TENSION. 219
taken at ten thousand pounds per square inch. In places where
the load is perfectly steady and constant, twelve thousand pounds
mav be used.
The extension ofir&n, for all practical purposes, is as follows : —
Wrought-iron, ru^no of its length per ton per square inch.
Cast-iron, ^,,^01) of its length per ton per square inch.
Appearance of the Fractured Surface of Wrouglit-
Iron.
At one time it was thought that a fibrous fracture was a sign of
good tough wrought-iron, and that a crystalline fracture showed
that the iron was bad, hard, and brittle. Mr. Kirkaldy's experi-
ments, however, show conclusively, that, whenever wrought-iron
breaks suddenly, it invariably presents a crystalline appearance;
and, when it breaks gradually, it invariably presents a fibrous ap-
pearance. From the same experiments it was also shown, that the
appearance of the fractured surface of wrought-iron is, to a certain
extent, an indication of its quality, provided it is known liow the
stress was applied which produced I he fracture.
Small, uniform crystals, of a uniform size and color, or fine,
close, silky fibres, indicate a good iron.
Coarse crystals, blotches of color caused by impurities, loose and
open fibres, are signs of bad iron; and flaws in the fractured surface
indicate that the piling and welding processes have been imper-
fectly carried out.
Kirkaldy^s Conclusious.^
Mr. David Kirkaldy of England, who made some of the most
valuable experiments on record, on the strength of wrought-iron,
came to some conclusions, many of which differed from what had
previously been supposed to be true.
The following are of special importance to the student of build-
ing construction, and should be carefully studied : —
" The breaking-strain does not indi(uite the quality, as hitlK'ito
assumed.
** A hUjh breaking-strain may be due to the iron being of superior
quality, dense, fine, and moderately soft, or simply to its being
very hard and unyielding.
** A ioKJ breaking-strain may be due to looseness and coarsenc^ss in
the texture; or to extreme softness, although very close and fine
in quality.
1 Kirkaldy *B Ezperiraents on Wrought-iron iind Steel.
220 RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
** The contraction of area at fracture, previously oyerlooked, fo
an essential element in estimating the quality of specimens.
** The respective merits of various specimens can be correctly as
tained by comparing the breaking-strain y(9t/i% with the contraci
of area.
" Inferior qualities show a much greater variation in the breakj
strain than superior.
^* Greater differences exist between small and lai*ge bars inooi
than in fine varieties.
''The prevailing opinion of a rough bar being stronger thai
turned one is erroneous.
" Rolled bars are slightly hardened by being forged doii'n.
'' The breaking-strain and contraction of area of iron plates
greater in the direction in which they are rolled than in a tn
verse direction.
*^ Iron is less liable to snap, the more it is worked and rolled.
'* The ratio of ultimate elongation may be greater in short tl
in long bars, in some descriptions of iron; whilst in others then
is not affected by difference in the length.
'* Iron, like steel, is softened, and the breaking-strain reduced,
being heated, and allowed to cool slowly.
'* A great variation exists in the strength of iron bars which hi
been cut and welded. Whilst some bear almost as much as
uncut bar, the strength of others is reduced fully a third.
" The welding of steel bars, owing to their being so easily bun
by slightly overheating, is a difficult and uncertain operation.
'^ Iron is injured by being brought to a white or welding heat
not at the same time hanmiered or rolled.
'^ The breaking-strain is considerably less when the strain is ai^
suddenly instead of gradually, though some have imagined that '
reverse is the case.
'* The specific gravity is found generally to indicate pr^ty correc
th<* quality of spiH'inieus.
"' Till' doiisity of iron is decreased by the process of wire-draw
and by the similar ])rocess of cold rolling,^ instead of increwted,
previously imagined.
*' The density of iron is decreased by being drawn out nude
tensile strain, instead of increased, as believed by some.
"" It must be abundantly evident, from the facts which have b
* The couclusioii of Mr. Kirkaidy in renpect to cold rolllDg ia undoubtedly t
when the rolling amonntrt to wirc-dniwini;: but, when tbe oomprenkm of
Hurface by rolliiiK diminidheH the MH:tional area in greiUer proportion thtt
cxtcndd the bar, the result, accordinfc to the experience of tho PlttsbnTj^ mi
facturerH, ia a slight iucreaise in the density of the Iron.
1 [STANCE TO TENSION. 221
produced, that the breahing-strain, when taken alone, gives a false
impression of, instead of indicating, the real quality of the iron, as
the experiments which have been instituted reveal the somewhat
tiarthng fact, that frequently the inferior kinds of iron actually
yield & higher result than the superior. The reason of this diHer.
enoe was shown to be due to the fact, that, whilst the one quality
retained its original area only very slightly decreased by the
strain, the other was reduced to less than one-half. Now, surely
this variation, hitherto unaccountably completely overlookedj is of
importance as indicating the relative hardness or softness of the
material, and thus, it is submitted, forms an essential element in
considering the safe load that can be practically applied in various
structures. It must be borne in mind, that, although the softness of
the material has the e£fect of lessening the amount of the breaking-
strain, it has the very opposite effect as regards the workimj-Htrain.
This holds good for two reasons: first, the softer the iron, the less
liable it is to snap; and, second, fine or soft iron, being more uni-
form in quality, can be more depended upon in practice. Hence
the load which this description of iron can suspend with safety may
approach much more nearly the limit of its breaking-strain than
can be attempted with the liarder or coarser sorts, where a greater
margin must necessarily be left.
'* As a necessary corollary to what we have just endeavored to
establish, the writer now submits, in addition, that the working-
strain should be in proportion to the breaking-strain per square
inch of fractured area, and not to the breaking-strain per square
inch of original area, as heretofore. Some kinds of iron experi-
mented on by the writer will sustain with safety more than double
the load that others can cuspend, especially in circumstances where
the load is unsteady, and the structure exposed to concussions, aa
in a ship or railway bridge."
Eye-Bars and Screw-Ends*
Iron ties are generally of flat or round bars attached by eyes
And pins, or by screw-ends. In either case, it is essential that the
proportion of the eyes or screw-ends shall be such that the tie will
not break at the end sooner than in the middle. In importaiit
work, eyes are forged on the ends of flat or round bars, by hydraulic
pressure, in suitably shaped dies; and, while the risk of a welded
eye is thus avoided, a solid and well-formed eye is made from the
iron of the bar itself.
A similar process is adopted for enlarging the screw-ends of long
222 RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
rods ; so that, when the screw is cut, the diameter of the screw il
the root of the thread is left a little larger than the body of the rod.
Frequent trials with saeh rods has proven that they will pull apart
in tension anywhere else but in the screw ; the threads remaining
perfect, and the nut turning freely after having been subjected
to such a severe test. By this means the net section required in
tension is made available with the least excess of material, and no
more dead weight is put upon the structure than is actually needed
to carry the loads imposed.
T/ie diameter of the eye in flat bars, having the same thiokneBB
throughout, should be 0.8 the width of the bar. The width of the
metal on each side of the eye should be \ the width of the bar, and
in front of the eye should be equal to the width of the bar. Wlien
it becomes necessary to use a larger pin than here described (as
when a bar takes hold of the same pin with bars of larger size), the
amount of metal around the eye should be still further increased.
The weight of an eye-bar, proportioned as here described, will be
about equal to that of a plain bar of a length equal to the distaDce
from centre to centre of the pins, plus twice the diameter of the
pin multiplied by the width of bar, both in inches.
The thickness of flat hara should be at least one-fourth of the
width in order to secure a good bearing surface on the pin, and the
metal at the eyes should be as thick as the bars on which they are
upset.
Table IV. gives the proportion for eye bars, sleeve nuts, and
clevises, as manufactured by ttie ^ew Jersey Steel & Iron Co.
Table VI. gives the proportion for upset screw-ends for dif-
ferent sizes of rods, as adopted by the keystone Bridge Com'
pany.
Cast-iron has only about cno-thirJ the tensile strength of
wroujj:! It-iron ; and as it is liabk* to air-holes, internal strains from
uiH'ipial contraction in cooling, and other concealed defects, redu-
cing its effective area for tension, it should never be used where it
is subject to any great tensile stress.
Tables.
The following tables give the strength of iron rods, bars, steel
and iron wire roi)es, nianila ropes, and dimensions of upset screw*
ends.
The diameter in Table III. is the least diameter of the rod; and,
if the screw is cut into the rod without enlarging the end, the
effective diameter between the tlu^ads of the icrew dumld be
ised in calculating the strength of the rod. '
BBS:8TANCK TO TEN8IOH.
TABLE IV.
Aa
WE1.DLES3, DIE-FOEGSD EYE BARS,
1* .SSKISSSSTSSSSSSTJSStESsS
p
is3=sai!==Sf=s2"S2"»'s""-*»— a-
11
ii.i,,.i,i,.„i,,,%„„i.f.
I' The snulleM diameter iif i>[n given for each width <ir tiuris the xiandunl i
11m larger fliea given are Ih« iBivwt that ai-c nJlowatile with each head.
SThe thlckneaa of the ban ahonld not he more than ) nor lesa than t their wi
l]n>-ban an hored J, Inch larger than the diameecr of the pin. Other eizes
befamlMhed-
224 RESISTANCE TO TENSIOK
Table YIl. was compiled from data furnished by the John A.
Roebling's Sons Company of New York.
The ropes with nineteen wires to the strand are the most pliable,
and are generally used for hoisting and running rope. The ropes
with seven wires to the strand are stiffer, and are better adapted
for standing rope, guys, and rigging.
Table IX. is taken from Trautwine's " Pocket-Book for Engi-
neers.*'
Table X. gives the weight and proof, or safe strength, of ofaains
manufactured by the New Jersey Steel and Iron Compuiy.
RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
TABLE V,
Safe Strength of Plat Rolled Iron Bar».
e. per gquare toob.
226
RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
TABLE V. (concluded).
Safe Strength of Flat Rolled Iron Bars,
s ^
Width iu iucbeB.
Thicknei
in incbef
3J"
3 J"
4"
^"
H"
^"
5"
H"
6"
6i"
IbB.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
Ibe.
A-
2,190
2,340
2,500
2,660
2,810
2,970
3,130
3,440
3,750
4,060
i
4,380
4,690
5,000
5,310
5,630
5,940
6,250
6,880
7,500
8,130
A
6,560
7,030
7,500
7,970
8,440
8,910
9,380
10,300
11,300
12,200
i
8,750
9,380
10,000
10,600
11,300
11,900
12,500
13,800
15,000
16,300
■h
10,900
11,700
12,500
13,300
14,100
14,800
15,600
17,200
18,800
20,300
i
13,100
14,100
15,000
15,900
16,900
17,800
18,800
20,600
22,500
24,400
iV
15,300
16,400
17,500
18,600
19,700
20,800
21,900
24,100
26,300
28,400
i
17,500
18,800
20,000
21,300
22,500
23,800
25,000
27,500
30,000
32,500
A
19,700
21,100
22,500
23,900
25,300
26,700
28,100
30,900
33,800
36,600
f
21,900
23,400
25,000
26,600
28,100
29,700
31,300
34,400
37,500
40,600
\i
24,100
25,800
27,500
29,200
30,900
32,700
34,400
37,800
41,300
44,700
i
26,300
28,100
30,000
31,900
33,800
35,600
37,500
41,300
45,000
48,800
+1
28,400
30,500
32,500
34,500
36,600
38,600
40,600
44,700
48,800
52,800
1
8
30,600
32,800
35,000
37,200
39,400
41,600
43,800
48,100
52,500
56,900
+?
32,800
35,200
37,500
39,800
42,200
44,500
46,900
51,600
56,300
60,900
1
35,000
37,500
40,000
42,500
45,000
47,500
50,000
55,000
60,000
65,000
We
37,200
39,800
42,*b00
45,200
47,800
50,500
53,100
58,400
63,800
69,100
n
39,400
42,200
45,000
47,800
50,600
53,400
56,300
61,900
67,500
73,100
lA
41,600
44,500
47,500
50,500
53,400
56,400
59,400
65,300
71,300
77,200
U
43,800
46,900
50,000
53,100
56,300
59,400
62,500
68,800
75,000
81,300
n
48,100
51,600
55,000
58,400
61,900
65,300
68,800
75,600
82,500
89,400
H
52,500
56,300
60,000
63,800
67,500
71,300
75,000
82,500
90,000
97,500
is-
56,900
60,900
0
65,000
69,100
73,100
77,200
81.300
89,400
97,500
105,600
1}
61,300
65,600
70,000
74,400
78,800
83,100
87,500
96,300
ia->,ooo
113,800
15
65,600
70,300
75,000
79,700
84,400
89,100
93,800
103,100
112,500
121,900
2
70,000
75,000
80,000
85,000
90,000
95,000
100,000
110,000
120,000
130,000
RESISTANCE TO TENSION. 2
TABLE Vi.
Upset ScretB-End» fm- Round and Square Bars.
StINDAHD PKOFORTIOm OP THE KETBTOKK BRIDGE COUPAKr.
RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
TABLE VI. (concluded).
Upset Srrew-Enda.
RE81STANCB TO TKN8I0M.
TABLE Vn.
Strength <tf Irott and Steel Wire Bopen,
Mahutictdbed by thk Jobs A. Koeblikh'b Sons Co., New Tobk.
In IIh. uf roio
•i'-'liX.
CastSte
230 RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
Ropes, Hawsers, and Cables.
(HASWKLL.)
Ropes of hemp fibres are laid with three or four strands of
twisted fibres, and run up to a circumference of twelve inches.
Hawsers are laid with three strands of rope, or with four rope
strands.
C<(hles are laid with three strands of rope only.
Tarred ropes, hawsers, etc., have twenty-five per cent less
strength than white ropes: this is in consequence of the injury
the fibres receive from the high temperature of the tar, — 290°.
Tarred hemp and manila ropes are of about equal strength.
Manila ropes have from twenty-five to thirty per cent less strength
than white ropes. Hawsers and cables, from having a less pro-
portionate number of fibres, and from the increased irregularity
of the resistance of the fibres, have less strength than ropes; th^
diflference varying from thirty-five to forty-five per cent, being
greatest with the least circumference.
Ropes of four strands, up to eight inches, are fully sixteen i^er
cent stronger than those having but three strands.
Hawsers and cables of three strands, up to twelve inches, are
fully ten per cent stronger than those having four strands.
The absorption of tar in weight by the several ropes is as fol-
lows : —
Bolt-rope . . . .18 per cent
Shrouding . . 15 to 18 per cent
Cables 21 per cent
Spun-yarn . . 25 to 30 per cent
White ropes are more durable than tarred.
The greater the degree of twisting given to the fibres of a rope,
etc., the less its strength, as the exterior alone resists the greater
portion of the strain.
To compute the Strain that can be borne with
Safety by New Ropes, Hawsers, and Cables,
deduced from tlie Experiments of tlie Russian
Government upon tlie Relative Strengtli of
Different Circumferences of Ropes, Hawsers,
etc.
The United-States navy test is 4^00 pounds for a white rope, of
three strands of best Ri(/a hemp, of one and three-fourths inches in
cArcvmference (i.e., 17 ^000 pounds per sqxiare inch); but in thefol-
lowing table 14^000 pounds is taken as the unit of strain that can
be boime with safety.
Rule. — Square the circumference of the rope, hawser, etc., and
multiply it by the following units for ordinary ropes, etc
EESI6TANCE TO TEN8I0W. 331
TABLE VIIL
Showing the Unltx for compiitiny the Safe Strain that may be
home by Eo/ipk, Ilftienem, nnd Cablea.
WTien it is required to uncertain the vjeiylit or strain that can
be borne by ropes, etc., in yeneral use, the above units sliould be
redut^ed one-third, in order to meet tlie reduction of tlieir atrength
by chafing, and exposure to ilie weather.
TABLE IX.
Streniilb and irpi(/At 0/ Manila Hope.
m
RESISTANCE TO TENSION.
TABLE X.
Weight and Proof Strength of Chain.
HE KewJebbet Steel ahd Iroh (
StrCDl^rth of Old Iron. — A square link 12 inches broad, 1
incli (hick, and about 12 feet long was taken from the Kieff Bridge,
then i ) years old. and tesl-od in comparison with a similar link
which hiid been preserved in the slock-housc since the bridge was
built. The following is a record iif a mean of four longitudinal
test pieces, 1 >i IJ n 8 inehes, taken from each link.
Old link
from bridge.
"•ss^
21.8
n'.a
(TlH Hwhaoiul Worid, London.)
JtSSlBTASCS TO SUEAKINO,
CHAPTER X.
RESISTANCX! TO SHBAKINO.
Bt shearing is meant the pushing of one part of a piece by the
Other. Thos in Fig. 1, let abed be a, beam resting upon the sup-
ports 8S, which are very near logclher. If a sufflcientl; heavf
load were placed upon tlie beam, it nould cause the beam to break,
not by. bending, but by pushing the whole central part of the beam
thrai^b between tlie ends, as represented in the figure. This mode
of fracture is called " shearing."
The resistance of a body to shearing is, like its resistance lo
tension, directly proportional to tbe area to lie sheared. Hence, if
we denote the resistance of one square inch of tlie material to
shearing by F, we shall have as ihe safe resistance to shearing,
Safe shearing > _ area to be sheared X
strength fc S
ft denoting factor of safety, as before.
A piece of timber may be sheared either longitudinally or trans-
versely; and, as the resistance is not the same in both cases, the
value of F will be different In the two cases. Hence, in substi-
tuting values for F, we must distinguish whether the force tends
to shear the piece longituilinally (lengthwise), or Iransyersely
(across).
Table I. gives the values of F, as determined by experiment, tor
) materials employed in architectural con uo-
(1)
JtEBlSTANCE TO SHEARING.
Showini/ the Reninlnn'-.f of Materials to Shearing, hoUi Longtta-
dlualljf and Traii^terxelf/, or the Values of f.
MATsnr^tLs.
VaiuMofr.
It«.
MO'l
470 d
640.
732*
lb*.
K.7(»i>
as:
si:
4!«)0c
a,«uc
6.700 «
^000.
!J3;i:^°«
Tliere are but few cases in ai-fliEtectural construction in vrbicb
tbe resistance to siiearing tms to lie provided for. The one moat
frequently met witii is at the end of a tie-beam, as in Pig. S.
Fifl. 2.
Tlie I'afier U e\pits a iluiisl ivliicli teiKls to push or shear off the
pifice A HVD, ami tli« area of the section at CD slioiild offer enough
resiatanci' to kei^p tliu rafter In place. This area is eqnal to CD
• Ranklnt^. bKlrkaldy. c Tcuulwtm. >1 Hntfield. o Uu)Ied.SUt« iSomtB-
RESISTANCE TO SHEARING. 235
times the breadth of the tie-beam; and, as the breadth is fixed, we
have to determine the length, CD. If we let // denote the hori-
zontal thrust of the rafter, then, by ,a simple deduction from
formula 1, we have the rule: —
Length of CD in inches = b.^th o^beam x r <2)
F, in this case, being the resistance to shearing longitudinally.
Example I. — The horizontal thrust of a rafter is 20,000 pounds,
the tie-beam is of Oregon pine, and is ten inches wide: how far
should the beam extend beyond the point D f
Ana. In this case H = 20,000 pounds, and from Table X. we find
that jP = 840; aS we will take at 5. Then
5 X 20000
= 10 X 840* ^^ nearly 12 inches.
Practically a large part of the thrust is generally taken up by an
iron bolt or strap passed through or over the foot of the rafter and
tie-beam, as at A (Fig. 2). When this is done, the rod or strap
should be as obliquely inclined to the beam as is possible; and,
whenever it can be done, a sti-ap should be used in preference to
a rod, as the rod cuts into the wood, and thus weakens it.
The two principal cases in building construction where the
shearing strength must be computed, are pins and rivets; for the
latter see pages o57-565.
Strength of Pins in Iron Bridge and Roof Trusses.
— Iron and steel trusses are now so generally used that it is neces-
sary for the architect who is at all advanced in his profession to
know how to determine the strength of the joints, and especially of
pin joints ; and to facilitate the calculation of the necessary size of
pins, we give Table II , which shows the single shearing strength
and bearing value of pins, and Table III., showing the maximum
bending moment allowed in pins.
Pins must be calculated for shearing, bending, and bearing
strains, but one ol" the latter two only (in almost every case) deter-
mines the size to be used.
By bearing s( rain is meant the force required to crush the edges of
the iron plales against, which the pin bears.
The several strains usually allowed per square inch on pin con-
nections in bridges are : shearing, 7,500 pounds; crushing, 12,000
pounds ; and bending, 15,000 pounds for iron, and 20,000 pounds
for steel.
The shearing strain is measured on the area of cross-section ; the
236
STRENGTH OF PINS.
crushing strain, on the area measured by the product of the diame-
ter of the pin, by the thickness of the plate or web on which it bears.
The bending moment is determined by the same rules as given
for determining the bendiug moment of beams.
When gi'oupsof bars are connected to the same pin, as in the
lower chords of trusses, the sizes of bars must be so chosen, and the
bars so placed, that at no point on the pin will there be an exces-
sive bending strain, on the presumption that all the bars are
strained equally per square inch.
The following example will show the method of determining the
size of pin in a simple joint.
Example.— Fig. 3. Determine the size of pin for the joint in
the lower chord of a truss, shown in Fig. 3, the middle bar being a
vertical suspension rod, merely to hold the chord in place.
40,000
IX 4'
I -. ^ IX 4'^40,000
* IX 4'-40.000 ^
40,000
1X4'
4-
i
Fig. 8.
Ans, The shearing and crushing strain in this case is 40,000
pounds. The bending moment will be 40,0(iO x 1"; the distance
between the centres of the two outer bars = 40,000 pounds. Prom
Table III. , we find that to sustain a bending moment of 40,000 lbs.,
with a fibre strain of 15,000 lbs., will require a 3" or 3^" pin.
From Table II., we find that the bearing value of a 3^" pin is but
37,500 lbs., and that we must increase the size of the pin to 8f
inches. The shearing strength of a 3|" pin is, from Table II.,
67,500 lbs., so that the size of pin we must use in this case is deter-
mined by the bearing strain. To be sure of the correct size of the
pin, one must make the calculation for all three of the strains.
STBSNaTH OV FINB.
237
II
Tin
I
8
^J
12 £ 0
?^£
iS2 ' o-
fl * * * *
• • •
oooo
JO » » ak aK
ss
fooo
•b * tfte «%
S
to
iO
t-fr-»00
C3CD CO CPvD
«D»Ol>i-l
e*«oaQCQ
Ol ^T QO Od
00 f* o>c^
00'
Sc#SS
(.^ ^oSco
CO 00 00 CO
i
CD CO CO CO
ooOt^OiO
§coapT-Joo
H04Ol8OeO
©t^TH-ri Othcqjo
CO CO '^ H*
e*ococD
CO O 00 o
SCO CO o
'■^ "^C 3C 3C
• oooo
JBOOOS
*■ » • •. •»
CO 00 CO ^
gfSS
C^ lO o o
®§88
o _
to
00 Ct *-4 09
^5
lO lOiO <o
t-oa"^ CQCQosa i>cooaoo oooit*
COOIA <OeOOt« lOCOrHO AOOt-CO
gt> «>Qdo6 oJOfH— c^oo-Tjlio iocet^oo
tf CO 00 00 oo
CO OO OO 00
^5' ^^ ^T ^5'
^» ■^l ^1 ^<
lOQO)
^3 9^ 0^ ^ ^
,J IT. t^ 0> tH
lO lO CO o
Of «D O t'-
•* ^ r "k
00 »o ooo
tH tH tH Ol
00 CO Od 90
<M<M W 00
QCIO OCO
ceo;^ OO
00 ■^ '^ ■^
fooo
ooo
lO OlO
hP Oi CO lO CO
ooc
o»o ~ »o
00 OS th c<r
— rHG<l Ol
o - o o
OO c? 5
o»oo»o
Tti jC t- 00
^ooo
O lOO »o
O — CO'^
cr CO CO CO
o .
<B P
-• lO Tf t^ iC
^X) OSCQ 00
& •
CO t> =; CO
o o -^ t'-
CQt-CO -^
^ '^ r^ 00
OOIOO*
o — -^ o
Oi "^ Oi '^
t-^tH tHO^-MW COCOOOTf -rfttOtet^
CO
ni»
a
Hs'XhXMKH*
0Q^C9C9
09 09 0)01
238
STRENGTH OF PINS.
TABLE III.
Maximum Bending Moments to he Allowed on Pinafor Maacimum
Fibre Strains of 15,000, 20,000, and 2^,600 Pounds per tquare
Inch."
Diam-
eter of
pin.
Moment
for
S = 15,000
Moment
i for
,S'=20,000.
Moment
for
^=22,500.
Diam-
eter of
pin.
Moment
for
^=15,000.
Moment
for
^'=20,C00
Moment
for
>S=22.500.
Inches.
1
ii
Lbs. in.
1,470
2,100
2,aso
8,830
Lbs. in.
1,960
2,800
3.830
5,100
Lbs. in.
2,210
3,140
4,310
5,740
Inches.
4
4i
4|
Lbs. in.
94,200
103,400
113,000
123,300
Lbs. in.
125,700
137.800
150,700
164,400
L1)8. in.
141,400
155.000
169,600
185,000
ii
4,970
6,320
7,890
9,710
6,630
8,430
10,500
12,900
7,460
9,480
11,800
14,600
41
4f
4J
134,200
145,700
157,800
170,600
178,900
194,300
210,400
227,500
201,800
218,500
286,700
256,900
2
2|
11,800
14,100
16,800
19,700
15,700
18,800
22,400
26,300
17,700
21,200
25,200
29,600
5
5i
5|
184,1U0
198,200
213,100
228,700
245,400
264,800
284,100
804,900
276,100
297,800
819,600
848,000
2^
23,000
26,600
30,600
35,000
30,700
35,500
40,800
46,700
34,500
40,0 0
45,900
52,500
5J
51
5J
246,000
262,100
280,000
298,600
826,700
849,500
873,800
898,200
867,600
898,100
410,900
447,900
8
8^
39.800
44,900
50,600
5fi,600
53,000
59,900
67,400
75,500
59,600
67,400
75,800
84,C00
6
61
818,100
888,400
359,500
881,500
424,100
451,200
479,400
506,700
477,100
507,600
589,300
S72300
31
31^
8J
31
63,100
70,100
77,700
85,7C0
84,200
93,500
103,500
114,200
94,700
105,200
116,500
128,500
64
6f
404,400
428,200
452,900
478,500
589,200
570,900
608,900
688,000
606,600
642,800
879,400
717300
Remarks — The following is the formula for flexure applied to pins :
M=
Sir d»
or =
S Ad
32 ""' ~ 8
M=moment of forces for any section through pin.
S=strain per sq. in. in extreme fibres of pin at that section.
A = area of section.
d= diameter.
»r=3.14159.
The forces are assumed to act in a plane passing through the axis of the pin.
Tiie above table gives the values cf M for different diameters of pin, and
for three values or S.
If ?.I max. is known, an inspection of the table will therefore ehow wliat
diameter of pin must be used in order that S may not exceed 16,000, 20,000, or
22,500 lbs., as the requirements of the case may be.
For Railroad Bridges proportioned to a factor of safety of 6, it is castom-
ary to make 8 max. = 15,000 lbs. in iron aid =: 20,000 lbs. in steel.
* Carnegie, Phlpps & Co. 'a Hand-book.
STRENGTH OF PINa 239
Bending Moment in Pins.
The only difficult part of the process of calculating the sizes of
pins will generally be found in determining the bending moment.
In cases where the strains all act in the same plane, the bending
moment can generally be determined by multiplying the outside
force by the distance from its centre to the centre of the next bar,
as in the foregoing example. When, however, the forces act in
several planes, as is generally the case, the process of determining
the bending moment is more difficult, and can be best determined
by a graphic process, first published by Prof. Chase Green, and in-
cluded in his lectures to the students in engineering at the Univer-
sity of Michigan.
As the pieces acting on any well-designed joint are symmetrically
arranged, it is unnecessary to consider more than one-half of their
number. Fig. 4 shows a sketch of one-half the members of a joint
in the lower chord of a Howe truss. The pieces are parallel to the
plane of the paper, and the pin is perpendicular to the same, but
drawn in cabinet perspective, at an angle of 45° with a horizontal.
The bars are assumed to be each one inch thick, and the channel
to have one-half -inch web. The centre of the hanger is }" from the
centre of the channel.
The method of obtaining the bending moment is as follows :
Draw the line A B at an angle of 45° with a horizontal, and, com-
mencing with c, lay off the distances between the centres of the bars
to a scale (1^" or 3" to the foot will be found most convenient) ;
then draw the lines 1-3, 2-3, etc. , parallel to the pieces which they
represent in the trass, to a scale of pounds. Resolve the oblique
forces into their horizontal and vertical components (in this exam-
ple there is but one oblique force).
Next draw the stress diagram (Fig. 6) as follows : On a horizon-
tal line lay off 1-2 equal to the first or outer force ; 2-3, equal to
the next, 3-4 ; and 4-1, being the horizontal component of the
brace, closes the figure. In the same way, lay off the vertical
forces 15, 5 6, 61. If the forces are correct, the sum of the
forces acting in one direction will always equal those acting in
the opposite direction. From 1 draw the line 1 0 at 45", equal to
the same scale of, say, 20,000 pounds, or any other convenient
length. Draw 0 2, 0 3, 0 4, etc. Then, in Fig. 5, starting at the
first horizontal force, draw c d parallel to 0 2, 6^ e parallel to 0 3,
«/ parallel to 0 4, and/^ parallel to 0 1.
In the same way, starting at the first vertical force, draw r 8 par-
allel to 0 5> s ^ parallel to 0 6, and t 2 parallel to 0 ' ' '^
240
STREN(iTH OF PINS.
line c d e fk will represent the boundary of the horizontal ordi.
nates, and /• ,9 1 'O the boundary of the vertical ordinate?. And to
find the resultant of these ordinates at any point on the pin, it is
o ^
t
only nooci^sary to draw tlic diagonal from the ends of the ordinates
ut that ))<)ii)t. Thr.s. thi> resultant at X^ Fig. ft, will be i»-ii, uid
it is evidtnt that this is the longest hypothenuM whk^ onn be
BTRENGTH OF PINS.
241
dxawn ; and this hypotheause, multiplied by 0-1 (20,000 pounds),
gives 62,600 pounds as the maximum bending moment on the pin.
To obtain the maximum bending moment,, it is necessary to take
the longest hypothenuse that can be drawn, no matter at what
place it occurs.
If one desires to try the effect of changing the order of the bars
on the pin, it can readily be done. Suppose the diagonal tie to
change places with the next chord bar. The horizontal stress dia-
gram then becomes 1-2, 2-si, 3-4', 4-1. The equilibrium polygons
A Fig. 11.
will now be (Pig. l)cdef' k' and r' s' f w, and the longest hypoth-
enuse, w a*, or 3J", which makes the bending moment 75,000
pounds, showing that the arrangement in Pig. 4 is the best.
As a rule, in arranging the bars on a pin, those forces which
counteract each other should be close (ogcthor.
To further illustrate this method of dotcrniininp: the bending
moment on pins, we will determine the bending moment for the
pin at the joint A, Pig. 8. This is the some truss as worked out on
page 686, the strains given in Pig. 8 being ^ of the strains at the
joint, as all the pieces are doubled. Pig. 9 shows the size and
•RBOgMDei of the ties and strat. It is assumed that the web of
'242 STREN(4Tn OF PINS.
the channel is reenforced to make it §" thick. Drawing the line
AB, Fig 11, we lay off the outer force at a; then measaring off an
incli. the distance between centres of the two outer bars, we lay off
the next force {)arallel to the direction in which it acts ; and in the
oame way, the other two forces. The three inclined forces must be
resolved into their horizontal and vertical components. We next
draw tlio stress diagram (Fig. 10) to the same scale of i)ounds, mak-
ing 1 0 e(iual 20,000 pounds. The lines 0 4 and 0 6 ha[)pen, in this
case, to coincide. Then, in Fig. 11, we draw a d parallel to 0 2, '> f
parallel to 0 8, c d — 0 4, and d e parallel to 0 1. In the same way,
we obtain i\w line hjk B. In this case, it will be seen tlial the
longest horizontal ordinate is h by while at that point there is no
vertical ordinate^ ; also, that no hypothenuse can be dra^Ti which
will he as long as h b, so that we must take A 6 as the greati»st re-
sultant : and this, multiplied by 20,000 pounds, gives 31,800 {xmnds
as the inaxirnuni bending moment cm the pin. It will be seen that
this is just the prmluct of the outer force by its arm to the centre of
the next bar, so that the greatest bending moment is at that point.
To determino the sizeof the pin, we find, from Table III., that for
a steel j;iii to sustain this moment, allowing a flbro strain of 20,<MM)
pounds, wc shall need a 25" pin. This pin has a bearing value
of JU,5()) i)()un(ls for a bar an inch thick. The outer bar in this
case is J thick, and has a strain of J31.800 [>ounds, equivalent to
42,4'K) pounds for a 1 bar. And we see, from Table II., that we
shall need to u.'^e a lU' pin to meet this strain. The shearing
streij;^^th of a ii\" pin is 36 tons, or nn)re than double the strain.
Hence we must use a lU" pin. or. by increasing the thickness of the
bars, we might reduce the pin to 3 inches.
BEARIKQ-PLATES FOB GIBBEBS AKD COLUMKS.
PROPORTIONS OF OAST-IRON BBARINGkPLAT
FOR aiRDERS AND COLUMNS (1896).
If a heavily loaded column or girder should rest directly up
wall or pier of masonry, the weight would be distributed over
a small area that in most cases there would be danger of cms
the masonry, particularly if it were of brick or rubble work.
Section
• / ^ * \^
Pi an
Fig I
<£
n — n
FiqZ
^P
Fig 3
prevent this, it is customary to put a bearing-plate between
end of the beam or column and the masonry, the size of the j
being such that the load from the column or girder divided bj
area of the piate shall not exceed the safe crushing- strength o
masonry per unit of measurement.
The load per square inch on different kinds of masonry
not exceed the following limits :
242^ BEARIKG-PLAT£8 FOB GIBDfiBS AND COL17MK8.
For granite 1,000 lbs. per sq. in.
•• best grades of sandstone 700 ** " " **
** soft sandstone 400 " *** '* **
'* extra hard brickwork in cement mor-
tar 150 to 170" " " "
** good hard brickwork in lime mortar. . . 120 " ** ** **
** good Portland cement concrete 150 ** " ** "
'* sand or gravel 60 *« « " «
Example 1. — The basement columns of a six-story warehouse
support a possible load of 212,000 pounds each ; under the oolumn
is a base-plate of cast-iron, resting on a bed of Portland cement
concrete two feet thick : What should be the dimensions of the
base-plate ?
Answer. — ^As the plate rests on concrete, the bottom of the
plate should have an area equal to 212,000 -h150= 1,413 square
inches, or 37 inches square. The column should be about 10
inches in diameter and 1 inch thick. The shape of the base-plate
should be as shown in Fig. 1.
The height K should be equal to the projection P, and D should
be equal to the diameter of the column. The thickness of all p<w-
tions of the plate should be equal to that of the column above the
base. This is not so much required for strength as to get a perfect
casting, as such castings are liable to crack by unequal cooling
when the parts are of different thicknesses. The projection of the
flange G should be three inches, to permit of bolting the plate to
the bottom of the column. It will be seen that in such a plate no
transverse strain is developed in any portion of it.
THICKNESS OF FLAT BASEPLATES.
For small columns and wooden posts with light loads, plain flat
iron plates are generally used. They may have a raised ring to fit
inside the base of an iron column, or for a wooden post, a raised
dowel, 1^ inches or 2 inches in diameter. If the plate is very
thick, a saving in the weight of the plate may be made by bevel-
ling the edge, as shown in Fig. 2, without loss of strength. The
outer edge, however, should not be less than one inch thick.
When such a plate is used, it is evident that if the plate is to
distribute the load equally over its entire area, it must have suffi-
cient transverse strength to resist bending or breaking, and this
strength will depend upon the thickness of the plate. It is diffi-
cult to make an exact formula for the thickness of such platu^
IKABiyG-PLkTES 50^ ^1212X5 JlTl/ COLrHTs. 34ic
bat the writer ]u« -is-ricr-i -JiaE: *>_*:
will be *lway? :c li* <^*-^ iLie
strength:
•r
'-M«— '
ThickZKS Lt Z'J^Z>t -Z. Jl< Jlfr* I
' -^f
in which r = TZc . *i c v.- : ^-.- ::~:j*:d '." *> u-»sk r. v/;az^
inches, azati P -j:± pr- ;.-r; • - f m.- ^i^- ^ -os s a-'.* >-- i-oi Vjt
poet or <s:lX=_i- If ▼- ^z*: ' *-_- ^-*r '.■- .i»- s-* —-»■'> -i^u^^e
we hare r = 1 a "«f:~-'= tz..; .r = l.i* jiit/^a "^/uvr *.ijv*.j=Ai
i>i
= -sr T^-J3afi.
*- -.»r*.
' " /* -A
i — ^ T-- Lr--: :■ if '.. r. n.— -e.-L*. * -** » Tat '
= ■_ •■ t*. — 4*- z. ;.';».
V, ' J
, A;,
■i?^.
Thicdesff = % ^ ^ -.■*:_
1- TH'flr*
t - •
^IjJftTrr*
e'^rrHj.'" ill. -^
The ^. *
* "
t^\.
s> -r
^Ir-
:i.?ri ..
^ . ^ ■
■*•-
V
M*
242/ BEABIKG-PLATES FOB GIBDEB8 AliTD GOLUHKS.
multiplied by 7,000, gives 42,000 pounds as the safe stiength of
one bracket.
The resistance to crushing may be found by multiplying the
distance X by the thickness of the bracket and the product by
13,000. Thus, if X is four inches and the thickness one inch, the
resistance to crushing would be 52,000 pounds. Such a bracket
would support the end of a 20- inch light steel beam of 16 feet
span under its full load ; for heavier beams, the thickness of the
bracket and also the length D should be increased.
■v^
STHEMGTU ( POSTS, STRUTS, AND C0LUMN3. 243
CHAPTER XL
STRBirGTH OF POSTS, STRUTS, AND COLUMNS.
As the strength of a post, strut, or column, depends primarily
upon the resistance of the given material to crushing, we must
first determine the ultimate crushing-strength of all materials used
for this purpose.
The following table gives the strength for all materials used in
building, excepting brick, stone, and masonry, which will be found
in Chap. VI.
TABLE I.
Average Ultimate Crushing-Loads, in Pounds per Square Inch,
for Building-Materials.
'
. Crashing
Crushing
Material.
weight, in lbs.
Material.
weight, in lbs.
per sq. inch.
per sq. inch.
C.
C.
For Stone, Brick,
Woods (continued).
and Masonry, see
Beech
9,300 »
Chap. VI.
Birch ....
Cedar . . .
11,600 a
6,500 a
Metals.
Hemlock . . .
5,400 b
Cast-iron ....
80,000
Locust . . .
11,720 b
Wrought-iron . . .
36,000
Black walnut
5,690
Steel (cast) ....
225,000 a
White oak . .
Yellow pine .
3,150 to 7,000
4,400 to 6,000
Woods.
Ash
8,600 a
White pine . .
Spruce . . ,
2,800 to 4,500
The values given for wrought and cast iron are those generally
Tised, although a great deal of iron is stronger than this. The
values for white oak, yellow pine, and spi*uce, are derived from
experiments on full-size posts, made with the government testing-
machine at Watertown, Mass. ; the smaller value representing the
strength of such timber as is usually found in the market, and
the larger value, the strength of thoroughly seasoned straight-
grained timber. For these woods a smaller factor of safety may be
a Trautwine.
b Hatfield.
ii44 STRENGTH OF WOODEN POSTS AND COLUMNS.
used than for the others, tlie strength of wlilch was derived from
experiments on small pieces.
The values for wood are for dry timher. Wet timlx»r is only
about one-half as strong to resist compression as dry tindx*r, and
this fact shouhl be taken into account when using gr«'en timlHT.
TJk- sfrcntfth of <i ro/«////i, jwat, or Mrut depends, in a large
nu'asun', uiK)n the pr(>j)ortion of the length to the diameter or
least thickness. Up to a certain length, they bre^k simply by
comi)ressi()n, and above that they break by first l>ending sideways,
and then breaking.
Wo<Mlen Columns.
For wooden colunms, where the lengtli is not more than twelve
times the least thickn(*6s, the strength of the column or strut
may be computed by the nde,
area of cross-section x C
Safe load- - -factor of safety ~ . <1'
where C* denotes the strength of tlie given material as given in
Table I.
The factor of safety to l)e used dei>end8 ujwn the plaoc where
the cohiinn or strut is used, the load which comes ujion it, the
<iuality of the material, and, in a large measure, ut>on the value
takt'H for (\
Tims foi- white oak, yellow pine, and spruce, the value C is the
actual cru.sliiiig-strength of full-size i)OSts of ordinar>' quality:
hence wc need not allow a factor of safely for these greater tlian
four. For the other wootls, we shouhl us«* a factor of safety of at
least six.
//■ //// ItKhJ ujto)! the rolfunu or iM)st is su«'h as conies upon the
lloor of a iua<'hine-shoi», or where heavy machinei'y Is us«m1, or if
the strut is for a railway-bridge, a larger factor of safety sliould
be used in :ill ciises.
If tin (judlitf/ of t/ir thntur is <>xce]>tionally goo4l, we may ust* the
Imui'i- v;iln«'< f(»r the constant (\ in tb** cjise of (he last four WikhIs
i:i\< n in <iic tabl(>. For (»rdinary bard pine or oiik imwIs, uudtiply
lilt' ;iri;i n\ cross-section in inches by HMM); for >pru(v. by SiM», und
t«»r wliite pine, by 7"*) pounds.
V.\ \Mi'M. 1. —What is the siife load for a hanl-pine pust 10 by
b) in. h. s, IJ ft'ct long?
Ans. Ana of cross-section = 10 X 10 = 100 square Incliet; 100 X
KNNI - lOO.IMM) i)ound».
STRENGTH OF WOODEN POSTS AND OOLITMNS. 245
ExAMPm II. — What is the safe load for a spruce strut 8 feet
long. G" X 8" ?
An8. Area of cross-section = 48 ; 48 x 800 = 38,400 pounds.
Stren^h of Wooden Posts over Twelve Diameters
in Length.
When the length of a post exceeds twelve times its least thick-
ness or diameter, the post is liable to bend under the load, and
hence to break under a less load than would a shorter column of
the same cross- section.
To deduce a formula which would make the proper allow-
ance for the length of a column has been the aim of many
engineers, but their formulse have not been verified by actual
results.
Until within two or three years the formulse of Mr. Lewis
Gordon and Mr. C. Shaler Smith have been generally used by
engineers, but the extensive series of tests made on the Gov-
ernment testing machine at Watertown, Mass., on full-size col-
umns, show that these formulae do not agree with the results there
obtained.
Mr. James H. Stanwood, Instructor in Civil Engineering, Mass.
Institute Technology, in the year 1891 platted the values of all
the tests made at the Watertown Arsenal up to that time on full-
size posts From the drawing thus obtained he deduced the fol-
lowing formula for yellow pine posts :
Safe load pec square inch = 1,000 — 10 x . ' ^■,^. . — r-^
^ ^ breadth m ins.
The author has carefully compared this formula with the results
of actual tests, and with other formulae, and believes that it meets
the actual conditions more nearly than any other formula, and he
has therefore discarded the tables of wooden posts given in the
previous editions of this work and prepared the following tables
for the strength of round and square posts of sizes coming within
the range of actual practice
For other sizes the loads can easily be computed by the
formula.
The loads for oak and white pine posts were computed b} the
following formulse :
346 3TBENGTH OF WOODBN POSTS AND COLD
For oak and Norway pine :
For white pine and spmce posts :
Safe load per sqnare inch = 635-6 X !!°^^° '^.
"^ ^ breudth id ius.
in which the breadth is the least side of a rectangular stnit, or the
diameter of a round post. The round posts were compnted for
the half-inch, to allow tor being turned out of a square post, of
the size next larger.
The formuUe were onl^ used for posts exceeding ISdiameters for
yellow pine, and ten diameters for other woods.
For posts having bad knots, or other defects, or which are known
to be eecentrically loaded, a deduction of from 10 to 35 per cent
should be made from tbe values given iu the tables.
8APB LOAD IN POUNDS FOR YELLOW PINB POSTS <IU>ITND
AND SQUARE).
STRENGTH OF WOODEN POSTS AND COLCHNS. 347
248 STRKNGTH OF WOODEN POSTS AND OOLUMNa
eccentric Loardrng.
When the load on a post is applied in such a way that it is not
distributed uniformly over the end of the post, the loading is
called eccentric and the effect on the post is much more injurious
than if the load were uniformly distributed. When a post supports
a girder on one side only, or when the weight from one girder is
much more than from the other, the load becomes eccentric, and
an allowance must be made in the safe load varying from 10 to 25
per cent., according to the amount of eccentricity.
The exact allowance cannot bj calculated, so that one must
necessarily use his judgment in the matter, remembering that it
is best to be on the safe side.
Iron caps for timber pillars are often used in important con-
structions, and are an excellent invention, as they serve to dis-
tribute the thrust evenly through the pillar, and also form a
bracket, which is often desirable, for supporting the ends of
girders where a second post rests on top of the first. Fig. 1 shows
the section of one of the simplest forms of caps.
The Goetz and Duvinage caps, described at the end of Chapter
XXIV., are the best shape for mill construction.
STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON COLl \S, 249
Cast-Irou Columns.
For cast-iron columns, where the length is not more than six or
eight times the diameter or breadth of colunm, the safe load may
be obtained by simply multiplying the metal area of cross-section
by ()'i tons, which will give tons for the answer.
Above this proportion, that is, where the length is more than
eight times the breadth or diameter, the following formulas should
be used. These formulas are known as Gordon's and Rankine's.
Formulas —
For solid cylindrical -cast-iron columns,
Metal area x 13330
Safe load in lbs. = fi n — = — : — \ . (4)
so. of length in inches ^ '
1+ ^
sq. of diam. in inches X 266
For hollow cylindrical columns of cast-iron,
O
, . „ Metal area x 13330
Safe load in lbs. = sg. of length in inches ' <^)
400 X sq. of diam. in inches
For hollow or solid rectangular pillars
of cast-iron,
Metal area X 13330
Safe load m lbs. = fi n — : — : — i • (6)
sq. of length m mches ' '
500 X sq. of least side in inches
For cast-iron posts, the cross-section being a cross
of equal arms,
^ , , , . , Metal area X 1.3330
Safe load m lbs. = sq. of length in inches ^^^
133 X sq. of total breadth in inches
Example I. -What is the safe load for a hollow cylindrical
cast-iron column, 10 feet long, 6 inches external diameter, and 1''
thickness of shell ?
Ans. We must first find the metal area of the cross-section of
the column, which we obtain by subtracting the area of a circle of
four inches in diameter from the area of one six inches in diameter.
The remainder will be the area of the metal. The area of a six-
inch circle is 28.27 square inches, and of a four-inch, 12.56 square
inches; and the metal area of the column is 15.71 square inches.
250
STRENGTH OF CAST IKON COLUMNS.
Then, substituting known values in fonnnla. 5, we liave
15.71 X 18830
Safe load = .^^^^^^ = 104700 pounds.
^"^40(rx"36
There is no use in carrying tlie result farther than the nearest
hundred pounds, because the accuracy of our formulas will not
warrant it.
Example II. — What is the safe load for a cast-iron column 12
feet long, the cross-section being a cross with equal arms, one inch
thick, the total breadth of two anns being 8" ?
Ana, The area of cross-section would* be 8 + 7 = 15 square
inches. Then, by formula 7,
15 X 13330
Safe load in lbs. = 20736 ~ 58300 pounds.
^■^ 133 X 04
Projectingr Caps.
Hollow columns calculated by the foi-egoing formulas should not
be cast with heavy projecting mouldings round the top or bottom,
Fig. 2
as in Fig. 2, at a and 6. It is obvious that these are weak, and
would break off under a load much less than would be requhredto
STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON COLUMNS. 251
cnish the column. When such projecting ornaments are deemed
necessary, they should be cast seimrately, and be attached to a pro-
longation of the cohimn by iron pins or screws. Ordinarily it is
better to adopt a more simple base and cap, which can be cast in
one piece with tlie pillar, without weakening it, as in Fig. 3.
In all the rules and formulas given for cast-iron colunms, it is
supposed that the ends have bearings planed true, and at right
angles to the axis of the column.
When the columns are used in tiers, one above the other, the end
connections of the columns should be made by projecting flanges,
wide enough to received-inch bolts for bolting the columns together,
as shown in Fig. 4, page 242^, and the entire ends and flanges
should be turned true to the axis of the column. The end joints
are generally placed just above the floor beams, for convenience in
erecting the work.
The basement columns should be bolted to cast-iron base plates,
as shown in Fig. 1, page 242a. The author does not consider it
advisable to use cast-iron columns with hinged ends, or in build-
ings whose height exceeds twice their width.
Tables of Cast-iron Columns.
By an inspection of the foregohig fonnulas for cast-iron columns,
it will be seen, that, all other conditions being the same, the strength
per square inch of cross-section of any column varies only with
the ratio of the length to the diameter or least thickness. Thus
a column 15 feet long and 10 inches diameter would carry the same
load per square inch as a similar column 9 feet long and 6 inches
diameter, both having the ratio of length to diameter as 18 to 1.
Owing to this fact, tables can be prepared giving the safe load
per square inch for colunms having their ratio of length to diame-
ter less than 40.
On this principle Table IV. has been computed, giving the loads
per square inch of cross-section for hollow cylindrical and rectangu-
lar cast-iron colunms.
To use this table, it is only necessary to divide the length of the
column in inches by the least thickness or diameter, and opposite
the number in column I. coming nearest to the quotient find the
safe strength per square inch for the column. Multiply this load
by the metal area in the cross-section of the column, and the result
will be the safe load for the column.
Example III. — Wliat is the safe load for a 10-inch cylindrical
cast-iron column 15 feet long, the shell being 1 inch thick ?
Ans. The length of the colunni divided by the diameter, botn
in inches, is 18, and opposite 18 in Table lY. we find the safe load
252
STRENGTH .OF CAST-IRON COLUMlSrS.
per square inch for a cylindrical column to be 7,360 pounds. The
metal area of the column we find to be 28.27 inches ; and, multi-
plying these two numbers together, we have for the safe load of the
column 208,236 pounds, or about 104 tons.
Besides this table, we have computed Table V. following, which
gives at a glance the safe load for a cast-iron column coming within
the limits of the table, and of a thickness thei*e shown.
Thus, to find the safe load for the column given in the last
example, we have only to look in the table for columns having a
diameter of 10 inches and a thickness of shell of 1 inch, and oppo-
site the length of the column we find the safe load to be 10^ tons,
the same as found above.
The safe load in both tables is one-^ixth of the breaking-load.
TABLE IV.
Strength of Hollow Cylindrical or Rectangular Cast-Iron Pillars,
(Calculated bt Formulas 5 and 6.)
Length
Breaking-weight in pounds
Safe load
in i)ound8
divided by
per square inch.
per square inch. |
external
breadth or
diameter.
CyJindrical.
Rectangular.
Cylindrical.
Rectangular.
5
75,294
76,190
12,549
12,698
6
73,395
74,627
. 12,232
12,438
7
71,269
72,859
11,878
12,143
8
68,965
70,922
11,494
11,820
9
66,528
68,846
11,088
11,474
10
64,000
66,666
10,666
11,111
11
61,420
64,412
10,236
10,735
12
58,823
62,111
9,804
10,352
13
56,239
59,790
9,373
9,965
14
53,859
57,471
8,976
9,578
15
51,200
55,172
8,533
9,195
16
48,780
52,910
8,130
8,817
17
46,444
50,697
7,741
8,440
18
44,198
48,543
7,366
8,090
19
42,050
46,457
7,008
7,748
20
40,000
44,444
6,666
7,407
21
38,050
42,508
6,341
7,085
22
36,200
40,650
6,033
6,776
23
34,455
38,872
5,742
6,479
24
32,787
37,174
5,464
6,195
25
31,219
35,555
6,203
5,926
26
29,741
34,014
4,957
5,660
27
28,343
32,547
4,724
5,423
28
27,027
31,152
4,504
5,192
29
25,785
29,828
4,297
4,971
30
24,615
25,571
4,102
4,761
31
23,512
27,310
3,918
4,818
32
22,472
26,246
3,745
4,374
33
21,491
25,172
3,581
4405
34
20,565
24,154
3,427
4,026
35
19,692
23,188
3,282
8,814
STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON COLUMNS.
253
TABLE V.
Showing Scrfe Load in Tons for Cylindrical Cast-Iron Colvmns,
Thickness of Shell | Inch.
1
Length
Diameter of column (outside).
of
column.
Gins.
7 ins.
Sins.
9 ins.
10 ins.
11 ins.
12 ins.
13 ins.
Feet.
Tone.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
6
60.6
78.1
94.0
110.8
128.6
144.9
161.7
180.0
7
55.7
72.2
88.9
106.9
124.2
140.1
166.4
176.0
8
60.7
66.3
83.8
101.1
117.7
136.2
151.1
170.3
9
45.8
61.9
78.7
95.2
113.4
130.4
146.8
164.5
10
40.8
56.0
73.5
89.4
106.8
123.2
140.5
168.7
11
37.1
51.5
68.4
83.6
100.1
118.3
135.2
153.0
12
33.4
47.1
63.3
79.7
95.9
113.5
129.9
147.2
13
30.9
44.2
58.1
73.9
89.4
106.3
124.6
141.4
14
27.2
39.8
54.7
70.0
86.0
101.4
119.2
135.6
15
24.7
36.8
49.6
64.1
78.5
96.6
114.0
129.9
16
22.3
33.9
46.2
60.3
71.9
91.8
108.7
124.1
18
-
29.0
41.0
52.5
67.6
84.6
103.4
118.3
20
—
24.4
36.0
44.7
63.3
77.2
98.1
112.6
Metal area of croes-eection.
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
14.73
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
26.51
sq. ins.
12.37
17.10
19.44
21.80
24.16
28.86
Thickness of Shell 1 Inch.
Length
Diameter of column (outside).
of
column.
•
6inB.
7 ins.
8 ins.
9 ins.
10 ins.
11 ins.
12 ins.
13 ins.
!
Feet.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
6
77
100
121
143
167
188
211
234
7
71
92
118
138
161
182
204
230
8
64
85
108
131
153
176
197
222
9
58
79
101
123
147
170 '
190
215
10
52
72
95
116
138
161
183
207
11
47
66
88
108
130
154
175
200
12
42
60
81
102
124
147
169
192
13
39
57
75
95
116
138
162
184
14
35
52
69
90 110
1.32
155
177
15
31
47
64
83 104
126
148
170
16
28
43
69
78 j 96
119
142
162
18
25
39
53
68 ; 88
105
128
151
20
22
35
46
1
6S 1 79
94
114
136
Metal area of cross-section.
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
sq. ins.
15.71
18.82
22.00
25.14
28.27
31.41
34.66
37.70
255a STBEl^GTH OF CAST-IRON COLUMNS.
The principal disadvantage, as found in practice, is the difficulty,
if not impossibility, of making rigid connections with the beams
and girders. In buildings of not more than five or six stories,
however, this is not of great importance.
(Jast-iron is, of course, subject to flaws, and the columns are
liable to be cast of uneven thickness of metal, but by careful inspec-
tion these defects can be discovered, and any columns containing
them rejected.
For unprotected columns, c'ast-iron is unquestionably better than
steel, as has been quite conclusively demonstrated by the experi-
ments of Prof. Bauschinger, of Munich. Cast-iron, three quarters
of an inch or more in thickness, is also practically uninjured by
rust, while it is clnime<l that wrought-irOn or steel may be almost
destroyed by it.
Although cast iron columns may be made in a great variety of
shapes, the hollow cylindrical and rectangular columns have thus
far been the principal shapes used, and for interior unprotected
columns the cylindrical column probably meets the usual require-
ments better than any others. Every year, however, the require-
ments of building regulations are being made more strict, so that
at the present time it is required in most of our large cities that
all vertical supports in buildings over five stories in height shall
be protected by fireproof material, and for such buildings the
author would call attention to the H-shaped column, as offering
the following advantages :
1. Being entirely open, with both the interior and exterior sur-
faces exposed, any inequalities in thickness can be readily discov-
ered, and the thickness itself easily measured, thus obviating any
necessity for boring, and rendering the inspection of the columns
much less tedious.
2. The entire surface of the column can be protected by paint.
3. When built in brick walls, the masonry fills all voids, so that
no open space is left, and if the column is
placed as shown in Fig. 4, only the edge of
the column comes near the face of the wall.
4. Lugs and brackets can be cast on such
columns better than on circular columns,
■pjQ 4 especially for wide and heavy girders.
5. The end connections of the columns dp
not require projecting rings, or flanges, which are often objection-
able in circular columns.
The cost of columns of this shape should not exceed that of cir-
cular columns of the same strength.
STBBKOTH 07 OABT-IBON COLDKKS. 2SBb
As to the strength of such columns, the onl; experimental data
which we have on the subject is that obtAined from the experiments
of Mr. Eaton HodghinsoD, which give them about theaame strength
as cyliudrieal columns of the same diameter, when the length does
not exceed thirty diameters and the thicliness ia not less than three-
quarters of an inch. When surrounded bj- masonry they would
probably be stronger than the cylindrical column.
The column may be flreprocfed in the
same way as the Z-bar column, which
it much resembles. The space occupied
by the column 8lig}itly exceeds that ot
both the cylindrical and Z-bar column.
Fio. 6. PiQ. B.
hut not enough to be of any serious consequence. Figs. 5 and 6
show details of end connections and brackets, and ot baseplate.
The beams running at right angles to the web should be tied
togeihcp by wrought-iron straps passing through holes in the web
of the column.
The following table has been calculated with the same stress per
square inch of metal as allowed for the columns in Table V.
STBBNGTH OF CA8T-1B0N OOLUHNS.
TABLE V.a
Siy% Loads in That of 3.000 Poand« fo
B-*haped
U
18
20
ISi
a
87
48
30
an
48
S4
80
49
sst
S8
58
SO
a**
97
79
77
«4
1«!
n
48
2a
ra
88
72
3J
m
88
«t
S»!
las
85
3**
124
114
107
ea
25
90
7S
or
8?
92
m
138
129
120
9t
104
TO
811
ja
128
96
Slk
160
144
136
125
111
101
lar
138
98
u
841
1«8
4I(
lie
101
40|
1S8
IBS
461
204
w
170
141
30
183
108
91
m
IM
m
JSi
189
1B0
1S2
491
»T4
li!
207
232
^
s
IS
16G
1S2
125
lis
vsi
205
1%
IK7
IM
188
4Bi
Mi
251
209
18>
300
286
200
280
2ia
4JI
ess
air
%*■
198
189
180
183
147
; m
296
3^
198
1T4
! 801
830
aos
283
271)
tat
«n
m
«M
278
«)
u«
\ ?5|
399
353
337
.121
aot
277
STBBKGTH OF CAaX-IBO^ COUJMNB. 265d
Hollow Rectangular Cast-iron Columns.
The increasing use of hollow rectangular cast-iron columns in
buildings, particularly when enclosed in brick walls, has led the
author to compute Table V.6, which gives the safe loads for a large
number of sizes and lengths, the application of the table being
readily apparent. The loads correspond with and are based upon
those given in the last column of Table IV.
The author would recommend that the various sizes be not used
for greater lengths than those given in the table.
266e
STRENGTH OF CAST-IBON COLUHKa
TABLE V.6
iSafe Loads in Tons of 2,000 Pounds far HoUovo Bertnngular
Cast-iron Columns.
LENGTH
or COLUMN IN
FBBT.
W C * a. y.
- x >:• = 6<
H"^ ut^. h-y:
U.?5i =-- w^""
C t- X
1
10
12
13
14
15
16
18
90
6x0 J 151
.^8
48
44
40
" 1
20
74
61
56
51
" li
Si\
H7
7.3
66
61
6x8; J
18i
♦5<>
.58
52
48
" ", 1
34
88
74
67
62
-, ij
2S}
106
88
80
74
6 X 10 J
21}
m
67
61
56
51
it .. 1 <
28
u«
86
78
72
66
'• " 1 1}
33J
124
104
94
87
80
< X « , }
18S
78
67
62
58
58
t> Ik 1
24
100
86
80
74
68
7 X 1); J
21}
91
78
78
67
68
(i i(| 1
28
117
100
93
86
79
8x8' {
2U
100
87
81
76
71
65
", 1
28
128
118
105
98
98
84
" li
33J
155
185
186
118
110
101
8 X 10 i
24}
113
90
92
m
HO
74
Ik il
1
32
147
128
180
118
105
96
it 4k
li
mi
178
155
145
136
185
n«
8 X 12 J
21}
127
111
104
97
90
88
41 Ik -t
36
IJW
144
135
188
117
108
"It 43}
201
175
164
158
144
125
10 . 10 J Tt\
14.3
19U
123
117
111
105
94
'•! 1 36
186
169
160
151
144
136
188
"1 li i 13}
220
ao5
194
1H4
175
166
148
"i 'i 1 •'>i
•^^
239
227
215
804
198
m
10 > 1'^ i ' 3()j
1.59
144
137
130
122
116
1(M
"1 10
2(Ni
18S
17H
168
160
158
186
•• 1- 1 Hj
252
229
217
2<t5
195
1H5
I«^
•* n , r>r
2U3
267
253
240
828
316
198
11) ■ u } :»|
174
I.5S
1.50
143
135
138
III
1
1
••11 n
227
2i;6
196
1K5
176
167
119
111 ir, 1 1 IS
218
225
214
802
192
183
168
M l^ 1 ' .VJ
2ris
241
2:J1
219
808
197
ITli
in ■ '*\ I ' »'»!
3:jo
3<NI
2S-)
870
3:^*1
843
317
I'J . 1-J ; :W,
1^7
171
HkS
161
154
IH
186
184
•1 11
214
227
219
210
801
193
177
lil2
•• •• i; •'•••<;
■.flH
278
2»;7
2515
346
236
317
l\9i
•' ]. k\:\
349
32r)
812
800
889
8T7
8M
383
IJ 11 . :ic.
2«»;i
1S9
1S2
175
IfiH
161
14K
I*
1 iK
2ti(>
•J.IK
23J»
229
320
811
las
l~
I-.' ■ !•; I .v:
2SS
2GS
2.-is
848
8SH
88S
810
I'.tt
l-j -.I 1 ♦^s
371
."151
.338
335
812
899
874
<:>l
u ■ It 1 :.«••
.WO
.31 >H
2tr7
2HK
8iK
86K
8BII
05
If. it'i 1 r»<)
:{.-.!
.^3li
:»)
324
S18
810
891
87S
i«-. ■ i" 1 i\\
37;
.35M
358
345
389
880
814
tBS
l'^ ■ J'' 1 ».s
lit
401
391
3HI)
874
887
8ii
W
1" -jj
1
HI
|K.v<
472
460
44M
440
«8
408
888
STEEJi^QTH OF CAST-IRON COLUMNS. 255/*
Wrought-Iron and Steel Columns and Struts
(1891).
Within the past three years wrought-iron and steel columns have
been gradually taking the place of cast-iron columns in fire- proof
buildings, and the time is probably not far distant when wrought-
iron oi" steel columns will be used almost exclusively for the inte-
rior supports of all largo buildings.
In iron or steel trusses the struts are invariably made of the same
material, though, of course, the strut bars are of a different section
from that usod for ties.
There are many contingencies which may arise in the manufact-
ure of cast-iron columns which preclude anything approaching
uniformity in the product.
Among these are unevenness in the thickness of the metal, which
has sometimes been found to be very different on one side of a
round column from that on the opiK)site side. The presence of con-
fined air, producing '* blow holes ** and *' honey-comb," and the col-
356 STRENGTH OF WROUGHT-IRON POSTS.
lection of impurities at the bottom of the mould are aAso frequent
sources of weakness in cast iron.
The most critical condition, however, is that due to the unequal
contraction of the metal during the process of cooling, thereby
giving rise to initial strains, at times of sufficient force to produce
rupture in the column or in its lugs on the slightest provocation.
In many cases the trouble is due to faulty designing or careless-
ness in the execution of the work ; yet, even under favorable condi-
tions, it is so difficult to secure equal radiation from the moulds in
all directions that castings entirely exempt from inherent shrink-
age strains are probably seldom produced.
As a protection against these contingencies, resort must be had
cither to the uncertain expedient of a high factor of safety, or a
material such as wrought iron or rolled steel must be adopted of a
more uniform and reliable character than cast iron.
Columns built up o* rollcl socLioiis alsj offer better facilities for
fire-proof covering ; and for columns where extreme loads are to be
supported, as in the lo.ver sLorieii oi' very high buildings, wrought-
iron and steel columns wiU occupy less room than a cadt-iron
column, and in many instances will be found to be cheaper.
The forms of rolled columns now in general use in buildings are
the ** Phoenix," '* Larimer," " Gray," and *• Z-bar" columns, illus-
trated on pages 267-389A.
For the strut bars of trusses two-channels bars, angle or T-bars,
are generally used.
In trusses with pin connectiotis the channel bar offers the best
shape for the struts. I-beams are also often used.
Streiigrtli of Wroiijjflit-iron Posts.
The formulas most generally accepted by engineers of the present
day for the strength of irre^^ular- shaped sections (such as nearly all
these struts are) are as follows :
Column — Square Bearing,
Ultimate strength / _ 40,000
in lbs. per sq. inch i "~^ sq. of length in inches ^ '
' 36,000 X r*
1 +
Column — Pin and Square Bearing^
Ultimate strength | _ 40,000
in lbs. per sq. inch ) ~"I sq. of length"lnlnches ^^
STRENGTH OF WROUGHT-IRON POSTa 257
Column — Pin Bearing,
Ultimate strength ) _ 40,000
in lbs. per sq. inch ) ~' sq. of length in inches ' '
18,U00 X r»
in which r denotes th»j radius of gyration.
A column is square hearing when it has square ends which butt
against, or are firmly connected with, an immovable surface, such as
the floor of a building, or riveted connections : it is pin and square
hearing when one end only is square bearing, and the other end
presses against a close-fitting pin ; and it is pin bearing when both
ends are thus piti-jointed with the axis of the pins in parallel direc-
tions (for example, the posts in pin -connected trusses).
To shorten the process of computation by this formula, Table
VI. has been computed, which gives the ultimate strength per
square inch of cross-section for different proportions of the length
in feet, divided by the radius of gyration.
The radius of gyration of the principal patterns of rolled bars now
on the market may be obtained from the tables given in Chapter
XIII.
To use these tables, it is only necessary to divide the length of the
strut (in feet) by the least radius of gyration, if the strut is free to
bend either way, and from the table find the load per square inch
corresponding to this ratio. The area of the cross-section, multi-
plied by the load, taken from the table, will give the ultimate
strength of the strut or column. To find the safe load, divide by 4
for columns used in buildings, and 5 for trusses.
Example 1. — What is the greatest safe load of a pair of Carnegie
angles, 6" x 6", 33 pounds per foot, riveted together, 12 feet long,
with square or fixed ends ; the angles being used as a strut bar in a
truss ?
Ans, The least radius of gyration is 1.85. which is contained in
12, 6.5 times. The strength for a column, with square ends, for
this ratio of _ is, from Table VI., about 34,200 pounds per square
r
inch ; this, divided by 5, gives a safe strength of 6,840 pounds per
scjuare inch, or a total safe load for the two angles of (6,840 x
'.9.90) 136,116 pounds, or 68 tons.
When two or more angles, channels, or I-beams are connected
together by lattice work, the radius of gyration for the whole sec-
tion should first be obtained, and then the method of calculation is
the same as for a single bar.
Channel bars are generally used in pairs, either connected by lat-
tice work, or, where additional strength is required, by wrought-iron
258 STRENGTH OF WROUGHT-IRON POSTS.
plates riveted to the flanges of the channels. In sach cases, the
channels should be spaced far enough apart so that the colomu will
be weakest in the direction of the web ; i.e., with neutral axis at
right angles to the web, for which case the radius of gyration of the
column is the same as that of a single channel.
In Table VII. the quantities d and D show the distance that the
channels should be separated to have the same radius of gyration
about either axis.
If the radius of gymtion is wanted for the neutral axis through
the centre of section paraliei with web, it can readily be found, as
the distance between the centre of grjivity of channel and centre
of section with the aid of Column VI., in tables, pages 301-21.
If two channels are connected by means of two plates, instead of
lattice bars, it is necessary to obtain, fii*st, the moment of inertia of
the section, whence the radius of gyration is found as the square
root of the quotient of the moment of inertia divided by the area of
the section.
This moment of inertia, for a neutral axis, through centre of sec-
tion perpendicular to the plates, is ecjual to the cube of the width
of the plate, multiplied by ,'2 of tiie thickness of the two plates
added, plus the combined area of the two channels multiplied by
the square of the distance from their centres of gravity to the neu-
tral axis. For a neutral axis in a direction parallel to the plates,
it is equal to the moments of inertia of the channels as found in the
tables, increased by the area of the two plates multiplied by the
square of the distance between the centre of the plate and the centre
of the section.
The strength of such a strut may, however, be calculated with
suflBcient accuracy for most purposes, by taking the radius of gyra-
tion of a single channel, and getting the strength per square inch
of cross-section, and then multiplying by the total area of the sec-
tion. If the channels are s[)aced according to Table VII., or even
greater, the true radius of gyration will be a little larger than that
of the single channel, so that what error there is will be on the saf^
side.
Table VII. has been computed on this basis, giving the strength
of two channels, used as a strut. The heavy figures give the safe
load (factor of saf('ty of 5) for the two channels latticed together,
and the figures in italics give the safe load per square inch of sec-
tion ; so that, in case the pair of channels alone do not give sufficient
strength, one can readily tell how much additional area will be
required. Table VIII. gives the safe load of Carnegie T-bara» used
singly.
STRENGTH OF WROUGHT-IRON POSTS. 259
Example ?. — A certain strut in a roof truss (18 feet Jong) has to
withstand a stress of 50 tons, and it is desired to use two channels
for the purpose ; what sized channels will be required, the strut
baviiiij pin joints ?
Ans. Looking down the column headed 18 (Table VII.), we find the
nearest load under 50 tons is 40.8, for two 10" channels, pin bearing,
and the safe strength per square inch is WA tons. As the load in
the table lacks 9.2 tons of that required, the section of the channels
9 2
must be increased by -^, or 2.7 square inches, which is equivalent
to 9 pounds per foot additional weight for the two channels ; so
that we should use two 10" channels, weighing 24^ pounds per foot
each, and the channels should be spaced 9.1" out to out, the
flanges being turned in.
In pin-connected trusses, two channels make the most practical
form of strut bar.
A common form of column or strut to be recommended for com-
paratively light loads is that formed simply of two angles riveted
together back to back, or four angles united either with a single
course of lattice bars or a central web plate, as in Fig. 4, page 264.
The radii of gyration for such struts are tabulated on pages 319-21.
In cases where four angles are used, the two pairs should be
spaced far enough apart to make the column weakest about a neu-
tral axis parallel to the central web or latticing. The radius of
gyration will then be the same as that given in the tables for a
single pair of angles, since the moment of inertia of the web plate
about such an axis is so small that it may be disregarded entirely.
Example 3. — A strut 16 feet long, to be fixed rigidly at both ends,
is needed for supporting a load of 80,000 pounds. It is to be com-
posed of two pairs of angles, united with a single line of i" lattice
bars along the central plane. What weight of angles will be re-
quired, with a safety factor of 5 ? •
Ans. We will assume four W x 4" angles, and determine the thick-
ness of metal required. The angles must be spread ^" in order to
admit the latticing. From the table on page 321, we find the radius
of gyration of a pair of light 3" x 4" angles with the 3" logs par-
l 16
alleland^"aparttobe 1 97 '. Hence the value of - = Y~Q7 — ^ 1»
for#vhich the ultimate strength, as per Table VI. = 31,680 pounds.
The allowable strain per square inch with a safety factor of 5
will therefore be 31,680 ^ 5 = 6.34 ) pounds, and the area of the re-
quired cross-section 80,000 -t- 6,340 = 12.62 square inches, or 3.16
square inches for each angle. Hence the weight per foot of each
260
STKENGTU OF WROUGHT-IRON COLUMNS.
TABLE VI.
Ultivuite Strength of Wrought-iron Columns.
For diflerent proportions of loiigtli in feet ( = O
To leawt rudiua of L'yratiou in iiiclu'H ( — r).
I'o obtain Safe lie^JHtance :
P'or quics<>ent loudt*. an in hnil(lin<;H, divide by 4.
For moving loads, as in bridges, divide by 5.
I
r
3.0
3. J
3.1
3.0
3.S
4.0
4.-J
4.4
4.(i
4.K
5.0
5.4
5.n
5.K
6.0
(i.L>
6.1
6.»i
6.S
7.0
7.2
7.4
7.H
7.H
H.O
S.I
H.»l
'.».••
'.I •-'
'.'.I
'.' '•
'.« *»
III i)
lo.j
lo I
lO.ii
It's
I'ltimatc Ktrength in pounda
per fr(jnare inch.
' Square. I P^" ai»<l
• square.
:3H,610
3s.4;m)
3s,2:^o
3sj);io
3r,--^u
3:.r.i»o
3r,3r^)
3T,I:A)
36.S71)
3li.«»-.'0
3«;,:«'.0
.'IC.OiiO
.•i:..s*jo
3:),.-)40
3i,!»ro
3t,r.70
3 1.370
34.or.0
:i::,r:)0
•X\. \ 10
••{:{, -.-{O
3-^*.'^10
3J. UK)
:«.i;o
3I.*'.'»0
3I..VJ|>
:'.l.!:«o :
3i.^7o
:ii:..Mo
3 •.•.•!(» I
'I I :.:.' I ■
'."» '.'.;( I
•> !». 0
IMn.
•.'..'.fjll
^1 . • 1 1'
I
37,J»r)0
37,«H<)
37,4(H)
37,110
:i0,sio
36,500
36, KO
a").H40
;i"),5oo
35.140
34,7SO
:i4.4i>o
:M,(K)0
:^3,670
3:j,-280
3--»,SflO I
3'J,o<H) ■
3v»,110
31.7111
31.310
30,910
3<»v'>10
80,110
iil>.710
:i9,3lO
2*<,'.I00
iN,5mi
;rr.70i»
•*':.3io
•J''..'^»o
•.'•..110
•.»."•.:•■,(»
•j:).3rn
'Jl.lKtO
'Ji, 60
87,210
86,!I70
36,610
3'i.a40
35,860
a5,«60
3.V50
31,(^0
33,770
33,3.30
:w,4n»
3I,«S0
31,5:^0
31,Ofio
3t).5'.)0
30.1.30
:2!),6ro
88,740
a8.-*>70
t>r,8:i0
'J7..KiO
2(S,<no
!M,OM
iJ.*>,.')7o
•r..i:t»
'J4,7«iO
v>l.-,»70
■i-i.i;{i»
•3.o:jii
^ « t ^^^* '
'J 1. 140
*JI.INiO
/•
11.0
11.2
11.4
11.6
11.8
12.0
12.2
12.4
12.6
12.8
13.0
1.3.2
13.5
13.8
14.0
14.2
14.5
14.8
15.0
1.V2
15.5
1.'>.8
16.0
16.2
16 5
16..S
17.0
17.2
17.5
17.S
18.0
IS.'J
IK.-,
Ivs
r.».2
v.\ .-I
l».8
21 Ml
2i».2
20 5
2l».K
Ultimate str(>ntfth in jiounds
I>cr square incli.
I
Sqnarc.
26,950
26,(>44)
26,.3iO ,
26,(KM) I
25,6!)1i .
25,380 i
25,070 '
24.770 ;
24.170 '
*1,170 j
23.870 :
28,570
23,114)
22,700
2.\ 120
22,l.-rf>
21.710
2 1, .320
21,050
20,7110
2l»,21W
20,<l20
19,7f*0
1!).510
I'M 50
iK.r.t)
18,.\'S«»
1S.320
I7!i8i»
17.120
I r. 21 Ml
Iti.SNi)
i6..'»:o
1 6.3:0
Hi. 1:0
i:i.87o
I.V><i>
l.\8sii
I.VJI4I
IJ/rJl)
H.ftTiU
Pin and
nquart*.
23.170
22,S20 I
22,170 !
22, i:*) '
21. 8U) i
31.460 i
2i,iao :
20,810
20.4.10 .
20, ISO !
19,860 '
19.560
19.110
18,t>70 !
18,:W) I
lS,Hr0
K.H'.'O '
17.290 j
ir,02()
16.7tt>
16,3UI» >
16,010 I
15.77»J
15.M0
15.190 j
11.680 >
11.410 I
14.1i!0 I
13,790 i
13.5iiO i
13.:t!ii>
13.1«4)
IJ.»'20
12.ii:ii) I
12. ni
12, 190 I
ll.Wi)
ii.;in
11.600
11,3110
1I.11W
Pin.
20.2:»
19.960
19.6!0
19.2n>
1S,1«30
18.590
I8.2ii0
17.1M0
17.IU0
17,310
17.000
Itt.riO
ia,2H0
15.KS0
1.V580
15.310
14.920
i4,&ao
14.290
14.<»40
l.-S.lil«t
I3.3S0
13.120
12.910
12.590
12.2H0
I2.«W
ll.K*«
11.590
ll.«IU
11.140
lO.'.itiO
10.700
10.4:10
10.290
lo.i:fl)
9.A20
8,in)
STRENGTH OF CARN£6IE IRON CHAN2 S. 261
•-3
9
fej
2
H
<
a
o
OS
o
^ O
$ Eh
4S
1 J
I
Da
3Q
•1;
M
§
s a a
Cfi 0L, GG
£
Pui 02 P^ (/) Pi QQ A4
'/) p^
I a
at
a
s
»-■»
^ t>» «4 30 ?0 *^
^stooo
S^S2§^
*a«9»ac0»a
S*=S8
■ • • •
• • •
fe*^«^S^S*'i;'^g*'^''SJ
• • •
^
*'^'^§8*^^''8?''S''^^S5
•yjos »»
8
00
1^ c. <»^ «*
'O
OS 55 aoao '^«o ?o
g^g^g*ig*5^»jg^g»5g*:gj>5^*»^ •5g*»
00
t^ >.-iO «OQ0<t»o 5cS *»»-• -«© S» otSao
00 »^
• • •
CO »» '-^ ^i ^ i.-^ » "^ » «--^ go oi
<>»
OOOi^ <0 00 ^ 00 OS <0 TO t^CC^Cl
• • • •
• • •
Jg^g^g<tg<t0g^«j|*SQ§^gg0^g*i3*5g »S^
*5i-*5
04
4.8
i
•
CO
a
00
. II II II . II II II . II II II '^ II II II '" II II II "^ II II II
1-^ 1-^ n 0> *•*
262 STRENGTH OF CARNEGIE IRON CHANNELS.
.i^
\f
1
TS
O)
o
bo
a
pq
2. C 3 C
2! 2:
X 0L, X
2. =
gj
•V c, 55 ^ <o *^ »-j «•■: *^ 'o 55 J. « >: Oi *i S N -r »-. oo ~? » • - i
V -nI m .>J ec **: TM* *» a ^< *> "^ o "ij I- !*! et ''J ac "^ t- "« «ft -4 |
! I
I
ig ■*» r , -^c l' 5? 2? •"•
5J 0* f-i f^ 91 »-" »^
Si'SS te s'jt ZJ $ii:?» $ -c
'»x"^i ©•^x'^i ee ■*»o "'•t- ■'!« *»
a:
7.
'«v
•^
"*
»«
'ji
*•>
•»*
y.
1/
^ •
'J~
y.
«i=^ 1
't
«i;
1
"^
K
*-
^
»
>«^
— 1
•
it
ii
■^
^
7. \
e
'^
M«
t: !
•^
^^
1
«^
^
^ 1
■^
S^
•*^
•
^
•/.
tc ■
HH
>»;
;«r
»«
^^
"< !
>"
r
r^
H
^
&«
/:
■^
i^
»*
i-M
PQ
i.
^
<J
5^
^
(-H
<%>
1-^
1
^H
jk
'*.
.^
<
*^ •••••■■■
00 « "- »-i
"■C 'f '-I
• • •
•^3: >»
T NC* '»« >itt ■*»
>- •/-
2:
• • • • ■ •
81 '^iS*^"^^*^
• ••• •••• ••■••••■
91
tc5e».S;c2». «^:3:-! «o.S-. 5=?S.':g^,SS
• •••••••
^*:g*sifi*n^'n 5R"^S''» '♦^'^*- 2 ">: lO ">i » "*; X »•
• ••••••• •••• •••• ■••■••■•
__i
X
• ••••••• •••• •••• •■>*■»••
5c:9*$$5rJ5i:'^:::5^?^:c.^: ."*^«?:ff.^
• • •
|g*3g'»:jO'»:jongi"*:fi': oorw*. S'^g**^'^*'"
n
ri
W
I-
Ki
^ I *" II II II** II 11 II 'I It II ■- '■ '1 !l !I II
/.
STRENGTH OF CARNEGIE IRON T-BARS.
263
.
V
a>
a
1
t
• • •• ••••
t'. •» « '-i 0» «« !.« «t
• • • • •
00»<«O«)
• ••• ••••••
tO>-iiO«) »0 »-• SO »-i 00 »-<
1^
1-^
S25
Sec ?S»»S^ o§?S^
88IJ5S2
S§^j58S
00 »l
«o '^ 9^ t' e« OS 9« CO «)
>0»«I0»)
iO»-iOO»-«00*-« .
00
• •
00 «)
• •
• • •■•• •■•• #•••
t-«) ri»)QO«) o«tt«*t e«4>0»)
• ••••• ••
• • •••• ••••
00 «) e»^as«) o«)^«•)
1-1 1^
• • • •
• ••••• .•
1-- ♦« ^ »< ^ •? 00 »-»
to t^
«-* ^aoSoo QO^Sos
«o 2os «>.
S*3S^^5 « S
00 «N ©»5MO<M r^e>»00i>»
1-1 rH »-i
I, <»1«{M
00 *»'«"•» ^ •» 93 VI
I'.
^:^
R?2S^g^
8:5SJ§
»^5S
OS »i 00 "50 O »J
1-1 Tl
^*iOOCO
ao ®» i- «»
00%tlO»)^«) ^%l
<0
s^
S Sos ^»
38^Sa»ffi^ S?c
1-1
1-^
^ *5i-i nn eo*50oc^
1-1 T-1 11
00 00 to 0^
os>dto»)in«) "^•i
«
OS ».-i
• •
TH
• •
CO -iT)
m • •••• ••••
1-^ 1^ 1"i v^
....
W *5 00 "50
10.82
S.ll
6.20
S.18
5.8
• •
-■TJ<
• • •••• ••••
• • • •
o "^s 00 "o
1-t
• ••••• ••
Least
radins
of
gyration.
•
O
0.64
0.79
0.78
0.84
0.86
• •
o o
S ^ S 13
• • • •
o o o o
08
•
QC
CO
11.9 3.57
15.2 ' 4.56
11.8 3.54
• •
• •
Gi Gi
'9' OS S X
« . • •
« 1-1 rH T-1
4^
'3
I-
•
0»
1-1
1" 1-1
• •
CO OS
I, eo
OS* QC
«C lO o o
• • • •
1-1 CO CO «o
1-1
s
1
'a
OD
X
to
of
X
X X
•^ eo
X X
"* CO
X X
oS" iS*
1* 00 ^
XXX
•0 eo eo
00
X
of
WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL <X)LU1IK8.
angle vill be 3.16 -i- 0.8 = lO.S Ibe. This weight will be foood b
agree with a thioknesa of 1 inch for a 4" x 8" aug-le.
iTZ'SaV CDlumn *'Z:B>r OclWMl
^ of Ooliinuu bjr IVflootlon or Bnckllimr*—
ri>nt,'tjt-in)ii l-oIuidds fail either by deflecting bodily out
111 line, or l>f the bui-kling of the metat botwaen rivata
iLDli) uf supjiurt. Both actions maj take place at tfa*
\ lOUGHT-raON AND STEEL COLUMNS. i!Ot>
same time, bat if the Latter occurs alone, it maj be aa indication
that the rivet spacing or the thickness ol the metal is losufficient.
The niJe has been deduced from actual eiperiments upon wrought-
fron columns, that the distance between centres of rivets should not
exceed, in the line of strain, sixteen times the thioltness of metal of
the parts joined, and that t]je distance Ijetween rivets or other
points of support, at right angles to the lino of strain, should not
exceed tbirt;-tiTO times the thickness of the metal.
On page 244 sections are shown of some of the most common
forms of steel and wrougbt-lron columns. Figs. 5 and 6, as well as
the Ph<Bnix and Keystone Columns illustrated on piiges 267 and 377,
belong to the type known as Cloeed Columns. As it is impractica-
ble to repaint the inner surfaces of such columim, they should pref-
erably be used only for interior work, where tlie clianggs in tem-
perature are not considerable, and the air is comparatively dry. In
places exposed to the extremes of temperature and unprotected
from the rain, the paint on the inner surface of the column will,
sooner or later, cease to be a protection to the iron, corrosion will
set in, and, once begun, will continue as long as there is unoxidjzed
metal left la the column.
Figures 4 and 8 on page 264 represent types of
}]=- columns with open sections, which readily admit
-^-J of repainting, and are therefore suitable for out-
Ik. door work.
J 0( these, the latter, designed bj C. L, Strobel,
C.B., and known as the Z-bar Column, is believed
to oSer advantages equal, if not superior to those
t any other steel or wrought-iron column in the
f market.
Bracing of Channels. — When chaqnels are
i oonnected by hittioe work (as in Fig. 1). that there
^ may not be a tendency in the channels to bend be-
£__jl tween the points of bracing, the distance I should
jr be made to equal the total length of strut, mul-
P,g i_ tiplied by the least radius of gyration of a single
colunm, and the product divided by the least radius
of gyration for the whole section ; or, I = „ where the letters
have the following significance :
/ = length between bracing,
L = total length of stmt.
r = least radios of gyration for a single channel.
B =■ leaat ntdiu of gyration for the whole section.
i
266
STRENGTH OF STEEL COLUMNS.
When the radius of gyration of channels, about an axis parallel
with the web, is not ffiven, it will be sufficiently accurate to use for
r tlie distance given in CoJumn VL in the tables on pages 801-
321.
Example 4. — We will determine the distance l^ for the strut calcu-
lated in Example 2. In this case 2/ = 18 feet, or 216 inches, R =
3.85 : and in Column VI., page 804, the distance d for a 20-pound
channel is .70, for a 35-pound channel .75, so that we will assume
.72 as the proper distance for a 24-pound channel ; or r = .72;
216 X .72
then I —
3.85
.- - = 40 inches. This same rule will also apply for
angles, though with them the lattice work is generally doubled,
in Fig. 2.
ii
11
Steel Columns.
'' Exi)oriments thus far made upon steel stmts indicate that fof
Icnfifths up to 90 radii of gyration," (or 7.5 in Table VI„) '* their ulti-
mate stnngth is alx)ut 20 |)or cent, higher than for iron. Beyond
this )N)int. th<' excess of strength diminishes until it becomes zero at
about 200 nulii. After passing this limit, the compressive re^ist-
anco of <\y'v\ and iron seems to Iwcome practically equal.*** In
Tables Vil and VIII. the loads to the left of heavy black line are
for ratios less than 90 diameters. an<l those to the right for ratios
alH)V(' that limit.
Sp<M*ial Forms of AVr<MiKlit-iroii aiul Steel Coluiiiiui.
7'A/ 1* In mix Sifjincnfal ('obtmn\ has now been on the market
fi>r a iiiiiiitMr of years, and is very extensively used in buildings,
ami al.-^o lor posts in bridges.
^ .Mauiiiucturfd by the Phoenix lYoo Comptny, FliUaMphlik
ROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL COLUMNS.
267
CO
bages are : Economy of metal, simplicity of construc-
bility to the requirements of building construction, and
i.
limns are made up of the rolled segments *'(','* which
are riveted together, by rivets about six
inches apart, by moans of flanges along
their sides, as shown at * ' A " (Fig. 18).
Between every two segments an iron bar
is frequently inserted, through which
the rivets pass. These bars, or '* flats *'
as they are called, increase the area of
the cross-section, and contribute much
to the strength of the pillar. Table IX.
gives the sizes of the columns rolled by
the Phoenix Iron Company, as pub-
lished in their book of sections.
The interior surfaces of all Phoenix
columns are thoroughly painted before
riveting the segments together. After
twenty years of service in exposed situ-
" ations, columns have been cut open and
l5 found uninjured by rust, and the paint
still in good condition.
The illustrations on pages 270 and
271 show methods of joining the several
tiers of columns in a building, and the
connections with girders, etc.
Bearings for girders or beams at ir-
regular heights are provided by project-
ing brackets that are properly riveted
to a segment, or by a plate passing
transversely through the column be-
tween the flanges, with seating angles
alon^r its upper edge.
For joining columns at the levels of
different tiers, inside sleeves of wrought
iron may be usod. They are riveted to
the segments of the lower column, and
cting tenon which is fastened by diagonal through bolts
colamn when it is put in place.
line the actual value of Phoenix columns under loads,
have been made at different times and on various
id especially that of the United States (Government at
STRENGTH OF WRODQHT-lR< COLDMNB.
TABLE VI.
TJliiraate Strength of Wroiight-iron Cotumiu.
Pordiaen-iit propunioiiaorkiigth in feet ( = I)
SSS.l.Hl
iS
21, AM)
M,7«l
acMSB
ao.uao
i
1S.7C0
RS
isItbo
H.KW
i7.'jao
17.6W
14,W>
li:H8U
1S.M0
18,380
IS.ICO
li«70
15,5T0
ili
is.sflo
u'.fso
14,«N>
II.TXI
10,190
un
STRBNQTH OF CABNSQIB IRON CHANNELS.
rn
t
. i
.11
^ If
s ij
1 1
? I
268
PHCBNIX WROUGHT-IKON COLUMNS.
TABLE IX.
Sizes of Phcenix Columns.
One Segment.
One Column.
Least
1
radius of
Mark.
Thicknes?
in inches.
Weight
in ponndB
per yard.
Area in
sq. inches.
Weight
in pounds
per foot.
12.6
iryration
in inches.
A
A
9i
3.8
1.45
4 segment.
i
h
12
14i
4.8
5.8
16.0
19.8
1.50
1.56
3|" inter, diam.
8
17
16
6.8
22.6
1.59
i
6.4
21.3
1.92
B'
h
19^
7.8
26.0
1.96
23
9.2
30.6
2.02
4 segment.
iV
26i
10.6
85.8
2.07
4|f" inter, diam.
1
1%
30
83i
12.0
13.4
40.0
44.6
2.11
2.16
i
87
14.8
49.8
2.20
m
7.4
24.6
2.84
B'
A-
22i
9.0
30.0
2.89
I
26^
10.6
35.8
2.48
4 segment.
A-
m
12.2
40.6
2.48
^le.'/* j_ !•
i
34i
13.8
46.0
2.62
5if inter, diam.
ft
38i
15.4
51.8
2.57
s
8
i
42i
17.0
66.6
2.61
25
10.0
88.8
2.80
>'b
30
12.0
40.0
2.a5
2.
35
14.0
46.6
2.90
,'b-
40
16.0
58.8
2 94
i
45
18.0
60.0
2.98
C
,\
48
19 2
64.0
8.08
i
53
21 2
70.6
8.08
4 segment.
li
58
23 2
77.8
8 12
7ft" inter, diam.
i
63
25.2
84.0
8.16
iJ
68
27.2
90.6
8.21
1
»
73
29.2
97.8
8.26
1
83
33.2
110.6
8.84
H : 93
37.2
124.0
8.48
11 103
1
41.2
187.8
8.6d
PH(BNIX WROUGHT-IRON COLUMNS.
TABLE IX,— Concluded.
Sizes of Pluenix Columns.
>islied colnmoe.
the VVatortown (Mass.) Arsenal. Prom these enjierimonts formu-
las have been deduced Irom which the aeeompanyinfc tables have
boun prepared, in which are shown the safe loads in net tocjs for
each size and length of the several patteros made.
272 PHCENIX WROUGHT-IRON COLUMNS.
columns are unequally loaded, then it will be adyisable 1
the tabular figures or use heavier sections for the case, a
indicated hj the circumstances.
Steel Columns. — These tables have been prepared
columns. If it is desired to use steel, it will be proper to
for loads from 15 to 20 per cent, more than those giv(
tables, the greater value being for short, and the lesser
columns.
PHOENIX IRON COLUMNS.
273
SAFE LOADS IN TONS OP 2,000 POUNDS.
PHOESNIX IRON COLUMNS.
Square Ends.
4 Segment, A Column, 8f Inside Diameter.
Length of
^"
\"
h"
f"
column hi
12.6 11)8. per ft.
8.8 D in.
16 lbs. per ft.
19.8 lbs. per ft.
22.6 lbs. per ft.
6.8 a m.
feet.
4.8 □ in.
5.8 n in.
10
17.29
22.17
27. -W
32.36
12
16.87
21.65
26.57
31.63
14
15.99
20.54
25.23
30.05
16
15.08
19.30
23.84
28.48
18
14.17
18.24
22.45
26.79
20
13.29
17.12
21.10
25.21
22
12.39
15.99
19.73
23.61
24
11.57
14.95
18.47
22.13
4 Segment, B* Column, m" Inside Diameter.
Length
i"
21. 3 lbs.
column
per ft.
in ft'ei.
6.4 Din.
10
30.30
12
29.45
14
28.49
16
27.46
18
28.40
20
25.28
22
24.14
24
23.00
26
21.88
Bibs
26 lbs.
per ft.
7. Sain.
37.40
36.36
35.20
33.94
32.64
31.27
29.89
28.50
27.14
jf
It
30.^ lbs.
per ft.
9.2niii.
44.67
43.44
42.07
40.59
39.05
37.44
35.80
34.17
32.56
_7
T«..
35.3 11)8.
per ft.
10. Gain.
52.10
50.68
49.10
47.40
45.08
43.77
41.90
40.01
88.16
k"
40 lbs.
per ft.
12 Din.
59.71
58.10
56.31
54.88
52.38
50.28
48.15
46.02
43.92
9 //
44.6 lbs.
per f r,.
13.4nin.
67.47
65.68
63.69
61.53
59.29
56.95
54.57
52.19
49.84
49.3 lbs.
per ft.
14.811 in.
70.41
73.43
71.28
68.84
66.37
63.78
61.16
58.53
55.94
\ Segment, B^ Column, 5^g" Inside Diameter.
Lenj;th
\"
30 lbs.
\"
J "
IB
k""
■^b"
\"
of
24.6 lbs.
85.3 lbs.
40.6 lbs.
46 lbs.
51.3 lbs.
56.0 lbs.
column
per ft.
per ft.
per ft.
per ft.
per ft.
per ft.
per ft.
in feet.
7.4 a in.
9 D in.
10.6 3 in.
12.2 Din.
13.8a in.
15.4 Din.
17Din.
10
a"), or
44.30
52.r9
61.14
60.85
78.72
87.75
12
85.25
43.33
51.56
59. 9d
68.51
77.23
8ii.l0
14
34.43
42.32
50.38
58.59
66.97
75.50
84.20
16
33.^3
41.23
49.09
57.12
65.30
73. H4
82.14
18
32.57
40.06
47.72
55.53
63.50
71.04
7^.93
20
31.55
38.83
46.26
53.86
61.61
69.52
77.60
22
80.48
87.58
44.73
52.09
59.61
67.29
75.14
34
29.41
3^.22
43.19
50.32
57.61
65.06
72.67
26
28.31
84.89
41.62
48.51
55.57
62.78
70.15
28
27.23
33.57
40.06
46.72
53.54
60.52
67.66
214
PHCENIX IRON COLUMNS.
SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2,000 POUNDS.
PHCSNIX IRON COLUMNS.
Square Ends,
4 Sboment, C Column, 7^'' Inside Diaxbter.
Length y
of 33.3 lbs.
column per ft.
in feet. [ lOoin.
8 //
per ft.
12 a in.
46.6 lbs.
per ft.
14 Din.
7 //
53.3 lbs.
per ft.
16 Gin.
60 lbs.
per ft.
18 a in.
641b6.
per ft.
19.2oin.
70.6 IbB.
per ft.
21 .2 Din.
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
38
30
32
34
36
38
40
50.97
50.33
49.62
48.91
47.87
46.93
45.92
44.86
43.77
42.63
41.48
61.16
60.40
59.54
58.59
57.46
56.31
55.11
53.83
52.63
51.16
49.78
48.42
71.35
70.46
69.46
68.48
6;. 02
65.70
64.29
62.81
61.28
59.68
58.07
56.4!)
54.85
81.55
80.53
79.30
7H.2I)
76.t)0
75.08
73.48
71.78
70.04
68.21
06.37
64.56
02.69
60.88
91.74
90.60
89.31
88.04
86.17
84.47
82.66
80.75
78.79
76.74
74.67
72.63
70.53
68.43
66.37
97.86
96.64
95.87
08.91
91.92
90.10
88.17
86.14
84.04
81.85
79.65
77.47
75.23
7:^.00
70.80
68.61
106.05
10i».71
105.19
103.69
101.49
99.49
97.36
95.11
92.80
90.38
87.94
85.54
83.07
80.60
78.17
75.75
Lenffth
TT.Slbs.
per ft.
2:12 D
in.
84 lbs.
90.0 lbs.
97.3 Ibe.
110.6 lbs.
124 IbB.
187.3 lbs.
column
in feet.
per ft.
25.2cin.
128.45
per ft.
27.2Din.
138.65
per ft.
29. 2 Din.
per ft.
33.2Din.
per ft.
Sf.Soin.
per ft.
41. 2 a in.
10
118.2(5
148.84
169.23
189.QS
210.01
12
116. n
120.84
13»i.91
140.97
167.11
187.94
207.38
14
115.11
125.04
134.90
144.89
164.73
184.68
904.43
10
113.48
123.20
133.04
142.83
162.39
181.96
201.59
IS
111.07
120.04
130.22
139.79
158.94
178.00
197.94
20
108.87
118.20
127.04
137.03
155.80
174.67
193.85
22
100.54
115.73
124.91
134.10
152.47
170.84
189.91
24
104.08
113.U5
122 M
131.01
148.95
166.89
184.84
26
101.5.-)
110.31-
119.00
127.82
145.33
168.84
180.85
28
98.91
107.44
115.90
124.49
141.54
158.0O
175.65
30
90.24
104.54
112. S3
121.13
137.71
164.»
iro.9i
32
93.01
101.08
109.75
117.82
133.91
160.10
166.94
34
90.90
98.74
10<).5S
114.42
130.00
146.78
161.44
36
RS.iJO
95.81
103.41
111.01
126.22
141.48
156.64
38
85.55
92.<>2
100.30
107.67
122.42
187.17
161.98
40
82.90
90.05
97.19
104.34
118.64
ias.96
147.23
PHGBNIX IKON OOLCJMNS.
275
SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2,000 POUNDS.
PHCSNIX IRON COLUMNS.
Square Ends,
6 Segment, E Column, 11'' Inside Diameter.
Lens^th
of
56 lbs.
per ft.
16.8D
in.
641 bs.
72 lbs.
801b-.
88 lbs.
9611)8.
1"
106 lbs.
column
per f I.
I>er ft.
per ft.
per ft.
per ft.
P'^r ft.
in feet.
19.2a in.
21. 6 Din.
24 Din.
26.4Din.
28.8Din.
31.8 a in.
10
86.94
99.36
111.78
124.20
186.62
149.04
164.56
12
86.41
98.76
111.11
123.45
135.80
148.14
163.57
14
85.79
98.06
110.31
122.56
134.82
147.08
162.40
16
85.09
97.24
109.40
121.56
13:3.71
145.87
161.06
18
84.30
96.34
108.88
120.48
132.47
144.51
159.66
20
83.44
95.36
107.28
119.20
131.12
143.04
157.95
22
82.52
94.81
106.09
117. ^s8
129.67
141.46
156.20
24
81.51
93.15
104.80
116.44
128.00
139. 7^
154.29
26
80.47
91.96
103.46
114.^
126.45
137.95
152.82
28
79.88
90.72
102.06
118.40
124.74
18tl.08
150.25
30
78.28
89.41
100.59
111.76
l-.?2.94
184.12
148.09
32
77.02
88.08
99.08
110.04
121.04
132.04
145.80
34
75.76
86.50
97.41
108.24
119.06
129.88
143.41
86
74.50
85.15
95.79
106.44
117.0R
127.72
141.03
38
73.21
as. 67
94.13
101.59
115.05
126.51
138.58
40
71.90
82.17
92.44
102.72
112.99
123.26
180.10
Leno^h
116 lbs.
piT ft.
34.8 D
in.
1"
\l"
1"
V
H"
U"
126 lbs.
186 lbs.
146 lbs.
166 lbs.
186 lbs.
206 lbs.
column
per ft.
per ft.
l)er ft.
per ft.
per ft.
per ft.
in feet.
87.8Din.
40.8Din.
43.8 Din.
49. 8 Din.
55.8Din.
61 .8 Din.
10
180.09
195.61.
211.14
226.66
257.71
288.76
819.81
12
179.01
194.44
209.87
225.30
256.17
287.03
:317.89
14
177.71
193.04
20S.3I)
2:23.68
254.32
284.97
315.61
16
176.26
191.45
206.65
2:31 .84
252.23
282.62
:313.01
18
174.63
189.68
204.73
219.78
249.89
280.00
310.10
20
l':2.85
187.75
202.6,'3
217.55
247.35
277.15
:^06.96
22
170.93
185.67
200.40
215.14
244.62
274.08
:30:3.50
24
168.84
18:3.40
197.96
212.51
241.62
2,0.74
i299.85
25
166.69
181.06
195.43
209.80
288.54
207.28
21)0.02
28
164.4:3
178.60
192. 7S
200.95
235.30
203.05
292.00
30
162.06
17'?. 08
190.00
203.97'
231.91
259.80
287.80
32
15^.55
17:3.31.
187. 0<5
200.82
22S.33
255.84
283.35
84
156.94
170.47
184.00
197.53
•.'24.59
251.05
278.71
86
154.88
107.64
180.94
194.25
220.86
247.47
274.08
88
151.H5
104.78
177.80
190.88
217.02
243.17
2^9.32
40
148.94
161.78
174.62
187.46
213.14
238.82
264.50
276
PHCENIX IRON COLUMNa
SAFE LOADS IN TONS OP 2,000 POUNDS.
PHCENIX IRON COLUMNS.
Square Fnda.
8 Segment, G Column, 14j" Inside Diameter.
Length
801be.
93.3 ll)s.
iV
106. ti lbs.
120 lbs.
13:^.8 Ihs.
1"
146.6 lbs.
16Ulb8.
column
per ft.
per ft.
per ft.
per ft.
36 Din.
, per ft.
per ft.
44 Dill.
per ft.
In feet.
24 Din.
28Din.
32 D in.
40 Din.
48 Din.
10
124.92
145.74
166. .56
187.38
208.20
229.02
240.84
1-2
124.44
145.18
165.92
186.66
207.40
228.14
^48.88
14
123.5H
144.56
165.21
18'). 8()
206.. 52
227.17
247.82
16
123. 2.S
143.83
161.38
iai.98
205.48
226.02
'Zm.57
18
122.59
143.02
163.45
183.88
204.82
224.75
245.18
20
121.82
142.12
162.43
182.73
208.04
223.84
243.64
22
120.98
141.14
161.81
181.47
201.64
221.80
241.96
24
120.04
140.05
160.06
180.07
200.06
220.as
240.09
26
119.11
18S.96
158.81
178.66
198.52
218.87
288.22
28
118.08
137.76
157.44
177.12
196.80
216.48
23(>.16
80
117.00
13>i.50
156.(0
175.50
195.00
214.60
234.00
82
115.84
135.15
154.40
178.77
198.08
212.86
231.69
84
114.fi4
133.75
152.86
171.97
191.06
210.18
229.29
86
113.28
132.16
151.04
169.92
188.80
207.68
226.56
88
112.08
I30.7()
149.44
168.12
186.80
205.48
2^.16
40
110.80
129.27
147.74
166.21
184.68
908.14
221.61
Length
of
column
in feet.
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
84
26
28
80
82
81
Si)
38
40
J/,
173.3
lbs.
per ft.
'^2 n in.
270.66
269.62
2i)8.47
267. 1-'
26.-). 61
26:^.95
262.13
2(K).10
:l'58.07
25.'>.84
'J53.50
:>51 .00
248.40
245.44
243. K4
240.08
186. «) lbs.
por ft.
5(5 a in.
291.48
290.36
289.12
287.67
28H.04
2g4.25
2S2.29
280.11
277.92
275.52
273.00
2; 0.31
26r.51
264.32
2(n.52
258.55
200 lbs.
per ft.
60nin.
312.30
311.10
309.78
808.22
30«).48
:iOI.56
302.46
300.12
297.78
295.20
292.50
289.(2
28.i.r)2
28{.:ii0
2S0.20
277.02
1"
226.6 lbs.
258.8 lbs.
980 lbs.
806.6 Ibfl.
per ft.
per ft.
per ft.
84 Din.
per ft.
68Din.
(6 Din.
9iain.
358.94
895.58
487.29
478.86
3.V2.58
394.06
48.'^.54
477.09
351.08
892.88
488.69
474.99
349.81
80;). 41
481.60
472.60
:i47.84
388.90
4WJ.07
469.03
345.10
88.1.77
496.88
466.99
342.78
383.11
498.44
468.77
34). 13
380.15
420.16
460.18
387.48
877.18
416.89
4S6.m
334.56
373.98
418.28
452.64
381.50
370.50
409.60
448.60
328.28
866.85
40r>.46
444.08
324. t^a
883.06
401.96
489.48
:V>().96
35-).T8
896.48
4^.24
317.56
854.92
399.«
49>).64
313.95
850.89
887.89
424.78
STOl OCTA »K COLI F.
211
Keystone Octagon Column.
Another special form of wrought-irou column is that known as
the Keystone Octagon Column, manufactured by Carnegie, Phipps
& Co. It is made of four rolled segments of wrought iron, riveted
together as shown in Fig. 5.
mmr///M
Fie. 5.
The table oo the following page giyes the diameters, areas, and
weights of these columns as rolled. To compute the strength of
these columns it is first necessary to find the radius of gyration
(r), when the strength per square inch can then be determined from
Table VI.
The radius of gyration may be found by the following formulo :
J=
7=
A
r
12
r =
/4.'
in which
moment of inertia ; D
area of column ; d
radius of gyration.
= outside diameter ;
= inside diameter ;
278
KEYSTONE WROUGHT-IRON COLUMNS.
1-
0
0
ll.
tf
u
Q.
CO
1-
z
m
o
^
S
hJ
0
o
J
z
o
<
o
CO
<
^
hJ
o
OC
o
<
<
o
tH
z
o
Q
o
z
0
H
Q.
^
CO
llJ
o
q:
Eh
oc
C/}
0
tH
o
^
M
Q
Z
<
CO
hJ
CO
CO
UJ
Z
^
o
•8saa3[3iqx
"i «e-^
•e^fstnc
^■^
^^
1 i
1
•-»
•
js Si a
•
t* ^ S)
^ COM
5 «T.;
O Ci
• •
too
oct-
• •
1 1
1 1
* ' i
1
»
•
J
■^
1
o
JS
. eo
5<ll-
cooa
1
a
to
I
5 ceo
SS
^^
1 1
1 1
, 1 1
le,
Q
t-*
p)
1
<
• • •
82
• •
QCC)
1 1
1 1
•
«
as
as
js it a
3 -^o
• •
00 1-
• •
1-H
COCO
*ico
1 1
;j
•
,j
*<
o
ja
. r-x
C50
^•N
00 ^
O
a
•
a
J5 xr5
— ^^ 2^
tt
t-i
^s
1 1
I
9>
(O
OQ
1
• •
• •
• •
• •
1 1
-<{
j*^^
xo
1-1 CO
-^CD
■ ■
»^
r-i 1^
1-H l-H
•
% 1 QD
x-»o
• •
Oi-i
(NO
• •
CDQO
5K
1-1
1-1 1^
1^ 1-H
»-hO*
\J
»j
*^
c
•s.
O
coo
x«
C40
Oif
i ^
2 ;s
5 1 3^
- CO
^%
• •
(NO
s^
t-t
■n
a »>'
o
o -^
7:
c
H-
^ !
1 *
0; .
«- 1
Sao
ss
ss
ss
<
1
? ^
• •
^co
T^ 1-1
• •
i-« f-i
^5
^d
j
1
2 oi
•
c:x
XX
r-t-
o«
oo
1 ^
.2F
5 a
1 1 1
• •
• •
T-i 1-H
1-H(N
tt
t;^
•
J3
-^co
-*o
Ofth-
• ■»
CO-N
a
•
5
13
i 1 1
• •
•
or-
J^ig
3^
ood
s
>
*^
•iH »H
o
X
101
'NX
38
So
^V.
S!3i
^
<
1 1
• •
• •
X ^
1=.^
tt
t^
Sl^
'Mtia
4.L
ua .-
■c^"^
*-
:>•
5^»
Z-BAR COLUMNS. 279
Z-Bar Columns.
Within the past three years, what is known as the Z-bar column
has been introduced, and is now manufactured by all the leading
iron mills. It is built up of four Z-bars, riveted together, as shown
in Figs. 7 to 12, page 264.
The dimensions of the different shapes manufactured will be
found in the tables given in Chapter XIII.
This column possesses so many advantages for building purposes
that it is undoubtedly destined to be extensively used.
Its claims for superiority are based mainly on the following
qualities :
1. Cheapness, — The Z-bars are furnished at a lower price per
pound than channels and I-beams, and only two rows of rivets are
required, while four or more are used for any other column of an
equal sectional area.
2. High Ultimate Resistance to Gompressioii. — Careful tests made
upon fifteen full -sized (Carnegie) specimens, in which the web plates
were replaced by lattice bars, showed an average ultimate resistance
per square inch of 35,650 pounds for lengths ranging from 64 to 88
radii. These results are as favorable as have been obtained for
closed cylindrical columns, and are more favorable than have been
obtained for any other open columns. For detailed report of the
tests referred to, see paper by C. L. Strobel, in Trans. Am. Soc.
C. E., April, 1888.
3. Great Adaptability for Effecting Connections with I-heams. —
When used in buildings, for supporting single floor beams, or
double beam girders, this quality is of the greatest importance.
The illustrations on pages 280 and 281 show different methods of
making the connections, as employed by Carnegie, Phipps c: Co.
This column may bo easily covered with terra-cotta blocks, for
fireproofing, and finishing with plaster or cement, and the air-space
between the tiling and the metal adds to the protection of the latter
in the event of fire. The recesses in the columns may bo used to
good advantage for conducting water and gas pipes, electric wires,
etc.
4. Favorable Form for Inspection and Repairing. — This is a
very desirable feature when used for out door work.
When unusually heavy loads must be provided for, as in the case
of columns for tho Iov,cr stories of very high buildings, the stand-
ard sections of Z-bar columns may be reenforced to the required
strength by using either a double central web plate, or by the addi-
tion of outside cover plates, or, if need be, both, forming thus a
Z-BAK COLUMNS.
Connaotient ol
IBomu is"in<I ij"I Bwu ni3fr'°."9">nd B" T'^nd S'
I Tods. J] Too). ^ Buiw ■ I Booh
17.6 Tom, ■ B.I Tool
Ccnnsotlonl d >dDubl« Som glnittt« Fluign otZB«r*<
88T0111. IBMioi IBhum IBaoM
S3 Tons. 35 Tom. >7>< Ttm,
n*Htimitre//eii(iidlcaitd,aftutttAibaJtfinimfirttmmttf
girdtrtjir ahick Iht ennKiiimt arr prr^triiuud,
BivtUamtBtlttHdta.—AUBtlUtui.vtirt,tMllta4t.
Z-BAB OOLl rs. 281
DETAILS OP BTANDABD CONNECTIONS
OPI^EAMSTO Z-BAR COLUMNS.
leot Z-SarColun:
Numitr »f riv4U rtf Hired /sr nntactiannef differ,
c/l^^mi 10 »t*i o/Zbi<r>.-wiU be the !a.«t ni jEokph .
282 Z-BAR COLUMNa
closed or box column. A form of column, offering advantages in
some cases, especially if the column is to be finished circular in
form, is shown by Fig. 3 on page 281. Pig. 8 on the same page
shows the manner of splicing columns, whether of equal or unequal
size.
•* The standard connections for double I-beam girders and single
iloor beams to Z-bar columns, detailed on pages 280 and 281, were
designed to fairly cover the lunge of ordinaiy practice. When the
maximum loads in tons indicate<l for each case are exceeded, the
connections may be correspondingly strengthened by simply using
longer vertical angles for the brackets and increasing the number
of rivets. In proportioning these connections, the shearing strain
on rivets was assumed of a maximum intensity of 10,000 pounds per
square inch. For steel Z-bar columns, the maximum loads given
for these ccmnections may be safely increased 15 per cent.'* ♦
The following tables give the safe load in tons for standard Z-bar
columns of different lengths, as manufactured by Carnegie, Phipps
&Co.
The values for steel Z-bar columns should be used only for cases
in which the loads are for the most part statical, and equal, or very
nearly so, on opposite sides of the columns. When there is much
eccentricity of loading, or the loads are subject to sudden changes,
the tabulated values must be n^duced according to circumstances.
The Carnegie Steel Co. has discontinued the manufacture of iron
bars of all kinds, and their product is now confined entirely to steel,
which has practically superseded iron in structural work, being
sold at the same price per pound, while 20 per cent, stronger.
(The steel here referred to is what is knovrn as "mild" steel,
having an ultimate strength of about 60,000 pounds per square
inch, and containing a comparatively low percentage of carbon.)
Example. — What size of Z-bar column, 30 feet long, with square
bearing ends, will be required to carry a load of 200 tons, using a
safetv factor of 4 ?
A7is. Referring to table of steel Z-bar columns, page 287. we
find that for a length of 30 feet, a 12-inch column with |-inch
metal, weighing 118 4 lbs. per foot, will support with safety 202.6
tons, which is slightly in excess of the load.
* Carnegie, Phipps & Co.'t) Pocket Companion, 1890.
E-BAB COLUHN DIUENSI0K8.
Z-BAR COLUMN DIHBHeiONS.
fOf J>- fOl
M
^m
- ^-y*
% of Z-BsT columns in inches for mil
mum thicknesaes.
Note. — In columns A. B, C. D, E, and F, the thickness of the
Z-bars iind web plates does not vary, the variations in the strength
of the eoliimn being mode in the thickness of the side plates.
Columns G. H, K, and L, have no side plates, and the variations
are in the thickness of the bars snd web plate.
All of Column B and part of A have four side plates, two on each
side, the others have but one plate on eacli side.
STBBL Z-BAK C0LDMN8.
BAFB LOADS IN TONS OP 3,000 LBS.
BTBBI. Z-BAR COLUMNS.
Square Endt.
ine per BQQflrB inch ■ 1 18.000 Ibn., for length of TO rsdll ornode
ilely fsclor 4 : ' ^ n.lOO-SI-^, for lenglhe over so ndU.
90" Z-BAR COLUHNS.-A.
4Z-B«riSi" ■ 1". 1 Web Plate U" y I". Side Plata SO" w
SO" Z-BAK COLUMNS.— B.
Secllan: 4Z-Birsei" > 4". 1 Web Plate 14" > 1". 4 SMe Plata *0" wlda.
BZBBL Z-BAB COLUHNB.
BAS% LOADS IN TONS OF 1,0I» LBS. .
STBEI. Z-BAR OOLnMNS.
Sgttare Endt.
Allows
d«™in*per.quflretacl
Bsfely factor 4 ;
I,.iia,0001b8., fi
jrlenellHofBOradiiornnder.
.torlcni^thioterBOradU.
BTEEL Z-BAB OOLUHNS. '
, . <, ll,«aO IbB., rar hnglbe oT 90 ndll 01
'"( 17,100-ST J. , tor li^iigUiB owr SO ni
Section : 4 Z-Bara fll
STEEL Z-BAR COLUHM&
8AFB LUADS IN TON» OP 3.000 LBS.
STBBL Z-BAR OOI.nMN8.
Square End*.
w\
w!
i|*,«.
«,r
1SS.6
SOI
;iis-
IBO.g
m
4 194.
STEEL ZBAK COLUHHS.
SAPB LOAl>S IN TONS OP 1,0110 LBS.
STBBI. Z-BAR OOIiUMNS.
Square End*.
ved slraina per square
ttee\ -. HSfet; faclor
Length tf( colnmn In r«l.
mm
^ Ml
|?!IS
...m,.,.n,k.r
47:t I wis
ST.- «>
st'.s te'.t
si
4C.4
4i.a
»4.0 IM.B
Si
7B.7
i:l
U.1
•JK ..
81
S:i
lABIMEBS PATENT ALL STEEL COLtTMN. 389
i^matBBm patent aza steel oolomn.
(MiaufactxKd by Jonea & LmghllnB, Pilteburgb.)
This cotumn was patented Jutio 3, 1891. It is made by bending
two I-beams at ngbt angles in tha middle of the web and riveting
LARIMItn'e PlTEl
theiu together as in tbe illustration. The porumn is very light and
com pact, aad has but one row of rivets. The fallowing table gives
tbe strength of tbe eolumn.
289a luAKIMKRS PATENT ALL STEKL COLUMN.
s
Hi
o
D
Hi
n
n i I
Hi Z
h) f
^*
n I
<i ^
CO •=
< 5
h] ^
of :
Q ^'
55 I
21
o >,
o =
O }-
CO .T
!5 -^
O -
H :-
H4
Q •>
<
o
H
<
CO
7.
y
I HUOJ,
p.)A\(/l(V I
•MIOJ, I
I III piJo'l .»iWS i
I
-r
p,).\vt/[iv 1
I J<Ki HIIIUJIS j
ui pno'i oj«tj
I xj'i III ,, J '
I J.kI SMlj.'JlS ■
?/ X — «rt X
-St " 0» — i-i
coc:= cere ■cc-so
^^ ■- ^^ -■*
2: t<>»i- I 1-1 ^ii —
i ^ — i 3
c» »» c* ci ■?»'
at«»aK wSrS w*^3*
cj I? ?/ ?»' ?* *?* •:» c* c» r* 7» *:»
1 "" '" ! '"""
?J /. — .- at
c *c •-* ~.
i^X-j* —
1-^ r-^ ft r-m
1 ^^ ^
*c i 3^ W a^
at — ■^ ar
si ^ ?r j»
^ - ■« "^
ci-:*^* -?*":*
T» if ti ci
• » » >
^- ^- •-■ ^«
T» ci C» ti
f^r
7» X •^ I . x I'; X 7' — it k". ». ^» c; ■?» X e
— — jrT"— I— ^«^ x-jiv jBvirK I
fJK'Ejrx — I- — ■« — »— — VX'— w I
'It 'I ^i '' T* ?»■:»■:»'?» cfc^T*?* 1/ •:>■:'?» |
«•••• ■■■■ ••■• >■«■
*i 7 — » : r. 1^ i. ■:» -* ?» o r. ?» c ?» x c
**
•s«n III ,, :j I
I p-»A\onV I
I "r""'! i
I HI piio'i .)J«s.
I
sq'I Uj . :J
jifl-llliMiS
p.i\\«ill\-
-?»' ?i *:* Tf ■: ■
1
1
■. "li ?»?•
■ * * •
Z! * ' 3i if
- - - - i
w ^ ^ ^
c = rc
w e C i.*?
5» 7 — i.'i ^
■J* — W »- "
1— ^- ^- »—
^ 2 'y C*
iC ^ » K «
?s = i
SK a a «
s = co
2 7 i J
■r* 7' T» "?» ?♦
c» -:» ?* CI
• « •
c* ?' rt —
c» — ■:# —
-www
w _ V? t..
-T!a I
71
xi'j III . ;i
I j.Ml>uii:.i|s
p.iAvo'nv
Ml piiD'l .)ji-s
"' ! -H'l 111
i-til '>iiii.jjs
P'"''ll\
MilMJl I Jl. I'T.I.I.VV
' = "■■'11 I J'»"iS
r- ■■« < - 51 "^ r ■- — r. x SCI - — £ — — 15
SsTir "r;; =-rJ— S:-*??
_ - _ I
:=>..= c e = ii7
• ■ I ■
2* 7 — ii / i'^ 7 T« -- 7> -• j. ^ a: ^ t- n
■ ■-»-« w - M ■ •" ".' S ,» Z^ !£ '- ^
": r 1 ■ " ; " T i •-■-:?. ^' V T y
71 7» 7' 7» 7* 7» 7* ,■ 7»
J -, r. • -
_.-i. __#i7 • wl*»~
^-^ •« ■** ^« i* A ' "l - • ■■ * ^ XI *1
i~ i". i" •" •" 7» 7» 7» 7'
--■•..•,1 ..........
x f -f -x ■/#—■*_ X y 9? *
f r -i / I - / S 1 - K is — *ft
■ lllllil •. I Jo -•/IS
urimee'b patent all steel column. 289J
289c THE GKAY ST££L COLUMNS.
The Gray Column*
The fibres on the opposite page show a perspective Tiew and
section of a column which was patented in December, 1892, by Mr.
J. H. Gray, C. E., and which has since been used in some promi-
nent buildings. As may be seen from the illustratioDS, this column
is made of angle- bars riyeted together and braced every few feet
in height by flat iron ties, as shown in the perspective view
The angles may be reenforced by cover-plates riveted to their
faces, when necessary to increase the strength of the column. Any
bridge shop can make these columns by paying a small royalty to
the patentee.
As angles are the cheapest shape of rolled steel that is manufact-
ured, this should be an economical column.
The special advantages claimed for this column are :
1. A strong, economical section.
2. Provides continuous pipe space from basement to rool
3. Has four flat sides for connections.
4. Size of column does not vary when section is iucreased or
diminished.
5. Does away with ** cap-plates," and joins sections of colamns
firmly together, making a continuous column.
Tests made in the hydraulic machine of the Keystone Bridge
Works on 14-inch columns, 11 feet long, developed a resistance to
crushing of from 38,000 to 40,000 pounds per square inch of section,
and a modulus of elasticity of from 24.030,000 to 27,750.000
pounds.
The tables on pages 2SQe-2S9h give the safe loads of several siaea
of square, wall, and corner columns as computed by Mr. Gray.
By varying the thickness of angles and adding cover-plates, the
strength of the column can be greatly increased.
Tables of wall and corner columns, and further particulars, maj
be obtained by addressing Mr. J. U. Gray, C. E., Chicago.
TBB GRAY STEEL COLUMKS.
269e
THE GRAY STEEL COLUMNS,
SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2,000 LBS. BY FORMULA 17,100 LBS. - 57 -.
SQUARE OOIiUMNS WITHOUT OOVBR PI1ATB&
10" COLUMN.
No.
Pieces.
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
2k"
X 2i" Lb.
i
9.52
44
it
A
11.76
(t
»»
I
13.84
ti
tt
16.00
H
ti
k
18.00
2k"
X 3" La.
k
20.00
ti
t»
A
22.24
r.
13 ft.
S.16
69.0
8.15
85.2
3.13
100.0
3.12
116.0
3.11
130.1
3.00
143.4
2.98
159.5
16 ft.
90 ft.
64.1
60.8
80.1
75.0
94.2
88.1
108.8
101.7
122.2
114.3
134.5
125.4
149.3
139.1
89 ft.
55.8
68.8
78.0
84.2
94.5
102.6
118.6
12" COLUMN.
8
8"
X 8" Ls.
i
11.52
3.81
86.1
81.9
77.8
67.6
8
(t
ii
A
14.24
3.79
106.3
101.2
96.1
83.2
8
ti
ii
f
16.88
3.77
125.9
119.9
118.7
96.4
8
3"
X 4" Ls.
»
19.84
3.57
149.2
141.6
138.7
114.4
8
ii
ii
^
22.96
3.55
169.8
160.9
158.1
129.9
8
8"
X 5" Ls.
/«
26.48
3.36
194.1
183.2
178.5
145.5
8
it
ii
i
30.00
8.34
219.0
207.8
195.1
164.8
8
it
ii
A
33.44
3.32
244.6
230.8
217.6
188.8
8
ii
ii
i
36.88
3.30
♦J69.5
254.2
S:«.9
800.7
8
ii
ii
H
40.24
3.28
293.7
276.9
260.1
818.8
8
ti
ii
f
43.52
3.26
317.3
299.0
280.7
285.0
8
ii
ti
H
46.72
3.24
340.3
320.6
800.8
851.5
14'' COLUMN.
8
4"
X 8" Ls.
^
16.72
4.63
128.2
123.5
118.4
105.8
8
ii
ii
f
19.84
4.61
152.0
146.1
140.2
185.4
8
4"
X 3i" Ls.
t
21.36
4.50
163.1
156.9
150.2
188.9
8
4"
x4" Ls.
X
22.88
4.40
174.3
167.2
160.1
142.8
8
ii
ii
26.48
4.39
201.7
193.4
185.2
164.5
8
4"
X 5" Ls.
^
30.00
4.12
226.6
216.7
206.7
181.8
8
(i
ti
i
34.00
4.10
256.7
245.3
834.0
205.6
8
4"
X 6" Ls.
k
38.00
3.93
285.2
272.0
258.7
1^.5
8 .
ii
A
42.48
3.92
321.7
806.7
891.8
854.8
8
ii
it
f
46.88
3.91
851.6
a35.2
318.8
877.6
8
(i
ti
H
51.29
3.89
384.4
866.3
84S.4
808.3
8
it
i
55.52
3.88
416.0
396.3
876.8
887.9
8
it
tt
\l
59.76
3.87
447.6
426.4
405.8
808.5
8
if
i
63.92
3.86
478.5
455.9
488.8
876.6
THE GllAY STEEL COLUMNS,
289/
SAFE LOADS IN TONS OP 2,000 LBS. BY FORMULA 17,100 LBS. - 57 -.
r
SQUARE OOX.UMNS WITHOUT OOVZSR PLATBS.
16" COLUMN.
No.
Pieces.
Dimensions.
Thick.
Area
Sq. In.
r.
12 ft.
16 ft.
20 ft.
30 ft.
8
5"
X 3" Ls.
1
22.88
5.45
178.4
172.7
166.9
152.6
8
5"
X 34" Ls.
f
24.40
5.85
190.8
184.6
178.3
162.6
8
5"
X 4" Ls.
f
25.84
5.24
200.7
194.0
187.2
170.4
8
it
(I
iV
30.00
5.21
232.8
225.0
217.1
197.4
8
5"
X 6" Ls.
^
33.44
5.01
258.5
249.4
240.2
217.5
8
ii
(t
*
88.00
5.00
293.7
283.4
272.8
246.9
8
It
(t
A
42.44
4.98
338.2
316.5
804.9
275.7
8
it
it
f
46.88
4.96
362.1
349.2
336.2
303.9
8
It
t(
H
51.36
4.94
396.4
382.3
868.0
832.5
8
ti
tt
i
55.52
4.93
428.5
413.1
897.7
359.2
8
ti
tt
H
59.68
4.92
460.5
443.9
427.3
385.9
18" COLUMN.
8
6"
X 8i"L8.
f
27.86
6.15
215.7
209.6
208.5
188.3
8
6"
X 4" Lb.
k
28.88
6.07
227.4
220.9
214.4
198.1
8
tt
tt
38.44
6.05
268.2
2.55.7
248.1
229.3
8
tt
tt
i
38.00
6.03
299.0
290.4
281.8
260.2
8
6"
X 6" Ls.
^n
40.48
5.64
316.6
806.8
297.0
272.5
8
tt
tt
i
46.00
5.63
359.8
348.6
837.4
309.6
8
tt
tt
^
51.44
5.62
402.5
389.7
8n.2
346.9
8
t.
tt
f
56.88
5.60
444.6
480.7
416.8
332.1
8
tt
(t
H
62.24
5.59
486.5
471.3
456.1
417.9
8
tt
tt
i
67.52
5.57
527.3
511.0
494.4
452.9
8
tt
tt
H
72.72
5.55
56S.0
550.0
632.0
487.3
8
tk
It
i
77.92
5.54
608.5
589.2
569.9
521.9
22" COLUMN.
8
8"
X 6" Ls.
i
54.00
7.30
431.4
421.3
411.1
385.8
8
tt
T?B
60.48
7.29
483.1
471.8
460.4
4a2.0
8
it
f
66.88
7.27
534.2
521.5
508.9
477.5
8
<t
\h
73.38
7.26
585.2
571.3
557.5
5-23.0
8
tt
f
79.52
7.24
634.8
619.8
604.8
507.3
8
tt
H
• 85.76
7.23
684.6
638.4
652.1
611.6
8
tt
i
91.92
7.22
783.6
716.3
698.8
655.3
8
tt
H
98.06
7.21
782.7
764.2
745.6
699.0
8
tt
1
104.16
7.20
881.2
812.4
791.6
742.2
289iir
THE GKAY STEEL COLUMNS.
SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 2,000 LBS. BY FORMULA 17,100 LBS
-.1.
WAIiZi COLUMNS WITHOX7T OOVBR PZJLTB&
10" COLUMN.
No.
Pieces.
•
Dimensions.
Thick.
Area
sq. in.
r.
12 ft.
16 ft.
20 ft.
80 ft.
6
2i" X 2i"L8.
i
7.14
2.25
48.0
48.7
89.3
26.5
6
it (t
A
8.82
2.25
59.3
58.9
48.6
86.2
6
II it
I
10.88
224
69.7
68.4
67.1
41.2
6
it It
12.00
2.24
80.0
78.8
65.0
47.6
6
It - it
i
13.60
2.28
90.6
81.9
74.0
68.8
6
2k" X S" Ls.
i
15.00
2.17
99.9
90.4
81.0
67.0
6
it it
fk
16.68
2.16
110.9
100.8
89.8
68.8
12" COLUMN.
6
3"
X 3" Ls.
i
8.64
2.71
60.8
66.4
68.0
41.8
6
It
it
A
10.68
2.70
75.1
69.7
64.8
60.7
6
it
it
t
12.66
2.69
88.9
82.5
76.1
60.9
6
3"
X 4" Ls.
i
14.88
2.56
103.4
95.4
87.4
07.6
6
it
it
h
17.22
2.55
119.7
110.4
101.1
78.0
6
8"
X 5" Ls.
S
19.86
2.47
186.8
125.8
114.8
87.8
6
tt
it
k
22.50
2.47
155.0
142.5
180.0
98.0
6
t(
it
A
25.05
2.46
1^2 6
158.6
144.6
100.8
6
It
it
*
27.66
2.46
190.8
174.9
169.6
181.1
6
tt
it
H
30.18
2.45
207.4
190.6
178.8
181.6
6
tt
it
i
32 64
2 44
224.1
205.8
187.6
141.8
6
tt
ti
H
35.04
2.43
240.4
220.7
801.0
161.6
14" COLUMN.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4"
x8" Ls.
^
12.54
it
it
1
14.88
4"
X sy Ls.
f
1(5.02
4"
X 4" Ls.
k
17.16
ii
ii
19.86
4"
X 5" Ls.
/e
22.50
it
ii
i
25.5U
4".
X 6" Ls.
i
28.50
it
it
A
31.86
tt
it
«
35.16
tt
it
ii
38 47
it
it
i
41.64
it
tt
H
44.82
tt
ti
i
47.94
3.83
3.31
3.25
3.19
3.18
8.06
8.05
2.97
2.96
2.95
2.95
2.94
2.94
2.93
91.8
86.7
81.6
108.8
102.7
06.6
116.7
110.0
108.8
124.6
iir.3
100.9
144.2
135.6
127.1
ll;6.2
152.1
142.1
183.7
172.8
160.9
204.3
191.2
178.1
228.2
213.5
198.7
251.7
235.4
819.1
275.3
257.6
289.7
297.9
278.6
259.8
820.7
299.7
878.7
342.7
320.4
298.1
74.8
88.6.
86.4
01.4
106.6
110.0
188.8
146.8
101.9
178.8
196.1
810.7
886.8
848.0
IH£ QBAY STEEL COLUHMS.
SAFE LOADS IN TONS OF 8,000 LBS. BY FORMULA 17,1«» - BT -■
CORNER OOIiUMNS WITHODT COVER PLATBa
11' COLUMN HEDUCKD FROM H" COLUMN,
15" COLUMN KBDUCED E
1 IB" COLUUH.
1
it;
1
Vi
i;iS
i
f
li i
iflois' 1*S
i:».4 i5«
III
290 BENDING-MOMENTS.
CHAPTER Xir.
BENDINGMOMENXa
Tmk bonding-niomont of a beam or tnws represents the destnic-
live energy of the load on the l)eani or truss at any point for which
tlie ]>en(hng-nionicnt is computed.
The moment of a force around any given axis is the product of
the force into the pen^^ndicular distance between the line of action
of the force and the axis, or the product of the force into its arm.
In a I^eam the forces or loads are all vertical and the arms hori-
zontal.
The bending-moment at any cross-section of a beam is the alge-
braic siun of the moments of the forces tending to turn the beam
ai*ouud the horizontal axis passing through the ceuti'e of gravity
of the section.
Example. — Suppose we have a beam with one end securely
fixed into a wall, and the other end projecting from it, as in Fig. I.
]jet us now 8upix>se wc liave a
weight, which, if placed at tlie end
of the beam, will cause it to break
at the point of support.
/^^v, ^ Then, if we were to place the
^\^ ^^^ weight on the Ix^am at a point
^^v, ^\^ ^-x near the wall, the beam would
^>.^ ^^V/ support the weight easily; but, as
^\^ we move the weight towards the
outer end of the beam, the beam
bends more and more; and, wh<»n
^' the weight is at the end, the beam
breaks, as shown by the dotted lines. Fig. 1.
Now, it is evident that the destructive eneigy of the weight la
greater, the farther tlie weight is removed from tlie wall-end of the
beam, thouixh the weight itself remains the same all the time.
Tlie reason for this is, that the moment of the weight tends to
turn the beam alwut the point A, and thus producer a pull on the
ui>i)er fibres of the beam, and compresses the lower fibres. As the
weight is moved out on the beam, its moment becomes greater, and
hence also the pull and compression on the fibres; and, when tlie
^rm
^^
BENDING-MOMENTS.
291
moment of the weight produces a greater tension or compression
on the fibres tlian they are capable of resisting, they fail, and the
beam breaks. Before the fibres break, however, they commence to
striitch, and this allows the beam to bend: hence the name "Ixmd-
ing^nionient" h«s been given to the moment which causes a beam
to bend, and perhaps idtimately to break.
There may, of course, be several loads on a beam, and each one
having a d liferent monvent, tending to bend tlie beam; and it may
ilso occur that some of the weights may tend to turn the beam in
different directions: the algebraic sum of their moments (calling
those tending to turn the beam to the right +, and the others — )
would be the bending-moment of the beam.
Knowing the bending-moment of a beam, we have only to find
the section of the beam that is capable of resisting it, as is shown
in the general theory of beams. Chap. XIV.
To determine the bending-moments of beams mathematically,
requires considerable training in mechanics and niathematics; but,
as most beams may be placed under son\e one of the following
cases, we shall give the bending-moment for these cases, and then
show how the bending-moment for any other methods of loading
may be easily obtained by a scale diagram.
Examples of Bencliugr-Momeuts.
Case I.
Beam fixed at one end^ and loaded
with concentrated load W.
Bending-moment = W X L. {L
may, or may not, be the whole length
of the beam, according to where the
weight is located. )
Case II.
Beam fixod at one end, loaded with ^^^
u dt-'itribntt'd load \V. ^-'^
Bending moment = W x - •
Note. — The length L mast always* he taken
In the same unit of measurement «>« is listed for
the breadth and depth : thus, if B and D are in
inches, L must be in inches.
292
BBNDING-MOMENTS.
Case III.
Jionm fixpd at one end, loaded with both a concentrated and a
distributed load.
/.,
Bending-moment = P X Lj + JK x -^
Casr IV.
licam supported at both ends, loaded with concentrated load lU
centre,
W
J Bcnding-raoment
Case V.
Beam s^iipported at both ends, loaded with a distributed load W.
V -, - ■■:
'm%
<?;
'n
Fig.6
Bending-moint;nt
Cask VI.
livam supported at both tnids, loaded with concentrated load nol
at ('('litre
Bending-moment
= Wx
m X n
BKNDING-MOMENTS.
293
Cask VTI.
Beam supported at both encU, loaded rcith two equal concen-
trated loadSy equally distant from the centre.
Bending-moment
= W X nu
m-^
v^m
<rm
Flg.8
iiW
From these examples it will be seen that all the quantities which
enter into the bending-moment aro the W?ight, the span, and the
distance of point of application of concenti-ated load from each
end.
The hendin{i-moment for any case other than the above may
easily be obtained by the graphic method, which will now b«
explained.
Graphic Method of Determining Benclin^-
Moments.
The bending-moment of a l)eam supported at both ends, and
loader! with one concentrated load, may be shown graphically, as
follows : —
Let W be the weight applied, as shown. Then, by rule under
Case VI., thebeuding-
niomeut directly under [<« f^ J^ jjj
W = IF X
in X n
Draw the beam, with ^
the given span, accu-
rately to scale, and
then measure down
the line AB equal
to the bending - mo-
iiuMit. Connect B
with each end of the beam. If, then, we wished to find the bending-
moment at any other point of the beam, as at o, draw the vertical
line y to BC ; and its length, measured to the same scale as ABf
will give the bending-moment at o.
Beam with two concentrated loads.
To draw tlie bending-moment for a beam with two concentrated
loads, first draw the dotted Hues ABl) and ACD, giving the outline
294 BENDINO-MOMENTS.
of Ihe bending-nioment for each loful separately; KB heing eqiwl
toWx It^^ „„(, rr pqjial to P X '-^
Fi9.IO
Now, Ihe beiuting-momnnt at Uie pclnt E equals RJi, doe to tha
loud ir, anil Kb, clue to tlie load P: liunce the l)Uiiilii^(-nioiuent at
i'slioHld lie drawn ainul to En+ Kh — Kll, ; anil at Fthe beiMl-
Iiig iiioiiienl shoHkt equal H,'+ Fc= FC,. The otOUne lor the
bendlng-niomunt due to both loaits, tlieu, would be the Uiie
AIl^C'iD, anil the greatest bending-iuoment would In this parUe-
ular tasu be FC'i-
Jleam with three concentrated load*.
Fiy.tl
Pmcpficl as in the laat ease, and drawthp hending-moment for
eaoli load separately. Then make AD = A\ + A2 + AS, BB =
m + m + /J:t, and i:F= (I + r2 + f73. The line IIDEFI urill
then Ih- the c)ut1hie for the Ix'iiding-ii'ouiunl due to all tl)e wt^lghts.
The iH>iidln(>-nioiuent for a lieani loadeil tvith nnj- number of «w
<«ntiiited weiglita uiav be drawn In tlie oanie way.
BENDING -HOHENT&
Beam with untformly distrVnUed load.
Draw the beam with the given spaii. accurately to a scale, m
before, and at the middle of the beam draw the vertical line AH
I
equal to If x gi W representing the whole distributed load.
Then connect the points C, it, D by a parabola, and It will ^ve
the outline of the bendlng-moraents. if, now, we wanteil the
bendlng-Qiomeat at the point a, we have only to draw the vertical
line ab, and measure It to th<! same scale as ^ B, and it will be the
moment deatred. Hethoda for drawing the parabola may be found
in " Geometrical Problems," Part I.
Beam loaded viith both diatritruted and concenlrated loads.
To determine the bendlng-momcnt in this case, we have only to
combine the methods for concentrated loads and for the distributed
load, as shown in „
the accompanying
figure. The bend-
ing-moment at any
point on the beam
will then be lim-
ited by the line
ABC on top, and
CHEFA on the
bottom ; and the
gii'atesi bendfiig-
moraent will be
the longest verti-
cal tine that can
be drawn between Ha.ia
these two bounding lines.
For example, the tiending-momeiit at X would be BE. The posi-
tion of the greatest ben ding-moment will depend upon the position.
of the concentrated loads, and it may aud may not occur at tlie
296
BENDING-MOMENTS.
Example. —What is the greatest bending-ittmneilt In a hektk of
20 feet span, loaded with a distributed load of 800 pounds and a
concentrated load of 500 pounds 6 feet from one end, and a con-
centrated load of 600 pounds 7 feet from the other end ?
L
Ans. 1st, The moment due to the distributed load is W X ^*
800 X 20
or y =
2000 pounds. We
therefore lay off
to a scale, say
4000 pounds to
the inch, Bl =
2000 pounds, and
draw a parabola
between the
points Af B, and
C.
2d, The bend-
ing-moment fbr
the concentrated load of 500 pounds is
500 X 6 X 14
20
, or 2100 pounds.
Hence we draw E2 = 2100 pounds, to the same scale as Bly and
then draw the lines AE and CE,
3d, The bending-monient for the concentrated load of 600 pounds
600 X 7 X 13
— , or 2730 pounds; and we draw i)8 = 2780 pounds,
IS
20
and connect D with A and C.
4th, Make EII = 2 — 4, and DG = 3 — 5, and connect O and H
with C and A and with each other.
The greatest bending-nioment will be represented by the longest
vertical line which can be drawn between the parabola ABC and
tlu* broken line AHGC. In this example we find the longest veitl-
cal line which can be drawn is xy ; and by scaling it we find the
greatest bending-nionient to be 5550 pounds, applied 10 feet 11
inches from the point A.
In this case, the position of the line Xy was determined by
drawing the line TT\ parallel to IIG, and tangent to ABC, The
line Xy is drawn through the point of tangency.
Note. — As the measurements ased for determining the bending-momeiit \
in feet, we must multiply the moment by 12. to get it into inch poands; otfaar-
wise, in working out the dimenaione of the beam, they would be in feot Inntfiad
of inches.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RESISTANCE. 297
CHAPTER Xm.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RESISTANCE, AND
RADIUS OF GYRATION.
Moment of Inertia.
The strength of sections to resist sti-ains, either as girders or as
posts, depends not only on the area, but also on the form of the
cross-section. The property of the section which represents the
effect of the form upon the strength of a beam or post is its mo-
ment of inertia, usually denoted by I. The moment of inertia for
any cross-section is the sum of the products obtained by multiply-
ing the area of each particle in the cross-section by the square of
its distance from the neutral axis.
Note. — The ueutral axis of a beam is the line on which there is neither
tension nor compression; and, for wooden or wronght-iron beams or posts, it
may, for all practical purposes, be considered as passing through the centre of
gravity of the cross-section.
For most forms of cross-section the moment of inertia is best
found by the aid of the calculus; though it may be obtained by
dividing the figure into squares or triangles, and multiplying their
areas by the squares of the distance of their centres of gravity
from the neutral axis.
Moment op Resistance.
The resistance of a beam to bending and cross^breaking at any
given* cross-section is the moment of the two equal and opposite
forces, consisting of the thrust along the longitudinally compressed
layers, and the tension along the longitudinally stretched layers.
This moment, called "the moment of resistance," is, for any
given cross-section of a beam, equal to
• moment of inertia
extreme distance from axis*
In the general formula for strength of columns, given on p. 281,
the effect of the form of the column is expressed by the square
of the radius of gfyration, which is the moment of inertia of
the sectiou divided by its area; or -r = r^. The moments of
inertia of the principal elementary sections, and a few common
206
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RESISTANCE.
forms, are given below, which will enable the moment about any
given neutral axis for any other section to be readily calculated
by merely adding together the moments about the given axis of
the elementary sections of which it is composed.
In the case of hollow or re-entering sections, the moment of the
hollow portion is to be subtracted from that of the enclosing area.
Moments of Inertia and Resistance, and Radii of
Gyration.
I = Moment of inertia.
R — Moment of resistance.
G = Radius of gyration. •
A = Area of the section.
Position of neutral axis represented by broken line.
■
1
1
. --1 — rf
w~—
•
i
ui —
Y-h--*
I
bcP
■" 12*
R
b(P
= 6'
&
-12'
I
6(i»
= 3'
<P
3
1
« —
i-
— »
z
1
1
1
1
?
■
»
1
1
T
I
E
6 —
\ r
/ =
h(p - bii^
12
i 21
I— ^ = ;/ '
2X (^ =
bd - b,d.
I-Ream (another fonnula).
Let a denote area of one flange,
a' denotes area of w(»b,
cT = effective depth between centres of gravity of flanges;
then
-v'+6;2
This is the formula generally used by the engineers for the iioiir
companies.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RESISTANCE.
299
y-h'i
Ie--6~-^
T-
1 —
T
1
1
fy
Ik
_^
J._-
,. . 1
^S 10
L_li 1
n.
ihi
». — h-
<b
•t
■t
J
!■
h
O-
I
6#
"■ 3 "
-M.
<!2
4
~ 12'
Gf2
I
/
6d«
= 36'
It
3/
24'
G^
i
d^
18
I
6d«
-12-
G^
= 6'
I
6d«
= 4'
C2
~ 2*
/
_ bd^ 4- 6,(Z,«
j__
{b,-b)dj
3
/?
J
G2
/
" A'
I
= 0.7854)-*.
R
= 0.7854r3.
(?2= -r.
7 = 0.7854 ()•*-
i?
G2
= 0.7854 U'S-^J
r
1 r* - r*
BOO TABLES OF INERTIA AND GYRATION.
Moments of Inertia and Radii of Gyration of
Mercliant Sliapes of Iron and Steel.
For the sections of rolled iron beams and bars to be found in the
tnarket, the moments of inertia are given in the '* Book of Sections "
published by the manufacturers. The following tables give the
moments of inertia and radii of gyration for the principal sections
manufactured by ( amegie, Phipps & Co., the New Jersey Steel and
Iron Company, and the Phoenix Iron Company (revised to October
1, 1891). The Pencoyd Iron Works have recently made changes in
a number of their sections, and some of the old seotioDS of iron
beams and channels have been abandoned, and they are not at
present prepared to furnish the revised data.
The tables give the least weight for each section of iron beam,
and the minimum and maximum weights for channels, deck beams,
and angle irons. These shapes can be rolled for any weight
between the two given, while the weight of the beams can also be
greatly increased. With the quantities given in these tables, one
can find all the data required in usual calculations.
The tables on pages 322-24 will be found very oonTenie&t in
computing the strength of struts formed of two or four angle bart.
TABLES OF INERTIA AND GYRATION.
301
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OF GYRATION
OF CARNEGIE BEAMS— IRON.
V
u
IB
A
\1
-Oi
I.
n.
•
III.
IV.
.V.
Size, in
Weight
per lw)t,
in lbs.
Area of
cross-
bection,
Moments
of inertia.
Radii of j
gyration.
inches.
■
in sq. in
24.0
Axis A B.
Axis C D.
Axis A B.
Axis CD.
15
80
813.7
38.8
5.82
1.27
15
60
18.0
625.5
23.0
5.90
1.13
15
50
15.0
522.6
15.5
5.90
1.02
12
56.5
17.0
348.5
17.4
4.53
1 01
12
42
12.6
274.8
11.0
4.67
0.94
10^
40
12.0
201.7
12.0
4.10
1.00
m
31.5
1^.5
165.0
8.01
4.17
0.92
10
42
12.6
198.8
13.74
3.97
1.04
10
36
10.8
170.6
10.02
3.97
0.96
10
30
9.0
145.8
7.43
4.03
0.91
9
38.5
11.6
150.1
12.84
3.61
1.05
9
28.5
8.6
110.3
6.79
3.59
0.89
9
2J.5
7.1
92.3
4.64
3.62
0.81
8
34
10.2
102.0
10.2
3.16
0.99
8
27
8.1
82.5
6.30
3.19
0 88
8
21.5
6.5
66.2
3.95
3.20
0.78
7
22
6.6
51.9
4.58
2.80
0.83
7
18
5.4
44.2
3.28
2.86
0.78
6
16
4.8
29.0
2.87
2.46
0.77
6
13.5
4.1
24 4
2.00
2.46
0 70
5
12
3.6
14.4
1.46
2.00
0.64
5
10
3.0
12.5
1.15
2.04
0.62
4
7
2.1
5.7
0.67
1.65
0.57
4
6
1.8
4.6
0.36
1.61
0.45
3
9
2.7
3 5
0.85
1.15
0.56
3
5.5
1.7
2.5
0.44
1.24
0.52
80a
MOMENTS OF INERTIA
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OF aYRATION
OF CARNEGIE BEAMS-STEEL.
U
71
~~i — J
IB
Size, in
inches.
24
20
20
15
15
15
15
12
12
10
10
9
9
8
8
7
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
1
n
m.
Weight
per foot,
in lbs.
80
80
64
75
60
50
41
40
32
83
25.5
27
21
22
18
20
15.5
16
13
13
10
10
7.5
Area of Momcntfl of inertia
cross-
sec lion,
ill sq. in.
23.2
23.5
18.8
22.1
17.6
14.7
12.0
11
9
9
7,
7
4
7
5
9
Rsdii of gyradon.
2,059.3
1.449.2
1,146.0
75r 7
644.0
529 . 7
424.1
281.3
222.3
161.3
12:^.7
110.6
6.2
84.3
6.5
71 9
5.3
57.8
5.9
49.7
4.6
38.6
4.7
28.6
3.8
23.5
8.8
15.7
3.0
12.4
2.9
7.7
2.2
5.9
sis CD.
Axis A B.
41.6
9.42
45.6
7.86
27.8
7.80
40 1
5.86
80.4
6.04
21.0
6.00
14.0
6.94
16.8
4.90
10.8
4.85
11.8
4.08
7.32
4.06
9.10
8.72
5.56
8.70
6.62
8.38
4 35
8.80
5.52
2.91
8.47
2.91
3.24
2.47
2.27
2.48
1.99
2.08
1.29
2.06
1.22
1.62
0.75
1.68
Axis CD.
1.34
1.89
1.20
1.85
1.82
1.20
1.08
1.20
1.04
1.10
0.99
1.07
0.96
1.01
0.91
0.97
0.87
0.83
0.77
0.72
0.6(S
0.66
0.58
AND RADII OF GYRATION.
803
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OP GYRATION OF
CARNEGIE DECK BEAMS-IRON.
[I
_J : /^ D
d-*\^
I.
II.
in
IV.
V.
Size, in
Weight
per foot,
in lbs.
Area of
cross-
section,
in sq. in.
Moments of inertia.
Radii of
gyration.
inches.
Axis A B.
Axis C D.
Axis A B.
Axis CD.
10
26.9
8.1
118.4
6.12
3.83
-
0.87
10
85 2
10.6
139.9
7.41
8.64
0.84
9
28.2
7.0
77.6
2.45
3.34
0.59
9
29.8
8.9
01.0
3.15
3.19
0.59
8
21.4
6.4
52.1
2.23
2.85
0.59
8
28.0
8.4
63.2
2.96
2.74
0.59
7
17.0
54
34.4
1.81
2.60
0.59
7
22.8
6.9
41.8
2 34
2.47
0.58
Deck Beams— Steel.
9
26
7.6
85.2
4.61
3.35
0.76
9
30
8.8
93.2
5.18
3.25
0.75
8
20
5.9
57.3
4.45
3.12
0.82
8
23.8
7.0
63.5
5.21
8.01
0.82
7 •
20
5.9
42.2
4.50
2.67
0.82
7
. 23.5
6.9
46.6
4.87
2.60
0.82
304
MOMKNTS OF INEBTIA
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OF GYRATION OF
CARNEGIE OHANNEL-BARS—IRON.
n
IB
^
I.
n.
Moments
IV.
VI.
R»dii of
Distance of
Siz<', in
inches.
Weight per
foot, in 11)8.
Area of
cross-section,
in sq. in.
of inertia.
gyraticm.
centre «'f
gravity fhxn
oatdde of
Axis A B.
473.1
AxIr a B.
web.
15
60
18
5.12
0.88
15
40
li
360.6
5.48
0.82
12
50
15
247.3
4.10
0.88
12
30
9
17.]. 7
4.40
0.76
12
20
6
120.2
4 48
0.70
10
35
10.5
126.3
8.47
0.75
10
20
6.0
88.8
8.85
0.70
10
16
4.8
62.8
8 62
0.55
9
30
9.0
87.8
8.12
0.73
9
18
5.4
63.5
8.48
0.67
8
28
8.4
63.9
2.76
0.78
8
20
6.0
45.5
2.75
0.69
8
16
4.8
39.1
2.85
0.57
8
10
3.0
28. :J
8.07
0.50
7
20
6.0
37.7 .
2.51
0.67
7
18i
4.0
25.5
2.51
0.53
7
8^
2.5
19.0
2.73
0.49
6
16
4.8
?2.3
2.16
0.08
6
10
3.0
16.9
2.R8
0.62
6
7i
2.2
12 2
a 84
0.48
5
14
4.2
13.10
1.77
0.61
5
8^
2.5
8.72
1.85
0.49
4
9
2.7
5.75
1.46
0.56
4
5
1.5
3.69
1 57
0.45
3i
8.1
2.4
3.82
1.25
0.52
3
6
1.8
2.23
1.15
0.51
AND RADII OF GYRATION.
305
FOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OF GYRATION OF
CARNEGIE CHANNEL-BARS— STEEL.
;b
I.
II.
IV.
VI.
Moments
Radii of
Distance of
Size, in
Weight per
foot, in lbs.
Area of
cross-section,
in bq. iu.
of inertia.
gyration.
centre of
Lravily from
oatside of
incbes.
Axis A B.
Axis A B.
web.
15
82
9.4
284.5
5.53
0.75
15
51
15.0
390.0
5.13
0.77
12
20
5.9
117.9
4.49
0.62
12
80i
8.9
153.9
4.17
0.62
iio
15i
4.5
63.8
3.80
0.63
10
23i
12|
20i
7.0
84.6
3.50
0.61
9
8.7
43.3
3.42
0.58
9
6 0
58.5
3.14
0.56
8
lOi
3.0
28.2
3.05
0.53
8
17i
5.0
38.9
2.78
0.52
7
Sk
2.5
17.4
2.67
0^49
7
m
4.3
24 6
2.42
0.48
6
7
2.1
11.1
2.31
0.48
6
12
8.6
15.6
2.09
0.47
5
6
1.7
6.5
1.94
0 48
5
lOi
3.0
9.1
1.75
0.47
4
5
1.4
3.5
1.57
0.48
4
Si
2.4
4.8
1.81
0.48
Deck Beams — Steel.
9
26
7.6
85.2
3.85
9
30
8.8
93.2
8.25
8
20
5.9
57.3
3.12
8
28.8
7.0
63.5
3 01
7
20
5.9
43.2
2.67
7
28.5
6.9
46.6
2.60
306
MOMENTS OF INERTIA
MOMENTS OP INERTIA AND RADII OP GYRATION OF
CARNEGIE ANGLE-BARS.
For minimum and maximum thickneeses and weight.
ANGLES WITH EQUAL LEGS — IRON OR STEEL.
Weights in Table are for Iron; for Steely add 2 per cent.
I.
VI.
n.
IV.
V.
Distance
Sizi*. in
inches .
Weight,
per foot.
Area of
crosp-
pection.
of centre
of gravity
from out-
Hide of
Moments
of inertia.
Raclli of gyntioii.
in sQ. in.
flange,
in inc.lietit.
Axis A B.
17.68
Axis A B.
AxIbOD.
6 xG
J16.0
5.06
1.66
1.87
1.19
(33.1
9.95
1.85
34.09
1.85
1.17
5 x5
J12.0
3.61
1.39
8.74
1.56
0.99
127.0
8.28
1.61
20.00
1.56
1.00
4 x4
j 9.5
120.1
2.86
1.14
4.36
1.28
0.79
6.03
1.33
9.00
1.22
0.88
3ix3^
j 8.3
(17.4
2.48
l.Ol
2.87
1.07
0.68
5.22
1.20
5.90
1.06
0.72
3 x3
4.8
1.44
0.84
1.24
0.98
0.68
^11.7
3.50
1.01
3.00
0.93
0.62
2^x2^
j 4.4
) 9.0
1.31
0.78
0.98
0.86
0.64
2.69
0.95
2.22
0.91
0.06
2i X 2A
\ 4.0
1.19
0.72
0.70
0.77
0.50
\ 7.9
2.37
0 83
1.44
0.78
0.60
2i X 21
j 3.5
) 7.0
1.06
2.11
0.66
0.78
0.51
1.04
0.69
0.70
0.46
0.49
2 x2
\ 2 4
(».71
0.57
0 28
0.62
040
'( 5.5
1.65
0.60
0.06
0.68
0.64
1^x1!
j 2.1
0.6i
0 . 51
0.18
0.54
0.22
4 9
1.47
0.64
0.44
0.56
0.40
l^xli
1.8
0.53
0.44
0.11
0.46
0.29
\ 3.6
1 06
0 . r,4
0.24
0 48
0.88
li X \{
j 1.0
0.80
0 35
0.044
0.38
0.22
1.9
0.56
0.40
0.077
0.3V
0.24
HxU
S 0.0
/ 1.9
0.27
0.32
0.032
0.84
0.19
0.55
0.40
0.077
0.37
0.25-
1 xl
j 0.8
\ 1.5
0.23
0.30
0.022
0.81
0.21
0.44
0 34
0.037
0.29
0.18
i x}
J 0.6
( 0.8
0.17
0.23
0.009
0.28
0.14
0.25
: 0.26
0.012
0.22
0.16
AND RADII OP GYKATION.
307
MOMENTS OP INERTIA AND RADII OF GYRATION OP
CARNEGIE ANGLE- BARS.
Forminimam and maximnm thicknesses and weight.
UNEVEN LEGS — IRON OR STEEL,
Wei
ghts in
TcUde are for
Iron; .
for Steel, add 2 per cent
■
I.
II.
Mom€
inei
III.
mts of
rtia.
IV.
V.
VI.
VI.
Size, in
Weight,
per
foot.
Area of
c roes-
section,
Radii of gyration.
Distance from
hate to
neutral axis.
inches.
1
int'q.in.
Axis
Axis
Axis
Axis
Axis
d.
/.
AB.
CD.
AB
CD.
1.17
EP.
6 x4
J12.0
3.61
13.47
4.90
1.93
.88
1.94
0.94
(27.3
8.18
29.58
10.68
1.90
1.14
.88
2.15
1.16
6 x8i
jll.4
3.42
12.86
3.34
1.94
0.99
.77
2.04
0.79
^25.8
7.75
28.20
7.25
1.91
0 97
.78
2.25
1.00
5 x4
jlO.8
3.23
8.14
4.67
1.59
1.20
.86
1.53
1.03
(22.8
6.83
16.75
9.57
1.57
1.19
.88
1 72
1.22
5 x3i
jlO.2
3. Oh
7.78
3.18
1.60
1.02
.76
1.61
0 86
I2I.4
6.42
15.99
6.52
1.58
l.Ol
.77
1.80
1.05
5 x3
j 9.5
2.86
► 7.37
2.04
1.61
0.85
.66
1.70
0.70
(20.1
6.02
15.19
4.18
1.59
0.83
.66.
1.89
0.89
4ix3
j 8.9
2.67
5.50
1.98
1.44
0.86
.66
1.49
0.74
(18.7
5.62
11.26
4.06
1.42
0.85
.67
1.08
0.98
4 x3i
j 8.9
2 67
4.18
2 99
1.25
1.06
.73
1.21
0.96
(18.7
5.61
8 53
6.10
1.23
1.04
.74
1.39
1.14
4 x3
j 7.0
2.09
3.38
1.G5
1.27
0.89
.65
1.26
0.76
(17.4
5.21
8.09
3.92
1.25'
0.87
.66
1.47
0.97
3ix3
i 6.5
1.93
2.33
1.58
1.10
0.90
.63
1.06 0.81
(16.0
4.80
5.54
3.76
1.07
0.89
.65
1.27 1.02
3ix2i
( 4.8
1.44
1.80
0.78
1.12
0.74
.55
1.11
0.61
1 9.8
2.92
4.0s
1.81
1.17
0.78
.58 1.27^ 0.77
3ix2
i 4.2
1.25
1.36
0.40
1.04
0.57,
.44! 1.09 0.48
) 8,3
2.48
2.70
0.81
1.04
0.57
.45i 1.22 0.59
3 x2i
i 4.4
1.31
1.17
0.74
O.Ooi
0.75;
.53 0.91
0 66
} 8.7
2.60
2.34
1.49
0.951
0.70
.54
1 03
0.78
3 x2
j 4.0
1.19
1.09
0.39
0.90'
0.57
.44 0.99
0.49
( 8.0
2.31
2 27
0.84
0.1)9
0.60
.47 1.12 0.63
2ix2
j 2.7
0 81
0 51
0.29
0.79,
('.60
.43
0 76 0 51
( 7.2
2.18
1.38
0.80
0 80;
0.61
.44
0.87
0.67
2 xll
j 2.6
( 4.6
0.78
0.37
0.12
0.63
0.39
.30
0.69
0.37
1.^9
0.56
0.*^2
0.63
0.40
.31
0.79
0.47
l}xl
0.9
0.28
0 05
0.02
0.44
0.29
.22
0.44
0.26
308
MOMENTS OF INEBTIA
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OF GYRATION
OF CARNEGIE T-BARS— IRON OR STEEL.
c
8
Weights in Table are for Iron ; for Steely add 2 per cent.
ni.
Moments of
inertia.
Azi» : Axis
A B. CD.
5 x3
5 x2i
4ix3i
4 x5
x5
x4i
x4"
x3
x2i
x2
3.i X 4
3iLx4
3ix3*
^x^
iJixS
Ux%
3x4
x3i
x3
x3
x2i
x2i
2Ax3
2i X 2i
2ix2i
2 x2
2 xH
If'x 1}
Uxli
1 xl
5.5
4.9
3.7
2 8
2.1
2.8
2.1
2.5
2.1
1.8
1 8
1.89
1.42
1.89
1.42
1.88
1.18
1.21
1.20
1.20
0.75
0.89
0.':5
0.44
0.44
0.2o
0.18
0.18
0 VI
0.08
0.02
IV.
^ I
V.
RadUof
gyratifin.
AzIh
AB.
0.76
0.64
1.04
1.54
1.56
1.87
1.88
1.20
0.86
0.70
0.51
1.21
1.22
1.04
1.05
0.87
0.89
1.23
1.06
0.88
0.90
0.72
0.7;?
0.94
0.74
0.67
0 60
0.42
0.51
0.49
0.29
Axis
CD.
1.21
1.26
0 90
0.79
0.78
0.81
0.80
0.88
0.88
0.91
0 96
0.72
0.70
0.74
0.78
0.77
0.76
0.59
0.62
0.64
0 62
0 66
0.65
0.51
0.52
0.47
0.42
0.45
0.37
0.84
0.21
VL
Distance
f/from
ba.<te to
neatnl
azia.
0.67
0.87
t.ll
1.06
1.61
1.87
1.81
1.15
0.78
0.00
0.51
1.25
1.19
1.06
1.01
0.88
0.78
1.88
1.18
0.98
0.86
0.71
0.68
0.92
0.74
0.66
0.60
0.42
0.64
0.42
0.
AND BAUII OF GYRATION.
Weighh in Tabh are for Iron ; for Steel, add 2 per eent.
310
MOMENTS OF INERTIA.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OP GYRATION OP
TRENTON BEAMS— IRON.
7
I*
.JL.
B
\J
Weight
per foot,
in IViM
I.
Area of
n.
m.
IV.
V.
Size, in
IncheH.
Moments (
>f inertia.
Radii of gyration.
IIL J vO •
section,
in sq. in.
90.6
27.20
Axis A B.
Axis C I).
Axis A B.
AxiaCD.
20
1,650.3
46.50
7.79
1.30
20
66.6
19.97
1,238.0
26.62
7 88
1.15
15
66.6
20.02
707.1
27.46
5.94
1.17
15
50
15.04
523.5
15 29
5.90
1.01
15
41.6
12.36
434.5
11.64
5.98
1.02
12i
56.6
16.77
391.2
25.41
4.88
1.28
12i
41.6
12.33
288.0
11.54
4.80
.Vt
13
40
11.73
281.3
16.76
4.90
1.20
12
32
9.46
2-29.2
11.66
4.92
1.11
m
45
13.36
23:J . 7
15.80
4.18
1.10
loi
;J5
10.44
185.6
9.43
4.22
.96
lOA
30
8.90
164.0
8.09
4.29
.95
9'
41.6
12.33
150.8
11.28
3.47
.95
9
28.3
8.50
111.9
7.35
8.63
.98
9
23. :J
7.00
93.9
4.92
8.66
.84
8
26.0
H.03
83.9
7.55
3.28
. vO
8
21.6
6.37
67.4
4.55
3.24
.85
7
18.3
5.50
44.3
3.90
2.84
.84
6
40
11.84
64.9
18.59
2.86
1.25
6
30
8.70
49.8 '
10.78
2.39
1.11
C
16.6
4.97
29 . 2
2.86
2.42
.70
6
18.3
3.98
23.5
1.61
2.48
.64
5
13.3
3.90
15.4
1.68
1.94
.66
5
10
2.99
12.1
1.04
1.99
.59
4
12.3
3 6()
9.2
1.74 ■
1.59
.69
4
10
2.91
7.5
1.11 1
1.60
.62
4
6
1.77
4.5
.31
1.60
.48
AKP RADII OF GYRATION.
311
)MENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OF GYRATION OF
TRENTON BEAMS— STEEL.
►G-
7
r
iB
4
I.
II.
III.
rv.
V.
Size, in
Weight
per foot,
in lbs.
Area of
cross-
section,
Moments
of inertia.
Eadii of
gyration.
inches.
in sq. in.
Axis A B.
Axis CD.
Axis A B.
Axis CD.
15
50
14.70
529.7
20.96
6.00
1.19
15
41
12.02
424.4
13.94
5.94
1.07
13
40
11.73
281.3
16.76
4.89
1.19
12
82
9.46
229.2
11.64
4.93
1.10
10
45
13.14
216.1
17.94
4.05
1.17
10
33
9.67
1(J1.3
11.81
4.08
1.10
10
25.3
7.50
123.6
7. 82
4.06
.98
9
27
7.98
110 6
9.13
3.73
1.07
9
21
6.15
84.3
5.56
3.70
.95
8
22
6.47
71.9
6.62
3.34
1.01
8
18
5.28
57.7
4.36
3 30
.91
7
20
5.87
49.7
5 51
2.91
,97
7
15.5
4.55
38.6
3.47
2.91
.87
6
16.6
4 97
29.2
2.86
2.42
.76
6
13.3
3.97
23.4
1.63
2.42
.64
5
13
3.80
15.7
1.98
2.03
.73
5
10
2.96
12.4
1.30
2 04
.67
4
10
2.94
7.7
1.22
1.62
.04
4
7.3
2.21
5.9
.75
1.63
.59
.l4i. _:.^_i-.-
312
MOMENTS OF IKERTIA
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OP GYRATION OP
TRENTON CHANNEL AND DECK BEAMS— IRON.
w
IC
d-r^^B
I.
II.
m.
IV.
V.
VI.
Size, in inches.
Weight
per
Area
of
crosg-
Moments of
inertia.
Radii of
gyration.
Distanced
of centre
of gravity
foot,
lbs.
sectioR,
8q. iu.
Axis
AB.
1
Axis ', Axis
C D. A B.
AxlH
CD.
from oat-
aide of
web.
Channel Bars.
15
63.3
18.85
15
40
12.00
12i
40.6
14.10
12i
23.3
7.00
lOi
20
6.00
10
16
4.77
9
23.3
7.0-2
9
16.6
5.08
8
15
4.48
8
11
3 30
7
12
3.60
7
8.5
2.54
6
15
4 82
6
11
3.20
6
7.5
2 . eo
5
6.3
1.92
4
5.5
1.65
3
5
1.45
586.0
32.25
5.57
1.31
1.26
376.0
14.47
5.60
1.10
0.25
291.6
17.87
4.65
1.12
1.120
153.2
5.04
4.68
.86
0.755
88.4
3.84
3.84
.80
0.628
64.0
2.20
3.68
.68
0.666
82.1
5.35
8 42
.87
0.86
58.8
2.53
3.40
.70
0.08
44.5
2.54
8.15
.75
0.76
32 9
1.44
3.16
.66
0.68
27.1
1.96
2.74
.88
0.716
17.3
.8;^
2.61
.67
0.611
21.7
2.12
2.24
.70
0.725
17.2
1.30
2 32
.64
0.68
12.6
.70
2.37
.66
0.64
7.2
.44
1.98
.48
0.464
3.9
.32
1.54
.44
0 46
2.0
.29
1.17
.45
0.61
Deck Beams.
8
7
21.6
18.3
6.25
5.35
1
54.7
35.1
8.7
3.6
2.96
2.56
.76
.82
•
AND RADII OF GYRATION.
313
MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF TRENTON ANGLE-BARS.
Size, in inches.
Weight per
foot, in J be.
I.
Area of
erosB-
section,
iu
sq.ins.
II.
Moment
of inertia.
VI.
Distance
d from
base to
neutral
axis,
in inches.
EVEN
LEGS.
6 in.
4i "
4 **
3} "
3
25
2i
2i
2
13
li
1
1
<<
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
6 in
4i "
4
3i
3
2J
2i
2i
2
13
H
li
1
J
I
a
((
((
19 to 32i
12i to 20^
9i to 18
8} to 14i
4.8 to 12i
5.4 to 9i
3.9 to 7i
3^ to
si to
2 to
IJ to
1 to
3 to
0.6 to
T%tO
6
4i
3i
2i
li
1
0.8
5.75
19.910
1.685
Axis A
3.75
7.200
1.286
2.86
4.360
1.138
2.48
2.860
1.013
1.44
1.240
, 0.842
1.62
1.150
0.802
1.19
0.700
0.717
1.06
0.500
0.654
0.94
0.350
0.592
0.62
0.180
0.507
0.53
0.110
0.444
0.30
0.044
0.358
0.23
0.022
0.296
0.20
0.014
0.264
0.17
0.009
0.233
B
UNEVEN -=-
LEGS.
6 in. X 4 in.
i 5 " X 3i "
; 4i " X 3 "
i(
X 3
(<
3^ " X H "
3 " X 2> "
8 " X 2 "
14 to 23
4.18
j 15.460
] 5.600
1.964
0.964
10.2 to 19i
3.05
j 7.780
] 3.190
1.610
0.8(K)
9 to U\
2.67
S 5.490
\ 1.980
1.490
0.740
7 to 14^
2.09
j 3.370
1 1.640
1.260
0.760
4.0
1.19
j 1.500
] 0.170
1.320
0.320
4i to 9i
1.31
j 1.170
1 0.740
0.910
0.660
4 to 7i
1.19
( 1.090
] 0.390
0.990
0.490
Axis C
" A
16
ii
il
a
a
n
n
il
(t
c
A
C
A
C
A
C
A
C
A
D
B
I)
B
D
B
D
B
D
B
D
B
C D
A B
3U
MOMENTS OF INERTIA
MOMENTS OF INERTIA OP TKBNTON T-BABSL
c
B
^fe
B
Size,
in inches.
4*x4
3^x31
3 x3
2ix2i
2 x2
6 x2i
3 x2
2 xli
aixli
2 xl
I.
Weight
per foot,
in lbs.
Area of
croBs-
Bection,
in
sq. in.
m
3.75
9.6
2.87
7
2.11
5
1.46
3i
0.94
11.7
3.50
4.8
1.45
3.00
0.91
2.40
0.74
2.15
0.65
1.86
0.56
IL
Moment
of inertia.
IV.
i 5.560
^2.620
j 3.260
<1&30
i 1.760
^0.970
(0.850
(0.400
j 0.350
10.160
a.500
^5.090
i 0.470
'i 0.680
(0.170
"(0.180
(0.060
) 0.180
tS:
040
140
0.040
0.070
Radii of
gyration.
VI.
1.22)
.84j:
1.06)
.73 f
.91)
.62 f
.76)
.52 y
.60^
.43 f
.65)
1.20f
.571
.68 f
.43/
.45 f
.29)
.49 1)
.26
.46
.26
.35
[
Distance
d from
base to
nentral
axis,
In ineheB.
1.180
1.030
0.890
0.740
0.590
0.610
0.520
0.500
0.290
0.260
0.280
jAxisAB.
i Axis CD.
< AxisAB.
) Axis CD.
jAxisAB.
(Axis CD.
jAxisAA
(Axis CD.
\
Axis AB.
Axis CD.
jAxisAB.
] Axis CD.
j Axis A B.
(Axis CD.
( Axis A B.
(Axis CD.
t
AxisAB.
CD.
jAxIs AK
(Axis CD.
I
AB.
Axis CD.
* The flret dimension Ib the width.
AND BADII OF GTKATIOK.
TRENTON IRON OE STEEL Z-BARS.
PHCENIX IRON Z-BARS.
316
MOMENTS OF IKEBTIA.
MOMENTS OP INERTIA AND RADII OP GYRATION OP
JONES & LAUGHLIN'S, LIMITED, STEEL BEAMS.
17
IB
4
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
!4i7P
Weight
Area of
cross-
Moments ol
r Inertia.
Radii of GyratioiL
in inches.
per foot,
in lbs.
section,
in
sq. in.
Axis A B.
Axis C D.
Axis A B.
AxiHCB.
15
70
20.6
731.1
37.8
5.95
1.85
15
59
17.3
640.9
30.3
6.08
IM
15
48
14.1
495.9
19.2
5.98
1.16
15
39
11.5
403.3
13.1
5 92
1.06
12
50
14.7
302.0
18.1
4.53
1.11
12
38
11.2
265 4
15.6
4.86
1.18
12
30
9.1
211.7
10.2
4.82
1.05
10
32
9 4
152.6
10.8
4.02
1.07
10
28.8
7.0
117.7
7.09
8.88
.05
9
24.5
7.2
101.1
7.80
8.74
1.04
9
19.75
5.8
79.8
5.03
8.71
0.03
8
25
7.3
71.8
6.66
8.18
0 95
8
18
5.3
57.3
4.27
3.28
0.89
7
18.8
5.4
40.4
5.02
2.98
0.96
7
15.25
4.5
37.9
3.38
2.89
0.86
6
16.6
4.9
2S.4
3.39
2.40
0.88
6
12.75
3.7
23.1
2.22
2.49
0.77
5
13
3.8
15.7
1.83
2.02
0.00
5
10
2.9
13.5
1.40
2.16
0.60
4
10.2
3.0
7.7
1.20
1.42
O.W
4
6.85
2.0
5.8
0.71
1.70
0.60
8
7
2.0
3 1
0 65
1 24
0.50
8
5.1
15
2.3
0.;;5
1.28
0.47
AND BADII OF GYRATION.
• 317
IfOMENTS OP INERTIA AND RADII OP GYRATION OP
PHGSNIX BEAMS— STEEL.
fl
U
^
B
71
\1
--0.
Siase,
tn inches ,
15
15
15
15
12
12
m
m
9
9
8
8
7
7
6
6
5
5
4
Weight
I.
per foot,
Area of
in lbs.
cross-
section,
in sq. in.
75
22.05
60
17.64
50
14.70
41
12 05
40
11.76
82
9.41
83
9.70
m
7.47
27
7.93
21
6.17
22
6.47
18
5.29
20
5.88
15i
4.55
16
4.70
13
3.82
13
3.82
10
2.94
10
2.94
II.
Moments of inertia.
Axis A B.
757.7
644.0
529.7
424.1
281.3
222.3
179.6
137.3
110.6
84.3
71.9
57.8
49.7
38.6
28.6
23.5
15.7
12.4
7.7
Radii of gyration.
Axis A B.
Axi?CD.
5.86
1.35
6.04
1.32
6.00
1.20
5.94
1.08
4.90
1.20
4.85
1.04
4.54
1.10
4.52
0.99
3.7SI
1.07
8.70
0.95
8. as
1.01
8.30
0.91
2.91
0.97
2.91
0.87
2.47
0.83
2.48
0.77
2.03
0.72
2.05
0.66
1.62
0.66
31-
M03fENTS OF DTEHTIA
MOi£E>'TS OF lyERTlA ASD RADU OP GYRATION OP
PHCELNIX DECK-BEAMS AND T-BARS.
c
c ^
=o^
IIL
IV.
V.
VI.
"T.'iini
A4 »a^ ..C"?.
n L>»
u
V-jnufSLtB jf
SM. Bihlii of gyration. I>isUnee
d from
IWMtO
neatnl
«{. n. A^z^JlB. ^Ti*CD. AtjwJlR AxJgCD.
*
s: s
I.I
^« s
4
s
^
^
j'
"•
* ^
i
'♦
V i
.K.S 3£^
i05L
T'S-'K ?raxs — Iho».
k
* 5
:*i "5
5 IT
4*1
0.74
4.37
> 5
.5: ^
5 H
4£
O.TO
8.77
< *
-^j -»
4 >4
3 27
0.84
2.96
< .1
TO ;•
3 -jS
2.90
0.81)
2.»
■« ■^^
3 >H
2.53
0.77
2.96
'fc i
:i «
^35
2.17
•.75
1.88
1 ^
^ :i»
1.7»
0.51
2.41
-4
il
^ *»
4 41
9.n
•.«
4.06
>
^ ■
^ -7
4 Z«
2.«
0.73
8.«8
«
* -
" i?
54 11
? U
2.«
• 85
2.85
5
3S
? i
i*? \i
i *?
a. IS
•.76
2.89
i
'"A
* . .
:* m
i 15
d.ltf
•.73
2.78
^-v :i
>
« «
m m
J 24
V-» aV
1.23
0.77
• *
4 »
: *
: 5»
i M
f.6»
1.17
0.66
«* ' '
«
X ^
^
%
■ -^
d J8»
# *
•.•8
0.78
* ^ :
>
<
. V.
: i^
« m
1-01 ;
0.57
* **
•
<
•
• »
4 s4
• a
0.84
'»■. s •'" .
*
■ N-
I ft
: **
I «
•.76 .
1.03
^ N '•
^
^
"S
' 5»
4 •»
•.•9
0.86
* -
* X
>
■ -e
' 4t
« :s
•.S 1
0.75
•
*
• «
i :t
*.»
••"i
0.68
*^ O*. w:)m«aK«'a >
AND RADII OF GYRATION.
319
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OF GYRATION OF
PHOENIX CHANNEL-BARS— IRON.
A Ia n ^
IB
Weight
I.
II.
in.
IV.
V.
VI.
Size, in
inches.
per
root,
Area of
Moments
of inertia.
Badii of gyration.
Distance d
in lbs.
cropD-
section,
in
sq. in.
from base
to neutral
Axis A B.
AxifiCD.
Axis A B.
Axis CD.
axis.
15
66.6
20
554.57
23.61
5.27
1.09
1.08
15
60
15
421.87
12.39
5.30
0.91
0.86
15
38.3
11.5
351.56
10.01
5.53
0.93
0.83
12
50
15.0
235.73
8.44
3.96
0.75
0.80
13-
29.8
8.8
159.44
4.19
4.26
0.69
0.82
12
20
6.0
123.50
8.01
4.54
0.71
0.86
10
37
11.1
128.61
5.26
3.40
0.69
0.76
10
25
7.5
97.36
8.51
3.60
0.69
0.66
10
16
^•^^
63.67
2.21
3.64
0.68
0.56
9
38.8
10.0^
94.27
5.24
3.07
0.73
0.76
9
23.8
7.0
75.29
8.69
8.28
0.73
0.70
9
15
4.5
61.01
2.36
8.49
0.69
0.70
8
19
5.7
43.99
2.14
2.76
0.61
0.66
8
10
8.0
26.20
0.85
2.96
0.53
0.45.
7
19
5.7
32 69
2.00
2.40
0.59
0 59
7
8.8
2.5
17.62
0.75
2.66
0.55
0.47
6
15.6
4.7
23.12
2.5
2.22
0.73
0.73
6
7 8
2.2
10.42
0.62
2.18
0.53
0.40
5
9
2.7
9.52
0.84
1.88
0.56
0.55
5
5.6
1.7
6.35
0.43
1.9:3
0.51
0.47
4
8
2.4
5.53
0.79
1.52
0.57
0.60
4
5
1.5
8.74
0.4
1.58
0.52
0.62
8
6
1.8
2.26
0.86
1.12
0.45
0.53
8
5
1.5
1.98
0.29
1.15
0.44
0.50
320
MOMKNTS OF INERTIA
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OP GYRATION OF
PHCENIX ANGLE-BARS— IRON.
ANGLES WITH EQUAL LEGS.
I.
n. •
TTT.
IV.
V.
VI.
Wefght
per
foot,
in lbs.
Area
of
croBS-
t^ection,
sq. in.
Moments of
inertia.
Badii of
gyratiou.
Distance
dtTOOk
Size, in inches.
Axis
AB.
Axis
CD.
Axis
AB.
Axis
CD.
base to
ikentral
axis.
6 x6
6 x6
5 x5
5 x5
4 x4
4 x4
3ix3i
3ix3i
8 x3
3 x3
2|x2}
2Jx2i
2ix2i
2i X 2i
2J X 21
2i X 2i-
2 x2
2 x2
l}xlj
lixH
33.3
16.8
20.6
12.3
17.2
9.4
13.6
6.8
9.4
5
8.6
4.5
7.9
3.5
6.1
2.6
4.6
2.5
2.0
1.5
10
5.03
6.2
3.7
5.16
2.81
4.1
2.05
2.81
1.5
2.58
1.34
2.36
1.05
1.83
0.8
1.4
0.75
0.61
0.44
35.17
17.22
14.70
9.35
7.18
4.39
4.35
2.30
2.23
1.33
1.65
1.01
1.22
0.62
0.82
0.40
0.49
0.29
0.18
0.9
13.98
6.77
6.07
8.77
3.01
1.71
1.84
0.95
0.95
0.54
0.62
0.41
0 52
0.25
0.35
0.17
0.20
0.12
0.07
0.04
1.87
1.85
1.54
1.59
1.18
1:25
1.08
1.06
0.89
0.94
0.80
0.87
0.72
0.77
0.67
0.71
0.59
0.62
0.55
0.46
1.18
1.16
0.99
1.01
0.76
0.78
0.67
0.68
0.58
0.6
0.49
0.55
0.47
0.49
0.44
0.46
0.88
0.40
0.85
0.29
r.84
1.08
1.55
1.46
1.22
1.16
1.06
0.96
0.98
0.87
088
0.8S
0.77
0.7
0.74
069
0.08
0.0
0.08
0.44
AND BADII OK GYBATION.
,r
Nora.— E P b parallel to Uds tluongh ends ut aides.
322
MOMENTS OP INERTIA
RADII OF GYRATION FOR A PAIR OP CARNEGIB
ANGLES PLACED BACK TO BACK.
ANGLES WITH EQUAL LEGS.
n
ymMmm
\x
^^^^ ^vummm
n
Hadii of Gyration given, correspond to directions indicated by arrow-heads.
Size, in
inches.
6 x6
6 x6
5 x5
5 x5
4 x4
5.72
4 x4
12.04
^x^
4.96
8^x3^
10.44
8 x8
2.88
3 x3
7.00
2^x2J
2.62
23x2J
5.88
2ix2i
2.88
2ix2i
4.74
2i X 2i
2.12
^4,x2i
4.22
*Area of
croBS-
section,
in inches.
10.12
16.56
Weitjbt
per foot
of 8ingle
Hadii of gyration.
angle,
in lbs.
^0.
1.87
n.
»•«•
r».
16.9
2.50
2.67
2.76
33.1
1.85
2.62
2.80
2.89
12.0
1.56
% 09
2.20
2.85
27.6
1.55
2.24
2.42
2.62
9.5
1.28
1.68
1.86
l.d5
20.1
1.22
1.81
2.0(>
2.10
8.8
1.07
1.47
1.66
1.76
17.4
1.06
1.60
1.80
1.00
4.8
0.9]
1.25
1.43
1.58
11.7
0.98
1.37
1.56
1.66
4.4
0.85
1.15
1.84
1.44
9.0
0.91
1.31
1.60
1.61
4.0
0.77
1.05
1.24
1.84
7.9
0.78
1.14
1.38
1.48
8.5
0.69
0.96
1.14
1.84
7.0
0.70
1.05
1.24
1.85
AND RADII OF GYRATION.
323
RADII OF GYRATION FOR A PAIR OF CARNEGIE
ANGLES PLACED BACK TO BACK.
ANGLES WITH UNEQUAL LEGS.
'2
M * V
r.fV
Radii of Gyration given, correspond to directions indicated by arrow-heads.
Size, in
incties.
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
x4
x4
x3i
x3i
x4
x4
x3i
x3i
5 x3
5 x3
4^x3
4ix3
4 x3i
4 x3i
4 x3
4 x3
3^x3
3^x3
3ix2i
3^x2^
3ix2
3ix2
3 x2i
3 x2i
3 x2
8 x2
2^x2
2ix2
♦Area of
cross-
section,
in inches.
7.22
16.36
6.84
14.50
6.46
13.66
6.10
12.84
5.72
12.04
5.34
11.24
5.34
11.22
4.18
10.42
3.86
9.60
2.88
5.94
2.50
4.96
2.62
5.20
2.38
4.62
1.62
4.36
Weight
per foot
of single
angle,
in Ids.
12.0
27.3
11.4
25.8
10.8
22.8
10 2
21.4
9.5
20.1
8.9
18.7
8 9
18.7
7.0
17.4
6.5
16.0
4.8
9.8
4.2
8 3
4.4
8.7
4.0
8.0
2.7
7.2
Radii of gyration.
ro.
1.93
1.90
1.94
1.91
1.59
1 57
1 60
1.58
•
1.61
1.59
1.44
1 42
1.25
1.23
1.27
1.25
1 10
1.07
1.12
1.17
1.04
1.04
.95
.95
.96
.99
.79
.SO
n-
r,'
1.50
1.67
1.62
1.80
1.26
1 43
1.39
1.58
1.58
1.75
1.70
1.89
1.33
1.51
1.45
1.61
1.10
1.27
1.22
1.41
1.13
1.31
1.26
1.45
1.43
1.60
1.54
1.74
1.17
1.35
1.30
1.50
1.22
1.40
1.35
1.55
0.96
1.13
1.10
1.28
0.74
0.92
0.82
1.02
1.00
1.18
1.09
1.28
0.75
0.93
0.87
1.06
0.79
0.97
0.90
1.10
1.76
1.90
1.53
1.68
1.85
1.98
1.60
1.74
1.37
1.51
1.41
1.56
1.70
1.84
1.44
1.60
1.49
1.05
1.23
1.39
1.02
1.12
1.28
1.38
1.03
1.17
1.07
1.21
* 1 > flfmrpR in this column give the area of both angles.
324
MOMENTS OF INERTI4
RADII OP GYRATION FOR A PAIR OP GARNEGIB
ANGLES PLACED BACK TO BACK.
4
.e-il
ANGLES WITH 'UNEQUAL LEGS,
%5;%:^^^;5^^ S$5SSSS55S5JSSS:
Radii of Oyration given, correspond to directions indicated by arrow-headt.
Size, in
inches.
♦Area of
cross-
pectiou,
' in inches.
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
x4
x4
x3^
x3i
x4
x4
x3^
x3^
5 x8
5 x3
4^x8
4^x3
4 x3i
4 x3i
4 x3
4 x3
Six 2
3ixa
8 x2^
8 x2^
8
3
x2
x2
2ix2
2^x2
7.22
16.36
6.84
14.50
6.46
13.66
6.10
12.84
5 72
12.04
5.34
11.24
5.84
11.22
4.18
10.42
2.50
4.96
2.62
5.20
2.88
4.62
1.62
4.86
Weight
per foot
of single
anffle,
in lbs.
8^x3
3.8J
34x3
9.60
3ix2^
2.88
8Jix2^
5.91
12.0
27.3
11.4
25.8
10.8
22.8
10.2
21.4
9.5
20.1
8.9
18.7
8.9
18.7
7.0
17.4
6.5
16.0
4.8
9.8
4.2
8.3
4.4
8.7
4.0
8.0
2.7
7.2
''o-
1.17
1.14
0.99
0.97
1.20
1 19
1.02
1.01
0.86
0.83
0.86
0.85
1.06
1.04
0.89
0.87
' 0.90
: 0 89
i 0.74
\ 0.78
0.57
0.57
O.7.-)
0.76
0.57
0 60
0.60
0.61
Badii of gynttion.
n-
ri.
2.74
2.87
2.81
2.95
2.92
8.06
8.00
8.14
2.20
2.88
2.27
2.39
2.88
2.52
2.45
2.59
2.35
2.47
2.07
2.20
2 52
2.66
2.25
2.89
1.74
1.86
1.79
1.98
1.92
2.05
1.97
2.12
1.52
1.66
1.58
1.72
1.71
1.H6
1.76
1 91
1.51
1.00
1.31
1.40
1.70
1.80
1.60
1.59
1.88
1.49
1.10
1.18
1.57
1.69
1.28
1.87
8.01
8.16
8.10
8.24
2.48
2.62
2.65
2.69
2.62
2.77
2.86
2.40
2.08
2.15
2.07
2.22
1.80
1.96
1.86
2.01
1.80
1.91
1.69
1.69
i.er
1.79
1.89
1.48
* The figures in this colnmn give the area of both anslea.
AND RADII OF GYRATION.
325
For compound sections made up of two or more beams or bars,
the moments of inertia are found by combining those of the several
shapes as given in the preceding tables. Thus : ~
/ =
G2 =
Twice the moment of inertia
for l)eam a (col. II.) + that for
beam 6 (col. III.).
I
sum of areas of beams a and b
(col. I.)
1^^^
a.
rtS^^
I =
B
Twice area of beam a (col. I.) x
d^ + twice moment of inertia
for beam a (col. III. ) + that for
beam b (col. II.).
I
d + i width flange of beam a
L
sum of areas of beams a and b
(col. I.)
^ a i
^„ r%^iii
t^--*-
A^
a
I =
G^-
Twice area of channels (col. I. )
y. d^ + moment of inertia (col.
III. ), in which d = distance of
centre of gravity of the channel
from centre line of the combi-
nation.
7
area of the two channels (col. I. )
t
^s-^
J
fOJ..n.imm.m.<.i^
■ ■I 11 111 L mm
XatHce
I = Twice the moment in col. II.
G'^ = Same as for single channel.
When a section is employed alone, either as girder or post, the
neutral axis passes through its centre of gravity. When rigidly
connected with other sections forming part of a compound section,
the neutral axis passes through the centre of gravity of the com-
pound section; and therefore the moment of inertia of the elemen-
tary section will not be that around its own centre of gravity, but
around an axis at a distance from that point. The moment tjif
inertia of a section aitout an axis other than that thronyh its mi-
tre of (jravitjj is (Mjuai to the moment aixmt a i>arallel axis iHitt^ing
tliruu^h its coiilrt' of ^Tavity plus the area of the section mulli
plied by tlif square of tlu* distance Ix^tween the axes.
The first step, then, in findinji; the moment of inertia, is to find
the position of the »'entre of i^ravity of the se<^tion. For all sym-
nirtrieal sections, this, of course, lies at the middle of the depth.
For triani^lrs. it is found on a line j)arallel with the hjiso, and tlis-
tant ont'-third the heii;ht of the triangle above the bast». For other
sections, it is found by supposing the area divided up into elemen-
tary sections, and nndti])lying the area of each such section by the
distance of its centn* of gnivity from any convenient line. The
sum of these products ilivided by the total area of the si»ction will
give tile distance of the centre of gravity from the line from which
the distances w<'re measured.
KxAMPLK. — Find the neutral axis of a X siH'tion having the
fo)l(>wini; dimensions : wi<lth, 8 inches ; depth. 10 inches : thick-
ncs'< of metal, 2 inches. The area of the vertical flange, considering
It as running through to the l)ottom of the section, would lx> 10 X :>,
or 2n scjuare inches; and the distam'C of its centre of gravity alcove
the l)ottoin line, 5 inches. The product of thest' quantities, lhen»-
forc, is 1(H). The area of the bottom flange, not included in tlie
Vertical Mange as above taken, is (> times 2, or 12 squan* inches: the
distance ut' its centre of gravity above the l)ottom line. 1 inch; and
the product of the two, therefore, 12. The sum of thesk* pHnUicls
112
divided l>v the total area is .,.r« or .'}.r> Inches, which is the distance
•»-
ot" till- centre of i^ravitv ab(»ve the lK>ttom line of the MVtion.
11a villi: tound the neutral axis of this .section, its moment of
iiwiiia I-- readilv fomid bv the fornnda before given. Thus, in the
la- i'l^-' >Upl»n«sed, f/ WOldd be 10 ~ :»..">= «i.."i. (/^ = .*{.5; »/.^ = l.o;
ami tiif iiiouieiit WOldd be (see ]i. 2!hM,
(2 X r...v«) -}- (S X ;l..v«) — (ti X 1.5-*)
/ - .J = 2t»«»l.
The iiioMieiit «)f resistance of this sei'tion as a ginler would b(>
. . . ■•! tl : and it* a Mrain on the tibres of the iron of 12,UM)
poiimU i« i- sijiiure inch be allowed, then, sinet> the moment of
n-^i^iani-f lit the ginler multiplied by hirain |ier s«|uaro iuoh musi
AND BADII OF GYRATION. 327
«qiMl the bcndlng^moment of the load, it will be able to support a
kmd whose bending-moment is 44^ times 12,000 pounds, or 536,000;
Le., if used as a girder secured rigidly at one end, and loaded at the
other, it would support a load, in pounds, of
536000
length in inches
Or if supported at both ends, and the load uniformly distributed
over the span, It would support a load eight times as great; the
bending-moment in such case being one-eighth that in the former
case (see pp. 291, 292).
NoTs.— The formulas and fignree on pp. 296, 299, and 325. are taken, by per*
iniP<)ion of The New-Jersey Steel and l9xm Company ^ from a hand- book which
they pnblieh, entitled ** Usefal Information Tor Engineers and Architects,'^ and
containiog fall information pertaining to the forms of iron which they mannfac-
tnie.
Radius of Gyration of Compound Shapes.
{Ninth Edition.)
In the case of a pair of any shape without a web the value of
B can always be readily found without considering the tiioment
of inertia.
The radius of gyration for any section around an axis parallel
to another axis passing through its centre of gravity, is found
as follows :
Let r = radius of gyration around axis through centre of grav-
ity ; B = radius of gyration around another axis parallel to
above ; d = distance between axes.
When r is small, E may be taken as equal to d without mate-
rial error. Thus, in the case of a pair of channels latticed to-
gether, or a similar construction.
Example 1 —Two 9-inch, 15-pound PhoB- c
nix channel bars are placed 4.6 inches apart, ^^ ! i"^"1
K-44J--
as in the figure ; required the radius of gyra
tion around axis C D for combined section. j
Ans. Find r, in Column V., p. 819= ^ |-H— -i — H— B
0.69; and r^ = . 4761.
Distance from base of channel to neutral
axis. Column VI.. is .7. One-half of 4.6 =
2.3-1- .7 = 8, the distance l)etween neutral ^
axis of single channel and of combined section ; henoe,
B = y9 + .4761 = 3.077 ; or, for all practical purposes, R = d,
328 RADIUS OF GYRATION OP COMPOUND SHAPES
Example 2.-*Four 8x8 inches, 5-pound Phooniz angles
as shown form a column 10 inches square ; find the rad
gyration.
Ans. From Column IV., p. 830, we find r = 0.94 aiu
A
.8886. The distance from base of angle to neutral axis, O
VI.. is .87 ; hence, c? = 5 - .87 = 4.18 ; or, (f = 17.0609
.8= /i7.0509 + .8836 = 4.28.
PRINCIPLES OF THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 829
CHAPTER XIV.
GZSNERAL PRINCIPIiES OF THE STRENGTH OF
BEAMS, AND STRENGTH OF IRON BEAMS.
By the term "beam" is meant any piece of material which
supports a load whose tendency is to break the piece across, or at
right angles to, the fibres, and which also causes the piece to bend
before breaking. When a load of any kind is applied to any beam,
it will cause it to bend by a certain amount; and as it is impossible
to bend a piece of any material without stretching the- fibres on
the outer side, and compressing the fibres on the inner side, the
bending of the beam will produce tension in its lower fibres, and
compression in its upper ones. This tension and compression are
also greatest in those fibres which are the farthest from the neutral
axis of the beam. The neutral axis is the line along which the
fibres of the beam are neither lengthened nor shortened by the bend-
ing of the beam. For beams of wrought-iron and wood the neutral
axis practically passes through the centre of gravity of the cross-
section of the beam.
To determine the strength of any beam to resist the effects of
any load, or series of loads, we must determine two things: first,
the destructive force tending to bend and break the beam, which is
called the " bending-moment ; " and, second, the combined resist-
anceof all the fibres of the beam to being broken, which is called
the **nioment of resistance."
The methods for finding the bending-moments for any load, or
series of loads, have been given in Chap. XII. ; and rules for finding
the moment of resistance, which is equal to the moment of inerlia
divided by the distance of the most extended or compressed fibres
from the neutral axis, and the quotient multiplied by the strength
of the material, have been given in Chap. XIII., together with
tables of the moment of mertia for rolled iron sections of the usual
patterns.
Now, that a beam shall just be able to resist the load, and not
break, we must have a condition where the bending-moinent in
the beam is equal to the moment of resistance multiplied by the
strength of the material. That the beam may be abundantly safe
Uy resist Ibe given load, the moment of resistance multiplied by
y /
3150 rillNCIPLKS OF THE STRKNOTIl OF BKAMS.
Atrcimtli of material must be several times as cjeat as the bendiiif;-
nioinent; and the ratio in which this pnKlnet exe<'o<ls I lie ImmhI-
ini:-iiH)inrnt, or in whirh the breaking- load exceeds the safe load,
is known as the "factor" of sjifcty.
r.y "ih*' strength of the material" is meant a certain constant
(]iiantity, whiiji is dctermim^l by exiM'rinicni. and wliicli is known
a> thf *• Mo:lu]us of Rupture." Of course this value isdifTerent for
each ditlVn'nt mat<Tial. The following table contains the values
of (I I is constant divided by the factor of safety, for most of the
nianriais used in buildini;-const ruction. The moment of n^sistanee
nmuiplied by these values will give the sttfe reiiiti(imj-\)OweT of the
beasii.
MoiU'Lrs OF lU'PTURE FOR SaFE STRENGTH.
Vahu' <>r
M.itt-rijil.
f{.
in \hj*.
(':i-t Iron
:..%«
\Vrnii"|ii Iron
l;!.i)i)0
si.r;
Ki.iXK)
Ain«Ti«;Mi :i*h
'.».(KK)
.\ni'-rir:iii r-cl IhtcIi
l..H<)J)
Am i<- III \i!lM\v Itirrh
i.ii-a)
■\iiifiii-ni u lii'i" rciljir .
l.(MN)
Aii\i' ii in ili'i
I.KI)
Niu Kii. "iinil lir
\.m)
II'IIli'"' i»
l.',1K»
\mii : 1 .III \\ hill- o.ik
!.:«►
Material.
!v,:.
I
lie of
ill Urn.
l.Osil
AiiuTiraii wliitr pine..
.Anierimn yollnw |iim> l.sm
Anii-rican fpnirr i l.'J»iil
Om';;<)Ii pine I l.ViO
niu(*Hti<iii> ll:ii;i;ii)K (liiiil-,
son Rivni '
(•i:iniii>. avi'ntire
Liine>ti>nf
Marbli-
Saiii|>toii4>
Slatr
I
.TTR
art)
»IN)
'ri;.- ;ili..\.' valiH's I if R for wi*ou«:hi inui and st«H'l are one-fmirrh
th.ii f"" t'l.- bri'akiFiir-l'»ads ; lor ca.st- iron. «me-sixth : for wt mm I, une-
tliirl : jii'l i'"'!' >iniii-, <ine-sixih. Th*' constant'^ lor wimmI an- bJl^4•«l
wj.-m ill- f.iiiii I'-t-i iiiaili" al the Massacliusetis Institute of Teeli-
i,<i|<i-\ -Ml' :i l'!iil-^i/i- liiidH-rs of the usual i|uality found in build-
■n.r-. ! 'i-' tu'iir*-* ;;i\'ii "ii lh«' above labb- are bellev(»il to )>e amply
sil".- ■■:■ i":rii> in ll<»nr-. ni" ilwrlliuirs. public balls. n»of.«*, etc.: but,
fiir tl'X'i- III iiiiiN arnl warehouse- lb hm's, the niitbor ret -on in lends
that iHit !ii>:i- than two-tbinls nf ilu- aUivr values Ih- iiM-d. The
-:\U' ioj'l I T iIm' 'rn-ntiMi. iMio'nix. and »*arne«;ie s4><-tions. ustii as
ih-ar::-. :ii'-.ill cDiiipiiIrd wjlii l'2.l>(M) pnuiids bir the >:ife value of
/,'. ..■■ w"'- r.*.« OD |HHii)d>> libri' '^train, as it is •rcnerally calleti.
:.-: 1-.::. iii| H'i.CMKI piiiinti> for >tcii.
'!'•.'■ .■■ i-i riain ( a^« -« of be.ini> which most fri'ipieiitly occur
:ti i<ii;l-i.:ij •••ii^t nn-i inn. f«ir which ftirmulas can In- given by wtiich
tin -at I'ad^ fur llie bi-aiMS ma\ In- determiuetl ilirectlv ; hut U
■
fieri liapp- u> ihal we may have either a iX'gularly nliapud bttun
« •
FBINCIPLES OF THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS. ^JSl
Inregiilarly loaded, or a beam of irregular sectioh, but with a com-
mou method of loading, or both ; and in such cases it is necessary
to determine the bending-moment, or moment of resistance, and
find the beam whose moment of resistance multiplied by R is
equal to this bending-moment, or wliat load will give a bendinp:-
moment equal to the moment of resistance of a beam nuiltipliod
by R.
For ezainplej suppose we have a rectangular beam of yellow
pine loaded at irregular pomts with irregular loads: what dhnon-
sions shall the beam be to carry these loads ? We will suppose that
we have found the bending-moment caused by these loads to be
480,000 inch pounds.
Then, as bending-moment equals moment of resistance multiplied
by li,
480,000 pounds = —\^ x 1800 = J? x 2>« x 800 ;
_ • , 4H00()0
or B X D^= " SOO ~
If we assume i> = 12 inches, then B = ■ ^ ■ =11 inches ; or,
144
the beam should be 11 inches by 12 inches.
If, instep of a hard-pine beam, we should wish to use an iron
beam to carry our loads in the above example, we must find a
beam whose moment of resistance nuiltiplied by 12,000 equals
480, OOC) inch pounds. We can only do this by trial, and for the
first trial we will take the Trenton I2:t-inch 125-pound beam. Tlie
moment of inertia of this beam is given as 2S8; and its moment of
resistance is one-sixth of this, or 48. Multiplying this by 12,000,
we have 576,(X)0 pounds as the resisting-force of this beam, or
96,000 pounds over the bending-moment. Hence we should prob-
ably use this beam, as the next lightest beam would probably not
be strong enough. Fn this way we can find the strength of a beam
of any cross-section to carry any load, however irregularly disposed
it may be.
Strength ol' Wrouglit-Iron Beams, Clianiiels, Aiijyle
and T Bars.
It is very seldom that one needs to compute the strength of
wrought-iron beams, channels, etc. ; because, if he uses one of the
regular sections to be found in the market, the computations have
already been made by the manufacturers, and are given in their
handbook. There might, however, be cases where it would be
necessary to make the calculations for any particular beam; and to
tneel such^cascs we give the following formulas.
332 PRINCIPLES OF THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
Beams fixed at one end, and loaded at the other (Fig, 1).
Safe load in pounds =
1000 X moment of inertia
length in feet x y
. (1)
Beams fixed at one end, loaded with vniformly distributed load
(Fig. 2).
Safe load in pounds =
2000 X moment of inertia
length in feet X y
. (2)
Fig. 2.
Beams supported at both ends, loaded at middle (Fig. 3).
W
Safe load in pounds =
Fig. 3.
4000 X moment of inertia
(81
span in feet x y
Beams supported at both ends, load uniformly distributed
(Fig. 4).
Safe load in pounds =
Fig. 4.
8000 X moment of inertia
span in feet X y
w
PBINGIPUSS OF THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 333
Beaifis supported at both ends, loaded with concentrated load
not at centre (Fig. 5).
Safe load in pounds
Fig. 6.
1000 X moment of inertia X span in feet
^(5)
m X nX y
Beams supported at both ends, loaded with W pounds, at a dis-
tance m from each end (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6.
Safe load W, in pounds at each point =
1000 X moment of inertia
(6)
m in feet x y
The letter y in the above formulas is used to denote the distance
of the farthest fibre from the neutral axis; and, in beams of sym-
metrical section, y would be one-half the height of the beam in
inches. These formulas apply to iron beams of any form of cross-
section, from an I-beam to an angle or T bar. For steel beams,
increase the value of W one-third.
Weight of Beam to be subtracted from its Safe
Load.
As the weight of iron beams often amounts to a considemble
proportion of the load which they can carry, the weight should
always be subtracted from the maximum safe load : for beams with
concentrated loads, and for beams with distributed loads, one-half
the weight of the beam should be subtracted.
Example 1. — What is the safe load for a Trenton 12i-inch light
I-beam, 125 pounds per yard, having a clear span of 20 feet, the
load being concentrated at a point 5 feet from one end ?
1000 XIX span 1000 X 288 ;^ ^0
Ans. Safe load (For. 5) = -
12,500 pounds.
mX nX y
5 X 15 X 6i
334
STRENGTH OF IRON AND STEKL BKAXB.'
Example 2. — A 12-inch Carnegie iron channel-bar, wdgliing 90
pounds per yard, and having a clear span of 24 feet, supportBA
concentrated load at two points, 6 feet from each end. Wliat is
the maxiinuin load that can be supported at each point consistent
with safety ?
Avs. Safe load at each point = ;;-—
^ 6x6
4825 pounds.
The moment of inertia for channels and an^e-bars, and other
sections, will be found in Chap. XIII.
Deepest Beam always most EconomicaL
Whenever we have a large load to carry with a given span, It will
be found that it can be carried with the least amount of iron by
using the deepest beams, provided the beams are not too strong for
the load. Thus, suppose we wish to support a load of 0 tons with
a span of 20 feet, by means of Trenton beams. We oould do this
either by one 12i-inch beam at 125 pounds per yard, or by two
9-inch beams at 85 pounds per yard. But the 12Hnch beam, 21 feet
long, would weigh only 875 pounds, while the two 9-incfa beams
would weigh 1190 pounds; so that, by using the deeper beam, we
save 315 pounds of iron, worth from three to five cents per pound.
C
The following table, under the heading |F?, gives the relative
strength of Trenton beams in proportion to their weighty thns
exhibiting the greater economy of the deeper patterns.
Trenton Rolled I-Beams.
Strength of each Beam in Proportion to its Weight.
c
c
Bbam.
w
Bbam.
W
15 inch, heavy ....
37.41
8 inch, light
».75
15 '♦ light . . .
36.76
7 "
55 pounds .
19017
124 " heavy . . .
12 " light . . .
28.41
6 •'
120 «•
14^
30.61
6 "
90 "
44.07
loX ♦* heavy . . .
26.64
6 "
heavy . .
Mjas
10 1 •• light . . .
27.':0
6 •
light . .
16.05
10| '* extra light .
27.78
5 **
heavy . .
18.S7
9 " extra heavy .
21.44
6 '
' light . .
1S.90
P •• heavy . . .
23.41
4 •
' heavy . .
. - .
Mi
" - • light
2:5.86
4 •
' light . .
lOM
" heavy ....
20.99
4 •'
extra light . .
IOjQO
STRENGTH OF IRON AND STEEL BEAMS. 335
Another important advanta^ in the use of deeper beams is their
greater stiffiiess. By referring to the tables, it will be seen
tiiat a beam twenty feet long, under its safe load, if 6 inches deep
will deflect 0.95 inch ; 9 inches deep, will deflect 0.63 inch ; 12 i^
inches deep, will deflect 0.46 inch ; and 15 inches deep, will de-
flect only 0.38 inch.
A floor or structure formed of deep beams will therefore be much
more rigid than one of the same strength formed of smaller sections.
There are, of course, cases where the use of deep beams would be
inconvenient, either from increasing the depth of the floor, or from
the fact that, with a light load and short span, they would have to
be placed too far apart for convenience. In general, however, it
will be best to employ the deep beams.
Inclined Beams, — The strength of beams inclined to the horizon
may be computed, with suflBcient accuracy for most purposes, by
using the formulas given for horizontal beams, taking the horizon-
tal projection of the beam as its span.
Steel and Iron Seams. — The relative efficiencies of steel
and iron beams depend upon the conditions under which they are
used. The transverse strength of beams of the same length and
section is proportional to the tensile strength of the material, or
beams made of steel, of 65,000 pounds tenacity, will possess an
ultimate stren^h about 80 per cent, greater than similar beams
made of iron of 50,000 pounds tenacity. But the steel beam will
not be stiffer than the iron beam — that is, it will deflect under
working loads as much as the iron beam of the same length and
section ; the steel beam merely bending farther than the iron beam
without injuiT to its elasticity. Therefore, if strength without
regard to stiffness is sought, the steel beam is the best ; but if
stiffness without regard to ultimate strength is desired, beams of
either material would probably prove of equal utility.
Steel beams should not be used for their full load when the span
in feet exceeds tivice the depth of the beam in inches.
Note.— Since 1893 the Carnegie Steel Company has discontinued
the manufacture of iron beams and bars for structural work, and
now manufacture all their shapes in steel only. As steel beams,
angles, etc., are sold at the same price per pound, and are about
20 per cent, stronger than iron, steel has naturally almost entirely
superseded iron in rolled sections.
Strengrth of Trenton, Pencoyd, Phoenix, and Car-
negrie Rolled Beams, Channels, Angle and T-Bars
— Iron and Steel.
The foUowing tables ^ve the strength and weight of the various
sections to be found m the market, together with the general
dimensions of the I-beams.
The tables are in all cases made up from data published by the
386 STBElfGTH OF IB017 AND 8TEBL BBAMB.
respectiye manufacturers. The deflection of the beams under their
maximum safe distributed load is also given in some of the tables.
The tables on pages 849 to 363 will to found very convenient, for
they can be used for the spans indicated, without any computations
whatever. In these tables, the loads to the nght of and below the
heavy line will crack plastered ceilings. When 12- to 24-inch
beams are used to their full capacity for spans less than 10 feet^
the web should be stiffened at the ends.
STRENGTH OF IBO^ AND STEEL BEAMa
887
tENGTH, WEIGHT, AND DIMENSIONS OP TRENTON
ROLLED I-BEAMS— IRON.
Blgnation of beam.
;h, heavy
light
heavy
light
light
heavy
light
heavy
light
heavy
light
extra light .
extra heavy
heavy
light
heavy
light
55 lbs
120 "
90 "
heavy
light
heavy
light
heavy
light
extra light..
Weight
per yard,
in lbs.
872
200
200
150
135
170
125
120
96
195
105
90
125
85
70
80
65
55
120
90
50
40
40
30
37
30
18
n.
Safe
distributed
load for one
footof span,
in lbs.*
1,320,000
990,000
748,000
551,000
460,000
511,000
877,000
875,000
806,000
360,000
286,000
250,000
268,000
199,000
167,000
168,000
185,000
101,000
172,000
132,000
76,800
62,600
49,100
38,700
36,800
30,100
18,000
m.
Moment
of inertia.
IV.
Neutral
uxi8
perpen-
dicular to
web.
Width of
flange,
ill ins.
V.
707.1
523.5
434.5
891.2
288.0
281.3
229.2
283.7
185.6
164.0
150.8
111.9
93.9
83.9
67.4
44.3
64,9
49.8
29.0
23.5
15.4
12.1
9.2
7.5
4.6
6.75
6.00
5.75
5.00
5.00
5.50
4.79
5.50
5.25
5.00
4.50
4.60
4.50
4.50
4.00
4.50
4.00
8.75
5.2r
5.00
3.50
3.00
3.00
2.75
3.00
2.75
2.00
Area of
cross-
section,
ininii.
27.20
20.00
20.02
16.04
12.86
16.77
12.33
11.78
9.46
13.36
10.44
8.90
12.88
8.60
7.00
8.08
6.87
5.50
11.84
8.70
4.91
4.01
3.90
2.S9
3.66
2.91
i.rr
* For any other span divide this coefficient by span in feet.
838
STRENGTH OF lAON AND STEEL BICAMGL
STRENGTH, WEIGHT, AND DIMENSIONS OF TRENTON
ROLLED I-BEAMS— STEEL.
I.
n.
ra.
Moment of
inertia.
IV.
V.
Deeijifnation
Weight
per yard,
in lbs.
Safe distribated
load for one
foot of span in,
lbs. Fibre
strain of 16,000
lbs.*
Width of
Hange,
in incnes.
Aieaof
of beam,
in inches.
Neatral axis
perpendicu-
lar to web.
cnjoB-
iectioii,
iniuchet.
15
150
753,000
529.7
5.75
14.70
15
123
603,000
424.4
5.5
12.02
12
120
500,000
281.3
5.5
11.78
12
96
407,000
229.2
5.26
9.48
10
135
461.000
216.1
5.25
18.14
10
99
344,000
161.8
5.0
967
10
76
264,000
123.6
4.75
7.50
9
81
262,000
110.6
4.75
7.98
9
68
200.000
84.8
4.5
6.16
8
66
192,000
71.0
4.5
6.47
8
54
154,000
57.7
4.d5
5.28
7
60
151,000
49.7
4.25
5.87
7
46.5
118,000
38.6
4.0
4.55
6
50
104,000
29.2
8.5
4.07
6
40
83,300
23.4
8.0
8.27
5
39
67,000
15.7
8.18
8.80
5
30
52,900
12.4
8.0
2.90
4
30
41,200
7.7
2.75
2.24
4
22.5
31,400
5.9
2.62
2;2i
* For any other span divide this coefficient by
STRENOTH OP IRON AND STEEL REAMS.
339
lENUTH, WEIGHT, AND DIMENSIONS OF TRENTON
CHANNEL-BARS AND DECK-BEAMS— IRON.
esi^ation of bar.
I.
Weight
per yard,
in IbB.
II.
Safe
distributed
load, in lbs.,
for one foot
of span.*
III.
Moment
of inertia
I.
IV.
Width of
flange,
in ins.
V.
Area of
cross-
section,
in ins.
Channel-Bars.
ch, heavy
light
heavy
light
light
heavy
heavy
light
light
extra light.
light
extra light
heavy
li^t
extra light
extra light
extnt light
extra light
190
120
140
70
60
48
70
50
45
33
36
25i
45
33
19
16i
15
625,000
401,000
381,000
200,100
134,750
102,500
146,000
104,000
88,950
65,800
62,000
89,500
68,300
45,700
aS,680
22,800
15,700
10,500
586.0
376.0
291.6
153.2
88.4
64.0
82.1
58.8
44.5
32.9
27.1
17.3
21.7
17.2
12.6
7.2
3.9
2.0
4f
4
4
8
2f
2i
2.2
2
2i
2i
n
H
u
18.85
12.00
14.10
7.00
6.00
4.77
7.02
5.06
4.48
3.30
3.60
2.54
4.32
3.20
2.25
1.92
1.65
1.45
Deck-Beams.
ch
65
55
91,800
63,500
54.7
35.1
4i
4*
6.29
I
5.35
* For coefficient of steel bars add one-third.
340
STRENGTH OF IRON" BEAMS.
STRENGTH, WEIGHT, AND DIMENSIONS OF TRENTON
ANGLE AND T BARS.
I.
n.
I.
n.
Designation of
bar.
Weight
per foot,
in ibs.
Safe
diBtributed
load for one
foot of span,
in lbs.
Designation of
bar.
Weight
per foot,
inlba.
Safe
distriboted
load for onej
footofspao,
Inlbf.
ANGLEf
) Even Li
EGS.
Anolbs 1
[Jme^ual LBG8.
6 in. X 6 in.
44 " X 44 "
19.00
124
36,900
18,000
6 in. X 4 in.
14.00
( 80»680
14,7S0
4 " X 4 "
34 •• X 34 "
94
81
12,184
9,200
6 " X 84 "
10.20
3 " X 3 "
2| " X 2| "
4.80
5.40
4,611
4,710
44 «» X8 "
9.00
f 14.680
( T.oao
24 " X 24 "
2J " X 2i "
3.90
3.50
8,156
2,530
4 " X 8 **
7.00
( •,860
( ».8n
2 " X 2 "
11 " X 1| «
3.13
2.00
1,970
1,150
34 " X 14 ««
4.00
r 6.616
( 1,148
14 " X 14 «
IJ " X l| "
1.75
1.00
832
393
3 " X 24 "
ua
( M90
\ S,S88
1 "XI "
1 " X J «
0.75
0.60
246
186
3 " X 2 "
4.00
I 4.884
1 8,080
J " X g «
0.56
133
T-B.
kR8.
4 in. X 4 in.
12.50
15,800
3 in. X 2 in.
4.80
2.640
34 " X 34 "
9.60
10,550
2 " X 14 "
8.00
1.866
3 " X 3 ♦•
7.00
6,680
2\ " X IJ "
2.40
604
24 " X 24 "
5.00
3,850
2 ♦♦ X 1 "
2.15
467
2 •♦ X 2 ♦•
3.13
1,970
14 •• XI •♦
1.86
421
5 •• X 24 "
11.70
6,044
** 7or coeflicient of steel barn add one-third. For any other tfma dMdo tilli
foeiBcient by span.
SISENGTH OF IBON AND STEEL BBAMS.
341
TRENGTH, WEIGHT, AND DIMENSIONS OF CARNEGIE
I-BEAMS— STEEL.
Depth
of
beam,
in inches.
Weight
per
foot,
in lbs.
Thickness
of
web,
in inches.
Width
of
flange.
in inches.
Safe dis-
tributed load
for one foot
of span, in lbs.
16,000 lbs.
fibre strain
for
buildings.*
Safe dis-
tributed load
for one foot
of span, in lbs.
12,500 lbs.
fibre strain
for
bridges.*
24
100
.75
7.20
2,086,600
1,670,000
24
80
.50
6.95
1,830,500
1,486,000
ao
80
.60
7.00
1,545,600
1,207,500
ao
64
.50
6.25
1,222,400
955,000
16
75
.67
6.31
1,077,800
841,700
16
60
.54
6.04
916,800
715,800
15
50
.45
5.75
7.v3,aoo
588,500
15
41
.40
5.50
603,200
471,800
12
40
.39
5.50
500,100
390.700
12
S2
.85
5.25
395,200
3083)0
10
33
.37
5.00
344,000
268,800
10
25.6
.32
4.75
263,800
206,100
9
27
.31
4.'?5
262,200
204,900
9
21
.27
4.50
199,900
156,100
8
22
.27
4.50
191,600
149,700
S
18
.25
4.25
154,000
120,300
7
SO
.27
4.25
151,400
118,300
7
15.5
.23
4.00
117,600
91,900
6
16
.26
3.fi3
101,800
79,500
6
13
.23
3.50
83,500
65.300
5
13
.26
3.13
67,000
52,400
5
10
.22
3.00
52,900
41,800
4
10
.24
2.75
41,200
32,200
4
7.6
.20
0.63
31,400
24,600
* For any other span divide tliis coefficient by span.
343 STRBNGTU OF IBOM AXSi 8TBEL
STRENGTH, WEIGHT, AND DIMENSIONS OP CAENEGIl
CHANNEL-BABS— IRON.
STRENGTH OF IRON AND STEEL BEAMS.
34a
STRENGTH, WEIGHT, AND DIMENSIONS OF CARNEGIE
CHANNEL-B ARS- STEEL.
Safe dis-
tribured load
Safe dis-
tributed load
Depth of
cbaDnel,
in inches.
Weight
per foot,
in lbs.
Thickness
of web,
in inches.
Width
of flange,
in iuches.
for one loot
of span, in lbs.
16,000 lis.
fibre strain
for
buildings.* ,
for one foot
of span, in lbs.
12,500 lbs.
fibre strain
for
bridges.*
15
32
.40
3.40
464,700
316,200
15
51
.775
3.775
554,700
433,400
12
20
.30
2.90
209,600
163,800
12
30i
.55
3.15
273,600
213,800
10
15i
.26
2.66
136,100
106,300
10
23}
.51
2.91
180,500
141,000
9
m
.24
2.44
102,700
80,200
9
2(H
.49
2.69
138,700
108,400
8
lOi
.22
2.22
75,n00
58,800
8
17i
.47
2.47
103,700
81.000
7
8i
.20
2.00
53,100
41,500
7
m
.45
2.25
75,000
58,600
6
7
.19
1.<S5
39,400
80,800
6
12
.44
2.14
55,400
43,300
5
6
.18
1.78
27,900
21,800
5
lOi
.43
2.03
39,000
30,500
4
5
.17
1.G7
18,700
14,600
4
8i
.42
1.92
25,700
20,100
* For any other span divide this coefficient by span.
344
STBENGTH OF IBON AlSfD STBEL BEAHS.
STRENGTH, WEIGHT. AND DIMENSIONS OP JONES ft
LAUGHLIN'S, LIMITED, STEEL BEAMS.
Safe dis-
Safedis-
tributed load
tribnted load
Depth of
beam,
In inches.
Weight
per foot,
in lbs.
Thickness
of web,
in inches.
Width
of flange,
in inches.
for one foot
of span, in Iba.
ltf,000 Ibe.
fibre strain
for
buildings.*
for one foot
of span, in lbs.
12,000 lbs.
fibre strain
for
bridges.*
15
70
0.64
6.366
1,089,700
810,700
15
59
0.468
5 968
910.000
710.900
15
48
0.406
5.726
705,200
650,900
15
39
0.375
5.475
673,600
448,000
12
50
0.598
5.723
536,800
419,400
12
38
0.343
5.468
471,800
868.600
12
30
0.312
5.218
876,400
294,100
10
32
0.3125
4.937
826.500
254,800
10
23.8
0.281
4.72
251,100
196.200
9
24.5
0.296
4.671
239.700
187,800
9
19.75
0.266
4.39
189.100
147,700
8
25
0.287
4.537
101,600
149,600
8
18
0.25
4.25
15i,800
119.400
7
18.3
0.2G6
4.266
141,400
110,600
7
15.25
0.25
4.0
115,500
90,200
6
16.6
0.265
3.765
100.900
78.800
6
12.75
0.25
3 5
8-^.100
64,100
5
13
0.31
3.06
07,000
62,800
5
10
0.22
2 845
67,600
46.000
4
10.2
0.28
2.78
41,100
82,100
4
7.9
0.25
2.(59
32.000
26,000
4
6.85
0.19
2.56
31.000
24,200
8
7
0.19
2.152
22,000
njioo
3
5.1
0.156
2.03
16,800
12,700
* For any other span divide this coefficient by spaa.
STRENGTH OF IBON AND STEEL BEAMa
345
STRENGTH, WEIGHT, AND DIMENSIONS OF PHCENIX
I-BEAMS— STEEL.
Depth of
beam.
In inches.
Weight
per yard,
in lbs.
Thickness
of web, .
in inches.
Width
of flange,
in inches.
Safe dis-
tributed load
for one foot
of span, in lbs.
16,000 lbs.
fibre strain
for
buildings.*
Safe dis-
tribnted load
for one foot
of span, in lbs.
12,500 lbs.
fibre strain
for
bridges.*
15
225
.62
6.375
1,076,000
840,600
15
180
.50
6.125
920,000
718,750
15
150
.45
5.75
752.000
587,500
15
123
.40
5.50
602,000
470,300
12
120
.39
5.50
500,000
390,600
12
98
.35
5.25
394,000
307,800
10^
99
.35
5.00
368.000
287,500
lOi
764
.30
4.75
284,000
221,800
9
81
.31
4.75
262,000
204,600
9
63
.27
4.50
200.000
156,200
8
66
.27
4.50
190,000
148,400
8
54
.25
4.25.
154,000
120,300
7
60
.27
4.25
142,000
110,900
7
m
.28
4.00
114,000
89.060
6
48
.26
3.625
100,000
78,120
6
39
.23
3.50
82,000
64,060
5
39
.26
3.125
66,000
51,560
5
30
.22
3.00
52,000
40,620
4
30
.24
2.75
40,000
31,'250
* For any other span divide this coefficient by span.
346 STB^GTH OF IRON AND STBBL BBAM&
Peucoyd Beams and Cliaiinels*
The coefficient for strength of the Pencoyd sections has been
calculated for a fibre strain of 14,000 lbs. for iron, and 16.500 lbs.
for steel.
These tables also contain the maxim am load that should be
placed on the beam, whatever the length, unless the web is stiffened
at the points of support.
Example. — What should be the maximum distributed load for
a 15-inch 145-lb. iron beam of 10 feet span ? Ans. The coefficient
of this beam is 648,600 lbs. Dividing by 10, we have 04.860 lbs., or
32.4 tons as the safe load ; but we see, by the last column, that it
will not be safe to put more than 22.1 tons on the beam without
stiffening the web. Hence, the safe load for that span is 22.1 tons.
It is only for very short beams that this condition will apply.
STRENGTH, WEIGHT, AND DIMENSIONS OF PENCOYD
I-BEAMS— STEEL.
Depth of
beam,
in inches.
Weight
per yard,
in lbs.
Thickness
of web,
in inches.
Width
of flange,
in inches.
Safe dia-
tribated load
for one foot
of span, in lbs.
14,000 lbs.
fibre strain
for
baildlnfiB.*
Maxlmnm
]oad in tons,
witlioat
atlffeniiif
welK
10
70.1
* .30
4.50
248,260
18.06
9
GO.l
.28
4.80
198,010
10.44
8
51.7
.26
4.00
146,360
&g8
7
48.4
.24
3.75
106,840
7.60
6
34.9
.22
3.40
76,160
6.18
5
27.3
.20
3.00
49,000
4.04
4
•25.0
.22
2.6
&5,860
6.05
4
18.6
.16
2.8
27.180
8.16 *
3
20.5
.22
2.4
21,480
8.77
8
15.9
.16
2.2
17,880
%.7%
' For any other span divide this coefllcient by span. The load,
be greater than that in next column, unless the web is stiflenad aft aoppoita
STRENGTH OP IRON AND STEEL BEAMa
347
STRENGTH, WEIGHT, AND DIMENSIONS OP PENCOYD
I-BEAMS— IRON.
Depth
of
beam.
In inches.
•
Weight
per
yard,
in lbs.
Thickness
of
web,
in inches.
Width
of
flange,
in inches.
Safe dis-
tributed load
for one foot
ofspan,inlb8.
14,000 lbs.
fibre strain
for
buildings.
Maximam
load in tons,
without
stiffening
web.
15
190.0
.562
6.687
844,560
89.57
15
145.0
.437
5.125
648,600
22.10
16
124.1
.406
5.609
541,980
18.59
12.
1680
.656
5.5
578,640
88.63
12
120.0
.453
4.80
424,440
22.22
12
89.5
.343
5.0
817,440
13.60
10*
134.4
.468
5.25
429,560
22.13
10*
108.3
.406
4.87
347,420
17.71
10*
89.3
.343
4.5
288,460
13.35
10
111.7
.5
4.625
324,0^
23.68
10
90.4
.343
4.375
276,860
13 18
9
90.0
.406
4.75
246,420
16.53
9
70,6
.312
4.25
195,880
9.94
8
80.0
.406
4.375
188.840
13.88
8
61.0
.297
4.0
161,400
10.46
7
65.8
.437
3.20
132,760
15.69
7
51.4
.234
3.61
114,880
6.17
6
115.5
.625
5.25
196,740
21.19
6
90.1
.5
4.87
160,000
16.42
6
55.5
.281
3.84
103,480
7.75
6
40.0
.218
3.47
76,500
5.25
5
29.7
.26
3.0
46,560
4.91
4
24.6
.22
2.6
30,000
4.33
4
18.2
.16
2.3
23,000
2.71
8
20.1
.22
2.4
19,340
3.23
8
16.6
.16
2.2
14,740
2.33
n.-.n .-n-KF-N-irrEi <if runs anti stkei, beamp.
II) II II 111 i- ai a :
..;a;.iin4i..ioi!>.«i6.«ris."iw.:<iia.i7 ii
.%!i!>«(i)<!inir<:mi3!H;Njniii!!ii ■j'.-m v
. ■ii.ai !■ riio.'ri m.-n ?.!«i r.m li.i- :■
> j!is am i!bs| i!:
: .;« »:« ■:'■ «'
i.!jH i.nir
■■•.-■1
snimfiTB OF irok and stkkl beaiis. :iol
li.wriftniod. E\ts
10 U ■<
» su ss.rf M.-o «is n.c: ^.m m.m, si.«> -^.m 4>.nj m.
lb i3> *■.;* ii,i3 «.M is,«s i«,w is.n-I i».:i w.-v u.iJ ui.
348
STRENGTH OF IRON AND STEEL BEAH8.
STRENGTH, WEIGHT, AND DIMENSIONS OP PENCOY]
CHANNELS.
For Steel.
Depth
of
channel,
in inches.
1
!
Weight
per
vard.
in lbs.
Thickness
of
web,
in inches.
Width
of
flange,
in inches.
Safedis-
tribnted load
for one foot
of span, in lbs*.
14,000 IbH.
fibre strtiin
for bnildini^.
1
1
1
Maximnm
load ill ton*"
u-iiiiout
St ffeiilug
web.
8
81.8
.22
1
i 2.27
79,0S0
6 55
7
26.6
.21
2.11
79,080
6.91
6
22.2
.20
1.95
42,600
6.25
6
18.1
.19
1.79
29,360
4.65
4
14.7
.18
1.P8
19,800
8.79
Foil IltON.
15
139.0
.562
8.94
539,940
84.84
15
106.0
.375
8.87
437,600
16.88
12
88.5
.406
2.94
284,280
18.49
12
60.0
•
.281
2.61
192,440
9.14
12
61.5
.2.S1
8.09
206,460
9.06
10
59.7
.328
2.75
164,740
18.67
10
47.5
.25
2.5
133,660
8.46
9
52.7
.812
2.69
125,740
18.90
9
37.2
.234
2.36
92,640
7.17
8
43.0
.281
2.28
96,83»
8.77
8
39.5
.25
2.50
80,800
7.66
8
30.7
.218
2.28
68,940
4.66
7
41.0
.297
2.30
78,700
9.07
7
25.0
.171
1.95
49,aaao
8.42
6
81.9
.25
2.25
67,160
6.60
6
22.7
.20
1.7S
86,820
5M
5
28.9
.23
2.06
34,120
5.14
4
21.5
.25
1.69
24,060
6.19
4
16.5
.19
1.26
19,800
4.99
8
15.2
.22
1.68
12,640
8.49
8V
11.8
.25
1.87
0,660
8.90
1
8.8
.22
1.09
4,600
9.49
SAFE DBTRIBUTED LOADS AND DEFLECTIONS OP
PENCOYD BBAMS-mON.
.1 »«■ d.'llprll<>1» In Inc
onwiMjndins i
~.uia markwr* ta-T be idled in ^Ic^il, ivlieii i\«- wplghis will be Incpeat
otr cent. -faff loail aboul ao pvr cent. Detleclluii (.rarilcslly Ihe BUoe w
Etn vKb aQiwl loadt.
STRENGTH -OF TRENTON STEEL I
<TI.— The flenreH tn Italic arc thndefli'cClnnH. In InchM.
-ds above. For the dcllMHono or graileM nafB loiula In i
DofttleUbiilarflgDrealii iUlliM.
STREIfOTH OF OAHNEGIE IKON BEAHB.
E DISTRIBUTED LOADS OP CARNEGIE IRON BEAMS.
e loadi' In net tons
In mlddlii, m
In
Weldrt 1
1^.
Length of »pB
n, in feet.
IB
3W
B
U
ISO
Ml
u
tn
Q
u
Mat
V
m
»(
uo
M rlgbt and below bcavy lii
STRBVOTH OF CARNEGIE BTEEL
O 5 1 8
1
s
g'l i|
1 1^.
I Hi
Hi
ej- S 1 i
6. S ^^
1 1*1
° t i-^
J =?l,-
CO '. ■5-g
1 £ M ^
Mil
t !!l
ss ; r|
§ Z^-^M
— c i §
1 " s-IC^
2 ill
lli^
C = 3 „
siiin
2 S ^-^
' !r = 1 ^ . "f
s '1
^ ■; ■§ -1 i ^■
||S J?|j||
BTBBNaTH OF CABNEOIE STEEL BKAU8. 8S7
1 i ' " "I 1
s s s ^Is S u \ s
^ s
STBENOTH or OABKEQIE 8TEBL ]
8TBENGTH OF OAKNBGIli: STEKL BKAMS.
STBENQTH OF IRON BEAJK.
STRENGTH OF IRON BEAMS.
test safe load in IbB. iiDlforoil; dtsttibated. Including weight a
ir 13,000 Ibe. fibre stnitn.
lonceDtTBled load in middle of beam allow one-bair o[ (hat givu
In Inches.
«t'B*-l
STRENGTH OF IBON BBAHB.
Angles with UnegwU Legs — Long Leg VerHeal.
vatceceafe In&d Id Ibn. untfomily distributed, inclndliis welifht of aiula-
. For K.noo \bf. fliire atr^n. For coucuntnled IobU Iu middlB of b««m »&m
STI :QTH or IRON ] JJ8.
Attglet ailh Uaequal Leg* — Short Leg TeHietd.
GraateBtrsfe ^•"•/> in ih- ..nif-^iiy diatribnled, Inclodine welabt of aosle-
iron, f.ir 18,000 1 oonceolouad iod in mtadle of bom allow
364
BEAMS SUPPORTING BRICK WALLS.
Beams Supportingr Brick Walls.
In the case of iron beams supporting brick walls having no
openings, and in wliich the bricks are laid with the UBual bond, the
prism of wall that the beam sustains will be of a triangular shape,
tlie height being one-fourth of the span. Owing to freqaenft iirogn-
larities in the bonding, it is best to consider the height as one4hinl
of the span.
Fig. 7.
The greatest bending-stress at the centre of the beam, mulling
from a brick wall of the above shape, is the same as that caused by
a load one-sixth less, concentrated at the centre of the beam, or
two-thirds more, evenly distributed.
The weight of brickwork is very nearly ten pounds per square
foot for one inch in thickness ; and from tlds data we find that
the bending-stress on the beams would be the same as that caused
by a uniformly distributed load equal to
25 X square of span in feet X thickness In inches
- 1»
J)
Having ascertained this load, we have merely to determine from
the proper tables the size of beams required to carry a distrfbuted
loail of this amount.
£xAMi>LK. — It is proposed to support a solid brick wall IS
inches thick, over an opening 12 feet wide, on rolled Iron beams:
*. should be the size and weight of 1)eams ?
x. Hy the rule given alH>ve, the unifonnly distributed load
FRAMING AND CONNECTING IRON BEAMS.
365
which would produce the same bending-stress on the beam as the
wail, equals
25 X 144 X 12
9
= 4800 pounds.
As the wall is twelve inches thick, it would be best to use two beams
placed side by side to support it, as they would give a greater area
to build the brick on ; then the load on each beam would be 2400
pounds, or 1.2 tons. From the preceding tables for safe distributed
loads on beams, we find that a 4-inch heavy beam would just about
support this load; but as a 5-inch light beam would not weigh any
more, and would be nmch stiffer, it would be better for us to use
two 5-inch light beams to support om- wall.
If a wall has openings, such as windows, etc., the imposed weight
On the beam may be greater than if the wall is solid.
For such a case consider the outline of the brick which the beam
sustains to pass from the points of support diagonally to the out-
side comers of the nearest openings, then vertically up the outer
line of the jambs, and so on, if other openings occur above. If
there should he no other openings, consider the line of imposed
brickwork to extend diagonally up from each upper comer of the
jambs, the intersection forming a triangle whose height is one-third
of its base, as described above.
When beams are vsed to support a wall entirely (that is, the
beams run under the whole length of the wall), and the wall is more
than sixteen or eighteen feet long, the whole weight of the wall
should be taken as coming upon the beams ; for, if the beams should
bend, the wall would settle, and might push out the supports, and
thus cause the whole structure to fall.
Framingr and Connecting Iron Beams.
When beams are used to support walls, or as girders to carry
floor-beams, they are often placed side by side, and should in such
Fig. 8. Rg. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11.
cases be furnished with cast-iron separators fitting between the
flanges, so as to firmly combine the two beams. These separators
"may be placed from four to six feet apart. Such an arrangement
iB shown by Figs. 8 and 10, Figs. 9 and 11 showing fonus of sepa-
ooo
rnAJ»i:>ij ainu uuin w liu i ixn u ittuiM t5iSAM».
rators usually employed; that with two bolt-boles being iimmI
the 15-ineh and ]2i-inch beams, and that with a single hole
smaller sizes.
Fig. 12. Fig. 13.
When beams are required to be framed together, it is usu
done as shown by the accompanying cuts, in which Fig. 12 sli
two beams of the same size fitted together. Fig. 13 shows a b
fitted flush with the bottom flange of a beam of larger size.
14 shows a smaller beam fitted to the stem of a larger beam, al
the lower flange.
Fig. 14. Fig. 16.
Wooden heanis may be secured to an iron girder in the si
manner as an iron beam, by framing the end, and securing it b]
^-bracket; or an angle-iron may be riveted to the web of
3n eirder to afiford a flat bearine on which the wooden faeun i
FRAMING AND CONNECTING IRON BEAMS.
367
The different rolling mills have standard connection? for con-
necting iron beams with each other.
The standard connection angles for all sizes and weights of steel
and iron I-beams manufactured by Carnegie, Phipps & Co.,
Limited, are illustrated on page 3(58. These connections were
designed on the basis of an allowable shearing strain of 10,00;) lbs.
per square inch, and a bearing strain of v*(),000 lbs. per square inch
on rivets or bolts, corresponding with extreme fibre strains in the
I-beams of 16,000 and 12,00') lbs. per square inch, for steel and
iron respectively. The number of rivets or bolts required was
found to be dependent, in most instances, on their bearing values.
The connections have been proportioned with a view to covering
most cases occurring in ordinary practice, with the usual relations
of depth of beam to length of span. In extreme instances, how-
ever, where beams of short relative span lengths are loaded to their
full capacity, it may be found necessary to make provision for
additional strength in the connections. The limiting span lengths,
at and above which the standard connection angles may be used
with perfect safety, are given in the foUowing table :
TABLE OP MINIMUM SPANS, FOR CARNEGIE I-BEAMS,
WHERE STANDARD COxVNECTION ANGLES MAY BE
SAFELY USED, WITH BEAMS LOADED TO THEIR
FULL CAPACITY.
Stbbl I-Beams.
Iron I-Bbams.
^«
I
S$
S3 a>
at V
rS. (U
cc a
li gj
K a>
Designation
Su
Designation
Designation
^y
Depignation
VT.
of
§.H
of
of
§.£
of
S.h:
beam.
Is
beam.
C OB
•- P.
9.5
beam.
10. 0
beam.
'= 5
20" -80.
lbs.
17.0
9"— 27.
lbs.
15"-^. Ibp.
9"— 2S.5 lbs.
8.0
*' 64.
16.0
♦' 21.
8"-22.
8.C
•' 60. "
13. (
*' 23.5 "
8.0
15"-75.
12. 0'
8.0
" 50. "
13. (
8"— 34. ''
7.0
" 60.
11.5
" IS.
7.0
12"-56.5 "
9.(
" 27. "
7.0
" 50.
11. C
7"— 20.
6.0
" 42. "
8.0
" 21.5 "
6.5
♦• 41.
10.5
" 15.5
5.5
lOi'MO. ''
9.(
7"— 22. ''
5.0
12"- 40.
8.5
6"— 16.
6.5^
" 31.5 "
10.01 '' 18. "
6.5
" 38.
7.5
" 13.
6.d
10''-42. "
10.5
6"— 16. •'
5.0
10" 88.
lO.S
5" 18.
4.0^
'• 36. "
10.5
" 13.5 "
4.5
"- 25.6
9.0
" 10.
4.0
" 30. "
9"— 38;5 "
10.5
6.5
5"-12. "
'♦ 10. ♦'
3.0
3.0
i STANDABU CONNECTION AH6LB8 KOE I-BEAJfS.
%
(H Ha ten* _rm
■III d++l
+ ♦
+ + ♦
4^4&t-l.-»-.»tfn.
«xnt<x''-~°-'rf''t-
H-'iiil-
fi
SSPAaATOBS FOR CAKNEGIE STEEL BEAMS. 3<{9
SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF SEPARATORS FOR CARXECilE
STREL BEAMS.
Separators for 20" lieains arc maile nf I" nii'IHl.
WITH TWO BOLTS,
IS
s
SEPARATORS WITH
870 SEPARATORS FOR CASNBaiE IRON
SEPARATORS WITH TWO BOLTfl.
HEI-AR^TORS WITH OKB BOVt.
la 36 1 66i
lOJ
S
12 8a 43
9?
n
lOi 4A 40
10,'„-
5
101 4/1 3n
Bt
6
10
7
42
10
6i
10
56
;i8
9i
5
10
5f»
:iO
9,'r
4
9
6c
381
10
5
9
t»
28
85
4
9
»a
a3i
Si
4
3!
8
Se
31
91
e
8
86
37
84
^
8
8.1
311
8
5
7
96
2i
8rV
4J
7
9a
18
7i
4
e
105
IS
!^'-
4 s
- 1
6
10a
13J
lit 1
0
116
13
«.)
Si 1
6
llu
10
61
8i K
i
13
7
6t
8 1
STRENGTH OF CAST IKON BEAMS.
371
CHAPTER XV.
STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON. T7700DEN, AND STONE
BEAMS — SOLID BUILT BEAMS
Cast-iron Beams. — Most of our knowledge of the strength
of oast-iron beams is denved from the experiments of Mr. Eaton
Hodgkinson. From these experiments he found that the form of
cross-section of a beam which will resist
the greatest transverse strain is that shown
in Fig. 1, in which the bottom flange con-
tains six times as much metal as the top
flange.
When cast-iron be^ms are subjected to
very light strains, the are^s of the two
flanges ought to be nearly equal. As in
practice;* it is usual to submit beams to
strains less than the ultimate load, and yet
beyond a slight strain, it is found, that
when the flilnges are as 1 to 4, we have a proportion which
approximates very nearly the requirements of practice. The thick-
ness of the three parts — web, top flange, and bottom flange —
may with advantage be made in proportion as 5, 6, and 8.
If made in this proportion, the width of the top flange will be
equal to one-third of that of the bottom flange. As the lesull of
his experiments, Mr. Hodgkinson gives the following rul(» for the
breaking-weight at the centre for a cast-iron beam of the above
form :—-
Fig 1
Breaking-load in tons =
Area of hot. flange ^ depth ^ o 426
in square inches in ins.
clear span in feet
(1)
Cast-iron beams should always be tested by a load equal to that
which they are designed to carry.
Wooden Beams, — Wooden beams are almost invariably
square or rectangular shaped timbers, and we shall therefore con-
sider only that shape in the following niles and fonnulas.
372
STRENGTH OF WOODEN IJEAMS,
For beams willi a rectangular cross-secticHi, wo can simplify our
formulas for strength by substituting for the moment of inertia
}, X ip
its value, viz., ~r:>~~ , where h = breadth of beam, and d its depth.
Then, substituting this value in the genenil formulas for beams,
W(> have for rectangular beams of any material the following
foniiulas : —
B V an LS fixed at one end, and loaded at the other (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2,
W
or
Safe load in pounds =
Iheadth in inches =
breadth x square of deptli X A
4 X length in feet
4 X load X length in feet
s<|uarH of depth X A '
(2|
(3)
ficatns fired at one end, and loaded with uniformly dUdrihuled
load (Fig. ;5).
■'^^y^y
Fig 3
breadth x snuan^of depth X A
Safe luad in j>ounds = ., ^ , . -.--; — \--i »
* 2 X lengrh in feet
or
2 X Icmjrih in fivt X loocl
Iheailth in inches = — ^ .. ,. e~\r:zr\r^ — i — .
8(|uare of deplli X ^1
14)
(&(
STRENGTH OF WOODEN BEAMS.
§73
Beams supported at both ends, loaded at middle (Fig. 4).
W
Safe load in pounds =
Fig 4.
__ broadlli X square of dopth x A^
span in feet
or
Breadth in inches
_ span in feel x load
(6)
(7)
square of <leptli X A'
Beams supported at hoik andsj had. uniformly distributed
(Fig. 5).
Fig. 5.
2 X breadth x square of depth x A
Safe load in pounds = span in feet ' ^^^
or
Breadth in inches = :
span in feet x load
2 X square of depth X A'
(0)
Beams supported at hidh ends, loaded with concentrated load
yOT AT CENTRE (Fi^. (>).
K-n—>
m
»w
. /
. /
Fig 6
breadth x sf|. of depth X span X A
Safe load in pounds —
4 X //< A //
or
BreaiUh in inches —
4 X load X /;/ X )i
square of dcptli x span x A'
(101
(11
374
STRKNGTH OF WOODEN BKAMS.
Beams supported at both ends, and loaded wiUi W pounds at
a distance m /row. each end (Fig. 7).
^■■^ :.:■■■■■ '
■m-*-
WM
<rW
^W ^
Fig. 7.
Safe load M' in pounds _ breadth X sciuare of depth X A^
or
at each point
Breadth in inches =
4 X m
4 X load at one point X m
(12)
(13)
scj. of depth X A
Ndte. — Iti the lUKt two c-aflCH the ieiigthB denoted by tn and n should b« takeu
in feet, the Huinc us the ripiiUH.
Valuks of the Constant A,
The letter A denotes the safe load for a unit beam one inch
scpiare and oik! foot si>an, loaded at the eentre. This is also one-
eii^hteenth of the modulus of rupture for safe loads. The follow-
ing are tlie values of .1, which are obtained by dividing the moduli
of rupture in Chap. XIV. by 18.
TABLE I.
Values of .4.— Co-kfficient for Beams.
MuteriMl.
.1 lbs.
;W8
888
KM)
«)
TO
Matcrhil.
.4 \\m.
( "nst iron
Pino, white. Wentem
'• Texue yellow
S^)ruce
\N hltewocKi (poplar)
; Rluostoiie tlagiiiii!; iHudvoii
1 Kiver)
05
Wrou'hi-iroM
90
Steel
TO
Aineriean wood.-* :
(M:,.-fmit
05
Ilt'iiilix'k
ti
<);ik. \^ hiu-
< Jr.inite, averaire
Limestone
17
I'iiii-. • itor-'iM vellow
15
( )1CMI11
Marble
17
iid or NDrway
\\ hitc. Ka^te^n
Sail' stone
M
60
'lIu'M- v:ilnes for the ccwnieionl .1 are one-thinl of tlio hn»aking-
u<iL:iii ot tiiiilMTs of the same si/.«> and i|U:tlity as that iisi'd in flrst-
rla*-- Inii Minus. Tlii'< i»< a siiMirirnt allo'vanc** for timlM»rs in roof
trii^^*'^, and lM'ani«« wliirh do not have to carry a nion* w^ven* Umd
than that on a dwrllini: hou<(> floor, and small halls, etc. Wliori'
tJMTi' i^ likely to \w M>ry much vihraiion, as in the lloor <if a mill,
or a L;\niiiaNium tloor. or tlitoi-s of lari;*' public hail^i. llii* uiillitir
r<rnmm«iid- I hat oidv foiu'-tifth.s of the :i1n»vc values of .1 In* usmmI.
RELATIVE STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 376
«
ExAMPLV 1. — What load will a hard-pine beam, 8 inches by 18
inches, securely fastened into a brick wall at one end, sustain with
safety, 6 feet out from the wall ?
Ans. Safe load in pounds (Formula 2) equals
8 X 144 X 100
4x6
= 4,800 lbs.
EXA.MPLE 2. — It is desired to suspend two loads of 10,000 pounds
each, 4 feet from each end of an oak beam 20 feet long. What
should be the size of the beam ?
Ans. Assume depth of beam to be 14 inches ; then (Formula 13\
breadth .— ^ * — ==^ — = 11 inches, nearly ; therefore the beam
should be 11 x 14 inches.
Helative Streng:th of Rectang:iilar Beams.
From an inspection of the foregoing forniulas, it will be found
tliat the relative strength of rectangular beams in different cases
is as follows : —
Beam supported at both ends, and loaded with a uniformly
distributed load 1
Beam supported at both ends, and loaded at the centre ... i
Beam fixed at one end, and loaded with a uniformly distributed
load . . . . ; \
Beam fixed at one end, and loaded at the other |
Also the following can be shown to be true : —
Beam firmly fixed at both ends, and loaded at the centre . . 1
Beam fixed at both ends, and loaded with distributed load . . li
These facts are also true of a uniform beam of any form of cross-
section.
When (I Hqiiare beam is supported on Us ethje^ instead of on its
side, — that is, has its diagonal vertical, — it will bear about seven-
tenths as great a breaking-load.
The stronfjest beam which can be cut out of a e^ "^^ &
round log is one in which the breadth is to the / ^
depth as 5 to 7, very nearly, and can be found /
\ /
yd
/
r^
\
\
I
/
/
graphically, as shown in margin. Draw any [
diagonal, as ah, and divide it into three equal \
parts by the points c and d ; from these points
draw perpendicular lines, and connect the points "
#? and/ with a and h, as shown. ^'
1
CYLiNl>UI<''Af. Bkam.s. — A cylindrical beam is oidy .^ as
1 • I
SIQ STRENGTH OF WOODEN BEAMS.
•
strong as a square beam whose side is equal to the diameter of the
cirolo. [lonco, to find the load for a cylindrical beam, Hrst finil
tlio propter load for the corresponding square beam, and then divide
it by 1.7.
77/ r hcnrUiri of the ends of a 1>eam on a wall beyond a certain
amount does not strengthen the beam any. In general, a beam
slioulil have a bearing of four inches, though, if the beam be very
short, the bearing may be less.
Wv'ujUt of the Benin itHelf to be taken into Account. — The for-
nuilas we have given for tlie strength of beams do not take into
account the weight of the beam itself, and hence the safe load of
tli(>. formulas includes both the external load and the weight of the
material in the beam. In small wooden beams, the weight of
th(i beam is generally so small, compared with the external load,
that it need not be taken into account. But in larger wooden beams,
and in metal and stone beams, the weight of the beam should be
subtracted from the safe load if the load is distributed ; and if
the load is applied at the centre, one-half the weight of the beam
should be subtracted.
The weight per cubic foot for different kinds of timber may be
found in the table giving the Weight of Substances, Part III.
Tables for the stren^li of yellow aud wliite pine»
spruce, aud oak beauis, are given below, for beams one inoh
wide.
To find the strength of a given beam of any .other breadth, it is
only necessary to multiply the strength given in the table by the
breadth of the given beam
Example. — What is the safe distributed load for a yellow-pine
beam, supported at both ends, 8 inches by 12 inches, 20 feet clear
span ?
Alls. From Table II., safe load for one inch thickness is 1,440
pounds. 1,440 x 8 = 11,520 pounds, safe load for beam. Far a
concentrated load at centre, divide these figures by 2.
To find the size of a beam that will support a given load with a
given span, find the safe load for a beam of an assumed depth .one
inch wide, and divide the givcm load by this strength.
KxAMPLK.— Wh.it size spruce beam will be required to carry a
distributed load of S,64() pounds for a clear span of 18 feet ?
Ann. From the table, we find that a beam 14 inches deep and 1
inch thick, 18 feet span, will support 1.524 pounds ; and diridiiig
the load, 8.640 pounds, by 1.524, we have 5) for the breadth of the
*t in inches : hence the V>eam should be 6 by 14 inohea, to oany
ibuted load of 8,640 pounds with a span of 18 feei.
*■■ ■
STRENGTH OF HABD-PINE BEAMS.
311
GQ
n
111
I
n
I 8
S) s
a
03
I
i
•SI
o C
'a 5
Si "Q
o
Jg
2
9i
OQ
$
OD
«1
CO
OC
J5
1^ 0<
IS
t-t Ol 0»
^ rH rH of e*
^ o ^
rH O f- O
1-1 W TH K5
*> *k •» *> ^
ri T-i e< e< ot
g
s i §
» «>
f-i 11 e» e<
Ol
^ s S^ s
n iQ Q a
o et OD -«
rH tH T-l 01
kO
OD
Xi
no
o
09
Bi <
^5
r^
Ito
^
yf
Id
CO
CO
^ lO t>
I S I P § s
i-H VI In 09 00
eo
<M
OD
:0
00
s s s
o» t- <?*.
00 eo -*
OD
3
S QO g p «
i-i" o» o» 00 -^ *o
OB
a
s
u
0
>
V
c
>
o
eS
09
O
h3
X
Xi
© o rfS^ «o
.-T i-T of of cc
i
>A CO
? S5 8
«o i-< c*
00 <
'^^^©lOIOO^Ol-OO
jog
<Eto{^aoa»oo<'^*0(0
fl »M »-< »H n »-<
372
STRENGTH OF WOODEN 11EAM8,
For beams wilh a rectangular cross-section, wo can simplify onr
fonmilas for strength by substituting for the moment of inertia
its vahie, viz., — t^", where h = breadth of beam, and il its deptli.
Then, substituting tliis value in the general formulas for 1)eaMis,
wo liave for recUingular beams of any material the following
forniulas : —
Beams fixed at one end, and loaded at the other (Pig. 2).
or
Safe load in pounds =
Breadth in inches =
Fig. 2,
breadth x square of depth X A
4 X length in feet
4 X load X length in feet
scpiare of depth X A '
(2|
(8J
lieams fixed at one end, and loaded with nn{foTuHy dUArihiuUd
load (Fig. 3).
or
Safe load in pounds =
Breadth in inches =
Fig 3.
breadth X square of depth X A
~2'^lengMi in feet
2 X h'ugth in ft?et X load
8(juare of depth X A '
U)
m
STRENGTH OF WOODEN BEAMS.
§73
Beams supported at hoik evds^ loaded at middle (Fig. 4).
W
Safe load in pounds =
FI9 4.
breadth x square of depth X A^
span in feet
span in feet x load
Breadth in inches = s,,„are of depTh x~7r-
(6)
(7)
Beams supported at both ends, had uniformly distributed
Fig. 5).
Safe load in pounds =
Fig. 6.
_ 2 X breadth x STfuare of depth x A
span in feet
_ span in feet x load
Breadth in inches = .> ^ . ..^..^^r .1 ^*u v <»
2 X •Kjiiare of depth x A
(8)
(»)
Beams sujtported at both ends, loaded with concentrated load
^OT AT CENTEE (Fiir. «)-
y////,///y''*
Safe load hi poancb =
>x
Brpailtli m \Tif\\c^. ~
Fig 6
breadth x vf. of depth x span X A
4 X ;<» X H
4 y Uy\t] y />/ y u
ft'inar** of *\<'\A\\ / .s|>vif» y A'
(101
(11
!•■
374
STRENGTH OF WOODEN BEAMS.
Beams supported at both ends, and foaded with W pounds (U
a distance m from each end (Fig. 7).
or
FIfl. 7.
Safe load H' in pounds __ breadth X square of depth X A^
at each point 4 X m
^ 4 X load at one point X m
Breadth in inches = sq. of depth X A *
(12)
(18)
Note. — In the last two cascft the leugthf) denoted by m and n sliould tn taken
in feet, the same as the spans.
Values of the Constant A.
The letter A denotes the safe load for a unit beam one inch
square and one foot span, loaded at the centre. This is also one-
eighteenth of the modulus of rupture for safe loads. The follow-
ing are the values of A, which are obtained by dividing the moduli
of rupture in Chap. XIV. ..by 18.
TABLE I.
Values of J.— Co-efficient fob Beams.
Material.
.4 lbs.
Cast-iron
308
Wrou«;ht-iron
()0(5
Steel
888
American woods :
Cies^tnnt
60
Hemlock
55
Oak, while
75
Pinu. (iCorL'ia yellow
" Oreiron
100
90
" red or Norwav
70
" white, Eastern
00
Material.
Pine, white. Western . . .
•• Texas yellow ....
Spruce
I W hi te wood (poplar) . . . . ,
{ Bhicstoiie flagging (Hndson
j River)
I Granite, average
i Limestone
Marble
' Sannstouc
I Slaie
AWm,
00
90
n
17
16
17
8
BO
Tlu\s<; values for the co-oflicient A are one-third of the breaking-
weiixht of timbers of th(> same si/.e and quality as that used in firat-
class buildings. This is a sutticient allo'.vance for timbers in roof
trusses, an<l beams whi<:h do not have to carry a more severe load
than that on a dwelling-liousc floor, and small halLs, etc. Where
there is likely to be very much vibration, as in the floor of a mill,
"* gymnasium-floor, or floors of larg(> public halU, the author
uenils that only four-tifths of the above values of ^ be used.
BELATIVE STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 375
Example 1. — What load will a hard-pine beam, 8 inches by 12
inches, securely fastened into a brick wall at one end, sustain with
safety, 6 feet out from the wall ?
Ans. Safe load in pounds (Formula 2) equals
8 X 144 X 100
4x6
= 4,800 lbs.
Example 2. — It is desired to suspend two loads of 10,000 pounds
each, 4 feet from each end of an oak beam 20 feet long. What
should be the size of the beam ?
Ans. Assume depth of beam to be 14 inches ; then (Formula 13^
breadth — ' — -^ — = 11 inches, nearly ; therefore the beam
should be 11 X 14 inches.
Relative Strengrth of Rectangular Beams.
From an inspection of the foregoing formulas, it will be found
that the relative strength of rectangular beams in different cases
is as follows: —
Beam supported at both ends, and loaded with a uniformly
distributed load 1
Beam supported at both ends, and loaded at the centre ... ^
Beam fixed at one end, and loaded with a uniformly distributed
load . . . . ; 4
Beam fixed at one end, and loaded at the other i
Also the following can be shown to be true : —
Beam firmly fixed at both ends, and loaded at the centre . . 1
Beam fixed at both ends, and loaded with distributed load . . li
These facts are also true of a uniform beam of any form of cross-
section.
When a square beam is supported on its edffe, instead of on its
side, — that is, has its diagonal vertical, — it will bear about seven-
tenths as great a breaking-load.
The sironf/est beam which can be cut out of a e^ "^^.^
round log is one in which the breadth is to the / ^x /
depth as 5 to 7, very nearly, and can be found /
graphically, as shown in margin. Draw any |
diagonal, as ab. and divide it into three equal \
yd
/
/^N
\
\
\
/
/
parts by the points c and d ; from these points \J/ \
draw perpendicular lines, and connect the points " "^^ — -^/
f; and/ with (t and ?>, as shown. '^'
1
Cylindrical Bkams. — A cylindrical beam is only .^ as
1*1
382 »ULll> BUILT WOOUBN BBAH8.
When a beam is built of several pieces la lengtb afl well i
(Icptb, tbej sliould break joints with each other, Tlie layen b
the neutral a^U should be lengthened by tlie scarf or Rati y
iiseJ for resisting tension; and the npperoues should have the
abut against each other, using plain buU joints.
'I*
Si
i'l
UM
Many builders prefer using a hiiiU heam of selected Umber
single solid oni', on acisjunt of the great dlfticutty of getting
latter, whi'ii very lai^i', frep fi'orn defeotsr moreover, the atrei
of the former is to l>e relieil u[>on, althougli it caimol be stro:
than the corresponding solid one, if perfectly sound.
STIFFNESS AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS. 383
CHAPTER XVI.
STIFFNESS AND DEFLECTION OF B£AMS.
In Chaps. XIV. and XV. we have considered the strength of
beams to resist breaking only ; but in all first-class buildings it is
desii-ed that those beams which show, or which support a ceiling,
should not only have sufficient strength to carry the load with
safety, but should do so without bending enough to present a bad
appearance to the eye, or to crack the ceiling : hence, in calcu-
lating the dimensions of such beams, we should not only calculate
them with regard to their resistance to breaking, but also to bend-
ing. Unfortunately, we have at present no method of combining
the two calculations in one operation. A beam apportioned by the
rules for strength will not bend so as to strain the fibres beyond
their elastic limit, but will, in many cases, bend more than a due
regard for appearance will justify.
The amount which a beam bends under a given load is called its
deflection, and its resistance to bending Is caUed its stiffness:
hence the stiffness is inversely as the deflection.
The rales for the stiffness of beams are derived from those for
the deflection of beams; and the latter are derived partly from
mathematical reasoning, and partly from experiments.
We can find the deflection at the centre, of any beam not strained
beyond the elastic limit, by the following formula: —
_ load in lbs. X cube of span in inches X c
Def. in inches - ^duius of elasticity X moment of inertia* ^^^
The values of c are as follows : —
Beam supported at both ends, loaded at centre . .0.021
" " *' uniformly loaded . . 0.01:3
** fixed at one end, loaded at the other .... O.-^Vi
" ♦* *' unifonnly loaded .... 0.125
By wM^lgi"e the proper substitutions . in Formula 1, we derive the
384 STIFFNESS AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS.
following formnla for a rectangular beam ^supported at bath ends,
and loaded at the centre : —
. _ load X cabe of span X 1728
Def. in inches - 4 x breadth X cube of depth X E^ *^'
the span being taken in feet. From this fommla the value of the
modulus of elasticity, E, for different materials, has been circu-
lated. Thus beams of known dimensions are supported at each
end, and a known weight applied at the centre of the beam. The
deflection of the beam is then carefully measured; and, substituting
these known quantities in Formula 2, the value of £ is easily
obtained.
1728
Formula 2 may be simplified somewhat by representing a^e ^
■^, which gives us the formula
WX L^
Def. in inches = j^ x I^x F^ ^^^
For a distributed load the deflection will be five-eighths of this.
Note. — The constant i'^ correBponds to Hatfield's F, in Us Tnuisreiae Stimiiu.
If we wish to find the load which shall cause a given deflection,
we can transpose Formula 2 so that the load shall fdrm the left-
hand member. Thus : —
Load at centre _ 4 X breadth X cube of depth X def. in ins. X E
in pounds ~ cube of span X 1728 ' * '
Now, that this formula may be of use in determining the load tb
put upon a beam, the value of the deflection must in some way be
fixed. This is generally done by making it a certain proportion
of the span.
Thus Tredgold and many other authorities say, that, if a flooi>
beam deflects more than one-fortieth of an inch for every foot of
span, it is liable to crack the ceiling on the under side; and henoe
this is the limit which is generally given to the deflection of beams
in first-class buildings.
Then, if we substitute for ** deflection" the value, length in feet
-r 40, in the above fornmla, we have,
breadth X cube of depth X e
Load at centre = ^^— ^ ,-^jj , (5)
E
letting e = p=^-
y engineers and architects think that one-thiriieUk qfan inch
)t of span is not too much to allow for the defleetton of floor
STIFFNESS AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
385
beams, as a floor is seldom subjected to its full estimated load, and
then only for a short time.
If we adopt this ratio, we shall have as our constant for deflec-
_ E
tion, €i - J2900-
In either of the above cases, it is evident that the values used for
Ef F, e, or Ci, should be derived from tests on timbers of the same
size and quahty as those to be used. It has only been within the
last three or four years that we have had any accurate tests on
the strength and elasticity of large timbers, although there had been
several made on small pieces of various woods.
The values of the vaiious constants for the fii*st three woods in
the following table have been derived from tests made by Professor
Lanza and his students at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, and the values for the other woods are about six-sevenths
of the values derived from Mi*. Hatfield's experiments. The author
believes tliat the values given in this table may be relied upon for
timber such as is used in first-class construction.
TABLE I.
Values of Constantn for Stiffness or Deflection of Beams,
E = Modulus of elasticity, pounds per square inch.
F = Constant for deflection of beam, supported at both ends, and
loaded at the centre.
€ = Constant, allowing a deflection of one-fortieth of an inch per
foot of span,
e, = Constant, allowing a deflection of one-thirtieth of an inch per
foot of span.
Material.
Cast iron . .
Wrought-iron
Steel . . .
Yellow pine .
Spruce . . .
While oak .
White pine .
Hemlock . .
Whilewood .
CheHtaut . .
A«h. . . .
Muple . . .
E.
15,700,000
26,000,000
31 ,000,0.00
1,780,000
1,294,000
1,240,000
1,073,000
1,045,000
1,278,000
944,000
1 ,48-.\000
1,902,000
F^
E
432"
36,300
60,000
71,760
4,120
3,000
2,S70
2,480
2,420
2,960
2,180
3,430
4,400
E
17280
907
1500
1794
103
75
72
62
60
74
54
86
no
E
^1 " 12960'
1210
20:k»
23o8
137
100
95
82
80
98
72
114
146
394 CONTINUOUS GIRDBR8.
Contimtons Girder of Three Equal Spans, Concentrated Load <^
W Poitnda at Centre of Each Span.
Re-action of either abulment,
R,=R, = i\W; (7)
Re-action of either centi-al support,
B, = A'j = U yV; (81
r
or the re-action of the end supports is lessened three-tenths, and
that of the central supports increaseil three-twentieths, of that
which they would have been, had three separate girders of the samp
cross-section been used, instead of one continuous girder.
D
Fig.2
Continuous Girder of Three Equal Sjmns uniformly loaded with
w Pounda per Unit of Lenyth.
Re-action of either end support,
R,=R, = Uol; m
Re-action of either central support,
R^ = R, = \htol; (10)
hence the re-actions of the end supports are one-fifth less, and of
tlie central supports one-tenth more, than if the girder were not
continuous.
Strength of ContiuHous Girders, — Uviymg determined the re-
action of the supports, we will now consider the strength of the
girder.
Tlu; strength of a beam depends upon the material and shape
of the l)eain, jind upon the external conditions impose<l upon the
beam. The latter j;ive rise to the bemling-moment of the beani, or
tlu> amount by which the external forces (such as the load and
supporting forces) tend to bend and break the beam.
It is Ibis bonding-moment which causes the difference In the
Ijoaring-strength of continuous and non-continuous girders of
the same cross-section.
Continuoua Girdtrs of Tico .s>«».s. — When a rectangular beam
is at the point of breaking, we have the following conditions :^
Bendim;- _ Mod, of rupture x breadth X sq. of depth.
moment "~ 6 ' '"'
:hat the lieam may carry its load with perfect safety^
the load by a proper fac^tor of safety.
CONTINUOUS GIRDERS. 395
Hence, if we can determine the bending-moment of a beam under
any conditions, we can easily determine the required dimensions of
the beam from Formula 11.
The greatest bending-moment for a continuous girder of two
spans is almost always over the middle support, and is of the oppo-
site kind to that which tends to break an ordinary beam.
Distributed Load. — The greatest bending-moment in a continu-
ous girder of two spans, / and /i , loaded with a unifonuly distributed
load of w pounds per unit of length, is
Bending-moment = o /# ■ , > » (12)
V/hen i = f , , or both spans are equal,
Bendmg-moment = -g-, (12a)
which is the same as the bending-moment of a beam supported at
both ends, and uniformly loaded over its whole length: hence a
continuous yirder of two tfpans uniformly loaded is no stronyer
than if non-continuous.
Concentrated Load, — The greatest bending-moment in a con-
tinuous girder of two equal spans, each of length /, loaded with W
pounds at centre of one span, and with W^ pounds at the centre of
the other span, is
Bending-monaent •=^ h^(W+Wx). (13)
When W = W\^ov the two loads are equal, this becomes
Bending-moment = ^WU (13a)
or one-fourth less than what it would be were the beam cut at the
middle support.
Continuous Girder of Three Spans^ Distributed Load. — The
greatest bending-moment in a continuous girder of three spans
loaded with a uniformly distributed load of w pounds per unit of
length, the length of each end span being /, and of the middle
span Ij is at either of the central supports, and is represented by
the formula,
Bendmg-moment = .,.>. , ^. v. (14)
When the three spans are equal, this becomes
Bending-moment = 7a» (14a)
or one-fifth less than what it would be were the beam not con^^
tinuous.
388
STIFFNESS AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMa
a
as
O
u
o
c
o
a ^
o r
if -2
c *-
Is
C ^
g«OQoaoo««io«o
-• s s g
£2 Ai( S
s % s
i ^ ^ § § R
i s
00
i =
C8
'J
E-i
CQ
m
I
Q
5 t;
5 t:
~ S j
= tc I
c a
N —
es a
'• :s
c "s
if /
5 i*
•^ " _r -^ «r
. I
«^
Jl I I I a ^
— a — c^ 'f "rf *- "'
X
X
B
<0 CD O O W
© 25 ^ JO •
»^ ^4 *4 *M P«
STin SS AKD DBFT^ECnON OF BBAJI&
389
m
o
p
OQ
I
s
« 2
OEl
§ o
K
p. a
O o
fl ^
^1
OS «
^§
§ ^
I?
'« 2
o o
t -^
o :S
^*
OD CD*
fp "a
S c
O V
•° -s
•E «*
J2 ^
g a
B
9
8
«8
2 a>
&*■
cox
Q0«
a 9
QOO
CO
1^
a
«D QO
O M ^ lO «
^H T^ »^ »^ 1^
00
^ o
I
i
OD
s
«8
i § §
I §
s
e«
s- S i § i
t^^ r4^ 9f
CO t-
(O o
00 "^
g s
9i
O '-
»-l 1-1
00 •-
Ti Oi G) 01
00
1-H
00
IS 8 S ^ S 3
•-• ^ O t- *-< fi5
»• ^ r- • _ ^ ^
1-1 1-1 ©I <ji 00 eo
O
P t- Q O
©» 1-i Wt «
r-1^ -^ l-^ O
r-i T-l »-i 01
CC 00 •^
i
f2
f2
T-t ir^ (?» CO ■Tf lO O
00
•»r CO 5 '
1^ c^ •» iB < ^
»-<" e* c* CO »o « t- 00
8 '■J'
00 X
0
1
9
a
a
o
ao
gcOXOiOM-TfOCO
STIFFNESS AND DEFLECTION OF BE A J.
Eh
o
a
CD
c
83
'O
e3
O
ti-i
o o
a ^
o ^
C V
•= y
^ s
C «3
rr *-■
E :
? -
^ *-•
& i
^ <| ^a -
W ? fe
m
c c
C tf
M
<<j
^•^
o
^ -5
2 r-
y\
OS
Depth
of
beam.
1
«D GO e> o e« ^
rN »iN tH
si
ig ^ s s s ^
'^ T-t 0« ^ t»
891
1,081
94 D
X
g s
eo ^
J a s g
CZi
E
O
- a
2 g w
CO ^ So
II.
I § s
r ^ ^
rl il ©»
§
• CO S
» 1-1 00
.a
§11
of of of
s «f
fi S M
5 >2 ***
OD ^ 00
•■ » »
•^ « «
g s
§ 1 1 g I
^' M of Cd «f
»-i CO
2 g 8 e 22
lo 00 r- « 01
» ^ r m ^
»-• 1^ Ot •© f
1 S § k s
to o_ in o o)
i-I c*" 91 ef ^ rf frf"
'81
X
§ 5 i s
g 1$ §
»-■'?» CO W lO I- 00
STc g
» O X
«>4 S v« S «4
o
ja
i 9
o
ja
IS
ft*
o
' I
STIFFNESS AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 391
ExABCPLE 2. — What should be the dimensions of a yellow-pine
beam of 10 foot span, to support a concentrated load of 4250 pounds,
without deflecting more than ^ of an inch at the centre V
Ans. A deflection of i of an inch in a span of 10 feet is in the
proportion of y?, of an inch per foot of span; and as the load is
concentrated, and applied at the centre, we should use Fomiula 7,
employing for e the value given in the fourth column, opposite
yellow pine.
Formula 7 gives the dimensions of the breadth, and to obtain it we
must assume a value for the depth. For this we will first try b inches.
Substituting in Formula 7, we have,
4250 X 100
Breadth = 512 x l'j7 ~ ^ inches, nearly.
This would give us a beam 6 by 8 inches.
Example 8. —What is the largest load that an inclined spruce
beam 8 by 12 inches, 12 feet long between supports, will cari7 at
the centre, consistent with stiffness, the horizontal distance between
the supports being 10 feet ?
An9. Formula 12 is the one to be employed, and we will use the
value of e given in the third column, opposite spruce. Making
the proper substitutions, we have,
^ , . 8 X 1728 X 75
Safe load = — r2 x"To — ~ ^^^^ pounds.
Cylindrical Beams.
For cylindrical beams the same fonnulas may be employed as
for rectangular beams, only, instead of #■, use 1.7 X e, : that is, a
cylindrical beam bends 1.7 times as much as the circumscribing
rectangle.
Deflection of Iron Beams.
For rolled-iron beams the deflection is most ac(;urately obtained
by Fonimla 1. The following ap])roximate formula gives the de-
flections quite accurately for the maximum safe loads,
s^iuar(» of si)an n\ feet
Deflection in inches =
70 x iht: depth of bv.am
The deflections for tlie PJuvnix, Pencoyd, Trenton, and Car-
negie beams, arc given in the tables for strength of beams, in
Chap. XIV.
In using iron beams, it should be n*membered that the deepest
btatu is aJways the most economical; and the stiffness of a floor is
almtys gi!Qftt!er wheu a suitable number of deep beams are used.
302 CONTINUOUS GIRDERS,
CHAPTER XVII.
STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS OF CONTINUOUS
GIRDERS
Girders resting upon throe or more snpiwrts arc of quite fi-e-
qiieiiL octurreiioi* in buiUling construction; anti a great variety of
oi)inions is held as to the relative strength and stiffness of continu-
ous and iion-continnous girders: very few i)ersons, probably, having
any coiic'Ct knowledge of tin* subject.
In almost every building of importance, it is necessary to employ
girdtrs iisiing ui)on jiiers or columns placed from eight to fifteen
feet ai)ari ; and in many cases gndcrs can conveniently bo ubtaiueil
wliitli will span two and even three of the spaces l)etween the piera
or columns. When this is tlie case, the question arises, whether it
will be heller construction to use a long continuous girtler, or to
have each ii:irdcr of only one span.
Most aiehitects an? probably aware tliat a girder of two or more
sj)aii> is sirougi'i and stifTer than a gn-der of the same section, of
only one s])an. but just htnn much stronger and stiffer is a question
they are unable to answer.
As it i> -eldoin ihai a iiirderof more than three spans ih employed
in (Utlmaiy bni Idlings, we shall c<»nsid(»r only these two caM*.s. hi
all struelures, the first point which slumld Ih» considennl is the
n'sistaiiee require<| of (Im* su])poris, and we will first cimsider
the resistance offered by the siq)iH)r(> of a continuous ginler.
In this elia)>ter we shall iioi go into the mathematical flisciission
of the "subject, but leier any readi'is inter«»sle<l in the derivation of
the toiniulas for (-ontinnous girders to an article on thai sulijt*<-l,
b\ the author, in the .Inly (J8^;ij number of Van NostrandV
" Knmneeiiiig Magazine.''
Supporting- Forces.
(iinhrs <tj Two spuuM, lotuh'tl al lUf. Centre qf Baeh Span. —If
a ginler ot two si>ans, / and /,, is loaded at tho centre of the tpui I
CONTINUOUS GIRDERS.
393
with W pounds, and at the centre of ^ with Wi pounds, the
re-action of the support Ri will be represented by the fonnula
R =: -*
32
(i)
the re-action of the support R.^ ^Y
«2 = j^(ir + ^r,),
and the re-action of the support R^hy the formula
13 IK, -:]W
(2)
A»» =
32
(3)
If H^ = IF,, then each of the end supports would have to sustain
1^ of one of the loads, and the centre support V- of W, Were the
girder cut so as to make two girders of one span each, then the end
supports would carry ^ or tb W', and the centre support |g ]V: hence
we see, that, by having the girder continuous, we do not require so
much resistance from the end supports, but more from the central
support.
ABC
m
m
m
R2
Fig 1
Girder of Two Spans, uniformly Distributed Load over Each
Span, — Load over each span equals lo pounds per unit of length.
Re-action of left support,
10 r ^« + /« -|
-2L' 4/(f-h/.)J-
Re-action of central support,
R, = w{l-hl,)-R, - /?3.
Re-action of right support,
^^ - 2U' 4/, (/ + /.)]•
(4)
(5)
(6)
When both spans are equal to /, the re-action of each end support
is i Kj/i, and of the central support t '«' ' hence the girder, by being
contuuious, reduces the re-action of the end supports, and increases
thai of the central support by one-fourth, or twenty -five per cent.
394
CONTINUOUS GIRDERS.
Continuous Girder of Three Equal Spans, Concentrated Load of
W Pounds at Centre of Each Span.
Re-action of either abutment,
R,=R, = ;\,}V; (7)
Ro-action of either central support,
liz = H, = U ^V; («)
or the re-action of the end supports is lessened three-tenths, and
lliat of the central supports increased three-twentieths, of that
which they would have been, had three separate girders of the sam^
cross-section been used, instead of one continuous girder.
D
Continuous Girder of Three Equal Spans uniformly loaded with
w Pounds per Unit of Lent/ th.
Re-action of either end support,
/r = /?4 = i tot; (9)
Re-action of either central supi>ort,
/?, = /^^ = ^,( ,o/; (10)
hcnco the re-actions of the end supports arc one-fifth less, and of
the central supports one-tenth more, than if the ginier were not
continuous.
str'iKjtli of' ('(nitiuuous Girders. — Having detemiineil the re-
action of the supports, we will now consider the strength of the
irinler.
The streiij^th of a beam depends upon the material and shai)e
of the beam, and ii]K)n the external conditions imiH)s<Hl ii{H>n the
beam. Tlie lattei ijive rise to the ben<ling-moment of the l)eani, or
the amount by wbieh the external forces (such as the load and
support iiiu forces) tend to ben<l ami break the l)eam.
It is tliis bendini^-monient which causes the ^liflTerenee in the
l>eaiiiiLj-^tiemitb of continuous and non-continuous ginlers of
tie* >ame cross-section.
('(mfiiiii'iiis (iirdti's o/* Tii'n spiois. — When a rectangular heam
is at the point of breakiuir, we have the following (^mditions : —
Hendini:- _ ^lod. of rupture X bremllh X s<|. of depth,
moment ~ " «" ' *"*
and. that the beam may carry its load with perfect safety, wemiut
divide the load b> a proper factor of safety.
CONTINUOUS GIRDERS. 395
Hence, if we can determine the bencUng-moment of a beam under
any conditions, we can easily determine tlie required dimensions of
tlie beam from Formula 11.
The greatest bending-moment for a continuous girder of two
spans is almost always over the middle support, and is of the oppo-
site kind to tliat which tends to break an ordinary beam.
DiMtrlbuted Load. — The greatest l)ending-moment in a continu-
ous girder of two spans, / and /, , loaded with a uniformly distributed
load of w pounds per unit of length, is
Bending-moment = o /^ ■ ^ > » (12)
V/hen Z = i I , or both spans are equal,
top
Bending-moment = -g-, (12a)
which is the same as the bending-moment of a beam supported at
both ends, and uniformly loaded over its whole length: hence a
continuous girder of two ifpams uniformly loaded is no stromjer
than if non-continuous.
Concentrated Load, — The greatest bending-moment in a ron-
tinuous girder of two equal spans, each of length if, loaded with \V
pounds at centre of one span, and with Wi pounds at the centre of
the other span, is
Bending-monaent ^ ^iHW+Wy), (13)
When W = ITi , or the two loads are equal, this becomes
Bending-moment = A IT/, (13a)
or one-fourth less than what it would be were the beam cut at the
middle support.
Continuous Girder of Three Spans^ Distributed Load. — The
greatest bending-moment in a continuous girder of three spans
loaded with a uniformly distributed load of w pounds per unit of
length, the length of each end span being /, and of the middle
span I, is at either of the central supports, and is represented by
the formula,
wl^ 4- wli^
Bending-moment = .,... , ^i y (14)
When the three spans are equal, this becomes
xol^
Bending-moment = Tqi (14a)
or one-fifth less than what it would be were the beam not con-^
tinuous.
396 CONTINUOUS GIRDERS.
Conconfrated Loads. —The greatest bending-moment in a con-
tinuous girder of three equal spans, each of a length 2, and each
loaded at the centre with [V pounds, is
Bending-moment = ^,^ Wl, (15/
or two- fifths less than that of a non-continuous girder.
Deflection of Continuous Girders.
CoutiniiOHs Girder of Two Eqvdl Spniis. — The greatest deflec-
tion of a continuous girder of two equal spans, loaded with a
uniformly distributed load of w pounds per unit of length, is
id*
Deflection = 0.005416 ^. (16)
{E donotos modulus of elasticity; /, moment of inertia.)
The deflection of a similar beam supported at both ends, and
uniformly loaded, is
Deflection = 0.01:3020 ^.
ITencc the deflection of the continuous girder is only about two-
fifths that of a non-continuous girder. The greatest deflection
in a continuous girder is also not at the centre of either span, but
betweer. the centre and the abutments.
The greatest deflection of a continuous girder of two equal spans,
loaded iit the centre of one span with a load of IV pounds, and at
the centre of the other span with IV i pounds, is, for the span with
load \V,
(28n'-0lF,)/«
Deflection = - 153^.^^ ' <">
for the si)an with load ir,,
(2:ur, ~oir)/«
Deflecti(m = — I'l'A' EI * (Ha)
When ImMIi si)ans have the same load,
7 ir/«
Deflection = >.^■^ ^^ • (17'>)
T]i<> drilci tion of a beam su])ported at l>oth ends, and loaded at
tin* (•»'iiin- with \y pounds, is
Deflection = .^ j^-,-j\
or tlir ditlrction of the continuous girder is only seven-tlsteenUit
of the nun-eontinuous one.
CONTINUOUS GIRDERS. 397
Continuous Girder of T/tree Eqiial Spans, — Uniformly distrib-
uted load of 10 pounds per unit of length,
Deflection at centre of middle span = 0.00052 ^ ( 18)
Greatest deflection in end spans = 0.006884 j^ (10)
or the greatest deflection in the girder is only about one-half that
of a ncn-continuous girder.
Concentrated load of W pounds at centre of each span,
I \Vl^
Deflection at centre of middle span = t^ -^t- (20)
II Wl»
Deflection at centre of end spans = kqk -^j- (21)
or only eleven-twentieths of the non-continuous girder.
Several Observations and Formulas for Designing:
Continuous Girders.
From the foregoing we can draw many observations and conclu-
sions, which will be of great use in deciding whether it will be best
in any gi\^n case to use a continuous or non-continuous girder.
First as to the Su2)ports* — We see from the formulas given for
the i*e-action of the supporting forces in the different cases, that in
all cases the end supports do not have as much load brought upon
them when the girder is continuous as when it is not; but of course
the difference must be made up by the other supports. This might
often be desirable In buildings where the girders run across the
building, the ends resting on the side walls, and the girders being
supported at intermediate points by columns or piers. In such a
case, by using a continuous girder, part of the load could be taken
from the walls, and transferred to the columns or piers.
But there is another question to be considered in such a case,
and that is vibration. Should the building be a mill or factory in
which the girders had to support machines, then any vibration
givea to the middle span of the beam would be carried to the side
walls if the beam were continuous, while if separate girders were
used, with their ends an inch or so apart, but little if any vibration
would be can-ied to the side walls from the middle span.
In all cases of important construction, the supporting forces
should be carefully looked after.
Strength, — As the relative strength of continuous and non-
oontinuouB girders of the same size and span, and loaded in the
•aoie wny, is as their bending-moments, we can easily calculate the
.^9S CONTINUOUS GIRDERS.
strongth of a continuous girder, knowing the formulas for its bend*
ing-nioni(Mit. From the values given for the bending-nioments of
the various cases considered, we see that the portion of the girder
most strained is tliat which conies over the middle supports; also
that, except in llie single case of a girder of two spans uniforndy
loaded, tlie strength of a girder is greater if it is continuous than if
it is not. But tlie gain in strength in some instances is not very
great, altliough it is generally enough to pay for making the girder
continuous.
Stijrnc's^i. — The stiffness of a girder is indirectly proportional to
its deflection; that is, the less the deflection under a given load, the
stiffen the girder.
Xow, from the values given for the deflection of continuous
girders, we see that a girder is rendered very much stiffer by being
made (continuous ; and this may be considered as the principal
advantage in the use of such girders.
It is often the case in building-construction, that it is necessary
to usi^ beams of nmch greater strength than is required to carry
the superimposed load, because the deflections would be too great
if i\ui beam were made smaller. But, if we can use continuous
girders, we may make the beams of just the size required for
strength; as the deflections will be lessened by the fact of the gird-
ers being (continuous. It should therefore be remembered, that,
wh(>re great stiffness is required, continuous beams or girders
should be used if possible.
Foriuulas for Strciigtli and Stiffhess.
For eonvenienee we will give the proper formulas for calculating
the streni;tli and stiffness of continuous ginlers of rectangidar
cross-s(»etion. The fonnulas for strength are deduced from the
fornuda,
Bending-moment = ;. * (22)
where 1i is a (constant known as the modulus of rupture, and la
ei^litecu times what is generally known as the co-efticicnl of
stn'nijth.
SiKKNJ.Tn. — (.'ontinnoits tjirder of two equal Hpana^ loadtd
nnij'nnnhj oi'cr ((ir/i span^
2x nx U^x A
lirealving-weight = i ' (23)
where li d«>ri()tes the breadth of the ginler, D the depth of the
girder (botli in inches), and L the length of one span, in/eef. The
CONTINUOUS G1KDEB8. 399
values of the oonstant A are three times the values given in Table
L, p. 874. For yellow pine, 800 pounds ; for spruce, 210 pounds ;
and for white pine, 180 pounds, — may be taken as reliable values
for A.
Continuous girder of two equal spans, loaded equally at the
centre of each span,
4 B X D^x A
Breaking-weight = 3 X r • (24)
Continuous girder of three equal spans, loaded uniformly over
each span,
« , . . , f) Bx D2x A
Breaking- weight = 9 ^ L * ^^^
Continuous girder of three equal spans, loaded equally at the
centre of each span,
5 B X D^x A
Breaking-weight = 3 x j • (26)
Stiffness. — The following formulas give the loads which the
beams will support without deflecting more than one-thirtieth of
an inch per foot of span.
Continuous girder qf two equal spans, loaded uniformly over
each span,
Bx l>^x e
Load on one span = q 26 x L-^ ' '^'^^
Continuous girder of two equal spans, loaded equally at centre
of each span,
16 B X D^x e
Load on one span = "7" x j-^ • (28)
Continuous girder* of three equal spans, loaded uniformly over
each span,
B X Z)'^ X e
Load on one span = q 33 x L^ ' ^^^
Continuous girder of three equal spans, loaded equally at the
centre of each span,
20 B X D^x e
Load on one span = TT ^ jo • (oO)
The value of the constant e is obtained by dividing the modulus
of elasticity by 12,1)(50 ; and, for the three woods most commonly
used as beams, the following values may be taken : —
Tellow pine, 187 ; white pine, 82 ; spruce, 100.
400 CONTINUOUS GIRDERS.
For iron beams we may find the l)ending-inoinent by the for-
mulas given, and, from tahles saving the sti-ength and sections of
rolled beams, find the beam whose moment of inertia =
bending-moment X depth of beam
2000
•.vhen tli«* beuilinsj moment Is in foot pounds.
For (^xjunphs we have a continuous l-lwam of three equal spans,
loaded ovtM- each span, with 2(KM) pounds per foot, distributeil.
Each span being 10 feet, then, from fonnula 14(r, we have
2(KX) X 100
Bemling-moment = rr^ = 20000.
2(XNK)
Moment of inertia = ~:^^^ x depth of beam;
20,(XM) -^ 2(MM) = 10, and we must find a beam whose depth multl-
plic 1 hy ten will c(jUJil its moment of inertia.
If \\v try a ten-inch lK*am, we should have 10 X 10 = 100; and we
sec from Tal)lcs, i)p. 2(50-272, that no ten-inch beam lias a moment of
Inertia as small as KM): so we will take a nine-inch beam. W X 10
~ INK and the lightest nine-inch beam has a moment of inertia of
\Y,\: so we will use that beam. In tluj case of continuous I-i)eams
of three e(|nal spans, (upially load(>d with a distributed ItKid. wi*
may take four-fifths of the load on one siKin, and find the iron
beam which would support that load if with only one span.
KN.VMri.i:. — if we have an I-beam of three equal siNins of 10
feet each loadcil with 20,000 pounds over each span, wliat Hize
beam should we use?
Ans. -! of 20.<MM)= 10,000. Tlie ecpiivalent load for a span of
oui- foot would be 10,000 X 10= UMMMM).
rrnin Tables, Chap. XIV., we find that the beam whose eo-efll-
ciint is nearest to this is the nine-inch light lM*ani, — the s;inie
beam wbicb we found to carry the same load in the prt*(*e«Iing
c\aiii|>lc. Tor iK'anis of two equal spans loiidtMl uniformly, the
>nciii:ib <»t the beam is the same as though the beam were not
colli iinioiis.
rin- t'oi iinila^ ui\en for tbe re-actioiis of the sup]M)rts ami for the
(l<-tli-iri«>ii oi (-v)iitiiiMoiis Lcirders with eoneentnili'd NhmIsi, were
vnitii-l bv Mm- aulboi- b> means of careful experiments on small
sr«'-! bai->> IIm- other forinulas have Inn'ii veriH«Ml hy <>oni]iAri9un
witli iitbi-r iiiilboi'it ies, wliei'i* it was |His.sible to do so; though one
or iwo ot tbf l-a^e^ uJMMi, tli(* auliiur has never seen dlicuaa»d in
ail) woiU on tbe .subject.
FLITCH PLATk GIRDEttS. 40 J
CHAPTER XVITT.
FLITCH PLATE GIRDERS.
In framing large buildings, it often occurs that the floors must be
supported upon girders, which themselves rest upon columns ; and
it is required that the columns shall be spaced farther apart than
would be allowable if wooden girders were used. In such cases
the Flitch Plate girder may be iron flate
used, oftentimes with advan-
tage. A section and elevation of
a Flitch Plate girder is shown in
Fig. 1. Fig. 1.
The different pieces are bolted together every two feet by three-
fouiths-inch bolts, as shown in elevation. It has been found by
practice that the thickness of the iron plate should be about one-
twelfth of the whole thickness of the beam, or the thickness of the
wood should be eleven times the thickness of the iron. As the elas-
ticity of iron is so much greater than that of wood, we must propor-
tion the load on the wood so that it shall bend the same amount as
the iron plate: otherwise the whole strain might be thrown on the
iron plate. The modulus of elasticity of wrought-iron is about thir-
teen times that of hard pine; or a beam of hard pine one inch wide
would bend thirteen times as much as a plate of iron of the same
size under the same load. Hence, if we want the hard-pine beam
to bend the same as the iron plate, we must put only one-thirteenth
as much load on it. If the wooden beam is eleven times as thick
as the iron one, we should put eleven-thirteenths of its safe load on
it, or, what amounts to the same tiling, use a constant only eleven-
thirteenths of the strength of the wood. On this basis the follow-
ing formulas have been made up for the strength of Flit(;h Plate
girders/ in which the thickness of the iron is one-twelfth of the
braidth oi the beam, approximately : —
40-2 FLITCH PLATE GlRDEES.
Let 1) = Depth of beam.
B = Total thickness of wood.
L = Clear span in feet.
i = Thickness of iron plate.
f __ i 1^^> pounds for hard pine.
f 7o pountls for spruce.
W = Total load on girder.
Then y for beams supported at both ends,
Saf<» load at centre, in pounds = j- (/B-\-*JnOt), (11
22)2
Safe distributed load, in pounds = —f— (/B + 7500. (21
For distributed load, D = \/2/7i-f Kiitbt'
I irZ
For load at centre D = \/ >^"j_7^'
(3)
(4)
As an example of the use of this kind of girder, we will take tl«(*
case of a railway-station in which the second story is devoted to
offices, and where we must use girders to support the second floor,
of twonty-liyc feet span, and not less than twelve feet on centres. If
we can avoid it. This would give us a floor area to be supported by
the girder of 12 X 25 = :300 square feet; and, allowing 105 i>ounds p«T
s()iiare foot as the weight of the suiKjrimposed load and of the floor
itself, we have ol,r>00 pounds as the load to be supported by the
ginlcr. Now we find, by computation, that if we were to us«» a
M)li(l girder of hard pine, it would re<iuirea8eventeen-lncli by four-
teen-inch beam. If we were to use an iron Ix'ani, we find tliat a
fifteen-inch ln^iivy iron beam would not have the requisiti^ strength
for this span, and that we should be obliged to use twotwelve-4nch
beams.
We will now see what size of Flitch Plate ginler we would
recpiire, sliould we decide to use such a girder. We will assume
tlie total breadth of both beams to be twelve inches, so that we can
use two six -inch tind)ers, whi<'h we will have hanl pine. The thick-
ness of the iron will he one inch and one-eighth. Then, substi-
tuting in Formula JJ, wt* have.
/ :{!.')( M) X 25 . —
^' = V- X KM) X 12 + I;V)T7^rHt = VIW, or 14 inches.
Hence we sliall require a twelve-inc4i by fourteen-incb girder. NoVt
FLITCH-PLATE GIRDERS. 40;^
for a comparison of the cost of the three girders we have considered
in this example. The seventeen-inch by fourteen-inch hard-pine
girder would contain 515 feet, board measure, which, at five cents a
foot, would amount to $25.75.
Two twelve-inch iron beams 25 feet 8 inches long will weigh
2083 pounds; and, at four cents a pound, they would cost $83.82.
The Flitch-Plate girder would contain 364 feet, board measure,
which would cost $18.20. The iron plate would weigh 1312i
poimds, which would cost $52.50; making the total cost of the
girder $70.70, or $13 less than the iron beams, and $45 more than
the solid hard-pine beams. Flitch-Plate beams also possess the
advantage that the wood almost entirely protects the iron; so
that, in case of a fire, the heat would not probably affect the iron
until the wooden beams were badly burned.
404
TRUSSED BEAMS.
CHAPTER XIX.
TRUSSED BEAMS.
AVhexkveti wo. wish to support a floor upon ginlers having a
span of more than thirty feet, we must use eitlier a trussed ginler,
a riveted iron-phite fjinU^r, or two or more iron beams. The clieap-
esi and most convenient way is, probably, lo use a large woo<leu
girder, and truss it, either as in P'igs. 1 and 2, or Figs. JJ ami 4.
In all these forms, it is desirable to give the girders as much <!epth
as the conditions of the case will permit; as, the deei)er the ginler,
the less strain there is in the pieces.
In the belly-rod truss we either have two beams, and one rod
which runs up between them at the ends, or three beams, and two
rods runnini^ up between the beams in the same way. The beams
should be in one continuous length for the whole span of the ginler,
if they can be obtained that length. The requisite dimensions of
the Me-rod, struts, and beam, in any given case, must be deter-
mined by lirsi tindiui^ the stresses which come ui>on these picH»t»s,
and then the area of cross-section required to resist these sti-esses.
Foi: sixciu: srui t iielly-kod tkisses, sucli as is represented
by FJLi. 1, the strain ni)on the pieces may be obtained by the foUow-
ini: formulas : —
For DisTiniu'iEi) LOAD ir over whole (jiriJeTf
'1
'ension
in r
^
o
10
w
X
(
oinpression
in
r
^^
s'
w.
(
'ompH'ssion
in
li
zz
10
ir
X
length of T
length of C
length of B
length of Cf
(1)
(2)
m
TRUSSED BEAMS.
405
For CONCENTRATED LOAD W 09€r C,
,«.,«, ^ length of T
Tension in T = y x ,^„g,i, ^^ ^T
Compression in C = W.
. . „ H^ length of B
Compression in B = g- x ^^^^^^ ^^ ^
W
(5)
For girder trussed as represented in Fig. t under a distributed
LOAD W over whole girder,
3 length of S
Compression in S = j^ »' x lengthof C"
(6)
Tension in R
- ^w.
Tension in B
_ 3 length of B
10 "^ length of C
(7)
For CONCENTRATED LOAD, W at centre,
, ^ W length of S
Compression in S = ^ X i^ng^j^^f^-
Tension in 1? ^ W,
W length of B
Tension in B = y x j^^^pT^f^.
(8)
(9)
For double strut belly-rod truss (Fig. 3), with distributed
i,OAD W over whole girder.
B
Tension in T
Fig.3
length of T
= 0.307 W x 7- '^
length of C
Compression in C = 0.367 W.
^ length of B
Comp. in iJ or D = 0.367 H^ X i,„^„ ^f p-
(101
(11)
406
TRUSSED BEAMS.
Fo7' coNCKNTRATEi) LOAD W over cQch of the HtruU C,
leneLli of T , ,
Conipression in C = W,
leiigtli of Ji
Coiiip. in B or tension in /) = \V x ip,iiwj7Qf7"'' (**^)
For (jinlcr trusffvd, as in Fly. 4, under a distkiuuted load H'
over whole (jlrder,
r^
^Jp
-v
^^-TU
Fig.4
lon^tli of .S , , , ,
= 0.307 irx,^.^g,^-^jr-,^. (14)
= 0.307 1 r.
ConipR'ssion in S
Trnsion in R
lonslh of W .,,.
Tension in li or conip. in D = ().:>07ir X \7r{^(u~^i~fy '*^'
igtli
Under ('ON<'KNTnATKi) loads W applied (H 9 and 3.
len^h of iS
('oinpivssion in S
Tension in H
= W X
= W.
len<;tli of H
(16)
lon^li of Ji
Tension in /; or conip. in I) = M' X i^^^^jT^fT;- (17)
Trusses sneh as shown in Figs. 3 and 4 should Iw divided so that
the rnds li, (»r I lie struts (', shall divide the lont^th of Iho ginler into
three (M|Mal oi* n*'arly e<|ual parts. The len<;ths of the pi«»ci»s T",
(\ li, li, >, rt<'.. should he measured on the <'entrt»s of the pleees.
Tiius iIk* lrui;th of li should he taken from the eeiitre of llie lie-
heaui r» lo the <-eutre of the strut I) : and the leii«;tli of Cshoiilil Im
inraviiiTil from the eentre of the rod to the ivntre of the strut-
IXMMI li.
After dt'terminiui: the strains in the pieees hy these formulas,
we may compute the areii of the eross-s(>eti(>ns hy (he folluwliig
rules ; —
eonip. in strut
Area of cross-section of strut = — -r, •
(18)
<. . . . , , /tension In rod
Dianu'ter of smjjle th^nMl » = \/ i^^i . {\9)
^ Al:<>^^ inL' 1'J.(MNi iioiiiidrt Hufo ifiiHiuii iN*r Miii«rc tiieh In Ibo rod.
TRUSSED BEAMS. 407
^* . . , , . , /tension in rod
Diameter of each of two tie-rods = a/ T^gso * (20)
For the beam B we must compute its necessary area of cross-,
section as a tie or strut (according to which truss we use), and
also the area of cross-section required to support its load acting as
a beam, and give a section to the beam equal to the sum of the two
sections thus obtained.
Area of cross-section of B to / tension comp.
resist tension or compression j T C ' ^ '
In trusses 1 and 2,
Wx L
Breadth of iJ (as a beam) = o x Z>=^ ~x~A' ^^^
In trusses 3 and 4, -^ ^'■' ^/'/^■-* -
2 X If X L
Breadth of B (as a beam) = 7 ^ n^ x A' ^^^
Id these formulas,
C — 1000 pounds per square inch for hard pine and oak,
800 pounds per square inch for spruce,
700 pounds per square inch for white pine,
13,000 pounds per square inch for cast-iron.
T = 2000 pounds per square inch for hard pine,
1800 pounds per square inch for spruce,
1500 pounds per square inch for white pine,
10,000 pounds iDei' square inch for wrought-iron.
A = 100 pounds per square inch for hard pine,
76 pounds per square inch for oak and Oregon pine,
70 pounds per square inch for spruce,
60 pounds per square inch for white pine.
Examples. — To illustrate the method of computing the dimen-
sions of the different parts of girders of this kind, we will take two
examples.
1. — Computation for a (jlrder snch as is shown in Fig. 7, for a
span of 30 feet, the truss to be 12 feet on centres, and carrying
a floor for which we should allow 100 pounds pi^r sc^uare foot. The
girder will consist of three strut-beams and two rods. We van
allow the belly-rod T to come two feet below the beams B, and we
will assume that the depth of the beams B will be 12 inches; then
the length of C (which is measured from the centre of the beam)
would be 80 Inches. The length of B would, of course, be 15 feet,
and by computation, or by scaling, we find the length of T to be
15 feet 2i inches.
408 TRUSSED BEAMS.
The total load on the girder equals the span multiplied by the
distance of girdei*s on centres, times 100 pounds = 90 X 12 X 100 =
3(KX)0 pounds.
Then we find, from Fonnula 1,
Tension in nxl = f», of 30000 X g^V"^^ = 65664 pounds;
and, from Fornuda 20,
/6y064
Diameter of each rod = x/jM^g = Ij inches, nearly.
The striit-heams we will make of spruce. Tlie compression in
the two strut-beams = i% of 36000 X '/,P = 64800 pounds, or 21600
pounds for each strut. To resist this compression would require
21600
-^g^ , or 27 square inches of cross-section, which corresponds to a
beam 2^ inches by 12 inches. The load on B = i of 36000. or 18000
pounds; and, as there are three beams, this gives but 6000 pounds'
load on each beam. Then, from Formula 22,
6000 X 1.5 _ . ^ . 1^
^ ~ 2 X 144 X 70 " • incbea^
and, adding to this the 2} inches already obtained for compression,
we have for the strut-beams three 65-inch by 12-incli spruce beams.
The load on C= ^ Fl', or 22500 pounds. If we are to bave a num-
ber of trusses all alike, it would be well to have a strut of cast-iron;
but, if we are to build but one, we might make the strut of oak. If
22500
of cast-iron, the strut should have ^.w^q, or 1.8 square inches of
cross-section at its smallest section, or al)out 1 inch by 2 inches. If
22500
of oak, IL would require a section equal to "Tqqq • or 22i square
inohos, = 4^ inches by 5 inches, at its smallest section. Thus we
hav(> found, thai for our truss we shall require three stmt-l)eanis
7 inclu's by 12 inches (of spruce), about 31 feet long, two belly-rods
U inches diameter, and a cast-iron strut 1 inch by 2 inches at the
smallest end, or else an oak strut 4i inches by 5 inches.
2. — It is desired to support a floor over a lecture-room forty feet
wide, by means of a trussed girder; and, as the room above is to be
used foi- electrical i)uri>oscs, it is desiretl to have a truss with very
little iron in it, and hence we use a truss such as is shown in Fig. 4.
re the girders rest on the wall, there will be brick pilasters
g a projection of six inches, which will make the span of the
10 feet ; ^nd we will space the rods /if /^ so as to diTldeUieUe-
into thi-ee equal spans of 13 feet each. The tie-taun will
•TUUSSED BEAMS 409
consist of two hard-pine beams, with the struts cominjGf between
them. We will have two rods, instead of one, at i?, coming down
each side of the strut, and passing through an iron casting below
the hoanis, forming supports for them. The height of truss from
centre to centre of timbers we must limit to 18 inches, and we will
s})ace the trusses S feet on centres. Then the total floor-area sup-
ported by one girder equals 8 feet by 89 feet, equal to .*U2 square
feet. Tin; heaviest load to which the floor will be subjected wiii
be the weight of students, for which V) pounds per square foot
will be ample allowance; and the weight of the flooi* itself will be
about 25 pounds; so that the total weight of the floor and load will
be UK) pounds per square foot. This makes the total weight liable
to come on one girder 81,200 pounds.
Then we find, Formula 14,
157 ins.
Compression in struts = 0.;^>7 W x .o. ,., = 106800 pounds.
156 ins.
Tension in both tie-l)eams = 0.867 ir X ^^ .^^.^ = 106000 pounds.
Tension in both rods i? = 0.807 W = 1 1450 pounds.
The timber in the tniss wdl l>e hard pine, and hence we must have
10(>8(X)
—TTwTTT-, or 107 square inches, area of cross-section m the strut,
which is equivalent to a 9-inch by 12-inch timl)er . or, as that is
not a merchantable size, we will use a 10-inch by 12-inch strut.
The tie-beams will each have to carry one-half of 106000, or 58000
5800()__
pounds ; and the area of cross-section to resist this equals ^j^ —
27 inches, or 2^ inches by 12 inches. The distributed load on
one section of each tie-beam coming from the floor-joist equals
i:J X 8 X 100 = 10400 pounds; and from Formula 28 wo have
^ = ^ 7T. 7 = ^ — ^Mj ^/w> = 3? inches. Then the breadth
5 X JJ- X A 5x 144x 100
of each tie-beam must be 84^ inches + 21 inches = 6 inclies : hence
the tie-beams will be 6 inches by 12 inches. Kach rod will have to
/57/i5
^..^ = } inch,
nearly.
Thus we have found, for the dimensions of the various pieces of
the girder: —
Two tie-beams 6 inches by 12 inches; two rods at each joint, J
inch diameter i and strut-pieces 10 inches by 12 inches.
A\0
BIVETEU PLATKIHON GIKDKHS.
CHAPTER XX.
RIVETED PLATE-IRON GIRDZSR8,
Whenever the load upon a girder or the span is too great to
admit of using an iron beam, aiul the use of a tmssed wooden
girder is impi-acticable, we must employ a riveted iron-plate girder.
Ginlers of this kind are quito commonly used at the present day ;
as they can easily be made of any strength, and adapted to any
span. They are not generally used in buildings for a greater span
than sixty feet. These girders are usually made either like Fig. i
tlWW
n'A'AMyVitf.wj
Fig. 2.
or Fig. 2, in section, with vertical stiifeners riyeted to the web-
plates (»very few feet along their length. The vertical plates, called
'' web-plates/" are made of a single plate of wronght-iron, rarely
less than ont^-fourth, or more than five-eighths, of an inch thick,
and geiKM-aliy tliive-i>ightlis of an inch thick. Under a distributed
load, the web of three-eighths of an inch thick is generally snfll-
ciently sti-ong to resist tlu^ shearing-stress Ln the girder without
ng, provided that two vertical pieces of angle-lroD ; r ivebed
>^eb, near each end of the girder. Tliese ve ii i !«■ of
>n or T-iron, whichever is used, are c ";
ten the girder is loaded at the centre, ana :
• If
K4":- .
RIVETED PLATE-IRON GIRDERS. 411
under a distributed load, it is necessary to use the stiffeners for
tlie whole length of the girder, placing them a distance apart equal
to the height of the girder. The web is only assumed to resist
the shearing-stress in the girder. The top and bottom plates of tlie
girder, wliich have to be proportioned to the loads, span, and lieiglit,
are fastened to the web by means of angle-irons. It has been found,
that in nearly all cases the best proportions for the angle-irons is
:i indies by 3 inches by .J inch, which gives the sectional area of two
angles five and a half square inches. The two angles and the plate
taken together form the flange; the upper ones being called the
'* upper flange," and the lower ones the ** lower flange."
RiVKTs. — The rivets with which the plates and angle-irons are
joined together should ho, three-fourths of an inch in diameter,
unless the girder is light, when five-eighths of an inch may l)e sutti-
cient. The spacing ought not to exceed six inciies, and should be
closer for heavy flanges : and in all cases It should not be more than
three inches for a distance of eighteen inches or two feet from the
end. Rivets should also not be spaced closer than two and a half
times their diameter.
Rules for the Strength of Riveted Girders.
In calculating the strength of a riveted girder, it is customary to
consider that the flanges resist the transverse strain In the girder,
and that the web resists the shearing-strain. To calculate the
strength of a riveted girder very accurately, we should allow for
tilt* rivet-holes in the flanges and angle-irons ; but we can com-
pute the strength of the girder with sufficient accuracy by taking
the strength of the iron at ten thousand pounds per square inch,
instead of twelve thousand pounds, which is used for rolled beams,
and disregardnig the rivet-holes. Proceeding on this consideration,
we have the following rule for the strength of the girder : —
10 X area of one flange x height
Safe load in tons = :] x span in feet ' ^ ^ )
Area of one flange I _ 3 x load X span in feet
in square inches ) 10 X height of web in inches' '
The height of the girder is measured in inches, and is the height
of the web-plate, or the distance between the flange-plates. The
w(^b we may make either one-lialf or three-eighths of an inch
thick ; anil, if the girder is loaded with a concentrated load at llie
centre or any other point, we should use vertical stiffeners the whole
length of the girder, spaced the height of the girder apart.
412
RIVETED PLATE-IRON GIRDERS.
If the load is distribvted^ divide one-fourth of the whole load on
the girder, in tons, by the vertical sectional area of the web-plate:
and if the quotient thus obtained exceeds the figure given in
the following table, under the number nearest that wlifcli wouhl
1.4 X height of ginler
bo obtained by the following expression, " thickness of wci7 '
then stiffening pieces will l)e required up to within one-eighth of
tho span from the middle of the girder.
c/ X 1 .4
t
31)
3.08
35
2.84
40
2.61
45
2.39
50
2.18
55
1.99
60
1.82
65
1.60
70
1.52
75
1.40
80
1.28
85
1.17
90
1.08
9;)
1.00
100
0.92
Example. —A brick wall 20 feet in length, and weighing 40
tons, is to be supported by a riveted plate-girtler with one web.
Tho girder will be <24 inches high. What should be the area of
each flange, and the thickness of the web ?
3 X 40 X 20
4ns. Area of one flange = — m x 2^ ~ ^^ square inches.
Subticicting 5 squai*e inches for the area of two 8-inch by 8-inch
angle-irons, we have 5 s(iuare inches as the area of the plate. If
we make tho plate 8 inches wide, then it slK>uId be5-r8,orfofan
Inch thick. The web we will make J of an inch thick, and put two
stiffonors at each end of the girder. To find if it will be necessary
to use more stiffeners, wo divide J of 40 tons, equal to 10 tons, by the
area of the vortical section of the web, which eqimls f of an inch X
24 inches = 0 sciuaro inches, and we obtain 1.11. The exin^esslou
1.4 X lioii^ht of girder
■ thioknoss of \vA) — ' *" ^^^'^^ **^**^' ^^^^^^"^ ^'^' ^* number near-
est this in the table is 00, and the flgure under it is 1.06, which is a
little less than 1.11 ; showing that we nnist use vertical stiffeners
uj) to within i\ feet of tho centre of the girder. These vertical stiff-
eners we will make of 2i-ineh by 2j-inch angle-irons. From tlie
fonnuhl for th(> area of flanges, the following table has been coni-
piilei). wliiel) greatly faeilitato.s the process of finding the necessary
area of flanges for any given girder.
RIVETED PLATE-IRON GIRDERS.
Co-efficient for deLenninin;; Ihe area required in flanges, allowing
10,00IJ pouiiils ]wr siiuare incb of cross-section fibre strain ; —
1U:lk. — Mnlliply Use load, in tons ot -JOOIl i)Oiinii» unffomily
ilistribiitetl, by tlie co-?fbcient, and dividu by 1000 pounds. Tlie
quotient will be the gross area, in square inches, required for each
llan^.
I im ms.
ExAMl'l.E. — l.ol iLS take the same giriler that we have jiisl
c'0]iipiite<l. Here llie a]>an was 20 feet, and the depth of girder 24
iuehes. From the table we find the eo-efli<!ient to \»: 2-~)0 ; and
multiplying this by the loail, 40 tons, and ilividlng by 1000, we
have lU square inches as the area of oue Sange, being the same
result as thai obtained before.
4U RIVETED PLATE-IRON GIRDERS.
Girders intended to carry plastering should be limited in depth
(out to out of web) to one-twenty-fourth of the span-length, or
half an inrh per foot of span: otherwise the deflection is liable to
eau<e the plastering to crack. In heavy girders, a saving of iron
may often i)e made by nMlucing the thickness of the flanges towanls
the ends of th(^ i^irder, where t\w strain is h'ss. The bendinir-
moment at a number of points in the length of the girder may Ix'
detJMiiiined, and the area of the flange at the different i)oints nia<h'
propoilional to the bending-moments at those points. The thick-
ness of the llanges is easily varied, as required by forming them of
a sutticiiMit numlu'r of plates to give the greatest thickness, and
allowing them to extend on each side of the centre, only to such
distanc'es as may be nt'cessary to give the required thi<:kness at each
point. The deflection of girders so formed will be greater than
those of uniform cross-sectiou throughout.
TABLES OF SAVE LOADS FOR RIVETED PLATE-
IROX GIRDERS.
The tables given on pp. 414 and 415 have I)een computed ac-
cording to the fonnula on p. 411, to give an idea of the siz«* of
girder that will be reiiuired for a given load, of the heights and
siKin^ inlieiited.
If i; i- r(nuinl)ered that the strength of a girder depends tUrectly
as tlh- ;i!( a of its llanges and its height, the width and thickness of
the tl,in.r<- pi ite may be changed, inttrided the area rcniahis the
.sn,in . witlnni* altering its strength. Thus a girder ii(5" liigh, with
tlaiu.- tni.i,.- i of 4.r' X 4f' X ^" angles, and f X 24" plate, would
be as vT,.ni:, as one with th«' same aniilos and 1" X 12" plate, pro-
vi«l.' I iIm' u»'!> plates are ])r()perly stitTened, as described on p. ;i47.
In eompuiiiv,' li:e weight of the ninlcrs in the tables, no allow-
ancf b.l«^ h«M'ii made for siitT<»ners. In computing the stn^ngth of
rivet*'. 1 uiidrr'*, it will be convenient to know that —
The ana of two :V' x ;}" X |" angle-irons = ').iy stpiare niches.
:U X ;)f' X f *' =({.4 *•
4' X 4" X f *' =7.4 "
4f' X 4f' X f ** =v{.4 «-•
RirKTBD PLATR-IRON QIBDKR8, 41
PSPSSBsasss I
SBSSESSSS38K ■
SSSSSSSSSSgg ■
SSSKSSSSKSaS '
gS3SS3SS5
!SS
Si!5
S
SSSS*5:;«S3(3;
as
55 '
g'-SSSSSSSS
^gv
s:i^sssgs;3ss$$$:is
RlVbrrKD PI^TE-IBON UlKDEHa
1^
t I' '
n I
a ■'
sisssas^psisus >
SSiSSiSSESESS I
gSgSSSSfiSSSSSSS
SSS£«SS$$9:;
ESESSSSSSSSSiS '
gSSiS^SSSSSS!
Si«S^S8Sgi88 I
s3:.^«iSS3iS«3«««S
STEEL BEAM GIBDEB8. 417
Steel Beam Girders.
An economical style of box girder, well adapted for short span
lengths, is one composed of a pair of I-beams with top and bottom
flange plates. Such girders are commonly used for supporting
interior walls in buildings.
The following tables give the safe loads for ** Carnegie " beams,
with different thicknesses of plates. They were prepared for steel
girders on account of the advantages possessed by steel beams over
beams of iron. The former are more economical of section and
permit the use of a higher unit strain than the latter.
The values given in the tables are founded upon the moments of
inertia of the various sections. Deductions were made fgr the rivet
holes in both flanges. The maximum strain in extreme fibres was
limited to 13,000 lbs. per square inch, while in the tables on- rolled
steel beams a fibre strain of 16,000 lbs. was used. This reduction
was made in order to amply compensate for the deterioration of the
metal around the rivet holes from punching.
Box girders should not be used in damp or exposed places, since
the interior surfaces do not readily admit of repainting.
ExajIPle. — A 13' brick wall, lo feet high, is to be built over an
opening of 24 feet. What will be the section of the girder re-
quired ?
Ans. — Assuming 25 feet as the distance, centre to centre of
bearings, the weight of the wall will be 25 x 15 x 121 = 45,375 lbs.,
or 22.68 tons.
On page 420 we find that a girder composed of two 12" steel
beams, each weighing 32.0 lbs. per foot, and two 14" x i" flange
plates will carry safely, for a span of 25 feet, a uniformly dis-
tributed load of 23.23 tons, including its own weight. Deducting
the latter, 1.42 tons, given in tho next column, we find 21.81 tons
for the value of the safe net load, which is 1 . 07 tons less than re-
quired. From the following column we find that by increasing the
thickness of the flange plates ,^j" we may add 1.52 tons to the
allowable load. This will more than cover the difference. Hence
the required section will be two 12" steel beams 32.0 lbs. per foot,
and two 14 ' x ■^%" steel cover plates.
27
418 bterl beam qibderb.
stki':l beam girdbbb.
safe loads in tons, uniformlt disnubhtbel
S-X" eti.«l (Caiiiogle) I-beama and 3 aleel platw 18" x J"
it
liii" lit in.'iu lb*, prraq. !■.
STEBL BEAM OIRDEBS. 419
STKBL BEAM QIRDBRg.
SATB LOADS IN TONS, UNIFORMLT DI8TRIBUTXIO.
X-IS" Bieel (Carnegie) I-beams and 9 utee] plates 14" > |"
420
STEEL BEAM GIRDERS.
STEEL BEAM GIRDERS.
SAFE LOADS IN TONS, UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTBIX
si-lS" steel (Carnegie) I-beams and 2 steel plates 14" x i"
«
tt
c
/>
jf — 6 — >r«,
^ 1
^^
a)
^
b=^'„„ . ,
Si
Vi" steel
. . ^
r, uJ
X>
steel
I-beamn.
^^ *^-»
" 12" steel
^Ui
O
plates,
40.0 lbs.
2
steel
I-beams,
£
14" X J"
per foot.
.JA*^?',- 1
83.0 lbs.
•§«
centi
eet.
4
^r-^
14
Xf- I
^1I^
per foot.
•a'5
0<4-
ti S
**^ .i^
1 1
I
JS 9
«.s
1
■ «k-«M
«- ♦-» '-a 1 o • »
(
j:«i-i*-i
»--e'2
SCJ4
kl
r^
s o o
' a; 0) C .iM S X
s
s o o
' 0) V o
•^*o
4— t
a
c
— ^ 00
*^4J XI
.U o
^s
1)
o
S
75
•^ < «-■
«5: tt - . "" J, 3 -
- = * id - -
S3
5
5-3 r
— "S Ti Ti
•S.5
si
.5.S
10 ,
(U.IM
' <).r.5 3.':.')
58.08
0.57 i 8.81
0.06
11
5.>.(W
0.71 3.40
32. SO
0.63 i 3.45
0.08
12
r>4.1.>
O.T". 3.12
4S.40
0.68 3.17
0.08
13 1
41). IC)
0.S4 2.8S
44. (W
0.74 2.W .
0.04
14
4()..i'.)
n.!)l 2.«S
41.48
0.80 2.7«
0.04
ir.
13. vM)
U.')7 2..-0
38.72
0.85 2.58
0.04
K
4 ).:.!)
1.04 2.34
3<)..30
0.91 2.88
0.U5
K ;
;«.-.>()
1.10 2.21
i^.m
0.97 2.34
0.05
is
3(».i>S
1.17 2.08
82.27
1.03 3.11
0.06
IS)
31. 1«
1.2.3 1.97
30.57
1.08 > 3.00
i
0.05
iM
3i.47
1.3«) 1.87
29.04
1.14 : 1.90
U.06
iil
3). '.13
1.3«; 1.7S
27.r.«
1.20 ' l.Hl
0.06
.>.)
-v^
•>I!)..V2
1.43 1.70
2(5.40
1.25 1.78
0.06
i>.3
^s.\>:j
1.1'.) i.r»3
25.2.'>
1.31 1.65
0.07
i»l
'.■:■.<)»»
!..')<; i.r><»
21.20
1.37 1.5H
0.07
U.-)
.::>.i»s
i.r.i \.rii\
23.2.3
1.42 1.52
U.07
•,M)
:i.'.ts
1. »•.'.» 1.14
2-2. :«
1.4S 1.46
O.08
•^>r
!!.'•.')
1.7.") i.:is
21.r.l
1.54 1.41
0.06
'.»S
,'3. 1)
1.S2 1.34
2.1.74
1.1,0 1.86
0.08
•^.t
•,»•,». 31)
l.SH 1.21)
20.03
1.K5 1.31
0.08
;j'
'JI.JJ-,
l.li.-. 1.2.".
11). :W
l.;i 1.27
0.(«
;n
•J ».!).'i
2.111 1.21
18.7:1
1.77 1.23
0.09
3j
•JO.-JI
■J. OS 1.17
IS. 15
1.82 1.19
O.OO
;{:$
I'l.'N
2.M 1.14
17.J»o
l.SM 1.15 .
0.10
Ml
l!».l.t
2.21 1.10
i;.«>8
1.1»4 1.13
0.10
.-i.-)
IS.-.:)
2.-,: l.i>7
10..-..)
1.19 1.09
0.10
.*i'i
IS. .11
2.::4 1.04
in. 13
2.05 i.r6
0.10
3:
17..-.-.
2.4" 1.01
15. :o
2.11 1.08
0.11
i^
K.iM
2.4-: o.ii'J
1.').2S
2.17 l.ilO
0.11
i**
i"i.»ir.
.> r
Vl o.w I
11. M)
3.32
0.98
0.11
.\)mi\i- \.tiu('>< .ire WaM* i nn nia.\iniuin lUirc i^lniins of 18,01)0 Ibi*. pvr M|. to.
Uiv'-i iiii!i-< III l.i.ili ilHiit{«'?< deducteil. Weif^hti* uf KirUvn corKiipuiid tolcngtba
I'fri re ft. rriiJn- i.r licurin^'!*.
STEEL BEAU OIRDEBS. 431
STEEL BEAU GIRDERS.
SAFE LOADS IN TONS, UNIFORMLT DISTBIBUTBDl
S-IO" steel (Camegic) I-beama and 2 eteel plates IS" n )"
Atvore TmlneH ore ba^cd on m'jximu
Blvet holes In botb naDgee deducted.
«mA» to emtae of beuinge.
422
CAST-IRON ARCH-GlRDKUa.
CHAPTER XXT.
STRENGTH OP CAST-IRON ARCH-GIRDERS, "WITH
WROUGHT-IRON TENSION-RODS.
Oast-iko.v jircli-girders are now (juite extensively enii)loyeil to
support tlic front or rear walls of brick buildinfj^s. Fig. 1 shows the
usual form of such a girder, the section of the casting and roil
hv'uvj; shown in Fig. 2.
— ii .'
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Th<^ casting is niad(» in one ])iece with l)ox ends, the latter having
LCroov*'^ and scats to nMH'ivc the wrought-iron tie-rod.
rii«' ti('-!().l is madi* from one-eighth to three-eighth8 of an Ineh
sliorirr tlian the casting, and has scjnare ends fonning shoulilers
so as t(» li! into the castings. The rod has usually one weld on its
liimtli. and ixrcat <*arc shouh' he taken that this weld lie jXTftH't.
Tlir r<> I is ('X])and«'d hy heat, and then pla<'etl in i)Osition in the
(•as; in.:, and allowed to eontra<'t in cooling; thus tying the two enils
()!" iln' ca^'ing together to form abutments for receiving the hori-
zontal iliiiist of tie* areji. If the rod is too long, it will not n*eeive
till- full ]i'-oportion of the strain un'il the east-iron \iha so far dr-
ll««t«i|. tliai its lower edge is >ubji'eted to a severe tensile strength,
whirh cast-iron <'an feebly resist. If the ti(»-rod Is made too short,
the ea^tinu is eambered up, and a sev(>re initial strain put Upon
both the east and wrought iron, which enf(*4>hles lK>th for carryii|g
CAST lEON ARCH-GIRDERS.
423
a load. The girders should have a rise of about two feet six inches
on a length of twenty-five feet.i
Rules for Calculating^ Dimensions of Girder and
Rod.
A cast-iron arch-girder is considered as a long column, subject
to a certain amount of bending-strain ; and the resistance will be
governed by the laws affecting the strength of beams, as well as
by those relating to the strength of columns.
Fig. 3.
If we regard the arch as flexible, or as possessing no inherent
stiffness, and the rod as a chord without weight, we can deduce the
following formula for the horizontal thrust or strain : —
Hor. thnist _ ^^^^ P^^ ^^^^ ^^ span x span in feet, squared^
or strain "" 8 x rise of girder in feet ^ '
From this rule we can calculate the required diameter of the
tension-rod, which may be expressed thus : —
Diameter in inches
Vloail
on girder X span in feet
8 X rise in feet X 7854
(2)
The rule generally used, however, in proportioning the wrought-
iron tie to the cast-iron arch is to alloiv one square inch of crosa-
section of tie-rod for every ten net ton.^i of load impoaed upon the
span of the arch.
The following table, taken from Mr. Fryer's book on " Architec-
I _ I —
1 Andiiteflliml Iron- Work for Buildings. — William J. Frter, Jun. Pp. 38.
4J4
OAST-IHON ARCII-GIRDERS.
tiiral Iron- Work," shows ihe section of the cast-iron arch requirptl
to supinrrt solid hrick icallsy and haciny a span of from 13 tot6
feet.
I<it{lil of
wall.
Tliifkncss
wall.
of
Di
Top flange
4u ftM't.
-III "
I 12 iuchi'H
12 "
1 ir»
1 10 "
1
.
12" X 1"
12" X 1 y
12" X 1, "
10" X ij''
_
DiMEXHioxH OF Section.
Centre web.
1-2" X 3''
i— '^ 8
12" X »•'
12" X 1"
Bulb.
;i" X 2"
1// y ,>//
X 2"
3i"
4^'
I
Substitute for Cast-iron Areli-Ciirder,
In tlu* cast-inm arch-j;inior with wrou.uhl-iron tcnsioii-roil. the
ca^tin;^ only serves to resist coinnn'ssion. Its place can as wi*!! be
till«Ml l»y a l)rick arch foottMl on si \mv of cast-iron skewbacks,
wliich an* thcnis(»lvcs held in ixwilion by a pair of tie-rods, as in
In I Ills case, Fornniht 1 will still jjivc the horizontal pull to be
resistci by the tie-rods ; i)Ut, as vvc nnist have two rotls instoad of
ont , tlic diameter of eac.'h will bo obtained ))y the Ibnniila,
Diameter o. each _ /Tj*!*.") )*>»''^"" arch X sjian ^.j
rod in inclics \ Hi X rise of arch in fiM'l X 'tSTA
N.r.. — TJu- rlH- Ik nie!i!>.i:r«Hl from thi* cent a' of the nnJ to the eentre of the
:t:i-li. It will alM) ln' rem*>ini)<3n'd that the hpan iK tti \h.'. (i/irt/^jr taken In feet*
mile--. DiliiTwi-if spti'iti-'d.
Kx.vMPi.i-: I. — It is desired to siipiM)rt a 12-incb brick wall Ai)
til-* liiuli «'\ci- an n]H'nin.Lr -'► l'e«»i wide, with a easi-iri>n an-li-iiinliT.
''.'Ii;t! -imidd lie ilic dim 'n-^inji-! of lln' u:ir<ler'.*
I'nr !!•« riistin;;. we lind from the tabic that the eross-sei'tion of
;li.' llanv:"- hnnid be li: iin-b:" l>y 1 ineb : of tli«' web, TJ inebi's b\
: in-li : and of I lie bnlb. :! incbes by li inches. W'v will make llw
ri'^e nt I'lic udrder *J feet and <> incbes. and fnon Forninla 2 Wf HniP
\\ei<.;bt of wall X s]ian
i)iim. **i I .kJ in im-bes - \ j*^ • ^ ... ■ :.. «• , v -w?i"i
\ s X riNc ot areli in feel X iK>4
Miio X -JO X Ml') X :io_ , —
\ s X lM X 7s:h " ^ •■'•" = '-^* ^^
> I '••I:-! I>!i-;L; Ibai ihi* uinli-r wonlii o:ll^ Kup|N>rt atNiiit twcnly feet of Ihf
■\)k\\ in lii-iL'ht, thi> will! abiiM- l>i,tt ^uppnrtillK tlMfif.
WOODEN FLOORS. 425
CHAPTER XXII
STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS OF WOODEN
FLOORS
Strengrtli of Floors. — In calculating the strength of floor-
beams, the first thing to be decided is the span of the beams, which
is generally determined by the size of the opening to be covered ;
and the second is the load which is to come ui)on the floor.
Wooden floor-beams should not have a span of more than twenty-
five feet (if it can be so arranged ) : for, if they are of a greater length
than this, it is difficult to stiffen them sufficiently to prevent vibra-
tion under a heavy or moving load When the distance between
the l)earing- walls of a building is greater than the above limit, par-
tition-walls should be built, or else the beams should be supported
by iron or wooden girders resting upon iron or wooden columns.
The Building Laws of the cities of New York and Boston require
that m all buildings more than thirty feet in width, except churches,
theatres, schoolhouses, car-stables, and other public buildings, the
space between any two of the bearing- walls shall not be over twenty-
five feet, unless ginlers are substituted in place of the partition-
wall. Floor-beams, when supported at three or more points,
should always be made continuous if possible, as the strength of
each portion of the beam is thereby greatly increased.
Superimposed Loads. — There is some difference of opinion
among authorities as to what should be allowed for thc^ suprrim
posed load upon the floor of a dwelling or upon the floors of public
buildings. The New- York Building Law requires that in all build-
ings every floor shall have sufficient strength to bear safely upon
every superficial fool of its surface seventy-five pounds, and, if used
as a place of public assembly, one hundred and tvv«^nty pounds.
In dwelling-houses, where the maximum load consists of nothing
but ordinary furniture and the weight of some ten or twelve people,
it is not necessary to allow more than forty pounds per square foot
for the superficial load ; and, in most cases, eighty pounds per s(|uare
foot 18 ample allowance for the weight of an assemblage of peopl(^
Only in cases where people are liable to be jammed together during
426
WOODEN FLOORS.
a jMinio or some unusual circumstance, is it possible to p;pt a weight
on the tl<«>r of one humlriMl ami twenty pounds per Rr{uarp fool.
Tlu' follt)\vin^ tablt* iiivcs tlie weight per squaiv foot which shouM
l»e assume* I, in addition Lo the wciglit of tlir floor, for thcso various
cases : —
For stHM't l^ridges for general public traffic, S*t lbs. per s<{uarp foot.
For tln»)r'5 of dwellings 4H lbs. {-ter s<|uaiiMont.
Ft»r iliunh»'>. theatres, and ball-rooms, SO to V2i) lbs. i>er si|iian* foot.
For s'hools ^<0 lbs. per sqiiar** foot.
Fur hay-l«»tts S() lbs. per square loot.
For si(>rai;e of gram HH) lbs. \n*r st{uare fool.
For wan'houses anil general merchandise, '1')^) lbs. jHir siiuare foot.
For fa<tories 1(M> to 4(X) lbs. per square foot.
F'or oHirt- buildings liH> His. per square foot.
Wan 'ho list '-floors are sometimes very heavily loaded, and for
lhe>f a >iMMial compulation should bt? made in each case.
Til- i.»ll.nvhig table, compiled by Mr. 0. J. H. Woodbury.' gi'<*«
the tli>«>r areas, cubic space, and weights of merchandise, as usualty
siori'd in warehouses. If the goods are piled two or luore cas^
hiu'h. I lie weight per square foo: of lloor will of course he increased
in proportion. " The measuremenis were always taken to the
outside ol case or package, and gross weights of such packages are
given."
Matkkial.
W»>ol.
Ha!.- K.i^- I- .li.i . . . .
*• A;:*'.:. I i.i . . . .
" S 11*. !; \iiiiTii"a . .
I •* o ,_:n 1
I •• < '.I ;:■■;• li.i ....
■ Kiii W ■'.
>;.u^ . :" S. ■iind Wiml .
Wiiolll'll (ifMXls.
' ';i"'f }• .% . x-t"
•• K r ;:• -. hi':»\ y . .
I >ri'-- « i■nlll^ .
'• < ".i-- iii>-*i ■«....
•• 1"'. :• ■ u r.ir ....
•• li I A :» ....
•• II - W .iiikii.-. . .
Ci»!ttii». I'tr.
i;.i-
■■ • -^-1 ii . . .
! •■ . i> « ■■•in:ni-«-i\l
•• .1 -.- ..'...
•• -1 :"■ I i-hiiiir-*
■' VI I i: I . .
X -I I
■ •^«il • • • I
■ a
MkaSI- HEME NTS.
Floor
...0
.'•.s
7 0
7.5
7.1
.'i . .'»
M..-»
» ■!
■ .•!
111.:;
4.0
N.l
4.1
•J. 4
•J.n
■• .t
•*».S
I • II Mo
M.
■ ■o.
3i).
1J.7
'J-J.rt
■JS.il
•Jl.O
14.0
44.-2
■« ,.•
.1. 1 ■
iii..'i
:;4.7
17.11
Wbiuuts.
(fPiM*.
M. ft.
113
IVr
cubic f :.
;mo
28
s-^
m
lA
lUiJO
14S
29
4S-2
70
lA
.'mO
73
17
•M
40
7
—
-
5
■*jrt
40
17
.^•.0
40
22 ,
4i*iO
M
21 !
.vm
ft2
•»
;;.->
4)«
10
4.'H>
44
13
■j..i»
63
18
M.*,
64
12
:»-.o
134
25
l-V.
100
40
:«k)
125
4:.i»
174
43
•>rt
88
«
TOO
Rl
»
41 «)
7»
M
I Dif Kirt> PriM.u-tiitii ttf Mills, ii. lift
WOODEN FLOORS.
427
Iatbrial.
I €k>ods.
leached Jeans .
3k
vn Sheetings
«hed Sheetings .
t8
t Cloth. . . .
ts
ings
>tton Yam . .
?*ng
in Bales.
nen
tton
)tton . . . .
ivings . . . .
td Book . .
endered Book
er . .
ard .
toard
Bags
Bulk
«
mean
lour on side
•• on end
tags . . .
in Barrels
ags . . .
lay . . .
lerick Compressed
«
«
Measurements.
tiiflf'*, etc.
I Bleaching Powder,
Soda Ash . . .
?"
rh
ac
oda in iron drum .
arch
>arl Alum ....
act IvOgwood . .
ime
.'raent, American .
" English . .
aster
Floor
space.
4.0
1.1
3.6
4.8
7.2
4.0
4.5
3.3
1.4
8.5
9.2
7.6
7.5
16.0
7.5
2.8
4.2
4.1
3.1
3.6
3.7
3.3
5.0
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
11.8
10.8
3.0
4.0
1.H
4.3
3.0
3.0
1.06
3.G
3.8
3.8
3.7
Cubic
feel.
12.5
2.3
10.1
11.4
19.0
9.3
13.4
8.8
5.3
39.5
40.0
30.0
34.0
65.0
30.0
11.1
4.2
5.4
7.1
3.6
5.9
3.6
20.0
5.25
5.25
5.25
5.25
39.2
29.2
9.0
3.3
4.1
0.8
10.5
10.5
.8
4.5
5.5
5.5
6.1
Weights.
Gross.
Per
Per
sq. ft.
cubic ft.
300
72
24
75
68
33
235
65
23
330
60
30
296
41
16
175
44
19
420
93
31
325
99
37
—
—
11
130
—
30
100
70
24
910
107
23
715
78
18
442
50
15
507
68
15
450
28
7
600
80
20
400
143
36
50
—
—
69
~
_
38
_
33
_
_
59
_
_
64
.
_
10
—
-
37
165
39
39
_
44
_
_
39
—
—
41
218
53
40
218 ,
70
31
112
31
31
218
59
37
96
29
27
284
57
14
125
72
24
100
67
19
150
86
29
100
57
19
1200
102
31
1800
167
62
385
128
43
1.50
38
45
160
100
39
600
140
88
250
83
23
350
117
33
55
52
70
225
63
50
325
86
59
400
105
73
325
88
53
4L>h5
WOODEN FLDOKS.
Matbbial.
I
I
Dye RtnflDB, etc—OonVd.
Barrel KuHiii
•• LardOU
Uope .
Miftcellaneoos.
Box Till
•' GhL*^
C rate ( 'rockery
(':i-k Crockery
I>aie Li-ailier
" (rnatr<kin8
" iiaw Hides
" " '• compref8ed,
'• Sole Leather . . .
Pile S.ilf Leather . . .
I>arrel Granulated K^ugar.
Brown Sugar . .
Cheese
Measubexents.
Floor
space.
3.0
4.3
2.7
9.9
1U.4
7.3
11.2
rt.O
0.0
lli.tt
3.U
3.0
1 Cubic
feet.
9.0
12.3
0.5
39.6
42.5
12.2
16.7
3<).0
30.0
s.y
7.5
Wbiohts.
OroBB.
430
422
139
1600
600
190
300
44X)
700
200
317
340
Per I Per
BQ. ft. cubic ft.
143
98
48
4A
09
278
.
60
102
40
52
14
26
16
27
18
67
13
117
23
22
16
—
17
106
42
113
45
-
ao
AV<Mj4:Iit of tlie Floor itself. — Having <lecided upon the
span of the Moor boanl^ an. I upon the siiiH.Tinii)Oseil load, we must
nt'xl consithi- the weiijjlit of th»? tlix^r itsrlf.
WoodtMi floors in (hvellinjxs wiMirh. on thcavprago, from 8eveni.»H»n
to twrnty two i>oiimls ]kt vS(|uai(' foot of floor, incluiling tht* weight
of tin* plastt'rini: on the nmh'r sn\v. For onlinarj' spans tho Wiight
may l)»' takrn at twontv pounds iH»r squan* fool. Jind, for lorn; spans,
twnity two pounds por squan* f<K)t. For floors in public bulldins^,
tin* \\«'ii:lit piM- sq nan' foot seldom oxcoeds twenty -five pounds, and
it nia\ NMti'Iy ))e assumed at that amount.
In wanliouse floors, whieh havi- to sustain ver\* hoavv loads, the
w»'iu'lii iM'i- sqiian- fool may souH'times 1h» as gnMt as forty or fifty
lHinnd>: and m Mieh ease*^ the a]»pro>Limate weight of the floor ^kt
Miuan* \\n*l >hoiild l>e tirst caltulateil.
FjU'tor of Safety to be used.— In eonsiderlni; tho load
on a tliiiir. it siiould !>«> lememhtM-ed that the efTt>et of a load bud
di-nlx applied uiK)n a Ix'am is twiei> as i:n-at as that of the Hanie
ln:ii| i:i'.idnaliy applieii: and hrnrc the fa<'toi of s;ifety utH*4l for llu*
fiiiimr »Li)Mld In* I win' a<« ijiral ax> that for the latter. The loail
i-.iiio.l li\ a i-mwd of priipir i^ usually ron>ider«Ml to pn>ihii'«' an
<th-<-i vxliii-ii i» a iiii-aii iH-iWft'ii thai nl llir sinH* ItKid wheli ;;ratlu-
a)l\ and w Inii sitild<-nl\ a|tplled ; ami hmer a faelor of safKy IS
iiii|>lii\fd wliirji i.s a mean lH*tw«'en that for a live and for a dead
load.
Tin- faihu-H of safi'ty for lltNir-iindM'rs adoptetl by the best engfn-
citn \ar\ troni -i to 't. For short s|»ans hi onllnary dwelllngSi
pnhlic Ituijilinu^. and Moivs, :{ is probably amply HUlHcieiil for
I'JI '
- WOODEN FLOORS. 429
strength ; but. for long spans, and flooi*s in factories and machine-
shops, a factor of safety of 5 should often be used.'
Rules for the Strength of Floor-beams. — In consid-
ering the strength of a floor, we assume it to be equally loaded over
■ its whole surface, as this would be the severest strain to which the
timbers could be subjected. Hence, in calculating the dimensions
of the floor beams, we use the formula for a distributed load. That
formula i^ for rectangular beams,
2 X breadth x depth squared X A
Safe load - span in feet x S ^^^
*S being the factor of safety.
For floor-beams the safe load is represented by the superimposed
load and weight of floor supported by each beam.
The areA of floor supported by each beam equals the length of
beam multiplied by the distance between centres. If we. let f de-
note the weight of the superimposed load per square foot of floor
surface, and/' the weight of one square foot of the floor itself, then
the total weight per square foot will be (/+/') pounds, and the
total load on each beam will ecjual
Length of beam X distance between centres x (/4-/').
Now, if we substitute this expression in place of the safe load in
the above formula, and solve for the depth, we shall have,
Square of __ S x dist. bet, centres x length squared x (/ + /')
depth. - 2 x~ bread thlT^ ' ^^^
or, if we solve for the distance between centres, we shall have,
Distance between _ 2 x breadth x depth squared x A
centres in feet - ^sVlength"^ared x (/ + /') ° ^^
N. B.— The length and distance between centret* must be taken in feet' and
the length meanB only the distance between sapports, or the clear span.
The values of the constant A for the four woods in general use
are as follows :
/
Spruce 210
Eard pme 300
Oak 225
White pine 180
Formulas 3 and 8 apply to all floors supported by rectangular
beams, whatever be the factor of safety employed, the weight of
> Until very recently It has been our custom to use factors of safety twice as
great as these : bat, as we have had occasion to reduce the constants for strength
to abont one-half of that formerly used, we have reduced the lactors of safety
■ecofdins^y. It will be found that the result is the same as that obtained by the
n3M«f odborirMtefs. ■
llic sii[«TiiiiiM)sf.l limil, or of the Htm- ilstll. To illustrete the
ii|il)liculi(iii (if tlicsc tnrniulas. ve will i;ive two examples such as
K\Ai;i'i.K 1.— IVIiiii sliiiiilil In- ilu- <1iiui'nsiniiB of thi- HpruLi'
nonr-liiMins in !i liwlliii;:. Ilii' lu-aiuM lo limv ii 8)Ht]i of 13 reel, and
tub,, j.lmoil llliiKOu-s. i.L-1': fis'l. iinci'ii1n.sV
-l».. Iti lliisciisi' w,-ninililusi' a TiLcKir ..f siifet)- of -I : / sl.oiil.l
In- iHki'ii III Id ix>iiiuis. / ,11 i I iHiiiiiils, ami .'I is 210 jKimids, A*.
suizii' 3 iiiilics fur till' lirmilli. Tlieii, by Fiirmulu •.
. eo_
2 . 2 X aio
•■''H.ti.-'V' r,:™'!0.5
Till' ilopfli A "■^.■' ■■ " 'il"c '"■'■■■ fl ifitlies. Tkiifo. to haw the
miuisil.' s1n>ii},'lb. 1bi> IxMins sli.mlc! lit '> x 111 iTich.'s.
KxAMi'i.i: a. -11 is lU-simi 1.. us,- 3 by 10 im-li VL-lIow.i.inr
(•.■iuns in til,. n.«.r of ii ■■l.iircb. ill,- lu'U.iis to Imve a spin of IB
ii','t. What ili-^tiini'i' sbiiiilil lli,-y Ix' s|m<ril ,>ii i:uln» i
nils. / ■•', iioiuiilii, and A -■ 300
I"'
„ls, 'n,.'ll, by F„
\ SIM)
l.isri,n.v b,.,w.rTi ...jntivs -. ' 1 ' .;.;;- J,,": ^ ^ 0.73 ft.. ..rft i..».
Ut-iic-i' III,' MiKir vrillbeMitli(-ii'ullyslrouj;if thclH'iiiuaiiru pluoottlt
IlrUl^iiiK of l''t(>'>r-lM'anis. — lly "luidcina" i<* ini>nnt ■
sy-d'iii of lirai-iiii; fl«Hir-l¥iiui«,
i>iibi'r by iiu-iiiis of siuitll Htnil*.
iis 111 Kif;. I, or lij- iiu-niH of siuitli-
lii.i^'s of iHianlH at ri^lit aiiuh^
III llii- joists, mill titliii); jil Ih^
l«-<vn IlK'iii.
Tl m-i-t of tliU l>ni<-in|; \» il.-
iliMdlmti'J loiid. Tlii-
ii: :ils« siiiTi-iis tU>' joints.
I'M'iiis Mii-in fnoii tiiniiiii;
.>'. It \* cMliIoiiiiirv III
niuM of •-hisH-liridi:iii..: M
iiiylivi- t<ii-lf<hl fii-liiiilic
' Iliiy -IkiiiM U- ill »tnii).'l>t
I imiy iibul tllrwtly uiwd
W UUUlfi JN I'L.UUKB.
4b 1
those adjacent to it. The method of bridging shown in Fig. 1,
and known as "cross-bridging," is considered to be by far the
l>est, as it allows the thrust to act parallel to the axis of the strut,
and not across the grain, as must be the case where single pieces
of board are used.
The bridging should be of li-inch by 3-inch stock.
Carriage-beams, Headers, and Tail-beams.— Fig. 2
represents the plan of the timbera of a floor, liaving a stairway
opening on each side. The short beams, as KL, are called the
** tail-beams : " the beams jEF and O//, which support the tail-
beams, are called the ** headers : " and the beams AB and ('D, the
"carriage-beams," or "trimmers."
The tail-beams are calculated in the same way as ordinary floor-
joist; but it is evident that the headers and trimmers will require
separate computations.
It would be very difficult to give formulas that would serve for
'•.vei'y case of trimmers and headers ; and the best way in any case
is to find the load which the trimmer has to carry, and then, from
the formulas already given, determine the required dimensions. In
a floor such as is represented in Fig. 2, it is evident that the floor-
area supported by EF or Gil = y X ^n. Multiplying this area by
(f'\-f), we should have the load which each header would be
required to support ; and then, by Formula 9, Chap. XV., we could
determine its necessary dimensions.
As the headers are wcakene.l by the tail-beams being mortised
into them, a certain allowance should be made for mortising in
calculating the dimensions, in ordinary cases it would probably
be enough to make the breadth from one to two inches more than
the calculated dimensions.
4:VJ
WOODEN FLOORS
The tritnmerft, A B and C'/A have to support one-lialf of the load
rarrit'd l»y KF plus one-half the load carried by ^»7/, and also one'
half ot tin* load su])p<)ried by the ordinary joist. The l)esl way in
wliK-li to (-ali-iilalc siuh a triiiiiiirr i> to <'on>ider it to Im' made up
iH two l»ain^ plact'd >ide by side, oiH' to earry the end of th«» he:ul
ns KF \\\u\ (wll, and the second bein^ one-half the thi<-kness of th»»
(H«linarv joinI The breadth of tlu» part carryinj: the ends of
tlh' tiiiniiKi-; ruul.l then be calculated by Foruuda V-\, ("hap. XV.,
and the ti)ial breadth of the trimmers found by addiniz tot^*tht>r
the bnadihs of the two })arts into which it is supixi^iiHi to Ik?
divided. We have not the sjiace here to consider further the
slun^ih of headtTS and irnnniei-s, but would lefer any readers
dcsiriuL: further informatu>n on the subje<'t to IlatHehrs *• Trans-
vei"se Strains,*' where they will tind the subji*<*l fully discussed.
Fig. 3
Stirriip-Iroiis.— At the iM)int of eonmn'tion of the end of
\\ir li«-.i«i« I with the trimmer, tlu' load on th«' trinun<T (^onun?
fioiii tli«- ixadrr is a conrcntrated one : and all mortising at this
|iniiii. In nrtlv*' ihr header. sh(»uld In-axoided. It is now tlie etis-
tniti. Ill til -!-<j;is»< r»)ii>iiMetinii, !<► support the (>nds <if Inniders l>y
nit,i:i- •'! »• ;rriip-iroMs, mn nIiowii in Fiu. '•'*. Tin* ISoston ami New-
\ Ml k I'.ii ! '.Jul: Laws !»'i|nire tlia' '"I'verx trinnui'r or lieiuler nion»
tli.iii titiii t'«->'t lolc^^ u^rd in any builiiiiii; e\e(>pk a dwi^lHnf;, shall
bf liiiiiL.' Ml ^tin iip-iroii'^ of suitable tbiekness for the sixe of tlie
t JndM I-.'"
It 1^ i-vidi'iit that t'aeh vertical part of the stirnip will liave to
WOODEN FLOORS. 438
carry one-fourth of the load on the header ; and we can easily
deduce the rule,
, . load borne by header
Area of cross-section of stirrup = --- — Sfijoo * W
The stirrup-irons are generally made of iron bars about two inches
wide and three-eightlis or one-half inch thick.
The headers are also generally bolted to the trimmer, as shown
in the same figure; so that the trimmers shall not spread, and let
the headers fall.
Joist Hangers. — On page 437/ are shown two styles of
patented joist hangers, which are intended to take the place of
the stirrup iron, at less cost. .
Oirders. — Formulas 2 and 3 will also apply to wooden girders
supporting the floor-joist, neglecting the weight of the girder itself.
In this case the distance between centres would, of course, mean
the distance between the centres of the girders. The application
of thijse formulas to girders being the same as for the floor-joist, it
seeujB hardly necessary to illustrate by examples.
•
Solid or Mill Floors.
By Solid or Mill Floors we mean a floor constructed of large
beaniS spaced about eight feet on centres, and covered with plank
of suitable thickness, and this, again, covered with maple or hard-
plue flooring as desired. Such floors will be found fully described
in Chap. XXIV.
For calculating the large timbers, the best method is to compute
the greatest load that the beam is ever liable to carry, and then
determine the necessary size of timber by means of the proper
formula, which may be found in Chap. XV. ; or if the beams are
spaced a regular distance apart, and have only a uniformly dis-
tributed load to carry, they may be computed by Formulas 2 and 3,
given above.
The floor-plank may be computed for their strength by the fol-
lowing tonnula, supposing the load to be unifoi*mly distributed:^
V weight per square foot x X'^ x. 8
— ' yT x~l ' ^ ^ ^
They would, however, bend too much, when proportioned by this
fommla, for use in mills, and in buildings where the under side of
the plank must be plastered.
For such buildings the thickness of the plank should be propor-
tioned by the formula for stiffn(>ss, which is,
434 WOODEN FLOORS.
Thickness of plank = ?/weight per square foot x U (gj
y 19.2 X c
e being the constant for deflectiou given in Chap. XVI.
For s])riice, o — KM) pounds, and for hard pine 187 iwunds, for a
defli'olion of on»'-tIiirti('th of an incli per foot of span.
The \v»-ii;nt i)«'r sriuare foot should include the su|M»rfioial load on
tlu* ll(>(u- and tin* wcii^ht of the ])lank and upper flooring.
KxAMiM.K. — AVliai sliouhl be the thickness of the spnice plank
in a mill where the ])eanis are spaced 8 feet on centres, and the
superficial load may attain 12t) pounds ix»r square foot ?
J//N. 'i'he weight of the plank and flooring, with deafening
iM'tweeu. will weigh a])<)ut I.") i)()unds jM'r S(iuare foot, making tlie
total load per scjuare foot 185 pounds. Then, from Formula 0,
Thickness of plank = \/- ^{:,- u>^~ = ^ .>j • i i i
^ \ 1U.2 X 100 or :W-inch plank.
Tlie ])iaiik would j)rol)ably come in two or three lengths, which
would iiiakc the lloor considerably St iffer; but, as there nught oiMnir
eases when the Ih^or wouhl have to sustain heavy conoentrate<l
loads foi- a short lime, it would Ik^ hardly wise to use a less tlii(*k-
ness of plank.
The following table, taken from Mr. C. J. H. Woodbury*8 excel-
lent work on "Tlie Fire Protection of Mills, and Construction of
Mill-Floors,*' shows the dimensions of Ix'ams, and thickness of plank
for waichouse-floors loaded with from fifty to three hundred pounds
]H*r s(|uarc foot, the ])eanis ])eing spaced eight feet on ci?ntres. The
])lank is supposed to b«* of spruce, and the beams of hard or 8outli-
eni ]>iii('.
Scv«'! a! si/.cs ui h<'ams are given ; so that a selection of those which
will appl> m(»st convenieuily to any specific case may be made.
WOODEN FLOORS.
435
STRENGTH OP SOLID TIMBER AND PLANK FLOORS.
(By C. J. H. Woodbury.)
Weight per Square Foot op Floor.
Super-
ficial
load.
50
75
100
125
i50
! 175
200
225
250
275
300
Weight
of b^m,
iu lbs.
3.00
4.08
5.33
3.00
4.08
5.33
3.00
4.08
5.33
3.00
4.08
5.33
3.00
4.08
5.33
3.00
4.08
5.33
3.00
4.08
5.33
3.00
4.08
5.33
3.00
4.08
5.33
3.00
4.08
5.33
3.00
4.08
5.33
Weight
of floor-
plank.
6.07 I
7.40
8.55
9.55
10.45
11.26
12.05
12.75
13.45
13.55
14.72
Total.
59.07
60.15
61.40
85.40
86.48
87.73
111.55
112.6:3
113.88
137.55
138.63
139.88
163.45
164.53
165.78
189.26
190.34
191.59
215.05
216.13
217.38
240.75
241.83
243.08
266.45
267.53
268.78
291.55
292.63
293.88
317.72
318.80
320.05
Dimensions oi
Depth,
1
Breadth
in
in
inches.
inches.
12
6
14
7
16
8
12
6
14
7
16
8
12
6
14
7
16
8
12
6
14
7
16
8
12
6
14
7
16
8
12
6
14
7
16
8
12
6
14
7
16
8
12
6
14
7
16
8
12
6
14
7
16
8
12
6
14
7
16
8
12
6
14
7
16
8
Span,
in
feet.
20.95
26.16
31.63
17.42
21.82
26.46
15.25
19.12
23.23
13.73
17.23
20.96
12.59
15.82
19.25
11.71
14.70
17.91
10.98
13.80
16.81
10.38
13.06
15.90
9.86
12.40
15.08
9.43
11.86
14.46
9.03
11.36
13.85
Thickness
of floor-
plan k,
in inches.
2.43
2.96
3.42
3.82
4.18
4.51
4.82
5.11
5.38
5.62
5.89
Stiffness of Wooden Floors.
Floors in first-class buildings should possess something more than
mere strength to resist fracture : they should have sufficient stiff-
ness to prevent the floor from bending, under any load, enough to
cause the ceiling to crack, or to present a bad appearance to the
eye. To obtain this desired quality in floors, it is necessary to cal-
colate the requisite dimensions of the beams by the formulas for
nttffniyft ; and, if. the dimensions obtained are larger than those
£j..
i'M) WOODKN KIXK)US.
obtained by the. formulas for strength, they should be adopted,
instead of those obtained by the hitter fonnulas. The only way
in which we can b(^ sun^ tliat a beam is botli stronj^ <'non«^h and
stiff enou^li to bear a ^iveii load is to calculate the re<]ulred dimen-
sions liy both tlie formula for streni^th and th;* fornuda for stiff n»'ss,
and take the lari^iM* dimensions obtained. Asagenenil rub;, thos**
lieanis in vhicii the proportion of <lrpfh to Innjth is very mmiH
siioiild !)(' calculated l)y the form uhis for .s/>y'//f/^//, and ricf rfi'sn.
Foiinula 10, (hap. XVI., giv(?s the load which a given Ix'iun will
carry without dellecting more than one-fortieth or one-thiilieth of
an inch per foot of sj)an, according to tlu^ vahu^ of e which we
use. Kornuda II, Chap. XVI., gives thii dimensions of the beam
to carry a given load under the same conditions.
In the cas«' of tloor-lx'ams, the load is given, and is represented,
as wc saw under tin* Sfrcntfth of Flttors, by the expression.
Distance between centres in feet X length in feet X ( /'+/').
Tlicn, if we substituti^ this expression in place of the load in
Kormula 11, (hap. XVI., we shall have the fornmla,
T) X (list, between centres X cube of length X (f+f)
Jreadth — u \y , \ ^-.i .4i s^ (<)
8 X cuIm; oi depth X c ^**
or
S X breadth X cube of dei)th X e
Dist. between centres = . ^ ^.^^j^^. ^^^. ,^^^^^^^,^ ^ {f^rT <*^^
The piojKT valu<'s for./' and/' have been given under the Stmnjth
of ll<>oi> in the i)receding part of this cha])ter, and the value of f
foi- any iriven casci may be found in Chai). XVI. ^
In oiiiinarv floors, when the values of /" used are thos4' n^-oin-
im<iii|im1 al)o\e, a <ietlection of one-thirt i<>th of an inch {kt f(H>t of
l>aM Mia> saftly be allowed, as the lloors would probably Ik» \ery
raicJN loailed to their utmost ca])acity, and then but for a short
tiiiH-: so ili.it it would have no injurious effects.
As ail .".ample .showing the ai)plicjiti(»n of Fonnula 7, we will
taivi- i!\aiiiplc I under the strength of wooden floors.
Ill iiii> e\aMipIe, the l)eams were to have a sj)an of 15 fe«»t, and
be , la.-.il I . t<et on centres: ./' was taken at -lo pounds, and./' at 'JUi
I.oiiii.i-. What should be the dimensions of the In'anis. that thi'V
iiia\ ^at- l\ cairy the Itiad upon them without deflecting more than
;. I'l a:i 'ii<|i |)cr foot of span ?
> i >.■ -.1' .<- t')!' '-. fur r<|irii('(.*, hard pltic, iiiui ifuk, uns
l>.f. jlnA. !>*/.- 4*0^
hM 76
11 ■ :•> • l:i7 108
< '•*' M TS
s
WUODEJN FLOOtttt. 437
Ans, We have simply to substitute our known quantities in
Formula 7, assuming the depth at 10 inches, and taking the value
of e at 100 pounds, the beams being of spruce.
Performing the operation, we have,
^ . ^ 5 X li X 15» X (40 + 20)
Breadth = s X W x lOO =1.0^ inches.
This gives us about the same dimensions that we obtained when
considering the beam in regard to its strength only : hence a Ix^am
two by ten inches would fulfil both the conditions of strength and
stiffness.
In the case of headers, stringers, etc., where the joist has to carry
not only a distributed load, but also one or more concentrateci loads
applied at different points of the beam, the required dimensions
can best be obtained by considering the beam to be made up of a
number of pieces of the same dei)th, placed side by side, and {;om-
t)uting the required bre^adth of beams of that depth to carry each of
the loads- singly, and then taking the sum of the breadths for the
breadth required.
The formula for stiffness of plank-floors has already been given
on p. 484.
Dimensions of Joists and Girders for Different
Loads and Spans.
To enable an architect to tell at a glance the size of joists and
girders required for the ordinary classes of buildings, the author
has computed the following tables, which give the dimensions
required for spans from 10 to 24 feet for joists, and also the maxi-
mum distance that the joists should bo sjmced on centers. Dimen-
sions for girders are given for different spans and spacings.
The beams and girdera in the first three classes were comjmted
from the tables on pages 888, 389, and 390, and in class I) from
the tables on pages 377 and 379.
The application of the tables will doubtless be (wident to all.
When the girders are not s[)Mce(l uniformly, or then^ is only one
row of girders, take the width of flcK)r area supported by the
girder, for the distance apart. In several cases two sizes an^ given,
both of which have sufflcient strength, although one contains less
lumber than the other. In most oases the deeper b(»am has a little
excess of strength, but for convenience the shallower beam might
be preferred.
437^
WOODKN FLOORS.
TABLE L
Dimensions of Floor Joists for Different Loads and Spans.
[Note.— Tlu» iiiinibcr followin;^ the dash diMiotcs the distance aiMurt of joiBts in
inches on centerf<.|
A. FOU DWELLINGS.
(Total Weight, 70 lbs. per Square Foot.)
Timber.
Yellow I
10
12
( LE.\u Span in Fket.
14 10 IS ' t»0
•»•>
24
H Ui
Whtto I
I'liic. 1 ■.-• — ■ ^ ., . io_o4
« 2 ■ r> n
1 2 ■ 12 IS
2-M-:io : ,: r: j-ie-ie 2 12-18 ; 3, Jo 20 * ' ^* ■**
>. « ifl 2 10 21 »2>10-12 „ ,, -. t 2 '12-11 8<1«-2J ,. ,
1 ■ n irt "'. "\ "9 '' 9-ii>-it; 9.19— sn 9'H--iii .'"'i*~'J ••U— 14
riii.'. ' ^ « 10 - "* (2 10 24 -* '^^ ' 3'1-S XO ^ IS 10 ,3,<,j_|g .!^U_-.o
B FOR IIOTKLS, SCHOOL- HOOMS, LKJIIT OFFICES, ETC.
(Total Wei^'lit, 1(H) lbs. per S(iuare Foot.)
Ttmukk.
CLKARSPAN is rKKT.
10
1-2
14
U\
IS
20
22 ! 24
Whltf » „ J ,r o 11 iJ I 2 ' 10 Hi 9 12-13- ,„ ,- ,^,, ,. ,
1'1,„. > 2-H 10 2 -K' 1" ,2 12 2.. ."5 -12 19* '* '* SXll-H. |
Spru'i-. •.' — \'J .„.,,. „o ...10 .>A 2 ■ 12 -Irt 8 -12- 17 -. , . ,i_,i» tAl4-14
i'lii''
■* Jl
'i ■ \i> 22 "J ■ 12 24
2 A 1 .-,
2 • ID 20
I 8 • 14—19
t 2 • 10 12
IS* It Ifl
2-io-irt ;|.|;; ''2.12 154 3.11- !• .;-;;j_;j «.i4i»
C. Foi: oKFKM-: I?riLl)IN(iS, A^SKMBLV ROOMS, AND LIGHT
STORKS.
(Total Wciu'ht, m) Wx. ptT Sciuare Foot.)
'llMUKI.
Wt.lti- , ( ■.>
I'ln." I -J
Siirm-i' •.'
Yi'liow -
I'liii-. >
10
12
<'LKAK Sj'AN IN l""KICT
II U\ IS
20
tt ! <«
2 10 H -• 12 1"' S ■ 12 !.-> 3 ■ 14 1« j
2 • I- 17 2 12 Hi ]l'.]l ]l •''■12 IS 3-14- !»' j
.., • 2 - 12 .,
I lo 'J: '
:\
12 12 3 ■ It IS
iM li 2 12 17 :;.\i_\; ,.i; ;; i a>i4- u it^u-ii
WOODEN FLOORS.
437*
D.-FOR STORES AND FACTORIES.*
(Total Weight, 180 lbs. prr Square- Foot.)
Clear Span in Fekt.
10
2X10-16
\tx 8-ia
"(SXlO-17
SX 8-17
12
r2xio-ii
(2XH-1
2x10-12
2x12-18
2X10-19
14
txit-ii
3X12-17
•^X12-18
3X12-20
*2X10-18
( -^X 12-19
16
18
8X12-
8X14-
18
-18
8X12-1«
1X12-1)
8XM-I4i
(8x12-12
« 8x14-16
( 2<12-12
■( 8x12-18
20
8X14-11
22
8x14-181 8X14-11
8X14-16
8x12-14
8X14-19
24
SX14-18I-
* Calculated for strength only.
TABLE II. A.
Dimensions of Wooden Girders for Dwellings.
(Total Weight, 70 lbs. per Square Foot.)
SPRUCE.
IN
Distance apart on Centers in Feet.
10
i 6x10
■« 8x 8
6x10
6x10
8x10
J 6x12
I 10 X 10
8x12
12
6x10
8x 8
6x10
8x10
\ 6x12
I 10x10
8x12
9x12
14
16
6x10
8x10
8x10
8x10
) 6x12
/ 9x10
8x12
10x10
8x12
8x12
10x12
10x12
10x12
1 10x14
(12x12
18
8x10
\ 8x12
( 10x10
8x12
10 X 12
\ IOxhI
"111x121
20
9x10
8x12
10x10
10x12
10x12
10x14
12x12
10x14 10x14
22
I 8x12
1 10x10
8x12
10x12
\ 10x14
) 12 X 12
10x14
12x14
24
8x12
10x10
9x12
10x12
10x12
12x14
11x14
12x14
YELLOW PINE.
IN
r.
Distance apart on Centers in Feet.
10
6x 8
12
6x 8
14
16
18
6x10
8x 8
t»0
22
24
\ 6x10
/ 8x 8
6x10
8x 8
6x10
8x10
8x10
6x 8
\ 6^10
< 8x 8
6x10
6x10
8x10
8x10
8x10
9x10
6x10
6x10
6x10
8x10
8x10
S 6x12
1 10 X 10
8x12
10x10
8x12
6x10
8x10
8x10
1 6x 12
'i 10 X 10
8x12
10x10
8x12
8x12
10x12
8x10
S 6x12
■/ 10 X 10
6x12
10x10
8x12
8x12
10x12
10x12
10x12
i 6x12
1 10 X 10
6 X 12
8x12
8x12
10x12
11x12
i 10x14
) 11 x 12
10x14
8x12
8x12
10x12
10x12
< 10x14
) 12 X 12
10x14
10x14
10x14
437c
WOODEN FLOORS.
B.
DiMExsioxs OP Wooden Girders for Hotels, School-rooms,
Light Offices, etc.
(Total Weight. 100 lbs. per Square Foot.)
SPKICE.
bl'AN IN
Dis
12
TANCE APAKT ON'
14 , 1« 1
, 1
Centei
IS
:s IN Fk
20
ET.
Fkkt.
10
■
2«
24
10
11
(3.
^ 8.
( i\ ■
> 8v
/ 10 .
10.
1
0
12
■ t
id
8-10
8 . 10
♦i ■ !•.>
8- 12
\ 8 ^ 10
8 ^ 12
10- 10
10 X 12
8>12
10. 10,
8xli>
h)>. 12.
8x12
10 X 12
\ 10 . 14
"( 12 X 12
10x12
10x12
10x14
12x12
10 X 12
♦ 10x14
'1 12 X 12
10x14
10x12
10^14
12 -IS
12' 14
v:
8 ■
•-»
10 ■ 12
10 ■ 12
\ 10. 14
/ 1- ■ 12
10x11
12x14
12x14
14 '14
v.\
10 X
■i
10 . 12
\ 10- 14'
, 12 ■ 12
10 > 14
12x14
12x14
» 12x16
»14x 14
12 • IC
14
10--
2
< 1" < 11
. 12- 12
10 - 14I
12 • 14
14 A 14
12x16
12x16
14*^16
i:>
> 10 .
. 1 '? •
1
2
10-14
12 .-14
_ 1
( 12. It;
( 14 •• 14
1
12x11)
14x16
14x16
16^16
YKLLOW PINE.
Sl'\N IS
Ki;i T.
10
Distance ai-aiit on Tkntekh in Feet.
12
14
16
' - l
itt
> () 10 \ )') ■ 10
/ '^ - s , S ■ *<
»; ■ 10 8-10 H. 10
\ 8 ' 12
ti
H- 12
('» ■ 10
iS . Id
10
10
(1 • 1(1
r> ■ 111
»« .«•
. \-i
10 - M
^ ■ 12
8 . 10
» r, . 12
. 10. 10
8 ■ 10
8 ■ 12
10 ■ 10
N 12
in ^ I-.'
I 10 • 12
10 . 10 10 . 10" H - 12
8- IJ 10- 12 li». 12
I
I'l 1 J
1-.' 1-J
■ V* ■ \i
10 11
8 12 10 ■ 12 10 . 12 ; }i; ' \\
10- 12 ' II!" \i 10. 14 10-11
11 -12 *ll]" I:* 10- 11 10x14 12*14
( 12 - IJ I
''•■I* 111 11 i.>^i« to 11 »12*16
12x12 ^^''^* ^-''^* '-*^^ -,14.14
10- 11 :2- 11 l:j-14 )}J;{5 W"!"
24
s.
12
10-
1".»
10.
12
10 ■
:t
12-
12
12-11
12*11
12. 1«
14-14
i2»ie
WOODEN FLOORS.
43Vc?
C.
Dimensions OF Wooden Gibdebs fob Office Buildings, Assem-
bly Rooms, and Light Stobes.
(Total Weight, 130 lbs. per Square Foot.)
SPRUCE.
Span in
•
Distance apart on Centers in Feet.
Feet.
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
9
10
11
12
18
14
8x10
j 8x12
110x10
8x12
10x12
(10x14
1 12 X 12
10x14
(8x12
1 10x10
8x12
10x12
(10x14
n2xl2
10x14
12x14
8x12
10x12
j 10 X 14
1 12x12
10x14
12x14
( 12 X 16
"1 14 X 14
10x12
(10x14
) 12x12
10x14
12x14
(12x16
1 14x14
12x16
10x12
10x14
10x14
12x14
12x16
14x16
(10x14
112x12
10x14
12x14
( 12 X 10
1 14 X 14
18x16
15x16
10x14
12x12
12x14
18x14
12x16
14x16
10x14
12x14
14x14
14x16
YELLOW PINE.
Span in
Distance apart on Centers in Feet.
Pket.
10
12
14
10
18
8x12
10x10
8x12
10x12
(10x14
) 12 X 12
10x14
12x14
(12x16
1 14 X 14
20
22
8x12
10x12
10x14
12x12
12x14
14x14
12x16
14x16
24
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
6x10
8x10
8x10
8x12
8x12
10x12
(10x14
1 12 X 12
8x10
8x10
(8x12
/ 10 X 10
0x12
10x12
(10x14
1 12 X 12
10x14
8x10
( 8x12
/ 10 X 10
8x12
10x12
) 10x14
/ 12 X 12
10x14
12x14
(6x12
) 10 X 10
8x12
10x12
11x12
10x14
12x14
12x14
8x12
10x12
( 10x11
'i 12 V 12
10x14
12x14
14x14
12x16
10x12
( 10x14
■/ 12x12
10x14
12x14
14x14
12x16
14x16
4376
WOODEN FLOORS.
D.
Dimensions of Wooden Girders for Stores and Factories.
^Total Weijrht, 180 lbs. per Square Foot.)
SPRUCE.
Stan iv
Fkkt.
9
10
11
13
10
DljiTANC K APART ON CENTERS IN FbET.
12
14
16
IS
SO
8vl> UK le 10x12 *]S^]:1 10x14 12x14
10
,,y > 10x14 jn^i. 10^,4 10^ ti » 10x16
'"' -I'Jxl-J ^^^1-* 1-X14 1^X14 jj^^jj
» 10 « 14
1-2 » 1-J
10 ^ 14 12x14
» 10 X 16
14x14
12 X 16 13 X 16
10 ^ 14 V2 > 14 14 X 14 12 x 16 14 x 16:
l"2v'. I 14x14 12x16 14x16 '
22
24
18x14
» 10 X 16
M4xl4
12 X 16 14 X 16
14x16
YKM.OW riNE.
10
l>i-r\\iK AivKT i»\ Crx-^KUs IN Fket.
I ""
14
16
IS
20
22 24
^ • 1 ■
*- • i '.'
10
10 > 1
...... • '-'^^ 1»
1- 1 J
■ *
'.I
: 1
S X IC
114
< • 12 10 X 12
1-'
1 1
10 ■ 14
Iv! V II 12 ' : 1
:s - ] I
li 14
12 ".i". :i- it»
1(1x12 10x14 12x14
10x14 11x14 12>14
12-14 13x14 11-14
I4xll' 12.16 ISxlA
I
12. li. 13x16 15x16
1 1 • 16 13 « 16
WOODEN FLOORS. 437/
JOIST HANOBRa
Fio. 4.— Ddflei Joibt Hanqeii. Fia, B.— Ooetz Joibt Haxbeb.
Pig:s. 4 and S show two styles ot joist hangers that have been
put on the mwkot within a few years. Both these aneliors are
warranted to be stronger than the timber they support. 'I'hey
are made in numeroiis sizes, and are inserted in holes bored la
the sides of the girder, or trimmer.
While these hangers themselves,
however, have ample strength, they
mu-^t weaken t« some extent the tim-
ber into which the holes are bored,
which is not the caso with the stirrup
Fig. G shows a similar hanger made
to support the wall end of floor joist.
The writer believes this to be much
superior to the method of building the p,^ 6.-Dtt«.e» BaitrK Wall
joist into the wall, as it absolutely Hanoer,
prevents dry rot. and permits the joist
to fall in case of fire, without throwing the wall. It also gives the
weight a good bearing on the wall.
FiHK-PllOOF FLOUKS.
CHAPTER XXUI.
FIRE-FROOF FLOORS.
TnE tPrin " fire-proot floor '' is hert unrlenstcXK] to mean a flool
rfin^triii'liil of (irt-proof mnterial, RupiMirtcil on or betwe n iron iit
9ti'i-l ix-aiiiH or gmlcrs, or fire-proof wiiUs. anil entirely ]irot«cliij);
tin- ironwork from tlie action of fire. The various materiais si
|iri-." ril iiMil ill the <'on struct ion of absolately firu^proof floors lire
bri'k. iinlliiu' [Mjruiis liJu, liullou' dense tlie, ibin pl&tea uf dense tile
I ;ir..ilLii'i~ iif I'l.'iy: iiiiil (-iiiiiTi'te of Piirtlnnrl in^ment nnd i-itlii-r
i'i'~. I'i'iikrii iil>'. ~i<iiii'. Ill' tirii'k; iiiui iiiac) eoin[H)iiilioiiii niiiile
lila-iiT ol' I'^iri^ .-IS II (i-iiii-iitiiif MiiiliTint. The flr^l tlim'
-ri;il~ III'" p'tirnilly ii-..-<l ill ill.' r<iv I iiR-lies net iHrtwiTn tiic
II'.. 'I li.' iliiii |.liii'." -f i1>'iiM- till' iiri' iisi'd f.ir (oniiin^' vuiiltK
..i; uirl.T- »'..ii.h.|,'isuv.-.l.'iili,i'inllii'f"riiiof iin«rcli...t
I.I -:.\-. n'riniiiL' <1<"<r ami .'I'iliii^'. »'illi liolliiw iiileriur : ill Die
-. ir'ii liiir', i-x[iiini|i'<l nii'iiil. or wiiv lirs iin- iiiilii'Udiil. Inin
\.: I. 1 111^ iin- <:>'n< rilly liiiil in tliK>rs nr uliiiwh in Fifr. I, Iho
- ittl.,'1' jvsliiis nil 1..]. of llie ninlern. Kb in Kig. 3, or lioltei] to
~iili'^ <if ilii'i^rders.
FIRE-PROOF FLOORS.
,430
Fig. 3 shows the detail of connection when the under sides arc
made flush ; Fig. 4, the joint to bring tlie upper sides flush; and
Fig. 5 shows the form usually adopted when the beams are of the
same size, or the centre lines are brought together. Arrangements
of this kind are also used to connect the trimmer-beams of hatch'
ways, jambs, and stairways.^
P
][
Fi... \///m
Fig. 6.
The wall ends of the joists and girders should be provided with
nhoes or beariny plates of iron or stone, as the brickwork is ant to
crush under the ends of beams, unless the load is di^tribjuted by this
means over a sufficient surface. Anchor-Htrapa should be bolted
to the end of each r/irder and to the wall end of every alternate
joist, binding the walls firmly from falling outwards in the event of
fire or other accident.
Several simple modes of anchorage are shown in Figs. 3, 4,
and 5.
When one beam docs not give sufficient strength for a girder, it
is customary to bolt tosjcther two or more with cast separators
between them, as shown in Fig. 6.
*■ The details of the coiiuectioDs aud framing of iron beams kre more clearly
shown on pp. 366, 366.
KlllE-rUOOF KLOOKK.
Itric-k Arc'li«s,
I vviiy of iiiiikiiiu i> lln'-iU'oKf floor of hrir-k \s to fill
.■-■11 111.' ji.isls«illi Lrii^k un-ln's. n■^Ii1l;,• <>ii llli- low.T
;.'iT;i-.'.>n:i <ir biit-k sk'-wliitrks. M'hi-ii tliis mctlio<l
'^hoiiM lu' tiiki'ii Ilial llii- l<rli-ks of niiiHi tli.' .irvli.-s
aiv of ^1111.1 slia|i.'. :iii.l v.'iy liiir.1. Tli.'V sIiomM I>'
wiilL .■iLili oilirr, iiiiliuiLt liiir: i.ii.l iii: IW ji.iiit*
trviU. mill Ih> kt-yiil n'itli
lill.M ttUll 111.' IH-St
i.T f..iir iii.h.^ llii.'k fi.r f]-^n> l«'tw.--H
. llii.-k l'..i' -iMiis l..-i».'.-ii »:\ :iii.l .'k'lit
III tl,.' -k.« l.:i.k- .,iri.- -..U.l.ima > .imn-
I:, li-.-.'l tin :llvl,-h..|IMI.|-:l^..ll..■l.-
..; ^.i...tl. ai..|
FIRB-PROOF FLOORS. 441
angle- bar or channel serving as a wall plate for distributing the
strain produced by the thrust of the first arch (Fig. 7).
The weight of n brick arch with cement filling is about seventy
pounds per superficial foot of floor. Experience has shown that
such a floor cannot be considered as fire-proof unless the lower
flanges of the beam are protected by porous terra-cotta, fire-clay
tile, or wire lathing, kept an inch away from the beam.
Brick floor arches are largely going out of use, owing to the fact
that a fire-proof floor may be more cheaply constructed of other
material.
Hollow Porous Terra-cotta and Hollow Dense
Terra-cotta Floors.— For convenience, these materials will
be referred to as Porous Tiling and Dense Tiling. A description
of the materials, their nature and manufacture, will be found in
Chapter XXV. They consist principally of clay, which is manu-
factured into hollow blocks, generally with angles on side or ends,
according to whether the arches of the floors are to be of end-
method design or side method design. In some instances, to a
limited extent, rectangular blocks have been successfully used,
but this shape is not approved. The general practice in flat con-
struction is to make bevel joints — radius joints are seldom used ;
the best workmanship) and best results are found to be obtained
with a bevel joint of about one inch to the foot. There are two
general schemes of flat construction : one in which the tile blocks
abut end to end continuously between the beams, and one in which
they lie side by side, with broken joints, between the beams. In the
end systems, it is not the practice to have the blocks in one row
break joints with those in another, as it entails extra expense in
setting. When this is done, however, the substantialness of the
floors is increased.
In some forms of flat construction a side-method skewback (or
abutment) is used, with end-to-end interiors and keys, or end-tOr
end interiors and side-method keys. Experience has shown that in
the side method of flat construction the skewback, or abutment,
was the weakest — in case of failure, sometimes collapsing, but gen-
erally shearing off at the beam flange ; consequently, the side-
method skewback is not approved in the end- method construction
unless provided with partitions runninc^ at ris^ht anoflos to the
beam. Keys should be end to end, or solid. The latter, when
made very small, are preferable.
A practice which has become somewhat general, especially In
the East, is for the owner or general cqntractQr tp buy tjles, and the
tnasofi ^{itraoter on the job to build them in plaee in the building.
FIBE-FROOF FLOORS. 443
beams, and like centrepieces above, crosdng the beams. The
ptanka on whieh tiles arc laid shfiuld be two-inch, dressed on one
ode to uniform thickness, and should lie on lower centres, at right
Angles to beams anil placed close together. J'he soffit tlto should
be a separate key-shaped pieue. oC ei[iial width of beam, and laid
directly under tbe beam on the planking, aftor whicb the eontring
is tightened by screwing down tlii) nuts on the T-boits, until the
sofflt tile are hard against the beams and the planking has a crowa
' not esc«&diag one-fourth oC an inch in spans of sis feet. This sys-
tem gives what is very essential— a lirin and steady centre on which
to construct the flat tile worlt. The tiles should be '■ shoved" in
jilace with close joinb'. and keys should fit close. The centres
should remain £n)m twelve to tliirty-six iiours, according to condi-
tions of ireather, depth of tiling, and moj'tar used. When centres
are "struck," the ceiling should be straight, even, free from open
joints, creTices. and cracks, ready to receive the plastering.
Figs. 0 til 12 show types of flat constructions in use. Different
tfianufacturers have various modifications of these. Pig. 9 is the
most general design for dense tiling, although porous tiling, very
similar in design, may be had from some manufacturers. The end-
method design is preforahlo, however, for porous tiling. Fig. 10
is a light-weight dense-tile design, nol so gvinerally useil as fonncrjy.
Figs. It and lli show the simplest end-methnd design for porous
tiling, which has become known as iho ■'Leo end-method areh." It
was first brought into general use by Mr. Thotnas A. I.ee, now of
New York City. It was used by him in the tests conducted at
Denver in Dceember, t"S(}, by Messrs. Andrews, Jaques & Ran-
toul, architects In those tests the design ^ihowod superiority over
the Dtberdesigns. It has the advantage of simplicity and economy,
both Id mannfaoturo and construction. Tbe manufacttirer can
FIRE PROOF FLOORS. 445
reduced and the stability of construction mcreased.- The reduo-
tkm in price of all tiling makes the cost rather in favor of increas-
ing the thickness of tiling and reducing the thickness of concrete.
Among the advantages possessed by hollow tiles in their ap[)lica-
bion to fire-proof floors, between steel or iron beams, are these :
They are absolutely incombustible, because made of clay and
laving withstood a white heat in the course of manufacture.
They are sound-proof, from fact of being hollow.
They are superior to any concrete material used for the same pur-
jose, owing to their being free from shrinkage, thereby avoiding
ihe unsightly cracks often seen in ceilings laid with concrete blocks.
They are proof against rats and vermin.
Floors made of them are forty per cent, lighter than by the old
system of segmental solid brick arches levelled with concrete.
They offer a flat surface on the bottom and top after being laid,
Fig. 16.—** Austria " Arch, Patented by Pr. von Emperoer.
ihereby giving a flat ceiling ready for plastering, and a flat founda-
:ion for the floor strips.
The flat arches should in all cases be capable of sustaining, with-
)ut injurious deflection, after being set in place, an equally distrib-
ited load of 500 pounds upon each superficial foot of surface.
In laying the tile, a mortar composed of lime mixed up with
joarse screened sand, in proportions of four to one, and richly tom-
3ered with hydraulic cement, should be used. This makes a strong
nortar, and works well with the tile. In no case should a joint
jxceeding one-half inch in thickness be permitted
The laying of flat construction in winter weather without roof
protection should not bo practised in climates where frequent
tevere rain and snow storms are followed by hard freezing- jind
;h!iwii)g, as tho mortar joints arc liable to be weakened or ruptured,
'esulting in more or less deflection of the arches.
The upper su rface of these arches is generally covered withcon-
jrete of a sufficient depth to allow for bedding in it the wooden
(trips to which the floor board-; are nailed. The concrete can be
nade of light and cheap materials, such as lime or native cement
knd clean rolling-mill cinders, coke screenings, broken flre-proo€
14(5
FIRE-F»RO()F FLOORS.
tiling, etc. The floor strips should be of sound and seasoned wood,
2 inches thi(»k by 2 inches wide on top. bevelled on each hide,
to 4 inches wide on Iwttoni, paced about 1(> inches on ('i-n-
tros 'rh(^ coiicrct(» should ix; firmly bodded beneath and ugiiin^t
oMch <[(\l'. Instead ol' coiicr.'tc filling. tKt?., a filling is soinetiines
made l)y layiii*; lidllow p.iitition bloc^lis on top of the arches.
Tlicsc loiin excellent toundations tor marble or other linished tile
liuoiin^^.
Tlic j)i}icticc ol* puttini; in comparatively thin flat arcfh eonstruc-
tiuij U) form ceiling's, then heavy wood strips from lx»am to btjani to
carry the v. ciiriit ol' the floor, leaving a hollow s^iace between top of
arclns and under side of wood flooring, ij« not approved. The
amount of wood contained in such a floor is sufficient to produce u
Very (lamairing lieal. The hollow space enables the wood to burn
readily, and niakes a Are very difficult to fight. Such coDstruction,
Fu.. 17.
thereiore. i< danufcrous. and sIkjuM not be considere<l as first-class
fire 1 1 root' \-. ork.
'1 li«- VMi'iition in width of spans between beams is pn>vidi*ii for
by ^u|i|'l\ iil: tiles of dilTerent sizes, both for interiors and keys,
wihii'hy ): \arie»y of eond)i!iations can be sj'cured.
When i!i-^ii'el to aitaeh iron oi" wood work to the soillts of the
hoiioA 111. iloo- archer. sli>t holes are puiich-Ml in the tiles, and T-
h. a-; (i i ol". ;ii-f inserted and secured a> >h«»wn in Fig. 17.
'■ In-n ;..fiiie. terracotta tile are used, cleats nuiv Im' naile<l or
S !• U. .| i'.l.ctiv to th.' tile.
I:: ;■: ! :'ij' ii« n work, too «;r«'at can- cann<»t l)i' exercis^'tl that all
1 ai'i- ii.- |>I.i. -d paiallil. e»<pe«-ially '.her- (».ie or both emb «if
1' .:i:.- !■.-• •■•1 i-ri-kui-rk. rn'am-^ plaeed out of parallel make il
\.n I \|.. !.-;\«' III M-i tile lire |«r-'i'li!i-..r. «»f'en nnpiirin:; cutting nf
II!'-. aIi:< h -^ tiaiiiauin.;: ami injurious, and shoidd not U* tloue.
\\ '■ I. -|..iN. - LTineni.!! hollow liie arches isee Figs. IS and IViarv
>o!ii- t :...- - n-»-'i in wai'ehouscs, factories, ami fur mofs, in thick
ne.^M.-^ of i.\ and eight inches. I'sually the tiles an* 0x6 inches,
FIRE-PROOF FLOORSw
446a
or 6 X 8 inches, and 12 to 16 or 18 inches long. Spans may be any
width up to 20 feet, rise about one inch to foot of whole span,
in some instances the joints are pointed after the centres have been
removed, and the whole under side painted.- This form of hollow-
tile work in wide spans from girder to girder is cheaper and lighter
than flat construction with floor beams.
4" to U c)t^'<n,t«CU)b\ ^vck X!Uu^ 0^^>^v ^X» 5l>\lH. . 5vmi'«iUo'Iq^o' ac&oram% Xo »a.c o^
Fig. 18.
Weights and Safe Spans for Dense-tile Arches.—
The following table gives the weight and span of flat hollow dense-
tile arches made bv the Raritan Hollow and Porous Brick Com-
pany. This is about an average for spans given by different manu-
facturers. The Pioneer Fire proof Construction Company, and
some others, make a lighter grado of tile than this, but their heavy
tiles correspond very closely with the table below. Dense tiles may
also be had from Lorillard Brick Works Company and Henry
Maurer's Son. New York ; the Empire Fire-proofing Company,
Pittsburg ; Parker & Russell Company, St. Louis ; and others.
WEIGHTS AND SPANS OF FLAT HOLLOW DENSE-
TILE ARCHES.
Depth of Arch.
Span, between Beams.
3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft.
Weight per sq. ft.
6 in.
29 lbs.
Tin.
4 ft. to 4 ft. Gin.
3? lbs.
•8 in.
4 ft. 6 ill. to 5 fr. 6 in.
35 lbs.
9 in.
5 ft. to 5 ft. 0 in.
87 lbs.
10 in.
5 ft. 1) in. to 0 ft. () in.
41 lbs.
12 in.
6 ft. 6 in. to 7 fi. 0 in.
48 lbs.
The following table gives the weight and span of flat hollow
porous-tile arches of the Lee end -method design, which may be
FIRE-PROOF FLOORS. 446c
olted together with f-inch tie rods, secured to the web of the
cams near the bottom flanges, and drawn tightly to place by nut
Ad thread. These tie rods should be set from five to seven feet
bpart.
The cost of hollow-tile arches of either kind, set in place ready
br plastering, in lots of 20,(MM) square feet , ranges from 14 cents to
•6 cents per square foot, according to size and weights of the tile,
n Chicago the average price may be taken at 20 cents.
Specifications for Transverse System of Elnd-
Pressure Floor Arch.
The following form of specification may be of assistance to
rchitects in preparing their specifications for tile floors :
Contractors submitting proposals for fire-proof floor arches shall,
hen required, prepare detail drawings showing the sjrstem and
^plication of floor arch proposed to be used. The general require-
lents of such design shall be as follows :
1st. Arches to be level top and bottom, filling space between the
Bams from a point not less than seven eighths of an inch below
le soffit of beam up to within one inch of the top of the beam.
2d. The abutment tile adjoining or resting upon the floor beams
lall have its hollows run parallel with the beams, but the vous-
)irs shall be laid transversely, with hollows running at right
Dgles to the floor beams, so that the tile blocks forming the arch
lay receive the pressure resulting from imposed load on their end
.Kstion and distribute it lengthwise of their respective web members.
3d. Soffits of all beams shall be covered with tile slabs keyed
5curely in place, flushing with under surface of arch.
Tests.
Each arch shall be subjected to a test of a moving load consisting
f a roller weighing 1 ,000 pounds to each lineal foot, and applied
3rty-eight hours after the centres have been struck and before the
oncrete has been filled in. This roller to be rolled over the top of
be tile wherever the supervising architect or his superintendent
hall direct.
In addition to such rolling test, the arches, after being set in
lace seventy-two hours, shall be subjected to a dropping test made
1 the following manner : Before the concrete is applied on the
rches, a bed of sand two inches thick shall be spread loosely over
le top of the arches, Rud a wooden block or timber, weighing 200
mnds, shall be dropped thereon from a height of ten feet. If the
4iG</ FIKE-PUOOF FLOOUS.
arclies withstand this impact for three c-ontiniious blows without
breiikin<>: through, the test shall bo considered satisfactory, and the
floor arches bo accei)ted. Should the floor arches break throu^rh
under the blows, it >\v.i\\ be deemed (conclusive that the metliod of
floor arch employed is faulty, and the contractor will Imj r(H|uired
to remove same from the building and provide arches suitable to
withsi;nnl the tests recjulred.
Strt'ii^tii of Flat Hollow l>oiiso and Porous
T<MTa-('ottJl AiM'lios. — Either of these materials, when prop-
erly made an<l erected, should have a strcnjy^h of at least 5(:() lliS.
pcrsijUMie foot. One of the most complete an<l practical tests oi"
llo(»r arches I'ecorded was made in Denver, < ol., iindtT the direction
of Messrs. Andrews, Ja(iues & Kantoul. architects, for the Dfiiver
K.iuit.'blr P>iiilding (N)mpauy, Decendn'r r20-2o, 1890, oi" which a
tuil reporl was ])ublislied in the A /."trioii' Architect and littiUUug
\rirs, M.'injh "Js. IbiOl. Kight an-hes built of hollow bum«*d lin*-
elay til«', and four of ])orous terra-iottu, were subjei^ted to four kinds
of te-1s. under as nearly the same comlit ions as p(»ssible. Thraifrhes
wri» earrie*! on 10-inch steel Mn^'ims, set- 5 feel apail on centres, and
were built of 10- inch tile. The tcrra-eotta tile were manufactured
by Mr. Thomas A. Lee, and were of the en< I -const met ion type
shown in Kiirs. 11 and 11//. and it is dtaibtless owing tu thb fact
that tliesj- arches (h'veloped the strength shown by the testti.
The U'>ls were as follows :
l>i. I>y still loatl. increased until the arches broke (h)wn.
V.M. \'>\ -li<Mk>, repeatiMl until the arches nc re destroyed.
:M T«-i- by lire and water, aliernaiiug until the an-hos were
till I>\ •onlinnons tire of high heal, until the arches were
Ill !<■ iin fii-!s| t:st.'iiii' ••; the llre-elay tile nivhe- bri»k«- at
.">. U ; Il»s 1)1- "in 11'^. pn- s luari" foot, and the other at H.riTI lb'...
nj- ]"J^ |i.>. |)iT s.|uar< f'ii>: ; brnh i»! theM* ar«'!ies liad but i-ne
h<>ri/i»nial wi b, w hieh wa.- at t in- cent n- ul' tin- tilr. I'.oth of »ln>o
ri'i'-c. ■■■iVi- • !iv sndd'iily. tin- wlmh- .-ir'-li iatlini;down. tbi' failun'
i:i b !l i-.i-.'- lakinu: plaee m 1 1 r '-LiW baeks. t he remaill'^iT nf I hp
;i'. : !■ '■'.) . i.iiii.im.il '"li- p»i|i-M> le:-,;: i "fi ali'll. wl'i-h ■ ad 1»0
ill 1 1. ■!■■ d wfli^ .-n.-t; iiMil a Iliad ol I."), ll.'i \\'< . i.il b>. per «•■ unre
:...'. ;. : ! . . Imnr-* willn'Ut breikimr. ^*lll■n the l«ijid war di-imi-
I i!i:i- •!
11. ■>("ImI .sriii-^ of tc^i.s wa^ madi- iiy dinppiiig a piece of tim-
b.i \': MM iii> -^iiuare auii -i iett Inn" weighing 134 ]l)s . tnmi a
hei>:lit •<] -.ix liei. u|Niii the inahile of the an-li. Ikjlh of thi* hoU
FIRK-PROOF FLOORS. 447
low flre-olay tile arches broke at the first blow of the ram, the
arches dropping from between the beams, the tile breaking *^ like
a sheet of glass, indicatiu.u: extreme brittleness in the material/'
The porous terra-cott:i arch withstood four blows from a height
of six feet, and seven blows from a height of eight feet, the areii
dropping at the last blow. Pieces of one or more of the tile, how-
ever, dropped out at nearly every blow. Under the fire and water
test, one of the fire-clay arches was destroyed by three ap[>lications
of the water ; the other withstood fourteen applications of the
water, alternating with extreme heat.
The porous terra-cotta. arch withstood eleven applications of
water, alternating with extreme heat, uninjured. The temperature
of the tile at the time the water was applied varied from 1,300^ to
1,600° F. Under the continuous fire test, both fire-clay arches
were destroyed after being subjected to a most intense heat for
twenty- four hours. The porous tcrra-cotta arch, after having a
continuous fire under it for twenty-four hours, was practically un-
injured, as it afterward supported a weight of briyks of 12,5o0 lbs.
on a space 8 feet wide, in the middle of the arch.
These tests were conducted with perfect fairness, and unquestion-
ably show the superiority of the [)orous terra-colta arches. The
porous terra-cotta tile, new and dry. weighed 34 lbs. to tlio sfiuare
foot ; the fire-clay tile which stood the tests the best weighed 40^
lbs. per square foot, and the other 32 lbs. per square foot.
Other Tests. — During the construction of the Board of Trade
building, in Chicago, in 1884, a 6-inch tile arch of 3 feet 8 inches
span, made by the Wight Fire-proofing Company, of Chicago,
was loaded up to 7o6 lbs. per square foot without injuring the
arch. The arch was also severely tested by dropping heavy dry-
gooils cases upon it from a height of 4 feet, without injury.
When the large (l6-feet) sfwin arches were laid in the Commerce
building, on Pacific Avenucj, in Chi(;ago, each arch was tt^sUnl by
rolling an iron pulley, 6 feet in diameter and 14 inches wide.
weighing 2,180 lbs., over each square foot, before the concrete had
been filled in the haunches. This is a convenient method of test-
ing the strength of a floor after it is laid, and its use is to be highly
recommended.
Streivsrth of Briek Arches.— Brick arches, properly built
betwt»en iron beams, as described on j)age 440, are practically inde-
stnictible, from any usage or load that could occur in a building.
When the Western Union Telegrai)h building, in New York
City, was being erected, Mr. P. C. Merry, the architect, made a
series of tests on several forms of floor arches, supported by irou
448 FIRE- PROOF FLOORS.
beams placed about five feet apart, by dropping a piece of granite,
li5 inches s(juare and 4 feet lon^j:, with rounded edges, from a
height of three f(»et. on lop of tlic arches : and. while ail of the
other jin^lu'S wci*e destroyed, the brick urcli withstooil the nhock
S(!veral times uninjured, and only after repeated |)oundings in
the saiiK^ phicc one brick at a time was knocked out until the
arch was finally hroken down.
That l>ri(;k floor arch(\s will endure prreat distortion was sliown
by tin' loiding of an arched fUK)r at the Watertown Arsenal, Mass.
A flooi- \JI) feel square, was miule of five ir)-inch I-l)eam8, 20U lbs.
per yard, carrying brick arches. The beams were 7 feet 4.8 inches
apart on eenlres, and rested on l)ri(!k walls 28 feet 0 inehe.<« apart.
The rise of the brick arches was y.5 inches. ''Common, rather
soft-burn(Ml ]>rick were us(mI, laid (m edge with lime mortar. The
arches were i)acked with concrete, and planked over. The miixi-
nuiin load carried by t his fl(K)r (when tlie Ijeams, and not the arches,
failed) was 50:} lbs. per scpiare f(K)t. This load caused a gnulual
and continuous yielding of the beams, winch was aHowed to con-
tinue till till' ll(M)r was deflected a distance of 13.07 inulies, meas-
ured at the centre of I he mi(hlle berims." '*The brickwork en-
dured this great deflection. an<l apparently wouhl have stood much
more without failur(>," had it been |K)ssi)>le to carry the test
further.*
FiiM'- Proof Floors with Tension Mem born (1805).
— WitMJii a lew y»'ar-< several styles of nn?-proof floor construction
havr li. en iiitroduce(l, of whicii there are two general olusi«os ; the
first ela>s <'onsists of tension memiMM' floors, which in liicmselTei
furnish tin ne<essary strength for sustaiidng the lhM)r from wall to
wall, or wall to ginler, without the usi* of (hK)r l)eams; and the
other ela^s consists of 1 U^ams iivt^ or six feel apart for sustaining
the fli»)r. with rods or bai*s -usiK^niled or nesting upon the U>ani8,
su]ip()rting win; cloth, netting, or expanded metal. whi<-li carries
th<- concrete or plaster filling. I'rondiient among the first ilevici'S
ineni iniii'.j :ire the II vat t riblnHl metal ties and Portland cement
conerite ii«i,)r> built by 1*. 11. .ia<-ks<in. Sun {''rnncix-o ; tlh* con-
crete an<l t w ist -d liar floors built bv the Ransome & Smitli Cciin-
pany. ot" Cliieagt): and the Lee hollow tile and cabh- nwl fliior«,
built l»y till' liCc Fii*e pniof Construction ('om|iiiny. of New York.
ppiiiiiin lit among the l-)N>am and concn'te tiliiiig devices an*
the sNv;i,Mi«^ nf t Iie .Metropolitan Kin»-I*r«H)Hiig Compiiny. of Tn»n-
t'li. N. .1.: tliee\{ianiie«l metal con si r u ct I on com |ni nies of St. liiuiis
* -I I-; n<>\\.iii|. ill .\itniii-a» An'hifn-f ttntl linihliittj .Vf/fA, Mttreb lU, I
FIRE-PROOF FLOORS. 449
and New York ; and the New Jersey Wire Cloth Company, of
Trenton, N. J.
Hyatt and Jackson Concrete Floors.— Concrete com-
posed of broken stone, fragments of brick, pottery, and gravel,
held together by being mixed with lime, cement, asphaltum, or
other binding substances, has been used in construction to resist
compressive stress for many ages.
With the introduction of Portland cement, concrete construction
has taken a more important position among the various methods
of building, so that now entire buildings are constructed of con-
crete, such as the Hotel Ponce de Leon. fi.t St. Augustine, Florida;
and in (Jalifornia. especially, concrete is largely used in the con-
struction of floors, sidewalk arches, etc.
The concrete is not used between iron beams, as are the brick
and tile arches, but the concrete itself is made self-supporting from
wall to wall by means of embedding iron in the bottom of the con-
crete. Portland cement concrete has a great resistance to com-
pression, but possesses little tensile strength.
In 187G Mr. Thaddeus Hyatt, the inventor, while considering
the matter of fire-proof floor construction, conceived the idea of
forming concrete beams by embedding iron«in the bottom of the
concrete to afford the necessary tensile strength which the concrete
lacked. Mr. Hyatt made many experimental beams, with the iron
introduced in a great variety of ways, as straight ties, with and
without anchors and washers ; truss rods in various forms ; flat
pieces of iron set vertically and laid flat, anchored at intervals
along the entire length. These experimental beams were tested
and broken by David Kirkaldy, of London, and the results pub-
lished by Mr. Hyatt for private distribution, in the year 1877.
By these tests Mr. Hyatt proved conclusively that iron could be
perfectly united with concrete, and that it could be depended upon
under all conditions for its full tensile strength.
The method Mr. Hyatt adopted as the best for securing perfect
unison of t'.ie iron and concrete was to use the iron as thin vertical
blades placed near the bottom of the concrete beam or slab, extend-
ing its entire length, and bearing on the supports at both ends ;
Fig. 14.
450 FIRK-PKOOF FLOORS.
tbcso vortical blades to be anchored at internals of a few inches by
round win>s threaded through holes punched opposite each other in
the vertical blades, thus forming a skeleton or gridiron, as shown
in Fit;. 14 F^>r a perfect combination of these substances, it is
essential that the one should 1)6 united with the other in such a
maimer that the iron cannot stretch or draw without the concrete
extending with it.
The only person in this country to make practical application of
the method devised by Mr. Hyatt, so far as the author is aware, is
Mr. P. II Jackson, of San Francisco, Cal., who has used it quite
extonisivoly in that city foj: covering sidewalk vaults, and for tl>e
support of store lintels ; also, for self-supf)orting floors. Mr. Jack-
son publislicd a pani[)hlot in 189.), entitled Impromment in BuUd^
ing ('onnfnfrfit^ny which gives a great amount of information on
this sul).ject, and on concrete in general construction.
To sliow the strength of this method of construction, Bfr. Jack-
son, in Aug\L«*t. 1885, prepared a beam, 7 x 14 inches in section
and 10 fiM't 6 inches long ; near the bottom were sitven vertical
blades of iron extending the entire length ; three of these were
i y \ inch, and four wore i x 1 inch, with i-inch wires threaded
through overy 3 inches. Near the top were bedded two cast-iron
rope moulding bars to assist the compressive strength of the con-
crete, which, however, was siiown to IxMin necessary. The concrete
at the top and bottom was one ])art cement to one of sand ; centre
portion, oni' of cement to iwoof siind. Thi' Iwam was supfiorted by
U-inch In-irings at both cn<ls. thus leaving it 0 fed in the clear be-
tween snp|»«»ris. Tlie beam was loaded with pig-irrm piletl lu-roes
it, anil l)n)lv<' un:l(>r a lo.id of 5.>,(ii'>4 llw.. by Kcparating till the
lon;;itu«Iin.-il bladi's on tlic line of on(> of the cn»ss-wires near the
centre. .Inst lN>fore breaking, the deflection was measunnl, and
foumi to Ih' \^_ in<'h. The breaking load of this lM>ani was aU>ut
oMe-}):iir I hat which would have broken a hanl-pine beam of same
dimensions and average ipiality.
Tlu' Kaiisoiiu' and Kinllli Floor.
\N hile Mr .Ia<'k^i>n was ex)M'iimenling with tlie Hyatt tics, Mr.
Iv L lian-iiuf. a vrry >ui-'essrul workiT nf enn('ret«* in Sail Fran-
ii-ii). iin.c.iMd the ide:> (it using siuan* b>irs i»f iron and .'^ti*«-l,
twi^tni t|.,ii- entire leiurth. in place of the flat Uin* and win*s used
)>y Mr .l.ick^on. as >)io\vn in Fig. 15. It was found that thest* bars
Win- !■• Ill ill ihe fimerete i (lUiillv as well, if not UMIer than IIm
ol liiM*. .ili'i lli'il (hey were niileh le*«s exiH'Msive. Nolle uf thtf in»D
E-PBOO? FLOORa.
in the ties is wasted, and it hae been demoastnted by careful ez-
perirnents that the procesB of twisting the bars to the extent
desired strengthens the rods instead of weakening them.
Fig. IS.
Mr. Bansome patented his improvement in 1884, and since that
time it ha3i>een used quite extensively in San Franijisco.
The bars, preferably made from the best quality nf rectangular
iron, are twisted at an expense not exceeding from twenty-five to
fifty cents per ton, which constitutes an inaigniflcant item of cost.
The sizes so far used range from \ inch to 2 inches square.
Concrete floors, as made by Mr. Eansome, are made in two forms
— flat, and receesed or panelled.
It can be and has been used for spans up to 34 feet, A section of
a flat floor, in the California Academy of Science. 15 x S3 feet, teas
tested in 1890 with a uniform load of 41,^ lbs, per square foot, and
the load left on for one month. The deflection at the centre of the
23-feet space was only ; inch. It was estimated by the architects
that the saving in this construction over the ordinary use of steel
beams and hollow- tilo arches of the same strength, and with similar
cement-finis I led floors on lop, amounted to tii< cents per square foot
of floor. As a flre-i>roof construction, the concrete and iron con-
struction above described is undoubtedly equal to any other con-
Btruction in use.
Oampotitum of the Concrete. — Regarding the concrete used tor
these floors, the proportions are given for a cement of good average
quality, that will develop a tensile strength of 350 lbs. per square
inch in fourteen days. II a weaker cement is used, the quantity
should be proportionately increased.
The aggregates should be of any of the following solmtances,
which are named about in the order of merit, the first being the
best: Hard limestone rock, hard clinker brick, hard broken pottery,
granite or basalt, hard clinker'^, broken flint or other hard rock.
Care riiould be taken tj> use neither dirty nor soft clayey rock.
The aggregates should be broken so as to pass through a two-inch
FIHE-I'UOOF Fl.()i
rinp, ami the fmo iliist, roitjoved by wiishing or screening (washing
prcfL-rri'ih In mixing mid sufficient wnter to bring tbe mass into
a fotl, |msly iiiitilitioii, itnil tam]i it. thoi'(>ii);hly iuto place.
On (he lH)l.tc)in iif llie iiiiiulil ]>la(:c iilKiut one inch and a half of
ctiniireic niiulw of ono jjiirl. cement lo two parts of agjrrcKitles vary-
ing tnjiii ,',, to i ineli in diiinietur. I jiy Hio lower iron liars on this
niixlure hikI tamp Ihuni Uunn into it ; tiien 1111 uji with a. conrre'"
ci)ni|>o!<e(l of oni! [Nirl cement and six parts aggregates, making the
final layer of double atrengtb.
TIk> L<><- H<>IIow Tile and Cable Uoil Floor.
Fig. 22 i» » Hk(>leh typic-al of thp Lee Hollow Tile anil Cable
Goil FliHir. with a finislicil c-eineiil top. The flours are usiuily
(li'signi'd cm a luisis of ^ inch in cIcpCh foreuuli foot of %paii. The
spaiiH extend fioni wall to wall or from ginlcr to ginlur, no i-
i terra-cotta tiles having siiuaru ends and a rod
griKiri' aliiii;; iini^ hIiIi- near tliP Iwse, hfp iibi^. TIipm! lilea are sim-
ilar t" IIh' l.i'i- i-nil arrb tiles, 'iVininimry focniH carried im honwa
uri' iinividiil, and the lilei: are laid with i'ortland crinent niurtar
in rows, curl in end, fioni wall In ginler. or fnitn ginli'r lo giixler.
Into ibe ^'I'lKU-e of ca.-li row .if tiles soft eenient in phu'eil, >iiui iin<-
or more nils, acc-oriiiin: lu stn-ngth rt<i)uirenii-nli>. iin- Imriwl in
lllesoft e.-1ilel.t. The pilH'.-Bii is n-|>IMlvrl until 111.' wliol.- Hour iS
fr.rMi.-.l Thr r.Hls iitop at emls of Ibe tili^s at wall lines Ani-liur
lying the lloor lo tin- mipimrtii.
tti'l f.>r
ISy II
LT 1 1ll
to^n-lhel
wliiih mar Ih' appli.'l lo lllling
t: ,!<„< all Ihrusl i- lakrn ii|. bv the ealile HhI. and .-aeh
iiid in ils i.l'K'e. CrMr'ks. deneetloDs. nii.l »lli.-r i|ef. <•(■
iidiii^' IImi jir<'lie> Hh- iivoi^le.1. Th.- Doors an- firm, rigitl.
Tbu tloors are Iwwil n[ion the Inkn^vcnv strength uf
FIRE- PROOF FLOORS.
452a
beams. (Computations, verified by actual tests, are made, and the
use of needless material and weight is thereby avoided.
The cable rods used in the l«ee system are made of round drawn
steel rods of about thirty onc-hundredths of an inch in diameter,
]aid spirally together, usually in two strands, as that form affords
large gripping surface for the cement. Mr. Lee's patents cover a
variety of forms, some containing several strands, with different
shaped buttons, washers, etc., for affording great cement engaging
surface. The rods being of drawn steel, they have high tensile
strength, and are specially free from flaws or defects ; hence are
found to make excellent tension members. The rods are spaced 8,
10, or 12 inches apart, according to width of tile used. The widths
and shapes of tiles are varied to suit different spans and loads.
Fig. 23 shows one design of roof for ten-foot spans. It is a
f^25
fty^*
special adaptation of the system, to cases requiring large protection
to the metal from heat, as in dust chambers of smelters.
Fig. 24 shows light design with finished wood top, suitable for
dwellings, the wood top being more expensive than cement top.
With a cement top the completed structure is but little more ex-
pensive than a wood joist structure for the same purpose. The
floors are absolutely incombustible, sound-proof, and vermin-proof.
Strength and weight tables are furnished by the builders, giving
various depths of floor structures for different spans and loads.
The Metropolitan Company's Floors.
Under this system, which has heretofore been known as the
•'Manhattan*' system, and is protected by letters patent, fire-
proof floors are made as follows :
Cables, each composed of two galvanized wires, twisted, arc
placed at given distances apart over the tops of the beams and
transversely with them, as shown in Fig. 25. These cables i>ass
under bars in the eenfre of the si)ans, and are thus ^iven a uni-
form deflection between each pair of beams. The distance between
the cables is varied with the loads to be provided for. Forms or
centres are then placed under them, and a composition, made prin-
cipally of plaster of Paris and wood chips, is poured on. This
composition solidifies in a few minutes, after which the forms or
iti-j/i FIKK-PliOOF FLOOKti.
ceiitros are removed. 1'he rcsultini; lloor is anfitcientlr stroDf; to
be iiM'il at once uiiilor tiie IoiuIh for which it has been calcukted,
mill UM ids Kiirfni-'C is imiforin itiid bvul with llie tops of thu bnimx,
a working Uimt U llius riiniishwl. 'I'LJs iii of (.'riini advarituKi- in
fiicililaiiujr ihc tinnentt i-(iiislructiuu of builiiinKs.
Fici. 3S.
owM tbn urmnf^nient einplo;rod ill caiWR whura a flat
ntijiiin^I. Id this iirniiij,'eraciit tlie nniler siili! of Ihe
■■■iiixhfs n coiliiiK Hortui-t' n'»ly lor |ilusb.'riu((. Thu
iM iif thu bi'UtDH, |ti-ojcutiu^' ua thuy do bclciw tbo floor-
-rr/
1.1.'-: KhUl rry ilu- n«>r-[>li>t<-H.
iirrnnjfi'iiM-iil fiii|>l(>ytfil whem a flat rciUiif;
PIHE-PBOOF FLOORS. 452c
id desired. In this case Ihe floor-plate i? the same aa in Pig.
26. Tha ceiling-plate is lormed as follows : Dars are placed
upon the lower Annges of the beams, ami on these wire netting
is laid. Centres are placed one incli below the beams, and the
composition is poured thereon. The centres are then removed, and
the ceiling thus made is readf for plastering. Whether a ceiling
like that shown in Pig. 36, or a flat ceiling as shown in Fig. ■4'!. is
osad, the webs of all beams are covered with about three inches in
thiukness of the Metropolitan composition, which thoroughly pro-
tects the beams from the etfeeta of heat It is claimed that this ma-
terial is so remarkable a non-conductor of hat that a moderate
thickness of it prevents the passage of nearly all warmth.
" In.sETere Are tests the l)eams have rfmained cold, and conse-
quentlj were unaffected. When exposed to flame for a long time,
the Metropolitan composition \b attacked to a depth of from ,\- to
A of an inch, the remainder being unaffected ; nnd when nater is
thrown upon it, the mass (iocs not !ly or crack. When made thor-
oughly wet, as would happen from water thrown into a building
during a Are. the composition is nofdestroyod."
In Paris a composition of plaster of Paris and broken brick,
chips, etc , has liocn used for giineraiions f;.r fniiunig ceilings
ijutwpon beams, so tliat the question of its durability is there fully
settled.
The strength of floor? made under the Metropolitan system has
been accurately determinB<l for vitrious spans by 11 great number of
carefully-made tests
" The loads that so break up the oonpositioa of floors made
452^7 FIllE-l'ilOOF FLOOUS.
under this system as to RMjuiro it to be replaced, vary from 1,100
to 2.00) j)<)un(ls ppT square foot on spans of from 4 to 6 feet.
'I'he W(M<^lit of ?i floor finislie:!, as shown in Fig. 26, when ready
for the plaster underneath and the floor above, is about IS pounds
I>er sfiujire toot ; and for a floor and ceiling such as is shown in Kig.
27, 24 pounds per sciuaro foot; the thickness of the floor plate is
alxmt Ji'l iiu'lies.
T1h» proprietors of this system reconmiend that the floor beams
be spa('e<l about i> feet apart, as this distance appears to give the
best results witli the greatest economy.
P'or further information concerning tliis system, the reader is
referred to the Metrojx)litan J^'ire Proofing Co., Trenton, X. J.
There are several styles of floors constructed on the principle of
the Metropolitan floor, although nearly all of the others use Port-
land cement concrete instead of the plaster c<)mi)osition. Wire
lathing, (■xj)anded metal, and various shaped bars are used for the
t(?nsiun menil)ers. The jn'incipal advantage sought in these floors
over the icrra-cotta file arches, is a reduction in the weight of the
fl(K)r, thereby causing a saving in the steel construction. The floors
themselves are also, as a rule, a littie cheaju'r than the tile floors.
Another important characteri.stic of all floors constructed on this
j)rincip]e is, any st^ttling of the anhes. or filling, will tend to draw
tiie beams (»r girdei's together, instead of pushing them apart, as is
the case wiih tile arches ; and tie rods are, therefore, unnecessary.
The strains infl(M>rs of this kind are the same as in those of a
beam, ilie e!V. c t of tlie load Ixnng to pull the tension members ai>art
at ilu' 1k):im:ii. and to ciu>li the concrete on top. Wlien the eon-
(I'ete i> of tlie proper thickness, and of g(XMl ([uality, the stn*ngthof
th«' llonrwill bedetermined l»ythe strength of the tension n)(Mnl)cr>ii.
Several ti'^is ot" beams made oi" .ortlaiid cenuMtt. eoncn'te. and
wile neitiiiLr made by the NciW .lersey Win; Clnih ('om]»any. apjirur
to show that only about one half the strength of the ten>ion ineni-
lK'rs'\\h 11 of wire cloili) can be; d«;velo|H'd. In all floors van-
strueted of coneiTie. plaster, or tile with steel tension nuMnU'rs, it
is ^ii tiie iir^t imiMirtance that tiie two materials shall 1m* so elosi'lv
united that the tension memU'r-? will not be dnitrn thror^h, or slip
ill the eoiiepie : Inr the minute this (K'cui*s, the strength of the
llniT. lis (I III (I III, is (lest roved.
\\ lid« >'iiii" of the^r tension memU'r fl<M)i-s liave been ns«»d .sufTi-
<-ieiiiI\ t(» :iill\ (h'lnonstiate their strength and praetieabiJiiy. yet
th<- wr.'.ei i't'iieves that new arningements n ■ devjees should lie
u^>i| \M!li • At r-ine eaution and oidy after they havi) buuii t4S8ted
an<l apprcVMl i>y experienced eagineers.
FIRE-PROOF FLOORS.
4526
Concrete and Wire Netting Floors.
'■ Pigs. 28, 29, 30, and 31, show two styles of fire-proof floors,
devised by the New Jersey Wire Cloth C'ompany, and described,
together with several other applications of concrete and wire net-
ting, in a pamphlet published by them. The segmental arch shown
^^^r
^
■;*: '
^^
>— J —
''Vl
m
^^v^^^
fiii^'^
m^
^j
Fig. 28.
in Fig. 28 is constructed by forming a centre, made of small rods,
cut the proper length to form the desired curve, and to just reach
into the angles of the web and lower flange of the floor beams.
These rods are inserted between the meshes of wire lathing, and
the sheets, which would be three feet or more in width, are then
Fig. 29.
bent to the curve and sprung into place. A succession of these
sheets placed side by side fill the entire space from wall to wall,
and make a continuous network of iron wire and rods, upon which
concrete can be spread from above without the use of any other
support.
The lower flanges of the beams are covered by wire lathing
attached to a succession of rods hooked over the arch rods and held
in place by the wedges which are inserted between the beams and
the rods.
The under side of the arches and the lathing around the beams
is then plastered and finished in the usual way.
It is claimed that with this construction the strength of the arch
is only limited by the ability of the beams to carry the load.
The weight of the concrete will vary from 30 to 40 pounds per
square foot.
FIllE-i'ROOF PIX)ORS.
Fi^. BO and 31 ahov u flour coustnuitioi: designed on the com-
pcjsiic Ikjuth principle.
It is i'iiii[in.il by till! iiiaimfiiclurerB. that a load ol from 70 to HO
n lie carried
■i of I>VIL1UB.
i^-ljt of the corii^rute. uiru, anil rmls, For both Qoor aad
ceilinj,', "ill vary troiu 8;Ho 4o jiounds |)iT wjnaru fool.
a foot, with a fat-tor o( safety of si
i»ii in spalls of isix feet bftwei'U oi
- iif tilis HiNir ininKlriK'tion is n m-rJeH of rmIs honked over
III tli<> lii'aiiiH. or iiUai-tx'rl ti> iIu'mi liy rliiw iltvitnHil for
'I- Till- rtxU Hre plwcl alxml Iwelvi- iiu-hiH Ui>«rt, Hnd
in' spnixl sIhtIs of wiri' iHlhiiii; riLntiini; piimllcl with
m-r ihc lii|i of till- iH-atiiN. Tlii' coiii-H'li- is tlii-n spn-ad
icivK. ini>-iilli of Iwo tr.llirri'ini-lii-s Nn iTiitcrinK w
- Ilii' iTirw iiii-slii'.-' of Ihi- liilliiiii; iin> mi oI<w loKutlior
iK^iii;) iK'n-li' Hill •,!•< tiiroii^'li lo llrmly >iiii-hiir tb«
■V tl>- ('..tu-n>u- W M-l. iW unili-r sid.- >li<.iilij W iiIkmIiw)
II ^r. i,s to .'lltill.ly >-!I|Ih'.1 till' win- >LII<l hHU.
lis slioiilil In- |iriitii-liil liy win- IilIIimlk and pliiitti'rinR,
KTilal ii'ilhif;, HUjiiHirliHl by linxioH riHla. inay U- hung
b<>rs <a(i In- con^ttnietetl with eiimndiil iiieUl Iftthlog.
FIRE-PROOF FLOORS. 462^
The Fawcett Ventilated Fire-Proof Floor.
This is a style of floor construction differing almost entirely
from any of the floors herein described. It has been used exten-
sively in England, and to some extent in this country.
In the construction of this fire proof floor, the special feature is
a Tubnla/r Lintel^ or hollow tube, made of flre or red chimney pot
clay, and burned mellow.
Iron Beams (of sections to suit the spans and loads) are placed at
two feet centres, and the lintels are fixed between, with their duig-
onals at right angles to the beams ; the end of each bay is squared
by cutting (during manufacture) an ordinary lintel, parallel to the
diagonal ; the piece cut off when reversed goes on the other end.
Thus the ends and sides of all lintels are open next the walls.
These are called ** splits."
The lintels being in position, specially prepared, cement concrete
is filled in between and over them, which takes a direct bearing
upon the bottom flange of the beams, thus relieving the lintels of
the floor load, which is taken by the iron and concrete, the lintels
forming a permanent fire-proof centering, reducing the dead
weight of the floor twenty-five per cent, and saving about half the
concrete.
Cold Air is admitted (through air bricks in the external walls)
into any of the open ends or sides of the lintels, and passes through
them from bay to bay under the beams. Note, only two air bricks
are absolutely necessary in each room, to insure a thorough current
of air.
The flat bottom of the lintel completely incases the bottom
flange of the beam without being in contact with it, a clear half-
inch space being left for the passage of cold air.
It is claimed that the chief tire-resisting agent in this floor is not
so much the terra-cotta or the concrete as the cold air, and that
the circulation of air through the floor and around the beams will
actually prevent the iron from ever getting hot at all.
The Fawcett Company claims that their floors have never been
injured by fire and water, Ixiyond what could be repaired bv replas-
tering the ceiling and redeconiliug the walls. This floor needs no
centering or any other support from below while in course of con-
struction, and can be used as soon as finished. It is guaranteed to
carry fmm 150 to 750 pounds to the square foot, according to the
requirements of the building, with perfect safety.
Although the author has never seen this floor put up, it appears
FIKE-PltOOP FLOOitS.
Ml
m
11 1
i
yi
1
FIBE-PKOOF FLOORS. 463
to him to be a very superior floor, although probably more expen-
sive than the other styles herein described It requires more con-
structional iron work than the systems generally in vogue in this
country.
The Guastavino Tile Arch System.
Within a few years a method of constructing floors, partitions,
staircases, etc., by means of thin tile cemented together so as to
make one solid mass, has been introduced by R. Guastavino, of
New York. The floors in this system are constructed by cover-
ing the space between the girders by a single vault, constructed of
tile about 6" x 8", and ^ inch thick, cemented together in three or
more thicknesses, depending upon the size of the vault. The thick-
ness is generally increased at the haunches. The strength of these
floor vaults, considering their thickness, appears to the author very
remarkable. This method of forming floors is especially desirable
where a vaulted ceiling for decorative purposes is wanted, as the
vault can be made the full size of the room. The iron- work used
for posts and girders must bo piote:jted as in other methods of fire-
proofing. The iron-work of the floors must be especially arranged
for this system when it is desired to use it. As far as the author
can judge from an inspection of the system, it possesses some ad-
vantages over all other present methods of construction (and, pos-
sibly, some disadvantages), and is likely to be largely used in the
future. It has been employed in a number of buildings in New
York and Boston, and a few other cities. The new Public Library
Building in Boston has the Guastavino floor system, which is ar-
ranged so as to give a fine effect of vaulting in the ceiling.
Rules for Determining the Size of I-Beams, etc.
The method of computing the size of the iron beams used in fire-
proof floors is merely to determine the exact load they will have
to support, and tlicn to find the required size of beam to carry tliat
load.
The weight of the floor itself should be determined for each par-
ticular case, as it will vary with the kind and size of tile, the
amount of concrete filling, kind of flooring, etc.
The weight of the arch itself may be taken from the manufact-
urer's catalogue, or from the table on page 445, and to this weight
should be added about 5 pounds per square foot for mortar used in
setting. For each inch in depth of concrete add 8 pounds; for
plastered ceiling, 8 pounds ; for hard-wood flooring, 4 pounds ; for
454
FIUE- PROOF FIDO US.
marble floor tiles, 1 inch thick. 1-1 pounds. The weight of the
betims may bo taken at 5 pouncls per square foot for 9-inch bojuns.
and () pounds lor 10 and 12-inch l)eains. Very few fire-proof floors
will be found to woii^li less than 75 pounds per square foot, and
where marbh^ tiles are used for the flooring? the weight of the (con-
struction often reaches 1)5 pounds. The superimposed loads will, of
course, be the sam(^ as those jLriven on page 426. The weight to be
suj)p»)rted by the beams will be, w = distance between centers x
span of beams x (/ -f /'); / representing the superimposed load,
and /' the weight of the floor construction, including an allowance
for the weight of the beams.
Having obtained the value of this expression, the size of beam
required to carry this load may be easily ol)tained from the tables
in Chapter XIV.'
To save the labor of making these calculations in the principal
classes of buildings in which fire-proof floors are used, the follow-
ing tal)les have been computed, which may be safely relied upon.
Tables of Floor lioains.
Tables showing the size and weight of Carnegie steel beams re-
quired for dilT(»renl spans and sjiacings in different classes of build-
ings, using hollow tile or terra-cot t a between the arches — the
l)eams not to deflect so as to crack the phistering:
TAIiLK I. -F()I{ b'LOOKS IN OKFICKS, IIOTKIjS, AND
.\P.\kTMKXT IIOI SKS.
Mijn riiiip()~cil l(>;i(l, from Si) t«> s.'> pouiulH jkt wiuun- fcwit.)
■'p:!!!.
I ' 1
^ I
■ l»
r. t 11
1 1 r.
^ • 1
■. "« 1 1
kr."
«»r
iir.
i*M^
ill
•
f.-.-!.
I •
■ .1.
If.
■ft
ti iiu
hV.
5f
I'Vt.
■)fl
•et
'. inc
h->.
ti fifi.
In
' ill
!.; ill.-
/
in.
i:i
11)V
I'l
ill.
1.}
Ihs.
•;
in.
13 H»H.
li
in.
^:^ n»ii
11
i.i ••
1
i:»'.
• ■
<
i:.'.
1
i;»i
f
i.M ••
ivi
1.". '•
1
i.-.i
• •
i.-.l
1
ir,}
1
i:> •■
i:i
. .»
1
!.■.'.
* k
^
IS
s
IH
s
IH ••
n
1.'. ••
8
IK
• k
H
IS
s
IS
i»
.J, ..
!.•)
1 .
* ,
\S
k •
')
•Jl
•.»
;>1
<l
•Ji ••
\<\
.,i ..
i»
'U
»»
■ •»
•..M
!l
'.M
lo
•.!5i "
r.
•ji ••
v;i
*'
111
i*,'.
111
•ri:
in
sir>' '•
is
1" ••
•.•:. ■•
]i 1
v»".
• •
111
•J.'.'
HI
•ifi.
V*
4} •*
r.'
In ••
•J". •
Id
..1
• •
10
i-)i
Vi
a-j
\'i
Si ..
•jn
1m •
•.'.". ••
1*1
.'.•J
■ •
1;'
:w
IJ
.ftj
M
*! ••
•.'1
I'.' ••
.. , . .
:«
■ •
V2
•.\'i
• • 1
I-i
.-iV
la
.« "
• >•>
1 .' ■•
• i"*
i>i
:«
» ■
Vi
'. '*
1
Vi
:k
].".
■II "
• »•►
^» 1
1 . • •
I'l
• 1 w
•
v:
:i-3
1
\:.
11
I.*!
It "
•Jl
]■: ■■
>.» . .
i>i
."K
•"
i:.
11
;; 1
i:.
•11
1.1
41 "
>i ,
\-! '■
• ► 1 * •
ITi
11
• •
!:•
11
1.-.
II
iri
41 '•
FIRE-PROOF FLOORS.
455
TABLE II.— FOR FLOORS IN RETAIL STORES,
THEATRES, AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS.
(Superimposed load, from 125 to 180 ponnds per square foot.)
Span,
in
Distances between Centres of Beams.
feet.
4 feet.
4 feet 6 inch's.
5 feet.
5 feet 6 inch's.
6 feet.
10
6 in. -13 lbs.
6 In.— 13 lbs.
7 in.-15ilbs.
7 in.— 16*lb8.
7 in.— 15*lb8.
11
7 " - 15i "
7 " _15| "
7 " —15* "
8 "-18 "
8 "—18 "
12
7 " —15^ "
8 "—18 "
8 " —18 "
8 "—18 "
8 "—18 '*
13
7 " —15^ "
8 "—18 "
8 "—18 "
9 " -21 "
9 "-21 "
14
8 ''—18 "
9 "-21 "
9 "-21 "
9 " -21 "
10 " —25* »*
15
9 "-21 ''
9 "-21 "
9 " -21 "
10 " -25* "
10 "-25* "
16
9 "-21 *'
10 " —25* "
10 " -25* "
10 " -25* "
18 "-82 "
17
10 " — 25J "
10 " -25* "
12 "-32 "
12 " -32 "
12 " -82 "
18
10 " -25* "
12 " -32 "
12 "-32 "
12 " -32 " -
12 "-82 "
19
12 "—32 "
12 "-32 "
12 "-82 "
12 "-32 "
12 " -82 "
20
12 *• —32 "
12 "—32 "
12 "-32 "
12 "-82 "
12 " -40 "
TABLE III.—FOR FLOORS IN WAREHOUSES.
(Superimposed load, from 200 to 210 ponnds per square foot.)
Span,
Distances between Centres of Beams.
in
feet.
1
4 feet. 4 feet 6 inch's. 5 feet.
5 feet 6 inch's.
6 feet.
10
6 ill.- 13 lbs. 6 ill. —13 lbs. 6 in.— 13 lbs.
7 in.— 15Alb8.
7 in.— 15* lbs.
11
7 " -15* *' 1 7 " —15* " 7 •• —15* ••
7 " -15* •'
H "—18 "
12
7 " -15* '
8 " —18 " 8 " —18 "
8 " 18 "
9 " -21 "
18
8 " -18 "
9 " —21 '' 9 " -21 "
9 " -21 "
10 '*-25* "
14
9 " -21 "
9 " -21 " 10 " —25* "
10 " -25* "
10 " -251 •*
15
10 '• - 2.5* "
10 " — 25i " 12 " -32 "
12 " -m "
12 •• 32 "
16
10 " -25i "
12 " -32 " 12 " -32 "
12 " 32 ''
12 " 40 "
17
12 " - 32 "
12 " -32 " ,12 "-32 "
12 " -40 "
15 " 41 "
18
12 " -32 "
15 " -41 " 15 " -41 "
15 ' -41 "
15 "—41 "
19
15 " 41 "
15 " -41 "
15 "—41 "
15 " .'50 •'
15 " -50 "
20
15 •' 41 "
15 " ^11 "
15 "—50 ''
15 " -50 "
15 " —50 "
It will bo seen from these tables that it is more coonomioAl to
space the l^eains farther apart, and use as short spans as the condi-
tions of the building will {)errait.
For example, if we have an office floor 48 feet square, to support
with iron beams and tile arches, wc; may eith(T use one girder down
the centre, with 12-inch beams, spaced 4 feet apart ; or two girders,
and lO-inch beams spiU3ed 6 feet apart. In the former case we
should require 11 beams the full width of the building, weighing
455a FIRE-PROOF FLOORS.
16,896 pounds, and in the latter 7 beams weighing 8,568 pounds, a
saving of nearly 50 per cent, in the steel. From this, however, will
have to be deducted something for extra girders and columns, but
tho total saving would probably equal '^5 \)er cent. In rcganl to the
columns, it will not make much difference in the amount ol' iron
used, whether there are one or two rows, as the total weight to 1)6
supported is the same in either case, and if one row of girders is
used the columns will be closer and heavier than if two rows are
used.
l)<»rtecti(>ii of Rolled I-Reaiiis. — The deflection of rolled
iron I-beams can be computed by Formula 1, under the Stiffne^ts of
BcatHs, Chap. XVI.
Accordiiiir to the calculations of Mr C. L. Strobel, C.E., tho
beams in the foregoing tables will not deflect over one-thirtieth of
an iucli for every foot of span, under the load which they have
been calcnlatcd to support.
T!(»-r<)(ls. — Tie-rods from fivt^-eighths to (me inch in diameter
are ordinarily em])loyed to take the thrust of the bri(rk arches, and
to add to th(^ security of the floor. These may l>e spaced from
eight to ten times the depth of the beams ajiart, and the holes for
them should always be punched at the centre of tlio depth of the
l>eam. The formula for the diamet^^r of the tie-rod for any floor
is,
. W X span of arch, in feet
Diameter 8«iuared ■ .^., . - i • .» i ;
' 6J8;j2 X rise of an-h, m fi»et *
irdenotin;: weight of IKh)!*. and superimjH)srd load nesting on the
arch ii.iU'-way between the tic^-nxls on each side.
i^x.\.MiM.K. What shoul'l 1h* the diameter of the tii^-HKl to take
the thni>i of a 1 brick arch, bctwt'en 10 ' iM'ams, spac«*<l 5 fwt
npart : i he an li having a rise of iJ , and the tic-nxls to Im» sitiicod 7
U'c\ apart ? I'lie su]M'riinpo.«<ed Imul to U' taken at 100 llw.
Anf<. in thisca.>^c the span ■ 5 ftn't, nearly ; W ■ 170 x 5 x 7 ■ ■
5050; and r . fn(.|. Then />- '*".*' "' , ■ 0, <»r /> 1 in4*h.
t>ys."j ' k
nearly.
( )f «M>ui->^r. where arches abut aL^•tinst each siih- of a iH'um. there
is no n< I'll -!' iixis tn take thi' ihnist of the arches : but it is alwavs
safer !•• u-<- •'HIM. as the nntsidt- bay of the thmr might \h' puslied
■ •fV --ifiewise if the who!*' were not tie<l thniugh ; also, if one of the
arehes >hi)(iid fail, or bn'ak through, the hmIs would keep the other
arches in place.
456 ^ILL CONSTliUCTIOXi.
CHAPTER XXIV.
MILL CONSTRUCTION.!
In this ('hai)t('r it is proposed to describe the principal oonstruc*
tivc f«'atun*s of what, in tli«* Eastern States, is known as the " Mill
Const ruction," or **Slow-]>nrnina; Construetion." It is a method
of const rui't ion lirought al)(>nt largely throngh the influence of the
factory imitiial insurance companies, and especially through the
efforts of Mr. William i». Wliitinj^, whose mechanical judgment,
experience, and skill as a manufacturer, have been «levote<lfor many
years to tli* interests of the factory nnitual comiMinies and to the
improv(>ni(>nt of factories of all kinds. Mr. K<lward Atkinson,
presi<lent of tlie IJoston Manufacturers' Mutual Jnsumnce Coni-
])any. has also done a •xreat deal towards influencing the public In
favor nt" tlilN mod*' of construction.
Tlie /// xl'h I'lifmu in this mode of constniction is to have a build-
inu: wli<»c nuoide walls shall he built of niiisonry (g<*nerallyof brick)
con<'«ntraici in piers or buttresses, with only a thin wall i-ontaln-
in^tlie windows l)ctween, and the floors and niof of which shall
1)e conMructf I of liiri^e tinduTS, covered with plank of a suitable
tliickn«»: tin' ::ii'ders heiuL; supporte«l In'twi^'n the walls by W(M)deii
]M><ts. No t'lirrini^ or conc(>aled spa(*es an' allowed, and nothing
is perniitteil which will allow of the accunndation of dirt, the con-
cealni* nt of tire, or, in short, any thini^ that is not needed.
Mr. i\ .1. II. Woodbury, ins]M*ct<»r Utr tin' factory mutual fln»-
insur.iiH'i' conii>anies of Massachusetts, who has written a \iT>"
able 1u)ok on the " Kire rroteetion of Mills" (publisheil by .lobn
Wilev A- SoiiN o;' New York), has ;:iven such conci.se and «*N'ar
stat<ini*nt^ oi what does ami what does not constitute safe iH>n-
stniciion lor niills and warehouses, that with his iKTUiission we
quote thrni nrfnitlin from his wurk.
> Cuts I In t) in thi» rluiptrr an- inkcii fnmi WiMNlhiiryV Kirc lYolecttoil of
MIIIh, iiiiil n-ilu< fil, fii rnnf«iriii lo tlio i-ixc of ilif imh^v
MILL CONSTRUCTION. 457
r
'^ Prevailiiig' Features of Bad Constrnetion of
Mills and Storehouses. — The experience of the Factory
Mutuals has shown that in mill and storehouse construction,
where considerations of safety, convenience, and stability are es*
sential, tlie following prevalent features of bad construction should
be omitted : —
" Bad roofs.
" Rafters of plank, eighteen to twenty-four inches between
centres, set edgewise.
" Any roof-plank less than two inches thick (three inches pre-
ferred) ; any covering which is not grooved and splined.
" Any hollow space of an inch or more in a roof.
'^ Any and every mode of sheathing on the inside of the roof so
as to leave a hollow space.
" Any and every kind of metal roof, except a tin or copper cover-
ing on plank.
" Boxed cornices of every kind.
" Bad floors containing hollow spaces or unnecessary openings.
" Thin or thick floors resting on plank set edgewise, eighteen to
twenty-four inches between centres.
"All sheathing nailed to the under side of plank or timber,
making a hollow floor.
** Bad finish, leaving hollow spaces, or flues.
"All inside finish which is furred off so as to leave a space
between the finish and the wall.
" Wooden dados, if furred off.
" Open elevators.
" Iron doors, iron shutters.
" Any and all concealed spaces, wooden flues, or wooden ven-
tilators of every kind, in which fire can lurk or spread, and be pro-
tected from water.
" Any and all openings from one floor to another, or from one
department to another, except such as. are absolutely required for
the conduct of the business (all necessary openings should be pro-
tected by self-closing hatches or shutters, or by adequate wooden
fire-doors covered with tin; automatic doors preferred in many
places).
" Ji^ssential Features for the Safe Construction
of Mills an<l Storehouses. — Solid beams, or double beams
bolted near together, eight to ten feet between centres. Not to be
painted, varnished, or * filled' for at least three years, after the
building is finished, lest dry-rot should ensue. Ends of timbers
ventilated by an inch air-space each side in the masonry.
" Roof nearly flat. Timbers laid across the tops of the walls to
>•
458 MILL CONSTRUCrriON
project eighteen to thirty-six inches, as may be desired, serving as
brackets. Plank laid to the ends of the timbers. Neither gutters
nor boxod cornices of any kind. Wooden ])osts of suitable size,
not taperctl, unless wlu^n single posts turned from the trunks ot
trees with tlu^ heart as a centre, following the natural ta]H?r. <.'ore.s
})()re(l one and a half inches diameter ; two half-inch holes trans-
ver.-.ely through tlu* post n(^ar top and bottom for ventilation.
" Floor-i)lanks not less than three inches thick for eight-foot
bays, three and a half to four for wider bays. In some cases,
beams have b(?en i)laced twelve feet apart, witli four-inch plank for
th<* floor ; but in such cases a careful computation of the strength
should be madt*, based upon the load to be placed thereon, l)efore
so wide a s})ace between beams is adopted, lest there sliould \ye. ex-
Cisssive dellection. 'I'he better method, wliere tlie arrangement of
the machin(»ry reipiires such wide l)ays, is to alter the plan of floor-
timbers. Toj) lloor one and a quarter inch boards of Southern
pin<', mjiplc, or some hard wood. The best construction requints
this top I'ioor to Ih' laid over three-quarter inch mortar, or two
thicknesses of rosin-sized sheath ing-paiR»r, certain grades of which
are now made especially for this piU'i>ose.
••All rooms in which sp<'cial dangers exist, such as hot drj'ing,
to be ])n)tcct«Ml overhead with jdastering on wire-lath, following the
•inc of ceilin!^ and timlnT, thus avoiding any cavity in the ceilirg.
In su'h rooms, the wooilen i)Osts should also be i)rott»cted with tin;
car«' hciiii: taken to leave the half-inch holes through the ])us'.8
mar \h*' top and base uncovered, so that dr>-rot may not take
r:acc.
Kig. 1 re])»-(»s'nts th<' iM*op<T const met ion of one bay of a thie-"-
siory ndll, e:it]i bay being like the others, and the building In-ii ^■
iorniid of auN number of su<'h bays pla.'eil one aft4*r the otluT.
Such a buil ling cannot be <'onsidered as fire-pnH)f: but the im'-
terial In in ^iuli a sha])«' that it would not reailily take tin*, aM-.-
wonll l»ui n >Io\vly even ihen. Moreover, the construction is mm-I .
that any jtari of the building can be easily reached by a stream •*:
wale,- : so ijiat a lin* <"an be n'adilv extinguisheil In'fon* it ha.
gaine I inueli headway.
Ill a luiik Imildinii im 'jraiiHr shnnhl fir ?/«cf/. except f«)r sti'pr
and nndi-rpiniiinLr. a^ it sjdits badly when ex)K)s<Mi to heat, an 1 i.*
theretme nn -uitablf for <<ills or lintels, or any work liable to Ih»
exiM)s('ii to an\ intense h«'at in case the building >hoiild In' on tlrt*.
'I'he hi^t i|Mahiies oi br«>\\n sandstone maybe u.sin! fur sills, aiiik
for nihei- |)|aecs it would be blotter to use brick or ttTfaHHtttu.
Mnnl ]•■ I liri<-ks ari> now manufactured in a gn*al variety of fornit.
and are nell suii,.d for deconilive work.
MILL CONSTRUCTION.
45\
The best factories and woollen mills Is Husachusetta are now
generally bulll with the beams eiRht teel. apart from centres, end
with a span of twpnty-flve or twcncy-tour feet, there being one or
more rows of posts ai^oriling to the size of the mill. Fig. I repre-
sents the section of a mill having two rows of posts.
Fig. I.
The floor-heams are iwually twelve inches by fourteen inches
hanl-pinn tliiihers,' which n>st on twenty-inc'h brick piers in the
basement, antl on wnwleii posts and the outside walls in the other
Stories. The ends u'liicli rest on the outside wail are arranged so
BB to iiave an air-spncit around tlie end of the timber, and are
aTH'hon'd to the wall by a cast-iran plate on which the beam resls.
Tills plate, shown in I'ig. 2, has a transverse projection on the
lllHHT sui-fai-c, wlilc'h fit^i into a groove in the bottom of the beam,
and is turned down alHiut six tuehes into the brickwork at the
encl. The hrlekwiirk for about five courseji above the beam sliotild
be laid dry, and the upper edge of the end of the beam slijtlitly
rounded. In ease of tlie possible hiimlng of the beam, this would
allow the beam to fall without throwing ont the wall.
Tlif finnr an top of these iH'ams is ronstnicted, first, of three-
Inch planks, not over nine Inches wide, planed both sides, and
grooved on both cdgis, which are filled with splines of hard wood
(generally haiil pini>) alM>ut lliri>i'-f<iiu'tlis of an inch by an inch
im MILL CONSTRUCTION.
[Ill A lialf. In ciailin^ the planks, it la l)etter to "blind nfUl"
lipiii. !<t'U.'i tlie iiiann<^r of iiailitig miLtrhed floors in dwelling-IiouMt
ml storfis ; tliat is, ilriviiij; tin- nails obliiiiiely LliroiiRli th« Rroove
I't'oru t!ie a[itinu la put ill : lliis hIIouh Lite plank to sUrink or
u't'll without tracking, and wilbout afliliin^ ttic s)ilin(>g.
Fl(. 2.
nalli'il In tlih way. rarli pinnk miul
|iiit <liinii. Tills lakfH (-onstilfrahle
ay a niiiiilxT of planks, Wiilj;!' Ilii'iu
lliic-s fiiini oni'. cnil, &nd nail Uirw.'tly
Fig. 3.
Till' ujipcT tliMiiinir is p-iii'ially o( sonic liant wooil, an iiirli wml
'liuiriir rliU k. iin'ri-ly .joliiI.'<i.
■■ -I'll.' Ill »ir,-.^l.. mill ii.- ivn.irn-il ua(iT-(iylit l.y flim-folinlis i>( an
.■liof iii..rkiilu.riv.-.-ri (hr III.].!-!' .111.1 lowri' (l.,..is. Til.' Iiiyi'r ot
oiuir |.iv.,TV- III.' Iiiiiilirr from il.riiy. jiivM-iils iW ll.M.r fniin
':ii'ly III" pi'i'iif llian iiny ntli'T I'llii'llral iih'IIliiiI of iMnHlrm-
liu. :; -lii.iis J. si-i'iinii ilirnii-li mi.1i a lliM.ra- v.>- liavi- iIi-wtMhiI.
h- .■:;/ j. :;iii,-r:ill> iDiuuii of U-ii-iiic-li liy 1Hi-lvi'-iiii-li lianl-I'llw
MILL CONSTKUCTIOM. 461
timbers placed the same as those below; and the outside end is
allowed to project over the wall from eighteen inches to two feet,
forming brackets to support the eaves. These timbers are covered
with two and a half or three inch spruce plank, grooved and
splined the same as for the floors. The plank extend to the end of
the overhanging timbers, and form the eaves to the building, no
boxed cornice being allowed. If the roof is flat, as is generally
the case in mills and factories, the plank should be covered with
tin, gravel, or duck.
If tin is used, it should be the best " M. F." tin, painted on
the under side with two coats of red-lead, and well dried before the
sheets are laid.
If a gravel roof is used, it should be equal to the best quality of
tar-and-gravel roofing over four thicknesses of the best roofing-felt.
Cotton duck is gradually coming into use as a roofing material, and
has for a long time been used for covering parts of vessels. It is
light, durable, does not leak, and is not readily inflammable.
The material should be twelve-ounce duck, weighing sixteen
ounces to the square yard, and should be thoroughly stretched, and
tacked with seventeen-ounce tinned carpet-tacks, the edges being
lapped about an inch. If the roof-planks are rough, or not of an
even thickness, a layer of heavy roofing-paper should be laid before
the duck is put down. After the duck is laid, it should be thoroughly
wet, and then painted with white-lead and boiled linseed-oil before
it becomes dry ; which makes it water-proof. To protect from fire,
give it two more coats of white-lead, and over this a coat of iron-
clad paint. Instead of the four coats of white-lead and oil, the
duck may be saturated with a hot application of pine-tar thinned
with boiled linseed-oil. This lias been found to work perfectly.
The ironclad paint should be applied, whichever method is used.
If the roof is pitched, it should be covered with shingles or slate
laid over three-quarters of an inch of mortar; which protects the
slate from the heat, should the building take fire, and rentiers
the roof cooler in summer, and warmer in .wintei*, whether slate or
shingles are used. Where there are no buildings near, shingles are
recommended, as they are warmer than slate (thus saving in the
cost of heating), and are also cooler in summer. If the shingles
are painted, which is advisable, they should be dipped in paint
before being laid, so as to be entirely covered on all sides with
paint: otherwise, moisture Avill get into the shingle through tlie
place not painted, and, being prevented from evaporating by the
paint on the outside, will rot the shingle.
The columns for such a mill are usually round columns, nine
incbee diameter in the first story, eight in the second, and seven i&
4(12 Mll.r, CONSTttUCTION.
tlie third; thpse l>eine Uie least diamet<'rs of the columns. Ifth<
(■"luniris iirc tapered, t1»!)- may he half (in inch loss in diameter al
the top, and oiu: itiHi [iiore at the bottom, making the taper on
FI9, 4.
hf I'dliiinn thrfc-foiiiths of an inch. They nhniild
iiir'l-piiir or 'i'(k tiiiiliiT. tlmLims(lily seasoned, and
ire.s Imr.'d one ami a half hirhw In illanietcr. with
lii>li's Iransvi'rsiOy tlinMigh the [mst, npar top ami
lit ilat ion mill to pri'vi'iit di-j-rot. Tlif tytlimins aro
iM.<t-irim cuits. as shiiim in V\!i. 4. wliid) support
•• Ilooi-beaiiis; ami, "hi'ii" there Is a vcrtlL-al line ul
u:i1i iron itinllMi, wlileli ounnert
of tiM-oIlii-r. ;in'V<'ntii)grhpKiii^
I by the ueigliC oil tin euluiimii
MILL CONSTRUCTION.
463
above. The ends of the pintles and the iron plates against which
they rest should be turned true, so that the contact will be uni-
form. Fig. 5 represents a vertical section through the floor and
the centre of the columns, and Fig. 6 shows a perspective view of
a pintle with the base of the upper column coming down over the
top. The brick piers in the basement supporting the columns
should be capped with an iron plate twenty inches by twenty
inches, an inch and three-fourths thick.
The above is the most approved method of construction now in
vogue for mills, factories, and storehouses; and the dimensions
given for the various parts will answer for any cotton
or woollen factory where the bays are not more than
eight feet long from centres. Where the bays are
more than this, or the loads on the floors are greater,
as may be the case in storehouses, the floor-plank and
timbers should be proportioned according to the rules
for strength and stiffness given in Chap. XXII., and
the columns proportioned according to the rule given
in Chap. XI.
ff partitions are desired in such a mill or store-
house, they should be built of two-inch tongued and
grooved plank placed together on end (forming a solid
partition), and plastered both sides, either on wire, or
on dovetailed iron lath. Such partitions have been
found to work well after a trial of twelve years, and
offer effectual resistance to fire.
Mill doors and shutters should be built of two
thicknesses of inch boards, covered on all sides with
tin, as described in Chaj). XXVI.
For a thorough description of the apparatus and appliances used
for the fire protection of mills, and for a thorough discussion of
the vibration of mills, the deflection of the floor-planks, and, in
fact, every thing that refers to the construction and protection
of mills and factories, the reader is referred to Mr. Woodbury's
work on Ihe "Fire Protection of Mills," mentioned al)ove.
The cost, per square foot of total floor area of mills and factories
at the present time (1884), according to Mr. Edward Atkinson, is
as follows : —
Mill with three stories for machinery, and a base-
ment for miscellaneous purposes 75 to 80 cts.
Mill with two stories for machinery, and no l)a«ement 65 "
Mill with one story, of about one acre of floor, with
basement for heating and drainage only . . . about 85 **
The above is for the total area of floors in the building, above
Fig. 6.
MILL OONSTBUCTION. 466
ncrt eTen weakened by the sftace left in the wall, because the anchor
remalnB, and the crashing strength of this cast-iroa box is much
greater than that of the wall. No break or breach is made in the
vail, and. the anchor that remains, securely held, forms a space for
the easy repiaeoment of joist. The anchor provides a perfect and
seoiire foundation for each joist. Fire from a defiictive flue cannot
ignite a joist end, because it is protected by a rentllated east-iron
box.
The boxes, or anchors, also have air spaces in the sides, J inch
wide, which permit a eircujation of air around the ends of the joist,
effectually preventing dry rot in Che ends of tile timbers.
If timber is wet or unseasoned it will have a ohanca to dry out
after it is put in the buildiiin- Tliea; aur^hors are obviously greatly
superior to the ordinary method of anchoring beams and girders to
walls, and their use would, in case of fire, undoubtedly save much
loss by the falling of the walls, which are almost invariably
MILL CONSTHL-CTIOS.
pulltnl ciown by tlio ordinary iron anchors. The avenifie wdght ol
alinx liki; Fig. 7. Tor 2 x li joist, in l.j lu 17 lbs.; of Fig. 8, from
woihI [Hists. Thw OB]) linlds
. piuviik-s vuntiliiliim uIh>uI
T..U..ri}
ii'l I.
I .laii
«<iTilnl liinlior' tn fall.
■n,.-. ; li..r.. ,in<l .-111^ iir.- r.''-..]iirii.iiiii'il l.v Ih.- fiK-tiiry iiiiiriml
iiiojr: ,.|„, i,.s <>r N<'»- l':ii:.'liiiL.). :itia <-Mli >'•' iiiii.li- ill aliv
f..iii. :ry. t.y |.:.yiiii: ii mviilly ..C : r.[ a .vtil jkt |..iiii<l on »lt tliiit
:ir.'i..;. i.-. '.- ihr ti.^-fx ll..\ Aii'Liir ('..in|.iiiiy. of N'lw AllKiny. 1ml.
r It.iv ;. r,..;.' \- . ■,.. „f l-.n^iklvTi \. Y,. Ii;nv p:.1i-iil...| l|„>„i„ ti..rs
iiiirl .'.'.|. -i,:x', i„ ri:r I ]. I (!.,.y |,„v.. lavn lis. > ;i sM.T
!l)>'. <'\'< II'. Til.' '':it> itiiriT- rilllll 'hr <iiii'l^ .':i|l [.rill<-i[1lll> ill llli-
Miii-ii'ii i f I'iii- for 111,- |1l^.j,.Iill-ril. I'liii'li li..|iU llu' liliil- r>i.
ll i- I'i^ii'.i,.] i)i:it III.. |.iii...i.>iiMt ,7iii<i' Ilii- liiiiN'r. (■K'li.'ck Hiiil
111,, liiiilnr- t.i il ,',|, K.iili..|- „nli,..-. r,.riiis ..f I'lifsulKl 1111,'linrs
is sii|ii.rii>i' til lliiiM' in i-niiiiiinii um', Tlu'y iiiiisl iiul lie u*sl, hu«r-
evcr, witLuut u IIuvH-w fruiu tlic jmluaUHM.
FIBE-PBOOF OONSTEUCTION FOB BUIIJ)INQS. 467
CHAPTER XXV.
MATERIALS AND METHODS OF FIRE-PROOF
CONSTRUCTION FOR BUIIiDINGS.
The terai fire-proof is applied to various kinds of buildings,
sometimes correctly, but more often incorrectly.
The buildings most generally referred to by this term may be
classed as follows :
1st. Those in which all the structural parts, both on the interior
and exterior, are of non-combustible materials carefully protected
from the action of fire by fire-resisting materials. (See also quota-
tion from Chicago building ordinance, page 485.)
2d. Those built on the so-called •* mill principle," and protected
by fire-proof material.
3d. Those built in the usual manner with wooden construction,
and protected by fire-proof material. Of these classes the first is
the only one that is considered by experts to be absolutely impreg-
nable to the effects of fire.
MATERIALS.
Various materials have been introduced for the purpose of mak-
ing incombustible buildings, and for the purpose of fire-proof pro-
tection of other materials in structural parts of buildings, all more
or less effective. Experience, however, has shown that the only
materials upon which it is safe to rely are the products of clay,
some concretes, and lime mortar under certain conditions. Plaster
blocks have been found to be useless to withstand the effects of fire,
moisture, and frost. The lime of Teil was for several years used in
the manufacture of fire proof material, but to the best knowledge
of the writer this has been discarded. All methods of fire-proofing
by the use of exposed iron in any form are also acknowledged to be
ineflicient. Of all materials, burnt clay has the most numerous
applications in incomI)ustible building. It stands preeminently
first as the most efiicieni fire-proof material in all departments of
building, and especially so for interior filling of floors and parti-
tions. For this it is used in hollow tiles of two general kinds.
Tliey are known by several different names : the one by such as
porous terra-cotta, terra cotta lumber, cellular pottery, porous til-
40^ FIKE-PROOF COXSTRrrTTOX FOR BriLDIX"08.
in^, otr-. ; the other by fire-clay tile, Iiollow pottery, hard tile, terra-
coUa, <lonso tiliiip:, etc For convenience, the first is herein referred
to as porous tiling, and the second as di.*nsL' tiling Tht» terms
" hollow tiling "' ahd "fireproof tiling" will Ikj usid when Ixiih
are r< IVrred to in ii general way. They will 'oe descrilxnl in Ihoir
order.
l*or<Mis Tiliii$4:. — A substance formed by mixing sawdust with
pun' clay and submitting it. to nn intense heat, by tho action oi
which the siwdust is destroyed. leaving the material Jijjhl an>l
poroiw. like pumice-stone. When prop«*rly mailc it will not cnkk
or br. ak Irom unerjual heating, or from l»eing suildenly cooUmI l)y
water wIitMi in a heated condition. It can also bo cut with a 9av
or edire tools, and nails or screws may be ea>ily driven into it for
si-.urin;_' interior finish, slates, tiles, etc. For the successful r»'si>t-
ancc (M li< at, and as a non-c(mdu(-tor. thei*o is no building nmterial
«<iua! to it. A"^ a casing, covering, or lining for the protection of
(•tiicr material, it is to 1h.» preierrcfl alx)ve every oihor material.
li shnul.l bi* manuiactun'd from touixh. plastic clays. A small
jHTi-i-ntaLTf of lire-clay mixed in is«h'sirable but not essential.
Till- {)i'oporlioii of sjiwdusl .should be from forty to sixty per
cent., jic- onling to toughness of clay use<l. ('are is nH|uin>tl in
m.-iiiur.-K-i ire that the work of idxing, drying, and burning be
i)i<ii'<Mi:.-|il\ •joMi*. The bui'uing should be done in down-iiniuglit
kii:i> ii\ I .iek process. Tin* prcxhiet should Ihj compact, tmigh,
aii'i ii.!;- :. riniring when struck wiih metal. Pixjrly mixed, pn*s«!iHl,
nr Ii .riie j lil--^, nr tiles from >luiri or sjindy clays, present a nigged,
^r)^:. .iifl eruiiibly apjiearaiicc, and mv nut desirable.
.\ ;i:- hPHii fllliui; and protecting material should lie substantial
a- \\\: .- iti(-<i]riliusiible. In a building made of alisolutely inctini-
li!i-:iM-- i:i;iieria!< it isnf the first i!n|)ortance t!iat the firi»-pnH»flng
If- .iM- i<- \vith<ia!id niiii^h usage, for, in th«' event of Hn». daniat:!'
to til -tnietural parts will lie serious if thefire-))rix)fingisdisliMi>:iHl,
Hi'ls . I jiMvt. .ir yields to the aetii;:i of fire, or of waliT when a fire
i> in prii;^' :•■>■■;. or if it- cullajises under sudileii liwiiN, jars, or imfiiu->.
.-ilih<<u.:li !'-i(> nriier<;<| ii<. If may not burn a! all. In siicti huiM-
ii;_- iji.liiiiMu' '!ualiii'>:. b-ith <if the Hre-pr'Mif material and its (•••n-
-;■ . rii'ii. :■.'•>• as vit.il aii'l import mt as the incombustibility «if the
Hi. I* rial, in the eveu' t'f !i"e. the fir>l ilaiiLT'-r i< fii»m the (-olla{x«*
of !-. m.i'-ri.ii and imi frum its cundiusiioii. l'!x[H'rii'ner has
sh-i 'I •■;.!' I'r*- j»r«M»| till- if p'a-iii- i-lav'*, w iieu jMirou.s an* iiiore
enduriii.' ih.-tn den>'e tilcN, i>\cii it I In* deiiNC ii|i-> Ih- tif (larl «ir ail
fire>-!'.iy. iNinais tiles are tough and ila.<tie. Men.<«e tiles are hanl
and uriitle The most esM-ntial reipti^itcs of a fire pnKif filliugand
FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION FOR BUILDINGS. 469
protecting material are these : It should be tough, not easily shat-
tered by impact ; non-expansive, not easily cracked by heating or
cooling ; slightly elastic, yielding gradually to excessive loads, but
not breaking or collapsing ; compact and hard burned, but not
dense ; strong enough, but not of excessive crushing strength.
Blocks should bo light weight by being porous, but not by having
thin shell and webs ; should be built in between beams by such
metiiods as bring all parts of the tiles into position to do the great-
est service, whereby n. structural eflBciency equal to the efficiency of
the material is obtained. These requirements are very fully met
by properly made and properly built-in porous tiling. Shells of
porous tiles should be from seven -eighths to one inch thick, and
webs from three-quarters to seven -eighths, according to size of
hollows.
Dense Tiling;, — Next to porous tiling as a fire-resisting mate-
rial must be placed dense tiling, also a product of clay. It is made
into hollow tiles of much the same shape and size as porous tiling.
A variety of clays are used. Most manufacturers, though not all,
use more or less fire-clay, and combine with it potter's clay, plastic
clays, or tough brick clays. It is very dense, and possesses high
crushing strength. In outer walls exposed to weather, required to
be light, it is very desirable. Some manufacturers furnish it with
a semi-glazed surface for outer walls of buildings. For such use it
has great durability, and effectually stops moisture. In using dense
tiling for fire- proof filling, care should be taken that the tiles are
free from cracks, and sound and hard burnt.
In the earlier days of fire proof construction dense tiling seemed
to supply the wants very well, but in later years the improvements
in the manufacture of porous tiling have resulted in the displace-
ment of dense tiling to a considerable extent.
Concrete. — Concrete made of Portland cement mixed with
broken pieces of burnt fire-clay, broken bricks or tiles, burnt
ballast or slag, and clear sand, is said to resist an intense heat suc-
cessfully. It is recommended for fire-proof construction by English
writers, and concrete construction has been largely used in Cali-
fornia on account of its fire-proof qualities.
Thaddeus Hyatt, who invented the process of combining iron
and concrete so as to resist transverse strains, describes a remarka-
bly severe test by both fire and water, of concrete construction, in
a work published by him. entitled, Portland Cement Concrete Com-
bined mth Iron as a Building Material. The concrete was heavily
loaded and heated red-hot on the under side, when a stream of
water was thrown against it for a period of fifteen minutes, and
47l» FiI{i:-JM:()OI' CON'STKrCTlOX FOR uriLDixos.
the stren«^lli (jr (lumbilitv of tin* (Mincrote nunaiiKMl unuircottHniv
tin- tl'>t.
l*ias(or, or IjIIIU* Mortar, wIhmi dirccily appliei I in brick
or lilr. will witlistaml llio acliiuior hotli lire iiiid "Mhr; ;.lso \»!nu
«j»I>Iie«l to tlir suitncc of j)l!inks ami tii!il»i'r> l>y im-juis oi win.- lalli-
illu^ ]ir(A'icl('(l ii lill.s all thr spaci* l«!t\\'('rii lin- wiir ainl ilu' tiiiiiicr.
JMa>t«':- oil win- Jatli, appliiMl to a ci'ilin.r "ii tin umh-r >i«lf uf
\v«>(».lcn joisi s])a('('(l 1:2 or 10 inches on renin's, will sue(vs.-riiily
ri "-i.-xi an, <»r(!inarv fire, 1 ml is lial)h' to Ik- dania'Ti'il l>v \v;'.ii-r.
PlaNi.'r Itlocks are not siiilal)le as a tire-proof material. In usiiiir
linn- [»la>tir ri>r fire-ju'oof proti-etion. il slionM not tM)niain any
j)l.i>ii'i' of Paris.
l>ri<'k and St oiio.— Common brick will wiihtJtunW a u'nat
anii'iirit of Ileal wiiliont malerial (lania«;e, tlion^'li mil in so j^real a
(ie;;n'i- a- liir brick, jiorous terra-c<itta, ami lire clay tile. S«»nif
>:iml>i<'nr> «io imi appear to be mncli aifccied by heal, csin'ciiJiy
ijii.^f c' niaininLT «'«>ii>i«leral)le iron. Marl)le, limcsiono, an«l .i;raiiitr
biiiiiiH- .•.»iiii)j.t»M\ desir«»ve<l under till- ai-lion «:f inien*^* heat and
water, and .-liniiid luu be useil in pla<'es when I In- stability <il" the
biiildiiiLr \\oiild Ix' endan*;* re<l by ilielr demoliiion. Terraroiia is
undt'wbi.'dly the b«si iin-proof material I'ttr ilie i-xieri<»r <leeoratinn
<»l biilldiii:,'^.
MKTIIODS (H-' lOXSTUrCTloN.
]. niilMiii'^'s (*oiistrti(*t<Mi ol* liiroiiilMistihh* Mat€'-
riaK projirrly l*rot ortod.— 'i'he mellnnis of construe: iin;
iii< ir-'H I l-iiildJMu^ liavr been Lrr»'ally improved during: tiic past li-w
. ■.!!>. alii: i-t •■•iinplilcly !e\ olul ionizJn;; t lie old inetlaNis o] build
iiij. Tl.- id«al liri priM)f buildin;: should Im« con^tructid cuiinly
*'\ iidii iir >i-'.l. drf>-M'd <in the oulsidc with lirick. sanil>t<»ni-. or
lci:a <■■ ta. and j.roU;cle(l on the inside by Iiri'-pnK)f inatt-rials.
Til- n.o-i apjirovj'd metiuxl of c«inslrui-iin^ hijrh buililini;s is lo
■ ■■liiM tlif loundation (U the i>olal«-d pii-r >y^ti-m. and oii top f)f
liicNi- pifis place >ieel nr w rouirlil-iron cobimi; cMendiui; t)in>UL;h
(^■■i!itir< i- '-.dii lit till- bnihfiinr. bdilinn i he n .t-ide walls and in
*ihi' iiiii ijiii" of ihe b^ildiiiir Al ca<!i lln-ir hvel ifoii Lrivdi-r> an*
bolted I"'!,.- ('(.liimn-. anil llh* whnle sv«.tem braceil bv diair'Hial
tie> in tin- ihn-kiii-N'* nf the Ihinr. 'rhu< i< f.irmed an iron «•!• ^teil
ca;:c rt>liiiL' ' uiirely mi t! .- foundaliitn piei"s aiiu 'hich. sn l«»ii;: as
ii can bi-kij-t irDiii lIn- a>-iioij of heal and iiMii-tiire, will endure
fi»n-vi-r. 'I'll'- ••lii'.iile «;dl- are then biiili nf lirick. shine, nr lerni-
cutla. cn<lo>iii.; il:e biiiliiiuLT and proiectiii^ lis contents fruin thv
FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION FOR BUILDINGS. 471
weather. Only sufficient, strength is required in this wall to with-
stand its own weight, and if any of it should be destroyed it would
not cause the destruction of the building. The interior columns
should be encased by porous terra-cutta or fire-clay tiles, finished
in plaster or Keene's cement, or Portland cement if preferred, and
the floors should be constructed of iron beams filled in between
with tile arches, the bottom and top of the beams being carefully
pi'otected by the same material.
All partitions for dividing the various floors into rooms, cor-
ridoi-s, etc., should be built of fire- proof partition tile, or hollow
bricks, and the roof and upper ceiling should also be constructed
of the same material, supported by iron-work. In such a building
it is impossible for the construction of the building to be en-
dangered by either a local fire or by a conflagration, though the
inside finish may be entirely consumed. It is possible, however,
to finish the building in such a way that there will be but little
wood to consume, which could be easily replaced ; also, by provid-
ing fire-doors to the openings in the fire-proof partitions, any fire
originating in the building can be confined to the part of the build-
ing in which it started.
DETAILS OF OONSTRUOTION.
Floors. — The various approved methods of constructing fire-
proof floors have been described in Chapter XXIII.
Iron Columns. — The destruction of iron columns by in-
cipient fires has been the common cause of the loss of vast amounts
of property ever since iron columns have been useil. Their destruc-
tion during fires, in buildings supposed to be flre-proof and in
which incombustible materials of construction have been used,
has shown the necessity for protecting them from the effects of
intense heat under all circumstances. These disastrous effects
have been intensified by the sudden throwing of cold water upon
the heated columns, causing them to bend suddenly by contraction
on the side upon which water is thrown, and consequently to break
with ordinary loads. The expansion which occurs in iron columns
before they have bec^n materially weakened by heat is another cle-
ment of weakness. The first result in such cases is to raise the
floors or walls ; and inasmuch as the strain required to raise them
is much greater than that needed to hold them, the work to be done
by the columns is much greater under such circumstances.
The almost universal practice at the present day is to use
wrought-iron and steel posts for the interior supports, and protect
FIBE-PBOOP CONBTKUOTION FOE BUILDISOB. 4T3a
the floors, the aams material vill generally be beat lor protecting
tbo girders. Fig. 6e shows several wsjs in which this maj be
Fib. Oa, -'Two-foot Coluhh CovuuHae ur tdb Fab«t BinLDDre.
©
Pio. ».— Section or CisT-raON Comm
Fib. tc.—Vax-SBoor SountB Cots
A'i'lh FIRE-PKOOF t'OXSTUUCTION FOU BUILDINGS.
e:5.¥5".W VS* Toa\v\vo^'Yv\v-»«.\oaa****^
Partitious.
The method at present most in favor for constructing fire-proof
partitions apiieai-s to i)e by tlio use of hollow blocks or tiles, of
either dense or |)or()U£> terracotta. Partitions arc sometiinct; built
by using 4-inch isteel
beams for studding, and
fastening metal lathing
on each side ; but this is
not as practical a iMir-
tition as one made of
torra-cotta blocks. Par-
titions constructed of terra-cotta blocks, either donso or porous,
have many vMluable features other than their tire-proof qualities.
They have the greatest degree of strength combined with light-
ness. They are entirely vermin pro«jf, and do not reatlily transmit
cold. heat, or sound. Wiien dense tile are used, courses of porous
tile should be placed op|)osite the l^ase or any wood mouldings, as
they will receive and hold the nails while the dense tile are apt to
be ))rokon by the nails. Several styles of partition blocks are mana-
factiired. of both dense and porous terra-cotta. some with grooved
or (love tailed surfaces, and others with plain surfaces.
Tiie weiu'ht of ))artition tile per square foot will average about
as follows :
WF.IGIIT PER SyrARK FOOT OP TERRA-COTTA
PARTITION BLOCKS.
Den-sf T«Tra-cotra.
\Vt. per Ml
flH>t, IbK.
:j inches thick 13
4 '• •' j 17
't ..... «w
r» ■ •• ! -JG
7 *■ •• i w^
8 •• •• ' :«
i:
Porous Ti'ira-cotta.
Wt. per nq.
foot, IImi.
3 inches thick
4 m h ■ •
• ■ ■ • I
5 " •• '
« •• •• ]
7 ** " !
« •• ••
12
17
21
26
82
38
Til ill rin»-pr<H>l* Partitions.- Tn a considoniblt* extent in
finicf l)uililiiii;s. sonic hotels and apartment hi>uscs, iiartitioQS are
n>i'v uscil which flni^ih fninioneatid thn*e-«|uarter inches to two and
thri'c-<|iiar-tcr iiiche<« in total thicknesb. There are a number of dif-
ferent dcvii-es and methods, all accomplishing substantially Um
FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION FOR BUILDINGS. 472c
same results. Prominent among them are the expanded metal
companies, using cliannel bars or flat bars and expanded metal
lathing' ; the Lee Fire Proof Construction Company, using a core
of one-inch tile, and burying Lee tension rods ^similar to those
used in the flooi-s) in thv; plastering on each side ; the Doring Fire-
proofing Company, using rods, bars or channels, and burlaps ; and
the two-inch porous terra-cotta [)artition made by Henry Maurer &
Son. The expanded metal system requires a scratch coat of plaster-
ing on one side, the usual brown coat work on each side, and the
usual finish coat on each side — altogether, five coats for the com-
pleted partition. The Lee and Maurer systems require no scratch
coat, but the usual brown coating on each side, as done with hard-
setting mortar, and the finishing coats. The Doring requires a
scratch coat on each side, and then the usual brown and finishing
coats.
An essential thing for all thin partiti<ms is that the plastering
be of hard-setting mortar, such as Acme Cement, King's Windsor,
Adamant, Rock Wall, and many others. The walls largely acquire
their stififness from the solidity of the plastering ; hence the firmer
and harder the plastering, the more substantial the walls.
Roofs. — For mansard roofs the most economical method of
constniction is by using I-beams, set 5 to 7 feet apart, and filled in
between with 3-inch hollow partition tile, provision for nailing
slate being made by attaching 1^ x 2 inch wood strips to the outer
face of the tile, the strips being set at the proper distances a[)art to
receive the slate, the spaces between the strips being then plastered
flush and smooth with cement mortar. In case of a severe confla-
gration the slate would probably be destroyed, and the wooden
strips might be consumed, but the damage could go no farther. In
place of partition tile porous terra-cotta bricks or blocks may be
usi»d for filling bc^tween the I-beams. For roofs where the pitch is
not over 45 defjrci^s, 8x3 inch T-irons, set 10 inches between cen-
tres, and filled in with slabs of porous terra-cotta, makes a very
desirable roof. If slales are used they may be nailed directly into
the tiles, or if it is (h^sired to use hollow tile, strips of wood may l)e
nailed to the tile for receiving the slate, and the spaces b'.^tween the
strips filled in with cement. This method may also be used for
flat roofs. The b(?st construction for flat roofs, however, is to
build the roof like the floors, with tile arches between ircm beams.
The arches should then be covered with Portland cement, or rock
asphalt, flashed around the edges with copper, and then tiled with
terra-cotta tile, about 0x8 inches, and | inch thick. This makes
a durable and substantial roof, perfectly water-tight and absolutely
FIRE-PKOOF CONSTRUCTION FOR BUILDINGS. 473
proof against fire. Composition, cement, and asphalt have a
natural affinity for the tile, and adhere readily to it without the
use of nails or fastenings. If the roof is exposed on the under side,
it can be plastered and finished the same as the under side of a
floor.
TriisscM. — Where steel trusses are used to support the roof or
several stories of a building, it is very important that they be pro-
tected not only from heat sufficient to warp them, but so that they
will not expand sufficient to affect the vertical position of the col-
umns by which they are supported.
The following description of the covering of the trusses in the
new Tremont Temple, Boston, furnishes a good illustration, of the
way in which this should be accomplished :
*' The steel girders were first placed in terracotta blocks, on all
sides and below, these blocks being then strapped with iron all
around the girders, and upon this was stretched expanded metal
lathing, covered with a heavy coat of Windsor cement ; over this
comes iron furring, which receives a second layer of expanded
metal lath, the latter, in turn, receiving the finished plaster. There
is. consequently, in this arrangement for fire protection, first a dead
air space, then a layer of terracotta, a Windsor cement covering,
another dead air space, and finally the external Windsor cement."
Ceilings. — In office buildings having a flat roof, there is gener-
ally an air space, or attic, between the roof and ceiling of upper
story, ranging from three to five feet in height. This space is
often utilized for running pipes, wires, etc. Generally the ceiling
is constructed in the same way as the floors, with the difference
that lighter beams and filling are used.
It sometimes occurs that a suspended ceiling is desirable under
pitch roofs, to form a finish for the upper story, and protect the
roof construction. If only the weight of the ceilmg itself is to be
provided for, such a ceiling can be constructed at least expense by
u.-^ing wire or expanded -metal lathing stretched over light T's or
angles, suspended from the roof construction. The angles or T's
may be plac^ed four or five feet apart, and tension rods fastened to
and under them, to support the lathing ; such a ceiling would
weigh only about twelve pounds per square foot. Plaster boards or
thin porous terra cotta blocks, placed between T bars, also make a
light ceiling, and a goo<l ground for the plaster.
Walls.— If it is desired to further outside walls they should in
DO case be strapped with wood, but should be furred or lined with
porous terracotta or fire-clay linings, as shown in Fig. 6. on which
the plastering may be applied. This not only affords a protection
FIBB-PBOOF C NSTBUCTION FOB BtJILDINim 476
blocka, the same as described under Class 1. Id this method of
buitding it is also neciessary to protect tiie upper side of ttiu floor
planii. olticrwiKc tiiu fire would burn tliroug-li Cri>ui tlie top. This
is best done either by laying; an inch uC mortar between it and the
upper floor, or by using liollow tiln blocks laid on top of the plaitlt-
ing, with strips between lor nailing the upper flooring to.
The flrst method is much the cheapest, and as fire is very slow in
attacking a floor, suuh a construction would probably resist the ac-
tion of the fire as long as would the other portions of the bnildlng.
The first point attacked by any Are is the ceiling of the room or
story iu which it onginates, and every precaution must be taken to
Pio. 7— Mill Cohhtbijction, Protkcteu by Plabtbr on Wire LiTHrao.
make the ceiling imprepiable. Espoeial pains must be taken to see
that all angles and junction of L-eilings with the walls and parti-
tions are carefully protected, so that there may be no places in
which the flre may work its way through the protection back of
the plastering.
Partitions. — The partitions in this class of buildings shonid
be constfueted either of hollow tile partition blocks or bricks, as in
Class 1, or they may bo built of 3-inch plank, tongued and grooved,
and covered both skies with wire lathing from floor to ceibng, and
back of the door jambs.
The Walls should either be plastered directly on the brick-
work, or furred with hollow tile blocks, as previously described.
VTbea carefully built, a building of this kind will be practically
PIBE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION FOR BUILDINGS. 477
Comigrated-wire Lathingr consists of flat sheets of
double-twist warp-lath, with corrugations ^ of an inch deep
running lengthwise at intervals of 6 inches. These sheets are
made 8x8 feet in size, and applied directly to the under side of
the floor timbers, to partitions, or brick walls, and fastened with
staples. The object of the corrugation is to afford space for the
mortar to clinch behind the lath, and at the same time do away
with furring strips. The corrugations alto strengthen the lathing.
This form of lathing, however, is not as desirable as those fol-
lowing.
Stiffened Wire Lathing. — The Clinton stiffened wire lath
has corrugated steel furring strips attached every 8 inches cross-
wise of the fabric, by means of metnl clips. These strips constitute
the furring, and the lath is applied directly to the under side of the
floors or to brick walls, etc. This lath is made in 32-inch and 36-
inch widths, and comes in 100 yard rolls.
The New Jersey Wire Cloth Co. also make a stiffened wire lathing
by weaving into the ordinary 'wire cloth V-shaped strips of No. 24
sheet iron every 7.V inches. This is an excellent lath About the
only difference between it and the Clinton cloth is that the bars in
the latter are attached to the cloth instead of being woven in.
Hammond's Metal Furring*. — A combination of shoet-
metal bearings with steel furring rods, on which ordinary wire cloth
is applied, makes one of tlio best fire-proof ceilings. By means of
this furring the plaster may be kept an inch from the bottom of the
timbers, thus allowing a free circulation of the air over the ceiling.
It is claimed that t!iis is of importance in connection with fire-
proofing, and is required by the building ordinance of the city of
Chicago. The steel wires used for furring are fo small that the
mortar entirely covers them, thus securely binding the cloth and
rods together, greatly stiffening the ceiling. This method may be
applied to any form of construction.
Slieet-iron Latliing. — A number of styles of sheet-iron
lathing have been invented and placed on the market, but they are
objectionable from the fact that, in case of fire, the heat expands
the iron and contnicls the mortar, so that the latter becomes sepa-
rated and f:ills off. Even without considering its fire-proof quali-
ties, sheet-iron latliing is not desirable, as it is difficult to get a
good clinch on the mortar, so as to securely hold it in place. In
the wire cloth, the amount of metal in the strands of wire is so
sniall, and it also becomes so well l)edded in the mortar, that the
action of intense heat does not affect it, and it has been practically
demonstrated, both by actual fires in buildings and by fire tests,
FIBE-PBOOF OOS&TRUUnoS FOR BUILDINGS. 4 79
elftborate decoration is to be applied, as it affords a much better sur-
face than any other material.
The upper surface of the floor must also be protected, either by
putting an inch of mortar between the under and upper floor board-
iug, or by filling in between the joist with fire-clay bridging tilo, or
by brick nogging and covering with cement mortar, on top of which
the upper floor is laid. As in the previous class, especial pains must
be taken to see that all corners and angles are well protected.
Roof. — If the building has a flat roof it should be protected the
same as the floors, substituting for the upper floor boards, composi-
tion roofing covered with flat tiles laid in cement. For steep roofs,
efficient fire-proofing becomes a difficult problem. In the opinion
of the author no building, five stories high or over, should be cov-
ered with a pitch roof constructed of wood ; but if such a roof is
used, it can be protected for a time by covering the roof boarding
with porous tena-cotta blocks, aoout 15 inches square and 1^
inches thick, and nailing the slate directly to them, bedding the
slate in cement as it is laid ; or the tile may be nailed to tiie
rafters without boarding. For protection on the under side, if the
attic space is finished, the under side of the rafters may be pro-
tected as described for ceilings ; or, if the roof space is unfinished
and more or less filled with trusses or other supports, a thoroughly
fire-proof ceiling beneath, without any openings, would probably be
as good a protection as could be obtained. The walls and partitions
should be treated as in Class 2.
Complete information regarding the particidar forms and sizes of
the various fire-proof blocks inanufactur(Ml may be obtained by ad-
dressing The Raritan Hollow and Porous Brick Co, , of New York
City ; The Wight Fire-proofing Co., of Chicago or New York ;
2'he Pioneer Fire-proof Construction Co., of Chicago ; Henry
}Iaurer d; Son, New Tork City ; 2 7ie Lee Fire-proof Construction
Co . N(r.v York ; and llie t^taten Island Terra Cotta Lumber Co.,
New York ( ity.
Details, Finish, etc.
After tlie constructive portions of the building are completed and
the building is plastered, there are yet many details to be arranged,
so as to afford the least possible material for a fire, and also com-
bine strength, durability, and often elegance.
Stairs.— The most important of these are the stairs, which, owing
to the necessity of their being located in a sort of well or shaft, are
always fiercely attacke<l by a fire. To construct a thoroughly fire-
proof stair is nither a difficult undertaking. Many architects con-
tent themselves by merely making the strings and risers of wrought
4S() FTKK-PnOOF OOXSTKUCTION FOR BUILDINGS.
or cMst-iron, and Wm'. treads of slate, marble, or wood. Siic-li stnir:
?!'(• iiTiil«.ul)tcdlv UiY better than the ordinarv wooden stairs, but
liicy ni't' iiKMcly iiUM)mluisiibl('. In biiildin^i: such stairs \vro!i|Erht
iron string- sii( uld hi' ust'd with slate tn-ads ami iron ris«TS
I'wi iw in .h I lianiirl l>ars inak<' excellent strings, turning llie
ilanL:«'> <'U.. anl i;«)ilinj,^ tlic n>eis to ih-. stem as shown in Fi^. U.
Tile 1« <t >iair> lor a fir('-])ro()l" biiildiiiL; are tliose built of lirit-k
DV Portland «i'nu'nt t'oncn-tt', witii at least one end sujijiortrd hy a
Itii.i; Wall. If coinM-ctp >tairs an' constructed llic;* should b*- built
:;'iuari- .-.nd xijid — thai i. , liaviiiLT the same sliapeon the bottom i\-nm
ihi' loj,. II tin- stairs an- liuill Ix'twciMi two brick walls, as ^iioiilil
alwa\s :•-■ ihc (•;i>.- in a thi-atn'. thrv will have sullieient strenu'th bv
ixiiiidinj- ill. in 1 inc!:e< into the hrick wall. If only one enil i*: ^uj^
iM'iird l»y M wail, iin- other end can be su}>iM>rte(l by wrou,trhi-in>r
=iriMj-- i.iiili int.. tiii- (M.neretf.
ricT. 1 f ^liow> tw<» M-ciions of -i brick stairway. Stairways ^iI:l;
I.-! :. :
Fig. 9.
SECTION OF
WKO-^v.*H7 il.ON
STAIRS.
:■ i!i li- ill the ?i.w Pi-nsii'ii liniiilinj; at NVashincton
A.i\ ■::.i ■. I ■.:--iiii'-.'il .1^ ;i.i>»«.lut» ly fin'-pniof Ni \f l«
■ .1- Nt >"iii-^. ih-- ainiii'!' U"ulil n-i-ommcnd stairs ntu-
I ■ ■' v. . n ..'• ,•;.-.: ;!•■ !i "-iriiiL's. I'n'ifeti'd •*!» I !;t' uiiii' I
.■ ■ ■ :• :'. - ;■.■:;.':■•.:.-;■ ni-io- !a lii . ami with >l.iU-
...■'. ■ »; - _;
-!■. \ : :;■ w :!i tili- ■ r j! i-»Ti-.- ■.:! Ill^•.!d^
li' II I '1 ;;«!-' ha\<' Jw.M t'"UM'l u!nli-»ir-
!"■
I".,.
":'■■ ^ \. •■". «.; w :,i :|"::i \ ;; -."iimtl:
1. :l III' !- ;! ■ an- "-j'.i'-i- bridri'i r. «.o 'ii.-it
i- I'll- .I'- \ .!'. «•■ .Id !•<■ far InMit ihiiH
■ ■ ■ '.■ .■■'.- :■ .
! -•■ i: ■■. !h-. ■ :_-!i xn h a ^-tairf. Thf •ilrinir*
'.'.•■ ! i . : ;■-' . Mi'ha^ •■•■i It >>rnaiueutatU)n
<ii';tMilr >lair>. li: ii..iiiv •: !i.> (i -vi rniiii-.ii buililin;r'< tbr
FIEtE-PBOOF CONSTRUCTION FOR BQILDINOS. 481
stairs ftre constracted all of granite, a seotion throni^ the steps be-
ing like that shown in Fig. 12. One end at the steps is boilt into ■
wall, and the other depeods upon the edu^ol tlte steps for support
Granite and most other natural euin
stroyed b; the action of fire and water, s
my be coiisidered as fire-proof.
As to tho stair railing, if bnckstMrs are used, st
- - . '
.tf
- \^
:•.♦.»:•>
♦\ r.- :.
•• iJ. :. . -'
•* • B B k • M <
^
y
Fie,, n.
F.'-l '-'-ZZt
:• :
• : :.;• : « r.»- w,. l»y
• •-. ' K'\ I'.i it • -.ii
r. :i~ A
> .
'■• I y :>»•-: r - f.
\ (lit il:i( ion :iii(| l|ol-:iir l'!iir«». 1''.— -".'i'"!!-! \\\ \\\\
'■•••■':••••; . !' ! ".■•'••- *• :!•' ••■ '.ikMn that
I
•:.:- <!..-" A .. :•• i;ia;f«i iiif.i-r bv slt-aiii or huC
1 il..- U>f »'M-tl.«t.U fi.r heiitiii;: •>nice> iit dvsicribed
PIRK-PRX)P OONSTRUCnON FOR BUILDINGS. 483
In the article on Steam-Heating, under Direct-Indirect Radiation.
If this method is employed, no hot-air flues will be needed, and
it will only be necessary to provide for ventilation flues.
In running iron and lead pipes, etc., in the walls and partitions,
they should run in channels in the brickwork, and be covered with
d Fig. 12.
SECTION OF
GRANITE STAIRS.
(SELF SUPPORTING.)
sheets of boiler iron about three-sixteenths of an inch thick, put up
with screws, in an iron frame fastened to the brickwork.
This can be painted as desired, and afford ready access to the
pipes.
No pipes should be carried in a wall or partition where they are
not accessible.
In finishing around elevator doorways, etc., where considerable
ornamentation is required, cast-iron, painted in color, can be used
with good results. Where there is no combustible material, there
can of course be no fire.
Cement
Fig. 13.
SECTION THRO' DOOR JAMB
Stand-pipes. — A very important adjunct to every fire-proof
building is a stand-pipe of 2-inch wrought iron, connected with the
street main and running up above the roof (if flat), and provided on
e^ch floor with suitable valves, hose, etc., ready for instant use.
PIRB-PROOP CONSTRUCTION FOR BUILDINGS. 486
thousand square feet, without special permission, based upon un-
usual and satisfactory precautions.
6. That every building to be erected, which shall be three stories
high or more, except dwelling houses for one family, and which
shall cover an area of more than twenty-five hundred square feet,
should be provided with incombustible staircases, enclosed in brick
walls, at the rate of one such staircase for every twenty-five hun-
dred square feet in area of ground covered.
7. That wooden buildings, erected within eighteen inches of the
line between the lot on which they stand and the adjoining prop-
erty, should have the walls next the adjoining property of brick ;
or when built within three feet of each other, should have the walls
next to each other built of brick.
8. That the owner of an estate in which a fire originates should
be responsible for damage caused by the spread of the fire beyond
his own estate, if it should be proved that in his building the fore-
going provisions were not complied with. A certificate from the
Inspector of Buildings 4hall be considered sufficient evidence of
such compliance, if the building shall not have been altered since
the certificate was issued.
In addition to these general propositions, another series of sug-
gestions was adopted, providing for proper fire-stops between the
stringers in wooden stairs, and between all studdings and furrings,
in the thickness of the floors, and for six inches above ; for car-
rying brick party-walls, and outside walls adjoining neighboring
property, above the roof, and for anchoring* wooden floor-beams to
brick walls in such a way as to prevent the overthrowing of the
walls in case the beams should be burned oft and fall.
Chicago Definition of Fire-proof Construction.
"The term 'Fire-proof Constracfion ' shall apply to all bnildings in which
all parts that carry weights or resist strains, and also all stairs and all elevator
enclosnres and their contents, are made entirely of incombustible material, and
in which all metallic structural members arc protected against the effects of lire
by coverings of a material which must be entirely incombustible and a slow heat
conductor. The materials which shall be considered as fulfilling the conditions
of fire-proof covering are : First, brick ; second, hollow tiles of burnt clay
applied to the metal in a bed of mortar and constructed in such manner that there
ehall be two air sp ices of at lea-<t three- fourths of an inch each by the width of
the metal surface to be covered, within the said clay covering ; third, porous
terra-cotta which i^hall be at least two inches thick, and shall also be applied
direcT to the metal in a bed of mortar ; foarih, two layers of plastering: on metal
lath.*'
JQA
WOODEN ROOF-TRUSgKS.
CHAPTER XXVI.
WOODEN ROOF-TRUSSES, WITH DETAIIiS.!
WnK.vKVKR it is rt^uired to roof a hall. room, or ImiMing. where
the flt'ur ST»an is inon* than tweiitv-tive f*t*t. the roof should be
siil»l»ortf 1 hy a truss of some fonn. Tlie various forms of trusses
uslmI tnr tliis ]iuri)ose have e«*rtain ft-atures anil ]>rincip]es In fom-
luon. (litfcring from those in bridge and floor trusses, which have
^
PlC;R seam CR CEiw So. J S'
V^
— >r
rLATE
SPANS UP TC 2-4 -T
II
i»tl In L'lnr.i.iiii: tlu-m in on»» rlas'S. r:illi*»l " n^of-tnisses." Xeariy
all II ■i!-Tn>^»'^ in r!nir«lif>. ;i3! ! li.ill-. n! like rhHRi"!er. an«l Ihe
l.ii«'. r i:«i"."riiiiM ••! ini-»«>t-s usi- 1 in :ill kin.l'* of hiiildin;;^ an» itm-
>tr;i<-t<l '.•riiii-ip.tlly iit wi^tid. ^\ith unly iron tii'-rods anil Uilts ;
aii I. ;i«« \ii>. I li 11 iru>'*i"* an* nt nn»n- inifn'sl to \\\o an'^.it«^-t and
liiiii !• r r-.ti; irnu tru*"'-'*. ilii-> hn\*' Ui-n nion' ittini^lctely d«*-
Miii*.- i. .i:\ \ .1 Lin-jiTiT \:»rifT\ ni lorm'S an* irivon than for inm
1:.
j.r .;
t-> ^t. V.
: ihi -.:i:-. -.:« lr<i'»'i-> »!.■ u: .m- .i ! iir:iu!i i>litfhlly iNil of
■ u \: iM il.i \ .I't- ji'ii.ni i> .:>-ihiT. Till- tiii»'M-i> (huii kiok hmvy tai
..«.- ■ : 'ilii :iii.'-%:. tul the rtUtii'ii «.>f lliv \.irio>i»
WOODEN ROOF-TRUSSES.
487
roof-tmsses, which are. discussed in another chapter. In the
Northern States and Canada, where there are often heavy snow-
storms, experience has taught that the best form of roof for a
building, except, perhaps, in large cities, is the A, or pitch roof.
The inclinations of the roof may vary from twenty-six degrees,
or six inches to the foot, to sixty degrees, or twenty-one inches to
the foot, but should not be less than six inches to the foot for
roofs covered with slate or shingles. For roofs covered with com-
position roofing, tin, or copper, the inclination may be as little as
five-eighths of an inch to the foot.
PaiNOIPAL RAFTER
ACK RAFTER
CEIUNQ JOIST SPANS FhOM 2C TO 40 FT,
The simplest form of pitch roof is that shown in Fig. 1. It con-
sists simply of two by ten or two by twelve inch rafters, supported
at their lower ends by the wall-plate, and holding themselves up at
the top by their own stiffness and strength. A piece of board,
called the "ridge-plate," is generally placed between the upper
ends of the rafters, and the rafters ai-e nailed to it. In some locali-
ties this ridge-piece is not used, but the upper ends of each pair of
rafters are held together by a piece of board nailed to the side of
the rafters before they are raised.
The walls of the building are prevented from being puslu'd out-
ward by the floor or ceiling beams, which are nailed to the i)late.
The rafters are placed about two feet, or twenty inches, on centres,
and the boarding is nailed directly on the rafters. The horizontal
joists support the attic-floor and the ceiling of the room below.
Such a roof can only be used, however, when the distance between
the wall-plates is not more than twenty-four feet ; for with a
greater span the rafters, unless made extremely heavy, will sag
very coni^derably.
i^-
WOODKN KOOl'-TltrsShS
Kin^ Post Truss. — WIumiovit wv wish to roof a hiiilrtin^i
ill wliirh till- wall-iilat«'*< an* iiiort' tlian twniiy-four ftM-t aitait. wv
iiiU'n; a-lojii sniiH" uM'tlunl for sui»]i«>niiiix tlu" rat'ti'i*s at tlic «"«'ntn'.
TIm- iiii"li»».l ::«'ii«M\!lly fiiP'loNfl i^liDwii ill Kiir. -) is to iisi- Iras'"!-
ilk.- ili.i! ^linwn ill ill'" liiruii". ^'i.n-!-! n'miir i\vrl»r t"«-ft apart in ih-
li-ii:::); nt till- lniiMiiiLT. aiitl on ilii-M' iilar** larm* lifauis, i-alli'il ••imr
: '. R
n
2 « 8
CE-LIN3
J C ■ o T
Fiu.3
I.M'." \\i::'i. -:r.;i»i': iln- i-ooi". ur jark-raii«-rs. A^ tin* iIistani-<' from
!■:. ■; : ' •; :.i :':••• :m\! i«. ni»l L't-m-rallN niun* than six or riirht fffi.
i!.'- :.ii-..-:.:;:- r*- ni;i\ l-i- nia«li- a** >niall as iwn in'-hr*; hy six iih-hr".
\\ .i»i! '!.■■ ^'.•:\\i 111 ill'- ti-n>s is innn- than tliirly-foiir fiH-t. t\vi» jijir-
l;ii> ii.:«:.: in- ]-lai-r.l um «-a«Ii >iilf i»f ihi- iru^N. or at -I and .1. It
i'. aiv.;.>- i" -:. hi'\\«'\ir. !•» I'hu-i- ihr pnrliiis only ov«'r tht* finl iif a
LiM-'-. "! :o a jniii}, w ln-n it fan In- so arranu'fil. Tin" «"fihni: of tin
ri...!M ii«\< !■. I !•> IJM' r«i'*!" i> franp-il witji li:;in juisis su|iiiortiil li\
W
•* ■'!■ iM.-^. 1 ii' -• • < . ".1.^ 'ni-l" '»!ii'"!M ni»! hi* iiiiir
■ • ■ '■ . I-::' ^"i." . ! i- ■:••:. .1 ! ■-. ■»-;u<-li h\ funr-ini-li
■ !.■■■ ; .' - ■• III! .1* "■.••v.!; \',. l.^. •■.
• ■:.' ;::- - \- ■■:-::.::■. ;;v. I.. 1. ii i- ilitlimll
■:■ ■■:-!■■■.» •:.«■;_!; I--' : I.I r •.-!•■ -.u., uiihtiut spliriniZ.
.1- t.".- I.- ;|m- I>i -• ii!i'!i«>-U ■■? liuilihiiL; up Iht' lii»-
WOODEN BOOF-TBU88B8. 480
beam is lo make it of two-Inch plank bolted together, the pieces
breaking joint, so that no two joints aha!! be oppoait* each other.
This form ot truss is very rarely used where the timbers may be
se«n from the room below, ami they are therefore generally left
■ rough. If they were to be planed, and maile a part of the finish ot
the room below, it would be necessary to use solid tie-beams
spliced together, or else build the truss of hard pine, of which wood,
timbers may be obtained fifty or sixty feet long. The form of truss
sliown in Fig. 2 la the modem form of the old king post truss,
shown in Fig. 4, which was made wholly of wood, excepting the
iron straps used to connect the piece* at tlie joints.
Queen Post Truss. — When the span to be roofed is between
thirty-five and forty-five
feet, a truss such as is
shown in Fig. .i is pref-
erable, for several rea-
sons, to the king post
It consists of a hori-
zontal straining-beam,
separating tlie upper
ends of the principal
rafters, and a rod at
each end of the strain-
ing-beam, leaving a
large space in the cenr
tre of the beam clear.
This is a great advan-
tage in many eases
where it la desired to
uliline the attic for
This form of trass
should not be used for
a si>an of over forty
feet. For spans from
forty feet to fifty feet,
anotlier form of the
same truss, shown in
Fig. 6, should be used.
This ia a very strong form of truss, and leaves considerable clear
apace in the centre. In tliis truss the principal rafter should be
made of two pieces, — one running to the top, the other only to
Qie Btralniag-beam. This gives the greatest economy in construe-
*. -*
.« •".. I.
I •'■_ ■
•■ \ I
..I i.
■ :' I ' I
■ : i..«. vi .1" ■.j?':ii.r.u i jVAit-r .omr it 3. It ^huiiiii V
.. ..'i '.■.i\ ■,.«• -111*-;:-*:. •'" 1 'i"i.N-i iiv.iHini*; !iuir«'!v i|.,,n
^ . • ■- ■ '• '« ^ I.'- .i/'.'n*'! "••ti"! .ii'!'. iiiti iiar I ■;"'i>-
• V . , -.> -....-i: .: >■.•- • *,.«• Ill .■ii..i:i:ii:> n .'..mi :• •:
'»■' • • -« «••' ^
••■'.4i I
\ -
■■••!!
I ' • • • •■ I :: '
■ ■ ■ . 11"
V I
• 1 • > ■
• I ..
-I*... :• unci jiuiui til.
WOODEN BOOF-TRnsSBS. 491
1 an enUrged detail of It is shown in Fig. 10. This tniM la
m the Museum of Fine Arts, St. Louis, Ho., Hessn, Peabod; &
ams, architects, Boston, Moss,
)'0F Bpana of from forty to eighty feel, a truss such as is shown In
;. 11 ts one of thit best tonus to adopt, where a pitch I'oof is
rhe strutB should be largest towards the centre, and ttie tie-rods
a.
rhe main rafter, on the contrary, and the tie-beam, have the
stMt strain at the joint A. Figs. 12 and 13 show details of
192
WOODEN ROOF -TRUSSES,
The tmsses which have thus far been given are the simplest
forms of nioilern trusses for spanning ox>enings up to sixty or
seventy-five feet in width, or
even gn?ater, wliore it is <li»-
sired to liave a pitcli roof.
At the present <lay. how-
ever, flat roofs are very ex-
tensively used; and, when i;
is desired to carry a flat ro«if.
a different fomi of truss iiill
be found more economical.
WOODEN ROOF-TaU88B8. 498
The form of tnua generally employed for SM roofe is that shown
in Pigs. 14 and 15. This truss may be adapted to any span from
twenty to one Imndred feet, b; simply
changing the height of the truss and the
number of braces, and proportioning
the various parta to the strains which
they carry. Tlie hciglit of the truss be-
tween the centres of the chords ought
^^
not to be less than one-eighth of the span, and, it possible, should
he made oiie-seveiitli, as the higlier the truss, tlie less will be the
strain on the chords.'
It shoulil be noticeil, that in this truss the braces are Inclined in
the opposite direction to that in which t);oy are placed in the
•s r -:
wrXjI/ZN R«X)r-TEV>SE5.
F.>'. ]►'■ -:.■ \^- ::-►- l-<t iiiKhr"! of fomiinc th»* joints. A, A, A,
Ji. /;. li. ••*'■. F;j. 1.' . A!*.ln»i:::ii in.'t '.rn" frt^iumily used in roof-
•..- F".- -Tia::> ov»-r i"rty f»-»-:. th-^ ii».*-N*am should be made up
or ]•. i.vk l"^;*.-'l :«.iL:»-tli»T. as sh'.»wii in Ki:;. ;\ unless it is possilile
•'. }..t". - Ml- ?:t-]i*-aiii in nn*- j-i^-'-^-. This :s a ::iH"1 form of truss for
*!.»-atr*-. ai-'i larj*- hall-? wli^-n- ih-r»- i> a hi.>rizontal ceiling.
< 'oiiiif «T-llrjirrs, — li it i^iliNJrri! tn Iiku) thf tniMH at any
iHiiiit u;lii-: liiaii tli*- rcMtn' uith a rtiui'i'iitralnl Ioa«l, — as, for
in^tan<-(-. ^ii»pt-n<liii^ a :;all«'ry hy UK-ans uf rv*\a from the roof-
K)D£N ROOF-TRUSSES.
495
trasses, — the trass should have additional braces, called ''counter-
braces," slanting in the opposite direction to the braces shown.
These counter-braces need only be used when the truss is unsym-
metrically loaded.
Wooden 'I russes with Iron Ties. — In all trusses whera
the tie-beam of the truss is not horizontal, but higher in the centre
than at the ends, it is better to substitute an iron tie for the wooden
tie-beam.
Fig. 17 shows a form of truss very well suited for the roofs of
carriage-houses, stables, or any place where it is desired to have
considerable height in the centre of
the room, and a ceiling is not desired.
The horizontal iron rod is fastened
to the two struts at their ends, and
the other two rods are fastened only
at their ends, and merely nm over the
end of a strut in a groove. The iron
rods are tightened by means of the
turn-buckles shown on the drawing.
Fig. 18 shows a detail of the upi^er joint A, A better way of
making the joint would be to have an iron box cast to receive the
end of the rafters, and fasten the ends of the tie.
Arched Trusses with Iron Tie-Rods. — For buildings
where it is desired to liave the trusses and roof-timbers show, with
DETAIL OF JOINT "A"FIQ.17
no ceiling but that formed by the roof, a very pretty and jjraeeful
form of truss is obtained by tlie use of arched ribs, either for the
principal chords of the truss, or for braces. In such trusses an
iron tie-rod adds to the grace and apparent lightness of the truss,
and may be very conveniently usfd. Fig. \,) shows a form of truss
used to support the roof of the Metropolitan Concert Hall, New-
Tork City, George B. Post, architect. The span of the truss in
WOODEN ROOF-TRUSSES. 4fl7
tlie purlins aod rafters, and only carries the load directly
-cU. It does not assist tlie truss in any way In carrying
lethod of imp-
relied form of
i shall give a
crlption of the
:ioii of the ["oof
supports. A
he riding-room
ented by Fig.
and six Feet
es long, and '
hree feet wide. S
ce U kept en- U
ar of posts or
and the en- -r
is supported |
large tnisaes, j
hieh is shown p
J2. The root ^
the trusses
either side is
1 by aiiiailei'
»ting on tliese
sses ; but each
I
ouilt of exint
rk. ItH'as<l<>-
rovide for tlie
these large an^lies witliout having rods showing In the
d the method aEiopted is very ingenious. Opposite the
ta of tlie iron posts wliieh receive the arched ribs ai« oak
498
WOODEN ROOF-TUUSSES.
struts, wliirh are lu'M in \t\iiro by i'-on tii»-l)ars and heavy iron
Iwaiiis, ^\lli(■h toi^t'tluT form a Imriztmtal truss at eai.-h oinl. Tht*si*
tw.i trussi-s an* invvnitt'i] fruiu h*'\uii imsln*«l <nii l»y two tluve-iiu'h
liy <»n«'-inch ti»»-]»ars in viivh siile wall srhuwn in tin* plan (Fig. S\).
I". ".■•■':.•> iif ;lii- :a<' iii»:i j-'^"- :ir-- Ttfil tt>-ji thiT fiy irmi nuls
;;■.'.■_ .-. . : :!.«■ :!■•■■:■■.>■ -a 1 ■.• •:.,' ■•! :!.f riMiin. AltiiLTflliiT
» _ «•:".. ;■•■: ■ !^ ■■: t I ■. :i i^- "u.i l-.j:* tlin-f Inrltt's liy
• ■ i I". ■ '. ii; i .1 '■ i! '.':>■': :<•!. wlii-ii wniiM Iw
•■■:.'.•'•■ ■• 11 ^ ;1.:. ■• :: " • -. .m 1 tliP- -fniiriliH hv uiu*
;._■ i *<■[;••:.* ««t 'li'- i:i"». u; : ■.^1::'.. ,iiul Iiruh'S, np"
-^i.-'vv:. .:. 1 .:. l'J. li slmiilil Ik- noiii-iti tliai tin- iiprijflits art Imtli
WOODEN BOOF-TKUSSB8. 49fl
ota and ties, by having ircui rods throogh tlieir centre holding
TO riba tofielher.
, 24 showB a detail, or enlarged view, of tbe Iron skewback
08t at eacti end of tbe tniss sliown in Fig. 22.
. 25 shows the nietliod adopted for supporting the roof and
J of tbe Citj Amiory at Cleveland, O.
cn-Tiiiiber Trusses. — One of the principal charaeter-
of the (iolhic style of architeeture is that of mftkhig the
ural piirtiuiis of the liii) Ming ornamental, ami exposing the
construction of an ediHce to view; and, as the pointed
I and steep roofs were developed, the roof-tniss liecame an
tant feature in tlie ornamentation of the intei'ior of the
c ehiii'ches.
!Se trusses were built almost entirely of wood, and generally
ry heavy timbers, to give the ap|>earancc of great strength.
i the siinpleat forms of these trusses is shown In Fig. 2ft. As
w se«D in the figure, the truss is really not much more tikan a
WOODEN BOOF-THL'SSBR.
WOOMK UOOT-TBDSSIS.
WOODEN ROOF-TRUSSES. 608
Figs. 28-20 repreaent tnuses token from old English churches;
but the hammer-beam tnus Is also frequeatly used in this country
U> support the roof of Gothic churches.
Fig. 30 refweaenta half of one of the trusses in the First Cliurch,
Uoslon, Uasa., Messrs. Ware & V:in Brunt, architects. The truss
It hnlshed In black wahiut, and has the effi^tt of being very strong
and hwrj. Pi^ 81 shows tliu fratiiiiig of Uie saiue truss without
anj caainc cr falsework. It should be noticed that inside the
606 WOODKN ROOF-
tnmed ralumn, at tin; upper pnrt of the tniss (Fig. %l), there h in
Iron roil (Fitr. ^U) wliich holds up tho joint A,^
111 iliis form of ti'iiss tlic outward tlirust of the arch enten tlw
null jiisL iibov.' till' corliM. A'; mid, ns Uii^ diret^lion of the thnui i»
ini'liiu'fi only ulNiiit lliirty di'i,Ti'cs from a, vprlical, the lenilrm-v
wliirli it liuH (u overthrow l.lii! wiill Is not very great, ami may la-
easily ri'.sisti-d l>y a wall iwi'nty itiches or two feet thick, ru-CLifoR-nl
by u hultress uii Clic utitsitle.
I .shimlil In* ROFiin'ly ftuliiHsl
-li lai'li othiT, ami tlu> wlink
li'|H'ndi'llit> for extra streiiKlll
iK'l-work.
Ill a liiiiiimKr-bnun truw, in
I'linii of a vault. TnuiM of
Ivi-liirb bf thittwa-liwk hard |l>*
WOODEN ROOF-TRUSSES.
507
this kind, where there is no bracket under the hammer-beam, are
not as stable as that shown in Fig. 30.
Fig. 33 shows a form of truss used in Emmanuel Chiu-cli at Shel-
bume Falls, Mass., Messrs. Van Brunt & Howe, architects, Boston.
This truss was probably derived from the hammer-beam truss, and
possesses an advantage over that truss in that it has in eifect a
trussed rafter, so that there is no danger of the rafter being broken ;
and, if the truss is securely bolted together at all its joints, it exerts
but very little thrust on the walls. The rafters and cross-tie are
formed of two pieces of timber bolted together, and the small
upright pieces rim in between them.
The trusses in the church at Shelbume Falls have the hammer-
beams carved to represent angels.
508
WOODEN ROOF-TllUSSES.
Fig. 34 shows a form of hammer-beam truss sometimes used in
wooden chiirclies. The braces Zi/i are carried down nearly to the
floor, so that no outward thrust is exerted on the walls.
It is LTrnenilly bettor, however, in wocnlen buildin<;:s, to us»» a
trii>;s witli a lie-rod: and. if an iron rod i.s used, it will not mar tlu*
«'tV«'<f of ilie heii,dit of tlie room seriously, if the roof-tnissos an*
l»la(ed only about eii^bt reet apart, the roof may Ik* ooven*<l with
two and a iiu!f ineji .spinee jdank laid <lin»etly fnmi one triiH.s to
tin- »tln'r without th«» intervention of ja<'k-rafters or purlins. The
planlviiii: <'an tbeti be covered with slate or shin<;les on the ont-
si«i«', ami "^beatiied within. Ki^'. o4 shows the nM»f eovere*! in this
\sa\. l'iir!iu«^ an' jMit in, however, thish with the rafters of the
trij-"^ !•• di\idt' tbe eeilinij into ]>anels.
y'\L'.. ;'.■' allows a ''•■etiini tbron;^h the nM»f of St. .Ianie.H*s C'hureh^
: iii:ii VaiiiiiMifh. Knir
Tlir Np.iri is tiiirty-ihr(H> feet, and the trusses an* spaced about
ei;;bl teet apart from <'ent res.
■wnODEN ROOF-TRUSSES. ■ 6
The siie of the scantllngB are as follows : —
Primcipals: Rafters 12 inches x 0 inches.
Collars 9 " X 9 "
Ridge 12 " X 5 "
Purlins 8 " X 5 "
Cradling 7 " x 21 "
The roof is coustmcted of Memel limber.
610
IllON HOOFS AND ROOF-TKUSSES.
CHAPTER XXVri.
IRON ROOFS AND ROOF-TRUSSES, WITH DISTAILS
OF CONSTRUCTION.
OwiNc; to the incroasiiifT cost of lumber, and tlie necessity of
oreriinij buildings as nearly fire-i)roof, and with as little inflaniina-
ble material in the roof, as possible, it is becoming quite a common
])racti('(" to roof large and expensive buildings with iron roofs,
wliich, of course, involves the use of iron roof-trusses: lionce it
is im])ortant that the architect and progn^ssive builder should liave
a general idea of th(^ constniction and principles involved in iron
roof-trusses, and be familiar with the best forms of trusses for
dilferent spans, conditions of loading, etc.
^
I -Beam.
o
^iT
Deck-Bfam.
Channel-Bar.
T-Bar».
A/ifcM'. -Iron*.
Flg.l.
r>eside^ b.'inu: n()n-cond)Ustible, iron roof-triLsses are superior to
Wooden trusses y.i that they may ho built nuich stronger and
li'jliter. and are much mon* durable.
Various forms of trusses have I>e4>n c(>nstruct«Ml to suit differenft
IBON ROOFS AT7D ROOF-TRUSSES. 511
conditions of span, load, height, etc., and of these fhe following
examples have been found to be the best and most economical.
Before proceeding to describe these various forms of trusses, we
would call the reader's attention to the sections of beams, angle-
irons, T and channel bars, shown in Fig. 1. It will frequently be
necessary to refer to these sections; as they are the principal shapes
of rolled iron entering into the construction of iron roofs, and it
is of great importance that an architect or builder be familiar with
their forms and names.
For convenience in describing the different forms of iron roofs,
we shall divide them into the following classes: —
1st, Truss-roofs with straight rafters, which are simply braced
frames or girders.
2d, Bowstring-roofs with curved rafters of small rigidity, and
with a tie-rod and bracing.
3d, Arched roofs, in which the rigidity of the curved rafter is
sufficient to resist the distorting influence of the load without
additional bracing.
Trussed Koof s. — For small spans, the most economical and
simplest form of truss is that represented in Fig. 2. (Owing to the
LEBANON FURNACE.
Fig. 2.
small scale to which it is necessary to draw these figures, we have
represcmtecl the pieces by a single line, which has been drawn heavy
for strut-pieces, and light for ties and rods. )
This truss was built by the Phoenix Iron Company for the roof
of a furnace-building. It consists of two straight rafters of chan-
nel or T bars, two struts supporting the rafters at the centre, a
main tie-rod, and two inclined ties assisting the tie-rod to support
the end of the struts. The lines on the top of the truss represent
the section of a monitor on the roof, which is not a part of the
truss, but only supported by it.
One of the great merits of this truss is that it has but ftew pieces
in compression, viz., the rafters and two struts ; which is a condi-
512
IRON ROOFS AND ROOF-TRUSSES.
tion very desirable in iron trusses, owing to the fact that wronght-
iron n'sists a tensile strain much better than a compressive one,
and hence it is more economical to use wrought-iron in the fonn
of ties than in th<»- form of struts.
It sliould be borne in mind that for ties, rods or flat bars of iron
are the most suita])le; whili*. for struts, it is necessary to use soiiip
form of section that olfers considerable resistance to bending, suol.
a< a T-iron, or four an^^le-irons riveted to.G:ether in thc^ fomi of a
i-ross; for wroui^ht-iron stmts always tail by bending or l)uoklin^.
and not by direct erusbiui^. In Figs. 2-10 the piec<.»s which an?
struts, or resist a comjm'ssive strain, are drawn with heavy lint's,
and those pieces which act as ties are drawn with a light line.
Fig. 3.
FiiT. *> repn^sents a truss similar to that in Fig. 2, but having two
struts instead of one, which is more economical where the s[)an is
o\er fifty-six feet, for the. reason that it allows the rafters to !)»'
made of liizliter iron.
F<»r s])ans of from seventy to a hundnnl fi^et, the fonn of tnisa
sliown in Fiii. 4 has ])een found to be about the most economical
and >atisfactory in <'very resjuict.
R ■
M W YlII.l.. I'iKJ'NIX IKON U'('i<K>, U<)C'K-I»lJi.M> AllMENAI..
Fig. 4.
"I'll.- i;iii»i> in this truss, for motliTate s])ans, may 1m» T-imu^;
Mil. I ii.j- l.ir-cr .,|t;ni>. rli:innel-hars and Hie ties and Ntriits may !"■
lH.h<-d to I lie \«-nie:iI rili. For very )ar^M> spans. cliannel-l>ars uiu\
hf n-t -d. |>l:i<i>d iiiiek ti> liMek, with the ends of the bnicing bars lie-
tu.-Mi tli.iii. I -beams an- also Used for t lie rafters, but they liave
th<- niii. i-ijon of not bciniz in a sliajte to ctmnect n^adily with tlu*
i>; h« t torm- of inm. The llanges of an i-lH'am do not offer so good
.III I >;)}.. .riiijiitN fur rivet iiii! as do tlio.se of angle and T Irons iLiul
rr" •
IRON ROOFS AND ROOF-TRUSSBS.
513
channel-bars. The ties are rods of round iron or flat bars; and th«
struts, commonly T-irons or angle-irons bolted together.
MASONIC TEMPLB, PHILADSLHIA.
Fig. 5.
Another form of truss, shown in Fig. 5, derived from the wooden
queen post truss, is very commonly used for spans of from sixty to
a hundred and forty feet. A modification of this truss is shown in
Fig. 6, in which both struts and ties are inclined, instead of only the
Fig. 6.
struts, as in Fig. 5. The truss in Fig. 6 has the advantage that
the struts are shorter, more nearly perpendicular to the rafters, and
less strained.
Bowstriiig-Roofs. — In designing iron roofs, it is sometimes
desired to vary the ordinary straight pitch roof by using a curved
laf ter. Two examples of such roofs are shown in Figs. 7 and 8,
ALTOONA STATION, PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.
Fig. 7.
which were constructed by the Phoenix Iron Company of Phila-
delphia. These may be considered as the simplest forms of bow-
Btrillg-4XX>fB.
- The prindpal use of the bowstring-roof proper is for roofing
514
IRON ROOFS AND ROOF-TRtSSES.
very largo areas in one span, such as is often desired in railway
«tations, skating-rinks, riiling-schools, drill-halls^ etc
B ■
MARKET-HOUBE, TWKLFTII AND MARKET STREETS, PHILADELPHIA.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 0 n^presents the diagram of a bowstring-truss of a hundred
and fifty-t liree f(H?t span. The trusses in this particular case are.
spaced tw(;iity-<)ne feet six inches ai)art. The arched rafter con-
sists of a wrought-iron deck-beam nine inches deep, with a plate,
♦ en inches by an inch and a fourth, riveted to its upper flange.
Towards tlie springing, this rib was strengthenetl by plates, seven
in<hes by seven-eighths of an inch, riveted to the deck-beain on each
side.
Fig. 9.
The St lut s ar<' wrought-iron I-beams seven inches deep. The tie-
roils havoix and a half scpiare inches area, and the diiigonal tension-
l)ia«<>; ar.' an incli and a fonrth diaun^er. These tnisses art» llxinl
at one cn«l. and rest on rollers at the other, jHTnutting fn»e exiian-
sion and contract iun of the iron nnder the varying heat of the sun.
I
t>i>)
\2 —
Fig. 10.
Ki:;. 10 shows a similar truss having a si»sin of two hundred and
twelve feei^ it consist.s of lM>WMtnng principals spMwd iwenty-
IKON ROOFB AND BOOF-TBU88BB. Slff
four feet apart. The rlK is one-fifth the span, the tie-rod rising
seventeen feet In tbe middle aimve the springing, and the curved
rafter rising forty feet and a halt. The rafter is a flfteen-lncli
wroughtr-iroii I-I>esin. The tie is a round rod In ibort lengths,
four inches diameter, thickened at the joints. The tension-bars
of tlie bracing Are of plate-iron, five inches to three inches in
width, and flTo-eighths of an inch thicii. The struts are formed
of bars liaving tbe form of a cross.
The following table, taken from Unwin's "Wrought-Iron Bridges
and Hoofs," gives the principal proportions of some notable bow-
string-trusses, mostly In England: —
PROPORTIONS OF BOWSTRING-ROOFS.
For spans much exceeding a hundred and twenty or a hundred
anil thirty feet the bowstring-trtiss is much the niost economical,
and advantageous to use.
Arcbed Hoofs. — These roofs consist of trusses in tlie form
of an arch, having braced ribs, wliicli possess sufficient I'lgidity in
themselves to reaial the load upon tliom. The thrust of these large
ribs, however, has to be provided for, as In the case of masonry
arciics, either by heavy abutments or by tic-rods. As these trusses
embrace the most dlfHcult problems of engineering, and are rai-ely
used, we have thought best not to give any examples of such trusses.
If any reader should have occasion to visit the Boston and Provi-
dence Railroad Depot at Boston, lie can there see an admirable
example of this form of truss.
> At (prlugtug iweniy-flie Hjuuu lodMet
516
IRON ROOFS AND ROOF-TRUSSES.
Details of Iron Trusses.
After deciding upon the form of tniss which it will be best to use,
the fihfi))(' of the iron to form the different mc^mbtTS is a matter to
he eonsith'reil. There are many practical reasons which make it
desirable to use certain shapes of iron in constructing iron trusses,
even tlioui^h those shajM'S may not be the most desirable in rt»j^nl
to streni^tli; so that a knowledge of the details of iron tnisses is
requisite for any one who wishes to become a master of building
construction.
By far the best way to study the details of construction is to ob-
serve work aheady l)uilt and that which is in process of construc-
tion: but tills recjuires considerable tim(», and often the thing one
wants cannot ho found at hand. The following details of the
various ways of joining the different members of iron tiusses will
be found us<>ful.
Tlu'H' ar«' two general methods of constructing iron triiss<*s.
Olio is to make all the parts of the truss of combinations of angle-
irons, channel-bars, and Hat plates, and rivet them together at the
joints, so that the truss will consist of a frame-work of iron bars all
riveted toilet her. The other nuahod is to ust» channel-ljars, T-irons,
I-beams, etc., for the rafters and struts, and ro<ls for the ties, which
are conneeted at the joints by eyes and pins.
HEELS.
f^- '-■-!"
r . - /// /■/, >/,//. .' ,,///////',
Fig. 11.
In tin- lir^i nietlKMl the ties are either made of flat bars or anglo-
ir<»ii^.
l-'i-. II -JMtw^ two way^ in whieb the tie-rod is seciiriHl to the
t...i! Ill I;:, i.iih'in tin- «^irond met hot! of eon>! met lou. .V easting.
!'•: ii:i;i4 .' -it: •>! "• >-1iim-."' is maili', in whieh the rafter fhs. anil the
; . iv -. :-..i i.i iIh- "Nhor" by niean-s of an i-ye-eiid and pin: or a
|.|i;i- ;i :\ 111- III >lt«tl to 4-:irh .side, and the whole re>t on an iron plate.
< M' i-i<:i!->i- rlii- tic nni^t in either ease consist 4)f two t)ara, one on
c.ich '^i'b- «»f the shoe.
IRON ROOFS AND ROOF-TRU8SE8.
617
Fig. 12 Illustrates two ways of fastening the upper ends of the
struts to the rafters. In the first method the casting is made to fit
inside the strut, and is bolted to the bottom of the rafter.
STRUT-HEADS.
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13 shows the joints at the foot of the struts, as made in the
STRUT-FEET.
XB
Fig. 13.
second method. The pealcs in either method are seciu-ed by means
of fish-plates riveted to both rafters (Fig. 14).
PEAKS.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 15 shows the proportions for eyes and screw ends for tension-
r—>
TIE-BAR.
ROD.
Fig. 16.
btfB as naed in this method of construction.
IRON ROOFS AND ROOF-TRUSSES,
""igs. 16 and 17 show the luannnr of forming the Joints in the
t methoil of construction. Fig. 16 represenla the joint at the
Fig. 16.
■ iiiiUii rafler: anil Fig. 17. Ilii- joint n-licrft a rafti-r.
II, lii'. ami stnil ponic 10H.'(li.'r. Ail tlie pipcps an-
cii to a pii'i'i' of |)Iiit<'-ir<in. wliieli thus hol<ls thpin
LI- ofiiiT joints ail- fortiit-ii in a. similar way. ^Vliicli
.letliiHi of consiriic'tiiiii ili'iii'inl.'* voi'v much on circuiu-
ri-. i-: l.iii ilii- 1.
il,-l,r
v,i 11
nil nf IhP trtm, Ai»e
in;.'(lu-sk<-wlwkuf
I'olU-ii' inlviiHrnHl lu
nin:: llii> unit, a* lu
1 rtH.f- ijf xtxty tret
n Iruii ru;l uni-
li-nlli i>f a fiHil fur a diiii^i-
tlfty .ti-»r<-<'!. v.: ami, aa rhla la
iH'ani-' anil tihIn in a baiMllli(
< c-litiiaK'. niniiH'nsatlan to tllU
fur :ill |>iin>u!>M- l^or usiy IM( ipaa.
:.'.) ill
IRON ROOFS AND ROOF-TRUSSES.
519
the vibration of each wall would then be only* fifteen-thousandths
of a foot either way from the perpendicular, — a variation so small,
and so gradually attained, that there is no danger in imposing it
upon the side-walls by firmly fastening to them each shoe of the
rafter. Expansion is also provided against by fastening down one
shoe with wall-bolts, and allowing the other to slide to and fro on
ihe wall-plate without rollers.
leiaiiiisji
Fig. 13.
After the trusses are up, there are various ways of constructing
the roof itself. If the roof is to be of slate, it is best to space the
trusses about seven feet apart, and use light angle-irons for purlins,
which are spaced from seven to fourteen inches apart, according to
the size of the slate. On the iron purlins the slate may be laid
directly, and held down by copper or lead nails clinched around the
Fig. 19.
angle-bar; or a netting of wire may be fastened to the purlins, and
a layer of mortar spread on tliis, in which the slates are bedded.
When greater intervals are used in spacing rafters, the purlins may
be light beams fastened on top or against the sides of the principals
520
IRON ROOFS AND ROOF- TRUSSES.
with brackets, allowance always being made for longilurlinal ex
pansion of the iron by changes of temperature. On these purlins
an^ fastened wooden jack-rafters, carrying the sheatliing-boards or
laths, on which the nietalUc or slate covering is laid in the usual
manner; or sheets of corrugated iron may be fastened from purlin
to purlni, and the whole roof be entirely composed of iron.
When tlu^ rafters are si)aced at su(di intei'vals as to cause too
'much deflexion in the purlins, they may be supported by a light
beam placed midway betwt;en the raft(TS, and trussed tmnsvei-s^dy
with i)()sts and rods. These rods pass through the rafters, and have
bevelled washers, scn^ws, and nuts a< each end for adjustment. IJy
alternating the trussrs on each sid( of the rafter, and slightly in-
creasing the length of the purlins above them, leaving all others
with a little play in the notches, si fficient provision will be made
for any alteration of length in ihi roof, due to changes of tem-
perature.
Fig. 20.
AVhen \v()()d«»n ])urlins are employed, they may be put between
tli<' rafters, and held in place by tie-rods on top, and fjistened to tlie
ralti'is l»y brackets: or hook-head spikes may Ih» driven up into
the i)iiilin. the head of the spike hooking under the flange of the
ln'ani, s|»a(inLr-i)iee('s of woo<l being laid on the top of the iM^ani
fvoui i»inlin to jtuilin. Tin' sheathimi-boards and covering are then
nailed down on lop of all in the usual manner.
THEOKY OF ROOF-TRUSSES, 621
CHAPTER XXVIII.
THEORT OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
In this chapter it is proposed to give practical methods for com-
puting the weight of the roof with its load, and the proportion of
the tiniss and its various paits.
The first step in all calculations for roofs is to find the exact load
''vhich will come upon each truss, and the load at the different joints.
The load carried by one truss will be equal to the weight of a
section of the roof of a width equal to the distance between the
trusses, together with the weight of the greatest load of snow that
is ever likely to come upon the roof. In warm climates, of course,
the weight of snow need not be provided for.
It is a very common practice to assume the maximum weight of
the roof and its load at from forty to sixty pounds per square foot
of surface ; but, while this may be suificiently accurate for wooden
roofs, it would hardly answer for iron roofs, where the cost of the
iron makes it desirable to use as little material in the truss as will
enable it to carry the roof with safety, and no more. The weight
of the roof itself can be easily computed, and a sufficiently accu-
rate allowance can be made for the weight of the truss ; and, if
the roof is to be in a climate where snow falls, a proper allow-
ance must be made for that ; and, lastly, the effect of the wind on
the roof must also be taken into account.
Mr. Trautwine says, that within ordinary limits, /or spans not
exceeding about seventy-Jive feet, and with trusses seven feet apart,
the total load per square foot, including the truss itself, purlins,
etc., complete, may be safely taken as follows : —
Roof covered with corrugated iron, unbearded ... 8 pounds.
If plastered below the rafters 18 *'
Roof covered with corrugated iron or boards . . . .11
If plastered below the rafters 18
Roof covered with slate, unboarded, as on laths t . . 13
Roof covered with slate on boards \-\ inches thick . . 10
Roof covered with slate, if plastered below the rafters .26 "
Roof covered with shingles on laths 10 "
If plastered below the rafters, or below tie-beam .20 "
Roof covered with shingles on J -inch board .... 13 '^
n
THEORY OF R00F-TEU8SE8.
523
^nd: hence the resultant of the wind pressure must act in a
lirection normal (at right angles) to the face of the roof. In this
iountry the wind seldom blows with a pressure of more than forty
)Ounds per square foot on a surface at right angles to the direction
>f the wind ; and it is considered safe to use that number as the
p*eatest wind pressure. ^ But the pressure on the roof is generally
nucb less than this, owing to the inclination of the roof. The
ollowing table gives the normal wind pressure per square foot on
surfaces inclined at different angles to the horizon, for a horizontal
wind pressure of forty pounds per square foot.
NORMAL WIND PRESSURE.
AN6LB OF BOOF.
Normal
pressure.
Angle of Roof.
Normal
pressure.
Degrees.
Rise in one
foot.
Degrees.
Rise in one
foot.
5
10
15
20
25
30
•
1 inch.
2i inches.
3^ "
4? "
5i "
6i% "
5.2 lbs.
9.6 "
14.0 "
18.3 "
22.5 "
26.5 "
35
40
45
50
55
60
8f inches.
10 "
12 "
14A "
m "
20i "
30.1 lbs.
33.4 "
36.1 "
38.1 ''
39.6 ''
40.0 "
Until of late years it has been the general custom to add the
fdnd pressure in with the weight of snow and roof ; and, although
;hls is evidently not the proper way to do, yet for wooden trusses
t gives results which are perhaps sufficiently accurate for all prac-
;ical purposes ; and, if caution is taken to put in extra bracing
vherever any four-sided figure occurs, this method will answw
rery well for wooden trusses. For iron trusses, however, the
(trains in the truss due to the vertical load on the truss, and those
lue to the wind pressure, should be computed separately, and then
lombined, to give the maximum strains in the various pieces of the
russ. It should be borne in mind that a horizontal wind j^ressure
>f forty pounds per square foot is quite an unconnnon occurrence,
ind, when it does occur, generally is of short duration ; so that a
russ which would not withstand this pressure, if applied for a long
> At the obser^'atory, Bidstoii, Liverpool, the following wind pressures per
quare foot have been regi8tered. 1868, Feb. 1, 70 pounds; Feb. 22, 65 pounds;
)ec. 27, 80 pounds. 1870, Sept. 10, 65 pounds; Oct. 13, 65 pounds. 1871,
imrch 9, 00 pounds. 1S75, Sept. 27, 70 pounds. 1877, Jan. 30, 63 pounds;
Cof. S8» 68^ poundB.— Ambrican Architect, vol. xv. p. 237.
5i>4
THEORY OF ROOB'-TRUSSES.
time, may possess sufficient elasticity to withstand the strain for
sliort time without injury.
In veri/ crjtosrd poMtioun, such as on high hills or mountain:
wluTO the force of the wind is unobstructed, the roofs of all hii;
biiildini^s should be especially designed to withstand its powerfi
eltVcts.
Cirrapliioal Analysis of Koof -Trusses. — The simplest
anil ill most cases the readiest, way of computing the strains i
trusses, is by the graphic method, which consists in representin
the loads ami strains by lines drawn to a given scale of pound
to the fraction of an inch.
\V(; think the gra])hic analysis of roof-trusses may be best shuwi
by examples, and hence shall give a sutticient variety to show th
method of procedure for most of the trusses already describeil ii
thes(» articles.
Example 1. — As the simplest case, we will take the trus
shown in Fig. 4, Chai). XX VI.
0,(»8
Fig. la.
It \\r should «lra\v a line through tln» centre of each piert» of thi
tnis^^. we shouid have a diagr.un such as is shown in Kii;. 1. \V
will .su])iM>se that this truss has a span of .'U fe(>t, and tlie rafU*r
hav<' an iix'lination of Vt° with a horizontal line. Then tho lenjrt
of thf rafter would be 24 feet : and. if the trusses wen» I'J feet aiiarl
<»n>' truss would su]»iK)rt a roi>f-an*a of 12 X 24 X 2 = r»7(t sqiiar
b I'l. Now, if we hM>k at Fig. 1, we can see that the ]>urlhi or plat
a I . I <n /•; would carry one-half of the nwi from A to U. The ptii
Ihi at Ii woidd carry the roof from a iM)int mitlway betwivn .-t an
/> to a point midway Uawivii Ii and f\ whiclt would he oii«-foiiit
the area of ii>uf supported by each truss.
THEORY OF ROOF-TEUSSES. 626
The pttrlins C and D would also support the same amount of '
roof.
If we consider the roof to be slated on boards an inch and a
fourth thick, we shall have for the weight of one square foot 16
pounds ; allowing for snow, 15 pounds ; nonnal pressure of wind,
36 ; total weight or load on one square foot, 67 pounds ; total weight
supported by one truss, 67 x 576 = 38,592 pounds ; total load com-
ijig at each of the points B, C, and Z>, one-fourth of 38,592 = 9648
pounds.
The load coming at A and E is supported directly by the walls of
the building, and need not be considered as coming on the truss at
all. If, now, we draw a vertical line on our paper, and, commencing
at the upper end, lay off 9648 ix)unds at some convenient scale, say
5000 pounds to the inch (in the following figures different scales
have been used to keep the diagrams within the limits of the page,
but were first drawn to a large scale to get thes tresses more accu-
rately), and then one-half of 9(J48 pounds, or 4824 pounds, to the
same scale, we shall have the line ac (Fig. la) representing just
half the load on the truss, or the load coming on each of the
supports.
Now, that the forces acting in the rafter and tie-beam, and the
supporting forces, all coming together at the point A, shall balance
each other, they nmst be in such a pro])ortion, that if we draw a
line from a parallel to the rafter, and a line through c parallel to
the tie-beam, the line ad must represent the thrust in the lower
part of the rafter, and the line dc^ the pull in the tie-beam. If we
next consider the forces acting on the joint 2?, commencing with
the rafter, and going around to the right, we find that the first
force which we know, is the force in the rafter, represented in
Fig. 1« by the line da. Next we have the weight, 9648 poimds,
acting down, represented by the line a?>, and there remain two
unknown forces, — that in the upper part of the rafter and the force
in the strut.
To obtain these forces, draw a line through b (Fig. la), parallel
to the rafter, and a line through (Z, parallel to the strut. These
two lines will intersect in c; and the line be will represent the force
in the rafter, and the line ed the force in the strut. Furthermore,
if we follow the direction in which the forces act, we shall see that
the force da acts up : hence the rafter is in compression. The
remaining forces must act around in order : hence ab acts down,
be acts towards the joint, and cd acts up towards the joint, so that
both pieces are in compression.
Next take the forces acting at the point C. The first force we
know is ebf which acts up ; next we have the weight, 9648 pounds,
520 THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
which would extend beyond « to/; then there remain the forces
in tli«^ rafter to the right, and the vertical tie, which are determined
by drawing a line through / parallel to the rafter, and a line
through (' parallel to the tie. These two lines intersect in /; anil
the line //will represent the force in the rafter, and ei will repn»-
sent the pull in the tie. We have now only to measure tlie lines
>n our diagram of fon'es, and we have the forces acting in ever>"
part of the truss; as, of course, the (^oiTesxxmding pieces on the
dilTnvnt sides of the truss would be similarly strained. Measuring
tin' ditferenl force-lines by the same scale we uscni in laying off the
weiglit, we tuid the strains iis shown by the figures on the lines.
Fig. 1^/.
Having found the stniin-i)ressure in the different parts of the
truss, it is very easy to determine what should be their dimensions.
Thus tlu» compression in the foot of the rafter is 20,750 pounds.
Now, if we wish to make it of hard pine, we know tliat lianl pine
will safely bear KKKJ i>()unds to thesciuaiv inch; and lience we shall
iK'ed ■,';,',;';," = '2\ scpiare inehes area in the rafter. This would
recpilre only a ;> by 7 timber ; but, as the rafter will need to be cut
into more or less, we will give it more area, and call it a 6 by (I.
The short struts have a pressure of 0.000 pounds, and hence
need not be larger than a 2 by 4, except, that, being so thin, it ia
liabl«' to bend; and so we will make it 4 inches by 0 inches. The
tie-beam resists a inill of 14,700 pounds: and. as lurd pine will
safely withstand a tensile strain of 2<)0<) pounds, we should only
nertl abou! iMLiht MjUitre inelu's of area: but, while tills would resist
tlie pull, we urist add em»m:h more to allow for cutting into the
tie :it the Jninis. and for sagging under its own weiglit; so tliat we
will make the beam (MU of a li iueh by 0 ineh tindxT.
'{'he iriitre i'u\ whieb has to ii-sist a pull of IHUS pounds, we will
iiiak<' ti\' \\n»iii;ht-iron inst(>ad of w<mm1. as shown in Fig. 4. ('1ia]i.
\ \VI, : ami. a-"! wrouglii-iron may be safely tnisted with a pull of
lit.iMH) ]>«iiiiiiN to the square ineh <»f eross-seetiim, we shall nt^ed a
roil haviiiix a seetional area of not quite one square inch, or a rod
of an ineh and an eiLrhtli, or an ineli and a fourth, in diameter.
If thf rafter am) strut had In^imi of s]>ruee, we should havedivldiHl
the strain by mh» ])nnnds. <»r 7<»<» if of white pine ; and for tin* tie
\\r shnnM have divid«'d the pull by |<m) if spnuv was to U» uschI.
and h\ I'lOOJl we intendeil lo u*«e while pine.
it will Im' notjeed. that, while we ijetermiue lilt* si7.fM)f our tim-
lier'N iriathematieally. it often ha]ipi-n<« that we must make them
(■Mnsiij. ral>l\ larger lo pii'Vent their tieniliu!; under tlieir own
wei::hi. ami to allow for cutting, iNiring. splirhi};, etc.; so that it
will no( do to deiM>nd entirely uinui matlii*inatieal deductions, but
THEORY OF ROOF-TRTTSSES.
627
these should be supplemented by a practical knowledge of the
subject.
The methods of determining the strains in this truss applies to
all trusses properly put together, and which do not exert an out-
wsLvd thrust on their supports.
Example 2. — For further illustration we will take the truss
shown in Fig. 5, Chap. XXVI., and of which a diagram is given
13,854
18,864
Fig. 2.
Fig.54A
Fig. 2a.
in Fig. 2. We will assume that it has a span of 45 feet, and other
dimensions as given in the figure ; also that the trusses are placed
12 feet apart from centres. By glancing at Fig. 5, Chap. XXVI.,
it will be seen that the purlin at 2 (Fig. 2) carries the weight of
that portion of the roof extending from halfway between purlins
I and 2 to the ridge of the roof, and in this case equal to 18^ X 12
= 162 square feet. The ])iirlin at 1 sui)ports the roof for 4^ feet
each side of it, or 9 x 12 " 1()8 scjuare feet. This would bring
a pressure of 10,854 pounds at the joint 2, and 7286 pounds at
joint 1. Besides this, we have a ceiling suspended from the tie-
beams of the truss, which would weigh about twenty pounds to the
5'2S TIIKORY OK UOOF-TllUSSES.
square foot more. 'I'liis weight would be supportwl one-thlnl at
each of the joints M and 4, and one-sixth at each end of the tnins^.
Tlu' weight of tlie e<'ihn<^, coming at joints :> and 4, may be ns^unin]
to he liiniii fi'om joints 2 and ."i hv means of tlic" vertiejil rods: so we
can a:ld the weigiit (-onnng from tlie ceiling to the weighl of (lie
roof, anil <-onsider it as applied at llu» points 2 and T). 'rh»» wliule
area of the ceiling is 12 X lo = .■)4() square feet, and its weiL'li?
about DiMH) ])oun(ls : making .'>(MH) jiounds ap]>li(Ml at o and 4. and
the total load at 2 and ."), |;J.sr)4 pounds. The loa<l at 1 we have
already dett'nnined to be T2'](\ pounds. This gives us .sutticieiit
data with which to <lraw' our ditigram of strains.
As in Kxaniplc 1. first lay olV the loads on a vertical line, to
some convenient scale : thus. <nl (Fig. 2'/). load at iirst ])urlin. 1.
and '/'.the loads at 2 and o cond)incd. Tln"n tw repre.scnls iialf
the wcJLilit sup])ort.eil by the tiMiss, and also the load eonnng uikui
each >n]»]»ort.
To draw the strains, first draw ah (Fig. 2^/) ]»arallel to A /? (Fig. 2>.
an<l M hnji/.ontal line through c, intersecting oh in /» : ni'xt no to
the joiiii I. and we have the force ////.acting upwards: then the
load If 'I : I hen from '/. the stress in IX \ whi<'h nuist act in a ilin'i'-
tion paiallel to it, antl the stress in Ji(\ also acting panilh') to it.
The-«- la-^t two stressi'v; are found hv <lrawing a line through »/
parallel lo !)('. and a line through h parallel to liC.
\<ri . In V\ii. 2 tile liiH's ari' dcudtetl liy tin* U'tti-rs cltluT »*iih» i»f thi-in;
111.- :li. ■■■.1I..II1 «'l' ihf nilnr (til ihr h-li i* r.iil.-tl .]/;. ami ilu- hnuv //' .• tin-
.< ' . I li' •.■• 1- (li::(iii(i ' /'. iiii'l till- liirhi one >V;. In tin- iliaurain uf ^traill■>.
•li- . ■■ •■ I'-.i- iMiii- iIm- r«tr;iili ill ali\ \\ivrv ]•« (Iclinlcl hy f/n siiiiir /tttn'* ##» "»»
, . . ! ii I Ml- ilMliiiiir*' ; Jul ^Illail U'tt«*i>« air \\<vi\ tor thr "lialsi iliai;raiii. aiiil
til !■ 1!.:- ■■ .111-- ;ii iln- i:i'l- i»l iln- liiH-f. 'I'liir* iiMtlHxl <if iiiitatinii (kii<iu:i.ii>
■!'..■■.%■- N i".!!!..!! ■■ . i* MTV (UMivfiiiciii, and aiiU urcatly in folUmiii!; mil llu-
^ I
\.\: I iki- ihe Ntiain'- in the pie^-es at the j«)int :l. We kn<»\\
:ilii'.il\ ;ii.- •-! rains /./i an 1 '»'-. and drawim; tin- line ♦;/" parallel in
' /', an ! /. ' |iaralli| to /\'/'\ w«' ha\e tin- .strain^ in the rem.Li'dnu
|iii-ei>.. J! will Ih- noiji-cd that the line c/" lies over the lim* •'•: bur
ii -liii:ill !■<■ kepi in min-l that they i'epre>cnr two .Ke]i:ir.ite .strain'*.
.1!, ■ i;!-.:!.! hi- iiH-avineil separali-ly.
• i-i ■ '•■■w in\l the >train'- al joini 2. we rind we aln-adx
i:i.' ". and '/' I |;l.2.M pound-', leaxinu: indx kj lt» elns.- fh«"
'I. ::■ "i >:■ -iiow:;!.; Mia! ihi- -train in lln'bi'am F.I'' is the ^ain*-
I- I ■■ .■ Ml- lit- l'l\. I'loijuJi (hi- fniiner is a i-nmpre-isivi' stniin.
a:: I : i' I ■' ;>-r a ptdlinu one.
■
\\ I- ii-i\v lia\e (he siiajijs ill all the piei"e> of th*' tni.**!*, fi'pn*-
s< iiii-d li\ rlir i-orrespmiding lini^s in Fit;. 2r/. ami. iiieiisiiriii^ these
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
529
by our scale of x>onnds, we find them to be as shown by the figures
on the lines in the strain diagrams.
Then, if the truss were to be built of spruce, we should need
37800
QQQ = 47 square inches of section, at least in the main rafter,
26800 31300
-QQQ- = 33 square inches, in the straining-beam, and "fonQ = 1&
square inches, in the end of the tie-beam. Knowing these least
dimensions, we can modify tliem to allow for cutting, joints, sag-
ging, etc., according to our judgment. Thus we would make the
rafters and straining-beam 6 inches by 10 inches, the tie-beam
6 inches by 10 inches, and the braces 6 inches by 6 inches. The
rods have a strain of 3700 pounds plus the direct pull of 3(X)0
pounds ; making 6700 pounds' pull on the rod, which would requh*e
a rod one inch in diameter.
15,600 12,
Fig. 3.
Fig. 3a.
Example 3. — Take the truss represented by the diagram shown
31 Fig. 3, loaded with the weight of the roof, and supporting the
floor below by means of rods suspended from joints 3, 5, and 6. The
k)ads at the yarious joints would be about as given in the figure.
7HE0JEtT OF ROOF-TBUSSES.
631
Joint 7 weha¥^ gm and mn (18,320 pounds), and draw nh and gh
to clofle the figure. This completes the strains in all the pieces
for one-half of the truss, and of course the strains for each half ar«
the same.
532
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
It is obvioun, that, as far as llndEng the strains is concerned, tt
mnkt's no ilifference whether the tru8» be of iron or wood ; the dif-
feri'iici' ill the material only being talcen Into account when the
sizes of the various pieces are determined.
KxAMi'LK 5 (Truss with Horizontal Cltordu). — For the next
cxaiiii>1<', vii: will talie a truss lilie that sliown in Fig. IS, Ch&li.
XXV'l., au<l of wliich a skeleton is shown in Fig. 5. This truss is
? ^
/
X X
■,,
i -
^_t.
\x
T
o
\
•to
1^
,-\
i
_,\
ot
•a.
s ,
-. \-
t
\-
T
f-°-' \
1
1
'" \ a.
s
lor ■■> >r 'I' -iKty-fiiiir ii'rx. iuiil Mi[i|iort» a flat roof and plaster
i-riliTi;; l.,-li,ii rU.' I L.-lii*;iiii. iinil also a frallery below on eai'U side,
'I'll- l.M I- lit \\»' ililf.Ti-iil joints wiinld be about as indicated In
¥\ii. ■-, li. .ii;iii III.' si rain diai;nini (Fij;. Tmi). lay off the loads mi a
v.Tiii.ii line, niininc'iieini; lirst wiih lln' loaiis nearest the support.
Thii>, ,;), ,'.|nal~ hwX at joints I hikI 2, t.e <iiuals load at i<riala 8 and
4. ■■•I i'<|ii»ls loail ai joliita .^ and n, and ilo uul o« eacheqnnboa^
THBORT OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
533
half of loads at 7 and 8, because one-half of this load is borne by
each support.
Kexty commencing at joint o, we have the supporting force oa,
the stress in the rafter ap, and the stress in the tie, po, closing the
figure. At joint 1 we know pa and a6, and draw bn and pn, closing
the figure. At joint 2 we Icnow op and pn already, and draw nm
and om. At joint 3 we know mn, nb, and be, and draw cl and ml.
The strains at joints 5 and 6 are found in the same way as those at
3 and 4; and at joint 7 we know the strains hi, id, and de, and draw
^and f{f. The centre rod Hllh&s no strain excepting the direct
pull of 2400 pounds, so it cannot be represented in the diagram of
strains.
10,500
Fig. 6.
The strains^ in pounds, in the various pieces, are given in figures
on tba (train diagram.
534
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
Example 6. — Truss such as shown in Fig. 17, Chap. XXVI.,
being a combination of iron and wood truss, suitable for a large
slicd or stable. Tlic slceloton of tliis truss is shown in Fig. 6; the
span in tliis example being forty feet, and the rise fifteen feet. The
loads from the weight of the roof would be about as indicated in
Fig. (), there generally being no C(»iling in roofs of this kind.
'I'he diagram of strains is shown in Fig. On. ah equals load «it
joint 1, and /><> ecjuals onc^-half load at joint 3; ort, ae, and op repre-
sent the strains at joint o ,* e«, nh^ ht\ and/e, the strains at joint 1;
and o(.\ ('J\fu, and .70 represent the strains at joint 2, completing
all the strains in the truss. The complete diagram of strains for
both sides of the truss is shown in Fig. 66.
Fig. 6b.
Kx AMPi.K 7. — Iron truss (Fig. 7), span SO feet, pitch 30 degrees,
distainM' brtuffu truss«'s from erntrrs. lif) feet.
Tin* load-i for tb«' truss with a slate roof on an inch and a quarter
board or iron ]»urlins. would be ab()Ut as iutlicatiHl on dniwing.
To draw ilu' diagram of strains, lay otT the loads on a vertical
line ftn- tuif-balt' of the truss, wbirb would give an (Fig. 7*i).
TIk'11 draw t>,, jMrallfl to O.V. and un parallel to AS. then f*m
]iarall<>l to DM. and ///// parallel to .V.V: next dniw ml {Mirallel to
ML: tlun draw /•; and '/A, and draw ih in lim- with nm: then draw
Ik paiall.l III A A', and ik ]»arall«'l l«> IK. Draw hj jtarallel loIUi:
and. it drawn ri^bt. it will ]>ass through A*. Dr.iw wj interMH*thig
tt'j at '/. riijv will i^ivi- all tlu' stniiu'* in llu* tntss.
It -^ItiHild 1m> not it I'd that h'l lies over hh hut they should be
measured as two sei»:irate lines. This fonn of truss is generally
built w bolly of iron. 'I*he strains an- tigunMl in pounds on Fig. *(%
•THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
535
and the size of the yarions pieces may be computed by the rules for
struts and ties. In Fig. 7 the pieces ML, KI, KG, and EG, and
the principal tie, are all ties ; the other pieces being in compression.
The piece GG is only a light rod which is used to prevent the main
tie from sagging.
16400
1«400
E 16,100
16,100
16400 B
16,100 C
16400
SPAN 80 FT. PITOM 30'
Fig. 7.
Fig. 7a.
ExAMPLB 8 {Iron Bowstring Truss). — Span of truss, 90 feet;
distance between trusses, from centres, 20 feet; rise of arched
zalfeer,90fMt.
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
This form of truss, representeil by Fig, 8, is o
eronomical of trusses for very great spans.
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES. 53V
In such cases as the present example, the rafter, or curved prin-
cipaly is the only piece tliat is in compression, and all the others
are in tension. Under a steady dead load only, such as the weight
of the roof itself, one set of hraces, placed as shown in Fig. 8, would
be all that would be needed ; but under a severe wind pressure
blowing against one side of the roof only, it is necessary to have
another' set of braces, as shown by the dotted lines in the figure.
These "counter-braces," as they may be called, have no stress
on them at all when there is only a vertical load to be supported by
the trusse^s: so we must leave them out in drawing the diagram of
strains.
To draw the strain diagram, lay off the loads on a vertical line, as
in all the previous examples, and remember that the point o should
be halfway between e and/ (Fig. 8a) ; then oa will be the support-
ing force at joint 1. In drawing the strains at the different joints,
draw first the strains at joint 1, and then at joints 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.,
in the order in which they are numbered (Fig. 8).
To commence the strain diagram, we have oa equal to the sup-
porting force at joint 1, and from a draw a line parallel to AG, and
from o a line parallel to OG. These two lines intersect at g, (In
drawing lines parallel to the curved lines of the truss, draw the
strain line parallel to a line connecting the two ends of the curved
chord. Thus ag should be drawn parallel to 1-3, and og parallel
to 1-2.) At joint 2 we already have or/, and from g draw a line
parallel to GU, and from o a line parallel to OH (2-4) : this gives
the lines oh and gh.
At joint 3 the strains are hg, ga, the load ab, and the strains bi
and hi.
At joint 4 we now have o/i and hi, and draw ik and ok. The
strains at joints 6 and 8 are drawn in a similar way, and those at
5, 7, and 9, similarly to those at joint 3. After drawing the strains
at joint 9, go to joint 10; and, after drawing the strains at that
point, all the strains in the truss will have been obtained. The
strains in this particular example are given in pounds on the
respective lines in the strain diagram. It will be noticed that
the strain is very severe on the top and lower chords, hut very
slight on the bracing. It is in fact so slight, that it will be about
as well to make all the diagonal bra(!es of the same size sufficient
to resist the strain on ///, where the strain is the greatest ; or
III and KL might be the same size, and MN and PJi a smaller
size.
The vertical or radiating pieces might be all of a sectional an^a
capable of resisting the strain on NI\
The great advantage of this truss lies in the fact that all its parts
53 S THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
arc hi fnis'ioiif excepting the upper chord, which, of course, is in
c()ini)n*ssi()n. We might analyze the way in whidi the strains act,
])y siiying tluit tht^ ui)iK'r chord carries all the load, like an arch,
and is i)rcvciitcd from spreading out at the ends by the lower tie.
The object of the bracing and vertical pieces is only to keep the
tie in its curved position, and not allow it to come down flat, and
thus alltjw the ends of tiic arch to spread out.
Example U {Thr Ildmnifr-Dcuni Truss). — As this truss is so
frequently used by architects for supporting the roof of churches
anil large halls, we have devoted considerable si)ace to it.
As generally constructed, hammer-beam roof-trusses exert a more
or less horizontal ju'cssure upon the walls sui>i)orting them, re<|Uir-
ing that tli<' walls shall \>o. heavy, an<l re-enforced by buttresses on
the outside. In chundies where the walls are low, this horizontal
thrust of th«' truss is easily taken care of: but in many cases it is
desirable to do away with it entirely if ])ossible. In order lH»tter to
understauil the action of the stn'sses in this truss, we liave pn»-
sented lirst a truss (Fig. 1>) which has all the features of the hannner-
beam truss, I'xcepting the lower braces, and yet exerts no liorizontal
thrust against the wall.
The truss is supi)osed to be built like the ordinarj' haninier-bt'ani
tniss, ex<'e])ting the omission of tlie lower braces, and putting in
strong timber-ties, //O and /*0, in i>lace of the ornamental cur\HMl
pieces usually em]»loved. In this i)articular example we liave
assumed the span of the truss as iii) feet, the rise as .'i5 feet, and
the distance between centres of trusses b") feet. Tills would make
the loads at the different joints .ilM)ut as is indicattMl in Fig. i).
To «lraw the strain diagram, lay off th<' h)ads on a vertical line
in the usual way. the centre coming at o (Fig. \hi) halfway betwwn
tl ainl r. Now at joint 1 we have the stniins nti, nj\ and fo ; ui
join; H, /'I, ah. /;//, an I 1]/ : at joint :», '{/',./i/, f///. and o//, oA acting
from // to If, and Iiimk-c is a pulling strain. At joint 4 we have Aj/,
i/h, }>i\ t'i, and /// to close the liu'ure: /// is also in ti-nsion. At j»)int
■) we have /c, rd, tl/,\ and ik. .\t the toj) joint t», the strains an* A**/,
ilr, fl, ami A/, which com;»let«'s the strain diairram for on<*-lialf of
the truss, which, of course, is all that is needed. Examining.
now. tiie diaizram, we timl that the strains are in general nnirli
lar-^'er than w(»ul 1 be th«' «*as4' if there wen* a horizontal lie ueniss
the nusv;: still, if \\e make the pieces lar^re enough t«i withstand
Ihesr strains, the tru-^s wdl Im* stable, and exert no outward thrust
on tin- walls.
EnokiuL: at I-'ig. J) we si-e that OK // 7*. and /.*, f<inn a (xmtlii-
uous tie. only it is ])ulled u)> in the centi ' in the form shown. In
Fig. t»'f we sei* that the stniin in the tie-riMl J\L Is very {^reat, and
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
63S
dlB is becnue the rod has to hold up the faiclined ties HO
id PO. U we inuigine the tie KL to be cut in two just above
T
12,000
ttOOO 9
12,O00B
J
I °
SPAN 60 FT. RISE 36 FT.
rig.9
° t
Fla. 1
540 THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
the joint, the main rafters would break at ihe joints 4 and 9,
anil tlu^ bottom portion immediately slide outwards, straightening
out the main tie, and allowing the top of the truss to fall through.
Iliiving seen that a hanniuT-beam truss could be built in whi<.'h
thiT(i is no horizontal thrusl, we will now consider the hammcr-
beani truss as usually built, in whieh a horizontal thrust is
t'xptM'tcd. The diagram of such a truss is shown in Fig. 10. in
which the curved braces usually built in the centre of the truss
arc not shown ; as they are considered to Ix^ purely ornamental,
and have no strains in them. Th(» brace 03/ is drawn as though
it were straight: but a curved brac^e can be used as well, without
altering the diagram; for the reason that the strain in the cur\'ed
l)iece acts in a straight line connecting the centres of each end of
the brace.
To draw the strains in this truss we must first find the horizon-
tal thrust of the truss against the wall.
To do this we have to consider that all the piece from joints o to
joint 4 simply form a frauKMl brace supporting the upp(»r iM>rtion
of the truss at joint 4, or that a single brace, shown by the dotttnl
line 04, would have tlu^ same effect on the wall as all the T)itH.res
jmt together in th<^ framed strut; that is, we may consider tiie
truss to have the same horizontal thrust as the tniss shown in Fig.
Uhi. The load at joint 4 wouhl eviibuitly be 12,000 pounds plus
load :it joint 5, plus half-load at joint (>, and half-load at joint 2;
makini: in all :>0,0<H) pounds. To draw the horizontal thrust and
strains w«* ])roceed as follows : —
Lay otT nf> (Fig. 10/>) = loiwl at joint 2, be = load at joint 4, cd =
load at joint .">, and f/c = load at joint 0. Then the load at joint 4
(Fiix. !<)(/) = ^ aJt -\- fir -\- rd + \ dr ; and if we draw from j: a hori-
zontal iin<' to the left, and from the centre of (ib a line parallel to
04 (Fig. in</), these two lines will intersect at i, and ix will Ihj the
horizontal thrust exerted on the wall at the jK»int o.
I laving obtained this Ihrust, it is easy to determine the strains in
the pit'Cf.s.
At joint " we have the thrust ir. the vertical supiK)rting force xa.
and the stresses (i<> and im* <*losing the figun*. At joint 1 we liave
<Ki, (ij\ and of\ as the strains in 0.1 A t\ and FO.
\t joint o the strains are mo, nt\f[is and ;/*// ; at joint 2 they are
f(t, (ill, }ni, \\\\{\ [if ; at joint 4 the strains an' m//, iib : hr and rf
closiuLj tl»«' figure. It will 1m* noticed that the ligun* (*I()m*s without
allowing any line to 1h> drawn parallel to MI : hen<*(> th<*re is no
tensi«>nal strain in MI. There nni.st 1m', however, a compn^ssivi*
strain on .)// equal to the outwanl thrust on the walls; but this It
not shown in the strain diagram.
f
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
541
At jakxkt 6 we have the stnins fr. rcf. dk. and ki, and at joint 6
ve have Ixl, de, ef, and 4r/; which comi^etes the strains for one-half
of the tnusy which is all we need.
tt.000
Fig. 10.
Fig. 10a.
Comparing, now, the diagram of strains, Fig. 10?), with Fig. 9rt,
we find that in general the strains in the truss, Fig. 10, are mucli
less than in the truss. Fig. 9 ; while, on the other hand, the latter
truss exerts no outward thrust on the walls, as is the case in
Fig. 10.
By building a truss like Fig. 10, and putting in curved ties from
iiAnU d and 11 to joint 12, we can relieve the brace OM at part of
542
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
the load without straining the other timbers as much as is the case
in Fig. 0.
Tlie truss shown in Fig. 83, Chap. XXVI., combines the advan-
taues of hotli the forms of hanunor-beam trusses which we havb
considered, thougli it may not be quite so pleasing to the eye.
y/y//^
Fig. 11.
P:xamimk 10 [Tionf of Sixty Fort Span). --The above nine
cxjmiplcs contain all the processes iLsed in <letermlning the strains
in any roof-truss undiT a vertical load; but, in order to n»nder the
priHcss of computing the stresses and dimensions of a roof-truss as
clear as possible, \vc have given the whole process of working out
the (linirn>ions for a roof over a freight-house or skating-rink in
which tlic width of the building is sixty feet dear span, and the
roof makes an angle with the horizon of thirty degrees.
Tlie rooting will consist of an inch and a ([uarter l>oards. covered
with slate. There will 1h' no ceiling susiM'nded from the trusses;
but the roof-iK)ards will be planed so as to show undenu>ath. Tlie
trusses will be spai'ed twenty f^t't cm ceiitnv. lengthwist* of the
buililini;: and there will 1k' two trussed purlins <m eaeli si<h' of the
root". The ja<*k-nifU'rs will Ik' two-im-h by si.\-iueh .spruce plank,
]>laned. .sj>aced twenty inches on centres.
WooiWmi K«of-Trus8. — We will <*ompute tlie stn'ss4*s and
dimensions, first foratindhM* truss of hanl ]>in4*, and tlien for an
iron trus>. the jack-nifters and nHifing lM>iiig the .s:ime in (■ach
instance. Fig. 11 shows tlie be.st form of a wtMMleu tnuw to meet
ihe re<piired conditions, and we will at <iu(v iinM^iHid to dete^
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES. 543
jiine the stresses in the different parts of the truss. To do this, we
must first determine the loads to be supported at the points A, B,
and C, where the purlins rest on the truss. The distance between
the centres of the purlins we find by our scale to be 11 feet and 6
inches; and, as the trusses are twenty feet apart, each purlin will
suppiort a roof area of Hi X 20 feet = 230 square feet.
The weight per square foot of roof, we find from the preceding
tables will be, —
For slate on H-inch boards 16 pounds.
wind pressure, angle of 30° 26 "
snow 15 "
Total weight per square foot .... 57 pounds.
The total load carried by purlins will then be 230 x 57 = 13,110
pounds; or the load coming on the truss at each of the points /I,
By and C, will be, say 13,100 pounds. And this is all the load to
be provided for ; as there is no ceiling, and nothing suspended from
the truss, and the weight of the truss itself is included in the
weight of the slate.
We now proceed to draw a diagram of the truss, representing the
line passing through the centre of each piece, to an accurate scale,
as in Fig. 12, and are then ready to draw our diagram of strains, as
m Fig. 12a.
To draw this diagram, we first lay off to a scale, on a vertical
line; the loads 6c, cf/, and gh, representing the loads on the truss
at the joints 2, 4, and 5. Bisect gh at the point o, and the line ob
will represent the load on one-half of the truss.
Now draw ah and ao (Fig. 12a.) parallel to AB and AO (Fig.
12), and they will represent the strains at the joint 1. At joint 2
we know the strain ah, the load be ; and we draw cd parallel to CD,
and ad parallel to AD, which gives us all the strains at joint 2 A
At joint 3 we have the strains ao and ad; and we draw de, and
we then have the stresses in DE and EO,
At joint 4 we liave the strains ed and dc, and the load eg, and
have only to draw gt' parallel to GF, and (/ parallel to EF, to com-
plete the strahi diaj^ram for that joint.
Lastly, goini^ to joint 5, we have the strain gf and the loatl gh ,
and drawing hi parallel to 7/7, and ft parallel to FI, we have our
* The tie A A O^ijf. 12) cannot be repreBentod in the strain diagram, for the
reason that there is no strain upon the rod at all, coming from the load on
the truM; and the only uho of the rod Ih to l(eep the tie AO from sagging:
Jienee the strain diagram should be made the same as though the rod AA wer«
not in ibtt truss at all.
544
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
strain (Uascram complete for one-half of the truss; and that la all wc
require, as the stresses in both sides of the truss will be the same.
18,100
13.100 G
Fii.12.
Fig. 12a.
A]>;>I.viiii:. how, our scale to the lines in the diagratn of ttraini
(h"\\:. VJti\ wi* find the stress in tho nift.4^r .-1/^ to be A5,Ano pounds*
as tigurt'i] <in tlie line <///, the stress in AD to be 13,100 pMfmlTt m
THEORY OF ROOF TRUSSES. 545
figured on ad, and the stresses In the other pieces to be as shown
by the figures above the corresponding lines in the strain diagram;
and this brings as to the last step in the problem, — to proportion
the various parts of the truss to their respective stresses.
The Uat'teps. — The greatest stress in the piincipal rafter of
the truss is in the section AB, which has a compressive stress
of 65,500 pounds. As the length of the section is only 11 feet
and 6 inches, we may safely allow 1000 poimds per square inch of
cross-section as the working-stress in the rafter, which would give
us 65i square inches of cross-section as the required area. As the
timbers of the truss will be planed, it will be hardly safe to use an
8 by 8 timber; and, as the next largest merchant size is 8 by 10, we
will use that size.
The stress in the section of the rafter CD is 52,400 pounds, and
for this an 8-incli by 8-inch timber will be more than strong enough.
As the stress in GF is still less, we will make the whole rafter of
one piece of eight-inch by eight-inch timber, with a two-inch by
eight-inch plank bolted to the under side of it in the lower section,
as shown in Fig. 11.
Sraces. — The stress in the brace or strut ^D is 13,100 pom ids ;
and for this we will use a fonx-iiich by six-inch timber, a three-
inch plank being liable to spring tor so long a length.
The strut EF has only 17,400 pounds' stress on it ; but, being so
long, we will use a four-inch by eight-inch timber for it.
Tie-Beam. — The maximum strain in the tie-beam is 56,700
pounds ; and, as hard pine may safely be trusted with 2000 pounds
per square inch tensile strain, we need only have 28 square inches
of timber in the least cross-section of the tie-beam; but as we shall
have to cut into it some, and the rods must go through it, and the
beam should be as wide as the struts and rafters in order to make
a good joint, we will make the tie-beam of one piece of eight-inch
by eight-inch hard pine. If it is found impracticable to get a
timber sixty-three feet long of that size, we could use two-inch by
ten-inch plank bolted together so as to break joint, and make
a beam eight inches by ten inches.
Rods. — The rod A A need only be a half-inch rod, as it is only
to ke_cp the tie AO from sagging. The rod DE has a tensile stress
of 6000 pounds to resist; and, as wrought-iron has a safe resistance of
10,000 pounds to the square inch, we need about 0.66 square inch
of cross-section in the rod. A rod seven-eighths of an inch in diam-
eter has an area of 0.60 inch, and an inch rod, 0.78 inch: hence
we must use an inch rod with the ends upset, or an Inch and a
quarter rod if the ends are not upset. For the rod F/, we need 2.6
square hiches of cross-section, which requires a rod an inch and
£46
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
sevcn-oighths in diameter if the screw-€n(l is upset, and two and
oiio-fourth inches if the end is not upset.
Thus we have determined tlie dimension of each piece of our
truss, and may feel sure tliat there will Ih*, no danger of its falling
down as lon^ as the timlK?r remains sound.
The Purlins. — Having decided upon the proportions of our
truss, wt' will now decide what we will use for the purlins. To
give a light. api>earance to the roof, and also keep it good and stiff,
without sagging hetween the trusses, we will use a trussed purlin,
like that sliown in. Fig. 18. The load upon eacli purlin we have
alrciuly found to he 13, KM) poiuids; and it can be proved, tliat^ with
a beam su])i)orted at four points, the load coming on each of the
two middle points of 8upi)ort will be O.iiOT of the whole weiglit on
the l)eam. Then, denoting the weight over one of tlie struts H by
M',, its value would be 0.307 X 13,100 = 4«07 pounds, or, for prac-
tical purposes, 4800 pounds.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
\<>w, the strain in the tie 7? is to the strain on ^as the length of
/i is to the Iicii^ht of tlie truss fnmi (vntn* of rod to cx'ntreof b(>am.
\V(> will make this Iieight 3 fe<'t, and we find the length of liy by
om* scale, to Im' 7 feet 4 inches; then.
or
Stniin in li : 4S(H) pounds : : 7\ ; 3,
7\ X .|S(H)
Slnn'ii in l{ = ., = 1 1,7:S:i iMunids.
Tills would n'(|uirc a rod an in<'li an<l oni'-fourth In diameter with
tlir srn'w-«'n«ls upsi't. 'I'lu' rod sliould liavi' a tum-hii<*klf* at T.
<H X 481X1
Tlu" bfUMi It would have a comjiressive strain = ^ =
10,r>()0 pounds, whicli would n*<|uin* a lN«m about 1^ inch by 8
niclu^s; but, its tlie Iw^ani has also to earry the weighl of tba jMk*
THBOBT OF B00F-TBUSSX8.
647
rafters between two points of support, we shall be obliged to use a
six-inch by eight-inch timber for the straining-beam of our purlin.
y.
lO
5:iS TIIKOKY OF UOOF-TRT'SSES.
nrr in f(ns}n}i, o\i'i^\}{\n^ th<* u])iM'r chord, which, of roiirso, i.s in
coinjucssioii. Wc iiiiicht analyze tlic way in whii-li tho strains act,
by Miyiim ll»:it tiu' iipjHT clioni carries all th<* load, like an an-Ii.
and is i»i«'veiited Innn spreading out at the ends by th<* lower lie.
The ni)j.'('t of the hraclnLT and vertic-al ])ieces is only to keep iln*
tie in its (•iir\ed ]K»sitioii, and not allow it to come down tlat, ami
thus allow the i'uds of the arch to spread out.
KxAMi'iJ-: 1> ( 77/r lldnniHi'-llciini Truss). — As this truss is so
l"n'(ju(Mitl> used hy architects for su])portin^ the roof of churches
and larice halls, we have devotecl eonsi<lerahle space to it.
As Lreiierall> constructi'd, hannuer-heani roof-trusses i*xert a nion*
or h'ss horizontal i»n'ssure upon the walls sui»portin.t: them, re«|uir-
ini; that the walls shall he lioavv, and r<*-enforced bv buttresses on
the out>ide. In churches when* tin* walls are low, this horizontal
thrust of the truss is easily taken care of: but in many cases it i"
desirable to do away with it «'ntirely if ])ossible. In onhT lu'tter to
undiMstaud the action of the stresses in this truss, w«' have pre-
sentiil lirst a truss ( i-'i.^. *.>) whi<'h has all the features of the hanniKT-
branj tru», ext'ciitin": the lower braces, and yet (exerts no horizontal
thrust a','ainst the wall.
TIh* tru'^s is sui»])osed to ]»e built like tho ordinary hanimer-beani
tni><s. i'Miptiui: the omission of the h)wer bnu'cs, and putting in
Strom: timlnr-ties. IIO and l*0, in i)lace of tlie ornamental curved
j)ie«»'s usually emi»loyed. In this ]>articidar example we Unw
a.s^uMH'il tiw span of the truss as «»<) frrt, the rise as IVj feet, ami
the distauc"' l)«twreu rt'utn's of trusses ir» fcrt. This would niakf
tin- loads at the ditfereut joints about as is indicated in Fi^. \K
To draw tin- strain diagram, lay off the loa<ls cm a vertu'al lim*
in till- ii-^iial way. the r«'ntn' j-omiuij at n {V'lii. i''0 halfway iH'lwiM-n
'/an.! '. \<iw at joint 1 wo hav»» the str.iins iki^ n/. and /o ; ai
join: •-'. .'•'. I//.. //#/, :in 1 I'lj ; at joint :>, <[l\f[i, [ih, and o//, nh actini:
from // to '/, and hence is a ]iullin.i: s»rain. At joint 4 we liave A'/.
f/^', '■'■. '•/', an-: /// to «-lo>i' the lii,MU'e: /// is also in tension. At joint
."i w«- lia\i' /'.■, ril. ilh, ainl ik. At the to]» joint Ti. the strains are k'l,
th . ' /. and /./. whii-h eonr.ili'ti-s the strain dia-^ram for one-half of
th.- Ti!--. which. Mf .-oursi'. is all that is neeih'd. Kxaminiii::.
n<'U. III.- diau?".»ui. wt* find that the strains are in p*neral niiu'li
la!!' r III I'l wind 1 b.' tin- ea-sr if then* were a horizontal t\v aiTu*"*
il-. ii'i--. -ii!l. if we make the ]iieei's lar:;e euoui^h to wilhslaii<l
il.« •• ii.i ■!-. the tru-s wdl hi- stable, and exert no outward thrusl
n]; ' ill- ••.. ..'!-.
I.--.:. :i. It i;-. '.I we see that or. // 7», and //, fonu a innitin-
iii<:is ;':• . kiiIn i! i*- pulli-d up in the eenii ' iu the form shown. In
Ji,. '.'■' w.- .-.■•■ thai III'- .strain in tin- tie-rod KL hi very great, aiiU
THEORY OF ROOF-TRUSSES.
539
lift is because the rod has to hold up the inclined ties HO
ttd PO, If we imagine the tie KL to be cut in two just above
12,000
12,000 9
12.000 B
I °
SPAN 60 FT. RISE 36 FT.
Fig.9
Fig. 9a.
550 JOINTS.
CHAPTER XXIX.
JOINTS.
TiiK stability of any piece of frame-work depends in a very
great measure upon the manner in which tlie joints are made. It
is tlier(»fore very important, that in drawing trusses, or frame-
work of any kind, the designer shouki have a good knowledge of
tho fundiunonLal princii)les upon which every joint should be con-
structed, and of the most approved methods of fonuing the priu-
cii)al joints found in frame-work. ^
Joints are the siu^aces at which the pieces of a frame touch
each other. They are of various kinds, according to the relative
positions of the pieces and to the forces which the pieces exert on
each other.
Joints should be made so as to give the largest bearing-surfaces
consistent with th(^ best form for resisting the particular strains
which tliey have to supiK>rt, and particular attention should be i>aid
to the etl'ects of contraction and expansion in the material of which
they are made.
In ])laniiiii^ them the ]mrpose they are to starve must be kept in
mind, for tlie joint most suitable in one case would oftentimes bo
the least suitable in another.
JOINTS IX TIMBER-WORK.
In frames made of tind)er, the pieces may be joined together in
three ways. — ])y coniuicting them;
1. Knd to en<l;
' Ar- tlu' author could think of no ht'ttor way In which to pn'M'itt the iiUl>j«H*t,
}i«' ]\.i- take?), by |M•rnll^>^ion of ProfcKKor Whtn-U'r ant) of tht' |iuhlii(hent, the
follow iiu' i-)ia|itfr on Joints from t)ic text hook, on (Mvll KuKin*t'rlli|{. pr<'|i:iml
l»\ ri..li--oi Whrrlcr for thr Ufi- of ihr catU'trt of iho rnltcd-StiUeii Mllll«ry
Acailriiiv. ami |Mll>li^h(Ml hv .lohn Wilcv X Soiu* of New York. The author
)i('artlly ni-oiiinuMulH I'rofi'nMir NVhfclcr'H work Ut thi* architect or bulkier who
V. i.ohi :< to ol.iain a thoruui;li knuwlcUKc uf cuiiHtructiou and the msterialt
I'lnployitl ilurciu.
S. The end of one piece reettng upon or uoiclted Into the face of
another; and
8. The tmcea resting on, or notched into each other.
I. Joints of Beams united End to End, the axes of
the tieamg Iwing In the same straight line.
Pint, Suppose the pieces are required to resist strains iii tlie
direction of their length.
i
This case occurs, when, In large or long frames, a single piece of
the required length cannot be easily procured.
The usual method of lengthening is in this case bj fiahing or
Korjing, or by a combination of the two.
Flsli-Joints. — When the l^eanis altut end to end, and are con-
nected by piece3_ of wood or Iron placed on each side, and flmilj
552
JOINTS.
bottad to the timbers, the joint is called a fish-Joint, and the beam
is saiil tobefi«/ie<l.
This joint is sliown in Fig. I, and makes a strong and simple
When tin- Iwauis am used lo resist a slrain of compression, the
liNli-iiiiir? slioiild be placi^l on all four sides, so as to pr«vcnt any
i'.tcnil iiLovonient wliatever of the beams.
It lhoslriiLnluM,ii..ijf t.-ii
;l,rjiiii.i,l..i,.™lsi.viifii.i.lly
liy till' fiii'tionuf Ihi' fisli-[>i<
Is I'videni tliiit tlie stnmfitli of
!> Hiji'ii^itli of till! bulls, assisted
irist till' sides of the timber.
ly bf tiiiir'li lessened by notcb-
I's upon Ihi- Ix'siiis. ns shown on llii- upper side of
, :; : or by nialiiii^' us(< of keys or blocks ot liwil
1 sliaiiow noU-hi-s made in Itolb the beam knd-Bah-
on Ibi* lower siili- of the plucu iu the sanM figure
JOINTS. 653
Care ahonld ba taken not to place the bolts too near the enils of
Oie piece*. The sum of Ibe area« of croas-sectlons of the bolta
Bhonld not be leas than one-flftli that of tbi^ beam.
Scarf-^ointH. — In thesu joints the ^Wixs ovi>rUi> (•at-li other,
ftDi] are bolted logetlier. The fonu of lii|) depitiiila upon the kinJ
of strain to which the beam is to be subjected.
Fig. 4 is nn example of a siini'lc^ scarf-joint thai is soinetinicji iisc<1
when the beam Is to bi; snbjecteii only to a sllijlit atrain of oxten-
sion. A key or folding wralgc is fn^ini^nlly milled, notched <^|ually
in both beams at the middle: it serves tu brin^ the surfaces ot tlie
joint tightly U^llier.
This Joint is often made liy cnttini^ the Ix'anis in such a iiiaiiner
as to form projections wliich fit into corri'^iHrnding indon tut ions.
A good euuople, in wlucb two of these notches ai'e tuadu is sliown
lnFl8.S.
554 JOINTS.
Tiie total lap shown in this figure, is ten times the thickness of the
tinibcr, and th(» d(»i)tli of the notches at A and B are each equal to
onc-fourtli that of tlu^ beam. The bolts are placed at right angles
to the prin(Mi)al lines of the joint.
Tliis is a i^ooil joint where a stniin of tension of gre^it intensity
is to be resisted, as. by the notches at .1 and IL one-half of the cross-
seetion of the beam resists the tensil(» strain.
Coinbiiiatiou of Fish and Searf ffoiiits. — The joint
shown in Fig. <> is a (!oml)ination of the lish and scarf joints, and
is much used to resist a tensile strain.
Second, Suppose the pieces arc required to resist a transvers»»
strain.
In tliis east' the searf -joint is the one generally ustnl, and it is then
formed sometimes by simply halving the beams ne^r their ends, as
shown in Fig. (5.
The more usual and the better form of joint for this Cci.se is
shown in Fig. 7.
In tlic upix'r ])ortion of this joint the abutting surfaces are jht-
iK'nlicular to the length of th(» b(»am, and extend to a depth of at
b'ast one-third, and not exceeding one-half, that of the bi>ani. In
tlie bottom portion they extend one-third of the depth, and an*
perpendicular to the obli(pic portion joining the upiH*r and lower
ones.
Tiie lower side of the beam is (i.-;h(»d by a pit»ce of wood or in)n
plale secured by Ixdls or iron ho()i)s, so as to better resist the tensile
strain to which this portion of the btHim is subjectinl.
Fig. 8.
I{rlir.>i«'iils :i "carf-jniiit rtrratmctl to re^l.-t a cPMH-ntriiiii aiiil «»nu of ('Xt4*iifi<>ii.
The l><>lt>i,i of thi' jiiiiit i- lir-hcd !)>' a;, imii ]>|,iti- : ami a foUli'it; wttJyv ininTttti
al ' M'lMs U) briiiij all tlu* riirfart's of thi* joint to llu'ir lK>uriii{^.
T/i!i''l, Su]i]»osi» the piece recpiired to resist cmss-stralns coinhini*(i
u iiii a lentil*' sti'ain.
I he jdint fr»'.|Uently used in this <'ase is shown in FI5. 8.
In 111.- i»i«'\i<)Us cases tlie axes wen- n-iranled as l)elng in thej<Jiine
straiulii liiif. If it be re<piired to unite the ends, and liave the axes
mal.e :(M aiiL;1e with each other, tins may l)e don<* by lialvinj; the
Ixaiii^ ai the iiids, or by cutting' a mortise in the centre of on^,
shaping ih«- tnd of the other to lit, and fastfning the ends togetlier
JOINTS.
556
by pins, bolts, straps, or other devices. The joints used in the
latter case are termed '* mortise " and '* tenon joints.*' Their form
will depend upon the angle between the axes of the beams.
II. Joints of BeaiUSy the axes of the beams malciiig an angle
with each other.
Mortise and Tenon Joints. — When the axes are perpen-
dicular to each other, the mortise is cut in tlie face of one of the
beams, and the end of the other beam is shai)ed into a tenon to
fit the mortise, as shown in Fig. 9.
A
H
\S=dr
37"
Fig. 9.
Represents a mortise and tenon joint when the axcH of the beamrt are perpendicu.
lar to each other, a, tenon on the beam A ; h, niortise in the l>eani B ; <:, pin
to hold the parts together.
Wlien the axes are oblique to each other, one of tli(» most com-
mon joints consists of a triangular notch cut in the face of onti of
tlie beams, witli a sliallow mortise cut in th(i bottom of thi^ no^cll,
the end of the otlier beam being cut to lit the notcli and mortise,
as shown in Fig. 10.
D
Fig. 10.
Hei>reAeDts a morUse and tenon joint when the axcB of the beams are oblique to
each other.
In a joint like this the distance nh sliould not be less than one-
balf the depth of the beam A ; the sides ah and be shoidd he per-
55(5
JOINTS.
pondiciilar to each other when practicable; and the thickness of
tlie tenon d sliould be about onc^-fiftli of tliat of the 1>eani A, Tlie
joint sli()ul<l he. loft a little open at r to allow for settlinj^ of tlie
frame. The distance from h to the (\nd I) of the beam should \u\
sullicicntly great to resist safely the longitiulinal shearing-strain
canseil by tlie thrust of the b(»am ^1 against the mortis<\
Sui)pose tht^ axevs ol' tlu? beams to be horizontal, and the beam
.1 t»» be suhjeeted to a cross-strain ; the circumstances being sudi
tha: tlie eu.l of the beam .1 is to be connectcid with the face of the
other i)eam />.
in thi.^ ease a mortises and tenon joint is used, but modiileil in
form iVom those just shown.
To weaken tlu' main or supporting beam as little as possible,
the moriise shoul 1 be cut near the middle of its depth; that is, the
centii' of the moriise shonld bt^ at or near the neutral axis. In
(H-d<'r that tlie tenon should have the greatest strength, it should W
at <)'.• Ileal" the uiid»'r side of the joint.
SuH-e Itoth of these conditions cannot l)e conibintMl in the same
ji 'lit, a nio iili 'alion of i)oth is used as shown in Fig. 11.
A
Fig. 11.
.1, tin- oidf's-tjoaiii ; li, croKH-Hectioii of iiiuiii beam,' t, the tenon.
Thf t.ii'.n has a «h'pth of on<"-sixth thatof the cro.<«s-])«»ani -Lanil
rt ]e!i.:tli of twice this, or of one-third tlu' (b'pth of the iH'ani. Tin*
lower si. I.- (»f ♦in- cro'S-beam is made into a shoulder, which is h'l
iii'n Ml." !ii liii !..■ im one-half (he len-^th of the tenon.
Dinihl.- '<ii(»ns hav«' been consideraldy u>ed in cari>i'ntry. .Vs a
nil"'. th<y dioidd II' rtr be ust' 1, a-' hoth are seldom in lu*arini^at ihi*
saiiM- I i:iii'.
III. Joints iisi'il (o coniKH't lloiiiiis, tlio Facf^s r<»st-
iii<4 oil Ol- iiotchfsl into Karli Other. — The sinipl«-st and
sti(»:;_'--' i-'iiii in tlii^ ca-^e is ma«l»' iiy cuttim; a nn!rh in oiir or
huMi lii;i:;j-, :iii 1 fa-li-iiin'4 llie litti'l in'ims tovieiher.
if I !i<- i» 11 M^ dn not ( Tdos, lint iia\i' the end (d* oneton'.st U]Miii tin*
otii'T. a "■ '■■ I'lil Jiiin: i«i >om«';ime-i ux-d. In tlii> j«»iiil, a iioli'h.
ti-a)H-/.<i.i.il in furm. i^ cut in the supporting beam, ami the eii«l uf
I he other hi-am is lit ted into this notch.
BIVETED JOINTS. 667
• ' On account of the shrinkage of timher, the dove-tall joint should
never be used, except in cases where the shrinkage in the different
parts counteract each other.
It is a joint mucli used in joiner's work.
The joints used in timber-work are generally composed of plane
surfaces. Curved ones have been recommended for struts, but the
exi)eriments of Ilodgkinson would hardly justify their use. The
simplest forms are, as a rule, the best, as they afford the easiest
nieans of fitting the parts together.
Fastening's. — The pieces of a frame are held together at the
joints by fastenings, which may be classed as follows : —
1. Pins, including nails, spikes, screws, bolts, and wedges;
2. Straps and tie-bars, including stirrups, suspending-rods,
etc.; and
3. Sockets.
These are so well known that a description of them is unnecessary.
C^neral Rules to be observed in the Construction
of Joints.
In planning and executing joints and fastenings the following
general principles should be kept in view: —
I. To arrange the joints and fastenings so as to weaken as little
as possible the pieces which are to be connected.
II. In a joint subjected to compression to place the abutting
surfaces as nearly as possible perpendicular to the direction of the
strain.
III. To give to such joints as great a siu^face as practicable.
IV. To proportion the fastenings so that they will be equal in
strength to the pieces they connect.
V. To place the fastenings so that there shall be no danger of the
joint giving way by the fastenings shearing, or crusliing the timber.
RIVETED JOINTS.
The most common method o*'' uniting pieces of wrought-iron or
steel in framed structures is by means of rivets. And that the
structure shall be equally strong in all its parts, it is essential that
the joints shall be carefully designed.
A rivet is a piece of metal with a solid head at one end, and a
long circular shank.
Riveting consists of heating the rivet, passing it through the holes
in the plates to be united while hot, and then forging another solid
head out of the projecting end of the shank.
558
lilVETEl) JOINTS.
The hammering causes the heated shank to fill all parts of the
holes, and the contraction of the metal, as it cools, draws the heads
together, tlius firmly forcing and holding the f)iece8 together.
Rivets are generally made cither of mild steel or the lx»st wrought-
iron, llie latter l)eiiig the most reliable. The rivet-heads are made
in four ways, as sliown in Fig. 1.
Tlie first sliape is the one generally used. The second and third
are used only for their apj)earance ; and the fourth, or counter-
sunk head, is only used when a smooth surface is desirable, as over
a bearing plate.
The exact sizes of lieads, shapes, etc., of rivets vary in different
mills.
When the size of rivet is specified the hole is always made fy
I
o
^37
z\
^
t
CZl
B
Fk;. 1.
inch larger : but the rivet is generally designated by the sifle of the
hole.
i*it('li. The distance b( tween the centres of the rivets, in tho
line of riveting, is called the pitr/i. This (for practical reasons)
should nc\ » r l>e less than X?.\ dianu'ters ; nor should tho centre of
tin hole (if j)ossil)le) be nearer to any edge than lA diamelcrs. In
angle work, howt-ver, it is often nec« ssary to make the distance
from the edg»> less thjin the alM)Vc. but in thick plate's it should
.•^l\^.^y>^ he nioic. In drille<l Work the pitch miglit Ihj n*du(*ed to 3
diaincinx. IT rivet -heads are countersunk the pitch should Ix' in-
cr<;i--c«l .H rordinu: to t!ie ami»unt (»f metal cut awav. to make room
f'T t !if ii\ if head.
Ki\. i-l:..|r«j jiri' treiierMllv m:ide by punchin*;, by a |N)Wcrful
steam-punch, as this is much the chcafH'.st methoil. The best waj
to make till- holes is to drill them after Uiv piuctai are bolted or
clam|M d together.
RIVETED JOIXTa 650
- Pntiohiiig makes a ragged and irregular hole, and injures the
metal about the hole, causing a loss in strength to the remaining
portioii of the metal of 15 per cent, in wrought-iron, and often 35
per oent. in steel.
Besides this, in punching there is liability of craci^ing the plate,
and of not having the holes in the two plates that are to be united
come exactly opposite each o:her.
The hardening of the metal by punching also decreases the duc-
tility of the pieces.
The injury done by punching in steel plates may be almost en-
tirely removed, however, by annealing, and in first-class work tMs
should always be done.
In drilled work there is no loss, and the holes are not only accu-
rately located, but accurately cut, and the strength of the remaining
fibres is even increased from IJ to 25 per cent.
The cost of drilling, however, is very great, so that it is not
likely to be employed, except in making the joints in trusses and
connecting tic-bars, where the number of rivets is not great.
A metlium course between punching and drilling is to punch the
holes a size smaller than desired, and then drill or ream them to
actual size, when partially secured together. The loss of strength
by this method will be very slight.
In most cases, however, the architect will have to be satisfied
with punched holes, and must, therefore, allow sufficient mt'tal to
make good any damage done, or for any inaccuracies.
In driving and heading the rivet, however, machine riveting is
much better than hand riveting, as a greater pressure is used, and
the metal more completely fills the hole.
In designing riveted work, whether to be hand or machine
riveted, the architect should bear in mind the necessity of placing
the rivets so that they can be inserted in the holes from one side
and hammered from the other ; and for machine work, that the
mfichine can reach them. Thus, the minimum distance from the
inside face of one leg of an angle iron to centre of nearest livet-
hole in other leg should be at least li inch for ]l-inch rivets, 1 inch
for 5 -inch rivets, I inch for (i-inch rivets, {I inch for ^-inch rivets ;
and, if possible, these distances should bo increased.
Riveted joints may yield in any one of five ways :
Ist. By the crushing of the plate in front of the rivets (Fig. 2).
2d. By the shearing of the rivets (Fig. 3).
8d. By the tearing of the plate between the rivet-holes (Fig. 4).
4tti. By the rivet breaking through the plate (Fig. 5).
0th. By the rivet shearing out the plate in front of it
500
RIVETED JOINTS.
The two latter cases are likely to occur only in the case of a single
riveted la{)-j()int.
To design a riveted joint so that it will not broAk in oither of these
ways, it is, therefore, necessary to calculate for the siicuring
strength of the rivets, for the criisliing strength of the j>lates
joined, and to spice the rivets far enough apart that the metal
will not tear between tlie rivets.
Thv prori-a of dcHifpung a riveted joint practiciilly consists in
lirst assiiniinij: \\w size of rivet to be used, and then calculating the
number HMjuired to resist shearing and to prevent tlie crusliiog nf
the jjlates joined, and then using the larger number. They aro
6
^|||
iJ
©
Fiti. a. Fkj. 3. Pkj. 4. Fio. 5.
tlien sikkmmI ])y the. rule that the pitch shall not be less than 2^
dianii'trr.s, nor more than 16 times the thickness of the thinnest
))lalc jit the joint, and tlie distanci' from the centre of the rivet to
einl of till' platr should not be less tlum lA diameters.
Tin' follow iiiLC t-'iblr gives the sizes of rivets to be preferre<l for
dillt-n'Mt I hick J u'sst'S of plates :
Kor plairs from ', incli to ,",; inch thick, use rivet -holes S inch in
diamcd-r.
Fur j)Iat('s from .1 ineli to 'l inch thick, use rivot-liolos \ inch in
diamrtrr.
For j)lat(s from }■ in( li to \'-\ inch thick, use rivot-holetf * inch
ill (li'iiinler.
l^'or pla<' from I inch to 1 inch thick, use rivct-lioU>s L inch in
d .ii.ifi.r.
'/'/// ,.'/.'.'■'#/• nf lit it-. iHMiuin'd lo rrsi.s/ shtnrihti can U» r.Lsiiv
({•■ici Miin il !>\ ilJNJ'iiiu the loial amount of >ti*:iin by Ihr nunilhT
()|i|M>>>iic tlw >i/<- of thr rivet., in the fiairth column of the I'ollnwing
tabli-. if the rivet is in si nude shear ; and, if in double nhear, taki
one-half the numljcr of rivets.
BIVBTED JOINTS.
561
y^ to »^ Of" ^tH
tH tH 1-h O) CO CO ^ lO
CO CO ^
CO
o
coco
g
O JO
cs o
H
Og
as ^«
<
"a
a
'o
c
t-CO CD
CO CO t- 00
«5
l- CO
00 Od
JO o
So/ 00
eOx^J^
•-♦N^jJtO iC|«> .^^ «!■♦ CTIjS H*iC|-C
-e
."te
562
RIVETED JOINTS.
To find the number of rivets required to prevent crushing, divide
the total amount of strain by the bearing value of the rivet given
in tlie preceding table.
The heavy zigzag line in the table indicates the limit at which
the bearing value exceeds single shear. All values above these lines
are in excess of single shear ; all values belo>r are less than single
shear.
Tilt* ])rincipal cases in which riveted joints occur in building
construction are :
1. In the joints of wrought-iron trusses.
2. Splicing of tie-bars.
3. In the connecting angles of lioor beams.
4. In rivuted girdei's.
SpliciiifJT of Tie-bars.
Tie-bars may be spliced in three ways.
1st. By a lap-joint, as shown in Fig. 6.
r:\
1
r- \
^zy
Fks. 6.
M. By a single cover plate, as shown in Pig. 7.
^
CX.£2i
m
3
W W
Fio. 7.
8cL By two cover plates, as in Fig. 8.
rzi
ID
)
(
d
Z3
C7~^37
Fii.. 8.
In Piir<. (I nnd 7 the rivets are in singh^ shoar ; in Pig. 8 they
in double shear. Th(> last method is much the best, although it ii
ahio the most ex()eusivo. The cover plates sliould alw^Tt bo Um
BIVBTBD JOINTS. BBS
fan width of tia ban orninected, and Ve inch nioro in thicknees tor
the twoptatM, orforonesinglo yiiaXe.
For lapped joints, which iH the most cornmon joint used, the
rivets riionld be amnged as in Pig 9, in which case the plates are
Pia. 9.
only weakened by the width of one rivet-hole, at A, At B, two
rivet-holes are lost, but the strain lias been reduced by an amount
equid to the ralao of one rivet-bole, aiid so on.
If the plates are narrow and thick, tho rivets may be arranged as
in Pig. 10 or 11.
unpa
Pia. 10.
Fn. 11.
Where cover plates are used. Fig. 11 is tho best Arrangement to
USD, tor then tho cover plates will bo weakened by only two rivot-
holos (tho ones neurcst the joint) ; whllo in PiK 10 tho cover plates
arc weakencil by thn:o holes merest the joint, and, consequently,
must be made thicker.
When rivets are arranged in rows, it h called chain riveting 1
when rivets are arranged to coino opposite the space between th§
preceding rivets, they are said to be sta^^red, as in Figs 9, 10,
«nd U.
564 RIVETED JOINTS.
In designing riveted joints caro must be exercised not to weaken
the plates any more tiian is absolutely necessary.
Example I.— A VI" x V" He-bar is so long that it has to he made
in two pieces with a splice ; ilie strain on the piece is &t\000 pounds,
JIow many rivets mil be required ?
Ans. We will assume that the joint is to bo a lapped joint, as in
Fig. 9, and that we will use !|-inch rivets.
From tlie table we find that the resistance of a 2 -inch rivet to
single shear is 3,J310 lbs. and the bearing value for a ^-inch platc-
5,G;J0 lbs. Dividing the strain, 05,00') lbs., by the smaller of these
two quantities, 3.iU0, we find we shall require 20 rivets; but as 20
rivets will not give us the arrangement we wish, we will use 25,
as in Fig. 9. The distance, P, between the centres of rivets
me4isure(l on the slant should be at least 2^ diameters, or 2^ x }
inch = li inches, or, we will say, 2 inches.
liesiiii Coiiiiectioiis.
Example 2. — .1 10 inch iron beam herring a web f^ inch thick
sustffin.^ a dintrihuicd load of 12,000 lbs. One end of the beam rests
on a wall, the (ft her is framed to a ITy-incJi Id)eam girder; how
many n'retx irill in', required in the connection f
Anti. The stiindard connections (see p. 3(>8) show two 31 x
3.^ X ! angles, with two !|-inch Ix^Us, and we will see if it 18
strong enough for this i)articular case.
The 1 );:'! on the beam l)eing 12,000 11)8., only one-half will
\w transl* rrcd to liie ;rir.ler. or C," 00 lbs.; hence the two J-inch
rivets will l)t' i-('(iiiir«'d to s;ij)|)o:-t 0,000 lbs.
I''rom tin' table th»' bearing valuta of a ij-inch rivet on a ^*,-inch
plate is :{,.-):() lbs., whie'i for the two rivets will Ik; 7.040 lbs. The
rivets will be in donble shear, hence will have the same stri'ngth aH
4 rivets in -ingle shear.
The valiK' for one rivet is 3,310 llis.. or 13,240 lbs. for the 2 rivota
in donble >hear — or more than twice as strong. The angles an?
thicker than the wel). hc'icethe U»aring strength on them is gn'uter
than on the web. We then'l'cjre find the staiidanl connuctitm hiis
snlUcieni >iren"-th for Diis p:irlicular cas«\ with no exci'ssivr wast**.
Ri\<'is ill IMate (;iwlors.- It is quite a diflicult matter to
scieniifi.aliy pro|M)rtioii the rivets in plate ginlers, so the common
])ractiee is to put in enough to meet Inith the practical anil theoreti-
cal HMjiiirement
The usnal ])ractice is to use 'I -inch rivets. Bpa(*e(l from 4 to •
iiiche<> a[>art according to the sizi^ of the girder, and not more thaa
KIVETED JOINTS. 566
8 or 4 inches apart at the ends. In verv light girders having plates
less than | inch in thickness, ^-inch riyets may be used.
Bending Moment in Rivets. — While pins should always
be computed lor resistance to cross breaking, it is not the custom
to consider the bending moment in rivets ; as in a well-riveted
joint it is practically impossible to produce any bending of the
rivet, neither do the tests on riveted joints show any signs of the
rivets breaking in that way. The only person that considers the
bending moment on rivets, so far as the author has been able to
learn, is Mr. Louis DeCoppet Berg, who has taken up the subject
of riveted joints most elaborately in Chapter IX. of his papers on
"Safe Building," published in the American Architect and Build-
ing News, in the latter part of the year 1889.
PART m.
Rules, Memoranda, and Tables
USEFUL iir
Designing^ Estimating, and Building.
[From the "Building and Engineering Times."]
The object of a chimney is to produce the draught necessary for
the proper combustion of the fuel, as well as to furnish a means of
discharging the noxious products of combustion into the atmos-
phere at such a height from the ground that they may not be con-
sidered a nuisance to people in the vicinity of the chimney.
Regarding the second of the above purposes for which chimneys
are built, it need only be said, that it is of secondaiy importance
only, and that where due attention is given to the proper methods
of setting boilers, and proportionating grate areas, furnaces, and
rate of combustion, the smoke nuisance is comparatively unknown,
and is of no practical importance whatever.
The main points to be considered in designing chimneys are the
right proportions to insure, first, a good and sufficient draught,
and, second, stability.
Without entering into any demonstration of the velocity of the
flow of the heated gases through the furnace and flues leading into
and up the chimney, we will briefly state a few of the principles
governing the dimensions of chimneys. The motive power or force
»vhich produces the draught is the action of gravity upon the dif-
ference in the specific gravities of the heated column of the gases of
combustion inside the chimney, and the atmosphere at its normal
temperature outside of the chinmey, by which the former is forced
up the flue ; and the laws governing its velocity are the same as
those governing the velocity of a falling body ; and it can be proved
that its velocity, and, consequently, the amount or volume of air
drawn into the furnace, and which constitutes the draught, is in
proportion to the square root of the height of the chinmey. It is a
common error that the force of the draught is in direct proportion
to the height; so that, with two chinmeys of the same area of flue,
one being twice the height of the other, the higher one would pro-
duce a draught twice as strong as the other. The intensity of
draught under these circumstances would be in the proportion
of the square root of 1 to the square root of 2, or as 1 to 1.42. To
double the draught-power of any given chimney by adding to
the height, it would be necessary to build it to four times the origi-
570 CnTMNEYS.
nal lu'i^lit. Prnolicnlly Uu>ro is a limit to tho height of a chimney
of :niy i^ivj'Ti aroa of i\\u\ bcyoiKl wliich it is found that th<» addi-
tional lu'iirlit iucn-ascs the rcsistaiic*' due to the velocity an. I frir-
tioii more rapidly lliaii it incp'ascs the How of void air intJ) th»'
furnact*. For cliiiiiiH'ys not over forty-two inches in dianietiT
tlif uiaxiiiiuiii admissihle licJLrht is about three hundred f<-et.
Kioiii an invest iirat Ion of the same laws we find that the vcloeity
of tin- ll<»w of eol.l air into the furnaee is in proi>oi'tion to the
sijuan- inn; nf the ratio In'tween the density of the outside air ami
the dilfiTtiice in the densiti«'S of the outsidt; air anil tlie Iirated
trax's in tii«' ehinniey; from which wc may deduce the fa<'t that very
lil!l«' incr<'a<«' of dranixht is ohtain«'d by increasing tlie t«*nip<'rature
of tlie ira^rs in the chiiimey above ;*);■)() or (MK) dei^rees F. l»y
raisini: the temjuTatiire of the tluo fi'om (MK) to 12«K) degrees we
wonl I int-rease tlu^ (lrauij:]it K'm.; thin twenty per cent, wldle tht*
wasi"' of hrat woul.l be very <"onsiderable. Conversely, w«» niav
re:hi'i' thf temjM-rature of the flue about one-half, when the t«*ni-
]ii'raMnt' is a-^ hiiLrh as six hundred di'grees. by means of an econo-
nii/.«r or otlnrwise, and the vaJuriion of draught-force would be
onl\ abnni twenty jierccnt, as before.
It is fonnl that, the jjrincipal causes which art to ini]uiir the
drauLTht of a chinmey, ami whi<"h varv i^reatlv with diffen*nt tyiM-s
of boil. IS and settini"*, are tlw resistan«'e to the pa«<saiii' of tlie air
olTen-.l bv the laver of fm-l, bcnd^i, ««lbows, and clianiri's in tlie
dinitii-inn^^ x\i the tines, rontrbness of the masonry of brick Ihu'S,
hole^ in tile jiassai^es ubi<-h allow the entraiHM* of eoM air, and.
|jcnerall\. any >ariatinn from a straiiiht, air-tight passage of uniform
size fpiMi iMjiihnstion-ebinnlier to ehinniev-tlue: and the n'sistaner
to (haiiui.i U in direct })roportion to the magnitude anil ninnbiT of
sneh vaiial inns.
in de-.i.:iiin.r a cbiinnev. it is. therefore, always necessary to eon-
• • •
sidi r IJM t\|ie of bndr. met hoi of seiiini;, arrangement of IntiliTs
and l!i!i-. l'»<;itinn »m' ehimney. and e\er\ thiie^ which will bi* likely
♦o in any wwy inti-rfen- with i;> ellieient performance. Mu-'h. of
cnn:«.e, dei'.iid • iijinn the jn iLiiii-.-nt and experience of tlie desiiimT.
and i! \\nnl<l be ininos^ibli' to i^ive any general rule which w«iid«l
enver.il! e.i-is. When nidy on»' ImMer di«»i"hari:i's into a chimney.
ii^v 'ii-!ii!e.'. I he eliinney re«piires a i.in«-h larger area jM-r pound
of t :■ I i'liri'l than uh"-n "^e\ei-;il similar boilers di.Nchariji' into a
elili! -li -. el' 5 lie -Mine hi'lirlii I atid, laUiimall !hes,» varying clriMini-
s' i: •• ' ::i'.i emi iijeiai ion, m i^reat ileal of judgment is, in many
e;i-i . :■ .; 'I-. I In diti-rniiiie the prnjier dimension'*.
r i- .: ."iiiiMnn i !e.i that a " elnniney cannot Ih* tiM) hirgi*:" in
oil.. V u.i:-.|-, the l:ir::ir the an-a of thi' lines, the lH>tter thfMlniu<;ht
BdLES FOR PROPORTIONING CHIMNEYS. 571
11 be. But this is not always the case. In many cases where a
imney has been built large enough to serve for future additions
the boiler-power, the draught has been much improved as addi-
mal boilers have been set at work. The cause of this is to bo
and in the increased steadiness of draught where several boilers
e at work and are fired successively, as well also as in the bettor
aintenance of the temperature of the flue ; as the velocity of the
068 necessarily increases with the increased amount required tc
I discharged, and they do not have time to cool off to so great an
tent as when they move more slowly.
RUUQS FOR PROPORTIONINa OHIMNETS.
[Pabliehod by the Babcock & Wilcox Co., of New York.]
Chimneys are required for two purposes — 1st, to carry off obnox-
ns gases; 2d, to produce a draught, and so facilitate combustion.
tie first requires size, the second height.
Each pound of coal burned yields from 13 to 30 pounds of gas,
e volume of which varies with the temperature.
The "weight of gas carried off by a chimney in a given time
spends upon three things — size of chimney, velocity of flow, and
insity of gas. But as the density decreases directly as the absolute
mperature, while the velocity increases, with a given height,
lariy as the square root of the temperature, it follows that there
a temperature at which the weight of gas delivered is a maximum.
[lis is about 550"* above the surrounding air. Temperature, bow-
er, makes so little difference, that at 550° above, the quantity is
^ly four per cent, greater than at 300°. Therefore, height and
ea are the only elements necessary to consider in an ordinary
dmney.
The intensity of draught is, however, independent of the
Be, and depends upon the difference in weight of the outside and
side columns of air, which varies directly with the product of the
sight into the difference of temperature. This is usually stated
an equivalent column of water, and may vary from 0 to possibly
inches.
To find the inaxiiniim draught for any given chimney,
le heated column being 612^ F., and the external air 62^ : Multiply
e height above grate in feet hy .GO 7 5, and the prodttct is the
'aught poufer in inches of water.
The intensity of draught required varies with the kind and
odition of the fuel, and the thickness of the fires. Wood requires
10 least, and fine coal or slack the most. To bum anthracite
579
SrZES OF CHIMNEY?.
slapk ill iwlvfintHgp, n (iraiiitht of !', itiph of miter i? neces^rj.
whifh mm Ik" atininoil liy a wcU-iiroiJortionpil cbimnBy ITS ft. high.
A ri>iiiid fliiiiiiH'y is better than Mquiirc, am) a stniight lltip
bettor Ihnii tapering, though it ni<iy 1)0 either lat^r or smaller ftt
top willioul ilel-riiiU'iit.
Tlic^ cITi-ctivu iir(>a <»f ii c-liiiiiiK'.v, tor a given power, varies
inversi'ly lis th<i sr|iinre root of the lieiglil;. Tlic actuiil area, in
pnictifc, sli'itilil In- ^rcjiter, beoauso of relartlution of velocity duo
to tri<'tioii aitain^t the walls. On t)io basis that this is eijual to a
liiycr of iiir I wo ineliifl Illicit over llio whole intflrior surface, onil
tliat a I'oiniiiercial linriie- power ruiiuin's tbu mnsuniption o( an
ttveraire of 5 iioumla of coai |ier hour, we h&va the following for-
mula' :
,, OMIl
i- ^ ■ --A-O.Q i'A (1)
//. 3.33 K •■Ji (S)
,v =12 1/-;+ 4 (31
i> TT. i:| -.4 I « + 4 (4)
"'CVy '-.
In whii^li If— horse-power : h — hrijclit of chimney in feet ; E= ef-
fective an'a, itnd J. = aetual area in si^uare fei'l ; t>= side of square
cliiniiic-y, iinil D = ilia, of round cbinuiGy in inches. The following
table ia tnli'ulated by means of these formube, by Mo. Wm. Kknt :
BIZES OF CHIMHIITS WITH APFROFBIATB
HORSE-POWER OF BOILERS.
b5
K.iHi an
silt I 4M
.: 43 111.41:1^.37
Til j ».a n.u
73 ».n K.4S
' m 40. It 4LM
BXAMPLBS OF LARGK OHIMNEYa 573
The external diameter at the base should be one-tenth the
height, unless it be supported by some other structure. The **" bat-
ter " or taper of a chimney should be from ^^ to \ inch to the
foot on each side.
Tliiokiiess of brick work : one brick (8 or 9 inches) for 26
feet from the top, increasing ^ brick (4 or 4^ inches) for each 25
feet from the top downward
If the inside diameter exceed 5 feet the top length should be 1^
bricks, and if under 8 feet it may be ^ brick for ten feet.
EXAMPLES OF IiAROE CHIMNEYS.*
The Townsend Chimney, Port Dundas, Glasgow.
— This is one of the tallest, if not the tallest chimney in the world.
It was designed by Mr. Robert Corbett, of Glasgow, for Mr. Joseph
Townsend, of the Crawford Street Chemical Works. It rests on blue
clay, '* solid as a rock."
The foundation consists of thirty courses of bricks on edge, the
lowest course being 50 feet and the top course 82 feet in diameter.
The inside lining, or cone, is of 9-inch fire-brick and (H) feet in
height, built distinct from the chimney proper, with air space be-
tween and covered en top to prevent dust from falling in, but
built with open work in the upper four courses, so as to allow of
air passing into the chimney.
The chimi\ey is 454 feet high above the ground level, and is built
of brick, the thickness of the wall varying as follows:
1st section, 30 feet in height, 5 feet 7 inches thick.
i( ((
tt t<
a <(
«i <i
ii t*
i( ({
it ((
(< «(
( . <<
4( <(
12th " 20 " *' 1 " 2 ** **
Iron hoops were built in the chimney at a distance of 9 inches
from the surface at the bottom and 4^ inches at the top, and at in-
2d
30
5
•' 2
8d
30
4
" 10
4tb
40
4
" 5
5th
40
4
'♦ 0
6th
40
3
•' 7
7th
40
3
- 2
8th
40
0
*' 9
9th
40
2
" 4
10th
52
1
" 11
nth
52
1
.. 7
* The best modern work on Tall (Chimney Construction ia by R. M. and F. J.
Bancroft, published in Kngland, for t^ale by W. T. Comstock, New York.
574 EXAMPLES OF liAliOE CHIMNEYS.
tcrvjvls of '^5 foot in hoi^ht. When nearly comploted the chimney
was struck hy a st^vere gale, whioli. together with a fault in the
oonstriiction of the scatroiding, oausod it to lean 7ft»etanciy inches.
and tlu' chiinney w.-is l)roiight to a p(^r]>on(lioular l>y means of
twdvo cuttings with saws on thu opposite side of the inclination.
Tlio cliiiunoy was conipl(*to<l ()c'tol)or G, 1859. It has been soveml
times struck by lightning, but not seriously < lam aged. It is pro-
teotod by two ^-inch copper lightni.ig-rods.
St. Kollox Ciioiiiii'ul Works i^liiiiiiioy, Crlas^4>w :
Dimensions. —Height from foundation to top, 455 feet G incheo.
Iloiglit froui ground surface to top, 431} feet G inches.
Outside di.imeter at foundation. 50 feet.
Outside diiimelor at ground surface, 40 feet.
Outside diameter jit top, Vt foot i\ inclios.
Height of inner cone from foundation to top, '2G3 feet.
Ileiirln of inner cone fi-om ground surface to t^)p. 24iJ feet.
Inner coin'. inside diamt'ter at foundaticm, 12 feet.
Inn« r <(U'e, inside dianu'ter at top. lo foot (i inches.
Tile outline of the cliinniov is similar to that of the Kddvstone
LighiiiruM'.
('liiiiiii<\v-sta(*k of >I<\ssrs. l>obson A^ Itarlow, Ka^'
Str<M't Machine Works, Holton, l^in(*asliiro, Kii^« —
Total heiudit froni ground level, oGT feet G inches.
Oelai^oiial in plan, 14 feet on each side, or 112 fci't in girth at
till' I'oi loin.
Tliitkn. >s tif brickw(»rk at the Ixittom, H Uh'{.
Tliiekn-> (<f itrickwork at the top, I loot 0 inches.
Si/.f ;t; I "p. 5 fe. t G inches, «*ach side : or 44 feet in girth.
IjLdit iiuiiditd tlious;ind brick and 120 tons of stone-work wcn»
con-.n;n<d in the huildiiiLr. Tin- toj), with cornices and mouldings,
re'juii'fd ;'.!! tons of sti»ne jind e»'nient. (Tins is the highest ehiin-
n«'\ --i;ii-k ill iMiLdand.)
('!!iii!iii->-sta('k !i1 tlir W4'st ('iinilH'rlaiHl lloiiiatit«*
lr<?ii Vt Orks. (Jesiirnel liy Professor . I. Mace | no rn Knukiiie. niul
e<>n>!l'i"<-'l ;i- a inoili 1 cliimm-y.
/>"'//. Thi' dut\ of this i-hirnU'V i> to <'}irrv n(f the ga>«eou8
p!->> lu> I - of < Miidin^i inn from fonr bl;i>l furmices and fiiun virioiiH
>ii'\. :i!,d l)Mi]i-r>. 'V\\r total amount of fuel consumed is oii
n::i'>l :;' .iloiit lo_ 1imi> ]ii r h'lur, when all the lurnacrs an- at
'//,. .i.f.f'i ft m/n r'/fff/'t insidr tlie ehimney when doini; nUnit
till ■< !• ■•.••: - i,\ i;> full iluty is UK) F., and the pru&iiuru of ihu
diaii:;!il i- 1 ineh<> nf watiT.
EXAMPLK8 OF LARGE CHIMNEYS. 576
figure and Dimensions. — Above ground the chimney is a frus-
tam of a cone, with a straight batter. Underground there is a
plinth or basement, octagonal outside at the ground line, and
square at the bottom ; cylindrical inside, and pierced with four cir-
cular openings for flues.
Height of chimney above the ground. 250 feet.
Depth of foundation below the ground, 17 feet.
Total height from foundation to top, 2(J7 feet.
Inside diameter at top of cone, 15 feet.
Inside diameter, two feet above bottom of cone, 31 feet 10
inches.
Inside diameter in basement, 18 feet 10 inches.
Inside diameter of archway for flues, 7 feet 6 inches.
Outside diameter at top of cone, 15 feet 3 inches.
Outside diameter 2 feet above bottom of cone, *25 feet 7 inches.
Outside dimensions of square basement, 30 feet x 30 feet
Size of foundation course, 31 feet 6 inches x 31 feet 6 inches.
Size of concrete foundations, 34 feet (5 inches x 34 feet 6 inches,
and 3 feet thick.
Thickness of Brickwork. — First two feet above fouudati(m step-
ping from 4 bricks to 2i bricks ; next 88 feet, "Z^ bricks ; next 80
feet, 2 bricks ; remaining 8 ") feet, 1 V bricks.
The pressure on the ground below the concrete is 1.6 tons on
the square foot.
Mre-hrick Lining, — The thickness of brickwork given above
included the firebrick lining, which was one brick in thickness
in the first 90 feet, and ^ brick the remaining height, the fire-
brick being bonded in with the common brick, but being laid in
fire-clay. This method of construction was considered better than
that of the inner cone.
Strips of No. 15 hoop iron, tarred and sanded, were laid in the
bed- joints of the cone at intervals of 4 feet in height, with their
ends turned down in the side-joints. The length of the iron was
twice the circumference of the chimney.
Cap and Lightning CondiLc! or. — On the top of the chinmey
is a pitch- coated cast-iron curb, one incfli thick, coming down
three inches on the outside and inside. The lightning conductor
is a copper wire Yo\ny three-fourths inch in dirjnet(T. It termi-
nates in a covered drain, in which there is always a sufficient run
of water.
** Jumbo " Chimney of the Merrimack Mamifaet-
nring Company, Lowell, Mass.— This chimney was built
in 1882. It is a round chimney : height from the surface of the
570 hJXAMPLKS OF LARGE CHIMNEYS.
groun:!. 21^:2. "5 (Vet : diainot.cr of haso, 98 f(H?t ; diamrt<*r of [he
iiaiT(j\\i.-i })art near 1 ho lop, V) foot: diainctcr of fliio, 12 f»'-t ;
till* aiiiouiil of sla^nn^' used was :i8,000 IVet : tbo iuiuil)ei' ot brick
used, 1. (>;■)( ),()(iO. Flie chiiniU'V is surmounted l)y a cast-iron cuj.
of ovci" iiiiic Ions wt'ii^hl. its lar^^ost <Hanietor being 21 Itft. It is
protecied from liirlitning by a tliriu^-fourths inch caldo comluctor
wilh two tips. riie cliinini?y was buill to acconunodate 10 iicsts
of upri^Hii ('orIi<s boilers ot oOO II. P. per nest, and its .sjlc use is
to lllrMi^h the necessai'v draught and convoy away the smoke fn»ni
tlicse l;()il( rs. The chimney was planned and ongineered by J. T.
IJaker, (Mv, at that time, for the Merrimack Company. A full
d«s<ription of this chimney, with plans ami olevati<ui, was pub-
lished in the 7'nt./is(tr/(oths of the. American Socinty of Civil Emji-
7i<'irs for April, IS-."), No (X'CI.
Tlir PiK-ilic >lills C'liiitiiioy at Lsiwmico, Ma.ss.—
Thi«^ 'iiimmy was built by >ir. Hiram F. Mills, C.K., in 1878, and
c«tn>i>i>^ of an oiiisidi' octagonal shell *i*22 foot high alM)Vi»ihegn>und.
witii a di^iinet intfi'ior core 8 feet fi inches in diameter in.'^itle, ex-
lenilim:- om«' loot abdvc the top of the outer shell, and 11 feet Ih.*1ow
the ground. The chimney is founded 11) feet In-low the ground.
upon (.'oar.-e sand, the foun«lation being m5 foot s<piare, enclosed by
pine shici-piiing. The base is concrete, 1 f<»ot thick, then rubble
maM)nrv ol iai'ir*- pieces (jf granite in cenu»nt, thi.s slone-work Ikmiij^
7 ft'ii i.iLrh. rpon llu' sione-work is placed the brick chimiU'V, the
outer >!iali liijnir at the ba<e *i<» feet wide, and at the t<ij», under llie
[iiiiirri iii^' <nriiiec. 11 feri. (J inches wioe. This brickwork is "iH
in-ill- in ilii(kni*^> at the base ; at 12 feet in height it UH'on.cs 24
in- he.-, v^huh continues IS feet ; then 20 inches for *Jt> feet : then
H; iiii li.- I'-r lo jc,t : tlu-n 12 inclu-s for (»0 fe«'t ; then s inches to
ih'- i«'i'. 'V\u l"|i of !hi' chimney is of cast irtiii plates { iiuh
tiii-lv. Th' Ii<'ri/Mniiij Hue entering the chiinni-v is 7 feet *» iiu-he-*
M|uarf. T:n' in--i'U- verli'-al Hue of the rhinniey is a cylin<i« r >*
Icet 'i 111' I.I- in in'-idi' diaiiirier. and 2:{1 f«-«-t high, with wall.-* 2t'
iii.h.- ihiiU Ii'r2i» I'im-i. p; in<-|;e^ thi<-k for 17 frri, pj iiu-ln'> lid. k
|urr)"j fi , i . and '^ iiirlir>« thick for it.") feet The foumlai io!:"< w.n-
iai-l ill iii<>rt.!i- xf iio*^indale eminent and sand, the outer ^hrll in
iM.'ii.!--! !.'••'>• iiiiaji- <-iiMi-nl lime, and >and, ami th*' Hue walU in
II. I ■••iar ■ ■■ .:iiM' aii«l ""..111.
|):.-i- ii.- win! r i»f ls7:{. tlie Ibie iNMuir iH) fiM't alM>vi* ihf
■_■»■■. ir..i. • ' li.'iliT-, li;.\in^r !'»'.' *»i|uarr feet of i^rate surface, wen-
• ■■I. ■ 'i ■■."li ihi- I'l.imni-v with '«ali<ra«-lorv h'-nlts. lielwi'i-n
.••••. ■'. ^ .•■■iiiii-i. l*"]! ihi- rl'i.iMuy WMN lii:i^ln'il. Tlie ap)iri*\i-
n.at- v\. :ui.' "f 111' "iiiiiiney is 2.2"»n Umn ton>. the uuiuIht of brielu
EXAMPLBS OF WBOUGHT-IRON CHIMNEYS. 577
being about 550,000. The chimney is opposite the middle of a line
ot 28 boilers, and 210 feet distant from them. It was designed to
serve for boilers having 700 square feet of grate surface, burning
about 13 tons of anthracite coal per hour.
The chimney was struck by liglitning in June, 1880, after which
date a lightning-rod was put up, which consists of a seamless copper
tube ^^" thick, 1 inch inside diameter, at the top of which are 7
points radiating from a ball 4 inches in diameter, the top of the
central point being 8^ feet above the iron cap. The rod is att^hed
to the chimney by brass castings, and is connected at the bottom to
a 4-inch drain-pipe extending 60 feet to a canal.
Cliimuey near Freibergr, Saxony. — Supposed to be the
highest in the world (1891).
It is 460 feet high, 33 feet in diameter at its base, and 16 feet at
the top, its inner diameter being 8 feet. It is built throughout of
massive claystone with a facing of markstone at its base.
Wrought-iroh ChiiuiieyH. *— * ' Wrought-iron shafts have
found great favor in America and ilussia, but in England and the
Continent generally, as far as we have been able to ascertain, they
are an exception. In addition to the wrought-iron shafts detailed
in this paper we have been informed of the following : Messrs.
Witherow & Gordon, of Pittsburgh, Penn., U. S. A., have, since
1876, built upward of thirty wrought-iron shafts, varying in height
from 100 feet to 190 feet, and from 5 feet to 9 feet in diameter.
The firm write us that these shafts answer admirably the purpose
for which they were built. Mr. L. S. Bent, .Superintendent of the
Pennsylvania Steel Company, Steel ton, Penn., U. S. A., states that
his company have the following eight wrought-iron shafts in use,
and have found them both durable and economical :
No. 1, 170 feet high, 6 feet 6 inches diameter, built 1881
No. 1, 165 *' 6 " ** *' '* 1877
No. 1, 135 ** 7 *' ** •* 1880
No. 1, 113 *• 6 *' •* *' 1881
No. 4, 110 " 7 " " 1869, 74, 5-6
"They are lined for 30 feet with 9-inch fire-brick, and the remain-
der of height with 4-inch red brick. The Ravensdale Iron Works
chimney-shaft, Tunstall (Messrs. liobert Health & Sons), is a circu-
lar wrought-iron shaft not sf)read at its haso. Its height from
ground-line to top is 75 feet ; outside measurement at ground sur-
'i R. M. A F. J. Bancroft, Tall Chimney ConBtruotion.
PLOW OF GAS IN PIPES.
679
FItOW OF aAS IN PIPES.
[From Hasweirs *' Bngineera* and Mechanics' Pocket-Book/^]
The flow of gas is determined by the same rules as those govern'
ing the flow of water. The pressure applied is indicated and esti-
mated in inches of water.
DIAMETER AND LENGTH OF GAS-PIPES TO TRANSMIT
GIVEN VOLUMES OP GAS TO BRANCH PIPES.
[Dr. Ure.]
Volume
per hour,
m cu. ft.
Diameter, |
in int9.
Length, in
feet.
Volume
per hour,
in cu. ft.
Diameter,
in ins.
Length, in
feet.
50
250
500
700
1,000
1,500
0.40
1.00
1.97
2.65
3.10
8.87
100
200
600
1,000
1,000
1,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
6,000
6,000
8,000
5.82
6.83
7.00
7.75
9.21
'8.95
2,000
4,000
6,000
1,000
2,000
1,000
The volumes of gases of like specific gravities discharged in equal
times by a horizontal pipe under the same pressure, and for differ-
ent lengths, are inversely as the square roots of the lengths.
The loss of volume of discharge by friction, in a pipe six inches
in diameter and one mile in length, is estimated at ninety-five per
cent.
Gas Memoranda.
In distilling fifty-six pounds of coal, the volume of gas produced
in cubic feet, when the distillation was effected in three hours, was
41.3 ; in seven hours, 37.5 ; in twenty hours, 33.5 ; and in twenty-
five hours, ol.T.
A retort produces about six hundred cubic feet of gas in five
hours, with a charge of about one and a half hundred- weight of
coal, or 2,800 oubic feet in twenty-four hours.
A cubic foot of good gas, from a jet one-thirty-third of an inch
in dinnietor and a flame of four inches, will burn sixty-five min-
utes.
Internal lights require four cubic feet, and external lights about
five cubic feet, per hour. When large or Argand burners are used,
from six to ten cubic feet will be required.
PIPING A HOUSE FOR GAS. 681
fastened to the floor timbers near their tops. The pipe should be
securely fastened to the support to prevent lateral movement.
The drop-pipe must be perfectly plumb, and pass through a guide
fastened near the bottom of the timbers, which will keep them in
\>osition despite the assaults of lathers, masons, and others. In the
absence of express directions to the contrary, outlets for brackets
ehould generally be four feet and six inches high from the floor,
excepting that it is usual to put them six feet in halls, and five feet
in bath-rooms. The upright pipes should be plumb, so that the
nipples that project through the walls will be level. The nipples
should projecjt not more than three-quarters of an inch from the
face of the plastering. Laths and plaster together are usually
three-fourths of an inch thick ; hence, the nipples should project
one and one-haif inches from the face of the studding. Drop centre
pipes should project one and one-half inches oelow the furring,
or timbers if there be no furring, where it is known that there will
be no stucco or centre-pieces used. Where centre-pieces are to be
used, or where there is a doubt whether they will be or not,
then the drop-pipes should be left about a foot below the furring.
All pipes being properly fastened, the drop-pipe can be safely
taken out and cut to the right length when gas-fixtures are put
on. Gas pipes should never be placed on the bottoms of floor
timbers that arc to be lathed and plastered, because they are
inaccessible in the contingency of leakage, or when alterations
are desired, and gas-fixtures are insecure. The whole system of
piping should be proved to be air and gas tight under a pressure
of air that will raise a column of mercury six inches high in a
glass tube. The pipes are either tight or they leak. There is
no middle ground. If they are tight the mercury will not fall a
particle. A piece of paper sliould be pasted on the f lass tube, even
with the mercury, to mark its height while the pressure is on. The
system of piping should remain under test for at least a half-hour.
It should be the duty of the person in charge of the construction of
the building to thoroughly inspect the system of gas-fitting ; surely
as much so as to inspect any other part of the building. He should
know from personal observation that these specifications are com-
plied witii. After being satisfied that the mercury does not fall he
should cause caps on the outlets to be loosened in different parts of
the building, first loosening one to let some air escape, at the same
time observing if the mercury falls, then tiglitcn it and repeat the
operation at other points. This plan will prove whether the pipes
are free from obstruction or not. When ho fy satisfied that the
whole work is properly and perfectly executed, he should give the
582
STAIRS.
workmen a certificato to that effect, and no job of gas-fittinp: should
be considered complete until such certificate is issued. The follow-
ing scale of sizes of pipes and number of burners to l)c supplicrl
IhcrcfroiTi is found by expcirienct; to 1x5 best .'td{ij)ted for si'curin;^ a
^ood flow of common city i^as, and it is very important that it lie
rigidly observed when mac^hine or air pis is to be used. Do not
confound (ixturo outlets with burners. In establishing the sizes of
pipe in a building, count the numl)orof burners that there will U-
im ca<h outlet, and have the piiX3s of a size to corres[Mmd
therewith.
'sf niim
XT of
Lllww^^
of pipe,
inch.
Ciri'jitOHt niimlMT of
I ti) lu- r
mi.
iMifniTH to he Kiipplicd.
)H) f«'t't.
2
;j<) ••
i
4
r)<) "
1
15
7i» "
1
25
!()() *'
li
U)
Vii) •'
u
7c)
)HH) '•
2
140
:Hn) "
Si
225
4111) "
3
."JlN)
r)(Hi '•
4
NK)
STAIRS.
\Voo<l<»ii stair.s are generally built with two-inch plank
striiij^crs nntcheil out on iln- upper sitlc to form the steiis. and
en\rr»'t| uitii iijecrs of bo:inl.s. whoSf length is e«iual to the wiillh
of t]i*> si:iirs. The iiori/.ontal bniii'ds u]>on which the tVet an*
lil:i(C(| an- lallril tin- tn'suls; an-l the vertical boards, the ris«'rs.
In lii'-t <l:i^< woi'k. the treads shouM l»e an imdi and a tiuarier
tlii< k. and the lisi-rs srven-eii^liths ot an incli thick, and Inith
>lmuld be nt' ^oine liard wood. 'I'he .»;JrinL:i"i"s -iliouM not Im' ]daceti
o\er '^i\:e.•n inehes aj^ai't fiom <'i'iures. and twelve in<"hes i*. better.
'V\\r ina'N uenerally pfoject an inch and a iiaif U'Vond the f:uv
of (he li-^iis. I'orininu a nosing.
.\ L'iHi.l iide for (he jiroportiou of risers ami treads is that tlie
sum of th'* li^e ami Head >hail i- |Ual seventeen luches an«l a half.
'II1M-. it ilie |•i^ei>^i^ inchcN. the ti'eail shnuld be i'lcveii inehe< ami
M lialt ipln^ tlie s\ldth of llie no<iiii,o: or. if the rise is eight inches.
thf iie.fl Nlnmld be bin uiiie iuehe^ an 1 a half.
Th.' I'i-e !» always measureil from toji to i(i]i of treads: and tin*
tread. tiiiMt tjiee lo face of rl>errt. 'The following table ^hou** al a
STAnaa 583
glance how many risers or treads there will be in any given dis-
tance.
Example. — In a certain building the height from the top of
the first floor to the top of the second is 18 feet. How many risers
will be required, and what will they be ?
yln.s. Find in the table the heights coming nearest to 18 feet,
and then notice the height and number of risers necessary to attain
this height. Thus, in the column headed 7i inches, at the bottom
we find 18 feet li inches, showing that 30 risers 7i inches each
will give 18 feet 1^ inches. If we used a rise of 7i inches, 29 risers .
would also give us 18 feet li inches. Hence we shall need either 29
or 30 risers, according as we wish our rise 7i or 7i inches. If we
use a rise of 75 inches, we shall only require 28 risers. The num-
ber of treads in a given distance can be found in the same way.
SEATING-SPACE IN THEATRES. 685
SEATINGk-SPACE IN THEATRES.
[From London " Building Times."]
The question of seating is. one upon which a manager and the
public are apt to differ.
The requirements of the Metropolitan Board of Works with
respect to seating are, that " the area to be assigned to each person
shall not be less than one foot eight inches by one foot six inches,
in the gallery, nor less than two feet four inchtis by one foot eight
inches, in the other parts of the house, room, or other place of
public resort." These conditions it is perhaps hardly necessary
to say are not complied with in any theatre und^r the jurisdiction
of the Board.
Until theatres are licensed to hold a certain number, or other
legal restrictions enforced, an architect, in calculating the seating-
capacity for the cheaper parts of his theatre, nuist be guided by
past experience. In the upper circle, pit, and gallery, where the
seats are not divided off, the audience will pack itself in an aston-
ishing manner, when a calculation is made of the space in inches
occupied by each person.
From average calculations made in London theatres, the width
of seat required in the unnumbered parts of a theatre is as follows :
upper circle, eighteen inches; pit, sixteen inches; amphitheatre,
sixteen inches; gallery, fourteen inches. It is not intended to
advocate a minimum space for the seats: on the contrary, there
cannot be a doubt but that, if the minimum of eighteen inches
were strictly enforced, it would be a most desirable innovation.
The several divisions of the auditorium are provided with more
or less luxuriant seats according to the price paid for admission.
The stalls are usually fitted with arm-chairs, or fautruils.
The width of seat, and the space allowed between each row, vary
considerably, according to the degree of comfort and convenience.
In any case, the space allotted to each seat in the stalls is greater
than that given in any other part of a theatre. The width of the
seats adopted varies from twenty inches to twenty-four inches ; and
the distance from back to back, from three feet to five feet. The
stall-seats should be the very embodiment of an easy arm-chair.
A very frequent fault results from the seat being too high, and the
back not sufficiently inclined. It should not be forgotten that
the occupants of the stalls have to look up towards the stage.
They should be able to recline easily in the chair at an angle suited
tO the line of vision. To sit in some stalls is to insure a stiff neck.
The discomfort of stall-seats may arise from two causes, which the
architect should endeavor to avoid. Firstly, the floor of the stalls
58(5 SPACP:S OCCUl'IKI) BY S(MIO()L-SEATS.
slioiilil not be sunk too low. It sliould novor iHi more than four
f«'('l below Mio biiibcsl point of tht^ staj^o-tloor. Sec*onflly, tin* si*:it
<;boul(l not b«' too liiirli, and the back sutiiriently inrlincl for tin*
occupant to acconnnoilalc binisclt" to the anisic of vision. A-*
instances of coiiiiurtablc stall-chairs, the following jjinicnsions an-
those (»f scats in two representative theatres. Wi.llh. twenty-«»ni*
inches: (le;);h, sixteen in;'ii»'s: height of s<'at from floor, sixte«Mi
inches: hcli^^h: from tloor to toj* of back rail, two feet tea iiidjo:
li>!;inct' fr.)ni back to back, thn'c feet ten inches. In the otlicr
ca:-«' the M-a, ; ait' continuous, and "tip up." Width from i-enin*
to centr'- ifi aims, twenty-three in<'hes; depth, twenty-four inrhf:):
height fn)iii tloor, sixteen In-.he.;: !ii,'lination of back, 115 dej^rees:
anl the .li..tan«'e from bai-k to back, three feet.
Dress-Circli*. — The seats in this i)art are similar to those in
the stalls: bu'. the inclination of the backs should be slightly les.*.
unless the <'ircle is low. and not much in height above the stage-
level. It is also aflvantageous to make the seat one or two inches
hiixher than the stall-chairs. In the theatre previously alluded to.
the dn-.-s-eircle seat> are twenty inches wide, eighteen inches Ji-eii.
eiirhteen inches h'gh. ;ind inclination of back 115 degrees. The
width of tin' steps upon which the si«atsare fixed ranges fi*om three
feet to ihr- e feel six inches.
rppor (.'iri'lo. — The steps in this part maybe reduced to two
fee' six iinhes. This i-e;lu<'lion in width is im{K'rativ«' at each
le\ei. oijieiwi'-e tlic beiiilu of I lie siep]>ings woulil be inconvenient.
Tin- seat- ^houlil be divided by arm-rests, and havi* back rails.
riie\ slidiilti be einlitccn iuclics wide, tifti'cn inches <U*<»p, eighteen
inehi". iii-4li. and about lun (K'grees intdination of the backs.
SPACES OCCUPIED BY SCHOOL-SEATS.
Sl/1> or ( IIAIKS AM) DKSKS FOK SCHOOLS AM)
ACADKMIKS.
S|i:ic»' i>i'i-u|>ii'il liy
. . , II ■ I. f 1 : lIuL'tit i>f (li-k lU-i-k :ii ■! ili:ilr
iiixl -I'lli'lai;. Jiack In Iju-k nf
«U'Kk .
, I .ii>.
]• , i
j.'irllif.
■J-.i".
hi
ii'Iu'f. !
(vvl
:' i:
i«-lll'!*.
1 '•'
■_***
V«
■ ■
1 ■>
.1-1
•»
a.
III
-'■■■i
1
..
1 1
-'1
■1
■ ■
1- ■
' - 1
■J J
4
• ■
li'.
_'J '
■»
•J
• •
I"'
■Jl'
1
•1
• •
■'■i
!■.•
m
i\
• ■
I>i-k- : 'wii -i-hi>l.iir< aiv iliivi* Irti u-ii iiK'tio luiii;, .mil fur m tflngle MchuUu
SYMBOLS FOR THE APOSTLES AND SAINTS. 687
SYMBOLS FOR THE APOSTLES AND SAINTS.
From the constant occurrence of symbols in the edifices of the
middle ages and many of the cathedrals of the present day, the fol-
lowing list of symbols, as commonly attached to the apostles and
saints, may be found useful : —
Holy Apostles,
St. Peter. — Bears a key, or two keys with different wards.
iS^. Andrew.-^ I jeans on a cross so called from him; called by
heralds the saltire.
St. John the Evangelist. — With a chalice, in which is a winged
serpent. When this symbol is used, the eagle, another symbol
of him, is never given.
St. Bartholomew. — With a flaying knife.
St. James the Less. — A fuller's staff, bearing a small square
banner.
St. James the Greater. — A pilgrim's staff, hat, and escalop-shell.
St. Thomas. — An arrow, or with a long staff.
St. Simon. — A long saw.
St. Jude. — A club.
St. Matthias. — A hatchet.
St. Philip. — Leans on a spear, or has a long cross in the shape of
aT.
St. Matthew. — A knife, or dagger.
St. Mark. — A winged lion.
St. Luke. — A bull. *
St. John. — An eagle.
St. Paul. — An elevated sword, or two swords in saltire.
St. John the Baptist. — An Agnus Dei.
St Stephen. — With stones in his lap.
Saints.
St. Agnes. — A lamb at her feet.
St. Cecilia. — With an organ.
St. Clement. — With an anchor.
St. David. — Preaching on a hill.
St. Denis. — With his head in his hands.
St. George. — With the dragon.
St. Nicholas. — With three naked children in a tub, in the end
whereof rests his pastoral staff.
8L Vincent. — On the rack.
588 THE LARGEST RINGING BKLLS IN THE WORLD.
THE LARGEST RINGING BELLS IN THE WORLD.*
Names and Loc/tion op Bells.
I I .
1.
SorNDBOW.'
I . - I
«,^ ^1-^- -i I i:
Moscow. Tzar Kolokol ir:« 74 D j-rS *J.
i I
Bnnnali, M.-niroon '...., 1M' F2 2(»3? Hi.?
I ' ! ■ ;
. 1811) IIMJ 0^:185 '14.T5
■P I
IW'
Moscow. St. Ivans
IVkin. Great lU'll
Bunnali. Maha Gaiula
Nishni Novj^on xl
Mm-cow, Chmcli Iicdcfiner.
Nankin. Cliina
London. Si. I'anl's
Oinmt/. nohmiia
Vienna. An>>tria
IJJT) B (155
l:i5, B '?51
12.5
12.
West niin>tcr. London is:)f) KiJi! K 113.5
ls7I» 141ir:t 13«i.8?'lO.«
1 I
;ii:> I
K^ 114.25! 8.75
«.125
18S1 15;
....; 15;-
; K^ 121
1711 157, K7 '118
Erfurt. Saxony. . .,
Notre D.mie. I'ari- .
Montreal. ( anada
ns7i i7«
ifisoi i(»n
isjr irn
F |H«.o
K ,103
F 11 «
9.5
O.H«»
o.ao
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.7K
0.75
0.80
".).3;5j 0.83
I
0.:5 I 0.75
I
0.73
7.5
' 7.S
i
York, Ke.-Iuiu 181- ls7. K:! lOi) 8.
I
St. IVt.-r. Home |17S<1 187= F J . 1>7.25 7.5
O.70
O.Si)
0.77
(Jrea; 'rn:ii. < )\t'onl. .
I»».s<» -Jlo (;-* 8J. . ii.l25 0.73
C'ol<»/iie. (J.rmanv inT7 1JW(J iC). 7.2 1 0.7« '
! I I :
Bru— S. I'.ei-iiiin '.... -Jio'iij 'K").**! 7.75 ' 0.71 '
Slate lion-.'. IMiiladelpIiia is..* i:»s i\ '«. i) :jr.'« 0.7:j
Lincoln. Kn-'-md ;ls;jj •.Jio^t;^ .^-J.-:.*, »;. 0.73
Si. I'a:jr-. I.'ihdon
Kx.-.-r. i-ji. iiiid Hi?.-. -.Mo (;^ ;r,. ,5. u.«!
I
01.1 Line.. :n. KhL'iiind -I'lld Ol'l B 75.5 5.91 0.7**
W.-'niin-'.r. London X't^u 2I!» B 72. .5.75 0.79
.iri») •,^^^ .\ si. : Tick i n.75 '
I
US
443,77^
2i»l.«k)0
I27.:i50
12iM»0
U5,000
mm\
(i0.7:»
45.000
42,0110
4O.830
40.-JJ0
35.020
3l>.K11ll
2i».R7D
2S..-16O
24,OSO
IS.11110
l7.irJ4
Hi.0l6
l."..8|M
!::.<>■)
i2.'i •-;
iLrniO
lll.iNI
SI.STiii
WiJlG^HT OF OTHER LARGE BELLS.
(•ii> Il.-.ll. New V..rk, •.'•J.:^()0 Ih.-^.
Fiiv .M.inn, \\\\k\ Stn-i't. N«'\v York. 'l\S>Vl lb-*.
.Ii>lin \V. .N\'>tr(>in. in (In- Joiirnul of llu; Fniiikllii Iiihtilutc.
.- PDCfiNSIONS OF DOMES AND CLOCK FAOi^S. ^89
liiiiden, Germany, 10,854 lbs.
Lewiston, Me., 10,388 Ibe.
Bouen, France, 40.000 lbs.
DIMBNSIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL DOMES.
LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL DOMES IN THE WORLD.
Their diameter, and height from the ground.
[Owilt's Encyclopedia.]
Place.
Diameter, feet.
Height, feet.
l^otheon. at Rome
142
1.^
139
115
112
112
92
143
310
3.30
201
116
215
120
199
no
173
97
l:J3
190
148
254
94
133
Duomo, or Bta. Nfuria del Fiore, at Florence,
St. Peter's, at Rome
tita. Sophia, at ('oHHtantinopIc
BathH of Caracnlla (ancient)
8t. Paul's, London
MoMQue of Achmet
Chanel of the Medici
91
Baptistery, at Florence
Church of the Invalids, at Paris
Miner\-a Medica, at Rome
Madonna delia Salute, Venice
St. G6n6vi6ve, at l^aris (l*untheon) ....
Duomo, at Sienna
T)uomo. at Milan
86
80
78
70
07
57
57
55
55
44
124g
St. Vitaii's, at Ravenna
Val de Orace. at Paris
San Marco, Venice
United-States Capitol, Washington ....
DIMBNSIONS OF SOME LARGE OLOOE FACES.
Tower Clocks Depot of the Central Railroad of JVeiv Jersey, at
Communipaw, — Diameter of single dial, 14 feet 8 inches ; minute
hand is 7 feet long, weighs 40 pounds ; hour hand is 5 feet long,
weighs 28 pounds.
The motive power is furnished by a weight of 700 pounds, hung
from a 5-inch steel cable.
FouV'dial Clocks New York Produce Exchange, — Diameter of
each dial, 12 foet 6 inches.
FouT'dUU Clock, Chronide Toucer, San i^rr/n^iVo.— Diameter of
each dial, 16 feet 6 inches : length of minute liands, 8 feet ; length
of hour hands, 5 feet 6 inches.
. The mechanism of the clock is 6 feet and 1 inch high, and weighs
a^OUO poundf.
590 HEIGHT OF SOME OF THE TALLEST BUILDINGS.
HEIGHT OF SOMH OF THB TAT.TiEST BXTILDINaS
IN THE UNITED STATES.
BUILDINGS IX NEW YORK CITY.
Hoi<?lit from sidewalk :
Waxlnagton Building — E. II. Kendall, architect — to top of roof.
16S f(;et.
World Building — Goo. B. Post, architect — to top of roof, 194
feet ; to top of tower. i3tJJ) feet.
I'imes Building — Geo. B. Post, architect — to top of roof, 183 feet.
EquifahU Building — Geo. B. Post, architect — to top of roof, 142
feet ; to top of tower, 170 fc(?t.
Zrnion Trust Building— Gqo B. Post, architect — to top of roof,
148 feet ; to top of tower. 194 feet.
Mudison Square (iarden — McKim, Mead & White, architects^
to top of tower, 300 feet.
BOSTON.
Ames Building — Shepley, Rulan & Coolidge, architects — to top
of cornice, 1S6 feet.
('handier of ro///;//^rrf— Shepley, Uutan & C(K>lidgo, architects—
to top of main cornice, 93 feet ; to top of tower, 173 feet 6 inches.
PHILADELPHIA.
New mill Hall — Jolin Mc Arthur, Jr., architect — to top of tower,
537 fet't 4 inciies.
CHICACJO.
jfastnilc I'linple Hurnliarn & Root, arc*hit<jcts — to top of comicep
234 feet ^i inches ; to roof line, 278 feet 10 inches ; to top of sky-
li.LCht. 3C3 f.cl
Wmnnns Trmph — Burnham & H(K)t, architects — to top of cor-
nice, Ml ftM'i ; {n ridire, 19H feet.
Audifariuin Building — Adler & Sullivan, arcliitocts — to cornice,
145 feet ; lo top of lantern, 270 feet.
Alhijlnnn Count g Court Iloust. 1 iff situ rgh — H. II. Richardson
an<l Silt pit y. liUtan A: Cooliil;;'', an-hitet'ts — to ri<l^», 128 f et»t ; to
top «.r jliii.-il. 31i> tci'i
Miisnnir /fuilding, /'/7/.s'?;//r////— Siieph'V. Hutan & Coolidge, ar<
cliiticts to top of nM»f, 129 feel <> ineh»*s
State (%i pilot, Hartford, Cnnii it. M Upjohn. arohitecst^Ho
toj) of roof, wu foL-t ; to top of figure on dome, 250 foot.
HEIGHTS OF COLUMNS, TOWERS, AND DOMES. 591
HEIGHTS OF COLUMNS, TOWERS, DOBflES, SPIRES^
ETC.
COLUMNS.
Name.
Alexander . . . .
Bunker Hill. . . .
Chimney (St. Rollox).
Chimney (Musprat's).
City
July
Napoleon
Nelson's
Nelson's
Place Venddme . .
Pompey's Pillar . .
Trajan
Washington ....
York
Place.
St. Petersburg . .
Charlestown, Mass
Glasgow .
Liverpool
London
Paris .
Paris .
Dublin
London
Paris .
Egypt.
Rome .
Washington
London . .
Feet.
175
22H
455i
406
202
157
132
134
171
136
114
145
555
188
TOWERS AND DOMES.
Name.
Tower . . .
Tower . . .
Capitol . .
Cathedral
Cathedral . ,
Cathedral . .
Cathedral . .
Cathedral . .
Cathedral . .
Cathedral . .
Leaning Tower
Porcelain . .
St. Paul's. . ,
Strasbourg .
St. Mark's .
Utrecht . .
Babel
Baalbec
Washington . . .
Antwerp
Cologne
Cremona
Escurial
Florence
Milan
St. Petersburg . . .
Pisa
China
London ....
Venice
City Hall, Philadel-
phia
Feet.
680
500
287i
476
501
Sd2
200
384
488
308
188
200
366
328
537i
592 CAPACITY OF CHURCHES, THEATRES, ETC.
HEIGHT OF SPIKES.
Nume.
IMuce.
r'atlKMlral, new
(iract* Clmrch
CatlH'dral
St. .lolni's
St. Paul's
St. Mary's
St. Pc'tcr's
St. SU'i)h('n's
Trinity Cliurch . . . .
IJalustradc of \otri*. Dame
Hotel ilrs Iiivalidcs . . .
Pyramid of (/lu'Ops . . .
Pyramid of Sakara . . .
St. Pftt'r's
X(»w York
Now York
Salisbiirv
•
Xew Yoi-k
New York
Liibtick .
Homo. . .
Vienna .
New York
Paris . .
Paris . .
Ejxypt .
iiifiiiir
325
2U\
200
404
3U1
4G5
21(5
344
i)'20
5KS
CAPACITY OF SEVERAL CHURCHES.
AND OPERA-HOUSES,
K>-iiiii:itiii:; a iM>i'H4>n to oecupy an un-a of 1i).7 liicluii Hquure.
( IiriK'IIKS.
Nr)lri' I>aiiH', Parlf* . .
rir>a Cat lied rat . . .
St. Sii'plM'ii, X'lctiiia .
St. I>i>iiiiin«*'t, |if>lni!iia
St. rctcrV, I'dliimia .
<'at)ir(lral (if Siciitia .
St. MarkV, N'l-tiliT . .
S|niim*«ni'». 'I'aiH'i'iiai'lr
Si. Prtfi's
, r»4.l><Nl
Milan i 'alln-.lral ....
:;7.<«ii)
St. faiiTs. UiHiif . . .
' :',2.niii)
St. faiil"-. I.">!ii|i>ii . . .
•J.'>.i".«HI
Si. rcirixiiii. ri(i|iii;iia . .
■J*.4iM»
l-'|i»ri"iic«- < ".iiln'ilral . .
•J4..1INI
.\iii\\i-i|) • '.iilHMlral . .
•J4,««M)
M. S..|i|ii i"-. i 'ii!ir.taiitin(»|»U'
'J'.i.lNhl
Si. .Iiiiiii l..il'':an . . .
, 'J-J.IMH)
i:'..iHN)
1'J,(MNI
11.4iiti
ll.lMtll '
T.mai
T.lMliI
. . . _ I
tiii:.\ti:ks .\m) ()PKi:.\-i!<)rsi:.s.
L
< 'ai If l-'i !!■■■■. < irrii»a
< '!mi .» li..ii -. . M uiiii-li
\ ■ \.im!i-;-. ^'. . I'i-|i'i-«liiir
>.i:i < .li !■>-. \.iji|i"«
li.i ■.■■: i'. -' . riii'i-l'Uru'
I .1 ^i-.i .1. \| '. l!i .
\--.iiii II' , ■■: I '.II !•> .
I >! Ill \ 1 ..i:if. LiiiiiliHi .
< 'iiM-Ilt ti.llili-ll, l.lililioll
■J.'iiiii
•j;".7i»
•j.jj,,
•_'I»M>
•Jll:;
lfi^4
( '|>('ra lliiiixf. Crrlin . .
Nrw-Viirk .\raili-iii\ . . ,
I'hil.uirlplifa Araflfiiiy . ,
r.ii'>|iili 'I'liratn-. I>iir>tn!l . ,
Maili«i>ii .'^i|iiaii' 'I'hi'utrr,
Ni-v\ ^'nrk
Nrw Vmk ,
Mi-iii>]Hiiitaii ( 'iH-raiiiiUHf,
Niw V.iik ,
Oliik- 'riu-utrc, lliMlun
j ::i-J4
1
1 saoo
J
DIMENSIONS OF THEATRES, ETO,
DrUBNSIOHS OF THEATRES Ain> OFBRA-HOUSBa
The following are the rtimensiona of some of the promineut
theatres in this country and in Europe : —
!f m
wMUi of uuUltoriu
594
DIMENSIONS OF ENGLISH CATHEDRALS.
CD
Q
H
n
H
<l
O
m
a
n
c
X
eie^»ra?*©< r- « "N C^ IH eO 1-1 ©I l-l PH t^i-l ^r^r^
■fS
U I. U U
i ■ •
b h
I 5
Si
o
CD
o
M
01
S
M
Q
J= w
W »• 1—1
1^'^ I I I I I
C9
I
^-" . iJ0-tciiiiii|3iiiiiiiiiij;;;iii
c
I /:
7.
•2 I - tC * i? S ac s li CO ® « e O 3 1- »- 1- 1- «|i
w 3 ' tx 1-t
V.
< I-
r J i-i- c = vc 5 i-i- at «s t-i- c i-« «ei-«Oi-i-i-«
-T Vi ^ rJ T I s K -f • •' r S r: « »* » 3 ' * i « 5 1-
M
o
M
Pi
04
rr r u
:;j::t3r rr-c,^ -^^c^; - = «««« ;t^
M
H
1>
?•«;«; ^
DIMENSIONS OF VARIOUS OBELISKS.
595
DIMENSIONS OF THE VARIOUS OBELISKS
ING AT THE PRESENT TIME.
[Gwilt's Encyclopaedia.]
Situation.
Height,
in
English
feet.
Thickness,
in English feet.
At top.
Below.
Two large obelisks mentioned by Diodorus Bicu-
lus .....
158.2
121.8
118.4
106.0
105.6
105.5
82.4
79.1
78.2
72.8
71.9
67.1
63.3
63.3
59.7
54.9
50.1
48.3
48.3
42.9
34.2
30.0
26.4
20.1
17.6
16.1
7.9
6.6
6.2
5.9
5.3
6.2
5.8
5.3
4.5
5.0
4.9
5.1
4.5
4.5
4.5
2.9
4.5
2.9
2.9
2.6
3.9
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
11.8
10.5
10.2
9.8
9.2
9.6
9.4
8.0
7.4
7.5
7.9
8.1
5.1
6.1
7.2
4.5
4.3
4.3
4.2
5.9
3.9
2.7
2.4
2.6
2.4
—
Two obelisks of Nuncoreus, son of Sesostris,
according to Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and
Plinv
Obelisk of Rhameses, removed to Rome by Con-
stantius
Two obelisks, attributed by Pliny to Smerres and
Eranhins
Obelisks of Nectanabis, erected near the Tomb of
Arsinoe by Ptolemy Philadelphus
Obelisk of Oonstantius, restored and erected in
front of S. Giovanni Laterano, at Rome . . .
Part of one of the obelisks of the son of Sesostris,
in the centre of the piazza in front of St. I'eter's,
Two at Luxor
Obelisk of Augustus, from the Circus
Maximus, now in the Piazza del Popola at Rome .
Two in the ruins at Thebes, still rerauining . . .
Obelisk of Augustus, raised by Pius VI. in the
IMazza di Monte Citoi'io
Two obelisks: one at Alexandria, vulgarly called
Cleopatra's Needle, and the other at Heliopolis .
Obelisk by Pliny, attributed to Sothis
Two obelisks in the ruins at Thebes .....
Great obelisk at Constantinople
Obelisk in the IMazza Navona, removed from the
Circus of Caracalla
Obelisk at Aries
Obelisk from the Mausoleum of Augustus, now in
front of the Church of Sta. Maria Maggiore, at
Rome
Obelisk in the Gardens of Sallust, according to
Mercati
Obelink at Bijije, in Egypt
Small obelisk at Constantinople, according to Gyl-
llua
The Barberini Obelisk
Obelisk of the Villa Mtittei
Obelisk in the Piazza della Rotunda
Obelisk in the Piazza di Minerva
Obelisk of the Villa Medici
696 SOME WKLL-KXOWN KUKOPEAX liUILDINOS.
DIMENSIONS OF SOMB WELIi-KNOWN EUROPBAN
BUILDINGS.*
Tho Ixxly of Milan CatluMlral. from tho ^'n»at doorwny to tin* end
of tlu" :ii)S(', iiieasiiivs 14S iiu'tn^saiul K.'ceiitinictrcs. witli a breadth
of r)? nu'iivs. TIk* total leiij^tli of tlu* liaii«*pts with tho cliai»c'ls is
87 nu'tn'>. The nave is 47 im*livs high by li) in width, and the
total Ik'i.irht. fnuu tlu; cuntre to the fot-t of the statue of tlie Virjrin
which «'r«»\vn^ the centra] tower, is 108.5 metres.
Tlu' Cath'Mlral of York, burned in 1*^*^8, a n< I which had nlreiidy
bei'U ivimili in lJ>75, has a length of 14'J tlnglisli feet, a breadth of
1()."> feel at the western extremity, and K U feet at the oi)iM)silo uiid.
The tt)tal height of the nave is 9!) feet ; the ceiling of the central
tower IS *21» feet from the ground. A window whieii opens ut the
cxtn-min «»f iJu' gal]«'r\-, and wliieh is entirely fille<l with i^taincd
gla>s. is <)."> Hiigli^h feel in height by 32 in width.
The CaOu'dnil of Cordova, built in the year 7Ji'3 by the King
Ahderaiiu*. is lo4 feet long and :?.S7 wi<le. This church contauw
nin«' nave- forme»l by 1.01s CMilumns. the smallest of which are
7 feel, aiil the largest 11 feet and :> indies hiijh.
The Iwurial. beirun in irM7, to which was given the fonii of a
gridiron, in honor of St. Lawrence, is 51 feet in height and 837
feel in leiiu^h.
In ill" AUiaudM-a at (rraimda. an nncieiiL Moorish fortress, the
Li(»M ('•»uri !•< iVM fi-et s(juare.
Tin- Ciiunli <»rSt. Ih-nis, near Paris, is :;IJ5 feet long by JiO feet
higli. Ii w.is huill ill 115.' by Sni:»T.
'.riie faini'jis I ulnmn of the (iraiid Army on ilu' IMace Wndome,
Pari-, i- VUj l\ei hiirli.
'I le- niinihiiC St. (icnevieve. at Paris, today tninsformtM.1 into tho
Pa:ith»'. ■:!. i> uuc of I in' m«>st reriuirkable structun-^by reason of the
VM-'ri-<- 'if its pro|M>rlii»ns. The iliametiT of the dome is 6*^ fet>t.
Th-- :i'J «-'iiinns which surnuind it are :il feet in height, and tho
hii:J!'>: pi'irit t»f the «'ditic«' is *.Jo7 f«-et from the sidewalk.
Tiii- Caii'ilr.il at IJhi'ims. whidi Si«-nd!ial considers one of the
1WK' n ;i!ii;!:il i-huri-lit-^ in Krance. wa^ buiii in slO. and meanurvs
4.'.o li . ! i'l !■ riurih by 111) in heiudit
Tin- < '..'h' dr.d at Si !'a>i»urLr. which i*; jt-rhaps the only piirply
Ci.i!l;ii- !:i-'iiiiih-iii mi ihr Colli iufiit ff Kurnpe. wa«; tini>hcd in 1275.
Til- li!~t >; II- wa^ l.d 1 in l.d5. The inwer. riiiiNhe«l in l-^SO, is.
* r I'n.' !) ('.•■'.w :i<i .ii;iili- iiu Milan Ca'tnslnl. |iulili>hi'il iii thtr Amerkmn
Ar-K',t.. -. \...;ii'.t i\ Kss.
DIMENSIONS GRAND OPERA HOUSE, PARIS. 597
without contradiction, the highest bit of masonry which exists in
Europe. Its height is 426 feet ; width of nave, 43 feet; length, 145
feet, inside measurements.
The tower of St. Etienne at Vienna is 414 feet high, four feet
less than that at Strasburg.
The tower of St. Michael at Hamburg is 390 feet.
The famous tower of Pisa measures 193 feet, but it leans toward
the south about 12 feet, which gives it a mean inclination of six
feet in the hundred.
St. Sophia, at Constantinople, measures 270 feet in length by 240
feet in width, from north to south. The height of the dome above
the level of the ground is only 165 feet.
The towers of Notre Dame, at Paris, measure 240 feet in height.
The total length of this church is 409 feet. Its interior width at
the crossing is 150 feet ; the width of the nave is 40 feet.
The Church of St. Paul, at London, is 500 feet in length by 169
feet in width. The height of the dome is 319 feet.
St. Peter's, at Rome ; totiil length, including the portico and
thickness of the walls, is 6G0 feet The foundation walls are 21
feet and 7 inches thick. The walls of the peristyle are 8 feet and
9 inches thick, and the peristyle is 39 feet and 3 inches in width.
The interior length of the crossing of St. Peter's is 98 feet. The
interior width of the nave, without the aisles and chapels, is 82
feet. The total height from the floor to the summit of the cross
which surmounts the dome is 408 feet The height of the dome
under the key-stone is 249 feet. The interior heiglit of the fa9ade
is 259 feet.
DIMENSIONS OF THE GRAND OPERA HOUSE, PARIS.
Supei*ficial area, 37,317 square feet ; and cubical contents, 428,-
660 metres.
The width of the facade is 230 feet.
Greatest width of building. 408 feet.
Height above tho ground level, 184 feet.
From foundation to summit, 26f5 feet.
No less than fifteen eminent painters, fifty-six eminent sculptors,
besides nineteen sculptors of ornament, were engaged on the exter-
nal and internal decorations.
M. Gamier, the architect, gave his entire and unremitting atten-
tion to it, and, with the aid of his assistants, produced more than
80,000 drawings. The building was in course of construction for
thirteen years.
59JS NOTABLE AMERICAN BUILDINGS.
DESORIPTION OF NOTABIiE ABSERIOAN
BUUiDINOS.
THE UNITED STATES CAPITOL.
LFrom ••Kinir'fe Haud-hook of Wa«<liini:t»n." ]
The site of tlu' iMiildini? is S9A fret alnivc Dnlinarv low tide in
th(' Potomac. Entire leiigtli of building. Tol feot : jrreaU'st depth
(breiulth of wings), 824 feet ; area covereil by buiklin*;. 8A acres. The
central building is 352 feet long ; corridors, 44 feel long ; wings.
143 feet fr<»nt, 239 feet deep, cxclusivi? of porticos and steps.
Central building is freestone from quarries about 40 miles below
Wusliinglon.
This is painted white. The wings are of white marble from Lee,
Mass. Appropriations made by Congress from 18iK) to diite for the
erection and mo< lei ling of thtj Capitol amount to )Z>15,000,OUO.
[)»)nu' (k'signed by T. U. Waller, to replace a smaller one re-
m()ve<l in 1^50. Exterior height crest of statue above base line.
3071 feet : top of lantern above biilustrade of building, 218 feet ;
heiglii of Statue of Freedom on the apex, 19* feet ; diameter of
dome. 1 3.-) A feet.
Tliv dome n-sts on an octiigonal lya^e 93 feet al>ovc the basement
floor, and as it leaves the top line of the building consists of a peri-
style, 124 feet in <liameter, of 36 iron-fluted columns 27 feet high,
and weighing six tons eaeh.
The lant'Tn is 15 feet in cliameter and 50 feel high.
TIh* wci^rht of iron in the su|)erstructure of the dome is 8,00U,200
|)ounils. This rests on a substructure of masonry and 4<l interior
ma-:>iv».' stiiiu' columns Rupi>orting heavy gn>im-d an'hes. upon
wh it'll al-<> n-sts the jKivement of the liotunda.
ili'i:.:h: tM'in floor of Liotunda to canopy, 1^0 feta ; diameter of
Kotun-la. 0«; feet.
Tin- < a in >py consists of an inner shell of imn ril)s and lathing,
laid with phislcr suitable for frt'scoing. It is 65i feet in diameter
and 21 ftrt vi-rtji-al bright.
Su/ir>j/h Cinirt Uoum. — St'venty-llve feet long. 45 feet wide, and
45 fiTi hi_r]i.
IIitli>>f lirp/'ts, ;<A////vw.-- U-nirtli. i:i.» ft-it : width. 93 fwt: height.
:Ui fi«t : il'H.r. 115 frrt by 07 fivi. (ialleries will 9va,i about 2.500
prrsmi'^.
Tin- •■••ilini: of thf hnll is of -a^t iron. pMiiellfd. {tainted, and
gild'-il. :inil iiiirhly rnri(-h(*tl with gilt mouldinir«. The fiancls are
tilled \> iih u'lass. with staim'<l tvntr>-piei.'es representing thoarmi! of
the .^t;tti>. AIm)Vi> the eeihng is tiie illuiiiiimtion loft, with 1.M)
gas-ji.'ts. fur lighting the hali fur night Si'ssions.
NOTABLE AMERICAN BUILDINOa 599
Senate Chamber.-^hength, 118^ feet ; width, 80} feet ; height,
89 feet.
Floor is 83 feet long, 51 feet wide. Galleries seat 1,200 persons.
The ceiling is of iron with glass panels, lighted same as Heprcsent-
ati?es Hall.
Treasury Building^. — Dimensions : Four hundred and sixty-
eight feet north to south, J(364 feet east to west ; inclusive of por-
Vicos and steps, 582 feet by 300 feet. Cost, $6,000,000.
Architects — Robert Mills, T. U. Walter, Young, Rogers, and
A. B. MuUett.
State, War, and Navj^ Buildingr.— A. B. Mullett, archi-
tect. Extreme dimensions north to south, 567 feet ; east to west,
842 feet ; exclusive of projection, 471 feet north to south, and 253
feet east to west. Cost, $5,000,000.
New City Hall, Philadelphia; John McArthur, jun.,
architect.
Dimensions of Building,
F^om north to south 486 feet 6 inches.
" east to west 470 feet.
Area 4i acres.
Number of rooms in building 520.
Total amount of floor-room 14^ acres.
Height of main tower 537 feet 4 inches.
Width at base 90 feet.
Centre of clock-face above pavement .... 361 feet.
Diameter of clock-face 20 feet.
State Capitol, Hartford, Conn. ; R. M. Upjohn, archi-
tect, New- York City.
Exterior is of marble; building is of fireproof construction, with
brick and iron floors.
Dimensions of Building.
Length 296 feet.
Depth ' ... 199 feet.
Height to top of roof .... 99 feet.
Height to top of figure on dome, 250 feet.
Senate chamber 50 feet X 40 feet, 35 feet high.
Representatives' hall 84 feet X 56 feet, 48 feet high.
Supreme Court-room .... 50 feet X 31 feet, 35 feet high.
Cost of building, $2,500,000.00.
.600 NOTABLJi: AMKRICAN BUILDINGS.
The WasliiiijJTton Moimment, at Washinjrton, D.C, is
r5') t\'('t o inclics hi.Lcli, and has a bus*; of r)5 f(>ot, witli an ontasis
of 1 foot in every .'U in hei'^ht. The nionuniont. is faci'd with
white nijiihle and ])ack(Ml with i)hi4* granite to the height of 4'>'2
feet: above that the wails are entin^ly of marble. Tho avenii:«j
settlement of the, strnetnre at each corner is 1.7 inches. Tht*
monument is a simpb' plain obelisk with no embellishments what-
OV(M-.
The weiLjht of the monument is S0,470 tons, or o.(» tons per
sqnure foot: the area coveri'd by the foundation iK'in^ :i2,4'M)
scjuare feet.
The corner-stone of the monument was laid July 4, 1S48, and
the cap-stone was set Deo. 0, ltS84.
^lotropolitaii Opera-House, Now York; J. C. Cady,
New Voi'k, architect.
Tlie l)iiil(lini: tills a s(juare 200 X 2()() feet: the size of tlip auili-
torlnni i^^ ■<> fert s inches X DO f(»et (> inches; the stai^e is iH) feet x
loj left, and !.')() feet from top to IxKtom; the seatinj^ capacity is
o.">i) : I lien* are r> stories of baleonies.
Tiu' trusses used for rooting the auditorium and staije are S pan-
elled U('l'4ian trusses, havinix a s]Kin in «;real ]>art of liKi feet. Thi'V
an' l:} fcr:, from centres over the auditorium, and S feet fn)m cen-
tre; ovt'i- the staije, where thry liave to carry the weij^hl «)f the
rimrin^-lnft and the jxreat tire-tank, in addition to the nK>fin^. The
fci-t of I h«* trusses on one side are mountetl on earriajLtes to allow
for j'oiitraction ami expansion. 'I'bey are secun-d by line-* of sway
braces, wliilr purlins of aimle-irons runnin;.; between them receive
tin' ltuildiiiLr-l'lo«-k<. wbieb in turn n'<'eive the slatini;. I'ndt'r the
ridLT" of ill'' -tai^f roof i^ su-pendnl a lir«'-tank «)f boilrr-iroii reseui-
blim: an ordinary bdilrr: it^ len.u'lh is "S feet. It was built in its
posi.ion, an 1 tubrs wrn* built in at intervals to allow nienilHTs of
the ri)of-tru^«'s to pa>s through il. rnderneath the whole is a
lar::«' i>an Im rcceivt* any po.ssible N-akai^e.
Tills tan!; Mip]>Iies tin- aufomatif sprinkb'i's whii-li piard tin*
wbnji- '^laL:^■ aii-a, ajid al>o the varinu^ lin«s of tin'-ii«»"»e.
Till- :rii>^-- n\ir ihr pm^renium o]M-ninLC ha-* a >j»an of S»'i feet. !>
7«*» !<■•■! ;ihn\.- ih«>tau»'. aud eai'rie-^ a bri«-k wall l'» fn-t in lii-ijL;lil.
Tiii^ wall !>- -:a\«- I. iii'f niiK bv tin* roof ma««Nfs, but b\ a M-ric"* til
■ • • »
«'uiiip<i:-aiiu l>rai-<-> anil lii-s.
Thi- -lajt -suiipiMl** an- of iron. iuNti-ad las u<Uiill> ) of wihi.I.
'i hi-\ .i!i- inadi- in Ni-i-tidus ea<<ilv taken apart to admit (tf anv
«l.-ir«'.i ih.iiiji- in tin- -tav.''' or Ihe spaec undi-r il. Then' are «»vi'r
;;»HKi srpaiah- ])ii'ees i»f in>n-work in lids pari of tin* .struct ure.
NOTABLE AMEBICAN BUILDINGS. 601
The cost of the building proper was $951,839.41 ; cost of heating,
ventilation, seating, decoration, carpets, and furniture, $119,819.56;
costof scenery,costumes, properties, music library, etc., $142,500.00.
The Madisou Square Garden, New York City.—
Messrs. McKim, Mead, and White, architects. This building
cx)vers the block bounded by East Twenty-seventh Street, Fourth
Avenue, Twenty-sixth Street, and Madison Avenue.
It combines an immense amphitheatre, a restaurant (80 x 90 feet),
a ball-room, a concert hall, an open-air roof garden, and a theatre.
The amphitheatre is an enormous room, 810 x 194 feet and 80
feet high, with an arena containing 80,000 square feet. The room
is semicircular at each end, and is provided with permanent seats
for 7,800 people, with sufficient standing space left to give room for
a total of 15,00 ) persons. This vast arena, covered by the immense
roof without central support, is entirely open and free from side to
side and from end to end. For summer performances the roof can
be opened by machinery.
The theatre has a seating capacity of about 1,200, with standing
room for 400 more.
The open-air garden extends over the roof along the Madison
Avenue front. It will hold from 3,000 to 5,000 people.
The building is surmounted by an immense tower 800 feet high.
AUDITORIUM BUILDING, OHIO AGO, ILL., 1887-89.
Adler & Sullivan, Architects.
The Auditorium Building includes:
1. The Auditorium. — Permanent seating capacity, over 4,000 ;
for conventions, etc. (for which the stage will be utilized), about
8,000. Contains the most complete and costly stage and organ in
the world.
2. Recital Hall. — Seats over 500.
3. Business Portion consists of stores and 136 offices, part of
which are in the tower.
4. Tower Observatory, to which the public are a^imitted. U. S.
Signal Service occupies part of 17th, I8th, and 19th floors of tower.
Above four departments of the building are managed by Ciiicago
Auditorium Association.
5. Auditorium Hotel has 400 guest rooms. The grand dining-
room (175 feet long) and the kitchen are on the top floor. The
magnificent Banquet Hall is built of steel, on trusses, spanning
120 feet over the Auditorium.
Area covered by building, about one and one-half acres.
602 NOTABLE BRIDGES.
Total street frontage (fronting ( 'ongress St., Michigan and Wabash
Aves.;, 710 feot.
Height of main ])uil(ling (10 stories), 145 feet.
Height oi tower above main building (8 floors), 95 feet.
Height (>f lantern tower above main tower (3 floors), 30 fe<»t.
Total lieight, 270 feet.
Siz' of 1()W(;r, 70 X 41 feet ; the foun(hitions cover about two aud
oiie-h;ili' liiiies larger area.
Weigh! of entire building, 110,000 tons.
Wciglit of tower, 15,000 tons.
Exterior material : First and sc^cond stories, granite ; l>alance of
building, Bedford stone.
Co.st of building, $3,200,000.
THE LONGEST BRIDGES IN THE WORIJ3.
[ " Encriiu'tTini; News." ]
Forth Bridge, 0,':00 feet.
Montreal Bridge, over th(» St. Lawrence, 8,791 feet.
The lialtinioHi & Oliio r>ridge, at Havre de Grace. (»,0()0 feet.
Brooklyn I5ridge, over the East River, 5,989 feet.
Wooden bridge at Columbiii, Pa., 5,360 feet.
Moiiongahela Bridge, near Homestead, r),300 feet.
Louisville Ivailroad bridge, over the Ohio, 5,218 feet.
Volga, over the Syzran, Itu.ssia, 4,947 feet.
Moerdyeic, Holland, 4,027 feet.
Dnieper, near Jekaterinoslaw, Russia, 4,213 fei*t.
Cincinnati Southern Ifailroad, over the Ohio, 8,050 feot.
Kiev, over the Dnieper. 3,007 feet.
D.!n])!iin r>ridg<\ over the Susquelianna, 3,590 feet.
Barrage liridge, Delta of the Nile, 3,353 feet.
Havre de (Iraee Bridgi', over the Sus<iuehann:i, 3,271 feet.
Krnnprinz Kudolph, over the Dainilm at Vienna, 3.296 feet.
Dnieper, near Krementchong, Russia, ^,250 fiH?t.
lironunil. over the i'leusi', Holland, 3,0)0 feet.
Pl.itlsinoulh Bridge, over t!ie .^Ii«<sou^, o.OOi) ftM*t.
Two bridges of B<.ttenhim, over the Mcum', 2,833 feet.
(^uiney r.ridge, over the Mi.^issi|)pi, 2,S47 fe<»t.
St. ].i<n\< liridge, over the Mississippi, \\57-l fiHjt.
Om.-iiii Ihidge, ovt-rthe Missouri. 2.750 feet.
Saint -I'Nprit. ovrr the Khone, I'r.inee, 2.4t>0 feet.
KiuindK'urg, over the lihine, Holhuul, 2,.*347 feet.
('iij<innati, over the Ohio, 2,233 feet.
Keokuk, la., over the Mississippi, 2.008 feet.
Chaiimont Viaduct, valley of the Suizo, Prance, 2,000 feet.
Menai, England, 1,957 feet.
Tlie Brooklyn Briclgre (between New-York City and
Brooklyn).
The following statistics relating to the oonstniction of the Brook-
lyn Bridge are taken from "The Boston Herald :" —
Size of New- York caissdn, 102 feet by 172 feet.
Size of Brooklyn cnisf<6nj 102 feet by 168 feet.
New- York tower contains 46,045 cubic yards of masonry.
Brooklyn tower contains 38,214 cubic yards of masonry.
Length of river-span, 1595 feet 6 inches.
Length of each land-span, 930 feet.
Length of Brooklyn approach, 971 feet.
Length of New- York approach, 1562 feet 6 inches.
Total length of bridge, 5989 feet.
Width of bridge, 86 feet.
Number of cables, 4.
Diameter of each cable, 15f inches.
Weight of four cables, inclusive of wrapping-wire, 3538^ tons.
Ultimate strength of each cable, 12,200 tons.
Weight of wire, nearly 11 feet per pound.
£ach cable contains 5296 parallel, not twisted, galvanized steel
Ow-coated wires, closely wrapped to a solid cylinder 15 i| inches in
diameter.
oize of towers at high-water line, 59 feet by 140 feet.
Size of towers at roof-course, 53 feet by 136 feet.
Total height of towers above high water, 278 feet.
Clear height of bridge in centre of river-span above high water
atOOo F.. 1:^5 feet.
Height of floor at towers above high water, 119 feet 3 inches.
Grade of roadway, 3i feet in 100 feet.
Size of anchorages fit base, 119 feet by 129 feet.
Size of anchorages at top, 104 feet by 117 feet.
Height of anchorag<^s, 89 feet front, 85 feet rear.
Weight of each anchor-plate, 23 tons.
OTHER NOTABLE BRIDGES.
The following bridges are notable cither from their size or his-
torical connection :
The Lagong Bridge, built over an arm of Iho China Sea, is 5
miles long, with 300 arches of stone, 70 feet high and 70 feet broad,
and each pillar supporting a marblo lion 21 feet in length. Its cost
is unknown, but much exceeds that of the Forth Bridge.
604 NOTABLE BRIDGES.
Tlu> uvw TiOTidon Bridg;^ is coTistruetcd of granite, from tho fle-
siiiiis ()( \j. Kcnnio, and considered jimongst tho finest s{K«c-iinen.s of
bridi;*' Mrcliitccluit'. It was comnionccd in 1^24, and coni])lt'li>d in
7 years, al a cost oi* about ^^-7,0 0,* ()(>.
'I'hc lirid^n* of Si.:j:lis, i\\ Venice, over wiiioli the condemned ] iris-
oners were transportiMl from llic Judu^nient Hall to the i)luce<)f iheir
execution, was built in tlio Armada year, 15^8.
Tiie i>ri I'X" of the iloly Trinity, at Florence, conjs'ists ol tlin-e
beautiful cllii)lical arches of whit(^ marble, an<l stands unrivaikMl as
a work of ;:rt. Jt is H22 feet lon<r, and was comi)leted in I'lGJ).
Tile Xi.iir ,ra Suspension Brid<,n» was built in IH-ri-lSoo. It is 'J4.7
fe(M aljovc hiirh water, S2t feet long, and the strength is ostimuted
at r2,()iK) tons.
Tile KMalto. at Venice, said to have been built from tlic designs of
Micliael Ani^-elo, consists of a single marble arch, l)rt fi*ct ii inches
long, and was c(jni})lcted in )5S<).
Tiie liritinnia liridize <-rosses tlie ^lenai Straits, Wales, at an cIj'-
vaiion of lo:l feet a])ove high water. It is entirely of wmuglit in»n,
1,:)11 feet iong. and was linished in \XrA). Cost, s?8,(Mm,0 0.
The <)ld( --1 iiridgc in Kngland is a triangular brirlge at C'royland,
in Lincolnsliire, which is s.iid to have l)een erected alM)ut A.n SM?^. It
is forniet] of :> semi-arches, wlw^se bases stand in the circumfereiicc
of a circle, cijuidi^lant. fiom each other, and uniting at the to(>.
Clifton Su^pi'ii-ion Bridge, ne-ir Bi'Istol, has a span of 70^? ftvt,
and a height cf :21.-) feet above the water. The carriageway is 20
feet wiilc and I'Motway 5., feet wide. ('o>t. sr>:in,() 0.
('Mal!t!-<iik'lalc lii'l'Lv'. over tlie Severn, has the reputation of
beini: tin- tir>^t east-iron bridge built in iMigland. It was erected in
177".>. It e>ii<ivt^,.f one arch HM)fcc| wi«le. T< a al weight, IW: t€)n>.
The Tow«:- llrid-jfe .ivcr the 'JMianies — not \et comjtleled — will U-
a notai'l-- br'.!i,r,. ij< (.(.mn' arch i- on wiiat is known as the " Iki,-*-
cule" jirii:-ipl '. to b- op.in-i] b\ rai>:in:: two I'\.vi"^. so as ti»alli'W
sliip^ to pa-«-. and havinj-. when opi-ueil. a l«")tbri<li!'c mUivc. ; vaila-
bji- ri)r I""* pi^-enu'er-i t:*,.") feet ab >ve hi rh water. The full. 'wing
will, if '-aiTi.-'l (.lit, taki- rank aiiionir the notaiile ]»riilgi-> of thf
Wi»?"M, n.i::,i ly :
A lei-l., ;i- i-M ^ ill,- ])aniibi-. 0'* mil»-^ in h-nu'tii, to Ik' eon-iiriU'iMl
by I':- 'l ■■i!!i:i!ii:in (i-iveiiini'-nt. betwi-en i»ude-»ei ami Tchornavi Mill.
A i» :■■.. i.-r—-. t':.- Ilu-'^on iJivi-r. I'ct v.een Nev; V»irk an! the
Ti'-rri. 'n. V I.-'v,..\ -||.,n-. wiih a >pan i^' ".'.Ni) ft-ri. and. then-fun.-,
lar . \- ■ ■ •! : 'h" \e:\ wiiie span ol" the Korlh bridge.
.\ le-i.l ■ i-r.j-N I'l.- Straits of Mes>ina 2'. milcS iu luugtk, con.
neet ijij .-j.-ilv and Italv.
LEAD MEM'RANDA. 605
A bridge across the Bosphonis, with a span of 2,550 foet, to unite
European and Asiatic Turkey.
A bridge across the English Channel, about 24 or 25 miles in
length.
LEAD MEMORANDA.
For roofs and gutters use 7-pound lead.
For ships and ridges use 6-pound lead.
For flashings use 4- pound lead.
Gutters should have a fall of at least one inch in 10 feet.
No sheet of lead should l)e laid in greater length than ten or
twelve feet without a drip to allow of expansion.
A pig of lead is about three feet long, and weighs from a hun-
dred-weight and a fourth to a hundred -weight and a half.
Spanish pigs are about a hundred- weight.
Joints to lead pipes require a pound of solder for every inch in
diameter.
WEIGHT OF WROUQHT-IRON AND STEEL.
Greneral Rules for determining: the Weight of any
Piece of Wrought-lron.
One cubic foot of wrought-iron 480 lbs.
One square foot one inch thick ^•''2^ or 40 lbs.
One square inch one foot long tS or 3i lbs.
One square inch one yard long 3|^ x 8 or 10 lbs.
r
Thus it appears that the weight of any ])ioce of wrought-iron in
pounds per yard is equal to ten times its urea in scjuare inches.
Example. — The area of a bar 4 inches x 1 inch = 4 square
inches, and its weight is 40 lbs. per yard.
For round iron, the weight per foot may be found by taking the
diameter in quarter-inches, squaring it, and dividing by 6.
ExAKPLE. — What i^ the weight of 2-inch round iron ?
2 inches — 8 quarter-inches. 8^ = 64.
^^- = ion lbs. per foot of 2-inch round.
Example. — What is the weight of 5 -inch round iron ?
f-inch = 3 quarter-inches. 3- ~ 9.
^ = 1^ lbs. per foot of ^-incli round.
The above rules are very convenient, and enable mental calcula-
tions of weight to be quickly obtained with accuracy.
SteeL — To find the weight of a steel bar, first determine what
tbe wei^t would be if of wrought-iron, and then add 2 per cent.
000
WEIGHT OF FLAT AND BAR IRON.
WEIGHT PER FOOT OP FLAT, SQUARE, AND 'ROUND
WROUGHT-IRON.
For steel add 2 per cent.
TmcKNKss oil Diameter.
I
' In decimals of
:!
■i
1 :i
1 .;
I I.
In iiiclios.
1
a foot.
^■i
0.()()2«
A
0.0052
A
0.0078
i
0.0104
Ij
0.0180
?c,
0.0150
3-2
0.0IS2
.1
4
0.0208
A
0.0284
I'V
().02()0
ii
0.02S7
3
0.081:5
1 :\
0.0:i8<)
1 1;
().0:j(r)
().(K}01
I
•>
*
J.0-117
■1
0.0 100
>
0.0.",21
0.0578
o.or»25
0.(H)77
0.0720
0.07S1
o.os:;8
0.0SS5
o.oo:is
o.o«nH)
0.1042
O.KH.M
0.114(i
Wei Kilt of
a square foot,
in IbH.
1.203
2.520
3.780
5.052
0.315
7.578
8.841
10.100
11.870
12.(580
18.800
15.100
10.420
17.()S()
18.050
20.210
22.780
25.2(K)
27.7JH)
;J0.810
82.S40
85.:i7(»
.87. SIM )
40.420
42.040
45.470
4s.(MM)
50.520
58.0.50
55.570
Weight per Foot.
Square bar,
In lbs.
0.0033
0.0132
0.0200
0.0520
0.0823
0.1184
0.1012
0.2ia5
0.2005
0.82(K)
0.3080
0.47:^ J
0.5558
0.(>440
0.7400
0.8420
l.(Ni<K)
1.31fi()
1.51»20
1.8050
2.22:30
2.571H)
2.1H»00
8.:^kS0
:i.80:K)
4.2<(:{0
4.7500
5.28:10
5.HO20
fl.3(W<)
Round bar,
in 1I>H.
0.002<«
0.0104
0.02:5:?
0.0414
0.0044)
O.OIKM)
0.l2<Jrt
0.1(>5:5
O.SOJW
0.25Si
0.3120
0.4:3<15
'•>
0.5<HJ:
0.5S13
0.(((*>13
0.8:{7()
1.0:;:M)
1.25*10
1.4KS0
1.74(»o
2.0250
2.:i25<>
2.(M::0
2.S»NS)
:i.:Vlso
3.7:MX>
4.5570
5.0010
WEIGHT OF PLAT AND BAR IRON.
601
WEIGHT PER FOOT OP FLAT, SQUARE, AND ROUND
WROUGHT-IRON (Continued).
For steel add 2 per cent.
Thickness or Diameter.
Weight of
a square foot,
in lbs.
Weight per Foot.
In iDcheB.
In decimalB of
a foot.
Square bar,
in lbs.
Round bar,
in lbs.
1t^
0.1198
58.10
6.960
6.466
li
0.1260
60.63
7.578
5.952
1*
0.1354
65.68
8.893
6.985 '
1*
0.1458
70.73
10.310
8.101
11
0.1563
75.78
11.840
9.300
2
0.1667
80.83
13.470
10.580
2i
0.1771
85.89
15.210
11.950
2i
0.1875
90.94
17.050
13.390
2f
0.1979
95.99
19.000
14.920
2i
0.2083
101.00
21.050
16.530
n
0.2188
106.10
23.210
18.230
2J
0.2292
111.20
25.470
20.010
2J
0.2396
116.20
27.840
21.870
3
0.2500
121.30
30.310
23.810
3i
0.2604
126.30
32.890
25.830
3i
0.2708
131.40
35.570
27.940
33
0.2813
136.40
38.370
30.130
3i
0.2917
141.50
41.260
32.410
31
0.3021
146.50
44.260
34.760
3i
0.3125
151.60
47.370
37.200
31
0.3229
156.60
50.570
39.720
4
0.38.33
161.70
63.890
42.330
4i
0.34:38
166.70
57.310
45.010
4i
0.3542
171.80
60.840
47.780
41
0.3646
176.80
64.470
50.630
4i
0.3750
181.90
68.200
53.570
4S.
0.3854
186.90
72.050
66.590
4i
0.3958
192.00
75.990
59.690
4i
0.4063
197.00
80.050
62.870
608
WKIGHT OF FLAT ANT) BAR IRON.
WEIGJIT PKR TOOT OF PLAT. SQUARE. AXD ROUND
WKOU(iHT-IROX {Cvnclmhd).
Fur atrtl add 2 ih'I' cnit.
1 "
1
TlIK KNKSS <»Jl DiAMETEU.
Wkh.iit 1
... . 1
l*Eil F»M>T. !
lii iiiclu-^.
Wfiulu of
a sijiiaiv foot,
ill Ibei.
S«Hiari' liar,
in ]l>i«.
III (it'i-iinuls of
ii foul.
Kouiiil liar,
III 11m.
''
0.4ir>T
2J)-J.l
J^.2<)
1
1
■
r>i
0.4271
2<)7.1
SS.47
m».4S
'
o.4:]75
212.2
l»2.x:J
72.VK
■
:>■*
<).447t>
217.2
i»7.:]l
7<J.4;J
■
."ii
().4.'.s:i
222.0
U»1.1M»
tH).U2 I
1
."i:
<).4«5nS
2-7.;J
KKi.lit)
8;J.70 1
'
•'>';
<).47t»L'
2:i2.4
111.40
87.4<i
i
."»:
<».4^1Hi
2;;7.5
llt!.:',0
(U.:n
1
f
(i
o.rHNi.)
242.5
■ 121.:;o
a-».2:J
1
'•'1
(».r)2i»s
2:>2.t»
i:n.i'iO
iu;].:ju
♦»:'
o.r)4i7
2«J2.7
142.:;o
Ul.lW
••^
n.:)r,L>.")
::72.s
l.\;;..'i4)
120..JO
t
n.:i>:j:i
2>2.i»
hVTi.iNI
12<.LtM)
Tj
nj-MMi'
2*. ♦:;.»»
177.«Hi
i:)*.).U0
• i'
').«;2:iO
:j«»;J.I
lS!».."iO
14^.^J0
"i
«»j;4:)>
•» 1 •> .1
202.;;o
i:*s.sK)
>
n.«*»«w;7
2i:).r.o
ir.{i.:i<i
>i
(».tN7"i
•t>l<l 1
22n.;;o
ISO. 10
V ,
11. 1 lis;;
24:1.41 >
DM. 10 !
t
U.7l''.»2
•^•lO.M
' 247.i»«J
2o2.:j0 i
1»
n.7."»«x>
•»»••» k.
.jl».i.>^
•JT2.S0
214 :h)
■
u.77as
2NN2I)
220.:to
'•':■
M.7'.M7
:^M.o
::m.oti
2:>4.70
M.slL'.",
:;i»l.1
:l2o.2»»
^-M.-'jO 1
m
o.s:^:;;I
4M4.2
inllLH)
LV^.r^i 1
1".
o.s7."M»
424.4
oTi.^i')
2iU.(il)
11
0.1III-.7
4H.S
407. "HJ
:S2«Mti
11.
(1 i •:.?<;
4(;4.i;
44:1.40
;i4U.NI
L
ii'
1 fuut.
4>.'>.()
4>.'i.(N)
!
atMLUO
WEIGHT OF PLAT IRON.
WEIGHT, PER FOOT, OP PLAT IROS.
£'or aleel add % per tent.
I
WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PLATES.
611
WmaHT OF CAST-IRON PLATB8.
WEIGHT, IN POUNDS, OF CAST-IRON PLATES ONE
INCH THICK.
(Calculated at 450 lbs. per cubic foot.)
Length,
in iucheB.
Width, in Inches.
6
8
10
18
14
16
18
80
24
80
4
6.25
8.3
10.4
12.5
14.6
16.6
18.7
20.8
25
31
6
9.37
12.5
15.6
18.7
21.8
25.0
28.1
31.2
38
47
8
12.50
16.6
20.8
25.0
29.1
33.3
37.4
41.6
60
62
10
15.60
20.8
26.0
31.2
36.4
41.6
46.8
52.0
63
78
12
18.70
25.0
31.2
37.5
43.7
49.9
56.2
62.4
75
94
14
21.80
29.2
36.4
43.7
51.0
58.2
65.5
72.8
88
109
16
24.90
33.3
41.6
50.0
58.2
66.6
74.9
83.2
100
125
18
28.10
37.5
46.8
56.2
66.5
74.9
84.2
93.6
113
140
20
31^20
41.6
52.0
• 62.5
72.8
83.2
93.6
104.0
125
156
22
34.30
45.8
57.2
68.6
80.1
91.5
103.0
114.4
138
172
24
37.50
50.0
62.4
75.0
87.4
99.8
112.3
124.8
150
187
26
40.60
54.0
67.6
81.2
94.6
1;08.2
121.7
135.2
163
203
28
43.60
58.2
72.8
87.5
101.9
116.5
131.0
145.6
175
218
30
46.80
62.4
78.0
93.7
109.2
124.8
140.4
156.0
188
234
32
49.80
66.6
83.2
100.0
116.5
133.1
150.3
166.4
200
250
36
56.10
75.0
93.6
112.5
131.0
150.0
168.4
187.2
225
281
(312 WEIGHT OF LKAD, COPPER, AND BRASS.
X
* i/ X
•1 'c n c>i ^ C'l '■£ '£ rr ^ fS o
rtr-rtxrp.-rc-t — Xi-^fi — x — f — Xri x-tTrcnc-tac
y.
r.
7.
./ z' •— T > ~ -' ^ :*? I - r - 3: — c ~ •— -- ? I - i" r". ■—• r r^ I - 7 ?- 7 r- r
i -; r 3 3 c — -- — ?; :: I-: I- r. — :t T j: — -r r -;2 -t rt :? -r -^ r :■:
X
-* -* -M -r .r t - jc '-C r? r
./ 3 — rr ._; X 71 1 - Ti .jT c
-►— c::y - / — I- — ?i7ii:
— — I - c r? I - — :r i.t -^ X — ■•:
^^ -w — « W <«»• -v^ ^ ^iir <«> *» 1^ ^ <^ ^^ ^~ ^^ al •! •« ■• •■ ^T '•• "^ *• w* ^~ > ■ ^r
'^
■/. —
71
:;: I
x:
/. .
X ". ' T -. ~t ' 'T '". ■^. '. ■^. ". -. '"i ^ *". ^. '^. ^! ^: '■-. ". '"t ^J ~. -. T ^- ^. '"t
— »— ?i -T i"' 1? X ri c; rt ^f ~1 1-^ -t i - r" ~i ■"; i- c" c? /■ -— S"! «^ c i*: -- -"
— r- — r- — ;i ?> ?i 5i r: r? r: -t t -t »s «fo •— I- 1- « X
rt -: M - t - -* •£
^- '~ Jk^ X >.'r i*: c c c
X r. i* i-'T 'T >■ :: * _
— 71 "t ' ~ I - r- — -* I - J
: X •'^ ^1 ^1 ^1 ^1 ' 9 .*= * >E
" •• "• ^ 'V loM J^ _^ ^ •*! "^ ■
■ ■ B ■■• ^« ^m 1^ B^ Jt ^B ■ 4 ^to ^B"
• ■••••••■■•a
__ ^1 ^1 MM M>^ «^ ,^ -^ J^ ^» ^ ^1
i N
:t r -Si i*^ ^ It -r 71 !J 71 -3 o ^ -7 o 1^ f- ^ ."* 5 * * 5
^ — 71 :7 .7 I - *. 71 irt /■ ^ i7 r. .7 X X- s ■?! :c 5i X •« -r
v^ ^ ^ ^ "■ ** ^ "^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^B «^« ^1 MM aak ^^ a^ ■ «^ «M ^^ M^ -^
•/ —
i" ~ '! ". ' ^ ^\ *-. "i '^. "^
— — 71 -T •-' I - x" ~ -^ -^
■ B • * ^^ ^BI V B I ■MI * ■ r a ■ ■ ■ ^^ • ^ l-B ■ W ^^ ^ ^ • ■
• •■■••••■B«*aa«aB««
^ ti ?i ?i ri :: re -■': -t ^ t fcC ic -^ & I- oc X o
^b ■•■■■ ••■••■■••aaaaaaBH ^^ ^M ^^ k^a I
- — I - 71 1 - :: — V" - • 7 -^ r
2 r r — — 71 :7 -" - r. 71 ■■;
r7 I - 71 X r?
*l "^l r^ m
-r -» -c I- Si ^ r: i7 I-
'.'"■"."".".•!-".". ". •"' -. '. ". • ' ": '-. ■ ; '-=.'■.-•**■»■. S I - r z -
..- — :: .-.*i - -■■ ^ _2 ;; ' 7' .- :'■ 'i \: X-IZ L '-' "^" ^" i* "t '^ - ' «" '^ ■' ""
-J. - -1.- - ,'. J..i --|1- - .- ,i. ■---,!.. i iZ J-^ J JL '
^" t"^ r^
WEIGHT bP BOLTS, NUTS. AND BOLT-HEADS. 613
Unglh
head
10 putut.
iin.
A..
!la.
I'ff 111
iia.
Si".
!i„.
J.n.
1,..
P
P
n
n
20
iu'din i
j
II
25
ii
13
1(
1;
ia
1T.40
w.n
21.80
aoieo
48.09
4R.'W
4.18
ibn.
ia'.ja
70.20
91:40
Hi
71
91
la
14;
20(
8
12
»
60
75
>0
rs
eaioo
7»!oo
iniao
13i!uo
isaieo
i;i!»o
12.ZT
lbs.
330!0o
251
284
360
42a
470
4B2
I BOLT-HEADS, IN POUNDS.
B weight of longer lolt*.
614
WEIGHT OF IRON RIVETS.
IRON RIVETS.— WEIGHT PER HUNDRED.
Length
DiAMETERfl.
under
1
1
head.
i
1.805
i
1
1
2(5.40
1
i
1
1
1 '
1
1
4.848
0.<.M5(5
10.70
:50.:5
55.2
H
2.0(57
5.2;j5
10.;^)
17.S(5
27. Oi)
41.4
57.0 =
H
2.2;]S
5.()1(5
11.040
18.JK5
20.(51
4:5.5
00.7
If
2.410
(>.(K);5
11.780
20.0:5
:51.i:^
45.(5
03.4
U
2.582
(5.402
12.4:10
21.04
«2.74
47.8
(5(5.2
If
2.754
0.78!)
1:5.120
22. 1 1
:w.25
40.0
08.0
H
2.1>2()
7.17{)
1:5.810
2:5.21
:55.8(5
52.0
71.7
n
;].()t)8
7.5(5(5
14.500
24.28
:57.87
54.1
74.4
2
:i.2(Jl)
7.05(5
15.100
25.4S
:5s.i)0
5(5.:^
77.2
^J
:5.441
S.;U:J
15.880
2(5.5(5
40.40
5S.4 !
70.0
2i
:}.ni8
8.7:}:5
1(5.570
27.(55
42.11
(50.5
82.7
n
;J.7X5
0.120
17.2(50
28.7:5
4:5.(57
(52.(5
85.4
2i
;j.<)57
0.511
17.050
20.82
45.24
(54.8
88.2
n
4.121)
0.S1I8
18.(540
:J0.1K)
4(5.80
(5(5.0
$K).»
2J
4.;]()i
10.200
io.:«o
;^i.oo
4S.:5(5
(50.0
03.7
92.
4.47:5
10.(570
20.020
:5:5.08
40.02
71.1
0(5.4
:j
4.(544
11.0(50
20.710
:54.18
51.40
7:5.:5
90.2
4..sn;
11.440
21.400
ii5.27
5:5.05
75.4
101.0
•>l
4. IKS
1I.S40
22.000
:5(5.:}5
54.(51
77.5
104.7
•>J
5.1()()
12.2;}0
22.780
:57.44
5<5.17
70.0
107.4
;u
12.(520
2:J.4SO
:58.52
57.74
81.8
n4».2
;{a
5.501
I.'J.OIO
24.170
:50.(5()
50.:50
8:5.0
112.0
:;j
l:J.:iOO
24.8(50
40.(50
f50.S(5
8(5.0
11(5.7
"it
5.SIS
i:i.7f<0
25.550
41. 7S
(52.42
K*<.1
110.4 '
4
O.OIJ)
14.170
2(5.240
42. S7
(5:J.i)*»
{)0:5
121.2 1
4i
(l.li)l
14.5(50
2(5.0: JO
4:J.04
(».)..).>
02.4
12:5.0 '
■M
().:5(;:;
14.050
27.(520
4.5.01
07.11
t)4.5
1 2(5.(5
KM)
iif.'uls.
0.5 !«♦
1.74
4.14
8.10
1:5.00
22.27
1
.•5:5.15
Lciivrtli of rivet nMiuinMl to luiikc 0110 head = 1| (liamoten of
round )):ir.
NAILS AND SPIKES. 61
NAILS AKD SPIKES.
SIZE, LENGTH, AND NUMBER TO THE POUND.
!
Numbo,
t
N-umb..
Bl^r
fi,
NumlKi
pou.i(l.
-i
poiuid.
pouml.
1 01
i
intinn
4oz.
f-
4000
14 0^
+it
114:)
H "
^\
KHKHi
fi "
2000
If! "
1000
I
SIKH)
8 "
18 "
4f
8S8
21 "
64(10
10 "
f.^
1(100
20 "
800
i
aiaa
12 "
i
!*(■!
lA
727
616
WEIGHT OF PLAIN CAST-IRON PIPES.
T77EIGHT OF PLAIN CAST-IRON PIPES.
WEKHIT OF A LINEAR FOOT WITHOUT JOINTS.
Bore,
in inches.
Tuich
i
IbH.
V NfETA
L, IN iNCHEfl.
I
i
1
1
IbP.
i
1
IbH.
H
H
IbH.
IbH.
IbH.
IbH.
IlM.
lb«.
2
').;">
S.7
12.:J
1(5.1
20.8
24.7
20.5
;W5
80.0
2i
O.S
10.(5
14.7
10.2
24.0
20.0
:U.4i 40.0 1 4<J.O
8
7.9
12.4
17.2
22.2
27.6
82. :5
:i0.8
45.(5 52.2 !
;H
0.2
14.: J
10.(5
25.:J
in.il ;J7.(5
44.2
51.0
58.8 ■
4
10.4
1(5.1
22.1
28.4
:J5.0
41.0
40.1
5(5.(5
(M.4
^
11.7
is.o
24.5
;]1.5
:}vS.7
462
54 0
(52.1
70.0 :
5
12.0
lO.S
27.0
JU.5
42.3
50.5
50.0
(57.7
7(5.7 '
n.}
14.1
2l.r)
20.5
:^7.(5
4(5.0
54.S
(5:j.8
78.2
82.0
<i
1.").:;
2:}.;')
;Ji.o
40.7
40.7
50. 1
(58.7
78.7
8t».0
<
17.S
27.2
;]() 0
4(5.8
57. 1
(57.7
78.5
80.8
101.0
i s
20.:}
:i0.s
41.7
52.0
(54.4 . 7(5.2
88.4
101.0
114.0
1)
22.7 i
:U..")
4(5.(5
50. 1
71.S
S4.8
0S.2
112.0
1215.0
10
2.1.2
:js.2
51.5
(55.2
70.2
0.^.4
108.0
i2;j.o
i:i8.0
. 11
27. <>
41.t)
•>(>..)
71.;}
S(5.5 •■ 102.0
1 IS.O
1:54.0
1.50.0
\'2
:;o. 1
40.(5
(51.4
0:}.0 ! 111.0
12S.0
1
145.0
1(5:1.0 ':
i:;
;{2.:)
40.2
(5(5.:j
s;{.(5
101.0 110.0
i;i8.()
15(5.0
175.0 j
14
:;:..n
71.2
S0.7
10i).0 ■ 12S.0
147.0
1(57.0 1S7.0 i
i:> i
;;7.4
7(5. 1
a5.o
11(5.0 l:i(5.0
1.57.0
178.0
10!».O
It)
.•;o. 1
»5«).:J
1
Sl.()
102 0
12:J0 14.5.0
M57.0 180.0
212.0
IS
44. s
1
•57.7
JM).0
114.0
i:is.o H52.0
isT.o' 21l.o:2:Ui.o
1 1
20
■10.7
7"). 2
101.0
127.0:
1.5:5.0 170.0
20(5.0 28:1.0 2(51.0 1
22
:)!.<;
S2.(5
111.0
i:i0.0 1
U5S.0 107.0
22(5.0 25.">.(J 2S.5.0
24
.'»o.«;
su.o
120.0
151.0
isj.o . 214.0
1
24.5.0 27S.O :S10.0
2«i
«W,')
07.:*»
i::i.o
1(54.0 ■
los.o : 2:;i.(»!
1
2(515.0 :MN).o :i:^5.0
•>s
(;•». 1
10."). 0
140.0
17<5.0
212.0 240.0
2S<i.() ' 82:1.0 ' :MM)A)
1
;;o
74.2
1
112.0
l.'iO.O
iss.o
227.0
i
2(5(1.0
:U).5.o
:U5.0
:M.0
Ni>TK. — For oiich Jiiliit, ailii a fiNtt to liMiKth of pipe.
WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES IN GENERAL. 611
WEIGHTS, PER FOOT, OF CAST-IRON PIPES IN GEN<
ERAL USE, INCLUDING SOCKET AND SPIGOT
ENDS.
[Dennis Long & Co.]
Diameter.
ThiclsnesB.
Weight
per foot.
Diameter.
Thicliness.
Weight
per foot.
2 inches.
i + inch.
6i lbs.
14 inches.
I inch.
138 lbs. ■
2
ti
f "
9i *'
16
ii
i "
85 "
2
ii
i "
14 "
16
a
8
108 "
3
a
i+ "
11 "
16
n
} "
129 "
3
ii
i "
13i "
16
11
»
152 "
3
a
4 "
18 "
16
ii
1 "
175 "
3
n
t "
23 "
18
it
5. It
8
114 "
4
(I
tH- "
16^ "
18
ii
i "
137 "
4
n
i "
23 "
18
a
I "
161 "
4
a
t "
31 "
20
a
h. X
(J ,
132 "
6
li
t "
25 "
20
it
1 "
160 "
6
((
i "
33 "
20
n
i "
197 "
6
u
f "
42i "
20
li
1 **
215 "
6
<<
J ..
52 •"
24
ii
4 "
8
159 "
8
((
t "
40 "
24
<<
} "
190 **
8
((
4 "
43i "
24
a
I "
224 "
8
n
8
56 "
24
ii
1 "
257 "
8
a
^ "
68 "
30
a
J "
237 "
10
a
T^+ "
50 "
30
it
I "
277 "
10
<(
1 "
54 "
30
li
1 "
319 "
10
ii
«
68 "
30
it
H "
360 "
10
a
i "
80 "
36
11
i "
332 "
12
li
i "
07 "
36
11
1 "
381 "
12
ii
8
82 ''
36
11
n "
429 "
12
a
J "
99 "
36
li
H "
479 "
12
ii
7 U
8
117 "
48
It
1 "
512 **
14
ii
i "
74 "
48
ii
n "
584 "
14
a
5. a
8
94 "
48
ii
li "
685 ''
14
a
f "
113 "
48
ii
U "
775 "
G18
WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON WATEiU-PIPES.
WEIGHTS OF CAST-IKOX WATEEl-PIPES.
In pounds, {kji* foot run, including bellB and spigots.
I
Diiimt'ter.
2 ins.
• >
4
i)
S
10
12
10
20
24
30
30
a
a
Philadfl-
(/hicago.2
Cincinnati.'
RUnd-
urd.s
1
1
Light.s
1
phia.i
Weight.
Thicknc.-<H
—
—
—
—
7
G
15.000
—
17
J incli.
15
13
21.111
24.107
23
i "
22
20
30.100
3r).0()(J
50
i "
3:?
30
40.()83
50.000
05
J u
42
40
52.075
05.000
80
i "
00
55
00.102
S3. 333
100
i "
75
70
102.522
125.000
130
5 "
—
—
147.081
—
200
7. *<
—
-
-
250.000
224
—
—
—
—
300
1 "
—
—
450.000
430
1.1 "
—
WatiM-piix' is usually tostetl to throe ImndnMl i>oiuid8* pressure
por square inch hefore delivery, ami a hammer tost slioiiM be ma<le
wliih' the ])ii»e is under pressure.
The riiiia'leli>hia ienj^ths for each section are, for three and fou/
inch pipe, •> feet: all lari;<T sizes, 12 feet 3 i inches in length.
The Cincinnati len.Ljths are unifonn for all diameters, — 12 feet.
('liicairo. s:nnc as Cincinnati.
Stan<lai-.l Icni^ths are, for two-inch pipe, 8 feet, and all other
siz«'.-. 12 t'ccl.
The thickness of the lead joint ran*»es from one-fourth inch on
small sizes to one-half inch on the larj^e sizes.
WKHMliS OF LKAI) AM) (iASKET FOU PIPE JOIXT.S.
[ I>('nni^(, 1/oni;, ^c Co.)
I )i;imclrr
(if I'ipt'.
•J iiu-Iic~.
■t
1 1
1<»
Lead.
'J..'. llM.
:;.."» ••
4..") ••
• i..'t ••
13.0 ••
(iai^kot.
O.lJ.'i llw.
n.lTo ••
n.lTo •'
n.-jm ••
n.:MK» ••
(i.-Jfin •'
of pipe. ^'♦•'"•- ; *':*''ket.
^'2 inchi'K.
14
Irt
IS
•JO
1.'> llirt.
IK "
33
«i
U.-.TmI lint.
o.:::j '•
O.-'iiMI •*
0.fI-J6 "
' Kit III) Ti untwine.
3 DiMiniii, Li>ng, Kc (^o., l^ulKvllle, Kjr-
WEIOHT OF BQCARE CABT-IBON OOLCHNa 619
WEIGHT OF SQUARE UAST-IRON COLUMNS IN POUNDS
PER LINF-AL FOOT.
•a
T.,.„..
OF UtTAL IN Inches.
SofSS
13
18
SO
»
at
«
s
a>
«
4i
u
«*
a
iSj
0 16?
a 909
ea
S l«
e lid
3fi!l8
en
4 son
0 !ta
s4g!i
sre.o
n
0 181
S 3W
3 an
»
wi.ii
n
m.j
61
s asr
911.7
74
lSfl.6
4ia.B
I
4S>.U
■ 73
75
K aja
8 Kt
S^'.S
80
1BI.3
BJ
B i»r
a aff
*
293.0
«0.0
e weight per lineal foot of b
Opposite this namber, under
. or weight per lineal foot of a
Example.— What is t
X 1" thick column ?
AnB.—2a + 26 = 24 + 36
1-inch thick metal, we find
12" X 18" X 1" thick colum
NoTK. — For flanges brackels, etc., calculate the cubical con-
tents o( same and multiply by ,26 ; oast-iron averaging 450 pounds
per eubio foot.
* aaod A = cither Bide. ia-i-Hb = number.
620 WEIGHT OF CIRCl-LAl^ CAST-IKON COLUMNS.
W
c
>-<
c
E-
<%"
Ci.
^ I
y.
o»
Ci
?*
■:*
<?»
■ ■tr I
X.
Y.
I ■"
I :
I < I ».
I H r-
I -■
■ «••■■■■■■••• ■•••
ri c<J o J. 3 c? If; ^ Srf «5 «3 5 3 5 • - • - ^ • »
^ ,-1 ri 1-1 T« 7} -71 ./ w rf 9} w ■T' -r ^ -r »S ii
7 ?' i?. z ^ ^ ."- = ^ 1^ i St^ 5 * 5 5 fi
9 i E 3 ^ » ^ .^ -i J^ 1^ 5 5 5 3 f> S ^ ix
ud c5 Vi T i- y. r: ?; ja /. £ 2} r: L; fe = 2 2 2
5! t^ 5 ^ S ?^ r 5. i^ 5 ^ 5 « 3 5 2 -3 5 ^
■'- ;i ;., ^ ^ ^ 7. -Jf ', I *> T» cc r? « .^ « -T 'T -T
;c ?i T if, -^ x T :. i - c? r: ti t» x -r -^ z sc :
X T * - < - 1 - -' -' ■^' '" i^ -*' Tf -T- i ^^ '^ 3 •' **
i- r: — t: o I- ■- — r; ■'i t - 7^ — ?J li « - « — w
•" „ ;4 ^ — ^ 7/ *i ■:» 7» f » ?: 9* ?f cc 25 "-• -T
c ?? / ?» -r = — / -:» -i = — A I* - — _ o =• «
t- -^ -r c* — r^ X -r -^ r? — » / -r '* 2a "y - ^ i.r
It I - r*. r-i M -r ■«■ 7 ~ 71 "♦ "i 1 - .. — C7 i^ I - J c
^^ "-^ ^^ ^^ ^^ VT "c «' •« •' *€•• «• ■* w^* •"•
•
1- jc - I - — -» r: :ir ?? - ' -. — 7i - ■ :; '^ - i .C- V.
— X ^ ^ — — ^ 7» -?« 71 ?i 71 ?l « ?? w S 55
— c: X X 1 - 1- ■— •- i": T — 'T rr w 7J 7» c — ' c o
t r: y — < - -^ ji I-. — 1 - ec r. I*: — J - sj 5 1.": •- « •
i-t •» u-: « .- rt 2 - £ r: ;^ a{ ^ «i x; «» * 3* o^ !^
■ •■•■•■■••••••• ■•■•
,- ;C — ir; ~ ■" C -• r. -• X W / S < - 7> «- 1» — -3
^ 4^ ^ -« -^ r- ^ 7» -f* ?» ?» 7» 5» S 57 .J
*a ;; /i ■■= V t? j; s ?i :^ r 7 ■-■ r: ::: i ;= ^^ i^ *?? '-^
^' ii ? ri v' '^ '- ii li :: :-5' « 7 ^' » 2S » ii ;2 1 fi
^- »— »^ ^- — ^« I— ^" C» 7 » T* 7* 7J Tl 7*
^4 "^ ^4 ^^ a-^ ^^ *" ^^ *■ '^ ■* C^ ?7 *^ *T 1-t X ^ ^ O w
7» r: -r" 15' t" i - ■/ 5 -:' — ' 7» s; ••' !~ "•» ij- i ~ 21 si ^
« :i 07 — v" •« t - / r. r -■ "* '^ ' ■ '" ~ ij |£ 1^ i £i 2
J- — - - ■ r" — •". r? "1 ■/ "t 7' ■ -"•-'*"•'■" r T -~
^ 7» .; ?7 -• 17 - • - / -. ". ; f 7» t ■•♦"••.■-« •
— — . , -^ - ,-. — I - 7 ■ V 7» / "• 1 '_- " ■*■ vT 1; "j; "^
?7 ■ ' — ; T t t- ■: : I*. •• ?? 7» — " I -. t ■- — 17 ^
— — ** 7» r? .; -• — t^ . . - -i 1 - < - / / r. c. _ - -^
9
a
S3
O
I
"3
u
o
s
' jtf
a.
d
^
u
»
I 5
I ^
Si
a
A <;
- •
'■C <
r. c »- 71 r7 — •.'7 "J I - .r c
A?;4SI«^
I
•
WROUGHT-IRON WELDED TUBES.
621
u
a
9
a
1
a
a a5
a> « ''3
> « O)
©"a ^
> 08
^ ^ a r«
o
C8
« -s
o a
(0
n
00
3
O
a1
5 1
o
CO
O
7}
W
15^
3
^3 ^^
- ® Q
0
O 3| -^
o s
^i
o o*
o
a
Number
of
1 threads
'■■ per inch
of screw.
1
b>QOOO'^^i-<i-«r-ir-iOOOOaOOOOOOOaoaOQOaOOO
C4rii-(r^iHi-<rHpHfH
'eight
foot of
ngth,
in
-f iM « -f C-I l^ lO OS «0 1 f lO (M 0» CD ® i-H -M-" -t
• ••••■•••• ••■•••••••
OOOOi-Hr-i(N(MeOi«l-a>0<N-tQeci300-tO
r-ii-i ri r-" C^ 'M CO -f
^ - ^ w
p^ o— a.
ft.
«^ apo
o £•- ^
000000 'C if5 «D»-" (T. «Ci— CCOQO CI ccroo
0 0 «o -r =; <r. -M « cc ri -^ ic CO 0 ?i Oi 1- cc iM 00
• ••••••■■•■••••••••«
J3 CJ C - w SU
Sr.-r5^§-
Oir<r-i'riOO'£iO'MO0J-f^01l-'^CCC^(M»-(
0 CO lO I- I- 'r> a- 1- •^ CC ri 1- ri
s s-t; cj«ii ^
.C r5 I- rt (N ri
.2 is •=
C^l-H
_
a » oD
£ 09 „ a»
(M '^^ >o ift «o "O «o CO w c: CI © 0 e? a> 1- CD ^J r- CO
t-iC^CCi'T'COCCr— C0-f'tCDiffOC0C1^O-!l-l—
OOOOOi-i(NCJ-»*<CDO(M>COi't'»t>iOOOCCQ
i-ir-irHMCO-^'.Cl-*
w -^
"-J ,
2 - an
(Nt-CDQOCOt-OOOOOOOOOOOOOO
t^ -^ I— •* CO CI CD cc ic cc 00 I- Q c; 0 TO I' 0 CO 00
>OOOiOCOCD»CO'OQOCCOOWW*OOCOCOeOCO
0 r-i r- ;■? iC^ 00 -t 0 CO l^ CO 00 l^ Oi 01 CO I- 0 CD 06
a ei 9i
S §•" «
• •*■•••■•••••••••«••
a =* S
oooooOi-ic^eOTfit-oj<N«raoJoocoocoao
(-1 "^
r-lrir-iC<CO»«CD»-
Q>Ct-Clt— eOi— Or-OOrHiCOJOOlt— «0^^»0
^ 1- iC 0 CO P 0 r- T-"M ^ «0 -t CD CI I- 0 - • Oi lO
-+ocoiocoa>coocDcoooiooi-co>fl'>QTJ«eoco
• ••• •■•••••••••••••
<u-s«'^ 035.2
a>l-iOTfiCOC»C«ClrHi-<r-«000©0©0©0
1-3
«*- ^
® « « 0 <u rf-^
QQOO«Q<3iOOi-lOCl-«rat-a>OOl^©-tCOiOr-l
lO 0 »- CO CO b- CO l^ C it -t 1- •^ -f. 1(5 CO •+ 1- CI 00
rH 0 CO r-> CO ® I- CO 00 >C CI 0 di 00 1- CD ifT -f"t CO
? rt. =^ *- •- 15 «
• •■•••••••■••>••••••
-j.OI^CO-*teOC<C<rir-<i-ir-iOOOOOOOO
rl »-i
« S«,«c«^ 00.^
•
t-i
las s
5^ F* -^ — S
ClCOi— C10i-t«OOSf-iClCD®t-00iOC0'^CO?5CI
l-0>CJ>OpC0r-iC0C0C0g>«e0Ot-r-iiO*eCt-
C1»r-ICOClf-iCIOJ-t005>l?i-'»---l'CCO>Oiri-
aj ?< r ajd
x.= 3 a
• ••••••••••••••••••a
i-ii-ic»c<eoitooi-OiOci-t«o»-.pcoi-oco
—
nterna
ircura-
erence
, in
inches.
QO'i'Cll^OlCliCi-l'titCOCDQOCOO-teCCOl^O
-t-rfif3if:coaiC0cpO»OC0i*"-t«Ort«CCDt^l~b-
ooi-H.rt)a>«ocir5o-i«i-cDi-Hcoi-'OOOo©ciii'
• •••••••••••••••••••
Orlrir-iCiCO-'tOOt^Olr-ClTfiOC.CIiOcrOi-l
i-lrHF-lr-rHCIC<C<CO
t— t w «4H ^^
rtiJS ?,
O-t'^C0-t<C0OrHt^00l-Q0CD00ift>r'C0C1^0>
r-COO>ClCl-fC0r-CDC0«i-t'i'O~*"«'N0eO^
CJCOi»"CDc/?OCOCO©-i»©iOOiOOOOOiOO
a:5t: -2
• •••••••••••••••■••a
00©OOr-(r-ii-iC«C<COeOTj"^U5©t-l--OJO
T3
%
s s
QCOCr-'CSCO'tO'Ot^t— COb-t-050i-iC1'»1'CO
covr'OO'— cot-to©r-cieO't»coooc»-fcD
OOOf-r-r-r-lf-r-.iNC>CICIClCIC»COCOCOrO
'^ ^ SJ
.:< 3j3
0—0
2 .2
• •••••••••••■•••• ••
OOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
rt-f ^
ic 0 0 0 0 <io 0 0 lO lO 0 0 0 0 CO 0 ic lO cr 0
3 "^ 0 - S
..J 11 G — --
0 -t 1 - - • ~ r- CD 0 1^ 1- C 0 0 Ct CD CI CI CI QC 0
-r "C cc -r; c CO CO ?. CO QO >c 0 '.-r 0 .0 cc cr cc co 1 -
0 d 0 C5 i-i r^ r^ r4 CI ci >7 -t -r 0 i.C CD I- 06 c^ 0
1— 1
1 0 •'^ ".^
u
« 0 ^
t3 fli «
►5.5 5
•0 ^
1H
623 WitOUGHT-IKON AND LAP-WELDEn TUBES.
LAT-WKI.DHI) AMKItUJAX CIIAKCOAI, IKOX llOILElt-
TUIJES.
SCLiiiU.nl <]lmen>4oii« (Tnhki of Mi>rrt>, I'^kpr, Hl Co.. [.Inill«l].
Si U
l.-Jii- 1.17.'. T.lS-i vil*
iT.i.i; iii.in.'i , T.iSA ,
I .v>!-J!ii ia!niT li.HU
GALVANIZED AND BLACK IRON.
623
AMERICAN AND BIRMINOHAM "WIRE GAUGES
I
O
•
1
thickne88, in
Inches.
•
5)
St,
o
•
o
11
THICKNE88, IN
Inches.
3
3)
O
•
o
'A
25
Thickness, in
Inches.
American
gauge.
Birming-
ham
gauge.
American
gauge.
Birming-
hau)
gauge.
Ameiienn
gauge.
Birming-
iiara
gauge.
0000
0.4000
0.454
0.0907
0.120
0.0179
0.020
000
0.4096
0.425
12
0.0808
0.109
26
0.0160
0.018
00
0.3648
0.380
13
0.0719
0.095
27
0.0142
0.016
0
0.3248
0.340
14
0.0641
0.08;^
28
0.0126
0.014
1
0.2893
0.300
15
0.0570
0.072
29
0.0112
0.013
2
0.2576
0.284
16
0.0508
0.065
30
0.0100
0.012
3
0.2294
0.259
17
0.0452
0.058
31
0.0089
0.010
^ 4
0.2043
0.238
18
0.0403
0.049
32
0.0079
0.009
5
0.1819
0.220
19
0.a359
0.042
33
0.0070
0.008
6
0.1620
0.203
20
0.0319
0.035
34
0.(J063
0.007
7
0.1443
0.180
21
0.0284
0.0:52
:35
0.0056
0.005
8
0.1285
0.165
22
0.0253
0.028
36
0.0050
0.004
9
0.1144
0.148
23
0.0225
0.025
10
0.1019
0.134
24
0.0201
0.022
GALVANIZED AND BLACK IRON.
Weight, in poiiml^ jter square foot of f/alvanized sheet-iron, both
flat and corruyaied.
The numbers and thicknesses are tliose of the ii*on before it is
galvanized. When a flat shet^t (tlie ordinary size of which is from
two feet to two feet and a half in width, by six to eight feet in
length) is converted, into a corrugated one, with corrugations five
inches wide from centre to centre, and about an inch deep (the
0-24
CORUUGATKI) IRON.
coniinon slzo), its width is tluTcby n'(lu<^o(l about ono-tonth
l)art, or from thirty to twciity-soven inches; and coiiswiiioiitly the
w«'ii^lit i)('rs(|uan' toot of an a covcnnl is iucivasod about on<*-niutli
l)art. Wh«'n the coirugattMl sheets arc laid upon a roof, the ovrr-
]a]»}>iim(>f about two indies and a hah' aloni; their sides, and of four
inches alonu their ends, diniinislie.s the covered area p.bout one-
seventli part more, niakinjjjtlicir wcinlitpcrsiiuare fo(»' of roof about
o:!e-sixth i)int irit'alcr than lu'fore. Or the wci'^lit of corrui^alcd
iron ]>('!• s(|uan' foot, in place on a roof, is abo'.'.i oni*-thirtl greater
tlian tliaL of tin* flat sheets of abovir sizes of which it is made.
WKKillT OF I HON I'KK SqIAUI-: KooT.
y.
•_'s
•)-
•Jti
•-'.■>
•J I
i:
IJlack.
(iALVAMZKI).
l'M;it.
Il.'ijli
II. 'i'"..)
<i.7-JJ
(I. SOS
(l.ss'l
l.'Uo
l.i:'.(i
1. •_•..; I
l.lln
1 .'•■"I
!.•'>■•
■-■.iM
•_• .-, -ii
•J."I''
.'.. '■ •
()..■>» »i;
O.'ili
(i.t'iV.»
o.7:»t
(i.si-j
tt.'.MJ
1.010
l.lso
I.mIo
l..i(M>
l.-.tTo
•J.:;i«i
•J.T:;o
.■;."7"
:;.'.'_''»
t.l«»ti
CoiTumiic'd.
< )ii roof. IJ)n. On roof.
0.5.19
o..')s:;
o.f.js
u.TlS
o.v.jt
().'.M)7
l.rjo
l.JfMI
\.\:\y\
l.'.iiU
■J.'JiMI
•J.»WH»
■J.'.IJll
:;.•_•;;•»
:;.7.;m
l.j'.o
().«V47
0.701
0.7.'i3
o.sr.i
o.'.K):;
1.070
1.1 >J0
l.:',.'.o
l.MD
1.7J.I
l.^^»
•J."J'»o
•J.I' ; t
:•.. 1:^(1
:'..'.li»
■I. 1^0
.■i.ljo
Fhit.
LIm. On nM)f.
0.S18
0. S.V.J
o.si»s
().'.»7H
1.0. H)
1.110
\:lis\
1.310
1.4iM»
I.rr.o
1.7.»o
•_'.o:n)
•J.:; :o
•J.»'."M)
•J.'.hVl
:i.j:.o
:•..♦'.<.»()
4.1M)
o.«.>.-i4
1.0 M)
l.oto
1.140
I.*J10
1.:'>:U)
1.4-.t)
1.. ■»♦"»<)
1.:«xi
l.'.XN)
•J.o4ii
•.».:57o
•J.7«M)
:'..1-J)
:'..t.'iO
:'..7'.Hi
4.:;iH»
4.S70
T.l I
< 'orru;r:ili'd.
LbH.
Oil ro<if.
1
O.SIN^
l.OS
o.«»:>4
1.14
0.'.M»7
l.-NJ
I.OIH)
i.:iO
l.iso
1.41
l.'-»70
l.y
l.:'i«'»<i
\A\l
1.4«H)
1.7U
l.iVJO
l.tCi
l.KIO
•J. 17
l.H4»t
'i:.w
•J.JI'IO
•J.71
•J.."IMI
U-Oll
•J.'.tSO
a.:i7
•i:^M\
;».'.♦.•)
:;.iilo
4.:'nI
4. mo
4.W
4.t»40
.».•»•
.Noli . I III- LMl\:i:.i/i:i:; iif r.|ii-fl iron aiidr. u)>out oiu--thiid nf u im»iiii«1 to
It- \\ < '.jlii |Mi .Kijuaif tiii»l.
KEYSTONE
BRIDGE COMPANY'S CORRUOATBD
IRON.
Ti.i l\.\-'i»nf ibid'.:!- <omiian\*s ciirruiiatinn^ are :*.-l*J."i inelii's
loll . '! < '-i:ii-.l nn Mh- Ntiitiubi lin*'. 'I'liev n-Miiiic a lenulh of irun
• >i 'J.Tj~> ;ii< ill '^ tn make one <'orrui:at ion. an<i the deptii of I'tirrufpi*
i:i>!i IS in< li. < )ne «-«irruuation i.^ allow fd for lap in tin* U'Ultli of
the sliii I, .md >i\ inches in the len^lh, for tlie usual |>iU*b of roof
CORIltJaATED IRON. 635
of two to one. Sheets can be cormgatPd of any length not exceed-
ing ten feet. The most advantageoiu width is thirty inches aud
a lialf, wliich, allowing a lialf-inch for irregularities, will make
eleven corrugations, ei|iial to thii'ty inches, or, making allowance
for laps, will cover tweuty-foiir iaclies and a fourth of the suiiace
of the roof.
By actual trial it was found tliat corrugated iron No. 20, span-
ning six feet, will begin t() give a penuanent deflection lor a loail
of thirty pouuds per square foot, and that it will collapse with a
load of sixty pounds per square foot. The distance between
centres of purlins should therefore not exceed six feet, and
preferably be less than this.
The following table is calculated for sheets thirty incites and a
half wide before corrugating: —
Results of Test
of a corrugated sheet No. 20, two feet wide, six feet long betwc
supjxuls, loaded uniformly with flre-clay.
imui'id-. '
liich'va.
defleilioH
load
l""lnche».
,^A
uuS'Sld.
inchea.
deir^uiiii
lend
30
30
!
ii
i
1
Oi
Ui-oke irovrn
Not Dtcd
626
MEMORANDA FOR EXCAVATORS, ETC.
MEMORANDA FOR EXCAVATORS AND "WBLL-
DIGGERS.
Fxcarafinff is gonerally done by tho cubic yard, or square; a
cubic yard Uung twenty-seven cubic feci; and asfjuaro is genorally
reckoned as eigbt yards, or a cube six feet by six feet by six feet.
AVells .*> feet clear diameter and i brick tbick
requires tbe net excavation, per foot
deptb, of
0 feet () inches diameter, J brick thick
4 u " i
a
((
li
tk
4
6
i)
i)
0
()
(>
6
7
^
6
8
8
6
i)
10
li)
0
11
11
0
12
((
<<
i(
n
il
il
n
i(
((
n
<(
((
it
li
a
a
a
a
ti
a
a
i
i
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
a
a
a
n
a
a
n
t(
a
a
ii
a
a
a
n
a
a
(k
a
ik
(k
a
ih
a
a
a
a
it
n
ill
in
1 1 c<ibir* fiM^t
14i
a
• -% ^ w»
17if
a
2i:i
it
26
it
3()
it
m
tk
r)Oi
t«
m
ti
m
ik
71
a
78i
a
86^
a
101
it
113
a
122J
(i
im
it
143i
it
= 1 ton weight.
Fnun 1"> to 1.") cu!)ic feet of chalk
IT t«> \\) ** " clay
IS to L>4 ** ** earth
IS to 2«'» *' ** gravel
\\) to 2.") " ** sand
Oi an :iv«'rai;e for general <'alcuIations may be taken as follows: —
11 r\\. t'rri of clialk wcigli 1 tou , P.> cu. feet n( gravel wei|;li 1 tor.
IS - - rlay *• 1 ** 22 ** " siunl ** 1 "
21 '* *' earth ** 1 ** .
A cubic' yard of earth in original |H)sition will orrupy from a
cubic y:ird aii<I a fourth to a cubic yard and a half, when dug.
A sIiil:!!' iond of sand or loam shnnld eontain 2*2 cubic feet; ■
double load, n cubic feet. When buying by the load, the aiie of
load .should always be speciAed.
MEMORANDA FOR BRICKLAYERS.
627
MEMORANDA FOR BRICKLATBRS.
QUANTITY OF BRICK-WORK IN BARREL-DRAINS AND
WELLS,
Including wastage in clipping around the curves.
Diameter In clear.
Thickness of brick-
work.
Sui)€rflclal feet of
brick-work
Number of
bricks required
for
in one linear yard.
one linear yard.
115
1 ft. 0 ins.
0 ft. 4i ins.
16 ft. 0 ins.
1 " 6 "
0 " 4i "
21 " 2 '*
148
2 ** 0 "
0 " 4i "
25 " 10 "
181
2 " 0 "
0 " 9 "
33 " 0 "
462
2 " 6 "
0 " 9 "
37 " 8 "
528
2 " 6 "
1 " 1 "
43 u 2 "
906
3 " 0 "
0 " 9 "
42 " 6 *^
594
3 " 0 "
1 " 1 "
47 " 10 "
1004
3 " 6 "
0 " 9 ''
47 " 1 "
659
3 " 6 "
1 " 1 "
52 " 7 "
1104
4 " 0 "
0 " 9 "
51 " 10 "
725
4 " 0 "
1 ** 1 "
57 " 3 "
1203
5 " 0 "
0 " 9 "
61 " 3 "
857
5 " 0 "
1 " 1 "
m '' 9 "
1402
6 " 0 "
1 " 1 "
76 " 1 "
1597
7 " 0 "
1 " 1 "
85 " 6 "
1795
Note. —
inches, and
smaller.
In the Eastern States, the thickness would be four inches, eight
twelve inches, instead of those given in the tabic, as the brick are
A load of mortar measures a cubic yard, or twenty-seven cubic
feet; requires a cubic yard of sand and nine bushels of lime, and
will fill thirty hods.
A bricklayer's hod, measuring 1 foot 4 inches by 9 inches by 9
inches, equals 1206 cubic inches in capacity, and contains twenty
bricks.
A singli^ load of sand and other materials equals a cubic yai*d, op
tu'cnty-S('\H'n cubic feet; and a double load equals twice that (luan-
tity.
A measure of lime is a single load, or cubic yard.
One thousand bricks closely stacked occupy about fifty-six cubic
feet.
One thousand old bricks, cleaned and loosely stacked, occupy
about seventy-two cubic feet.
One superficial foot of gauged arches requires ten bricks.
One superficial foot of facmgs requh'es seven bricks.
0-28
MKASL'REMENT OF BRICK WOKK.
Ono yard of paving requires thirty-six stock hricks laid flat, or
fifty-two on edge, and thirty-six pacimj bricks laid flat, or eighty-
two on edge.
'i'lic bricks of different makers vary in dimensions, and those of
the same maker vary also, owing to the different degrees of heat to
wliich they are subjected in burning. The memonmda given above
for brick-work are therefore only approximate. The following table
gives the usual dimensions of the bricks in various pails of the
country : —
Dencriptioii.
naltinnnc front
I'hiladclphia front,
Wilmington front •
Trenton front . .
Croton
I C'oliihaugh . . .
Inch?fl.
8^ X 4 X 2J
8i X :;g X ui
lH*Rcrii>lioii.
TiicheH.
Nf nine . . ,
Milwauki'C ,
\orth Kivcr
TriMiion .
Ordinary
7} X nil X 21
8j X 41 X i»5
_ 41 X i»ij
8 X :5| X 2\
8 X 4 X 2J
PI X 31 X 2]
/ K| X 4] X 2]
vi^.. \ .w.i.- S Viilt-ntiiM-'H ( WofKllnidKiS X.J.) . . . . 8J x 41 x oi i^^,
*^"^'-'^"*'' M>owning'H (Allt-nlown, I'onn.) » x 44 x -jj i««-
The weiirlit of the smaller sizecl bricks is about four |>oundH on
the average, and of the larger about six pounds.
Di-y bi'icks will absorb alx^ut one-tifteenth of their weight iu
water.
Moasiireitioiit of Hrickwork.
l>rickwt)rk is generally measure. 1 by the one thousiUid bricks,
biiil ill the wail, .ui:l siiMietimes by the cul)i(* foot. In estimating
by tlie one thousand, the e«»iiiraet<)r iigures t»n what the hrieks will
cost delivered at the site of tlie l>uildiiig. an<l adds to this the eost
of layiie,: in the wall, iiK'luliug the cost of the mortar.
The general custom in measuring the exleri<ir bri«*k walls of
buiMliiu'^ !>" to eompute the total nuudxT of brick in the wall, and
then the number of face or niitsish' bricU thai will Ih* re pi{n*d.
'I'ln' (litTiienee will be tin' nnndn«r of commtin bri«'k. The nut side
hr.ck i:<ii"r.»lly i-o^t mor:* than those used for the interior, have to
be e;illed. and the lalxii' in l.iviug co'-ts more.
In niea^iu'inu hrickwork. I' is cusrnm.iry titiieduet all oiN'MJhgA
tiiidniM-. ^^ in. lows, arch\\a\^. I'ii-. : Imii uni fur small lines, ends of
Joivt^. I M\<-« III' windnw iriuies. sill^. ur lintels, eie.. nn accdunl of
the \\a- .iu' «»f material in clippim: antund or lillin!; in siieh |iart8
nf (Ik- \\miK. and the increased amount of time reipiin*«l.
riier- are di lie rent methods uf computing the nniiiU'rof briek
in any '^ixen ijuaniily of work. Some ctmt factors will i*oinpiite
MEASUREMENT OP BRIOKWOKK.
629
the totor Dumber of cubic feet of brickwork in the building,. and
multiply by the number of brick contained in a cubic foot, allow-
ing for wastage, etc. This is probably as accurate a method eus
can be followed. The larger number of masons, however, compute
the superficial area of the walls, and multiply by the number of
brick in the wall to one square foot of surface; the number, of
course, depending upon the thickness of the wall.
In the Eastern States, the following scale will be a fair average: —
4-inch wall, or i-brick . . .
7i bricks
per
superficial foot.
8-inch " "1 -brick . . .
. 15 "
12-inch " " li-brick . . .
. 22i "
16-inch " ''2 -brick . . .
. 30 "
20-inch " " 2i-brick . . .
. 37J "
24-inch " " 3 -brick . . .
. 45 "
In the Middle and Western States, the bricks are larger, and
the following scale will be more correct for that section of the
country : —
7 bricks per superficial foot.
4i-inch wall.
or
^-brick
9
-!n3h
ii
u
1 -brick
13
-inch
n
((
H-brick
18
-inch
u
((
2 -brick
22
-inch
i^
n
2^brick
14
<(
ii
((
ii
21
ti
i(
n
a
28
i(
((
((
ii
35
a
«
ii
ii
And seven bricks additional for each half-brick added to thickness.
The following table shows the number of bricks in any given
wall, from 4 inches to 24 inches in thickness, and for from 1 to
1000 superficial feet.
6:^0 TABLE OK NUMBER OF BRICKS IN A WALL.
TABLE TO FIND NUMBER OF BRICKS IN A WAUL
Applicublti to KaHtern States; for Western Btates, reduce by oae-flfteenth.
Supor-
XUilBKH
OF BUICKM TO TUICKNK88 OF
fiuiiil
feot of
wall.
4 in.
Sin.
12 in.
23
16 in.
20 in.
24 in.
1
8
15
30
38
45
2
15
30
45
00
75
SK)
3
2:J
45
08
W
113
135 ;
4
30
(K)
<K)
120
150
180 1
5
3S
75
113
150
188
225
6
45
tH)
135
180
225
270
7
53
105
158
210
2i\i\
315
8
00
120
180
240
3(N)
800
0
08
135
203
270
;^J8
405
10
75
150
•225
300
375
450
20
150
300
450
(MM)
750
9(K»
:jo
225
450
(J75
iNH)
1125
i:i5U :
40
300
(M)0
<MH)
12(M)
1500
1800 '
r,()
375
750
1125
1500
1875
2250
00
450
)HM)
1350
1800
2250
2700
70
525
1050
1575
21(H)
2(i25
3150
so
(UH)
12()i)
18(H)
24(H)
3(HX)
8(X)0
<.K)
r»75
1350
2025
27(H)
:}:n5
4050
100
750
15(H)
2250
3(XH)
3750
45(N)
2(M)
15(K>
:'i<HH)
45(H)
(KKH)
75(M)
SH)0O
;i<M)
2250
45(H)
(J750
(.NHH)
11250
riVHi
400
;J(MH)
r)(HH)
1H)00
12(H)()
I5(HK)
ISOCK)
m)
3750
75(H)
11250
15(HH)
18750
22500
(;<M)
4500
0(HH)
1;J5<H)
IS(HH)
225(M)
27(NK) ;
7(H)
5250
105(H)
1 5751 )
21(HH)
20250
315«)0
SIM)
(MKM)
ll>(HH)
; 1S(HM)
24(MH)
:)(NNN)
;)tMN)0
iHH)
«;750
i;i5()!)
\ 20250
27(HH)
:J:J75()
40500
KNN)
75O0
15(HH)
: •J25(H)
:i(HHM)
375(K)
45000
20<H)
15000
:i(HHM)
; 45(HK)
000(H)
75(HM)
INNMN)
;iO(M)
225(H)
45(HH)
r)75(H)
iNHHM)
I125IN)
l:i5<HM) '
4<MH)
.S(NNM)
0(H»iH)
<HHHH)
12(HHH)
|5(NNN)
1S0(NN) ,
TtlMM)
;J75(M)
75(HH)
1125(H)
15(HHH)
1S7.">(M)
225(KN) 1
(>0(M)
45(M)0
<HHHH)
l:^5(HH)
1S(HHH)
225(HM)
27(MKM) ■
7(HH)
525(H)
lO-'^HH)
1575(H)
21(HKM)
2<;25IM)
315000
8(MMI
()(HHH)
12(HHH)
IStHHH)
24<HHM)
:UNNMN)
:UMMNio
iNXM)
(;75(H)
l:;.5(HH)
2()25(H)
27(HHH)
:'hJ75(H)
44C1OINI
KXHX)
75(HH)
15(HHK)
22.")(HH)
:i0(HHN)
;i75(M)0
45(NltN»
■
._ ._
_ _ . _
Ai'i'i.n ATioN OK Taiilk. — llow iMJiiiv bHi'lu wllI tliore be Id
\)XU\ sn|H'rtici:il fiM't of wall 10 inclirs tliick?
/1//.S"'/-. — In iHHH) sciiiart* frrt tlii-n* an' 27(H)00 lirioks.
Oi)
tk
1 •
• »
tk
24<N)0
••
40
»•
»»
it
<t
1200
ii
0
»»
i»
it
*l
ISO
u
111 -;(S40 s(|iiiin' fiTt llu>n> an* 2^15380 bricks.
BRICKS REQUIRED IN SETTING BOILERS.
631
TABLE OF NUMBER OF BRICKS REQUIRED IN THE
SETTING OF HORIZONTAL TUBULAR BOILERS.
F JRNISHEO BY MR. ARTHUR WALWORTH, ENGINEER OF THE WaLWORTH
Manufacturing Company, Boston.
The number of bricks are for double 8-inch side and rear walls, with air space
between. If one of the 8-inch side walls be omitted, deduct the number of
bricks in the last column.
Diameter of Boiler, 24 Inches.
Length of
Boiler.
Length of Grate.
Bricks
in outside
wall.
2 ft.
2 ft. 6 in.
3 ft.
3 ft. 6 in.
4 ft.
Feet.
Bricks.
Bricks.
Bricks.
Bricks.
Bricks.
6
2427
2407
2387
2367
2347
536
7
2728
2708
2688
2668
2648
610
8
3029
3009
2989
2969
2949
685
9
3330
3310
3290
3270
3250
760
10
3631
3611
3591
3571
3551
836
11
3932
3912
3892
3872
3852
910
Firebrick.
127
143
169
176
191
-
DiAMETEB OF BoiLEB, 30 INCHES.
Lengrth of
Boiler.
Length of Grate.
Bricks in
one out-
side wall.
%
2 ft. 6 in.
3 ft.
3 ft. 6 in.
4 ft.
4 ft. 6 in.
6 ft.
Feet.
Bricks.
Bricks.
Bricks.
Bricks.
Bricks.
Bricks.
6
3367
:i344
3321
3298
3275
3252
699
7
3755
3732
3709
3686
3663
3640
797
8
4143
4120
4097
4074
4051
4028
895
9
4531
4508
4485
4462
4439
4628
993
10
4919
4896
4873
4850
4827
4804
1091
11
5307
5284
5261
5238
6215
5192
1189
12
5695
5672
5649
5626
5603
5580
1287
13
6083
6060
6037
6014
6991
5968
1385
14
6471
6448
6425
6402
6379
63f6
1483
Firebrick.
178
197
216
236
264
273
—
Diameter of Boiler, 36 Inches.
Length of Grate.
RrickH ill
Length of
Boiler.
one out-
side wall.
2 ft. 6 in.
3 ft.
3 ft. 6 in.
4 ft.
4 ft. 6 in.
5 ft.
Feet.
Bricks.
Bricks.
Bricks.
Bricks.
Bricks.
Bricks.
8
42^)6
4270
4244
4218.
4192
4166
905
9
4691
4665
4639
4613
4587
4561
1005
10
5086
5060
5034
5008
4982
4956
1105
11
5481
5455
6429
5403
5337
5151
1205
12
5876
5850
5824
5798
5772
5746
1306
13
6271
6245
6219
6193
6167
6141
1405
14
6666
6640
6614
6588
6562
6536
1505
15
7061
7035
7009
0983
6957
0931
1606
16
7456
7430
7404
7378
7352
7326
1705
Firebrick.
220
241
262
283
304
326
—
082
BRICKS llEQUIRED IN SKTTING BOILERS
Tahle of liiucKs jiKQiJiKKi) IX Skttix(j I^>ilei{s {ConcludpH).
DiAMETEJi or HolLKIt, 42 IXCIIES.
Length of
IM
11
1-2
l:i
14
ir.
l»'.
17
Kirelirii'k.
Lkn(jth of <}uate.
3 ft. fil ft «'i ill.
liricks. ' Bricks.
4 ft. 4 ft. «i in. .-.ft. 1;-. fi.r. in
lUiokH ill
one- «>ut-
•;-jit)
(■i( •,,•).■)
TO'.U
7".:;:!
7<.»72
sill
ss,-,()
'J7T
:.7H»
r.iss
7o<jr)
7.'.o,')
7itU
6V>o
lirickrt.
:.721
i»ir>>
li.V.t'.l
7»i:is
7477
7iH»)
s:i:)5
Bricks.
r»»i«>:;
r,i:j2
«).')7I
70H>
74 lU
7S.SS
s:j-27
S7»»t»
840
l»ricks.
(.104
<i:.4:j
••.1>S4
74-Jl
7H«'.()
s7:;.s
Brickn.
•K»7»i
»i,')ir)
('i«i.'i4
7:in:i
7s:j-2
S'J71
K711I
SlrJ
I
l-i27
l:i;i7
1447
1.V.7
Hi«'.7
1777
1SS7
Iini7
DiAMKTEii OF I»on.i:i{, 4S Inches.
1
r.oilci-
<)]
LKNOTII of (r It ate.
.". ft. C. in. J ft. 4 ft. •'! in. ;'. ft. .') ft. »'• in. •". fl.
1>ricki« ill
4inf out-
i>iilr wall.
Feet.
1 BrickH.
Ilrickn.
I>iicki«.
r»rickH.
1
Bricks.
I'.rii-kx.i
I't
»-.7Jl
r.ii'.fi)
»'i!;.v.»
r.<;iN
im'»7
r,.->«ij'. .
i:mw
1)
7 J. 12
7171
714i»
71(Kt
7«»7^
7tM7
14^7
VI
7»>s',
7»;.vj
7HJ1
! 7.VMI
7.'».V.»
7.VJ.S
I I'll IS
i:;
*^l••.l
si:i;;
MOJ
S071
so in
KiHni
17--.t
14
s»ur.
si-.u
h.'is;;
k:.;VJ
S.VJ1
MIH) -
1V'.II
l".
«MJ»">
'.»■''.»■>
'."ii'ii
•hi::;;
•lOO'J
SH71
l'.»:i
!•■.
•"V(>7
•i.'.7f»
«.».'. I.-.
<»:.14
'.u^:;
«.» i.vj ■
■jimj
17
m iss
Hh)-.7
iMDvir,
•I'.tn:.
<.i«N;t
W.\'2 '
•J-Ji:;
1^
lu:ii;.»
In:,:;^
in;.ii7
lolTi".
low.
ion4
•2:'n;4
iicli;ii-k.
/;/;/
.V>.7
4"!f
/.V.7 :
—
Dl.XMKTEK OF I >OlI,i:K, .') 1 In<-1IF..<4.
I.rriL'tli I'f
LkMiTII of <iltATK.
4 fl. 4 fl. r> in. .'> ft. ;> ft. i'l ill. j t> ft.
Bii(-k*> ill
oni> out-
Mill* wall.
F.-.t.
['.rick..
Bricks.
Brick-^.
Brick h.
1 '.ricks.
I'l
••.I'i'i
1 »• !•!
7'Jiio
71f.7
7l:;i
7101
14.Vi
II
77 If.
771::
7""f* 1
T«;i7
7r.l 1
I.-.s.'.
1 ' '
sj ,■ 1
sjj.i
•^l..::
S1.-.II
^l-'7
171. '.
1 ■ '•
s"-J
^7:'.'.«
KT'i 1
si;7',
M',10
is4;i
U
'.•_■''.■»
'.•■J-.'-'
•••Jl'.l
Hi Mi
'.il.i:s
m:.-.
1 >
'.i7'i«%
'.•7«-'.
'.•::•.■:
<«•■ l<i
«iijr.''i
'Ji(t.-i
1 ' 1
I'lill
1"-J7^
ItiJF.
lOJIJ
1017.1
iS'Ni
1 1
l"^■J4
li':-..1
iM7:.s
1o7j:.
10IV.IJ
■j:»-i.'i
I "^
n:;-.7
n:-.iii
11 -'71
irj:>
1 1-.1I.1
■.UIM
■'in 1' ii-J..
.vr/
JttI
4'JS
7.7.1
■is:*
^
DRAIN-PIPE. 633
Measurement of Stone Work.
Stone walls are generally measured by the perch, which is 16
feet 6 inches long, 18 inches thick, and 12 inches high, and con-
tains 24f cubic feet. It is generally reckoned, however, as 25 cubic
feet. In some localities, 22 cubic feet, or 10 feet 0 inches long X
16 inches wide X 12 inches high, is called a perch, when measured
in the wall. Occasionally stone work is measured by the cubic
yard of 27 cubic feet.
Net measurement is that where all openings through the walls
are deducted, and 24^ cubic feet allowed to one i^erch. Gross
measurement is that where no openings under one perch are
deducted, and 25 cubic feet allowed to one perch. When openings
are deducted, it is generally agreed to allow a compensation for
plumbing and squaring the jam])s, and for sills and lintels.
Stone walls less than 16 inches thick are reckoned as if 16 inches
thick by masons, and over 16 inches thick each additional inch is
counted. Rubble walls are sometimes measured by the cord of 128
cubic feet. Footing courses are always measured extra.
Face work of a superior kind of rubble masonry is measured
separately and described.
Quoin stones of selected stones are allowed as block stone, and
other dressings in a similar manner.
IVdllim/ of block stone is charged at per cubic foot, according to
description, similar to ashlar prepared and set, including all beds
and joints; but the face is charged extra per foot superficial,
according to the way in which it may be dressed.
Granite, freestone, limestone, etc., used for trimming, is gener-
ally sold in rough blocks by tlie cubic foot. Ashlar, platforms, etc.,
are generally measured by thc^ square foot; belt courses, strings,
etc., by the lineal foot; the price dej^ending upon the number of
mouMinccs. etc. Marbh^, bluestone, and slate are sold by the
•quare foot, the price varying according to the thickness.
DRAIN-PIPE.
There are three kinds of drain-pipe offered in the market; viz.,
"Salt Glazed Vitrified Clay-Pipe," "Slip(ilazed Clay-Pipe," and
" Cement Pipe." The name of the latter sutticiently indicates
what it is without any description.
The "SHp Glazed Clay-Pipe " is made of what is known as "fire"
(such as fire-brick) clay, which retains its porosity when subjected
to the most intense heat. It is glazed with another kind of clay,
known as " slip," which, when subjected to heat, melts, creating a
C84 DRAIN-PIPE.
very thin glazing, which, being a foreign aubstcmce to the body of
the }>i]>(', is liable to wear or scale oif.
" Salt Glaz(Ml Clay-Pipe " is made of a clay, which, when subjected
to an intense heat, becomes vitTeous or glass-like; and is* glazeil
by the va]K)rs of salt, the salt being thrown in the fire, thereby
creating a va])()r whicli unites ehemically with the clay, and foniis
a ghizini^, which will not scale or wear oif, and is impervious to
the action of acids, gases, steam, or any other known substance.
It unites with the clay in such a manner as to form part of the
h<Hhi of thv jtipe, and is therefore indestioictible.
Salt-glazed pipe can only bi\ made from clay that will vftrify,
that is, when subject (h1 to an intense heat will come to a hani,
conii)act body, not i>orous. And it should be borne in mind that
"slip glazing'' is only resorted to when the clays are of such a
nature that they will not vitrify.
The iiKUcridlof dndn-jiipes should be a hard, vitreous substance;
not i)()i()us. since this would lead to the absorption of the impun*
contents of the drain, would have less actual strength to resist
pressure, would be more affected by the frost, or by the forma-
tion of crystals in connection with certain chemical combinations,
or woulil be more susceptible to the chemical action of the con-
stituents of the s(nv(?rage.
*' Much experience with cement sewer-piiK^s seems to demonstrate
that th<\v are not sulHciently uniform in quality, nor sufiiciently
strong and durable, to be used with confidence in any important
work, whet luT public or private. Sewer-pipeH should he ttalt ylazcdj
as this nM|uires them to be subje.(^ted to a nuich more intense heat
than is nei-ded for *slip' glazing, and thus seciires a harder mate-
rial.
The standard salt glazed sewer and drain pipe manufactured by
the Akron Sewer Pipe (.'om[)any of Akron, O., has been found
to answer all re(iuirements, and is one of the iH'St drain-pipes to be
found in the niarkt»t.
77/' jnllnii'in'j tahU' gives the capacity of the diflFerent slzt»s of
draiii-]»i]M' tor ditferent inclinations. Data for compnthig the
ainonnf ot rain-water to be i)rovided for over any prescribed area
is aNo ijivcn.
DRAIN-PIPR.
635
CAPACITY OF PIPE
1
<•
Gallons per Minute.
k. •
^ _i
u •
k :
^ \
b •
%, •
b ;
SiZB OF
U
^1
H
.^1
2LI
PlPK.
^-S
I'S
SI
^-s
^•s
S'S
S"?
•s-s
•«'2
45 "O
f>-S
•g-s
c =
o a
« S
V a
s —
c s
I§
^i
•- 3
S 3
C 3
C 3
•S 3
^ 3
'^A
•^JS
— ja
--ja
(N.a
00 A
ja
.a
i-<
cc
o
o>
r^
1-1
(M
eo
3 inch.
21
30
42
52
60
74
85
lot
4 "
36
52
76
92
108
132
148
184
6 "
84
120
169
206
240
294
338
414
9 "
232
330
470
570
660
810
930
1140
12 "
470
680
960
1160
1360
1670
1920
2350
16 "
830
1180
1680
2040
2370
2920
3340
4100
18 "
1300
1850
2630
3200
3740
4600
5270
6470
20 "
1760
2450
3450
4180
4860
5980
6850
8410
The maximum rainfall, as shown hy statistics, is about an inch
per hour (except during very heavy stonns), equal to 22,033 gallons
per hour for each acre, or 377 gallons per minute per acre.
Owing to various obstructions, not more than fifty to seventy-five
per cent of the minfall will reach the drain within the same hour,
and allowance should be made for this fact in determining size
of pipe required.
636
TABLE OF BOARD MKAvSURR.
TABLE OF BOARD MEASURE.
ExiM.AN ATioN. — The length of the board is given, in feet, in the
lef'-iijind cohinin; tlie width is given, in inches, in the upper row
of figiinvs; and the contents are given nnder the width, and opposite
tht; lengtli. Tims, the contents of a l)oard 18 feet long and 7 inches
wide will he found under 7, and opposite 13, and is 7 feet 7 inches.
Width, in
' Inches.
6
7
ft. in.
8
ft.
in.
9
ft.
in.
10
11
ft. in.
12
feet.
18
14
ft.
in.
ft.
in.
ft. 1
u.
fl. in.
1
0
()
0 7
0
8
0
0
0
10
0 11
1
1
1
1 2
2
1
0
1 2
1
4
1
()
1
8
1 10
2
2
2
i 2 4
3
1
(i
1 1)
2
0
2
3
2
0
2 1)
3
3
3
3 G
4
o
sd
0
2 4
2
y
3
0; 3
4
3 S
4
4
4
4 S
5
t»
2 11
3
4
3
o! 4
2
4 7
5
5
5 10
()
0
3 ()
4
0
4
(> r,
0
5 (5
6
6
6
7 0
<
•>
(>
4 1
4
8
5
3 5
10
() 5
7
7
7
8 2
S
4
0
4 S
5
4
(>
Ol 0
Si
7 4
8
8
8
9 4
\)
4
0
;■) 3
0
0
. ()
0
i
6
8 ;{
D
i)
9
10 6
10
5
0
5 10
()
S
<
(>
8
4
0 2
10
10
10
11 8
11
5
()
(J 5
7
4
S
3
0
2
10 1
11
11
n
12 10
12
()
0
7 0
s
0
0
0
10
0
11 0
12
13
0
14 0
i:;
(>
<;
4 <
s
s
0
0
10
10
11 11
13
14
1
15 2
11
1
0
S 2
0
-1
10
<'> 11
s
12 10
14
15
2
KS 4
i:>
7
()
S \)
10
0
11
3l 12
0
13 0
15
k;
3
17 «
ir,
s
0
0 4
10
s
12
0! 13
4
14 8
16
17
4
18 8
IT
s
(')
J) 11
11
4
12
0
14
2
15 7
17
IS
•"»
lt» 10
IS
4)
0
10 0
12
0
13
0 15
0
H» 0
IS
10
<*.
21 0 :
111
1>
fl
11 1
12
s
14
:; IT)
10
17 5
10
20
4
22 2
20
H)
0
11 S
13
4
ir.
o; h;
s
IS 4
20
21
8
23 4
21
10
0
12 3
14
0
i:>
0' 17
(>
10 3
21
1»
24 (t
')'»
11
0
12 10
14
s
Hi
0 IS
4
20 2
•j»>
2:J
10
25 S
2;'
11
r,
i;; :>
IT)
1
17
3: 10
2
21 1
23
24
11
2«i 10
21
12
0
11 0
10
0
IS
0 2()
0
22 0
24
2(»
0
2S 0
2.".
12
(')
11 7
h'.
s
IS
0 20
H»
22 11
25
27
1
21» 2
2t "•
i:;
n
1.") 2
17
4
10
r. 21
s
23 H>
20
2S
2
3(» 4
27
i:;
«;
1.") n
IS
0
•_o
:i 22
(>
24 0
27
2U
3
4
31 0 .
2^
\\
0
Hi 4
IS
s
21
0 2;»
4
25 S
2S
:M)
32 8
2'.»
1 1
(')
10 11
10
4
21
\y 24
2
26 7
2t»
31
:» 10 i
:;n
1.')
1)
17 W
20
(»
22
<; 25
0
27 <'•
:U)
32
6
:tt 0 =
:;i
ir>
«;
IS I
20
s
23
• »
• >
25
10
28 r>
31
3.'}
7
36 2
tabu: op boahu measure.
Tablk of UoAiiD Measure [Contiiiueil).
I 29 !W 3 :J8 ;
31 38 IM 41 ■
684
^i
^vlLlNUS UEDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE.
Seantliti$^s reduced to Board Measure.
KxiM.A NATION OF Taulk. — At tlu* loft-liJiml of tho, page will I>o
found ihr hn.Ktli of rjicli scant ling, in f(M't. At the hoiul of each
of tin; ri'jnuininj; cohinins will \w. found the size^s, heinijj the width
and thickness, in inches ; and opi)osite the giveu length of each
will be found the contents of each scantling.
^** *^
■
1
1
1
1
• 2
2
X 2
2 >
3
2 X
4
2x6
2 X «
: 2 X 7
2*
N
iiic
hL•^.
inc
hen.
incl
U'l».
inc)
ir»*.
inchcH.
inc'lu'H.
iuclu'i*.
! iiiche*. !
ft.
in.
ft.
in.
ft.
in.
ft.
in.
ft.
in.
feet.
_
ft.
iii.
■ ft.
In.
2
U
4
, 0
S
1
0
1
4
1
S
2
2
4
: 2
8
3
fi
1
0
1
i\
2
0
2
(S
3
I
6
4
0 ;
4
^
1
4
2
0
2
8
3
4
4
4
8
5
4
0
in
1
8
2
()
8
4
4
2
T)
5
10
0
8
()
1
n
2
0
.'}
0
4
0
5
0
0
7
0
8
0
7
o
2
4
:J
()
4
H
i>
10
7
8
2
9
4
S
4
2
s
4
0
4
0
8
8
9
4
10
8
u
r
•>
• »
0
4
(>
(5
0
<{
0
10
((
12
0
10
s
;{
4
5
0
()
s
8
4
10
11
8
13
4
11
10
•»
•>
s
0
i\
7
4
{)
2
11
12
10
14
8
\'l
n
4
0
(J
0
S
0
10
0
12
14
0
10
0
\'.\
•/
4
4
<i
(>
s
s
10
10
l:l
1")
2
17
4
11
1 "J
4
4
8
0
<•>
4
11
8
14
Kt
4
18
8 1
\:>
»'
.')
n
7
<J
10
0
12
(i
15
17
i\
20
0
u\
,s
.')
4
s
0
10
s
v.\
4
HI
18
8
21
4
17
K'
.')
s
s
<;
11
4
14
•>
17
19
10
22
8
IS
n
<'>
0
1)
0 ;
12
0
li")
0
18
21
0
24
0
l'>
•)
()
4
1)
r»
12
s
1.")
10
P.)
22
2
25
4
: '»
}
♦)
s
10
0
i:;
4
Hi
8
20
23
4
20
8
•Jl
»'.
7
0
10
<;
14
0
17
0
21
24
(t
2S
0
•>■<
..
1
1
11
0
14
s
IS
4
22
2")
8
2!»
4
•J :
1"
1
s
11
(»
I.")
4
il»
2
2.-!
2r»
10
:hi
8 .
L'l
ii
s
n
12
0
Mi
0
:iO
0
24
2S
0
32
0 1
•J".
■/
s
\
12
Ci
Hi
s
20
10
2:»
2J»
2
IX\
4
•J.;
■1
s
s
i:;
0
17
1
21
S
2fi
:ui
4
:u
8
- 1
»;
•.♦
0
i:J
Ci
IS
0
22
<;
27
:n
(t
.30
0 1
•J'N
s
•J
4
14
0
IS
s
2.1
4
28
32
8
.TT
4 i
"_". »
l<)
U
s
14
i;
\\)
1
24
2
21 ►
:U
10 i
:W
»
.In
1)
in
0
i:.
0
2t»
0
2."i
0
VA\ >
:r»
0
40
0
;:i
•1
in
4
i:>
r>
20
s
2.')
10
:il
:M(
2
41
4
•'■1
t
in
s
m
n
1
21
4
i
2ti
s
:!2 1
37
4
42
S
1
SCANTLINGS REDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE. 639
Scantlings Reduced, etc. {Continued),
J=J
1
2X9
2 X 10
2x
11
2ix5
2| X6
24 X 7
Six 8
24 X i>
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
ft. in.
ft. in.
ft.
iu.
ft.
in.
ft. in.
ft.
in.
ft. in.
ft. in.
2
3 0
3 4
3
8
2
1
2 0
2
11
3 4
3 9
3
4 6
5 0
O
6
3
2
3 9
4
0
5 0
5 8
4
6 0
6 8
7
4
4
2
5 0
5
10
6 8
7 6
5
7 6
8 4
9
2
5
3
6 3
7
4
8 4
9 5
()
9 0
10 0
11
0
6
3
7 6
8
9
10 0
11 3
7
10 6
11 8
12
10
7
4
8 9
10
,3
11 8
13 2
8
12 0
13 4
14
8
8
4
10 0
11
8
13 4
15 0
9
13 6
15 0
16
6
9
5
11 3
13
2
15 0
1(\ 11
10
15 0
16 8
18
4
10
5
12 6
14
7
16 8
18 9
11
16 6
18 4
20
2
11
6
13 9
16
1
18 4
20 8
12
18 0
20 0
22
0
12
6
15 0
17
6
20 0
22 6
13
19 6
21 8
23
10
13
7
16 3
19
0
21 8
24 5
14
21 0
23 4
25
8
14
7
17 6
20
5
2:5 4
26 3
15
22 6
25 0
27
6
15
8
18 9
21
11
25 0
28 2
16
24 0
26 8
29
4
16
8
20 0
23
4
26 8
30 0
17
25 6
28 4
31
2
17
9
21 3
24
10
28 4
31 11
18
27 0
30 0
33
0
18
9
22 6
26
3
30 0
3;5 9
19
28 6
31 8
34
10
19
10
23 9
27
9
31 8
35 8
20
30 0
33 4
36
8
20
10
25 0
29
2
33 4
37 6
21
31 6
35 0
38
6
21
11
26 3
30
8
35 0
39 5
22
;« 0
36 8
40
4
22
11
27 6
32
1
3(J 8
41 3
23
34 6
38 4
42
2
24
0
28 9
33
7
;38 4
43 2
24
36 0
40 0
44
0
25
0
30 0
35
0
40 0
45 0
25
37 6
41 8
45
10
2(5
1
31 3
36
6
41 8
46 11
26
39 0
43 4
47
8
27
1
32 6
37 11
4;^ 4
48 9
27
40 6
45 0
49
6
28
2
33 9
39
5
45 0
50 8
28
42 0
4(5 8
51
4
29
2
35 0
40 10
4(J 8
52 6
29
4.3 ()
48 4
o3
2
30
3
3() 3
42
4
4H 4
54 5
30
45 0
50 0
55
0
31
3
37 6
43
9
50 0
56 3
31
4C) (5
51 8
56
10
32
4
38 9
45
2
51 8
58 2
32
-a •
•■r. ^
48 0
•2\ X 10
53 4
58
8
:^3
4
41 0
46
7
53 4
60 1
2i X 11
2i X
12
8>
8
8x4
3 X
6
8x6
8x7
O f-
inclioK.
ft. in.
inches.
inches,
ft. in.
inches.
inchcH.
feet.
inches.
inches,
ft. in.
inches.
ft. in.
ft.
in.
ft.
in.
ft. in.
4 2
4 7
5
0
1
6
2
2
(5
3 0
3 (J
3
6 3
0 11
7
({
2
3
3
3
9
4 6
5 3
4
8 4
9 2
10
0
3
0
4
5
0
6 0
7 0
5
•10 5
11 6
12
6
3
9
5
()
7 6
8 9
6
12 6
13 9
15
0
4
6
0
7
6
9 0
10 6
7
14 7
16 1
i ^"7
()
5
3
7
8
9
10 6
12 3
8
16 8
18 4
' 20
0
6
0
8
10
0
12 0
14 0
9
18 9
20 8
; 22
6
6
9
9
11
3
13 6
15 9
ij\() lSCA\TLlN(iS IIKDUCKD TO BOARD MKASURE.
S(*ANTLiN(Js Ukdi'cki), ETC. {Conftuiird).
tt 1,
1(1
11
1-J
i -J.)
r '){ I
0/ - i;ic
Ill's, iiifht"*. ■ iiichi't*. inclic'H.
ft.
•J )
•J7
111.
ID
11
(I
1
1 1 21 > *J
\:>
\i\
IT
IS
li>
20
21
41
4:',
4:>
47
24 .".< )
.■)2
:)4
."jS
• '.2
s
«.)
10
11
0
1
"/
■ I
• »
4
.")
(i
7
s
ft. ill.
22 11
2:) ;5
27 0
20 10
;)2 1
:]\
•>
;I4
4
:v.\
4
:J0
M
:\:>
T)
;J0
0
(>
41
0
4:», 7
45 10
4.S 2
50
52
55
57
50
(U
01
(>(>
OS
71
— •>
0
0
4
7
11
0
0
1
5
ft.
25
27
:J2
;J5
:J7
40
42
45
1 47
■ 50
52
55
57
00
&2
05
in
70
72
75
fmpm
I i
SO
111.
0
()
:io 0
() I
0
(>
0 I
ft. Ill
7 f)
s ;]
0 0
<) 1)
10 ()
11 :}
12 0
(> i 12 \)
0 1:', 0
0 14 ;J
15 0
15 <)
Hi 0
17 :J
18 0
IS t)
li) (>
20
21
21
0
()
0
r>
0
<;
0
(*>
0
<)
0
0
0 i 24 0
•>
•I
0
0
(;
•>
•>
3x4
inches.
fei-t.
10
11
12
i;j
14
15
l(i
17
IS
19
20
21
22
2:1
24
25
20
27
2S
21)
M)
in
;j2
3 y f>
ilK'lU'H.
■ ft. in.
I
I 3 X 0
' inchcH,
12
15
ir>
17
IS
21
22
2"]
25
20
27
2S
;u)
.•J7
:5S
3x7
inchoit.
('>
i)
0
•>
()
<)
•>
it
0
ft
(i
t>
0
• >1
•1
0
•10
i)
:)5
0
:u\
•I
(i
0
ft. in.
15 0
!0 <;
IS 0
10 <>
21 0
2*: i\
20 0 24 0
! 40 0
25 f)
27 0
2S (i
:io 0
:\\ (>
:i:) 0
:U 0
:^'> 0
:J7 r>
;K) 0
40 (>
42 0
45 0
4n 0
4S 0
ft. in.'
17 ti
lt» :] :
21 0 !
22 l»
24 <J ■
; 20 :\
; 2s <►
; 21) i)
I 'M (*> ,
I •>•> ti 1
i •)•• •! ■
;J5 0 i
: :m\ w
: :'>s 0
40 :J
: 42 0
. 4:5 1)
! 45 (S
47 3
4!) 0
no 1)
52 tJ
I J
I r.
.>4 :]
I 50 0
■^^^ ;J s 3 X u 3-1(1 3 Ml 3-12 4 " 4 I 4 X 7 4^6
V - iii- III-. ]ii(-li«-<. iiii-|ii-s. iii('lii»«. itirlu*H. inclitt*. ini'hit>. ini'lit*!*.
•*
• I
• I
4
.1
1;
I
s
<.»
IN
II
IJ
I ■ "
1 • I
I 1
15
I 'I
IT
I
0
s
10
12
I i
I'l
\<
:'»
• •»
"\
:.'• ;
:'.i)
;'■'
::)
ft. ill
4 0
«; 0
0 o
11
i:;
15
IS
20
27
• >
0
0
n
■ »
■ >
1;
o
It.
5
7
10
12
15
17
20
22
25
27
:!'.»
■ ■
•»
.12
::i
0
■ )■»
• »■ •
•.»
■ 1^
0 1
::('i
0
40
;;s
• •
• »
12
In.
0
0
O
0
0
0
o
(')
o
ti
o
I'.
o
0
ft. In.
5 0
s :)
11 0
1:5 t)
Hi 0
11)
22
lM
27
:;o
•I.I
. I"
•>
•I
0
n
i\
• I
• I
o
0
;:s 0
41 ::
o 44 o
r. ir. 0
fot't.
li
I)
12
15
is
21
21
27
:!o
•I'l
••••
12
45
4s
51
ft. III.
2 S
4 0
5 4
0 S
S 0
fl.
o
• »
4
s
0
4
S
n
4
IS s
20 n ■
1)
10
12
1::
11
It*.
17
21
4
S
111.
4
5 0
ti s
s 4
10 0
11 s
1:; 4
15 0
10 S
IS 4
20 (I
21 S
2:; 4
25 0
2li S
:>s 4
ftfi .
4
ti
s
10
12
14
11;
IS
20
22
24
•Jti
2S
:U)
:V2
:m
SCANTLINGS REDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE. 641
Scantlings Reduced, etc. (Continued),
J=-
8x8
8x
9
8x
10
3x 11
8 X 12
4x4
4x5
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
feet.
ft.
in.
ft.
in.
ft. in.
feet.
ft. in.
ft. in.
18
m
40
6
45
0
49 ()
54
24 0
30 0
19
38
42
9
47
6
52 3
57
25 4
31 8
20
40
45
0
50
0
55 0
60
26 8
33 4
21
42
47
3
52
6
57 9
63
28 0
35 0
22
44
49
6
55
0
60 6
66
29 4
36 8
23
46
51
9
57
6
63 3
69
30 8
38 4
24
48
54
0
60
0
6{j 0
72
32 0
40 0
25
50
56
3
62
6
68' 9
75
33 4
41 8
26
52
58
6
65
0
71 6
78
34 8
43 4
27
54
60
9
67
6
74 3
81
36 0
45 0
28
56
63
0
70
0
77 0
84
37 4
46 8
29
58
()-■)
3
72
6
79 9
87
38 8
48 4
30
60
67
6
75
0
82 6
90
40 0
50 0
31
62
69
9
77
6
85 3
93
41 4
51 8
32
64
72
0
80
0
88 0
96
42 8
53 4
4x6
Inches.
feet.
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
43 «:
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
4x7
inches.
ft. in.
4 8
7 0
9 4
11 8
14 0
16
18
4
8
21 0
23
25
4
8
4x8
inches.
28 0
30 4
32 8
35 0
37 4
30 8
42 0
44 4
4() S
49 0
51 4
53 8
56 0
58 4
60 8
ft. in.
5 4
8 0
10 8
13 4
16 0
18 8
21 4
24 0
26 8
29 4
32 0
34 8
37 4
40 0
42 8
45 4
48 0
50 S
53 4
56 0
58 8
61 4
(54 0
m 8
69 4
4x9
4 X
10
4 X 11
4 X 12
5x5
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
feet.
ft.
in.
ft. in.
feet.
ft. in.
6
6
8
7 4
8
4 2
9
10
0
11 0
12
6 3
12
13
4
14 8
16
8 4
15
16
8
18 4
20
10 5
18
20
0
22 0
24
12 6
21
23
4
25 8
28
14 7
24
26
8
29 4
32
16 8
27
30
0
33 0
36
18 9
30
33
4
36 8
40
20 10
33
36
8
40 4
44
22 11
36
40
0
44 0
48
25 0
39
43
4
47 8
52
27 1
42
40
8
51 4
56
29 2
45
50
0
55 0
60
31 3
48
53
4
58 8
64
33 4
51
56
8
62 4
68
35 5
54
(50
0
66 0
72
37 6
57
t)3
4
69 8
76
39 7
()0
6(»
8
73 4
80
41 8
63
70
0
77 0
84
43 9
6(J
73
4
80 8
88
45 10
69
7(i
8
84 4
92
47 11
72
80
0
88 0
96
50 0
75
83
4
91 8
100
52 1
78
86
8
95 4
104
54 2
5x6
inches.
ft. in.
5 0
7 6
10 0
12 6
15 0
17 6
20 0
22 6
25 0
27 6
30 0
32 ()
35 0
37 6
40 0
42 6
45 0
47 6
50 0
52 6
ih)
57
60 0
62 6
65 0
0
6
042 SCANTLINGS IIP^DUCEJ) TO BOARD MEASURE.
ScANTLiN(}S Reduced, etc. {Continued).
!«-^
1 ^^
4 X
7
4x8
4x9
4x 10
4 X 11
4 X 12
6x6
6 X
e
» _
iiK'hefl.
inchen.
inchcH.
inchoH.
inchuH.
inchcH.
iiichcH.
iuchen.
1
ft.
in.
ft. in.
ftH!t. ft. in.
ft. in.
feet.
ft. in.
ft.
in. .
L>7
iVA
0
72 0
81 S){) 0
00 0
108
5<5 :]
07
0 1
2S
4
74 S
84 1):J 4
102 8
112
58 4
7()
0
1 21)
<—
'n
S
77 4
87 m 8
m\ 4
11(>
00 5
72
0
;;()
70
0
SO 0
JK)
100 0
110 0
120
(W (\
75
0
1 :}i
72
4
S2 S
\K\
mi 4
11;} 8
124
iU 7
77
0
;;2
74
S
ST) 4
m i KM} 8
110 4
1
128
(50 8
tiO
u 1
j= »:
1
'
5 X
m
t
5 X S
6x9 5 X 10
0x0
0 X 7
0 X H
7 X
7
! o -
itu-t
ft.
low.
in.
inchcH.
ft. in.
inchoH. 1 inclu'ri.
. _
1
ft. in. .' ft. in.
inches,
fct't.
inchets.
iuchiw.
fwt.
iiieli
ft.
e».
ft. in.
In.
2
")
10
() 8
7 (J ! 8 4
0
7 0
8
8
0
•>
•>
S
1>
10 0
11 :r 12 0
9
10 0
12
12
3
4
11
8
i;{ 4
15 0 * U\ 8
12
14 0
10
10
4
i)
14
^
<
11) 8
18 <) 1 20 10
15
17 0
20
20
5
V)
17
<;
20 0
22 (•) ; 2.'> 0
IS
21 0
1 24
24
0
1
20
5
2:i 4
2<) ;5 2i> 2
21
24 (J
' 28
28
7
' S
2;l
4
2<; 8
:{0 0 :« 4
24
28 0
;{2
:W
S
. \)
2<5
• »
• >
:;o 0
:]:\ 0 ;}T 0
27
:n 0
:m;
;i«i
0
10
'»)
•>
• )•> 4
:J7 (•> 41 8
:\0
:r> 0
40
40 10
11
;;2
1
;;(•» 8
41 :J 45 10
;w
:]>< i\
44
44
11 .
: 12
;;:>
0
40 »)
45 0 50 0
;j(i
42 0
48
40
0
i;;
11
4:J 4
48 I) , 54 2
;jo
45 0
52
5;J
1
. M
10
10
4«) s
52 0 58 4
42
40 0
5(}
57
2
i:i
4:;
0
oO 0
5<) :\ • 02 0
45
52 0
00
HI
•»
Mi
■n;
s
:>:J 4
(M) 0 i m 8
48
50 0
iU
(«
4 ;
' 17
ii»
7
.v; 8
(»:i \) ' 70 10
51
50 0
TkS
01»
r, :
: is
.">2
«;
(>(>. 0
(57 () 75 0
54
iu\ 0
72
t* 1
ll»
Ti.j
.">
• kJ 4
71 :J ! 70 2
57
r>0 (i
TtJ
1 f
7
! 2i)
r)S
1
«»0 8
75 0 8:1 4
{]()
70 0
m)
81
8
' 21
(U
• 1
> 1
70 0
78 0 8" <)
('u\
".1 jt
8-1
85
'■» 1
' 22
«;4
•*
i:\ 4
82 «; 01 8
VA>
77 0
88
SO
10
i ^
<'.7
1
7C) 8
8<i ;l 05 10
00
80 0
02
o:i
11
21
70
. o
8t) 0
iN) 0 1(N) 0
72
St 0
m ,
s»s
0
2.')
72
11
s:; 4
\\:) 0 104 2
75
87 r.
KM)
102
1
2<".
7')
lo
S<1 s
07 0 U\f< 4
78 ■
01 0
H»4
lINi
0
27
7s
',»
•.Ml 0
101 :; 112 0
81 !
o-i <;
los
110
•t
• 1
•_>s
SI
s
•»:; 4
la". 0 no 8
S4 .
IN 0
112
IM
4
2H
SI
i
'.•li s
los !» iL'o 10
87 ■
101 0
110
ns
5
:;(!
i>
1(H) 0
1 12 1; 125 0
•M)
|(»5 0
120
122
(t
.■:i
'.K)
'}
Kw; 4
ii«; ;; 120 2
o:j ■
108 0
124
12(1
7 !
1 •'-
'.»:;
\
km; s
120 0
!:;:{ 4 ,
1
JHJ
112 0
128
IJO
S
1
SCANTI^INGS REDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE. 643
Scantlings Reduced,
, ETC. (Continued),
7x8
7x9
8x8
8x9
8x10
9x9
9x10
9x 11
1— 1 ■"
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
inches.
ft. in.
ft. in.
ft. in.
feet.
ft. in.
feet.
ft. in.
ft. in.
2
9 4
10 6
10 8
12
13 4
13 6
10 0
16 6
8
14 0
15 9
16 0
18
20 0
20 3
22 6
24 9
4
18 8
21 0
21 4
24
26 8
27 0
80 0
38 0
5
28 4
26 3
26 8
30
33 4
38 9
37 6
41 8
0
28 0
31 6
82 0
36
40 0
40 6
45 0
49 6
7
82 8
86 9
37 4
42
46 8
47 8
5-2 6
57 9
8
37 4
42 0
42 8
48^
53 4
54 0
60 0
66 0
9
42 0
47 3
48 0
54
60 0
60 9
67 6
74 8
10
46 8
52 6
53 4
60
66 8
67 (>
75 0
82 6
11
51 4
57 9
58 8
66
73 4
74 3
82 6
90 9
12
56 0
63 0
64 0
72
80 0
81 0
90 0
99 0
13
60 8
68 3
69 4
78
•86 8
87 9
97 6
107 3
14
65 4
78 6
74 8
84
93 4
94 6
105 0
115 6
15
70 0
78 9
80 0
90
100 0
101 3
112 6
128 9
16
74 8
84 0
85 4
96
106 8
108 0
120 0.
132 0
17
79 4
89 3
90 8
102
113 4
114 9
127 6
140 3
18
84 0
94 6
96 0
108
120 0
121 6
185 0
148 6
19
88 8
99 9
101 4
114
126 8
128 3
142 6
156 9
20
98 4
105 0
106 8
120
133 4
ia5 0
150 0
165 0
21
98 0
110 3
112 0
126
140 0
141 9
157 6
178 3
22
102 8
115 6
117 4
132
146 8
148 6
165 0
181 6
23
107 4
120 9
122 8
138
153 4
155 3
172 6
189 9
24
112 0
126 0
128 0
144
160 0
162 0
180 0
198 0
25
116 8
181 8
188 4
150
166 8
168 9
187 6
206 8
26
121 4
186 6
188 8
156
173 4
175 6
195 0
214 6
27
126 0
141 9
144 0
162
180 0
182 3
202 6
222 9
28
180 8
147 0
149 4
168
186 8
189 0
210 0
231 0
29
185 4
152 8
154 8
174
198 4
195 9
217 6
239 8
80
140 0
157 6
160 0
180
200 0
202 6
225 0
247 6
81
144 8
162 9
165 4
186
206 8
209 3
282 6
255 9
82
149 4
168 0
170 8
192
213 4
216 0
240 0
264 0
PLANK MKASmtE.
Phiiik McAKiire.
ItiianI TiiiMsiin; is llii- luisis <)f iilaiik uu'iisiirt'; that in, n {ilunk
I"-,, Iik'Iji-s ltii(-k, unil lliii'lti'ii fvi't lou^, uiiil t<'ii imln-Fi vU\<; roii-
mills .■vi.l.-iUly Iwiw iis niiiiiy wiiian- r™t hs !f inilynii'- iiii'h Ihii-k:
'Kl!iti!il1ii,u' tlic i-uiili'iil^ of nii.v |>I'>iili< »'•■ <1rsl liiiil
of tlu;
I.' in.'li
1^ liik<>]i (I
iK'hliiU'k. 1
a tli.-]i
if Il]>-
rtcr o(
II Iti :!ll
III :!ii :» Ufl I
:iii *i. SI
[j'jl'j;! 4^1?
m
lUt
<n
<L'>
fU
(Ml
'"
73
PLANS MEASURE.
PLANK MEASURE [ContlMied).
PLANK MEASURE.
PLANK MK-^fiUltK {C'mtlmied).
16 IT IH Id
40 4:i JT, 4ti r.\>
I -Ci 4.'< -IK r,i rxi
; 4.J 4« SI ■ ri4 :>7
. wi I INI ;
iy_
i-,l:i« 41 .f,
PLANK HEA8UUE.
PLANK MEASUIIE iCviMtttted).
Contents op Pi.;
m
^
Hi
m
s?
n
."«
S9
ffl-
^ "
■m
Sf
Wi tS
TENT'
S OF 1
Pf.A
NKS
IN BOAFltt MKASL
FRE. Til
Inches.
»
a
m
m m
s s
as
5S
s
^
SS B
m
ys
:^
3S 5
m
a
M
is
fl
w
7X
G4H
PLANK MKASUUK.
PLANK MEASUPiE (Continual).
CONTKXTS OF PlAXKS IN BoAIlI) MkASUKE. TiIICKNKSS, 2i
Incjiks.
; if
WlUTIl, IN InC'IIKS.
u
7
H
9
■
10
11
PJ
i:i
1
11
ir>
10
! 17
1
1
18
1
11)
1
20
;
fi.
f(M!t.
ffCl.
fl'Ct.
fj't't.
ft'Ct.
f«M't.
ft'ft.
foct.
i
fCH't.
f(H-t.
ifCH't.
:f<t't.
!
ifet't.
i " i
flfl.l
22
27
;;2
:{7
41
■1')
r.o
."».")
(50
«{4
(;i)
7S
K\
. S7
1)2 '
; 'S.\
21)
:\\
;}s
4:J
4S
:.;!
."is
()2
(57
72
77
SI
S(»
1)1
IHi
IlM
;;()
:\:>
40
4:,
.")«)
*)")
(50
(m
70
7.")
SO
ST)
IH)
: i):>
ItHj'
, 2.')
;{i
;}i;
42
47
:)2
">7
i\:]
()S
7:J
7S
■ s:j
SI)
' 1)4
1)1)
1(U
•j«;
:;2
:js
■i;;
-ID
r.4
(JO
(m
70
71 i
SI
S7
H2
US
!<»::
M)S 1
27
.u
:;«.>
4:.
')!
.'♦;
r.2
(iS|
7:;
71 >
S4
IM)
IM)
101
107
ll.S
2.S
;}:>
-41
47
:.;i
.-»s
r4
70'
7(5
S2
SS
aj
HI)
lO.")
111
117 1
i2t)
:!«',
12
4^
54
(iO
(>(>
7.*»
71 >
s:.
!M
1>7
lo:'>
101)
11.")
121 ■
:jn
■ 1—
• > 1
■U
.')()
.")(; 1
r,-;
<;i)
7.")
SI
SS
IM
KM)
kk;
!l:i
Ill)
12.". ;
:JI
;'.!•
1.')
.■>2
ns
(m ■
71
7S
S-l
IM)
U7
10:]
110
IMi
12:J
121)
;J2
■ID
•17
r>:]
()(),
r.7
SO
S7
\r.\
100
107
11:1
120
127
1 •l>l
• !•>
11
-IS
.').')
<;2 '
<iu ,
7<J
su
IMi
10: J
110
117
|124
l:M
|:*,S
:)1
42
:)0
•")7
'U ,
71 ,
7S
s:»
1»2
IH)
HNi
ll:*>
120
12s
l:J."i
142 .
:j:)
l-(
:>i
."iS.
('»;
7:J i
so
ss
i>:>
102
Kill
117
.124
i:;i
i:;i»
14('i
I
('(»Mi;\(s oi' Pi.AXKs IN P.(»Ai:i> Mkasiijk. TiiKKNKss, :]
Inciiks.
tt
Width, in Inciikh.
C « 7 ! S 1) 10
I I • I I I I I I
11 ' 12 1» 11 15 10 17 IH I |» SO
ft.
t'-.-i.
'.'.■I.
tr,.t.
t"«-.-f.
Iri't.
f«'t't.
fci't.
fi'i't
f«-i't .
U-i'{.
ftft.
U'i-t.
fifi.
fwt.
1')
! ■»
17
•.')
22
2:.
27
::«)
:;2
:;.-)
.1—
40
42
4:.
47
."i4)
11
!>•.
\\i
•<■>
l •'>
27
.10
■i-i
f 1. 1
:;i;
;n
41
44
47
41)
."•2
.Vi
12
1^
21
:.'!
— 1
;;t)
. I.I
• >. »
•ill
:ii)
42
4:.
4S
:.i
:.4
">7
00 j
1:1
2- >
:.' :
•J'l
2*.»
•»■»
:;»;
;;i)
42
;•;
11)
."»2
.Vi
.V.)
TiL'
iui
11
21
•j.'i
u**
::2
:;■»
::i)
12
tiJ
!■.)
.-.::
.'ti;
00
0::
07
70!
i:.
'/■I
■_'(',
:;i)
::i
.;•<
41
4.")
4'.'
■ I. ■
:»r,
(10
04
(IS
71
IC.
■:l
'j>;
:;2
;:i;
41)'
44
IS
.'.2
Tij ;
('.0
(-.1
OS
72
7<J
SO :
17
• * ■
::()
::i
;s
i::
47
.M
• )•!
r. )
•M
l'.S
72
77
si
s".
1-
■ »■'
- 1
■•:2
;;«;
11
1:.
.■)0
.M
.il)
ii-i
»W
72
i7
SI
Sli
IH) .
!'.«
• t .
- 1 >
;s
1:'.
i.^
.*>2
")7
(52
'•1
71
7!i
si
so
HO
IC,
2')
."■ >
■ • •
in
I.".
."•n
.*i."i
(>0
Jki
7')
7'i
so
.sTi
10
li.'i
lOII
■'1
:'il
* ■ 1
12
IT
• ••1
.'iS
('»:!
»;>
71
71)
M
Ml
i»:.
|IN)
MlTi
'_"'
;;..
; ;■. <
11
;.o
• i.'i
(Jl
(U)
72
7 1
s:;
.SS
H4
Ill)
la'i
no
.»■•
.;i
|i)
It;
.■|2
.'i.'^
a-i
1)1)
si
su
02
US
104
KKI
11:.
21
: '•! ')
ij
4*^
:.i
(JO
i^i
72
7s
hi
tM)
{Mi
KU
H)s
114
PJII
2*1
■ ' 1
II
."ill
:.«;
(J.-!
<tt» .
HI
HSJ
1)4
liH)
lUI
11!)
IP.i
ll^■»
I I
PLANK MEASURE. e4G
PLANK MEASURE (Coalinued).
COKTBNTS OP Plankb im Boabd Mbasubb. Thicknbbs, fc
Incurs.
Contents of Plasks in Boaud Measl-be. Tiuc
NAILIXG MEMORANDA.
PT,ANK MEASURK IConcla'led].
F Plankh in Boaui> Mkasitrk. Trickhehs, 31
NAILING MEMORANDA.
" ltiill<Iur-> Guldv, sjid Kfllmutor-i I'rice-Bi
lity of Nails for I>ifferCHt KlniUt of Work.
ir.l!>.
■r lluors. sq. ciIlI'iI. '
•.■\U'.\ ami ( .
1>)i]i
lums ' :"
i1.->) i
r I
pounds 4'f
nails
i " 3((
" 3.1.
fln«
" M.
IK.K
" M.
ooiiin
" IM.
..
" HV(.
floor
HOLDING POWER OF NAILS.
651
RBLATIVE HOLDINQ POWBR OF WIRB AND
OUT NAILS.
Tests made by a committee appointed by the Wheeling Nail
Manufacturers.
NuMBKB OF Nails in Pound.
Pounds rbquirbd to put.l
Nails Out.
Cut.
Wire.
Cut.
Wire.
20d.
23
85
1,593
703
lOd.
60
86
908
315
8d.
90
126
597
227
6d.
160
206 -
383
200
4d.
280
316
286
123
This test showed the relative value of a pound of each kind to be
as follows :
1 lb. of 20d. cut nails equals 1.40 lbs. of wire nails.
1 '* lOd. *' " 2.01
1 '* 8d. " " 1.87 " **
1 " 6d. ** " 1.49 '* "
1 ** 4d. " " 2.06
((
((
, In obtaining the above results, two tests were made of the 8d.
cut nails, and four of the 8d. wire nails ; three tests each were made
of the 6d. and 4d. cut nails, and Gd. and 4d. wire nails, and the
average is shown.
The committee report as the result of their experiments that $1.00
of cut nails will give the same sjrvico as $1.78 in wire nails, if at
the same price per pound.
Very thorough tests of the comparative holding power of wire
nails and cut nails of equal lengths and weights were made at the
United States arsenal, Watertown, Mass., in November and De-
cember, 1892, and January, 1893. Fifty-eight series (»f tests were
made, each series comprising ten pairs cut nails and wire nails, mak-
ing a total of 1 , 160 nails lested. From forty series, comprising forty
sizes of nails driven in spruce wood, it was found that the cut
nails showed an average superiority of 60.50 per cent. ; the common
nails showing an average superiority of 47.51 per cent., and the
finishing nails an average of 72.22 per cent.
In eighteen series, comprising six sizes of box nails driven into
052 MEMOKAXDA FOR PLASTERERS.
pine wockI, in three ways the cut nails showed an average superior-
ity of 00. 9J} per cent.
In no .scries of tests did the wire nails hold as much as the cut
nails.
MEMORANDA FOR PLASTERERS.
Measiii*iii$<: Plasterers' Work.
'V\\o followiiiLT ]):ira,i:rai)hs, lak<'n from one of our loadinjo; jour
iiuN, (h'scrilM* the u*<nal nuMhod of measurluL; i)lasten"rs' work : —
'• Pla^tt'iinic i"^ always mcasnre.l l»y the square yard for all plain
woik. l)y tin* s!ip<M-ticial toot for all fornic-es of plain memlK^rs, ami
l)y the linear fool for enriched or carved mouldings in oornitvs.
** l>y ' plain work' is meant straif^hl surfaces (like ordinary walls
and ccilin;^^-^), without regard to the stylo or (piality of iinisli put
ui)oii the Job. Any panelled wor!:, wh«'ther on walls or ceilings.
run with w moiil.l, wo'.ild he rated by thi' fool suiK*rli<'ial.
'• Diflerrnt methods of valnin;^ i)lastering find favor in ditfen'iit
jjortions of the country. The following general rules are believed
to be e.piitable and just to all parties: —
•• /'V/-.s7, Measure on all walls and ceilings the surface actually
l)lasler«' 1, without d<'ilu«'tin'^ any grounds or any oiH>nings of less
ext'iil than seven s;ii)ertieial y.irds.
",s/r/;,/J. Wrturn- of (diinniey-hrcasts, pilasters, and all slrii>s
of l^l;l•^le^i^L^ le^s than Iwidve incdics in width, measuiv as twelve
ineln'^ wile; and win-re the ]dast«'ring is tuiished down totheltase.
suri>;i^<'. or WMin««eotinii. add six inelu's to height of walls.
"Thii'l. Ill elosi'is, atld one-half to the measurement. Uaking
ceil in 4-^, :iii I siiilits of stairs, add one-half to the ineasurenieni:
<ii' lil.ir oi- tllijitieal work, chari^e two prices; douu's or gix»ined
<•; illilL,'-. 1 liT'-e priec"*.
•' /''.'//A. Tor eaeh twelve feet of iuti'rior work done farther frmii
til ■ ,:');in I than lh»' llrst twelve feet, add tivt' ]U'r <M*nt : for oiUNidi'
v.o !>.. a Id i>u<' p.>r ei nt fi>reaeh foot that the work is done aliovc
111.- li:- ' iWi'he feet.
•*Mui it-woiU is i:"M»'rally j^overued by the folhiwiug rules: viz..
niniil li:i: • l^"^s tban I'U" foot \z'v; an* r.itfd a^^ one foiii, (ivt>r one
ft.it!. :-i l>-- mUiU >upt! li 'i.d. ^VIn■n work reipiin*-. two nmul l^^ In
riiM «« .Ml ■ iiirnn-e. a I 1 t»ne-lifi h. l-'i»r i-.ieh internal angle or niiin'.
a ' I <•:!.■ 1. ...I I.I I, M-4; b of •nnii -e. an I. for e.n-h exifrual angle, a.ld
iwii ! \!l siiiill Mii-t)n>. of i-orniei- 1.- s than twelve iiiclies
Immj :ii< ■ lie a« twehe ini'lies. Kur rakinu "orMii-i's, aihl one-half;
einulir ••: i-jjiptie.il work, ilonble priei*; donn-s and groins, tlini*
pri<-i-^. Tor enriehmeni.s of all kinds a s|NM'ial price iuu?«t U*
MEMORANDA FOR PLASTERERS. 652a
charged. The higher the work is above ground, the higher the
charge must be ; add to the rate of five per cent for every twelve
feet above the first twelve feet."
Useful Memoranda.
The average yield of lime paste from the best Eastern limes has
been found to be 2.02 times the bulk of the unslaked lime. A bar-
rel of good quality, well-burnt lime should make eight cubic feet of
lime paste.
Careful experiments, conducted by United States engineers, have
demonstrated that the average sum of voids in sharp, clean, siliciou.s
bank or pit sand, thoroughly screened, is .349 of its bulk, and that
the best mortar is obtained by mixing with the sand such an amount
of lime paste as will be from forty-five to fifty per cent, greater
than the amount needed to fill the voids of the sand, or, in other
words, by mixing one part lime paste to two of sand.
To each barrel, or each 200 pounds of unslaked lime, one and a
half bushels of good quality, long cattle hair, well whipped and
washed, should be used in the first coat on lath work, and a half
bushel of hair to each barrel of lime in the brown coat, whether
applied over a scratch coat or on brick, iron, or terra cotta.
The lime should be slaked not less than two weeks before the
plaster is applied to the walls, and the hair should be mixed in just
before using. If the hair is mixed into the mortar while the lime
is 7wt, the limo will burn and rot the hair.
Sand for mortar should be angular, not too coarse or too fine, and
should be free from all foreign substances, and particularly fine
loam. or clay. Clean river or pit sand, carefully screened, is gen-
erally considered the best for mortar.
Hair, such as is used by plasterers, is obtained from the hides of
cattle, and is put up in paper bags, each bag being supposed to
contain one bushel of hair wlien beat up. The quantity of hair
to be used is sometimes designated by weight, but as it is sold by
the bushel or bale, that appears to be the better measure.
Plastering on lath work is generally done in three coats. The first
coat is called the Hcratch coat, and is generally made very "rich."
The second coat is called the brown coat, and usuallv contains a
much larger proportion of sand and only a small quantity of hair.
On brick and stone walls the scratch coat is generally omitted,
and the brown coat is applied directly to the brick or stone work,
and of the proper thickness to receive the finish coat.
C526 MEMORANDA FOB PLASTERERS.
The third, or finishing, coat is designated by various terms, such
as nkim coat, white coat, putty coat, sand-finish, etc. The skim coat
us used in the Eastern States is generally composed of lime putty
and washed beach sand in equal pio[)orlion.s. Sand-tinish, which
has a lou^h surface resembling coarse sandpaper, is mixed in the
same way, only the coarser sand and moi-o of it is used, and it is
fuiislied witli a wooden or cork-laced float.
Wliiti' coating, or hard finish, genera lly means a composition of
limti putty. j)hister of* Paris, and marble dust. Plaster of I'aris
and marl)le dust when used shouhl not l)e mixed with the lime
putty until a few moments before using, and no more should 1)6
prepar(?d at ont^ time than can be usc<l up at once, as it soon "sets/'
after whicli it should not be used. The skim coat, or hard finish,
should be finished with a steel trowel and wet brush. The more
the work is trowelled the hanler it becomes.
To obtain the bed quality ot lime i)lasler, the si)ecifications should
read as follows :
'•Thi' mortar fr)r plastering to l)e coin])OKt'(l of hi'Kt quality wood-biimvd slone
linit', whitr. slaked at least fonrteen dayH Ix-foni uwln?, Hiid run through a line
sifvo, and to Ix* thoroiiirlily mixed with clean. nl»arp Hand, free fn»m clay, loam,
or other fonM;rn !«ul)>tunres, in the pnifyortiim c»f one-tliird lime pni«ti» to tw«>-
tliirds sand, measure formeusnre, to bo well tempered, and liave X\\v. lie.*'! tpiality
of (lean, lonir cattle hair, well wetted, thoroiiLdily mixed with ft ImmiHliHtKly
helorf u>iiii:. :i^ f.dlows :
■' Fir^t coal for lath worli. l.l busheN rif hair to one barrel of unnlnkctl Ilmo:
llr>t coat for brick .nnd terra-cotta work, and Hit'ond coat for lath work, one-
half bn-hri nf l.iiir to one barrel of unslaked lime. First coat to 1m* put on
Htroni:. liron-jlif to a fair surf; ee and scratched ; the second cirnt to bo put on
li<;lit and \n«1I iloaied with Ionic rules to n uniform t*urfacc>. Mtrui>;ht und true;
each coat fo hi' thorouL'hIy <lry befon* the next is' put on."
In the West '2(10 [H)uuds of unslaked lime is con.«»idenHl the ei}uiv-
al<-nt of a barrel. li<K'kland (Me. i lime will avenige :?:30 |K)undB to
tlir l»arfel.
Very little jilaster is mixiMl by measure. howeviT. the usual cus-
tom beini: to mix in a< much sand witli the .slaked lime as the
mortai'-mixcr thinks is Ik'sI. or that ttn' plaster will ^tand and
witrlv w« II. Plaster mixe<l in tlie projiortions .<{M'cined aLM>ve will
iei|iiire iilx'iii '2. casks or oOO |N)Ui:ds of lime, -t.*) cubic fiM't or 15
,;i<K- «'f -Jind. and I bu'^lu-ls of hair, lo cover IdO vanis of lath
woik v.itli iimrtar : of nn iueli thi<'k
|'<ir tin white coat, allow !K) |MMinds of lime, 51) |Mmnds of plaster
of P.-ii-i>. .11 id oo p«iunds of nmrbh' dust to lot) .sipmrc yanls.
'Vn liith (lie .suae an'a will retpiire I'nuu 1,400 lo l.tlOU laths, and
p) pounil> of \\d, nails.
hemoba:nda fob BOOFEHS. 652c
Sand is usually sold by the load, which varies in different locali-
ties from 18 to 27 cubic feet.
The volume of the mortar when mixed is generally about equal
to that of the sand before screening.
Improved Wall Plasters.
Owing to the difficulty of obtainiug an economical and satisfac-
tory quality of wjills and ceilings by the use of the ordinary lime
mortar, other and more reliable plastering materials have been
invented, and are now being extensively employed, especially on
the largest and most costly structures, and are giving general
satisfaction.
Among the best known of these improved plasters are the Acme
and Climax cement plasters, Adamant, Windsor cement dry plas-
ter, and Rock wall plaster. The Acme and Climax cements are
natural products found in certain parts of Kansas and Texas, and
simply calcined. The others are composed principally of plaster of
Paris with certain chemicals added. All appear to produce about
the same results. The Windsor dry plaster, Adamant, and Rock
plaster are mixed with the proper proportion of sand by the manu-
facturers, and only require being "wet up" before using. All of
these materials are sold by weight. They should be used strictly
in accordance with the directions furnished by the manufacturers.
Among the advantages gained by the use of these plasters are :
Uniformity in strength and quality; extra hardness and tough-
ness ; freedom from pitting ; saving in time required in making
and drying the plaster ; minimum danger from frost ; less weight
and moisture in the building ; and greater resistance to the action
of fire and^water. ^ . ^ ^ ^/y f
MElfOBANDA FOB BOOFERS. 659
MEMORANDA FOR ROOFERS.
Slate Roofs. ^^H* ^'^7 '^^
The pitch of a slated roof should be about one in height to four
in length. The usual lap is about three inches, but it is sometimes
four inches. Each slate should be fastened by two 4d or 3(i
slate-nails, either of galvanized iron, copper, or zinc. On roofs of
gas-houses the nails should be of copper or yellow-metal.
A square of slate is one hundred superficial feet, allowances
being made lor the trouble of cutting the slates at the hips, eaves,
round chinmeys, etc. The sides and bottom edges of the slates
should be trimmed, and the nail-holes punched as near the head
as possible. They should be sorted in sizes, when they are not all
of one size, and the smallest placed near the ridge. The thickness
of slates varies from three-sixteenths to five-sixteenths of an inch,
and their weight from 2.6 to 4.53 pounds per square foot.
Clastic Cement. — In first-class work, the top course of slate
on ridge, and the slate for two to four feet from ail gutters, and one
foot each way from all valleys and hips, should be bedded in elastic
cement.
Roofiiijf-Paper. — Roof-boards should be covered with one
or two thicknesses of tarred felt roofing-paper, before the slate are
laid. No dry or rosin-sized felt should be used on roofs.
Flashing's. — By " flashings" are meant pieces of tin, zinc, or
copper, laid over slate, and up against walls, chimneys, copings,
etc.
Counter-flashings arc of lead or zinc, and are laid between
the courses in brick, and turned down over the flashings. In flash-
ing against stone-work, grooves or reglets often have to be cut to
receive the counter-flashings.
Close and Opon Valleys. — A dose, valley is where the
slate are mitred and flashed in each course, and laid in cement.
In such valleys no metal can be seen. Close valleys should only
be used for pitches above forty-five degrees.
654
MEMORANDA FOR ROOFERS.
An optni valley is where the valley is formed of slicSts of copper
or ziiK* tiflci'ii or sixteen inches wide, and the slate laid over X.\\vm\
Itiile for i*oniputiii<>: the Number of Slates in a
Square,
Siil):rMi'i three inches, or the amount of head-eover, from Ihe
)('im;l! of tlic slate, multiply the remainder hy the width, and
dlvlilc hy two. This will «;iv(; the numher of stjuare inches covenil
l)cr slat;' : divide 14,400 (tin', numher of scjuare inches in a si|uar«**
\)y the numher so found, and the result will be the nuniI>erof slatt-s
reiiuired.
The folio wi nix ta])le gives the numher of slat(*s per sqimro for the
usual sizes, jillowing three inches for head-(rover : —
NrMiiKK OF Slatks pki: Sc^iahe.
>i/<'. ill
I'ic
(TS JUT
Size, in
ihi-h*"*.
^(
liiiirt.-.
inclu'H.
•'. ' VI
i
.'.:;:;
S X 16
7 - I J
4. '.7
W X 10
S ' \1
1
4lM)
ID < Hi
•t - VI
:;.Vi
u y. IS
7 " 11
:57t
10 X IS
s " 14
:'.J7
12 < IS
',t ' 11
'
•jni
10 < -JO
10 ■ 11
'Jtii
1 I X 20
Hjiiarc.
277
240
221
2i:i
1112
liiO
1 •'.',»
l.'>4
Si/.c, In
V
iiichori.
12 X 20
14 X 2U
11 X 22
12 X 22
14 X 22
12 X 24
14 X 24
10 X 24
i«<iuuri'.
141
121
l:S7
V2A
10S
114
ttS
M
_ :_j
'jljie \\ii'_:lit of slatt' iM*r cubic foot i.s alM»ut 174 iM>unds, or, per
is'Hiaii* l"()«)t of various tliickn<*.sses. as follows : —
'i'liiiUi.i---, in iiichi*-
W'l ium: . i:: ]»»nilnls .
I.H
■1
•J
1
3
1 l>
4 !
i»
2.71
."..02
ri,4.';
-.i-i I
.■. . _l
i
Tln' wci'^dit of slating laid per s^juan* foot of .surface euvereil
will, of eoin-se, depend on the size used. The weij^ht of 10 hy IS
MI.-, linv.-^ixteenths of an inch thick, for example, iK»r stiuarr
lout of roftf, would be ."»..sr» pounds.
An exiM-rieneiMl roofer will lay. on an aver.iiji', two stiiuin'S of
slaie in ti'U lionrs.
<)rilinai\ mo. ini^- pa per weighs about liflei-n ]>ound9 ]mt si|iian\
anil a\«ra'^n's about lifty pounds in a roll.
At lie- pn'sent time |l.ss4| tbe addilitmal co<t of laying !tl»t«' ill
ila^Ntie rement varies from thirteen to tiftecn iht cent.
[OBANDA FOB ROOFERS.
655
Comparative Cost of Different Sizes of Roofing-
Slate.
The following table shows the prices for No. 1 Monson {Maine)
roofing-slates delivered on wharf in Boston, May 20, 1885. It will
be seen that the medium sizes, such as 10 X 10, IG X 8, 18 X 10,
cost the most; and, as the sizes increase or diminish from these,
the price decreases. The price of Browntille (Maine) slates are in
all cases $1 per square more than the Monson slates.
The price of Bangor (Pennsylvania) slates in Boston, at the
same date, is very nearly the same as for Monson slates, except for
16 X 8's, which are $1 a square less.
Red slates cost from $12 to $12.50 per square.
PRICES
OF MONSON (MAINE)
SLATES.
Size.
Price per
Hquarc.
$5 75
Size.
Price per
square.
Size.
Price per
square.
Size.
Price per
square.
24 X 14
20 X 10
$6 50
16 X 9
$7 00
12 X 9
$5 75
24 y 12
6 00
18 X 12
6 25
16 X 8
7 50
12 X 8
6 00
22 X 14
5 75
18 X 11
6 50
14 X 12
6 00
12 X 7
5 50
22 X 12
6 GO
18 X 10
6 75
14 X 10
6 50
12 X a
5 00
22 X 11
6 00
18 X 9
6 50
14 X 9
6 50
11 X 8
5 50
20 X 14
6 00
16 X 12
6 25
14 X 8
6 75
11 X 7
5 00
20 X 12
6 25
16 X 11
6 50
14 X 7
6 50
10 X 8
5 00
20 X 11
6 25
16 X 10
7 00
12 X 10
5 75
Sliing^les. •>^'^ ' ^^ ^ *'^
The average width of a shingle is four inches : hence, when
shingles are laid four inches to the weather, each shingle averages
sixteen square inches, and 900 are required for a square of roofing.
If 4^ inches to the weather, 800 will cover a square.
5 ** " ** 720 " "
5i " " ** 655 " "
6
n
n
(4
600
(i
(<
This is for common gable-roofs. In hip-roofs, where the shingles are
cut more or less to fit the roof, add five per cent to above figures.
A carpenter will carry up and lay on the roof from fifteen hun-
dred to two thousand shingles per day, or two squares to two
squares and a half of plain gable-roofing.
One thousand shingles laid four inches to the weather will re-
quire five pounds of shingle-nails to fasten them on. Six pounds
of fourpenuy nails will lay one thousand split pine shingles.
05G ^EMOltANDA FOR ROOFfBS.
Koofingr-Tiles
Tiles an^ thin slabs of bako«l day. They arc extensively used in
lOuiopc for roofs, gutUtrs, and house-siding, and, to some extent,
iii li'.is country.
I'hiin rooling-tilos arc usually made % of an inch in thickness.
li)., inch«!s lonu, and ()', inches wide. Tliey weigh from 2 to '1\
])ounds ca<li, anil cxi)osc about ono-half to tli<; weather. 7-W) tiles
(M)\cr 10 ) snpcirficiai feet. They are hung upon the lath by two
oak })ins inserted into holes made by the moulder. Plain tile.s an*
now made with i^iooves and hllets on the edges, so that they
are laid without overlap'plng very far, tin? grooves leadhig the water.
This is economical of tiles, and saves half of the weight, but is
subject to leak in driftnig rains, and to nijury by hard frosts.
ran-tiles, first used in Flanders, have a wavy surface, lapping
under, and being overlapjM'd by, the adjacent tiles of the same rank.
Thev are niaile 14.1 bv lol, exi)ose ten inches to the weather, ami
wciL:;h froui ."> to ."ii pounds ea'-h. 170 cover 100 s(|uare feet of surface.
Crown, ridu:e, hip, and valley tiles are senu-cylindriral, or seg-
ments of cylin<lers, usitd for the puqioses indicated. A gutter-til«>
has bet'n intro(Uiced in England, fonning the lower coui-se, l>ein!»
nailed to the lower sheathing-board or lath.
Siding-tili's are used as a substitutt; for weather-boanling. Holes
are jnade in them when moulding, and they are secured to the lath
by llat-licaded nails. Tlu» gage, or «*xiK)sed fac4*, is sonietinu'S
indrntcil to repiesent courses of brick. Fine mortar is introdueinl
bitwccn lliem when llu'V rest U]»on ea<'h other. Siding-tiles an*
sduieiijiHs called ** weaibei'-tib's'' and *' malhemati«'al tili»s.*' Tln-si'
n:imes are dt-rived fr(Mn their ex]:osure or markings. They an»
\;iri()UNly fornje^l, having ciuv«'d or i-renated iMJges, anil varioiu«
oiiianitnts. cither raised nr em-austic.
Tile nnul.'ized tiles art' inferior to slate, as they inibi!)C aliout oiie-
sM-'venth (il their weight ';f water, and tend l«) rot the lath on which
ili<\ arc laid. (lood roohnii^-slaie onlv imbibes one two-humlredlli
part of its weight, and is nearly wat«'rproof.
Till KoofH.
I i:(\iMii for Kdiirtli Kilitlmi.!
A tin r<i(>f nf 1:01 mI material, prnperly put nn. and kept prtiiM-rly
i>a!nt«-iL will last from thirtv tn ftirtv vears. It shoiiM not lie
p.iiniid fi>; the tir^! time until it lias been well waslifnl by nifn,
t.. j.T li:.' .:na»<e ntV the tin: and all ro>in, if u-«'.I. should Im' care-
m!i\ ^1-: ipiil iilf. One iirninre layers of felt-papersliuiild beplaceJ
MEMORANDA FOR ROOFFRS. 657
under the tin, to serve as a cushion, and also to deaden the noise
produced by the rain striking the tin.
For a steep roof, the tin should be put on with a standing groove,
and with the cross seams double-locked and soldered. A very
common and cheaper method for steep roof is, to double-lock both
the vertical and cross seams, and fill the joint with white lead
instead of soldering; but the other method is much the best.
For flat roofs, the tin should be locked and soldered at all joints,
and secured by tin cleats, and not by driving the nails through the
tin itself.
In soldering the joints, rosin as a flux is generally preferred;
although some roofers recommend the use of diluted chloride of
zinc.
Roofing-plates are made of steel or iron, and covered with a
mixture of lead and tin, and are designated as** tern,'* ''leaded,"
or " roofing tin," in distinction from plates coated only with tin,
and therefore called "bright tin." Roofing-plates are coated by
two methods. The original manner of coating the plates was
by dipping the black plate into the mixture of tin and lead, and
allowing the sheets to absorb all the coating that was possible;
and several brands of roofing-tin are still made by this process.
The other process, by which the majority of roofing- plates are
now made, is known as the " Patent-roller Process," by which the
plates are put into a bath of tin and lead, and are passed through
rolls, the pressure of which leaves on the iron or steel a thickness
of coating which, to a great extent, determines the value of the
plate. These rolls can be so adjusted as to leave a good amount of
coating on the plate, an ordinary coating, or a very scant one; the
heavier the coating, the more valuable the plate.
There have been only two sizes of roofing-plates made for a
number of years; namely, 14 x 20 and 20 x 28: and of these two
sizes, the larger is more generally used, from the fact that, being
double the size of the smaller plate, it requires less seams on the
roof, and consequently cheapens the cost of putting on.
Besitles these two sizes, there is another size, 10 X 20, which is
used for gutters and leader-pipe. A better roof will be obtained
by using the 14 X 20 than the 20 X 28, because the seams are closer
together, thus making the roof stronger; and, if put on with a
standing seam, there is more allowance for expansion and contrac-
tion.
For steep roofs with standing groove, the tin should be laid with
the smallest dimension for the width; as it makes the roof stronger,
and allows a greater amount of expansion and contraction. Un-
fortunately, it is much cheaper to lay them the other way, as less
OGO HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.
feet hi^h exerts a pressure of about 0.86 of a pound, or just twice
that exert t'd by a cohmin one foot bigb. Tliis pressure ix'r s(|uun'
incb, due to bead,* is invs])eelive of vobune, or any thiug elsi-
except veitical bei^bt of eoluniii. Witb Ibese figures in mind.
tbe ealeuhition of tbe pressure per scpune ineli due to any bead i^
a simple matter. Tbe following rnles will be fouuil valualtle for
reference : —
To i-iM) Pni'^sriiK in roiNDs pki: St^rAiiK Inch kxkhtkd
r.v A ('<)i-i'.M\ OF Watku. — Multiply Ibe beigbt of Ibe t'olunni.
in feet, by 0.4:5.
To FIND TiiK Head. — Multiply tbe pressure, in pounds iht
scjuare ineb. by 'i.ol.
Pressure of Water. — Tbe weigbt of water or of otbor
li(pu(ls is as tbe tjuantity, but tbe pressure exertetl is as the vrr-
tieal beigbt.
Fluids press erpially in all directions: benee any vessel or cuudnit
containing a lluid sustains a pressure on tbe bottom ecpial lo as
many times tbe weigbt of tbt? column of greatest beigbt of tiiat lluid
as tbe area of tbe vessel is to tbe sectional ar«'a of tbe e(dumn.
Lateral l*re.ssiire. — Tbe lateral pressure of a fluid on the
sides of tbe vessel or conduu in wbicb it is contained is e<|ual !o
tlu' product of tbe lengtb nniltiplied by balf tbe square of the
deptb and by tb<> weigbt of tbe lluid in cubic unit of tliuiensions.
Tbe follow mg formula is simple and satisfactory: nnilliply tin*
submerged ar<'a in incbes by tbe pressure due to une-balf lbed<']itb.
Uy ** Mdnutigrd area " is meant tbe surface upon wbieb tiie water
pre>ves ; tor example, to tiud tbe lateral pressure upon the sitlos
of a tank tw.'lve ted long by twelve feet tleep : 1 44 X 144 = JuT::i'i
ip.<li(> (»f ^ide. Tbe pressure at tbe bottom Will be 12 X 0.4:1 = .">. H»
pounds, w lide tbe pleasure at tbe toj) is 0. giving us. say, li.ti piiunds
a^ I lie ;i\.iaue : tln'iefore •JD7:'>() X li.C) = r>:;tM4 ]K)Unds.
i)is<'liarj4e of Water. — Tbe ipiantity of water disehargitl
duiiim a i::\en time frtun a given on lice, nmler diffcn'Ut head>. is
neaily :i>« llie s«|Uare n>ots of tbe coire>]»onding heights of iIm*
uatt-r in Hie reservoir or containinii ves^d above the surfaiv of
I In- inilifc.
■^iii:!!! ••liticrs. on Mceount of friction, diM-barge pr(i)H>rtionatety
Ifxv iliiiii tbns.- whieb are larger and i*\ ibe same shape undrr the
v;nin' plf-^illt'.
< ii' iil.ii aiM'ilui"'^ are tbe mll•^t flli«aeioii*.. having less surfaiv in
prMj.o]-; loll t(i ai'i'a than an\ otln-r t<iriii.
It a •-\liiidrica] bori/oiital inU- tbiixiL^b which water is disrhargitl
■ A In .111 •>! \\al<-i ii|ii.ii> '.hi- luitllil lt):tl llli* waUl HiMii uIhjvv iIm* uilMcv.
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.
661
be of greater length than its diameter, the discharge is much in
creased. It can be lengthened with advantage to four times the
diameter of the orifice.
To FIND TlIK NUMBEU OF UNITED-StATES GALLONS CON-
TAINED IN A Foot of Pipe of any Diameter. — Square tlie
difinioter of the pipe in inclies» and multiply tho square by ().()408.
Velocity of Flow of Water. — Water which has a chance
to flow downward does so with a velocity in exact proportion to its
head. The following table gives the velocity of flow of water due
to lieads of from one to forty feet : —
Velocity in Feet per Second (hie to Ileailfi of from 1 to 40 Feet.^
Head.
Velocity.
1
Head. :
Velocity.
Head.
Velocity.
Head.
Velocity.
0.5
5.67
10.5 !
25.98
20.5
36.31
30.5
44.29
1.0
8.02
11.0 1
26.60
21.0
36.75
31.0
44.65
].o
9.82
11.5 1
27.19
21.5
37.18
31.5
45.01
2.0
11.34
12.0 I
27.78
22.0
37.61
32.0
45.37
2.5
12.68
12.5 1
2S.35
22.5
38.04
32.5
45.72
3.0
13.89
13.0 ;
28.91
23.0
38.46
33.0
46.07
3.5
15.00
13.5
29.46
23.5
38.88
33.5
46.42
4.0
16.04
14.0
30.00
24.0
39.29
34.0
46.76
4.5
17.01
14.5
30.54
24.5
39.69
34.5
47.10
5.0
17.93
15.0
31.06
25.0
40.10
35.0
47.44
5.5
18.81
15.5
31.57
25.5
40.50
35.5
47.78
6.0
19.64
10.0
32.08
26.0
40.H9
36.0
48.12
6.5
20.44
16.5
32.58
26.5
41.28
36.5
48.45
7.0
21.22
17.0
33.08
27.0
41.67
37.0
48.78
7.0
21.96
17.5
33.55
27.5
42.05
37.5
49.11
8.0
22.68
IS.O
34.02
28.0
42.44
38.0
49.44
8.5
23.38
18.5
34.49
28.5
42.81
38.5
49.76
9.0
24.06
19.0
34.96
29.0
43.19
39.0
50.08
9.5
24.72
19.5
35.41
29.5
43.56
39.5
50.40
10.0
25.36
20.0
35.86
30.0
43.92
40.0
50.72
In plumbing-work we cannot secure this velocity in the flow of
water through pipes, because of the friction which constantly tends
to diminish it. The longer the pipe, the greater the friction and
consequent retardation of the flow. In the following table we have
tlie head of water consumed by friction in pipes one yard long and
from one to four inches in diameter. This table shows the head of
water required to produce a given flow per minute. 13y means
of the rules given on p. 538 it is made applicable to any length of
pipe; and a variety of problems relating to lengths and diameters
•jf i>ipe, discharge in gallons, and head in feet, jiie solved by it.
* Box's HydrauMcB.
002
HYDRAITLICS OF PLITMBTNG.
ITra<l of ]V(iier coihvnnefl hij Friction in Pipes one Yard Lonfj^
DiAMETEIl OF THE TlPf:, IN InCUCS.
I
I l^
I
•i J - I -a «
TIkai) of Watku, in Fki:t.
3i
1
o.oon i
0.(i:m).'>4
0.00012
o.(();)!»42
o
O.OltU :
0.0021 ti
0.000.")1
(l.(t!«)lt)S ,
■ >
• >
O.O'.TO ■
0.00 IS?
o.oon.')
O.ii00:}70 ;
4
O.O.'.-'.S
0.()(»st;7
0.0020')
0.(Ki;Mi74 '
;>
0.1 OJ^
0.ol:^,:,4
o.o;);;2l
o.<M)lo:,.3
(i
0.14^1
o.oi'.».'.o
O.Oi)lo;j
o.<)01.'>17 '
^
().-JOl») ■
o.o2ti.').'i
0.00 ):io
0.<H)JO<U !
.s
o.-j.',:;:; '
O.O.i|»"iS
O.OOSJo
0.002000
'.1
o. :•.:;:>:;
u.04:',s«»
o.olon
o.oo:;4i:! ,
10
o.mo
0.0:. no
o.or2.sr.
0.<K)J210 '
•Jl»
1..U ■
0.211)70
0.0.-.140
o.ol«).s;)0
;;i»
::.7o .
0.4^770
0.1 If)
o.c: 57020
41)
('...-.. !
().^!".7o )
0.20.-)
o.()(;742() '
:.M
lo.-JS
1 .:5:.
0.:521
o.lo:.:; 1
*)()
U>1
1 .'.».-)
o.4«i:;
().ir)l7
70
•JO.IC '
2.r..-»
o.ti:5()
0.20f4
Si»
•-'"..:;;; |
:;.4t',
o.v2:5
0.2i".«»0
■•0
.>.)..>■> 1
4.:;s
l.otl
o.:5na
10.)
11. 1
:..4
1.2s
0.421
llo
4 '.7
♦»..■)
1..V,
o.:iO'.»
1-Jl
:..'.2
7.^
1..^.-.
o.coo
l:;o
t'.l..')
H.l
2.17
0.712
1 to
sO.t")
10.»)
2..-)2
0.S2.')
l.-.o
•fj.:. i
12.1
2.«'.>
0.04S
1'".0
lo.'..:; !
l:5..S
3.20
1.07S
170
ll^.■.»
l.').i;
• >. 1 1
1.217
iMi
i:;:;.:; j
17..-)
4.10
1. :;«;.-)
I'.'O
1 i^..■. 1
1 '.)..')
4.04
1..'.21
•JilU
i.u..-. :
21.1)
O.U
1.0K-, 1
■J 10
l^l.l
2:;.s
r».o7
1 .s:)S
•J_'o
I'".l
2f..2
r..22
2.0:50 1
•j:;o
•JI7..i
2^.-".
r,.s(t
2.220
•J to
•J..7.0
:;l.2
7.40
2!427 ;
•J-' '
•J .:.!
:;:;.s
h.o;;
2.<u::;
•J'vi
•-■7^.1
:iti.ti
s.iU)
2.^1^
■J7o
:' ' '. •
■".'.•..'•
o.:;7
::.o71
■J ■!
:;•.: ..'1
12.1
lo.o-i
15, "f ';»
■J'. " 1
'.', ■ '.'1
4."....
lo.sl
:\..".»l
;;o 1
.•.70.:.
I''.7
1 1 .:.^
:5.7.'2
..1'
:.■ ' \
.'-2.0
12.:;.'.
4.0 ■..
• '■-'■ '
IJ'..-.
.'i.i.-)
i.i.io
4.21:. ,
'.',.',■ \
; ■».'
.'.'.'.0
U.'M)
4.'s 1 ;
;;jo
' ' .
•".J.ii
^.^7
4.^71
.;.', 1
.■ ■ " 1 . 1
ti'i.:;
i:..7..
.'..1<'2
.'■■.•I
;
7' 1.2
i'<.<»»'i
r..i'ii
;;7'"
.■'1 .. ;
71.1
17.'-o
.■..7<'. 1
.", "M 1
. , 1 ; J
7^.2
l^..■.7
|■|.0^."l
: ;■ •■ 1
I'.." '.'^
''J. »
1 ■.'..)•;
t'l. iii->
;■•"
■ ■ >^.^
^'■.7
•ji.;.7
• ■.7 J J
«:■•
■ ■ ' . 7
•.'1.')
2i.«;i
7.o^:5
VI I
Vj . "*
''....'1
22.*--'
7. \'-\ \
i ■'
7" ■ '. ■*
ItHl.l
2...^o
7.7 'o
i t' ■
, ' •
l'"J.'.'
2!.M)
-».l..o
1
♦
1
li' '.7
■ji"..!hi
*-...:;o
1 ■ ■
- ■ ;
il !.••.
27. .'o
K...],,
•
. ■ ■
ro.7
>.ti
"..'5 '11
1- -
■ . ' ■
IJI s
■.•■'.'• '
'1 7lMI
1 ■ '
. ■ .
1 ■•• 1
I'.ii.ii
I'l.llo
. l' i '
I' •-.7
i:...l
■•■' '11
i 1. ■■.0
O.O(KKI]0
l).(HM)0ii7
0.(H»0l.V2
0.(KM)271
0.1 KM 142:5
0.()(H)«5O<i
0.0!-OS:".()
n.ooio>4
0.00l:i72
O.OOlO'.M"
0.(M)0770
O.nl.Vj
0.0-J71
0.0 42:;
o.o<'h>;i
0.0^:50
0.10^4
o.i;572
O.H')0
n.20.'»
0.21:5
0.2M)
o.:j:52
o.:5>»l
0.4:;;}
o.4'<r»
().:'• iO
0.01 1
o.i»77
0.717
O.MO
o.^m;
0,07.'.
l.o:»s
1.14.')
1.2:51
l.:;2S
1.424
I. -.24
1 AV11
1.7:54
1.^U
1 .'.•••^
2.07.'.
2.1'."'»
2.:;.;o
2.U''
2..".7'-.
2.7 in
2.-17
:-..l;.-»
:5.27o
::.(:ki
:;. --M
:;.7]«i
:;.<iiHi
t.llfUl
J.2:yi
, 0.fH')OMl7S j
: o.oo:!():5]:5 :
\ 0.('l»'M)70.-|
i 0.0'Ol2."K)
O.iKH)!'.!.')
().()«M)JS2
. o.niKi:is.'5
; M.().'»0."(»1 ■
0.ll(M)('>.5l
:..trtH)7v5
. (I. on: 51:;
o.(M)7«i7
0.012.-):;
o.ol'.i.-.s
o.o2v_M
o.();5s:;t»
o.o.'.oU
o.o>'«:i4it
■ i).07s
o.cmi
0.112
■ 0.1 :52
: 0.1. 'i;J
. 0.1 7»i
■ 0.2U) '•
0.220
! o.2.'):{
' <».2S'J
o.:5l;j
: U.:i4.'»
0.:{70
i 0.41 4
I o.4.'»l
0.4 v.»
o.-VJ".*
0.;'i71
0.01 4
0.1 M-«
0.70.I
0.7.V2
n.'%02
o.•^."l:•.
o.'. ■«).'»
li.'.'.V.»
1.01. -I
1.072
1.1 :;i
l.loi
1 .2.".:i
1.:.17
l.:;s2
I.Uh
l..M»".
1 .:.*»ii
1 .•■..'•7
i.7;n)
I.H0.-I
l.ssi
1 .n.'.s
O.(NH>0ll4
(1.0 NMi: fi
0 0(MN>'i( ■
O.OIMlllrii
0.(NNM44 I
(>.o( Nil <.!•*! :
o.ncHi::;,;
ii.OlKt 2.''
0.0 Oilil
o.'iOli«ii»
O.OII '.lilO
0.00 5{:5i
o.(il«Ki:ii
O.Ol4J'5ii
0.0 I i-i'.HI
o.ii2.'.72i
0.0.52.') -I'
O.Oliil
0.0 I'M!
o.O-'.Ts
0.0. "iTO
0.i»7'»'»
o.o.ml
o,lo2>»
0.1 101
o.l:;iJ
0 ;4.-i«» i
0.1007 '
0.1772
0.1 '.14:1
o.2;;i4
t».2.-.il
0.271';
ti.i-.'j'.t
r.:;l.-.o
i'.:'i;i7n
ii.:;i'.|7
o.:.li52
0.4 II.".
o.4;:7'"-
o.i.".|:.
0.4M2:;
o.:.j4i
«i..-. 02
o.-'i".' ;
o'il2
0.1 i.-." I
o,7ov«
i».T4.o
•).77'»<»
U.^^ir'-o
O.^'tOl'
U.s'»7«
O.'.iJ"""
O.tNilO
I.Uii4»
' rMi\'> Il\ili:iii!it>.
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 663
The practical application of this table will be found in the fol-
lowing rules : —
To FIND TUE Head of Water, when Diameter and
Lkngtii of Pipe, and Number of Gallons discharged per
Minute, are known. — In the above table the head due to a length
of one yard is found opposite the number of gallons. Multiply that
number by the given length in yards, and we have the required head
in feet. Thus, to find the head necessary to deliver 130 gallons per
minute by a pipe 4 inches in diameter, 500 yards long : opposite 130
gallons in the table, and under 4 inches in diameter, is 0.679, which,
umltiplied by 500, gives 339.5 feet, the head sought.
To FIND TUE Diameter of the Pipe, when Head, Length
of Pipe, and the Number of Gallons discharged per Min-
ute, ARE KNOWN. — Divide the head of water in feet by the length
of the pipe in yards, and the number nearest to this in the table
opposite the number of gallons will be found under the required
diameter.
9
To find the Number of Gallons discharged, when the
Head, Length of Pipe and its Diameter, are known. — Di-
vide the head of water in feet by the given length in yards, and the
nearest number thereto in the table under the diameter will be
found opposite the required number of gallons.
To FIND the Length, when the Head, Number of Gal-
lons PER Minute, and Diameter of Pipe, are known. — Di-
vide the given head by the head for one yard, found in the table
under the given diameter and opi)Osite the given number of gal-
lons, and the result is tne required length.
'J'he actual discharge of pipes is easily calculated with approxi-
mate accuracy by Prony's fonnula. In using this formula, find the
discharge in gallons per minute by multiplying the head in inches
by the diameter of the pipe in inches, and divide the product by
/// X (J\
the length of the pipe in inches ( — j — ). In the following table,
find the number nearest to the quotient thus obtained in the first
column, and the discharge in gallons per minute will be found
opposite it, under the diameter of the pipe used.
The discharge of small pipes may be calculated with sufficient
accuracy for practical i)urposes from the following convenient
table, showing the quantity of water that will flow through a pipe
500 feet long in 24 hours, with a pressure due to a head of ten
feet : —
1-inch bore . .
. 576 gallons.
3 -inch bore .
. 3,200 gallons.
Hnch " . .
. 1,150 "
1-inch " .
. 6,624 "
Hndi « . .
.. . 2,040 "
li-inch " .
. 10,000 "
HrDBATJLK'3 OF PLt'HBINO.
$ ofloiL biirsls
wliicli are nmply strong to retial a grenf
to ii
; ilie
The ^ gives the rvlaUoii of
X (» pll»is. Theao flg-
uipileil fioiii llie resiills of careful tests.
Wfi-ikl '("if SlreiigUi qf Lead Plpea.
1 i
fi
i
1
i
h
1
i
ji
1
1
a
li
i
i
i
!
i
\
!1
1 Vi
1 2
0 PI
775
34T
440
11
u
li
H
li
B
K
n
H.. oi.
3 4
O.SI*
0,125
Ibi.
M7
74S
410
118
240
20j
80
i
i
I
n
l]l
H.OIl--.
13W
^t
H
li
IJ
K
c
D
8 0
0,'jn
-4i
«ii8
so*
m
l-i
*
i|
B
lie
i
£,
1 ■!
n.io
TOS
171
li
c
4 0
03
.\.\A
1 It
O.-Jlh
ii»
3M
ij
2
2
I)
AAA
3 10
E
™
;i
J
ft
2 3
0.1 i
Km
iW
2
A
1 11
a.n
40,^
101
782
2
It
e 0
3S0
eo
p
1 3
o.m
eoj
■i
c
G 0
o.ie
MO
M
307
■I
20O
. .A
4 8
o.a
'
!
604
HYDRAULICS OF PLJ'MBING.
Dischaviie of Pipca hy Prony's Formvla.
r
1>IAMKTKU OF TIIK IMl'E, IN 1N( lIKh-
\\ ' 2 ; 2\
:» , 3i 1 4 ! 5
i u
<iAl.L<)NS I>l'^( IIAIHiKI) I'KU MiNlTE.
O.UOOdJlDJ
o.(V2:)
o.o.Ml
o.ll.-)n
0.20 4.".
0.:jl!M)
0 M'A\-2
1
(».(i2(5
o.sis
1.27 s
: 1.S41
t>.(tiiii()') j:;7
0.0:')
0.102.1
0.2:501 :
o.jo-.n
0.1^502
U.0204
1 .2.-.2
i.o;5<)
: :5.os2
o.niMt i.iio>*
0.07.'>
().l.'):i4
o.:;4r)0
c».f,l:;t')
(».'.)r)Ss
l.:5si
1.S7S
2.4.-)4
! .■...■.2;5
().(I:mi1:'. 11
O.lOO O.'JOlo
0. 1»i02
O.S182'
1.27S
1.S41
2.:)0i
:..ii:;
7.:5»5;;
0tl(ll)l^.;ti
0.12.')
O.-J.').')*")
o..')7.')0
1.02:5
l.oHS
2.:50l
:5.i:5o
4.0«.K>
o.;joo
o.2<»:»
(l.OU'lJ.'.'U
o.i:.
o.:i()i-.7
0.i>'IOO
1 .227
l.'.tl7
2.7r)l
:5. 7 ■')«•)
4.'.t(i>
7. Otis
ii.o.-.
().0(ki:;mi.;
0.17.")
o.:r)7S
o.S'»:»:j
1.4:52
2.2:57
:5.221
4.:5S2
;'i.72S
S.047
I2.k:i
(>.(n(i:'>7o.i
o.-J
0. IO«.U)
o.<,i2o|
1 {V.Wi
2..V)7
:5.os.>
;).00>>
0 .(40
10.2:5
,14 7:t
0.(1110 n.vj
0.-22')
0.4K01
l.o:;.-) 1
1.S41
2.S7«
4.142
.•».«;:54
7.:;o:? ii..".n
!lO..-)T
0.1)0; l.'.'Ji)!*
0 J")
(».:)112
1.1. •)0 1
2.04:)
;5.ior.
4.(i(»2
0.2<''<»
s.li-rfi 12.7.S
1S.41
0 Onii.] 10
0.-J7.">
0..')rt24
1.2(1.^) '
2.2.".0
:5.r)i;)
:».0(i2
«5..SS(5
O0(h> 14.(10
2t).2.'.
().(!( tllTOM)
0.:;
o.r.i :',.')
1 l.:5Sl
2.4.')4
:5..s.3.->
r)..'»22
7.;.12
«i.si»tl.-v.TI
•22.<»0
0 (MII)S((>i7
0 :;-j'
0. ('••'• it)
1 .4'.»«)
2.»r><>
4.1 04
; :..os2
s.i:5s
10.«)4
10.02
2.5.0:1
O.dOd.'l')}
o..;."i
0 71. '.7
1 .1'.l 1
2.Hr,4
4.474
0.44:5
S.7r,4 11.40
17. so
2.-..77
o.iinlojsi")
o.:i7"
o.7f)i)'.«
1.72»»
:5.0i)8
4.7'.M
O.'.Ml'i
'.•.:;*KI 12.27
.10.17
27.01
0 (till 1 4>(i
0.1
O.slSO
l.Stl
•1. Ji'i
r>.ii:5
7.:;o;
10.02
1:5.011
20.4.'.
2'.>.4:i
o.O'il-J7J
0 4J:
o.sO'.tl
1 .<•.').')
O.t 1 4
0.4:5:5
7.S2.;
10.01
1:5.01
21.7:5
:51.2'J
O.(HII40l)
0 1.')
0.1 (202
2.071
:5.«5.s2
:>.7;')7
. S.2>4
111.27
14.7:1
2:5.nl
•>•>. lo
(».0(ll.')t.'»
0.47:1
0 <.t7i;'>
2. ISO
;5.ssr)
0.077
.s 744
;ll.vi
l.'i..').'»
24.2*'
: 5 4.07
o.oni »■)'.»()
0..')
1.02:5
2.:5oi
4.o«n
<5.:5«»2
»i.20*
12..V2
10.. -57
2.'i!r>7
:5.;.s2
O.oo-J
O,.'):')
1.12;.
. 2.:>:5l
4.r»oo
7.0.51
10.12
1:5. ( 1
]SW
2S.12
4i>.:i(i
u.MOj;;:*,
0.»)
1.2\27
! 2.7C1
4.«MM>
7.rt70
11.04
ir).«i2
10.04
:;o.i.s
41. IS
o.oo-jt ■.<•:;
0.(i.')
1 .:'.2«»
2.««»1
;-..31S
s,:5oo
11. or,
10.2s
21.27
!:5:;.2;5
■47 Ml
o.ii(i:.o7'.>
0.7
1.4:51
:5.221
«.«»4's
12.SS
17.:i:5
22.01
:5.->.70
.■»I.;"i4
0 ii.i::4.)0
>).7.')
1 ..■):5:5
:'..4')0
r..i:5tJ
<».r»s»<
i:5.si
'1S.7S
24.:»4
:5S^U
"1:1.2:^
0 (lu:; rji'i
o.s
1 .t):;i)
;i.»;s2
6.r.44
10.2:5
14.7:5
20.0:5
20.1s
40.«K»
.Vs.'.Mi
o.imi ;s^
O.V)
1.7:1s
:5.<.M2
r..a''»4
lO.Sfi
1 :).»!.'»
21.20
27. S2
,4:5.40
i5'J..V.»
o.ii i|^7i')
'•.'.I
l.^n
4.142
7.:5r,;5
1 1 .:.i
ir..:.7
22.:):5
•20.40
■40.02
ii0.2T
n.u.i'i"_'.«>
1.0
2.04''
4.»U»2
K.I.S2
12.7S
1S.41
2.-. .114
.1.1 ^•i
.'1 1.1:5
7:5.113
(l.dHi'.iS
1.0:.
2.147
4.s:;2
h. .')'.»]
1:5.42
l'i.:i:'.
2«-..J'.'
• 1 1 <l-
.Vi.r,'!
1 1 .•! 1
(i.(Im7"|^
l.I
2.24'.»
.■|.t)ii2
«).OIMI
14.00
20.2:)
27.:.4
:p5.(Ni
:)0.24
so.w
0 i)ii7ti'.'I
i.i:.
2.:5'.1
r).2'.>2
t».4o.»
14.70
2l.i:»
2^.*»o
:;7.04
.'iS.SK
SI. 07
(i.iiiis;;.;s
l.-J
2. 1. -.4
:..r.22
n.sis
i:..:5i
22.«>'.»
:;o.o."i
:;'i.'js
01.:;0
"S.S.!
(MMi;i
1 .-j:,
2. .'».■)♦'.
;'».7;'>IJ
10.2:5
lU.'Hj
2:5.01
151.; 50
4«i.'.il
•>5.0l
02,04
r I
II;i\iim (ictrnniiuMl tlic i»i't\s.<^iii'(> due to lu'ud with \vln<-1i lu* baa
to (It'iil, ami tlic ^izc of tlu' i»i|M' ium'«U'«1 to ili.-^rliaii;*' a uivfii «|ii:iii-
lily In a \i\\i'\\ tiiiH'. tln' iiIhuiImt imi.sl <'iil('nlat(' tlu* .stiriii^th wliidi
liis ]ii|i<> must ])()^s«'.ss to K'.si.st this pn'ssiirc uiulor all <'oii(liiiuiis.
I'liis hi' iummI iioi do with aI).M)lut«' aj-nuju'v, ft)r tho rt'arion that he
iiiiwi ii^<' i1h' i'ii)«' III' iiiiii> in thi* iiMJi.'-t ; h;ii :hr streiv^thof rh«'
<i/.i- III tiic iiiarKcl is k^t.aii. and (>!i th. l)a.sl.s of this ki>owK'ili;i>
l-.c •an d<-;<i-niin(' the weight of i>i])r lie nM|uirfS. In all such rai-
• iii.ii loii^. liowi'vrr. iiicir should oi :. iiocral inarum ior s^ittiv.
Till- pi|>c may citiiodi'. fxtcnial intiui-iirrs may wrakcii it, aii«l
"XiraordinaiN jncsMut"^ mny hi- brtH'.'d'* »o |M*ar r?p(»ii It, — :ls by'liO
.<ii<]«i<'ii iinsiii<^ nt a COCK. Ainch. owini; 10 tli«> inconi])n'Ksii)Jo iiaturt*
.»r w.ihi . causes It to sii'iKf a ]>o\\t'i-t.ii mow, diK> to uh* siiu(ii>iiiv
uircsicii momcniiMu ot thi* eiitiiv coiuiiiii uf water 111 liie piptid
HyDBAULK"S OF PLrMBINQ. 865
This oflcii bursts pipes wliicli are nmiily sLrong to resisl a grcM
■leal iiioi't; pifssine to wliifli ihey aro siibiwieil.
(iLlier to incifase the pi'essiivc, ami lax tlie
resisti tlift ^SS strong eiioiigli to Iwnr
llifSi' ilia;. The Uie relalioii ot
si/e anil pil>es. Tliesc II5-
ures ai'u uoiiipiieil fioui the rL-aiLlts of careful tests,
Weiiibl mill Streiiolh 0/ Lead Pipes.
1.
.
ii
: i
1.
j
ij
1
1
i
L
1
li
^
5
1
|i
1
2-
1
im
lb. «.
1,.-.
ii«.
ii«.
11,. OJ.
im.
lb,.
lb,.
1
'a
1 2
oil
mi
^
1
I
2 8
0.17
745
.88
B
1 0
0.1 J.-.
iwa
335
1
u
2 J
0.125
fiis
lae
010
«0«
108i
271
I
1
^-
■i 0
O^M
^
lis
0 n
U.OS
■■HO
U
H
n
n
H
li
H
1-1
li
1}
1!
.-
l"l
B
9e2
87
AA^
2U
«H
1152
m
li
li
c
3 S
I'u
a^
'"a
11
2 0
o.in
em
■ua
H
-
3 0
0.12
■>4i
81
Tfli
198
13
D
:,:
«.1.1
70S
ij«i
Z
li
1}
c
3 10
0.125
318
n;^
AA
• ;
o'tr
Io^2
Z
•i
•1
AAA
'«U
0.30
".2n
hI
I«
I^
mb
■i
A
7 0
n.2l
405
101
(;
1 n
0.1 a.-.
782
19--.
2
II
e 0
0.19
300
M
o.on
50,-.
J-."!
■i
_
AAA
w
"
910
."
■i
I>
..
600 MEMORANDA FOR PAINTERS.
"Wrouj?lit-iron pipes suitable for water service range in
diiiniotiT from half an inch to sixteen inches. The tables on pp.
021, 022, show the weight of the various sizes manufactured.
Messrs. Tasker tt Co., of the l*aseal Iron-Works, Philadelphia,
subject the pipes which they manufactun^ to tlie following tests: —
Oni'-lialf to one and one-fourth inch, butt-welded, M) pounds
?'.yihaiilic prrssun? per scjuare inch.
One and one-lialf to ten inch, lai)-welded, 500 i>oiinds hydraulic
i>:('ssin'e jx'r s(|uare inch.
i*ractically tliey are strong enough to bear any pressure with
whicli tlie phiml)er has to deal. The same is true of drawn brass
and c()])per i)ipes.
The in'cvssiires to he dealt with in American plumbing prac-
tice vary tinough a wide rang(^ In cities supplied by what are
known as gravity-works — i.e., where dependence is placed on
natural hcail at the distributing reservoir, as in New York — the
l)n^ssure of water is often veiy light.
WluMc ])uniping niachin<>ry is used, and a high head i.3 main-
tained i»i tall stand-pipes, or the pumjjs deliver directly into the
mains, we sometimes get pressures of one hundred i)Oiuids to
the scjuare inch, and upward.
MEMORANDA FOR PAINTERS.
[From '• IJuildiTH' (J wide and IMce Book."]
Painting.
raint«rs' work is irenerallv estimated by the yard, and the cost
(IfjH'inJs ui.oii the nuiniu'r of coats ai)])lied, besides the quality uf
the work. ;tnd tlw material to be ]»ainted.
Oiii' (-out, or firhiiiiKj, will take, for KK) yards of painting, 2(»
i»()in. !s (.!' jcail and 4 gallons of oil. Two-coat work, 4<> jMnnids t>f
.- :nl :iii 1 I lmIIoms of oil. Three-coat, tin' sann* (piantity un two
:.»:il'^: . (» iliat :i fair <'stimat«' for KM) yanls of thnnM'oat w«»rk
wouM 1m' KM) ].(uimls of lead and H5 gall(Mis of nil.
I u.ilinn piiinMii: <'oloi- will ruvrr "»0 .sinM-rlieial \aiils.
1 ^ '
white zinc
oO
» •
• »
1 k •
white paint
44
»*
«i
1 * *
lead rolor
.'»()
»k
a
black paint
:.n
4(
a
1 i 1
stone color
44
ti
M
UGHTNING CONDUCTOBS. 667
1 gallon yellow paint will cover 44 superficial yards.
1 " blue color " 45 " "
1 " green paint " 45 " "
1 " bright emerald green " 25 " "
1 " bronze green " 75 " "
One pound of paint will cover about 4 superficial yards the first
coat, and about 6 each additional coat. One pound of putty, for
stopping, eveiy 20 yards. One gallon of tar and 1 pound of pitch
will cover 12 yards superficial the tii-st coat, and 17 yards each
additional coat.
A square yard of new brick wall requires, for the first coat of
paint in oil, i of a pound ; and for the second, 3 poimds ; and for
the third, 4 poimds.
A day's work on the outside of a building is 100 yards of first
coat, and 80 yards of either second or third coat. An ordinaiy
door, including casings, will, on both sides, make 8 to 10 yards of
painting, or about 5 yards to a door without the casings. An ordi-
nary window makes about 2^ or :] yards.
Fifty yards of common graining is a day's work for a grainor and
one man to nib in. In painting blinds of ordinary size, 12 is a fair
day's work for one coat, and 9 pounds of lead and 1 gallon of oil
will paint them.
UOHTNING CONDUCTORS.
Rules for the erection of lightning conductors, issued in 1883
by the Explosive Department of the Home Office to the occupiers
of all factories and magazines for explosives, and to those local and
police aut'orities upon whom devolves the inspection of stores of
e^losives :
1. Material of Bod, — Copper, weighing not less than 6 oz. per
foot run, the electrical conductivity of which is not less than 90
per cent, of that of pure copper, cither in the form of rod, tape, or
rope of stout wires, no individual wire being less than No. 12 B.
W. G. (.109 inch). Iron may bo used, but should not weigh less
than 2^ pounds per foot run.
2. Joints. — Every joint, besides being well cleaned and screwed,
scarfed, or riveted, should be thoroughly soldered.
3. l^orm of Points. — The point of the upper terminal * of the
» The upper terminal is that portion of the conductor which is between the top
of the edifice and the point of the conductor.
608 LiaHTNTNG CONDUCTORS.
conduclo)* should not liavc a sharper angle than 00". A foot bolow
\\w (iXtrciTK' j)()int a copiuT ring should be scTcwc<l and soldoreil on
to tliu ui)iM.'i" toi'inimil, in which ring should be fixed three or four
sharp copixT ixuiits, each about, six inehes long. It is desirable
thai tlu'.s(' points should bo so i)latinized, gilded or nickel-plated, as
to resist oxidation.
•1. \innf/('r <'n<i Ih'iqht of Upper lerminah. — The number of
conductors or upper terniinjds recpiired will d<'i)end upon the .size of
the build in;;, the inat(!rial of which it is constructed, and the com-
parative h('i,Lcht above ground of the several parts. Xo gencnil
rule can bc^ given for this, except that it may be assumed that the
space ])rotectcd by the conductor is. as a rule, a cone, the radium
of wlio-ie. l»ase is e(jual to the height of the conductor from the
gi'ound.
5. Currahirc. Tlie rod should not l)e bent abruptly round sharp
conuM's. In no ease >hould the length of a curve \w. more than
hair as luii^^ atrain as its chord. A hole should In? drilled in strinsr-
couise>> oi' ••ilnr j)roieciing nuisonry, wIk'U iK)Ssible, to allow the
rod to pass freely through it.
(». I/isu/(f/t/r.<.-'V\u' conductor should not be kept from the build-
ing by glass oi- nth- r in^^ulators. but attjiche<l to it by fastenings of
the same inelal jk iIh" condiictoi" itself is composed of.
7. Fi.n'/i;/. Cf inductors should |»n'ferentially \k* taken d(»wii the
side of the hiiilding whi<'h is most expnsed to niin. They shi>ultl
l)c h"l(l (iiiiilv. but tln' holdfasts should not be driven in sti tiirhtlv
a> to pin h the (onductor or prevent contraction and exiKin.^iun due
ti> cliaiiLTi' "f icnipcrat in'e.
s. n//ii r M(f(if \Vtirh\ — All metallic s|m»uIs. gutter, inui din.rs.
and oiiiir !iia><<es of imcImI about the buildinu: should iMM'K'ctrieally
couMcciril w it h ih<- con<lu«-t«)r.
!». Hmth ('nunirfinn. It is most desirable that, whenever ]nis.m-
bj.'. i!ic lowii- c\t rendt\ of the j-ouiluctur should 1m' iiuricd in pcr-
ni-in>-;iti\ d:ini|) mmI. Ilcini'. proximity to rain water pi)'(*s and (<>
<iraiM< "P I'lliei- water i- iji-iralile. It is a very gnod plan !i> bifur-
c;i;e ilir i<'M'luci(»r cic -I- bi'li>\v tin* surface uf the ground, and to
■ci<>iit i\\""rt!i<- !-.iln\viiiL; methods fur .vcuriui: the escape of I lie
li::'ii iiiic.' iiiio the e;:rili : ■liA'^triji of copper tap*- nun In- led
li->>!ii i!ii- !)>i:i'm -'I' ill- I'oil to a u'a*^ or water main >not nuTidv to a
I- .1 I. II (>ijH >, if --M li i'\i-l hear ei'iiugh. and be soMered In it : \'l a
!;i;i- •■i;i\ i •■■ 'MiMenil loji >hi'e; o| (Mipper, \\ feet f- \\ feet • ", inch
ilii- I. Iiiiiif] in jiermaneutly wet earth ami surrouiuleii by cindepior
• oiv : il) 111. my \.-ird- of eiip{ier ta|ii- may !••- laid in a tri-ncli tlllinl
Willi e>>l\< . Iiavin.r noi K-.-^> than Is Mpiare fe. I of copfHir cXptMed.
ELECTBICAL DEFINITIONS AND FOBMULiB. 669
10. Prohction from Theft, etc. — In places where there is any like-
lihood of the copper being stolen or injured, it should be protected
by being enclosed in an iron gas-pipe, reaching ten feet (if there is
room) above ground and some distance into the ground.
11. Painting. — Iron conductors, galvanized or not, should be
painted. It is optional with copper ones.
12. Inspection. — VS'hen the conductor is finally fixed it should in
all cases be examined and tested by a qualified person, and this
should be done in the case of new buildings after all work on them
is finished.
Periodical examination and testing, should opportunities offer,
are also very desirable, especially when iron earth connections are
employed.
SIMPLE ELI3CTRICAL DEFINITIONS AND
FORMULiE.
[From " Modern Light and Ileat/'J
The Volt is the unit of electro-motive force, which in formulaB is
symbolized by E.
Electro-motive force, which is the force that moves electricity, is
usually written E. M. F., and various writers use it to express
potential, difference of potential, electric pressure, and electric
force.
Potential and E M. F. are different ways of regarding the same
agency and are equal in value. Both are measured in volts, and
are equal at the same point. Potential relates to the inductive
circuit, and E. M. F. relates tc the conductive circuit.
One volt will force one amptre of current through one ohm of
resistance. Its value is purely arbitrary, but fixed.
The Ohm is the unit of resistance, which in formulae is sym-
bolized by R.
Its value is not absolutely known, but all electricians in 1886
agreed to consider it, for 10 years, as ecjual to the resistance of a
column of pure mercury 1 square millimeter in section and 106
centimeters long at the temperature of molting ice. A copper
wire 95 per cent conductivity, yo'on of an inch in diameter, and 10
feet long has about K 0 ohms resistance.
One ohm is that resistance through which one ampere of current
will flow at a pressure of one volt of E. M. F.
The Amp^e is the unit of current per second, which in formulae
is symboiliied'ljy C. Its value may be defined as that quantity ot
610 ELECTRICAL DEFINITIONS AND FORMTLiE.
electricity wliich flows per second through one ohm of resistaDce,
wlieii impelled by one volt of E. ^l V.
One fiinpere of current llowin<i^ thi-ough a bath will deposit
O.017"2oo ^nviin of MJvor, or ().005(W grain of copper per second.
T\'A'. iclaii(;iis which exist between E. M. V., resistance, and cur-
rent ai'C! known as Ohm's Law. Its simpltjst expressions are as fol-
lows :
In an rlfdrical circuit the ('urrent in amixji'os may bo found by
dividini^ tin* I]. M. E. in volts by the resistaiKM^ in ohms.
The E. M. E. ill volts nuiy bo found by multiplying tho currtMit
in ani|H'ns by tho resistance; in ohms.
Tlio Ii<sisftf/HT in ohms may be found by dividing tho K. M. F.
in volts by tin: current in amperes.
In a given resisiance an incn^ase of E. M. F. must Iw aceora-
j)ani(;d by a proportional increase of current ; or an increase of cur-
rent niusi !)(• accompanied Ijy a proportional increase of K. M. P.;
but an ini-rease <if resisL-nice will l)o accompanied by a pn)])ortional
increase of Vl. M. E., or a proiM)rtionul decrease of current ; and a
decrease of resistance will be accompanied by a pro|K)rtit)nal de-
cr(»ase of 1']. M. E., or a proportional incrreas^^ of current.
Ae(M)nling to these relations, it is seen that C and Rare each th«
recMpHM-al of the other multiplied l)y E ; that is to .swy, that C and
11 limit and jleline each otiuM* where E is a fixe<l quantity.
In a giv»'n resist inci', IJnvrfft/, such as work or heat, varies as the
s(piare of tlie current or of the electro-motive force; that is, by
doublin;; I he E. M. E. the energy becom<'s four times as great ; by
trebling the E. M. E. the energy is nine times as great.
I*nirri is th«« rate of doing work, and is propurtioiial to the
E. M. l'\ multiplied by tluM-urn-nt.
The Wnll is the unit of I'lectrieai power.
One V(^li nniliiplied by one am}M*re e(jwds onr* watt.
One lUifti'i'tuif. Ilin'sr-fhnn'i' (Mjual.s 7-H) Wat ts. That !.•< to SAT, a
current of I ampv're and Tit) volts would U' one eU»i*trical hi»rst»-
|M>wer. \\\t\ Mie horse ]Mtwer expendefl wliolly in pnvhieing «»lrt'.
trii* eueruN wi>uM g«'nerate 1 annien» in T-M ohms n^sistani'C, or
7 h» ampere-, in 1 «»hm re>istance.
In le.KJiiiL: Eri'ijch text-i>ooks it must lu* n'mendien*d tluit chmtt-
t'iifi.ur. or I'^-eiieh horse-jMJwer. i'«|uals only T^JIJ walls.
I'.. r copper win- ihesipiareof diami>tcr. witli Ihf fullnwiug I'vin-
.stants. will give the f oil o wi ng pn i| K'lt ie.s. </ InMUg e(|ual to diameter :
EiH't |N>r |M>und. diviih; :i;)(k')tU) by tt*
Van Is per pound, divide 1 1U187 by d*
ELECTBIOAL DEFINITIONS AND FOI fhJB. 671
Grains per foot, multiply 0 0211761 by cP
Pounds per 1,000 feet, multiply 0.0030263 by d*
Pounds per mile, multiply 0.015973 by d^
Pounds per nautical mile, multiply 0.018414 by d^
The same constants used in the opposite manner will give the
area, from which the diameter may bo found by dividing it by
. 785 1 and extracting the square root.
The following figures furnish useful data as to copper wire ; they
are the resistances of a wire 7„'(TiT of an inch diameter, and of the
length named, at 60° Fahrenheit. Divided by the sectional area
they will give :
10 . 3305 will give ohms per foot.
31 .0095 will give ohms per yard.
54677. will give ohms per mile.
62918. will give ohms per nautical mile.
3416825. divided by d* will give ohms per pound.
0.0967447 multiplied by d^ will give feet per ohm
As a copper wire becomes warm, so does its resistance increase.
Between the freezing and boiling points of water this ratio is very
nearly fixed. For practical purposes the resistance of a copper
wire may be said to increase . 215 of 1 per cent, for every degree
Fahrenheit.
It is convenient to remember that the weight of a wire is directly,
and the resistance inversely, i)roportional to the square of its diam-
eter, and that the resistance of a wire varies inversely as the sec-
tion, and, therefore, inversely as the square of the diameter, and
also inversely as to the weight of a given length. It also varies
directly as to the length of a given weight.
672
ELECTRICAL DEFINITIONS AND FORMULA
TABLE SHOWING DIFFERENCE IN WEIGHT OP COPPER
WIRE.
B. & S., OK
Birmingham
Neav British
No.
AmKKICAN (iAUOK.
Gauge.
Standard Gaugk.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lb*.
per 1,000 feet.
per 1,000 feet.
per 1,000 feet.
4-0
689.38
623.925
484.03
3-0
507.01
546.76
418.63
2-0
402 . <.^9
487.107
866 36
0
819.04
349.928
817.54
1
252.88
272.435
272.27
2
200 . 54
244.15
230.44
8
159.08
203.964
192.11
4
126.12
171.465
162.88
5
100 01
146.51
185.96
()
79 . 82
124.742
111 52
i
62.90
98.076
98.71
8
49.88
82.41
77.445
9
39 . 56
66.8(n5
62.730
10
81.87
54.354
49.505
11
24.88
43.59
40.707
12
19 . 73
35.964
82.730
13
15.65
27.319
25.01)5
14
12.41
20.853
19.361
15
9.84
15.692
15.68)
16
7.81
12.789
12.891
17
6.19
10.18
9.4809
18
4.91
7.268
6.9700
19
8.78
0 840
4.8408
20
3.09
3.708
8.9206
21
2.45
3.099
8.0978
22
1.94
2.373
2.8708
28
1.54
1.893
1.7425
24
1 . 22
1.465
1.4642
2r>
.97
1.211
1.2100
26
.77
.9807
.08015
27
.61
.7749
.813(i5
2S
.48
.5933
.60268
'J 9
.5116
.55953
8i)
.30
.4359
.46515
31
.24
.3027
.40707
3i
.19
.•M52
.8.V2MJ
.15
.193;
.80d5i
:i4
.12
AAHS
.25605
35
.10
.07568
.21346
3«>
.08
.04843
.17478
BLBCTBICAL DEFINmOIIS AND FOBVUL.&
6V4
ELECTRICAL DEFINITIONS AND FORMULA
RESISTANCE OF PURE COPPER AT 75° FAHRENHEIT.
No.
Ohms
Feet
Ohms
per 1,000 feet.
per ohm.
per poand.
0000
.051
19,605.69
.0000798
000
.064
15,547.87
.000127
00
.081
12,330.36
.000202
0
.10-3
9,783.03
.000820
1
.129
7.754.66
.00061
2
.103
6.149.78
.000811
8
. 205
4.J^.76.73
.001289
4
.259
3,867.63
.00205
5
.326
3,06?. 06
.00326
6
.411
2,432.22
.00518
7
.519
1,928.71
.00824
8
.052
1,529 69
.01311
9
.8M
1,218 C2
.03088
10
1.040
961.91
.a^isu
11
1 311
762.93
.a5269
12
1 . H53
60") 03
.08:J77
18
2 084
479.80
.18821
14
2.628
380.51
.2118
15
3.314
301 . 75
.8868
10
4.179
239.8-3
.5855
17
5.269
189.78
.8615
18
0.G45
150.50
1.86 S9
11)
8.617
116.05
2.2772
20
10.566
94.65
8.4-38
21
13.323
75 . 06
6.44:^
22
16.799
59 . 53
8.664
23
21.185
47.20
18.763
24
26.713
37.43
21.S85
25
33 . 6S4
29.69
84.795
2()
42.47r
28.54
55.831
ELECTRIC LIGHTING BY INCANDESCKNT .SYSTEM. 676
EQUIVALENT OF 32ds OF AN INCH IN THOUSANDTHS
OF AN INCH.
1-32
equals
.03125
17-32 equals .58125
2 "
.06250
18
* .66?5
8 **
.09375
19
* .59375
4 '»
.125
20
* .6-25
5 "
.15G25
21
' .65625
6 "
.18750
22
' .68750
7 *'
.21865
23
' .71875
8 '*
.250
24
' .750
9 *'
.281-35
25
* .78125
10 "
.31250
26
* .81250
11 "
.34375
27
* .84875
12 '*
.375
28
* .875
13 *'
.40625
29
* .90625
14 *'
.43750
30
* .93750
15 '»
.46875
31
* .96875
16 "
.500
32
* 1.000
RULES AND REQUIREMENTS OF THE NATIONAL
AND NEW YORE BOARD OF FIRE UNDERWRIT-
ERS FOR THE INSTALLATION OF ELECTRIO
UaHT AND POWER.
AS RECOMMENDED BY
The Undeewbiters' International Electric Association,
January, 1894.
The use of wire-ways for rendering concealed wiring permanently
accessible, is most heartily indorsed and recommended ; and this
method of accessible concealed construction is advised for general
use.
Architects are urged, when drawing plans and specifications, to
make provision for the channelling and pocketing of buildings for
electric light or power wires, and in specifications for electric gas
lighting to require a two wire circuit, whether the building is to be
wired for electric lighting or not, so that no part of the gas fix-
tures or gas piping be allowed to be used for the gas- lighting
circuit.
67(3 ELECTRIC LIGHTING BY INCANDESCENT SYSTEM.
CENTRAL STATIONS.— CLASS A.
For Light or Poicer,
The rules under this class, not being of special interest to archi-
tects, iire omitted.
CLASS B.— AKC (SERIES) SYSTEMS.
Ooer 800 Volts.
10. Outsi(l<* Coiidiictors.— All outside, overhead conductors
(inchidin^ services) :
(a) Must be covered with soiiu; approved insulating material, not
easily abraded, iirmly secured to i)r()])erly insulated and substan-
tially built supports, all tie wires liaving an insulation equal to
that of th(* conductoi's they couiiue.
(h) Must be >o placi'd that moisture cannot form a cross connec-
tion bet.veeii tlieiii, not less than a foot ai)art, and not in contact
with any substance other than their insulating supports.
{(') !\iust b(; at least seven feet above the highest [mint of flat
roof>. and at least, one foot above the ridge of pilclied roofs over
which tliev pass or to which thev are attached.
{(I) Mu>t Ite protected by dead insulated (jnnrd irons or irires
from possii)ility of contact with other conducting wires or sul)-
stanees to which .current nuiy leak. Special j)recautions of this
kind must be taken where sharp angli\s occur or where any wires
miiilit pos<ibly conu' in contact with electric light or |M)wcr wires.
{)'■ y\n>\ be provided with petticoat insuhitors of glass or |H>r-
celain. Porcelain knobs or cleats and rubl)er h(M)k^J will not lie
approve(l.
(/) Mu^t be so spliced or joined as to be lM)th meelmnically and
elecTrically "-tiure without solder. The joints must llu'U be sohiere*!.
to insure |ir«servation, and covered with an insulation e<|ual to that
on \hr couductors.
11. S<'rvir4* l^lorks :
(a Mu^i be c:)vere<l over their entire surface with at least two
coats (»f watfr])roof paint.
(/') 'rele::rai)h. teli'}>hoiu'. and similar wires must not be placed
on the same ci-oss-arm with electric light or power win*8.
INTKK'OU CONDICTORS.
V2. All Interior CoiMlurtors :
(ii> .Must be coveri'd wliere thev enter buildinu'S from outside
ELECTEIC LIGHTING BY INCANDESCENT SYSTEM. Q17
terminal insulators to and through the walls, with extra waterproof
insulation, and must have drip loops outside. The hole through
which the conductor passes must be bushed with waterproof and
non-combustible insulatipg tube or hard rubber tube, slanting
upward toward the inside. The tube must be sealed witli tape,
thoroughly painted, and securing the tube to the wire.
(b) Must be arranged to enter and leave tlie building through a
double contact service switch, which will effectually close the main
circuit and disconnect the interior wires when it is turned "off."
The switch must be so constructed that it shall be automatic in its
action, not stopping between points when started, and prevent an
arc between the points under all circumstances ; it must indicate
on inspection whether the current be **on" or "off," and be
mounted in a non- combustible case, and kept free from moisture
and easy of access to police or firemen.
(c) Must be always in plain sight, and never encased, except when
required by the inspector.
(d) Must be covered in all cases with an approved non-combus-
tible material that will adhere to the wire, not fray by friction, and
bear a temperature of 150° P. without softening.
{c) Must be supported on glass or porcelain insulators, and kept
rigidly at least eight inches from each other, except within the
•structure of lamps or on hanger boards, cut-out boxes, or the like,
where less distance is necessary.
{/) Must be separated from contact with walls, floors, timbers,
or partitions through which they may pass, by non-combustible
insulating tube or hard rubber tube.
ig) Must be so spliced or joined as to be both mechanically and
electrically secure without solder. They must then be soldered, to
insure preservation, and covered with an insulation equal to that
on the conductors.
LAMPS AND OTHER DEVICES.
13. Arc Lamps. — In every case:
{a) Must be carefully isolated from inflammable material.
(6) Must be provided at all times with a glass globe surrounding
the arc, securely fastened upon a closed base. No broken or
cracked globes to be used.
(c) Must be provided with an approved hand switch; also an
automatic switch that will shunt the current around the carbons
should they fail to feed properly.
id) Must be provided with reliable stops to prevent carbons from
falling out in case the clamps become loose.
678 ELECTRIC LIGHTING BY INCAXDESCENT SYSTEM.
(e) jNInst be carefully insulated from the circuit in all their
exposed parts.
{f) Must be provided with a wire net tin": around the globe, and
an apprwrd spju'k arrester above to prevent escapo of s|)ark8,
melted copper or carbon, where readily inilamina'ule material is in
the vicdnity of the lamps. It is recommended that plain carboDS,
not coppei' plated, be used for lamps in such places.
(//) llan«,'er boards must be so constructed that all wires ami
current-carrying devices thereon shall be exjx)sed to view, and
thoroughly insulated by being mounted on a waterproof, non-com-
bustiijle su)>stance. All switches attached to the same must be so
C')nstruct(vl tliat they shall be automatic in their action, not stop-
ping b('tw('(!n points when started, and preventing an arc between
points under all circumstances.
11 IiiraiHloscnit Lamps in Series Circuits having
a 31a\ijniiiii i*otential of iWO A'olts or Over:
(a) Must 1)0 governed by the same rules as for arc: lights, and
each scritis lamp jn'ovided with an approved hand-spring switch
and automatic cut-out.
(h) Mu>t have each lamp suspended from a hanger board by
means of a rigid tube.
{(') Xo elect ro-nu»gn(!tic device for switches and no system of
multi|)l<'-Mries or series multiple lighting will In.* approved.
{(f ) Tnder no circumstances can series lamps bo attache<l to gu
lixliires.
CLASS r.--lN(;AM)i^]S(:KNT (LOW PKESSURE) SYSTEMS.
BOO I'olift or Leas.
oiTsiDi: r(»Ni)r<ToKS.
15. Oiifshle (>ver1iea<1 (Conductors:
(ii > .^jll^t lit' en-eted in ai'eordance wit h the rules for are rst'rii's)
Cil'ewit enliduetors.
.'" Mii-t ln' separ.iied not les- than 1'.* iiicln's, and U* pn)vidiil
Willi an >rji;.rt>rnf lii^ibU' eul -i>nl . 1 hai will cut olT (lir eiilinM-iirri lit
asii-aias ;-i)«>'<iijle to the eiiii-aneelo the liuiliiing and inside the
111. I iKlcr^roiiiid <*on<hi<'tors :
(</; Mii^t l»' pr- fleet cd agaii.st moisiure and n!i'<-hanical injury.
and 1 1- rc:iiiiv<d ai least two t'ei-l from (■c)mi)u>tible material when
i>p>nL:lii intu a buihling, but not counecled with the interior coD-
diietur**
ELECTKIC LIGHTING BY INCANDESCENT SYSTEM. 679
(b) Must have a switch and a cut out for each wire between the
underground conductors and the interior wiring when the two
parts of the wiring are connected.
These switches and fuses must be placed as near as possible to
the end of the underground conduit, and connected .therewith by
specially insulated conductors, kept apart not less than two and a
half inches.
(c) Must not be so arranged as to shunt the current through a
building around any catch- box.
INSIDE WIRING.
GENERAL RULES.
17. At the entrance of every building there shall be an approved
switch placed in the service conductors by which the current may
be entirely cut off.
18. Conductors :
(a) Must have an appnyoed insulated covering, and must not be
of sizes smaller than No. 14 B. & S , No. 10 B. W. G., or No. 4 E.
S. G , except that in conduit installed under Rule 22, No. 16 H. &
S., No. 18 B. W. G., or No. 4 E. S. G. may be used.
(b) Must be protected when passing through floors ; or through
walls, partitions, timbers, etc., in places liable to be exposed to
dampness, by waterproof, non-combustible, insulating tubes, such
as glass or porcelain.
Must be protected when passing through walls, partitions, tim-
bers, etc., in places not liable to be exposed to dampness, by
approved insulating bushings specially made for the purpose.
(c) Must be kept free from contact with gas, water, or other
metallic piping, or any other conductors or conducting material
which they may cross (except high potential conductors), by some
continuous and firmly fixed non-conductor creating a separation of
at lea.«?t one inch. Deviations from this rule may sometimes be
allowed by special permission.
{d) Must be so placed in crossing high potential conductors that
there shall he a space of at least one foot at all points between the
high and low tension conductors.
{e) Must be so placed in wet places that an air space will be left
between conductors and pipes in crossing, and the former must be
nm in such a way that they cannot come in contact with the pipe
tooidentally. Wires should be run over all pipes upon which con-
OSO ELECTKIC LIGUTING IJY IXCA^s DESCENT SYSTEM.
(l('nj>ed moisture is likely to gathor, or which by leaking might
cause trouljlo on a circuit.
SPECIAL RULES.
19. Wiriiij^ not l^jucasecl in Moulding: or Approved
Conduit :
{(() Must l)e supported wholly on non-combustible insulators, con-
st rueted so as to prevent the insulating cox'orings of the wire from
e()inin<r in conlael with other substances than the insulating
supi)orts.
(/>) y\u>\ l)e so arran^^ed that wires of opposite polarity, with a
(lifrereijce of potential of 150 volts or less, will be kept apart at
least two and one-half inches.
((■) Must have the above distance increased proiwiiionately wliere
a hi^rlier volta.i,^' is used, unless they are encased in moulding or
(tjiproi'i (I conduit.
((h Mu^t not l)e laid in ])laster, cement, or similar finish.
{<') Mu>t never be fastened with staples.
Ill ViijUiishal LofU, In-iwcen Floor and Cnliiigs, in Partitions,
and Other Places.
if) yiu^t have at least one inch clear air space surrounding them.
(//) Mu>t lie at least ten inches aj)art when |X)ssible. and should
be run singly on separalf timbers or studding.
(//) W irr^ lun as above immediately under roofs, in proximity to
wntcr liinks <.r i)ij)"S. will l)e consid«'red as (•x|)os<m1 to moisture.
. /) Wii. - must not lie fished for any great distance, and only in
places whiTf tiK' inspector can satisfy himself that the al>ovt' rules
hnvc been complied with.
( /) Twin wires musi never be employe*! in this class of concealed
work.
•J<». >l4Mi'k<lin^s :
('I Mu>t never be u^ed in concenled work or in damp places.
<'' Mu-i have jit least two conts of waler[>roof paint or l»
impi'eu'ii.iii'l with a nioi>ture repellent.
o', Mu^i be made of M\o pie<-es, ji backiin: and capping. .*!«i c«»n-
>iruet' «1 .1- to thoroughly encase the wire, and maintain a disiamr
oi' i.iic li<-i!r inch between eonduchus of opiNi.>^ito {Nilarily. and iifTuni
suiiai'i.- jiioiiction from altrasion.
Ji. S|MM-iiil Wiring :
In bi< wi i-i<>, j acking houses, stables, dyehouses, | taper and pulp
mills, or other buildings s)K.'eially liable to nioisturo, or acid or
ELECTRIC LIGHTING BY INCANDESCENT SYSTEM. 681
other fumes liable to injure the wires or insulation, except where
used for pendants, conductors—
(a) Must be separated at least six inches.
(&) Must be proYided with an approved waterproof covering.
(c) Must be carefully put up.
(d) Must be supported by glass or porcelain insulators. No
switches or fusible cut-outs will be allowed where exposed to in-
flammable gases or dust, or to flyings of combustible material.
(e) Must be protected when passing through floors, walls, par-
titions, timbers, etc., by waterproof, non-combustible, insulating
tubes, such as glass or porcelain.
22. Interior Conduits : *
(a) Must be continuous from one junction box to another, or to
fixtures, and must bo of material that will resist the fusion of the
wire or wires they contain, without igniting the conduit.
(6) Must not be of such material or construction that the insula-
tion of the conductor will ultimately be injured or destroyed by the
elements of the composition.
(c) Must be first installed as a complete conduit system, without
conductors, strings, or anything for the purpose of drawing in the
conductors, and the conductors then to be pushed or fished in.
The conductors must not be placed in position imtil all mechanical
work on the building has been, as far as possible, completed.
(d) Must not be so placed as to be subject to mechanical injury
by saws, chisels, or nails.
(«) Must not be supplied with a twin conductor or two separate
conductors, in a single tube, unless the said two separate conductors
or twin conductor, having an approved insulation, are enclosed in a
complete, fully insulated, continuous iron conduit, and are in cir-
cuits installed as per table of Capacity of Wires (see Section 25),
for currents not to exceed luO amperes.
(/) Must Jiaoe all ends closed with good adhesive material, cither
at junction boxes or elsewhere, whother such ends are concealed or
exposed. Joints must bo made air-tight and moisture-proof.
(g) Conduits must extend at least one incli beyond the finished
surface of walls or coilinii:s until the mortar or other sirniLir
material be entirely dry, when the projection may be reduced to
half an inch.
♦ The object of ft 1 ube or conduit is to fsicilituto the ins^ortion or extraction of
the conductow, to proti'Ct them from mechanical injnry, and, a** far as possible,
from moirture. Tabes <>r conduits arc lo be considered merely as racewayy, and
are not to be relied on for insulation between wire and wire or between ihe wire
and tlie ground.
682 ELECTRIC LIGHTIXG BY INCANDESCENT SYSTEM.
23. I>oiiblc Pole Safety Cut-outs :
(a) Must be in plain sight or enclosed in an approved box, readily
accessible.
(h) Must be placed at every point where a change is made in the
sv/A' of tlie wire (unless the cut-out in the larger wire will pmtet-t
tlie smaller).
ic) Must be supported on bases of non-coinl)Ustible, insulating,
moist ure i)r()of material.
{ih Must b(i supplied with a plug (or other device for enclosing
the fusible stri}) or wire) inadc^ of non-con d)iistible and moisturc-
prooi' mat(?rial. and so constructed that an arc cannot be maintained
across its terminals by the fusing of the metjil.
(e) Must l)e so placed that on any combination fixture no group
of lamps re([uiring a current of six amperes or more shall be ulti-
mately de])eu(Ient upon one cut-out. Special permission may be
given i/i ivritiay by the inspector for departure from this rule in
case of lar«xe chandeliers.
(/) All cut-out blocks must Ik; stamped with their maximum
safe -carry lug capacity hi amiKjn^s, and tchen installed must be
marked with the current they are intended to carry.
24. Safety Fuses:
{<() Must all l)e stamped or otherwise marked with the number of
amperes they will carry indefinitely witliout melting.
(/;) Must have fusil)le wires or strips (whciv tiie plug or equiva-
lent dcvict' is not u^cch, with contact surfaces or ti|.)s of hanler
metal. >(il(lcn>(l or otiicrwisc. having {K^rfcet electrical connei'tiuu
with tin- fusible part of the strij).
(ri Must all be so proiM)rtioned to the conductors they an* in-
tendetl to protect, that they will melt b(>foni the maximum safe*
caiTvini,' cap.icity of the wire is exceecled.
2") T:i.l>lr of ('sipa<*ity of Wires:
It must be clearly undcM'stood that the size of the fuRo di'|i(>ndj(
u}ion tlii- si/i> of the smallest conductor it protects, and not u]Min
the amount nf current to be used on the circuit. Helow is a table
slicwiiiu^ tile safi' carrviuif capMcitv of conductors of ilifTi*rL>nt sizes
ill liiriMiMuliam. Ib'own iS: Sharp, and Kdisim gauges, which uiu$t
l)e followed in the placing of interior conductors :
ELECTRIC LIGHTING BY INCANDE8Ci;^NT SYSTEM. 683
Bbowk & Shabf.
BlRMlMOUAH.
Edison
Standard.
Gauge
Gauge
Gauge
No.
Amperes.
No.
Amperes.
No.
Amperes.
0000
175
0000..
... 1<5
200 ,
175
000
145
000
... 150
180
IGO
00
120
00
... 130
140
135
0
100
0
... 110
110
110
1
95
1
... 95
90
, 95
2
70
2
8
... 85
... 75
80
65
85
3
60
75
4 ...
50
4
5
6
7
... 65
... 60
.. 50
... 45
55
50
40
65
5
45
60
6 . ...
35
, 50
1^
1 • • • •
30
30
, 40
8
25
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
... 35
... 30
... 20
... 15
... 10
... 5
... 3
25
20
12
8
5
3
2
35
10
20
30
12
15
20
14
10
15
16
5
10
18
8
5
8
26. Switches:
{a) Must be mounted on moisture-proof and non-combustible
bases, such as slate or porcelain.
(6) Must be double pole when the circuits which they control
supply more than six 10 candlcpower lamps, or their equivalent.
(c) Must have a firm and secure contact ; must make and break
readily and not stop when motion has once been imparted by the
handle.
(d) Must have carrying capacity sufficient to prevent heating.
(e) Must be placed in dry, accessible places and be grouped as
far as possible, being mounted — when practicable — upon slate
or equally non combustible back boards. Jack-knife switches,
whether provided with friction or spring stops, must be so placed
that gravity will tend to open rather than close the switch.
FIXTURE WORK.
27. (a) In all cases where conductors are concealed within or
attached to gas fixtures, the latter must be insulated from the gas-
pipe system of tlic building by means of approved joints. Tlie
insulating material used in such joints must be of a substance not
affected by gas. and that will not shrink or crack by variation in
temperature. Insulating joints with soft rubber in their construc-
tion will not be approved.
(b) Supply conductors, and especially the splices to fixture wires,
C)Hi ELECTRIC LKHITIXG 15Y INCANDESCENT SYSTEM.
must ho krpf clear of the grounded part of gas pii>es, and where
shells arc used the latter must be constructed in a manner uffonlin;;
suHieient area to allow this retjuirenient.
(c) W'lien lixtures are wired outside, the (.'onductors must Im? so
seeured as \u>\ 10 be cut or al)raded by the pressure of the fasten-
in;4:s oi' niolion of the (ixlur(;.
{(/) All coiKhu'tors for fixture work must have a waterpmof Iiimi-
lali(;nlliat is durable and not easily abraded, and must not in .-.ny
case ])e smaller than No. ly U. & S., No. 20 B. W. G., No. l"
H. S. (t.
(n Ail bui'rs or fins must l)e removecl iM^'ore the c()n(luc"toi*s aiv
drawn into a fixture.
(f) The tendency to condensation within the pipe.s slioiihl Iw
guanhMl aiTMinst by sealiuij^ the upper end of tlie fixture.
{(/) No eon.bination fixture in which the conductors aiii conccaliMl
in a space ii>s th-u! one-fourth inch between the inside pilH* and the
(.ul>idi' casiiiL;- will be approved.
(//) l"]a<li fixture must lie tested for •' contacts" between enndnc-
tor- and fixiure-^. for " >hoi-| cii'cuils." and for «ri'^un«l connectitUK
bi^fni'i' ihf fixtui'c is connected to its suj)ply conthictors.
(/) <'<'ilin%^ blocks or fixtures >hould bt' made of insulating niatf*-
rial : i!' noi. tin- wins in passiiiLC throu<;h the plate must Ik* .-ur-
roundi'd with lianl rul)lM»r tubini^.
*i^. Vr< !.i«»?its oil Low Potential CiiM'uits:
iif Mn^t be supplied liy l)ranch (Min<luctois not smaller than Xo.
I "J 1>. \ >. ^.'lULT".
(//. Mii-t be connected with main coin hi<'t(»rs only throuijh dnubli*
jKlIc I'Ut Mill '^
■■>•) Mu-t ■■■\\\\ bf fiirni>hed with such resist a in 'c-i or n*«;nlati»rs as
aif cii'l-- d in non <'t)iMbu'^tible mati'rial. such resistances Ikmiiij
ti-i-al- -i a- -lovi-s
|iM;in<l W. lamp- nui-'t not In- usimI for r«*si<lance di'viccs.
I,/ Mil-! !"• -'iij'plit'i with udobr> and protcctid as in ihc ♦•ji.'m- 'if
ai'<- li'jlii- --ii hiLih i.-.tciilial cin-uits.
2'.'. I'.i< v( rlr (ins I i^lil iiij:^ *
\\ }|. ! . ;. ■■! ri • •j:\> li'jlii iiu i"^ t" '"' ""=''d "U the >ami' fixture with
\\\>- ' 1. ■■!: ■ ii.'lit
., N . j ;' ..I til- .;.■'- i'i|iin.r i-r lixinri- --hall bi* in rlrclri»-;il i-ii:j.
:■! .■..■■ •■'■: ihr '.:;i- ri:!itiM'_r i-ii-'-iiit.
r ■■ .\i!-. V. ii^ril with till- li\tuir< n:u-i liavf a non-inMainmiil'lo
iii-i.';l i"-.. ■ t. win-re c'Micialr-I b»iw«'rn I hi- pipe and shidl of lite
tlMi.K. i->. iii-ulaijon must )><■ NUih a.-^ rctpiired for lixt un* wirini*
loi ill, . |. <i 111- li;riil.
BLEC^TRIC LIGHTING BY INCANDESCENT SYSTEM. 686
(c) The whole installation must test free from "grounds."
id) The two installations must test perfectly free from connection
with each other.
30. Sockets :
(a) No portion of the lamp socket exposed to contact with outside
objects must be allowed to come into electrical contact with either
of the conductors.
(b) In rooms where inflammable gases may exist, or where the
atmosphere is damp, the incandescent lamp and socket should be
enclosed in a vapor-tight globe.
31. Flexible Cord :
(a) Must be made of conductors, each surrounded with a moisture-
proof and a non-inflammable layer, and further insulated from each
other by a mechanical separator of carbonizable material. Each of
these conductors must be composed of several strands,
(b) Must not sustain more than one light, not exceeding 50-can-
dlepower.
(c) Must not be used except for pendants, wiring of fixtures, and
portable lamps or motors. ,
(d) Must not be used in show windows.
(e) Must be protected by insulating bushings where the cord enters
the socket. The ends of the cord must be taped, to prevent fray-
ing of the covering.
(/) Must be so suspended that the entire weight of the socket and
lamp will be borne by knots under the bushing in the socket, and
above the point where the cord comes through the ceiling block or
rosette, in order that the strain may be taken from the joints and
binding screws.
(g) Must be equipped with keyless sockets as far as practicable,
and be controlled by wall switches.
[Classes D and E, relating to Alternating System and Electric
Railways, are here omitted.]
MISCELLANEOUS.
44. a. The wiring in any building must test free from grounds ;
i.e. , each main supply line and every branch circuit shall have an
insulation resistance of at least 25,000 ohms, and should have an
insulation resistance between conductors and between all conductors
and the ground (not including attachments, sockets, receptacles,
etc.) of not less than the following :
G80 ELECTRIC LIGUTIXG BY INCAXDESCEXT SYSTEM.
Up to 10 amperes 4,0<J0,000
er> •' l.tKXUHX)
r.o " 800.(X)0
100 *' 30O.(HI0
:200 " UmMmk)
■M) " 8,».0(W
K(H> '' '2ri.ni0
•' 1,<>(H) " 11,IX)0
All flit -outs and safety di'viccs in place* in Iho aJfovo.
WlioH' Inni]) sockets, recei)t.aclcs. and (?loclr()liei*s, etc., are oon-
ncctrd, oiie-liair oL* the ahove will be re(]uired.
(h) (in^iind wires for li«^litnin^ arrest eis of all classes, and
ground detectors, must not he attached to <j^as pijies within the
huildiuir.
(r) W'licie l«'lephone. tele«!rM})h. or other wires connected with
out>ii"U' circuits jire buncluMl tugelher witliin any huil<lin«^. orwhen<
inside will's .ire laid in conduit or duct with electric liglit or |)f)WL'r
wires, llie <'()veiiuLC <d' >uch wires must be lire I'esistinjj, or cIm' the
wires niu^l l>e cmcIummI in an air-tight tube or duel.
((/} All cDiiduclt^rs connecting with tch-phone, district nn'ss<'nger,
burgl.ii" alarm, watch clock, electric time, and other similar iiistru-
njcnts. musi be provified near the i)oint of entrance to tlie building
with sniiie pi()t«ctive device which will o]MTatc to shunt the instru-
ments in c.'i^e itf a dangerous rist; of ]H)tential. and will <hm'Ii the
circuit aiKJ ;irre-t an Mbnornud current How. Any conductor nor-
mallv roiMiim: an innocuous circuit mav become a sourer of tin*
haz.'ird if cn)S>ed with another conductor, through which it may
become ciiMi-u'cd with a relatively high pressui^e.
i( Tlic following formulji for soldering lluid is suggested :
S.ifi:!;it((l .-olmioii of zinc 5 part:*.
A !<■.>■•, I. i t parti.
( I lye (line 1 IMirt.
ADDKNDA.
I'lKlcr^roiiiKl CoiKliictors <sce IMile Kb :
.Alu>i «ii'l Miitside of the main walU of the building, and not 1«
i>i-<>ii_:it .iii'>M iiuilding where it is possible to avniil it: ami wiiru
i :• '._ ' i'lio the buililiiig. or anv v.iult or area eniinei-ti'd Mith
Mil . ::.ir; Ih- niuoveij at iea>t ///''/ feel fmni all coinhustilile
m:i!> ii.i.. ,iiid kepi free and clear of conluet with uiiy couductiug
Mial'-n.-d.
i^XiiBCTRXG ua;mxNG ay ii^cakdescent system. 686a
Testing :
The hules and all existing regulations of the local authorities in
reference to the stringing of wires must be strictly observed.
DEFINITIONS.
DEFINITIONS OP THE WORD "APPROVED" AS USED IN THE RULES
FOR ELECTRIC WIRING.
Rule 10, Outside Conductors :
Section a. Insulation that will be a/ppro'oed for service wir^s
must be solid, at least /^ of an inch in thickness, and covered with
a substantial braid. It must not readily carry fire, must sliow an
insulating resistance of one megohm per mile after two weeks' sub-
mersion in water at 70° F., and three days' submersion in lime
water, with a current of 550 volts and after thiee minutes* electri-
fication.
Rule 12. Interior Conductors :
Section d. Insulation that will be approved for interior conduc-
tors must be solid, at least ^^4 of an inch in thickness, and covered
with a substantial braid. It must not readily carry fire, must show
an insulating resistance of one megohm per mile after two weeks*
submersion in water at 70^ F., and three days' submersion in lime
water, with a current of 550 volts and after three minutes' electri-
fication.
Rule 13. Arc Lamps :
Section c. The hand switch to be approved, if placed anywhere
except on the lamp itself, must comply with the requirements for
switches on hanger boards as laid down in new Section g of
Rule 13.
Rule 13. Arc Lamps :
Section /. An approved spark arrester is one which will so close
the upper orifice of the globe that it will be impossible for any
sparks thrown off by the carbons to escape.
Rule 15. Outside Overhead Conductors :
Section h. An approved fusible cut-out must comply with the
sections of Hules 23 and 24 d( scribing fuses and cut outs.
Rule 17 :
The switch required by this rule to be approved must be double
pole, 19119^, plainly indicate whether the current is ** on" or '*o£^,"
GSGb KLECTUIC LTGITTING BY IIS'CANDESCENT SYSTEM.
and must comply with Sections a, c, rf, and e of Rule 26 relating
to switches.
Kiilo 18. Conductors:
l^ection a. In so-called •* concealed" wiring, moulding, and
conduit work, (md in places liable to be exposed to dampness, the
insulating covering of the wire, to be approved, must be solid,
at least ,f., of an inch in thickness, and covered with a substantial
braid. It must not readily carry fire, must show an insulating re-
sistance of one megohm j)er mile after two weeks' submersion in
water at 70 F.,and tliree days' submersion in lime water, with a
current of 550 volts and after three minutes' electrification.
For work which is entirely exposed to view throughout the whole
interior cinMiits, and not liable to b*^ exposed to dampness, a wire
with an insulating covering that will not support combustion.
will resist abrasion, is at least (',; of an in(?h in ihickncss. and
ihorouglily imi)regnated with a moisture rei>ellent, will be ap-
pro r,<i(l.
]{ii1c 18. ('oiic1ii<-t<»rs:
Section h, second j)aragraph. Except for floors, (nid for places
liable to be exposed to dampness. Glass, Porcelain, metal -shea fhei
Interior Conduit, and Vulca TuIhj, when made esiKK;ially for bush-
ings, will be approrcd. The two last named will not be approi'ed
if eut front the usual lengths of tuhe made for conduit worA\ nor
when made without a head orjlanf/e on one end.
Hiilo 21. SiK*<*iji3 Wiriiij»::
Section b. The insuhiting covering of the wire to ho. approred
under this section must be solid, at least i,\ of an inch in thick-
ne», Jind e'.vcred with a substantial l)rHid. It mu.»<t not r(>adilv
carry lire, niusi ahow an insulating resistance of one megohm jier
mile altt-r two week>' submersion in water at 7t) F., and thni*
days' submersion in lime water, with a current of .*i50 volts after
tiircc minutes' elect rilicat ir,n, :ind must ///^o withstand a satisfac-
tory test against su< h chemical coni])ounds or mixtures as il will
be liabh' t«) be subjected to in the risk under consideration.
i:iil(^ 2:$. Doiiblo Vo\v SafHy <*iit-oiits:
Sirtjun If. '\\)\)v approrcd, boxes must lie ('(instriictiHi. and rut-
oiit^ .-irraiiLred. whither in a 1m»x or not. so jis to obviate any ihin^iT
of I lie inched fuse ipetal coining in contact with any substaiu-e
which .uiirlit b(» ignited therel)y.
Ikiii«' 27. Fixtiiro AVork :
Si.-iimi//. hi^ulaiing joints to be appraised ii\\\9X bo rntirely
made iil' riiaierial that will resist the action of illuminating gases,
and will not give way or soften under the heat of an ordinary gu
ELECTRIC LIGHTING BY INCANDESCENT SYSTEM. 6860
flame. They shall be so arranged that a deposit of moisture will
not destroy the insulating effect, and shall have an insulating
resistance of 250,000 ohms between the gas-pipe attachments, and
be sufficiently strong to resist the strain they will bo liable to in
attachment.
Notice of the Approved of Certain Wires and Materials, and the
Interpretation of Certain Mules,
Rule 4. Switch-boards :
Section a. Special attention is called to the fact that switch-
boards should not be built down to the floor, nor up to the ceiling,
but a space of at least eighteen inches, or two feet, should be left
between the floor and the board, and between the ceiling and the
board, in order to prevent fire from communicating from the
switch-board to the floor or ceiling, and also to prevent the forming
of a partially concealed space very liable to be used for storage of
rubbish and oily waste.
Rule 5. Resistance Boxes :
Section a. The word "frame" in this section relates to the
entire case and surrounding of the rheostat, and not alone to the
upholding supports.
Rule 9. Resistance Boxes :
Section a. The word " frame " in 'this section relates to the
entire case and surrounding of the rheostat, and not alone to the
upholding supports.
Class B :
Any circuit attached to any machine, or combination of ma-
chines, which develop over 300 volts difference of potential between
any two wires, shall be considered as a high potential circuit and
coming under that class, unless an approved transforming device is
used, which cuts the difference of potential down to less than 300
volts.
Rule 10. Outside Conductors :
Section/. All joints must be soldered, even if made with the
Mclntyre or any other patent splicing device. This ruling applies
to joints and splices in all classes of wiring covered by these
Rules.
Rule 16. Outside Overhead Conductors :
Section 6. The cut-out required by this section must be placed
80 as to protect the switch, required by Rule 17.
6SQd ELECTRIC LIGHTING BY INCANDESCENT SYSTEM.
Rule 10. Uuclerground Conductors :
Section h. The cuc-out required by this section must be placed
so as to protect the switch.
Kulo 22. Interior Conduits :
The American Circidar Loom Co.'s Tube, the metal -fiheathed
Interior ('ondiiit Tube, and the Vulca Tube are approved for the
class of work called for iu this rule.
WINDOW GLASS. 687
FRBNOH PLATE WINDOW-GLASS.
lished French plate window-glass, which is con-
d to be the highest grade of window-glass in the market, may
ained in lights varying in size from a piece one inch square
Lght eight feet wide and fourteen feet long. Owing to the
cost of rolling large lights, the price per square foot of large
is sometimes twice that of smaller lights ; so that the cost of
'lass must be estimated by a price-list, giving the cost of every
nt size of light. Such a price-list is given below. This list
18 the same from year to year, and is known as the **stand-
ist for polished plate glass. The fluctuations in the price of
ire arranged by ipeans of a discount, which is the same for
-s. At the present time the discount on large lots of plate-
s about fifty per cent,
weight of polished plate-glass averages 3^ pounds per square
APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF POLISHED PLATE
GLASS BOXED.
end the glass 3^ pounds per square foot. Weight of box
the contents of a plate of greatest width and length of those
i therein, multiplied by 10. Thus:
iZe of box 60" x 96" = 40 feet x 10 = 400 pounds.
606^ pounds.
08H
WINDOW-GLASS.
V2
Pkick-List of Pomsiiki) 1'latk-(Ilas«.
Sizi'H, in inclioi*; piict'M, in dollars and cc'iits.
H
Hi
IS
20
>»o
•*4.
20
is
~1
-21
•J.'iO '
•i..r.
2.70
0.0.-)
4.0.-.
4.4.-.
A.W
1
—
•-'»•. 1
2.-JU
•J..V)
2. IK)
, Il.'.l.')
4.1')
• 4.S.-,
r..:;o
! :..7o
—
•js
•J.:'..'.
•J.7:)
:;.so
1 4.2.-.
4.7.'.
:..2o
' .''..70
s.i.-.
-».7.-'
:i.. 1
ii..".."»
•2.'.».'>
4.0.-,
4..V.
r..io
.'..<•.()
0.10
S.70
ii.4i'
'.V2
•J.7i»
:!.si
4.;;.'.
4.'.io
i').4o
.'..'.I.')
S.«iO
H.IMl
Hi.ini
M
•J.>."> ■
4.i):>
4.t;o
.'..20
r..7..
.s. :•..-)
1 ".MO
••.'.0
in .■..-.
:ji5
:'..o:.
4.j:>
4. wo
r)..".o
«1.10
.S,.S.')
! 0. »•..'»
lo.i,-.
1 1 .2-.
;>
:;.v. ;
4..')()
;-..i:»
.')..S(»
S..')0
u.;;;')
: U1.2O
1
1 n.o.'i
11. '.0
4'i 1
4.fi.'.
1.7.-)
:).4o
0.10
8.H.-)
O.V)
10.7.')
11.0.'>
12.:hi
42
4. -J'.
f).!)!)
.').7o
.S.4.'.
<.).|0
lo.:;.-,
i 11.2.'.
12.20
l.-J.l.')
44
4.4:. ■
.'..20
.").'.».'>
.S.S.'i
« •.><.-»
10..M)
. n.sii
12.MI
i;;.7.'.
40 j
4.70
."..4.".
S.20
'.'.20
lo.:;o
n.:jo
12.:;.'.
1:5.;:.-.
14.40
4s 1
l.'.'O
.'i.7i»
S.OO
o.r..")
10.7.-.
11. SO
I2.'.i'.i
1 :•..'.»:.
!.'».« 1.1
:.() i
:..ln
.-,/.).-.
S.«.».')
10.0')
n.i.-)
l2.:;o
1:5.40
14..")'.
l.'».»i.'l
.')-j
. •.■;()
S.l")
'.t.;io
10.4.-.
11. <M
12.M)
1 :'..'.».-,
l.'..lo
• » 1 ' ■
:.i
.-...-.u
^.4.".
H.O)
lo.s.-)
12.0'.
1. •;.;«)
14..-.0
l.'..7o
22.:;."i
."H)
;').7'i
^^.7.")
10. tM)
i 1 .2.')
12..-.0
i:;.7.'»
l.'..o.-»
21..'..-.
2::. 20
.■>^
."i.'.'i)
lo.:;.i
n.o-)
12.'.>:) ,
14.2.'.
l.'f..'..'.
22.:. 0
2i.ii)
•■'•
I-..1I)
I'.lo
lo.7.">
12.0.-)
1.^. I '
14.7.'.
M.lo
2:;.U>
2t.v,
f.-J
^. I"
'.'.70 1
11.10
12.4.-.
l:j.s.-.
1.'..2.'.
22.1 HI
2::.s.'.
2.''. 70
c;
"^.'i '
lO.iM)
11. J.-.
12.00
1 l.:;o
1.'..7.'.
22.70
24.t;»
l'i...Mi
"•'■• 1
^.^■| '
lo.;',."»
1 1 .so
i:j.:5U
14.7.'. 1
21..-.0
2:'..4.-.
2.'..-!o
27.:"t.".
t>
'.'.lit
U.ti.') .
12.1.)
i:;.7o
ir).2o 1
22.1.')
24.1..
2»"..l;")
2S.1.-.
7m
'.•.<!)
hi.'.".') '
12..V)
li.io .
1. ■».•!.")
22.^1
24.s.'i
2i''.Sn
2'.>.iin
7 J
'.'.•i '
I.-'.".
rj.'.M) ■
14..'.o
li'..10
2:;. 4.-.
2.'...'..'i
27.70
■_'.'. Ml
71
'.'.■■)
i.-ii)
i.;.-2.'.
U.'.tO
2 !.'.»<)
24.10
2'i.2.'.
2S.4.'.
::.M-..-.
7'; '
(».-_'ll
l.'.IO
l:'..'io
l."..:a»
22.. -.0
24.7.'.
27.1HI
2'.'.2.'i
;;i..'io
7*^
l<l. {.,
•l.-n
n.o.-,
1.'..7o
2:;. It)
2:..4o
27.70
:M).o«i
■1.1 ..,,
»»ii
n.7-.
•.:.:.M
ii.:;o
.0.10
2;;.ir»
2r..o.".
2s. in
;ai.7.'.
■ ••. 1 ■■
s-J
:.n..
■J.-^-.
1 1 .••. .
2I..S.-.
24.2.-.
2f..7«»
2s.»".n ■
:ii.;..-.
::;;.' '.'.
^J
1. :.
;;.i:.
i...'t.
22.:;")
21.**-.
2".:;.'.
2'.».s«i
;;2.:'.o
:".j.'»ii
"'t;
1. ...
.;.i .
i...r)
22.'.K)
2''.;-".
2N.0«)
:mi..'..".
:;:;.Hi
;'•.". .''ii
^^
1.^.
:;.7.
1.-..7.-.
2.;.4.-.
2''..o.'i
2S.0.'.
;'.1.2;.
:»;.N.'.
■ •, 1 ■
'.in
J.'-. 1
1.10
l*'>.lo
2 ;.■'.'.
2». .>;.•.
2'.'.;;o
:;i. '.«.'.
:U.oii
:;7.::o
".<-'
J. ..
].t-'
■ji.^.i
2I...O
27. 20
2'.'.?'.'i
:!2.o.-.
:;.'i.4o
:;>.lo
'.'J
J.'. ' 1
J. 70
22. i>
2..0'.
27. Ml
:;i'.no
•j>i..i-.
:;ii.l.".
;.^.'»."i
'.-.
■J.'-l 1
.1.1 ' »
22 70
2-..."...
2^.;ii
:-.1.2;.
r.i.Ui
."■< •.'.«)
;;■.», 7.'i
■.'>
:;. 1 . 1
.'i.."i.i
2:;. 20
2<;.io
•J... I'M
:;l.'.«'
:;4.M»
:;7.7o
40.1'ji
in.
.-. i-» 1
.■|.ti.">
2; ■..'■."'
2';.r..->
■_''.•'"
.■■■2..'..'.
:',.'...vi
::s.4.'.
41. in
I"J
.. -. • 1
..."•.■>
21.1.'.
27.1.'.
:;i'.2o
:;::.2«'
:'.<i.2ii
:;'.'.2.'.
42.2 ■
inl '
■ . ■ ■ ■>
:i. .'
2l.tVi
27.70
;;ii.7.'>
: ■.:■..*•.■.
;;•'..'. •!»
.(11. (Hi
4::.l"i
Id;
;..■■'
:i.'i.
2. .11'
2^.2••
::i.;:;.
:;i...<»
:;7.'"«.i
-10. 7."'
i:^."."'
III- '
■ ■
1 . '
:j. ;■.
2.'..''
:.!.■.'■.
.■■....1..
:>.::.■.
M......
41.7..
11'
:
■ . 1 '
•_>,,!
2»l.ii'i
•jM.:n
:;j.."...
."ii.^i.
::'.i.o.,
12.: m
4 ■..".■.
IIJ
1 .* '
: . :•<
2- i 1 1
•J'l Ml
:; ".. 1 .
."•'"■. 1 1
."■ '.7.'
4:;.li»
l- .in
III 1
, '
i^'.. '■ 1
■J.'.i'ii
.'1 ...'.."•
' '■ . 1 .
■ 7.""
:■■. j.i
i;;.v,
J7.jn
II'.
■ -.I
;!.'!•
2.M.-
;;i..'.< 1
. , ■ . ■■ 1
. ■ 1 ■ *
(. _o
i\.***
l^.i. •
il^
, X ,
'I.I ■
_■..'■
M. :■•
; ; ; . n
." ^. "t
;?."."
».-.|n
l^.*.
1.: ' '
! ■■ '
■ . 1 ' ■-
■1 •
:i.^ ■
1
> 1
" . 1 ' '
■..■«.■"■
..1. .
... i.
' .1"
.. ■ i< 1
1-.'. •
It
4i..l.-.
II'. 'HI
.'•1 *. • 1
r.:<
•J. ■
1 "■ 1
. ' . 1 ' '
'mm ' . . ■ .
. .'..■ .1
:.■.. ,""
If..:.
II. Ill
S7.70
..I. ■
I..'-.
^
:■■.!•>
._■■ 1 _ SI 1
..!..•
• 1 .■ 1' 1
il.lNI
I1.7 >
;*».*.■.
.'2.2n
!J-
' ' ■ * ■
'.• . ■"
.iii.:;i'
:il.|M
;.7.'' >
II.'-...
I... I.".
I'.«.2.')
.>:;.i»'
1*»
II
in
is
•I
*J0
>».»
•Jf
eo
<»»
WINDOW-GLASS.
Pbicb-List of Poi.isiiKD Pi.AT*>r.r.\8s (Continue'!).
< 1 4a.s(i I 46.Gri
H.VO I lUU.IH)
OlM)
WINDOW-GLASS.
TM{i('i:-liisT OF Polished PLATK-CrLAss {Continued).
Sizcrt, in iiicIu>H; prk-en, in dollars aiul conU.
.")(>
o'i
r>» :>(i 5s
»()
iM
Al
on OH
■0
7l»
.ill
.."N
-I'l
.'.t
J-l
\:.
i:;
—
—
_
_
..
.
•to ,
_
^
.!• 1
■11
i:<
4 .
i>'.
—
_
_
_
^
^
_
^
.'l^
4:;
i:.
4-;
4s
."H)
—
-
—
—
—
-
_
IVI
4J
4''.
4^
.'id
.-.l
;-»:;
aa
^,
^
^
^
_
f.J
4';
\^
:,i)
.M
:•:;
.-..-,
r>7
^
^
^ :
_
„
u\
47
4-.'
:,i
■:''} I
."l.'l
'»7
fi'.t
I'll '
^
„
..
^
r> I
»■.•
• > !
•ill
■'■> .'
."»7
.'»'.«
01
«i-J
•54
_
—
—
iW
.'iD
",■»
;■)! ■
.') i
:"iS
M
r,2
iU
m ;
•'►.s
—
-
7i»
■ •'1
:,4 .
fill
."iS
r>ii
r.2
M
rA\ •
JVs
l:\
Ir
^
72
:■!>
.) 1
.■)S
•■•<» 1
•"••J
(U
m
TiS
7(1
T2
7'»
i 1
74
.'■')
■* 1
.V.I
t-.l
r.:i
fVi
TiS
7(»
7-J
74 ■
1 i
7'.i
^ ■
I'l
.1 1
."I^
l-.l '
• ■.■',
»i'(
r>7
711
".I
1 -
74 '
71;
7'.«
si
7*^
.'iS
I'l 1
'"'■J
li'i
•17
ii'.i
'■2
74
7«»
7s .
SI
<:
StI
» •'. '
•"■J
ca
r.ii
•J-.i
71
*■* 1
1 .'
7»i
7K '
H)
s:j
•».-,
M'
•■!
ii:;
I'l 'i
li^
7«i
1 't
I-'
7s
Ml
S-J
s;,
•rj
^1
' '^
• ii
'■7
7<'
"•.1
7"»
77
Ml
.S-J
»i*
•■•1
'.'I
sr,
-.1
■ II 1
li •
71
7I
7""'
7'.»
si
s4
•.•I
'.'1
ill.
SN
■'■ 1
ii-*
7n
1 ■ *
7'i
7^
M
s::
l«i 1
•.•:;
IM-.
'.«"
'•■'
■ ' f
I'l' '
■■. 1
7"i
1 1
Sll
s:5
s;,
••••J :
'.».'l
'.IS
]i»l
• Ij
|■.^
71
1 ■'
7'"i
7'.i
SJ
M
iij
'.14
•.•7
llKI
lit;
'.•1
7"
*".*
1 ■'
7s
M
s;;
«il
'.14
•.'7 ■
w
l.rj
1"-.
'""•
71
71
1 1
so
sj
s;,
'.1:;
•.Ml
•.Ki
I'lJ
Hr.
l""
".•^
1 w
7'»
7s
si .
si
HI
li:.
•.IS
litl
1114
M7
IM
1l)()
71
1 1
Ml '
s:i 1
'.Ml
•.:;
' iu;
IIKI
1(»:;
II Hi
lii-.i
n-j
loj
1 •*
7^*
Si
si
'••J
'.l.'l
•IS
IIIJ
!(».■»
IDS
in
114
lol
1 1
M»
S",
'.'1
'.11
'.♦7
I1H)
lilt
lc»7
no ■
11.;
iii;
]■! '.
" **
sj
S'l
'.'J
'.Hi
'.i;i
li)-j
lIM'i
I'l-.i
irj
li:.
11"
]0>s
■>ii
*».;
'.M
'.']
'.17
mi
mi
His .
111
lU
lis
i-'i
11>l
s '
•■>
'.»_'
'.I'l
'.I'.l
m.:
lor.
nil
1 1:; 1
11 i'l
1-jii
lii
1 1 ■■
^ 1
■•M
'.'J
'.'S
I'll
III.-,
His
iij
11.-.
lis
' .1.1
1J-.
11 ;
- i
• ij
'.m;
'. ' '
I'l.:
III-.
ll'l
11:;
117
IL'I
i-j4
ij-
IM
■ 1
■■•I
'•7
I'll
I'l-.
Ills
llJ
ii".
II'.'
\S.',
i-jti
I.-."
1 i^
' ■-
', ' 1
'.• •
I'li
Ml
no
114
117
IJI
iJ.i
ij^
U\2
1 ■_'■ '
■■..
■ l"
l"I
1",
in^
iij
11 1;
ll'.l
ij:;
1 _i
l:Jl
l::i
1 ' ' *
' ' 1
• !■ 1
1 •-'
1 'V
III)
111
lis
I-JI
Ij;,
IJ".*
i:.::
l.:7
IJi
■
! ) 1
1<>I
!••>
11 J
11 '.
l-j(i
vs.:
I-J7 1
::l
l".-.
i::«
1 • f
' ' >
1".'
! -.
ll'l
II 1
11^
IJ-J
IJ..
rj'» 1
■ ^ 1
l.;7
141
I _'^
1
lot
|i.-
IIJ
ll-i
11.'
ij:;
1J7
l:;l
:'>-l
i;;ii
Mo
l.'l »
1(1'
|!| 1
1 "■•
11 -.
117
IJ'
i-j.-i
P-M
i:'.:s 1
l:;s
14,:
14«-.
I ■' 1
I'l.
I 1 ■.
I ' ' 1
III
Ml
ir.i
ij;
1 27
i:;i
i:-/.
nil
144
1 4s
I..I
I >.
I'l"
' !.;
11."
iji
IJ.
rj'.»
I:;:;
l;;s
\\2
I4«.
1 -•
I'l'
'■1 .
ll'l
Ill
Il^
IJ.;
rj7
|:;l
l::..
III)
141
Us
1..J
1-.-
1
■ -
1 1 -
IJ'
ij.
iji
l:.-.
i:;.-
irj
\At\
I..1.
1.-..
1 I'
!■•
' .■'■
Ji-
1 . I
ij-i
r;:
1 .<
i:.'.»
in
lis
]'■:
i:.:
1 IJ
■ 1
1 • ,
1 ■ ,
1 ■ '
1
ij^
1 ■. ;
1..7
111
I ti-
.".11
r. .
! ■■"
■ t ■
1 •
1 .'■
IJ .
1.; 1
I •:
l.".-i
II.-.
lls 1
I»'«
I-".:
;• I
1 '.
f
K
' .- ••
1 ■ ■
•
1 ;:
1...
1 11
II..
I.HI
M
1 .'.'
'• .
'■ \-
'
- '
ij:
i .: '
i-.i
I .>
1 1 :
1 17
I .J
1..7
I'.i
i«
1 > ■
■
'_'■•
t ■
1 ■. .
ii"
1 J'.
IJ'
IM
1 ■"•■.»
!•■-;
1..H
1 ■!
1 '
1 . .
1 ; •
1 ;-
1 .-■
1
1 ' ■
1...
1 H,
1 , _
1-
171
171
I7'-.
17'
Isl
I*.
1 ' ■
■
■ ■
! I .'
■ 17
1 J
1 -7
; ■ I .
1 ^
17:: 1
17s
ls|
i"*
1 «
«
i
! i '
. ■!
1 ■■'
1...
17"
17..
|sl
iM-. ■
1-1
1 ' ■
'
■ J •
11 •
1 I
I-.
I'-l
l'-.7
17J
177 1
|s:{
l«4s
1'4
1 ■ ."
'
; ■
1 1;
1 :
1 .N
I'-.;
!■■.■.»
171
I Ml 1
!•♦•'» .
I'.U
VMi
!'' •
1
! !■■
1 -1
|i.i
I'..
171
IT".
isj
1^7 .
liC
I'.'S
• lO
• l_ all
.Mi
tm ii'i 01 OH
OK
'«
WINDOW-OLASS.
Pbice-List of Poi.rsiiEii Plate-Glabs (Concluded).
5« ^ IM
09-2
WINDOW-GLASS. — GLASS FOR SKYLIGHTS.
Ordinary Window-Glass,
Whuhnr-fflass is sold })y the box, which contains, as nearly as
may hv, fifty scjiiaro tc<'.t, whatever may be the size of the punt^.
The thickness of ordinary, or "sinjih' thick," window-j^hiss. is
alxmt ()in'-sixt('cntli of an inch, and, of "double thick,*' nearly
c)n«'-('iiiiiih of an inch.
Tin' h'lisile streniitli of common glass varies from 2(K)J) jHmnds
to :\')i)i) pounds i)er square inch, and its crushing stn^ngth fmm
r)(iiM) pounds to lO.tKK) i)ounds.
The following table jjjives the tnunher of pdncft of icindoic-*fl(fMi
ill one ho.r, or fifty feet : —
>i/A', in
r. •<
7 '.
s
S
\\
<»
<t
<t
<«
'.I
111
I't
111
In
111
l<i
111
111
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
1 I
IJ
I J
VI
s
<i
in
11
VI
in
11
12
i::
14
i:>
li".
in
VI
V.\
\\
1-'.
1.-.
IT
1-^
11
IJ
l::
II
17
1^
I -J
I:;
N
I .
17
1^
PancH
I "'
box.
i:.o
11.".
".10
l.l
so
■•■»
I •
(i7
tJ'J
•'•7
r.:i
r>u
11
(•I)
r».'i
wi
4^
4.')
4J
10
.v.»
.'l.'l
.'lO
47
14
M
:;■•
o''l
.'it I
4 1 1
c;
:;s
Size, in
PancB
in
box.
Size, in
PunoH
in
Itox.
Sizo, In
Panen
in
Im)X.
incht^rt.
inchcH.
inchert.
24 X 44
VI X l«»
10 X 20
2:»
7
12 X 20
:jo
16 X 22
20
24 X 5(1
B
12 X -Jl
21)
10 X 24
10
24 X 50
5
12 X 22
27
10 X :m)
1:. •
20 X Ml
8
12 X 2:j
20
10 X :w
12
20 X 40
7
12 X 24
25
10 X 40
11
20 X 48
rt
i:i < 14
4()
IS X 20
20
2«i X 54
6
1:5 X 1;-)
:i7
is X 22
IS
2K X 34
8
1:1 y ir.
:;.->
IK < 24
17
2S X 40
6
i:j X 17
:w
is X 20
i:.
2S X 4rt
a
i:{ X IS
:;i
IS X .",4
12
2S X 60
5
1:; ' I'.)
2«.l
18 X .-50
11
;i0 X 40
6
1:5 < 2t>
28
IS X 40
10
:«) X 44
4
l:j < 21
2»}
18 X 44
0
'M X 4s
5
1:5 X -j-i
2:>
21) X 22
10
:io X M
6
i:{ - 24
2:j
20 X 24
15
32 X 4-2
A
14 < 1.')
:54
2t) X 25
14
S2 X 44
5
14 ^ 10
:j2
20 X 20
14
%! X 40
& i
14 < IS
2«»
20 X 28
VA
a-j X 4S
5 i
14 < lii
27
'2S^ X :K)
12
:« X .-III
4 1
1 4 < 20
21 i
20 X .-{4
11
'Al X .-,4
4 ,
14 X 22
2:5
2«) X :w(
10
'A'l X TiO
4 1
14 X -24
22
20 X 40
U
:K X IH)
4
14 X -js
Ts
•J) X 44
s
•A\ X 4U
&
14 ' :i2
10
20 ^ .'»o
7
;U X 44
5 •
14 ' :!•■»
14
22 >• 24
14
VA X 40
5
11 '40
i:j
22 X -jfi
VA
:U X 50
4
I'l ' M
:io
22 X -js
12
a4 X 52
4 .
1.'. * IS
27
22 * :uJ
0
HI X i'lO
4
l."» ■ 20
21
22 ^ 40
S
:iii X 44
5 ■
1 •'» ' 22
22
22 ' .M)
7
:iii * :*\
4
1:. ■ 211
21)
24 • 2S
11
•M * 54
4
|.-| • :iO
10
24 ' :V0
10
:iti X tiu
3 ;
1.". ■ :;2
1:.
21 X :12
0
:;ii * r»4
3
lii ■ l^
2:1
2t ^ VA\
s
40 X (HI
3
i
(«la.ss i'or Sk.vlijj^iits.
Wliriv skyliijhts are i^lazcd with clear or double thick giaas, it
in:iy 1m- u^-iii in tcni^ths of from si.\ti>en to MiirLy inches by a wktlh
of from niuf lo lift ecu inches. A lap of al least an inch and a half
ASPHALTUM. 693
cessary for all joints. This is the cheapest mode of glazing,
best, however, for skylight purposes, is fluted or rough plate-
. The following thicknesses are recommended as proportion-
> sizes : —
inches by 48 inches is the extent for glass -^ inch thickness.
(( QQ ti ii n 1 ii a
U 1Q0 4< U ii I ii ii
a 153 a a a ^ a a
Weight of Bough Glass per Square Foot
lickness ....ii^jfifj 1 inch.
3ight 2 2i 3J 5 7 8i 10 12i pounds.
ASPHALTUM.
phaltum is used extensively for composition roofing, for the }
purpose as tar. \
phaltum, or solid bitumen, is a natural pitch, found in differ- J
ountries. The most accessible anil economical for use in the \
ed States is obtained from the " Great Pitch I^ake," a remark- [
and inexhaustible deposit in the island of Trinidad.
is impervious to water, and is one of the most unchangeable
durable substances known, — qualities which, together with
inacity, adhesiveness, and resistance to the effects of the most
jme changes of heat and cold, make it a cementing material of ,;
;re^test value for roofs, pavements, and various other i)urposes.
le principal advantages claimed for asphaltum as a roofing
rial over pitch and coal-tar, arise from the fact that the bitu-
►us matter of the asphalt is not volatile at any temperature of
un's heat, and is therefore permanent; while in all materials
irfactured from coal-tar there are volatile oils, which slowly
orate on exposure to the sun and air, destroying the flexibility
life of the material. The fact is now well known, that any
I or cement manufactured from coal-tar thus gradually deteri-
ts, until, in the course of years, it becomes brittle, and crum-
away; and that felt saturated with coal-tar in like manner
ens, until it becomes brittle smd finally worthless.
spbaltecl slieatliiiij»:-felt, for roofing purposes, and for
g under shingles, slates, clapboards, etc., is also made in a
ar manner to the tarred papers more connnonly used for the
B purposes. Both these materials may be found in the mar-
in It oonditlon ready for use.
BOCK ASPHALT. 695
of view, asphalt is without a peer. Its surface is smooth, regular,
and non-absorbent, with no cavities or cracks of any kind to retain
the infected mud and dust of tlie streets, and the soil beneath it is
kept dry. It is more thoroughly cleaned, either by sweeping or
washing, tlian any other pavement. Its freedom from noise, and its
other excellences, are fast i)la('ing it in all the busimjss and bank-
ing streets of the city of London, wh(;rc it se(;ms to be superseding
all other pavements. In comparison with granite, its great economy
is to brain-workers and the owners of horses." In an article in
Jolinson's Cyclopajdia, Gen. Q. A. Gillmore says of the " natural
rock asphalt," —
"It must be conceded that nothing has yet been discovered
which can replace with entire, satisfiiction the ])ituininou.s lime-
stones of Seyssel and Val de Travers and Sicily. In the natural
asphaltic rock, the calcareous matter is so intimately and impal-
pably combined witli the bitumen, resists so thoroughly the action
of air and water and even muriatic acid, is so entirely free from
moisture, — properties due, perhaps, to the vast pressure and in-
tense heat under which the ingredients liave been incorporated by
nature, — that we are forced to attribute tiie excellence of this
materia! to the existence of certain natural conditions which the
most skilful artificial methods fail to reproduce."
Mantle asphalt is used for floors of cellars, stores, breweries,
malt-houses, hotel kitehe/is, stablos, laundries, conservatories,
public buildings, carriaiije-i-accories, sugar-refineries, mills, rinks,
etc.; and for any place where a hard, smooth, clean, dry, {\n\ an 1
water proof, odorless, and dural)l(^ covering of a light color is re-
quired, either in basenient or upper stories. It can be laid either
over cement concrete, brick, or wood, in one sheet without seams:
also over cement concrete for roofs, for fire-proof buildings. For
dwelling-house cellars, es])(M'ially on moist or filled land, this
material is especially adaptcul, being water-tight, non-absorbent,
free from mould or dust, impervious to sewer-gases, and for sanitary
purposes invaluable.
Mastic asphalt is also valuable for damp ronrsrs over founda-
tions, and for covering vaults and arches undc^rground.
The use of asphalt for nxt/s is extending, many of th(^ princii)al
buildings in London and a large number in this country being
covered with it. It possesses especial advantages for this purpose
from the fact that it is both fireproof and fire-resirting.
Architects and builders de^^iringto employ asphalt for any of the
above purposes should bi^ careful to secure the genuine V((l-<1('.-
Trciivers or Seyssel or Siriluoi rock asphalt, as there are imita-
tjkms which are of but little value.
696 ROCK ASPHALT.
For llonrs of collars, courtyards, etc., laid on the ground, a ba80
of cenuMit ooiuTctc o inches thick should first be laid; and overthis
\s imt a layer of cisplialt from i to H in^l^ thick, awording to the
d-^i' to which it. is to be put. For ordinary cellar floors, the asphall
need not be more than J inch thick: for yards on which hea\'y t(*anis
•ire to drive, it shouM be H inches thick. In specifying asphalt
[)avenieiit, both the thickness of the concrete and of the asi)lialt
should be Lji v(Mi : it should also be reinembered, *' asplialt pavement "
does no! inchide the concrete foundation unless so specified.
In layinu: asphalt over plank or boards, a layer of stout, dry
(not tarred) sJK'aihinj^-paper should first be put down, and the
asplialt laid on tbis. Asi)halt floors for stables should be at least
1 inch tbick. The cost of rock as:)halt in the large cities varit»s
from 15 to 20 cents per square foot in jobs of 2,000 feet and over.
Tins does not include the concrete foundation. Imitation asphalts
are laid for (considerably less, and (ierman and other cheap asphalts
for about two-thirds the above price.
WEIGHT OF CUBIC FOOT OF SUBSTANCES.
697
' CAPACIT7 OF FREiaHT CARS.
[From the " American'Architect."]
A car-load is nominally 20,000 pounds. It is also 70 barrels
of salt, 70 of lime, 90 of flom*, 60 of whiskey, 200 sacks of flour, (i
cords of soft wood, J 8 to 20 head of cattle, 50 to 60 head of hogs,
goto 100 head of sheep, 9000 feet of solid boards, 17,000 feet of
siding, 13,(XX) feet of flooring, 40,000 shingles, one-half less of hard
lumber, one-fourth less of green lumber, one-tenth of joists, scant-
ling, and all other large timbers, 340 bushels of wheat, 400 of corn,
680 of oats, 400 of barley, 300 of flax-seed, 360 of apples, 430 of
Irish potatoes, 360 of sweet potatoes, 1000 bushels of bran.
VTEIGHT or A CUBIC FOOT OF SUBSTANCES.
Names of Substances.
Anthracite, solid, of Pennsylvania .
** broken, loose
" " moderately shaken
" heaped bushel, loose
Ash, American white, dry
Asphaltum
Brass (copper and zinc), cast
" rolled
Brick, best pressed
" common hard
" soft, inferior
Brickwork, pressed brick
** ordinary
Cement, hydraulic, ground, loose, American, .Rosen-
dale
" hydraulic, ground, loose, American, I^ouis-
ville
" hydraulic, ground, loose, English, Portland,
Cherry, dry
Chestnut, dry
Coal, bituminous, solid
" ** broken, loose
" ** heaped bushel, loose
Coke, loose, of good coal
" " heaped bushel
Average
weight, ill lbs.
93
54
58
80
87
504
524
150
125
100
140
112
56
50
90
42
41
84
49
74
27
38
698
WEIGHT OF CUBIC FOOT OF SUBSTANCES.
\V('l{jht of Cubic Foot of Substances {Continited^).
Namks op Substances.
Average
weight, ill lb«.
ropiMir, cast
*' rolled
Eiirtli, coniinon loam, dry, loose
" " *' " moderately rammed . .
" as a soft flowing mud
Ebony, dry
Elm, dry
Flint
(rlass, common window
Gneiss, (ronnnon
Gold, cast, i)uro or 24-<;arat
" pnrc. liamni(;rcd
(iranitr
(rravcl. about tlu^ sanio as sand
Jlcnilock, dry
Hickory, dry
IlornbU'ndt*, black
Ice
In Ml, cast
'* wroui^ht, purest
averai^c
Ivory
\A'iU\
Liiinum vita», <lry
Liinr, ({uick, ground, loose, or in small lumps . .
tliorouf^hly shaken . .
'* '* per struck bushel . .
Limr^toni's and marWes
loose, in irrei^ular fragments,
Ma!io;,^any, Spanish, dry
Honduras, dry
Majilf, dry
Marblrs. |S«'r Lim('ston<'s. )
MaxMiiy. of granite or limestone, well-tln»ssed . .
** mortar rubble
*• dry rubble
•' sandstone, well-dressed
Mereurv, at :)'J° Fahrenheit
542
548
76
05
108
7«
35
162
157
ir>8
1204
1217
170
00 to 106
25
5.}
20;)
58.7
450
485
480
114
711
S«
5:{
75
(Ml
KtS
06
5.1
:»
40
165
i:^
i:is
144
M9
WEIGHT OF CUBIC FOOT OF SUBSTANCES. 600 /
Weight of Cubic Foot of Substances {Concluded).
Names of Substances.
Mica
Mortar, hardened
Mud, di-y, close
'* wet, fluid, maximum
Oak, live, dry
** white, dry
" other kinds
Petroleum
Pine, white, diy
" yellow. Northern
" " Soutliern
Platinum
Quartz, common, pure
Rosin
Salt, coarse, Syracuse, N.Y
" Livei*pool, fine, for table use
Sand, of pure quartz, dry, loose
" well shaken
" perfectly wet
Sandstones, flt for building
Sliales, red or black
Silver
Slate
Snow, freshly fallen
" moistened and compacted by rain
Spruce, dry
Steel
Sulphur
Sycamore, dry
Tar
Tin, cast
Turf or peat, dry, unpressed
Walnut, black, dry
Water, pure rain or distilled, at 60 degrees F. . . .
** sea
Wax, bees'
Zinc or spelter
Average
weight, in lbs.
183
103
80 to 110
120
59
52
32 to 45
55
25
34
45
1342
165
60
45
49
90 to 106
i)9toll7
120 to 140
151
162
655
175
5 to 12
15 to 50
25
490
125
37
62
459
20 to 30
38
62J
64
60.5
437
Greeu timbers usually weigh from one-Hfth to ouo-half more thau dry.
700
DIMENSIONS OF CHURCH BELLS.
DIMENSIONS AND TKTEIOHT OF CHURCH BBLLBi
Manufactured by William Blake & Co., Boston.
We I (JUT.
IbH.
200
250
:](K)
850
4(K)
5(M)
()00
700
S(M)
iM)0
1(K)0
IKH)
1200
i:JOO
1401)
1501)
10! )0
1T(M)
1S5()
201 M)
22«)0
25«X)
:H)iH)
;i2«)()
4(M)i)
:mxm)
Tone.
E
I)
C
B
A8
A
G
F
E
Dtf
L
Diameter.
21 in.
22J in.
24 in.
26 in.
27.1 in.
20 in.
81 in.
88 in.
841 in.
86 in.
87 in.
asj in.
80 in.
40 in.
41 in.
42 in.
48 i in.
44i in.
46 in.
47 in.
4S in.
51 in.
5.8 in.
55 in.
5S in.
Vil) in.
Size of frame,
outKide.
Horizontal dimen-
HiODH.
42 X
46 X
4(i X
46 X
58
58
X
X
00 X
60
60
70
X
X
X
70 X
76 X
H) X
76 X
76 X
76 X
80 X
KO
SO
01
01
100
112 X
112 X
124 X
124 X
X
X
X
X
X
32 in.
36 in.
m in.
36 in.
40 in.
40 in.
48 in.
48 in.
48 in.
54 in.
54 in.
57 in.
57 in.
57 in.
57 in.
57 in.
6.'! in.
6:; in.
m in.
67 In.
67 in.
70 in.
78 in.
78 In.
78 in.
78 in.
SiZK OF MnVK Kou Hki.I.s.
I)iametcr of
vertical wheel.
:^in.
38 in.
38 in.
38 in.
44 in.
44 in.
49 in.
49 in.
49 in.
58 in.
58 in.
04 in.
04 in.
64 in.
64 in.
64 in.
72 in.
72 in.
72 In.
75 In.
7") In.
R4ln.
m In.
m in.
lOS in.
108 in.
inch cliauieter.
For hrlls of jfss than 5<X) {hmiikIs . . . . i
5<M> to SIM) )M)iinils 9
* s(K) to IsiM) poumls i " "
" aJ)ovi' ls<K) ]KMiii(is I to 1 " "
The iii-iiial wi'iKlitH iiKiiHlly (•xr-ctti hIni\c fnun two to ihrM p*r emi.
( .
WEIGHT AND COST OF BDILDINGS. 701
WBIGHT OF BUILDINQS.
[From the "American Architect."]
It has been calculated that the pressure per square foot of the
siii^rstnictiire upon the foundation walls of a few of the best-
known buildings is as follows : —
Dome of United-States Capitol at Washington, 13,477 pounds
Girard College, Philadelphia 13,440 "
St. Peter's, Rome 33,33(» "
St. Paul's, London 3i),450 "
St. Genevieve, Paris 60,000 "
I.e Toussaint, Angers 90,000 "
while the pressure upon the earth per square foot in the case •!
St. Paul's, London, is 42,950 pounds.
COST OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS.
An experienced architect and surveyor, on the 19th of February,
1879, prepared, and presented to Gen. Meigs, Quartermaster-Gen-
eral, the estimate which follows of the cost of various public and
private buildings in this country, the comparison being by cubic
feet, external dimensions : —
Sub-Treasury and Post-Office, Boston, Mass $2,080,507
United-States Bi-anch Mint, San Francisco, Cal. . . . 1,500,000
Custom and Court House and Post-Office, Cairo, 111. . 271,081
Custom and Court House and Post-Office, Columbia,
S.C 381,900
United-States building, Dos Moines, lo 221,437
United-States building, Knoxville, Tenn 398,847
LTnited-States building, Madison, Wis 329,:389
United-States building, Ogdensburg, N.Y 210,570
United-SUtes building, Omaha, Neb 334,000
United-States building, Portland, Me 392,215
German Bank, Fourteentli Street, Newport, R.I. . . . 475,000
Staats-Zeitung, New- York City 475,100
Western Union Telegi-aph, New-York City 1,400,000
Masonic Temple, New-York City 1,900,000
Centennial building. Shepherd's, corner Twelfth afid
Pennsylvania Avenues, Washington, D.C 240,073
Add to this the United-States National Museum, fire-
proof building, at Washington, D.C 250,000
•
10-2 WEAR AND TEAR OF BUILDING MATERIALS.
THE TATEAR AND TEAR OF BUILDING MA-
TERIALS.
At the tentli annual meeting of the PMre Underwriters' Associa-
tion of the Nortli-wcst, held at Chicago in Septemher, 1S71». Mr. A.
AV. Spalding read a paper on the wear and tear of huilding materi-
als, and tabulated the result of his investigations in the following
form : —
Matkrial in
BlILDING.
Hrick
IMiistcriiiir
I'aintiiiir, outside . .
Paiiitinu. idsitlc . . .
Shimrlcs
Coiiiift'
W'l'iitluM-hoarding . .
Sh<*iiiliiiiir
I'Mooi iiiir
] )(>(irs. Complete . . .
Windows, ft)iuplotc
Stairs and lu-wcJ . .
r»a-^<'
Iii-idi' hiiiidi* ....
r.iiiidi:,u' liardware . .
1*\a/./:\> a:i(i porclies
( >iit~iilc l.liiiiU . . .
Sill'* and lirst - lloor
joints
^llM('Il^ioll lijiiilit-r . .
Frame
dwelling.
9i
20
5
t
10
40
50
20
:'.(•
;iO
;jo
40
.'iO
20
2u
10
2:1
i'jO
Brick
dwelling
(shingle
roof.)
I
Frame Htore.
O O S j2j I 3 O £ I ^ I ° O =
I
I
T.** 11 _ I _
20
14
6
—i
6
4
2
75
30
7
7
16
40
50
2n
■.V)
:U)
ao
40
:io
20
20
16
40
75
^1
14
14
6 I
2il
2
5
:q
'4
.>i
5
16
5
5
16
•M)
.•?0
40
1:;
25
2.>
20
W
:v)
\:\
20
16
25
40
6
20
20
6
■>i
''a
*']
ii
4
4
Brick Htore
(Khingle
roof.,^
<y I c ^ - I
8
5
fi
4
S^ SJ £ -
&; 2 j 2.U :
1. I
:J0 !
6 '
1A i
40
50
13
:U)
:jo
20
30
13
20
16
16
16
6
24
2
8
31 i 30 31
3{ ! .'ui i nl
s
6
30 ' :'.J
66 14
These jJLrui'es represent the averages de«luc(»d from tho rt»pliei»
ma !«' hy riiiiity-three eompetent hiiildei-s uneonii(>ete<l with fiii*-
iii uiaiKc <(>mpanies, in twenty-sevoii cities und tuwiis of thi
elevt'ii \\'t'«^lrrn JSLato«s.
CAPACITY OF CISTERNS AND TANKS.
703
Diana-
eter in
Inches.
^<Neo^o«t-oo»o;:22S3SSJ:;S28S?5aSSSSS8S
Height op Tank.
•
oeo»'.e5oo>©C«i«p-«GOi-i'.S«QeiO'^iA«o>-t'r-oor-<-rciO'4
• •■•••••••••••••••••••■•••••••
OOOt-iC<(NTl»i«<OoeOS.-<Mi«Qe©?5«»'N»rtO>COt-r-i03>C22t|eO
r-ii-if-ii-i?ic^c<5»ec«eC'^Ti»tOkOi««o«t-
m
1
• •••••■•••■••••••••••••••••••a
C
1-^
• ■••••••••••••••••••••••••a ••
©©ooOr-ii-iCieocO'^»o«Dt-oooJOC^eo-*«)QCOJi-ieooi-qir-«co
,-i,_ir-ii-ii-ii-f-iC^c5c^M?ieOM
•
s
o
e5'^r-i'*fi0 5qi^Qeic©i-i©««<C'0©eoc^»t^©©«P©oo»«oo©«ooi©
©i--CCiCQe(N<Oi-;l-'^i--$l:-©«)l';a6©iN«a^O>»OC^»t^«0«f3<0
o©©©©p^f-^c4c^cC'^Tf»o©t^o6oii-^c4eC'*«Di-©t-<s4-r«OQOci
•
a
e2C^i-CJi-©©«poo«Or-ii-©Qce5'^.-iC-to^35e2WQep-®wi
©1— C^'*t-f-iiOS-r©l-.r»'r-©00Q0Q00>©W»A00r-i«0r-<«CeC©»''«O
»•••••«•••••••••••••••••••■•••
©©©©©i-H-lr-iCICOeO-*0«®t-.0001»-iOieO-t©»^OJ©i?lW>Ol-
•
a
00
eCr-i-1'-fQCcrM-1'0<MQ'N'MM<M«0«0»-"MaOOi«0©l^©OW'MI-QO
©•-•r»-r«o©cct^iMi-eca><oeo«-HOiQOcr>Qoc»o>t-i-f'«>©-i'Qococr't
©©©©©©f-ii-HC^Mcoeo-^»o«o«o»-oooi©^co-t"Ci-Q005i-H^i-i«
1
6 in. 1 Tin.
f
1
CI © ^ aO 3i 1- 1- "M eC 50 cr r? -M •* CO n CC .— C5 -M O "M C ^- 1^ r: iC T t— IM
o 1-; w CO ifs oc «-; •<? cj « cc -r o o r: o « 1 - •■T i:^ iQ lO ijt 1- X c ?: -c q -t
©©©©o©i-Hr4r.ic^cico-^H»««o«ccicca-©»--c4cc-*rci--xoi-H
(NQCooc5^cc©f--t-fi--t>cor:'Moo-c-r>o»~5>''?"tiT. i-^s®o
© © r-< cc iC 1- © W «5 O -t OS -T O .C ^1 31 O :-: -- © 00 1- 1 - 1- 1- -/: 3i r- ^^
©©©©©©i-ii-^i-Hc4c4c4eo-*'^»oo<oi-cooi^©>-^ci?c-f''r«-i»
1
3 in. 4 in. 5 in.
C^l— »Ot— fO»-'CC©QOO©'f5l-W'M"?i— ir->-fO©CC0S©Ctl05©C^©©
oo»-ic^-t<OQC©cci-3-i-Qccccoec©'0'-<30«!t.c5oii-tc-t'c<:ccr:M
■ •••••'••••••••••••••a •••••■••
©©©©©©©p-n-'i-iC-|(M?-ICOM-f'«tOCO©l-COCOai©p-iCJr?-tiO
o © <-^ C'j cc •♦ «o X 1-; CO « o cc '-c c -t; C5 -i; 05 H; o •« ■-; oc o r^ C; to -+ 7J
© C © © © ©* © © r^ r4 1-5 1-4 CI c4 CO cc cc -t "^ U5 «0 «0 I- l'^ QC O © ©' <-« CI
r-> r-l t^
© O CI CO "C 1- Q CO CO O -f C5 cc © © r-i 1^ f CI O OO CO 1^ -^ «ft -* 1- >C 1 - O
»— -t" Ci CO 'C 'o © «o c« CI CO 'O CJ ?5 >c CI -t o '*■ ;«c OJ cc OS »- I- o cc .—. I-. CO
©©©•-<CICC'CC000OCl-fl-0SC«©CSCC©O«*'0SCC00CCQ0-fOCCi-'
©OO©© C 0©0'-'r-ii-if-ii-.CICICICCCC'r-f-t>vC>OCOcOI-l-Xi01
•
i-i-r-icco-i'cciCO'Ccoc:oc»©OiccC'CO©'— '«:cos«0'rocr©
o CI CO o 1 — h CO cc 'C v: CI 1 — !■ r: cc -r co c -c ci o o: - — -c — -r :" -^ ci
c © o — •— CI cc -t 'C CO x o". — cc i.c 1- r. ci -f i- © ci ic os ci 'C c. eo i- •-•
©©©©©C©©©©C©i-ir^r^i-i^CICIC»C»COCOCO't'^-t>C.CCO
•
a
r-t
eo -f r-i -f >o 5-1 CO cc .f5 c I— © >c CO .-» o cc CI CO o Ci CO OS 00 1(0 cc 03 o o; o
ot-teO'Ccrc<cDi— i--r^o3i-co©i'-ccocicoos-tcsociosi-cooco
0©©©©r-«t-.CJCICC-t-t>CCOl-Or;05r-iCICO-t©l-;OSrHCI'i;cCX©
©'©©©'©©©©©©'©'©©©'©©©r-^'-^r^r-ir-Jr-Ji-IcJcicicicicC
a «
it
rHC«eOTi.^<Oi-«)©©j^cjw^;|n«t^QC©grHgjgjjj|^gr;.oog6g
704 CAPACITY OF CISTERNS AND TANKS.
;. c «
I ^ r =
! *:
.. n
I
. I
c
y.
^ !l
I- 1
c Ti o o o r. o Ti -t '" '' "*" — ^ — '^ — ^ '-^ "»■ *?' '^' 5 o "M 'r "C - 1 -f j:
I- ?v r- Tt •': "^ c. — rr 't I - s T? '■: I- o rt •'^ ■/: ^ -t I- w r: -c n "M -- i. 7i
"?» f I :■; M re CO :t -+ -t -+ :•: •" '.~ o i.t -3 'O o 'i i- i- i- -jc x x x 5". r: -. s
— f- — TC -r 'T -I -ri -M r3 71 -t X- -M ^ I-: ^ ■-: 1-1 1- re r. I- re ^ s ri = :? ?; r;
cr I >e I - /: c ei -t -r 'y s ei t o r; — re :c X) »- r3 -^ jc ^ -f I - 5 r? 2 r- ei .^
• I ei ei ei re re re ce re -»• T -T -r -+ »« •.■? c: t:e '^ -c -£ -^ i- 1-> i> x x x x ;■. si
ei c -r ei c •- -f ei ei r o ei 1" ei -f X r -t X! e> -r ei -r ei X y -* -t ei =
:: «.t -^ r c ■-> re o i - r- '^ re '7 i - n — -r ■* x — r' ~ x i-h re is 3; ei i-e x
ei ej ej ei r: re re re re re -t -t -t -t f ir: is ue 1.-: -c -~ cc «d i^- 1- 1- 1~ x x x
1 r. -t r >e - -z
- ei -+ -7 I- /I c
I ej ei ei ei e« re
1 -p .-
<V^ Bi^ a^ *'■
, re le i-r i- r-
e -e I- n ^ re
T -* »t f ■-'? ir
r. r- re I - c; re I « ■^ X ••: ^ I-
re -c X c 71 •-: 1- r Ti 'i >: c
c -.7 ir: -c 'S -c -J I- 1- I- •- X
•w
1
*/; .
""
,
;
•/.
y.
A^
•—
■
>I>
\C
h 1
y.
•I.
re ■/■ e I '7 c re X r? o i.e ei o X -r ei ei c c c r c ?i ei -t •': c ei t s ^
r. r e» re . e ■; I - r. »- ei -p -S I - r. — re . e I - r. ^ re ■": I - r. — -^ -r r — r^
I— ~.\ ei ei ei -.1 ei ei re re re re re :e -f -T 1 1 -t -e ^r. o -e is 'j \Zi -5 -c i- 1-
I- r ei le -r c re r. re /: -* 3 -e — si •t r- r- — 1-
/■ c^-eire-e-ri-^cei-p-ei-x sei-riei-
— ei et ei ei ei ei ei ei re re :e re re re -r -f -r -r -f
I - le ir -♦ *c -r I - T. —
r. — r e ■ e I - r. — r e -^
t '-e ..e le i.t t.-; -^ -r -5
-* -z ■/■ /? c c ei -f X c -* X ei -^ c 'i ;: T ei /: -f ei r -c
le T I- X 3 r- ei r~ -+ -J I- /■ = >- re -t - 1- r. r ei -r .e 1-
.— r- I— f— ej e« e« el ei ei ei ei re re re re r: re :? -r -r -f T -r
ei M = X X X
ri — re -r vT x
"^ •" •" ^e •" «.';
X,
_^ ..M ^M ^ ^^ V-« ^M _M ^^ ^^ "^l '^1 '*^l ^\ ^\ ^1 ^1 ^1 ^1 *^ ^^ *^ '^ '^ "^ *■* <M« ^ ^ ^L
^^ 1"^ ^^ ^* ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ •■ •■ •■ af ■! •■ •< ■■ «f>«r*» ■• ■• ■« ■■ ■» ^* ^T ^r ^^
ei
I- X / r-
- .e — I- -t C I
5 - — — ei :: r
X .e :e o •/ -z
■z I- X X z.
5 d — — e I :": r: -r . e .7 -^ i - /■ x 5. 3 — 7 1 f i r? ^ ""e -i 1 - « r-
""'-^^"^r-f-i^«.-if-i^^ei7i7ieJ7«eiri7i7iei7i
y.
r -z -r ":} ^ r -z r -z ".^ -* ~ 'Z r -^ -* z "Z - ~ C-*
■ ••■•■•■•■■■■■■■■••••a
/ — -♦ I - c 7j • 7 r 7_i 7 / 7 1 .7 f 7 1 -r r — J ej £ r
-r /^ 71 s -t 71 r r
• ••■■• a,
•♦ /■ r: r 71 1 - 71 -^
— — 71 71 re r7 — t
; I- — r /^ .7 ■"
■ • • • • ■ •"■ "i ,
r. 7 1 ■ 7 - 7 1 •; - 7 1 -r 3
f ~\ -z z -^ / -r z. -z ':\ z X
z 71 :: 17
7 1 : 1 : 1 : 1
- • - r -r "J
!•!".-
^1 *l ^1 >^ -- -• - * - • - ^ «« ^Al
z 3 71 71 1 •» c 71 •;
■ ••■■■•■a
■ 7 •'■:•': 17 "e" '^J 3 'Z —
I - -1; — • / .7 71 r. I- •"
r! 3 — — : i ; : : :" -r • ■;'
■z \- e /' rl r" -^ 71 : :" -r 1 7" ■; I - / r! ~' 71 r; -r -^
— — -- ^ " fi :i 71 71 71 71 71 71 ti 71 :: r; rl :i r:
'- :i :: -r «7 x- 1- /: r- 3 «-■ 7i :: ^ .7 -3 i- / r. ; -- ei re ^ •; e ►» x a r
: : : : : ; r; :5 : : r: :: :e •» -r -r -r -r -T -r ^ •* -T 1^ .7 .s ^"5 •A ..■? J5 ^ w» :S -5
CAPACITY OF CISTERNS AND TANKS.
705
CAPACmr OF CISTERNS AND TANKS.
MBER OF Barrels (311 Gals.) in Cisterns and Tanks.
Diameter, in
Fbet.
6
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13 '
23.3
33.6
45.7
59.7
75.5
93.2
112.8
•134.3
157.6
28.0
40.3
54.8
71.7
90.6
111.0
135.4
161.1
189.1
32.7
47.0
64.0
83.6
105.7
130.6
158.0
188.0
220.6
37.3
53.7
73.1
95.5
120.9
149.2
180.5
214.8
252.1
42.0
60.4
82.2
107.4
136.0
167.9
203.1
241.7
283.7
46.7
67.1
91.4
119.4
151.1
186.5
225.7
268.6
315.2
51.3
73.9
100.5
131.3.
166.2
205.1
248.2
295.4
346.7
56.0
80.6
109.7
143.2
181.3
22:j.8
270.8
322.3
378.2
60.7
87.3
118.8
155.2
196.4
242.4
293.4
349.1
409.7
65.3
94.0
127.9
167.1
211.5
261.1
315.9
376.0
441.3
70.0
100.7
137.1
179.0
226.6
280.8
338.5
402.8
472.8
74.7
107.4
146.2
191.0
241.7
298.4
361.1
429.7
504.3
79.3
114.1
155.4
202.9
256.8
317.0
383.6
456.6
535.8
84.0
120.9.
164.5
214.8
272.0
335.7
406.2
483.4
567.3
88.7
127.6
173.6
226.8
287.0
354.3
428.8
510.3
598.0
93.3
134.3
182.8
238.7
302.1
373.0
451.3
537.1
630.4
DiAME
TER, IN
Feet.
14
15
16
238.7
17
18
19
20
1 "
22
182.8
209.8
289.5
302.1
336.6
373.0
411.2
451.3
219.3
251.8
286.5
323.4
362.6
404.0
447.6
493.5
541.6
255.9
293.7
334.2
377.3
423.0
471.3
522.2
575.7
631.9
292.4
335.7
382.0
431.2
483.4
538.6
596.8
658.0
722.1
329.0
377.7
429.7
485.1
543.8
605.9
671.4
740.2
812.4
365.5
419.6
477.4
539.0
004.3
673.3
746.0
. 822.5
902.7
402.1
461.6
525.2
592.9
667.7
740.6
820.6
904.7
992.9
438.6
503.5
572.9
646.8
725.1
807.9
895.2
987.0
1083.2
475.2
545.5
620.7
700.7
785.5
875.2
969.8
1069.2
1173.5
511.8
587.5
668.2
754.6
846.0
942.6
1044.4
1151.6
1263.7
548.3
629.4
716.2
808.5
906.4
1009.9
1110.0
12.33.7
1354.0
584.9
671.4
773.9
862.4
966.8
1077.2
1193.6
1315.9
1444.3
621.4
713.4
811.6
916.3
1027.2
1044.6
1268.2
1398.2
15:34.5
658.0
755.3
859.4
970.2
1087.7
1211.0
1342.8
1480.4
1624.8
694.5
797.3
907.1
1024.1
1148.1
1279.2
1417.4
1562.7
1715.1
731.1
839.3
954.9
1078.0
1208.5
1346.5
1492.0
1644.9
1805.3
DiAME
:ter, in
Feet.
28
24
25
26
28
29
80
493.3
537.1
582.8 1
630.4
679.8
731.1 '
784.2
839.3
592.0
644.5
699.4 '
756.5
815.8
877.3
041.1
1007.1
690.6
752.0
815.9 !
882.5 1
951.7
10'2:J.5
1097.9
1175.0
789.3
850.4
932.5
1008.6
1087.7
1160.7
1254.8
1342.8
887.9
966.8
1041). 1
1134.7
1223.6
1316.0
1411.6
1510.7
986.6
1074.2
1105.6
1260.8
1350.6
1462.2
1568.2 1
1678.5
1085.2
1181.7
12S2.2
i:i«i).8
1405.6
1608.7
1723.0
1846.4
1183.9
1289.1
1308.7 i
151-2.0
1631.5
1754.6
1882.2
2014.2
1
1282.6
1398.5
1515.3 i
1630.0
1767.5
1000,8
2039.0
2182.0
1381.2
1503.9
1631.0 ;
ITfiKl ;
1003.4
2047.1
2105.0
2343.9
1479.9
1611.4
1748.4
1801.1
2030.4
2103.3
2352.7
2517.8
1578.6
1718.8
1865.0
2017.2
2175.4
2339.5
2500.6
2685.6
1677.2
1826.2
1981.6
2143.3
2311.3
2485.7
2666.4
2S53.5
1775.9
1933.6
2098.1
2269.4 1
2447.3
26.31.9
2823.3
.3021.3
1874.6
2041.1
2214.7
2305.4 i
2583.2
2778.1
2980.1
3189.2
1073.2
2148.5
2321.2
1
2521.5 i
2710.2
2024.4
3137.0
3357.0
'tanks that are tapering, measure the diameter four-tenths from large end.
706
COMPARISON OF THERMOMETERS.
TVEIGHT AND COMPOSITION OF AXEL
1 cubic foot of air at 82 degrees F., uiuler a pressure of 14.7
pounds ])er s(iuaro in<"h, weighs 0.08()T2S of a pound.
Therefore 1000 cul)ic feet = 80.728 pounds.
cubic foot = 1.202 ounces
cubic foot of air contains
i 2;J per ce
t 77 per ce
{ 0.297]
1 ().004f
ent oxvsen.
1 cubic foot of air contains
53. 8.") cubic feet of air contain
Carlroiiic acid
per cent nitrogen.
16 ounce oxygtm.
>0484 ounce nitrogen.
1.20200 total weight.
( 0.018r>725 ])ound oxygen.
( 0. 0(^21555 pound nitrogen.
0.080728 pound.
j 1.000 pound oxygen.
I iVMl pounds nitFogea.
4..'J47 pounds.
= CO, = 22.
<'c_',;. 0 = 8. O,, = 16. 6+16 = 22.
For c()in])ustion to carbonic acid, 1 pound of coal requires 2|
pounds of oxygen, or 148.() cubic feet of air, supposing all of the
oxy<:cn to combine with the coal. 280 to J](X) cubic feet of air per
pound ot coal is the usual allowance for imperfect combustion.
1 l..")j) i^ounds of air for ])erfect combustion.
24.00 pounds of air for imperfect combustion.
COMPARISON OF THERMOMETERS.
To rirnnrt flir ticf/rccs of dlffvt'L'nt thmnometerv frotH oiie i»to
1' "Stands \{>y dc<j:rccs of Fahrenheit, or 212° )
( 'elsius^ or 1(H)0 ^ boiling-point.
Reanuu', or S()o)
'.•/.' or
J + ;)2, and /•' " - -f o2 for <lcgrees above freezing-|)oint
11/.' or
J - ''\'2. ami F~ p — ;>2 for (h-^n-es below froezing-iH)int.
,, , and // — - • ,, t(»r<leLin*esalK)vefnH?2liiR-|H>iut
:.iF :■ ::2) 4(F-: ;:2) . ,
,j , and /i* = .J tortlennM»slHMOwfreezliig-|»oiiiL
r
/.'
/'
J-
' OfU'll lAl»«d LCittlKIIMlv.
COLORS OF IRON CAUSED BY HEAT.
101
Zero of Celsius or Reamur = + ^2^ Fahrenheit. Zero of Fah-
lenheit = - 17.77° C, or - 14.22«> R.
1. How much is 8° Celsius above Zero in Fahrenheit ?
9x8 72
F = — ^— = -r = 14.4 + 32 = 46. 4© above.
2. How much is 8° Celsius below Zero in Fahrenheit ?
9X8 72
F = — ^ = 5" = 1^-^ — '^2 - ^^'^° above.
In cases where the product is smaller than .32, it indi-
cates THAT THE DEGREE 18 ABOVE ZeRO OF FAHRENHEIT; SEE
EXAMPLE 2.
3. How much is 19° Celsius below Zero in Fahrenheit ?
9 X 19
F =
— 32 = 34.2 — 32 = 2.2 below Fahrenheit.
DIFFERENT COLORS OF IRON CAIT8ED BY HEAT
[Pouillet.]
c.
Fah.
Color.
210°
410°
Pale yellow.
221
430
Dull yellow.
256
493
Crimson.
261
370
502/
680$
C Violet, purple, and dull blue; between 261° and
} 370° C. it passes to bright blue, to sea-green,
W i v
( and then disappears.
500
932
Commences to be covered with a light coating of
oxide, loses a good deal of its hardness, becomes
a good deal more impressible to the hammer, and
can be twisted with ease.
625
977
Becomes nascent red.
700
1292
Sombre red.
800
1472
Nascent cherry.
900
1657
Cherry.
1000
1832
Bright cherry.
1100
2012
Dull orange.
1200
2192
Bright orange.
1300
2:372
White.
1400
2.5.52
Brilliant white, weldinc heat.
1500
1600
2782/
2912(
Dazzling white.
T08 MELTING-POINT AND EXPANSION OF METALS.
MELTING-POINT OF nffETALS.
Name.
Fah.
4'm°
Fah.
Authority.
Platina . . .
Antimony . .
i)55
842
I. Lowthian Bell.
Bisniutli . . .
4S7
507
a
Tin (averagej .
475
—
Load ''
(522
020
«
Zinc ....
772
7S2
i(
(.'ast-iron . . .
27S()
j 1<)22 to 2012, white!
) 2012to21J)2,fiji'ay j
Pouillet.
AVroiirrht-iron .
2552
2783, welding heat.
((
Copper! a vcragej,
2174
LINEAR EXPANSION OF METALS.
zjllH*. • • • • • • •
\aku\
Tin
(.'oplxT, yellow . . . .
red
KoriX'Ml iron ^
Steel-
Cast-iron ^
Between 0° and
For r C.
For 1* P.
100* C.
0.(K)2<)4
().(H)284
—
—
0.(K)222
—
—
o.ooiss
—
—
0.(K)17l
—
—
0.(M)I22
0.0(KK)122
o.oooootrn
0.(H)114
0.(NHK)114
0.(N)()(N)6:i:!
0.(H)111
0.00001 11
o.oootNjom
For a cliani^e of l(M)o F. a har of iron 1475 fi'et lonj: will oxteud
one foot. Similarly, a bar UK) feot long will extend O.iMJTS of a
foot, or o.^l.'IO of an inch.
Aeconlini,' to the experiments of Duhmg & Petit, we have the
li.eiii expansion of iron. coi>per, and platinum Ix'tween iP and
HM)C' ('.. and ()0 and :UM)o C., as below.
From »• to IW)*
().(M)1S0
0.<H)171
0.tKMSH4
0*10 300*0.
Iron .
0.00146
("oiiper .
aooi88
II
i'lat inuni
auciuis
■ I.«plttre .V LttVoUk'r.
« lUiiudi
m.
THE PROPERTIES OF WATER.
709
The law for the expansion of iron, steel, and cast-iron at very
high temperatures, according to Rinman, is as follows : —
From 25* to 525' C, red
heat, = 500" C.
For l- C. 1' Fah.
Iron
Steel
Cast-iron . . .
0.00714
0.01071
0.01250
0.0000143 = 0.0000080
0.0000214 = 0.00(X)119
0.0000250 = 0.0000139
From 25* to 1300*, nascent
white, = 1275' C.
Iron
Steel . . • • .
Cast-iron • • .
0.01250
0.01787
0.02144
0.00000981 = 0.00000545
0.00001400 - 0.00000777
0.00001680 = 0.00000933
From 500' to 1500», dull
red to white heat, = 1000°
C, difference.
Iron
Steel
Cast-iron . . .
0.00535
0.00714
0.00893
0.00000535 = 0.00(X)030
0.00000714 = 0.0000040
0.00000893 = 0.0(XXK)50
Ratio of Expansion in 100 Parts, assuming Fokge-Iron
to expand between 0° and 100° c, = 0.00122.
Iron . .
Steel . .
Cast-iron
From 0° to
100°.
100 per ct.
93 ''
91 '*
25* to 525°
117 perct.
175
205
25° to 1300°.
80 per ct.
114 '*
137
((
500° to 1500'.
44 per ct.
58 "
73 ''
THE PROPERTIES OF WATER.
Watek was supposed to be an element, until Priestly, late in the
eighteenth century, discovered, that, when hydrogen was burned in
a glass tube, water was deposited on the sides. (It has been shown
that the combustion of hydrogen lequires eight parts, by weight,
of oxygen; and vapor of water is the result.)
It was notf however, until Cavendish and Lavoisier investigated
waWr tbui its chemical composition was determined.
10
THE PROPERTIES OF WATER.
The several conditions of watef are usually stated as the solid,
the liquid, and the gaseous. Two conditions are covered by the
last ttTin; and water should he understood as capable of existinjL; in
four different conditions, — the solid, the liquid, the vaporous, and
the. i^ascons. At and ludow .')2° F. water exists in the solid sta':',
and is known as ic(?. Accordiui; to Professor llankine, ice at .'>::°
has a si)ccific gravity of ().<.)2. Thus a cubic foot of ice weighs 57.4.>
pounds.
When water j)assi^s from the solid to the li(iuid state, heat is
requii-C(l for licjuefaction sutticient to elevate the t(^niiH»rature of
one pound of water 14o° F. This is tenned the latent heat
of li(jucfaction. According; to M. Person the s|)ecific heat of i<'e
is ().r)()4, and the latent heat of liquefaction 142.r)r).
From :>2° to iV.)° the density of water increases ; above the latter
temperature the density diminishes.
W aler is said to be at its maxinunn density at 81)° F., and under
pn'ssure of one atmosphere weighs, according to Berzelius, »»2.:l*<2
l)oun(ls ])er cubic foot.
Water is said to vai)()rize at 212° F., and ])ressun' of on«' atnios-
])here (14.7 i)ounds); but Faraday has shown that vaporization
occurs at all temperatun^s from absoIut«» ya'hk and that th«' limit to
va])ori'/ation is tin' disappearance of heat. Dalton obtained the
followimr experimental results on evaporation below the l)oiUng
temperature : —
rcinprru-
tUIt".
Kato of
t'Viiporjilion.
HuroinHiT.
212
l.U)
2<.».S>2()
ISO
0.50
i:>.27o
1()4
o.:5:j
10.:)JM)
l.VJ
0.2.')
7.o;;o
144
0.20
(;.4ss
i:js
0.17
.")..")♦ M
From tills ibe lieneral law is deduj-etl, that tlie rate of surfa»*^
rMijKiiMl it'll js iiroporliniial t»> I In- ela>rh' furer »»f the vapor.
rir:-. >iii>iM)se two tanks of >imilar surtae*' dimensions, jiijd int'ii
In tJM- :ti iiKi^plieM', one coiiiainiiiu Water muhitanii'd constantly at
•Jli: I'.. Mild llie oLliei" roiilahiiliii wahT at 111'"' \'\
TIm II. I'll earh pound of water evaporateil in the lust tank, five
])()inii!s uill Ik- evaporated in tbe lir>t tank.
Ii sIicmM be understood thai tbe law of Dalloii liohU hhkhI only
for dt\ a:r : and when the air contains va|N>r having an Hiistle
CONSUMPTION OF WATER IN CITIES.
in
force equal to that of the vapor of the water, the evaporation
ceases.
The hoiling-point of water depends upon the pressure. Thus at
one atmosphere (14.7 pounds, 29.22" barometer) the temperature of
ebullition is 212°. With a partial vacuum, or absolute pressure
of one pound (2.037" of mercury), the boiling-point is 101.40 F.
Upon the other hand, if the pressure be 74.7 pounds absolute
(60 pounds by the gauge), the temperature of evaporation becomes
307° F.
The vaporous condition of water is limited to saturation; that is
to say, when water has been converted by heat into vapor (steam),
and when this vapor has been furnished with latent heat sufficient
to render it anhydrous, the vaporous condition ends, and the
gaseous state begins.
Superheated steam is water in the gaseous state.
The temperature of the gaseous state of water, like that of the
vaporous, depends upon the imposed pressure. Under pressure of
one atmosphere, water exists in the solid state at and below 32° F. ;
from 32° to 212° it exists in the liquid state; at and above 212°, in
the vaporous state; and above saturation, in the gaseous state.
It has been stated that water boils at 212°; but MM. Magnus
and Donney have shown, that, when water is freed of air, it may
be elevated in temperature to 270° before evaporation takes place.
The specific heat of water under the several conditions are as
follows : —
Solid 0.504
Liquid 1.000
Vaporous . . . 0.475 to 1.000
Gaseous 0.475
CONSUMPTION OP WATER IN CITIES.
Daily Average Number of Gallons of Water per
Capita in the Cities named. i
Washington, D.C. 158
Jersey City, N.
J. 99
Edinburgh, Scot.
. 88
New York .
. .100
Buffalo, N.Y.
. 01
Dublin, Ireland
. 25
Brooklyn .
. . 50
('leveland . .
. 40
Paris, France .
. 28
Philadelphia .
. 55
Columbus . .
. 80
Tours, " .
. 22
Baltimore . .
. 40
Montreal . .
. 55
Toulouse, " .
. 26
Chicago . .
. 75
Toronto . .
. 77
Lyons, '* .
. 20
Boston . . .
. . 60
London, Eng.
. 29
Leghorn, Italy
. 30
Albany, N.Y. .
. . 80
Liverpool " .
. 23
Berlin, Prussia
. 20
Detroit . . .
. . 8:^
Glasgow, Scot.
. 50
Hamburg, "
. 33
* InolikUog water used for manufacturing, fountains, and waste.
ADHESIVE STEENGTH OF SULPHUR, ETC. V13
Produce Exchange Build 'g, |
New York f
Sloane Building, New York. .
MasstachnsettR Hospital In- i
snrancG Company's Build- \
ing, Boston )
Hemenway Building, Boston.
Approximate
roof surface.
33,000 6q. ft.
19,000 sq. ft.
6,000 eq. ft.
4,000 sq. ft.
Approximate
surface per
sq. inch of
leader open-
ing.
140 sq. ft.
240 sq. ft.
70 sq. ft.
60 sq. ft.
Twelve 5-inch leaders
( Two 6-inch leaders
< and one 4 inches
( X 6 inches.
Seven 4-inch leaders.
Five 4-inch leaders.
ADHBSIVE STRENGTH OF SULPHUR, LHAD, AND
PORTItAND CEMENT FOR ANCHORING BOLTS.
The following test of these materials is reported in the American
Architect, page 105, vol. xxiv. :
** Fourteen holes were drilled in a ledge of solid limestone, seven
of them being If inches in diameter and seven of them If inches
in diameter, all being 8^ feet deep. Seven |-inch and seven 1-inch
bolts were prepared with thread and nut on one end and plain at
the other end but ragged for a length of 3^ feet from the blank
end.
' * Four were anchored with sulphur, four with lead, and six with
cement, mixed neat. Half of each were |-inch and half 1-inch
bolts, and all of them were allowed to stand till the cement was
two weeks old. At the expiration of this time a lever of sufficient
power was rigged and all the bolts were pulled with the follow-
ing result :
" SvXphur — Three bolts out of four developed their full strength,
16,000 and 31,000 pounds. One 1-inch bolt failed by drawing out
nnder 12,000 pounds.
*' Lead — Three bolts out of four developed their full strength,
as above ; one 1-inch bolt pulled out under 13,000 pounds.
*' Cement — Five of the bolts out of six broke without pulling
out .: one 1-inch bolt began to yield in the cement at 26,000 pounds,
but sustained the load a few seconds before it broke.
** While this experiment demonstrated the superiority of cement,
both as to strength and ease of application, yet it did not give the
strength per square inch of area. To determine this, four speci-
mens of limestone were prepared, each 10 inches wide, 18 inches
long, and 12 inches thick, two of them having l|-inch holes, and
two of them 2|-it <th holes drilled in them. Into the small holes
714 CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION.
1-inch bolts were cemented, one of them being perfectly plain
round iron, and the other having ft thread cut on the ]iortion
whicli was imbedded in the cement. Into the 2§-inch holes were
cemented 2-incli ])olts similarly treated, and tlie four spetiini-ns
wore allowed to stand thirteen days before completing the exieri-
ment. A( the end of this time they were put into a standard test-
ing-machine and pulled. The plain 1-inch bolt began to yield at
20.000 pounds, and tlio threaded one at 21,000 poundf'. The 2-inch
plain bolt began to yield at 34,000 i)Ounds, and the threaded one
at 32,000 pounds, the strain in jdl cases being very slowly applied.
The; pumj) was then run at a greater speed, and tiio stones holding
the ii-inch bolts split at 07,000 jjounds in the casii of the smooth
one and ai ."iO.OnO pounds in the case of the threade<l one.
"It is thus seen tliat cement is more reliable, stronger, and
easier of application than either lead or sulphur, and that its re-
sist anci; is from 400 to ."iOO pounds per square inch of surface
exposed. It is also a well-ascertained fact that it preserves inm
rather than corrodes it. The cement used throughout the experi-
ment was an English Portland cement."
CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION.
[From •'Kn^iiK'fiinii; Xuwr*."]
The ratio obtaintMl by dividing I he entire force of friction by th»
normal i)irssni-e is called the co-ellicient <»f friction; hence we niav
define (he nnit or co-cllicicnt of friction to l>e the friction due lu a
normal iu<"-»;nre of one pound.
Tlii-< eo ('i!i<-ient is as follows : for
Iron ('11 oak 02
(a^l-iroji oil oak 40
Oak (»n oak, libies i»arallcl 4S
.greased U\
('a--!-iroii on cast-iron I.'i
Wi'oii-lii-iron on wnMiLrhf-iron 14
r»ia^ on iron |f{
l>ra^-< on hnis.s *^}
W'rou'jlil-iron on cast -iron \\i
(asi-iinn on elm ISI
Sofi lJnie:,tone on tlif same (^
Ilai'<l Mmestoni* on the sauK^ :)S
i.eatluT U'lts on wooileii pulleys 47
l.t:i!h<r l)elts on eaNt-inm pulleys , . 2S
( asi-iron (Ml eaM-inin. i:r«*ii>eil . . 10
TO MAKE BLUE-PRINT COPIES OF TKACINGS. 715
Pivots or axes oX wrought-iron or cast-iron, on brass or cast-iron
pillows. : —
1st, When constantly supplied with oil ...... 05
2d, When greased from time to time 08
3d, Witlioat any application 15
TO MAKE BLUE-PRINT COPIES OF TRACINGS.
The following directions, taken from the " Locomotive,'* cover
the whole ground. The sensitized paper can be procured at stores
where artists' materials are sold, all prepared, so that the process
of preparing the paper by means of chemicals can then be omitted.
The materials required are as follows : —
1st, A board a little larger than the tracing to be copied. The
drawing-board on which the drawing and tracing are made can
always be used.
2d, Two or three thicknesses of flannel or other soft white cloth,
which is to be smoothly tacked to the above board, to form a good
smooth surface, on which to lay the sensitized paper and tracing
while printing.
3d, A plate of common double-thick window-glass, of good qual-
ity, slightly larger than the tracing which it is wished to copy.
The function of the glass is to keep the tracing and sensitized paper
closely and smoothly pressed together while printing.
4th, The chemicals for sensitizing the paper. These consist
simply of equal parts, by weight, of citrate of iron and ammonia,
and red prussiate of potash. These can be obtained at any drug-
store. The price should not be over eight or ten cents per cunce
for each.
5th, A stone or yellow glass bottle to keep the solution of the
above chemicals in. If there is but little copying to do, an ordi-
nary glass bottle will do, and the solution made fresh whenever it
is wanted for immediate use.
Oth, A shallow earthen dish in which to place the solution when
using it. A common dinner-plate is as good as any thing for this
purpose.
7tli, A brush, a soft paste-brush about four inches wide, is the
best thing we know of.
8th, Plenty of cold water in which to wash the copies after they
liave been exposed to the sunlight. The outlet of an oitlinary sink
may be closed by placing a piece of paper over it with a weight on
top to keep the paper down, and the sink filled with water, if the
716 MINERAL WOOL.
sink is largo enough to lay the copy in. If it is not,- it would be
l)(»tt(T to make a water-tight box about five or six inches deep, and
six inches wider and longer than the drawing to be copied.
Dth, A good (juality of white book-pai^er.
Dissolve the (chemicals in cold water in tlie following propor-
tions : One ounce of citrate of iron and annnonia, one ounce of
rod prussiato of potash, eight ounces of water. They may all be
put into a b()ttl(» together, and shaken up. Ten minutes will suffice
to dissolve them.
1 ay a shec^t of the pa])er to Ix' sensitized on a smooth table or
])oar(i : i)our a little of the solution into the earthen dish or plate,
antl apply a good even coating of it to the paper with the brush:
I hen tack the paper to a board by two adjacent comers, and set it
in a dark place to dry; one hour is sufficient for the drying; then
place its sensitized side up, on the boanl on which you have
smootiily tacked the white flannel cloth; lay your tracing which
you wish to copy on top of it; on top of all lay the glass plate,
beiu!^ eiui'tul that paper and tracing are both smooth and in perfiHit
contact with ea<'h other, and lay the whole thing out in the sun-
light. J>ctween (devcn and two oN'lock in the sununer-time, on a
clear day, from six to ten nnnutes will 1)*^. sufhciently long to
exi)()se it ; at other s(?a>ons a longer time will Ik* rcfpiii-ed. If your
location <loes not a<Imit of dir(>r-t suidight, the printing may lie
done ill the shade, or even on a cloudy day; but from one to two
hours and a half will 1m' recpiired for exposure. A little exiierience
will soon eiiabh^ any one to judge of the proi)er time for exi>usure
on ditlerent days. AfttT exposure, place your print in tlu* sink or
troiiiih of water before mentioned, and wash thoroughly, letting it
soak Irom tlnvc; to live nnnutes. I'lKiu immersion in the watvr,
the (Uawini;, hardly visibl<» ix-fore. will appear in <*lear white lines
on a dark-hlue ground. After washing, tack up against the wall,
or ollnr convenient phu-e, ))y the corners, to dry. This finishes the
operation, wliich is very simple and thorough.
After tlie copy is dry, it can Ik^ writl«'n on with a common pen
and a solution of common soda, whicli gives a white line.
MINERAL WOOL.
I M:iiiuf.-u-tun'<l hy thv rnlt«<<l Statin* Nf iiii>rnl Wool rompany.]
Mi Ml -nil wool i the slag of Idast fiu'nnces converted into a
liliious <.iaic. The ]>r<H>(>ss consists in subJiM'ting a sniall stream of
the niohcn slag to the imiN'lling force of a jet of steam or euni-
MINERAL WOOL. Ill
pressed air, which divides it into innumerable small shot or spher-
ules, forming a spray of spark-like objects. The threads are spun
out immediately upon the detachment of the slag particles from
the main body of the stream, their length and fineness being de-
pendent upon the fluidity and composition of the material under
treatment. When the slag is of the proper consistency, the spher-
ules are small at the outset, and are to some extent absorbed into
the fibre; but in no case will they disappear entirely, so that a
great portion of the wool contains them, and is only separated from
them by riddling. That portion of the mineral wool which is car-
ried away from the shot by air-currents is very light (fourteen
pomids per ciibic foot), and forms an extra r/rade; while the bal-
ance has a working-weight of twenty-four pounds per cubic foot,
and is called ordinainj mineral wool.
Tlie extra grade of mineral wool contains about ninety-three per
cent of its volume of air, and the ordinary mineral wool eighty-
eight per cent.
This air circulates with such difficulty that moderate thicknesses
of the stuff prevent the passage of heat, and perfect insulation may
be obtained at small cost.
Mineral wool is used in buildings to fill between the studs
and joists, to keep out the cold in winter and heat in summer, and
effectually closing up all passages in which vermin and insects
generally make their homes, and fires are communicated without a
possibility of arrest.
It is peculiarly adapted for deafening floors; because it is used
dry. and is inelastic, and therefore does not transmit the vibra-
tions necessary to the communication of sound.
Mineral wool is also used largely for packing around steam and
hot-water pipes to prevent loss of heat before reaching the radi-
ators.
Ordinary mineral wool weighs about 24 pounds per cubic foot,
and is put up in bags containing from 60 to 90 pounds in each bag.
It costs at the works, in Stanhope, N.J., 1 cent per pound, and at
store in New- York City, li cents per pound.
Extra mineral wool weighs about 14 pounds per cubic foot, and
is put up in bags containing from 25 to 45 pounds in each bag. It
costs, at the works, 3 cents per pound, and at the store, New- York
City, 3i cents per pound.
18
HARD-WOOD LUMBER GRADES IN BOSTON.
RELATIVE HARDNESS OF WOODS.
Takinj? sli(»ll-bai'k liickory as tlio highest standard of our forest-
treos, and calliiip; that 100, other trees will compare with it for
hardness as follows : —
Shell-bark hickory ... 100
Pignut hickory . . . . 0(>
White oak 84
White ash 77
Dogwood 75
Scrub oak 73
White hazel 72
Apple-lre(; 70
Ked oak (iJ)
White l)eech 05
l>la( k wahuit 05
lilack birch 02
Yellow oak no
Hard maple 50
AVhite elm .*8
Red cedar 'A)
Wild cherry 55
Yellow pim^ 54
Chestnut 52
Yellow i)oplar . ... 51
Dulternut ....... 4:5
White birch 4:J
White pine 30
HARD-WOOD LUMBER GRADES IN BOSTON.
I From the " XorthwoMlern Lurabc*rraan," ISS.'J.l
Tht» Boston law for tln^ survey of black walnut and clierry, <ish,
oak, po])liir, and butt<'rnut, recjuin's that the woods be dividiNl into
thn'e grades, — number one, nund>er two. and culls.
Number one includes all boards, i)lank, or joi>t that arc free from
rot and shakes, and n^^irly free from knots, sap, and biul taiNT:
tlu' knots nnist be small and sound, and jo few that they would
not cau^«' waste for th(» best kin<l of work. A split in a boanl or
])]ank, it' parallel with the edgt! of a piece, is classed luuiiber oiw.
Number two inchules all other th'scriptions, except when ono-
thinl is worthless; when a board, plank, or joist contains sap,
knots, splits, or any other imi>erfecti()ns combiiuHl, making; le?*.s
than one-tliird of a i)iece unlit foi' good work, and only tit for unlU
nary i)uri)oses, it is number two; when one-third is worthless, it is
a cull, or refuse. ilefuM* or cull hard wood includes all IkkuiIs.
plaiil<, or Joist tliat are maiuifacturcd badly, by iH'ing ^aw«•d in
diaiMoiid s]i:ii)e, smaller in one part than in .mother, split at lutili
cikN. or witli splits not parallel, large and bad knots, worm-holes.
sa]', roi, n1 Hikes, or any imperfections which would cause a pieiv of
luiiilMr lo \h' one-third worthless or waste.
All hard woods are measured from six inches up; and all hinilNT
sa Aiil tliin is ins]^ected the same as if of pro]>fr thickneM, but ij
clas I'd as thin, and sold at the price of thin lumber.
HORSE-POWKR. — WPHGHTS OF CASTINGS.
719
There is no such thickness as J-inch lumber : the regular sizes
are i, 3, I4, 1^, 2. 2^, 3, 4 inch, and up, on even inches. The reg-
ular lengths are 12, 14, and 16 feet ; shorter than 12 does not com-
mand full market price.
HORSE-POWER
A horse can travel 400 yards at a walk in 4i minutes, at a trot
in 2 minutes, and at a galop in 1 minute; he occupies in a stall
from ;}i to 4^ feet front, and at a picket 3 feet by 9; and his aver-
age weight equals 1000 pounds.
A horse carrying 225 pounds can ti*avel 25 miles in a day of
8 hours.
A draiKjht'horse can draw 1600 pounds 23 miles a day, weight of
carriage included.
In a horse-mill a horse moves at the rate of 3 feet in a second.
The diameter of the track should not be less than 25 feet.
A horse-power, in machinery, is estimated at 38,000 pounds,
raised 1 foot in a minute; but as a horse can exert that force but
six hours a day, one machineiy horse-power is equivalent to that
of 4^ horses.
The strength of a horse is equivalent to that of five men.
The daily allowance of water for a horse should be four gallons.
RULES FOR WEIGHTS OF CASTINGS.
Multiply the weight
of the pattern by
12 for cast-iron,
13 " brass,
10 " lead,
12.2 " tin,
11.4 ** zinc.
and the product is the
weight of the casting.
Reduction for Round Cores and Core Prints.
Rule. — Multiply the square of the diameter by the length of
the core in inches, and the product multiplied by 0.017 is the
weight of the pine core to be deducted from the weight of the
pattern.
Shrinkage in Castings.
Pattern-makers' Bide.
A
Cast-iron, i
Brass .
Lead . . i
Tin . . A/
Zinc . . ft
of an inch longer pel
lineal foot.
720 AMERICAN WORKS OF MAGNITUDE.
RULES FOR CALCULATING THE SPEED OF
DRUMS AND PULLETS.
The dhiweter of the. driver hehifj given, to find Us number of
revolntioiis.
IvTLK. — Multiply the diameUT of the driver by the niiml>i»r of
its revolutions, and divide the product by the diameter of the
driven : the quotient will be t\n) number of revolutions of
the driven.
The dimueier and revolutions of the driver beiny given, to find
the didineter of the drii'eii that .shall make any given number of
revolutions in the same time,
Kui.E. — Multijdy the diameter of the driver by its number of
revolutions, and divide the product by the number of revohitions
of the driven: the (juotient will be its diameter.
To (fsrcrtdiu the size of the driver.
lUi.E. — Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of
revolutions you wish it to make, and divide the product by the
revolutions of the driver : the quotient will be the diameter of
tlie driver.
X. B. — In ordering ])ulleys, be careful to give the exact size of
the shaft on whi<'h they are to go; also state liow you wish them
thiisluMJ on the fact;, — fiat face for shifting belt, rounding for
non-shifting belt.
TVEIGHT OF GRINDSTONES.
liiLi:. — Scjuare the diameter (in Indies), nmltiply by thickness
(in inches), then nndtiply by decimal 0.()(>:>():l.
Kxa.mi'm:. — Find the weight of a stone 4 feet 0 inches diameter
and 7 inches thick.
4 le«'t <» inches = 54 inches; square of 'A = 21)16; mu]tiplie«l by
7 - 2<M12; nudtiplied by 0.(H5;3<)3 = Ans, VJMS.Si'} pounds, which
is weiiiht of stone.
MISCELLANEOUS MEMORANDA. l2l
BfllBCELLANEOnS MEMORANDA.
Weight of Men and Women. — The average weight of twenty
thousand men and women weighed at Boston, 1864, was, — men,
141i pounds; women, 124^ pounds.
Smallest Convenient Size of slab for a 14-inch wash-bowl, 21 by
24 inches. Height of slab from floor, 2 feet 6 inches. Very small
{12-inch) comer wash-bowl; slab, 1 foot 11 inches each side.
Urinals should be 2 feet 2 inches between partitions ; partitions
6 feet high.
Space occupied by Water-Closets, 2 feet 6 inches wide, 2 feet
deep.
Dimensions of Double Bed. — 6 feet 6 inches by 4 feet 6 inches.
Dimensions of Single Beds (in dormitories). — 2 feet 8 inches by
6 feet 6 inches.
Dimensions of a Bureau. — 3 feet 2 inches wide, 1 foot 6 inches
deep, and upwards.
Dimensions of a Washstand (common chamber-sets). — 2 feet
4 inches wide, 1 foot 6 inches deep.
Dimensions of a Barrel. — Diameter of head, 17 inches; bung, 19
inches; length, 28 inches; volume, 7680 cubic inches.
Dimensions of Billiard-Tables (Collender). — 4 feet by 8 feet, 4
feet 2 inches by 9 feet, and 5 feet by 10 feet. Size of room required,
13 feet by 17 feet, 14 feet by 18 feet, and 15 feet by 20 feet respec-
tively.
Horse-Stalls. — Width, 3 feet 10 inches to 4 feet, or else 5 feet
or over in width, 9 feet long. Width should never be between 4
and 5 feet, as in such cases the horse is liable to cast himself.
Dimensions of Drawings for Patents (United States). — 10 x 15
inches, with border line one inch inside all around.
Pitch of Tiny Copper, or Tar-and-Gravel Roof. — Five-eighths
of an inch to the foot, and upwards.
A fall of one-tenth of an inch in a mile will produce a current in
rivers.
Melted snow produces from one-fourth to one-eighth of its bulk
in water.
At the depth of forty-five feet, the temperature of the earth is
uniform throughout the year.
A spermaceti candle 0.85 of an inch in diameter consumes an
inch in length in an hour.
Velocity qf sound in water, 4708 feet per second.
Avenues of City of New York run 28° 50' 30" east of north.
Average Height of Hand Rail to Stairs in Dwellings. — 2 feet
7 inches from top of step on line with riser.
1±2 DIMENSIONS OF PIANOS, WAGONS, ETC.
Diiiieiisioiis c>f Steinway Pianos.
Grand parlor, 7 -oi'tavc, (5 ft. 0 in. X 4 ft. Si in., to
7 ft. iV> in. X 4 ft. Si in.
Crrand ])arl()r, 7,{-o<*tJivc, S ft. 10 in. XT) ft. 0 in.
S(jiian* pianos . . . . (*> ft. S in. X ;> ft. 4 in.
(riand sciuniv. ....() ft. 11 i i"- X •> ^t- <» in.
rpright piano . . . 4 ft. 10 in. X 2 ft. :Ji in. X 4 ft. 0 in. hitili.
Tpright i^n-and . . . ') ft. 1 1 in. X 2 ft. 4 in. X 4 ft. 5i in. lii^'li
Height of I^lackboards in Scliool-HouKcs.
V rim (It'll ^''liooh.
TInrd class, chalk niouldinj^ .... 2 fcot 1 inch from floor.
Second class, chalk moulding ... 2 feet 2i incli«»s from fliMir.
First class, chalk moulding .... 2 f<M't 4 inclK's from tlimr.
Ih'iixht of hoards o feet, to allow for mottoc-i,
(irfifniinir Sc/mnls. etc., at top of hoard.
Top of stool inouldimj 2 fi'ct •> inches from floor.
Height of hoanl 4 fc(»t (> inches.
The ahovc are the heights adoptc(l in the Boston schools.
DiiiK'iisioiis of S<*li<M>li'ooiiis, liostoii S<*Ium»1s. — Th<>
sizes of the rooms in the Boston .schools, as adopt ctl by lln'
School Board, are: for grannnar schools, 2s feet X :»2 tiH*t x lo
feel (I inches luLch: for iirimarv stdiools, 24 feet X :i2 U'vi X 12
f<'et. 'i'hi^ acconnnodalcs ."»(» scdiolars ])cr room, in eui'h graili*.
allowin'j: Jli) cul)i<- feet i>er scholar in the gr.immar s<*]iools. iiml
lO.") enhie feet in lln' i)rimary grade.
Diinciisioiis and Woisrlit of Firr-Kiij^iiM».s. — From
niea^nienienis of ditT«'rent lire-engines heloniring to the city t»f
BuNion. it \\a'< found that the gi'catcst IcnLrth, im hiiling pole, wa"*
22 fe<t () iu'lies. 'I'he widths varied from .') feet l«) .*> f«'el U inclii*s.
tlie aveia-^e ji.-'ujiil hcinLTS feet s inches.
The a\'r.i_:e weiudii of 2- emxjncs i.s S(MM» poun Is: tin* ':n":il«'*t
weii:ht hijnu' I'll'O jM>nn 'x. and the least ■17S0 [munds.
Diincii^ioiis ami >V<Mji:lit of llos«» <'ari'ia^os. —
r.MieiiM- l.'iiu'ih. with hor^e. P.» fei-; f» inches; wilhoni Imr «■. 17
f. < ' <■■ iiirli. -s. Width. ."• fci'i '.» inehe>i to 7 fci-i n Inches: lici^hi.
ji',.ii 'i ii-ei > inches to 7 feet o inclie»: averaixc weight of 11 vat-
ri.i_- -. L"'l'' [Hiun I-: i:re;iic>l weii^hl. :).')(K»; h-ast weight. 2I2t».
l>iin<'iisioiis and AVoiiL*]!! <»f Laddor WiiK^iiis. —
I.' ::.:'li "1 tniek, :V.', fei-t : total IimitiIi. with ladders on. 4."» frt'l:
wi !ili. •". ti.t 2 in -he-: average Wi'iiihl of 12 wagons, (MUK) poiiiiiU:
i:ie;ji.-i v. i-hi. v^oM: |i-ast, •|:i.")n.
DIMENSIONS OF CARRIAGES, ETC.
12H
Dimensions of Carriages. — Coccrert Buggy (Goddard).
-Length over all, 14 feet; width, 5 feet; height, 7 feet 4 inches,
nil turn in space from 14 to 20 feet square, according to skill.
Coupi. — Length over all, 18 feet; width, 6 feet; height, 6 feet
inches.
Buggy {Piano Box). — Length over all, 14 feet; width, 4 feet 10
iches.
Landau. — Length over all, 19 feet 6 inches; width, 6 feet 3
iches; height, 6 feet 3 inches; length of pole, 8 feet 0 inches.
Stanhope Gig [S H7iee;«). — Length over all, 10 feet 6 inches;
idth, 5 feet 8 inches; height, 7 feet 6 inches.
Victoria. — Length, without pole, 9 feet 6 inches; length of
ale, 8 feet; width over all, 5 feet 4 inches.
Light Brougham. — Length, without pole or shaft, 9 feet to 11
!et; width over all, 5 feet 4 inches; height, 6 feet 4 inches.
HEIGHT, PER FOOT, OF RAYMOND'S COMPRESSED
LEAD SASH VTEIGHTS.
Size.
Weight per lineal foot.
Weight per lineal foot.
kouiid weights.
Square weights.
1 inch.
3^ pounds.
4.93 pounds.
li "
6 "
7.68
H "
8i
10.27 "
n **
111
15.08 "
2 inches.
15i "
19.02 "
2i "
18^
24.00 "
2^ "
23
30.82 "
23 "
28.93
37.27
3
34.81 "
44.38 "
31 "
40.52 "
• 52.07 "
3i -
47.26 "■
60.82 "
33 "
54.00 "
69.33 "
4
01.93 "
TEIGHT OF LUMBER PER THOUSAND (M) FEET.
IJOAIID MEASURE.
Pine and hemlock . .
Norway and yellow pine
Oak and walnut . . .
Ash and maple . . .
Dry.
2.500 lbs
3000 *'
4000
3500
Partly
seasoned.
2700 lbs
4000 **
5000 "
4000
((
Green.
3000 lbs.
5000 lbs.
24
WEIGHTS OF CORD WOOD. — EXPLOSIVES.
^VEIGHTS OF CORDWOOD.
I I cord liic'kory . . I
.' 1 '* hard tniiplo .
, 1 '• hccch . . .
1 '• ii-li ....
1 '' liirch . . .
1 " pit(]i-i)ine
LbH.
4K)S
2stU
.".•-»34
:}440
'2'M]H
HM)3
"I
Cur-
I boil.
♦)4
7<.»
4y
4;i
1 cord Canada |)ine
c<
yi'llow oak .
white oak .
Lonibardy pop
lur . . .
re<l ouk . .
Lbfi.
1870
1870
l< to
32^
I
Car-
1 kK)n.
42
rtl
M
41
70
EXPLOSIVE FORCE OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
USED FOR BLASTING, ETC.
CHuildtTH' (iuide and Price Book. — IIodo^ion.)
HUBSTANCKfl.
Ht'at.
Vt)luim* of
Bla>^tini:-]K)\v(l»*r
Artillery iK)\v<l('r
. Sport in^-l>o\v«l<'r :
; i'o\v<l«*r, nitrat<' of soda for its i
l)as(' !
Powilrr, chlorat** of potash for i
its ha^c I
(iiin-co! ton
I'icrii- ;i''i;l '
■ IMcratt' potasli :
(iun-coMoii inix«Ml with rhiorato
nt pola^il
IMciic .I'-iil mixrd with clilorati* i
<»f pnl:i>>ll
IMriMt.- mixr.l witli chlorate of
p()la>li
Nil i()-'_:lvccrin('
142()
\4'24
U'2'2
i:J20
noi) O.lT.JIitro.
ms 0.22') '*
('A\ 0.210 "
7(U 0.24S '•
072 ! 0.;J1S *'
ntK) o.soi "
r>sT I o.Tso **
0.4S4 **
i »*
O.IOS
o.;UJ7 **
0.710 *•
K.ui muted
l'XI)IO!«iVl*
lore*;.
I'M
UK)
472
tiso
582
47>4
'I'Im' alM»\i' tahle is ]»y the celehratrd M. pMTlIi<dot. who further
(It-cijli.v iiiirn-^lyceiiiie "as really the i»leal of portsiblo fnrcv. It
liiiiM'' ••"•;i].|c!i'ly without residue; in faet, uives an i*X(t»sa of i»xy-
i:«'ii: ii (l.\ flops twice as nuieli heal a** jiowder, thnn* iind a half
tiiiK- iiitii"' uas. and has seven tiiin-s tlie e\pli».siv(> fonv. Wi'i^^hl
for wi-iuilii. and, taken volume for volume. It poss(*MS«>a tW(*Ive tiiiii'!(
nioif i-n<Mx'\.'' Krom the extreme damper of th«' work, none but a
competent chemist should iitteiupt to manufarturt^ It.
FORCE OF THE WIND. — MAIL CHtTTES.
725
FORCB OF THE "WIND.
(Builders' Guide and Price Book.)
Miles
PER
Hour.
Feet
per minute.
Feet
per second.
Force, in lbs.,
per
square foot.
Description.
1
2
3
4
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
100
88
176
264
352
440
880
1320
1760
2200
2640
3080
3520
39(K)
4400
5280
6160
7040
8800
1.47
2.93
4.4
5.87
7.33
14.67
22
29.3
26.6.
44
51.3
58.6
66
73.3
88
102.7
117.3
146.6
0.005
0.020)
0.044 J
0.079 i
0.123)
0.492 {
1.107 f
1.970 I
3.067 f
4.429 /
6.027 )
7.870 /
9.9(M) S
12.304
17.733 I
24.153 (
31.4m) 1
49.200 i
Hardly perceptible.
Just perceptible.
Gentle breeze.
Pleasant breeze.
Brisk gale.
High wind.
Very high wind.
Storm.
Great storm.
Hurricane.
MAIL OHUTES.
The Cutler Patent Mailing System, or United States Mail Chute,
has now come to be very generally used in office buildings, publio
buildings, hotels, and apartment houses, in connection with which
the United States free collection service is available. It is, there-
fore: important that architects should be informed with regard to
the simple but necessarily rigid conditions under which this method
of handling mail can be availed of.
The chute must extend in a vertical line, must be exposed to
view and accessible throughout its entire length. It is made in
removable sections, to facilitate clearing it in the event of accident.
The Cutler Manufacturing Company, of Rochester, N. Y., who
are the owners of the original and subsequent patents under which
the device is manufactured, publish this information at length,
illustrated by detail drawings, which can be obtained by any archi-
tect, on application, and without charge.
V26
REFRIGEUATORS.
¥^r-iTr — "
REFRiaERATOR&
The following information is given as a guide to architects in pro-
viding for nifrigcraiors in fine residences, hotels, club buildings, etc.
A consultation with some reliabhi refrigerator builder, however,
is always wise before deciding in relation to space to be occupieil by
reCrigenitors, refrigerating rooms, freezers, etc., as a aatisfctctory
n'frifjt-rator cannot he adiipted to a hi idly proportionnl itpnre. Care
should be taken to select a refrigerator simple in its worlcing and
easily (•!( allied, as modern sanitary science has traced much sickness
to poor refrigeration. Thorouyh insulatioti is one of the most
important features in a refrigerator, as upon this depends economy
in the use of ice, the keeping of the coM air, and tlie conscijuent
jxjrfect preservation of the foo<l.
Fig. 1 is a kitchen refrigerator for use in
families of ordinarv size, and has the ice
located in the centre. Depth should not Ikj
over three fet't nor under two feet. Height
mav be four to seven feet. Length of fnint
largely determines the capacity, and should
•^;^^ be, say, from five, to seven feet.
Fig. :2 sliows greater capacity, and is Ijctter
adapt eil for use in large families, entertain-
ing eon>^iHiralily, and for small clubs, boarding houses, n^stnumnts,
privatf li<'S})iiaN, etc. This styh^ is known as a '*conjbinalion ''
refi iL-ei-aior. from the fact that it contains separate coiii|iartn:eDtd
for tlie various kinds of foocl. The large comiiartment at the lefi
i< ^^peeially Tor large meat.'^. and packages in bull:, and is lilted with
>}iclvr< ;iiiil meal liooks. The
right en- 1 of the refrigerator is
(liviilcd by a partition iiito t woconi-
par; iui'iii>. ihi' di'awei's iM'ing for
steak--, elidp^. jellies, et<'.. and the
doiii- ;il)()\e |.i|- vegrt able** and sun-
dries. The (tuMpaitnu'nl to t!ie
riLflil "i" \\\\<. [<. speei;illy for ndlk
and lailt.r. and •^llolljd be absn-
I'itely s.-p.iiMt ■■ from all olher<-)m-
[)ariMie[i;- \)\w iii'ian\ >uph]ies cold air to nil enm|uirtnients. And
is lill.il thnmgh n iltmr in the front.
A (-••ii\. idi-nt arraiigemi-nt i*« a window in tin* wall at iNiek of
i-ifrii^n-iMi.e-. !*:rnm:h which iee i?uiy In* pas«*i»il into rffrigemuir.
lieinu'eraiors over two fert in depth should be built in i«c*Uoiw
Fig. 2.
REFRIGERATORS.
727
Fig. 3.
-TV"
bolted together, rendering them easy to transport and handle in
contracted space.
Fig. 3 is a refrigerator for use in butler's
pantries, where economy of space is im-
portant. The ice tank is arranged to come
out on a runway, for convenience in filling.
When the ice tank is pushed back, this run-
way folds up, and an outside door closes
over it. This does away with the necessity
of cutting through the counter-top, and
permits the ice tank to be readily taken out for cleansing purposes.
The height should be about two feet eight inches, depth about two
feet. Length of front determines capacity, but should never be less
than two feet ten inches. In every three feet or three feet six
inches one ice tank is allowed. The finish, wood, trim, and hard-
ware should correspond with other fittings.
I>rainage. — A short, accessible^ well trapped drain is im-
perative, and should be as nearly under the centre of the ice
compartment as possible. It is well to have
refrigerators on casters, so they are easily
moved for cleaning about them.
Fig. 4 shows a good drainage arrangement,
permitting removal of refrigerator at will.
Plu iber's pan for reception of refrigerator
drip should be countersunk in floor.
Where a very low temperature is required,
as for game or fish carried in large quantities, or in medical col-
leges where the object is to preserve bodies, it is absolutely necessary
that ice should go into the tanks from top.
Usual complement of refrigerators for use in ordinary families :
one in kitchen : one in butler's pantry. Large families same, with
greater capacity. Small clubs, small restaurants, etc.: one general
storage ; one wine ; one in or near kitchen, for cook's use; one
fish. Large hotels, clubs, restaurants, etc. : one storage for large
meat: one in or near kitchen, for cook's use; one fish ; one milk
and butter ; one in storeroom ; one ice-cream (in hotels) ; one wine.
Private hospitals : one large storage ; one cook's use in or near
kitchen ; one milk and butter ; one iron-lined box for broken ice.
Large hospitals same, but increased capacity, and a small refriger-
ator in each ward. Isolated hospitals should have large storage ice-
houses in addition. Medical colleges, for preserving bodies, with
acoommodations for eight bodies : dimensions, about 8' 6 front,
7' 6" deep, and^O' high. Ice going into tanks from top.
T3^
Fia. 4.
CLASSICAL MOULDINOa
Mould ing'S uro so called because they are of the same shape
throiigliout ihoir length as though the whole had been cast in the
same mould or form. The regular mouldings, as found in remains
of classic architticture, are eight in number, and are known by the
following names : —
]
Anmili'l, band, ciiicturo, fillet,
listt'l, or Kijuaro.
AHtrH|r>il. or Uvad.
)
Torurt, or tore.
8cotiu, tri)chilu«, or mouihi
7
Ovolo, (inartor-roniid, or echlnu8.
J
Cavuiu*, uove, or hohow.
/
IiiviTtc'd c^inutiuiii, or cynui-m*r
( > iii.i.ikiiii. iir ryma-n'cla.
riif la>t two an' bolli called "ogee."
Soinr of tli.'se terms are deriv<Ml thus : F'illet, from tho Kn-neh
\\nn\ fil. ••fln'ea<l;" astragal, from nstnttftilns^ **a Nini» <»f *he
licri."' (M'*'tln' (MU'vature of llu' Ihm'1;" lx»ad. htM'niisc t Ids mould-
iiii,'. w lull proiMTly carved, n-semhles a string of beads; torus, or
ton', tilt' <'n'>>k for /o/w. which it resenddes when on the base uf a
rnliiiiin : sintja. from sfrotin. "ilarknes.**,"* lN>ciUise of th€» strunjK
sliMiinw ulii.-h its depth produces, and which is increased by the
pn).j<MMii>ii d vIh' torus above it; uvulo, from ODinN, "
ti
THE FIVE ORDERS. 729
which this member resembles, when carved, as in the Ionic
capital; cavetto, from caeuSy "hollow;" cymatium, from kuma-
toHf "a wave."
Characteristics of Moulclingrs. — Neither of these mould-
ings is peculiar to any one of the orders of architectiure ; and
although each has its appropriate use, yet it is by no means con-
fined to any certain position in an assemblage of mouldings. The
use of the fillet is to bind the parts, as also that of the astragal
and torus, which resemble ropes. The ovolo and cyma-reversa are
strong at their upper extremities, and are therefore used to support
projecting parts above them.
The cyma-recta and cavetto, being weak at their upper extremi
ties, are not used as supporters, but are placed uppermost to covei
and shelter the upper parts. The scotia is introduced in the base
of a colunm to separate the upper and lower torus, and to produce
a pleasing variety and relief.
The form of the bead and that of the torus is the same: the
reasons for giving distinct names to them are, that the torus, in
every order, is always considerably larger than the bead, and Is
placed among the base mouldings, whereas the bead is never placed
there, but on the capital or entablature. The torus, also, is seldom
carved, whereas the bead is ; and while the torus, among the
Greeks, is frequently elliptical in its form, the bead retains its
circular shape. While the scotia is the reverse of the torus, the
cavetto is the reverse of the ovolo, and the cyma-recta and cyma-
reversa are combinations of the ovolo and cavetto.
THE CLASSICAL ORDERS.
The term "order," in its architectural meaning, refers to the
system of colunmiation practised by the Greeks and Romans, and
is employed to denote the columns and entablature together.
These two divisions combined constitute an order, and so far all
orders are alike; but, as there were certain distinct styles of col-
umns and entablatures employed by the Greeks and Romans, the
orders have been divided into five classes, which are commonly
known as the Five Orders.
The plainest and simplest of the orders is the Tuscan Order,
which was used by the early Romans, and supposed to have been
borrowed by them from the Etruscans; the next three orders,
viz., the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, were originated and
perfected by the Greeks; and the last, or Composite Order, was
the work of the Roman artists, who endeavored to improve upon
the Greek Corinthian.
7:iO 'IHK FIVE ORJ>EUS.
Tlu- Jinri«*iit Orr-^-ks and Uoiiiaiis, iLsiiijj those orders continually^
brought tliciii to ])rrf<>rti(>ii; and tlu' I>e.st examples of the diffiTrnt
orders li;iv«- in in()d<*rn tinw-s servtMl its j^nidos in dcsi^iing rlassi-
r-iil liiiildin^s.
\s liji>. l)c<n staled, an ordor ronsisls of two divisions. fli»»
f-Mliiiiiii ;ii)d t'Mtahiaturc; and each of those is sulldivid(^l into
Llnfc di'-tinct parts or nicndn-rs, — viz., tlio colrinuj, into fmst^
rliii/l. iiiii! rdifilnl; tlio ontabhuun", into archil racvy /i'ivz<\ and
'I liaf lliosc \\ho wisli to oniploy any of tho onlers in their tlosijrns
iii.iN nadily (haw tln*in in tho rii^liL proi)ortioiis, tli*^ ditT«M-i'nt
tirdcrs iiavi* ix'cn anaiy/.iMi, and a ocrtiiin sizt* i^ivon to each \nJkiX in
tciiiis (it tiu' Uinmrtcr id' tiie column. For this ])nriK)se the l<»\vt'r
dijnmh'r of Mi<' column is takrn as the in'ttjxtrdifiml nieasuiv for
all tlu' other ]«nts and mendwi-s of an order, for wliieh purpos(> il
is .siil)divid«'d int(» sixty parts, <'allcd minutes. lieing i»ro]K)rt tonal
iiica^tnts. diaiiietei-s and miintles are n«>t fixed oiK'S like feet and
ill(-ll<'^. liiM :ire v.iiiiihle as to the actual dimensions which they
express, - iarner or smaller, at'conlinLC to the stctual size of the
diamett>r ot the eohnmi. For exam]tle. if the diameter he just tive
fei'i, a miuiile, lu'in^ one-.sixlieth, will he exactly on«* Inch.
Ill the toliouini; en.L;ravln<;s whi<'h are taken from llatfieUrs
" Iloiisr ( arpenler," the lunnhers in column H denoti* the height
<it' the pai'ts (ippo.sit(* iheni in niiiuttts: and the nmnlKM's in <'ohnnn
r »leiii)ie ilie ji»-t)jeelit>n of the <'orresiK»ndin^ part from the axis of
tlif ri.hiiiin. alsn in minules.
>.-me writers li'wv the pi-<iporl ions of the ])arts in tlittiittft rs,
iii-»l.-l. s, and tniitntis: the n)odul(> lM«ini; half a diameter, or thirty
niiiiiif^. lis iisr, h<»\MM'r. rather ciimplicales the me:i.>iuri'ments,
ip.^i' .ul of siiMiijifviiiM ilM'm.
I'll.' i.'Il.iw iiiii ileliiiitjiin of llie live onlers is taken from "The
II. 'lis.' { .npi-nter" (.lolin \\'ili'\ A- Sons, puhlishe.'s). ami CMrn-
>I-.»:..I- ui'.li wli.ii is iiriier.il'v iii\ en in other andutectural Works.
I'm.! 1 ■ -"v \n <M:m i: .I'i^. [) !> s^id to have Imh-u iutri>diierd
■ •f :':f i;--;!.iis li\ flii' lliriis.-.in aii'liiti-et^i. and ti» have l»'eii fli<-
> >' 'i in l;.il\ hi-fore ilie iiitr«idui-lii»n of tlur <inci.in
' • • I '
I ". - ■ • :!.i'.:ji's: oidiT I'.si d !•> :i..' Iloman<, it Iiavim: hut few
■ ■ ■- .<:m! Mil i.irvi::^ «'|- i!!r'iii!i.i :its. "The .shaft was more
'.'..'• h'T'- . a:i<! li.id a i':e>f .nusiNiini: of :t plinth and
• ." : ;i-:'.>. i-..:::j.i r- •! wiiii the hody nf thf >hift h« a
\ ■ ..■.:.,:i fl:- eapit.il h.id tiii- s.tuie ind.iv iilual mouldim^ as
'. ». • ':« \ "litl u.'t pri«i.et ni-.nU .is f.ir. The u>e of this onler
I ' '^ -.s \<:\ l.ir.lied. o\\ in:; to its rudeiu'^s; auil all tliat if
THE FIVE ORDERS. ;31
known concerning It is from Vltrurios, no remains of bnildlngi
In this style being found among ancient nilus.
Fio. 1 MoDiriED Tuscan Orbeb,
Thk Dome OiiiiKi! (Plr. 2) is tlie oldest and simplest of the
Greek oi'ders. Its priiirlttal featni'es, as welt as its mouldings and
ornaments, are sLin|>1c; itscliaracteris severe, and it l)ears tlirougli-
out the impress of repose, solidity, and strength. Tlie Doric col-
omns, which are sliort, powerful, and closely ranged togetlier, in.
Ofder to support tlie weiglit of the massive entablature, consist of
THE FIVE OUDEUS.
the sliaft anil the caiiiLal, aiiJ rest immediately, without base, oi
the iip(ier sti:p, which serves as the groimd floor of the temple.
il i>nr|H'iirlli-nlarly iiiMi twenty lluln. whkh
rris: ami U ^n-iitly illniitiished luwuda tba
<'ler aliove Ik iimch leu than at the bMft
THE FIVE ORDERS. 733
This tapering does not take place in a straight line, hut hy a grad-
ual decrease in a gentle parabolic curve, which is known as the
entasis.
The architrave is a rectangular block separated by a projecting
fillet from the frieze. The frieze of the Doric Order is not taken
up with sculpture in uninterrupted succession; but it occurs in
groups, at regular intervals, separated by features called triglyphs,
which are quadrangular projecting slabs, higher than they are
broad, with perpendicular channels, and are to be considered as
supports of the cornice. They are distributed in such a way that
one occurs over the middle of each column, and of each interven-
ing space: in the case of the corner colunms, however, the tri-
glyphs are introduced at the corners, and not over the centre of
the column. The spaces formed between the triglyphs are called
metopes. They are either squares, or oblongs of greater breadth
than height, and were originally open. After they were closed,
alto-reliefs were generally introduced, which in the larger temples
represented the deeds of gods and heroes, and in the smaller ones
the skulls of animals.
The Doric was much more largely used in Italy and Sicily than
either of the other orders, and in the classical buildings of modern
times it is very conirnonly found. It is very suitable for the lower
story of a facade which has two or more orders, one above the
other.
The Ionic Okdek (Fig. 3) did not come into use until the
Doric had been perfected and in use for a long time. According to
historians, it was invented by Hermogenes of Alabanda; and he
being a native of Caria, then in the possession of the lonians, the
order was called the Ionic.
The distinguishing features of this order are the volutes or spi-
rals of the capital, and the dentils among the bed-mouldings of
the cornice; although, in some instances, dentils are wanting.
The Ionic Order also has more mouldings than the Doric; its forms
are richer anil more (ilegant; and, as a style, it is lighter and more
graceful than the Doric. The Doric Order has been compared to
the male and the Ionic to the female figure. The Ionic column
has a less diminished shaft, and a smaller parabolic curve, than the
Doric. It is like the Doric, channelled; the flutings, which are
twenty-four in number, are separated by annulets, and are there-
fore narrower but at the same time deeper than the Doric, and
are terminated at the top and bottom by a final curvature.
This order differs from the Doric, also, in having a base, which
is generally of the Attic form, as shown in Fig. 3.
THE FIVE ORDERS.
E losrr VoLiTB. — Draw a perpendicalar from
II lo s (l-'i^. J), ■mil iiiakfl iix e(]Hiil Wi iO iiiin., or lo * of the whole
lu'i^'lil Hc.\ ili'AH .Tij at riglil angles W mi, am) yqual to li min.;
II. for nitliuH, iU-mtiIh' tin- rye of the volute;
of lUi- !■>'<'. ilriiw lliK wiiiaru WI2, with lidd
iiii'tur »f the eye. viz., 'ii mlu., uid dlvMa It
THE FIVE ORDERS.
1S5
into 144 equal parts, as shown at Fig. 5. The several centres in
rotation are at the angles formed by the heavy lines, as figured, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. The position of these angles is determined by
commencing at the point 1, and making each heavy line one part
less in length than the preceding one. No. 1 is the centre for the
arc ab (Fig. 4); 2 is the centre for the arc be; and so on to the last.
Fio. 4. — Ionic Volutb.
The inside spiral line is to be described from the centres x, ic, x^
etc (Fig. 5), being the centre of the first small square towards the
middle of the eye from the centre for the outside arc. The breadth
of the fillet at oj is to be made equal to 2,^,t min. This is for a
spiral of three revolutions: but one of any number of revolutions,
as 4 or 0, may be drawn, by dividing of (Fig. 5) into a correspond-
ing number of equal parts. Then divide the part nearest the centre
o into two parts, as at h; join o and 1, also o and 2; draw hS
parallel to ol, and M parallel to o2; then the lines ol, o2, hS, /i4
7:i6 THE FIVE ORDERS.
will (Iptcrmine the length of the heavy lines, anil the place of the
s OitiiKK (Plj;- '1) is in genpnil like tlie Ionic.
>tiK lire liglitcr Kiiil more slcitilcr, axiil tlie iinli-
>n- ri<'h anil rli'K^mt. Tlir iKstlni^ilHliint; fi-o-
il-s iH'Hiiiiriil i-di'itiil, which hiia the sliuiic of nn
Fnriii lK'iti!;l>[i]'['iin'i'it fnnti orjjiuiie natuiv. Tin*
id'hIiii', in iiiiiliiteil in tiie li'nvfii, as well an in
s. Tlif iiliiic'us is Gi|uan^ in aliape, with ita
rclri'iitiii^ wiiiiciivie. uiid its tranralcil eorn^ra
ri-s sliowri ill tli>' eii;craviii^. The Atlip Iwise is
tier, the s
iiinie lis With tlie lonie. althoitiih a
inlliei-i
[DDll'IKl
. i,v nir l!..«AXs.-Tlie onlerx
i'e<l iiilo
Itcmie in all llii>ir iHTfiH-tion. [hit
1. not sni
istieil u'illi till- sitiiiile ele-^i>iv of
1-. sou-i,
t U, im|.vove i.|w,ii theiii liy U.vi.b
Tliey 1.
iinsfortiieil in many in»lunii-!> the
ai( itilii a 5r:tilily RUleliiiiir, heller
K'll lasle.
The KiiiMulis n'Ii....lelle.i .lu-h ..(
ie «-ii» 11
ii.>i]itie.t hy hieiTasiliit the heljdit
11 .li;uiir
li'i-s: liy ehanidiiit "le .i.hiuaH of
ri. or i)iiiirl>r-r( i, ntiil a-iilinK an ammnl
,■ ]ilii.>i.iK
till' rni/i'', iiiste.iil irf oHB «l^.
ver llie
leinrc nf llie iiilmmi; ami iiitni-
leaa i>f
iiii'tineil iiiitiuleH in tlie rornioe.
. .lis,„-n
sitiii will" tli'-ni aiKijMher. The
illLT Mlc- size of Ihe Vo'UhM, knd, iu
iiieins a
new eiipiial in whl<-b the volutM
THE FIVE ORDERS.
were dlagonKlly arranged. This new capital has been termed
moderti Ionic The favorite order at Rome and her colonies was
the Corinthian. But this order the Konian artists, in theL>
search for novelty, subjecleil to many alterations, especially in the
foliage of its capital, Into the upper part of this they introduced
the modified Ionic capital; thus combining the two in one. This
cltai^ was dignified with (he importance of an order, and received
the sp^dlation of the Composite Order, the best specimen of
whhA tf found in the Arch of Titus (Fig. 7). This style was not '
738 THE FIVE 0RDEE8.
miirh used among the Romans themselves, and is but alightty
appreciatpd now.
[.K. — TW aR'liiliM'turi' of tlit' nncii-nt Ee>-pl1aiu
t iHililiii'ss of iiutlhii', siiliilily, uiid granilvur.
I'litiin-:! iif tlir ICKyiitiiiii ol.vli' of an-hiU>L'lura arc:
II, tii'ViT ilcvliaiiifC fniiii rJKlit liiii<8 aiul kogki;
Hi; ilii' <>iit<-r HurtniH' ~li}:litly iluviuUng ItKnuoUy
Ik'iilar; lliu whoU' UuilJtii); low; roof llM,caB^
adiiii); lu uiie piece from jilur tg pl«r, Umm bdng
THE FIVE ORDERS. 739
supported by enomians columns, very stout In proportion to their
height; the aluft aometimes polygonaJ, having no base, but with h
great variety of handsome eapitals, the foliage of these being of
the palm, lotus, and other leaves; entablatures iiaving simply an
architrave, crowned with a huge eavetto ornamented with sculp-
ture; and the int«rcolumnlation very narrow, usually 1^ ilIiinietfrB
and Mldom exceeding 2^. In tlie remains of a temple the wails
■ were found to be 24 feet thick; and at the gales of Thebes, the
walk at the foundation were 50 feet thicli, and perfectly solid.
The inmMDM atones of which these, as weli as Egyptian wall*
740
LIST OF NOTKD ARCIITTKCTS.
generally, were built, had both their inside and outside surfaces
faced, and the joints throughout the body of the wall as perfectly
close as ui)on the outer siui'ac.e.
The dimensions and extent of the buildings may be judgetl from
the Toniplc of .1 upitor at Thebes, which was 1400 feet long and ;jl)U
feet wide, exclusive of the porticos of which there was a great
number.
A great dissimilarity exists in the proportion, form, and general
features of Kgyi)tian colunnis. For practical use the colunm shown
in Fig. 8 may be taktjii as a standard of the Egyptian style.
LIST OF NOTED ARCHITECTS.
[GWILT.]
Before Christ.
Namk of Auchitect.
TheodoruH, of Samoa.
Ictinus, of Athons.
Principal works.
labyrinth at LemiiOH, Aome buildings at
Spurta, and the Temple of Jupiter at
BamoB.
Parthenon at Atheun, Temple of Certu
and ProKcrpine at KleUHiM, Temple of
Apollo KpiuuriuM iu Arcadia.
LIST OF NOTED ARCHITECTS.
m
Before Christ.
ME OF Architect.
Century.
Principal works.
ates, of Athens.
6tb
Assif^ted Ictinus in the erection of the
Parthenon.
jlefl, of Athens.
6th
Propyltea of the Parthenon.
ates, of Macedonia.
4th
Rebuilt the Temple of Diana at Ephesus,
engaged on works at Alexandria, wax
the author of the proponitiou lo trans-
form Mount Athofn into a colossal
figure.
nicus, of Athens.
4th
Tower of the Winds at Athens.
acbus, of Corinth.
4th
Reputed inventor of the Corinthian
order.
tus, of Cuidns.
4th
The Pharos of Alexandria.
ius, of Rome.
2d
Design for the Temple of Jupiter
Olympus at Athens.
idorus, of Salarais.
2d
Temple of Jupitor Slator in the Forara
at Rome, Temple of Mars in the CIr
CUB Flaminius.
las, of Rome.
1st
Several buildingi* at Rome; the first
Roman who wrote on architecture-
After Christ.
ME OF Architect.
viuB Pollio, of Fano.
iorus, of Persia.
us, of Padua.
mius, of Trales, of
ia.
)hu», Abbot of Poler-
•ugh, aflerwardt* made
lop of Ijchrtekl, of
land.
I, Archbishop of York,
England.
aldus, of France.
Principal works.
Bapilica Ju8titi»eat Fano; a great writer
on architecture.
Many buildings in India, and some
at Constantinople; the first-known
Christian architect.
Assisted m the erection of the cele-
brated rotunda at Havenna, the cupola
of which XH fiaid to have been of one
stone, thirty-eight feet in diameter
and fifteen feet thick.
St. Sophia, at Constantinople.
IJnilt the MonaKtery of Medesbamp
Hiede, afterwards called Peterl)or-
ougb.
Rebuilt York Cathedral.
The Cathedral of Rheims, the earliest
exam))le of Gothic architecture.
142
LIST OF NOTED ARCHITECTS-
Aftek Chkist.
Name of Architect.
Bu><clK'ito, of Dullchium.
I'iotrodi rstambor, of Spain.
LjiufiaiU', Archbishop of
Csiiitorburv, of Ei)glaiid.
RcMiiiuins, Uinliop of Lin
coin, of Eiitjliind.
Walkclyti, Bishop of Win
clu'stcr, of Kiiuland.
MauriliuH, IMshop of Lon
don, of Knuland
Alexander, Bishop of Lin-
cohi, of JOnj^land.
])ioti Salvi, of Italy.
Buono, of Venice.
Century.
Principal works.
Wilhclni nr < iuiflielmo, of
(icrniauy.
William, of .'^enn, of Eng
land.
I\irr, of < Dlcchnrch, of ;
i:i:u''aii.l. !
liclx'it. i>f LuhurchcH, of j
Fi.iiiic. I
i'oorr. r.i-hop of .*^all»*bnry, '
I'iii n. I '.!<■, , .>t' .*^pain. I
Kii!.i! 1 lie t ..iiM \ .of France.
.'n.i'i lv.«! 1. «■! !•' ranee.
10th
10th
10th
11th
11th
12th
r2th
12th
12tb
12th
12th
13ih
l.'Uh
i:Uh
l.'Uh
l:'.th
14th
The Cathedral or Duomo of I*iBH, the
eariieHt example of the I^iOinburd
eccle^iaKtieal xtylc of architecture. It
wa8 built in 1010.
('athedral of Chatren.
Choir of Canterbury Cathedral, burnt in
1174.
Part of Lincoln Cathedral.
Said to have erected the oldent part ul
Winchester Cathedral.
Built old St. Paura, in 1033.
Rebuilt Lincoln Cathedral.
Baptistery of Pisa, near the Campo
Santo. IHh works were in the l..oin-
bard ntyle, and wero overloaded with
minute ornaments.
The Tower of St. Mark at Venice, which
is three hundred and thirty feet hifth
and forty feet K(|UHre, built in ll.Vt: a
deKii^n for enlar^n;; the (-hureh of
Santa Maria Matj^teiore, at Florence, of
wliich the maHter-walIri ntill exi^t;
the Vicaria and the Castelln del*
Novo, at Naples; Chnreh of :<i. .\n-
drew, at IMstola; la Cai«A della Cilia:
<'ampanileat .\re7.7.(>.
'I'ho Ix'aninit Tower at IMsa. huilt In
1174. Bonnano and Toniasit. two
sculptors of IMsa, were uIho en{(H{{ud
upon II.
Canterbury Cathi'dral.
Beiran London Bridi(e.
Cathedral of .\miens, whleh won con
tinned by 'I'liomaH d«* Coriuont, mid
tini«hed liy his son Renauld.
r>i-i;an Salisbury Cathedral.
The Calhrdral of TubHlo.
Rrl-nili thi- <'alhedr:il at Kbflind.
Kini'hed th<- biiiUiiiiK <>f the <7harchof
.N'.if-e hanie. of Pari*.
LIST OF NOTED ARCHITECTS.
743
Aftek Christ.
Name ov Architect.
Kafaelled'Urbino, of Urbioo.
Bolton, W., Prior of St.
Bartholomew's, of Eng-
land.
Giovanni Oil de Hontanon,
of Spain.
Micliaei Angelo di Buona-
rotti, of Florence.
16th
16th
16th
16th
Martino de Galnza, of Spain.
Maehuca, of Spain.
Theodore Havenu, of Eng-
land.
16th
16th
16th
Principal works.
Continued the erection of St. Peter's at
Rome after the death of Braraante,
his master in architecture; engaged
on the buildings of the FarncKc Pal
ace; Church of Santa Maria, in Nuvi-
cella, repaired and altered ; stables of
Agostiuo, near the Palazzo Farnese;
Palazzo CaffarcUi, now Btoppani;
the gardens of the Vatican; the
fa9ade of the Church of San Lorenzo,
and of the Palazzo Uggoccioni, now
Pandolftni, at Florence.
Supposed to have designed Henry VII. 'a
Chapel, whei-e he was master of th«
works.
Plan of the Cathedral of Salamanca,
etc.
Library of the Medici, generally called
the Laurentian Library, at Florence;
model for the fagade of the Church of
San Lorenzo, commonly called the
Capella del Deposit! ; Church Ban
Giovanni, which he did not finish;
fortifications at Florence and at Monte
San Miniato; monument of Julius
IL, In the Church of San Pietro in
Vincoli, at Rome; plan of the Cam-
pidogllo, I^alacc of the Conservatori ,
building in the centre, and the flight
of steps in the Cam pidogllo, or Cap-
itol, at Rome; continuation of the
Palace Farnese and several gates at
Rome, particularly the Porta Nomen-
tana or Pia; steeple of St. Michaele,
at Ostia; the gate to the Vineyard del
Patriarea Grimani; Tower of S. Lo-
renzo, at Ardea; Church of Santa
Maria, in the Ccrto»«a, at Rome ; many
plans of palaces, churches, and chap-
els. He was employed on St. Peter's
after the death of San Sallo.
The Chapel Royal at Seville.
Royal Palace of Granada.
Caius College, Cambridge. A good
specimen of the architecture of the
day.
44
LIST OF NOTED AllCHlTKCTS.
Aftkk Chkist.
Namk of AiuniTKCT. I CVnliiry.
Principal works.
<'urU> Ma(l(!riio, of TiOin
hardy.
Sir II. Walton, C)f Kngland.
Inigo Jonci*, of Kngland.
Claude rerraull, of France
>ir (.'liristopher Wren, of
Knuland.
Jiilch Ilaniouiu Muiii^urd, of
France.
AU'xatuliM' .Jean Haptinte le ■
Illi»n(l. of France.
(iaili (la l>il>)iiena, of Italy,
•lauifh (Jilil.f, (if Scotland.
Sir Will'.nn ('lianili<M>, tif
1-.!il:I:iimI.
[;i>!>rit Adam, (if Scotland.
>.■ .1 I.-.
■. I if l'.tl_'l:ilnl.
lUth
17th
17th
17th
17th
17th
isth
isth
iMh
iMh
iMh
* 1. I' • - !'• .■ -.1 !. -if l-'iaiii-f.
1>lli
Altered Michael A ngelo*M design for St.
I'eter'n at Kouic from a (»reel\ to .-i
I^tin cruHHi began the palace of
Urban VlII.
Author of " The Klementi* of Arcln
tecture," jiublinheil in Londun in
H5J4.
BaiKjueting House; chn|)el, l.incoIn'M
Inn; Surgeonn' Hall; arcade, Cun-
vent (iarden, London; and a vaf*
numli(!r of other iini)ortant wori<i«.
Fayadeof the Louvre, Chapel of Sceaux.
Chapel of Notre I)ume in the Church
of the Tetib* PereH.
St. rauTrt; planned the city of Iji>ndon
after the tire, nearly all the churches
therein, Hampton Court, etc.
The dome of tlie Ilutel <Ii*i4 Invalidpn,
(iaileriedu I'alais Royal, the I'lucede
LouIh de (irand, that deit VietujreK,
etc. He wan the nephew of Fran^uif*
Mansard, the reputiHl invvulor of the
Man>ard roof.
I/Hotrl de VcndOme, in the KuvU'Eii-
I'cr. at TariK. He wan employed much
in UuMKia hy IVter tlie <ireut.
Theatre at Verona, theatre at Vienna;
aiiliior of two bookx on arehileclure.
K.-iiU-lilYeV Library, OxfonI: the new
church n. the Strand; St. .MurtiirK-ln-
Jif-I'u'Idn; Kiim*H CoHeue. iJnyal
Lilirary. and Senate Holl^e, i'uni
liiidue.
Siiiiii-iM I HtMirH'and many tit her wmk*.
anllinrof a treatihe on civil uivliilis-
lurr.
.\rrliiirci to <M-(ii>;i' III.; author uf ..
wiirU iMi t)i«- riiinn of Spalatm. Hi-
]ii lni-i|ial \MirU-aii' thf K«'i;i!'lt i t M*],-.
ill Lili:iiiiiii:li. iiitiiniaiy at <i1a<>;^<<».
ihi- i:<li:.>>nii:h I llivel^lly. L.il"'i
||iiii>r. \i|i-l]ihi 'I'rrrai'f.
I'.iiik •>! I!ii-_'l.iiiil, iMiiini of Tiuiii-.
S!.it.- r.ij.iT tMlii-r.
\i(hilii-l ••! llir Tnilrlieii. rvHlunitiiHt-.
ctr.. at l.iMivif and Tuilenen.
LIST OF NOTED ARCHITECTS.
745
After Christ.
Name op Architect.
James Ehscx^ of Euglaiid.
James Wyati, of England.
Augustus Pugiu, of Eng-
land.
John Nash, of England.
Thomas Rickmau, of Eng-
land.
Carl Friedrlch Schiukel, of
Prussia.
Suillaume Abel Blouet, of
France.
Ernst Friedrlch Zwirner, of
Prussia.
David Hamilton, of Scot-
land.
Mr. Joseph Gwilt.
Century.
18th
18th
18th
igth
19th
19th
19th
19th
19th
19tb
Principal work.
The earliest, in modern times, who prac-
tised solely mediaeval art; restoration
of Ely and other cathedrals; altcni
tloiis at various colleges at Cambridge
and Oxford.
The Pantheon Assembly rooms, palace
at Kew, Fonthill Abbey, Doddington
Hall, Ashridge House, and niixny res-
torations.
Published ** Specimens of Gothic Ar-
chitecture," " Examples of Gothic
Architecture," •• Anliquities of Nor-
mandy," and other works.
Brighton Pavilion, Hay market Theatre,
Buckingham Palace, Regent's Park
and its terraces of dwellings, Regent
Street and the Quadrant improve-
ments.
New court of St. John's College, Cam-
bridge; restoration of the Bishop of
Carlisle's palace, Cumberland ; up-
wards of twenty-live churches in the
midland counties, several private
dwellings. Published ♦' Attempt to
discriminate the Styles of Architec-
ture in England."
Hauptwache Theatre and Museum,
Werder-Kircne (Gothic), Bauschule
and Observatory at Berlin, theatre
at Hamburg, Schloss Krzescowice,
Charlottenhof, and the Nicolai-
Kirche at Potsdam. Pulllshed his
designs, many of which were not
executed.
Published supplement to Koudolet's
" L'Art de Batir," and revised the
tenth edition of that work.
Restoration of Cologne Cathedral
church at lleniagfii.
The Nelson Monumc-nl, the Royal Ex-
change, the Western Club-house, and
other buildings at Glasgow ; Hamilton
Palace and Lennox Castle, Scotland.
Compiler of the " Eucyclopsedia ol
Architecture."
746
TJST OF NOTED AMERICAN ARCHITECTS.
After Christ.
Name of Architect. , Cenlnry.
Principal worke.
I
JamcH Fergupson, d. Jan.,! l«)th lAutlior of the "History of ArchitL*ct-
John llonry Parker, b. in 19th
London. IHOrt ; d. 1804.
George PMniund Street.
William Burges.
Sir Gilbert Scott.
ure.
Author of the " Gloswiry of Archiccct-
I ure," " The Domestic Architortiiro of
i tlie Middle Agen,*"' a revlfed e<tition
I of Rickiiian's "Gotliic Architecture."
10th .The Law Courts, London.
191 h (Cork Cathedral, Restoration of Canlilf
I Castle.
19th Hamburg Cathedral, Edinburgh Cathe-
dral, the Albert Memorial, Midland
Station and Hotel at St. Pancrai*, Eng-
land.
LIST OF NOTED AMERICAN AROHTTBOTa
John Havtlani), b. 1702, d. 1825 ; practised in
Principal works : IMttslmrgh Penitent iiiry ; Ksist cm Penitent iarr
at (Micrry Hill : Hull of Justice, Now York; Naval Asylum, Nor-
folk ; New Jersey State Penitentiary ; and many other jails, usy-
luins, and |ni))lic halls.
.Jonathan Pkkston, b. 1801, d. 'Ttdy, tHS4 ; pnuttised in Boston,
Mass.
I'riiici])al works : The lirst bnildinu: of the Ma^*^iehu!«etts Insti-
tutc of Trchnolo^y, aiul the building of the lioston Stn-ioty of
Natural History.
William Wasmiu'Rn. b. in Lyme, N. II., 180H. d. in Boston, Xo-
vember 8, 18J)0 ; practised in Boston.
Prit.cipil works: Tlie Fiftli Avenne and Vict^ma IIot4'Is in Xew
York, ami the Parker House. Tremotit Ibmse, Keven* House. Ad-
ams llou-c. Yo;iti^''s lb»tel, and the .\morican Iloust^ in Boscton ;
the 'rninonl Teinple, Hoston ; i'harle.^^town (*itv Hall, and nianv
other public and ])rivate builflitiirs.
TinniAs I'sTK K Waitkr, Mi.I).. b. ISW. d. (H'tolwr 30. 1M87:
practiced ill IMiiladelphia, Pa.: was one ot the oriKinai mem-
bers of the American Institute of ArehittH't.s ami president from
: received the degri'e of \Aj.D. from Harvard Uni-
LIST OF NOTED AMERICAN ARCHITKOTS. 747
versity, being the first architect to receive that degree in this
country.
Principal works : The five original buildings of Girard College,
designed in 1883 and completed in 1847. Extension of the Na-
tional Capitol, 1851-65 ; also the extensions of the Patent Office,
Treasury and Post Office buildings, the dome on the old Capitol,
the Congressional Library, and the Govcmment Hospital for the
Insane ; also numerous other buildings of lesser importance. Mr.
Walter was a member of the Franklin Institute, and of many lit-
erary and scientific associations.
Arthur Gilmanj b. , d. ; practised in
New York and Boston, in partnership with Mr. Bryant.
Principal works : Boston City Hall ; First Church, on Arlington
Street, Boston, and numerous dwelling-bouses in New York and
Boston. In association with Mr. Edward Kendall, designed the
Equitable Life Assurance Company's building on Broadway, New
York.
R. G. Hatfield, b. in Elizabeth, N. J., 1815, d. February, 1870 ;
author of the American House Carpenter and Transverse t"* trains ;
associated for thirty-five years with his brother Oliver P. Hatfield.
The finn became widely known as experts and consulting archi-
tects in matters pertaining to building construction.
Principal works : House of Refuge, Randall's Island, N. Y.;
Westchester County Buildings, White Plains, N Y.; New York
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, Seaman's Hank for Savings,
City Bank building. Security Insurance Co. Building, all of New
York City.
Oliver P Hatfield, b. , d. April, 1891.
JoBN McArthur, Jr., b. in Scotland in 1823, d. January, 1890;
practised in Philadelphia. Pa.
Principal works : House of Refuge, Continental Hotel, Girard
House. Public Ledger Building, First National Bank Building, the
Assembly Building the Broad Street Presbyterian Church, all of
Philadelphia ; and the Philadelphia City Hall. Also the Hospital
for the Insane, at Warren, Pa ; Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.;
and numerous other public and private buildings in Pennsylvania
and other States. Was twice tendered the position of Supervising
Architect to the United States Government, but declined.
Ebbnf^er L. Robsrt, b. 1825, d. ; practised in New
York City.
Principal works : Standard Oil Company's Building, on Broads
way ; the Ninth National Bank ; the Baptist Church of the Epiph •
any, on Madison Avenue ; St Paul's Methodist Church, on Fourth
74R Llf^T O?^ XOTKT) AMKRICAN ARCHITECTS.
AvcMiuo. all of New York City ; and the Phojiiix InsEiiranco Com-
pany's BuildiDg, Brooklyn, N. Y.
ALK.\ANDh:it R. EsTY, I). 1827, d. Julys, 1881 ; practised in Boston.
Prii);apal works: Union C()ngre«fational Church, Boston : Har-
vard Street Baptist Cliurt-h, Cambridge. Mass.; Grace Cburch.
Kcwton, Ma^^s. ; Emanuel Church, on Nowbury Sti-eet, Boston :
Biiildi!i«;s of tho Coll)y University, Waterville, Me. ; Massachusetts
Stiite Normal Schools, at Framiugham and Worcestev , and the
University of Kochester, N. Y.
Car!. rFKiKFER, b. in Germany, d. May, 1888 ; practiseil in New
York City.
Principal works : Fifth Avenue Pn^sbyterian Church, New York ;
Fifth Avenue liidin/i: School, Now York ; and many private houses,
apartment houses, hot^'ls, etc.
CnAKiiKS I)i:xti:r Gambrtll, b. 18 >2. d. Septemlier 13, 1880;
practised in New York, first in partnership with Mr. George B.
Post, later with II. 11. liichardson.
John II, Sturijis. b. , d. ; pra<.'tise<l in
Boston, Ma^s,, with Mr. Charles Brigiiam, as Stnrgis & Brighnm.
Principal works : Boston Museum of Fine Arts, I mild in j? of the
Boston Voung Men's Christian Ass<»ciation, Chur(?h of the Advent,
residence <»f Mr. F. L. Ames, and many other fine residences in
Boston and vicinitv.
A. B. Mn.LKTT, b. 1^84, d. October 20, 1800; supervising archi-
tect to the Treasury from to
Also enirii'eer of the District of (^)Iumbia for stn'pral vears. The
Post Otlic*' buildings in New Vork, Bo.ston. Cincinnati, St. I^iiuis,
and Chica^'o were designed l)y him, and also the State, War, and
Navy Buildings in WasiiingK.'U.
lh:Nitv lIoHso:: Kiciimid o;. I), in liouisiana in 1S3H or l^iW, d.
in Brookline, Mass.. April. IKS<5. (Graduated at Ilarvanl Univorsilv
in is.VJ. studied seven years at the Iv'ole des IVaux-AiiH in Paris.
Was a.>-M»:i;ited lor: short ti"»c with Charles I). Gainbrili o£ New
York.
Following is :« lisi oi" I he works eM cuted by him. arraiif;e<l in
■ !in«n<)loLri<'al order :
1. (rraec Church. Aledlord. .Ma-^s.
'J. Bosi'in iV Albany }M{. ollici's. Springtiold, Mnsn.
:!. Chnnh of the Cnity. Springlield. Mass.
■\. The Airawaiii Bank, Springfield, Mass.
."). House for \\ illiani Dorsheimer. Fs4| , Buffalu. X. Y,
(5. Th. Si.ii.- Asylum f.ir the Insuu-, BiitTahi. N. Y.
7. KKliibiiion Building. Conlova. Argfi;tine liepublie.
LIST OP NOTED AMERICAN ARCHITECTS. V49
8. American Express Company Building, Chicago, 111.
9. Brattle Street Church, Boston, Mass.
10. Worcester High School.
11. The Hampden County Court House, Springfield, Mass.
12. Trinity Church, Boston, Mass.
13. Cheney Buildings, Hartford, Conn.
14. PhcEnix Insurance Building, Hartford, Conn.
15. House for B. W. Crowninshield, Boston, Mass.
10. The North Church, Springfield, Mass.
17. William Watt Sherman's house, Newport, R. I.
18. Poiiiions of the New York State Capitol, Albany, N. T.
19. Public Library, Woburn, Mass.
20. Ames Memorial Library, North Easton, Mass.
21. Sever Hall, Cambridge, Mass.
23. Ames Memorial Town Hall, Easton, Mass.
23. Trinity Church Rectory, Boston, Mass.
24. Monument to Oliver and Oakes Ames, Sherman, Wyo.
25. Gate lodge for F. L. Ames, North Easton, Mass.
26. Crane Memorial Library, Quincy, Mass.
27. Bridges for the Back Bay Park, Boston, Mass.
28. City Hall, Albany, N. Y.
29. Depot for the Boston & Albany R.R., Auburndale, Mass.
80. New Law School, Cambridge, Mass.
31. House for F. L. Higginson, Esq., Beacon Street, Boston,
Mass.
82. House for General N. L. Anderson, Washington, D. 0.
8i3. Railroad depot, Holyoke, Mass., for Conn. River R.R.
84. Depot, Palmer, Mass., for Boston & Albany R.R.
85. Depot, North Easton, Mass., Boston & Albany R.R.
86. Dairy Building, North Easton, Mass.
37. House for Grange Sard, Esq., Albany, N. Y.
38. Store on Kingston and Bedford. Streets, Boston, for F. L.
Ames, Esq. ; also store on Washington Street.
39. Billings Library for University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.
40. Depot, Chestnut Hill, Mass., Boston & Albany R.R.
41. Converse Memorial Library, Maiden, Mass.
42. Baptist Church, Newton, Mass.
43. House for Henry Adams, Esq., Washington, D. C.
44. House for John Hay, Esq., Washington, D. C.
45. Allegheny County Buildings, consisting of Court House and
Jail, Pittsburgh, Pa.
46. Wholesale warehouse for Marshal], Field & Co., Chicago, 111,
47. Armory, Detroit, Mich.
750 LIST OF NOTED AMKRFCAN ARCHITECTS.
48. Clmml)(?r of Commerce, CinciDnati. O.
40. Dwelling-house lor J. J. (rles-sner, Esq., Chicago, 111.
50. DwcUiiiy^-houso for B. II. Warder, Esq.. Washingrt^n, D. C.
51. Dvvcllin^-liouse lor J. J. Glessner, Esq.. Chicji^o, 111.
52. I)\vellin«^'-bouse for Robert Treat Paine, Esi{., Waltham,
Mass.
5)J. Dwolliii^-liouse for Prof. K. W. (Iiirnoy. Bi'vcrly, Mass.
54. Dwolling-hoiiso for J. R. Lionbcrtrer, Ksq., St. Louis. .^lo.
55. Dwelling- house for William II. Gratwick, Esq., Buffalo,
N. Y.
56. Store on Harrison Avenue, I^)ston, for F. L. Ames, Esq.
57. Railroad de})ot, Xew London, Conn.
5S. House for Prof. Hubert Herkomer, A. R. A.. Enp^land.
Thomas Wiskdkll, b. in Enprland in 184's d. in New York. July
31. 1H81. Educated in the ollice of Mr. R. J. Withers of London.
Associated with Mr. Kimball of Xew York.
Priiicij)al works: Madison Square Theatre, and the ** Casino,"
both in New York ('it v.
.loHx Wklljk>rx Hoot, b in (Jeorgi?, January 10, 1850, d. in Ohi-
caffo. 111., January 15, IS})!. Entered into partnership with Daniel
H. Hurnliani in 1878. whi(rh continued until his death. Mr. Knot
was the designer of t]i<^ linn. They desitj^mnl and executtnl seventy-
seven [)ublic buildings, many of them of the first class, and one
hundrefl and twenty residences. Of their public building the
followin*^ were p<'rhaps th(» most important :
Calumet (lul) House, Art Institute, Ac^idemy of Pine Arts. Mon-
tauk Block, Calumet Ihiildin^. Hialto Office Building. Insurance
Kxeh:in>^e Buildin*;, (iraniiis Block, PhdMiix Huilding, The U(M)k-
ery, Masoiiie Buildin^^ Woman's Temple. Fii-sl Rcf^imcnt Armory,
all of Cliica^^o ; the Mills Bh)ck, San Francis .'o ; Midland Hotel,
Board of Trade Building, American National Hank Buihlin^. of
Kansas (Mtv. Mr. H(M»t was secretary of the American Institute of
Arcrliiteels at the time, of his death.
IIkNHV O. .VVKItY. b. , d. IHIM) ; .«*tudied at thi' SehiH.I
of Fine Arts, in Pari.s. T<M)k an important |>art in di-siiru-
in<,^ ihf houses of W. K. Vanderlult and Henry G. Maniuand: a
prominent niendn'r of the Arehileciural League of New York, the
Anli.eMloi^'ical Institute, and the Siwiety of American Artist.'i.
lIi;i:i;i;i{T ('. Hirdktt, b. in i^osttm. 1S55. d. in HutTalo, April \{\
is'.il : a^xxiated with J. Herbert .Marlim;, as Marling; & Burtlette,
and pnn'ti'^i'd in UulTalo, N. Y.
Prinii[):il works: The Saturn Clul) Htaise, and numerous fine
rtsidt'ncrs in ButTalo.
LIST OP NOTED AMERICAN ARCHITECTS. '761
Joseph Morrill Wells, b. 1853, d. in New York, February,
1890. Mr. Wells was a junior partner in the firm of McKim,
Mead & White, architects, of New York. The movement of
American architects towards the Italian Renaissance, which com-
menced about the year 1889, was undoubtedly caused more by his
influence than that of any other singb individual. Among the
buildings of the firm, more especially designed by him, are : the
Villard Houses on Madison Avenue, New York ; the ** Memorial
Building" in New Britain, Conn.; fa9ade of the Century Club,
New York, and a fountain in Portland, Oregon.
752 TWENTY BKST BUILDINGS IN UNITED STATES.
THE TWENTY BEST BUILDINGS, AROHfTEOTU-
RALLY, IN THE UNITED STATES.
Out of scvent y-fivo votes sent U) tlu? Ameriaui Architect in l>^n
for the ton Ix'st buildings in the United States, the lollowin^ twenty
buildin<i:s n^ceived the highest nunilxjrof votes, in the order named :
1. Trinity CJhurch, Boston ; Messrs. Gam brill & Richunlson
Ardiitccls.
2. TTnitc'd States Cui)itol, Wiishington, D. C. (See pag« 753.)
3. House of W. K. Vandcjrbilt, New York; R. M. Hunt.
Arcliitect.
4. Trinity Church. New York; Mr. Richard Upjohn, Architect.
5. .lefTei-son Market Court House. New York; Mr. P. (\ Withers.
Architect.
G. State Capitol. Hartford, Conn.; Mr. R. M. Upjohn, Ar<rhit*?ct.
7. City Hall. Albany, N. Y.; Mr. H. H. Richardson, Architect.
8. Sever Hall, C'anibridge, Mass.; Mr. H H. Richardson, Archileot.
9. State Capitol, Albany, N. Y.; Messrs. (Fuller) Kidlitz &
Ricli:irdst)n, An^hitects.
10. 'iV)wri Hall, North Kaston, Muss.; Mr. H. II. Richunlson, Archi-
tect.
11. Now City Hall. Philadelphia, Pu.; Mr. J. McArthur. Jr.,
An'hit.ect.
12. Casino 'I'lieatre, New York ; Mtwsrs. Kimball & Wis«efleII,
Architects.
l:^. Lenox liibrary. New York ; Mr. R. M. Hunt, Architect.
14. Produce FiXchan^e, New York; Mr. G. B Post, Archit-oct.
15. Columbia Collect', New York; Mr. C. ('. Hui^ht, Architect.
IG. liroad Stn;et R.R. Station, Philudelphiu. Pu.; Messrs. Wilson
Bros. & Co., An-hitects.
17. Crane MtMuorial Library, C^uincy, Mass.; Mr. H H. Richard-
son. :\rchite(rt.
18. Court House, Provi(h'ii(;e. R. I.; Mcjssrs. Stone & Carpvnter,
.\r< hili'cts.
\\). Centnil U.K. Station, Providence, U. 1.; Mr. T. A. Tefft,
Aniiitc<*t.
tjO. Harvard .Meniorial ilail. Cunibrid>,Ce, Mass.; Mussn. Ware h
Van lirunt, Architects.
ABOHITECTS OF NOTED BUILDINGa
753
arohttbots of notbd pubuo and private
buhiDings in the united states.
Buildings Arranged according to Location.
GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS.
United States Capitol, Washing-
ton, D. C Messrs. Hallet, Hadfield, Hoban,
Latrobe, Bulfinch, Walter, and
Clark, Architects.
National Museum, Washington,
D. C Cluss & Schulye, Architects.
State, War and Navy Building,
Washington, D. C A. B. Mullett, Architect.
Treasury Building, Washington,
D. C Robert Mills, T. U. Walter.
Young, Rogers, and A. B. Mul«
lett. Architects.
United States Post Offices and Court Houses : —
Baltimore, Md James G. Hill, Architect.
Boston, Mass. . .
Chicago, m
Cincinnati, 0 . .
Detroit, Mich. .
Kansas City, Mo
New York, N. Y
St. Louis, Mo
. . A. B. Mullett, Architect.
. . A. B. Mullett, Architect.
. . A. B. Mullett, Architect.
. .M. E. Bell, Architect.
James G. Hill, Architect.
..A. B. Mullett, Architect.
. .A. B. Mullett, Architect.
STATE
Capitol of —
Colorado, at Denver
Connecticut, at Hartford. .
Illinois, at Springfield . . .
Indiana, at Indianapolis. . .
Iowa, at Des Moines
Georgia, at Atlanta .
• • • •
Louisiana, at Baton Rouge
Maine, at Augusta
Massachusetts, at Boston. .
1 ■■ ■ ^ ■ -
'I:
IflohigBii, at Lansing.
CAPITOLS.
, .E. E. Meyers & Son, Architects.
. .R. M. Upjohn, Architect.
, .A. H. Piquenard, Architect.
. .Edwin May, Architect.
.A. H. Piquenard, Architect.
.W. J. Edbrook and P. P. Burn-
ham, Architects.
.W. A. Freret, Architect.
-Charles Bulfinch, Architect.
.Charles Bulfinch ; Brigham &
Spofford, Architects.
.E. E. Meyers, Architect.
75 1 ARCHITECTS OF NOTED BUILDINOa
Capitol of—
New York, at Albany Messrs. Fuller. Eidlitz, and H. H
Richardson. Architects.
Ohio, at Columbus Henry & Win. Walter, Architects
Rhode Island, at Newport . .James Munday, Architect.
Tonnc'ssoe. at Nashville John Strickland, Architect.
Texas, at Austiii E. E. Meyers & Son, Architects.
Virginia, at Richmond Thomas JeffersoxL
COUNTY BUILDINGS.
Suffolk (.^ounty Court House,
Boston, Mass Gteo. A. Clough, Architect.
Cook ('ounty Court House,
Chicaf^o. Ill J. J. Egan, Architect.
Arai)ahoo County Court House,
Denver, Col E. E. Meyers & Son, Architects.
Jefferson Market Court House,
New York F. C. Withers, Architect.
Alle^i^heny County Court House
and Jail, Pittsburgh, Pa II. H. Richardson, Architect.
Court House, Providence, R. I.. .Stone & Carpenter, Architects.
CITY AND TOWN HALLS.
Citv Hall—
ft
Albany, N. Y H. H. Richardson, Architect
Boston, Mass Oilman & Bryant, Architects.
New York, N. Y. (1808-12). .John McComb, Architect
(New) Philadelphia, Pa John McArthur, Jr . Architect
Town liiili. North Easton, Mass., H. H. Richardson, Architect
CHURCHKS, ETC.
All SainH Cathedral, Albany.
N. V IL W. (iibsoii. Anihitect.
St. Pj'tcr's EpiseojMil ChuH'h,
Albnny, N. Y R M. Upjohn, Architect
First M. K. Church, lialtiniore.
Md McKinj. Mewl & White, Arehi*
te(tts.
Brattle Street ('hurch. lioston,
Mass Gambrill & Richardson, Archi-
tects.
Church of tln< Advent, B')ston.
Mass Sturgis & Brigham, ArchitaoC^
ARCHITECTS OP NOTED BUILDINGS. 755
First Church, Arlington Street,
Boston, Mass Oilman & Bryant, Architects.
First Presbyterian Church, Bos-
ton, Mass iR. M. Upjohn, Architect.
Spiritual Temple, Boston, Mass. .Hartwell & Richardson, Archi-
tects.
Trinity Church, Boston, Mass. . .0am brill & Richardson, Archi-
tects.
The (New) Old South . Church,
Boston, Mass Cummings & Sears, Architects.
Emanuel Baptist Church, Brook-
lyn, N. Y Francis H. Kimball, Architect.
Jewish Synagogue, New York
State, Buffalo (Temple Beth
Zion) E. A. & W. W. Kent, Architects.
Calvary Presbyterian Church,
Cleveland, 0 C. F. Schweinfurth, Architect.
St.Stephen'sChurch, Lynn, Mass., Ware & Van Brunt, Architects.
Fifth Avenue Presbyterian
Church, New York Carl Pfeiffer, Architect.
Jewish Synagogue, New York L. Eidlitz, Architect.
Madison Avenue M. E. Church,
New York R. H. Robinson, Architect.
St. Patrick's R. C. Cathedral,
New York Renwick & Sands, Architects.
Trinity Church, New York Richard Upjohn, Architect.
Park Avenue M. E. Church,
Philadelphia Hazelhurst & Huckel, Architects.
Church of the Messiah, St. Louis,
Mo Peabody & Steams, Architects.
Church of the Covenant, Wash-
ington, D. C J. C. Cady & Co., Architects.
COLLEGE AND SEMINARY BUILDINGS.
Harvard Medical School, Boston,
Mass Ware & Van Brunt, Architects.
Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology (first building) Jonathan Preston, Architect.
Harvard Memorial Hail, Cam-
bridge, Mass Ware & Van Brunt, Architects.
Hemenway Gymnasium (Harvard
Cc^legi^ Peabody & Steams, Architects.
756 ARCIIITKCTS OF NO^'EI) BUILDINGS.
New Law School (Austin Hall),
(■ainl)ri(lgo, Mass II. IL Richardson, Architect.
Osborn Hall (Yale), New Haven,
Conn Bruce Price, Architect.
('olinnbia (-olle^j^e. New York C. C. Huight, Architect.
Union Theological Seminary,
X(>\v York Lord & Potter, Architects.
Girard C\)llege, I^hiladelphia, Pa., T. U. Walter, Architect.
LIJJRARTES.
New Public Library, Boston McKim, Mead & White, Archi
tects.
Lenox Library, New York R. M. Hunt, Architect.
TIIKAMMIKS AND MUSEUMS, KTC.
Museum of Fine Aits, Boston,
^lass Sturgis & Brigham, Architects.
Academy of P^ine Arts, Chicago,
111 Burnhani & Root, Architects.
The Auditorium Building,
( hicago. 111 Adler & Sullivan, Architects.
Casino Theatre, New York Kimball & Wisedell, xVrchitects.
Metroj)olitan Opera House, New
York J. C. Cady & Co.
Acad<'iny of Music, Philadelphia,
Pa C. Runge, Architect.
Museum of Fine Arts, St. Louis,
Mo Pcabody & Steams. Architects.
CUB HOl'SES AND LODOK BUILDINCJS.
Algompiin (-lub Ilou^^e, Boston,
Ma^s McKim, Mead & White, Archi-
tects.
Art Club Building. Boston, Mass.W. \i. Kmerson, Architoct.
CaluiiK't Club House, Chicago, 111. Burnimm & R<M)t, An-hit(>ct8.
Masonic Tcinph*. Chicago. III. . . . Burnham & Hoot, Aifhitects.
Woman's Tciu|)l(', Chieago, 111 ..Burnham & K<N)t, ArL'hitectH.
Denver '.'lub House. Denver. Col.\'arian & Steamer. Architects.
Cent my Club House, New York. . McKiin, Mead & White, An*hi-
tifts.
Cnion Leau'ue Club House. New
York PealKxly & Steams, Architacta.
ARCHITECTS OF NOTED BUILDINGS. 1b1
Art Club Building, Philadelphia,
Pa Prank Miles Day, Architect.
Masonic Temple, Philadelphia,
Pa J. fl . '.Vindrim, Architect.
Masonic Building, Pittsburgh, I *a.,Shepley, Butan & Coolidge, Archi
tects.
OFFICE BUILDINGS.
Ames Building, cor. School and
Washington Sts., Boston Shepley, Butan & Coolidge, Ar-
chitects.
Chamber of Commerce, Boston. . .Shepley, Butan & Coolidge, Ar-
chitects.
Fiske Building, Boston, Mass. . . . Peabody & Stearns, Architects.
N. Y. Mutual Life Insurance Com-
pany's Building, Hoston Peabody & Stearns, Architects.
Board of Trade Building, Chi-
cago, 111 W. W. Boyington, Architect.
Pullman Building, Chicago, 111 . . S. S. Beman, Architect.
The Bookery, Chicago, 111 Burnhain & Root, Architects.
Chamber of Commerce, Cincin-
nati, O fl. H. Bichardson, Architect.
The New York Life Insurance
Company's Building, Denver,
Col Andrews, Jaques & Bantoul, Ar-
chitects.
Board of Trade Building, Kansas
( ity Burnham & Boot, Architects.
New England Building, Kansas
City Bradley, Winslow & Wetherell,
Architects.
The New York Life Insurance
Company's Building, Kansas
City McKim, Mead & White, Archi
tects.
Equitable Building, New York . . George B, Post, Architect.
N. Y. Mutual Life Insurance Com-
pany's Building, New York . . .C. W. Clinton, Architect.
Produce Exchange Building, New
York George B. Post, Architect.
Times Building. New York George B. Post, Architect.
United Bank Build'g, New York . Peabody & Stearns, Architects.
Worid Building, New York George B. Post, Architect.
L . .
^758 ARCniTKCTS OF NOTED BCJIT.DINGS.
D. 0. Mills Block, San Francisco,
Cal Burnham & Root, Architects.
New York Life Insurance Com-
pany's Buildings, Montreal, St.
Paul, and Minneapolis Babb, Cook & Willard, Archi
tects.
HOTELS AND APARTMENT HOUSES.
Revere House, Boston William Washburn, Architect.
Tremont House, Boston William Washburn, Architect.
The Hollendon Hotel, Cleveland,
Ohio George F. Hammond, Architect
Midland Hotel, Kansas City, Mo., Burnham & Root, Architects.
Aurclia Apartment House, Fifth
Avenue, New York D. & J. Jardine, Architects.
Fifth Avenue Hotel, Fifth Ave.,
N(^w York William Washburn, Architect.
The Hotel Imperial, Broadway and
IVM St.. New York MeKini, Metid & White, Archi-
tects.
The Yoseniite, Park Ave., New
York McKim, Mead & White, Archi
teets.
Victoria Hotel, New York William Washburn, Architect.
Hotel Ontario, Salt Lake City . . .Adler & Sulivan, Architects.
Hotel l^)nce de Leon. St. Augus-
tine, Fla Carrerc & Hastings. Arehitcots.
The Alcazar, St. Augustine. Kla., ('arrere & Hastings, Architects.
RESIDENCES.
House (.t Koss Winans, l^ilti-
niore, Md McKim, Mead & White, Archi-
tects.
House of F. L, Ames. Jioston.
M; >s Sturgis & Brigham, Architwts.
Houx- oi* .1. F. Andrew. Boston,
Mas< MeKini, Mead & White. Archi-
tects.
Houm- of Cornelius Vanderbilt,
N» \v V«»rk (Ji'orge H. Post, An*hitect.
Housi' <>t* W. \{. Vanderbilt. New
York Herter Bn>s., Alwood £s Spook.
Archit^H'ts.
ARCHITECTS OF NOFED BUILDINOa V59
House of W. K. Vanderbilt, New
York ,. .K. M. Hunt, Architect.
Houses of Henry Villard, New
York McKim, Mead & White, Archi-
tects.
House of Louis C. Tiffany, New
York McKim, Mead & White, Archi-
tects.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Boston and Providence Railroad
Station, Boston Peabody & Steams, Architects.
Fifth Avenue Riding School, New
York Carl Pfeiffer, Architect.
Broad Street Railroad Station,
Philadelphia, Pa Wilson Bros. & Co., Architects.
Central Railroad Station, Provi-
dence, R. I T. A. Tefft, Architect.
>-l»
700 COST OF BUILDINGS PER CUBIC FOOT.
COST OF BUILDINGS PER OUBIO FOOT.
Tho most accurate method of estimating the cost of any proposed
buihiiii^. before the phuis aiulspecilications are sufHciently complete
for taking oil tlic actual quantities, is by means of the cubic con-
tents.
Two l)uil(linp:s built in the same style, and for tho same pur{N)se.
of the same materials, and on the same scale of wa^cs ami j»rices of
materiuls, should cost the same, or very nearly the same, i>cr cuble
foot, althou^di one building be somewhat larger than tho other and
of dilTereiit shape.
It therefore follows that if we know tlio cost por cubic foot of
different classes of l)uildings, in different hxialities, we can approx-
imate (juite closeJy the cost of any proposed buihling by mullifily-
ing its cubic contents in feet by the known cost per cubic foot of
a similar building already built in tliat locality.
Conversely, if the i'ost of a proposed building must Ik? kept abso-
lutely witliin a certain sum, the size of the building should be ppo-
portioiiei so that the cubic contents shall not exceed the quotient
obtained by dividing thc^ amdunt appropriated by the average <*05t
per cul)ic tool of similar buildings. p]ven then it may I.e found,
when the bids are ofjcned, that they exceed the appropriation, lint
tho excess will probably not be so great but tiiat tho neces'^ary
reductions can l)e made witiiout altering tho main featun^s of the
l)uilding.
In estimating the cost ])y tho cubic contents, it U of cour83
necessary that the contents be <'omputed on the same iMisisi. in lx>th
the pro|)()>((l building and the one aln-ady built. In the following
exain))les, the cubic contents are computed from the basement
or cellar lloor, to the average ih-ight of a Hat n)of, or. if a pilcii
ro )}'. tile finis}u;d jionion of the attic is inchi<led, or that ]Kirt
wiiich Miiirhl be |]nislie<l, but mere aii -spaces and open pon'lies an*
not inchided. Vaults and an-as under si<iewalks etc.. aiv inclniled
as pari o| the basement. All measurenuMits an* to the nut>iile of
the w.-ill^ and foundations. Cost d<M's not. as a rulf, incjuih- the
arehiteriV lee. A few of th4> example^, tliat wi-it- not compiliMl by
the autlior, mav not Ik* computed closelv l)V tlie alx)rc rule, but
it [< \n 1)1' presume<l that they an*.
The .(itii.nis of the (ioveniment building.s include afl (a}Huv,
whether iitii-hed or not included wiihin the nut.'^idr lines of the
uall> and roof, and alxjvo the c(>llar lK>tloni. includiu{f all areM
and foundations.
COST OF BUILDIIfGS PER CUBIC FOOT.
760a
The eott of the Govemment buildings does not include the heat-
ing apparatus, vaults, site, and approaches.
EXAMPLES OP THE COST OF BUILDINGS PER CUBIC FOOT.
COVPII^KD BY THE AuTUOR. .
NAME OF BUILDING.
Chamber of Com- )
merce, Boston, V
Mass. )
tt
Ames Building," (
Boston. )
Escbange Baild> i
ing, Boston. j
United States Trust i
Co. Building,New r
York. (
Seven -Ptory Office
Building. N c* w
Yoik(R. W.Gib-
son).
Six -story Office
Building, New
York (R. W. Gib-
eon).
Herald Building, I
New York City. (
Auditorium Build- (
ing, Chicago. f
Rookery Building, I
Chicago. f
Masonic Temple, I
Chicago. )"
Old Colony Build- 1
inj;, Chicago. \
N. Y. Life Insur- ;
an< (? Building, La- ',
Salle and Monroe j
Streets, Chicago. J
Schiller Building, or i
Germau Theatre, >
Chicago. 1
DATE.
1891-2
1889-91
1889-91
1888
1890
CHARACTER OF CONSTRUCTION AND
FINISH.
1893
Seven stories ; pitch roof, iron and
slate ; granite walls, pile founda-
tion ; flre-proof construction;
marble and oak ilnif>h.
Thirteen stories ; granite and Ohio'
stone fronts ; flat roof ; fire proof
construction ; marble and oak
finish.
(Nine stories; grtmite front; flat
< roof ; fire-proof construction ;
f marble and oak finish.
fTenHtories; flat roof; massive gran-
J ite front; fire-proof construction;
j ex mi foundation : fixtures, ricli
1. marble work and finish.
^ Two massive stone fronts ; flre-
■': proof constrnction ; usnal ma-
f chinery, fixtures, etc., complete.
'Throe brick and terra cotta fronts;
non-fire-proof, but wiih metal
lathing ; torra-cotfu furring ; ma-
clunery, elevators, etc.
( Two stories and ba.«ement ; tile
j and fire-proof roof, brick and
stone fronts ; fire-proof construc-
tion.
I
1887-9 (See description, p. 601.)
1886
1891
lH(:3-4
1893-4 : i
1H91
1^
Eleven stories ; flat roof ; fire-proof
construction ; oak finish, marble
floor and wain.9cot ; eleven ele-
vators.
Twenty stories ; pitch roof; pran-
ite and terra col ta fronts; skele-
ton (onstruction; fire-proof; rich
marble Jind metal work ; fourteen
elevator.-*.
Seventeen stories; flat-roof ; Bed-
ford stone, w bile brick, and terra-
cotta fronts ; skeleton construc-
tion : fire i)roof : rich marble and
metal work ; six elevator-.
Twelve stories; fiat roof: first three
storie** dres.'ied <rranite; terracotta
above; riveted sk«lelon construc-
tion ; fire proof ; machinery ; rich
marble work and finish ; small
vaults; five €*levators.
Seventeen stories ; flat roof, faced
with terra-cot t a ; skeleton con-
struction; fireproof ; rich marble
work ; theatre in four stories.
)
COST PER
CU. FT.
29ctB.
58
40
60
37
26
46
36
32
58
41
47
30,1
IGOh
COST OF BUILDIl^GS PER CUBIC FOOT.
I
NAME OF BUILDING. ! DATE.
CIIARACTp:il OF CONKTRUCTION AND
FINISH.
<*0:«T PEB
CU. PT.
lUiildiiiL'. La Salle
ami WasliiiiL'foh
Sin-cts. ("liicajro.
lidanl of 'J'rade
JJiiihliiit:, Mon-
tical, (an.
ChainlxT of Com-
inorce, Cincinnati.
Wainwrijilit IJuild-
in;r, Si. Louis.
>
i I
( Thirteen stories : flat roof : pkcle- 1
1893-4 - ton constnution: tire-proof; rich -
! / terra-cotta facing. )
I I
I
I'nion Trust IJuild- »^ '
in<;, St. Louin. f
EotiitiiMc Huilding, J
Denver. \
181)2
1H91-2
I
Ernest and Cramer/ ' ^ ^^
IJuildin;:, Denver, t ^^'^
Baih'v lilock, Den- /
\rr. \
{ 'r"ck«-r Uuildinir, '
Sail Fianii-co. »
llradh'.iTy Uuildini.'. '
Kndifoit I5n:i(iinLr, '
>t. I'aiil. Minn. >
iMUcf [{..ildiiii,', I
i (ii.r.ri till:' \li.
W . <;ili>-*in'. \
1H90
1H90
ls91
is>r-9
ISOl
18«.»2-8 ;
1887-8
1890 I
I
Pitch roof : pcven ptorios : pranite
front.s : lin'-proof etnistniction.
Ten storien ; flat roof : stone facing
first and second stories; lien
! terracotta above ; skeleton con-
I stnictioi) ; fire-proof ; foureleva-
1 tors.
\ Fourteen stories ; flat roof ; rich
•< terra-cotta facing ; skeleton cuu-
f St ruction ; Are proof.
Nine stories; flat roof; granite front
two stories; light brick and terra-
cotta above ; flre-proof conetrnc-
tion ; rich marble work ; eight
elevators.
Eiirht stories ; flat roof ; brick
front ; mill construction ; oak
flnish ; threi* elevators.
Three stones ; flat roof ; one front,
store facir'g ; ordinary brick and
; timber const iiicrion ; plumbing
and steam beat ; pine flnisli.
Ten storie«i ; flat loof; brick and
! terra-cotta fmnts ; hkeleton con-
j stiucti«in ; fln'-i)roof ; elaborate
flnish, marble, ttc.
'Fi\e stories; flat rcof ; bufl" brick
and ti rra-cotta wa!N ; fire-proof
i' const ruct i<m ; oak finish; two
I elevators.
f Seven stories; flat ro< f ; presseii
brick front ; fire proof construc-
tion ; marble wainscot ; five
eh'vator-.
i I Thn-e st«)ries ; two stone fronts:
I fin- proof ; usual plumbing, heai-
■', ini: plant, fixtun-s. vlr.: rich
marble work ; biories of moder-
atr bei^-lit.
I
35| cti.
20
26
24A
\ !
I
I
I
42
'. .9
;• ^
f
> 83
t
29
TiO
"•<■!. .
//nftii n/iif A/i(ir(//ft /if /ini!'/ih',.<.
Ml *• . Ni'w I
V. k i;. W. (.i!)-
\
i;r...M I
.i.;i. . lbiti-1, '
IMI-i
l-'ourli III -tor'i-
cotia fri'iit :
lion. ii\i-ii'.
I
Tr
: biiik and terrn-
'kii« Ion cuHstrui'-
li!«- im-of : u-iiul ,
I
41 cti>.
COST OP BUILDIKOS PBB OUBIO FOOT.
760c
MXXB or BUILUING.
The Lenox (Apart- 1
ment8),Clevefand, J-
O. )
DATS.
CHARACTSB OF OONBTBUCTIOK AND
FINISH.
( Five Btories ; flat roof ; pressed- 1
-< brick front ; partly slow-Dnming >
( constraction. )
COST FEB
CU. FT.
18i cts.
Club Buildings, T. M, C. A., etc.
Athletic Club Build- 1
ing, Denver, Colo. C
Denver Club Build- )
ing, Denver, Colo, f
Standard Club Ho., )
Michigan Avenue, V
Chicago. S
Y. M. C. A. Build- /
iiig, Cleveland, O. f
' Four stories ; flat roof : one
front pressed brick ; thoroughly
equipped with swimming and
Turkish baths, g^'mnasium, hand-
ball room, bilTiard-room, social
rooms, etc.; brick walls, wood
construction.
[Three stories and high pitch roof ;
stone ashlar, four sides ; slate
I root' ; wood construction ; oak
L and pine finish.
18 cts.
24
12A
18
Libraries.
Public Library,New I
London, Conn. f
Howard Memorial )
Library, New Or- V
leans. La. )
1889-90
1888
S One-story stone building ; ordi- 1
'\ nary construction. \
SG^cts.
44
Hospitals.
Hospital Build- )
ing, New York >■
(R. W. Gibson). S
Hoppital Build-
ing, New Yo
(R. W. Gibson)
Id- J
Seven stories ; pressed-brick front;
stone trimmings ; flre-proof ;
thorough heating and ventilating
plant ; plumbing ; much marble
and tiling.
Six stories ; pressed-brick front ;
stone trimmings ; part flre-proof
and part non-ttre-proof, but with ►
metal lalhing and terra-cotta fur-
ring; plumbing, steam plant, etc. J
40 cts.
83
Churches.
Grace M. E. Church,
Cambridgeport,
Mass.
[Two-story wooden building ; tower'
and spire ; slate roof ; copper
metal work ; cost includes nir-
naces, pews, frescoing, and gas
fixture.**.
8|cts.
7()()(?
COST OF BUILDINGS PER CUBIC FOOT.
I
VAMF i,v pimwv. I iiATi.- ' CIIAUAfTEll OP CONPTRUCTION AND CO^T PER
NAMh Oh J.l ILDIN... ■ DATK. ^ FIMHH. CI'. PT.
C
I f Two-story stone church: f>tone 1
i I tower Huvciity-oiic feet hiph. with [
;hii^t M. K.< liurch, i ,^^^,^ (^ . I wood ti\nrv lbs fccf hiirh above : !
I)(i;v(r. Colo. \ ""• I ^hi^l:le roof: steaii; heat: oak tin- (
I ' ! ish in second ^t()ry ; j)ew(*, fres- 1 I
l^ coing, etc.
Zioii T«'inj)l«'. Syn:i- j
<roi:ii»-.( lu'den Av., -
chiciir**. \
1.S8.-)
21 cti«.
•10
MUa.lhweot'S.
rrsnliii'- Convent,
( lcvrl;in<l. ().
Ilili 'rh('oi'>i:ical
s-niiuMiy. St.
raiii. Minn.
Winunie Hall, State
C«.llcir<'. orono,
(i-aininar School
I5;,= i:;iiL'. Di-nver.
L<'I;oi(i Stanford Jr.
MM-i'Uin. I' a I (»
A:t«.. Ca!.
1890
I
lH<)l-i>
is'.a
\ Thn^e storieH ; pitch roof ; brick ) ;
with stone trininiings ; ordinary ^ j
/ wood coiiirt ruction. )
fSix buildin<;s prou{N>d around a'| j
(^uadranple : ordinary construe- ! :
' tion ; library, L'.vniinisiuni. and ! ,
staircases tire proof : corridor j' !
walls face l>ricK : oak flnii^h ; j
cost p'-r cubic fo«)t ///>f</»' 7/ ////^. j
' Three stories and basenn-nt : n»ci-
j tation and draw in:; ro<>ni> : brick
^ witli <;ranit<' trinnnin;;H ; .>*latc y
roof ; wood lloors ; l)rick par- j
titions. J
■ Two stories and ba-ement ; eiL'ht |
r<)oin>: pre.— ed brick walls: shin- i
f;!e and tin roof : wooden tloore ; \
lirick partition-^ : cost, buscinent |
i. Ibior to >ecoinl .'•toiy ceiling. I
, Thi- huildiii;:. joveritn: 21,tNHI f i»et ^
I and conluinii.i; over 1,100JIOO|
cubic fi'i't of spa«'e.i«» buib entire- !
I ly ol Portland cenniit concrete— ("
I walls, tb>oi-s. and roof- and w \
I lire-proof (hrou^hout. J
15 cts.
U
lOJ
H
18
" Fire proof " denotes iron construction, flre-proofed.
l>\volliiij»:s.
('i!y .Iwtlliiiirs ill niic!i«;n, <l«'si«rm'tl by A»ll«'r & Sullivan,
\ivlii1.'rls. (*n>l jM-r Cllljic t<»iit tn»iii IT to 'iiJ ct*.
or ilu. ;iiii„- (lisi;:iic(l hy tilt jnitlnir ninl hiiill in Htiston in
1^^; llir ;i\t|-;ii,M' cnvl (»f riirlil iiixl tell I'(N)lll Woodi'H
I'.ni-. >. |).|- ( ul'ic r<<'1 nt li.Ml)!(;il»lf >p;i(T. iiicliKliii;; col-
ii: . w ..- .'ilioiit 11
In 1> !i\-i- <'<.|<». tin" <'(>.st of n lii-st-cla^s stntn* house ( iso-
l:i!i 'h .\Mtli 1 1:1 I'd Wont I tiiiisli. indirect Mraiii liont. extra
|i!iiiiii>inir. dccorMiions. rt<'., (-omplctr, wu.*! in 1891)
.'llxOlt 27
COST OF BI7ILDI19GS PEE CXTBIC FOOT^ 7606
Brick houses of ten rooms, pine finish, furna(!e heat, good
plumbing, etc. , cost above cellar floor, but not includ-
ing unoccupied roof space, in 1892 , . 14 cts.
Cheap eight-room brick cottages of one and one-half or two
stories; bathroom and furnace; cubic space reckoned
from cellar floor, but not including unoccupied roof
space, can be built in Denver, 1894, for 10
7Qi)f
COST OF BUILDINGS PEK CUBIC FOOT.
O
P
t:
C
«
•
•
•
S)
'S
a
2
C
C
2
**
"5
c
(C
•
s
s
c
s
CS
2
<
V.
c
<-*
s
s
o
O
&
2
a
T
•
fcc
S
»-*
■J.
o
C
u
f
i/
•A
£
C
E
E
•c
5
»«
^^
c
•c
V
C
C
c
•
'5
^^
**
^«
£
£
•a
c
03
Z
c
1
!-'
«>«
t.
i
&
«-■
?Z u
•—
2
7:
5
o
/^
•=
= 1
-<
«5
^
0
o
x
^
c
^
^
o
i^
es
jj
r i.
{*•
o
XI
■ r
S
E
1
4^
"x
E
'2
OS
c
t.
X
■ »
^*
5
•
■J.
— *
03
C3
c:
m
E
5
c
E
'£
5
c s;
"v*
^1*
•<#
,.^
^
3
tc
-^
"x
*—
^
^
o
^
j3
c
•Mtf
* w',
7
t>
c
<•
^
c:
*->
T/
£
sl
^
C
■4-J
«>■
c
TL
S k
5
C9
•
C
*
•
c
2:
X
1.
OL
c
es
*
£
•
*^
*
2-
c
^
i
•A
*-*
0mt
«•*
*-*
X
11
u
S3
*—
s 5?
^
^S^
0^
'/,
^
-N
a.
:^
X
71
^
•■••
>««^
*>"
^
< a
" I
»c r: J- ii X i- c> CJ t-: ?» o X »c If; X X X *- iS ;r
• ••••••• a ••••••■*■•
rr 'Tf -* c i*: I': -r. — o ■v C cc "2 Lr QC »3 a- -^^ »- c: i«
/'.
■/.
f ,^
'^^"1.
y
>—-——'."' . "T
•• ^ »^ ^ f. Zi **|
COST OF BUILDINGS PEE SQUAEB FOOT. 760^
COST OF BUIIiDINaS PER SQUARE FOOT.
One-story buildings of large area, such as exposition buildings,
;c , may be estimated almost as accurately by the square foot as
Y the cubic foot, as there are no interior partitions, etc.
The cost of the World'' 8 Fair buildings per square foot of ground
)vered, including sculpture and decoration, as given by E. C.
hankland, chief engineer, was as follows :
Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building $1.39
Transportation Building 1.08
Electricity Building 1.69
Machinery Hall 2.12
Agricultural Building 1.44
Administration Building 9.18
Horticultural Building 1.41
Mines and Mining Building 1.04
Fisheries Building 2.85
Forestry Building 75
7d0/i PkOFKSSK^NAL PHACTICE of ARCUTTKOl-3.
CHARGES AND PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE OF
ARCHITECTS.
[As endorsed by the American Institute of Architects at its Annual
Convention in 1.SH4.J
GENERAL PROVISIONS.
For full prot'cs^ionul Hcrvicos (incliulin^ supervision), five percent.
ujMm tlic cost of the work.
In case of llic abjindonnient of the work, the charge for ])artial
service is as follows :
Preliniinarv studies 1 per cent.
Preliiniiiarv studies, general drawiiifjs, and specifica-
tions 2.^ per o<*nt.
Pi-eliniinarv studies, general drawings, six'cifica-
tions. and details 3i per cent.
For works that cost l(\ss tlian Jj^lO.OOO. or for nionunieiital an«l
decorative work, and designs foi* furniture — a si)ecial rate in excess
of the above. '
For aheiations and additions— an additional charge to be made
for sur-vey-. and measurements
An additional charge to l)e, made for alterations or additions in
contracts n:- plans, which will he valued in pro|M)rtion to the addi-
tional time jiiid -services eniployeil.
Necessary travelling expenses to be paid l)y the client.
'IMuie spi'td by the architect in visiting for pr«)fi»ssional consiiltn-
tion and in the accompanyinir travel, whether l)y <iay or iiiglit. will
be ciiaiutd " >i', vhet her or not- aiiv comnji>sion. either for olTice wurk
(,r s;i;»ervi<in_r work, is given.
The anhiie -t's pavments an» successivelv due jus his work is coin-
pit lei, in liie <»rder of till' above cla>>ilications.
Tntil an a( tnal estimate is received, the <'hari;es an* basiil n|Mm
tlie pr<»p«)-el ci,<\ (,1 the works, and tin* ]»ayments are n'cciviil a*"
in>>tal:!ie»ii- of ilie eniir«' fee. vhieh i> based upon the actual c-os^
Til.- ai li t«'t b i<<e-< his profe.'<«»'n!i:d charire ujmiu (he t-nlire ejisf.
to the M'Aini-, nf Hi" biiildiiiir wliiii comple! »d. inehiding all tin
ll\tu-e>« iieee<^;ipy to ^Mxlcr it fit for (M'cupatiuii. aud is entitltHl in
' \i e". .1 ' .IK hii'M't* t»f reciij"! i/.r«l ^finnliiiL' in thi'ir prnf(.'s««iiiii, rliui:»i« fnmi
r> '" 1" !•' : .ni. i\ir;i ri»r i|«'.-ii;nin_' riiiu.nl'- :ind nfher uniaiiifiittil flxturni.
car\'<l 'v.iik. .iiid di'i- initivr wnrk uf :ili kintl- Kifu-rn percent, on thvircuM
it H coninnni rh.irL^' fur H«-k«4'tini; carjM-tf*. fiirni(«hin};t<, etc.
PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTS. T61
additional compensation for furniture or other articles designed or
purchased by the architect
If any material or work used in the construction of the building
be already upon the gi'ouud, or come into possession of the owner
without expense to him. the value of said material or work is to be
added to the sum actually expended upon the building before the
architect's commission is computed.
SUPERVISION OP WORKS.
The super nsion or superintendence of an architect (as distin-
guished from the continuous personal superintendence which may
be secured by the employment of a clerk-of-the-works) means such
inspection by the architect, or his deputy, of a' building or other
work in process of erection, completion, or alteration, as he finds
necessary to ascertain whether it is being executed in conformity
with his designs and specifications or directions, and to enable him
to decide when the successive instalments or payments provided for
in the contract or agreement are due or payable. He is to deter-
mine in constructive emergencies, to order necessary changes, and
to define the true intent and meaning of the drawings and specifi-
cations, and he has authority to stop the progress of the work and
order its removal when not in accordance with them.
CLERK-OF-THE-WORKS.
On buildings where it is deemed necessary to employ a clerk-of-
the-works, the remuneration of said clerk is to be paid by the
owner or owners, in addition to any commissions or fees due the
architect.
The selection or dismissal of the clerk of the works is to be sub-
ject to the approval of the architect.
EXTRA SERVICES.
Consultation fees for professional advice are to be paid in propor-
tion to the importance of the questions involved, at the discretion
of the architect.
None of the charges above enumerated cover professional or legal
services connected with negotiations for site, disputed party-walls,
right of light, measurement of work, or services incidental to
arrangements consequent upon the failure of (jontractors during the
performance of the work. When such services become necessary
they shall be charged for according to the time and trouble involved.
702 PROFKSSIONAL PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTS.
DlLVWIXdS AND SPKCIFICATIONS.
l)rawin<i:s niid spccifir'aiions, as infitriimonts of scTvici!, are the
projuTty ('l' the aichiJcct.
At the Second Annual Convention of \\w (ro-orj^nnizod) Amrri
can Inslitutc of Arcliiteifts, lu^ld at Wasliin^ton. I). C, ()cto])ri
'22-2^), 189.). the, coinniittoo on Code of Ethics n'oomniendcd the
adoption of tli(; follo\vin«,^ clauses to define the .superintendence of
the archit<'ct, and that the Institute adopt the form of contract
between owner and architect, given below. The report of the (?oin-
mittoe was accei)ted and ordered printed, to be finally considered
at tih' next convention.
SUPKItVISlOX OF WORKS.
" W'Ih- architect will furnish <A<-m*ral superintendence l)y himself
or Ills deputy, of such frcciiiency or duration as in his jud^j^«>nt will
sulVice i)V may Ix? necessary to fully instruct the contractors, jms.**
upon the ineiits of niatei'ial and workmanship, and to maintuin an
elTe^'iive \v()ri<in.<j: oru^.inization of the several contractors ('n.ira.uiMi
upon the siiuclure ; and to eiuiblo him to decide when the siiccss-
sive iustallnients or j)aym(;nts provided for in the contract are <iiie.
" lie is to determine any const ructivt* emergencies and order n*»c-
t'ssiry ch;inL,^(s. and deline the true, intent and meaning*' of the
sjtecilicat i«)n< : he has authority t<» stop the pro.j:ress of tin* work
an i oidei- iN leinoval wlu'n not in accorciance with them."
" '1'Ik' aichitecl will demand of tlie contractors the proptM* corn»t-
lion or remedying of all defects discovered in their work, nnd will
a<siv| t he "wncr in enforcin«; the terms of the contract, liut the
ar-liitt 't's »uj)(.i-intendi'nce shall not include liability or i-esimnsi-
bility for .my bi'eacli of contract by the contractor."
cLi:i:i\'-(H''-\\()iJKs.
"On bnildinir-< where it is deeniel ni'ces«<arv to havr con>tant
snpeivisi(;:i. the architect will, if authorized by the employer. ai»-
poitit a clei'k-of-the work< for that purp<.>e. «it the extra rales i| initial
in ■ li'- •^cl:-du!c o|- a- airreed.
'■''he s.ic'tioii or dismissal oi the cli-rk-of Ine-work;; i* "o In-
sul!.;:-.-! to liie approvd of i he arc!iite<-!."'
Til'- eliarir- loi* <lerk-of-th«'-v.(»rk'-. wiien constant su|M>rvi.'4iiin
is i-.<iM iv.i will beat the rate )r v:jo pi-r V eek for build iii>^ i-(»sti 11^
moll- liiaii -^Ju.otMi and less than S'JUU.tMK), and ul special ro,U», U
u^riei-d. I'o: oilier buildin^'-s.'*
CONTRACT BET W KEN ARCHITECT ANl) OWNER. 768
OONTRAOT BBTWJBEN ARCHTTBOT AND OWNBR.
From . . . , , Architect,
to , Owner.
For a compensation of ,
the architect proposes to furnish preliminary sketches, contract
working drawings and specifications, detail drawings and general
superintendence of building operations, and, also, to audit all
accounts, for a
^o be erected for ,
on
Terms of payment to be as follows :
One-fifth when the preliminary sketches are completed ; three-
tenths when the drawings and specifications are ready for letting
contracts ; thereafter at the rate of per cent, upon each cer-
tificate due to the contractor
If work upon the building is postponed or abandoned, the com-
pensation for the work done by the architect is to bear such rela-
tion to the compensation for the entire work as determined by the
published schedule of fees of the American Institute of Architects.
In all transactions between the owner and contractor, the archi-
tect is to act as the owner's agent, and his duties and liabilities in
this connection arc to be those of agent only.
A representative of the architect will make visits to the building
for the purpose of general superintendence, of such frequency and
duration as, in the architect's judgment, will suffice, or may be
necessary to fully instruct contractors, pass upon the merits of
material and workmanship, and maintain an eflEective working
organization of the several contractors engaged upon the structure.
The architect will demand of the contractors proper correction
and remedy of all defects discovered in their work, and will assist
the owner in enforcing the terms of the contracts ; but the archi-
tect's superintendence shall not include liability or responsibility
for any breach of contract by the contractors.
The amount of the architect's compensation is to be reckoned
upon the total cost of the building, including all staticmary fix-
tures.
Drawings and speciiications are instruments of service, and as
such are to remain the property of the architect.
, Architect.
Approved and accepted, , , 189
, Owner,
7«4 KOILM OF (CONTRACT.
FORM OF CONTRACT ADOPTED BY THE JOINT
COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OP
ARCHITECTS, THE WESTERN ASSOCIATION OP
ARCHITECTS, AND THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION
OF BUILDERS.^
, An-liitoct.
THIS .A(;KP.HMKXT, injulo tho day of
in llic voar one llioiisand Iiundrecl and
h\ and bd ween
jmrt of the first part
(lu'ninan(M- dosii^natcd t ho (^)nt.ra(jt()r ». and
part of llio second jwrt
(hci'rinMflcr (!('si<xnnt(Ml lh<' ()\vn«M" ),
\ViTM»i:rii ili.it thv ( oMirjictor , hcinp: the snid ]Mirt ot ihe
iiisi ji.irl. ill ('Oiisidcralioii of \]u'. covmants and a«^repnK'nts hert-iu
contained (Hi llic part of tlie Owner , boin,*; ihu siiul part of
the second part, do (rovoiiant, pr()ini>«< and a.u^rco with thu Siiiil
Owner . in m.-mnci- ^ollo^vin«^ thai i< !o siv :
Isi. 'IMir Contractor slial! and will well and sulTiciontly pcr-
foi'in ainl Jinisii, under the diri'ctiori. and to the satisfaction of
Vrchitect lactinj; as Agent
of sii.l Owner ), all the Work included in the
a.Lrrecably lo the (b'awlnirs and speciticati()ns inudo hy th«? said
Ai'hl'.ect . and >ii:ned by the partie-; }u»reto icopics of which have
III) :< ile:i\i red to tlie Contractor ). and to the dimensions and i*\'
pi ii!.:iio!i- ihcreoii, tliei'i'in ami hi'rein iMuitaiiied, according; to the
tiiii ;i.' i;i aiKJ nieaninu"**!' said driwiiiLrs and sp-cilieations, and of
tli'M j-r. -'■:i!"-. iiieJudiii;^' all labor and material iiicidi'nt theri'to,
ai.:! -I:..ll pp.viii- ail >ealVoMin.i:, implements ami i-arta^; nei-osary
|.-- ■ :; •■ li i • p 'i":'';-:!r;'ie-- (.f t 'i- -lid Woi'k
*.'■; >h' .!'! it ap'ie.ir ihat tin- woi-;; In-rebv inli'iidi'd lo be di»ne.
..t- :iii\ ' ih'- iiialtir< r-ialive tlier.t--. ai'-- not >'ilVii'ie:itly detaded
. ;■ ,■ .i.;.,.:i ! '^'A liie >aid drawinir-^. or in thi- said s)u>citieation^. !li»'
(..•■!■■'.. -ha!l apjily In the Ar-'hiii-ef for ^-iieli furrher dniw-
111 . 1 ■ . matioii'" .'.^^ le.av Im- n «.ir\. and <hal! coiiforin to the
. : . ■■ :;-. ;-:i'i (jf lhi< ciiiraci. s- ) lar a-' the;, niay bv. ctuisisloul willi
|-i t.' ! ! I>-, |i.riM:--i->.i ••I'll.!- Si-i-ri-t.irv Ml' 111'- .'iiiuiiillU;c,UUil lUc liiluud
I' :..,!!■'< ... In- ilcfii-iM-' t«ir ii' I'Xilu-ivi- |Mil>licaluiii.
FORM OF CONTRACT. 765
the original drawings, and in event of any doubt or question aris-
ing respecting the true meaning of the drawings or specifications,
reference shall be made to the Architect , whose decision thereon,
being just and impartial, shall be final and conclusive. It is mu-
tually understood and agreed that all drawings, plans and specifi-
cations arc and remain the property of the Architect
3d. Should any alterations be required in the work shown or
described by the drawings or specifications, a fair and reasonable
valuation of the work added or omitted, shall be made by the
Architect , and the sum herein agreed to be paid for the work
according to the original specification shall be increased or dimin-
ished as the case may be. In case such valuation is not agreed to,
the Contractor shall proceed with the alteration, upon the written
order of the Architect , and the valuation of the work added or
omitted shall be referred to three (3) Arbitrators (no one of whom
shall have been personally connected with the work to which these
presents refer), to be appointed as follows : one by each of the
parties to this contract, and the third by the two thus chosen ; the
decision of any two of whom shall be final and binding, and each of
the parties hereto shall pay one- half of tlie expense of such refer-
ence.
4th. The Contractor shall, within twenty-four hours after re-
ceiving written notice from the Architect to that effect, proceed
to remove from the grounds or building all materials condemned
by , whether worked or un worked, or take down all
portions of the work which the Architect shall condemn as un-
sound or improper, or as in any way failing to conform to the draw-
ings and specifications, and to the conditions of this contract. The
Contractor shall cover, protect, and exercise due diligence to se-
cure the work from injury ; and all damage happening to the same
by neglect shall be made good by
5th. The Contractor shall permit the Architect , and all per-
sons appointed by the Architect , to visit and inspect the said
work, or any part thereof, at all times and places during the prog-
ress of the same, and shall provide sufficient, safe and proper facil-
ities for such inspection.
6th. The Contractor shall and will proceed with the said work,
and every part and detail thereof, in a pi-ompt. and diligent manner,
and shall and will wholly finish the said work according to the said
drawings and specification, and this contract, on or before the
day of in the year one thousand
hundred and (provided that possession of
the premises be given the Contractor , and lines and levels of the
766 FOKM OF CONTRACT.
buildiiip^ furnished him, on or l)eforo tho day of
in the year one thousimd
hundred nnd ), and in default thereof tho Con-
tnictor sliall pay to tiie Owner doll.-irs
for cvcrv day tlien'after that thcj said work shall remain unlinisheiU
as and for li(iuid«Mt<'d (himM«i:es
7th. Slioiild the Contractor ho obstructed or drhived in the
prosecution or coinj)lotion of the work by the neffh'Ct, delay, <»r
d(?f;nilt<>f anv otluM- contractor; or bv anv alteration whicli mav
be rc(piircd in the said work ; or by any daina;?e wliich may liap-
j)en t fiorclo l)y tire, or by th(! unusual m tion of the elements, or other-
wise ; or l»y tlic nliandonment of th(^ work by tlie em])loyees throu^rh
no default of t!ic Contractor , then there shall be an allowance of
additioual time l)cyonfl iho date s(?r for the completion of Iho said
work : bill 111) sucli allowance shall be made unless a claim is pn*-
seiiled in wiitini^at the tinuj of such obstruction or delay. Tho
Architect shall award aiid cert if v the auiount of additional time
to l)e allowed ; in which case the Contractor sliall In? ri'leastnl
fr<)ni till' payment of the stipulated damages for the additional time
so ccrtilied .ind no more. The Coulracto»- may appeal fmm such
awai'd to iirbitratois constituted as i)rovidc<l in Article Jkl of this
colli ract.
}^th. TIk' CoiiTi-actor shall not let. a^si;j:n, or tninsfer this cnn*
tract, "r ajiy inierest, therein, without the written consent (»f I lie
.\rchili'ct
tMli. Till' ( 'out I'actor shall make no claim for additional work
unli s< tin- sime shall be don(» in pursuance of an order f nun the
Anhil-et . ainl notice of all claims shall be made to ihe An*lii-
tiet in uiilini; within ten days of the bei^innini^ (d' »<ncli work,
bMli. Thi' o.vner a^rre.- to provide all hilH)r and m>.iterials not
inijiiil" 1 in lhi< contract in such manner as nut to delay th«' nrite-
riai pnr.rr ■-^^ n! ihe w<'rlv, and in th«' eveni nf failure so to iln. here-
l»\ «'.in-«:n.r I-i--^ !<• iln- ('mitraetor . airree that will
i.-'.ini'ii- ■ : ii ■ * '='111 !ii-tiir for -n«-h |t"^< : and tli'- Conlnietor
•ij!-.-. th.ii if .-hall ilel.'iy ihe rnat<Tial pri'i^n-ss of
;h'- .vmiIx -.I :i«^ i<i cniiM' i-ny dainau'e l'o»" which iln- Owiii-r shall
i». ■■..:::< 1' ii>l-' (a- ;ib"ve >lah'il-, lle-n shall luakc
><■.'! •■■ t >■ Own.-r :in\ <iic|i (l.-inriLTi' nvermul alMiVi'tinv dani:ii:e
I'M J. n !m' il-l.iy heri-in oihcrwi-^e pritvidid; the aniiuini of >u«li
In— nr ■!, I". .'_'.'. ill e!ihi-r ea-^f, !•• be li\''. and «let<Tmin(Hl by tJM
Archiitci ..i- by arbitral ion. a- prnvi-led in Ai1icJ»' :i<l.
FORM OF CONTRACR 767
11th. The Owner shall effect insurance on said
work, in own name and in the name of the Contractor ,
against loss or damage by fire, in such sums as may from time to
time be agreed upon with the Contractor , the policies being
made to cover work incorporated in the building, and materials for
the same in or about the premises, and made payable tx) the parties
hereto, as their interest may appear.
12th. Should the Contractor at any time refuse or neglect to
supply a sufficiency of properly skilled workmen, or of materials of
the proper quality, or fail in any respect to prosecute the work with
promptness and diligence, or fail in the performance of any of the
agreements on part herein contained, such refusal,
neglect or failure being certified by the Architect , the Owner
shall be at liberty, after three days* written notice to the Contrac-
tor , to provide any such labor or materials, and to deduct the cost
thereof from any money then due or thereafter to become due to
the Contractor under this contract ; and if the Architect shall
certify that such refusal, neglect, or failure is sufficient ground for
such action, the Owner shall also be at liberty to terminate the
employment of the Contractor for the said work and to enter
upon the premises and take possession of all materials thereon, and
to employ any other person or persons to finish the work, and to
provide the materials therefor ; and in case of such discontinuance
of the employment of the Contractor he shall not be entitled to
any further payment under this contract until the said work shall
be wholly finished, at which time, if the unpaid balance of the
amoun! to be paid under this contract shall exceed the expense
incurred by the Owner in finishing the work, such excess shall be
paid by the Owner to the Contractor , but if such expense shall
exceed such unpaid balance, the Contractor shall pay the differ-
ence to the Owner . The expense incurred by the Owner as
herein provided, either for furnishing materials or for finishing
the work and any damage incurred through such default, shall be
audited and certified by the Architect , whose certificate thereof
shall be conclusive upon the parties.
I3th. And it is hereby mutually agnnnl between the parties here-
to that the sum to be paid by the Owner to the Contractor for
said work and materials shall be
subject to addilions or deductions on account of alterations as here-
inbefore provided, and that such sura shall be paid in current
funds by the Owner to the Contractor in installments, as follows :
f^ll
6.S FORM OF CONTIUCT.
Tt being undorsiood that the final payment shall be made within
(lays afler tliis oontr.ict is coinpletoly finisherl ;
provided, that in each of the said eases the Architect shall cer
tify ill writing that all tho work iii)on the ])erforniunco of wliieh
the paynu-ni is to bi'conic <lue. has Ixkmi done t(» siii-
isfa('ti<)ii : nnd ])rovi(hMl further, that before eacli payment, if re-
(juired, the ('..ntractor sliall give th(^ Architect good and sulli
cai-nt evidence lliat the premises are free from all liens and claim"
eh:irireMl)](M() the said (.'ontraetor ; and further, that if at anv
time there shall be any lien or claim for which, if establislied, tli..-
Owner or the said i)reinises might ])e made liable, and wlii<'li
would i>i' chargeahh*. to the said (.'ontraetor , the Owner shall
have the riirht to retain out of anv payment them due or thereafter
to Ix'conie i\\n\ an amount sutricient to completelv indeinnifv
atrainsi siieh lien or claim, until the same sliall be effectiiallv sjitis-
tied. dis;harge(l. or cancelled. And should there prove to be any
siicji chiiiii .'ilier all payments are made, the Contraclor sliall re-
fund to 1 he Owner all moneys that the latter maybe com|>ollo<l to
})ay ill (liMharging any Vim (m said premises, made obligatory in
consetjueiic.' of tiie foi'iuer's default.
Mill. It is further mutuallv agreed Ixitweciu the parties lioreto
thai no eerlitii'Mle given or payment made, under this contract, ex-
cept ijic final certiiicate or linal payment, shall Im^ conclnsive evi-
dence of ih'' [M-rformance of this contract, eillier wholly or in |Nirt.
against an\ claim of tiie Owne" , and no ])ayment i<hall 1k' c«»n-
striUMl i<. he an ai'ceptaiice of any defe(;tive work.
l')th. And the said Owner h«"reby promis«» an<l agree with
t In- >aid Colli I'aetor to employ, and hereby employ
to provide the materials and to do the s;iid W(»rk a<'Ci>rd-
iiii: t-o the tcriiisand (Mmditions herein contained and refern'«i \n,
lor 1 he prifc aforesaid, and hereby <'<)ntracl to pay the same at the
time, ill iln- nianm-r, and u|)on the conditions aK»ve s«*t forth.
KJtIi. Mid till- ^aitl |»ar*ies for themselves, their heirs, execuiitrs.
Mdiniiii<Haio:<. .-md a>sii:ii<<, do hereljy ai:n"e to the full perfoniiaiin-
(>r ihf i"\i'iiaiils iii?-i'in fonlaini'«l.
I . \\ I ! \i -> WiiLKioK. tin- partii"^ t) tlnsi- presents have hi'reiinln
-. ■ !!i. 1 !. ••■l-^ aiid S'-aN. tin- <lay and yi-ar tir>l almve written.
ARCHITECTURAL SCHOOLS. '^69
ARCHITECTX7RAL SCHOOLS AND CLASSES IN TH£!
UNITED STATES.
The MavSsachusetts Institute, of Technology offers a
complete course in architecture extending through four years. No
special course is allowed, except in the case of students who may
be already qualified for advanced standing in the department; such
students must have at least two years' experience in an architect's
office, or be over twenty-four years of age. or be graduates of col-
leges. The course in architectui-e is intended to furnish both a
liberal education and a thorough professional training, aiming, not
only to prepare its pupils for their years of work as subordinates,
but also for their subsequent independent career, when the value of
technical knowledge will become most important. Candidates for
admission to the first- year class must have attained the age of sev-
enteen years, and must pass satisfactory examinations in arithme-
tic, including the metric system, algebra, plane geometry, French
(German may be offered as a substitute), rhetoric and composition,
history and geogi-aphy. The examinations may be divided between
two successive years if preferred. '
The tuition fee is $203 per year, payable in advance — $125 on or
before October 10, and $75 on or before February 10.
There are several free scholarships in the school. Graduates
receive the degree of Bachelor of Science (S. B.).
Columbia College, New York City.— The School of
Mines offers a complete four years' course in architecture, very
similar to that afforded by the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology. Candidates for admission must be eighteen years of age,
and must pass a satisfactory examination in physics, chemistry,
free-hand drawing, and bookkeeping, besides those studies required
by the Institute of Technology.
The examination may be divided between two successive years if
preferred. Students who arc not candidates for a degree are per-
mitted to pursue such courses as they may be found qualified to
enter upon and the faculty may approve.
The chief part of the instruction, both scientific and lechnicai,
including architectural history and elementary design, now occu-
pies three years. The fourth year, in which the studies are lars^ely
elective, is devoted to advanced work in design, and in construc-
tion and practice.
The tuition is $200 a year, payable one-half at the first of each
session. Graduates receive the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy
770 ARCHITECTCRAL SCHOOLS.
(Ph. B.) There are several free scholarships, and ncofly ftnd de-
serviiif; students may have th(?ir tuition remitted under certain
conditions.
CoriM^ll ruiversity, Ithaca, X. V., oifers a < oniphte
course in archil (K*tui"(», exlen<lin<? over four years. (Jradu.ites ri--
('(uve t lie dei]^re(M)l' Haelielor of Science in Arciiitect«'.re. '.'uili'in
><U)i) ])er annum, payable in three installments. ('andidat<-s tor
admission iu\i>t be sixteen years of i\^i\ and ]>ass ii satisfactory
exaiiiinalion in rhetori(5 and composition, .ij^eo«;raphy, pliysiology.
arithmetic. |-lane and solid geometry, algebra, American liislury,
and 1^'i-ench. (i(muan, or Latin.
Uiiiv<M*sit,v oi l*eiiiis>ivan!a, Philadelphia. —rvmr«#'
i'ti Arrli'tt'c/nre. The Sch(K>l of Architecture olTei'S a full theoreti-
cal, }>ractical, and arti-stic course of study, as a foumhition for a
j)rofessi(»nal career. The course extends throngli four years.
Students not. candichitc^s for a degree may ];ni'su(^ a special course.
which can be completcnl in a much shorter time, (rraduates in
the full couise I'cceive the degree of Bachelor (»f Sciencre. Tuitiitn
is sir>() a yeai'. Kxamination for admission alM)ut the isanie as at
Cornell, except that I'^rencii is the oidy language re<iuiriMl U'sidi's
Kngli>h. ^
I'liivcM'sity of Illinois, (iiaiiipai^ii. 111. — Cafh'ffe uj
Kiif/inv riiK/. Course in architecture extends thi"ouirii four yea ni.
(ii-ahiales i-e<'eive the degree «»f Bachelor of Seicnei*. Tnitioti fnn*.
Tiieit'i-a iMalriculalion fec^ on entering the collegi' of >:l(i, and a
teiin h'c jnr incidental expenses of s7.."»U. Studi-nls are not ail-
initted uiKier lilteen years of age. Kxaiidnaiion .-ame as at Cor-
nell. (».!iiiiinu' French and (Jerman.
riier, i- ;ils() a sjM'cial builder's couise, for tiiose desiring lo lit
lhenis<'lve> lor foremen and bidlders. coveri'ig a siuLrle Vi*aronly.
rsiivi^r^il.v i\\' Mtiiiu'soia, >liiiiH»ai>olis. — This uiiiwr-
siiy ha-- viiy I'ecently (fall, ISJM i established a c«>ur.-H' in archi-
JeelUI'e.
PriiU Eiisliditc, l^rooklyn, N. V. — t'oitrsn' in Arr/iiirrf.
iirtil , h-iiiri-i'i. I^xteinN ihrouLih two \ears. aindng to give >tildi'lil.<
M ilie;-!!! ir.iiiiin-^^ in dra\\inir. •le'-ign. and the principles of huiid-
in.' '• :. ; !ii"! i<'M. to 111 them ri>r v\ni-k in an arcliile<'l*fi iinire.
Till IV ..!■ buih day and eveiunu^ i-lu>.-e>. Tuition is :S>45 u Vfur for
1 Im" <ia\ ''):r-^rS.
AJiUHlTiliUTl KAL SUWOUL.8. //I
The Art Institute of Chicaiyro. — Classes in Architecture.
Offers technical instruction at moderate cost to the student of archi-
tecture, the draughtsman, and the designer. Students may enter
the school at any time, paying from the date of entry. There is no
prescribed course, but it is not expected that any considerable part
of the course can be a?(fomplished in less than two years. The
term is continuous from September 29 to June 13, excepting a
recess of one week. The tuition is $25 for twelve weeks, or $75
per year.
The Brooklyn Institute, — Department of Architecture.
Gives instruction in classes to young architects, and draughts-
men emj^loyed in the offices of architects. The subjects taught
are free-hand drawing, perspective, geometrical drawing, archi-
tectural drawing, coloring, designing, and specifications. The in-
struction is given to any member of the Institute free of cost.
Membership in the Institute is $10 the first year, and $5 a year
thereafter.
Cooper Union, J^ew York. — The Cooper Union offers a
four years' course in architectural drawing, held in the evening.
Two different objects are attained in the course : First, the ability
to draw ornaniental architectural designs, according to conven-
tional rules ; and second, skill in the preparation of working draw-
ings from given dimensions. The school year commences October
3, and ends on the 16th day of April. Application for admis-
sion may be made in person or by mail at the office of the Cooper
Union, beginning June 15, but not before. Each applicant for
admission must be at least fifteen year's of age. There is no charge
for instruction, and drawing materials may be purchased at the
school, ut a rerluction from the usual retail prices.
Aeacleiny of Arcliiteeture and Buildings, St. Louis,
Mo. H. Ma<*k, Principal. — This is a private school founded
hy ^fr. IMaek, in 1S85, and designed more particularly to meet
the wants ot building tradesmen, offering them such instruction as
is necessary to attain the highest proficiency in their trade, and to
fully understand the plans and details of complicated buildings.
There is also a special course for those desiring to fit themselves
for positions as draughtsmen in architects' offices.
Tuition for the r(;gular course is }$40 per term of twelve weeks,
or $100 for the year. There are several special courses which may
be commenced at any time, and for which the tuition varies.
Tlie Boston Architectural Club offers ingtruotion, to its
members only, by means of illustrated lectures given twice a
month, and practical talks once a week. Problems in design are
ARCHITEC5TURAL SCHOOLS. * 773
These fellowships are open to all graduates of the Department of
Architecture of Columbia College less than thirty years of age, and
arc awarded to the successful competitors in a competition held
under the direction of the Professor of Architecture, and of an
examination in strains and building construction, quantities, etc.
Payments are made by the treasurer on the certification of the
Professor of Architecture, in four equal installments of $350 each,
on the last days of June, September, December, and March suc-
ceeding the date of the awards.
The Travelling" Scholarship, established by the American
Architect and Building News ($500 per annum), is open only to
subscribers to the imperial or international editions of that journal
(without distinction of sex or color) who may dwell in any part of
the United States, under the following general conditions :
1. The applicant must be a citizen of the United States.
2. Subscription to the imperial or international edition must be
prepaid in full direct to the publishers.
3. At the time of filing notice of intention to compete, the ap-
plicant must be between the ages of twenty and twenty-five years.
It is desirable that notice should be filed with the editors before
May 15th.
4. The applicant} must have served for at least two years in offices
of members of the American Institute of Architects, or of the West-
em Association of Architects. A graduate's diploma granted by a
technical school will be accepted in lieu of one of these years of
office- work.
5. Applicants must undergo examination in :
a. Drawing — free-hand and mechanical.
6. Architectural Design.
c. Elements of Constru6tion.
d. History of Architecture.
e. English Composition.
/. Ono Foreign Language.
g. Elements of Sanitation, Heating, and Ventilating.
6. Examinations will be held in November.
7. An exjiniination fee of $5 for the benefit of the examiners will
be required,
8. The appointee must take his departure within six weeks of
receiving notice of appointment. One hundred dollars will be paid
to him at the time of taking ocean passage, and the balance of the
scholarship in monthly instalments.
9. The course of travel and study while abroad will be outlined
by the editors of the American Architect.
774 • LIST OF BOOKS.
LIST OF THE BEST TWENTY BOOKS FOR AN AROHI-
T.^OT'3 LIBRARY.
[Compiled hy tlu" oditors of tliu Ahiiiicnn Arcltiftrf (iini Ilni'flintj XtWis^ in
ISNO. from foity-niiu! li.^ts M-nt in by the sul)scrilH'rs to that joiininl.]
I. Fcrp^usson, .Inmos (Iji? votes). The llisionj of Archil ectiirt' in all
Countries. 2 vols. New York : Docld, Mend & Co., 188:3. '^l.'iO.
II. (Jwilt, .losopli i28 votes). An Encyclojxpdia of ArchiU'cturf. 1
vol. London : IjOii^niaiis. Green & Co. J? 17 to $'20.
III. 'I he Atiicriidn Architect (ind Building Neivs (28 votes).
Boston : Tieknor &■ Co. .•fJ-^r), si". ^1, 5f({.
IV. Viollet-le-Due, E. (19 votes), I}ictionrutire raisfnine dp
V Architecture, FranQui.se, da. XI mi XV!. Sif^cle, ID vols. Paris:
A. .Moirl et Cie '200 to 2.")0 francs.
V. 8initli, Col. (10 votes), Notes oti Building t'onttt ruction, 3 vols.
London : Hivinictons, 1875. ^18.
VI. T ran twine, J. C. {17 votes \ (-icil Eiujineers J^ket-btjok, I
vol New York : John Wiley & Sons. s5.
VII. (lark. T. M. (10 votes-, Duilding SuperintetKhnre, 1 vdI.
lioston : Tieknor c^ Co. ^'8.
VII I. Viollct le-Duc. K. (15 voles', Disrnurses on Arehitectun,
ii vol>. Boston : Yioknor & Co. 5j;15.
IX. Joins. Owen (11: votes), The (/raniniar of Ornament^ 1 vol.
London : Day & Son, 1^5.1. 5i^:5.
X. I^)S(■n,L^arten. A. (1'3 votes), Hand-book of A rchitfctural SttfUn,
1 vol. London : Chatto iV ^Vindns. ^2.50.
Xi. Kidd.T, F. l). (11 votes, ArrhitccVfi and BuHder'K Pftrkti-
huo/c. 1 vol New York : Jo!in \\'ih-y & Sons, 1892. $4.U0.
XII. Wibstcr. Noah -in voti*si. .1// Vnch idtjed Dictionary uf tht
Kn'jli.sh Ijnuiuaf/i'. S|)rin,i:Ii«'Id. Mass. : \V. & C. Morriaiii.
XIII. Unskin, John (S votes), The Stonf^ of Venire, l\ vols.
N.'w York : Merrill & Baker. ^4.50.
Xl\'. (iillinon-. J. (^. A. (H vo■^'s^. /*rartical Treafine on Lim*s,
I/t/dran/ic Cr/innts^ an(f yfortarn, 1 vol. New Y'ork : I>. Van N<><-
tranl. 1^:5 *!.
X\'. Ware. \V. IJ. (S votc^V Mndm, BtrM/Hrfirc, 1 vol., platfs in
|)(M'ttMli(., r>(»Ni()n : Tieknor vS: < 'o. s^.
X\'l. r.ililwin, \V. J. (s vnti's). Strain-Ueatintj for Buildings,
1 v..: N'.-^v York : Jolm Wilrv ^S: Son>. s2.5(».
X\I1. Tin Ilniidri'il votrs.. Loii-lon : |s.l:{.si;. *6.a?.
XVIII. Ilaswcll, C. II. (7 vot.'s). Hnginn-r'M and Mtchanics'
B(,rk.t hu-,i{ 1 Vol. New York : Ilnrprr & Bros. '^
LIST OF BOOKS. 775
XIX Billings. J. S. (7 votes\ Ventilation and Heating, 1 vol.
New York : Sanitary Engineer, 1884.
XX. Ruskin, John (7 votes), The Seven Lamps of Architecture,
1 vol New York : Merrill & Baker. |1.00.
XXI. Parker, J. H. (7 votes), Concise G ossary of Architecture, 1
vol. Oxford and London : J. Parker & Co. $6.
To the above list we would add the following as being valuable
works on the subjects treated :
Lanza, Qaetano, Applied Mechanics, cuts. New York (53 East
Tenth Street) : J. Wiley & Sons. $7.50.
Thurston, Robert H., Materials of Construction. New York (58
East Tenth Street) : J. Wiley & Sons. $5.
Greene, Charles E., Graphical Analysis of Roof Trusses. New
York (53 East Tenth Street) : J. Wiley & Sons. %\ .25.
Birkmire, Wm H., Architectural Iron and Steel, cuts. New
York (53 East Tenth Street) : J. Wiley & Sons. $3.50.
Baker, Ira 0., Masonry Construction. New York (53 East Tenth
Street) : J. Wiley & Sons. $5.
Newman, John, Notes on Concrete and Works in Concrete. New
York (12 Cortlandt Street) : E. & P. N. Spon. $1.50.
Blackall, Clarence H , Builder's Hardware, cuts. Boston (211
Treraont Street) : Ticknor & Co. $5.
Lloyd, A. Parlett, Building and Buildings, Building Contracts,
etc. Boston (4 Park Street) : Houghton, Mifliin & Co. $4.50.
Schweinfurth, J. A., Sketches Abroad, plates only. Boston (211
Treraont Street) : Ticknor & Co. $15.
Merrill, George P., Stones for Building and Decoration, cuts.
New York (53 East Tenth Street) : J. Wiley & Sons. $5.
? 76 IGTEAM-IIEATING.
STEAM-HEATING.
HEAT, FUEL, WATEK, STEAM, AND AIR.
ITcat is nicasined in two ways: 1st, by the thermometer, as ic
ordinary j)nicti(»o; and 2d, by tb(^ work wliicb it performs.
Tlic unit of heat (sometimes called the British thermal unit) is
that ((uantity of heat which will raise the temiwraturc of one
])()und of water at or near th(^ freezinf(-])oint, 1° Fahrenheit.
A Fnnclj " rahtrie'' is the heat re(|nired to raise one kilogramme
of water 1° (:entii,n'ade, and is equal to 3.iH)y.']2 liritisli theriiuil
luiits.
Tile e:iiiivalent in force of the unit of heat is the raising of 772
I)oiuiils avoirdu])ois one foot high, and is called the niechunicul
e(piir(il('nf of hrnf.
Various kinds of fuel contain a certain number of th<'rma1 units
perjxmnd: and the method of heating which will convey the larjjesl
ninnl).'!- of units to the air to be warmed is the most economical.
so far as fuel and healhig are concerned. Hut no method has yet
been devised which will utilize more than about S.') jxt cent of the
heat units eontain<'d in the fuel.
FlU'l.' — The value of any fuel is measured by the numlH*r of
heat units wliieh its combustion will generate. The fuels generally
Used ju heating ai'c coniiK)s<Ml of carbon and hyilrogen, and ash,
with souietiuies small <|uantities of other subhtances not materially
atyeetiuLi; its value.
•• ('())ui)ustihl<'" is that ])ortion which will btlni, the ash or
I', i.lue vary inn fioni 2 to .*»(» iM*r cent in different fnels.
The inllowing table i^ives. for the more eonunon combustibles.
the air recpiired for complete coiui)U><tion, the tem|NTature uilh
(hUfieiii i.roKorf ions <d' air. the theoreti<'al value, and the highest
at!aiiial»le value un»ler a steam-hoile?*. assuming; that ibi* gases jkiss
niT at .IJ*' . the t«'niperatur4' of st-<'am at 7.") iH>unds pn*s.siire, and
the ineoiHiUL; ilral'i to be at <»(»*^.
) l-'iKtii Sic.un, (luliiihlicd liy itii' liulKjuok iv Wilcui: Ctuuimiiy, 2ii«w York ainl
STEAM-HBATINQ.
Il
"i
.,v,;«^;«^."
I
1 iills 2 s 5 ji
T|«ia ^aummo qi!,H
lllipss? 1
putioj [ tll|« '^lE IB
■»,q
■ll»n<iiiioo JO puoo.I
is i iilii 5 5 3
ilTiiiiiiii
i
-J|V }0 ^|(t
-dun ImilWMiij, sq,
.3ui|.[, awqj, n,|A\
11 i §i§!i 1 1 i
jD ^iddns is:iiia40sqj,
11 i iliillii
-JIV JO XldrtiiB
H 1 iilii III
!|
-.■.|<lH-nqmo.T JO
piino.i wil npuno.i 11]
8^ 2 i"^i^ ^ S S
t
il- t
mm a
The etfeclive value of all kinds of wood jier poixnil, when dry, [a
sniKtaiiLially tlio siinit'. The fulluH-ing exe Iliew<;ight8 and cniu-
liiirfttive value i)f different woods by Lhe cord: —
Kind of Wood,
Weight
Kind of Wood,
Wftghl.
Hitkory, Bhol) Biirk ....
Hickory, K«l Ul-bfi ....
While Oat
4409
viriHiila ■■Ino' .'.'.'.'.'.
j&»,.p,n.- ; ; : :
213T
H«rd Uiipte
""'
1688
78
STKAM-H EATING.
TIk' followin.2: table of American coals has been compiled from
various souiccs : —
AMERICAN COALS.
Theoretical
Value.
C'OAL.
■-5
;'«'ate. Kind of ("oal.
X
• -L ■- ^ Ji
Coal.
State. Kind of Coal.
TlKMJroiural
Valiii',
I
iVmi.. Aiilhracite, 3.40
2.*t()
( "iuiiu'l, l.'i.02
("oiincll!«ville. »).')0
Semi hi'iioMs,: 10.77
Slii:ic">. ( J:i-i.^ ').(H)
OlILrllidLfh'Miy,; i").<)!)
1 5 row 11.' i>.')()
•• V
Keiiliickv. <':iki:ii;
Caimel, 'J.(M)
I 14. SO
Ijirnilc. 7.00
114
i:;
.14
i:;
1:5
il4
.14
\\-l
14
Il'»
.1:5
I it
,190
,•-'•21
.143:
,1 •'>.')
,021
.•2().V
,3-24
,:501
,10Si
.:>jio
,:',2(i
14,
14
14
1:5.
1:'.,
1:3
14,
14,
12,
14,
If.
13,
0,
70
01
72
♦JO
S4
62
:)l
7»5
7')
so
7(-
S4
111., BiircAii (To.,
" Mercer (.'().,
" Montauk,
Ind., Hluck,
Oakiui?,
Channel,
Cuinberlaiid,
Ligiiile,
(<
Md.,
Ark.,
Col.,
it
Texas,
Wash. Ter.,
IVtin., retrolemn,
It
r).t)0
r).5o
«.00
13.0S
'>.();>
0.2 '1
4..'»0
4..".0
3.40
1 13,0-2:.
13,123
13,:')SS
14,14«i
13,0«»7
, 12,-2^2r>
! 0.21.-).
13,:>«)2
13.Mi<i
12.0U2
11, Ml,
20.74ii
13.4S
13.58
13.10
14.38
14.f.4
13..'»«J
12.»Wi
0..'»4
14.04
14.3.')
13.41
11.06
21.47
''Slack,*' or tin' scrconiiifjs from coal, when properly ini.xeil, —
anthraciic and bituiuinous, — and ImrntMl by moans of a blcwer i>n
a i^ratc adapted to it, i.s nearly ecpial in value of combustible to
c«»al. bill its ixireenta.Lje of refuse is ixreater.
One pound oi purr rarhoii, when completely burned, yiebls 14,.'»(.)C
heat units.
Waicr and Steam. — The several <'oiulltions of water arc
usually stilted as the solid, the liquid, and the {^Mseous. Two oon-
diti(ni> ai«' covered bv the last ti.'rm; and water.^^hould I >e understood
as capaidc of cxi-^-tini^ in four ditTen-nt conditions, — the solid, Ihe
liq'-iid. the vai)0!-ous, and the gasi'ous.
\{ and iielow '■]'2^ F., water exists in the j«oli«l state, as ice; at
.*V.' F., it naelie.s lis inaxiniuni density. At lln' sea-b'v«'l. watJ'rboils,
or va])n!-izrs. at 2i'j"^ F. : the vajjor i^iven oil' bein'T known as steam.
Sii|M'rh<'atod Stc^aill. — Steam which has a hiiiher teiniH*ra-
I'lit' than tiiat iiorniai to its pi'e>sure i.s termed **. superheat «'d.*' i»!
• i:a^-t()u>." Dr. Sienjens found, that, when steam at *2\'2^ wa-
ii a;c;| SI i>iir tic fnnn n'tifcr, it ineifasi'd rapiilly in volume, up to
•J'.!) . aiM r wiiicli it cxpantled iniiiMrndy. as a pi'rmant>nt jpis.
'J 'i<- ^-^<■ in any steani-l)oiler of superheat ini; surfa«*«» e\iM>si'4l to
♦lit- h. i:r,l l:.:isc.-, of condmstion, i.s highly objectionable, und is of
UKiihiihl cilicicn<'y. Steam cannot be superheat(*d when in eontact
\\ i'h water.
Sensible and Latent Heat of Stenin. — The tempenir
Hire of virain, as shown l>y the thermomeUT, is culled Its senslbto
STEAM-HEATING.
119
heat, and this varies with every different pressure; but ft is found
that steam contains more heat than is shown by the thermometer,
and this extra heat is called the latent heat of steam.
The following table gives the number of British thermal units
in a pound of water at different temperatures below the boiling-
point. They are reckoned above 32° F. ; for, strictly speaking,
loater does not exist below 32°, and ice follows another law. The
table also gives the weight per cubic foot at each temperature,
calculated by liankine's formula.
HEAT UNITS IN WATER, BETWEEN 32° AND 212° F.,
AND WEIGHT OF WATER PER CUBIC FOOT.
Tejn-
Heftt
Weight,
Tern
Heat
Weight,
j Tern-
1
Heat
Weight,
pera
Uuit8.
lbs. per
pera-
UuitB.
lbs. per
1 pera-
Units.
ibn. per
ture.
cub. ft.
62.42
lure.
cub. ft.
61.68
ture.
cub. ft.
32»F.
0.
123"'F.
91 J6
168°F.
136.44
I
60.81
35
3.
62.42
124
92.17
61.67
169
137.45
60.79
40
8.
62.42
125
93.17
61.65
170
138.45
60.77
45
13.
62.42
126
94.17
61.63
171
189.46
60.75
50
18.
62.41
127
95.18
61.61
172
140.47
60.73
52
20.
62.40
128
96.18
61.60
173
141.48
^0.70
54
22.01
62.40
1-29
97.19
61.58
174
. 142.49
60.68
5-6
24.01
62.30
130
..98.19
61.56
175
143.50
60.66
58
20.01
62..3S
131
99.20
61.54
176
144.51
60.64
60
28.01
62.37
132
100.20
61.52
177
145.52
60 62
62
30.01
62.36
133
101.21
61 ..51
178
146.52
60.59
64
32.01
62.35
134
102.21
61.49
179
147.53
60.57
66
34.02
62.34
135
103.22
61.47
180
148.54
60.55
68
30.02
62.33
136
104.22
61.45
181
149.55
60.53
70
38.02
62.31
137
105.23
61.43
182
150.56
60.50
72
40,02
62.30
138
106.23
61.41
183
151. .57
6{).48
74
42.03
62.28
139
107.24
61.39
184
152.58
60.46
76
44.03
62.27
140
108.25
61.37
185
153.59
60.44
78
46.03
62.25
141
109.25
61.36
186
154.60
60.41
80
48.04
62.23
142
1 10.26
61.34
187
155.61
60..39
82
50.04
62.21
143
111.26
61.32
188
156.62
60.37
84
52.01
62.19
144
112.27
61.30
189
157.63
60.34
86
54.05
62.17
145
113.28
61.28
190
158.64
60.32
88
56.03
62.15
146
114.28
61.26
191
159.65
60.29
90
58.06
62.13
147
115.29
61.24
192
160.67
60.27
92
60.06
62.11
148
116.29
61.22
193
161.68
60.25
94
62.06
62.09
149
11 7. .30
61.20
194
162.69
00.22
96
64.07
62.07
150
118.31
61.18
195
163.70
00.20
98
66.07
62.05
151
119.31
61.16
196
164.71
60.17
100
68.08
62.02
152
120.32
61.14
197
165.72
60.1.'>
102
70.09
62.00
153
121.33
61.12
198
166.73
r.0.12
104
72.09
61.07
154
122.33
61.10
199
167.74
60.10
106
74.10
61. 'to
155
123.34
61.08 :
200
16S.75
60.07
108
76.10
(il .02
156
124.35
61.06 ;
201
169.77
60.05
110
78.11
61.80 1
157
125..35
61.04 !
202
170.78
60;02
112
80.12
61. SO !
1.58
126.36
61.02
203
171.79
60.00
114
82.13
61.83
159
127.37
61.00
204
172.S0
59.97
115
83.13
61. S2
160
128.37
60.98
205
173.81
59.95
116
84.13
61. SO
161
129.38
60.00
206
174.83
59.92
117
85.14
61.7S
162
130.39
60.94
207
175.84
59.89
118
86.14
61.77
163
131.40
60.92
208
176.85
59.87
X19
87.15
61.75
164
132.41
60.90
209
177.86
59.84
120
88.15
61.74
165
133.41
60.87
210
178.87
59.82
121
89.15
61.72
166
134.42
60.85
211
179.89
59.79
122
90.16
61.70
"g- .j.^ -..^
167
135.43
60.83
212
180.90
59.76
STEAM-HEATING.
781
For other pressures than those given in the tahle, it will be
practically correct to take the proportion of the difiference between
the nearest pressures given in the table.
TABLE OF PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM.»
; 1
I'otal Pressure per
Square Inch.
Temperature in
Fahrenheit De-
grees.
1
Total Heat in Heat
Units from Water j
at 32' F. I
1
1
!!
Latent Heat in Heat ;
Units.'
Density or Weight
of One Cubic Ft.
Volume of One
i*ound of Steam.
Relative Volume or 1
Cub. Ft. of Steam ;
from One Cub. Ft. i
of Water. \*
Factor of E(|ulva- '
lent Evaporation 1
from Water at
212". j
1
102
1113.05
1042.964
0.0030
3.30.36
20620
0.965
2
126.208
1120.45
1026.010
0.0058
172.08
107-20
0.972
3
141.622
1125.131
1015.254
0.0085
117.52
7326
0.977
4
153.070
1128.625
1007.229
0.0112
89.62
5600
0.981
5
162.330
1131.449
1000.727
0.0137
72.66
4535
0.984
6
170.123
1133.826
995.249
0.0163
61.21
3814
0.986
7
176.910
1135.896
9<K).471
0.0189
52.94
3:J00
0.988
8
182.910
1137.726
986.245
0.0214
46.69
2910
0.990
ft
188.316
1139.375
982.434
0.0239
41.79
2607
0.992
10
193.240
1140.877
978.958
0.0264
31.84
2:i60
0.994
15
213.025
1146.912
964.973
0.0387
25.85
1612
1.000
20
227.917
1151.454
954.415
0.0511
19.72
1220.3
1 .005
23
240.000
1155.1.39
945.825
0.0634
15.99
984.8
1.008
30
250.245
115S.263
938.925
0.0755
13.46
826.8
1.012
35
2.59.176
1160.987
9.32.1.52
0.0875
11.65
713.4
1.015
40
267.120
1163.410
926.472
0.0994
10.27
62^.2
1.017
45
274.2')r)
1165.600
921.334
0.1111
9.18
561.8
1.017
50
280.854
1167.600
916.631
0.1227
8.31
508.5
1.021
55
286.897
1169.442
912.2»K)
0.1343
7.61
464.7
1.023
60
292.520
1171.158
908.247
0.14.57
7.01
428.5
1.025
65
297.777
1172.762
904.462
0.1. )69
6.49
397.7
1.027
70
;J02.718
1174.269
900.899
0.1681
6.07
.371.2
1.028
75
307.388
1175.692
897.526
0.1792
5.68
348.3
1.030
80
311.812
1177.042
894.330
0.1901
5.35
.328.3
1.031
85
316.021
11 78. .326
891.286
0.2010
5.05
310.5
1.033
90
320.039
1179.551
88H.375
0.2118
4.79
294.7
1.034
95
323.8S4
1180.724
885.588
0.2224
4.55
280.6
1.035
TOO
327.571
11S1.849
883.914
0.2330
4.33
267.9
1.036
10')
:i:n.ll3
1182.929
880.342
0.2434
4.14
265.5
1.037
110
334.523
nS3.970
877.865
0.2537
3.97
246.0
1 .038
115
3;J7.S14
1184.974
875.472
0.2640
3.80
2.36.3
1.039
12')
310.995
11S5.944
873.155
0.2742
3.65
227.6
1 .040
125
314.074
llsr).SS3
870.911
0.2842
3.61
219.7
1.041
i:i0
317.0-V.»
11S7.794
868.735
0.2942
3.38
212.3
1.042
141)
3.')2.7:)7
11 SO. 535
864.566
0.3138
3.16
199.0
1.044
150
358.161
11 91. ISO
860.621
0.3340
2.96
187.5
1.046
ir,o
36.3.277
ll'.t2.7il
856.874
0.3520
2.79
177.3
1.047
170
368. 15S
119I.22S
S53.291
0.3709
2.63
168.4
1.049
180
372.822
ll95.tM0
849.869
0,3SS9
2.49
H)0.4
1 .051
190
377.291
1197.013
846.584
0.4072
2..37
153.4
1.052
200
381 ..573
119S.319
843.432
0.4249
2.26
147.1
1.053
250
401.072
1203.735
831.222
0..5464
1.83
114
1.059
300
418.225
120S.737
819.610
0.6486
1.54
96
1.064
350
431.956
1212.580
810.690
0.7498
1..33
83
1.068
400
444.919
1217.094
800.198
0.8502
1.18
73
1.073
* Steam, 14th ed. Babcock & Wilcox Company, New York and Glasgow.
782 STEAM-HEATING.
Air. — Air is a jnechanical mixture of oxygen and nitroyen,
tlio proportion for pure air being 77 p»'r cejit of nitrogen and 23
por cent of oxygen, by weight. It also contains about •^-Jaj) of its
volume of carbonic-acid gas and some watery vapor, and is capable
of absorbing any oth(n*gas or vapor to a certain extent, distributing
them through the whole atmosi)here by what is called the laio v,J
iijTfision of (jasesy — a property which gases have of mixing ant*.
iihiting, which prevents gases of different specific gravities from
stratifying for any considerable time. This property is of the
utmost importance to air; for, if any noxious or poisonous gas
were ro r<'main separated in the atinosi)here, any one breathing it
would bo instantly killed.
Air at ()()° F., and with the barometer at 80 inches, is taken as
the standard for the c()mi)arison of the weight of gases, itself being
consiiiereil as unity.
At tlie temp(«rature of 82°, V^ cubic feet of air weigh a few
grains ovov one pound avoirdupois.
The rjiKiiisioii of air is nearly uniform at all temp<»nitures,
expanding about 4/,,) f>f its bulk at 82°, and for each increase of o;ic
(U'lircc. in temix'rature.
The following table, giving the volume and weight of dry air,
tension and wci'^ht of vapor, etc., will 1m^ found useful for reference.
In this iai)l«' 10(H) cubic feet of dry air is taken for a unit, and the
co-cllicimi of expansion is taken Jit -4^,0, the air being under con-
stant i»rt's.sni«' of :)() inclies of nuTcury. Cohmm 5 is taken from
f.iuyor> tables, JU'gnault's data.
STEAH-HEATINO.
in — Air is capable
n the temperfttiire of tlie air.
rs4 STEAM IIKATIXG.
Tbo wnrnior it is, the larger quantity it will hold; and as it
IxM'omcs (M)()l again, it dt^posits it, or forms clouds or fogs, which
condcnst' on any tiling colder than the air, leaving the air, ufion
laisinii its teni})eraturc, {'aj)able of taking up more moisture, to 1m'
at^iin (Irpositcd in dew or rain. It is this property of air which
gives it its drying (lualities.
An al)s(>hitely dry atmosphere is an almost impossibility. Ail
u .'I'J^ contains, when saturated with moisture, t'.o of its weight ot
wa'.er; at ')U'^ it contains v'„: at S()^ it contains ,'„; its (rapacity "for
moist nil* being d()ui)l(Ml bv (jach increase of 27° V.
Air is said to \h' ''saturated" when it has absorbed all the water
it will bold at that temperature. Tbt; tension of vapt)rs is the
elastic force or i)i-essure which th(*y exert on the sides of vessels in
wliicb tiicy are contained.
Air. to be healthful, sboubl contain about 75 per cent of tlu»
moisture re<juii'C(l for saturation.
It rcjuires nioi-e lieat torais<' tbe. temperature of a given quantity
ot" moist ail- one d«'gree than for dry air; but, unless the air is
sat mated, ibis ditlerence is not of mucb jiractical iniportance.
Colunnis »> an 1 7 on opjjosite ])age give Hie weiirht of vapor in
inon eiii):c feet of saturated air, and the weight of displaced air,
fn]- (iitVc!cnt tempei'alures from 0 to 2(Mi°.
Tile nuiiibiMs in column (J are obtained by multiplying the corro-
spoii liiiLT iiniiibeis in column 4 by column ."), and th«» product by
' J,-, '. Column 7 is obtained from column 0, by nudtiplying value
of colniiill <) l)y "].
S|)<M*ilic float of Air. — The s])ecific heat of any substance
i>^ tbe (|iiaiiiity of beat recjuired to laise its temiMTature on«» di*-
gi'ee, coiiij)ared with tbe (piantity of beat rcijuircjl to raise the
teJiiiHiMi lire of one 1)01111(1 of Water at the same teinperatun* one
d«-Lir'M'. Tlie sjH'cilic beat of air, as determined by Kcgnault. Is
<».2.'l7i. Ibiice one t liernial unit will raise the temperature of unf
imuiiil of water orl, ])oun«ls of dry aii" (equals r)1.7 <'ubie fi*»'t al
;Il' I'. I ! K. As all air contains nunc or less nioiMun*. wlij«'|)
iiiu^t ai--o In- wainied, .">n cubic feet is generally considi*red as liii
■<inivaliiii of one pound of water in beatini:.
A-- oil'' I'ouiul of steam at n (gaune) pi-c-ssurc condense.) hi wiilei
ui\.'- oiV '.'•■". tli( ruial units, jt is ibeiefore equivalent to waniiinjJi
.ii)oiu l^.oiid cubic fct't i)i air on** ilcgree.
STEAM-HEATING. V86
Heating Apparatus.
A steam-heating plant may be divided into three distmct parts:
1st, the boiler, or steam generator; 2d, the radiators; and 3d^ the
supply and return pipes connecting the two.
In determining the size of a plant required for a given building,
the customary practice is, to first determine the amount of radiating
surface required to heat the different rooms and halls; then the
size of boiler required to furnish sufficient steam for the radiating
surface determined upon ; and third, the arrangement and size of
the piping.
Radiators. — Radiators are generally made of iron,. and may
be of any shape that will allow of a good circulation of steam
through them, and also permit the air to circulate freely about the
outside. It is also desirable that the thickness of the metal shall
be only sufficient to give sufficient strength.
Twelve or fifteen years ago most radiators were made of
wrought-iron piping, but such radiators are now seldom seen
except in old buildings. So many improvements have been made
since that time in cast-iron radiators that they have largely driven
the pipe radiator out of the market.
Classes of Radiators* — Radiators are divided into three
classes: those affording, 1st, direct radiation; 2d, indirect radia-
tion; 3d, direct-indirect radiation.
Direct Radiating Surfaces embrace all heaters placed
within a room or hall to warm the air already in the room.
Indirect Radiating Surfaces embi-ace heating surfaces
placed outside the rooms to be heated, and should only be used in
connection with some system of ventilation.
There are two distinct modes of indirect radiation, — one where
all the heating surface is placed in a chamber having one side open
to the atmosphere; and a fan located on the other side of the room
draws the air through the radiating surfaces, and impels it through
tubers or ducts to the various rooms in the building. Such a system
is only practical where a thorough system of ventilation is provided,
and power to propel the fan night and day. The other and more
coiinnon method is to provide a separate radiator for each room,
located nt the bottom of vertical flues, leading to the room. The
radiators an^ generally located in the basement, and provided with
tin pipes to conduct the hot air to the rooms. Where the rooms
are very lari^e, it will generally be found best to divide the heating
surfjice into two stacks, with separate pipes and registers.
I>irect-liidirect radiation is a mean between the other two
methods. The radiators are placed in the rooms to be heated, as
7^|J STEAM HEATING.
En tlie llr't mi'tlwxi, anJ a siipiily of frijli olr brought to them
t1inii:_'!i ■i!"i-.:iiL'- ill Hn- i-iit-i.l.- «m11 .•] llu- i\h>hi, or tlmmgh a
>l.a.-- i!r:.!. T xh- l..ii-r s;i>li i.f u niii Ioh",
KHlciciK-y of ItiuUntMrs.— Til- -.■ii<l>-niitrii.ii «f oik- ]><>un.l
..f .-;.■..::, ;,t ■!. -r ir-ffiir- ..f ..-„. .a,-:.. ..:■■.. r.- U. uM.-rat l•ll^ itiv.-s
..!i; !■■■:. ;i..nii:.l ii:iii-. H.-ii.'-. :■■ ■!. i^ni.iii- ■]...■ :ii>immt of l,,-;it
-: . :. .. :■ l.y ai;y ra'lialMr in a iiiv.-ii i;!„... ;t :s i.iily ii.^,'.-Ka]-y t.:
. ;,-.- ■;! Pi..- >iiiii.' liiii.-. aii.l iiiiillii.ly il l.y '..■.:..
n..- ru<li:.iMr »lii<-li. iiii.li.-r lilt' ^uiii'M-i.ii.liii»Ti< .if si.>;iii>-i>n'^!iiin>.
I.U.I i..iiii...- iiii.l i.iiii.,-r.;imi.' ...f Mirr..iiij.liii- :iir. wiil L-tinik-iisi- tlio
iii..M »nr.-r ill it ::lv<-ii ii]ii>>. i^ ili.- iu.<si .Hi.'i.-ni.
Ilvutiiip: by Diri-ct KudiiUioii. — Din-.! Ruliation Mtig
111'i.h ii:..iu ^.-..n.ai.i™! tli:tii in [ir.-i ni 1i:iti»ii. it nfll iilii-ay*
U- iiiiLli liion' I'uiniiU'iily ii-til i'<>i' -t.-itiu or ]i>.t-wnt-r hiiiliii;: ami
ill iiuii.li:i;:> ii-ii n;ijiiir]ii:; ;i .uTiut ;tiitiiii:it •.•■ vt'iit Hut ii ni it offi-ra
11 ii.aHy i.-if.-.-t iii.«!.- .if iifaliii-.
Mva<iiri-iiii>iit 4if Kadliltors. — 11:i'1:at.<r$ an intp.l. ur
ii!ia-"ir.i|. li'ii :ii-'i-iii;ii^' ti> their size, l-ur iiL-iiTiiins; to the anioun'
111 oil :!..■ :.r!i. ..r>:i:ti..-i.t
Til- il,.-ii...M .lin-.-i n-
iTiI.l.\v«l. Fig. 1
Steam-heating.
787
shows «, style of rmliator, knoirn as n pipe radiator, which was for-
mcrlj- lai'fti'ly useil on account of its ohoupness ; il is now seldom
seen, liuwi'vur. Fijiu radiators are formed of n number of short,
upriglit, l-ii)ch tuljea, from 3 feet 8 inches to 2 feet 10 inches
long, serened into n liulluw cast-JTOii Ijase or Ijox, and are either
(^nnc(!tcd together in imire l>y return Iwnda at their upper ends,
or else eaeli tube stands singly, with its upper end closed, and
iiavinq; a lioop-iron partition extending up inside it, from tli«
tioiliiiii to nearly t!ie lop. The radiatoi'a are also made circulai
111 form, eilliur in one piece, or in lialvcs fur encircling iron
t<iliiTnns.
Tli>' following t^ililc shows the dlinensionsuf 1-incli pipe radiators
foi ditfcreiit heating surfaces: —
TABLE OF VERTICAL PIPE RADIATOHS.
'ulwii I Surface,
Each. In
Huw. aq. Fl.'
i
'■■■
10
10
^^
l«
\i
s»
i 2 10
7MfJ 8TKAM HUATING.
[n Uic llrjst tnt'tlioil, ami a, sii|i|>ly of fivHli nir brniiKlit to lliciii
Ihroii^h i>|>i'tLii].i,'s ill llir- iiiil.si.lf uiill <il' llii^ nHiiii, ur (lii-<iii<;h a
s\.nrf mull r llii' liiuvr saxli iit' :t window.
KfIici4Mii-.y »( liixliiitors. — Till' ciiixti'iiMiifi'n of mif iiinnul
i.f W.Mii: :il II. or |ir,'ssiiri- •<! oni- iiliiiiw;i!i.r,. H. h:iI,t j.l 21;', i.lv.*
imi IKM rlii'i'iiiiil luiili'. lli'iiiv. Ill .li'liTiiiiii.- Hi.' luii'iiiiiI of lii-;ii
-i.vii ,.W i.y,uiyii.iliiUnrin il ^\u-» liii.<>. ll is only r-siiry 1.-
a.'ii>.'> in ilir siiMK' liiiic. mill inulliiily ll l>y :»■•:•.
Tliv iiiiliiili.iivliiih, iiiidi-rtlirs;iiiiiM-ii(iilili<.nscif sli-iim-iiiifsim',
^Miil toiiiiiii' ^in<l irniiii'ivMiii'i' of siirn liii;; iiir. will i-oiiilni.v Ili>-
iii<»i M^iK r in ^1 iiivi'ii Mini', in lb.' niixl Hllri.'iil.
Iloatiii;; 1>.v nirotrt Uadhitioit.— Iiinii niili»ii..ii M„a
niiK'li iiini'.' i><'iin<>i,ii<-:il lliun ln<Ur<'<l r:i;liali<>n. il will i.lways
in linililiiiu's iml ri'ijiiiriii;; a ^'ri'iit :nii»nn1 nf Vi'llliliillini il cITrrs
>l«-;isiir.'llK'lir i»r KudlatorK.— l;.nli;.ri.rs iir,. n.t.-.l. i.r
III" I'iKlNil'.r.
TU<- <'li".'i|i<'Sl <li
<li:il'.i' i-i I'll.' fiT
Stbam-hbatiso.
787
shows a style ot radiator, known as a pipe radiator, which was for-
rooriy larjrt'ly used on account of its cheapness ; it is now seldom
feen, however. Piijo radiatois are formed of a number of short,
upright, I-luch tubea, front 2 feet 8 inches to 2 fe«t 10 inches
long, screwed into a hollow cast-iron base or box, and are either
connected together in pairs by n^turn bends at their upper ends,
or else each tube stands singly, with Its uppor end closed, and
having a iioop-iron partition extending up inside it, front the
notiriin to nearly the top. The radiatoi« are also made ciruulai
in form, either in one pieee, or in halves for eiieirellng iron
cfjlumnn.
Tho following table shows the diinensionsof 1-lncL pipe radiators
fur ditfcrcnt heating aui'faces: —
TABLE OF VERTICAL PIPE RADUTOKS.
STEAU-HEATIttO. 78B
The American Company also mokes comer radiators, circular,
curved, and column radiators, wiudow radiators (height aa low as
l^ inches), and dining-room radiators (with hot closet) for steam or
water, and stairway radiators for steam only. Thoy also roako
adjustable legs that can be fltteil to any of their single loop radi-
ators. Fig, '6 illustrates a curved radiator.
LIST OF SIZES
, IDEAL, PBEBLESS, AND FEKFECTIOH STEiH AND WATER
tUDtATOBS.
{Mads by tte Ameriean liadiaior Company)
7i"l STKAM-lIKATINli.
Bach stctkui of llicsc rnUialnrs is 7J iticlics wide. Width of legs
Si iiiulii's.
Itiiciiiitinn will bi! liLiJ|)cid 3 iiicliRs ami ljiL«lu>d uiiloss cilhcrwiw
lu I'sliijiiiliiLt; Iwigl.ti 1)1 niilialur iilluw J iiii;li fur I'juili bui'liiiij,'-.
9TBAH-HEATIN0.
V91
Pig. 4 shows an end view of the new standard radiators made by
the Standard Kadiator Company. The four-column radiator is 12
inehes wide, the threB-colmiin » inches wide, and the IwO'Coliimn
raiiiiilor 5i inches wide. Each section makes 3i iiiuhes in the
length of a radiator; i.e.. a radiator of ten soctiooa would be 25
inches lonj:; ; one of sixteen sections, 40 inches long, etc,
Thn following table gives the heating surface per seetio/i for the
diflerent lieights made :
HEATING SURFACE PER SECTION OP NEW STANDARD
RADIATORS.
HeleM In Inches;
«
^
»
£S
!a
„
6
Si
5
7
I
it
T
7
I
From the above datn, the size of a radiator for any required heat-
ing surface may he easily computed.
These radiators are made for either steam or hot water.
Union Iia<liatori<. — The following table gives the size and
radiating surface of the Union and Royal Union radiators, manu-
factured by the li. 19. Smith Company. Fig. S illustrates the
appearance of the Royul UnioD radiator.
a Stkah oa Witbb.
792
STEAM-HEATING.
DIMENSIONS OF UNION AND ROYAL UNION
RADIATORS.
Height ok Radiators
d *^
en
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
IH
VJ
20
21
'>4
25
2(>
27
2H
29
:io
IN.
9|
9^
9i^
9!f
i^:f
9.j
0^
n
9-'
9=.'
9:.'
9:/-
9:^
•'■I
9.y
9,
9:/
9:^
9v
9y
9'|
9=1
9.il
9v
9v
is s
FT. IN.
0 9
1
1
1
1
2
2
4
4
4
4
5
0
3
6
9
0
3
2 6
2 9
3 0
3 3
3 6
3 9
0
8
0
9
0
0 3
5 6
5 9
6 0
6 3
G 6
(> 9
7 0
7 3
7 6
37 in.
29 in.
25 in.
bo .
bo .
W) .
C Ol
c «
C O
•-• (J
•^ «
•s o
1^
5«
K«
s»
iS»
8<i. FT.
8Q. FT.
PQ. FT.
13*
10*
9
18
14"
12
22*
17i
15
27
21
18
3H
24.^
21
36
28
24
40*
3U
27
45^
35
30
49i
38^
33
54
42
36
58i
45 i
b9
03
49
42
67i
52*
45
72
56"
48
76*
59*
51
81
63'
.54
m
66i
57
90
70
60
94^
73i
63
99
77
66
103i
80^
69
108
84
72
112i
87i
75
117
91
78
121i
94*
81
126
98"
8-1
130A
ion
S7
185'
105
90
21 in.
•c t
17 in.
bo .
S V
, 'a ^
SQ. FT.
10'
12*
15"
17*
20"
22i
25
27*
30'
82i
35'
87*
40
42i
45
47*
50'
52|
55
57*
60
62.\
65'
67*
70*
72*
75
I 6
! 8
; 10
: 13
i 14
, 16
18
20
! 22
I 24
. 26
32
I 34
, 36
38
I 40
42
44
i 46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
STEAM-HEATING. 793
Rules for determining: Direct Undiating: Surface
requireil for heating various classes of rooms ami buiklings. The
coiiiiuon practice of determining the direct radiating surface re-
quired in heating, is to allow one square foot of radiating surface
^123- ^^^Ilfkl" i\i\l»^^6r of cubic feet to ho warmed.
The following proportions may be considered as an average ot
those recommended by different engineers and experts: —
For dwellings, cold or exposed rooms, 1 foot heating surface to 5(i
cubic feet; for dwellings, ordinary rooms, 1 foot heating surface to
60 or 70 cubic feet; for dwellings, warm, sunny rooms, 1 foot heat-
ing sui-face to 75 cubic feet; for stores, wholesale, 1 foot heating
surface to 125 cubic feet; for stores, retail, 1 foot heating surface
to 100 cubic feet; for offices, 1 foot heating surface to 75 cubicfeet;
for churches and audience-rooms, 1 foot heating surface to 125 to
150 cubic feet; for factories and workshops, 1 foot heating surface
to 200 cubic feet.
City houses require less heat than country houses, and brick
houses loss than wood.
Upper rooms reciuire less heat than those on the ground floor.
Mr. William J. Baldwin, in his excellent work on *'Steam-IIeat-
ing for Buildings," ^ recommends the following rule, which he has
used for several years, and which is not wholly empirical : —
*' Divide the ditference in temperature between that at which
the room is to be kept, and the colilest outside atmosphere, by the
dilTerenco between the temperature of the steam-pipes and thp,t
at which you wish to keep the room; and the product will be
the square feet, or fraction thereof, of plate or pipe surface to each
square foot of glass, or its equivalent in wall-surface."'
The equivalent glass surface is found by multiplying the super-
ficial area of the walls in square feet by the number opposite the
substance in the following table, and dividing by 1,000 (the value
of glass). The result is the equivalent of so many square feet of
glass in cooling power, and should be added to the window surface.
TABLE OF POWER OF • TRANSMITTING HEAT OF VA-
IflOlsS BUILDING SUBSTANCES, COMPARED ^YlTU
EACH OTHER.
Window Glass 1,000
Oak and Walnut 60
White Pine 80
Pitch Pine 100
Lath and Plaster 75 to 100
» Published by John Wllcy & Sons of New York.
I?
794 STKAxM-HEATING.
Common Ih'irk (roiigli) 200 to 250
C.'oiiimon Brick (whitewashed) 200
(iraiiit(^ or Sl;il(» 250
SlK.l-Iroii 1,():J0 to 1,110
It must l)c distinctly amlcrstood that the extent of heating snr
iiici'. foinul in tliis way offsets only the windows and other cooling
surfaces //. is Jvjuvvd ar/diiisty and does not pi'ovide«foi" cold ai:
admilti^d around loose windows, or between the boardinj» of poorly
constructed wooden houses. These latter conditions, when they
exist, must l)e providcvl for l)y :idditional heating surface.
Exiiniplr. — What amount of heating surface shoidd be sui)pli(Hl
to tlu; sitting-room of a wooden dwelling with two outside walN,
one 11 feet by ',) feet high, and the other 10 feet by 9 feet; the total
window aiea being ol s(piare feet, the external teniiwniture fn?-
queii'ly being at 0 F., and the. steam never exceeding 5 i>ound£
pressure '?
Aux.'^ — Temperature of room, 70° — 0''=70°; temperature ot
s,(»am-pipcs at 5 pounds, 228 — 70'^ = 1 OS; 70 -^ lOS = .44;J, or a
little less than one-half a scjuare foot of heating surface to each
S(piare foot of i^las-^ or its e(juivah»nt.
Area of outside walls = 14 X 9 = 121) + 10 X \) = 120 + i:Vi = ^il.
Subtr.hting the glass area, 04, we have 2U7 square feet of huh and
plaster.
1107 X ltK) = 20,700
01 X 1,0(M) = 04,000
l,()(K))7-4.TOO
E'iuival«>nl glass area = 74. Multiplying this by .443. we have
?>.\ as the niimbei- of squan^ feet of radiating surface nMpiired to
warm tlie room, or 1 foot of surface to OS cubic feet of air-sna«v.
In juiu'lical work, it is well to di't« rmine th.' heating surfa«'e by
bc'li of the jM(;thods given, and then use the larger quantity. Th»'n»
cm mvcr be any bad results from having an excess of heutini^
sunaic, wliile a deficiency will always result hi ouUl r K>ins in
I'XiiTinc <'ul.l weather.
Dircet-Iiidireet Radiation.
Tb • only dilTcreiice beiwe»Mi thi»* method of heating and the
di) ■•-! )iii-(lii)(l is. tbat i>xtei-nal air is int rod need into lh(> room ni
M. 1 :i \\ ly iliai it .-ball come in contact with the rail iaior, and,
' I li<> I'i lii> null. -I'll tli:il tlli.>- \*rty\n\\{\.\n tin. s lint thfHUtI ll|N)ll thi' nil
till- : . ii . • r iiii!\ iipDii lilt- cliiiiaic, iirrffiiif iif tlu* nU'Uiii, uiid duilrvd tea-
'H-i.itiiii ■•! till- loiiin.
STEAM-HEATING. 7SS
becoming heatecl, circulate thrimgli the room; and, unless otlier
nieana are proviiled, pass out tEirough tbe cracks around the iloors
and windows. There arc sevei'al methods of arranging the iwli-
filors and cold-air inlets, allhoiigli nearly all require that the
radiator shall be lotatcd against an outride wall.
The simplest method of providing diroet-indireot radiation is
Ijy using a radiator that has the lower portion encased so as to
Fig. 6,— Pehfectios DiRBcT-lNDinKCT BadiatoS.
form a l>os, as shown in Pig. 8. Cold air can be conducted from
the outside of the house through a galvanized iron pipe, and
admitted to tlie boCtotii of the radiator. It is then obliged to pass
upward between the rwlialor flues, their entire length, and is
brought into the room at an excGptionallf high temperature. A
small damper door is placed in each end nf the box, and a damper
should also bo put in the eold air supply, so that the radintor can
be converted into the ordinaiy direct typo by simply closing the
damper and opening the doors. This would probably be required
in very cold weather. The outside of the radiator, of course, heata
by direct radiation at all times. If a large amount of ventila.
tion is required, some form of indirect radiator should be en-
closed in an incombustible casing and the outside air admitted
790 STEAM-ITFlATTKft.
below the rndiator. A vory good arrangement to nccomplish
this piirjiose is shown in Fig. 7.
It coniiiHts of a stuck of
pin or otlitr itidirect radi-
iilorx. onc'oscd in ii )>ox of
eil liitr iiiHi , iiiutblp.or wooil
liiK'i) with tin, anil pn>-
viili^d wilh registers at the
li>[i for Llii- fHi-iLim of t))0
l«'at<'<l »ir. Tlie cold air
ciilrrs Uiiinii;!) a hollow
iron Kill l>lllC(^d above tlie
wooilcn Bill uf a, window,
down hack of tlic nuliator,
lliroiiii;li !i jT'ilvnnized iron
pilH', to the apace under
Uii- nulialor.
Tint c'old-iiir inlet ispro-
vidiiil uilU a damper, so
tliiU it can 1)1' closed; and fio^.icidijw I.ir.'--.V,.f COJ.
ri'iiistciN me also placed at ^"' '
till' Ij:uii> cif tlio radiator casing, so that, In very colil wcatlipr. the
rold-^iir iidi'l may lie partially or wliolly cloapd, and tlic alrnllowi-d
locic.'uiaLc ilmtiigli ilic l>ottoni register, up tlirougli the radiator,
aitd out of tlie top registers.
Indirect Riullatlon.
Hc^itiiiL; liy indirect radiatiim Is, as has licen pre viniisly stated,
aci'iini]>li-^li<<d l>y iwo iiii'tliods; the more •fi'itehil methiHl licing
tn tiavc separate radiators tor each i-oom, IwatiHl in the cellar or
liasi'tiK.'nt. incascil with metal or wooil linc<l with tiu, and provhled
niili a 1 1 c:,li-;ur inlet, and thi pipe to convey the bot air to lliO
riMiiii lo Iv lie;(te<l
'I'lic oili>'[ nicihixl U, lu provide one cold-air inlet for tlit wltole
iiiiililini;. and plaee a la[>:u coil uf sU>ani-pi|a!8 hehiml it. so that all
l)ii' iiir i']ii>''iii;,' liic liiiildini; uiiisi pa.ss ihrou^h Ihia coil. Such a
■iii'lliud can only he used in conncclioii uilh fau-ventiliitlun.
[■'i;;. H ^ll.l«■s ihe nsnal metlioil .if cising iridinrt radiators. The
.-a-iiiL: J ^.'iiindly ..f «.»-! I .1 wiili tin, or of shc.-t-nu-Ul.
Tin- r..i.i„ii<l>c.il wlicii 111., cellar i, (I. I,e kcjil nxd. Us Ihen- I* a
uiiMier li>.:< l,y railratlou am] i Iiiii^iii iliriiii;;h mclal caivN;
iiiberuiM' ]ii.'ial i.-; 1'i'<i, as it uill not crick, anil, whon put t(^>thpr
\\\:h mmmII liolts. can lie rcninved lo make n-iKiini, without damaga.
'I'lo' hriM's shimid Ih' nit.'d wllh a diH)r on one of the sides, and
the I'lilii-air t>iiH' sliiadd alwayn Ih' pnivldiil with a damper.
BTEAU-HBATIKO. 797
The vertical air-cluoCs are uaually tin &ae» built into the wall
wbcn tlie builctinf; is going up. Sometimca thef are only plastered;
but round, smootb in«tal IJoiDgs with close joints give much tbe
best rusults. The cross-section of an airduct should be compaca-
tivoJy large, as a, targe volume of warmed air, with a slow velocity, '
gives the best rosiilt.
There should l>c » sepivrate vortical air-duct for every outlet or
register. In branched vortical uir-ducts one is generally a failure.
FlO, e.— (^BIKQ rOR INDIBKCT tlADtATOM.
The lieatcil air from one heater may he taken to two oriuor*
viTtica! air-<lucl9, wlii;n tliey start direi'tly over It; but one should
uot be tiikvn from the top and Ihe ottiei' from tlie side, or tlie
laiwr will be a tr.tal failure, unless the room to which the flue runs
is i-xhiiMst.'.l; ].i\. lliu cohl or vitiateil air of the room is drawn
out )>y a lii'ati'.l Iha: or ulhorwisc.
liilct ur riilil-iiir dui'Ls arc liest When tliero is one for every coil
or liciilei'. Soiiictirues only one largc-brancbcd cold-air duct ia
STEAU-HEATma. 798«
Wt-stfield, Mass. This is a cast-iron radiator, whioh is very eiten-
sivclf used througliout the countrj'. Aa there is dow ho patent on
this radintor, and it in comparatively cheap, it is maDutactured by
many diSetent companies.
The radiator as made by the H. B. Smith Company is made in sec-
tions of lOsiiuarefeotoE heating surface to a section. Eaeh section
iutli inches high. 41 inches long, and 8 inches wide, and contains 036
]jina. each j)in having a base of i inch, a top of i inch, and a length
•i! li inch ; the pins being in staggered rows, as ehown in Fig. 10.
To find the floor-space for any number of sections, allow 8 inches
for the width of each section, plus i inch for each outaide section,
ami the thlclf ncss of the bos twice. The more modem styles of pin
indiivct radiators have the c-onnections at (he ends.
Fig. IL shows a stack of Ave sections of a pin radiator mailc by
tlic American Company,
The sections made by this company are of two sizes ; viz., staud-
ard size, 7i inches wide, 86 inches long, and occupying SJ inches
in stack, the heating surface licing 10 square foot ; and extra largo,
which is Hi inches wide, 'M inches long, and occupying 2J inches
in stack, the heating surface being 19 square feet.
The Standard Kndiator Company also makes an improved indirect
pin radiator with 13 and 15 feet of ht'atiag surface in the sections.
Fig. la shows one section of the Excelsior indirect steam radi-
ator mode by the American Radiator Company.
This radiator has two nearly horizontal pi]ies or tubes inclined in
opposite directions, and connected at tlie cnils so as to form a com-
plete pipe circuit. In ono of iheendsov upright sections a dia-
phragm or partition is so arranged as to stop the flow of steam from
the inlet directly to tiic outlet opening, but at the same time allows
the water of condensation to pass under it and directly through
the radiator, and from radiator to radiator wlien connected to-
STEAM-HEATING. 799
Nearly all indirect radiators can be used either for steam or hot
water; and for this reason it is often advantageous to heat dwell-
ings, etc., entirely by indirect radiation, in which case the appa-
ratus may be used for heating by hot water in moderate weather:
and, by drawing off the water in cold weather, the pipes and
^•adiators may be filled with steam. This method is now largely
tiuployed in first-class city houses.
Rules for computing Indirect Heating Surfaces.
It is quite a common custom among steam-fitters to double the
direct radiating surface for indirect radiation, but this is an ex-
ceedingly loose method.
In warming by indirect radiation, a fresh supply of air is con-
stantly passing over the radiator, and no air is heated twice. The
heated air usually enters the room at from 110° to 130° in hot
weather, and, coming in contact with walls, windows, furniture,
etc., is quickly cooled to the desired temperature.
It is therefore evident, that, if we can determine the amount of
air to be warmed, and, by experiments, the quantity of air that
one sciuare foot of indirect radiator will heat under certain condi-
tions, wc can easily determine the radiating surface required.
By careful study of the records of various experiments made on
indirect heating, and by certain fundamental principles in steam-
heating, the author has computed the table following, showing the
quantity of air which one foot of indirect radiating surface will
warm in an hour, at various steam-pressures, and from 0 and
10° F.
Divide the quantity of air to he heated per hour by the corrc-
»pondln(/ ninnber in the table, and the result will be the amount of
indirect radlatim/ surface required in well-built brick buildings,
and in which tlie window surface is not more than v?',, the cubic
contents of the room. Where the window surface exceeds this
proportion, increase the radiating surface from 10 to 20 per cent.
For wocden l)uildings also, add 10 percent. The numbers in the
cohnnns under " Forced Drauglit " should not be used unless
the air in tlie room to hv heated is changed at least six times an
hour; and the (]uantity of air should never be taken at less than
four times tlie cubic contents of the room.
If the external tempcrat ure is liable to be at 0° for any length of
time, the fourth and fifth columns shoidd be used. The second
and third columns are intended for comparatively warm climates.
800
STEAM-HEATING.
lilJANTlTY OF AIR WARMED PER HOUR HY ONE SQUARE POOT
OK IXDHiECT HEATING SURFACE, ^VITH NATURAL OR FORCED
I)RAU(H1TS.
Cruic Feet <>r Air Warmed per Hour.
Stciim !
iilxivt' Al- •
mo-^jihcri-.
Lbs.
0
3
5
10
20
:;o
00
10° to iw F.
<r to iwr F.
Xiilural
Forced
Draui^ht.
Draught.
ripe and I'iu.
Pin.
150
251
l»i0
207
10.-)
270
177
2V>G
I'JS
330
211
353
245
408
Naliiral
Druugbl.
Pipe and Pin.
125
133
13S
148
165
177
2(»4
Forced
Draught.
PiD.
a08
223
229
244
275
294
S40
Exdiiipli' II. — As jin oxani])l(M)f indirect lioatiiijj, we will tako
flu' sjiine nioin :us in Ivxaniple I.: viz., room l.V X 14' X t>', with
54 s<jii;in: t\'(*t. of window area; stcani-prossurc, 5 pounds; location,
MassachuscMs: woodrii lioiiso.
Ans. — Cul.ic contents = L") x 1-} x 1) - 1,S<)0. Mnitiplyins this
l>y 1, wi' liav»' 7, .")()() ciihic fiM't nt' air to he iK-ated per lioiir. Divid-
iiii; l»y io-^. taken from eolimni I, we liave .')4 a.s the niinibor of
^.|ii;n(' fei-i of ln'atiiiLT sinface i-e(|uired lo heat thisanioiint of air.
As tjic i)uililiiiij is of wood, and the jjlass area exceeds .-.'ir of tlie
eiil)!*' sparr, we liad oetLer increase tlic heatin;^ surface 10 per cent,
iii.iI^iiiLi it «■)(» sipiare feet.
E.i'nuiiilr III. — Wiiat sliould he the indirect heatini; snrfaoe in
a .^clioohtMiiii 1^1 X W'l X 12 feet, where the air is ehanp-d six times
WW iiour: hrick hiiildini;, situated in Northern States; stoam
j>rrsMii«', ■") j)onnds.
An:<.-\L\ X :;l' X 12 = 9,210. Mnhiplyinj: hy fi, wo liavo r).VJ«M.
Dividiiiu' iliis l»y 22*.), we have 212 .^tpiare feel as the re<|nire»l lieat-
iiiil siirfaci'.
If till- ioiiiii ha<l only natural ventilation, we would inuiliply the
.M.iitriii- iiy I, and diviili- hy i:*s: antl we have 2<H) s*piare f»'i»t.
llaiJialtM « ar<' always nn»re elTeelivc, the greater tin* quantity of air
]>.i'--inu ii\«-r t hi'iii.
liHliiTct l%2i(li;itioii, with 3*l<*iiiiiii V<MitilaUoii.^
Till- pji i:inn s>siciii of ventilation i** pi'oduci-d dy forciuv; \\.irni,
fresh ;iir into all the rooms, and hy causing a pr<'ssiin> sli^^litly in
^\el■s^ «if tiiat of the extcrual atuio.spluTe, fun ■ i ug Ihc impure air
from the iiinm.
STEAM-HEATING. 801
This system requires that the whole air-supply of the building
shall enter at one point, where it must pass through a large steam
radiator, generally a stack of one-inch pipes, and from thence into
one large duct, with branches to the various rooms, or into a
plenum chamber in the cellar, from which it passes upward,
through ducts provided for the purpose, into the rooms ab6ve.
If the heated air passes directly into a main air-shaft, with branches
to the various rooms, it must be heated to required degree before
entering the duct, by the single large radiator referred to ; but ii'
the air passes into a plenum chamber, it is generally only heated
to about 00° by the main radiator, and smaller indirect radiators
are located at the foot of the ducts leading to the rooms, to give
the air entering the rooms the desired temperature. The latter is
much the better way for large buildings, especially theatres, con-
cert halls, churches, etc.
In either case a fan will be required, which must be located just
behind the large steam radiator, to draw the air through it, and
produce the plenum.
S team-Boi lers.
The capacity of steam-boilers for generating steam is generally
designated by the number of horse-power of the boiler.
Strictly^speaking, there is no such thing as ** horse-power " to a
steam-boiler, as it is a measure applicable only to dynamic effect.
But, as boilers are necessary to drive steam-engines, the same
measure applied to steam-engines has come to be universally applied
to the boiler, and cannot well be discarded.
At the present time a horse-power is generally measured by the
evaporation of 30 pounds of water per hour, at 70 pounds pressure,
from feed-water at 100°.
For heating purposes it is more convenient to designate boilers
by the square feet of heating surface which they contain. One
square foot of heating surface in one form of boiler may, however,
be much more efficient than in another style ; and the value of a
foot of h'wtini^ surface nmst be determined by experiment. The
following table i;ives an approximate list of square feet of heating
surface per horse-power in different styles of boilers; the rate of
combustion of coal per hour, per S(inare foot of fire surface, re-
quinMl for that rating; the relative economy, and the rapidity of
steaming: —
6()-i
STEAM-HEATING.
Type of I5oileu.
■
10 to 12
1
0.3
•
si
(—1
1.00
T .s «-
j2 -'A
Authority.
Water-tube ....
1.00
I»»herwood.
Tubular
14 to 18
0.25
o.yi
0.50
t >
Flu;^
8 to \1
0.4
0.79
0.25
Prof. Trowbridge.
Plain Cylinder . . .
6 to 10
0.5
0.09
0.20
i(
Loeotnolivi' ....
12 to 16
0.275
0.85
0.55
Vertical Tubular . .
15 to 20
0.25
0.80
0.60
In tubular boilers, 15 square feet of heating surface is generally
taken as a horse-power.
A hoiso-powor in a stoam-ongine, or other prime mover, is 550
pounds raised 1 foot per second, or 33,()00 pounds 1 foot per
minute.
For deUMinining the capacity of a boiler for supplying a given
amount of radiating surface, allow one square foot of lx)iler surface
to from 7 to 10 square feet of radiating surface: th<* proi)ortion
depending upon the nature of the radiating surface and the
elliciency and size of the boiler.
Small boilers for house-use should be much larger proportion-
ately than large plants. In average buildings in the Northern
States, when^ the building is entirely heated by direct radiation,
one sipiare foot of sui^faci? in a horizontal tubular boiler, well set,
and with the supply and return pipes properly run, will supply 8
squan; f<'et of radiating surface. If all indirect radiation is used,
this niimlHT should be reduced to 0.
(busses of Boih*rs. — There are a great many kinds of
boih'rs nianufaetured for heating purposes, and espwlally for heat-
ing (^welling-houses. For dwellings, it is desirable that tlie boiler
shall be safe, provided with automatic <lamix*rs, safety-valves, etc.,
and shall be as simple as possible, and designed to utilize the largest
possible i»er('i'ntag«* of the h(»at generated by combustion.
Foi Ihatii)'^ large buildinirs, either a tubidar or .se(*tional IkmIit
is Lr«n«'rall\ cmplovcd. The fornn*r is so common as hardly Id
iurd ill sri iptinii. Ii consists of a wriMmht-iron cylinder willi
(■Im>s((1 iMijv, with the lower half filled with wrought -iron tulMti,
wliicji i»M^-« tl;iniiL:h ilu- ends, and arc Wi'ldcd lo it. When s*'t and
i'<-ady lor ii>i-. the bnjlrr i^ lillc I to a point a little alK»ve the hight*st
row of IuIms: the boiler is set so that tin* protlucis of coinl)ustion
shall paN>^ under the boiler, and back again through tlie IiiIh^s to
the front of ihe Ixjilcr, fri)m whence they piLss to ibe chimney.
£TEAM-HEATING. 80a
Hence the heating surface in a horizontal tubular boiler consists
of one-half the area of the shell and ends, and the total external
area of the tubes.
The heating surfaces for the various standard sizes manufac-
tured by Kendall & Roberts, of Cambridge, Mass., are given in
the table on pp. 808, b09. These surfaces would also apply to
boilers of the same dimensions and number of tubes of any other
manufacture.
Upright tubular boilers are filled with tubes in the same way.
Sectional Boilers are generally made of cast-iron, each sec-
tion being a boiler by itself. The steam is collected in a common
wrought-iron drum, and returned to another drum. The advantage
of these boilers is, that no serious explosion can result from them;
as, should an explosion occur, it would probably be confined to
not more than two sections, which in most boilers can be easily
replaced.
These boilers are especially adapted to schools, churches, etc.
Supply and Return Pipes. — The main supply-pipe should
be not less than 4 feet above the water-line of the boiler in medium-
sized buildings; and in buildings covering a larger area, the height
should be as much more than this as it is practical to make it.
Where the condensed water is returned to the boiler, or where
low pressure of steam is used, the diameter of the main in inches
should be equal to one-tenth of the square root of the radiating
surface supplied. If the mains are not suitably covered with non-
conducting material, their surface should be added to the radiating
surface.
Example. — What should be the size of main to supply 400 feet
of radiating surface, itself included ? Ans. — ^400 = 20. Divide
by 10, and we have 2 inches as the diameter of our main.
Return-pijyes should be at least 3 inch in diameter, and never
less than one-half the diameter of the main, — longer returns
requiring larger pipe. A thorough drainage of steam-pipes will-
effectually prevent all cracking and pounding noises therein.
liOss of Heat from Steam-Pipes.^
The following table shows the loss of heat from steam-pipes,
nakeil, and clothed with wool or hair felt of different thicknesses.
8teani pressure, 75 pounds. External air, G0°.
^ From Steam. Babcock & Wilcox Company, New York aud Glasgow.
RTEAM-IIKATIS(i.
■IT>10Dt FBLT
1 :HB).7«.|il 2-*Sl'iU.llU,W 1
ifiwMiiJuA iM noi.iiL
:i.i:i 111JI.U.1-H, M] aiJt\i>.iia K-'i isTiJilii.inii U7
... HIS nii.i!.i).iiin 4M TS.S;i).iiH' aiu imjiiijmii w<
iM ■!,■'.] U.OT lim 4l.:!.IUnill, Tin' la.Oll.tMl KW (W.SIMIM. Me
- :!;i.iii.ii>i,i:Eis, ra.;.ii.u:j4 xiw 34.:t,uMT wu, UXu.ui-J' «U
Willi' ililTiT'iiiit ii) IlKM'iiUif »[ ilirTi'n-iit ttiibxtnnccs
; riiiiii ntiliiitioii, llii'[r viilui' Viiiyliij; iicnrly In the
:jf ilii'iiMi)inlii('liii;j;iiinnTf«rlLMt, u[) (o llirir nlitllly
:' pi])i' will rniliati'.
nillK'l
SI'flll il
■■iiuliu'liiij; iiowiT of various sulwlaiici-s, from
.M_
is i<f ilsi'lf n sii'xl |>ri ■><■<'(>«■■:
.- :. r:i(iii. for ra.liiiliiin. of -C! I..
li,., I.LH Hm.- liilTLTi'ii-v.
, !i]it;i:;i' uf biN'iimlii^ mum chamil
i'i->.Mr>'. iiti I M>iii"liiii<-H uf lukliii;
L viirir-ly iif •■li'iiii'iiU" fur cuver
DilYING BY STEAM.
805
ing pipes, composed generally of clay mixed with different sub-
stances, as asbestos, paper fibre, charcoal, etc. A series of careful
exporiments, made at the Massaehusetts Institute of Technology
in 1S7I, showed tlu^ condensation of steam in a pipe covered !)y
one of them, as compared with a naked pipe and one clotlied with
hair felt, was 100 for the naked pipe, ()7 for the '* cement " covering,
and 27 for the hair felt.
Table of relative value of non-conductors, from experiments by
Cliarles E. Emery, Ph.D.: —
Nou-Conductor.
Value.
Non-Conductor.
Value.
Wool Felt
Mineral Wool No. 2 . . .
*' witii Tar,
SawduHt
Mineral Wool No. 1 . . .
Charcoal
IMiie Wood, across fibre .
1.000
0.832
0.715
0.680
0.676
0.632
0.553
Loam, dry and open . .
Slacked Lirae ....
Gas-House Carbon . .
Asbestos
Coal Ashes
Coke in Lumps ....
Air Space, undivided
0.560
0.480
0.470
0.363
0.345
0.277
0.136
" iMlnenil wool," a fibrous material made from blast-furnace
slag, is a good protection, and is incombustible.
Drying" by Steain.^
There arc three modes of drying by steam: Ist, by bringing wet
substances in direct contact witli steam-lieated surfaces, as by
passing cloth or paper over steam-heated cylinders, or clamping
veneers between steam-heated plates; 2d, by radiated heat from
steam-pipes, as in some lumber-kilns and laundry drying-rooms;
3d, by causing steam-heated air to pass over wet surfaces, as in
glue-works, etc.
The second is rarely used except in combination with tlie third.
The first is most (u;onomical, the second less so, and the third
least. Under favorable circumstances it may be estimated that
one-horse power of steam will evaporate 24 pounds water by the
first nuithod, 20 by the S(H'ond, and 15 by the third.
The pliilosoj)hy of dryini; or evaporating moisture by heated air
rests upon the fact that, the capacity of air for moisture is rapidly
increased l)y rise in tenipcu'ature. If air at 52° is heated to 72°,
its capacity for moist ure is (loul)le.l, and is four times what it was
at '']2°. The followin.LC table gives the weight of a saturated mixture
of air and aipieous vai)or at ditTerent temperatures up to 160°, —
' From Steam. Dabcock & Wilco-x Company.
'""> DIiyiNG BY STRAM.
tlie pracUpal limit nt hcfttln^ air by steam, — t<^tlipr with the
wvL^lii rif vapor. In pounds anil pi'rceiitagc, anil total beut, n'itli
iIji' portion tlioreof cuiituiueil In the vapor: —
RATlMtATKT) MIXTfllES OF AJIt AXD AQUEOUS VAPOR.
li.lSI
11.30S
■1.W
4±Lit
-4^
ii^t
4.11
4I4.T
nut
Kl
a.T4i
itim
.1.31
S:m.U
H.WI
lt.43i
9IIV.1
TUJS
4>
IKMl
lUSS
ItK-l
Hl.M
li..-*i
NJi
T.V).9
lUM
IkltM
K31M
M-U
»
||.:13H
u.;i4
NA.aT
4U
ii.iai
II. VM
1JU4
»«.7
»n.s»
■JTl
U.lrw
iiin.n
HtH
'M
I'tm
1.102
n'i.iit
14iT.4
as
IIM
MK
IJKS
iU-
WBt-T
ui.ia
] lit ;lIi<ivi> labli', it will lio soon wliy It Is more
ly at thi' lii^htT li-iiiiionirnrcs. The utinosphoiC Is
li Willi ni.ii>iliiii-, ii-i.l in pra.'liif it wjli U- roiiml
iiry 111 iii-iil Uk' nir .-ilinul :i:P hIidvo tin- toiiip-nilure
Tlir iM'sl. .■(Ti-.i U prwiiiii'il wlini. I]ii-n> i« Hilitloial
^111 <ir My I'liimiiuy, uud tLu tourso of tlie livutud
1; (iou'iiivanls.
HOT-AIK HEATING IN RESIDENCES. 807
Hot- Air, Steam, and Hot- Water Heating: in Resi-
dences.
Much advancement has been made of hite years in the methods
of heating residences and in the apparatus intended for that pur-
pose. While it is impossible in this book to treat the subject in
detail, it is believed that the following information will be of value
in deciding upon the kind of heating to be used, and in selecting
an efficient apparatus, and seeing that it is properly put in.
In deciding upon a heating apparatus for a dwelling, the govern-
ing conditions are, generally, A. the size of the building, and, B,
the limit of first cost. When the latter condition is not a control-
ling one, tho co.st of running the apparatus should be given the
first consideration.
For residences of eight or ten rooms, and covering not more than
1,200 square feet of ground, the author would recommend hot-air
heating by means of a good furnace.
For residences covering 1,400 square feet, a combination hot-air
and water system is recommended, or an entire hot- water system.
For still larger residences, a steam or hot- water apparatus should
be used.
Fiiriiaee Heating. — For warming residences not exceeding
1,200 square feet of ground are:i, the author believes a good fur-
nace, properly set, and with hot-air pipes of proper size, suitably
located, will give the best satisfaction, as it is economical in first
cost, easy to manage, costs little for repairs, and furnishes a pleas-
ant and healthy heat, at no greater expense of ininning than with
steam or hot water.
The most common defects observed in furnace-heating are : Over-
heating of the air ; vitiating of the air by the gases of combustion ;
and imperfect distribution of the heat.
The first two defects may be entirely avoided if sufficient care is
exercised in the selection and setting-up of the furnace and in tend-
ing the fire, and the last defect may be reduced to a minimum by a
wise location and proper proportion of the flues and registers.
The cause of the unsatisfactory heating of a great many houses,
by f urn-ices, is in the owner or builder refusing to pay the necessary
price for a first class furnace and for the best workmanship and
materials. The same carelessness and ** skinning" that is -some-
times ])ermitted with furnace-work, if permitted on a steam or hot-
water apparatus, would in most cases prevent their working at all.
Furnace heating may be divided into two parts, the production
of heat, and the distribution of the heat.
HOS HOT-AIR IIKATTNO IX RESIDENCES.
Tho former doiwrnds ontirely ii[V)n the furnace, its setting, cold-
air su{)f)ly, (Inni^lit, kind of fuel, and attendance.
I^lie Furisac<». - In principle., a liot-air furnace is simply a
^U)Vk' or henicr. eiicjisrd with iron or lirick, so us to form an air
cli.nnher lietuccii ilic li(»nti»r and casinij. Tlie air enters at the
l)otloni of tlie chamber, ])asses over the lieated surfaces of the
licah'r. and is condutjlcjd hy the hot -air pi[)es to tlio various rooms.
Tlie c.xlernal surface of tlie (inkpot, and. all portions of the
lieMt(.r wliich receive heat from the tire or smoke, are called tlie
; (fdiafifif/ surl'ace.
As a ruh\ the furnace which has the |j:reat^'st radiating surface in
projxirtion to the siz.; of the fi?-e-pot will give olf the most heat for
a given amount of fuel consumed.
As the amount of radiating surface largely a fTects tho weight of
a lurnu'r. and the laltt-r in a g?'<'at measure tho selling price, it is
ohvioiis iliat. the h.st furnaces must cost tho most. It is true that
<:iii' liiiiiari' may have its radiating surfaces better arrangwl than
anoihrr. m> as to give, ofT more heat for a less qnantity of metal, but
it i> s;ld(>m tliat a very light furnace, particularly if of cast iron,
i-! a good iii-alfr.
i''uriia(( s should be so d(!sig»ied that the smoke, after leavin<y the
(•oinbuslinii (.JiaridK'r. must travel around the radiator one or more
tiiii. - b ['oV'.' liiiding an exit to the chimney. With a chimney flue
()!' Ml' p'';- >izi' and topped out well above tin; l*oof, it is |)Ossihh> to
:aa!.«- ili' smoke trav«'l a long distance, and thus obtain great
(MMifiiiv (.r iiie'. The be>t furnaces are desii^ned «»n tliis prineiph*.
r>. -i i'- iiaviui,^ 'tirge radiating surface, the furnace slumld have
a-- I •'.. j'ins a< po>sible, anrl should i)t> arrangi'cl s<» as to l)e easily
(■:=::h; I.
I'ln-iaei's are ma<le of east iron, wr«»uglit iron, and stcH»l, oithiT
U' ! !:i_!\ n'- e()!iibi:i.ii. 'I'he radiMtini; suriac' ."ilxive the (In'-pot
eai' b. "I.!.! ■ :/i!ireclnai»ly oi \\niu:hi ir'):i than of cast inin. ami in
• er'.ii I ..• r..i:ur'"Miin1- it i-^ jtist :\< »;.-rvife-b|i'
\'. I'i!'- Ill n- ar- ex'-elient fMrinei- maih' nf wroi-ght iron am!
>fi-. !. 11; .1.1" '..ir iM'lii'Ve< that a heavy e.isl in»n furnace is tlie most
)1 ;'.!i'i ; •: i ■■••n In- m ide a-^ t ight. S ii:ie finMia".-' are mmle rhielly
■ ■1 • -! •'.'•■' b'li wii h air !»;' <'!i"k" Ilu'-- ti!" \vri»u rhi iron fitting int<i
• ■■ • :»■<. r ■!«. 'I'lii< arraier •: 'I'l < no* ■generally apjirovi-d. :i«*
■ ■;: - i-\ i-'ii I a I id ei'i't r.Mi iiu-m |U ill v. tliu> tending to op -n
I :;
li:
1 -i
■ tiiajiv ^t\l<'- it* luinae.-«. m •inif:"-! iiri'd that it is
■ bl- to '.fo t'lirilur int • i|i-l;dl< ll mny In- said, how-
■ rurn.iii- dhiwii iii l''i:.'. I. made iiv (he KiehanlM>n &
HOT-AIH HEATING IN RESIDENCEB. 809
BojDton Company, is represenlative o( the best type of eBst-iron ba-
hbcc. and thatsiiown in Fig, 3. mode by Isnoc A. Sheppard & Co., a
modem steel plate lurnaoe. Tig. 3, ofwhicli the Eicelsior Steel Fur-
nace Cotiipanyurctiiu milkers, sliowsatype of furnace which consists
of H plain combustion cliain'.)er with a steel radiator. This radiator
is divided with a horizontal partition, so that smoke must oircnlat«
entirely around it before it enters the flue. This furnace is intended
for soft coal. The more modem furnaces, conslructcd for burning
Eio 1 ■ . *
soft coal, have pronsion for th" introduction of supoTheattd ^air
into th< firebox iheretij presenting the formation of soot;' and
causing thorough combustion and intense hiat The one shown in
Fig 1 IS 1 liot nil bl ist furnace, and Id supplied with oxygen at n
high tempcrHliiri' for cither hard or soft coni, aeeelerating and in-
tensifying combustion to a very high degree. The Thatcher Fur.
nacc Company are makers of a tubuhir fur^aeothat seems to possess
ooDriidcralilu merit
The casing surrounding the heater inay be of brick or sheet iron.
If of brick, it should consist of two f'lur-inch wnlle with a space
HOT-AIB HEATING IN BBSIDENCES. 811
i The duet may be either curried horizontally under the basement
ceiling until near the turnoce, and th^n dropped to the air-pit, or
it mny be carried down against cellar wall, and thence under the
floor to tlierumaee. The portion of the duct above the floor should
be built of well seasoned, matched boards, or of galvanized iron.
The portion below the floor should be constructed either of stone,
brick, or glazed tile, and should be tightly cemented. If of brick
or stone, the dnot should l>e coverod with stone slabs, with the
eilip's riiiiyhlv dressed, and the joints eeiiicntcd The air-duct
shunUI not be I'urrieil under the floor if the soil is at all damp,
licsidcs the c^itornal air supply, it is also a good idea to have a
smaller air duct, leuding from u register in the front .lull to the
base of the furnace. Thiii duct may be of wood, tin, or galvanized
iron, and may bo connected either with the base of the furnace,
HOT-AIR HEATING IN RESIDENCES. 813
Ventilation. — ^A hot-air furnace plant, properly put in, will
furnish a good supply of fresh air, and therefore afford fairly good
ventilat on, if means are provided for carrying off the foul air in
the rooms. The warm air entering a room must of necessity force
out an equal quantity ol' the air already in the room ; exits are
often found in the spaces around tlie doors and windows, but
these are rarely sufficient to carry away the air as fast as it would
enter if unimpeded. Fireplaces, especially if kept in use, afford
excellent ventilation. A good arrangement for obtaining ventila-
tion is by building a large fine in a central chimney, and using a
galvanized iron smoke.{)ipe, placed in the centre of it, for the
furnace. The space surrounding the smoke-pipe may then be used
for ventilation, and ducts from different rooms connected with it.
Location of Furnace. — Upon the location of the furnace
the successful heating of the house often depends, and it is a mat-
ter that re(|uires careful considemtion.
Asa general rule, the furnace should be located in the basement,
near the centre of the space occupied by the registers, and a little
nearer the side from which the prevailing winds come in winter-
time. The tendency, in hot-air heating, when the wind is blow-
ing strong in severe cold weather, is for the rooms on the further
side of the iiousc from the wind to be over-heated, while those
against the wind are poorly heated, the registers on the windward
side delivering almost no hot air. Therefore, to counteract this
tendency, the furnace should be placed some^few feettoward the
windward side of the building, provid(d this does not make the
pipes to the general, or family, living rooms longer than the others.
The height of the basement should be such that the " leaders,"
or horizontal hot-air pipes below basement ceiling, may have a pitch
of one and one-half inches per running foot upward from the
furnace. If there is no inclination to these pipes, the first-story
rooms will be heated with difficulty. For a residence of ten rooms,
the furnace-room should have a clear height of at least seven feet
six inches.
('old- Air Opening^. — If only one external cold-air supply is
used, it should be taken from the direction from which the prevailing
winds come. For buildings in exposed situations it is desirable to
have a cold-air supply from the opposite side of the building also,
th(^ ducts connecting, and each being furnished with a damper, so
that either duct may be used, according to the direction of the wind.
Cases have been known where the wind, blowing from the opposite
direction of the cold-air supply, has sucked the air from the house,
through the furnace and cold-air duct, thus actually reversing the
Hit HOT-AIR HEATING IX RESIDENCES,
natural operation of the furnace. Two supplies will obviate this
possibility.
Stacks and Ri*j»ist<'5rs. — To insure the best n;sults, the lo-
cation of funiiico, stacks, ami rcfjistors should be plannc<l out
befoH' the w<n'k of construction begins, for while the building need
not !)(' ])lniiiuMl to suit the heating a{)paratus, it almost always haj)-
pi'ns thnt tlie sotting of the partitions, swinging of doors, and
})la(ing of studs and joists can be arranged so as to favor the plac-
ing of stacks and registers, without seriously affecting any desiretl
arrangement of the phin, and this can be done much better on the
plans than after the house is sUirted.
It is generally conceded that the hot-air stacks should be placed
in tlu; partiticms, and as near to the furnace as practicable, and
that all horizontal branches should be as short as possibh\ as the
air travels much slower in the horizontal branches, and more heat
i> lost fi-om I'adiation. The registers should bo placed as near the
stack as jK^ssil)le ; they should not In? placed near the windows, nor
where the doors will swing over or against tiiem, nor in the floor
near an oj)en lireplaee.
Whether tlie register shall be placed in the floor or partition,
is a mati<M' that should l)e decided by the owner, it is claimed that
the circulation fi(mi a wall register is not as goinl as from one
placed ill the floor, and the wall al>ove the register gcnendly be-
comes discolored alter a time, ])v the dust that is (H'casionallv blown
• ■
up tliri>ui;h the pipes. On the other hand, floor iv^gisters oat<.*h
mucli more dirt from sweeping the rooms, and many ladies object
to havint^ their carix'ts cut. Tlie author believes that it is h(*ahh-
i(T to jiavf the registers placed in the wall, (-onvex repi.<»ters are
to be prcfcrrtMl for walls, as they deliver more air than do the onli-
nary /la! r. Lrisicrs. It .sometimes hapix'ns that the stacks must \yc
pui in an out>ide wall. Wlien such is the case, tlie .stack should
li. doible. Mn<l wrapi)ed with asbestos pajier a.s well. Stacks
slioiiil iii't Im* placed in outside walls, however, when it is possible
to a\''i'l it.
Ciihiiiatioiis \\yv Size oC Fiiriiai*i% l^ipes, and
Tiit'i' a|.|H'ars to lie no ndi' by whi<'h the iirehitecl cnn detennino
the si/.c of turna<'e that should Ik> u.scd to lioat a f^ivoii buildinfr.
other than l>y using the tables givm by the xarioiis nmniifHcturvrv.
Rules hav( been given for determining (lie necessary grate ansA of
HOT-AIR HEATING IN RESIDENCES. 815
a furnace, but it is utterly impossible to make such a rule that will
apply to all furnaces, as the heating capacity depends almost as
much upon the amount and character of the radiating surface, and
these vary with the make of the furnace. Some manufacturers
give rules which take into account not only the cubic space to be
heated, but also the outside wall and the glass area, both of which
should be considered in deciding on the size of the heater. Most
furnace-makers, however, merely give the amount of cubic space
that the different sizes of their particular furnaces will heat, and
as there is no way of telling how reliable these figures are, except
by experience, it is wise to have the contractor give a guarantee
that the furnace shall heat the building to 70° in zero weather
without forcing the furnace.
Pipes and Registers.— The tables given in various books
and catalogues for the size of pipes and registers vary a great deal,
and must be used with considerable judgment. The following
table appears to the author to be as reliable as any :
TABLE OB^ CAPACITY OF HOT-AIR PIPES AND
REGISTERS. •
Showing different sizes of hot-air registers used in furnace prac-
tice, together with the equivalents of the capacity of the same in
round leader pipes from furnace, with elevation of at least one inch
to the foot ; also equivalent in riser pipes (or stacks), and also the
cubic feet of space on first, second, and third floors which said
registers with their proper round and square pipes will heat This
table is based on normal conditions, with runs of pipe of usual
length, and is intended to show the size of registers and pipes nec-
essary to raise the temperature of air from zero outside to 70°
on the inside, within reasonable time, without forcing. The
sizes that are marked with an asterisk are those recommended for
general use. The larger the register the less resistance to the flow
of tlie heated air, but sizes mentioned will produce good results, and,
being stock sizes, will always be found in stock. In planning work
arrange to use the sizes referred to.
816
HOT-AIR IIEATIKG IN RESIDENCES.
Size of
Rrgister.
Equivalent
in Jioiind or
Leader Pipe,
i Equivalent
in Square or
Riser I'ipe.
Cubic foct of
jipace on fi^^t
floor name
will heat.
400
Cubic feet on
,Hecond floor.
Cubic feet
on third
floor.
6x8
6 in.
4x8
450
500
*8x 8
7 "
4x 10
450
500
560
*8x 10
8 "
4x 10
500
850
880
*8x 12
8 ♦'
4x11
800
1000
1050
*9x 12
9 **
4x 12
1050
1250
1820
*9x 14
9 "
4x 14
1050
1350
1450
*10x 12
10 '*
4x14
1500
1650
1800
* 10 X 14
10 "
6x 10
1800
2000
2200
10 x 16
10 '•
6x10
1800
2000
2200
12 X 14
12 "
6x12
2200
2300
2500
*12x ir,
12 **
6x12
2250
2300
2500
*12x 17
12 *'
6x14
2300
2;oo
2800
12 X 19
12 "
6x 14
2:J0O
2600
2800
*14 x IS
14 '*
6x16
2800
3000
8200
* 14 X 20
14 *'
6x16
2900
3000
3200
*14x 22
14 **
8x16
3000
3200
3400
*16 X 20
16 "
8x 18
3000
4000
4250
*16 X '^4
16 *'
8x 18
3700
4000
4250
* 20 X 24
18 "
10x20
4800
5400
5750
* 20 X 26
20 '*
10x24
•
6000
7000
7450
It should hIwuvs \x'. borno in mind, however, thut uniform heat-
in<; (l(>(^s not depend so much ii]:K)n Ihe actual size oi the pi])es as
ujMHi the relative sizes. For example, in a two-story house of eiglit
rooms of txactly the S'-nne i^ize.j and the same amount of wall and
^'lass jn«';i, the best hciiting results will be oblnine<l, not by using
the saline size of pi()es for all the rooms, even if the jiipos aro of
jiiiij)le capacity, but by carefully proportioning tlio sizes of the
pipes accord in*; to the ex|)osure. leii^^th of the lemlers, and whether
the rnom is in the first or second story. Tlie n*^isters in the rooms
witli in nth .iiid west ex|M)!>iires should lie a litth» neariT the fur-
nac<'. if jM»s-;il)lc. tliaii the otheiN. and the pif es to the fir»t story
should U' lari^er than thosj* lendin<^ t«> the .^wctuid story.
Cold- A: I* Kov. - The sectional .-in-a of ilie ndd-air Im>x shnuUl
h.' 'ijmmI to thi-ee-fi)iirtlis of the ;i^i;r»;;ate stH'tional urea uC Lbc
'ua-l.!-. I !n' Iw.x, or tluct. shouhl l»e ten ».r twelve inehe.** dtvfi
<i<'r •)-A<lli riLTsi. and wide enou^di to ;;ive \\w re(|uinHl seetii»iial
Mil .-i. h ^lii'uld also always Xh: provided v itii h dam|M!r. :<o that (hi*
supply \\u\w bi', re^ulat-ed to the heavy winds and extreme cuki
Weather.
HOT-AIR HEATING IN BESIDEKCES. 817
Specifications.
The following form is given as a guide to architects in preparing
the specifications for furnace work :
Specifications fob Furnace Woek in Residence, foe Me
to be built at
Architect.
Furnace, — Furnish and set up complete, where shown on base-
ment plan, one No. — furnace, portable pattern, with
double casings. Connect the furnace with the chimney with No,
24 galvanized-iron smoke pipe, of the same size as the collar on the
furnace; all bends or turns to be made with 3-piece elbows ; the
pipe to be strongly supported by wire, and to be kept 12 ins. below
the ceiling.
Air Fit, — Excavate for and build a cold-air chamber under the
furnace, not less than 18 ins. deep, with 8-inch brick walls, laid
and plastered with cement ; also cement the bottom of the cham-
ber. Build the cold-air duct under cellar floor, where shown on
plan, to be — ft. long, 14 ins. deep in the clear, and — ins wide,
with sides of hard brick in cement, and the sides and bottom
smoothly plastered with cement. Cover the duct with 3-inch flag-
stones with tight joints, leaving opening of proper size for the
wooden bDX to be built by the carpenter (wooden box should be in-
cluded in carpenter's specifications).
Hot' Air Pipes. — Furnish and properly connect with furnace,
and register boxes, leaders and stacks of the following sizes, all to
be made of bright IX tin, and the stacks to be double with air
space between. All turns in leaders to be Tnade by 8 or 4-piece
elbows, and the stacks to have boots or starters of approved pattern.
STZES OF PIPES AND EEOI8TEE8.
nail 12" leader. No stack. 12" x 15" register.
Parlor 10" " 4" x 14" stack. 10" x 12" "
Diniiii^-room.... 12" *' 6" x 12" ** 12" x 15"
Library 10" ** 4" x 14" *' 10" x 12"
ChiunberNo. 1.. 9" " 4" x 14" ** 9" x 14'
.< 0 . 9" u 4' X 12" •' 9" X 12" *'
Registers. — All registers are to be of sizes given in the fore-
going list, of the Tuttle and Bailey manufacture, japanned, except
those in the flrst story, which arc to be electro bronze-plated. All
bly IIOT-AIR AKD WATER COMBINATION.
floor registers are to set in iron borders corresponding with the
registers.
JiegihtM' Boxes. — All register boxes to be made double ; for
lirst floor boxes \j\iq joists arc to he lined trith tin and provided with
ccllinf/ idatcs lull size ol* register, with plast(?r collar attached, so
that pipes and boxes eaii be removtd without disturbing th3 plas-
tering or (hfaeiiig the ceiling.
MificeHaiidoiiH. — All horizontal pipes in the basement to Ix)
round, and where they pass through partitions tliey are lo be pro-
vided with collars, so that the pipes can be removed without dis-
turbing the plastering. All leaders to be provided with dampers
and tin tags, designating the different rooms tliey supply ; and,
whenever pii)es run near woodwork, the same is to be properly
covered with tin, and protected from any danger from fire. The
c(.ntra(t()i' is to remove all rubbish made by him, dean up all
iron work, and leave the whole apparatus in complete working
order, and furnish a poker of proiwr size.
(iudrnntce. — The contractor is to guarantee that the furnace
shall, under j)roper management, heat all rooms with registers con-
nected with the furnace to 70° Fahr. when temperature outside in-
dicates 10 below zero. In event of the failure of the fumac«? to do
this, the contractor is either to make the furnace heat said rooms or
substitute ; noth(>r furnace that will heat the rooms, at his own ex-
IX!nst\ and without unnecessary delay.
Ilot-Air and Wat c'rCoinln nation.
It is i{uiti> diiVicult. if not imiKxssiblo, to heat throughoat dwell-
ings covcrinu more than 1.400 square feet, with wann air alone.
On account < f the niucii larger exposure and the increased length of
leaders, it becomes necessary to supplement the warm air with an
auxiliary heat which ciui be carried to remote and exposwl parts of
tht' li<»u><' iiud which will not Ix' affected by pn>s.sure of wind or
long and cro-ikiMl pijx's. Tor supj)lying this auxiliary lioat. hot
water li;;< licrn found Iwsl adapted, and a gi-cat variety of ••com-
biii.itidu" lurnacc- an* now nia<l«' which contain ]irovisif)iis for
lirjitin:: wii- r wliicli may be <-arrii'd by pijK's to radiators localod In
i),i- I'oi! h'li- of till' licu^i- most ditlicult to he:it by warm air. Such
foiiiiiinatiini ^y^lnn- liav«' bei-n u<cd with gn'at huccoss. and for
liiatinu (IwillinLTs «»f ten average size rooms the author believes it
tn be the mn^i ^ucccssful syst«Mn. as it guarantees the (NunfortAblc
warniiiiL' <>t the house, and. if pn)|M*rly put in. thonmgh vmtila-
tinn. which cannot Ih! obtained by any system of direct hot water
HOT- WATER HEATING IN RESIDEKCES. 819
or steam radiation. It is claimed that nearly 200 squure feet of
hot- water radiation can be obtained bj^ absorbing tlie surplus heat
which would usually be wasted in a warm-air furnace.
The conslruction of the parts for heating the water varies greatly
with different makes of furnaces. Some furnaces have a portion of
the fire-pot hollow, and the water is heated there ; others have a
separate heater suspended over the fire-pot. it is impossible here
to consider the relative merits of the various heaters ; the architect
should examine the heaters for himself, and look up their record,
before specifying any particular make.
As a rule, the portions of the house which should be heated by the
hot water are the halls, bath-room, and perhaps the rooms on the
north or west side of the house.
The same rules govern the size of the radiators and piping, and
the manner of installing, as in an entire hot- water plant.
Hot- Water Heating.
Heating by hot water is regarded by many persons as the most
nearly perfect method for heating residences. It certainly has
many advantages, and there can be no question of the practicability
of hot- water heating, particularly for residences.
Hot- water heating is accomplished by placing radiators either in
the rooms to be heated, or in indirect stacks, the water being carried
to and from them by a system of flow and return pipes. Beyond
any little evaporation that may take place, the water is used con-
tinuously ; i.e., it rises from the heater in the cellar to each of the
radiators in the several rooms, the heat having been radiated
through the surface of tlie pipes or sides of the radiators into tlie
rooms, and the water having been cooled as it leaves the radiators
pass(>s through the return pipes to the base of the heater, through
which, passing from the bottom to the top, it takes up the units of
hejit from the fire, and so passes again into the flow-pipes and on
into tlie radiators us before, this circulation being continuous and
its rapidity in exact proportion to the intensity of the fire.
A hot water heating plant is very similar to a steam plant con-
stru:;tL(l on the two-pipe system, the principal difference being that
no steam is generated, and the pipes and radiators are filled with
water instead of steam.
Either the direct, direct-indirect, or indirect systems of radiation
may be used, exactly the same as with steam ; and, aside from the
boiler, or heater, there is no difference in the appearance of a steam
and a hot-water apparatus. ^
820 HOT-WATER UEATING IN RESIDENCES.
The rooms arc also heated in exactly the same way by both sys-
tems, viz. , by radial ion f ron^ the outside Burfaee of the pipes and
radiators; and llio only dilTerence there is between the two kinds
of licat, as far as it affects the room, is that with liot-waier heating
Iho radiator is nover lioated above 200", and seldom over lOO"^. so
that tlio air (cannot be overheati'd, as is often the ease witli steam.
For this ri'ason, and only this, hot-water heat is healthier than
steam, when the latter is forced so as to keep the radiators at a very
hi<i:h tem[)(Tature. The author believes, however, that too much
stress is often laid on this i)oint, and that practically there is little,
if any, difTorenco. as far as health is concerned, in the two kinds of
heat.
Thti advantages of hot -water heating over steam, for residences,
ari^ :
1. Economy in running. Hot- water radiators will heat M'ith a
low lire, wiiile with a steam apjiaratus no heat is given off unless
the water is ko|)t boiling. For dwellings this is a very iui|)ortant
advantage, pai'lictularly in mild weather.
2. The heat of a hot- water apparatus can l)i» piTfectly controlled
by eitlier the lire in tho heater, or the valve on th(5 radiator, by
partly closing it ; whereas with steam radiators, the valve must Ixj
wide opMi or tightly closed. Also, with a hot-water apparatus
some )1 the radiatoi-s may \m run at their full cai»acity, while
others may be partly or entirely shut off, without causing noise
or in any way interfering with the i)erfect working of tlie
sv>teiM.
;i. A hot Wider apparatus is ]»eTfectly noiseless in oj)eration. there
being none of tln^ snapping or gurgling noist-s common with steam.
•t. With hoi wat.T heating there is no i)ossi!>le chance for an ex-
plosion, as tlu^ apparatus is open to the atmosplieni tlinnigh the
exp:in>:ion t.-nik.
About ill- only objcclion^ that- can 1h» urir«*d nij^iinst hot water
Ileal iiii,^ .in- : increased ilrst cost., fl.-inirer from freezing, oxtra spnci*
oeeupicd by radiators, and the tact that a building oanimt Iw iis
(^lir■l^^> warmed bv hot water a< bv steam.
While in many bnildim^s. esjM'cialiv tliosc that are uo\ kept wanu
all the time. niMiiy of these objections an* of considerable iiniNir-
t.-iiici'. ihev d'» not. as a rule, hold g«)(»l in residencies, whii-h an*
k- ]>t at .1 nnil'onn t«-mp<'ratnre. and in which the extra size of tlio
rn li;i1ors i>: <'l little consetjuence.
In very edld weatluM'. when the heatini: n|)paratus is worked In
its full c;i|»a'-iiv, llierc is but little jlilTerence. ifauv. in the amount
of co.'il consumed for either steam or hol-water hcntin^.
HOT-WATBR HEATING VX BBSIDEKOBS. 821
The Heater* — When hot-water heating was first mtroduoed,
tubular boilers, similar to steam boilers, onlj entirety filled with:
tubes, were used for beating the water. Within the past ten years,
however, a great many special heaters have been patented that are
intended espocially for residences^ such as the ** Gurney," *' Mer-
cer," ** Gorton," and the *' Purman." The American Boiler Com-
pany manufacture several, viz., the ** Bolton," " Spence," "Tropic,"
* • Perfect, " and " Advance. "
Nearly all of these heaters are made up of a number of cast-iron
sections, which are bolted together and the joints packed io make
them water-tight. The flow pipes are taken from the top of the
upper section, and the return pipes are connected with the lowest
section, which generally forms either the fire-pot or the ash-pit.
The successful working of a hot-water heating apparatus depends
very largely upon the proper construction of the boiler. It is
generally admitted that in an eflScient hot-water heater the water
roust bo cut up into small portions, so as to heat quickly, and the
whole arrangement of the heater should be such that the .least
possible resistance is offered to free circulation.
The boiler in which the most powerful circulation is maintained
with the least consumption of fuel is the most satisfactory as well
as the cheapest.
The method employed in connecting the Joints, and the facilities'
for cleaning fire surfaces, are also points that should be carefully
examined.
For the efficiency of the various sizes and styles of heaters, the
architect or owner must, as in the case of hot-air furnaces, depend
largely upon the tables given by the manufacturers.
As there is no pressure on the heater other than the weight of the
water, no st«am -gauges, safety-valves, or similar appliances are
required, as is the case with steabi.
Radiation.— As has already been stated, the radiators and
piping are practically the same for hot- wafer as for steam heat,'
except that, to heat a given space by hot-water circnlation, more
radiating surface is required than with steam.
The following ratio of heating surface to space heated is given'
by the Gumey Company, due allowance to be made for exposure,
locality, glass surface, construction, and other conditions : Dwell-
ings : One square foot of direct radiating surface will heat in parlor,'
sitting-room, living room, library, dining-room— rfrom twenty-fire
to thirty-five cubic feet of air ; hall, bath-room— from twenty to
thirty cubic feet of air; sleeping rooms— from thirty to fifty
cubic feet of air. For indMreei radiation not le8» l^an fifty per
822 IIOT-WATEK HEATING IN RESIDENCES.
cent, more surface should be allowed, and for direct-indirect,
twenty-fivo per cent. more.
Indirect Kadiatioii. — Every residence Jieated, either by hot-
water or steam radiation, should have at least two indirect radiat-
ors, to ])r()vi(le lor some ventilation. These sliould be place<l in the
cellar, and connected with registers in the front hall and princi|>al
living r(K)ni. The common method of providing for indirect i-adia-
tion is explained on page 796.
Direct radiation, as has been explained elsewhere, simply heats
the air in the room over and over, and not only does not afford any
ventilation, but tei^ds to decrease the vitalizing qualities of the
air.
KxiKiiisioii Tank. — Every job of hot-water heating (at least
in residencies) should have an open expansion tank, connected wilh
the highest i)art of the ilow-pipe. Ir should be placed in the l)atli-
room or other convenient place, and not less than three feet alwve the
higiiest radiator. The tank shcmld be provided wuh a water-glass,.
to indicate the proper water level, which is usually al)Out half-way
up the ghiss. A one inch overflow pipe nnist also be i)rovide<l, con-
nected witii lank about three or foui- inches from the top, and run-
ning to has. men t or other convenient place, whore it will do no
liariii slioitid the water in the (expansion tank boil or overllow at
any time. 'I'iie expansion tank on a hot-water appamtus serves as
a safely- valve. Should the water at anv time be heated above the
l)oiii tig-point, the si cam finds its way through the flow-pii)es to ihc
tank, and thence escaj)es to the at mosphere. The (>xpansion Umk
also allows t lie water in the system to expand or contract under
dilVei-ent temperatures without any injury to the ap]<{initus. The
r i/ff/"/(i/ ol the ex{)ansion tank should be at least (.ne-t went let h of
tln' wliolt' capacity oi' the apj)aratU8.
A h<»t -water ajjparatus is generally tilled by eonneding the house
suj)ply to reiurn pipe at or ni'ar tin? heater. Sometimes a supply is
eonneetcd with the expansion tank, and a l»ali-<-oek placed on it, t«»
in>ure tliil there shall alwavs be thn-i" or four inches of water in thr
»
tank. At the lowot point of apparatus a draw-olT. or emptying-
(■<);lv. -l.<"il I be placed, to emj)ty the system at any time.
'Die api-arat us .--hould lie kej 1 7"".7 *//" /r,//i7' during the sumnirr
mdit \\>. Ti'is exclude-: the uir. anil pn-vents ei'rro-.inu or oviil-itinn
ol )'ij">.
Ijoi w.it.!- heat iiig ri<(uin*> a nnie!i more p'l Tcel a|»|uiratus tiiaii
>team hating, and /rieat care nnist U^ exiTi-ised in running ard
proportif.nniL: the llow ami return pipes
riu l..ll«.uing Aitrirett Fifirn*. pul)li^iled by lln' (lurnoy Ucnt*./
HOT-WATER HEATING IN RESIDENCES. 823
Manufacturing Company, cootains many practical suggestions, that
should be of almost equal interest to the architect and owner :
" When estimating upon a job, take well into consideration the
extent of all flow, return pipes, and risers, also their situation, and
calculate them as radiating surface in addition to what is placed in
rooms, and allow heater power accordingly.
" Due care must be exercised to provide for any special condi-
tions, such as exposure of building, material of construction, location,
length and size of mains governing plant under consideration.
"Allowances should also be made for loose construction of doors
and windows, which admit large volumes of cold air, and provide
for outside doors which are used frequently, and open directly into
the room.
" In estimating the radiating surface, it should be borne in mind
that a large surface at a comparatively low temperature gives a
much pleasanter atmosphere than a small surface at a high tem-
perature.
" Excess of surface is no discomfort, as is the case with steam,
since the temperature can easily be controlled by vai-ying the fire,
or by valve on radiator.
"All flow and return pipes in cellar should be properly covered
with hair-felt or some other good non conducting material, to
obtain the best and most economical results. Doing this will save
one-sixth of the heat. If no covering is used, paint heater and pipe
exposed in basement a black or maroon japan ; neat and attractive
pipmg goes far toward securing other contracts."
For a thorough and comprehensive treatise on hot- water heating
and fitting, the reader is referred to a work on this subject by Mr.
William J. Baldwin, published by the Engineering Record. Much
valuable information may be found in the catalogues of the Gurney
Heater Manufacturing Company, the H. B. Smith Company, and
others.
Specification.
The following form may serve as a guide in specifying hot-water
heating for residences :
SPECIFICATION FOR IIOT-WATER HKATINO APPARATUS, IN RESIDENCE
FOR JOItN JONES, ESQ., BROOKLINE, MASS.
Healer.— ¥\\vr\\'e\\ and set up in cellar one No.. (120 Gurnet) Htrr-WATER
Heatku, Iwivii;^ fire, ash, and cleaning-ont doors, ehaking and slidirjr grate, with
handle, draught dampers, and Pet of fire tools.
INlake iron smoke connections to chimney ; a fine of sufficient si;i:e to be
furnished by the owner.
824
irOT-WATEK KEATIXG TN RESIDENCES.
Tr'imtniJKju. — Fmni.sh all necessary triniiniii(rH, nnch as direct feed-cock, dmw-
"olT cock, for the purjmso of filling and emptying the apparatas at any time.
The owner will furnish foundalioii to cet heater upon in cellar, of proper size
of base.
I'ij>es. p'iirni>h and run all necessary flow and return pii)e8 of ample pize,
conncrling f.iieni to radiators wiih one-inch pipe, (for each radiator) up to 5CJ
squaiT feet of Mirlace. and one and a quarter inch to radiators over&JA equure
feel. Mirface. and up to 120 square feet : over 120 square feet surface, one and one-
half inch connections : said pipes to be of good and approved quality, one and
one-half inch, and over, beinj; lap-welded pipe.
F'itCinffs. AH fittings to be of gray iron, heavy pattern, full thread, and of
good and ai)proved quality ; no malleable iron fittings to be u.-^ed on the work.
All fiow and return pipes in basement to be supported by neat, strong, and
adjustable hangers, arranged to suit expansion and contraction, properly secured
to tinil)ers f)V('rhead.
At Jill points where pipes i)ass through ceilings, floors, or partitions, the chan-
nels or holes ^hall be i)rotected with floor or ceiling philes.
Kr/i-tns'ni Tank. - The expansion tank to be made of No. 22 galvanized iron,
Ji.") iiicluK hi-h and 15 inche- in diameter, and is to be furnished with a proper
gauL'«' glass, with brass mountings complete;. It is to be placed above all the
radiators, in some suitable j)lace. and support* d on a proper shelf. Prom this
tank an ovcifiow ])!])(; will be run to l)asement or other suitable place.
P'urnish and set up the following; radiators, viz.:
' No. OF Raiiiators. I ^^''^";!..^'5,^.'i:iT ?-^''»^"^-
' IN<J OlTKPACB.
Main Hall -j
Sittiiiir room,
Library
Dininii rf)(>m
Si;tiii<:rooni Chamber, . .
Library ('li.-inilicr
I HiiitiL'-room Chamber, . .
Ivilchfu Cliamlier, . . .
Ijaihrooiu,
1
1 Direct Radiator.
1 Indirect Kadiator.
1 Direct Radiator.
1 Direct Radiator.
1 Direct Hadiator.
1 Dire<>t Radiator.
1 Direct Kadiator.
1 Direct Hadiator.
1 Direct liadiator.
1 Direct Itadlator.
10 Radiators.
2K square feet.
165 S(iuare feet.
72 square feer.
40 square feet.
60 square fcH't.
40 squar«.> feet.
A'Z s<]uare feet.
8Gs(|uart*fiHrl.
\Vi .-qnare fj-ot.
.'JO s(|uarp ftH't.
5 tri sfpiare feet .
li' all ."J.-^ ) ^^luare ft-et of direct surface an<l 16.') square feet of indin>rt ; total
surfafc .M". s<itiari' feet.
I', II h r.niiaN r i<» hv ^upplird with a iiJuiiu-yi Hadiator Valve, brass seat, full
ojii nil'.:' colli' (trd t(» Il«iw pip*' of radiator.
i; ell :..(i a -r i- to havr a m-at, nickcl-plateii {:ir-valve on its hiu'hest point.
nnd- i>' mil II : nd < lo!.f with a key \Nn-nch.
\ 1 i.idi.i'".:-- and ixpo-rd pipi-s abovr cellar to Im- neatly broiixi'd In ^iilU or
^ii\i : liii •!,/••. or a r:i -iifjiily | a in trd, a»- <-h«»>-eii.
N-> '■;irj)- nil r"- w. il. iiMliidcd.
A"; iii;><'- in lii-.iin ni to be covered with on<> inch hair felt. ni:d neatly se\Vi*il
lip i < .iiiV.i- and painti «1 one c at i f l'> od \\liitr lra«l.
T', • i u.Ma" lor t»//uarai tii- all m-.teriaU and wiirktnan>-hiii u*!-*! In the ron-
.-t:.! '"Il of ih - ajipatalus to b-- the be-*! of their re-iMiiivf kinds, nnil the
a]>;> iiaiii- to I)' ( iiiiipli-ti-. and e:ipa1il«' of warniiiiL' tin- ionni> ani! halls in whirh
ra<!:i''.i ir' pl.e'i'il to a iem]HMature of — degree- Kahr., when the Ihennoniflfr
i> at /i-io oiii ■ idf.
STEAM HEATING IN RESIDENCES. 826
Steam Heatingr*
Although hot water is perhaps more popular just now for resi-
dence heating, there can be no question that a building can be as
thoroughly warmed and ventilated by steam as by any other system,
and generally at a smaller first cost. In very cold weather, it is
doubtful if hot-water heating is as satisfactory as steam.
For indirect radiation, steam heat is generally considered cheaper
than hot- water heat, and in every way as satisfactory.
For very large residences, the author would recommend steam
heat, all of the principal rooms to be heated by indirect radiation,
and only the bathroom, halls, and perhaps the attic and one or
two rooms on the north side, which generally includes the dining-
room, by direct radiation. For dining-rooms a special direct
radiator, containing a warming closet, is made.
The air supply to the indirect stacks should be very large, and
provided with a damper, so that the supply may be regulated
according to the weather. If the indirect radiators are divided into
sections, each section being controlled by a valve, either one-half,
one-third, or the whole of the radiator may be used at will. The
greater the radiation the more fuel will be consumed, and vice
versa, so that when part of the radiation is cut off, the cost of
running the boiler is reduced.
Tiie same principles apply in heating a residence by steam as in
heating any other building, and there is no difference in the piping
and radiators. The boilers used in residence heating, however, are
generally of a special pattern, designed especially for that class of
work.
There is almost an infinite variety of these boilers, although a
great many of them are of the same type. The requirements of an
economical and satisfactory working boiler for house heating arc as
follows :
First. — They should contain a quantity of water sufficiently
larc:e to fill the pipes and radiators with steam to any required
pressure lolthnut lowering the water in the boiler to require an
addition when steam is up; for should the steam go down sud-
denly, then; will be too much water in the boiler. This occurs in
boilei-s made with very sinall parts, or pipes which have a small
capaoity at the water-line, and require great care ; for should the
boiler ha\"o an automatic water-feeder set for the true water line, it
will fill u|), but cannot discharge again when the steam goes down ;
while, if it has no feeder, there is danger of spoiling the boiler, as
the water is in the pipes in the form of steam.
S26 STEAM UEATING IN KESTDENCES.
It is tnio that a boiler whicli contains a small amount of water
in proportion to its heating siirfn<je will gH up utenm quicker than
one containing a larger quantity of water, Init the latter will keep
ste^ini much belter when the lire is renewe<l ; and lx)ilers which
contain small (|uantiti(i.s of water are rapidly chilled as well as
rapidly heated, and must be fired often and regularly.
Scrond. — The fire-box should be of iron, with a water space
around it, to i)revent clinkering on the sides, and the necessity of
repairs to brickwork which are unavoidable in brick furnaces.
Third. — The fire-box should be deep below the fire-door, to admit
of a thick fire to last all night, and thus keep up steam. For largo
boilers, which require the services of an engineer, it is desirable to
have a large grate area and a thin fire ; but such a fire re<j[uircs to
be renewed too often to be suitable for a house boiler.
Fttvrth .—'Vim fire-box should be spacious, lot the sake of gooil
oom'nuslion.
Fifth. — The boiler should have few parts, and t\\Q flues and tubes
shofilfl he hii'(je and in a vertical i)Osition, so that they willnot foul
easily, and that any dei)osit may fall to the bottom.
For dwellings, the writer advises those forms of boilers which are
without tubes, or with but a very few, as the tul)es will invariably
give out long ])erore the shell, and if the tubes are not kept clean
they will transmit, but a snudl pca'centage of heat.
Sijth.—\\\ parts should be readily accettsible for cleaning and
7'(pf/u'fi. This is a i)oint of the greatest im])ortancc and economy.
When the heating surfiices become covered with soot and ashes,
the economy of the boiler greatly decreases, as the soot acts as an
in; ulator and prevents the heat reaching tlio l>oiler. It is for this
na-' ;i tli.it IxmIci-s whi(^h work well when new are found in-
s:::-;(ieiit t:» <lo tho work recpiiicd of them when they bocotiio
dirt v.
ft
;S/v /////. The he;iting surface should be arrangeil as nearly as
])<)ssihle at. rij^lit ansiK-s to the (Mim-nts of heated gases, and so
Itn alv up till' cuirenis as to extracL liiu entin^ available lieaL there-
I roiii.
/.'/;//,/ h. It should have, if pussibli'. no joints ijrih'Hed to the direct
ar! iull «.r \\\\' jli'i\
S'lifh. li ^-IiomM have a great excess <»f si nMiirth over any Icgiti-
iiiriii- >ti.iiii. and should be sfi con>t ruete«l as not l<> lie Iial>le t«) in?
.-ii:i!n-i! hy uni-(ju.-d rxpiiiision.
Tt i,th. It siiiiul'l lir dui'able ill construction, and iK>t liable Ui
reijiiii-i- i;i!l\ ri'p.iirs.
lJ>Cii.i}i. I he water .'^{ia<*e sht^dil bi? divided into sections. w>
IN UEBIUENOES. 837
arranged that should any section give out do general explosion can
occur, iind the destructive effects be confined to the simple escape
of the contents.
Twelfth.—ll should be proportioned lor the work to be done, and
bo capable of working to ita full rat«d capacity with the highest
I'AirUcnik.—lt should he provideil with the very best gauges,
safety-valves, and olhcr fixtures.
The boiter should h ; set so that tho water-lino in the boiler will
be at leaft four feet below the main horizontal supply-pipe.
Sectional Boilei-M. — As there is always a possibility of an
explosion in steam boilers, it is desirable that in boilers intended
for the heatinfTof dwellings, and where no skilled engineer is em-
ploy<'rl, tlie dungtT fmra possible explosion shall be reduced to a
Safety from explosions is be.it obtiiineil in a sectional boiler,
which consisiB of ]i number of ca-it-iron sections, pliicwl side by
side, and connected witli each other by drums top and bottom.
A sectional boiler can perhaps be best described b; Figs. 4
and 5. which show an outside view and a longitudinal section of
1 boiler. As will be seen, it consists of a
K;;« BTEAM IIKATENO IN RESIDE SCK.
number of oist-iroti vortical Kuctions set im a caHt-iroii base, which
foi'iiis tliu nsli-pit. I'lacli Bcctiuu is a Iwilur JTi itself, anil is L-oti-
iiM^iitd Willi ilninis, lop tiiiil botiuiii, umiii)^] vUh nipple aiid
l<H-k-iitit s'rew joints, nw slmmi.
Tlic fniiit ilixl I'imr socl.intia fnrni the Irotit uiiil rear of liie boilur:
till' iiiliiriiiiiliiiti' w'i'lifms are all aliki:, iiiiil as nuiny of llioin as in
iiuix-s.siii'y III <lii till! nH|iiin.il work may Im iim.i1. In cuiH! oho MCt^
ticiii lit a tmiler liku tills liliiiutd biwniiio diiiubli'd. it will iiot jri-ii-
cially (In liny Kruut iliiiiiii(P', ami by ciilUng out the ni|)|iluii ami
|>lii^':;inu I ill' ilrunis tliu luik-r can Ui run fur u Uuii;, until llic
broken si'i'lLoti tiiii U.* it'iiliii'tii.
riiNslnii'li-il siiiiJUr III tbat sliown in Fli.'H. 4 iiml 9 Is
^liiiilili-il fur liciiM' liiiilini;, liy <-itliiT nltiiin or wutvr,
II' lii>>>' <:ivi>p.>ilstitisr<iHi.>n.
' .-I'Vi'nil Myli's nf siH'iJiiiiiil Uiili-rs iniiiiiiriu-tun-il, itll
,.:i.rr -iili-i ••,' lictii^i- l.'i.i'i-. liinl liiit<- ;;iv<'ti iinlkfiu'
.. -,■..! i...i:il l...il,.vi- |,r..lB.l.lv Ihi' iM-'i'i'-l li«-<i. Willi
.t.:.i,i l".il.r- f.ir l.-ii-' li,.;iiiii-. IN- '■Mi-nvr" iiml
riioiKi) liiiili'i's. ina.1.- Uy llir II. It. Stiiilh I'limlmhy,
■\," iikkI.' iiy Dii^ liiiniiy NimIit .Miiiiuriicluriii); ('(iiii-
STEAM HSATING IN BESIDSNCES. 829
the ''American,'' made fagr tlie American Boiler Company, and the
"Faultless Forman/' prodnoed by the Hareadfien Manufacturing
Company, of Geneva, N. Y., are among the best fcnovB^and are
generally well liked. The ** American *' is simple in constractioa,
and utilizes a large percentage of the products of combustion and
generates steam quickly.
For burning soft coal the author believes that cast-inm sectional
boilers will give the best satisfaction.
Typical Speciiicatioiu
FOB A SUPERIOR LOW-PRESSURE 8TEAM-HBATIN0 APPARATUS, FOR
HEATING BY THE INDIRSCT STBTBU, WITH A BTBAM PRESS-
URE OF FROM ONE TO FIYB POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH.
BoUer 8. —VnTnish and erect in cellar, in position as shown on cellar plan, one
(No. 4 Gorton Patent Side-Feed Boiler).
Fixtures.— Fumiah and properly connect to said boiler the following improved
attachments, viz. : One stuam-gange, one. sMfetyvalve, one water column, one
glass water-gange (with fixtures), three gaage-cocks, one antomatic damper reg-
ulator, and all valvCs, pipes, and fittings necessary to render their connection to
the boiler complete.
Furnish with said boiler the following fire tools, viz.: One hoe, one poker,
and one slicing bar.
Connect the boiler to the chimney by means of a galvanized-iron smoke-pipe
of suitable dimensions, with damper in samie.
System of JPiping. —Th\a syBt4im of piping thronghout will be constructed on
the Double Pipe " Gravity Hetam ^ plan, and all pipes erected will be of ample
size to insure the active delivery of dry steam to the radiators, and easy flow of
the water of condensation back to the bciler.
Furnish and erect all supply and return mains and branch connecting-pipes of
the sizes and located iu the relative positions shown on the plans. All piping to
be graded and properly dripped, and to bo hung in position by means of expan-
sion pipe-hangers.
Jiadiation,— The heating of th« several apartments named will be accomplished
by means of indirect radiators set in closfcers or ** stacks," each hnog f rem and
near the ceiling of the cellar, and the heat from these ** stacks " will be co veyed
to the I com to be heated by means of tin hot-air pipes set in the walls and
leadin<? from cellar lo the room to be heated ; each room heated to have
an independent '' ntack,*^ and to be connected therewith by an inde-
pendent tin hot-air pipe. Each of the ** stacks'' of indirect radiatora will be
inclosed in a neat and well-made box cr casing made of galvanised iron, and
from each '' stack '' there will be a galvanized-iron duct of proper size, leading
to the nearest window, where the same shall be connected, to have opening to
admit cold or fresh air to the " stack."
liadi f dors. -Furmah and erect in cellar, in the positions as ahown on plans,
ten ''Stacks '' of approved pattern, indirect radiators, that in the aggregate will
contain not less than 732 square feet of radiating surface, and divided ap for the
several rooms to be heated us follows, viz. :
8:30 STEAM irEATING IN RESIDENCES.
First Story :
Hall,
1 '' stack »'
to contain IfS i
sq.
ft.
en]
Parlor,
t(
fc 4
96
Dinin*;; room,
K
•'
108
Library,
It
it
96
Rear hall,
it
14
48
Second Sfonj :
(liamber over
parlor,
it
44
72
k i k «
(lining-room,
((
44
72
c> >.
library.
(t
44
72
Hall bedroom,
1
(4
44
36
IJatbroom,
(1
41
24
Fr//<v^\--The sui)ply and the return connecting pipe to cacli *' stack " will be
provided wiih a ^dobe valve, and each " stack '' will have an approved autoiuaric
air-valve attached to it.
Pipi. Cove rhif/.— AW collar pipes will be neatly covered with asbestos shealh-
in^r, then 1 -inch thick hair-felt and canvas casing sewed on.
liet/isters. Furni>h and set in position, in each room heated, a vertical wheel
retrif^ter of the size shown on plans. All registers for first story to be bronze
finish, and all others to be black or white japanned finish, as shall be selected.
Tin (ihil ludriinized Iron IFwA;.— Furnish to builder (and by him to be set in
l)()sition as shown on plan?) all tin wall-pipes for hot air to the rooms to be
hen ted, :;1] to be made of IX tin and of the sizes nhown on plan.
Fuinisli and erect in cellar, as shown on plan, galvanized-iron casings or boxes
for I lie ten " stacks," and to each ' stack," from tlie nearest wind<»w, af;alvan-
ized iron duct to conduct fresh air to tlie ''stacks ;" all to bo of the sizes and
dimensions sliown on plans, and to be constructed in a substantial and work-
nianlik(; manner ; each fresh-air duct to be provided with a damper.
<lii(d'il[i of M(iterUiIx.—\\\ materials used in the construction of this apparatnt
an^to be tlie best of their respective kinds; all fittings to be heavily beaded,
and inadt' of the best gray iron, with clean-cut threads.
iiiKtniidi ( . The contractor is to guarantee that the apparatus when completed
will be of ample capacity to maintain an even temperature of 70 degn'es Fahren-
hcii in til*- rooms heated, when the outside tern ])eratare is zero ; and that the
M]>par;itus will afford frei; circulation throughout, and bo noiseless in o|)era-
tion.
Hooks on Kosidonee Hoatinjf. — Much valuable iiifor-
niatinii oil nsidonco licatin^ may be obtained from |>ainphlets pul)-
lislnd \)\ (lilVen'ul mjuiufjioliirers, among whom are the Gurrn'V
Ilratcr Mamifactiiring Company, (rorton & Li<lgerw<K)d Com-
paiiv. Isaac A. Slicppard &('<)., and the Excelsior Stoi»i Furnaee
("..m|iaiiy. of (Miicairo.' Tlie latter company publish a very com -
pi tc Ix.ok on furnace heatin-; ami furnace littings, which every
ai'cliitt'fl should have.
TEMPER ATUBJB OH' FIRE.
831
Temperature of Fire.
By reference to the table of fuels (p. 777), it will be seen that
the temperature of the fire is nearly the same for all kinds of com-
bustibles under similar conditions. If the temperature is known,
the conditions of combustion may be inferred. The following
table, from M. Pouillet, will enable the temperature to be judged
by the appearance of the fire: —
Appearance.
Tempera-
ture F.
Appearance.
Tempera-
ture F.
Red, just visible ....
" dull
" Cherry, dull. . . .
" " " full ....
«* " clear . . .
977"
1290"
1470"
1650"
1830"
Orange, deep . . . .'
•' clear ....
White heat
" bright ....
" dazzling ....
2010*
2190'
2370"
2550*
2730*
To determine temperature by fusion of' metals, etc., —
Substance.
Tempera-
ture F.
•
Metal.
Tempera-
ture F.
Metal.
Tempera-
ture F.
Tallow,
Spermaceti,
Wax, white,
Sulphur,
Tin,
92"
120"
154"
239°
455"
Bismuth,
Lead,
Zinc,
Antimony,
Brass,
518*
630"
793"
810"
1650"
Silver, pure.
Gold Coin,
Iron, Cast, raed..
Steel,
Wroujfht-Iron,
1
1830*
2156"
2010"
2550"
2910"
Tables.
The following tables will be found useful in estimating the size
of boilers, piping, registers, etc.
832
TEMPERATURE OF FIRE.
TABLE OP TEMPERATURE. ,
COMIMLKI) FROM OBSKRVATIONS OF THE SIGNAL SEEVICK, U. S. A.,
AND HLOIKJETT's CMMATOLOOY OK THE UNITED STATES.
Note. — In tlio United States the comfortable tonifjcraiurc of the
air in occupied rooms is generally 70 degrees, when wulJs huvo the
same tempiTature.
HTATION.
Albany, X. Y. .
Baltimore, Md. .
Boston, Mass.
BulTalo, X. V. .
Burlington. \'t. .
Chica^n), 111. . .
(Miarlcston, S. C.
(Mncinnali, ().
(.'Icvcland, (). .
Detroit, Mich.
Dulutli, Minn.
Indianapolis, Ind.
Key W i'st, Fla. .
Leaven Worth. I\aii.
Louisville. Ky.
Meiiipliis. Tfun. .
MihsMukt (', Wis.
N<'\v ( )rlfMns. La.
XfW ^'o|•k. X. Y.
Pliihidelplii.-i. Pa.
Pitt>l)urLr. !'a.
Poi-tiainl, .Me.
Port l.Mihi. Ore.
San i-'r.ineiseo. Cal.
SI. Loiiis, Mo.
Si. I»;iul. .Minn. .
\N a^iiin::fori. I). ('.
W'iiniiMiitoii. N. ('.
7
0
7
8
7
i
7
7
7
8
r»
4
0
(!
6
/)
8
0
7
7
7
8
(I
4
5
r>
Cutn
u
=1
OS'S
3!>
4:{
• !■*
•H
•10
50
I •
a.
■ o B-e
= 53!
^5)5 ■ ^ ^
C *- a*
85 85
89 81
87 88
r>i) Ot)
82 88
85 85
52 18
42 28
88 82
sn m
28 42
41 2»
0 0
87 :I8
42 -JS
:JJ) 31
87 ■' 3:3
0 I 0
40 ■ 80
40 I 80
81
87
27
17
•,v.\
45
80
20
87
72
81
8:}
90
90
47
17
88
90
108
88
20
90
80
08
95
44
76
75
82
s-»
67
m
l«i2
78
55
§•3
17
2
11
13
20
20
23
7
13
20
38
18
44
20
10
3
26
6
R
12
12
3
36
16
32
3
15
HOT-WATER HEATING MEMORANDA.
833
USEFUL MEMORANDA : HOT- WATER HEATING.
MEASUREMENT OF FLOW AND RETURN PIPES.
For the purpose of ascei*taining the amount of beating surface in.
flow, return pipes, and risers, the following table is used. To ob-
tain the surface, multiply length of pipe by figures given below,
alwaj s pointing off two places.
Example : 500 lineal feet 1-inch pipe multiplied by .84 equals 170
square feet.
Size of Pipe.
I in.
1 in.
li in.
U in-
2 in.
2.^ in.
3 in.
3i in.
4 in.
Square feet
in one lin-
eal foot.
Surface op Pipe covek-
iNo I INCH Hair Felt
AND Canvas.
.27
.34
A'l
.50
.62
.75
.92
1.05
1.17
Size of Pipe.
1 in.
Uin.
ll in.
2 in.
2iin.
8 in.
3iin.
4 in.
Multiply
length by
.79
.96
1.04
1.09
1.20
1.87
1.49
1.64
Table of Quantity op
Water contained in 100
lineal feet op Pipe of
different Diameters.
Diameter
of Pipe.
1 in.
liin.
ll in.
2 in.
2iin.
3 in.
3iin.
4 in.
Contents in
100 feet in
length.
4 50 gals.
7.75 gals.
10.59 gals.
17.43 gals.
24.80 gals.
88.38 gals.
51.86 gals.
66.13 gals.
STEAM HEATING. -BOILEES.
4S ■ II
■I-' ' K1
i
'A
1^
3ih
t
il
^1.
i5_
m
H2
02
558
14692
jl
522
13620
'>!
480
127112
U
60
4S0
12000
25
48
432
11280
17
44
396
HBBO
IB
40
300
0228
[W
38
324
72
233
8444
■i2
;i2
238
7874
77
30
270
6012
72
2S
6450
07
20
234
GU88
m>
20
234
.5400
m
20
2:M
6862
111
20
234
5502
57
24
21(1
5142
5)!
24
2IG
4782
4!)
24
210
4410
iC<
180
41M
4:!
IH
3852
4(1
IS
ir)2
auoo
IS
ir(2
JB30
:i4
IK
ir>2
3078
!ifl
Ift
i:>2
3252
■■•A
10
144
3(M8
:!3
10
144
285)1
W
10
144
auo
il
14
120
2+M
iiti
14
lal
^SUO
:4
14
120
2ian
■ii
12
1«8
1112(1 i
111
12
100
1710;
li
lOH
isar
2(1
12
lOK
nss
1«
1(1
00
\tisa [
JC.
10
HO
14(U
U
K
72
1200
12
8
72
1140
10
11
W
tll2
0
U
7U8:
1
STEAM HEATING. — BOILERS-
835
TTPRIGBT TUBUIjAR BOHiBRB.
MaNUVACTURSD by KBICDALI. 8c ROBBH^TB, CAHBBtDOBPOBT, MASS.
Diameter
Uetghtof
Number
Diameter
I^engtb of
tuoes.
Heating
Horse-
of shell.
sheU.
of tubes.
of tubes.
Burface.
power.
ius.
ft. In.
in.
ft. in.
fL
18
4 0
40
1^
■
0 88
—
—
18
4 6
40
1:
■
0 80
-.
.—
18
5 0
40
1}
0 45
-
■-
24
5 0
25
2
3 6
52
^
24
5 6
25
2
4 0
58
a
24
6 0
2S
2
4 6
64
4
30
5 0
45
2
3 0
80
5
30
5 6
45
2
3 6
90
6
30
6 0
45
2
4 0
102
6}
30
6 6
45
2
4 6
114
7*
30
7 0
45
2
5 0
125
^
36
6 0
65
2
4 0
145
4
36
6 6
65
2
4 6
162
36
7 0
65
2
5 0
180
12
36
7 0
65
2
5 6
195
IS
36
8 0
65
2
6 0
•
210
14
42
6 6
100
2
4 6
240
16
42
7 0
100
2
5 0
268
18
42
7 6
100
2
5 6
293
1^
42
8 0
100
2
6 0
818
21
48
7 0
120
2
5 0
820
21
48
7 6
120
2
5 6
850.
23
48
8 0
120
2
6 0
880
25
54
8 6
186
2
6 6
iioo
40
54
9 0
186
2
7 0
675
45
54
9 6
186
2
7 6
720
48
60
10 0
250
2
7 e
976
65
60
11 0
250
2
8 6
1100
73
60
12 0
250
2
9 6
1224
81
36 DIMGNSIOIfS OF REGISTERS AND BORDERS.
DIMENSIOHS OF REGISTERS AMD aOBSBBB.
M*DB BV THE TUTTLH XSV Bui.It CO.
DIUGKStOKS OF REQIBTERS AND BOKDERS. 837
DIMENSIONS OF KE0I8TKBS AND BORDERS.~OonUn«ed.
838
CAPACITY OF PIPES AND REGISTERS.
ESTIMATED CAPACITY OF PIPES AND
REGISTERS.
I)ianiot(!r
Area in
Diameter
of pipe.
Rq. inches.
of pipe.
7 iiichoH
38
12 inches.
H "
50
' 14 *•
9 "
^\
16 "
10 •*
78
18 "
11 "
95
20 ♦*
BOUNI> PIPKS.
Area in
pq. inches .
113
154
201
254
314
Diameter
of pipe.
22 inches.
24 **
26 "
28 "
30 "
Area in
sq. inches.
Si?
:e
of
l>
ipc
4
X
8
4
x
10
4
X
12
4
X
Ifi
()
N'
10
()
X
12
<)
X
10
8
X
10
H
X
12
8
X
10
Si/i' of
()pi-iiiiii{.
«)
<■
10
s
<
in
s
-•
VI
s
•■
V.^
'.)
.'
Vl
<t
.'
14
111
<
IJ
RKCTANGULAK PIPES.
.Vrea in
sq. inches.
32
40
4S
64
00
72
9(5
80
96
128
'I
(^ijKicity in l|
s*!- inches. ,,
40
53
♦U
80
72
84
SO
.Size
of pipe.
8
8
10
10
10
10
10
12
12
12
20
24
12
15
16
18
20
12
15
16
Area in
sq. inches.
160
192
120
150
KVO
180
200
144
180
192
Size
of pipe.
12
12
12
14
14
14
16
16
16
16
18
20
24
14
16
20
16
IS
20
24
Area in
sq. incheii.
216
240
2SH
106
224
2sO
256
2M8
aio
384
KEGISTKKS.
Size of
opening.
10
10
12
12
14
15
16
14
16
15
19
25
24
( 'apacity in
sq. inches.
93
107
120
1.52
205
2r»<)
2.'>6
Size of
openinij;.
20
2t)
21 »
21
27
27
20
24
26
29
27
:w
, Caiiadty In
IHI. incucA.
267
320
347
406
4S6
6K4
GOO
IU>1'M> KKCilSTKKS.
Si /.I- r.f
i>|irMii!Lr.
7 ilM'lH -.
Ill '•
!
("apaciiy in j Size «»f
Si|. inclii'^. I opcnini;.
2«i
IJ in«*lies
• »•!
• *•!
It "
42
16 "
52
is ••
Capacity in
S(|. inches.
i:U
169
Size of
opening.
20 iiieht'H.
:U) "
(*ui>»rity la
i<q. llicho*.
'209
3U1
471
679
SIZE AND DIMENSIONS OF HOT-AIR STACKS. 839
TABLE OP SIZES AND DIMENSIONS OP SAPBTY DOUBLE
HOT-AIE STACKS,
Hide b; the ExcelaioT 8tcel Fnnuce Company.
INDEX TO ADDITIONS (SINCE NINTH
EDITION).
PAGI
Architectural terra-cotta 18Ga
Bcarinur jjlates, proportions of S4Sa
Cost of buildings per cubic foot 760
C'oHt of buildings per square foot IflOg
Dimensions of wooden lloor joist (Tables) 4SS!a
Dimensions of wooden girders (Tables) 487ft
Duvinage anchor and post capn 466
Fawcett fireproof floor 46827
Hollow tile and steel cable floors 455
Joist hangers 4IS!f
Mail chutes TS5
]VU'tro])()litan fire-proof floor 46^
I{esid«'nc<' hratiui; B07
Strength of Il-shaped cast-iron colnmns 856
" hollow rectangular cant-iron columns S85e
The CJ ray stct-l column WBff
Working strength of masonry (Table) 181
INDEX.
FAOB
Adhesive strength of sulphur, lead, and Portland cement 718
Air, weiijht and composition of., 706
*' volume and weight of 783
" specific heat of 784
American and Birmingham wire gauges 623
Anchor irons for iron beams 489
Ancient weights 84
Apostles, symbols for the 687
Arch girders, cast-iron, strength of 422
Arched roofs, iron 515
" roof-trusses 518
Arches, brick, for floors 440
" centres for 197
" depth of keystone 197
" inverted 152
" horizontal thrust of 196
stability of 194
Architects' charges, and professional practice of 760
list of noted 740
" of noted public and private buildings 758
Architectural schools in the United States 769
Area of circles, rule 41
'' " " tables 40,47,49
" " irregular polygons, rules for 89
" " regular polygons, rules 39
" " squares, rectangles, etc., rules for 86
*' '* trapeziums, rules 39
" '* trapezoids, rules 89
" " triangles, rules ". . 38
Asphalt, rock 694
Asphaltum 693
Auditorium Building, Chicago GOl
Beams, iron, cast 871
" " and sted, tables 336-368
*' strength of, general principles 882
" wooden, strength of 871
Bearing power of soils , 148
Bearings of beams 376
Bells, church, dimensions and weight of 700
" table of the largest ringing 688
Belly-rod trusses 404
842 INDEX.
PAGK
Bendiiig-momcntB 800
examples of . , 29!
ill pins 239
" iurivctf S/65
j^raphical method 293
of coutimioiiH girders 894
Billiard tables and rooms, dimensioiis of "721
Birmini^liam and American wire i;auge8 G38
JJlackboards, hoi^'lii of, in schools 723
Blue print copies of tracintis, to make 715
Board nu*a;-nn!, table of 696
Boiler tubes &S
Boilers, upright and liorizontal, dimensions of 808. 809
Books. archit'Ctural, list of 774
Bowstring roof-trusses 513
Box-girders 410
Bracing of channels SQ5
Brest walls 170
Brick arches for floors 440
" i)lers, strength of 171,178,181
" walls 15S
Bricklayers' memoranda OK
Bricks re(iuired in setting lioilers 631
strength of 175
Brickwork, etllorescenee on 712
^t niiigt h of 171, 176, 181
SI
'• niea^ureiiKMit of.
" in drains and wells CM
Bridges, notabli', description of 601
leiJL'th of OOS
Bridiring of lloor-beanis 430
Brooklyn Bridge, the, dimeiisionH of OOB
Built beam-, solid 381
J'.llttres^es, stability of 167
( 'abhs as9, sao, SSI
( alcndar. t he old and new SO
Canvas roiiiiiiL' 461
Capacity of rhurehes, theatres, oi>era-h(mses, etc 69S
(■!' ei-t«.-nis and tanks TtM
of (Irain-i)ipes 685
'' of frcighi-cnrx Cfff
of pipes and re'jisters 811
('arii:i:.'c b" arii> 4S1
Ca.-liii/-, wrii'ht and shrinkaL'e of 719
Ca-t iron arch L^iniiT-. ^-i length of 422
braiii", stn'iis.Mh of 371
(■(liiiinn-^, str ngth »»f £19. SSS
pip*-;, weiirht of 816,618
Carhrilral^. Ki.L'lixh. dimension'^ of fiM
<'«inints. stniigth of 171,180
Centre of ..'ra\ iiy. dfUnititms, etc
-XHinpies
(I
INDEX. 843
PAGK
Centres for arches 197
Chains, strength and weight of 232
Charges and profesHional practice of architects 760
Chicago, foundations . . ! 148
Chimneys*, boiler, proportions for 571
" examples of large 173
" foundations for 141
general principles of 569
wrought-iron 577
Chords, table of 85
Churches, capacity of 592
Circles, area of 40, 47, 49
" circumference of 40, 48, 49
Circular and angular measure 30
" arcs, length of 54-57
" sectors, area of 60
Circumference of circles, rule 40
tables 42-48
Cisterns and tanks, capacity of 703
Classical mouldings 728
Clock-faces, large, dimensions of 589
Coefllcient of friction 714
Coin, weight of 29
Colors of iron caused by heat 707
Columns, cast-iron, caps and bases 250
cast-inm, strength of 249, 252
keystone, wrought-iron 2'/7, 2T8
Lorimer's patent steel, strength of 289
monumental, height of 691
Phoenix, wrought-iron 266
strength of 248
wooden, strength of 244
wrought-iron and steel, strength of 255
Z-bar, strength of 279
Comparative resistance to crushing of iron and steel 266
Comparison of thermometers 706
Composition of forces 158
Concrete as a fireproof material 469
" proportions for 148a
" floors 448
" footings 139
" strength of 171
Cones, surface of 62
Consumption of water in cities 711
Continuous girders, strength and stiffness of 392
Contract between architi!ct and owner. 763
standard building 764
Corrugated t-hret-iron 624
Cost of public buildings 701
" per square foot of factories 463
Counter-braces 494
Counter-flashings 653
n
(I
844 * INDEX.
PAGE
Crushing height of brick and stono 178
Crushing strength of materialp iMS
" " " wood and metals 948
" ** " stones, bricks, cements, etc 171
Cu])e root, rule for determining 4
" table of 7
Cy(;loid, to describe a SI
Cylindrical beams, rtiffness of 391
Dead load, dclhiition of 127
Dcilection of beams 8K3
" " continuous girders 806
" " iron beams 801
Dimensions of beds 721
" " billiard tables and rooms 781
*' " bureaus 721
*' " carriages 738
" " drawings for patent? 721
•' " En;rlish cathedrals 504
" •' fire engine."* and liose carriages 788
" •' furniture, etc 781
" " horse Htalls 731
*' obelisks 095
*' " pianos 781
" " registers and ventilators 810
" " school-rooms 728
" •'' t licat res and opera-liouses 508
" " the Auditorium lluilding, Chicago 601
" " '' Drooklyn Bridge COS
" " " (Jrand ( )perH House, Paris W
" " '• Madison Square (Janlen, New York 601
" '' " Metropolitan Opera House, New York 000
" " New City Hall, Philadelphia 500
" " " principal domes 5H9
*' '' " State Capitol, Hartfonl, Conn 500
*' '• " \Vasliingt4)n Monument 000
" " United States Capitol 808
'• " I'nited States Treasury building 509
*' " Tni ted States War and Navy buildlxig 600
'• " well-known Kurojiean buildings 506
Di'^liari.MMif watir 660
Donii-y. (liin(n^ion> of 5N0
Dniiii |)i|ie-, capneity and clescripllon of *.. G88
DiaiiL'hi of ( liiniMcys 571
hriiin-' and i)ulley-, speed of 730
I'Iill<»ri-.-('ence (>n brickwork 718
Kla>«!ic <'ein«nt 658
K'lfctiieal detlnifions 060
Eliiiric li:;ht \\ iriuL', nile«' for 675
Ellip-e. ifMle-cribe an 78
IM';i-i>i<U 61
|-)i|iiilil>riiini, detinitiiMi of 125
Kvniution. 4
INDEX. 845
PAGE
Excavations, measnring 67
hccavators' and well -diggers' memoranda 62tt
bcpaneion of metals 708
Ixplosive force of blasting material 724
lye-bars and screw ends 321-223
'actor of safety 126
'ellowshlps, travelling, for draughtsmen 772
'ire, temperature of 777, 806
'ire-proof buildins^s, requirements of 484
" construction 467
" floors, description of 438
strength of 446, 453
" materials 467
roofs 473
'ish-joints 531
'ive orders of classical architecture, the 729
'lashings 053
'litch-plafc girders 401
'loors, concrete 448
" fire-proof 438
" loads on 426
" solid or mill, strength of 433
" wooden, stiffness of 435
" " strength of 429
'low of gas in i)ipos 579
" '^ water 661
'ooling courses 149
'orcc, dc'lhiition of 125
of the wind ". 725
'orcos, composition of 158
" triangle of 159
'oundation walls ../ 152
'onndations 130
Chicago 148
'' steel beams in 144
'raming and connecting of iron beams 865, 870
'rench jjlato window-glass, price list 688
riction, coellicient of 714
•ucl 776
al vaiiizod iron,- weight and strength of 623
t.18 nionioaiida 579
" piping a liouse for 580
" flow of, in pipes 579
" pipes, weight and size of 621
k'onietrical problems 68
rirders, continuous 392
" flitch-plate 401
" rivL'ted plate iron 410
" steel beam 417
rlass, plate and common window 687, 692
" for skylights 698
[oetz-Mitchell anchors and caps for wooden posts 464
i6 DIMENSIONS OF RE0IBTER8 AND BOUDEBB.
DHUENSIOHS OF RBOIBTIIBB AND BOBSBRS.
MjlDB Br THE TdTTXA AMD BtlLSI Co.
DI SIONS OF REGISTERS AND B0RDEH8. 837
DIMENSIONS OF HBQISTEBS AND BORDERS.— OonHnued.
H^H
CAPACITY OF PIPES AND REGISTERS.
ESTIMATED CAPACITY OF PIPES AND
REGISTERS.
ROUNI>
PIPES.
Diameter
Area in
Diameter
Area in
Diameter
Area in •
of pipe.
7 iiichert
sq. inches.
of pipe.
pq. inches.
of pipe.
sq. inches. ;
38
12 inches.
113
22 inchcB.
380
8 "
50
14 "
154
24 "
452
9 "
63
16 «*
201
26 "
&31
10 «♦
78
18 "
254
28 «•
616
11 '*
95
20 "
314
30 "
707
RECTANGULAR PIPES.
If^ize
Area in
Size
Area in
Size
Area in
of pipe.
4X8
sq. inches.
of pipe.
sq. inches.
of pipe.
sq. inches.
32
8 X 20
160
12 X 18
216
4 X 10
40
8 X 24
192
12 X 20
240
4 X li>
48
10 X 12
120
12 X 24
288
4 X 10
64
10 X 15
150
14 X 14
IM
0 X 10
00
10 X 16
160
14 X 16
224
(5 X 12
72
10 X 18
180
14 X 20
2H0
0 X 10
90
10 X 20
200
16 X 16
256
8 X 10
80
12 X 12
144
, 16 X 18
2H8
8 X 12
96
12 X 15
180
16 X 20
320
8 X 10
128
12 X 16
192
16 X 24
3M
Size of
REGISTERS.
, (-apacity in
1 Size of
Capacity in
Hize of
Caimclty in
sq. iiiche«.
opening.
Hq. inches.
1
40
opening.
sq. inches.
opening;.
i —
0 X 10
10 X 14
93
2<) X 20
267
S X 10
53
10 X 16
107
•20 X 24
320
S X 12
64
12 X 15
120
2n X 26
»47
H X If)
80
12 X 10
152
21 X 20
406
u y 12
72
14 X 22
205
27 X 27
4S6
•t X 14
84
15 X 25
250
27 X 38
6H4
' 10 X 12
80
]
1 "'
; Capacity in
16 X 24
1
2.'>«l
30 X 30
1
600
i
1
ii()rNi> R
EGISTERS
i.
Si/.c of
Size of
Capacity in
1
SI 21' of
CaiMwily Id
Hq. incbeti.
oiu'Miiitr.
1 Hi\. ineliei*.
opening.
S(i. inches.
oiMUilng.
' 7 inches.
20
12 incheH.
75
20 incbca.
209
; ^
• ><►
• Hi
■ U '•
10.1
mi **
301
' 'J "
42
16 ♦•
134
:w ♦♦
471
; lo '•
i ..
52
, 18 "
1
1
169
w •♦
879
SIZE AND DIMENSIONS OP HOT-AIR STACKS. 839
TABLE OP SIZES AND DIMENSIONS OP SAPETY DOUBLE
HOT-AIB STACKS,
H*de t; tbe BxcelsloT Sicel Fonuce Company.
J
850 INDKX.
FAOl
Spheres, purfacc of W
" volume of 65
Spheroids 61, W
Spires, height of , MB
Springers, (lefinition of IW
Squari* root, rule for determinin;^ 4
" '' tabic of 7
Stability, deliuition of 126
" of arches 194
" of piiTs, buttresses, etc 187
Stairs, fire-proof, brick, stone, and concrete 479
" rules for ■ 5fiS
" table of treads and risers 6S4
Standard buiUlinj; contract 761
" specifications for iron and steel 9fl9
Statics, definition of liS
Steam, heat of 778
" superheated 778
Steam heatinj; 776
Steam-boihMS 801, 808, 809
Steam, drying by 80S
Steam-pipes, size of, rules for 80S
'' loss of heat from 803
Steam- and LMs-pi])es, weight and diuicnsiona of 041, 6^
St(!''l beam L'irdiTs 417, 421
St itlhe>s of beams, ireneral formula 9S86
'* '• '• ratio of JJS7
of f'oMlinuous girders 895
'■ of cylindrical bf.'ims 991
ol' lianl pine beams, tabh' 8H8
'* of (»ak bejims 890
" of rectanL.'nlar beams, fonnulje 886
'• of spruce brams. table 888
" of wooden fioors 435
Stirrui)-irons 4Si
Stone, strength of 181, 18S
Stone work, n>ea-ureu)ent of (ISI
Strain, deiinitlon of IM
StrcriL'th of bc'jitn'i, general r<»rniul;e 88i
inm and ^tei-l, comparative 385
iron and s-teel, tables of 836-868
' suj)i)orling brick wall 881
*■ ofl):ick 173
of brirkwork liT, 17H, 181
of cM-t iron bfums 871
' columns, formnl:i> 949
laUes S»-S!fi
iifrh.'l'll'' .31
iif ' ■ii.tinutius L'irders SLM
*' (if «■■. lindrieal br;im~ 875
' fif il.-it rullt'd iron l>ars 885
*' of ll'H.: biam> .48
INDEX. 851
PAGE
Stren^h of floors 1 1 425
" of hard-pine and oak posts 247
" of hard-pine beamf*, table 877
" of hemp and Manila ropes 281
of hollow fire-clay tile 468
'* of hollow tile and terra-cotta arches 446
" of inclined beam« 335
" of iron bars 225
*• of iron beams, proportional to weight 834
" of iron and nteel wire ropes 229
•' of iron channels as posts, table 261
*' of iron T-bars as posts, table 288
" of masonry 172, 180
" of mortars 180
•' of oak beams, table 378
" of pins in bridges and trusses 285
" " tables 287,288
" of posts, stmts, and columns 243
" of ropes, hawsers, and cables 281
" of f'olid timber and plank floors 433, 485
*' of spruce l)cams, table 379
'* of steel floor beams, tables 453
of stone 181, 185
" of white-pine beamss, table 380
" of wooden beams, general formulaj 872-374
" of wooden floors 429
'' posts 244
" of wrought-iron (tensile) 218
" " " columns, formula 257
•' *' '' " tables 260
" rods 218
Stress, definition of 126
Structures, definition of 125
Struts, hard-pine and oak, strength of 346
" wrought-iron and steel, strength of 255
Symbols for the apostles and saints 587
Table of board measure 036
" " for scantlings G3:}
bowstring roofs, proportion 515
bricks in a wall 030
chords 85
circles, areas, and circumferences 42
circalar arcs, length 55, 57
inches expressed in decimals of a foot 25
noted architects ; 729
plank niejisure 044
shearing-strength of materials 234
sines and cosines, natural 100-108
squares and cubes, square root and cube root 7
tangents and co-tangents, natural 109-120
thickness of walls for buildings, Boston and New York 155, 167
treads and risers 064
.(
4(
tl
it
(i
852 INDEX.
PA«1I
Table of upset pcrew-endp ....•••»>» 287
Tacks, yize, length, weight, etc 615
Tail-b(!ams 431
Tomptirut iinj of fire '. 777, 806
Teiisile strength and quality of wrought-iron. 218
" '■'■ " qualities of Bteel 308
" " of materials 207
Tension, reisistance to 206, 207
Theatres, capacity of 592
" dimensions of ? 593
" seating-space in 586
Thermometers, comparison of 706
Tie-rods for arches, formula for 423. 455
" '' floor arches 454
Tiles, roofing 656
Time, measures of 29
Tin roofs 656
Tinned doors 484
Towers, luififhts of 591
Travellinij fc'llowships and scholarships for draughtsmen 772
Trianj:lc' of forces 150
Trigononu'try, formulas and tables 95
Trimmers 481
Trussed beams 401
" purlins 546
Twenty best buildings (architecturally) in the I'nlted States 758
Ultimate strength, definition of 126
United States Capitol, description of 506
Upset screw-ends, table of 287
Vallt'vs, close and open 658
Vaulted party-walls 154
Velocity of flow of water 661
Volumes, definitions of 87
Voiissoirs, (ielinifion of 194
Walls, foundation 154
" hollow 154
masonry 158
'* thickness of, required in Boston 156
" " " " " >,>w York City 187
Wa'jhinL'toM Monument, dimensions of 600
AVafer-i>ipes, weiglit and menioranda of 618
WaitT, con>umpti(m of, in citie."* 711
pr.)perties()f 709
Wear and tear of building materials 708
Weiirht, apotliecaries' 80
" avo'iibipois S8
;ioy 8ri
*' and composition of air TtOO
and stieni;tli of h'lul-plpe* 065
«.fl>.'lls 588,700
" holts, nuts, and bolt-heads 613
* " brickwork IHT cubic fout 298
INDEX. 853
PAGE
We\ght of brass, lead, and copper 612
" buildiuijs 701
" " cast-iron columns per lineal foot 619, 620
" pipes 616-618
*' " " plates 611
" " " water-pipes 618
" *' castiners, rules for 719
" coins 29
'• *' copper, brass, and lead 612
" " copper wire 672
*' " cord-wood 724
" " earth 626
*' " fire-engines and hose-carriages 722
" " flat and bar iron .609
" " floors 428
•' '* grindstones 720
** " iron rivets 614
*' " lead and gasket for pipe-joints 618
*' " lead, copper, and brass (rolled) 612
** " lead sashweights (compressed) per foot 723
*' '' lumber per thousand feet T-'S
*' " men and women 721
*• *' merchandise per cubic foot 426
•* *' mortar 180
•' " rivets 614
*' " roofing material 522
" " roof trusses 521
*♦ *' snow 522
" " substances per cubic fool 697
*' •' wrought iron and steel, ruh 8 for 606
»* '' " " bars 606
" " " " per square foot 606
" " *' " pipes 621
Weights, ancient 34
Well -diggers' memoranda 026
Wind, force of the 725
" pressure 622
Window-glass G92
Wire gauges, American and Birmingham, Browne and Sharpe 623, 673
" lathing 476
Wooden beams, strength of 371
'* cohimns 244
Woods, hardness of 718
Wnjught-iron chimneys 677
" fractured surface of 219
" piping, weight and dimensions of 621, 622
*' posts and columns 257, 280
welded tubes * 621,622
Z-bar columns, descriptive 279
" " standard connections 280
" ' ♦ strength of 288-288
u
■I
, 'I
r\
I -I
{ ComjAled by tJv author frnnt
Aaron'l-Tlod.— An ornamental flgnre repr
vlned abont it. It ]s Jwmetlmw confounded
'he dlBtlDctlon between ilie caduceue and Ihc
u twa §eTp«iiti4 twined In oppooile directionK, w1
Abanu.— Tlie npper member o[ Iho cnpi
BSmsnta of a circle caiied tii^ arcti of tbe
nd fi commonlj' dpcoratwl wilh s rose or otli
lent In tbe centre, having the angles, callei
f ths abacBS, cut off in tlie direction of thi
r cnrTo, In the Tiisran or Doric, it is a
kblet ; lb the (onic, tbe edges are moulded
kirinthiaii, ItA biilea are concave and frc
nriched with curving. In GotHtc pillars
Abb«y.-A term tor the cbnreh and other build-
iga lued by cimvcntiial bodies presided over by an
bbot or abbcFie. in conlradlxllncti<iii to caihedial. '
i>hop ; and jirlory, the head of which was a prior or
Abatm«nt.— That part<
AbnttalB-The boundii
AoontllDi.— A iiiant found In the eonlh of Europe, t
araeare employed for decorating tbe Corinthian and
'ompoalte capltaU. The leaves of the acanthns are
«ed on the boll of the capital, and distinguish the two
ich orders from ihc three others,
AoTKterill.— The small pedesUls pla^.ed on the oi-
-emitiuH and apex of a pediment. Thej are usually
■ithonl bases or plhitlis, and were originally intended
Aile, Aisla.-The wings; innaid side porticos of
JUmw— Thciorlj-inal and el rict mean luff of ihlsword, ivhlch is derived from
ie Spanish tOai'ia, U conSiicd to that part of a bedchamber bi which the bed
Itnda, geparati'd from the other pai-la ol the room by columns or pilaBters. It
t Roman arcbltectnre, a room nsed by bstbera for
2 GLOSSARY.
Almonry. —The place or chanibor whoro aliriH were diatributed to the poor fn
chnrches, or other occU-siaHtieal bnildhijj;. At Bishopptonc Church, Wiltshiro,
England, it in a sort of covered porch attached to the t*oiith trannept, but not
coniniunicating with the interior of the church. At Worcentcr Cathedral. Eng-
land, the alms arc said to have been distributed on stone tables, on tacli side,
within the i,'r('at porch. In large monastic establinhments, as at Westminster.
it seems to have bet^n a separate building of some importance, either joiuiuji; the
gatehouse or near it, that tlie establishment might be disturbed us little at)
])Ossible.
Altar. -In ancient Koman architecture, a place on which oflferiiiijs or gacri-
fk-.es were made to the gods. In Protestant churclice, the coinmuniou table in
often designated as the Altar, and in lionian Catholic churchea it is a »tquuru
table placed at the east end of the church for the celebration of moBU.
Altar of Incense.— A small table covered with plates of g«)ld on which was
placed the Buioking censer in the temple at Jerusalem.
Altar-piece. I'he entire decorations of an altar ; a painting placed behind an
altar.
Altar-screen.— The back of the altar fn)m which the canopy was suspended,
and separating the choir from the lady chapel and presbytery. The Altar-screen
was generally of stone, and co:r.posed of tlie richest tabernacle work of nioiles,
finials. and ])C(lestals. sui)porting statues' of the tutelary saints.
Alto-rilievo. High rcli»f— a sculpture, the flgures of which project from.
tlic snrfacc on which they are car\'ed.
Ambo. A raised platform, a pul])it. a reading-de8k, a marble pulpit — an ob-
long enclosure in ancient churches, resc:nbling in its uscts and positions the mod-
ern choir.
Ambry. A cupboard or closet, frequently found near the altar in ancient
churclK s to hold haered utensils.
Ambulatory. An alley a gallcrj' - a cloister.
Amphiprostylos. A (Grecian temi)le which has a columned portico on both
ends.
Amphitheatre. -A donble theatre, of an elliptical form on the plan, for the
exhibition of the ancient gladiatorial fights and other nhows. Its arena or pit. In
which those exhibitions took place, was cncompasnetl with seats rising ai>oTe
each other, and the exterior had the accommodation of porticos or arcades fur
the public.
Amphora. A (irecian vase with two handles, often seen on nie<lals.
Ancones. The consoles or ornaments cut <m the key-stones cif archen or on
the sides of door ea^^■s. They are sometimes made use of to sapp«>rt bnrta or
other llL'iires.
Angle-bar. Injoinery. an upright bar at the angles of |M)Iygona1 windows;
a iiiiiili'.ii.
Angle capital. In (ireek arehiteeture, thosi> Ionic rapltals placed on the
lla! k I •ibi;:iii- of a portico, which have one of their volutes placed horizontally
;il an aii-I'- "f a hundn'd and ihirty-llve dei:r*»<»s with the plane of thi* frieze.
Annulatcd Columns. <'olinnn-< clnxten-d toircther by rinpsorbandn; mncb
usi-i| ill i;!!.'!':-!; ari'liitectiire.
Annular Vault. A vault risiuL' from two pur-
aIl^I\^all- the Vault of a corridor. Same as litinff
V.t.ilt
Annulet. A small stiuare m<iuldlng n.>ii'd to s«-p-
Hiiil-e III her-. The llllef whfch heiNirates the flut-
iii!'.- ir '-niijiiiii!; is sometimes known by this term. AimuiXT,
GLOSSARY.
flB.— A name given to a pilaster wlien attached to a wall. VltrnviuB
I parastata when insulated. They arc not usually diminiehed, and
examples their capitals nre different from those of the colamns
ny.
ber. -An apartment preceded by ji vestibule and from which is
nother room.
)1.— A small chapel forming the entrance to another. There are
Merton College, Oxford, and at King's ColicL^e, Cambridge, England,
•al others. The antechapel to the lady-chapel in cathedrals is
ed the Presbytery.
.—The part under the rood loft, between the doors of the choir
• entrance of the screen, forming a sort of lobby. It is also called
r.
-In classical architecture (gargoyles, in Gothic architecture), the
lions*' and other lieads below the eaves of a
gh channel.^j in which, usually by the mouth, '
carried from the c.jves. By some this term is
; upright onuunents above the eaves in ancient
which hid the ends of the Harmi or joint
1
ANTEFIXA.
.—The lowest part of the sliaft of an Ionic or Corinthian colnmn,
t memlxr of its base if the column be considered as a whole. The
the inverted cavetto or concave sweep, on the upper edge of which
ng shaft rests.
plain or moulded piece of finish beloA- the stool of a window, put
le ron<;h ed<,'e of the plastering.
2 semicircular or polygonal lenninntion to the chancel of a church.
A temple without columns on the flanks or sides.
—An artitlcial canal for the conveyance of water, either above or
. The Roman aqueducts are mosi ly of the former C(m8truction.
), -A building after the manner of the Arabs. Ornaments used by
>ple, in wliich no human or animal figures appear,
sometimes improperly used to denote a species of or- «i^"*0
posed of capricious fantastics and imaginary repre-
animals and foliaire so much employed by the Romans
tions of walls and ceilings.
Lrcbitecture. A style of architecture the rudiments Jj^li
ear to have; been taken from surrounding nations, the
,'rians, Chaldeans, and Persians. The best preserved
irtake chiefly of the Grjeco-Roman, Hyzantine, and
is supposed that they constructed many of their finest
n the ruins of ancient cities.
.—That style of building in which th(! rohinins are
one another from four to five diamet- rs. Strictly
term should be limited to intercolnniniation of four
n'cli is only suited to tlie Tuscan order.
rlos. That style of bnildinj: in which four columns
he space of eight diameters and a half ; the central
ition being three diameters and a half, and the others on etch
ily half a diameter, by which arrangement coupled cohimns are
AKABESQUB.
-Large bronze candelabra, in the shape of a tree, placed on the floor
arches, so as to appear growing out of it.
Arch.- Ill liiiilcllng. n inuchaiilail arnuigc-
li}' pivri' '>r uliuiinutils, (ci carry wtiKliu uiid
r'Pl.( pn•»«ur■^
Areh-battreM. -aonnainiuK callud a flying tactaz.
lIllUr<l^u ; nil ureli fi.tiiiBiiii; fnini a bnttriiBS or pier.
Aiohitrave. TuatiuirCoC hu cntablmnrc wlilcli ict>l» ujiou tbo capluil of (
Arcliitrave Ooruioe.' An i-ntalilalun; cmul'tlng of «n arehitravo diiiI cot-
iiKe. Willi. Mil mo iiiti'rruDLiiMi of lln rriozv. KDQuttimvH Ititnidiiccil wbcn Incon-
Tdiiicnl ([> uivrtlio oiilubbiltirc Ihv ni-niil bviKlit.
AcehitraTO of a Door. TJiu nnialii^ work BlirnMlndinK tbo apennru ; Ihe
u|>!H-r jiiirt <>r ilK' liuk'l I' uii:ud tha tinvunw ; and tliu hIiIkh, the jiiiDba.
ArolliVBj, A iriipaltoij- orckmitfnrthupreiwrratioii iil trriliiij;ii or recnrdn.
Arohivolt. A uitU'rlliin cif mumlirrB fomiliif; tbe tiiiitr cnnloiir of on utb,
urn luitiil i>r (mini; ;ul<iriiii1 iritli aiHiildiDKH nmiiiiiK oviT (ho f»rc«or Ihearch-
Aieo, Till) Mi|H>rllu1ai ctuilinitH uf aiijr fit-iirv : nii njicii HpUM! i>r riiiiit wILUn
a liullitiii .'1 iiImmiii iiiin)i'('nil i-imcu piiTnmndliii; tin: riinndaikiii tralU loftivt-
Arena, 'I'l"' i'lni" finn''' In llif middle of th« anipliilhcatra or olher phictt of
Arris. 'I'll.- iiii'i'iliiv' "f twci Hirtaci'u iinKlucliis an aiiclc.
Arsenal. A iniJiltc >" "irlioii^c fotsrms and ainiHuiilil<jii.
Artifleer, •■' Artiaui. A iktboh wlia uurlu- wilh liia handr, and nuimfact-
awf any .'.iiinKKiii]' In irun, linun, woud, clc.
Ashlar, <.r Ashlei'. A raclug nuulu ot Kinarrd Moiic«, nr a forrni; made of
tlitii ^lal», iismI III riivi'r wallx ot brick or mbbh.'. (Kurntf (Mlar \t whi-rc tbe
HI.Hi.'' rnn hi li'vi'l riHirM'H all iiniiuiil Ihu bolliliim: i-nmlimnuilar, wbittihe
I'li.iii-i' an. uf illlTiTi-iit h<'i)EhIi.. bnt li-i-rl bi'iK i. Comimra liumUuiL-g of huI]
AaymptotO.
tied Calamn*. Tli.if.- whli-li |in>ii-ci
ir,— A Unn DKd to dflDoto Ibe low piluters smployed In the
ui olllc titory.
,— In palollng nml scnlptarc. ejmbole giTen to Bgaree tud Btataui
!lr olDca aoi churaclfr.
-Id (uiclt!iit chuTcbee, that part of tiia chnrch whan th« pooi^o
to be tnetrnctefl in the Oo»pc], aow called the nare.
la t, qAen, an Imac-
nail nltar etandliig hack ID bacli wlih the rnrnier.
r ft Bafter or Mb. -The forming of an npper or out«r BBifaev,
ii}(e with the edgus iil llie rli>9 or rarterg on eiiher tkle,
'ft Wftll.— The rough inner face oC a wall ; eiith depoaiud baliinil
ill, etc.
7iadow. —That [ilece of wainBcattng whlcb Is butwsen the bottom
<^ projection from the face of a wail, anpported by calamni or coo-
tliy anrrounded by a boln><trgde.
—A building in the form of a canopy, topported wlUi columns,
A small plllor or column, supporting a rail,
li>, used In baln»trarle«.
Utlt.-TheHhaftdiTldingnwIndowinBaiaD
At St. AlliunH are »onie or these ehntta, erl-
;heold8aiion chnrch, which haye been flxed
an capitals.
k— A ecrlcs of balnelora connected by a nil.
ort of flat frieze or fascia dinning horizon'
tower or other parts of a bnllding, partlca-
tablesin perpenillcnlar work, commonly used
; ehafti chariiclorlatlc of tbc thirteenth cen-
rally has a bold, projecting monlding above
Mnmn.-
-A series of an
n Diets and hollows
gidngroandthamiddla
rfcolumr
,s,amlsoinetim
,es of the entire pic
T. They are of ten beau-
with foil
ages, etc. as al
, Amiens. In sere
ml cathedrata thete an
leappare
ntly covcrine t
he Jonctlon of tht
1 fmsta of the eolamn*.
and Wci
^ttalnster they
nppear to have been gllE ; thej art Ibore
caUed ShafLrlngs,
.-Aseps
inite building L
:, forctaeiiteofbapttmi.
tbal at Rome, npi
irst. John Lrtenra. and
Doe. Pisa
. Pavla,ctc..ni
gland ,.r
e at Cranbrook and Canlerbnrj;
tbe latlBT, bowevs, li
i*Tebeen
originally pan of the treaaurr.
6
GLOSSARY.
Barbican,— An outwork for the defence of ii jjat-e or (Irawbiidgo ; alHO, a wnt
of i)enl house or construction of timber to f<hflter wardens or tscutiies from
arrowH or other niij<t<iU;8.
Barge Board.- ^I'l- IV/y/< lUxtrd.
Bartizan.— A small tunet, corbelled out at tlio angle of a wall or tower, to pro-
tect a wiirder and enable him to set; around him.
They <;enerally are furnished witii oyletrt or arrow-
.^lits.
Basement. The lower part of a l)uildin«j, uaa-
ally in part below ihe grade of llic lot or street.
Base Mouldings.— The mouldings immediately
above the jjliuth of a wall, jjillar, or pedestal.
Base of a Column. That part which is between
the shaft and the pedestal, or, if there be no pedes- bautizan.
tal, between the shaft and the ])linfh. The Grecian Doric had no base, and the
Tuscan ha> only a single torus, or a plinth.
Basilica. A term given by the Greeks and Komaiis to the public building;!!
devoted to judicial i)urposeH.
Bas-relief.— !^<'c Jidsso-riih-no.
Basse-cour. A court separated from the principal one, and destined fur
stables, etc.
Basso-rilievo, or Bas-relief. -The representations of fi^j^ren projected from
a bai-kgronml without being detached fnmi it. It is dividc<l iuto three pnrtD :
Alto-rilievo, wlien the figure projects more than one-half ; Mezzo-rilievo, that !■•
whicli the fiu'ure projects one half ; and Basso-rilievo, when the projection of the
ligure is less than one-half, as in coins.
Bat. A i)art of a bricU.
Batten, small scantlings, or small strips of l)oards, used for varicmtf purpovus.
2. Small .«-tri])s j)Ui over the joints of sheathing to keep out the weather.
Batten-door. A door made of sheathing, H.'cured by strips of board, put
cros>wa.\.-. and nailed with clinched nails.
Batter. A term used by bricklayei-s, cariHMiters. etc., to signify a wall, piece
of timber, or otiier material, which does not stiuid upright, but inclines from yuii
when you stand before i' ; but when, on the contrary, it leunis toward )'ou, it it
saiil to oM-rhani;.
Battlement.- a parapet \N ith a series of notch(^8 in it, from which orrowi; may
l.M- sliot. or otlier in««trumeniM of defence
liurleM on b"si«-irers. The raised portions
an- «;i!i>(l merlons ; and the notchcM. eni-
l)iasui(>^ or (••■(■nilles. 'i he former were
inliiuhd lo (over the soldier while dis-
eliarL'iir.r 1:1- v. i-apon throMixh tlii' latter.
Their ii>r i- of L'ri'ai aMiiipiity; they arc
fouiid i:i ili'sculptun-- of Nineveh, in the
tomlis •if iv'\ |it. and on tlu- famous I'Yun-
« i)!- \;i«e. \\ lure iImmt i- :i deiint-alion of
i!:i' >-i(_'. '.f Tr.iy. lu « <-el« siastica! archiU'i'iure the early butt lemtMntH have fmiill
-:..1"...'.\ I ii.Imm-up • ;;i -ome <li-l:inee :iparl. In the Deconiled pfritNl Ihry aw
' !•>-' r ''•.-, liici. :i;iii dicpi r. and the mouldim;» on the top of the lui'rioii aiiclbot-
i..' I iiT '.:• ;iilira-u:c ari- rieher. iMirinj thi!> periiMJ. and the early |».tr| of liw
I'f :|if: di' i: u. iln- ."-idi" nr ihieks of the enibn»>ure-« nn" iM-rfwIly W|iuire and
;>..iii. hi : .'« I linii'ihi- mo;;hliii-js weie ei>nttnued rmind the sidfi^. BH Well aa
:ir i.ih ;iiid !> it'im. mitrit l' ai theanglo. a> over thed«H>rway of Ma^fdalene Col-
BATTI.BMENT.
GLOSSABY, 7
lege, Oxford, England. The battlements of the Decorated and later periods are
often richly ornamented by panelling, as in the last example. In castellated
work the merlonR are often pierced by naiTOW arrow-slits. (Sec Oylet.) In South
Italy some battlements are found strongly resembling those of old Rome and
Pompoii ; in the Continental ccclesia^tical architecture, the parapets are very
rarely embattled.
Bay.— Any division or compartment of an arcade, roof, etc. Thus each space,
from pillar to pillar, in a cathedral, is called a bay, or severy.
Bay Window.— Any window projecting, outward from the wall of a building,
either square or polygonal on plan, and commencing from the ground. If they
are cairied on projecting corbels, they are called Oriel windows. Their use seems
to have been confined to the later periods. In the Tudor and Elizabethan styles
they arc often semicircular iu plan, in which case some think it more correct to
call them Bow Windows.
Bazaar.— A kind of Eastern mart, of Arabic origin.
Bead.— A circular moulding. When eeveral are joined, it is called Reeding;
when flush with the surface, it ia called Quirk-bead ; and when raised, Cock-bead.
Beam.— A piece of timber, iron, ftone, or other material, placed horizontally,
or nearly po, to Hiipport a load over an opening, or from post to post.
Bearing. —The portion of a beam, truss, etc., that rests on the supports.
Bearing Wall, <>r Partition.— A wall which supports the floors and roofs in
a building.
Beaufet, or Buffet.—A Bm»ll cupboard, or cabinet, to contain china. It may
either be built into a wall, or boa separate piece of furniture.
Bed.— In bricklaying and masonry, the horizontal surfaces on which the stone?
or bricks of walls lie in course?.
Bed of a Slate.— The, lower side.
Bed Mouldings.— Those mouldings in all the orders between the corona and
frieze.
Belfry,— Properly speaking, a detached tower or campanile containing bells,
as at Evesham, England, but more generally applied to the ringing-room or loft
of the tower of a church. See Tower.
Bell-oot, Bell-gable, or Bell-turret.— The place where one or more bells
are hung in chapels, or small churches which have no towers. Bell-cots are
sometimes doable, as at Northborough and Coxwell, England ; a very common
form in France and Switzerland admits of three bells. In these countries, al-o,
they are frequently of wood, and attached to the ridge. Those which stand on
the gable, dividing the nave from the chancel, are generally called Sanctus Bells.
A very curious and, it is believed, unique example at Cleves Abbey, England, juts
out from the wall. In later times bell-turrets were much ornamented ; these arc
often called F16( hes.
Bell of a Capital.— In Gothic work, immediately above the necking is a deep,
hollow curve ; this is called the bell of a cnpital. It is often enriched with foli-
ages. It is also applied to the body of the Corinthian and Composite capitals.
Belt.— A course of stones or brick projecting from a brick or stone wall, gen-
erally placed in a line with the sills of the windows ; it is cither moulded, fluted,
plane, or enriched with patras at regular intervals. Sometimes called Stone
String.
Belvedere, oi- Look-out.— A turret or lantern raised above the roof of an
observatory for the puri)ose of enjoying a fine prospect.
Bema.-The semicircular recess, or hexedra, in the basilica, where the judges
aar, and where in after-times the altar was placed. It generally is roofed with a
half -dome or concha. The seats of the priests were against the wall, looking
8 GLOSSARY.
into the body of the church, that of tho Inshop bcini: in the centre. The bcmab
generally ascended by 8tci)H, and railed off by caiicelli.
Bench Table.— The stone t^eat which runs round the wails of laxge chnrchefl,
and sometimes round tlic piers ; it very generally is placed in the porches.
Bevel. - An instrument for talcing an«,des. One side of a solid i)udy is said to
hi' h. vi'lled with respect to another, when the an«;le contained between those two
sides is »:r('atcr or loss than a rij;ht angle.
Bezantee. A name given to an ornamented moulding much used in the Nor-
man pciiud, resembling bezants, coins struck in By/antinm.
Billet. A sp(>cies of ornamented moulding niucli used in Norman, and some*
linw's in Kariy Knglish worlc, liice short pieces of sticlc cut ofi'and arrangtMl alter'
iiatcly.
Blocking, or Blocking-course. In masonrj-, a course of stones ]ilac(id on
the top of a cornice crowning tlu> walls.
Bond. In bricklaying and masonry, that connection bctwtKjn bricks or stone.-.
foinu'd l»y lapi)ingthem up<m one another in carrying up the work, so as to form
an inst'i)jiral)l(; mass of building, by preventing the vertical joints falling over
each ()th(T. In brickwork there are several kinds of bond. In common briclc
walls in <.'\('!y si.xfh or seventh course the bricks are laid crossways of the wall,
called Ii«-ad(i>. In face work, the back of the face l)rick arci clipped so as to
^'ct in a dia-.r():ial course of headers behind. In Old English bond, every alternate
course i- a leader cour>e. In Flemish bond, a header and btretchcr alU'ruate
in each c(inr-e.
Bond-3tone3. stones running through the thickness of the wall at right
anules to ii>- lace, in order to bind it together.
Bond-timbers. Timber^ placed in a horizontal direction in the walls of a
briek buiidinirin tiers, and to which the battens, laths, etc., are s«'curef I. In rub-
l)]e work. \\:\\\< are better plugijed for this purpoi'e.
Border, l -ei':;l oinann-ntal pieces around the edge of anything.
Boss, -^ii oin.inent, generally carved, forming the key-stone at the intersec-
tion of ;lie ril)- »)t" a gronied vault. Karly Norman vaults have no lnN*sc!S. The
carvinL' i> reiierally foliage, and resiinbles that of the period in cupltaln, etc.
Sniiietinie-^ ituy ji.ive hnmaTi he:ids. as :.t Notre Dame at I*aris, and souietinieii
i:n>te-<|i:i' il:'uie«. In I.aierCioihic vaulting then; are bosses at every intersection.
Boiltcll. '!':>*- niedi:e\al term for a round mouldini;, «)r torus. When ft foIlu«>
a cnrve, a^ roiiiul a hench «'nd. it i-* ralh d a Roving Doutell.
Bow. A":- !'iojeciin:r jiart of a bnildinir in the form of an arc of a c!n*lc. A
hiiw. !'.<iv»i\r!. :■• .-nnn-linies polvL'onal.
Bow Window. -V window jjlaceil in the bow of a building.
Brace. In (Mpentry, an inclined pii-ce of timber, uwd in tmssiMi imrtiiion^.
Ill- i.i ri.ini' ■! rix'l'^, in order to f-irni a trianL'le, and th«-reby stiffen the framing.
W III ii a I r.-if-i- i- n^ed hy way of h-uppori ;o a rafter, it is called n stmt. Bracei
!n p.irti;ii<n- a:il >pan-roofs are. fir alway-* hhould be. dl'4|KtS4'd In pain*, and
■niiiHluci ' ill i'jipo«ire ilirection^.
Brace .Mould. I I ! '^^^o res^aunts or oL'ees uidted tog«'tlu*r like a hracein
pni.i::i:'. -Dili; ! ill.!'" With a !«mall bead betwt-en thi-m.
Bracket. .\ projictin-..' oninmcnt carryiuL' a cornice, Tliose which siip|Nirl
vaiiiiiii' -h .fi- «'r c;o-.- >prii.L'crs of a roof are more i;enerally ciiIIihI i'orliels.
Break. Ai:> iirojectlim from the L'cm-nd >nrfa«'e of a bntldini;.
Breaking- Joint. The arnniL'ement of htones or briek^ >o as not to allow two
I'liiii- til iiiiiii- injniedj.tiily over e.'ieh m her. See lU'inL
Breast of a V'iLdow. Tin: niuM>in-y forniiuL' ilu- iMck of tlu' recess Mid the
]ia! i|» : iiiii|< I ihi- window -."ill.
liutel. beam, or iion tie, intended to catry an Bxtsnul
wail and lli^lf supported bj plen or pout* ; mwd prlnclpall; otst thop wla-
dowe. . Tbleterm le nowaeldam need, [be nord btam,oi girder, taking its piace.
Bridging.— A oictbod of bI ISening floor joM aod putiljon Kuda, bjr catting
plecea In between. CrOHB bridging of floor juiet in illut-
BlllWUk.~ln aDcl>nt fiirllBcation. neulf ths sameaji
Baetion In modem.
Bone, oi BouTM.— A pnbllc e(U£c« for tbe aesemblr of
mercbant traders ; an exchange.
Bnlt.— I" aculptiiie, IbsL ponloii of Ihe human flgnre
BnttBry.-A Blore-room tor previsions.
Bntt-jotnt-^Wbero tbe ende of two pieces of timber
or moulding bnct togeiher. bbidokb.
Bntt»»a.-Ma8onry piojectlni{ /rom a wall, and Intended to atrengtlien the
same sgainst the thrust ot a roof or vault. Bnttreasea are
no doubt derived from Ihe tlaieic pila^lera which serve to
etrengiben walla where theru ie a presanre of a glrdt:r or roof-
timber, luvei? early work ibef have lltde projeciion. and, In
fact, are " 6lrippilast-:r"." In Korman work they are wider,
with very HI lie pmjeclion, and generally Mop under a cornice
orcorbellablE, Eaily Engllehboclreiuer project conelderably,
sometime* with deep eloping weathering* In eeveral Btoge<,
and Bometlinee with gabled heada. Sometrmen they are cham-
and Ballsliury, Euglaad. tbey ure richly ornamented with can-
ople* andetatuea. In the Det^rated period they became rlcbly
paaelledln stages, and often finish with niches and statueaand
elegantly carved and crocketed gabelts, as at York, England.
In the Perpendicular period the weaOieringa Iteceme waved, bctthf8B,
and they frequently termlnnte with nichea and pinnacle*.
Buttrew, Plying.— A detached buttroBB or pier of masonry at Bome dlatanco
from a wall, and connected therewith by an areb or por-
•tlon of OB arch, so as to discharge the thmat of a root ot
Buttreu ShaftB.- Slender colnmne at the angle of
bnttrc**o. chiefly used hi the Early Bngllfh period.
Byiontins Aiuhitectnia.— A s^le developed In the
ByzanUne Empire, Tbe capitals of the pillars are of
ami liic Lombard stylo, and so varied that D
lotw-i Bides
1 the round.
arch style. Byzantine archilectare reached 1
tsheiglitlii
the Chureh of St. Sophia at Constantinople.
0»blli«t.-A highly ornamented kind of buffet or chest of drawers set apart
lor Ihe preservation of things of value.
Cabling.— The nnt«sot colnmne are Bald lo be cabled when they are partly
occnpled by solid convex moesea, or appeal lo be leAUed with cTllndera aflat
llur bad been lormed.
10 GLOSSARY.
Gaduceiis.— Mercury '8 rod, a wand entwined by two serpents and Bnnnoanted
by two wiii;;s. Tlio rod represents power ; the serpents, wisdom ; and
the win<;.s, dilij?cijce and activity.
Caisson.— A panel simU Ix-low iho niirfact; in flat or vaultt^d ceil-<
in<j:s. Sec i'a.^s(;on.
Caisson, in bridge building, a chc8t or vesHol in which the i)ier»
of a brid.u;o are built, j^r.idually sinking as the work advances till its
bottom comes in C(mtacl witli the bed of the riv(T, and then the sidt'S
are distengaj^Cvl, being so constructed as to allow of their bein«c thus
di't ached without injury to iis floor or bottom.
Caliber, or Caliper.— The diameter of any round body ; the width
of the mouth of a piece < f ordnance.
Camber. - In carpentry, the convexity of a beam upon the surface, ceus.
in ordor to prevent its becoming concave by its own weight, or by the
burden it may have tv) ^ustain.
Campanile. A name given in Italy to the bell-tower of a town-Iiall or church
In that count y this is almost always detachtni from the latter.
Candelabrum. -St.md or support on which the ancients placed their lamps.
Candelabra wen^ made in a variety of shapes and with much taste and elegance.
The lenn is also used to denote a tall ornamental candlestick with seYcrai arms,
or a brackit with anus fur candles.
Canopy. The ui)per part or cover of a niche, or the projection or ornament
over an altar, scat, or tomb. The word is supposed to be derived from cono>
])a>um. t :e gau/e covering over a bed to keep off the gnats ; a mosquito curtain.
Early Engli-h canopies are generally simple, with trefoih'd or cinque-foiled head:* ;
but in the later styles they are very rich, and divided into compartmenta with
ix'ndants. knots. ])innacles, etc. The triangular arrangement over an Early Eng-
lish and Decorated doorway is often called a canopy. The triangular canopies
in the Ncrtli of Italy are ])eculiar. Those in Enghind are generally part of the
arrangement of the arch mouldings of the d(M>r, and form, as it were, the hood-
moulds to til- m, as at York. The former air above and Independent of the door
moulding-, and frequently support an arch with a tym]>anum, above which is a
trianirular <'ano])y, as in the Duomo tit Florence. Sometimes the canopy and
arch project, from the wall, and arc carried on small Jamb shafts, as at San Piutro
Martiro at Verona. ('an(>]>ies are often used over windows, as at York Minster*
o\er the L'rcat we-t window, and lower ties in the towers. These are triangular,
while the upper windows in the towers have ogee canopies.
Capital. 'I'll" uj)p(r part of a column, pilaster, pier, etc. Capitals have been
used in every r>tyl(> down to the presi>nt time. That mostly used by tile Egyp-
I ians was l)ell-siia])ed. with or withouL ornaments. The Persians used the double-
li'-adcd bell, forming a kind of bmcket capital. The Assyrians apimn-nily niudc
u«-i' of the Ionic :ind Corinthian, which wen^ d«'veh»ped by the CSreeki^. Itiminns.
.m-; Iralia::- nio their pn sent well-kncmn forms. The Doric wa< nppan'ntly an
in\i iitioM i>:- .itiaptation by the (treek>, and wa-* ahe'vd by the Kitnuns and
ll.r.ian<. I'lMt i!i :ill these e\-imples. b«>th ancient and mcNleni. the rapitals of an
o'-Ii-r .-lie a!! of the same form throuL'hout the same buihliUL', so that if one he
><eeii the form • f all the other-: is kn.iwn. The IttMnanesque ari'hiteets altered
.ill flii-. ami in the carving of their cajiital- oft-n introduced such flgiifes and
• 'ii- . :m- i- li-.ped to tell the sturv of their building. An«itlier form was Inlr^i-
ii!;'iil '-. 'I. em ii the curtain capital, rinli* at lir^-t, Inil aflerwanl hiishly dec<»-
r:ite>l. li . ■. iil<-ntly took its origin from the cutting off of the lower angUM of a
-quire bloi-K. .Mid theii rounding them o(T. The pnMVHS may Im* distinctly vfxxk.
in irs Mcveiai -rau'o. in Mayenee Cathednil. Hut this form of capital was mora
GLOSSARY. rl
fatly developed by the Normnns, with whom it became a marked feature. In
the e&rly Bnglish capitals a pecaliar flower of three or more lobes was used
spreading from the neckiDg apward in most gracef al forms. In Decorated and
Perpendicular styles this was abandoned in favor of more realistic forms of
crumpled leaves, enclosing the bell like a >\reath. In each style bold abacus
moulding!) were always n!>ud, whetlier with or without folingc.
Caravansary. — A huge, square building, or inn, in the East, for the recep
tion of travellers and lodging of caravans.
Cania^e. — The timber or iron joist which supports the steps of a wooden stair.
Carton, or Cartoon.— A design made on strong paper, to be transferred on
the frefh plaster wall to be afterward painted in fresco ; also, a colored design
for working in mosaic tapestry.
Cartonehe.— An ornament resembling a scroll of paper, being usually in
form of a table, or flat member, with wavings, bearing some inscription or
device. It is nearly akin to a modillion, with this exception, that the cartouche
is used only externally, while the modillion is used both internally and exter-
nally, as under the cornice in the eaves of a house.
Caryatides.— Human female fignres used as piers, columns, or supports.
Caryatic is applied to the human fii^ure generally, when used in
the manner of caryatides.
Casod.— Covered with other mati-rials, generally of a better
quality.
Casement.— A glass frame which is m^ide to open by turning on
hinges aflixed to its vertical edges.
Cassoon, or Caisson.— A deep panel or coffer in a soflit or ceil-
ing. This term is sometimes written in the French form, caisson ;
sometimes derived directly from the Italian cassone^ the augmenta-
tive of cassa^ a chest or offer.
Cast.— A term used in sculpture for the impression of any figure •
taken in plaster of Paris, wax, or other substances.
Catacombs.— Subterranean places for burying the dead. Those
of ^ypt, and near Rome, are believed to be the most important. caryatid.
CataJEalco.— An ornamental scaffold used in funeral solemnities.
Cathedral.— The principal church, where the bishop has his peat as diocesan.
Canlicnlus.— The inner scroll of the Corinthian capital. It is not uncommon,
however, to apply this term to the larger scrolls or volutes also.
Causeway.- A raised or paved way.
Cavetto. — A concave ornamental moulding, opposed in effect to the ovolo —
the quadrant of a circle.
Ceiling.— That covering of a room which hides the joists of the floor above,
or the rafters of the roof. Most European churches have either open roofs, or
are groined in stone. At Pcterborougii and St. Albans, England, there are very
old flat ceilings of boards curiously painted. In later times the boarded ceilings,
and, in fact, some oC those of plastiT, have moulded ribs, locked with bosses at
the intersection, and are sometimes elaborately carved. In many English churches
there arc ceilings formed of oak ribs, filled in at the spandrels with narrow, thin
pieces of board, in exact imitation of stone groining. In the Elizabethan and
subsequent periods the ceilings are enriched with most elaborate ornaments in
stucco. 2. Matched and beaded boards, planc^d and smoothed, used for wain-
scoting. In the New England States it is called sheathing.
Cenotaph.— An honorary tomb or monument, distinguished from monuments
in being empty, tlie individual it is to memorialize having received interment
elsewhere.
12 GLOSSARY.
Centaur.— A poetical imaginary being of heathen mythology, half-man and
lialf-horsc.
Centring.— I » building, the frames on which an arch is turned.
Chamfer, Champfer, <>r Chaumfer.— When the edge or arris of any work is
cut ofT at siu auLjh' of 45" in a small degree, it is paid to bi; chunhfcred ; if to a
larp" locale, il is siid to bo a canted corner. The chamfer is much unedin medie-
val work, and ia sometimes plain, sometimes hollowed out, and sometimes
niouUlt'd.
Chamfer Stop.— Chamft^r:* someiinies simply run into the arris by n piano
face: more connnonly they are llrsl stopped by some oniument, ai« by a bead;
llu y arc sonu-fimes terminated by trefoils, or cinque-foils, double or single, and
in j^< ncral form vi-ry ploasinuj feiitures in niedia'val architecture.
Chancel.- A ])lacc separated from the rest of a church by a screen. Th« word
is now ^ri'uerally used to signify the i)ortion of an Episcopal or Catholic church
containing the altar and comnuinion table.
Chantry. - A small chapel, generally built out from a church. They generally
contain a founder's tomb, and are often endowed ]>laces where masses might l>e
sai«l for bis soid. The ofllciator, or mass priest, being oftt;n unconnected with
the parochial cleri'v ; the chantry has generally an entrance from the oiit.«ide.
Chapel. - A small, detached bnihling used as a substitute for a church in a
large i)arish : an apartment in any larg<' building, a p-ilnce, a nobleman's house, a
lio>])ital or i)ri-ion, used for ])ul)lic worship ; or an attached building running out
of and formipi; i)art of a larije church, generally dedicated to diiTei-eut mints,
each having its own altar, pi.-cina, etc., and screened off from the body of the
building.
Chapter House. The chamlM>r in which the chapter or heads of the monastic
bodies as>ieml)led to transact business. They are of various forms; some «rc
oblon;: apart iiients, some octagonal, and sonn^ circular.
Chaptrel. In (iothic architecture, the capit-d of a pier or column which re-
ci'ives an arch.
Charuel House. A place for depositing the bones whicli might be
thrown up in dij:«,nng graves. Sometimes it was a portion of the
crypt; M»metim(^«« it was a separate building in the church-yard;
sometimes cliantrv cinipels were attached to these buildings. M.
Viollct le I>iie lias given two very curious examples of wHiiairrji—
(»nc from l-'leiirance, the other from Faouct.
Cherub Gothic. A representation of an infantV liead joined to
two Winers. MM'd in the churches on key-stones of arches and corbels. cnAPTBiL
Chevron Gothic. - An ornament turning this and that way, like a
/iL'zaL', or Ictti-r Z,
Chiaro-oscuro. The elT«H-ts of lii:ht and
'.had"' in a i)i(lnre.
Choir. That part of a church or monastery
\\!i. rr fh«' iiir\iary M-rvii-e. or ■■hone," :h
1-! anted.
Church. A IniildiiiLr lor the iierformam-e of
pii!ilii'\\nr.-liip. Tlu'llrst churches wen- built (m cREVROif.
f>ii plin of !h«- ai.cii-nt l»asiliea«. and afti-rwanl
• iri 'III {•'■iM of I ^Ml^> : a ilinrcli is ^aill li> be in (in'ck cr(i>.x when the leiiKtb of
'hi ir.iii>-M tm- i- npial to thai of the nuve ; in Latin c^ls^, wlivn tlio nave it
loiiL^-r ili.in the transverse part: in n>tundo. wlu'u il is a |H>rff*cl clrck» ; simple,
wlien il ha-" only a nave and choir ; with aisles, when it has a row of porticos in
f«)rm of \aul(ed galleries, with ehapttls in its circumfcruucc.
Clb(irliim.''A tabuniBCle or TSalled canapy lapportcd od duKa standing ont
tbe High altar.
dnotnra.— A ring, list,
Gluqne-foil.— A sinking or perforation, liko a Bawer, of
ahead.
CiTls Crown.— A garianrt of oak-leaTcs and acorns, given
as honorary dlsUnctton amimg Uie Bomane to eiich af had
at a rellow-citizen.
ClMMtorj, Clewatory.-When the middle of the nave
at>oTe the aiiiiea and Is pierced with
vIndowB, thi! upper #t«i7 is thus
called. SometiiueH ibese windowB
aru YdT small, being mere qnacte-
foilfl. urspi«eri<:al triangles. In large
balldlng^. however, Itaey are inipoi.
laat object", both for beautj' and
U.IIKjr. The idndow of the clere-
BtorlsBorNormnn wO[k,ev«n In large
the latter often dieappean altogether,
The nord cUi
v-tiory Is
also iii«d m
denote a •Imll
lar metho.
a of llfthfrng
otber bnlldlnf
[9 besides
churches, es-
pecialiy factor
les. depot
s. Fhcd9, etc.
CloUter.-^
in enclose
the atrlnm of .
1 Itoman
walk or nmbul
bj a root.gen
erally gru
■Ined. and by
or less glazed.
0l0M.-The
precinct .
Df ncftiliedial
Close String, "r Box Btring,— A A. bnCirCBS with pinnacle ; B, flyln
metbi.dof flnlsblnglbcouteredgeof ^','^|^„|'^|PP°|JJJ5pf„^/S',*'i°f^u^^™!^*
Btalrs, by buiidiiiE iip a si.rt of curb nia,e . g^ vaollcd roof of nave,
airing »n which the balnstcrn set,
and the treads and ricer;^ Ktop againBl li.
Onaterod.— In ui'chitccture, the coalition of si^veral members whlcb penetrat
14
GLOSSARY.
CLURTBBICS
COLUMN.
Gloftered Golnmn.— Several elouder pillars attached to each other oo as to
foiTn one. Ttu^ term ip ut^ed in Komun architectare to denote two
or four columns which appc^ar to intersect each other at the angle of
u building to unfewcr at each return.
Coat.- A tliicknei^H or covering of paint, plaster, or other work,
(l()n(; at one tiint'. The ttrst coat of plas^tering is called the scratch
coat, the second coat (.when there are three coatB)is called the brown
coat, uiul the last coat is variously known as the slipped coat, skim
'coat, or white coat. It varies in composition in different localities.
Coffer. A deep j)anel in a ceiling.
Coffer Dam. A frame used iii the building of a bridge in deep
water, similar to a caisson.
Collar Beam. — A beam above the lower ends of the raftere, and
spiked to tluim.
Colonnade. A n)W of columns. The colonnade is termed, accord-
ing to the nurnbiT of columns which support the entablature : Tetra-
ptylo, when there are four ; hexastyle, when six ; octostyle, when
eight , etc. ^Vhen in front of a building they are termed porticos ; when Burronnd-
ing a l)uilding, peristyle ; and when double or mon>, i)olystyle.
Colosseum, or Coliseum. -The immense amphitheatre built at Rome by Fla-
vins Ves])a<ian, a.i). 7-.i, after his return from his victories over the Jew's. It
would contain ninety thousand persons sitting, and twenty thousand more
standinj:. Thenamci-^now employed
to denote an unusually larjic audience
buildin;:, L^'ueniUy of a temporary
nature.
Colossus. The nanu! of a brazen
statui! which was erected at the
entrance of the harl)or at lihodes,
one hnndred and live feet in height.
Ve--el> (Oil 1(1 sail between its legH.
Column. A round i)illar. The
jiartsarc tlie base, on which it rests;
U> body, called the shaft ; and the
head. calle<l tlir capital. The capital
fini-!i'>\\illi a horizontal table, called
the al)a( 11-. and llu; bas(» commonly
stan(K on another, called the plinth.
u
a
3
<
a
<
H
Z
111
CORNICE
rtLlr
CYMA-BECTA
FILLET •"-"
CORONA.,
OVOLO
PiLLET-.-.::=^:
,CAVErro
KBIE2E . rmEZE
ARCHI-
TRAVE
SAPITAL'
('oliiiiui- may be I'ither in-^ulated or 5
attachfd. 'i'hey are said to be at- 3 <
lachcil or eiigaireil when they funn
part of a wall, projecting one-half or
o
o
SMAFT-
TENIA
.MbM FAjbl
LOWER F4SCM
ABACUS
ovoid'
FILLEr-.=:"
NICK -W CC-L', t'lNf
A<iTR«r,/iL — C
L FiLLbT ::..=:^
AP0PHVCC8
AP0PH>CE8
FILLE1
I TOr.Ui
1
FILLET SZZjfz^ IT.,:
;ui r
^
PLINTH
more, but not the whole, of their
siili-iaiii'c.
Common. A line, anirle. surface,
etc.. wh'i h luliini."- e(iually to several
olii.ci-. ('.■innioii j-entriniT is a cen "**'
It Ml.' wiilM'iit trusses, having a tie
ImmIi. af l..>:toni. CommOii joists are i»K<TloN t»P COI.rMN .\M» KNTABI.ATUKB.
tii> >i<aiii-< ill 1 aked Iloorin:^ In which iDivided according to the Tuwan Urder.;
thcjoj t- an- n\<-d. (Nimnum rafters
in a root' an- iIiom' to which the laths are attanh^l.
Composite Arch, \^ die pointed or lanrel arch.
OnipMdta Oldn.—Tbc mort BlBbonta of thB ordBn of clHiMal'WClilteetnre.
Conneta.— A DUM compoMd of broken »totie, eand, uid hTdnolEc cement,
which makes a sort oF Brtlfldal etone, mncli n»d ror f onndptloni ; aflner miely
i> someilmea lunl iu blocki- for lialldlng h<iuee«.
Condait.— A long imiTow paaesge between I
tecnt comtnunlcmioii between dlSaienl apartme
Oonfeuional,— Tbe seat where a prleEt or canrewor alta to heai confeeElona.
Caag^.— Another name fur the ep hiiiu^ or quarter round.
Oonterrktory.— A bonding for the protection and rearing of tender pbmte,
otten atisched to a boate » an apaitmeat. Also, a public place of Inetrnttloa,
designed to preserve and perfect the knowledge of pome branch of learolng or
the Sne arts ; aa, a amtervatonj of music.
ConaUtory.-Tbo judicial hall of tbe Collegeof Cardinals at Rome. -
Contol, or Coniol*.— A biscket or truss. geaerallfWitbucrolls OTTolules at the
Iwo ends, of nneqnal eiie and coDtnsted, bat con-
nected by a Aowing Hue from the back of the upper one
lo Itie iDDer couTolvlng face of tbe lower.
Coping.— Tbe capping or covering of a wall. Thla
Is of stone, weatbered to throw off the wet. In Nor-
man limes, as far as cnn be judged from the lltUe Ibere
is left. It waa gcQerally plain aud flat, and projected
ward It asBUined a toniH or bowlell at the top. and be- oosbolks.
ume deeper, and in the Decorated period there were
ffenarally several secs-otF. The copings Iu the Perpendicular period assumed
something of the wavy s<-cllon o[ the buIlreES cape, and mitred lonnd the sides
Oorlwl.— Thename.lnmediffivalarcHilectnre, forapleceof 6tone]uttiugontof
a wall to carry any anperiucumbent weight. A piece ol timber pmjecdng in the
same way was called a laeeel or a bragger. Thus, tbe carved omainents from
which tbe voultiiit! Bhafia fpring at Lincoln nra corbels. Normau cnrbelB are
generally plain, in the Early English period they arc sometimeH elaborately
carved. They sametiuvr^] end with a point, a]jparenLly gruwlug into the wall, or
forming a hnot. and oftiu are FQpported by angels and other figures. In tbe
later perlodH the toliug&or ornaments resemble tboee In the capitals. In modem
architecture, o short pkc* of slone or wood projecting from a wall to foim o sup-
port. L'encraJly omanicntcd.
Corlwl Oat. -To build out one or more couraes of bricK or stone from the face
Corbel Tftble,— A prujtcting cornice or parapet, supported by a range of cor-
bels a short diHtauc<^ apf^-t. >vhlcb carry a moulding, above which is a pluln piecs
of projecting wall formiugo porji pet, and covered by a coping. Souiettmef amall
CorniM.— Tbe projection at the lop of a wall Bnlshed by a blocking-cour-e,
b.i acoi>ins. and tlii: whole formed a parapet. In Early Eugll!^li timea ihe para-
pet waa much the mrni;, Tut the work waa executed In a mncli better way, espe-
cially the small arches conmutlng the corbels. In the Decorated period the cor-
bel tsblo was nearly abandoned, and a large hollow. \> itb one oi two anbotdlnate
mouldings, substituted ; this Is sometlmea filled with tbe ball flowers, and eoms-
ttmea with tunning tollnges. In tbe FetpeDdlcalar aCyle, the parapet frequently
did not proji ct beyond the wali-Ilnir below ; the monldtng then beeame ■ atriiiE
oiam&ll miieUw, wl; U cquul iniervala Immediately under tbe builvmcntt. In
nunf FrviK'li exniiijikv tile iiiouldi'd firing in veiy iHild, and i-nnibfil ulili foli-
OoTOna. ■ 'rho i>ruK or tbe cornice which projcolii over tbo bill mouldli^ to
thruH' od MU' water.
Corridor. A Um^ inllury or puhhbso in a munBlun conneclliiK various i^ian-
mi^nif ami rniinni;; Touiul a qnadninglo. Aiij liinjc pB.-wi)[u-n'a]: In a liullillug.
Countsraiiik.— To make a carlt/ for the reeciilion nt a plnie of iron, or lh<'
head of a screw or Iwlt. so that It Hball not proji-ct beyund llM face of tlie work.
Coaplfld Column],— Columns airanged In jiain.
Courle. .V I'liiKlniU'd hy<T of bricks orstonoa Id bnlldingi- ; thi; lenn it aJmi
oiijiHciible to flatew, shlnjiles- etc,
Oonrt. All (>|>L'ii nrua bi'tiind a houH:, or In (he centre ol a Inilldln^ and llic
wina*. t'ourlB uibnil of llje most (leffanl oniameiitaliond. snth sb nreadiM,
CotB-CotIi^.— ThcinuiilUiiiKCHlli'd tliecavetto, orthoscotU inverted, on a
larjpi -tsl.s and not us a iiiero niouldint' In the fom|iosllion of a cornice, l» called
CoTe-braokating,— Tiiu woodoii Bhelcton mould or framing of a cove, applied
cbielly to iln' limckeilug of a suve celllii);.
Cove Ceiliag.'- A reiiliiK Hpilugliig from [be tvallii with a cnrvc.
Coved and Flat Oeillnp. --A ceiling In which tlie section In the qnadrant of
B cirele. rlHin.L: from tlio null* and Intemectlii^ in a flat fiirface.
CrBdlins. Tlinbrr work for vuaCaii.inj,' Ihu iu:h anil plaaicr of vaalted
Cresting. An ormimeinsl Hnlxh in the wall or rld^.' of n building, which la
coiiiiiionon I he liimlliu'nt of Kur..pe. An ciample occurs at KieterCalhedial,
Groo^ot. All uriiumeiit ninnliif: up the «lden uf gnbleti, liood-moalda, [dnna.
cles. i-piri- : Li-nenilly, awlndlng Hieui like a crccplni; plant,
witli llowi'r<iir leaver pmjeelm^aC intcrvBla, uid t('nuln>^
Ct033. I'hU i>'lii;liKi4 KymlKil l:< aim JnC alM'sya iiiacoil on
till- I'lici- lit ^.-.iSh-.i. 1:1 ■ suiiiniitot iiplnw, and otbiTnim»plcu-
(iiis i>lrni- ..f .,I<1 chnrrheK. In early UnuM It was Eeunr.illr
viry ijhiiii. iiaKinipli'rnR^lnarirclv. iiiniii-tinieH they
aiT.XHlnaMiuare.
rlehly il'>Haie.|,
' foniis. ur nirinurlnl
Ih'iliiiir pn>.^M-«, <T<-<'I<.-<I
iia]u..inui>fwhlrhlii» (TMKKEI.
, th->i;u-i.|.i,.l.|
1111.I '.: In-huid.
Crni-ui ilo. An
Cros;-«prinBW.
-Thi' IniiiKYi'TH- rllK- of a van 11.
Cross-vaulting.
Crown. Ill iir<>)i
iK-cluiv, IliB up]H-nii<>MT iiiemlK'
Crypt. V.-uilir.,
'.■ap:inn,...i.or,.r,.,„.r..rl,-
GLOSSARY. 17
Capola.— A small room, either circular or polygonal, standing on the top of a
dome. By some it is called a Lantern.
Curb Boof, or Mansard Boof.— Aroof formed of four contiguous planes, each
two having an external inclination.
Curtail Step.— The firist step in a stair, which lb generally finished in the form
of a scroll.
Cusp.— The point where the foliations of tracery intersect. The earliest ex-
ample in England of a plain cusp is probably that at Pythagoras School, at Cam-
bridge ; of an ornamental cusp, at Ely Cathe<lral, where a small roll, with a rosette
at the end, is formed at the termination of a cusp. In the later styles the termi-
nations of the cusps were more richly decorated ; they also sometimes terminate
not only in leaves or foliages, but in rosettes, heads, and other fanciful orna-
ments.
Cyclostyle.— A structure romp )sed of n circular range of columns without a
core is cyclostylar ; with a core, the range would be a peristyle. This is the spe-
cies of edifice called by Vitrnvins nionopteral.
Cjnua.— The name of a moulding of very frequent use. It is a simple, waved
line, concave at one end and convex at the othtr, like an ^- ; ^
Italic/. When the concave part is uppermost it is called ^ j
a cyma recta ; but if the convexity appear above, and the x -»j
concavity below, it is then a cyma reversa. cyma rbota.
Cymatium, — When the crowning moulding of an en- »....-..^— .,
tablaturc is of the cyma form, it is termed the Cyma- C tf^Pdf^JPd I
Cyrtostyle.— A circular projecting portico. Such are cyma rbvbrsa.
those of the transept entrances to St. Ptmrs Cathedral, London.
Bade, or Die.— The vertical face of an insulatt-d pedestal betwt;en the base and
cornice, or surbase. It is extended also to the similar part of all stereobates which
are arranged like pedestals in Roman and Italian architect nre.
Dais.— A part of the floor at the end of a niedijevnl hall, raised a step above
the rest of the floor. On this the lord of the mansion dined with his friends
at the groat table, ap irt from the retainers and st-rvants. In mediaeval halls
there was generally a deep recessed bay window at one or at each end of the dais,
supposed to be for retirement, or greater privacy than the open hall conkl afford.
In France the worvl is understood as a canopy or hanging over a seat ; probably
the name was given from the fact that the seats of great men were then sur-
mounted by such an ornament.
Darby.— A flat tool used by plasterers in working, especially on ceilings. It is
generally about seven inches wide and forty-two inches long, with two handles on
the back.
Deoastyle,- A portico of ten colnmns in front.
Decorated Style.— The second stage of '/ac Pointed or Gothic style of archi-
tecture, considered the most complete and perfect development of Gothic archi-
tecture, the best examples of which are found in England.
Demi-metope.— The half of a metope, which u found at the retiring or pro-
jecting angles of a Doric frieze.
Dentil.— The cogged or toothed member, common in the bed-mould of a Corin-
thian entablatnre, is said to be dentilled, and each cog or tooth is called a dentil.
Depressed Arches, or Drop Arches.— Those of less pitch than the equilateral.
Desi^.— The plans, elevations, sections, and whatever other drawings may
be necessary for an edifice, exhibit the design, the term plan having a restricted
{4)plication to a technical ])ortion pf the design.
Detail.— As used by architect?', detail means the smaller parts into which a
1^ CtLOSvSARY.
comi)OHiti(m may be divided. It is applied generally to mouldings and other
eurichmeiits, and a<rain to their minutise.
Diameter.- Tlie line in a circle pasnin*; through it8 centre, or thickest part,
^vhi(•!l irivvs the nu.asujo proportioning' the intercolunmiation in i^omo of the
or(K'i>.
Diameters. The dianuitcrs of tlie hnv.r and iipin-T endu of the Hhnft of a
column arc called its inferior and superior diameters, rebpectively ; the former is
I lie jrrcatcsl, ilic lattiT tii(> li'ast (iiameicr of the shaft.
Diaper.— A mctiiod of de<oratni«; a wall, i)anel, stained glass, or any plain sur-
face, by covcriuL: it with a continuous dc^ii,'n of llowers, rosettes, etc., either in
s(|uar('s or lozcn<res, or some jreometrieal form resembling the pattern uf a dia-
pered table-cloth, from which, in fact, the name is sui)posed by some to have
been di-rived.
Diastylc. -A spacious imercolunmiation, to which three diameters are as-
Dipteros. A doublci-winixed temple. The Cirecksare said to have constructed
t(!mpks with two ran^^'es of column-^ all around, which were called diptcroi. A
l)()rti(-o ])roJe(tin^ two columns and their inters])aces is of dipteral or pseudo-
dii)'eral arianircment.
Discharging Arch.— />.n arch over the oi)ening of a door or window, to dis-
charjre or relieve the superincumbent weight from pres^ing on the lintel.
Distemper. Temi ai)plied to i)aintin;j: with colors mixed with size or other
frlutinous ^nl)-iance. All the cartoons of the ancients, previous to the year 1410,
are said to be done in distemper.
Distyle. A i)ortico of two columns. This is not generally applied to the
nuTe i)or(h with two columns, but to describe a portico with two columus in
(Uif'l- .
Ditri glyph. —An intercolunmiation in the Doric order, of two triglyplis.
Dodecastyle. A i)ortico of twelve cohnnns in front. The lower one of the
wt'<t trf)ni <.r St. rauTs rathedral, ]..ondon, is (.f twelve columns, but they are
coupled. niakin'_' the arranizement pseudo dodecastyle. 'I I. e Chamber of Depu-
ties in Paris ha- a true dodecastyle.
Dog-tooth. \. favorite enrichment used from the lartor part <»f the Norman
period lo the early jjart of th«' I)ec(»rated. It is in the form of a four-leaved
ilowi-r. tin- (■■•nir<^ of which projt-ct-, and probably wab nanudfrom its resem-
l)!ani'.' lo thv- d'lir toothed \io]et.
Dome. A t liji'l I or invertetl cup on a bnildinir. The api>lira'ion of thin term
to it< <'i-ni I M,\ r> (lived purpose is Irom the Italian cu»*tom of railim; an archi-
epiM'<i|i,ii ( iiiiK ii. by way of eminenc*-. II Duomo. the temple ; for lo one of that
rank, ih'- < ai!i' dral of Floren<-e, the cupola wa- lir.-t ;ipi)lieil in mtKh>ni pructice.
Tl.-' Iiali .11- ibf.i -che^ ni'ver call a cujiola ji donte ; it is on thi"» ^l^ie of the Alps
tiM- ;.; -..lii -Miio'i ha- ari-en, from tlu- cireum-lanee. it would app<ur. that the Ital-
ia' '- ii-<- tin- i.iiM v. illi nference to tho<e >lructures whose m*. si <Ii!>tinL;uitfbihi;
fcaiu li- 'lit- •• ijioj:'. tholn.-, (»r las We now ♦•jdl it dome.
DoniOotic x\.rcb.itecture. Tliat branch which n-lates to privale buildinKH.
Doiijoii. I"ii< ]Mitirii)al tower of a casile. '■••n«'r;dly contaiiiliii: the priMnn.
Doer yraine I'Ik- .-I'lToundinL' ca-e into and «»u; of which the diu>r shut- ai.d
i;.i ■-. Ii ( (.'. ;-r ~ .»r t • iiijiriL'lit j.iice>. called jandi- . and a Inad. ■;rniMalSy lixe*l
I'. •> !■: : ii\ ni-irticis a.''n cein'i* . jind wronirhl. r»-b;it< d. ami lieaded.
Loi'io wi'de/. The i'ldeft of ilu- rhn-e order- itf <Hi-ci:in aicliiuetun'.
Dormer Wiiiclovi^. A '\<nilow belouL'tUL' to a ro.iui in a riMif, whirh emtmr-
«|i;( ! ''. I'l- ■ :- fr< in ii \* it.: a va'ley gutter on each side. They an* said nut lu
l.( • i ;:•-: iiia!i tb" t<>urii*enth (enlury. In (ierniauy thi'n; are oftrn hvvenil niwi
GLOSSAKY. 1 9
at dormers, one above the other. • In Italian Gothic the}' are very rare ; in fact,
the former have an nnnsaaily steep roof, while in the latter country, where the
Italian tile is nsed, the roofs are rather fltit.
Dormitory. — a room, suite of rooms, or building used to sleep in. The name
was first applied to the place where the monks slept at night. It was sometimes
one long room like a barrack, and somctiines divided into a succession of small
chambers or cells. The dormitory was generally on the first floor, and connected
with the church, so that it was not necessary to go out-of-doors to attend the
nocturnal services. In the large houses of the Perpendicular period, and also in
some of the Elizabethan, the entire upper story in the roof formed one lai^
apartment, said to have been a place for exercise in wet weather^ and also for a
dormitory for the retainers of the household, or those of visitors.
Double Vault.— Formed by a duplicate wall ; wine cellars are sometimes so
formed.
Dovetailing.— In carpentry and joinery, the method of fastening boards or
otiier timbers together, by letting one piece into auothcr in the form of the
expanded tail of a dove.
Dowel,— 1. A pin Jet into two pieces of wood or stone, where they are joined
together. 2. A piece of wood driven into a wall so that other pieces may be
nailed to it. This is also called plugging.
Draw-bridge.— A bridge made to draw up or let down, much used in forti-
fied places. In navigable rivers, the arch over the deepest channel is made to
draw or revolve, in order to let the masts of ships pass through.
Drawing-room.— A room appropriated for the reception of company ; a
room to which company withdraws from I he dining-room.
Dresser.— A cupboard or set of shelves to receive dishes and cooking utensils.
Dressing.— Is the operation of squaring and smoothing stones for building ;
also applied to smoothing lumber.
Dressing-room.— An apartment appropriated for dressing the person.
Drip.— A name given to the member of a cornice which has a projection
beyond the other parts for throwing off water by small portions, drop by drop.
It is also called Larmier.
Drip-stone.— The label moulding which serves on a canopy for an opening,
and to throw off the rain. It is also called Weather Moulding.
Drop-scene.— A curtain suspended by pulleys, which descends or drops in
front of the stage in a theatre.
Drum.— The upriglit part of a cupola over a dome ; also, the solid part or vase
of the Corinthian and Composite capitals.
Dry-rot.— A rapid decay of timber, by which its substance is converted into
a dry powder, whicli issues from minute cavities resembling the boilngs of
worms.
Dungeon,— The prison in a castle keep, so called because the Norman name
for the latter is donjon, and the dungeons, or prisons, are generally in its lowest
story.
Dwarf Wall.— The walls enclosing courts above which are railings of iron ;
low walls, in general, receive this name.
Eaves.— In slating and shin<>;ling, the margin or lower part of the slating,
hanging over the wall, to throw the walt-r off from the masonry or brickwork.
Echinus.- A moulding of eccentric curve, gener-
ally cut (when it is carved) into the fonns of e^s
and anchors jiltemating, whence the moulding is
called by the name of the more conspicuous. It is
the same &5 Ovolo. bohinus.
20 GLOSS A KY.
Edifice. - Ii» pynonymons with the terms building, fabric, erection, tnt is
more h^trictly applicable to architecture distingiiiehed for wize, dignity, and
grandeur.
Efflorescence. In architecture, the formation of a whitiyh loose powder, or
crust, on the surface of stone or brick walln.
Egyptian Architecture. -The earll-st civilization and cultivation of the
arts WHS in IppiT Ki,'>i)t. The most remarkable and most ancient nionnmcnts
of I he K^ypriiiiis, with tlu- (;xc(>ption of the i)yramids, are nearly all includetl in
Upper EL\vpi. Tlie buihlin^s of E;rypt an; characterized by eohdity and nm«-
sivenes^ of construction, oriirinaiity of concei)tion, and boldneps of form. The
>vails. tlie pillars, and the nio.-i ^a(■re(l places of their religious building.** were
ornainentcfl with l.ieroirlyphics and symbolical figures, while the ceilings of the
I)()rlicos exliibited zodiacs and celestial planis])heres. The lemples of Egypt
were L'enc rally without roofs, .md. consecjuently, the interior colonnades had no
pediments, supporting merely an entablature, composed of only architrave, frieze,
and cornice, formed of innnensc blocks united without cement and ornamented
witli li;eroLdyi)hics.
Element. The outlin<' of the design of a Decorated window, on which the
centres for tlie tracery are formed. These centres will all be found to fall on
I)oint- which, in sonic way or other, will be equimultiples of ])arts of the open-
ing-;. To draw tracery well, or understand even the principles of its composition,
much attention shoidd be given io the study of the eh^ment.
Elevation. The front fayade, as the French term it, of a stmcture ; a geo-
metrieal dniwiiig of the external upright j)arts of a building.
Embattlement. An iudcmted ])arapet : battlement.
E:nblazon. To adorn witli flirnres of heraldry, or ensigns armorial.
Embossing". Sculpture in rilievo, th(! llgtwes standing partly out from the
plane.
Embrasure. The ojxMiini; in a battlement bt\^ween the two raised solid por-
tions or niei;<)n>, sonietimes called a crenelle.
Encaujlic. Pertaining to the art oCburninL' in colors, applied to painting on
ghir-^. j)()r<elain, or tiles, wlu-re colors are tixed l)y heat ; hen^.e, encaustic tUes,
briik. etc.
Engag-ed Columns. Are those attached to, or built into walls or piure, a por-
tion lieliiLf eoiHM'aled.
Enrichri'nt. The addition of ornament, carving, etc.. to plain work : decora-
tion : enib«'i;i-lnnent.
Ense Table, M'-ans the whole work or composition considered topi'ther. and
not in p;irt -.
Entablature. The a><semblaire of parts supported by the column. It eon-
si>t^ «>r :lii-.' ■ \,:iv{< : tlie ;ire|ntiave. fri«-z-'. and <'ornice.
Enlaii l^ (oiiiie arel.itecture, delicate carving.
Entr/-ih. The --wellini' of a column, rw. In inedin'val arrhitcrtnn*. some
^pi::-. p ;! 1 ii- 'hirly ilio-c c.iUcd " broacM «-i)iies.*" have a siiirht swelliiiir in thr
lidi -. I'll II'. more ihnn ti) inike ihem hiok "itriiLdit ; f«)r. from a psirtinilar
■i| t .]>■ (' ,i- I-." :h;it wlii<-h i.-. (|uite .-irai-jht, wlu-n vlew<'d at a h< iglit. l(Nik-:
111 lilow
Entry. \ hil! ^\ith(^ut stairs or vext'huh'.
r!|,istyic. I'tr^ term m.iy with pr«>|)riety be .-ipplied to th, ^^hol^• (>i>liili|»tiin'.
\\ ii!i \\ '.leh ■• :^ ~\ii(inymon<: but if i* r«'-t icti-d in u-e t<> the arcliit rave, tir
|i)W(-l III- n;l«t r dT th'- ental)l.iture.
E.-cutchoon 'Her. i 'I'he field or ltouiuI on winch a roiiof^irms is n'lirr-
ui . I ■ = ^:« li ' Tlf :-hiel(U iiM-d i.n iiunb-. in the spmdrelx of dour**, or 1d
GLOSSARY. 21
fltrin^-coarees ; also, the ornamente:! platea from the ceDtre of which door rings,
knockers, etc., are suspended, or which protect the wood of the key -hole from
the wear of the key. In mediffival times these were often worked iu a very
beautifal manner.
Etching.— A mofle of engraving on glass or metal (generally copper) by means
of lin. s, eaten in or corroded by means of some strong acid.
Enstyle.— A species of intercolnmniatiun to which a proportion of two diam-
eters an<l a quarter is assigned. This term, together with tlie others of similar
Import— pycnostyle, systyle, diastyle, and aneostyle- referring to ihe distances
of columns from one another in composition, is from Vitriivius, who assigns to
each the space it is to express. It will be seen, however, by reference to them
individually, that the words themselves, though perhaps sufficiently applicable,
convey no idea of an exactly defined space, and, by reference to the columnar
structures of the ancients, that no attention was paid by them to such limita-
tions. It follows, then, that the proportions assigned to each are purely conven-
tional, and may or may not be attended to without vitiating the power of apply-
ing the terms. £u.<tyle means the be^-t or most beautiful arrangement ; but, as
the ellcct of a columnar composition depends on many things besides the diam-
eter of the columns, the same proportioned intcrcolumniation would look well
or ill according to those other circumstances, to that tlie limitation of £ustyle to
two diameters and a quarter is absurd.
Extrados.— The exterior or convex curve forming the upper line of the arch
stones ; the term is opposed to the intrados, or concave side.
Eye of a Dome.— The apirture at its simimit.
Eye of a Volute.- The circle in its centre.
Facade, or Face.— The whole exterior side of a building that can be seen at
one view ; strictly speaking, the principal front.
Face Mould.- Tlie pattern for marking the plank or board out of whicli orna-
mental hand-railings for stairs and other works are cut.
Fan Tracery,— Tlie very complicated mode of roofing used in the Perpendicu-
lar style, in which the vault is covered by ribs and veins of tracery.
Fascia.— A flat, broad member in the entablature of columns or other parts of
buildings, but of small projection. The architraves in some of the orders are
composed of three bands, or fasciae : the Tuscan and the Doric ought to have only
one. Ornamental projections from the walls of brick buildings over any of the
windows, except the uppermost, are called Fasciae.
Fenestral.- A frame, or '"chassis,'' on which oiled paper or thin cloth was
strained Lo keep out wind and rain when the windows were not glazed.
Festoon.— An ornament of carved work, representing a wreath or garland of
flowers or leaves, or both, interwoven with each
other. It is thickest in the middle, and small
lit each extremity, where it is tied, a part often
hanging down below the knot.
Fillet.— A narrow vertical band or listel, of
frequent use in congeries < f mouldings, to sepa-
rate and combine them, and also to give breadth FESTOON,
and firmness to the upper edge of a crowning
cyma or cavetto, as in an external cornice. The narrow slips or breadth between
the flutes of C'orinihijin and Tonic cnlnmns are Jilso called fillets. In mediaeval
work the fillet is a small, flat, projecting square, ciiietty used to separate hollows
and rounds, and often foitnd in the outer parts of shafts and boutel^. In this
situation the centre fillet lias been termed a keel, and the two side ones, wings ;
but, apparently, this is not an ancient usage.
Q vT/»v^/,': i i'-* i"^ 'T' ':'r',rft<X''^«!^0'i tcfl/
22
GLOSSAKV.
FINIALS.
Finial. -The llowor, or bunch of flowery, with which a spire, pinnacle, gablet,
canopy, crc. i^cnorMlly terminates. Where there are
crocktits, the llniul irenerally bears as close .i resoni-
blantM' a-* possible lo tluni in point of desii^n. They
are found in early work when^ there .-iri* no crockets.
Tlu' ^i^lp;^ '^L foini nioie resenil)les a bml about to
biii>t tiian an ()i»cn tlower. Tliey soon became more
elaborate, as ai JJneoln, and still more, as at West-
ni lister and tiie llOnl Cliiny at l^aris. Many per-
iKMidiiular finlals are like four crockets bound to-
^•■thcr. Alni()>t eveiy known example of a linial has
asorl of nceUini^ separatinir it from the parts below.
Fish-joini. A splice wlure tlu; pieces are joined butt end to end, and arc con-
nected liy piccej^of wood or iron placed on each ^ide and firmly bolted lo the
tiniberr. «)r i)ie<-es joined. (SecChnpter XXIX.)
Flags. Fat stones, from 1 lo :} inches thick, for lloors.
Fiamboyant. A name ai)plied to \}io Third l\)inted t^yle in France, which
si-rnis to have brcn (levelope<l from the Second, as th(^ EnJ;li^h IVriK*ndiculur
W.I- from the l)teoratc<l. The ;rreat characteristic is, that the element of the
tr.Mciy ll'>w:- npwaid in louis w.-.v.v divisions like flames of fire. In mobt casi'S
al-<>. cvirv di\i-.oii has only one; cusp on e.-ich .'-i(h'. ht)wever loni^the division
may be. Tnc moMldinir>^ sci-m to be as much inferior to thos«' of the prectHlIni;
period a- tltc I'l rpcnilienlar mouldiiif^s were to the Karly En«;lish, a fact which
^etin- to -bow that the decadence of (Jothic architecture was not conflnccl to one
co;iiiti_\ .
Ilang'G. A i)rojeclini,' edtre, rib, or rim. Flanjres an; often cast on the top or
Ixitioin of iron co'.uinn^. to fasten them to thos«» alK»v(^ or below; tltutopnnd
l)o:tt>:!i oi 1 b'UMriand cliai nels are called the llamre.
Fiabkings. Pieces of had, tin, or copper, let into the joints of a wall >»o ai»
T.i ;ijio\. r i:Mti«M> or otlnr piec«'< ; also, pieces w(irked in tlie slatoj* or nhinirles
;ii-oi;!.d am :iiers, chiini.<'y-, and any ri^inir part, to prevent leaklnj;.
Flatting. I'Mintim: llni.-hed without leavinir a ;rloss on the airfare.
Fleche. A ireneral tj-rm in French architecture for a spin-, but more* purticii-
lariy ii-erj i. ,i- ine >!nall, slen<ler erection ri-in'r fn)m the intersection (»f the nave
and tr.i;. «■;>'- in cathedtrd-; and larire churches, and earryiui; the fanctus Ik'H.
Flifht. A run of -tips or ^tairs Irom oiie lamiimr t«) another.
Flor.ting. The ejpial .-prculini; of planter or .-iiieco «in tlie surface of walls,
h\ niiin- of ;i l»o;iid c:i:i<-d a float ; as a ridt", only roni;h pla>lering !:« floated.
Floiiated. ilavinu' tlorid ornaments, a*' in (Jotlnc pillars.
Flcin'-de-lis. Th<* royal in>^ii:nia of France, nnich used in deconitlon.
Flue. I i" .-pice t)r pa-sa^ri" in a chimm-y fhroiiLdi vh.ch lh«' smoke n.«i'end'i.
i: ,1 r j,!-.;.. i- caliil a iliu'. wlii!" Jill toi/eth -r m.-ike the ehiuniey.
Flush. ! ''■' <"ii;i!iui-i| .-u la.- ■. in ih'- -:iin • plan'-, of !\no <-ontii;uoUx uia"-!—.
Flute. .\ r.ihi .i\e cli.innel. Column- \\lio-e 'halt- are channeUed are f.-iid
'■!■ \\ '.■■■: ■ d tii. ibiU - are Ci.llerl;-..lv i-.:ll. d Flulini:-.
Flyinu JiatLvoSji. -\na ■ lieil but::-.-' u-« 1 wln-n e\ira -trenL'ih wa" n-nuired
I ■ ■' ■ ■■ ■ ;..,i' •■! ;:i- w.i.; Ml" f!i.- ii.T.'-. « ■■ , to re-i-t tl;-- ouiwanl thru-! of a
Tli- r-.in- l.nt'ri-- :.'i-nirai'v r---'- «.'i t'l*- wa.l aisil Im tire*-, of
±\i.i:;. 1 ■ iiidlaii- i'l tlie ir:ieer\ •■f (inili.r u indow-. iniurN. etr.
rOi.Mi"".'. Ai. ■.riiaiiieni.d di>tribuiii)n of I.- ive- on varimi- |Kirt- of I mild Ins:!'.
Foliation. Tii- n.-e t.f -mall an-^ or foil- in formii.^ tr.u-ery
Font. I'e \e.~Ml ijM-d in the r.ieof b;ipil-m. 'i'lie earlie-I extant i^ oiipiNif^
GLOSSARY. 23
to be that in whit Ii Constantine is said to have been baptized ; tliis is a porphyry
labmm from a Roman bath. Those in the baptisteries in Italy are all large, and
were intendied for immersion ; as time went on, they seem to have become
smaller. Fonts are sometimus mere plain hollow cylinders, generally a little
smaller below than above ; others are masi^i vc squares, supported on a tliick utem,
round which sometimes there are smaller shafts. In the Early English this form
is still pursued, and the shafts are detached ; sometimes, however, they are hex-
agonal and octagonal, and in this and the later styles assume the form of a vessel
on a stem. Norman fonts have frequently curious carvings on them, npproach"
lug the grotesque; in later times the foliai^es, etc., paitook nbsolntely of the
character of those used in other architectural details of their respective periods.
The font in Eumpcaii churches is usually placed close to a pillar near the en-
trance, generally that nearest but one to the tower in the south arcade ; or, in
large buildings, in the middle of the nave, opposite the entiance porch, and
sometimes in a heparate building. In Protestant churches in this country, the
font is generally placed inside the communion rail, or on the steps of the
chancel.
Footings.— The :?preading courses at the base or foundation of a wall. When
a layer of different material from that of the wall (as a bed of concrete) is used,
it is called the Footing.
Foundation.— That part of a building or wall which is below the surface of
the ground.
Foxtail Wedging.— Is a peculiar mode of mortising, in which the end of the
tenon is notched beyond the mortise, and is split and a wedge inserted, which,
being forciWy driven in, enlarges the tenon and render!* the joint firm and im-
movable.
Frame.— The name given to the wood-work of windows, doors, etc. ; and in
carpentry, to the timber works sujjporting floors, roofs, etc.
Framing.— The rough timber work of a honse, including the flooring, roofing,
partitioning, ceiling, and beams thereof.
Freestone.- Stone which can be used for mouldings, tracery, and other work
required to be e?:ecnt«;d with the chisel. The oolitic and sands^tones are thoifse
generally included by this term.
Fresco.— The method of painting on a wall while the plastering is wet. The
color penetrates through the material, which, therefore, will bear mbbing or clean-
ing to almost any extent. The transparency, the chiaro-oscuro, and lucidity, as
well as force, which can be obtained by this method, cannot be conceived unless
the frescos of Fra Angelico or Raffaelle are studied. The word, however, is
often applied improperly to painting on the surface in distemper or body color,
mixed with size or white of cgtr, which gives an opaque effect.
Fnet. — An ornament consisting of small fillets inter-
secting each other at right angles.
Frieze. — That portion of an entablature between the
cornice above and architrave below. It derives its
name from being the recipient of the sculptured en-
richments cither of foliage or figures which may be fket.
relevant to the object of the sculpture. The frieze is also called the ZoOphorus.
Frigidarium.- An apartment in the Roman bath, supplied with cold water.
Furniture.— A name given to the metal trimmings of doors, windows, and
other similar parts of a house. In this country the word " hardware " is more
generally used to denote the same thing.
Furringt.— Flat pieces of timber used to bring an irregular framing to an even
surface.
Gable. Whon a roof i>^ not liippod or r«turiii!d <iii ib-olf at Ihe cnda, its cnib
are eloijpwl by I'lirrj-liij; up tlio wiUls under tli«in iii tin: uluiigiiJiu' /iirm ol ibe
[uuritwJI. i liuiD culled Ihe gable, <ir,lu this caw of ihs [imunieatal and oriia-
DH-ulvd j>ablc, tliG puUment. Of iiuH.'Mlit]', gHlilw luJlov thcBiij[le> or the elope
uf ihu rcHif, and cIUHiT in till- TSiiuiu Mylua. iu Nonniiu work they >n.'^necaJly
alxiiii liair-iiltvli : tn Kaily ilu);li*b, wlduui kw tliiui uyullutvra], and uftmi nioiv.
jji Uvcoratit] win'k tbt^ become lower, and alill more no in (be PerpeudlGnlar
H)lv. In ull Jiiipiirtiuit biilldinga Clwy arc llnUibcd witb copiugH or puraiicts, la
thii i.]itiT(Io[bli' atyk'^yiiiilb'aruuFteni-unuouiiledwitblHitllcDientii, oreurlcbcd
nJib iTiH.ki;t>; ilicy arc a^i> often |iaiu-llcdor|)crfoTatud, cometimea verjr rltblj.
Tlu' L-ulili'd In (tckviai^tii^ buUdlii^a uru iuu«Ur Uirniliuu'd nitli a crosa ; in
ulbi'is, Itya fiiiLiI orpliinaclu. In bilurtiuice the panpeta oi coploge were broken
Inlci u mni of Hrpf. called corbie mfpa. In biiildinga of 1cm [ireiunaion the tllc»
uxiilbft roof rovvrlii); ptuwed over tile ftuntol Ihew&ll, wbieb Uieu, of course.
luiduo culling. In tbiacase, Uieoulctpidr of ralterawaic concealed bji moulded
Gabis Window,-A icrai wnnetimi-B apiillcd to the l»r(,"e window under a
Ifiible, liiii nii>re properly to llie windows In tbvgablu ItH'lt,
Cabled Towers.— 'I'lioee nhlcb are anlahud wItU t^blCH Instead of parapeta.
Shmy i>f t)ir' crnimn Kiimane"qne tuwer* sre gabled.
Ga,bletS. Ttiiin^ilar turminutlou» to IniurKaaaB, moeh in use In the Early
Kiivli-li ^inil li''cor.it<'d ]H'riod^^ after which the liullreHVM |>enerully terminate In
piiiiiuck'x. Tlic likirly KiurllsU gableto itre generally plain, and very sharp In
pitch. Ill the IH^ijimiti'tl iH'ricHi they am often enrl.sbed witli panelllnit and
cniiki'li'. They are i«nuelinieii flnbdiud with Htiwll croMe>, but ufCellor with
Oain, A lii'viikilplioniderontbecnil of rtmortiBed br:ice, for ike pnrpove of
i:1iii]<>:iildliiiiii{il n-plxlunci' to the KlHiiilder,
Oallery. .Viiy Ion;; piiwain' luokini( ilouu into anuthci |iarl of a bnlldlnf, or
lulu i)ii' ri:iiri iiiil^idc. In liki' uiannvr, nuy 8Iai;e erected to carry a nxid or an
iip.iiiM, III i<i nTi'ive Kii'Tiatorx, mw luticrly ualled a gallery, tlionj;h oriuiaairy a
l-ifi, [II Ijitir limes tile nanuiwuK glrm to any very lou): (vuuu, particularly
tliii-e iiitc lull rl fur puriMiKi". of rtate, iirtDcllieviIiildilon of pleture*.
Gambrcl Boof.— .\ roof nrltb tmi |iltrbi-fi. nlmihir toa inunsanl or curb rwif.
Gargoyle, or Gnl^Ofle,— 1'l>e rarveil lerminaliun
tea -i"Mii "lii>'h iMinruyeil awuy the water fioin Iho
i.-iiiii'i's. Fiiiipiwi^d to bo railed n> from llie ^iUTKllnu
ii'ii-.' iiuili' hy ilmmitrr iiaiwlnit lhniQU[li it. Omr-
rath. Tliename
■ke It Mt quick,
—A Uree tlm'ier or irun beam, either single or ballt np. ascd lo sap-
' or walls over Ml opening.
~A Terllcal channel in n frieze.
Style— The name of Gothic wM given lo the variona Hedlsvil styles
i In the Bfiteenth century when n Rrent cIbbbIc revival was goinc im,
thing not claanic was considered barbarian, or Gothic. The torai wns
nelly intended as one of 8tli.-ma. and. although |[ conveys a false idea of
~ the Medieval xtyleR, It has long been used to dlsMngulsh them
I and Roman. The true principle of Qnthic archltscture h the
relation and Bnbordinatlou of the different iiarts, distinct and
each other, and while this principle was adhered to. Qothii;
he said to have retained its vitality.
ord derived from the French, s^ If ylng a large bam or granary.
aally long hnUdings with high wooden roofs, sometimes divided
ins into a sort of navo and alslos, irith wall» strongly buttressed.
erm was applied not only to the liarns. but to the whole of the
which formed the detached farms belonging lo the monaBteries; in
was a chapel eltlier Included among thc^e or standing apart as a
^.— A rmmework of beams laid Inngitndinally and crossed by similar
-Thu ironwork forming Uie enclosure screen to a chapel, or the pro-
JlluR 1« a tomb orshrlno; mire
They afi! of wronsht iron, omn
Her eitlicr by rivets or clips. In mjdern times grilles are nsed eiten-
protectlng the lower windows In city liouBCS. also the glass opening in
-By some dBscribod as the line of IntersecUon of two vaults wherethey
I oUier. which others call (ho gmln point ; hy others the curved section
:l of such vaulting is called a groin, ami by others the whole syHem of
Ueh. -The eros«.rili in the lalor styles
ig. paasine at Hght m!-]<:!< from wall to
dlvMing the vault info bays or Irnvoes.
JdUnf.-A. ceiling to a building com-
■ak ribs, tho spandrels of wlilch are Illed
isrrow, thin slips of wood. There are
, KngUnd : one a' the Early Bngllah
Wormingion, am' ono at WlueheMer
. eiactly ros(imbli-.rf thoso of Wone.
Oantrln;. -in erotnlng without ribs,
ra of Iho rnulHiig, In r;hlu>d work ihe
only are sniiimrteil h» timiier ribs diir- anoraBn Tin
LTIKfl
ogress of the work, any light stuff being nsed while miing 1
the
?0lllt.-Tha name given by workmen to the arris or line o
flute
Ub. -Till' rih ntilfli concinN tiie groin point or joinlB. wher
the
A VftnltJng.-Thc system of covering a bonding with s
one
93 and iuterxect i-ach other, as opi)09ed to the barrel vaultin
.or
lu by aide. The earliire
20 GLOSSARY.
except occasionally a sort of wide band from wall to wall, to strcn^hcn the con-
struction. In later Norman times ribs were added on the line of intcrscctioti of
Che >i)an(lr('ls, crossin*^ each other, and havin"; a bosH aa a key common to both ;
these ribs the French authors call nerfs en ofjivc. Their intnMlaction, however,
caused an <'ntire chanjrc^ in the system of vaulting ; instead of arches of uniform
thickness and irreat weight, these ribs were first put. upas the main construction,
and si)an(lr<'ls of the litjjhtest and thinnest possible material placed upon them, the
haundn's only beinj; l()a<led sutliciently to counterbalance the pressure from the
crown. Shortly after, half-ribs airainst the walls (formercts) were introduced to
carry the siKiiulrels without cuttini:: into the wallin<?, and to add to the appearance.
Tin; work w:is now not treated as continued vaultinsjf. but as divided into bays,
and il was formed by keepini; up the o;j:ive, or intersect injjf ribs and their bosses ;
a sort of <'onsl ruction havinj; some atHnity to the dome was formed, which added
much to the stren<^th of the j^roinin^. Of cour;«e, the top of the sofllt or ridge of
the vault was not boriz(mtal. but rose from tlu! 'evel of the top of the f omierct-rib
to the boss and fell ai?ain ; but this could not be perceivetl from below. As thia
system of (construction i^ot more into use, and as the vaults were required tu Ik* of
greater span an<l of higher pitch, the spandrels Ix'cime larger, and required more
support . To give this, another set of ribs was introduced, passing from the spring-
ers of the ogive ribs, and going to about lialf-way between these and the ogive,
and njeeting on the ridije of the vault ; the.se intermediate ribs are called by the
FnMich t'c rr, roua^ and b( ijan to come into use in the tnmsition fn>m Early
English to Decorated. About the same period a system of vanlting came into
u.'^e called fn rixirtift , from the fact that every bay is divided into six comimrt-
ments instead of four. It was invented to cover the naves of chnrchcH of unu-
sual width. The tilling of the spandnds in this style is very i>eculiar, and, where
the dilTerent compart ment.-i nvet at^. ilu' ridire, some pieces of hiirder Htone ha^'C
be.Ti u<ed. which give rather a pleasing elTect. The arches against the wall,
heiuL' "f sinalh-r span than tlu^ main arche-. cause llie centre springers to Iw |H'r-
pendicular and paralh'l for sonu' heiirht. and tlie spindreU them.selves are very
liolldw. A>^ >fyles i)rogre>.>ied. and the de.-»ire for greater richness increased,
ant)ih(r scries of ribs. calUsd licr/Kf, was intrcNluced ; these passed cmsitway:}
fmiii the Of/ins to the t'n rn ivim, an.l thence to the </oiiftf&att.r, dividini? the
-piTidnls n* ,;:ly horizontally. These various systems increased in tlie IVr|KMi-
dicijlar jicriod, so that the vaults were (luite a net-work of ribs, and led at l.ist to
tlu! Tudor, or. as it is called by many, fan-tracery vaullins:. In thirt nystt-m the
rib> are no j)art of tin; real construction, but ar<' merely earviHl upim the vniis-
-oir-, which form the actual vaulting. F'an Tracery is so called l)ecauso the riha
radiate from the siiringers. and spread out like the sticks of a fan. These Uler
nn'thod- an- not -fricily iiroin-. for the piMulentives an* not squan^ on plan, but
i-ircidar, and 'Ihri- i~, Ihcp-fon-. no arris inler-'ection or groin point.
Groins, Welsh, or TJnderpitch. When the main longitudinal vault of any
LToiiiiii- j- lii hir than th«MTo<s or I ransver-e vaults which run from the windtiwH,
th<- -\-ti til oi NMuitiiiL' i>> c.-illed underpitch LToiiiiuL'. or. iis termed by ilu* Murk-
niiii. \\'« :-h L.niiniiiL'. A vi-ry Ihii: example i- at St. (Jforgt-'s ('hn|M']. Wind-or,
Kli.-' I'.ri.
Groove. In juim-ry, a terni used to -i'^'iiily a snnk ehaniivl who-e M'ctinn i*
li.'.i .-:!:< Il i-< usually emplnw-d mi the fi]i:i> of a mouldim;, Ktih-. nr rail
. !■ , !>;.. w li'i II ;i toiiiruc ciirre-poiiiliiiL' I" il- »eciion. ai:d in iln* Mibyt.inrc tif
;lii V,--.' •'. which it i-^ Joineil. is inserted.
Grotesque. A hinL'ular and fanlastic style of onittuienl found m '^"fftf"f
t-uiidin/-
GrottO. All artificial cavern.
^^*>««^;»«!^s>*»^^
Groiind Floor. —The floor of a ballding on a level, or nearly 6o, with the
grotind.
Ground Joiit.— Joist that is blocked op from the ground.
Oroundl.— Pieces of wood embedded in the plastering of walls to which
skirting and other joiner's work is attached. They are also nsed to stop the
plastering around door and window openings.
Ghrouped Coluiims.— Three, four, or more columns put together on the same
pedestal. When two are placed together, they are siaid to be coupled.
Grout.— Mortar made so thin by the addition of
water that it will run into all the joints and cavities
of the mason-work, and fill it up solid.
Guilloohe, or Guillochos.— An interlaced orna-
ment like net-work, used most frequently to enrich
the rorus.
Outtse.— The small cylindrical drops used to en-
rich the mutules and regulae of the Doric cntabla- guillochb.
ture are so called.
Gutter.— The channel for carrying off rain-water.
The mediaBva! gutters differed little from others, except
that they nre often hollows Bunk in the top of stone
cornices, in which case they are generally called chan- - ^qutt-*.
nels in English, and cheneaux in French.
Gymnasium.— A building classed in the first rank by the Qreeks ; it was in
them they instructed the youth in all the arts of peace and war ; a building for
athletic exercises.
Hall.— 1. The principal apartment in the large dwellings of the Middle Ages,
nsed for the purposes of receptions, feasts, etc. In the Norman castle the hall
was generally in the keep above the ground floor, where the retainers lived, the
basement being devoted to stores and dungeons for confining prisoners. Later
halls— indeed, some Norman halls (not in castles) — are generally on the ground
floor, as at Westminster, approached by a porch either at the end, as in this last
example, or at the side, as at Guildhall, London, having at one end a raised dais
or estrade. The roofs are generally open and more or less ornamented. In
the middle of these was an opening to let out the smoke, thoagh in later times
the halls have large chimney-places with funnels or chimney-shafts for this
pnrpose. At this period there were usually two deeply recessed bay windows at
each end of the dais, and doors leading into the withdrawing-rooms, or the
ladies' apartments ; they are also generally wainscoted with oak, in small panels,
to the height of five or six feet, the panels often beins enriched. Westminster
Hall was originally divided into three parts, like a nave and side aisles, as are
t^ome on the Continent of Europe. 2. A room or passage-wa^' at the entrance
of a house, or suite of chambers. 3. A place of public assembly, as a town-hall,
a music-hall.
Halving.— The junction of two pieces of timber, by letting one into the
other.
Hammer Beam.— A beam in a Gothic roof, not extending to the opposite
side ; a be;im at the foot of a rafter.
Hanging Buttreas.— A buttress not rising from the ground, but supported
on a corbel, applied chiefly as a decoration and used only in the Decorated and
Perpendicular style.
Hanging Stile.— Of a door, is that to which the hinges are fixed.
Hangings.— Tapestry *, originally invented to hide the coarseness of the
*28
GLOSSARY.
wallpof a chambor. DilTcrcnt materials were employed for this piirpoee, Bomi
of tlnMM «'xc(H'(linj?ly costly and beautifully worked in flgures, gold and pilk.
Hatching. T)rawin«» parallel lines close together for the purpoM of Indicai-
inj: ;i seition of anythinjr. The lines are generally drawn at an angle of 45"
with a Ijorizontal.
Haunches. -Tho sides of an arch, about half-way from the 8prin«;ing t o th«
cr')wn.
Headers. — Tn masonry, arc stones or bricks extending over the thickness of c
wall. In oarjHMirry. tht; large beam into which the common joists are framed ir.
framini; opmingK for stairs, chimneys, etc.
Heading Courses,— Courses of a wall in which the stone or brick are all
h(?aders.
Head-way. -(-lear si)ace or height under an arch, or over a stairway, and the
like.
Heel.— Of a rafter, the end or foot that rests'upon the wall plate.
Height.- -Of an arch, a line drawn from the middle of the chord to the In-
trados.
Helix. A small volute or twist like a stalk, representing the twisted tops of
the acanthus, placed under the abacus of the Corinthian capital.
Hermes.— A rough quadrangular stone or pillar, having a head, nsoally of
llcrnics or Mercury, sculptured on the top, without arms or
body, plac(Ml by the (ireeks in front of buildings.
Herring-bone Work.— Bricks, tile, or other materials ar-
ranircd (liaironally in building,
Hexastyle. A portico of six columns in front is of this
de^^cription.
Hif h Altar. The principal altar in a cathedral or church.
V.'lurc there i< a second, it is g»Mierally at the end of the choir
or chancel, not in tlic lady chapel.
Hip-knob. Tlio ilnial ou the hip of a roof, or between the
barjc hoMrds of a gable.
Hip-roof. A roof which rises by equally inclined planes
from all four sides of tho building.
Hippodrome. -A i)1ju;c appropriated by tho ancients for
equestrian ext'rclscs.
Hips. Those j)ieces of timber placed In an inclined position
at tlic corners or angles of a hij)-roof.
Hood-mould. A wonl used to signify the dri|>-stone for
label over a window or d<M)r opening, whether in!*ido or
out.
Hotel de Ville.— The town-hall, or guild-hall, in Franco, Germany, and
NorrluTu Ft.ily. The building, in general, serves for thoadniinlstratiiMi of JnntlrF,
the r.Mi ip; of town dues, the n'LTulation of markets, the residence of mairlst rat en.
l»ariM<k- f. ir pulice, pri-on*', and all other fiscal purposes. A» may !m' imiiifiiied.
tlic.\ (liiliT \.ry much in ditTerent towns, l)ut they have almost Invariably
aM.i'liid t.> ihciii, or clo>ely adjac(Mit, a larire cl(M'k-tt»wer containing one or
nmr. I)ill>-. for rallmi: the ))eo])U* t<»<:ether on special iK'cas ion i«.
Hotel Diuu. The name for a ho>pital in mediiPval rimes. In England there
an I'M! tVw Miiiain«- of these buildiiiL's. one of wliieh i" at Dover: in Franri*
"" ;■ 'I' I'.i'iv. 'i'hr nio-t celi'lmili'd I* :he one at .XuL'i't^, descrllH'd by Parker.
'liny (t<i ui't -^ccni til (litTer much In arrangement of plan from I ho«e In modem
da.\-. till- ai'( ointuiMlation for the chaplain, medicine, nurm-ii. stcirvi*, etc.. being
nmch tlie -aine in all agei«, except that in Mime of the earlier, iustoad of IIm tick
BSRJIES.
GLOSSARY. 29
bting placed in long wards like galleries, as is now done, they occupied large
buildings, with naves and side aisles, like churches.
Housing.— The space taken out of one solid to admit the insertion of another.
The base on a stair id generally housed into the treads and risers ; a niche for a
statue.
Hjrp^Btliros. — A temple open to the air, or uncovered. The term may be the
more easily understood by supposing the roof removed from over the nave of a
church in which columns or piers go up from the floor to the ceiling, leaving the
aisles still covered.
Hypogea.— Constructions under the surface of the earth, or in the sides of a
hill or mountain.
lohnography.— A horizontal section of a building or other object, showing its
true dimensions according to a geometric scale ; aground plan.
Impluvium.— The central part of an ancient Roman court, which was un-
covered.
Impost. — A term in classic architecture for the horizontal mouldings of piers
or pilasters, from the top of which spring the archivolts or mouldings which go
round the arch.
In Antis.— When there are two columns between the antse of the lateral walls
and the cella.
Incise.— To cut in ; to carve ; to engrave.
Indentod.— Toothed together.
Inlaying,— Inserting pieces of ivory, metal, or choice woods, or the like, into
a groundwork of some other material, for ornamentation.
Insulated.— Detached from another building. A church is insulated, when
not contiguous to any other edifice. A column is said to be insulated, when
standing free from the wall ; thus, the columns of peripteral temples were insu-
lated.
Intaglio.— A sculpture or carving in which the figures are sunk below the gen-
eral surface, such as a seal the impression of which in wax is in bas-relief ;
opposed to Cameo.
Intercolamniation.— The di!:>tance from column to column, the clear space
between columns.
Interlaced Arches.— Arches where one passes over two openings, and they
consequently cut or intersect each other.
Intrados.- Of an arch, the inner or concave curve of the arch stones.
Inyerted Arches.— Those whose key-stone or brick is the lowest in the
arch.
Ionic Order.— One of th(i orders of Classical architecture.
Iron Work,— In mcdiajval architecture, as an ornament, is chiefly confined to
the hinges, etc., of doors and of church chests, etc. In some instances not only
do the hinges become a mass of scroll work, but the surface of the doers is
covered by gimilar ornaments. In almost all styles the smaller and less important
doors had merely plain strap hinges, tenninating in n few bent scrolls, and lat-
terly in fleurs-de-lis. Escutcheon and rins; handles, and the other furaliure, par-
took more or less of the character of the time. On the Continent of Europe the
knockers arc very elal)orate. At all periods doors have been ornamented with
nails having projecting heads, sometimes square, sometimes polygonal, and
sometimes ornamented with roses, etc. The iron work of windows is generally
plain, and the ornament confined to simple fleur-de-lis heads to the stanchions.
The iron work of screens euclosing tombs and chills is noticed under OriUe,
Q V.
^0 GLOSSARY.
Jack.— An inBtitiment for raising heavy loads, either by a crank, siren and
pinion, or by hydraulic, power, and in all cases worked by hand.
Jack Rafter.— A yhort rafter, used especially in hip-roofs.
Jamb.— The wde-poHt or liiiin;^ of a doorway or other aperture. The .iambs of
a window out>id(! tlu; fianio an; cjilU'd Kcvcals.
Jamb-shafts.- Small shafty to doors and windows wilh caps and bases ; when
in the inside arris of the janih of a window they are sonietimes called Escon-
Bons.
Joggle. A joint between two bodies so constructed by means of jogs or
notches as to prevent their sliding pai*t each other.
Joinery. That branch in building confined to the nicer and more ornamental
parts of carpentry.
Joist.— A small timber to which the boards of a floor or the latlis of cellhig
are nailed, it rests on the wall or on girders.
Keep.- The inmost and strongest part of a medijcval castle, answering to the
citadel of modern times. The arrangement is said to have originated with Gnn-
dolf, the celebrated Jiishop of Kochester. The Norman keep is generally a very
n:assive sipiare tower, the basement or stories partly l)elow ground being used
for stores and prisons. Tiie main story is generally a great deal above ground
level, with a project in<j^ entrance, approached by a flight of steps and drawbridge.
This Jloor is i^enerally supposed to have been the guard-room or place for Ujc
soldiery ; above this was the hall, which generally extended over the whole area
of the building, and ic sometimes separated by colunins: al)ove this are other
ai)artnuMits for \hv. residents. There arc winding staircases in the angles of the
buildings, and passages and small chambers in the tliickness of the wallif. The
Iceep was intended for the last refuge, in ca.se the <)utw(;rks were scaled and the
otlier bnildinirs stormed. There is generally a widl in a niediieval keep, ingen-
iously loneeriled in the thickness of a wall, or in a pillar. The most celebrated
of Nornjan times are the White Tower in Limdon. the castles at Rochenter,
Arundel, and Newcastle, Castle Iledingham, etc. The keep was* often circular.
Key-stone. The stone placed in tlie centre of the top of an arch. The char-
acter of the key-stoiK* varies in different orders. In tin; Tuscan and Doric It is
only a simple s one pr )jecting beyond the rest ; in the Ionic it is adorned wilh
mouldinirs in the nianncr of a console ; in the Corinthian and Composite it Is a
rich s( iilpinred console.
King-DOSt. The middle post of a trussed piece of framing for supportlni; the
tie beam at the middle and th»' lower ends of the t-trnts.
Knee. A piiM-e of timber naturally or artillcially bent to receive another to
reli<'ve a \\eii'-iit or strain.
Knob, Knot. The bunch of tlowers carved on a cori)el, or on a IU»*.
Kremlin. The Kussian name for the citadel of a town or city.
Label. < 'othie : the drip or hood-numldini; of an arch, when It is nMuniMl to
the ^ I'l.llr.
LubOi Terminations, (■arvinu's on which the laln-is terminate near !he
spriii-in/ of (lie windows. In Nonnun linies those were fn^cpiontly >n^»teiiqur
he.iii- of ii->li, binU. et<* . and someiimes MiiT foliaiic In the K:ir1y Knsiihh ami
!)(•( .-r :I<m1 priiod- they are often elcLrani knots of flowers, iir heads of kings
qU' 'ii^. bi>li<>p-, and other pi-r.*(ons hUp|Mised to he the foiinilers iif (*hun'ht*H.
In the I'l-rpeiidieular period they are often Hnished with a short Mpiait', niilrec
reiuri: or knee, and the foliagi^s are generally leaves of square or acUl}{UDB
form.
GLOBSABT. »1
Lkeanar.— ApanellL-d nccoftered O'tlin^orioffll. The panela or canoooa of
■ celirni: ai^ by VlCmvlnB caJled lacanaria.
Lady-shapel, — A ninall chtpel dedicated to Uie
Virgin Mary, t'encralljr found In aiiclciii cothedralB.
Lanoat.— A high and nainiw window pointed like
LaniUn^.— A plBtforni in n nightof Ftain iK.'tMceii
two srorles ; (he tenninallns ofa stolr.
Lantern. ~A tun-r; raistsd abote a root or tower
and vtrj mnch plercHl, [he betler to tnirinnU light.
In moile™ prwitioc thia ttroi I" gencmllj applied lo pnw.iia ik ™ii
anrnJiieil part In a roof or iililn;; conialnius vi'itlcal
wliidown. bnt lovered In luifiinntally. T6c nalmt wai. ileo often upplleii to the
ronatriictlona at tho (op of towere, ae at Ely Cathedrnl. probably beeauae llgbta
were placed In ihetn :i[ ni);ht to serve ae beacnni'.
Lanterafl of the Dead.— Curioan unall alcnder (owere. tonnd chloflj in the
blbll^rd at nk'ht to mark the plucc of n u^metery. Some have auppoSL-d that the
L«lth.-Aallpofwooc
^in
Blatlns. llllnB. an
,d plasl
lerlng.
LattiOB -Any work o
«doi
-metal made i)y
and form lug a nst-work.
2.
lleiilated window,
oflalhBor
Mparated by glaaa wind
thiT than
admitted, a^ in cellara ni
idd
alries
UvalM.-Tho lavalo,
leraliy
rl.«i:
at Fonlenay,' »ut
lOTindi
VIollot le-Doc. r.i gene
a sort ij( trough
almry for towela, etc.
Lftvatory.-Aplaccfi
irw
ashin
H the permn.
L«an-to.-A ™alt t,u
llflli
ig Wil
oee rafters pitch
or leer
L asninai ai
Leotern. -The nwdlns-dtak In the choir of chnrchea.
Ledge, or Ledgement. -A projccll<iii from a plane, an Blips on the aldo o1
window and diinrframvH to keep them Fteitdy In their placee.
Ledgers.— The horizontal piece* fa-tcned to the Mandnrd poles or tlmlXTB nl
acalToldiii;.' r^dseil uroiind bulldliiKa dnring their en-ction. Thu^e which rest on
the icd^Ri arc chilled putlog*. :in<l on thejii' thu bonrdfi are laid.
Lewis.- An Iron clumji dovetailed liitDnhugeHtonu to lift It by.
Llch-gftte,- Acovercil^iiloBt lliotmtranco of n wmelcry, under (he slieltin
ot which the mimmots reateil with the onrpw, whito Ilie proce«Mlon of IhcrhTBy
cametonn-ettiicm. There arc several eiamplentn England.
Linen Boroll. - An orci^imi'nt formerly u>M!d for Hlliu!.' panels, and to called
LinteL— The horlamial piece nhlch co\erB the opeuing ot ' '
32
GLOSSARY.
Lithograph.— A print from a drawing on stone.
Lobby. — An open space surrounding a range of chambers, or seats in a theatre;
a small hall or waiting room.
Lodge. — A small house in a park.
Loft. The hii^hcst room in a house, i)arlicuhirly if in the roof ; also, a gallery
raised tip in a church to contain the rood, the organ, or singers.
Loggia. - An outside gallery or portict) above the ground, and conlaincd
.▼ifhin the building.
Loop-hole. An ojx'ning in the wall of a building, very narrow on the outtiidc,
and splay<'d within, from whicli ;irrows or darts might be discharged on an
enemy. They are often in the form of a cross, and jzenerally have round holes
at the ends.
Lombard Architecture. —A name given to the round arched architectnre of
Italy, introduced l)y the conquering (Joths and Ostrogoths, and which shikt-
seded thi; Komanesque. Itreigi.ed between the eighth and twelfth centunes,
during the time tiial the Saxon and Norman stylos were in vogne in Eng-
land, and corresponded with them in its development into the Continental
(Jothic.
Lotus.— A i)lant of great celebrity amcmgst the ancients, the leaves and
blossoms of which L'enerally form the capitals of Egyptian columns.
Louver. A kind of vertical window, frequently in the peaks of gables, and in
the toj) of towers, and i)rovided with horizontal slats which
})erniit ventilation ;inil exclnde ra n.
Lozenge Moulding. A kind of njoulding used in Norman
architecture, of ni.iny difl'erent forms, all of which are char-
acterized hy l()/eni:e-shapul ornaments.
Lunette. The French term
for the ciicular opening in the
groin i i i: of the lower stories of
towei>, tlirouuh which the bells
are drawn up.
I.oZi:N(iE MOULDING. LOUTER WINDOW.
Machicolation. \ i)arapet
or <jalli ry projecting from the upper part of the wall of a house or fortification,
Hni)p()rl(il by brackets or corbels, and perforated in the lower part ho that
the (Ufcnders of the building might throw down darts, stones, and Monu'times
\H)1 siind, ino'tcn lead, etc.. u{)on their as>ailants below.
Man-liole. A hole through which a man may creep into a drain, ces^ixx)].
i»t<'anib()ilci-. etc.
Manor-house. 'I'lic residence of the suzerain or lord of the manor : in France
the <(nii:il lower or ke<'p of a castle is often called the i/ut/Urir.
Mansard Roof, curb roof, invented l)y Francois Mansard, a di.-ttinguished
French .ireliiiect, who died in ItllJtJ.
Mansion, .'i re>iden<-e of cou'-iderable >\/a' :>nd j)reiension.
Mantel, The work over a lireplace in front of a chimney : especially, a nhclt.
n.>-ii:iliy <>rn;inu-nte(l. above the fireplace.
Marquetry. Inlai'l work of line Inird j)iece.-' of wood
of .iill'ii-::! < oliii.-. jilx; *t fhelH. ivcrv, .and the like.
Mausoleum. A niaLri.lficent tondiorHumpiuou.^^sepnl-
elir-.l nioir.iin<-nf .
Medallion. Any circular tablet on which are em-
bos.">ed li:.'nri-.-» or nusCs.
McdiaDval Architeotore. The architect um of Eng- xAniicoLATiov.
bnd, France, GennuVi etc., during the Middle Aget, inclndlnc the I'
BftrlyOotblc Hjlef. It cninprlKeBWihtinoniBaemiiie. ByuiiiineaTid
Lombard, anil oihvr styles,
Hailim.— Thediffirent piirl«orabulldln{[, the dlHercnl parM iil
laturc. the different mouldings of a t»iriii<re. cli:.
Herlon.— 'niat port of a parapet vriiiuli li-» iH'lwci'n Iv'o i.-mbra»ure
KetOIM.— Tlie aqnaru niew between tlie trlglyjiha In a Doric fri
HMCantne.— A low Kinry between two loftj one*.
It fa called by the French i-w/rwu;, or inrerBtiiry.
KeiM-liliero.— Or muan relief. In eiinipariaaD
with atto-riliovo, or hl){h relief.
Minaret.— Turkish : a circular turret rlKing 1^J dlf-
feront ai^ea or dlvlaloiie, imeh of which hae a bolccmy,
MiOSter.-Probably a ciirruption of n.i.naWerium-
lhciBr«echarchattBchedti>anTecclevIaitJtBlfnilcniity.
If lbs latter be presidca oi-cr by a bl-ihop, ll ia ;;en«rallx "='0'
called a Cathedral ; If by an abbot, ail Abbey ; If hy a prior, a Priory.
Mlnnte.— The uliiteth part of the lower diat
iethe meaenrc ueod liy aruliitucta to deli
, TieceA>-Hrlly abnt :ipon one another eo aa to
form a right angle, and arc paid ii> miiri'.
Uodlllion.— So called because of it? arrangement in regulated di
enriched block or bori^ontal bracket geuemlly tonnd i
nnder the cornice of the Corinthian e
Lean omtfnienied, ii U i^oinellnicK used tu the Junk.
Kodnle.— This ie a Urni which lia>' lieeii generally [
lie relai Ivo pto|>or
ilona of the TarlouB iHUtn or a columnar onllnHDce
The Bcmi-diametcr of Ihu column utlm baJ^^ h ih<
tuodola, which being divided iutu thirty ports called niiuutef, any giart ol
compoaitlon laBEid lobe iifponia • . , .
height, breadth, or |irojcctlon. The wbolu diameter la now generally prnfernil
aaa module, it being a lielter rule of pruporllnn iban ilHhalf,
l[0Illltt«r7,-A set of bniiding. -tdajiled for the rece;jtlon of any of the
article. Abbe;,.
HonOtrigIyph.-Thc intcrcolnmi.iaIlon« of tlio Dc.-.Ic order are deferminerl
by the nambcr of trigly]>li« wliieh intervcni\ liisleud {f the nnmber o( diamettra
of the column, as m other caees: and this term dcsl|.-nalee the ordinary intci-
columniatlon of one triglyph,
HonnmAnt,— A name gl^'cn to a tomb, particularly to thOHC flne etructnrea
rtcBwed In the Kails i f meiilirval ehnrchep,
KoBftfo,— Pictorial representation^, or iimanienie, formed of small plcecii of
itont, muble, oi' enamel of various colon. In Roman honsea tlie floors are often
34
GLOSSAKY.
MflUl.DINOS.
entirely of mosnic, the piccofs bc.inj; cubical. The be.*t examplep of moeoic work
arc foniid in St. Mark's, at Venice.
Mosque. A Malioniefan temple, or place of worship.
Moulding. When any work is wrou^rht into lonir regular channels or projec-
tions, fornnn.r eiirvcs or loiind^, hollows, etc., it is
said to 1)0 inoiildcd. and each separate nieniDer is
called a niouldinL'. In incdia'val architi'ctnn' the
principal nioiddinirs arc those of Ihe arches, doors,
wnidows, pier-;, etc. In the Kariy Knjjlish style, the
mouldings, for some time, formed {j:roni)s set back
in scj'.iares. and frecpiently very deeply nndercut.
Th ' scroll monldinjr is also common. Small fillets
now become very fre(picnt in the keel monldinj;,
from its re-cmblancc in M-ction to the bottom of a ''• astniKal : b. oc^t-.e ;
, . , 1- 1 11 c, cymatnim ; r/, cavtt-
ship : -ome.lnncs. also, it lias a peculiar hollow on to : \'. s(!otia or case-
each side, liku two win;;s. Later in the Decorated nieiit; /, aiMjphyires ;
Ntvle the niouldin''s are more varied in desij^n, U- <>volo, or qnarler
, , ,, , , ,.,, ., HM 1 round; //, lorim ; i,
tlioiL'h hollows ami rounds still prevail. The under- reediu" ; ; band.
c III wji is not so decj), llllet> abound, oirees an- more
fre(|uenl, and tlu' wave mould, double oL'ee. or double rcpHannt. 1f» often seen.
l!i many jjlac*'^ the strin'j:s and labels are a round, the lower half of which Is cut
olT l)y a pl.iin i liamfer. The mouldin«rs in the later styles in some degree n'seni-
i)i" those of the DecoratiMl, llattciu'd and extended ; they run raon> inftj one
another. Isaxinu' fewer lUlets, an<l b in;.', as it were, less i:n)U|H?d. One of the
()rincipal reiture>< of the chaiiLre is tlie substitution of one, or perhaps two (.fel
doin moil", \(iy l,ir.:e liolIow< in the si't of mouldin^^s. These hollows are
ii.irlier cireiil.ir nor elliptical, but obo^ate, like an ti;ir cut across, so that one
li.iM i< la;:..<i' ilian ilie «ithcr. The braee mould also has a small bead. when» the
two o:j. . - ii:r. t. Ano;lnr s< it of mouldimr. which has Im-c'u called a lip mould,
is (omnion in i)arape'>. ba-cs, and \veatherini:«'.
Mouldiii^s. Ornamented. The Ss.xon and cailyN<»nnan mouldiiiirs do not
>' • in ;o li.iM been much enrichctl. but the comph'tt* and later styles of Norman
ar • lein ■.; iv.ii)le for a profu'-i'Mi ol' ornameiitition. the mo>l UMial of wlileh N
w!i:it i- c,;l]i(l the /,iL'/.a_. Tlii> stem- to be to Norman archilecliirv wh.nt ihe
m'-.iiiclir 1 r fri-t w;l^ to the (irecian ; b'lt it was prob.ahly dt-rived from the
s.ixi,!;-. - i! i- VI ry fre(inei!!ly foiiinl i:i their pottery. Ite/anls. i|n:ilrefnl|<«.
io/i '..L'" ~. rre-ceii!-. biilei-, liead> of iiaii - . ::r" vcry coiumon omann'nl>. IJr'-itle*.
I:,e- ■. ii.-.f 'I, lent-, talili - : I;:ii.e rope- r.-nnd which !-m:dlcr roiM-s ari' tiiriicd. i-r.
.■i- on- <.iiio- <«;i\, ••wormed" ; se.dlop-. pellet-, chains, a >ort of ctinii"::i barreN.
• I'l.iii:! -' I'l 'li.i :i<. lie.iU ■ of liiid-. Ii'-.id- ( f H-Ih—. ornaments iif'ilnuxt ev« rj ••":■
(■■ :n.i1.:>- ki: i'. ;i!e M-nlpliMiil in Norn .i;. inoiiMlni."^ : and they an- u-i-d in siicl;
p"! .i-'i : ■ !.:i- leen .-ittiniptM! in no other -t'l*-. Tin- ilccoratinu** on T!;;rly
V.\i -.Ml II. <■ :h in:'- are <'liii tly tin- iI^l' lo<itli. \'. hleji i- nne of the irreaf cl':n;u-
U V -\'r > i' Ir- -t;!e, tlMiiL'h ii i- ;«» be foin.d ii- the Tnin-ilii-ii Norman. l! :-
\ i' 1(1 in a dei ]i holiiiw bi ; \m en iwo ; inji etiii:; inouiiliiii:^. llie I'aik
= ■• ^i.ii'tx. « III ir.i-iii.i; ir .i v-ry i c;nriri:I v isy \\ ilh ihr ii-jhr in lla-c
In ilii- ])ei:iid ;ii d in :!i-- m \t i!--'i\p ; .•M:nm o\»r ihiorwav". | ar
:■• . :■ "•■'i'\ :i!e iiollbli- doii>«.. i> 1.= -fily ■ "i:)!!!- il'd. Thi-e iif f ' c Mi r« ir.tei!
1' • ! !■. ' •■ tli.- :.iiniei. • \ -ipr ■■.; '[Ill ili.-ii-- !■ n-iiri- nafu'iil and llic d«'«;
■"■■; ■: • ■■■■■. 'o !li ■ '..i! I'n.wi r. '^ ■!> ■■ of in- »!iii!ii\\-. ji!..!!. •ircornamri !»•.. wi:'i
I"-'!'- ■ ' : •' n''-r\;ii-. v. Iiieli .■•••i- -onie- lini - eonih-cfcd by :i ninnini! tciwlrii. a*:
th- b- i- :l..«.'e!. .ij-.- frei|U' i.ily. ?»■ !nc ve- \ pli;!*-:n'_' le.af like oni.'inii-nl^ in ll't-
'. '.'I u- .in" often {'.Mind in ('nii'iii'ii'al .-ireldtectun'. In the IVrpi'n-
■ "1 1
ii . I't". i
I I.
:mi
GLOSSARY. 36
dicnliir period the monldlngs nrc ornamented very frequently by isqtjarc fonr-
leaved flower.-' set at intervals, bat the two characteristic ornaments of the time
are running patterns of vine leaves, tendrils, and grapes in the hollows, which
by old writers are called " vignettes in casements," and upright stiff leaves,
generally called the Tudur leaf. On the Continent mouldings partook much of
the same character.
Hnllion, Munion.— The perpendicular pieces of stone, sometimes like col-
umns, sometimes like slender piers, which divide the bays or lights of windows
or screen-work from each other. In all styles, in less important work, the mull-
ions are often simply plain chamfered, and more commonly have a very flat hol-
low on each side. In larger buildings there is often a bead or boutell on the edge,
and often a single very small column with a capital. As tracerj' grew richer, the
windows were divided by a larger order of mullion, between which came a lessor
or subordinate set of mullions, which ran into each other. The term is also
applied to a wood or iron division between two windows.
Multifoil.— A leaf ornament consisting of more than five divisions, applied to
foils in windows.
Mntule.— The rectangular impending block under the corona of the Doric
cornice, from which guttac, or drops, depend. Miitulc is equivalent to modillion,
but the latter term is applied more particularly to enriched blocks or brackets,
such as tho«<e of Ionic and Corinthian entablatures.
IVarthez. — The long arcaded porch forming the entrance into the Christian
basilica. Sometimes there was an inner narthex, or lobby, before entering the
church. When this was the case, the former was called exo-narthcx, and the
latter eso-narthex. Id the Byzantine churches this inner narthex fonns part of
the solid structure of the church, being marked off by a wall or row of columns,
whereas in the Latin churches it was usually formed only by a wooden or other
temporary screen.
Natural Beds.— In stratified rocks, is the surface of a stone as it lies in the
quarry. If not laid in walla in their natural bed the laminie separate.
Nave. — Th<? central part between the arches of a church, which formerly was
separated from a chancel or choir by a screen. It is so called from its fancied
resemblance to a ship. In the nave were generally placed the pulpit and font.
In continental Europe it often also contains a high altar, but this is of rare
occurrence in England.
Necking.— The annulet or round, or series of horizontal mouldings, which
separates the capital of a column from the plain i)art or shaft.
Newel.— In mediflBval ardiitecture, the circular ends of a winding staircase
which stand over each other, and form a sort of cylindrical column.
Newel Post.— The post, plain or ornamented, placed at the first, or lowest
step, to receive or ?t:irt tiie hand-rail upon.
Niche.— A recess sunk in a wall, generally for the reception of a statue.
Niches sometimes terminate by a .simple label, but more commonly by a can-
opy, and with a biacket or corbel for the figure, in which vau^e they are often
called tabernacles.
Norman Style.— Wa.s that species of Romanesque which was practised by the
Normans, and which was introduced and fully developed in England after they
had established themselves in it. The chief features of this style are plainness
and m issiveness. The arches, windows, and doorways were semicircular, the
pillars were vi-ry masr^ive, and often bnllt up of small stones laid like brickwork.
Nosings.— The rounded and projecting edges of the treads of a stair, or the
edge of a landing.
:<♦) GLOSSARY.
Obelisk. - Lofty pillaip of atonv, of a rectanirular form, dimini)>hing toward the
top, and <>;(;iuTu]ly oriianicntc<l with inscriptions and hicro}2rlyphic» among the
aiu'iiMit Ejj^yptiims.
Observatory. A Imildin^ cn-ctt'd on an elevated sj)ot of «!roiind for makin};
aKfronuniic.il (il)><rvatit)nH.
Octostyle. A poiiico of (■i;_'ht (.'olunnis in front.
Offsets.- V.'lion I lie fju'i' of a wall is not one continued surface, but scIh in by
horizontal jo.L'>. as tlic wall ^towh higher and thinner, the Jogti aru called off-
sets.
Ogee.- The name applied to a moulding, partly a hollow and partly a round,
and derived no (loiihi fronj lis ri'Si'inbhince to an () placed over a G. It ia rarely
found in Norman work, and is not very common in Pearly Kn^lit*h. It la of f rv-
(pient n.^^e in I)i corated work, where it becomes Kometinies double, and Ir called a
wave numldinji: ; and later still, two waven are connected with a Pmull bead,
wlijeh is tlioii called a brace moulding:. In ancient MSS. it U called a HcsBaunt.
Orchestra. In ancient theatres, where the chorus used to dance ; in modern
thealies, wher-' the musicians sit.
Order.- A cohnnn with it>' entablature and stylobat-e in so called. The term ii>
the re>nli of the doL'matic laws deduced from the wrJtinjjrs of Vltnivius, and Iiom
been exelusivily a])i)lied to tho>-e arran«;einents which they were thought to
warrant.
Oriel Window. ■<Joiliie: a ])rojeetint;: antrular window, commonly of n trl-
a'^onal or pent:ii;onal form, and divided by mullions and transoms into different
bays :ind compartments.
Orthography. A Lr''ometrical elevation of a buildini; or other object in which
it i< repre-ented as it aclnally exists or may exist, and not perspectivcly, or M it
woiiid aiij-ear.
Ortiiostyle. A columnar arramrement in which the columns arc placed in a
.»-tr:iij;it line.
Ovolo. SiMie a- /'i'/iintifi.
Pagoda. A name L'ivetv to temples in India and CMiina.
Palace. '1 he dwe.lim; of a kiiiL'. prince, or bishop.
Palo. A fence picket, shar]>ened at the upiHT viu\.
Pane. I'rooably a diminutive of paniieau, a term applied to the different
pit-ce- of L'la-- in a window : >ame as I/tf//if.
Panel. Properly a piece of wood fnimed within four otiier pioccH of wood, an
j:i 111' -t>!i- ai d laiN of ado ir. Illlini; up the aperlure. but often applied both to
tlie vn!iiiI>- -11 ;are frame anil ttn- sinkiiiu' itself: alsototlie r:in<;es of Hunken com-
pa'".!i' i!*~ i. \\aiii<c«ii:iiL'. cornice>. eorb«;l table-, irroiued vau It «, ceiling, clc.
Taiitoi^raph. • ■:• Pcntagraph,. An instrument for co])ylii<; on the same, or nn
« IV .;■ ■ ■'". i-v !•■ lie d -e .le.
Pantry. ^" ..parrm'-'ii or el«»sei in whii-h bre;ul and tither provi.Hi«MW aw
kept
i:'!i;noi'-ii!'iche. A liari! siib-iuiice ma<le of a piil|i from raL's or i>aper niixefl
\\i..i .1 ■■ a. 1 I iii-i:i!ded into :iny desired shape. Much u<t<tl for ur^'hktH-;-
II' . ■-■ 1.,'i'inii:-.
).':iiai)i i. ^ duarf wal ali»nu' the e<lire of a riM»i".<ir round a terrace walk. elc..
;■ :- •■n- frum faliiuL' over, and a^a proleclinn to the tiefenden< In ca^e
i>i r.'Mp t- .-.n- liiiMT plain, embailled. perforauil, or panelled. The
I.I : -A.I..- ■ iiiiinl in all -tyles except the Norman. Plain pani|H;ti^ are i>iiuply
P '.\: •:.- if the wai; l' MM-ra ly overhanu'iin: a little, with copini; ut the top and
(-'•ill! i.il'ie )i>l<*\\. Kiiibitlled paraiK't-< an- simietlmes panelled, but uftisiicr
GLOMAKY. 37
iK»d tot thedlKbaTKe of arnnrg. etc. Pcrforsted parspete ire pierced In Tuloai
ileea— ait clrclie, tiuloilp. quiirrefolle. ind other desl^ne-H) that the llgbt 1b
in ihroogb. Panelled panpeU *i« Ibose oniamented by a BerleH oT panels,
tun- oblong ot square, and more or leaa enriched, bai are not perforated. Tbew
) commoD Ui Ihe IX-conled urid Perpendicular perlode.
Farf«tlaj.-A species of plusterlng decorated by Imppeming pallemBon it
*bBii wet, Tbeee seem generally In have been made bi Bileklng a nnmber of
ploalnaboard In certain llnca orcnrvea, and then preening on the uetplusterin
TlrlooB dlrrctloim, eo iie lo tiinn geonietMcal Hgnres. Somctlmea these dericca
■re in relief, and In Iliu time of Ellzabi^th represent fl^ree, birda. follagea, eic
B. RoDgh plaaterlng, Bommonly adopted for the IntHrior anrfaco of chimneys.
Parlor.— A room In a house which ihe family uBoally occupy for society and
cooverfatlon, and for receiving vlsltora. 9. Tho apunment in a monastery or
nnnnery where the inmalcn are permitted to meet and converae with each other,
or with vieitors and frhnds from wlthont.
PMOoWal.— Bclniiglns or relating to a pariah.
P»I£[llBtrj, or Harquetiry.— A Wnd of litlald floor composed of small plecea
of woorl either aqnara or triangular, which nro cpijable of forming, by their dia-
poalllon, various coniblnatlona of flgnres; this description of joiiiery fa very
anltable for the Hoora of llhrariei, buMe, and pobllc apartments.
PMty Wall».-Pail!lioiie of brici: or atone between bolldinga on two ad-
joining properties.
Patera.— A clrenlar ornament resembling a dish, often worked In relief on
Pa,TBmBnt.~TeaeL-llated. a pavement of mosaic work,
oaed by the ancients, maile of aqnaregiiecesof atone, etc.,
called TBjaera.
Pavilion,— A rnrret or »ma)! Insnlated Imlldliig, and
Gomprleed beneath n am).'le roof ; also, the projecting
part In Iront of u bnllding which marks the centre, and
angular pavilion. patrha
Pedeital.-Tlio square snpport of a column, statoe,
for a base, iho die, and a talon crowned for a cornice. When the Height and
width are equal, it istcrmcdai'quare pedestal ; one which supports two columns,
adonWepedesial ; and If it aiipporta a row of eolumna wiihont anybreali, itts
aoontlnned ped^'alal.
Psdimant.— A low Irlangnlor crowning, nmamcnlcd. In front of a bnlldlni;, and
ment ; the space enclosed wilhln the triangle la called Che tympanum. Also, the
gable ends of ebsfic Uiilldinin>, where the hoi^i^ontal cornice !a carried across the
front, forming a (rianglo with the end of the roof.
Pendent.— A name given to an clongiicod boss, eilhcr monldcd or foliated,
anch aa hang down from tlie inti-met^tlon of ;;roinB. eapeclally In fan tracery, or
■t the end of hammer beams, Somcllnie« 1nni[ corbels, under the wall places,
have been so culled. The name hna nisn been (riven to the large masaes depend-
ing fcim enriched ceillnES. in Uie later worka of the Pointed atyle.
PendBDt PostB.- A nnme given lo those limherx which haniidown the xldeof
a wall from the plntc In hammer l>cam tnisseBi and wliicb receive Ihe hammer
38 GLOSSARY.
or a dome. Tn nicdiocval architecture tliebo orchcs, when underaspiA) in the
iiit(?ri()r of a tower, are called Squinches.
Fendentive Bracketing, or Cove Bracketing.— Springing from the rsc-
tjniii:u.ar waliM of an apartment upwaid to the ceiling, and forming tlie horizon-
tal part of the ceiling Into a circlo or ellipse.
Pentastyle. Ilavinjj: live columns in fnmt.
Pent-roof. A roof with a slope on one side only.
Perch. A measure used in measuring stone work, being 24} cu. ft. and 16|
cu. fi., aceordin;,' to locality and custom.
Periptery. An edifice or temple surrounded by a peristyle.
Peristyle. A rauire of columns encirclinif an edifice, sucli as that whicli unr-
rounds tlie eylindrieal drum under tlie cupola of St. Paul's. The coluninH of a
(Jrei k peripteral temph; form a peristylu also, the former being a circular, and
the latter a (piadri lateral peristyle.
Perpendicular Style. Tlu; third and last of the Pointed or Oothic Ftylcs ;
also called the Florid style.
Perspective Drawing. -The art of making such a representation of an ob-
ject upon a ])lane surface as shall present precisely the same appearance Mat the
<)l)je:"t itself would to the eye situated at u particular i)oint.
Pews. A word of uncertain origin, signifying fixed seata in chiirchc9, com-
posed of wood framing, mostly with ornamented ends^ They ."eem to have conic
into L'cner.il um' early in the reign of Henry VI. and to have btfcn rented and
"well imid for'' before the liefonnation. Some bench ends arc certainly of a
decorated character, and some have l)een considered to be of the Karly English
period. They are sometinusof ])lain oak board, two and a half to three hiclioB
thick, chamfered, and with a lu-cking and iinial, generally (ailed a I)oppy head ;
others are plainly panelled with bold cai)pings ; in others the p:ineli« are orna-
mented with tracery or with the lint'u i)altern. and sfmietimes with miining
foliages. The divisions are lllh^d in with thin chamfen*d lM>ardiiig, sometimes
reaching to the lloor, and M)m<'times only from the capping to tlie seat.
Picket. A narrow board, often pointed, used in making fences; a pale or
l)alini:.
Pier-glass. A mirror haniring betwet-n windows.
Piers. TIk: solid parts of a wall between windows, and between voids gener-
ally. The term is also applied to masses of brick-work or niaM)nry which are
in.-nlat( (1 to form supports to gar,es or (o carry arches, ]M)sts, girden", etc.
Pilasters. Are Hat sciuan^ columns, attached to a wall, l>ehiml a cnlumn, or
aloiii.' file >ide of a buildimr. and proj<'<"ting from the wall about a fourth or •
sixth p.irt of tli'ir breadth. The (Jrei-k^ bad a slightly diffen-nt denigii for the
cai)ita;s of pila^ter<, and made them the >ame width at top as at IxUtom, hut the
l^oiuin-' "MNc them the same capitals as the columns, and niadu them of
dimiii^hed width at the lop. .>«imilar to tln^ columns.
Pile. \ l.iiL'c ^laUeor trmik<if a lr<'e. driven iniosofi gi-onnd, »•< at thi> bottom
III .1 li-.cr. (II ill nunh- land, for the .-upp-irt of a biiililing. (See |». l.'ll.i
Pillar, "I Pyller. .V word ^'enerally u>ed to expivss ibe round iir polyuonal
pi< ! -. «.!■ : .<•-■ -nrroiMided with clustered co]iimn>. which carry the main arrheti
of :i !.ir ':■!.■ S;;\iiii and K.irly Norman pillars are trenerally stout cylindrical
-'■■.i::- '-iiir i;- <if .xniall 'tDius. S.nneiime'-. hnwcvt-r. tln-i arecpiilesipiari'.Minic-
ii" ■■. -Ii ii'h' r *-'jM:irc> l)reakiiiL' out i-f fhi-ni ilhisj!. more ciunuKni hi Fn-neh
:<■ '!<>• Miiii. -'. <><k-. 'Oiiiciime- w itii aULMilrir -haft ^. and ^ometiuies lliey are pl»lii
I ci ii'cii' I;. I,'.inianeh«iui' Norman w«rk the pillar \^ <onieliines stjuan', «ilth
r\M> i>i iijiiri -' iiiicirciilar or half coin in n<- aliai lied. In Ihr Karly Kiiulihh iktIikI
rill- !>i.'!.ir^ ii< • ••tii'- lottierand liL'hter.and in nioM iniiMirtaut l>uiidiu||;(( arc a scries
GLOSSARY. 39
tniiered colnmnB, frequently of marble, placed side by side, eomctimes eet at
nrvaU roood a circular centre, and sometimes almost touching each other.
tse shafts are often wholly detached from the central pillar, though grouped
nd it, in which CAse they arc almost always or Purbcck or Bethentdcn marbles.
Decorated work the shafts on plan are very often placed round a square set
;lewiBe, or a lozenge, the long way down the uave ; the centre or core itself is
ten worked into hollows or other mouldings, to show between the shafts, and
form part of the composition. In tlilf and the latter part of the previous style
ere is generally a fillet on the outer part of the shaft, forming what has been
lied a keel moulding. They are also oficn, as it were, tied together by bands
rmcd of rings of stone and sometimes of metal. The small pillars at the jambs
doors and windows, and in arcades, and also those slender columns attached
pillars, or standing detached, are generally called shafts.
Pin. — A cylindrical piece of wood, iron, or steel, used to hold two or more pieces
g;fther, by passing throagh u hole in each of them, as in a mortise and tenon
int, or a pin joint of a truss.
Pinnacle.— An ornament originally forming the cap or crown of a buttress or
lall turret, but afterward used on parapets at the comers of
wers and in many other situations. It was a weight to counter-
t the thrust of the groining of roofs, particularly where there
are flying buttresses ; it stopped the tendency to slip of the stone
•pings of the gables, and counten'oised the i hrust of spires ; it
rmed the piers to steady the elegant perforated parapets of
ter periods ; and in France, especially, t:ervcd to counterbalance
e weight of overhanging corbel tables, huge; gargoyles, etc. In
0 Early English j>eriod the smaller buttresses frequently flninhed
ith gablets, and the more important with pinnacles supported
Ith clustered shafts. At this period the pinnacles were often
pported on these sliarts alone, and were open below ; and in
cgcrwork in this and the subsequent periods they frequently form
ches and contain statues. In France, pinnacles, like spires,
em to have been in use earlier than in England. There are small
nnacles at the angles of the tower in ihe Abbey of Salutes. At
)uUet there are pinnacles in a s-imilar position, each composed of
PINNACLE
or small shafts, with caps and bases surmounted with small
Tamidal spires. In all these examples the towers have semicircular headed
Indows.
Pitch, of a Roof. — The proportion obtained by dividing the span by iho
light ; thus, we speak of its being one-half, one-third, one-fourth. When the
agth of the rafters is equal to the breadth of the building it i.s denominated
)thic.
Pitching-piece.— A horizontal timber, with one of \U ends wedged into the
ill at the toi) of a Ilight of stairs, to support the upper end of the rough strings.
Place.— An open pieco of ground surrounded by buildings, generally decorated
ith a statue, column, or other oniamont.
Plan.— A horizontal goome:rieal set ion of the walls of a building; or indi-
tions, ona horizontal plane, of the relative positions of the walls and partitions,
ith the various openings, such as windows and doors, recesses and projections,
imneys and chimney-breasts, columns, pilasters, etc. This term Is often in-
•rrectly used in the sense of Design.
Planceer.— Is sometimes used in the same sense as soffit, but is more correctly
»plied to the soffit cf the conmu in a cornice.
Flattorillgfi— A mixture of lime, hair, and sand, to cover lath- work between
40 C4L0SSAK\^
timbors or roTij^li wallinjr, used from the cnrlicpt timo«, and very common In
Roiiian work. In tlu; Middle A^cs, too, it was used not only in private, but in
public const nirt ions. On the inside face of old nibble wallH it was not only U!»chI
for i)urpos(s of ch'aiilim'ss. rou^rb work boldin^ dirt and dust, but ana •rround
for distemper painfiiii,' iteinp<'ra, or. as it i- often inipro])erly called, fresco . a
species of onianKMil often used in ibc Middb? Apres. At Si. Albans Abbey. Kn^r-
lan<l, the Norman work is phi'^tcred, and covered with lines imitatin<:: tbe joints
of stone. The same tiling' if* found in Knirlisb l*cri)endicular work. On the oni-
side of nibble walls, and ofteTi of wood framinir. it wnn used an rouL'bca>t;
when ornamented in patterns ont*.ide, it is called pari:etin<jr.
Plate. The ])iec.(; of timber i-i a bnildinjr which sui)ports tbe end of tbe rafters-.
Plinth. The j-quarc block at tbe b:ise of a column or ])edestul. Tn a wall, the
term plinth i- applici to the i)rojectinjj base or water table, i^enerallyat the level
of the first floor.
Plumb.— I'erpendicnlar : that is, Htandini? according to a plumb line, as, the
post of a h()U-c or wall i< i)lunib.
Plumbing. The lead and iron pipes and other apparatus employed In con-
veyiuL' water, and for toilet pnr])oses in a Imildin*^ ; oriirinally the art of casting
and workiiiir in lead.
Ply. T'sed to denote the; number of thicknesses of rooflnjr paper, an three ply,
four |)ly. ite.
Podium. A continued pedestal ; a i>rojection fnmi a wall, forminj? a kind of
^'allcry.
Polytrig"lyph. -An intcrcolumniation in the Doric onler of mon* than two
triL'lyphs.
Poppy Heads. Probably from tbe Frencb jmujtt^f : the flniali^ or other oma*
meiit-' wliich terminate the toj)s of bench ends, either to pews or
slaM-:. They are someliim-'* small Innnan heads, sometimes richly
cjuvccl iiiiaiT''^. knots of folia-ie. or liin'als. and scmietimes tleurrt-
(h- li- dimply cut out of tin- thickness of the bench end and cbam-
r.-n-d.
Porch. A eovcrefl erection formiriL' a shelter to the entrance
door of a l.irL'"' buildini.'. Th«' earliest known art; the hmtr arcnde<l
poirhr- ill fiDui of the (\arly Christian basilicas, call*''! Narthex.
In l.iicr time- they as-^iinic two forms one. the pnijectinir en-ctlon
e(iV(rin_' tiic fiilrane*' at the west fnnit of cathedrals, and dividtnl
iiitd ilin»- ^>\' iiiop' doorway;-, rtc. ; and the other, a kind of coventl |i(||.pY head.
eiiaMihi-r- op- ii at the <-ii(U. an<l havinix small wind«)ws at the side*
;i>- :i prot< nion from rain.
Portal. A name iriven to the deeply re<T««-<'«l and richly decorate*! cntnince
iloo!- I'l \\\t- f athedr:i]< in ContiiH-ntal ICnrope.
Portcullis. A -iroiej fr.iined i.'r;itin_' of oik. tbe lower points sbnd with in-n.
jiiil - .; !■ :i: eni ir< ly m.jd" of meial. hnnL' "o a- to >lidi- up and linwii in L'nKivi-
w ih ■ " .• iro.l.iiiii- -. .-iiid iiifi-ndeil to j)ri»teei the -.^att-ways «if eU'^lli's. vW.
ji*orjtico. \!i open -p.-ec before tin- fl "ir « r ntlier enfranci' to any luiildini:.
fr iiii- "1 ■. :i: (ihiiiiii-. A p ir. wi i- lii'ti'ii'iii-ln-'l ;i< protfylc or in unti't neconl-
in ' .- I pici. ■■; . fimii or nri- li< within ih" Iniliijiii:. and is further (le>ii:ii:iliil
I'\ I!, iimm'"-!' oi'ioIiiMi" - i'- froii' may eiiii>.i-! iif.
Post. ^':i. !■■ timhiM- ->t on •■ml. Tlie tirm i«. e*jM»r|:ilIy applied fn •Imi'-c
■' ' " '.■•■■ 'li- <orni r i-f a l"iil<lin".'. :itn! mi-- frann-d into lire*<MiiMiners ur
1 ro-- ■ e;!- Mii'Ii-r the waJN.
Fosticuni. \ poiiiro Im i.iml .-, iem|>ti
Prc:;byicry. .\ word aiipiied to varioui' pari> oi larL'i- i-hurchej- In ii very aca
GLOSSARY. 41
dgnous way. Some cnnpicler it to bo the choir itself ; othen, what is now named
he sacrariiim. Traditionally, however, it neems to be applied to the vacant
pace between the back of the high nlt^r and the entrance to the lady-chapel, as
X Lincoln and Cliichester ; in other words, the back- or retro-choir.
Priming,— The laying on of the first 8hade of color, In oil paint, and generally
lonsistiug mostly of oil, to protect and fill the wood.
prioiy, — A monastic establishment, generally in connection willi an abbey,
ind presided over by a prit)r, who was a subordinate to the abbot, and held much
he same relation to that dignitary ax a dean does to a bi:«hop.
Profile.— The outline ; the contour of apart, or the parts composing an order,
ts of abase, cornice, etc. ; also, the pei-pendicular section. It is in the just pro-
>ortion of their profiles that the chiof beauties of the diflPerent orders of archi-
ecture depend. The ancients were most careful of the profiles of their mould-
ngs.
Prowenium,— The front part of the stage of ancient theatres, on which the
ictors licrformed.
Prodtyle.- A portico in which the columns project from the building to which
t is attached.
Protractor.— A mathematical instrument for laying down and measuring angles
m paper, used in drawing or plotting.
Pseudo-dipteral.- False double-winged. Whi-n the inner row of columns
>f a dipteral arrangement is omitted and the space from tlie wall of the building
» the columns is preserved, it is pseudo-dipteral.
Paddle. — To settle loose dirt by turning on water, so as to render it firm and
lolid.
Puffging.— A coarse kind of mortar laid on the boarding, ])ctween floor joists,
X) prevent the passage of sound ; also called deafening.
Pulpit.— A raised platform with enclosed front, whence sermons, homilies, etc,
wrere deliverel. Pulpits were probably derived in their modem form from the
unbones in the early Christian church. There arc many old pulpits of stone,
though the majority are of wood. Those in the churches arc generally hexagonal
w octagonal ; and some stand on stone liases, and others on slender wooden
stems, like columns. The designs vary according to the periods in which they
were erected, having panelling, tracerj', cuspings, crockets, and other ornaments
then in use. Some are extremely rich, and ornamented with color and gilding.
A. few also have fine canopies or sounding boards. Their usual place is in the
nave, mostly on the north side, against the second pier from the chancel arch.
Pulpits for addressini; the people in the open air were common in the Mediaeval
period, and stood near a road or cross. Thus, there was one at Spitalfields, and
one at St. Paul's, London. External pulpits still remain at Magdalen College,
Oxford, and at Shrewsbury, England.
Purlinc. Those jiiecos of timbers which support the rafters to prevent them
from sinking.
Putlog. -Horizontal i)iccos for supporting the floor of a scaff'old, one end
being inserted into putlog holes, left for that purpose in the masonry.
Putty in Plastering. -Lump lime slacked with water to the ccmsistency of
cream, and then left to harden by evaporation till it becomes like soft putty. It
is then mixed with plaster of Paris, or sand, for the finishing cont.
Puzzolana.— A grayish earth used for building under water.
Pyramid.— A solid, having one of its sides, called a base, a plane figure, and
the other sides triungh^s, these points joining in one point at the top, called the
vertex. Pyramids are called triangular, square, etc., according to the fonn of
their bases.
42 GLOSSARY.
Pyx, -In Roman Catholic churches, the box in which the host, or consecrated
wafer, U kept.
Quadrangle. A square or quadrangular court, surrounded by buildings, as
was often done formerly in monasteries, collc;^e», etc.
Quarry. A pane of j^lass cut in a diamond or lozenge form.
Quarry-face. Aslilar as it comes from the quarry, siiuared oflf for the joints
only, witli f-plit face. In distinction from Rock-f.'ice, in tliat the latter may l)c
weaUicr-uorii, while Quarry-face should l)e fre^h split. The terms are often
used indi.-rriiniiiately.
Quatrefoil. Any small panel or i)erf oration in the form of a four- leaved ttower.
Soiiu'times u>e(l alone, sometimes in circles and over the aisle windows, but moro
Irecpiently in ^cpiaro i)anels. They are generally cusped, and the cusps are often
feathered.
Queen Truss. A truss framed with two vertical tie-posts, in distinction from
the king-post, which has but one. The upright ties are called (jneen-posts.
Quirk Mouldings. -The c(mvex part of Grecian mouldings when they recede
at the toj), forming a reentrant angle, with the surface which covers the mould-
ings.
Quoins. Larg(! s(iuared stones at the angles of buildings, buttresses, etc.,
generally u>ed to stop the rubble or rough sttme work, and that tho antrles may
be true and -ironger. Saxon quoin .-tones are said to have lM»en composi'd <pf
one loiiir and oni; short t-tone alternately. p]arly quoins are generally roughly
ax( (1 : m later tiiiu-s they had a draught tooled by the chisel mund the outbide
edires, :ind later still w<;rc w«)rked lint; from the saw.
Rafters. 'I'he joist to which the roof boarding is nailed. Prinripal rafters
are the upp<M- timbers in a truss, having the same inclination as the common
rafters.
Rail. A piec(> of timber or metal ext<'ndini: fnim on<' po.«t to another, ns in
IciKc-. balii-irades, staircases, etc. In framin<; and panelling, the horlxunlal
piiccs an- calli-d rails, an<l tl)e jx-rpendicular, yfUtn.
Raking. Mouldings whose arrii^es are inclined to tlio liorizon.
Ramp. A (••uuavify on the ui)iH'r side of hand milings formed over risers,
made liy a Muliif-n rise of the steps above. Any concave bend or s]o|m' in the cap
or upper Muiiibcr of any piece of ascendiuir or descending workmanship.
Rampant. A term api)lied to an arch wiiose abutments spring fnim an
iliciilied ]iiaiie.
Random Work. A term used by stone-mas(ms f<ir stones fltfed togi'thor at
riirloin uiiliout any altempt at layiuL' tln-ui in courses. linmhtm CoHrtnif llo/A
I- ;i liiir I nil applieil to work coursed in hori/.ontid beds, but the stones arv «f
aii-. Iiiii.lii. a' (1 littc'd to one another.
RanfTO V/ork. Ashlar laicl in horizontal cours<'s : same as coursed ashlar.
Rebate. \ Lrroovi- o;: the ejL'es of a board.
Recess. \ <lepth of Mune inche-i in the thw-kncif* of a wall, a-* a niche, vtc.
Refectory. The hall of a rnoria-l<-ry. convent, etc., where the n>ligioMs rmik
thi ri hi' t' ::ii aN toL'etlur. It nnirh loenibh-d the irn-al JwilN of nian>i(in»«, ras-
il- -. • : .. «•• eipt thai then- fre(pient"y wa** a sort «'f ainl».». nppnuichei! by stepi«,
l!" ■ i '■ li-' '1 111 read tile l.e^'enija Sanctorum, eti- . chirini; nn-aN.
Keglet. \ ll.'il. iiarri'W uMiddinL'. u-^eil l«» -eparale fn»m each ntlirr the parl«
"■! I'l- iiii. !• .iiCi ni;'artnieiii«^ and paneN. to f»irm frets. knot>. vW.
Fenaisi^aiicc -i new birth). A name given to the revixal i>f Kunian :irt liiiiTt
•.!!( w !ii. !i prauL; into e\i.»lencc in Italy as early a.*^ ihe iH-giuiiing of ihe flflvt-nth
GLOSSARY. 43
nry, and reached its scnith in that country at the cloBe of the century. There
everal diTisionH of thiH ^tyle au developed in different localities ; viz.,
ie Florentine Jiertaissance^ of which tlic Pitti Palace, by Brunelleschi, is one
\o best example:*.
i€ Venetian Benaitsance^ characterized by its elegance and richness.
ie Roman Senaiesance^ which originated in Rome, under the architects
vn tis Bronte, Vignola, and Michael An^lo. Of this style the Fameso Palace,
'eter's, and the modem Capitol at Rome arc the best examples.
ie French Jtienuiasance^ introduced into France in the latter pnrt of the fif-
th centnry, by Italian architects, where it flourished until the middle of the
nteenth century. The Kenaissancc style was introduced into Germany about
middle of the sixteenth centnry, and into England about the same time by
1 of Padua, architect to Henry VIII. This t>tyle in England is generally
NIL nnder the name of Elizabethan.
BXldering.— In drawing, finishinsr a |)er!*pcctive drawing in ink or color, to
g out the spirit and effect of the design. 2. The first coat of plaster on brick
;one work.
Brados, Dorsal, or Dossel.— The screen or other ornamental work nt the back
Q altar. In some large English cathedrals, as Winchester, Durham, St. Albans,
, this is a mass of f plendid tabernacle work, reaching nearly to the gro:ning.
mailer churches there are sometimes range-? of arcades or panellings behind
iltars ; but, in general, the walls at the back nnd sides of them were of plain
onry, and adorned with hangings or paraments. In the large churches of
tinental Europe the high altar usually stands under a sort of canopy or cibo-
1, and the sacrariuni is hung round ut the back and sides with curtains on
able rods.
Bticulated Work.— That in which the courses are arranged in a form like
meshes of a net. The stones or bricks are square and placed lozenge-
etnm,— The continuation of a moulding, projection, etc., in au opposite
ction.
Stnni Head. — One that ai)pears both on the face and edge of a work.
oveal.— The two vertical sides of an aperture, between the front of a wall
the window or door frame,
ih,— A moulding or projecting piece upon the interior of a vault, or need to
1 tracery and the like. The earliest groining had no ribs. In early Norman
;s plain flat arches crossed each other, forming ogive ribs. These by degrees
ime narrower, had greater projection, and were chamfered. In later Nor-
i work the ribs wore often formed of a large roll placed upon the flat band,
then of two rolls side by side with a smaller roll or a fillet between them,
ih like the lower member. Sometimes they are enriched with zigzags and
sr Norman decorations, and about ihis time bosses became of very general
As styles progressed, the mouldings were more undercut, richer, and more
orate, and h:id the dog-tootti or ball-flower or other characteristic ornament
le hollows. In all instances the mouldings are of similar contours to those
rches, etc., of the respe( tive periods. Later, wooden roofs are often formed
cants or polygonal barrel vaults, and in these the ribs are generally a cluster
ounds, and form square or stellar panels, with. carved bosses or shields at the
Fsections.
idge.— The top of a roof which rises to an acute angle.
Idg^pole.— The highest horizontal timber in a roof, extending from top to
of the several pairs of rafters of the trusses, for supporting the heads of tlie
craften.
44 GLOSSARY.
Eilie 70, or Relief.— The projection of an architectural ornament.
iUse. -The distuucc through whicli anything rinet*, as the rise of a stair, d
inclined phiue.
Riser,-- -The vertical bojird under ihc tread in stairs.
Rococo Style.— A name given to tl)at vj.riety of the Renaissance which was in
vogue during the seventeenth and the latter part of the sixteenth century.
Romanesque Style. - The tenn Ronuinesque embraces all tho^e Ptylcs of
nrcliitecture which prevailed between the destruction of the Roman Empire and
the beginning of Gothic architecture. In it arc included the Early Roman Chris-
tian architecture, Byzantine, Mahometan, and the later Romanesque architect-
ure pr()[)er, which was developed in Italy, France, England, and Ciermany.
This later Uonianesquo, which was quite different from the preceding, came
into vogue during the tenth century, and reached its height during the twelfth
century, and in tlu^ thirteenth century gave way to the Pointed or (Jotliic .xtylo.
In P^ngland. Ifoinanesque architecture is known under the name of the Kaxon,
ITornian, and Lombard styles, according to the different political pcriodt*.
Rood. A name applied to a crucifix, particularly to those which were placed
in the n)f)d-l()ft or chanct^l screens. These generally had not oidy the image of
the crucified iaviour, but also those of St. John and the Virgin Mary standing
one on each side. Sometimes other saints and angelrtare by them, and the lop
of the screen i.; ~et with candhisticks or otlier decoration.
Rood-loft, Rood-screen. Rood-beam, Jubo Gallery, etc.— The arrangement
to carry tin- crncilix or rood, and to screen off the chancel from the rest of the
church (lnni!;;the breviary services, nndasa place whence to road certain part^ of
those ^ervic(<. Sometimes the crucifix is carried simply on a strong transverse
beam, with oi without a low screen, with folding-door.-* below but fonning no part
(►f such supin»rt. In European churches the general c(mstructiv»n of wooden
scre<'ns i ; close i)anelling beneaih. about 3 feet to 3 feet 0 inches high, on
whicli >tai.(N sctccu work compose! of slender ttirned balusttTs or regular
wooden nuilli )ns, sui)i>orting tracery more or less rich, with coniicen, crenting,
etc., and nftiii painted in brilliant colors and gilded. These not (mlycncltwe the
cliaiic 1 , Inn also chapels, chantries, and sometimes even toml»H. In English
inan>i<»ii>. aii<l some private houses, t lie great halls wen- screenwl off by a low
l)as^aL'c at tin- md opixisitc to tlie dais, over which was a gallery for the uso of
niin.-tnls nr spectators. Tlui^e screens were sometimes close and sonietfouM
L'la/.cd.
Rood-towcr. .V name iiiven by .»*ome writers to the central tower, or that over
the intir>ecti<':i of the nave and cl;an<'el with the transepts.
Roof. The covering «)r upper i)art of any building.
Rooflnp;. 'I'hc material put on a roof to nuike it wafc-r light.
Rose Window. A name given to a circtihir window wilh radiating tmriTy ;
( all-il ai'-o wheel window.
Rostrum. An elevated platfonn from which a fspeakeraddrcHWsan.indienco.
Rotunda. A buildinL' which is round both within and without. 3. A circular
roiiiM Muiier a dome in lar^e b-.iildinu's i- also c died the rotunda.
P-0n>^liCa:-c. — A sort of <-.\tenial piasieriui; in which small shnr]> J»I«»nrs arc
nii\iii. :i:.(l wl.icii, when wet. i- forcibly thrown or cast from a tniwid nu'ainid
ilu- \ :.ii. r«) which it fonn< a coatiiiir of pleading apiM-urnncc. RiMighra."! work
hi- l)i I i, .:- :[ ill ICnropi' for ^e\eral ceiiturie-. where it wa* much UMil in timlK*r
ii-»;i->e^. .111.; \\ 11(11 wi'l! execufetl the work is sound anil ilurabli*. The mortar fur
mil 'lic;i-i \\..rU -liould :il\v:iy.>. have remeiit mixetl with it.
Rubble Woi'k. .MaM)nry t»f rou-.'b. undn-'-s*-*! stones. When only Ihe
'•>ij/iii .-I iruiiilarities are knocketi off, il i.- called scabblvd nilible, and when the
GLOSSARY. 45
Itoiiet in each eomw are radely drensed to nearly a nnlform height, ranged
rabble.
Budentare.— The flgnre of a rope or utaff, which in frequently nwd to fill up
the flntingR of colamns, the convexity of which contrantn with tht; coiu-avity of
the tlutingH, and serves to strengthen the edL'<*>. SonirtimoK. inctcud of a convex
Bliape, the fliitings arc; filled with u flat Hiirfucc ; HometitiiCM they are oniament-
ally carved, and Bometiinet* on pilosten*, etc. Rudentiires are used in relief
witbont fliitiiigs, OA their use is to give greater solidity to the lower part of the
ehaft, and ^ecarj the edgeij. They are generally only u^ed in colnmnH wliich Hbu
from the ground and are not to reach above one-third of the tieighl of the
ehaft.
Sufltic or Book Work.— A mode of building in Imitation of nature. ThiH term
is applied to those courses of Ptonc work tlic faco of which is jagg(?d or i)ick("d
BO as to present a rough (turface. That worlc U aWo called nintic in which the
horizontal and vertical channcln arc cut in the joinings of stones, so ihat wht-n
placed together an angular channel is formed at each joint. Fto»te(l runtir work
has the margins of the atones reduced to a plane punillel to the plane of the
wall, the intermediate partfj hnvin'^ an irregular surface*. Vi-nniru luted rustic
work\iB» these intermediate parts ho worlced as to have the appearance of having
been eaten by worms. lii/tttic chumfercd ii-ork, in which the face of tlu; stones
is smooth, and parallel to the face of the wall, and tlie angles bevelled to an
angle of one hundred and thirty-flve degrees with the face so that two stones
coming together on the wall, the bevelling will fonn an internal right angle.
SacrlBty. — A small chamber attached to churches, where the chalices, vest-
ments, books, etc., were kept by the officer called the sacristan. In the early
Christian basilicas there were two semicircular recesscis or apsid<»s, one; on ea(rh
side of the altar. One of these Ber\'ed as a nicristy, and the other us the hlbllo-
theca or library. Some have supposed the sacristy to have been the place wlu-re
the vestments were kept, and the vestry that where the priests put them on ; but
"We find from Durandus that the sacrarium was us(id for both these purposes.
Sometimes the place where the altar stands enclosed by the rails has been called
sacrarium.
Saddle Bars.— Narrow horizontal iron bars passing from mullion to inullion,
and often through the whole window, from side to side, to steady the stone work,
and to form stays, to which the lead work is secun»d. Whttn the bays of iho
windows are wide, the lead lights an; further strengthened by upright bars
passing through eyes forged on tlie saddle bars, and called stan(rhIons. When
saddle bars pass right through the mullions in one piece, and are secured to the
Jambs, they have sometimes been called stiiy bars.
Sagging.— The bending of a body in the middle by its own weight, or the load
upon it.
Salient.— A projection.
Salon,— A spacious and elegant apartment for the reception of company, or
for state purposes, or for the reception of paintings, and usually <'xt«'n(llng
through two stories of the house. It njay be square, ()l)long, polygonal, or
circular.
Sanctuary.— That part of a church where the altar is j>lace(i ; also, tin* most
sacred or retired part of a temple. 2. A place? for divine worship ; a church.
SanotnS Bell-cot, or Turret.— A turret or enclosure to hold the snuill bell
sounds at various parts of the service, particularly whore tlie words " Hanetus,"
etc., are read. This differs but little from the common 1>ell cot, except that it Is
graerally on the top of the arch dividing the nave from the chancel. HouietinicH,
4(\ GLOSSARY.
hovvovor, the boll neoins to have been ))lacc(l in n cot ontsidc the wall. In Eng-
land Miict us bfUs havo aluo been placed over the gables of porches. In Coutl-
iiontal Kuropo ilicyrun up into a port of email pleiider spire, called ^ev/te in
Franc'.f, and f///r//i/y in Italy.
SaraCdnic Architecture.- That Kastern (*tyle omployed by the Saracens, and
which distributed iLKfli'oviT tlu! world with tho n-liyion of Mahonu't. It i~ a
moditicatioi and combination of the various t<tyleij of the coiintrie:* which tlioy
con(iu<!r((l.
Sarcophag'US. A tomb or coflin made of stone, and iutended to contain tliu
body.
Sash. -The framework wliich holds the ^lass in a window.
Scagliola. An imitation of colored marbles in plaster work, made by a com-
bination of ^'yp^rum, ^lu(>, is:n^las8, and coloring matter, and fini^'hod with a
high polish, invented between KKK) and ItWO.
Scabble.— To d'*ess off the rougher projections of stones for nibble masonry
wiih a stone ax ' or scabbling liammer.
Scantling. The. dimensions of a piece of timbcsr in breadth and thickncsA;
alsso, studding for a parti ticm. when under five inches square.
Scarfing. Ti»e joining and l)oliing of two pieces of timber togeti»:.r trans-
versely, so that the two apjiear a!3one.
Sconce.- V fixed lianging or projecting candlestick.
Scotia. -A c(mcave moulding, most commonly used in bases, which projectda
de'p shadow on itscjlf, and is thereby a most effective moulding under the p.vc,
as in a l)ase. It is like a reversed ovolo, or, rather, wliat the mould of an ovolo
would pre>'.iit.
Scratch Coat. -The first coat of plaster, whicli is scratched to afford a bond
for the second coat.
Screeds. I^ong narrow strips of ])]aster put on horizontally along a wall, and
carefully faced out of wind, to serve as guides for plastering the wide intervals
between them.
Screen. Any c(mstruction subdividing one part c»f a building from anothi>r, ad
a choir, chintry. chap<'l, ete. Tlie earliest screens an- the low marblu {Midia
shuttinir ofT the cliorus cantantiuni in the Roman 1)asilicas, and the ])erfonited
cancelli enclo>-ing the bema, altar, and seats <.f tho bisIioiM and presbyteni. The
chief screen- in a chuich are those which encl«)se the choir or tho plac^e whon'
the breviary MTvicesare recited. In Continental Kurope thisisdonc not <iiily by
doors and screen work, but also, when these are of open work, by curtains, the
laity having no part in these services. In Kngland Hcroens were of twii kinds:
one. of opi-n uood-work, generally eal.e<l r<MJd-s<'reeus or jubes, and which the
Frencli call i.r'ilhs. clnturf^ d' r!to''r: the other, nuissive enclosures of Klone
work iiiri' led with nich«'*5, labernaeli's. canopies, ])iiinacli>s, statues, rrestiiigip.
etc . a< at < ';interbury. York, (Jloui-ester. and many other places.
Scribin''". FittiuL' w»)od-\vork to an irre'_'ul:>r snrr.jce.
Section. A drawlnir .-!i<»wing the iniernal heiirhts <if the variouK parts* of a
>iuilili-ij;. It oiippoM'H th<' building to be cut throiiult entirely, so as to cxhibii
till' w. ill-, tl- • hei_'hf«< of the internal donr^ and *ilher aix'rtures, the heighlsuf
tin- -t-.r-.- -liicUiie-^e- nf the lliidrs, et«'. It i- (»ne of the Ppeclcs of drawings
^\^•^ .■■ -I- ■ -I ilie cNhiliiiion "f a l)'-.-iirn.
Sodilia. *^' " n-ed by r he celebrant « during the panse?* in the iniu«s. They
are >'• II- rail' thn-i* in iiuniber for the priest, deiu'on, and siib-doaciin - and
are in Kn .'ImhI almost alwayx a speeies of niches rut into the Pouth walls uf
churche-, M-|i;irati-(l by .>.hafts(M' by a species of ninlliiino, and crowned with can-
oi>ies, ]iiniiai I' -. ami 'iiher enrichments nmre or les.** elaborate. The piachiaHld
GLOSSARY. 47
mbij Mmetfines arc attached to th<!in. In rontinpntftl Enropc thoM'rIilia nre
often movable aeata ; a single stone ftcat hax rarely b(*(m fonnd.
8tt-<lffi — The hoiteontal line Bhown when* a wall i8 rcdiicml in thicknefiR, niid,
ooneequently, the part of the thicker {Kirtion u]>pi>nrB projccfin^ before iho thin-
ner. In plinthii thin In generally hiniply cliunirrrcd. In other purtH of work the
Bet-oir U fj^erally concealed by a pmjectin;; sirin<;. Wlierc, an in parnixttt*, the
npper part projccls before the lower, the break i:< /:^en<;mlly hid by a corbel table.
The portions of battree>8 capn which recede one behind another are ultfo ciiIIihI
Mt-offs.
Shaft. — In Classical architecture 1h;it part of a column iM^tweenthe necking
and the apophyge at the top of the bur*e. In later tiineij the tenn U applied to
slender colanins cither standing alone or in connection with pillarf, biittrenHes,
jambs, vaulting, etc.
Shed Boof^ or Lean-to.— A roof with only one set of niftcrp, falling' from a
higher to a lower wall, like an ainlc roof.
Shore. — A piece of timber placed in an oblique direction to support a building
or wall temporarily while it is l>eing repaired or altered.
fflirine. — A sort of ark or chent to hold rellcj*. It Ih Hometimen m(;rely a
flmall box, generally with a raived top like a roof ; Homctimes un actual model of
chorches ; pometimcs a Inrgt; conf^ti-uction, like that of Edward the ('oiifcFtHor at
Westminster, of St. Genevieve at Parin, etc. Many are covered with j<-welH in
the richest way ; that of San Carlo Borromeo, at Milan, is of beaten nilvcr.
SillB. — Are the timbers on thegrtmnd which HUi)port the po>'tH and Kuperntruct-
nrc of a timber building. The term is n>' nt frequently applied to thos<! i)iece«»
of timber or stone at the bottom of (ioorn or windowH.
Skewback.— The inclined Ptone from which an nrch pprinjj^H.
GQcirtinge. — The narrow boanlH which form a plinth nround the muri^in of a
floor, now generally called the base.
Sleeper. — A piece of timber l:dd on the ground to receive floor joiHtn.
Soffit. — The lower horizontal face of any tin np, ah, for (*xample, of an entab-
latorc resting on and lying open between the colunniH or the und<;r face of an
arch where ito thickness is peen.
Sound Board,— The covenng of a pulpit to deflect the sound into a church.
Spall.— Biid or broken brick : ptone chipn.
fl^-n.— The distance between the supports of a beam, girder, arch, trusp, etc.
fi^ndrel, or Spandril.~The space ])ctween any arch or curved ])race and tlie
level label, beams, etc., over the same. The spandrels over doon^'ays in PeriMMi
dicnlar works are generally richly decorated.
Specification.— Architect*?. The designati(m of the kind, quality, and quantity
of work and material to go in a building, in conjunction with the working dniw-
ings.
Spire. — A sharply pointed pyramid rr large pinnacle, generally octagonal In
England, and forming a finish to the tops (jf towern. Timber Pi)ir('M are very
common in England. Rome ore covered witli lead in flat sh(!et.H, others wIMi the
tame metal in narrow strips ^aid diagonally. V(?ry many an^ covered with
shingles. In Continental f'urope there an» som(! elegant cxami)leH of spires of
open timber work covered with l<;ad.
fi^layed.— The jamb (>f n door, or anything else of wldch one side makes an
obliqi}0 angle with t!ie other.
Springer.— The stone from which an arch P])rings : In some cases this is n
capital, or impost : in other cases the mouldings continue down the ]>ler. The
loiweftt stone of the gable is sometimes called a springer.
BqillnoilM.-'Small arches or corbelled set-offs running diagonally and, as it
48 aLOSSARY.
were, cutting off the corners of the interior of towers, to bring thorn from the
square to the octaijjon, etc., to carry the spire.
Squint.— An oblicjue openinij in the wall of a church : especially, in mcdioeval
architecture, an opening so placed as to aflbrd a view of the high altar from the
tian«^i'[)t or aisles.
Staging. A structure of posts and boards for supporting workmen and
material in huihliiig.
Stall. A fixed seat in the choir for the ut'e of the clergy. In early Christian
times tlu' tlironus cathedra, or sent of the bishop, was in the centre of the apsis
(►r Ix'ina btliind the altar, and against the wall ; those «)f the pre-sbyters also were
against tin; wall, branching off from side to side around the semicircle. In later
times I he stalls occupied both sides of the choir, return seats being placed at the
ends for ihe prior, dean, precentor, chancellor, or other ofticers. In general, in
cathedrals, each stall is surmounted by tabernacle work, and rich canopies,
generally of oak.
Stanchion. -A word derived from the French ttangon^ a wooden post, applied
to the ui)right iron bars which pass through the eyes of the saddle bars or hori-
zontal irons to steady the lead lights. The French call the latter iraversta^, the
stanchions ;/.o,.ta/t(ii, and the whole arrangement c.inmtvre. Standlions fre-
qiienily linish with ornamental heads forged out of the iron.
Steeple, a general name for the wtiole arrangement of tower, belfrj', spire,
etc.
Stereobate. — A basement, distinguished from the nearly equivalent term sty-
lobate by the absence of colunm."*.
Stile. Tli'> ui)right i)iece in framing or panelling.
Stilted. -Anything raised above its usual level. An arch is stilted when its
centre is r.iiscd above th(i line fnmi which the arch appears to spring.
Stoop. A seat before the door ; often a porch with a balustrade and scats on
the sides.
Stoup. A basin for holy water at the entrance of Iloman Catholic churches,
into w hieli all who enter dip their lingers and cross themselves.
Straight Arch.- A form of arch in which the intrados is straight, but wiih
its joints radiating as in a C(mimon arch.
Strap. An iron ))late for connecting two or more timbers, to which it Is
screwt'd by holts. Ii generally passes around one of the timbers.
Stretcher. A briek or block of masonry laid lengthwise of a wall.
String Board. A board i)laced next to the well-hole in wooden stalrn, tonul-
natini: ilie tiids of the steps. The string i)iece is the i)iece of board put under
ll»e I read- and risers for a stipport, and forming the supj)()rt of the stair.
String-course.— A narrow, vertically faced and slightly ])roJccting courHe In
an (•li'\;it:on. If window-sills are made continuous, they form a string-course :
bi.t if till • course is made thicker (ir deeper than t)i'dinary window-sills, or coven
a s' t ».1T ill ihf wall, it becomes a blocking-course. Al^o, horizontal niouJdingl
riMiiiin.: iindi r windows, sti)arating the walls from the plain part of the parapets,
<ii\:<l I.L.' i< >\.'s into stories or :-tai;es. etc. Their K"<"tion is much the siinic as
t r I lii'l- i>: tlir re<])ectivi' peritxls ; in fart, these last, after jwissiuK rinind the
wImI'W -. 'r- i)i:ii:tly run on hori/.ontal y ai:<l f<ir:n strings. Like IuIm'Ih, t hoy are
cfii' (h (•..-. I'-il witli f<lia:'e-». ball flowers, etc.
Studs. <" Studding. The small timbi r^' used in partliiopsand outside wooden
wall-. I" \\lii< h till' laths and boards are nailed.
Style. Tlx' t'rm style in arehitoeture has obtaine<l a conventional nieaiiiiiff
beyoii.l ii-< .-inipler one. which applies only to columns and colomiuir arrange-
meuls. It is now used to signify the <lifferences in tbc mouldings, goneml oo^
(ILOSSARV.
49
lunents, and other detallH which exir«t )x*tw{>cn the works of \'arioQ8
and also those differences which are fouiul to rxif>t botwpcMi tho work?
ttion at diflerent timuti.
tato.— A basement to colnmnt*. Stylob-itc i s sy iionymouH with pcdcstiil,
>lied to a continued and unbroken »<ul)>«(ni(:tur(; or baM>nu-nt to coliimnH,
) lattnr term is confined toiiiHuliiti d Mipports. Tho (Jreek t«>mpleB gcii-
d three or more Htopn ull urouud the temple, tlie base of the column
n the top step ; this was the ntylobatc.
iinm. — A name sometimes given to the seat in the stalls of churches ;
miserere.
er.— A girder or main-beam of a floor ; if supported on two-story posts
1 below, it is called a Bracc-summcr.
10.— A cornice or pories of mouldings on the top of the base of a pede&
am, etc.; a moulding above the base.
le.— To make plane and smooth.
e. — An intercolumniatiou to which two diameters are assigned.
naole.— A species of niche or recess in wliich an image may be placed.
) generally highly ornamented and often surmounted with crocketed
The word tabernacle is also often used tt) denote the receptacle for relics,
IS often made in the form of a tniall house or church.
naole Work.— The rich ornamt-nial tracery forming the canopy, etc.,
made, is calltd tuberniiclc u ork ; it in common in the stalls and screens
Irals, and in them is generally open or i)ierce(l thr<»ngh.
[Jrimmer.— A trimmer next to the wall, into which the ends of joisLs are
to avoid flues.
, — To pound the earth down around a wall after it has been thrown in.
try.— A kind of woven lians^iiigH of wool or silk, ornamented with figures,
formerly to cover and adoni the walls of rooms. They were often of
costly materials and beautifully enibtoidered.
.6,— An edifice de»»tined, in the earliest times, for the public exercise of
worship.
.et, or Template.— A mould used by masons for cutting or setting
. A short piece of timber HomctimeH laid under a girder.
nal.— Figures of which the upiMM- parts only, or pertiaps the head and
s alone, are carved, the rest running into
opiped, and sometimes intoa diniiuifhing
with feet indicated below, or even with-
, are called terminal figures.
•OOtta.— Baked clay of a fine quality.
ed for bas-reliefs for adorning the friezes
3S. In modern times employed for archi-
)maments, statues, vases, etc.
lated Pavements. - Those formed of
or, as some write it, tesselJie, or small
am half an inch to an inch square, like
pottery, stone, marble, enamel, etc.
ityle. — A portico of four columns in
ANCIENT TERMfNI.
bate. — ^That on which a dome or cupola
"his is a term not in general use, but it is
ess of useful api)lication. What is generally termed the attic above tlio
and under the cuiK>la of 8t. Paid's, London, would be correctly design
50 (GLOSSARY.
natcd tlio tholohale. A tholobato of a different dcPcrlption, and one to whloii
no otlu^r name can well be applied, is the circular snlwiructure to the cnpola of
the rniversity Co]le<;e, London.
Throat. A channel or ;^roovo made on the nndor-sidn of a strlnjr-ronise.
coping, i'fc., to prevent water from ninnitiij inward toward the walls.
Tie. A timber, rod. chain, etc.. bin'lini; two bodies tojjjether, which havi' a
tendency to separate or diver;;e from each other. The fic-ftcam connect** the
bottom of a pair of principal rafters, and j)rcvcnt.s them from burstin;^ (mt the
wall.
Tiles. I'lal pieces of clay burned in kilns, to cover roofs In plnro of slate-
or lead. 'J. Also, llat pieces of Inimed clay, either i)]ain or omumeiited, j^hized
or uiiLdazed. used for lloors, wainscotinir, and about, fireplacoi*, etc. 3. Small
square i)i(M'vs of marble are also called tile.
Tongue. The pnrt of a board h;ft i)r()jectin£;, to be inserted into a groove. ■
Tooth Ornament. <>no of the peculiar markn of the Kiirly Knirlish pt»riod of
(iotbic anliitectiire. fenerallv inserted in the hollow moiildingM of doorwav-*.
windows, etc.
Torso. Anuitilated statue of which nothini; remainsbut thetnink. Colnuins
with twisted sbafts have also this term. Of this kind then* are several vnri<-ties.
Torus. A ])rotuberan(e or xwellinpr. a mouhlin^ whose form is convex,
and 'jjencrally nearly approaches a semicircle. It is ^
mo-t frcqiK'i.tly n«-<'d in basfi.s, and is «r«'nerally the /^^
;
low»-<t mouldini,' in a base. ^v^'
Tower. An elevat«'d buildinpj orijijinally designed toki'B.
for purpose- of defence. Those buildinirs are of the
remo:< i-t antiipiity, and are, indeed, mention«'d in the enrlies^t Serlptnrof. In
medi;iv;il iim<'< tlu-y wen^ generally attached to churchesi, to cenu'terii'H, fo cas-
tle?-, <r n-cd a-i bell-towers in public places of hir^o cilic". In churchfM, llie
towt-r-i of till" Saxon peri«)d were trenerally square. Nt)rman towers were also
'.'•iiicr.i:!;. Mpiirr. Many were entirely wi'hout buttresses : other.-* had broad.
llai. ^Iialiov |trojr<'tions which s^■r^•ed for this ])ur|)o.«e. The l<»wer windows wen*
very nairow. with »'xtren»«ly wide splay^^ inside, jjrobably intended to be de-
fended l)y arcber^. Tlie ni)per windows, like those of the jm.TiHlinij ntyle, were
freneially -ei.irated ijifo two li'.'hts. l)u( by a shaft or sliort cohimn, and not by a
balii^rer. Ilaily Kn::ii>Ii towers wi-n- irtMUMally taller, and of more elesraiit pn»-
|)oriion-. Till y .'ilmo'-F always had l.ir^c projecting but tr«*s«*es. and frecinently
stone -tai!< a-e-. The lower windows, a- in tb." former style, wen- fnnpiently
intir- arrow -lit- ; tin- nppi-r were in coui)l«'t-j or triplets, and Hometime«« the
towd loji lijid :jii arcade all rour.d. The >j)in'"* wi-n' 'j^'iu-ndlv lin»aeh spire*:
>>nt >-omiiiMe - the tow<T l<ip-s linishe-i wiili corbel eour«'es and plahi paraiM'ts
ami ,rarel\ \'. it'll jjinnacle*. Then- are a fi-w Karly llnirllsli lowers whieh hn'ak
i' t,. the oi t-i.'on fnun ihc scpiare low.ird the top. and ^t!1] fewer which finish
\\:th !\\<> '.'.li;'-. Hoth thc^e nieiho»N of iiTniMiailon. howj'Ver. are eoinmon
ill < ■>■ I'l:- iiiai r!nroi)e. At. V< Ti<lotn«". < Inirtn'-', and SimiII'* the tower-* Jnive
o. ' . 'I.' ..1 :;ii;ier • tic/e-s Mirronuderl with ]iin: ai'le-. from whii'h elei;ant spin-*
:'r:-' I: "Ii'- Ntirth of Pily. aii'l in KoM:e. tln-y arc 'j-enenil'y tall s<piar- sliafl*
!■ '"■I* I ■ r f.a'e-.. w::ho:ii bntire--e-, \\ it'- eonpirt-* or trlplel** of «»eiiiiclreiilir
\- ' •' ■ • ■ :•■]'. siaL'.'. !' iier.ily ennellaied :\\ tip, and c«»ve i-*! with :i low
I ■ ■ !'■ .. ■ *" The well known leanin_' towi'r al IMsi is cyllndrien!. In fivo
sf>M ■ - ■■;■ .'i:- ■III] jolonnailo. In In>lan(i there an» in some of the chiircliyanis
V'-rv t MI ion li'Mud t»iwer-.
Tracery. T'-e orn.imenta! lH'.in.' i i of the hc^ad"* of windows, panrl^. Hrrular
w;n'l"\-. etc . Mhich ha- "iv-"! sui-'i ■h .r u't«Ti<tie N'nnty to tho architecture nf
lenth centnry. Like almoot ever}'thin^coniu>cto<l with modiseval aiclii-
lis elegaot and Bometimei* fairy- J ike decoration i>ofm!« to have nprnnf;
amali^t heginningn. Tho circaiar-hi*ttfl(*<i window of the NoruianH
gave way to the narrow- iKiintoil Innci't:* of thi> Early Englit«li pcriixl,
iBtf liKhtwaa aflbrdcd by tlic latter nystfin than hy the forint-r, it wan
to have a greater numlK>r of windows : and ii was foHn<l convenient to
3ia together in con plots, iriplcti*, etc. Wlicn tliet<e couplet e were
1 ander one Isbel, n t<ort of vacant t*pace or npindn:! wa^ formed ovei
a and under the lal)cl. To relieve this, the first uttenifits were wimply to
this flat spandrel, fin^t by a simple Iozen;^ts(ilmped or circular ofHrning,
ward by a qnatrcfoil. By piercing; thi; whole of the vacant spaces in
>w head,carrying mouldings around the tracery, and adding cnsp!> to it,
.tion of tracer}' was complete, and \u e.irliest result was the beautiful
»1 work such as is found at WeKtmiuster Abbey,
ipt.— That portion of a church which passes transversely between the
choir at right angles, and so forms a cros» on tliu plan,
nn,— The horizontal construction which dividei* a window into Iieiglite
. Transoms arc sometimes fimple pieces of mullionH placed trans-
i cross-bars, and in later times are richly decorated with cuppings,
. — To plane in a direction across the grain of the wood, as to traverse
planing across the boards.
~The liorizontal i>art of u step of a stair.
^ — ^A cnspiog tho outline of which is derived from a three-leaved flower
t the quatrefoil and cinque-foil are from those with four and five.
, — Lattice-work of metal or wood for vines to run on.
J, — ^A movable frame or support for anything ; when made of a croHr*
I four legs it is called b}' carpenters a horse.
tun,— The arcaded story Ikji ween the lower range of piers andarchef
iere-story. The name has been supposed to be derived from fren antl
ree doors, or openings— tliat being a f reijuent number of arches in eacl;
ph, — The vertically cliannelled tablets oT the Doric frieze are callec
becanse of tlic three angular channels in t'lem-two ])erfect and one
the two chamfered angles or hemigly])hs being reckoned as one. Th(
nk spaces between the triglyi)hH ou a frieze are called metopes.
-Of a door, sometimes used to denote the lock,s, knobs, and hinges.
ler, — The beam or floor joist into which a header is framed.
IflT Arch,— An arch built in front of a fireplace, in the thickness of the
iveen two trimuiers. The l)()ttom of the; arch starting from the chimne)
>p pressing against the header.
lointing,— Marking the joints of hrjchwork with a narrow i)aralle
Ine putty.
Style.— The architecture which ])revailed in England during the; reigr
dors ; its period la generally restricted to the end of the reign of Ilenrj
;.— A small tower, especially at the angles of larger buildings, sometimet
Ing and built on corbels, and so'iietimes rising from the ground.
1 Order. — The i)lainost of the five orders of Classic nrrhitecture.
mum.— The triangular recessed space enclosed by the cornice whlcl
])ed1ment. Tlie Greeks often placed sculptures representing subjecti
1 with the purposes of the edifice in the tympana of temples, as at Ibf
n and iEgina.
52 GLOSSARY.
Under-croft.— A vaulted chamber nnder ground.
Upset.— To thicken, and shorten as by hammering a heated bar of iron on the
end.
Vagina. The upper part of the shaft of a terminui^, from which the bust or
fij^iire soeins to rise.
Valley.- The internal anj^Ic formed by two Inclined sides of a roof.
ValleyJ Rafters.— Those which are disposed in the internal angle of a roof to
form the valleys.
Vane. - The weathercock on a steeple. In early times it seems to have been
of various form-*, as dragons, etc. ; but in the Tudor period the favorite design
was a b(>ast or bird sitting on a slender iwdestal, and carrying an upright rod,
on which a thin plate of metal is hung like a flag, ornamented in various
ways.
Vault.— An arched ceiling or roof. A vault is, indeed, a laterally conjoined
series of arches. The arch of a bridge is, strictly speaking, a vault. Intersect-
ing vaults are said to be groined. See Oroimd Vaulting for fuller description of
vaults.
Verge.— Tlu^ edge of the tiling, slate or shingles, projecting over the gable of a
roof, that on the horiztrntal portion being called eaves.
Verge Board.— Orten corrupted into Barge Board : the boanl under the verge
of gables, sometimes moulded, and often very richly carved, perforated, and
cusped, and frequently having pendants, and sometimes tlnials, at the i^pez.
Vermiculated.— Stones, etc., worked so as to have the appearance of having
been worked by worms.
Vestibule.— An anti-hall, lobby, or porch.
Vestry. A room adjoining a church, where the vest-
ments of the minister are kept and parish meetings held.
In American Protestant churches, the Sunday-school
room is often called the vestry.
Viaduct.— A structure of considerable magnitude,
and usually of mascmry, for carrying a railway across a
valley. YERMICCLATBD.
Vignette. -A running ornament, representing, as its name imports, a little
vine, with branches, leaves, and grapes. Ii U common in the Tador period,
and runs or roves in a large hollow or casement. It is also called Trayle.
Villa. -A eountry house for th(; retreat of the rich.
Volute.— The convolved or spiral ornament which forms the chnracterlfitlc of
the Ionic capital. Volute, scroll, Ijcdix, and cauliculus are used indifferently for
the angular horns of the Corinthian capital.
Voussoir. < >ne of the wedge-like stones which form an arch ; the middle ona
is called the key-stone.
Wainscot. -The wooden lining of walls, generally in panels.
Wall Plates. - Pieces of timber which are pliced on top of brick or ntone
walN .-<) .I'i to form tin; siii)i)ort to the roof v)f a building.
Warped. Twisi«>d out of shape by seasoning.
Water Table.- -A slight projeclitm of the lower masonry or brickwork on the
ou'-lde of a \v:iil a few feet above the ground as a protection against rain.
Weather Boarding.- Boards lapi>ed over each other to prevent rain, etc.«
from pi"i.-inir through.
Weathering. -A slight fall on the top of cornices, wIndow-iiUa, etc., to thimr
oH the ruin.
it,— A sidaII door opening in a laiser. They are common in medbtraX
nd wefe fntended to admit ringie perMm«, and guard against poddm
B.
«— A torn, a bend. A wall ia atU qf vind when it i* a perfectly flat
;»—A Bide building lean than the main building.
at,— The pHrtition between two chimney flnea in the aame stack.
AHCiriTEC^TrHAL TERMS AS DEFINED IN
VARIOUS BUlLDI>^'(i LAWS,
COMI'ILKI) HY 'VUK AMERICAN ARCHITECT AND BuiLDINQ
News, Page 150, Vol. XXXIIT.
(UcpubliKhcd by i)emiission of Tickuor & Co.)
TERMS DEFINED.
[ Ttn fnllowincf t( rms clmnep. in f>e delhud in sunilnj huUdinrf codw — which ar€
nuntinndl in afh vdxv. The fiici thut of fur axhft are not mentioned in not
)tpcisf«tnly (I proof that the ttnn is not aluo dmwhere in use as deJineU.]
Adjoining Owner.— The owner of the promiscH adjoining thoec on which
work !>< doinu' or to hir done. [Dintrir.t <>f' t'o/umfjia.]
Alteration. Any cIkujl'o or uddition except iieceswiry repnir« In, to, or upon
any biiil.liiiL' ;i(T«'<tini; an external, jmrty. or partition wall, chinniey, lloor, or
stairway, .uid '' t > alter*' means to make such ehangu or addition. [Ikktfonand
/).nr r.\
Appondag'es. DomuT-windows, eornices, nioiildini:;^, bay-\vindow9, towcn,
^pin--, vciiii.alors, ete. \<'h}rii'fO, .Uii:/;i(f/.(ftl:]
Areas. Suli-surfaee excavations adja<:ent to tlui bui'din<4-Iine for I|(;htlng or
vtiiiilaiion of cellars or b-iscnu-nts. [Dt^tr'n't cf Co'iind/ta.]
Attis Jtory. A story situated either in whole or in part in tlio roof. [Ikvrer
(iiid /)/-^fri •> 111' f'o'iniilt'ni.]
Base. "Til'' *'''/.'<■• of a brick wall" nuans the coun*o immediately almvc the
foun<l:i'ii)M w.ill. [("nn-'niiiiiti ciid ('It rr.'amlJ]
Basement Story. <>nc whos(» lloor i** VI" or mon? below the sidewalk, and
wliM-c lieiL'hi jloes not exceed 1-' in tlu' clear; all wich Ktories that exceed
1".*' liii.'li >\\\\\\ be eonsidered as first stories. | Chlaujn^ LoiiihriiUJ\
A -liirv- wli<)>e lloor is VZ'' or more below the irrade of nhlowalk. [.Vifrrfiukff.']
A -fory wliosc tloor is \V t)r more beli>w the sidewalk, and whow hHpht diica
imt iNci-i-d ir in the clear; all such Htorie^ that e.vcevd II' liigh nhall b«* con
.>.i(li'ii(l a- tir^t st«iri<-*. \ M'ninta/Hilh.l
A <n\\ -iiiialiN- for habitation, ]mrtially lu-Iow tin; level of the adjoining; ntrect
or L'Hiiii.il ' . h'istrii'f of ('ittinnhia and /)< ndr.]
'S< e Cellar.
Bay-window. A lM>t-tloor jirojcj-tion fur a window other than a tower-pco*
je<' 111! Ill -li..\\ \N indow. \ /Hsfrh'f t>r' ( iJu/tdihi.]
.\n\ |iiii!i I 'i.iH for a w indow other than a »how-window. [Mmvi /'.]
' \im| bilow flu- lir^t tliu»r of joi-»t»j. [/>/*//i*7 «i/" (Wumtfia.]
g Walls.— Those on which beams, trusses, or girders rest. [New York
Francisco.]
Building.— A building the walls of which are built of brick, stone,
>ther substantial and incombustible materials. [Boston^ Denver^ and
■ity.]
ig,— Any construction within the scope and purview of these regula-^
Hstrict of Columbia.]
ig Line.— The line of demarcation between public and private space.
qf Columbia.]
ag Owner.— The owner of premises on which work is doing or to be
Hstrict of Columbia.]
88 buildings ^liall embrace ail buildings used principally for business
thns including, among others, hotels, theatres, and office-buildings.
Louisville, Milwaukee., and Minneapolis.]
— Basement or lower story of any building, of which one-half or more
aight from the floor to the ceiling is below the level of the street*
.2 [Boston, Denver., and Kansas City.]
of buildin.i; below first floor of joists, if partially or entirely below the
le adjoining parking, street, or ground, and not suitable for habitation.
of Columbia.]
t-mortar,— A proper proportion of cement and sand without the ad-
if lime. [Kaj}S(iii City.]
)n Wall.- One that peparates part of any building from another part
no building, [(incinuaii and Cleveland.]
earing walls extending through buildings from front to rear, and scpa-
)re8 and tenements in buildings or blocks owned by the same party.
\olis.]
irtition-wall.)
ng-liouse Class,— All buildings except public buildings and buildings
rehouse class. \('in<innafi and Cleveland.]
ot apply to buildings aecommodating more than three families. [San
>•]
lal Wall.- Every outer wall or vertical enclosure of a building other
rty-wall. [Iloston, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Denver, District of Columbia,
^ity, and Piorklcncr.]
Story.— The story tlie floor of which is at or first above the level of the
or adjoinini; ground, the oilier stories to be numbered in regular sue-
ounting upward. [Denver and District of ColumLia.]
g Course.— A projecting course or courses under base of foundation
incinnatl a/rl Clereland.]
ition.— Tliat portion of wall below level of street cur'),^ and, where the
t on a street, that portion of wall below the level of the highest jjround
le wall. [Hosfon, Kansas ('ity, New York, and Providence.]
of exterior wall below surface of adjoining earth or pavement, and
)f i)artiti()n or party wall below level of basement or cellar floor.
of Colrinbia and Denver.]
ition, Basement, or Cellar Walls.— That part of walls of building that
the floor or joists, which are on or next above the grade line. [Detroit.]
id. [Prorideiice.]
ot suita le for habitation. [Denrer.]
serve as supi)oits for piers, columns, girders, beams, or other walls.'"
k.]
5ij LEGAL DEFINITIONS OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.
I'ortion of the wall below the level of street cnrb, iu front of the contrjl line o\
buildiiiu. [iSVf/A Francm'o.l
Incoinbustible Hcuntling partition.— One plastered on l)oth Bides upon iron
lath or wire cloth, and llUud in with brickwork 8" high from floor, provided the
bniulii!^,' i- not over 80' high. {('Idcago.']
Incombustible Roofing.— Covered with not less thou three (3) thickneBfles
roofiiii: felt, and good coat of tar and gravel, or with tin, cormgated-iron, or other
Urc-rv'sistinLr nmU'rial with standing-seam or lap-joint. [Dfnv€r,'\
Lengths. Wall.- are dccniod to be divided into distinct l&rtgtfu* by rctnm
walls, riud the k-ngth of every wall is nicannred from the centre of one return
wall to iho centre of another, provided that {<nc.h retnrn walls are extenial or
]>arty cro<s-walls of the thickness herein required, and bonded into the walls 80
(h' incd to he divided, {("inciimatl and Cleveland.']
Inflammable Material.- Dry goods, clothing, millinery, and the like in
stor(;s, livings or goods in factories, or other substance readily ignited by drop-
pings or Uyiiigs from electric lights. [.)n/tnefijx)lu.]
Lodging-house. A building in wliic.h persons are temi)ornrily accommodated
with .vleepiiiir ' apartments, and includes hotels. [BonUm and Kansas Cttff.'\
Any building or portion thereof in which persons are lodged for hire for Icu
than a wnk at one time. [District of Co^.iimhia and J^rocid-enceA
Any huildin;: or portion thereof in whicli persona arc lodged for hire tempo-
rarily, and inclu(U's h<<tcls. [Jh/irer.]
Mansard Roof.— One formed with an upi)er and under set of rafters^ the
upiK'r sci more inclined to the horizon than the lower wet. [Denver and IHstrM
of ('/>'.:■ nt'j'r I.]
Oriel Window. Aprojectionfor a window above the first floor. [IHstriet
Partition. An interior division constructed of iron, gla!*R, wood, lath and
ula-lcr. nr (»ili;'r destruclibh- natures. [/)i*fMrt of ColifmHa.]
Partition-wali.- Any interior wall of masonry iu a building. [Botlon,
K'liiyt!. ("ihi. It lid Pmndtna .]
An iiit( ii"r wall of non-cf)mbusfible material. [D'nttrlrtof ('altntilbia.\
Any interior division ccmstrncted of iron, glass, wood, lath and piaster, or
any cMnilnnaiion of those materials. [Denver.]
^s.c Division Wall.^
Party-wall. Kvrry wall nsrd. or built, in order to be unetl, as a sepamllon
t)f two or more buildings.- [lUtsfofi, Cinrinnufi, ('lerthtnd^ Denver^ Kanra*
Cit'j. ".i.<l l*i"r}iit I c 1
A ^\a!l l>uilf upon dividing line between aljoining prcm'soH for their common
U-c. ■ D'.sli ',rl (if ('ntinnl}tt.]
Parking. The space betwei-n the sidewalk and the building line. [Ulirlet
Iff' t u' II irh'iil . 1
Pai'king Line. Thf line separating parking and sidewalk. [IHslrlct t^
{ 'ii/'Uli 'ill. \
Public Buildinc Kvery building U'^ed as rhureh, rhaiM'l, or uthiT place of
|i-ri>i!i- \\ir-!i |): al-o every bnildim; n^ed as a riilli>ge, sch(M)I, puhllr hall,
h>~pit:i'. I'-'iiie. ])ublir roiieert nHiin. pnblie ball-nioni, public leclnn*-mom. or
f .•■ .:•! ;.:Mif a-senihla_'e. \lin^tim, Cfftuin. t'hn-}finafL VUrctiind^ Iknttr,
A' ■■ ■. ( /,. ."..'/ ]i'}iin''ti/Hi/ts.\
'^:i< I 'i::!'!!!! - a- -liall be <l^^ned and oempied ftir public pHriMM(i>» for thti
* S'Mv n iirir'T-'i'iif- . ' h't'/n-ift t'tft/.^
-'f.il.. ii>)il ioinilx l.y ^iparate iMiildinu'^ [(''l/n'lniititi ttnti rttrfinHdJ]
'AdtJLU UBijriJNlTlUJNa UP AKUUlTJUUrUKAlj Itit >. u
the United States, tho corporation of the City of Brooklyn, or othe
RChools within said city. [Brooklyn.]
Lio Hall.— Every theatre, opera-house, hall, church, school, or other baild
ended to be used for pablic assemblage. [MUwavkes and Louisville.]
im Wall.— No wall subdivirlinj]j any building shall bo deemed a returi
ia before mentioned, unless it is two-thirds the height of the external o
vails. [Cincinnati and Cleveland.]
I. — A skeleton structure for storage or shelter. [IHstrict of Coltimbia.1
I structure, enclosed only on one side and cud, and erected on th
.. ISan Francisco.]
I or closed board structure. [Denver.]
7-window. — A store-window in which goods ore displayed for sale o
semen t. [District of Columbia and Denver.]
tre thereof. — Tlie square or level of the walls before commencing th
3r roof. [District of CcUumbia.]
dard Depth for FoundationB.— For brick and stone buildings, 14
:urb line. [San Francisco.]
dard Depth of Cellars.— 16', measured down from sidewalk grade a
:y line. [Memphis.]
dard Iron Door.— Made of No. 12 plate-iron, frame or continnou
" X f" angle-iron, firmly riveted. Two panel doors, to have proper crose
ae panel on either side, fastened together with hooks or proper bolts to]
)ttom, and with not less than two lever- bars. All door:* hung on iroi
of I" X 4" iroi:, securely bolted together through wall, swung on thre^
fitting close to frame all around ; sill between doors, iron, brick, or stone
not less than two (2) inches above floor on each side of opening. Linte
K)r, brick, iron, or stone. Floors of basement, when doors are to swing
r cement, in no case wood. [Denver.]
dard Skylight.— Constructed of wrought-iron frames, with hammerei
>light glass not less than 1" thick ; not larger than 10' by 12', except b;
permission of the Inspector. [Denver.]
Aouse.- (See Warehouse Class.)
)t.— All streets, avenues, and public alleys. [Minneapolis.]
jxnent-house.— A building which, or any portion of which, is to be occu
r is occupied, as a dwelling by more than three » families living independ
f one another, and doing their cooking upon the premises. [Boston
, and Kansas City.]
f more than two families'* above the second floor, so living and cooking
I and Kansas City.]
ling which shall contain more than two rooms in front on each floor, o
shall be built with a passage or arched way between distinct parts of th
uilding, or which building shall be intended for the separate accominoda
different families or occupants. [Cha7'leston.]
itre.— Public hall containing movable scenery or fixed scenery whicl
nade of metal, plaster, or other incombustible material. [ Chicago^ Louis
id Milwaukee.]
kness of a Wall. -The minimum thickness of such wall.' [Boston
lati^ Cleveland^ Kansas City, Mihoaukee, and Providence.]
0 instead of three. [District of Columbia and Minneapolis.]
m one floor, but having a common right in the halls, stairways, yards
Providence.]
58 LEGAL DEFINITIONS OF ARCHITECTCJKAL TERMS.
l^inned Covered Fire-door.— Wood door!? or shntterfl, double thickness ol
wood, cross or dia.ixonal construction, covered ou both sides and all cd^es with
sheet-tin, joints ficcurdy clinchi'd and nailed. [Denmr.]
Tower Projection.— A projc^ction dcsij^ied for an ornamental door-entrance,
for ornamcnial windows, vr for buttresses. [District of Coliniibia.]
Vault. An undcrj^round confitrnction beneath parking or sidewalk. [District
of Cdumhhi.]
Veneered Building. -Frame structure, the walls covered above the sijl by a
4" wall of brick, instead of clapboards. [Common undsrstandijig in Chicago^
Miltraukic, a, id Minrieaixdia^ but not defiiied by laic.']
Warehouse Class.— Buildings used for the storage of merchandise, mannfac-
tories in which machinery is operated, breweries, and distilleries. \_Clncinnati
and St. 1 J HI Is. 1
Width <^)f buildings shall be computed by the way the beams are placed ; tlie
lengthwise of tlu; beams shall be considered and taken to be the widthwise of
the l)uilding. [Sew York and San Francisco.']
Wholesale store, or storehouse, shall embrace all buildings used (or in-
tended to be used) exclusively for purpose of mercantile business or atorugc of
goods. [ Cltirafjo, LouinvUle, and Milivaukee.']
Wooden Building.— A wooden or frame * building. [Bostai^ Kansau dty^
and Minnmitolia.']
Any building of which an external or i)arty wall is constracted in whole or in
part of wood. [Denver and Disti'irt of Columbia.']
Having more w(K)(1 on the outsid<i than that required forthe door and window
frames, doors, shutters, sash-porticos, and wooden steps, and all framo buildings
or sheds, tilthougli the sides and ends are pro))oscd to be covered with corragatcd
iron or other metal, shall be deemed a wooden building under this la w. [Charles-
k>n and J^'an/irUle.]
» Or veneered. [MifMeajx^is.]
m ~~ IL fSm TO ADVE) SI s.
m-
:^i s
Cbloago Vamlih Co 87
Chrome Steel Works. gg
Cooper, Hewitt k Co. <Ne«r Jersey Steel ft Iron Co.) 18
SSii'.*>=^ BuildinB Co., Ltd., The 3t
Felton, Biblaj * Co U
Foleom Snow Ouard Co 85
Frost & Adams 1
Y;iH:ai Mfg. Co.. The 31
Grabam Chemloal Pottery Works, CbarlGS. . .
Gumej' Heater Mfg. Co
Keasberft Mattlson Co
Kidder, F.B
KinK A Co.. J. B
I^ne Bnitbers.
Meehan* 83
Proofing Co 13
^m CO 15
New Jeney Steel & Iron Co. (Cooper. Howltt & Co.) 13
New Jetsey Wire Cloth Co. (Jobn A. Roobllos's Sons Co.) ft
(A. ft P. Roberts Co.) 8
Pioneer Fire-Proof Construction Co 11
Karitan Hollow & Porous Brick Co IB
Hoborta Co., A. ft P. (Pcncoyd Iron Works) B
Co., Jolin A. (New Jersey Wire Cloth Co.) 8
KB Isaac A 20
Paving Co., The S
R K3
Co., The 25
Thatcher Furnace Co.. The. 18
Tuttle ft Bailey Mfg. Co 28
Union Sewer Pipe Co., The 18
Warren Cbemlcal ft Mfg. Co. B
Whltfleld, Thomas 28
^v
CLASSIFIED LIST OF ADYERTISEIEHTS.
Ajitists' Materials and Mathematical Instruments.
Frost & Adams 7
Asphalt Paving and Roofing.
Sicilian Asphalt Paving Co., The 8
Warren Chemical & Mfg. Co 5
Box Anchors and Joist Hangers.
Goetz Box Anchor Co 8
Cement.
(Portland) Brooks, Shoobridge & Co 6
(Rosendale) Lawrence Cement Co 7
Cement Plaster.
Acme Cement Plaster Co 10
King & Co., J. B 17
Chrome Steel and Iron. ,
Chrome Steel Works 28
Consulting Architect.
Kidder, F. E 32
Consulting Engineers.
Gray, J. H 30
Lee, Thos. A 29
Crockery Wash Tubs.
Graham Chemical Pottery Works, Charles 12
Stewart Ceramic Co 24
Electric Light Wire.
Bishop Gutta Percha Co 12
Elevators.
Morse, Williams & Co 15
Fire Proof Materials and Construction.
Fawcett Ventilated Fireproof Building Co., Ltd., The 26
Gilbert & Bennett Mfg. Co., The 31
Lee Fireproof Construction Co., The 29
Maurer & Son, Henry 14
Metropolitan Fire Proofing Co 13
Now .Jersey Wire Cloth Co. (John A. Roebling's Sons Co.).... 9
Pioneer Fire-Proof Construction Co U
Raritan Hollow & Porous Brick Co 16
Gas Machine.
Tirrill Gas Msu'hine Co 21
"Gray" Steel Coi.umns.
Gray, J. H 28
Hot Water and Steam Heating.
Gorton & Lidgerwood Co 30
G urney Heater Mfg. Co 19
Smith Co., The H. B 23
Hot Air Warming.
Sheppard & Co., Isaac A
Thatcher Furnace Co., The 1>v^
Landscape Gardening.
Bowditch, James H 22
Mechaii & Sons, Thomas 32
Mail CnuTES.
Cutler Manufacturing Co., The 14
Oats Cleaner.
Whitfield, Thomas 28
Parlor and Barn Door Hangers.
Lane Brothers 10
Pipe and Boiler Covering.
Keasbey & Mattison Co 20
Kadiators.
American lladiator Co 88
Gurney Heater Mfg. Co 19
Smith Co., The H. B 23
Standard lladiator Co., The 25
Refrigerators.
Lorillard Refrigerator Co., The 18
Registers and Ventilators.
Tuttle & Bailey Mfg. Co 26
Sewer Pipe.
Union Sewer Pipe Co., The 18
Shin(}le Stains.
Cabot, Samuel 5
Snow Guards.
Folsom Snow Guard Co 25
Steel and I ron— Constructional.
New Jersey Steel & Iron Co. (Cooper, Hewitt & Co.) 18
Penc()y<l Iron Works (A. & P. Roberts Co.) 6
Treks and Plants.
M(>(>han & Sons, Thomas 82
Varnish.
Chii'aK'o Varnish ('<> ST
Fclton, Sibley & Co 14
Weathkr Strii»s.
( Oppcr ( ^)., W. H 87
Window and Door Scrkkns.
Burrowes Co., The E. T 24
Brewer; of Cb. Uoerlelii Branlns Co., CInclnnBtl, O.
(IBHEH'S AHCHOR BRATo'lfiTORil ASPHILT ROOFIIC.
TUi RbdIbs 1> hIh am mh billdlBca M
■•V Tark OculrBl A HidHi RlTcr H.R., TtaHB-HsBttn RIfMrl* Q*.,
iMa^ Albair K.U., WonhkT. A M»u> Mlk. O*., ■■«.
Send for circalan, lampla and tp/cificaHonformi to
W«RREN CHEMICAL & M'F'G CO,, ""i:^°iSi...^
-- ■ - 1CHlTiiFK**luud ■■■'
CABOT'S CREOSOTE SHINOLE
STAINS.
Thin, Iran^parcnt colorings for Shingles and oil rough
woodwork, wliich give soft, volTetf effects, without glo«,
and do not hide the grain of the wood. The Creosote
they contain prevents decay in the wood.
" Creosote ia tie best wood i
CABOT'S SHEATHINQ "QUILT."
A practical and cheap method of hiaulation and deaf-
ening liy mciinH of dead air spaces. Actual tests show it to
be six times Ixitter than rosin paper, and rooro than three
times V)ettcr than wool felt. Light, clean, inodorous, non-
inflammable and iion-decajing. Easy to appi; and costs
less Uiiin 1 cent it foot,
l''iii' Satii]>li'K iiiid det4ulcil information, apply to Samuel
Ciiliol. S'>lr M iriiclnR'i', lloHtuti, Mass.
A,i;i'ni!' ni nil I'ciitral jxiinta.
A. & P. ROBERTS CO.,
Pencoyd I RON Works,
MANUFACTURERS OF
Beams, Channels, Angrles, Deck Beanns, Tees, Zees,
Bars, Shafting:, of Open Hearth Steel.
ALSO DESIGNERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF
RAILROAD BRIDGES, ELEVATED RAILROADS,
Train Sheds, Roofs, Viaducts, etc.
Beanns, Channels, Girders, etc., of Iron or Steel, for
Buildingrs, a Specialty.
WORKS: PENCOYD, PA.
OFFICE: 261 S. 4th ST., PHILA., PA.
OOLiD 9IEDAL.S.
fiew Zealand, IH^^2. Melbourne, 1888.
fmLVER ]fIEDAL8.
Amstcrflaiii, IH^3. Calcutta, 1884.
Adelaide, l!!i§7.
BROOKS, SH006RID6E & CO.,
BEST ENGLISH
POETLAND CEMENT.
7 Bowling Green, New York City.
(i
r n«^o 1 Of. t\ut\mOt
iMtects; DrangbtsmeD's and Eogineers' Sopplies,
BLUE PRINT PAPERS AND LENEN.
>IRECT BLACK PRINT PAPER,
The only black line on white grouniJ
[)ap(?r tbat requires DO developer.
tliematical InstrQieits and Artists' Materials
for a.
in
Of every rteeeriptlon, suited for
NIVTE. — Mull
( Catuloguo.
CORNHILL AND 32 BRATTLE STREET, BOSTON.
AlU'llTTKCTS SHOULD SPECIFY
SICILIAN ROCK ASPHALT MASTIC,
■■TrrK i.'.\-ITKI) LlJ)J[lil( & VOBWOULE ItoCK ASPllALTE Co., IjUi,,"
For Floors,
Havements &
Roofs of
Warehouses,
Hospitals,
Breweries,
Abattoirs,
Sidewalks, etc
Kslin
r lh« «
ctiiniilcto fumislic<l
:T JIastii', etc., sold
Id Hiiiliii'rs, or Aspin:
to jVspliiill Pjuiiij,' (.'(itili'iict.ors 1iy . , .
THE SICILIAN ASPHALT PAVING COMPANY,
Times Building, Sew York.
^Ooetz Post Cap,
Qoetz JoUt Hanger.
I ne noeDimg oysiem ot
Fire-proof Flooring.
More 80 than is true of other systems, the Roebling
fii^re- proof Flooring combines rigidity and ultimate
strength.
By our novel union of concrete and iron we utilize
the total value of the one as a compression member,
and of the other as a tensile member, and without the
handicap of useless and dangerous '^ dead '' weight.
Because the iron is imbedded and encased in the
concrete, it is amply protected from collapse or other
injury ordinarily resulting from lire.
Because our method does away with fully 25 per
cent, of the weight of iron heretofore deemed neces-
sary, it is possible, by its use, to erect taller build-
ings on narrow plots of land than would otherwise be
feasil)lc.
Correspondence is invited.
JoHJs^ A. Roebling's Sons Co.,
117-119 Liberty street, New York.
171-173 Lake street, Chicago.
25-37 Fremont street, San Francisco.
Or, Kew Jersey Wire Clotli Co.,
Trenton, N. J.
9
A natural product aM»d fM" Its
ffantneaa,
DurablUty,
Tensile Strength and
Fireproof Qualities.
Ainircluii llrat \nva- iiiirl nii'ilal Iti i>|ici
coniiictitiiiiitit the World's Fair
ashlneton ; Mercantile Club BulMlns, St. Loala ;
, Chicaija; Planters Hotel. St. Loult;
I, Denver; New Court Houae, Fort Worth, TexM.
flypsum Uty. Kaa.; Rhodes, Marlon County. Kas., aodQaaaah, Tern
AciAE Ce/»bnt Plaster Co.
MAIN OFFICE: ST. JOSEPH, MO.
BRANCHES: CHICAGO. ST. LOUIS, BOSTON.
Lane's »?.? Barn Door-Hanger
Kill. MutcrluJlholicM. No
Lane's "«•' Parlor Door-Hanger
ifactured by LME BROTHERS, PoughkMpill, 1. T.
TniiMWH.^i^olfVxc^rRlii.CigBAiulMn tXu«Ua^UiHU»\.K ^MnU^ (.-
V1»U St^iMtSil Svik XUjJioljVjl ikt«Sl.\l« ^il-^'Softoo umral«i4&hU.l(
FiOHEQt EIRE-PROOF COR^RUCTIOII COHPiKY
1S4B so. CLARK STREET
■\Uftv\u\v\tVua£bVCo'A\nitos CHrcAGO
Fire Prooflco
ZS^^^'^^^r, f^-^"" ?J^^h^S^iX%' [•^°'°"-
lEV JERSEY STEEL AND IRON GO.
TRENTON, N. J.
Cooper, Hewitt & Co.,
1 7 BURLING SLIP, NEW YORK.
ron and Steel Beams, Girders, Etc.
ENGINEERS AND MANUFACTURKItS OF AND CXJNTUACTORS FOR
Buildings, ^oofs, Bridges,
And other Iron and Steel Structures.
PLANS AND ESTIMATES FURNISHED.
Metropolitan Fire Proofing Company
PATENTED SUSPENSION SYSTEM,
FOR FLOORS, ROOFS, OEILINQS AND
ALL FORMS OF ORNAMENTAL OOVE WORK.
=iIREI=ROOF=. L-IOHT. STRONG.
SAVES METAL WORK.
REDUCES LOADS ON FOUNDATIONS.
Iain Office, Trenton, N. J. Reference:
(lew York Office, 874 Broadway. COOPER, HEWITT & CO.,
loston Office, 166 Devonshire St. 17 Burling Slip, New York.
Catalogues Sent on Application.
[orse, iliiams & Co.
MAKERS OF
SSIGEBAI FREIGHT ELEVATORS
OF EVERY DESCRIPTION.
ilci lli^'lirsi Kciiiil iin.i Diplnmft for Direct Electric Elevator
ill llif World's t'uiumbian Exposition,
WORKS:
ankfofd Avenue, Wildey and Shackamanon Streets,
PHILADELPHIA,
OPFICESi
VoftK, NEW HAVEN, BOSTON, CHICAGO, BALTIMORE.
PITTSBURG AND SCRANTON, PA.
ESTABUSHED 18S0.
THE
Thatcher Purnace Co.,
240 Water Street, M V.,
MANUFACTURERS OF THE CELEBRATED
Thatcher Furnace ^^ Ranges
ALSO
Champion steam and
Hot Water tieaters.
SiMicif'uMl l)y lea<ling architects, and sold by the trade generally.
GUARANTEED. SEND FOE CATALOGUE.
Raritan ''"^^ P"*'
Buildinsr riaterials,
Fancy Front Brick,
Fire Brick,
Hollow
and Porous
< English Enamelled
C/O.^^^*^^^^ Brick.
OFFICES :
874 Broadway, cor. 18th St., New York.
Telephone 685— 1 8th.
FACTORIES :
Keasbey, N. J., on Raritan River near Perth Amboy*
Branches at
BOSTON. PMILADnLPHlA, BUFFALO, WASHINQTON. TORONTO.
Asbestos Cement
and
Cement Dry flortar
BOTH FOR PLISTERINQ WAUS AND CEILMBS.
The former to be used with Smnd. The latter (beinff already mixed with
Sand) requires but the addition of water.
J. B. KING S^ CO..
Solo Patentees and Manufacturers,
21-24 State St., flcm Vork, Ji. V.
Our (vEMENT Dry Mortar is i)repared strictly in accordance with the
three indispensable requisites for making the best possible material for
this puroose, viz.: Suitable preparation of the materials (the «uid beinir
screened, winnowed, wushtMi and kiln-dried); ]>roper proportions of the
ingredients; thorouK^h and uniform mixing of the same. While in the
usual way of making mortar, neither of these reciuisites is or can be
strictly or even approximately complied with.
EVIDENCE OF ITS MERITS.
Of the many loading Ptructures in the city of New York which are
plastered with our Windsor Asbestos Cement we mention but a few,
as follows :
Cornelius Vandehbilt's Mansion;
Mail and Express Buildino ;
Postal Teleghaph IJuildino ;
Mutual Life Ins. Huilding;
Continental Fire Ins. Building;
MuTiTJAL Reserve Life Tns. Building ;
Lawyers' Title and (Guarantee Building;
The iSHELDON BUILI)LN(};
Holland House;
Bloomingdale Asylum, etc.
As in New York, so in other large cities, it has been used on many
of the llnest buildings. Further and univc'rsal practical testimony ol" the
great merits and appreeljition of our Windsor Cement is, that leading
architects throughout tin; country have called for it on th(Mr best and
most costly stnurtun's, while architects generally have specified it lor ail
kinds and gnid<'s of buildings, expensive; and inexT>en«ive, as (^xtra (^ost
dtx's not d('i)ar its use on even tlu? Innnblest cottage. Millions of barrels
of it have b<'e!i use<l within th(,» last three years.
Send for our complete treatise, on the subject of ** Needed Improvement in
Plaster for Walla and Ceilings.^^
WE ALSO MANUFACTURE THE
Diamond Brand of Calcined Plaster.
Hillsborou8:h Brand of Calcined Plaster.
Marble Dust.
Kinff's Cold Water Paint.
Ana we are also Sole Amenta in this Country for
J. B. White A Brothers* (Limited) Keene Cement.
17
THE UNION SEWER PIPE 00.
STANDARD
Thoroughly Vitrified ^ Salt Glazed
AKRON) OHIO.
fHE " LORILLARD"
. REFRIGERATOR
Is the Standard. Established 1877,
FOR FArtlLIES, HOTELS.
CLUBS. INSTITUTIONS,
STEAHSHIPS. ETC.
THE- LORJI.I.AKI) REPRKil-RATOR COMPANY.
riCS liroadway. New York.
Ourney
HOT WATER HEATERS,
STEAH BOILERS,
RADIATORS .
Ackiiowiedged by Leading Engineers
to be the " Standard for
Excellence."
Always Equal to the Occasion.
SEND FOR CATALOGUE.
Qurney lieater Jvlfg. Co,
163 Franklin 5t., cor. Congrsss,
ABSOLUTELY FIREPROOF.
MAGNESIA
COVICKIXU FOR
Heaters, Heater Pipes,
Flue Linings,
Steam Pipes and Boilers.
Siivi-s ccBil; injures lioal. when; nueikil; si'tiircs jicrfect veiiti-
hiliiiii. [<'iir suitiplcR, [irictsM iliiiI full [mniciilarH, adilroai the
KEASBEY & MATTISON COMPANY,
AMBLER,
FOR HOT-AIR HOUSE WARMING or
COMBINATION HOT AIR AND HOT WATER
NOTHINK EXCECOS THE
"Paragon Furnace,"
6'Six Distinct Points of Superioritj-6
1. Ff■W^^<t JniiilH.
S. KiiiuiliKt'il [>ruft.
S. LurKiifi ItiuliiLtinf; KnrbM.
4. AI>M>liiti'ly s.<ir-(Tlcaiiiiit;.
.1. Itiill-iliiiriiii; (iriito.
It. IVrt.-t'i Ailii|.|Hl>iIil.v 111 All
KiiiiU .>r Colli iir l-<.kc.
;,, </,.,■ /■•»,,„«■, IUi.,K\'- tlinl' Ahmil Urulin;/," maited ttpoH
ISAAC A. SHEPPARD A CO..
1803 North 4th Street. PhILADBLPHIA, PA.
IRRILL
"BQUALIZINQ"
GAS MACHINE
e only practically perfect, permanent apparatna
doviseil for ligliting purposes, as well as for
ig, iHid heating apartments.
TIRRILL GAS MACHINE CO.,
iy Street, NEW YORK.
SEND FOR CIRCULANB.
LANDSCAPE GARDENINQ
Sreks to aid ArcliitcHjts jiiid Owners alike, in
pine in (J biiUdijKjH to bent avail of natural
c(mditi(ms^ iind so to iynprove, the.nv condi-
tiima as to scciiro an agrooal)lc whole, with-
out lar^c additional outlay.
JAMES H. BOWDITCH.
6a Devonshire St., BOSTON, AiASS.
Long Distance Telephone, Boston 1464.
(e. w. bowditch.)
F. E, KIDDER, C.E.,
Consulting Architect
1362 CALIFORNIA ST., DENVER, COLO.
Calculations made for Architects and Builders
of all forms of building construction, includ-
ing iron and wooden trusses, girders, etc. Cer-
tificates of strength and proper construction of
))uildings. Prompt attention given to consul-
tations by mail.
Terms Reasonable, and Special Prices
Given When Desired.
During ten years' practice as a consulting
architect, I have rendered assistance to leading
architt-'cts and builders fr'om Maine toCaUrornia.
oo
THE H. B. SMITH CO.
I3>, la> and 137 Centre Street, NEW YOR
STEAM AND HOT WATER
Heating
Apparatus
FOR
WARMING ALL CLASSES
OF BUILDINGS
MERCER'S
Safety Sectional Hot
nodcBo.!^ Water Boiler
GOLD'S
Low Pressure Heatia
Apparatus
MILL'S
Patent Safety Sectioi
Boilers
COTTAGE
Hot Water Heater ^^^ ^ ^^
GOLD "PIN" Indirect Radiator
Union, Royal, Imperial, and
Champion Union Radiators
■^©^
NEW YORK . PROVIDENCE . PHILADELPHIA
Pouodry : WE5TF1ELD, MASS,
OUR RADIATORS^--^^^^^^
IN QUALtTY AND DESION
SiBootbest Castings and Perfect Construction
ied lop and bottom, SMOC mm omr
at mad moat posltlvB cirailUkta
The Standard Radiator Co.
I6T-It» Lak» St
THE^
iFOLSOM
PATENT ROOF
SNOWGUARDS
aro scietitiflc and effective
Guards f nr all slanting roofs,
nODF WITH HEW MODEL QUARDS. ^^'" "r °W.
Architects sbould protect tiu'ir clients afcainat di:i^3ati»f action
mid lii«i hy Mf-'cifyiiL.u' Hiv Folsom Nuw Modol Snow (lu:ird.
FOLSOM SNOW GUARD CO.,
33 Lincoln Street. - _ _ Boston.
Tti* poiioiutng j:ueii~ttni
i!y*chiteGtupal Y^apnishcs
IVORY ENAMELITE,
NAVALITE (M(RiHE ViiRNiSH).
8UPREMI8 FLOOR FINISH,
SHrPOLEUM,
CHVBTALITE FINISH,
HYPERION FINISH,
DURABLE OAK <roR CnjiiHiD Work).
EXTERIOR OAK iron Outsioc WohhI.
ARCHITECTURAL COACH,
No e RU8BINQ,
^hicago yafnish ^ompany,
;iil«ago, l>leui VoPk, Boston, Phiiad«lphl«.
THOMAS A. LEE
CONSULTING ENGINEER
=JEPROOF CONSTRUCTION
•8IQNS OF FIREPROOFINQ. DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR
FIREPROOF BUILDINGS
^S A. LEE JAMES H. LEE Wm. M. SCANLAN
PRESIDENT SECRETARY ENGINEER
e Lee Fireproof Construction Co.
FIREPROOF BUILDERS
CHITECTURAL ENGINEERS
POROUS TILING
The Most Reliable Fireproof Material
POROUS TILE ARCH
The Original and Most Perfect End
Method Floor Arch
POROUS TILE BEAM-FLOOR
The Lightest, Thinnest, Strongest,
and Cheapest Fireproof Floor
TWO-INCH CABLE-ROD PARTITION
The Most Perfect Thin Partition
MASON WORK
Office: METROPOLITAN BUILDING
SON SQUARE - • NEW YORK CITY
29
J. H. GRAY, C. E., ARCHITECTURAL
ENGINEER, NEW YORK LIFE BUILD-
ING, CHICAGO.
PATENTEE "CRAY COLUMNS.'
REPRESENTED IN PHILADELPHIA BY
C. H. DAVIS, C. E.; P. M. SAX, C. E,
HALE BUILDING.
ARCHITECTS KNOWl
THAT THE
"GORTON" BOILER
'^Always Sat/s//es*!l
IT IS ECONOMICAL IN FUEL
SELF-FEEDING AND AUTOMATIO '
IT IS THE BEST BOILER MADI
FOR HEATING PUBLIC BUILOINCS
AND PRJVATE REStDENCES
GORTON & LIDGERWOOD CO.
:ailu iiusTUN 9t> Uberty Street, New YoA
i B" SYSTEII Of FIRE-PROOFIIia.
< REDUCED TO A MINIMUM. LOWER RATE OF INSURANCE.
CRACKED WALLS AND FALUNS PLASTER AVOIDED.
ED WALLS DUE TO WOOD UTH AND TIMBERS NEVER NOTICED.
"6 tB" STEEL WIRE UTHWe
Being a coutlDUOUS surface, biada the
HQuc! from aJl diruotlona.
In plasCcrlng, the mortar will pass
through the meshcB. oompletGl)- Imbed-
ding till) small wirta; henue it cannot be
aislodgeil by it sudden ]ar or intense heat.
Thia advautajfe will not bi! obtained In the
use of uny other lathing material.
HAMMOND'S METAL FURRING
wull nwuy from the wood, affording a space for air or mineral
:usiila(v tlie tlinburs. The room i:nu be utilized for electric light
ul giis [ii|H!s. Also can bo employed for ventilation In school-
nd public buildings.
uiits the luortur to form an unbroken plastered surface on the
ST tlio face uf the timbers.
48 na a stlffcner and support for the lathing, and where used,
rring^ whli^h cost from eight to ten cents per >'ard are superfluous,
rms aiievonuDd uniform surfaec for stretching the wire lathing
:iimbinntiun—"Q&B" STEEL WIRE LATHING with
=LIRR1NO—formsaiierfect plastering surf ace; and when properly
with mortar, n permanent flre-roslating wall— always Intact and
litti' is ubtuiiieil at u nuBooable cost.
I BY LEiDIKQ AaCEITECTS, IHSiniillCG COKFASIEE AHD CONTEiCTaSS.
■h froM an nrHo/e ba r. K. KiaOer, ™Httrd "JtuiMlHa
ttrurtiim iinrl SHpeAnteHdence," «HbK*Aed in " Arehi-
ire aud BiUldtng," Feb. 2, ISOS:
I writer Iwllevea tliut heavy wire cloth tighUy stretched over
rrlnga forms the must flrc-proot hith now on the miirket,"
iiii'lalllc liitli, tliu writer believes, shouhl be considered aa flrc-
hk-li dries not. In use. bBCdhii: imbrpded in the mortar, tor If the
iuK-cif phiKti-riiculsoir.the metal h)th will resist the Are no better
,>.l iHlll."
irly all of the advantages of vrlro cloth ara lost when the plain
SCRIPTIVE PAMPHLET SENT ON APPLICATION.
GILBERT & BENNETT MFG. CO.,
CEOROETOWN, CONN.
IT St., NEW YORK. 148 Laka St., CHICAGO,
TREES AND PLANTS.
MEEHANS' NURSERIES,
Qermantown, Philadelphia.
Fiiii]h1i'iI r>>]ici'iiilly fiir si[[iiilji[if,' welU'stalilicliPil skwk Tur
PARKS, CEMETERIES,
or PRIVATE GROUNDS.
S}ij|.pi'ii Oiivclly til (■ii,-;loiiii-rs in any (Hirt of the worlil.
MEEHANS* MONTHLY,
THOMAS MEEHAN & SONS,
Uermantown, ... Philadelphia, Pa.
iijSL^r* ^^t-r^ / y/W. - H..^A
6" ' -^ ■ ' ■ ' '
^ tf.
> /
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11