THE ARCHITECTURE
OF GREECE AND ROME
UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME.
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE
RENAISSANCE IN ITALY.
A GENERAL VIEW FOR THE USE OF
STUDENTS AND OTHERS.
By WILLIAM J. ANDERSON, A.R.I.B.A.,
Author of "Architectural Studies in Italy."
THIRD EDITION.
With 64 full-page Collotype and other Plates, and 100 smaller
Illustrations in the text from Photographs and Drawings.
Large 8vo, cloth gilt, price I2s. 6d. net.
" Should rank amongst the best architectural writings of the day."
— The Edinburgh Review.
"We know of no book which furnishes such information and such illustra-
tions in so compact and attractive a form. For greater excellence with the
object in hand there is not one more perspicuous."— The Building News.
" Mr. Anderson is no compiler, he has studied the Renaissance buildings
which he describes, and in criticising them it is evident he is not too sub-
missive to authorities, but can think for himself. . . . The book is evidence
of earnest study."— The Architect.
B. T. BATSFORD, PUBLISHER, 94 HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON.
THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
GREECE & ROME
A SKETCH OF
ITS HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT
WILLIAM J. ANDERSON, A.R.I. B.A.
AUTHOR OF " THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY
AND
R. PHENE SPIERS, ' F.S.A., F.R.LB.A.
CORRESPONDANT DE L'lNgTITU.1 DE FRANCE, HONY- MEMBER
OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS, HONY- COR-
RESPONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCI^T^ CENTRALE DES
ARCHITECTES, PARIS, AND AUTHOR OF " ARCHITECTURE,
EAST AND WEST," ETC.
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED
BY R. PHENE SPIERS
WITH TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON
B. T. BATSFORD 94 HIGH HOLBORN
1907
BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO.-LD., PRINTERS,
LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.
Nft
. 2
PREFACE , TO SECOND EDITION.
IN the preparation of this edition the whole of the text
has been carefully revised and corrected ; some portions
have been re- written, and various additions have been made,
among which the following are the more important : — A
description of the Palace at Cnossus • in Crete ; a revised
account of the Tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae, together
with new illustrations of the same, including those of the
columns, which, through the munificence of the Marquis
of Sligo, have been set up in the British Museum; a series
of plans of all the important Greek temples, including a
general plan of those at Selinus ; plans of some of the Roman
temples, amongst which is one of those in the acropolis at
Baalbec, hitherto unpublished ; and various other details : the
additional illustrations, including those already mentioned,
amounting to eighty in number. To these have been added
lists of the principal historical events coeval with the periods
dealt with in the book, which precede the chapters on Greek
and Roman architecture respectively; a chronological list of
the best known Greek temples, with their approximate dates,
dimensions, and other details ; two specially prepared maps,
one of Greece and Asia Minor, and the other of Italy, on
which is indicated the position of all the principal cities
referred to in the work ; many additions also have been made
to the Bibliography, bringing it up to date.
The author desires to take this opportunity of expressing his
obligations to Mr. Frank T. Baggallay and Mr. Hugh Stannus,
who rendered him the most valuable advice when he was
vi PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
commencing his revision ; to his brother, Mr. Walter L. Spiers,
the curator of the Soane Museum, who has revised all the
proofs ; to Mr. Alan Potter for permission to reproduce four of
his Roman photographs ; to Mr. F. R. Taylor for two photo-
graphs specially taken for the work ; to Mr. W. H. Smith (of
Mr. Batsford's), who, besides making some valuable suggestions,
has seen the work through the press and prepared the new
Index ; and, lastly, to his publisher, who has spared no pains
or expense in the production of the work.
R. PHENE SPIERS.
LONDON,
October, 1907.
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.
To the late William J. Anderson, of Glasgow, is due the
conception of this work. The course of lectures which, on the
invitation of the Governors of the School of Art in that city,
he delivered in 1893-94 on the Architecture of the Renaissance
in Italy (published in 1896), was followed in 1896-97 by a course
on the History and Development of Greek Architecture. To
this subject he devoted his studies for three years, repeating
his course with various revisions, and adding to it in 1897
three additional lectures on Roman Architecture, which, with
those on Greek, he intended to publish as his second work.
Immediately following these Roman lectures, he continued, in
1898, with a course which included the various styles down to
the present day, and in the winter of 1898-99 a further special
course dealing with the Renaissance in France.
The preparation of these courses would seem to have interfered
with the studies he intended to devote to Roman Architecture
in order to bring them in line with the Greek. There is no
doubt that he had attained a masterly grasp of the principles
underlying Greek work, more particularly those dealing with .
the Archaic and culminating periods, the study of which would
seem to have had a special attraction for him. It was his
intention to deal with Roman work in the same way, and with
that in view, and being in indifferent health, he expressed the
desire that I, who had been in frequent communication with him
respecting the various courses he had delivered, should under-
take to read and see through the press the chapters on Greek
Architecture (for which, as well as for the Roman, numerous
illustrations had already been prepared), so as to give him more
time to devote to those on Roman Architecture. He died,
viii PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.
however, before this intention was realised, and the whole work
was then placed in my hands by Mr. Batsford with the entire
concurrence of Mr. Anderson's widow.
With some slight modifications in their order, and some
condensation in Chapter IV., the first four chapters are
Mr. Anderson's work, as are also some passages in the others;
but for the descriptions of the monuments in the fifth, sixth,
and seventh chapters on Greek Architecture, for the Etruscan,
and for the whole of the Roman Architecture, I am entirely
responsible.
The seven lectures on Greek Architecture which Mr. Anderson
delivered in 1897 had been condensed by him into five, so as
to include Roman in his course, and the fifth lecture and those
on Etruscan and Roman were only in the form of notes sufficient
for the purpose of his lecture, but impossible for me to follow.
As the chronological sequence which Mr. Anderson had
adopted in his description of Greek work could not be adhered
to in dealing with Roman, owing to the immense diversity
of buildings which had to be described, it was decided to class
them according to their destination or purpose.
An endeavour has been made in the chapters on Roman
Architecture to point out some of the principles which guided
the Roman architect in the setting-out of his plan — principles
which form the basis of the studies in the Ecole des Beaux
Arts in Paris, and have been handed down from generation
to generation since the foundation of the School by Colbert,
the minister of Louis XIV., towards the close of the seven-
teenth century. The shortcomings in this attempt, by no
means an easy task, have, it is hoped, been partially met by
the publication of some of the plans worked out by the French
students in the Villa Medicis in Rome, and although these, in
some cases, may not archaeologically be always quite reliable,
they follow the principles of design in the setting-out of the
plan to which we have referred, and may enable the student
to grasp these principles better than he could have done from
the descriptions alone.
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. ix
In parts of the work there are some theories put forward
which have not yet obtained universal acceptance; but one
of the objects has been to stimulate the student's interest in
the subject, with the hope that, by independent research, he
may ascertain for himself, either among the treasures of the
British and other Museums, or in the numerous publications
cited in the Bibliography, how far those theories can be
substantiated.
In dealing with the nomenclature which should be adopted,
more particularly with the chapters on Greek Architecture, some
difficulty has been experienced in deciding whether the Greek
or Roman name should be attached to either the temple or
monument described. As a rule, the name by which the deity,
temple, or monument is best known has been adopted.
R. PHENE SPIERS.
LONDON,
September, 1902.
CONTENTS.
CHAP. PAGE
CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA RELATING TO CHAPTERS I.
—VII. .- xxii
I.— THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE i
II.— THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS . 26
III.— THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN ASIA MINOR ... 49
IV.— THE CULMINATION IN ATHENS . . . . 65 ^
V.— THE CULMINATION IN ATTICA, AND IN THE
PELOPONNESOS 85
VI.— THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD 107
VII.— SECULAR ARCHITECTURE IN GREECE . . .131^
CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA RELATING TO CHAPTERS VIII.
-XV 145
VIII.— ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE 146--
IX.— EARLY WORK IN ROME, MATERIALS AND CON-
'
X.— THE ROMAN ORDERS , . 17^ ^/
" XL— THE FORUMS OF ROME, THE COLONNADED
STREETS AND ENCLOSURES OF TEMPLES
IN THE EAST . 187 -
XII.— THE TEMPLES, BASILICAS, THEATRES, AND
A3J£HTTH£ATRES . . . _ .... 205 -
XIII.-THEjrHERMAE OR_JMPERIAL BATj£S_. . . 243 ~"i
XIV.— ENTRANCE GATEWAYS, ARCHES OF TRIUMPH AND
OTHER MEMORIALS, AQUEDUCTS, BRIDGES,
TOMBS_ .... 263 —
/XV.— PALATIAL AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE . . 286. _
CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF GREEK TEMPLES 317
GLOSSARY OF TERMS . 321
LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS RELATING TO CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE . 333
INDEX 341
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
PAGE
1. CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF THE SANCTUARY AT ELEUSIS
BY J. P. DEERING (GANDY), R.A. (reproduced from the
Painting in the Soane Museum by permission of the
Trustees) ........ Frontispiece
2. FRAGMENT FROM CNOSSUS, CRETE (R. P. S. del.) i
3. CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF PRINCIPAL FLOOR OF THE
PALACE AT CNOSSUS (R. P. S. del.) 10
4. TAPERING COLUMN (RESTORED), CNOSSUS, CRETE n
5. ROSACES ON ARCHITRAVE OF ENTRANCE TO ALTAR COURT,
CNOSSUS, CRETE (R. P. S. del.) u
6. PLAN OF THE PALACE AT TIRYNS (from Dr. Schliemann's
Tiryns) ........... la
7. PLAN AND SECTION OF THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON AT MYCENAE
(Perrot and Chipiez) 17
8. ENTRANCE TO THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON AT MYCENAE . . 18
9. SECTION OF THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON AT MYCENAE : Restored
by Perrot and Chipiez ........ 19
10. CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF THE ENTRANCE TO THE TOMB
OF AGAMEMNON AT MYCENAE (R. P. S. inv.) ... 20
11. DETAILS OF COLUMN: TOMB OF AGAMEMNON AT MYCENAE 21
12. PORTION OF CASING OF THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON. (British
Museum.) R. P. S. del 23
13. PORTION OF CASING OF THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON. (British
Museum.) R. P. S. del 23
14. FRAGMENT FROM THE GATE OF THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON
AT MYCENAE. (National Museum at Athens) ... 23
15. THE LIONS' GATE OF THE CITADEL OF MYCENAE . facing 24
16. FRAGMENT OF SLAB FROM THE CEILING OF A CHAMBER OF THE
BEEHIVE TOMB AT ORCHOMENOS, IN BOEOTIA (Perrot and
Chipiez) 25
17. SCULPTURED ARCHITRAVE OF DORIC TEMPLE AT Assos
(Perrot and Chipiez) 26
18. PLAN OF THE HERAEUM AT OLYMPIA ..... 28
19. COMPARATIVE DIAGRAM OF TIMBER AND STONE COLUMNS . 29
xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
20. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT CORINTH 30
21. REMAINS OF TEMPLE AT CORINTH 31
22. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO AT SYRACUSE ... 32
23. PLAN OF THE OLYMPIEIUM AT SYRACUSE 32
24. METOPE FROM TEMPLE C AT SELINUS : Perseus beheads the
Medusa in the presence of Athena 34
25. PLAN OF TEMPLE OF MINERVA 'ATHENA AT SYRACUSE . . 35
26. PLAN OF THE SO-CALLED BASILICA AT PAESTUM ... 36
27. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF CERES AT PAESTUM ... 36
28. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE AT PAESTUM ... 36
29. VIEW OF THE SO-CALLED BASILICA AT PAESTUM : Showing the
Remains of the Row of Columns down the Centre of the
Cella (E. G. Spiers, photo.) 36
30. THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE AT PAESTUM : Exterior View
facing 36
31. THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE AT PAESTUM : Interior View
facing 36
32. DETAILS FROM THE BASILICA AT PAESTUM . . . -37
33. THE TEMPLE AT SEGESTA : Exterior View (E. G. S., photo.) . 39
34. THE TEMPLE AT SEGESTA : Interior View (E. G. S., photo.) . 39
35. PLANS OF THE TEMPLES AT SELINUS, SICILY .... 40
36. THE TEMPLE OF JUNO LACINIA AT AGRIGENTUM (E.G. S., photo.). 42
37. PLANS OF THE TEMPLES OF JUPITER OLYMPIUS AND HERCULES
AT AGRIGENTUM (Professor Cockerell, del.) .... 43
38. THE TEMPLE OF CONCORD AT AGRIGENTUM . . facing 42
39. THE TEMPLE OF HERCULES AND THE SEA GATE AT AGRI-
GENTUM (Viollet-le-Duc, del.) . . . . . . -44
40. THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER OLYMPIUS AT AGRIGENTUM : Re-
stored by Professor Cockerell ...... 45
41. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF AESCULAPIUS AT GIRGENTI . . 46
42. PLAN OF TEMPLE OF APHAEA AT AEGINA .... 46
43. SUGGESTED TIMBER ORIGIN OF THE DORIC ORDER (R. P. S.
inv. et del.) 47
44. .ARCHAIC EPHESIAN CAPITAL IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM . . 49
45. CAPITAL FROM THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO AT NAUCRATIS
(R. P. S. del.) 56
46. CAPITAL OF NAXIAN VOTIVE COLUMN AT DELPHI (R. P. S. del.) 57
47. VOLUTE OF TOMB AT TAMOSSOS, IN CYPRUS (R. I. B. A.
Trans.) 59
48. CAPITAL AND BASE FROM THE ARCHAIC TEMPLE OF DIANA AT
EPHESUS (J. Cromar Watt, del.) 60
49. GROUP OF THE FATES FROM THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS
(F. R. Taylor, photo.) 65
EAST FRONT OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS ... 68
THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS FROM THE SOUTH-WEST facing 69
PLAN OF THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS ..... 69
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xv
\ PAGE
53. SECTION OF THE PROPYLAEA AT ATHENS : Restored by M.
Thomas 70
54. THE PROPYLAEA OF THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS: The East
Front facing 70
THE TEMPLE OF NIKE APTEROS AT ATHENS .... 71
THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS AS RESTORED BY M. LAMBERT
facing 72
METOPE OF THE PARTHENON : Contest of Centaur and Lapith.
(F. R. Taylor, photo.) 73
THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS FROM THE NORTH-WEST facing 74
SOUTH PERISTYLE OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, LOOKING
EAST 76
60. PART OF THE FRIEZE OUTSIDE THE CELLA OF THE PARTHENON
AT ATHENS : The Panathenaic Procession (W. J. A. del.) . 78
-61. THE ERECHTHEUM AT ATHENS, FROM THE SOUTH-EAST . . 80
-6iA. PLAN OF THE ERECHTHEUM AT ATHENS 80
62. THE CARYATIDE PORTICO (TRIBUNE) OF THE ERECHTHEUM . 80
63. THE NORTH PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEUM AT ATHENS facing 80
64. THE EAST END OF THE ERECHTHEUM : Showing conjectural
Position of Windows and Detail of Portion Found (R. P. S.
del.) 81
65. ANGLE CAPITAL OF THE TEMPLE OF NIKE APTEROS . . 82
66. ELEVATION AND PLAN OF THE IONIC TEMPLE ON THE ILISSUS
(Stuart and Revett) 83
67. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF HEPHAESTOS (THESEUM) AT
ATHENS ........... 84
68. THE TEMPLE OF HEPHAESTOS (THESEUM) AT ATHENS facing 84
69. MARBLE FRAGMENT FOUND IN THE HIERON AT EPIDAURUS :
With Conjectural Restoration by L. Vulliamy ... 85
70. PLAN OF THE HALL OF THE MYSTERIES AT ELEUSIS (repro-
duced from the Journal of the Hellenic Society] .... 86
71. CAPITAL FROM THE SO-CALLED LESSER PROPYLAEA AT ELEUSIS 87
72. PLAN OF THE LESSER PROPYLAEA AT ELEUSIS . . . 87
73. CONJECTURAL ELEVATION OF THE IONIC ORDER FLANKING THE
ENTRANCE OF THE LESSER PROPYLAEA AT ELEUSIS . . 88
74. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO EPICURIUS AT BASSAE . 88
75. THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO AT BASSAE : Interior of the Cella,
as restored by Professor Cockerell 89
76. THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO AT BASSAE : Cross-section through
Cella and Peristyle (Professor Cockerell, del.) ... 91
77. THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO AT BASSAE : Diagram showing method
of hollowing out the Marble Beams of the Peristyle in order
to lessen their weight (Professor Cockerell, del.) ... 92
78. DIAGRAM OF ROOF TILES AT BASSAE (R. P. S. del.) ... 93
79. THE IONIC COLUMNS OF THE CELLA OF THE TEMPLE OF
APOLLO AT BASSAE (Professor Cockerell, del.) ... 94
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
80. CAPITAL FROM THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO AT BASSAE . . 95
81. BASE AND CAPITAL OF A VOTIVE COLUMN AT DELPHI . . 96
82. PLAN OF THE TEMPLF. AT MESSA, IN THE ISLAND OF
LESBOS ........... 97
PLAN OF THE CITY OF OLYMPIA (from Whibley's Companion to
Greek Studies) 99
84. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA .... 100
85. TREASURY OF GELA AT OLYMPIA : TERRA-COTTA COVERING OF
THE CORNICES OF ROOF (reproduced from Die Baudenkmaler
von Olynipia) 102
86. SCULPTURED DETAIL FROM THE TREASURY OF THE CNIDIANS 103
87. PLAN OF THE THOLOS AT EPIDAURUS 104
88. CAPITAL FROM THE THOLOS AT EPIDAURUS (Professor R. Elsey
Smith, photo.) 104
89. BASE AND PORTICO OF THE GREAT ALTAR OF ZEUS AT
PERGAMUM (reproduced from Pergame, by M. Pontremoli
and Max Collignon) 105
90. CAPITAL FROM THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO DIDYMAEUS AT
MILETUS 107
91. CAPITAL OF PIER CARRYING A STATUE IN THE TEMENOS AT
PRIENE . .......... 108
92. DRUM OF COLUMN FROM THE TEMPLE OF DIANA (ARTEMIS)
AT EPHESUS 109
93. SCULPTURED PEDESTAL AND DRUM FROM THE TEMPLE OF
DIANA (ARTEMIS) AT EPHESUS ...... no
94. RESTORED FRONT ELEVATION OF THE TEMPLE OF DIANA
(ARTEMIS) AT EPHESUS (J. Cromar Watt, del.) . . .in
95. PLAN OF TEMPLE OF DIANA (ARTEMIS) AT EPHESUS, as restored
by Dr. Murray (R. I. B. A. Trans.) . . . . . .112
96. THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO DIDYMAEUS AT MILETUS . . .114
97. CAPITAL OF SEMI-COLUMN IN TEMPLE OF APOLLO DIDYMAEUS
AT MILETUS 115
98. DODECAGONAL BASE OF TEMPLE OF APOLLO DlDYMAEUS AT
MILETUS (R. P. S. del.) 116
99. ANTA CAPITAL OF THE BATHS AT CNIDUS (from The Antiqui-
ties of Ionia) . . .116
100. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO SMINTHEUS (SMINTHEUM)
IN THE TROAD 117
101. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT PRIENE . . . . . . 117
102. CAPITAL OF THE TEMPLE OF CYBELE AT SARDIS (Professor
Cockerell, del.) . . . . . . . . .118
103. THE TEMPLE OF APHRODITE AT APHRODISIAS . . . 118
104. CAPITAL OF COLUMN IN PRONAOS OF TEMPLE OF JUPITER
AT AIZANI . . . . . . . . . .119
105. ENTABLATURE OF MAUSOLEUM AS SET UP IN THE BRITISH
MUSEUM (F. R. Taylor, photo.) ..,,,, 120
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii
PAGE
K>6. THE TOMB OF PAYARA FOUND AT XANTHOS (Viollet-le-Duc, del.) 122
^07. THE CHORAGIC MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES AT ATHENS . 123
108. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER OF THE CHORAGIC MONUMENT OF
LYSICRATES AT ATHENS ....... 125
109. SCROLL FROM THE ROOF OF THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES 125
no. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER OLYMPIUS AT ATHENS . 126
in. THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER OLYMPIUS AT ATHENS . facing 126
112. CAPITAL OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER OLYMPIUS AT ATHENS
(F. C. Penrose, del.) 127
113. STELE IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM AT ATHENS . . . 128
114. THE TOWER OF THE WINDS AT ATHENS (from a photograph
by E. G. Spiers) 129
115. SIMA IN PAINTED TERRA-COTTA FROM THE PHILIPPEUM AT
OLYMPIA (J.-Cromar Watt, del.) . . 131
116. PORTION OF THE PLAN OF THE PALACE AT PALATITZA, as
restored by M. Daumet 132
'117. PLAN OF THE PRINCIPAL PART REMAINING OF THE CITY OF
EPHESUS (E. Falkener, del.) . . . ... . 134
1 18. THE STOA AT Assos, as restored by Robert Koldewey . . 136
119. SUBSTRUCTURE OF STOA AT ALINDA, ASIA MINOR . . . 138
^20. CHAIR OF THE HIGH PRIEST IN THE THEATRE OF DIONYSUS
AT ATHENS ......'.... 140
121. THE THEATRE AT EPIDAURUS (E. G. S., photo.) . . . 141
122. THE THEATRE AT TAORMINA IN SICILY ..... 142
123. PLAN OF THE THERSILION AT MEGALOPOLIS, as restored by
R. W. Schultz. (Reproduced from the Journal of the Hellenic
Society] 144
ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE.
124. FRIEZE FROM THE ARCH OF AUGUSTUS AT PERUGIA . . 146
125. THE MOUTH OF THE CLOACA MAXIMA AT ROME . . .147 —
126. THE ARCH OF AUGUSTUS AT PERUGIA (A. Normand, del.) . 149
127. INTERIOR OF TOMB AT CORNETO (from Gailhabaud's Monu-
ments, Anciens et Modernes} 150
128. CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE (R. P. S.
inv. et del.) . 153
129. CAPITAL OF A COLUMN SUPPORTING THE CEILING OF A TOMB
AT VULCI . . • 1 53 -
130. A TERRA-COTTA ANTEFIX ........ 154
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
131. PORTION OF THE FRIEZE OF TRAJAN'S BASILICA . . . 155
132. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA-VIRILIS AT ROME (from
Dr. Middleton's Remains of Ancient Rome) ... . 157
A.G.R.
xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
133. THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA-VIRILIS AT ROME .... 158
134. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING ORDINARY BARREL VAULT CONSTRUC-
TION, according to Viollet-le-Duc ...... 167
135. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE DIAGONAL RIB (Viollet-le-Duc, del.) 167
136. EXAMPLE OF MARBLE PANELLING, ROME (from Dr. Middleton's
Remains of Ancient Rome) ....... 170
137. MARBLE FACING OF THE TEMPLE OF CONCORD AT ROME
(from Dr. Middleton's work) 171
138. PORTION OF THE FRIEZE OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN ON
THE QUIRINAL AT ROME 172
139. DORIC CAPITAL AND BASE OF THE TEMPLE OF HERCULES AT
CORA 173
140. DORIC ORDER OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS AT ROME . 174
141. IONIC ORDER OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS AT ROME . 175
142. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL OF THE TEMPLE OF CASTOR AT ROME . 176
143. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL OF THE TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND
POLLUX AT CORA ......... 177
144. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL OF THE INTERIOR OF THE TEMPLE OF
CONCORD AT ROME, as restored by M. H. Daumet . . 178
145. CAPITAL AND BASE OF THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI
(from Taylor and Cresy's Rome) . . . . . . 179
146. EARLY CORINTHIAN CAPITAL NOW IN THE CHURCH OF
S. NICCOLO IN CARCERE 180
147. CORNICE OF THE TEMPLE OF CASTOR AT ROME . . . 181
148. SOFFIT OF CORNICE OF THE TEMPLE OF CASTOR AT ROME . 181
149. ARCHITRAVE OF THE TEMPLE OF CASTOR AT ROME . . 182
150. IONIC CAPITAL FOUND IN THE FORUM OF TRAJAN . . . 182
151. COMPOSITE CAPITAL FOUND IN THE FORUM OF TRAJAN . . 183
152. COMPOSITE CAPITAL OF THE ARCH OF TITUS .... 183
153. A BAY OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS AT ROME . . 184
154. THE TEMPLE OF MINERVA AT ASSISI 185
155. THE TEMPLE OF THE GODDESS FORTUNA AT SUNAMEIN . . 186
156. THE ROMAN FORUMS 187
157. PLAN OF THE FORUMS AT ROME (A. F. V. Dutert, del.) facing 188
158. THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME (from Taylor and Cresy's
Rome) 190
159. THE GREAT ARCHWAY AT PALMYRA, showing on the right-hand
side the Columns of the Peristyle, and in the distance the
Temple of the Sun 196
160. THE WEST FRONT OF THE PROPYLAEA AT DAMASCUS (R. P. S.
del.) 198
161. CAPITAL OF THE TEMPLE AT ATIL, showing the springing of
the arch between the two central columns .... 199
162. CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF THE PROPYLAEA AT BAALBEC
(R. P. S. inv. et del.) 200
163. PLAN OF THE ACROPOLIS OF BAALBEC (R. P. S. del.) . . 201
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xix
164. VIEW OF THE TRILITHON AT BAALBEC, showing Plinth Course
and Substructure 203 -
165. SITE OF THE QUARRY AT BAALBEC from which the stones of
the Trilithon were obtained 204
166. GARLAND FROM THE PANTHEON AT ROME .... 205 -
167. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF CASTOR AT ROME .... 207 -
168. COLUMNS OF THE TEMPLE OF MARS ULTOR AT ROME . . 208
169. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN AT ROME . . . 209
170. ENTABLATURE OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN AT ROME
(L. Canina, del.) ......... 210
^171. PLAN OF THE MAISON CARREE AT NISMES .... 210 -
^172. THE MAISON CARREE AT NISMES .... facing 210 -
173. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME, AT ROME . 211 —
174. VAULTED APSE OF THE TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME- (Alan
Potter, photo.) • . . 213--
175. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME
(L. Canina, del.) . 214'
176. CELLA OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER AT BAALBEC . . . 215 -
^177. THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI 217
178. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT ROME .... 218
179. THE CIRCULAR TEMPLE AT BAALBEC ..... 219 —
s*8o. PLAN OF THE PANTHEON AT ROME 220 -
Xi8i. THE INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON AT ROME . . facing 220
^182. THE CORINTHIAN PORTICO OF THE PANTHEON AT ROME . 222 —
183. BRONZE DOOR OF THE PANTHEON AT ROME (from Taylor and
Cresy's Rome) 225 ""
184. THE FORUM AT ROME FROM THE WEST . . . facing 226
185. PORTION OF THE DOUBLE AISLE OF THE BASILICA JULIA
(Alan Potter, photo.) 226 -
186. PLAN OF THE BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE AT ROME . . 227 _
187. VIEW OF THE THREE GREAT HALLS FORMING THE SIDE
AISLES OF THE BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE AT ROME (Alan
Potter, photo.) 229
188. IONIC CAPITAL OF AISLE IN THE BASILICA AT POMPEII . 230.^
189. PLAN OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS AT ROME (L. Canina,
del.) 232-
190. THE THEATRE OF ASPENDUS (reproduced from Dr. Josef
Durm's Die Baukunst der Griecher) 233 —
191. THE SMALLER THEATRE AT POMPEII 234
192. VIEW OF PART OF THE REMAINS OF POMPEII (from a model)
facing 234—
193. GRIFFIN'S LEG FROM THE THEATRE AT POMPEII . . . 235
194. THE COLOSSEUM AT ROME ..... facing 236 —
J95. PLAN AND ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE COLOSSEUM AT ROME
(Professor Guadet, del.) ........ 237 '
196. THE AMPHITHEATRE AT VERONA 240 — •
xx LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
197. PLAN OF THE CIRCUS OF ROMULUS 242
'-- 198. PLAN OF THE THERMAE OF CARACALLA AT ROME (from Dr.
Middleton's Ancient Rome) ....... 245
199. RESTORED INTERIOR OF THE TEPIDARIUM OF THE THERMAE
OF CARACALLA (R. P. S. inv. et del.) 248
— 200. PLAN AND SECTION OF THE HYPOCAUST OF THE THERMAE
OF CARACALLA (from Dr. Middleton's work) . . . 250
201. SECTION THROUGH THE CENTRAL HALL OF THE THERMAE OF
TITUS, as restored by M. C. A. Leclerc . . facing 250
202. PLAN OF THE THERMAE OF TITUS, as restored by M. Leclerc 251
203. CEILING OF TOMB IN THE VIA LATINA AT ROME . . . 255
- 204. ONE BAY OF THE TEPIDARIUM OF THE THERMAE OF DIOCLE-
TIAN, as restored by M. Paulin . . . . . 257
205. SPHAERISTERIUM OF THE THERMAE OF DIOCLETIAN, as restored
by M. Paulin 258
206. PLAN OF THE SO-CALLED TEMPLE OF MINERVA MEDICA AT
ROME ........... 259
- 207. TEPIDARIUM OF THE BATHS OF THE FORUM AT POMPEII . 260
208. SOUTH-WEST WALL OF THE STABIAN BATHS AT POMPEII . 261
209. FRIEZE FROM THE TOMB OF THE GARLANDS AT POMPEII . 263
^ 210. THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE AT ROME . ... 264
211. THE ARCH OF TITUS AT ROME ....... 265
^ 212. KEYSTONE OF THE ARCH OF TITUS AT ROME, as restored by
M. Ch. Girault 266
- 213. THE ARCH AT BENEVENTUM facing 266
214. THE GATEWAY OF THE SILVERSMITHS AT ROME . . . 267
215. INTERSECTING BARREL VAULT OF THE ARCH OF JANUS IN
-^- —THE FORUM BOARIUM AT ROME (A. Choisy, del.) . . 268
216. THE ARCH AT ANCONA facing 268
217. THE ARCH AT ORANGE, FRANCE ...... 269
218. NORTH FRONT OF THE ENTRANCE GATEWAY (PORTA NIGRA)
AT TREVES, GERMANY 270
219. EAST FRONT OF THE ARCH OF CARACALLA AT TEBESSA
(THEVESTE), NORTH AFRICA (E. G. Spiers, photo.) . . 272
220. THE IGEL MONUMENT, NEAR TREVES, GERMANY . . . 274
221. MONUMENT AT ST. REMI, PROVENCE, FRANCE . . . 275
222. THE AQUEDUCT AT SEGOVIA, SPAIN .... facing 276
223. THE PONT DU GARD AT NISMES, FRANCE (L. Reynaud, del.) 277
224. THE PONT DU GARD AT NISMES (R. P. S. del.) . . .278
225. TOMB OF CALVENTIUS QUIETUS IN THE STREET OF THE
TOMBS AT POMPEII 280
226. THE STREET OF THE TOMBS AT POMPEII .... 281
227. UPPER PORTION (RESTORED) OF THE TOMB OF THE GAR-
LANDS AT POMPEII (J. Cromar Watt, del.) .... 282
228. THE TOMB OF ABSALOM AT JERUSALEM 283
229. THE TOMB OF THE KHASNE AT PETRA . . . facing 284
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxi
230. SKULL AND GARLAND FROM AN ALTAR IN THE MUSEUM OF
THE VATICAN AT ROME 285
231. SIMA FROM POMPEII 286
232. SECTION THROUGH THE PALACE OF DOMITIAN ON THE PALA-
TINE HILL AT ROME, as restored by M. Dutert . . 287
233. PLAN OF THE PALACES OF THE CAESARS ON THE PALATINE
HILL AT ROME, as restored by M. Deglane . . facing 288
234. PLAN OF HADRIAN'S VILLA AT TIVOLI (from Gaston Boissier's
Rome and Pompeii) ......... 293
235. PLAN OF THE PALACE OF THE EMPEROR DIOCLETIAN AT
SPALATO ........... 298
236. THE GOLDEN GATEWAY OF DIOCLETIAN'S PALACE . . . 300
237. THE ENTRANCE DOOR OF THE SYNAGOGUE AT KEFR BIRIM . 301
238. THE IMPLUVIUM IN THE HOUSE OF CORNELIUS RUFUS AT
POMPEII ........... 302-
239. PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA AT POMPEII .... 305
240. FOUNTAIN IN THE HOUSE OF THE BALCONY AT POMPEII . 307
241. PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE FAUN AT POMPEII (R. I. B. A.
Trans.) 308
242. THE PERISTYLE OF THE HOUSE OF VETTIUS AT POMPEII
facing 308-
243. PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE VESTALS AT ROME . . . 310
244. IONIC CAPITAL OF A HOUSE IN THE STREET OF THE
THEATRES AT POMPEII 311
245. SIDE VIEW OF CAPITAL SHOWN IN ILL. 244 . . . .311
246. VIEW OF ANCIENT WALL IN POMPEII 312
247. AN APARTMENT IN THE HOUSE OF VETTIUS AT POMPEII
facing 312-
248. AN APARTMENT IN THE HOUSE OF SIRICUS AT POMPEII facing 314
249. BRONZE LAMP STANDARD, from the Villa of Diomede at
Pompeii 314
250. THE TRIANGULAR FORUM AND REAR WALL OF THEATRE AT
POMPEII 315-
251. FOUNTAIN ENCRUSTED WITH MOSAIC IN POMPEII . . . 316
___^- — MAP OF GREECE AND ASIA MINOR .... facing 316
MAP OF ITALY facing 317
252. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF THEMIS AT RHAMNUS . . . 330
253. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF DIANA PROPYLAEA AT ELEUSIS . 331
254. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF ROMA AND AUGUSTUS AT ATHENS . 331
CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA
RELATING TO
CHAPTERS I.— VII.
3500—2500 B.C. Early Minoan period : first palace at Cnossus.
Contact with Egypt ; 6th to nth Dynasty.
2500 — 2000 ,, Middle Minoan period : second palace at Cnossus.
Intercommunication with Egypt ; i2th Dynasty.
2000 — 1400 ,, Late Minoan period : third palace at Cnossus.
Many contacts with i8th Dynasty: Keftians (Mycenaean)
shown on tomb, 1480 B.C.
1500 Introduction of Tholos tomb.
1500 — 1200 Late Mycenaean age.
1184 Fall of Troy.
1104 — 1103 Dorian invasion; expulsion of Achaians from the Pelo-
ponnesos. Dispersion of the tribes.
1000 The Heraeum at Olympia founded.
776 Traditional date of first Olympiad.
734 Founding of Syracuse by Dorians from Corinth.
716—546 Ascendancy of Lydia. Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna,
Halicarnassus, become great cities.
700 Paestum founded from Sybaris.
655—581 The Cypselidae at Corinth ; Great Temple built.
628 Selinus founded.
582 Agrigentum founded.
560 Archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus built.
546 Conquest of Lydia by Persians under Cyrus.
500—490 Ascendancy of Aegina. Temple built.
494 Miletus taken by Darius.
490 Battle of Marathon.
480 Battle of Salamis.
480— 479 Athens taken and burnt by Xerxes.
480 Theron commences great temple at Agrigentum.
478—477 Themistocles builds the long walls between Athens and
the Piraeus.
467 Cimon at Athens. First foundation walls of Parthenon.
461 — 429 Pericles, chief administrator, in Athens.
454—438 The Parthenon built. Ictinus and Calibrates, architects.
437—432 The Propylaea built. Mnesicles, architect.
432 Death of Phidias.
346 — 337 Philip of Macedon supreme in Greece.
340—330 Arsenal of the Piraeus built by Philon of Eleusis.
339 — 333 Alexander invades Asia Minor and defeats Darius III. in
the battle of Issus.
333 Foundation of Alexandria.
320 Death of Alexander the Great.
301 Antioch founded by Seleucus Nicator.
191 — 159 Eumenes II. builds the great Altar at Pergamum.
174 Temple of Zeus Olympius, Athens, commenced from
designs by Cossutius, a Roman architect.
129 „ Pergamum becomes a Roman province.
See page 145 for Chronological Memoranda relating to Chapters VIII.— XV,
THE ARCHITECTURE OF GREECE
AND ROME.
2, — FRAGMENT FROM CNOSSUS, CRETF.
CHAPTER I.
THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE.
THAT works of architecture as things of man's creating are
inferior in interest, in excellence of design, and in perfection of
workmanship, to the humblest of Nature's works outside
humanity, has often been the burden of the moralising of theo-
logian, naturalist, and astronomer. But in this reflection lies a
fallacy which is fully exposed to those who can discern in the
successive intellectual works of man the path of the human spirit,
and who regard them as manifestations of Nature, of which he
forms a part. Mysterious and impressive the instinct which
causes the bird, the beaver, the insect engineer, to build for their
material needs; astonishing the variety and intricacy of the results '
within the limits of the type. But the work of man is infinitely
more complex in its nature, more profound in its meaning. A
spiritual element marks it off from the work of animals : it is
here that architecture begins. Building whose end and aim
is the fulfilment of material wants remains building, and
whatever be the nature of the material want, differs in no
A.G.R. B
2 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
essential from the work of the lower animals ; but if to this
be added an element of aspiration involving the exercise of a
higher kind of design, there is the distinction that makes the
difference. The blackbird in early spring builds a nest of
a different type from that which the swallow will build later ;
and in a way analogous the yellow man built differently from
the white man who succeeded him : and in certain respects the
artistic instincts of the Celt may be distinguishable from those
of the Teuton ; but above and beyond this racial expression
there is embodied in the architectural work of man a spiritual
striving after the unattainable corresponding 'to the progress of
this never-resting civilisation, every aspect of which — every
habit, belief, and aspiration — it has power to reflect and symbolise.
Works of architecture in themselves are material, perishable,
incomplete; but a style of architecture is one of the higher
manifestations of Nature, reaching in through the human spirit.
That architecture can fail in interest, as compared with the
works of Nature which lie outside humanity, is not for lack of
the elements of interest, but because of the greater complexity
which enters into its nature, and which makes it more than
difficult to grasp its full significance.
But should we try to grasp as a whole one great period of
architecture, one great style of art like that of Greece, our
study is simplified in finding it present all the features of a
natural growth. £ Art is a flower, and, like the flower of the
field, is sown in obscurity, nourished by the decay of pre-
existing organisms, rooted in the mire of an imperfect civilisa-
tion, and, though refined and perfected by high culture, buds
and blows at its own time^ It is in a large measure what
the soil and the atmosphere and the sunshine make it, it repays
the care and toil human hands bestow upon it, yet its form and
its colour are its own. And so we may not know all the causes
which produce the phenomenon, nor do we now desire to look
too closely into them, but we may at least watch it grow, enjoy
its full beauty, and follow it in its withering, our study remain-
ing one of purely artistic interest, for, like the plant, it is
beautiful not only when in full flower, but at every stage of
progress, and even in decline.
Like other simpler natural manifestations, Greek architec-
ture, while the fruit of all the civilisations which preceded the
great period of Greek culture, did not live for itself alone,
THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE. 3
for it has sown the seed of European architecture, and has
determined the future form and growth of all subsequent
European art. Behind and beyond the fountain-head which
it makes for Western art, the tributary arts of Egypt,
Chaldaea, Assyria, and Phoenicia shrink into their narrower
channels, their sources lost in obscurity. From it flows the
main stream of European culture, the arts of Rome and the
Middle Ages, the rejuvenescence of Roman tradition in the
fifteenth century, not to say the prevailing architecture of the
cities in which we dwell. The influence of the past upon the
present is part of the nature of things in which we live and
move ; but rarely, if ever, in the world's history have past forms
and principles and ideals exercised so potent an influence on
subsequent art as those of the vigorous, rarely-dowered race
which settled, perhaps more than three thousand years before
Christ, on the coasts and islands of the Eastern Mediterranean.
We do not seem to be wrong in attributing this paramount and
matchless influence chiefly on the one hand to the reasonableness,
the perfection of form, and the high spirituality of their art ;
and on the other to the historic relation with Rome, which,
taught by the vanquished, transmitted what it had assimilated
to the subjugated ruder nations of the rising West. Whether
epic or temple, lyric or bronze, it is by such indwelling qualities
that they have been enabled to survive as a standard by which
the world's subsequent efforts are measured and tested. The
higher flights of literature and architecture present an almost
perfect parallel. Both have more of art than science, and show
little progress all down the ages within themselves, while they
clearly reflect the progress of the soul of man. It may be that
the greatness of the Greeks is not demonstrated most of all in
their architecture, but it is by their architecture, using the word
in its widest sense, that we may now most readily comprehend
their civilisation in all its bearings. An eminent student of
Greek language and literature said lately that he would exchange
the work of one of the greatest of Greek writers for one peep
into the workshop where Phidias and Ictinus perfected their
marvellous designs.
We can take leave to doubt if the sight of the workshop would,
reveal much that would be worth the knowing, but the perfected
work which that workshop turned out, and which yet remains,
is it not in itself a document, for those who have eyes to read
B 2
4 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
it, more precious by far than any single work of Greek literature ?
To the mythologist, sculptor, architect, philologist, and historian
it has opened separate fields of investigation, and from each
quarter a beam of light has been shed on the whole subject of
Greek civilisation. And what is true of the Parthenon in
this connection is much more true of the whole architectural
development from the time of Agamemnon to that of Alexander,
as that is illustrated on the monuments, and all that is compre-
hended in them — inscriptions, sculpture, and religious, civic,
or domestic furniture. In this sense architecture might be
called the sheet-anchor of history, which without the ever-
lasting testimony of the monuments would certainly become
fluid and unstable. The higher critics of literature in the
generation now past gave Homer between them a time-period
of about seven hundred years. They mostly believed his accre-
dited work a mass of interpolations and accretions by different
authors and at different dates. They had almost succeeded in
casting doubt on his very existence, and discredit on the tale he
told. But architectural archaeology, in maintaining the historic
truth of the Homeric epics, has in greater measure vindicated
itself as the teacher of the past.
But let us not make the mistake of depreciating in return
the literary side of the study. We need them both, for how
much more is open to the student who studies the architectural
works with full mythological knowledge, or from the point of
view of the trained philologist or historian ! No exposition
of the subject will appear satisfactory to those whose education
has fitted them to take up a standpoint in one or other of these
directions. Inevitably the subject must appear as if presented
in false perspective, or as if badly lighted, or carelessly drawn.
But though the scope of this sketch is strictly limited to that
which is comprehended in the architect's point of view, this
need not mean the refusal of all historic narration, the rejection
of mythological explanation, or the divorce of sculpture from its
architectural setting. It involves the subservience of our pro-
gramme to an architect's needs and ideals, but so rooted is
the architectural purpose in the motives of the social and
religious life of the Hellenes that it is believed that this point
of view will give to others not specialists in any one depart-
ment a broader and swifter view of the whole subject of Greek
civilisation and history than is possible by any other simple
THE -AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE. 5
method in the same limited space. For what can tell of the
Greeks more worthily than the actual buildings which the wants
and ideals of their civilisation determined, their hands shaped,
and their wits refined ? Yet this wider historic view is only
a subsidiary purpose : our business is to impart the lessons
of architectural history in the new light, to give the
architectural student a clear apprehension of the historic
significance of style. Nothing is more likely to wean him from
the misuse or feeble copyism of its characteristics than a grasp
of their relation to surrounding circumstances. To this end
buildings in their plan and design, rather than their details or
furnishings, will be studied. Architecture is more than pottery
or painted decoration the work of a nation, the symbol of a
religion, the house of gods and man greater than the idols and
ornaments thereof.
The division of the subject of Greek architecture is largely
a geographical one. We commence with Greece, much as it
is now defined in the map of Europe, leaving out of account
Aetolia, Epirus, and Acarnania; and trace its history as revealed
by the monuments of the primitive periods from about 1800 B.C.
to the Dorian invasion. Our succeeding chapter treats of
European Hellas, including in its enlarged boundaries Sicily
and South Italy. From this we pass to Asia Minor and the
contemporary period there, and in the following chapters dwell
upon the perfections and refinements of the pure developed
style, and eventually learn what we can from its slow decline.
Of the lands bordering on the Mediterranean, Greece, the
part of Europe nearest to Asia Minor and to Egypt, is more
profusely indented in its configuration than any other. In
area Greece is smaller than Scotland ; its coast-line is much
longer than that of Great Britain. The whole country is a
vast assemblage of high mountain peaks, much recalling,
though on a grander scale, the steeper and rockier parts of the
Western Highlands and Islands of Scotland. A labyrinth of
land-locked harbours, of open creeks, of wild mountain tracts
and ravines, it was divided and isolated one part from the
other, save for the means of communication the sea afforded.
The natural harbours lie open to the east and the south,
stretching out their long arms as if to invite and welcome
the sailor ; and the island stepping-stones fill in the great
geographical design, placed as if to lure the kayaks from the
6 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
coasts of Asia Minor. Were it possible to go back to the third
millennium B.C. and record the events of that period in
Greece, it appears as if these must have comprised the
colonisation of its shores from earlier homes in Asia Minor,
and its subsequent traffic with the nations of that region, just
as the East has peopled the West in that larger civilisation
which in our day is developing on the shores of the Atlantic
Ocean. The East received back again many of its own sons,
and from that time Greece was to plant colonies around the
greater part of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Massalia
in France, Sybaris in S. Italy, Syracuse and Agrigentum in
Sicily, Cyrene in N. Africa, Naucratis in Egypt, are a few of the
more important settlements of this wonderful people, who while
often at enmity with one another, and divided in dialect, laws,
and manners, spoke one language, worshipped the same gods,
and mingled in the same games and festivals.
Now it is not difficult for us to trace some relation between
the circumstances of the Greek race and their expression in
art. Their separation into small communities, and independent
comparatively peaceful development ; the necessities which
drove them to a seafaring life ; circumstances, also, such as the
extreme brilliancy, the lightness and bracing properties of
their atmosphere ; the clay, fine limestone, and marble in
which the soil abounded ; the want of metal and other com-
modities which led to the necessity for traffic with other lands :
it is easy now to say that these and other similar causes pro-
duced the types of Greek art. But there was a good deal more
than this, whichever of the two great opposing views of history
we take — whether we are to regard all this material provision
as a preparation for the " Glory that was Greece," or whether
we are to regard that glory as a kind of accidental or fortuitous
result of circumstances. Both schools would agree to put it in
this way : that it was in the race : an instinct : a tendency : an
aspiration : an inspiration. Not that the Greeks any more than
others were " a nation of artists"; but the instinct in the select
few was revealed and matured largely because the nation pre-
pared an atmosphere favourable to the culture of art. They
knew so well how to live ; their social economy was so perfect ;
they lived so close to Nature, in short, that they seem to have
produced the highest type of the natural man which the world
has yet seen.
THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE. 7
Progress in every department is attained only by making
good use of the experience of the past ; and it is more to the
point that we should seek to select and profit by the true and
everlasting principles of Greek art than that we should desire to
know where the Greeks came from, and who they were — matters
that can never concern us practically as architects or citizens :
since we cannot choose for ourselves a Hellenic pedigree. Yet
this sketch would be strangely incomplete if in adding up the
origins of Greek art we did not take this into account and put
those very natural questions to those who teach us.
In the Pelasgi we have doubtless the first inhabitants of
Greece, a -Turanian race, it may be, although recent research
tends to show they were identical with the Mycenaean. In any ^
case, we have in the Mycenaeans or Achaians the bed, the first
swarm of the Aryans who probably crossed from Asia Minor as
our Celtic ancestors came from the Continent. Like the Celts
over Europe, they were an artistic race, delighting in ornament,
in jewellery, in carved ivory, in pottery, in beautiful house-
hold appliances. Upon these people and their comparatively
advanced civilisation descend the rude Dorians and other
tribes from the North, a race probably as destitute of refining
influences as our Jutes, Angles and Saxons. With this descent
occurs an expulsion in Southern Greece of much of the finest
blood, as obtained in our own land when the Romans left ; then a
period of blending ensues, obscure in history and barren in art.
Returns thereafter to Greece from new Ionia some of this
expatriated culture, the Ionian element, which had always
maintained its hold upon Attica, and the phenomenon ensues
which sixteen hundred years later will recur in other shape
in the land of the Angles.
Now this may not be scientifically correct according to the
latest ethnological gospel, but it is sufficient for our purpose, and
it gives us a general view of the racial history of the country :
while it demonstrates that the Greeks were a heterogeneous
people, combining a considerable variety of characteristics, of
traditions, of natural aptitudes.
It is little more than a generation since that the history of
Greek art entered on a new phase by reason of the discoveries
of Dr. Schliemann at Tiryns and Mycenae, a phase which has
been still further emphasised during the opening years of the
present century by the researches of Dr. Evans in the island
8 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
of Crete, the results of which have yielded traces of a civilisation
much more important than anything succeeding it. To the
drama of the history of Greece, which not so long ago opened
with the scenes of the Iliad, there has thus been unfolded at one
and the same time a prologue and a background. The richness
of this prehistoric period in all manner of decorative art, to which
the discoveries in Crete and the treasures in the Mycenaean
room of the new Museum of Athens bear the most striking
testimony, has been such as almost to overshadow, for the time,
the glories of the Periclean age. It will be our aim in these
chapters to gather and select out of the mass of relevant and
irrelevant material published on the subject some of the principal
matters of interest to the architectural student, especially those
discoveries that give fuller significance to the later developments,
and appear to have influenced profoundly the course of Greek art.
The district around Mycenae has hitherto been regarded as
the centre of a civilisation called, for convenience, Mycenaean,
but the discoveries in Crete have led archaeologists to the
conclusion that Mycenaean art was only a local development of
a much older one, extending over Crete and the whole of the
Aegean. The broader title of Aegean might well, therefore, be
adopted, but in the chronological list appended Dr. Evans's
definition of Minoan has been accepted. This, however, we
know, that at the period which is called the Heroic Age
the country which we now recognise as Greece was peopled
by numerous tribes or clans, forming practically separate
states under their respective kings or chiefs. We have already
hinted at the probable origin, migration, and character of
these people, and it would be beyond the purpose of this book
to show how their clan-groups, their roving and warlike pro-
pensities, the nature of their arts and the forms of their
expression in design, have been held to point to the identity of
these Achaian settlers and the Celtic race. More especially is
the theory confirmed by the researches of archaeologists, who
find their trail over great part of Europe and along the north
coast of Africa. No doubt there is much that is purely conjecture,
and it is possible to read too much into the testimony of the
tumulus and barrow, and the spiral ornamental motive, the child-
hood of the practice of art, although they mark an epoch in the
history of Europe, and testify to the substantial unity of the race
over the area where such remains are found. It does not follow,
THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE. 9
for example, because we find a trail of ornament, pottery, and
jewellery of Mycenaean character over Central or Western
Europe, that a people kindred to the Mycenaeans migrated in
this direction : more probably the ideas migrated, or the articles
themselves ; but that there was a phase of widespread European
civilisation, Ancient Italian, Etruscan, Celtic, call it what we
may, preceding the Roman, which had some identity, or at least
affinity, with Mycenaean culture, now admits of no doubt.
For the moment, however, we have to deal with primitive
Greece. Here the excavations conducted by Dr. Evans in
Crete have brought to light the remains of a palace at Cnossus,
two or three centuries older than that which Schliemann
discovered at Tiryns, and containing revelations of so early a
civilisation that, as Dr. Evans says, one might imagine a new
record had risen from the earth.
These excavations have shown that the legend of Minos and
his maritime power, which in the first edition of this work*
was put forward as suggesting the probable connection of Crete
with the earliest civilisation of Greece, had a solid foundation in
fact. The principal discoveries belong to the middle of the
sixteenth century B.C., but they show so high a level of civilisa-
tion as to suggest many centuries of earlier development ; while,
according to Dr. Evans, there are certain other finds, going back
to 2800 B.C., and evidences of still earlier occupation.
The palace at Cnossus, of which the principal part of the
plant has been recovered, measured about 400 feet each way,
and was built round a court 200 feet long by 90 feet wide. On
the south and west sides were the principal Halls of State and
the King's Entrance ; on the east side was the private residence
of the king and queen, which, built on the slope of the hill,
occupied a lower level, and at the north end was the chief
entrance to the court and the offices.
On examining the plans of the palaces at Cnossus and
Phaestus,! one is struck by the entire absence of those walls of
defence which at Tiryns and Mycenae were deemed to be of the
greatest importance. It may be that, as Dr. Evans observes,
the bulwarks of the Minoans were in the wooden walls of their
* Containing the late Mr. Anderson's lectures written in 1898.
f See R.I.B.A. Journal, 1902.
I A second but smaller palace excavated by the Italian Government. Plan
published in Luigi Pernier's " Scavi delle Missione Italiane a Phaestos. " (Mon.
Ant. 1902 )
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
navy, and this may account for the fact that almost the only
means of defence would appear to have been a tower or bastion
at the north end commanding the main road from the city and
port. The entrance from the open space on the west, which
Dr. Evans regards as the Agora, seems to have been left quite
unprotected ; whilst on the east side the private residence
opened on gardens or terraces, probably sheltered and made
more private by trees, but enclosed by little more than a
garden wall, with a single bastion.
The west portion of Dr. Evans's plan shows only the basement
floor, but as some of the walls rise 5 feet above the ground, a
conjectural restoration of
the ground floor, partly
based on one suggested
by Dr. Evans, is given in
111.3. In this is shown the
western portico — the cor-
ridor of the procession —
the south terrace, from
which access was given
to the Propylaea, leading
through a hall with peri-
style on either side to the
court of the Altar, and,
in the rear, the Megaron
or Throne room with its
portico and other rooms,
the destination of which
is unknown. The private
3- — CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF PRINCIPAL FLOOR
OF THE PALACE AT CNOSSUS.
residence, being on a
lower level, is much better preserved than the state rooms. The
remains consist of various halls and courts, and include a stone
staircase, with return flights leading up through two storeys to the
level of the central court. This staircase, as Dr. Evans remarks,
" is probably unparalleled in the history of excavation, flights of
stairs one above another being unknown, even in Pompeii."
Among other valuable architectural discoveries are the bases
of columns of cypress wood found in various parts of the palace.
Still more important is the fact that from charred ends in the
council chamber, and impressed moulds in other places,
Dr. Evans has been able to reproduce some of the columns
THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE
themselves. For the echinus of the capital, which was probably
of stucco, he has had to depend on what is called the Temple fresco,
a painting found on one of the walls. It represents three
temples, the middle one distyle in-antis, and raised above the
others, which have but one column in-antis. The latter
peculiarity is proved to be no mere convention by the single
base found in the entrance portico in the Propylaea, and in
the portico to the throne room, besides similar instances
found at Phaestus. The column thus restored tapers down-
wards, the diminution being about one-seventh (111. 4). The
abacus had great projection ; and in the staircase court, where it
c
5ft
111
4. — TAPERING COLUMN (RE-
STORED), CNOSSUS, CRETE.
5- — ROSACES ON ARCHITRAVE OF ENTRANCE TO
ALTAR COURT, CNOSSUS, CRETE.
had to carry the superstructure and the cross beams of the upper
floor, it was 3 feet 5 inches square. It would seem that the
Cretan architects had recognised that the trunk of a tree was
equally capable of carrying weight, whether in its natural position
or inverted, and that when employed in the latter position the
rain would more readily fall off it, and thus tend to its better
preservation. It had the further advantage that, with its greater
diameter at the top, an increased support was given to the
abacus. Other paintings and porcelain mosaic slabs found in the
ruins suggest that the upper part of the walls, above the gypsum
blocks already referred to, was built of unburnt brick or rubble
12 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
masonry with clay mortar and enclosed in timber framing,
above which appeared circular discs, which may have been the
ends of logs of wood supporting a floor or roof.* Two other
decorative fragments were found — a triglyph frieze (III. 2), and
portions of the architrave of the doorway of the propylaea
(111. 5), the former similar to examples found at Mycenae (see
111. 14), and the latter, with its rosaces and the undulating lines
enclosing them, being identical with those on the architecture
and lintel of a door in one of the tombs there.!
The city of Tiryns is described in Greek literature as " the elder
6. — PLAN OF THE PALACE AT TIRYNS (FROM DR. SCHLIEMANN'S WORK).
sister of Mycenae," and it is from the ruins of its acropolis or
citadel palace that we best learn the character of the fortifications
and the dwellings of the Heroic Age in Achaian Greece. The plan
of the whole stronghold (111. 6) has a close resemblance to that
of a fortified castle of the Middle Ages, in outline like the shape of
a shoe, of which the lower castle, occupied perhaps by retainers,
* It is probable, however, that this ephemeral construction was protected
externally by stucco on which the circular ends of the logs were painted as
decorative features in the form of rosaces.
t See Perrot and Chipiez's " Art in Primitive Greece," vol. I., fig. 234, p. 527.
THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE. 13
forms the heel, while the upper citadel, the part best preserved,
is the ball or fore part of the foot ; exhibiting a ground plan
to this day of the propylaea, peristyles, megarons, and all the
lesser apartments of the dwelling of a great Achaian chief.
Surrounding the whole citadel or acropolis is a high wall of
enormous thickness, twenty-four to fifty feet (believed by later
generations to be the work of a race of giants known as the
Cyclops), in the heart of which at certain points are contrived
galleries, at one time thought to have been for purposes of
defence, but now recognised as store-rooms. Like the domed
tombs, these passages are roofed by courses of stone in
horizontal beds, projecting one over the other, and cut on the
under-side to the contour of a pointed arch. The principal
entrance in the east wall is approached by an inclined way, so
arranged that any assailants attempting this path would be
subjected to an inconvenient attack upon their right flank, the
side not protected by the shields, before they could reach the
opening in the great wall. Even did they gain this point they
would still be liable to repulse from the wall within ere reach-
ing the second gate. Our mission is a more peaceful one, and
the ascent, toilsome as it is, is beset with no greater difficulties.
Arrived at the upper level, we face the propylaeum, which is
worthy of attention as the earliest example, as well as the model,
of all the great gateways of the Greeks, down to the great
propylaea on the Athenian Acropolis. The disposition of the
gateway is on the plan of the portico-in-antis, and the doorway
beyond admits to a similar portico facing the other way to an
open court. Passing through a second propylaeum, we enter the
great court of the palace, which possesses as its chief feature
the entrance to the men's apartment, or megaron. Everything
indicates the importance of this room, the largest covered
apartment in the building. Its facade, placed centrally in
the court, presents the same arrangement as the exterior of
the propylaeum, viz., a portico-in-antis, the stone bases of its
columns and the stone plinth of the antae or pilasters being
still in-situ. Beyond is the vestibule, approached from the
portico by three doors, leading through a larger central door to
the megaron itself. This is a large room, some thirty-nine by
thirty-two feet, the roof of which would appear to have been
carried on four wooden pillars. Within the oblong formed by
these was the hearth, or megaron proper, which was the centre
I4 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
of social intercourse and hospitality; our traditions of the
fireside, the hearth and home, thus mounting back to the
beginnings of European civilisation in the Peloponnesos.
In close proximity to the larger peristyle is a second court,
approached by a passage direct from the propylaeum, which
admits to the women's forecourt and thalamos ; this passage
has a break in it which ensures a certain amount of privacy,
and prevents passers-by seeing direct into the forecourt. The
apartment itself is similar in plan to that of the men's, but is
of simpler approach and of smaller dimensions. The passage
surrounding the megarons may have been for the use of slaves,
serving to connect the two sides of the palace without making
use of the peristyles. They were in communication with a
small flight of steps leading down to what may have been the
service courts of the palace.
The palace thus discovered by Schliemann was built in
prehistoric times (1400 — 1200 B.C.), and is supposed to have
been destroyed by fire in the middle of the eleventh century
B.C. Besides giving the clue to the distribution of the Homeric
house, as described in the Odyssey, it presents the origin of
many features which we find reproduced in stone or marble in
the perfected types of Greek architecture. Thus the propylaea,
with their porticoes-in-antis, are found in the entrance gate-
ways to the Acropolis of Athens, and to the sacred enclosures
of Olympia, Epidaurus, and other Greek cities. The portico-
in-antis of the megaron is the elementary form of that feature
which is found in almost every Greek temple, for although in
later times single or double peristyles were built round to give
greater importance to the cella and to protect its walls, the
pronaos, or entrance to the same, is virtually of the same plan.
Perhaps the most interesting feature is that of the parastades
or antae. In consequence of the ephemeral nature of the
materials used in the walls of Tiryns (rubble stone bedded
in clay as a base to the crude brick wall), parastades were
employed to protect the faces and sides of the front walls and
to assist in supporting the architrave or epistyle carried by
their columns. These in the megaron, for instance, were raised
on stone plinths and secured to the stone with dowels. The
baulks of timber or posts placed side by side were reproduced
as the antae in Greek temples when they had no longer a con-
structive, but only an artistic function to fulfil. The partition
THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE. 15
wall between the portico and the vestibule was constructed
entirely of wood, and although there is no evidence to prove
that the jambs of the doors inclined inwards to lessen the bear-
ing of the lintel, this inclination is found reproduced in the
earliest Greek tombs, and suggests, therefore, its wooden origin.
The stone bases of the columns of the porticoes-in-antis of the
propylaea, and the two megarons, and of the peristyles round the
court — altogether thirty-one in number — still remained in-situ,
and consisted of irregular blocks of limestone, with a circular
die in centre, raised about i J inches above the ground in order to
preserve the lower end of the wooden shafts or columns, all of
which had perished, as also their capitals, which were probably
of wood, as none have been found. Those of the megaron had
a diameter of about two feet, and were assumed by Dr. Dorpfeld
in his restoration to have tapered slightly towards the top.
In face of the later discoveries at Cnossus already described,
this assumption can no longer be maintained, and although it
is not necessary to agree entirely with all the conjectural
restorations put forward by Perrot and Chipiez, there is now
no doubt they were right in making the columns taper towards
the base, so that the credit of being the first in the field to
insist upon this reversal of the column is due to them.
Rock-cut tombs, memorial cairns, barrows, or other graves
are among the most frequent traces of a prehistoric race, and
often the earliest attempts in architectural expression or sculp-
tural art which have survived. And it is mostly from its
tombs that the story of the age of Mycenaean culture in Greece
is being gradually constructed. There are four distinct classes
of tombs in the Mycenaean region, viz. : — (A) Pit graves, in
which, as to-day, the great majority were no doubt interred.
These were marked by a stela or upright slab, often sculptured
in a fashion bearing a curious resemblance to the Celtic cross
placed on the grave of our early British ancestors. The slab
circle at Mycenae enclosed a number of these tombs in two
distinct layers, the lower one consisting of five rock-cut
chambers, containing fifteen bodies covered with gold ornaments
and jewellery, and surrounded by all manner of arms and
vessels. These Schliemann believed to be the remains of
Agamemnon and his associates, though other authorities
incline to make them of still more primitive date. (B) Pyramids,
of which at least two examples exist in ruins in the district.
16 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
(C) Rock tombs, of which over seventy have been recently
excavated. These tombs are sculptured out of solid rock,
having a short and narrow passage terminated by an entrance
doorway, which admits to a tomb chamber, nearly square,
with a domical ceiling. Very often a smaller square chamber
adjoins, entering off the larger one. In general form these
tombs very closely resemble the fourth class, the domed
chamber (D), such as that which is locally called the Tomb
of Agamemnon, but is better known as the Treasury of
Atreus. The opinion as to the assignation of these buildings
has wavered between that of treasuries or tombs, but modern
research has satisfied itself that the purpose of these chambers
was that of interment of the royal dead. In all these tombs
it was deemed advisable to surround the occupant with the
necessities and luxuries of life ; but scepticism as to their
practical utility, coupled with regard for the resources of a
living generation, led to the manufacture of a class of light
gold-leaf ornaments and masks, which are the most prolific
product of these violated graves. Of these various classes
of tombs the cone-shaped constructions are the only examples
that concern us architecturally. Of la/ge dimensions, carefully-
dressed stone (breccia), peculiar construction, and highly-
decorative fagades, they are perhaps the most important of
the remains of the Mycenaean era. The Tomb of Agamemnon
(if that designation be allowed) is but one of many similar
tombs discovered, whose number is being yearly increased by
excavation. A similar construction at Orchomenos, in Boetia,
is of almost exactly the same dimensions ; and there are at
least seven smaller examples in Argolis, the district round
Mycenae, and eleven more in other parts of Greece. There are
also examples in Crete, the island of Amorgos, and the Crimea;
but this Mycenaean tomb, being the largest and most perfect,
may be taken as representative of the type.
The tomb (111. 7) consists of three parts — a dromos, or open
entrance passage ; a tholos, or circular chamber roofed by a dome ;
and a smaller chamber formed in the rock, entered from the
larger one. The door which appears in the section and the
internal view is that which leads to the small cell or secondary
chamber. The section makes it clear that the tomb was sub-
terranean, the masonry entirely concealed beneath a large
mound of earth : it is thus of the tumulus type.
i8
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
The domed part is about 48 feet 6 inches in diameter, and
45 feet 4 inches in extreme height. The parabolic curve of its
pointed vault begins its course at the floor, which is formed of
rammed clay. Directly upon this is laid, without other founda-
tion, the lowest course of the masonry, of which there are thirty-
four in number. The dome is not constructed on the arcuated
or vault principle ; the courses simply project over one another,
uncemented, until by the lessening diameter of the concentric
circle they meet at the top. The blocks of stone were on plan
PO THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON AT MYCENAE.
square or rectangular, so that there were wide gaps at the back
which were filled in with small stones and clay, even in the
upper course, where the stones approached the shape of a
voussoir.* The inner face of the masonry appears to have
been dressed down after the construction was complete. The
masonry as it exists to-day shows a great number of holes
over its surface, suggesting that pins had been inserted for the
purpose of securing some kind of decoration. Metal plates are
suggested for various reasons, but Chipiez in his restoration
* See Perrot and Chipiez, Art in Primitive Gieece, Vol. I. Fig. 182.
THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE. 19
(111. 9) has adopted the characteristic rosette for the upper part
of the dome, and a frieze of metallic laminae for the part where
the holes are larger, producing on the whole a stately and impres-
sive interior. From the evidence of metal attachments which
this dome supplies, as well as the metal overlaying which has
been proved to be in use at Tiryns, it is now possible to under-
[Restored by Perrot and Chipiez.
9.— SECTION OF THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON AT MYCENAE.
stand how Homer came to speak of brazen walls and bases,
silver columns and lintels.
The dromos, or entrance passage (111. 8), by which the
remains of the hero would be conducted to their final resting-
place, is about one hundred and twenty feet long by twenty-one
feet wide, and led from the valley, by a gently-inclined ascent,
to a splendid portal, which even in greater degree than the cupola
c 2
10. CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF THE ENTRANCE TO THE
TOMB OF AGAMEMNON AT MYCENAE (BY R. PHENE SPIERS).
THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE.
21
itself is the glory of the edifice, and may have had some symbolic
significance as at once the gate and barrier of the " silent land."
The present state of the doorway is shown in 111. 8, its decora-
tive features being
distributed in vari-
ous museums. The
most important of
these, the half-
columns that
flanked the door-
way, have been
recently presented
by the Marquis of
Sligo, and are set
up in the British
Museum. Their
lower diameter is
twenty and a half
inches, and the
upper twenty-two
and a half inches,
making the diminu-
tion about one-
eleventh. ' Instead
of the plain fluting
seen in the tomb
of Clytemnestra,
the surface of the
shafts is covered
with nine chevron
bands of alternate
spiral ornament and
plain (slightly con-
cave) surfaces. 111.
10 shows a restora-
tion of the doorway
in which all the details are drawn from existing remains
(Ills, ii — 14), though their arrangement, as regards the
upper part, is conjectural. Above the lintel was, no doubt,
an overhanging architrave (111. n), partly resting on it,
partly supported by the columns, and further secured by
AT MYCENAE.
22 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
bond-stones * running through the wall. Over this architrave,
but set back on the same plane as the doorway, is the upper
part of the wall, in the centre of which is the triangular opening
devised to take off the superincumbent weight from the lintel,
jn the same way as in the Gate of Lions. Here, following
Lord Elgin, Cockerell, Donaldson, Blouet and Reber, the
opening in the restoration has been filled with a piece of
sculpture similar to that over the Gate of Lions. t The triple
band of spirals (111. 12) in the British Museum probably formed
part of the casing on the right hand side of the triangle.
The fortifications of Mycenae are much less Cyclopean in
character than those of Tiryns : consisting of overhanging cliffs,
they possessed greater actual strength, and interest us more for
the sake of the principal and massive gateway, that of "the
Lions," so called, which is in fine preservation (111. 15). The
illustration shows the stone jambs of the door, and the still
greater lintel, which is eight feet broad, over three feet thick in
the middle, and has a length of sixteen and a half feet, with a
clear span of nine and a half feet. Such a lintel would
assuredly bear any superincumbent weight the builders of
these fortifications were likely to put upon it, but either from
caution or custom a similar triangular void to that which we
observed over the entrance doorway to the tomb of Agamemnon
(see 111. 8) is left, so as to relieve the lintel. It was to fill this
opening that the slab shown in 111. 15 was sculptured, the subject
being, perhaps, a suggestion that the lions were symbolic of
the lion-hearted men within. The central pillar is, perhaps, the
most interesting part of the composition to an architect, as it
confirms the restoration suggested of the shafts flanking the
doorway of the tomb of Agamemnon (111. 10). It stands on a
kind of twin-pedestal or altar, and is surmounted apparently by
a fragment of entablature, which, like the ornament over the
tomb door, suggests the wood log ceilings of the primitive house.
The sculpture is, perhaps, the oldest in Greece yet revealed, and
shows a technical skill in the outline and modelling, and even
a nobility of expression, as in the resolute fore-legs and paws,
* The sinkings for these may be seen in 111. 8.
f Perrot and Chipiez's restoration of the doorway, reproduced in the first
edition of this work, is now, like Reber's impossible. It shows the columns with
a diminution of one-sixth and with thirteen chevrons. There is no foundation
whatever for their elaborately carved lintel, and they fail to take note of the plain
projecting course crowning the wall (part of which still exists, and can be seen
in 111. 8), which was specially provided to protect the ornamental casing below.
THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE. 23
that give it a place much higher than most of the work of the
succeeding period, generally known as Archaic Greek. The
heads have disappeared, and there is good reason to believe
12. — PORTION OF CASING OF THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON. (BRITISH MUSEUM.)
13. — PORTION OF CASING OF THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON. (BRITISH MUSEUM.)
14. — FRAGMENT FROM THE GATE OF THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON
AT MYCENAE. (NATIONAL MUSEUM AT ATHENS )
that they were separately carved and attached to obtain a
greater relief. Holes for the fastenings remain, and it has been
suggested that they were either in bronze, red porphyry or green
breccia, instead of the grey limestone of which the rest of the
sculptured work is composed. It does not seem possible to
24 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
date these works later than about 1200 B.C. Indeed, Messrs.
Perrot and Chipiez incline to place them about 1450 B.C.
How this early civilisation, so far on the right track, and, it
may be, on the way to fresh effort and initiative, was cut short
and scattered by the Dorian invasion, to begin its life over
again, and, in a fuller and larger way, to work out its destiny,
and yet permeate with its artistic instinct the country from
which it was now expelled, has yet to be considered. Five
barren centuries at least elapsed before the conditions favoured
what may be called the reappearance of Achaian, henceforward
to be named Ionian art. For the more we dwell on the earliest
periods of Greek art, the more shall we discover what is owing
to it, and it is astonishing to find how many of its principles and
motifs have survived. All recent discoveries have tended to
show that Greek art is more essentially the product of the age
of Aegean culture than has been formerly believed. We
see, speaking generally, two different forms of practice : (A) a
timber style employing stone for foundations, and, it may be,
sometimes overlaid with metal ; (B) a stone style in which wood
forms are copied, and which yet made use of metal plates in
its decoration. Both are closely related, both may be con-
temporaneous: for although the stone imitative style might
naturally be thought of later growth, it may have been adopted
simply because of the necessity of the special purposes of
foitification and underground tombs.
To the Mycenaeans is owed the antae of the Greek temple,
the inclined sides of doorway openings, which remained
throughout the Greek period; while the fluting of the columns,
the triglyph frieze, the patera, the rosette, thepalmette, and the
spiral, all are forms upon which the later Hellene has yet to
exercise his refining genius and hand down ennobled to later
generations.
With the greater magnificence of his temple he will adopt a
peristylar plan : the weight of the stone entablature will demand
a stronger support, as also a similar material, for he will seek
to proportion and adjust his shaft to what it has to carry, rather
than determine his entablature by the dimensions of the column.
If we admit this reasonable static principle, a ray of light is
thrown in upon the debated question of the origin and develop-
ment of the classic orders. But this remains to be dealt with
at greater length.
15. THE LIONS' GATE OF THE CITADEL OF MYCENAE.
THE AEGEAN AGE IN GREECE. 25
In thus briefly summarising the architecture of the Heroic
Age in Greece proper, we have not tried to search for all the
causes which gave it birth, or to point out every feature ; but we
have noted some of its characteristics, and watched the shoot
appear above the ground. The time of its flowering is still far
off, and the north wind of the Dorian migration, the so-called
" Return of the Heracleidae," blights the promise of its early
growth ; but rightly to understand Greek art, we must not fail
to recognise that it was the same root, the same plant, which in
the same soil rose to such surpassing perfection, and bore the
Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Eiechtheum, which now, withered
and broken, yet lie like a memorial wreath on the hill grave
of the greatest city of Greece.
16.— FRAGMENT OF SLAB FROM THE CEILING OF A CHAMBER OF THE BEEHIVE TOMB
AT ORCHOMENOS, IN KOEOTIA.
17. — SCULPTURED ARCHITRAVE OF
CHAPTER II.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS.
THE dispersion of the tribes about uoo B.C., which is the
beginning of the making of the living Greece of history, appears
to have been brought about by disturbances in Epirus and
Thessaly, from which regions numerous armed pands invaded
the Peloponnesos, driving the original inhabitants, lonians,
Aeolians, or Achaians, to Attica ana to Asia Minor. In over-
turning the civilisation of Achaia, being by nature rude and
unskilled, they interrupted the progress of the arts, and threw
back every development in this direction. But this stoppage
was only temporary : as Perrot finely puts it, it is as if a fire
which blazed brightly in the open had been smothered by a
bundle of damp twigs : the flame is quenched temporarily, but
will burst forth again more warmly and clearly. So from the
mingling of the conquered and the conquering races, after the
lapse of three or four centuries, issued the Dorian Greek race
of history, which, meeting again with the Ionian element that
had been taking a different direction, produced in Athens the
highest results in art which the world had yet witnessed. It
is the object of this chapter to trace the development of the
Dorian type, the archaic period in the European colonies.
Of these marauders who entered the Peloponnesos from the
north, the Dorians seem to have been at an early period
marked out for future distinction, and their social customs and
political order became supreme, permeating those of the
associated tribes, and eventually the country they subdued.
From Mount Olympus they brought with them the worship of
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS. 27
Apollo, the Sun-god, and the formation of the Amphictyonic
Council appears to be due to their initiative. This was a kind
of compact among twelve states to protect the temple of Apollo
at Delphi, and to promote peace among confederate states. The
chief motive of their invasion of Southern Greece may safely ^
be set down to plunder, the great repute of the wealth of
Mycenae and kindred cities sufficiently accounting for the
enterprise, which in many respects presents an analogy with
the invasion of Roman Italy by the Northern hordes. " The
return of the Heracleidae " was the fanciful term which
the Dorian tribe afterwards gave to their occupation of
Southern Greece and subjugation of the real owners of the
soil, assuming wrongly, as far as we can judge, that their own
ancestors had been its original inhabitants. Whatever be the
impulse that brought the Dorians and the associated tribes into
the Peloponnesos, it was land-hunger doubtless that soon sent
them swarming out of it. From every port of Greece they
passed into Crete, the Southern Cyclades, Cos, and Rhodes ;
settled in one or two cities in Caria and the adjoining coast,
and more fully took possession of Southern Italy.
The colonisation of Sicily appears to have been a later wave
of migration. There is no mention of the Greeks earlier than
about 735 B.C., when Naxos was founded by an Ionian colony
from Chalcis, in Euboea ; but this appears to have been only the
signal for an overpowering Dorian occupation which began in
the following year. The Dorians from Corinth founded the great
cities of Syracuse in 734, Selinus in 628, and Acragas (Agri-
gentum) in 582 B.C. ; and by colonies hiving off Syracuse the
Greeks further took possession of the island coast, ousting to
some degree the preceding Phoenician element, and placing
under subjection the earlier inhabitants of the eastern part, a
race probably akin to the Latins or Campanians, the Sikeli,
from whom the island derives its name. It is the almost
unexampled prosperity of these colonies, written chiefly in
their marvellous Doric temples, that must now engage attention.
In many ways they outstripped the mother country in the race,
and their reactive influence on Greece proper is very clearly
traceable. It was much as it is to-day with Europe and
America : America, the offshoot of Europe, outrunning the
mother countries in many things, but awakening them by its
reactive influence to fuller life, and enriching them with the
28
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
fruits of its rapid and brilliant development. The art of
Athens, as we know it, would have been impossible but for the
- earlier developments of Dorian Sicily, Magna Graecia, and the
Peloponnesos on the one hand ; and of the Ionian cities of
Ephesus and Miletus on the other.
Of the Dorian colonies Syracuse was the greatest. It was
the largest city in Sicily or the whole
of Hellas, with a population of
500,000, and a circuit of twenty
miles ; and on one notable occasion
(413 B.C.) it shattered the navy and
army of Athens, which never after-'
wards recovered its former prestige.
Next in importance were Acragas
(Agrigentum, now Girgenti), "the
most beautiful city of mortals,"
Selinus, and Segesta. To these we
shall return later on ; for the moment
we must pass to the earlier examples
of the Doric order, and endeavour
to follow their gradual development.
The earliest peripteral Greek
temple of which remains have been
found sufficient to determine its res-
toration is the Heraeum at Olympia
(111. 18). The date of its foundation
is attributed to the eleventh century
B.C., and there are certain peculiarities
in its plan and construction which
suggest a very early date. The
relative proportion of its width to
its length, 2 to 5*, differs from the
ordinary Greek temple, which is as
3 to 7. There are six columns
on the front and sixteen on the side, and it stands on two
steps instead of three. The wide intercolumniation shows that
the epistyle or architrave was in wood, and that the columns
were in the same material is suggested, firstly, by the existence
of one oak column in the opisthodomus referred to by
Pausanias, and, secondly, that the columns vary considerably
in their diameter and character. Some of the shafts are
m •
m •
l8. — PLAN OF THE HKRAEUM AT
OLYMPIA.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS. 29
monolithic, others built of drums, and the echinus of the various
capitals differs in contour and projection: all these facts
point to the conclusion now generally accepted, that the
original wooden columns were replaced gradually by those in
stone.* The walls of the cella were of great thickness, the base
consisting of four narrow courses of masonry to the height of
three feet, the exterior face toward the peristyle being protected
by vertical slabs of stone. As the foundation walls of the earlier
buildings were either in rubble masonry set in clay mortar, or in
narrow courses of stone which might easily be displaced, they
required a protection of this nature ; but the traditional custom
remains throughout all Greek temples of having this dado of
vertical slabs, known as the orthostatae, outside the cella
walls (see 111. 59, p. 76); on these foundation walls rested a
superstructure of crude or unburnt brick.}
Here also, as at Tiryns, the ends of the side walls nf th^
pronaos and opisthodomus were encased with timber in order
id" carry (in conjunction with the columns between) the archi-
trave and superstructure ; the jambs of the door leading to the
cella being similarly encased.
In the interior of the cella, on either side, was a range of
eight columns, to lessen the bearing of the main beams carrying
the roof and the ceiling J over the cella, and dispense with the
support of the crude brick walls. These columns would seem
to have been alternately attached by spur walls to the cella
* If, in accordance with Mycenaean precedent, the original
wooden columns of temples tapered downwards, a change to
stone possibly accounts, not only for the reversal of that taper-
ing, but also for the absence of a base to the Doric column.
The upper diameter was fixed by the original capital ; if the stone
column had tapered downwards like the wooden one, the lower
drums would have been crushed ; so the obvious solution was
to reverse the tapering. Now, the upper diameter of the earliest
stone column of the temple of Hera was three feet two inches.
Taking an average diminution of one-ninth, the lower diameter
of the wooden column was probably about two feet ten inches, and
the width of its base three feet two inches (if it was four inches
wider as at Tiryns). But the lower diameter of the stone
column is four feet two inches ; consequently, to give it an even
bed, it was necessary to work off the old base.
f It is to the latter that we owe the preservation of the statue
of Hermes by Praxiteles, which was found buried in the clay of
the original walls at the foot of its pedestal.
J The existence of a ceiling under the sloping roof is sug-
gested by a story told by Pausanias, v. 20, 4, in which he
says that " when the Eleans were repairing the dilapidated
roof of the Heraeum the corpse of a foot-soldier was found between the ceiling
and the roof."
. — TIMBER AND
STONE COLUMNS
COMPARED.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
wall to give further strength to the latter. The roof was
covered with terra-cotta tiles, with cornices, pediments, and ante-
fixae in the same material, all richly painted in bright colours.
The archaeological value of the Heraeum, therefore, is of the
greatest importance, as it confirms the evidence already quoted
in the antae of the Megaron at Tiryns as to the origin of that
feature ; it accounts also for the vertical slabs of stone found
in the lower portion of the outside of the cella walls. In
addition to the examples found in Crete, it affords sufficient
evidence to show that the Doric column
in its earliest stages was of wood,* that
the diameter diminished downwards, that
the echinus formed from the first an I
essential feature between the abacus
and the shaft, and that the abacus was
of much greater width than the diameter
of the column.! These two latter facts
militate seriously against the theory that
there was any connection between the
Greek Doric column and the so-called
protodoric examples at Beni-hasan and
at Karnak, and Der-el-Bahari at Thebes.
This becomes the more evident when we
come to examine the examples next in
date to the Heraeum, viz., the temple
at Corinth, attributed to the seventh
century, and thdse of the temple of
Apollo and the Olympieium, at Syracuse.
In all of these cases stone was employed,
the shafts or monoliths being a little over
four diameters high, with wide-spreading
abacus above the echinus, so much so that in the Temple of
Apollo they are nearly contiguous.
If the columns and capitals of these temples, and their relative
proportions of diameter to height, may be accepted as the types
* The bases which carried the original wood columns of the temple of Apollo
at Thermon in Aetolia and the archaic temple at Argos have been found in-sttu.
The former, built between the tenth and seventh centuries B.C., had five columns
in front, fifteen columns on the flank, and four rows of columns down the centre
of the cella, in order to carry the roof, no reliance being placed on the support
of the walls of the cella, which were probably of unburnt brick.
t In the capital found at Tiryns of a temple built over the site of the Megaron
the abacus is nearly twice as wide as the upper diameter of the shaft.
20. — THE TEMPLE AT CORINTH.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS. 31
of the earliest Greek Doric order, it would be difficult to find
a wider dissemblance than that which exists between them and
the Egyptian fluted column, where the proportion varies from
5! to 6 diameters, where there is no echinus, and the abacus is
of the same width as the upper part of the shaft.*
The Megaronof Tiryns, with its portico-in-antis, being regarded
as the first type selected for the celja or shrine of the god, then
the peristyle built round it, as exemplified in the Heraeum,
becomes the second type, and the greater importance given to
the cella by the peristyle may have been suggested by the desire
to afford a better protection to the walls of crude brick and to
the paintings on the stucco coating given to those walls. - This
clashes somewhat with the theory of the gradual evolution sug-
gested by Vitruvius in the prostyle and amphiprostyle temples,
of which very few early examples have been found. The
general tendency in the development of the hexastyle temple
would appear to have been in the diminution of its length in
proportion to its width. Thus, whilst two of the first stone
temples, viz., those of Apollo and of the Olympieium at Syracuse
* There comes a further reflection, that if the Greeks copied one type of
Egyptian column, why should they not have adopted others ? At Beni-hasan the
lotus capital exists in the interior of many tombs, and at Thebes both the lotus
and the bell-shaped capital are found in great profusion, and yet the latter did not
make its appearance in Greece till the fifth century. The so-called proto-doric
column also ceased to be employed after the XlXth dynasty (1300 B.C.)-
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
had seventeen columns on the flanks, and the older Parthenon
sixteen, in those of later date fourteen to twelve" is the average,
there being one or two exceptional examples, such as the
temple, C, at Selinus,* where there are seventeen, as also the
temple, R, and the temple at Corinth, where there are fifteen.
P Q o
22. — THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO AT
SYRACUSE.
C
10 0 10 20 30 4O 50 FEET
23. — THE OLYMPIEIUM AT SYRACUSE.
In the two first named, however, an additional portico two
columns in depth seems to have been added to the main front.
Other changes may be noted in the proportions of the cella,
which in the Heraeum at Olympia and the temples of Apollo and
of the Olympieium at Syracuse, at Corinth, and in the temples
* The dedication of the temples not being accurately known, they are usually
described under the letters given to them by Hittorff and Zanth in their work
" Sicile Antique." Those in the Acropolis are known as A, B, C, and D ; those
in the plain, about 1,000 yards to the north-east, as R, S, and T, sometimes
described under E, F, and G ; another temple lately discovered on the Acropolis
is designated O (see 111. 35, p. 40).
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS. 33
C and S at Selinus, is very narrow compared with its length.
The peristyle also of these early temples was much wider, the
cella wall no longer corresponding with the line of the second
column on each side of front.
The temple at Corinth and those of Apollo and of the
Olympieium at Syracuse (Ills. 21 — 23) are the earliest known
examples of peripteral temples in stone, dating from the latter
half of the seventh and the beginning of the sixth centuries.
It is not easy at first to account for the enormous diameter of
the columns and their close inter-columniation, if, as is generally
believed, they were copies of wooden originals. The new cir-
cumstances, however, demanded a different treatment, and the
Greeks, who were always timid as to the bearing value of stone
(the triangular opening of discharge over the enormous lintel
of the entrance to the Treasury of Atfl^ris is a case in point),
seemed to have considered that the immense weight of the
entablature and the stone beams and lacunaria of the peristyle
required columns set close together, being sometimes less than
a diameter apart. In European Hellas the temple at Corinth,
built from the first with columns and entablature in stone, is
perhaps the most ancient of those which have come down to us.
This is only natural, for we have reason to believe that the city
was an early centre of Dorian influence, and one which was in
close touch with all the western colonies. Of this temple but
seven columns, twenty-three feet six inches high, remain, the
shafts of which are monoliths, with a lower diameter of five feet
eight inches, the relation of diameter to height being i :4'i6.
The temple was hexastyle, with fifteen columns on the flank, and
presents the unusual feature of a double cella, one facing east,
the other west. The date is probably the middle of the seventh
century B.C.I though it has been restored in Roman times.
The next/ example m date, besides those already quoted, is
that of the temple C at Selinus, 575 B.C., on the site of
which were found the archaic metopes now in the museum
in Palermo. Their chief interest lies in the fact that they are
the most ancient Greek sculptures known, with the exception
of those over the Lions' Gate at Mycenae. The metopes are
in high relief and extremely vigorous in execution, but are
lacking in the dignity of the nearly contemporary Ionian sculp-
tures of the archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus. The relief
which represents a chariot and horses in elevation is the most
A.G.R. D
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
remarkable, because the foreshortening is difficult, and to give
the sculptor more scope the metope has been sunk to nearly
twice the depth of the others. Another metope represents
Perseus beheading the Medusa (111. 24). In comparison with
the stele of Chrysapha near Sparta the latter are almost flat on
face, and are worked on a series of receding planes, the face of
each plane being kept quite flat. To such comparatively com-
promising ex-
amples we owe
the origin of the
metopes of the
later Doric
temples, and
even in the
Parthenon the
archaism of flat
receding planes
lingers with the
happiest effect
in the Panathe-
naic frieze.
Before leaving
the archaic
temples in Sicily
there is one other
later example in
Syracuse, in the
island of Ortygia
— the temple of
Minerva (111. 25),
ascribed to the
fifth century B.C.,
which owes its partial preservation to the fact that it has been
converted into the cathedral of the town. The cella now forms
the nave of the church, and the cutting of large arched
openings into the peristyle and building up walls between
the columns have converted the same into aisles. The temple
was hexastyle, and measuring as it did on the stylobate
seventy-four feet by one hundred and eighty-five feet, it has
become a fair-sized church, though its beauty has been marred by
repeated alterations and the total destruction of its main front.
24. — METOPE FROM TEMPLE C AT SELINUS: PERSEUS BEHEADS
THE MEDUSA IN THE PRESENCE OF ATHENA.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS.
35
Ofthe three
temples at Pa.?stnm (Ills. 26 — 31) (Posei-
donia), that dedicated to Poseidon (Neptune) is one of the
best preserved and retains still the double range of superposed
columns in the cella (Ills. 30, 31), the sole object of which
would appear to have been the support of the ceiling and roof,
as there is no trace of any gallery, and the steps beyond the
pronaos led only to the roof. The
relative proportion of diameter
to height of its columns, I to
4/24, and the projection of their
capitals would suggest an earlier
date than that put forward by
Koldewey and Puchstein (viz.,
440 B.C.), who., have in their
work Unter-italien reversed the
order of the three buildings at
Paestum, and placed the so-called
Basilica first. The discovery of
the foundations of an immense
altar at the east end of the basilica
has led to the conclusion that it
was a temple consecrated to two
deities. It had nine columns
on the east and west fronts, with
eighteen on the flanks, and a row
of eight columns down the centre
of the cella (111. 26). Its capitals,
as also those of the temple of
Demeter (Ceres) , differ widely from
any other known example in the
decorative treatment of the neck
or gorge. In both cases there is a
cavetto sinking in the neck, and a
range of leaves round, which pro-
ject forward and resemble those of the capitals of the columns
flanking the entrance door of the Tomb of Agamemnon at
Mycenae (111. 10), except that in the latter the leaves are triple
instead of being single, as at Paestum. The decoration in
relief on the lower portion of the echinus of the Basilica is
varied, there being three or four designs, two of which are
Ionian in style, one of them (111. 32) recalling a. similar design
D 2
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 FEET
25. — TEMPLE OF MINERVA ATHENA
AT SYRACUSE.
36
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
• •
IT
27. — THE TEMPLE
OF CERES,
28. — THE TEMPLE OF
NEPTUNE.
40 so «oraer
"26. —
THE SO CALLED BASILICA
THE THREE GREAT TEMPLES AT PAESTUM.
2g. — VIEW OF THE SO-CALLED BASILICA AT PAESTUM, SHOWING THE REMAINS OF THE ROW
OF COLUMNS DOWN THE CENTRE OF THE CELLA.
30. THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE AT PAESTUM.
31. THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE AT PAESTUM
INTERIOR VIEW,
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS.
37
of the anthemion which decorated the soffit of the cornice
and the door architrave of the Treasury of the Cnidians at
Delphi (111. 86, p. 103). The capitals of the antae in the Basilica
Soffit of echinus of which
profile is shown at A .
Capital of Ant
32. — DETAILS FROM THE BASILICA AT PAESTUM.
at Paestum (111. 32) are also of unusual form, the only parallel
being those found in temple T at Selinus. In the temple of
Ceres the intercolumniation of the two outer columns on each
face being the same as that of the other columns, a wider
metope was required to allow the triglyph to be placed at the
angle.* The cavetto sinking in the neck of the capital of the
Basilica and Temple of Ceres above referred to is found also
in the temple of Apollo at Metapontum ; in all three examples
there is a remarkable diminution in the upper diameter, and the
curved entasis is more emphasised than that of any other
temple.
Two other examples of the more fully developed Archaic
Doric style are found : at Assos, in the Troad, a hexastyle
peripteral temple, with long cella and no opisthodomus, the
interest of which lies in its sculptured architrave (111. 17), the
only example known of so great a departure from precedent;
and the temple of Aphaea at Aegina, both belonging to about
the commencement of the fifth century B.C., though the archaic
* It happens that all the four angles of the two fronts are gone, and
Labrouste in his restoration places a half-metope at the corner, and the triglyph
in the axis of the angle column. A metope, however, measuring three feet eight
inches instead of two feet nine inches (the average dimension of the others), has
lately been found, so that the triglyph was in its proper place, viz. : at the corner.
In the older examples, according to Fenrose, the metopes were usually square,
but in the Parthenon and the temple of Theseus the width exceeds the height.
38 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
character of the sculpture in the latter case might claim an
earlier date were it not for the perfect development of its plan.
We come again to Sicily, to take up the later examples. It
would seem that each of the great Sicilian cities was a separate
commonwealth, governed often by a king or ''tyrant," for this,
strangely enough, was one of the points which distinguished
the colonial Greeks from the citizens of the mother country. -
As in Italy of mediaeval times, they bore rule over subject cities,
and Syracuse and Agrigentum had each their sphere of influence.
Their trade was largely with Carthage, yet it was with the
defeat of the Carthaginians (480 B.C.), at the same time as the
Athenians were beating back the Persians at Marathon and
Salamis, that the great age of the Sicilian cities began. For
in this respect the Carthaginian war and the Persian wars were
beneficial, that they aided the development of race feeling,
and led the Greeks of the Sicilian cities, as well as those of
Greece, to act together in the face of a common danger as they
had never done before. Besides the wealth and influence their
victories brought them, they had no small share in the subsequent
artistic developments. This year, 480 B.C., marks a convenient
point from which to date the architecture of the coast. Previous
to 480 we have the archaic style pure and simple ; after 480 a
period of preparation, a transition towards culmination, which,
owing partly to the decline of the Sicilian towns, was only
consummated in Greece, and chiefly in Athens. The temples
at Agrigentum and at Segesta, and the greater number of those
at Selinus, belong to the period of transition.
The temple at Segesta, to the north-west of Sicily (Ills. 33
and 34), is one of the most impressive structures, owing to its
isolated position in the hills and its perfect preservation. It
has, however, other points of interest in that, never having
been completed, the columns are en bloc, the flutings not being
worked, the stones of the stylobate are only drafted, and the
ancones, or blocks by which the stones were moved, still remain.
The cella also was apparently never built, and this fact not
only shows the complete independence of the peristyle, but
suggests that in these peristylar temples the first part executed
was not the cella, but the peristyle. The temple dates from
the latter half of the fifth century, and the subjugation of
the city by the Carthaginians in 409 probably stopped its
completion.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS.
39
33- — THE TEMPLE AT SEGESTA : THE EXTERIOR.
Vv.
SEGESTA : THE INTERIOR
R or
Tor Q
PI
LJ
i O O i
• •
• • • •
O
5040302010 0
B
35-— PLANS OF THE TEMPLES AT
SELINUS, SICILY.
The outline sketches (on lefi)
indicate the position of tt e
temples on the Acropolis, and
(on right) those situate in the
plain.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS. 41
Besides temple C at Selinus, there are five other hexastyle
temples, known as A, D, R, S, and O ; a prostyle temple, B,
with square cella ; and the magnificent octostyle pseudodipteral
temple, T,* never quite completed from the same cause as that
at Segesta. The plans of all these temples are shown in 111. 35.
The largest temple, T, measured no less than one hundred and
sixty-three feet by three hundred and sixty feet. The columns
were 4*76 diameters high, but of two periods, if one may judge
by the difference in the upper diameters of the examples
found in the earliest (attributed to 540 B.C.), where the
diminution is very nearly half a diameter. In both cases
the lower diameter is eleven feet two inches; the upper
diameter of the early example is six feet three inches, and of
the latter eight feet. These temples were all built in limestone
from quarries about seven miles from Selinus, and were covered
with a fine coating of plaster,! which in many cases remains
perfect with the original colouring. The temples are all in
absolute ruin, having been apparently thrown down by earth-
quakes, and this may in some cases have accounted for the
preservation of the colours. With the exception of O, all the
temples were measured and reproduced by Hittorffand Zanth in
their work Sidle Antique, and their description constitutes a
most valuable record of the extent to which the Greek temples
were enriched by colour and gilding. The chief characteristic
of the hexastyle temples is the great length of the cella com-
pared with the width, the wide peristyles, the absence of the
posticum in some of them, and in temple D the substitution
of attached round columns instead of antae to the pronaos.
A remarkable Ionic capital is shown in Hittorff's restoration
of temple B, which belonged probably to a votive column, as
the order of the prostyle is now recognised as Doric.
The city of Agrigentum (Acragas) is one of the most remark-
able examples of the way in which the Greeks availed themselves
of the peculiarities of the site to give grandeur and emphasis to
their temples. The ancient city was about ten miles in circum-
ference, with two nearly parallel ranges of calcareous hills on
* R, S, and T are in some descriptions distinguished as E, F, and G.
f The fine coat of plaster or stucco was employed by the Greeks : istly, to fill in
the crevices in the limestone ; andly, to enable a greater refinement to be given to
the contour of the mouldings ; and ardly, to provide a suitable ground for the
subsequent enrichment in colour. See Hittorff and Zanth, Architecture antique
de la Sidle, and Hittorff's Restitution du temple d'Empedocle a Selinonte, ou
V architecture polychrome chez les Grecs.
42 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
the north and south. The highest range on the north became the
acropolis, surrounded with walls and crowned with the principal
temple, of which only six columns remain, embedded in the
Sicilian Gothic cathedral. This acropolis is now the modern
town of Girgenti. On the cresting of the southern range,
which lies parallel to the seaboard, and for the length of half a
mile, are the remains of five or six temples. Below the two
ranges, in the hollow, and sheltered from the north and north-
east winds, stood the ancient city, now completely lost. It is
the magnificent treatment of the southern range which suggests
36. — THE TEMPLE OF JUNO LACINIA AT AGRIGENTUM.
one of the lessons we may learn from Greek architecture. The
Greeks did not think of cutting down the hills, or even of
levelling the rock which their architectural work was to crown :
they rather made the most of their natural character, and the
best of what natural irregularities they presented (111. 36). They
wedded art to nature, and so united their work with the
everlasting hills that it seems to be part of the same design.
At the eastern, the highest point of the range, is the temple
of Juno Lacinia, raised on a platform to give it greater pro-
minence. Then follow in succession the temples of Concord,
Hercules (near the base of which is the sea-gate, restored in
00
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS. 43
the illustration from Viollet-le-Duc) (111. 39), Jupiter Olympius
(111. 37), Castor and Pollux, and Vulcan. The city walls
facing the sea were hewn out of the solid rock, with tombs and
sepulchral niches, and a broad terrace set out on the crest,
with flights of steps to the several temples. Of these the best
preserved is the temple of Concord * (111. 38), which was at
one time converted into a church, in the same way as the
Cathedral of Syracuse. This temple, as also those of Juno
Lacinia, Hercules, and Castor and Pollux, is of the ordinary
hexastyle peripteral type, the temple of Hercules being the
37. — PLANS OF THE TEMPLES OF JUPITER OLYMPIUS AND HERCULES AT AGRIGENTUM.
most ancient, dating from the commencement of the fifth
century.
The most remarkable temple in size and design is that of
Jupiter Olympius (111. 40), the largest in Sicily, its stylobate
measuring one hundred and eighty-two feet by three hundred
and sixty-three feet, nearly three times the size of the temple
of Concord.
The temple had seven columns on the main front, fourteen
on the flanks, and is technically described as heptastyle pseudo-
* According to M. Choisy (Hiitoire de £ architecture, vol. i. p. 440), a cornice
runs round the cella, above which is a sinking made to receive a flat ceiling, and
openings in the cross walls -of the pronaos and epinaosf allowed of a free passage
through from one end to the other, the two stone staircases leading to the same
still existing.
t See definition in glossary.
44 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
peripteral. The dimensions have not been determined with
exactness, nor is the exact position of the colossal telamones
(atlantes), twenty-seven feet high, known. The fragments of
one of these were collected and put together by Cockerell, who,
in his restoration, assumed that they were raised on the square
pilasters of the interior of the cella, and carried the timber roof.
The order was on so gigantic a scale that the intercolumniations
were filled with a screen wall, possibly pierced with windows.
The base given to the columns, which is suggestive of Ionian
influence, and the stylobate raised on a base with four steps
below, are all innovations peculiar to this temple, which is
39. — THE TEMPLE OF HERCULES AND THE SEA GATE AT AGRIGENTLM.*
more remarkable for its size than for any other qualities. It
would seem, however, to have suggested the employment of
semi-detached columns in two other temples in Sicily, where it
was not warranted by the dimensions. The Temple of
Aesculapius at Girgenti (111. 41) and the Temple of Serapis
at Taormina might be described as distyle, pseudo-amphi-
distyle in Greece is a portico of two Doric columns-in-antis
and in the rear two semi-detached columns between antae.
They are both of comparatively late date, c. 210 B.C.
If the relative proportion of the diameter of the column to its
height may be taken as a criterion as to date, the temples at
* The above illustration, taken from Viollet-le-Duc's Entretiens, shows only
thirteen columns on the flank, whereas there are fifteen.
II
S 8
g
0 w
§8
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
4I. -THE TEMPLE OF
AESCULAPIUS AT
Assos and Aegina, I : 5*19 and I : 5-30
respectively, place them in the first half of
the fifth century. As regards the temple
at Assos, in the Troad, its distance from
Attica may account for its archaic char-
acter both in plan and decorative sculpture.
The cella is of great length compared with
its width, and there is no epinaos. Its
chief interest lies in the sculptured archi-
trave, already referred to. The temple of
Athena* at Aegina (111. 42) is one of the
best preserved examples of this late archaic
type, and the marble sculptures from the
pediment, ascribed to 480 B.C., discovered
by Cockerell and Baron Haller, and now
. J
in Munich, though they show a great
advance in the technical perfection of their
execution, still adhere to the conven-
tional expressions of the older style.
The roof tiles of the pediment and
the cymatium only were in Parian
marble, the remainder being in terra-
cotta, the temple itself being built in
the limestone of the district, coated
with a thin layer of stucco, and richly
painted.
The existence within the cella of
rows of columns on each side has
led French archaeologists in par-
ticular to assume that the centre
was open to the sky ; but the primary
object of these columns was either
to carry a flat ceiling or to assist in
supporting the beams of the roof.
And, although there may have been
some exceptional instances of hy-
paethral temples, as in the case of
the temple of Jupiter Olympius at
* Recent researches (1901) have shown that
it was dedicated to Aphaea, the Cretan Brito-
martis mentioned by Pausanias (ii. 30).
42. — TKMPLE OK APHAEA AT AEGINA.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HELLAS.
47
Athens, mentioned by Vitruvius, they were probably extremely
rare. On the other hand, both in Aegina and at Bassae,
Cockerell found blocks of marble which suggested an opaion
or some smaller opening in the roof. It has been thought
that these may have been provided to light the space between
the ceiling and the roof. That space, however, would be
amply lighted through the transparent tile slabs with which
the roof was covered, and to provide openings in a roof through
which the rain would fall on to and deluge the ceiling is
not a practical solution of the problem. A block of marble
found at Aegina by
Cockerell has the
appearance of being a
coping-stone to an
opening of some sort.
With the exception
of the tiles and ante-
fi-xae, none of the
timber roof structure
of the Heraeum at
Olympia has been
found. The wide inter-
columniation at this
early date shows that
the architrave was in
wood, and the exist-
ence of a frieze, with
triglyphs and metopes,
is suggested by the
closer intercolumnia-
tion of the columns at each angle, so as to bring the triglyph
to the corner.* It becomes necessary therefore, in our research
for the design of the Doric entablature, to ,trust to the earlier
reproductions in stone of what were originally wooden features,
in tracing their origin and development (111. 43). Thus the
triglyphs in the frieze reproduce the ends of the beams of
the original cella or megaron, or, according to M. Choisy, the
decorative features applied, which were secured in their position
by pins passing through the projecting lintel surmounting
43. — SUGGESTED TIMBER ORIGIN OF THE DORIC ORDER.
* The only instance oi a departure from this principle is in the temple of
Ceres at Paestum, already referred to.
48 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
the architrave or epistyle, which became the guttae, detached
from the architrave in the earlier temples, and even sloping
outwards as in the temple D at Selinus. The mutules
are supposed to be the fascia beneath the sheathing which
tied in the rafters of the roof. Whilst the mutules and inter-
spaces still represent the approximate slope of the roof in the
peristylar temple, the triglyphs are employed in a decorative
sense only, as they do not correspond with the cross beams
of the peristyle ceiling which are at a much higher level. The
complete independence of the cella and peristyle is best shown
in the temple at Segesta, it being doubtful if the cella was
ever built.
The roofs of the earlier temples of the seventh and sixth
centuries were covered with tiles, but in the temple of Zeus
at Olympia the roof was, according to Pausanias, of Pentelic
marble " wrought into the shape of tiles."*
* The same author states that " tiles of stone were first made by Byzes, a
Naxian," probably in the first half of the sixth century (Pausanias, v. x. 3). Tiles
of Parian marble were employed in the Parthenon and in most of the temples in
Greece, probably on account of its translucency, which would not only light the
space between the roof and the lacunaria on the peristyle, but possibly partly
account for the illumination of the interior of the cella, through openings in
the framed ceiling, which otherwise was lighted alone through the open door.
Some of the earliest examples of these tiles from the roof of the Archaic Temple
of Diana at Ephesus (560 B.C.) were found, during the excavations of 1905, in the
pockets of the foundations of the later temple.
44. — ARCHAIC EPHESIAN CAPITAL IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM.
CHAPTER III.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN ASIA MINOR.
IN changing our vantage-ground from Europe to Asia, we
but follow in the footsteps of the Mycenaeans, and the Ionian
and Achaian tribes which the migration of the Dorians about
noo B.C. drove out of the Peloponnesos and part of Central
Greece. The Dorians came from the North by way of Thessaly,
and after subjugating Southern Greece overflowed towards
Crete, Sicily, and South Italy, the expelled Achaians taking the
contrary direction and fleeing for the most part to the coasts
and isles of Asia. But it may be that these Achaian tribes
were, perhaps even without knowing it, returning to their old
homes. For, aided by myth and legend, out of the mist of the
period long before trustworthy history begins, we can discern
faintly the shadowy forms of Asiatic tribes like Primitive
Carians, the Leleges and the Ilians, with whom may be classed
the Phrygians themselves, who scoured the islands and inland
seas and settled the lands we know as Greek, forming them-
selves the bed of the race of Mycenaean type. There is indeed
some ground for accepting the tradition that Mycenae owed its
great wealth and the district its superior artistic culture and
A.G.R. E
50 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
further advancement to the fact that it was taken and developed
by Pelops, a wealthy king of Phrygia, who made it his seat of
government and founded there a dynasty. There are many
spots of Asiatic soil where a primitive culture identical with
the Mycenaean can be recognised ; and in the uncovered
remains of Hissarlik, now identified as Troy, there exist the
vestiges of earlier seedlings of a civilisation which went before
even Mycenae and Tiryns.
A slight sketch of the early history of Asia Minor, obscure
as it is, may help us in understanding the genesis of the
kingdoms and colonies whose architectural expression forms
part of our present subject. For if Greece was the school
of the European peoples, it was in the nurseries of Asia Minor,
in Phrygia, Mysia, Lycia, and Lydia, that they seem to have
been reared. The borderland of Aryan and Semitic man,
the threshold of Asia, the gate of the West, the situation of the
province of Asia Minor- has subjected it more than other lands
to the ceaseless strife of races. The dominating powers before
the period which concerns us seem to have been successively
Hittite, Phrygian, Lydian, the star of empire setting ever
farther westward. It was about 716 B.C. that Lydia as a
kingdom began to play an independent part. But prior to
this time the tribes pressed out of Peloponnesos and Central
Greece had fringed the shore of Asia Minor with their colonies,
seizing the shore land held of little account by the powers
of the interior ; so that in the eighth century B.C. Ephesus,
Miletus, Smyrna, Erythrae, Halicarnassus, Phocaea, were
already great cities, and were rivalling Tyre and Sidon, whose
civilisation they were so largely to displace. The swift rise of
those Ionian centres is one of the most striking things in the
history of the Aegean ; it was in great measure from them that
the fine arts and philosophy, modified yet invigorated by fresh
contact with Oriental types of civilisation, passed back again
into European Hellas. Ephesus, " the first city of Asia," may
be taken as the type. One of the earliest of the Ionian
settlements, it came to be the leader of the confederacy, and
was famous for its poets and philosophers, while it possessed
great schools of architecture, sculpture, painting, and metal
work. Another great centre was the island of Samos, which
had a famous school of statuary, to which is accorded the
invention of casting in metal. The influence of these cities
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN ASIA MINOR. 51
upon the interior of Asia seems to have been of little account
for some centuries : it was the narrow strip of shore that was
magnetised by the greater mass of the interior, and the
Achaians parted with many of their characteristics under the
new conditions. Lydia's greatest period, about 560 B.C., is
connected with the name of its king, Croesus, who tried to ally
himself with the Ionian confederation, but neither party was
ripe for such a conjunction of aims and resources. For want
of this united front the district was conquered (in 546 B.C.) and
Sardis captured by Persia, closing the history of the native
kingdoms for two hundred years. Yet the fringe of Greek cities
retained many of their privileges and still prospered. The pro-
verbial jealousy, and consequent disunion, of the Greeks was
the necessary weakness of their independent polity ; and even
in the Ionian revolt at the beginning of the fifth century B.C.
these Asiatic Greeks failed to meet the Persians as a compact
and united force, while the rivalry of Miletus and Samos soon
afterwards handed them a prey to Darius. It was left to
their hardier European kinsmen to throw back the wave of
Persian aggression at Marathon and Salamis. From 500 to
404 B.C. they formed part of the Empire League of Athens,
which for the space of ten years gave place to Sparta, when
the Persian again obtained the upper hand, and decline set in
until the advent of Alexander the Great, who in 334 B.C.
took them under his protection and made them again of some
importance in the Macedonian Empire.
Of the earlier kingdoms which constituted the province out
of whom the Greek race may have at the first proceeded, those
of Phrygia, Lycia, and Lydia are the most important in their
architectural remains. Of the first something has been said
already, and the symbol of the Lions' Gate at Mycenae has
been traced to its origin in Phrygia, where rock tombs and
monuments show it to be a common design in those parts,
though the examples discovered be of later date than that
of Mycenae. Another class of Phrygian rock tombs is that
which has a square front in one plane, decorated with patterns
suitable for a woven fabric, and believed to be a reminiscence
of the movable tent — the house of the nomadic tribes. There
was thus a tendency in primitive architecture to perpetuate
forms which were matured in phases of life preceding those of
the erection of durable architectural works. In Lycia we meet
E 2
52 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
with a parallel class of rock tombs, that of the wooden hut
sculptured in the rock, with all its beams and poles, its mortices
and pegs — an imitation so close as to be unmistakable. At
Myra, the ancient capital, there is an imposing group on the
mountain side of these cliff dwellings of the dead. Yet another
class of monuments is met with in Lycia, the sarcophagus, of
which two of the best examples rest in the British Museum,
and these are not less surely wooden in their origin — at least,
so far as regards their upper parts — though they are probably
of much later date. The upright posts and framing ; the
end pieces, fixed by a wood key; the checking down of the
cross beams ; the ceiling joists appearing at the sides, but not
at the ends; the planking of the roof: every detail represents
wood construction perfectly, and the whole effect is that of
a wooden cover to a stone-sculptured sarcophagus ; yet it is all
of stone. It is worth noting, too, that it appears to represent
ship rather than hut construction ; and this not unnaturally,
for Lycia fringed the south coast of Asia Minor, and the
Lycians were a seafaring people. A boat turned upside down
on the beach might have suggested the upper part. The
opening was doubtless for the introduction of the body. The
reliefs and the inscriptions are of doubtful interpretation. Here
on the roof is the suggestion of the origin of the Greek dentils,
and it will be seen how similar in many ways was the treat-
ment of the cornice in the island of Cyprus (111. 47, p. 59),
which lies right off the coast of Lycia, and which combines
in a singular way the characteristics of Egyptian, Phoenician,
and Lycian art.
The reason why it is essential in studying architecture to
have some regard for the broader views of history, religion,
and society is that purpose, the intention and destination of
the building, is the greatest controlling factor in shaping it,
the most important of all determining forces in the develop-
ment of the structure. For example, it is really of greater
importance in the evolution of Greek architecture that the
Greeks devised shrines to house their gods and goddesses, and
for the needs of their particular ceremonies, than that marble
was the building material which lay close to hand. Material
is, of course, another influence, but a decidedly minor one.
Temples were built of marble at Athens, and of limestone at
Paestum and Corinth, the only effect upon the design being
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN ASIA MINOR. 53
a greater refinement of detail at Athens : the type is one and
the same.
It is extremely probable that the earliest covering which the
Greek image, or xoanon, had was little more than a hut which
served the material purpose of shelter. But it was not in the
nature of the Greek to be satisfied with this, and it was
necessary to give the tabernacle the character and spiritual
significance of a god's house. Mere advances in construction
do not account for the development of the shrine : it is of the
aspiration of humanity towards something fulfilling their ideal of
a house of God that the Greek temples speak. Building better
than they wot of, one generation joined hands with another
to rear these most splendid fabrics of in-dwelling divinity. In
nothing more than in religious buildings does architecture
point out more clearly the pathway of the spirit, the slow and
painful ascent of " the world's great altar stairs that lead
through darkness unto God."
There exists in Greek religion a combination of the personifi-
cation of natural phenomena with that of deified heroes or
ancestor-worship, and the earliest records of the primitive
European Greek religion point to a worship of Zeus, the
supreme God. The Phrygians in Asia Minor, on the other hand,
appear to have come of a race to whom marriage was unknown,
and all descent traced through the mother. Cybele was thein
great goddess — the mother of gods, the patroness of all fertility.
When the Achaian Greeks went over again to Ionia in Asia
Minor, they took with them their new cult of a Supreme
Mother, and the two beliefs appear to have mingled. But
already the number of the Greek gods had rapidly multiplied
and become legion : they had married and begot offspring
innumerable, and in the different localities the ingenuity of the
priesthood determined the special worship of a certain god or
gods, without regard to that of their kinsmen. In some such
way it came to be that the favourite dwelling-place of Zeus
was supposed to be at Olympia, of Hera at Samos or Argos, of
Athena at Athens. Zeus, Athena, and Apollo may be instanced
as constituting the greatest triad of the Greek gods, each
embodying to the Greek mind one of the forces of Nature.
Zeus was ruler of earth and heaven, the god producing
storms, darkness, and rain; Apollo was the "shining one,"
the sun-god ; Athena the queen of the air, worshipped at
54 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
Athens as Pallas-Athena, the goddess of wisdom, and in a
variety of other aspects. Then there were Demeter, the god-
dess of agriculture ; Poseidon or Neptune, the sea-god ; Heph-
aestos or Vulcan, the god of fire ; Hermes, the messenger and
herald of the gods. These examples will be sufficient, for it
would be impossible to do more than give a general idea of the
nature of Greek mythology, which was largely the idealisation
of God's mysterious workings by people who in spite of, or
because of, their healthy animation were full of sensitive
and earnest imagination. Keenly susceptible to the perma-
nence of spirit-life in Nature, beautiful scenery affected the
Greeks in a religious way, and to them the mountain, the
water, and the wood were peopled with divinities. If land-
scape touched them at all artistically, at least it did not lead
them to pictorial representations, but solely to this personation
and deification. Numbers of cults in addition were created out
of admiration for the prowess displayed by heroes of the same
clay as themselves, and, as in modern days, honours were paid
them and pilgrimages made to their shrines. As a rule temples
dedicated to gods had the statue looking eastward, and there-
fore the principal entrance faced east, while those of the
heroes faced westward. The dedication of the temples cannot
be made out from their style alone, nor even in many cases
from the subjects of the sculptures which have been spared ;
but the temples of Zeus, Athena, and Hera were invariably
Doric, while the Ionic was used in those of Apollo, Artemis,
and Dionysus. This, however, arises largely from the worship
of particular gods in localities peculiar to one tribe or the
other. All the great temples, besides the portico, had a
vestibule (pronaos) ; a large habitation (naos) for the idol,
which was placed so as to face the entrance; sometimes a
chamber in the rear (opisthodomus) used as the treasury of
.the priesthood, and the epinaos enclosed with bronze gates and
used for the same purpose. The portico of each temple was
provided with a stoup containing water consecrated by dipping
a burning stick from the altar, and with the water from it
all who entered to take part in the sacrifices were sprinkled.
The pronaos and epinaos frequently housed images and votive
offerings, serving the purposes of the treasury, and were
enclosed by a metal railing and gate. The altar, which in
early times stood in the open air, continued to be placed in
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN ASIA MINOR. 55
front of the temple in the open, while in the interior a smaller
altar stood in front of the image. These altars (round or
oblong in shape) were built of stone or marble raised on steps,
with appropriate inscriptions, and were decked with flowers.
It is possible that in most cases the interior of the temple was
open to privileged persons only, and that the one view which
the people had of the god (except perhaps at festivals) was from
the open doorway, to the east, at sunrise, when the light would
dimly illuminate the great statue : and one can under such
circumstances have some idea of the awe and sense of mystery
inspired among them by such a view of the image of Zeus or
Athena. On the occasion of festivals or processions, the excite-
ment of the moment could be counted on to neutralise the
contempt which greater familiarity with the lifeless symbol
might inspire.
With some slight idea before us of the racial, historic, and
social relationship of the Ionian Greeks, and of the purpose of
the temple shrines, it may be useful now to turn to the more
technical side of the development of the material fabric. The
Ionic order, using the well-worn phrase in its widest sense,
has been placed after the Doric in our scheme, not because it
can be regarded as later, but to emphasise the fact that its
development was co-extensive in time, and that it was not a
form which replaced the Dorian style. Rather, as we shall
afterwards see, they may both come out of the same root in
the soil of Mycenae. In the lands occupied by Dorians the
Doric order was the first to make its appearance, and was
almost exclusively used, while on the coasts of the lonians and
kindred tribes we do not seem to have Doric buildings till a
late period, when they do indeed occasionally appear, although
the Ionic predominates. Hence the differing treatment became
a symbol of the two greatest divisions of the Greek race, whose
rivalry makes the history of Greece, and the happiest and most
expressive symbol we could have, speaking to us, on the one
hand, of the grave, severe, all-sufficient Spartan, in whom
Dorian culture approached its ideal, and, on the other of the
lighter, more versatile, frivolous, and superstitious semi-Asiatic
colonist who stands for the type of the Ionian race farthest
removed from the Dorian. The characteristics of the order are
by no means summed up in the Ionic capital, nor even in the
column itself; but it is natural to deal first with what has
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
45. —CAPITAL FROM THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO AT NAUCRATIS.
always been regarded as the index mark of the style, the
obviously reasonable position being that not one cause, but
many, operated to produce the graceful and ornamental form.
Few, if any,
architectural
features can be
attributed to one
cause alone, but
to a combina-
tion of them.
Onething seems
plain, that the
farther we go
back in our
study of the
Greek Ionic
order the more probable appears the theory of a wooden origin
—the spirals being painted or scratched on to the block
which distributed the load — and the archaic spirals recently
discovered at Athens, and now in the Museum of the Acro-
polis, would all seem to bear out the theory, being simple
masses or blocks with the spiral traced or painted on. In
some of the early Ionic capitals the volute and the echinus
moulding are carved out of different blocks, the latter, exempli-
fied in the capital of the archaic temple at Samos, being, in fact,
the crowning moulding of the shaft, and carved out of the upper
drum of same. In later developments the echinus is partially
sunk in the cushion of the volute, as is the case with the capital
now in the British Museum which belonged to the archaic temple
of Diana at Ephesus (111. 44, p. 49). In this case the bead
only is carved out of the shaft block. The illustration of this
capital shows the undeveloped nature of the spiral bead of the
volute, of the palmette ornament which marks the junction
of the volute and the echinus, and of the carved egg and
tongue. The peculiar design of the latter, however, and the
fact that its upper portion recedes, suggests a different origin
from that hitherto assumed — viz., that the ornament, which
in the Doric capital was painted, in the Ionic was carved.
The earliest example of the Ionic capital known (620 B.C.)
is that which was found at Naucratis by Prof. Flinders Petrie
(111. 45), and ascribed to Aahmes II. (Amasis), who allied himself
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN ASIA MINOR.
57
COLUMN AT DELPHI
with the Greeks, and granted them special religious^*^* com-
mercial privileges. The crowning feature of the shaft consists
of a moulding which is carved to represent the overhanging
leaves or petals of
some plant. In this
capital, and also in
the Ephesus example,
a bead runs under
this moulding, but in
the capital of the
Naxian votive column
at Delphi (111. 46)
there is a deepcavetto
which still recalls the
original motif. The
same is found in two 4e.—
early capitals in the
Museum at Athens. Although possibly of later date, the capital
found by Cockerell at Delphi * represents the original complete
design. In the course of development the upper portion of
the carved echinus in the Ephesus and the Naxian capitals has
been cut off, but in the example from Naucratis the leaves
are carved on the upper surface and die into the horizontal
bed which carried the volute. The first transition from the,
original overhanging leaves is shown in the Ephesus capital, V
the second in that of the later temple, or in still greater purity of
design in the capitals of the temple of the Ilissus (111. 66, p. 83)
and the Erechtheum. The pendant leaf, however, is found in
numerous other examples, as in the Neandrian capital and the
example found at Aegae, and it decorates the upper torus mould-
ing of the lower drum of the archaic temple at Ephesus (111. 49).
In a more elongated form it is found in the examples at Per-
sepolis.t The capital found at Naucratis is interesting in other
ways : the upper part of the shaft is slightly bell-shaped, it is
* See " Orders of Architecture," Fig. 8, page 8.
f The great Hall at Persepolis, in which the columns are found decorated with
the Ionic volutes placed vertically and the calix with pendant leaves, was not
built till 485 B.C., seventy years later than the archaic examples from Ephesus
and Naucratis, so that these features, assumed to have been the models for
the Greek capitals, were in reality copied from them. The architects of the
great Hall of Xerxes, besides other treasures, would seem to have utilised the
Ionic capitals of the archaic temples of Miletus or Samos, and copied them
into their design to decorate their own columns. They are not found in any of
Darius's work.
58 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
increased in diameter as it rises,* and it is decorated with the
lotus flower and bud, which may have been the prototype of the
well-known anthemion or honeysuckle. The upper part of the
flutes also terminates in a slightly projecting leaf. The same
treatment is found in a much later example — viz., in the capital
of the Monument of Lysicrates. Returning to the archaic capital
from Ephesus, the most remarkable feature is the great length
and narrowness of the thin slab forming the abacus, an oblong
almost twice its width, instead of the square form to which
the later examples have accustomed us. The effect is that of
a bracket-capital intended to lessen the bearing of the epistyle
between the columns, and the side elevation of the capital has
little of the cushion or bolster shape which afterwards it assumes.
In the capitals found at Neandria, Lesbos, Trapeza in
Cyprus, Mytilene and Kolumdado (Nape) in the Isle of Lesbos,
the spiral of the volute rises from the centre of the capital, as in
the Cyprian examples already referred to, and their constructive
value as bracket-capitals is so much less marked as to leave
no doubt that the Greek Ionic capital in its origin was con-
structional, whereas the Cyprian and the Assyrian were o
decorative. This is clearly shown in the illustration from
Cyprus, where it decorated the side of the door-jamb of a tomb
(111. 47).
/ The Ionic shaft always appears to have had a proportion
I widely different from its step-sister the Doric. Its work was
J less ; the whole design of the Ionic temple was lighter and
! more delicate, particularly the entablature which it had to
carry ; and it may be accepted as a principle of those early
architects that the strength of columns was determined by what
they had to carry. In this way it came about that the Ionic
column assumed a proportion of eight to nine diameters high,
while the Doric amounted to four or five only. In proportion
to the weight of the entablature which each carried there is,
however, no great disparity of strength or efficiency. Like
everything else, the flutings of the Ionic order became more
delicate; cut deeper, they could not so well preserve the sharp
edge, and a narrow fillet of the rounded surface of the column
was preserved, concave and very slightly convex surfaces con-
trasting over the whole of the shaft. In the earlier examples of
* The same characteristic is found in the Naxian column and in that at
Ephesus.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN ASIA MINOR.
the Ionic column there are no fillets between the flutes, which
are very slightly curved, and instead of the normal number of
flutes — twenty-four — which are found in the fully developed
examples, there are forty in the Naucratis and Ephesus shafts,
and forty-four in the Naxian column.
The lower drum of the early column from Ephesus (111. 48),
with its archaic sculpture, has been put together in the British
Museum, and it shows that the later Ephesian temple derived
from the earlier or
archaic one the idea
of sculptured drum
bases forits columns.
C This is a peculiarity
confined to Ephesus,
as far as is known ;
but one of the most
distinctive marks of
the Ionic style is the
character of the base.
The Doric base was
the continuous stylo-
bate into which the
flat mill-stone bases
were merged. But
the more slender
Ionic column re-
quired a base for
greater effect of
stability, while it
admitted of one by
its wider inter-
columniation. The
Ionian base consists
normally of a large torus elevated on a horizontally fluted disc.
The large scotia below seems, however, to be a Greek addition,
another indication of the Greek sense of the necessity of transi-
tion. While the base remained of this form, it was usually
constructed in one piece with the upper step of the stylobate,
for otherwise too great strain might have been thrown on the
delicate lowest member. Much variety exists in the drawing of
this type ; but the ultimate form, trie " Attic base," was reached
. — VOLUTE OF TOMB AT TAMOSSOS, IN CYPRUS.
6o
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
CO
n
t/o
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN ASIA MINOR. 61
by the addition of a lower torus, gradually increased in size
till it became somewhat larger than the upper one.
The function of the column was to carry the entablature,
which has features of its own. The architrave, instead of the
high plain face of the Doric, is like that of the tomb and palace
of Darius, triply divided and stepped, each face projecting
slightly over the one underneath. It is usually from two-thirds
to three-quarters of the column's lower diameter in height, and
is terminated normally by a cyma-reversa and an astragal.
The frieze — a space of about the same height, an intermediate
member — is a Hellenic creation, oriental entablatures consist-
ing only of the two parts, the beam and the cornice ; and it
became in the Ionic style a continuous decoration of carving,,
usually of figures grouped in some processional relation. The
cornice is df plain projection, supported and terminated by a
cymatium. [ The dentils which appear in Asiatic examples, and
which represent the ends of ceiling joists, form the under-part of
the cornice; but the actual stone beams of the ceiling rest directly
on the architrave, so that in the examples which we are able to
reconstruct they are as far below the objects which seem to
represent them on the exterior, as the Doric beams are above
the triglyph. A good example of the proper relation of Ionic
and Doric architraves and ceiling is afforded by the section
through the Propylaea '(111. 53, p. 70). Between the beams the
fe ceiling is panelled, not in small coffers, as in the Doric, but in large
panels stepped in broad surfaces and relying mainly on colour
for their effect. The antae-capital and the wall of the cella are
in the European examples richly moulded, and plain except for
a band of ornament underneath, terminated by a neck mould-
ing. In Asia Minor the form taken by the antae-capital has
been likened to a sofa, and is decorated with wreaths, stems,
and animals. The form is closely allied to several capitals
found in Cyprus and believed to be of Phoenician character.
The chief defect of the Ionic order lies in the angle capital,
which, owing to the necessity for making the volutes face in
two directions, loses its structural significance and individual
beauty. The capital seems to have been designed for the
portico-in-antis. Its use in a peristyle or a peristylar building
leads to difficulties. With a single round column at the angle,
no other solution was possible than to bend angle-wise on plan
the volutes which meet at the external corner ; in other
f,2 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
words, to unite and turn aside the useless parts of the bracket
(111. 65, p. 82).* There are two examples, however, in which the
Greek architect frankly faced the difficulties, and in the interior
of the temple at Bassae and the stage of the theatre of
Epidaurus the volutes are bent anglewise at the four corners
the capital. In both of these cases, however, the column
was not an isolated support, but was attached to a pilaster at
the back, as at Bassae, or semi-detached as in Epidaurus. At a
later period, in Pompeii, we find an Ionic capital with the
volutes canted at each angle, but with far less projection of
the volutes than is found in the ordinary type of Greek or
Roman Ionic capitals, so that it virtually constitutes a new
design, and, from the beauty of the line of the spiral, is
probably due to Greek workmen.
The art of figure sculpture, however valuable in itself, or as
an architectural accessory, can never again have the same
spontaneity as it possessed in living Greece. The origin of
the art in Greece was without doubt religious ; it was in the
fashioning of idols that sculpture grew and flourished. The
earlier gods were carved in wood, and down to a later day, while
the buildings are marble, the great chryselephantine images of
Zeus, and Athena, and Poseidon were in wood, albeit overlaid
with gold and ivory. The beautiful material which Naxos,
Paros, and Mount Pentelicus yielded could not, however, long
be ignored. As far back as we can trace the Archaic temple,
so far do we trace its accompaniment of votive offerings, marble
statues of the god, or of the donor, who thus dedicates him-
self symbolically to its service. The countless gods of the Greeks,
their symbolic meaning, their attributes, their history, and their
achievements, had all to be expressed through the medium of
sculpture, their figures surrounded by votive offerings, and the
buildings dedicated to them to be in this way decorated and
furnished, and so a wide field was opened to the artist, and a
magnificent opportunity given to the development of the art.
Earth and sea and sky, mountain rocks and valleys, rivers,
groves and forests, which the Pantheism of the Greeks personified
and idealised, had to be represented in sculptural form. But
* Mr.. Henderson, however, in his conjectural restoration of the archaic temple
at Ephesus shows, that for the internal angle the complete curve of the volute is
preserved, instead of being cut in half, as in the capital of the Erechtheum, and
this suggests an earlier origin to that which on page 82 was pronounced to be an
unsatisfactory solution of the problem.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD IN ASIA MINOR. 63
while the simulacra of the deities, the wood and clay idols,
are the germ of the Greek marble figures of the gods, the
development of their form is not to be traced apart from
circumstances which greatly complicate it. The pre-existing
phase of sculpture in Egypt and the contemporary developments
in Assyria may possibly have had some influence. On the
other hand, the tendency of modern research is leading to a
different conclusion, and although in the Greek sculpture of
the historical period it is not possible to trace, according to
Professor E. A. Gardner,* any direct inheritance from the
coloured reliefs or the paintings at Cnossus, or from the
Vaphio cups and the Tiryns fresco, they offer a singular
analogy to the coloured reliefs found in Athens and supposed
to have decorated the pediment of the earlier Parthenon. It
is possible, therefore, that there may have survived some
artistic traditions which preserved some of the distinctive
features of the old decorative work. A remarkable series of
sculptures recently discovered at Athens, and of earlier date
than 480 B.C., points to a very high degree of elaboration and
refinement in the treatment of accessories, and shows that the
work of Phidias and his contemporaries which succeeded may
almost be described as a Doric reaction. A conventional
treatment of hair and beard, a meaningless and expressionless
smile, elaborate drapery, narrow thighs, and other thin propor-
tions, characterise the Ionic-Archaic style. The simplicity of
line must often be set down to the architectural purpose, and
to such tradition, partially cast off, much of the sculpture of
the fifth century B.C. owes its charm.
At this point a recapitulation may be made of the points
brought out in the last three chapters, which are but the
introduction to the best of Greek art — the excavator's work, so
to speak, though the foundation has also been laid. At
Mycenae and Tiryns in Argolis, at Orchomenos in Boeotia, at
Troy in Mysia, at Lycia opposite Cyprus, we see a phase of
architectural history expressing itself either in wood construc-
tion or in the copying of timber forms in stone, especially in
tomb architecture, whether in tumulus, rock-cut hut, or
sarcophagus. We see it at Mycenae rise to a very high
degree of taste and skill and beauty, but cut short by the
Dorian invasion and the dispersion of the tribes which
* A Handbook to Greek Sculpture, by Ernest Arthur Gardner. Macmillan,
1905-
64 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
produced it. Yet it was in part the same people who gave rise
to those great Ionian cities, Ephesus, Miletus, Rhodes, Sardis,
and Priene, which are only now being recovered by explorers,
and with them to that phase of culture known as Archaic
Ionian, of which the details from the early Temple of Diana
give the best notion. It is at this early period that the
structural development of the style is completed ; the genius
of subsequent architects through centuries was altogether
directed to a refining and modifying process, to a close study
of every possible elegance and polish consistent with quiet and
sound taste, to the obliteration of every crude line, harsh angle,
or unseemly form. In such ways they reached the perfection
of the Temple of Nike Apteros and of the Propylaea, which
were not so much the works of their particular architects
as the matured fruit of a succession of harvests : the result, as
we see now, of the dispersion to Asia, of the atmosphere which
the Asiatic colonist breathed, and of the Archaic temples to the
Mother-god of the Phrygian people, whether in the guise of
Artemis or of Cybele. Yet who would affirm that the Greeks
were automatons working out unconsciously a line of develop-
ment, following blindly a predestined course ? If ever architects
thought or planned or designed with true originality, they were
the Greeks. But it was the conservatism, the traditionalism, of
the style which, after its constructive form was fixed, gave us
such masterpieces as the Parthenon, the Propylaea, and the
Erechtheum, the perfection of which would have been impos-
sible but for the careful and logical progression of the two
preceding centuries.
Architecture in this view must be regarded as a natural
growth largely beyond control. A man may add to it or take
away from it ; he becomes a slave to its logical principles, or
asserts his free will in refusing tradition and does his little
day's work outside the movement.
In what way to use tradition is the problem of modern archi-
tecture, for there is this difference now. In those days an archi-
tect's retrospect was bounded by the works of his grandfather, or
at most the primitive arts of his own district : now it ranges over
the larger tradition of all architectural history, choosing the
good and refusing the bad, and no doubt, if we but keep in touch
with Nature, out of this selective use will come in the fulness
of time a living art as noble as Greek, more cosmopolitan than
Roman and perfectly characteristic of the age we live in.
[ 65 1
1ROUP OF THE FATES FROM THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.
CHAPTER IV.
THE CULMINATION IN ATHENS.
As we have already pointed out in the preceding chapter,
during the period described as Archaic Greek the structural
development of the style was completed, no great constructive
improvements showing themselves after about 500 B.C. The
next two centuries would seem to have been chiefly directed to
the beautifying and refining of the constructive features already
prescribed : and it was in fact a conservative adherence to the
older type, and a traditional respect for previous result, which
led them ultimately to the production of such masterpieces as
the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the perfection of which
would have been impossible but for the careful and logical
progression of preceding centuries.
The Acropolis of Athens, within whose circuit so much of
what was greatest in Greek art was contained, was originally
one of the primitive citadels of Mycenaean character. Dis-
coveries in the district round Athens have revealed rock-cut
tombs and the same tendencies in design in fictile and jewel art
which point to its occupancy as a civilised centre at a date
between 1500 to 1200 B.C. ; and in the Acropolis itself, on the
site of the earlier Parthenon destroyed by the Persians, have
been found what are thought to be the remains of an early
Mycenaean palace. The Dorian intrusion, however, cannot
A.G.R. F
66 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
be regarded as having upon Athens the same effect of shock
and displacement that it had in Mycenae, for we know that
many of the expatriated Mycenaeans took refuge in Attica instead
of joining those who set sail for Ionia. The complete over-
throw of a city as a civilisation has frequently resulted in its
preservation for posterity, whilst its gentler supersession brings
about its irretrievable disappearance. The cities of Nineveh,
Mycenae, and Pompeii bear out the truth of the first alternative,
while every city that has retained her population has to some
extent submerged its history in so far as that is written in stone.
So it comes to pass that we can read the story of the prehistoric
age, all-important in the evolution of Greek art, chiefly by the
buried cities of the Peloponnesos, while in Athens its vestiges
are few indeed.
It has been said that behind and beyond any cause that we
can specify for a development in art and in civilisation itself
there is an economic one, and the theory may be applied to
the culmination of Greek art. That a great period in art
production should arise there must be a certain over-production
and accumulation of wealth, which may be said to find an outlet
in the various channels which architecture and art supply. In
this view of it we trace the Egyptian monuments to the wealth
of the kings, the architecture of Rome to the spoil of the world,
and in like manner find an explanation in an economic sense
of the Grecian central period, the age of Pericles. The wars
with Persia had enriched Greece, and the naval supremacy
of Athens, displayed most of all in the battle of Salamis, had
raised her to a position of the greatest influence among Grecian
cities : so that when the Persians were driven out of Greece
many of the islands and the coast cities of Thrace and Asia
Minor effected an alliance, with Athens at their head, perma-
nently to keep the Persians out of all Greek lands. Athens,
gradually assuming greater authority, practically came to treat
them as subject cities, exacting tribute ; and thus riches, talent,
and power passed from them into the capital of the hegemony.
It was about this time that she, under the leadership of Pericles,
took the greatest and proudest place among great cities, built
her most beautiful temples, and brought forth her greatest artists,
and it is the artistic work of this period, which in its beauty
reaches its culminating point of perfection together with all else
which was greatest in its history, that we have now to study.
THE CULMINATION IN ATHENS. 67
Yet the wonders of the Periclean age would have been
impossible but for the great artists to whom this over-production
had afforded opportunity for the exercise of skill down a long
line of Greek artistic tradition, and for the works of art that
had been preparing the way in Greece, but especially in the
colonies of Asia Minor. The reflex influence of these Ionian
settlements upon the mother country can hardly be over-
estimated in considering all the causes of the culmination.
For, as has been already indicated, Athens was an Ionian city
from early days, and was influenced largely by, and had much
commerce with the colonists of Asia Minor. But, besides this
domestic influence, there was one at work almost equally
powerful in the development of Doric principles and manners
in the Peloponnesos, by which Athens, if by nothing else than
her situation, must have been moulded, and under whose
influenced/she now came more directly. Leader of lonians on
Grecian motherland, she could not escape the influence of her
neighbours at Olympia, for example. Hence it came to be, by
an irony of fate, that her greatest temple and her most popular
monument, the Propylaea, were in the Dorian style, and partly
decorated by Peloponnesian artists, though they might be in
many respects different from the Doric works elsewhere. Or
was it that she strove to show that the Doric style itself could
only attain its perfection on Attic soil ? The cleavage of its
styles with the character of the population is quite marked
in every place but Attica. The Doric prevails over Sicily and
South Italy and the Peloponnesos, where the Dorians pre-
dominated, so that only one or two purely Ionic remains have
there been discovered ; while the temples of Athena at Assos
and Pergamum are perhaps the only Greek Doric works in
Ionian territory outside Athens.
Of the great architects and sculptors of this period we know
at least the names, and can identify some of the works.
Among these is Ictinus, the architect of the Parthenon, which
he made the subject of a book, unfortunately lost, but
mentioned by Vitruvius. This architect also designed the
temple of Apollo at Bassae, near Phigalia, a work which, though
it does not exhibit all the grace of the Parthenon, is of refined
and remarkably advanced character, and heralds an archaistic
tendency. Like the Propylaea (and the Parthenon in lesser
degree), it embraces Ionic and Doric principles, as well as their
F 2
68
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
distinctive features. Ictinus was assisted in his Parthgnon work
by Callicrates, of whom less is known, while the name of
Mnesicles has come down to us as the creator of the Prop^Jaea,
which, as will afterwards appear, he did not leave complete
or as he had intended it. Besides these, Phidias, king of
sculptors, must have an honoured place. This Athenian, at
the time of the erection of the Parthenon, already enjoyed
a great fame throughout Greece, and he was able to command
talent of the most distinguished order for the work, for it is not
to be supposed that he executed all of it with his own hands.
The designs of the pediments and the friezes, and the subjects
of the metopes, were all doubtless of his conception, and executed
5O. — THE Et
OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.
under his control. Like Polygnotus, the painter of the
Pinacotheca, he worked at the Parthenon without pay, the other
sculptors being paid one or two shillings a day. Among the
greatest works of Phidias was the bronze statue of Athena of
Lemnos in the Acropolis, and the colossal statue of Athena
Promachos, made of Persian spoil, which stood between the
Krechtheum and the Propylaea, and whose gilded helmet, crest,
and spear-point gleamed thirty feet high; a landmark for sailors
far at sea. In addition to these, there was also the world's
wonder of the Pan-Hellenic Zeus at Olympia, and the figure of
Athena in the Hecatompedos of the Parthenon at Athens.
It is on the Acropolis of Athens that we may best study the
works of the culminating period, and it seems the simplest way
THE CULMINATION IN ATHENS.
69
to make the tour of the monuments as they stand, because,
whilst they may not appear in strictly chronological order, they
are yet substantially of one age and type, and are so far part
of our scheme in that each building was planned and designed
in relation to those existing.
" There is only one access to the Acropolis," says Pausanias,
" no other is practicable, as the hill rises abruptly on all sides
and is fortified with a strong wall." This entrance is supposed
by Penrose to have been through two gates at the foot of
the substructure carrying the Temple of Nike Apteros.
Shortly after Pausanias's visit, at probably about 161 A.D., a
new entrance was made in front of the Propylaea, discovered by
52. — PLAN OF THK ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS.
A. The Propylaea.
B. Temple of Nike Apteros.
The Par'hrno»
The Opisthodomus or
C. Pinacotheca.
D. Site of Statue of Athena Promachos. or Naos.
E. The Ancient Parthenon. I.I. Substructure of Cimon.
F. The Erechtheum. K. Altar of Athena.
L. Temple of Roma and Augustus. M. Beule Gate.
Beule in 1852. This was built with material taken from the
choragic monument of Nikias, a Doric hexastyle portico which
existed under the walls at the south-west end, and which was
probably taken down to leave space for a road up to the Acropolis
behind the new theatre of Herodes Atticus. On the eastern .
side of the new gateway was a flight of steps seventy-five feet
wide, also of Roman work, leading up to the rock-cut roadway
which winds up to the central intercolumniation of the Pro-
pylaea, and was intended for chariots in a procession or for the
beasts of sacrifice. On either side of -this roadway were flights
of marble steps, whose original position can be traced on the
plinth of a lofty pedestal on the north side which carried a
statue of Agrippa. These led to the stylobate, on which
70 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
rested the Doric hexastyle portico of the Propylaea (a term
given to the whole pile, including the vestibules before and
behind, and the cross wall pierced with five doorways), with
columns twenty-nine feet high and five feet diameter. The
central intercolumniation was much wider than the others,
and in its frieze occupied the width of three metopes. The
depth of the vestibule behind this portico was about three-
quarters of its width, and its marble ceiling* was carried by
a row of three Ionic columns (33*6 feet in height), on each
side of the central roadway. The slender character of the
53. — SECTION OF THE PROPYLAEA AT ATHENS (RESTORED).
Ionic order enabled its height to exceed that of the Doric
column, whilst allowing of a far smaller diameter of the base
(111. 53). The cross wall beyond was pierced with five door-
ways, which corresponded in axis and width with the inter-
columniation of the- main front. On the eastern side of this
cross wall was a similar hexastyle portico, facing the east,
at a slightly higher level, owing to the rise in the ground
(111. 54). On the left-hand side of the main front is a small
building called the Pinacotheca, from the fact that Pausanias
alludes to the paintings he saw in it. It forms a side wing to
* This seems to have attracted Pausanias's attention, as he says : "The Propylaea
has a roof of white marble, and the size and beauty of the works were remarkable
even when I saw it."
THE CULMINATION IN ATHENS, 71
the Propylaea, from which it is entered through a portico-in-
antis of three Doric columns. The antae at the north-east
angle of this building and on the west side of the wall of
the eastern portico suggest that it was the intention of the
architect to add further structures, which would virtually have
faced the whole west part of the Acropolis. The curtailment
of Mnesicles's design is evident on the south side, where the
wing which should have corresponded to the Pinacotheca stops
short at the old Pelasgic wall on a site which apparently formed
part of the Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia, and was therefore
opposed by the priests of that goddess. For a similar reason
55. — THE TEMPLE OF NIKE APTEROS AT ATHENS. C
the projection of this southern wing westwards was curtailed
owing to the site being occupied by the temple of Nike Apteros,
which crowns the bastion on the south-east side, and which
would seem to have been built on the site of an earlier temple
or altar. This temple disappeared for a time, having been
taken down and utilised in the erection of a central bastion
by the Turks. On the destruction of this in 1834, the temple
was rebuilt in 1835 (HI- 55)- Since that date some of the
sculptured slabs which formed a balustrade along the north
side of the temple were discovered, and these rank amongst
the most beautiful sculptures of the periods. The temple itself,
built of Pentelic marble, is of the Ionic order, amphiprostyle
72 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
and tetrastyle — that is to say, it has porticoes of four columns
each towards the east and west. Its axis, nearly due east and
west, forms an angle with that of the Propylaea, and as its
north side is built on an ancient Pelasgic wall we may assume
that it occupies the site of an earlier temple or altar.
Passing through the Propylaea, and about one hundred and
twenty feet beyond it, stood the great statue of Athena Pro-
machos, which is shown in the restoration by Lambert (111. 56),
and about one hundred feet further the ancient temple of
Athena, destroyed by the Persians, the materials of which
were utilised in rebuilding the northern walls of the Acropolis.
In order to give great prominence to the new Parthenon, a
fresh site to the south was selected, the walls of the south
side of the Acropolis were extended beyond the old Pelasgian
fortifications, and by forming a lofty platform a greater height
was given to the new temple. The discoveries of later years
have shown that the foundation of the first structure (I. I. 111. 52),
due to Cimon, projected a temple of greater length and less
width, the foundation extending about thirteen feet to the east
of the lower step of the actual Parthenon, and being about eleven
feet short of the north-east lower step. This is, however, not the
only archaeological discovery made of late. The plan of the
Parthenon shows two distinct chambers, the celk^groper with
its pronaos facing the east ; and what is called the opistho-
domus (G), or rear building, with its epinaos facing the west.
The term Parthenon given to the whole building is, according
to Dr. Dorpfeld, a later title, and was confined at first to the
opisthodomus, which was called the Parthenon (chamber of
the Virgin), to distinguish it from the Opisthodomus or Treasury
of the ancient temple of Athena, to which we have already
referred ; and the cella was known as the Naos hecatom-
pedos (H), or cella of one hundred feet, being the length of the
cella of the older Parthenon, as also that of the width of the
stylobate, viz., one hundred Attic feet.
Keeping to the better known title, the ceiling of the
Opisthodomus or Treasury was probably carried by four Ionic
columns, traces cf the bases of which have been found on
the pavement, for the same reason given for those in the
Propylaea, as occupying less floor space and being sufficient
to carry the weight of the ceiling. In the cella there were
ten columns on cither side, and three columns at the west
THE CULMINATION IN ATHENS.
73
end. These are considered to have carried an architrave
with superposed columns above, as in the temple of Paestum
already referred to. The primary object of these columns
would seem to have been the support of the beams of the
ceiling or roof. The three columns at the west end show that
the aisle was carried round the interior of the cella, with
bronze barriers fixed between the columns, so as to allow
privileged travellers like Pausanias to walk round the chrysele-
phantine statue of Athena and see it on all sides. A similar
arrangement existed in the temple of Zeus at Olympia, except
that there were no columns at the west end, a space being left
at the back of the pedestal to pass round. Here the barriers
consisted of vertical stone
slabs, portions of which still
exist.
Before passing to the ex-
terior a few words should
be said about the chrysele-
phantine statue of Athena,
Phidias's masterpiece. This
was constructed on a wooden
core, having iyo_ry for the
fa.c.e., feet, and hands, and
gold for the drapery ground
and accessories. Its posi-
tion, standing well out in
the central portion of the
cella, is known from the
traces of its pedestal on the pavement. The total height of
the statue and its pedestal was twenty-six cubits (close upon
forty-feet), and from the account of it given by Pausanias (Bk. I,
Ch. 24), the nearest resemblance to it is found in a statuette
discovered near the Varvakeion Gymnasium in Athens in 1880,
and now in the Central Museum, though in minor details it
differs somewhat from the description. We have already referred
to the greater prominence given to the Parthenon by its erection
on the south side of the Acropolis on a lofty platform. This not
only made it the principal crowning feature of the Acropolis
as seen from the south and west, but on the Acropolis itself
rendered it by far the most imposing structure there, so
that it was worthy of the various subtleties both in line and
57. — METOPE OF THE PARTHENON : CONTEST OF
CENTAUR AND LAP1TH (BRITISH MUSEUM).
74 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
proportion which it was to receive at the hands of Ictinus
and Callicrates, the architects, and of its enrichment by Phidias
with the most beautiful sculpture which the world has seen.
Whilst the cella and the treasury have lost all of their
decorative elements, there fortunately remains sufficient of the
exterior (111. 58) not only to restore it more or less com-
pletely in our imagination, but to have enabled Penrose to
measure mathematically those subtle refinements both in design
and construction which make it the most remarkable building
in the world. In speaking of these refinements Professor
Percy Gardner says* : " The whole building is constructed,
so to speak, on a subjective rather than an objective basis ;
it is intended not to be mathematically accurate, but to be
adapted to the eye of a spectator. To the eye a curve is a
more pleasing form than a straight line, and the deviations
from rigid correctness serve to give a character of purpose,
almost of life, to the solid marble construction." The delicate
curves and inclinations of the horizontal and vertical lines were
first noticed by Pennethorne in 1837, verified by him in 1845,
and in 1846 measured by Penrose, who published his well-
known work on the subject in 1851, a second edition of
which, with further notes, appeared in 1888. The rising curves
given to the stylobate t and entablature, the hyperbolic sections
to which the entasis of the column was worked, and the
slight inclination J inwards of the axes of the columns, so as
to give an appearance of greater strength, all entailed a
mathematical precision in the setting out of the work and
in its execution which would have been impossible in any
other material than that of the Pentelic marble with which
it was built. The entasis was first noted by Cockerell, and
afterwards measured and verified by Penrose. It varies in
* A Grammar of Greek Art, p. 39.
t The three steps of the stylobate are virtually of equal height throughout ;
consequently the rise of about two and a half inches in the middle had been
already attained in the stereobate or substructure. This was done partly by
trimming the top course of Piraic stone, and partly by reducing the marble
course immediately under the stylobate towards the corners (Penrose, A then inn
Architecture, 2nd ed., p. 31). Vitruvius seems to have assumed that the
curve of the entablature followed that of the stylobate. Penrose, however, points
out (p. 104) that the reverse was the case: "To obviate a disagreeable effect
produced by the contrast of the horizontal with the inclined lines of a flat pedi-
ment." which gave an apparent dip to the former, Ictinus seems to have decided
that they must rise towards the middle, and that required a similar rise in the
stylobate, so that the columns might be of equal height.
J First noticed by Donaldson and subsequently measured by Penrose, who
THE CULMINATION IN ATHENS. 75
different temples and is not found in some, as, for instance, in
the Temple of Nike Apteros and the temple at Bassae. The
entasis is most pronounced in the Temple of Jupiter Olympius,
and most delicate in the Erechtheum (the amount of deflection
from a straight line being only '0195 of a foot). The compara-
tive entasis given approximately by Penrose * is twelve for the
Temple of Jupiter Olympius, eleven for the larger order, and
nine for the smaller order of the Propylaea, and eight, six and
four for the Parthenon, Theseum, and Erechtheum respectively.
The Parthenon being a completed work, the evidence of the
method of its construction and finish is mainly derived from
other Greek buildings which for various reasons have never
been terminated, such as the temples of Apollo at Delos,
Nemesis at Rhamnus, and Ceres at Eleusis, and in the
temple at Segesta already referred to, from which latter it may
be gathered that the peristyle of a temple was the first part
erected. In all these temples the columns are still unfluted,
and the stylobate retains its unworked surface. In the stoa
at Thoricus the steps still retain the ancones or ears, projecting-
bosses by which the stones were lowered into their position
and worked backwards and forwards to obtain a fine joint.
Where the stylobate received the lowest drum of the column
the surface was sunk to its proper depth, and then worked
lightly over to give some hold to the lower surface of the
drum of the column. On this surface was traced the lower
plan of the column, fluted, for on the lowest drum the flutes
were finished for two or three inches in height, the rest
being left roughly circular. At the next joint the arrange-
ment was different. There a square sinking was made in
the centre of the upper and lower face of each drum, about
four and a half inches square by two and a half inches
deep, in which plugs of cypress wood were fixed. In the
centre of these wooden plugs was a circular dowel, on which
the drums were worked round so as to grind the blocks
closely together. Between the centre and the circumference
a slight sinking was made to receive the dust produced by
the grinding. There are from ten to twelve of these drums
calculated that the axes of the columns on the two sides of the Parthenon, if
prolonged, would meet at a point 5,856 feet above the pavement. The axes of the
angle columns, being inclined both ways on a diagonal line, have a greater
inclination in the proportion of the diagonal to the sides of a square.
* Athenian Architecture, 2nd ed. , p. 40.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
in the Parthenon column. The upper portion of the drum
under the capital was also fluted, and the echinus of the capital
was turned in a lathe. All the joints of the drums were truly
horizontal, but on the lowest drum, in consequence of the curve
of the stylobate, the outer side had to be carried down a fraction
lower than the inner side (towards the peristyle), and it is to this
increased dimension that Vitruvius was supposed to refer when
he mentions the
scamilli impares,*
but evidently his
statement refers
to the stylobate
only. There was
, JH fcfeJla jpr also a slight inclina-
tioli^in wards oftlTe
axis of each column
which must have
rendered very diffi-
cult the accurate
beddingofthelowest
drum. Similar
difficulties were ex-
perienced with the
capitals, and the
sides of the abacus
had a slight inclina-
tion, partly on ac-
count of the inclined
axis of the columns,
and partly to correct
certain optical
illusions which
presented themselves to the acute observance of the architect :
these would seem to be due to the position from which the
building was seen, and to its illumination by the sun's rays.
With a few exceptions the unfinished portions of those
* The remarks of Vitruvius on this subject are not clear. He seems to mean
that the scamilli impares were used to obtain the gradual rise of the stylobate ; but
we know that in the Parthenon, at any rate (see note on p. 74), the rise was pro-
vided for in a simple way in the substructure. To adjust the lowest drums both
to the curved stylobate and to the inclination of the columns was a far more
complicated task, and it is to the additions left on the lower drum that Penrose
and other authorities have applied the term scamilli impares.
59. — THE SOUTH PERISTYLE OK THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS
LOOKING EAST.
THE CULMINATION IN ATHENS. 77
temples not completed are confined to the stylobate and to
the columns, these being the portions most liable to injury
during their building. In the former the treads and risers were
left rough, being drafted at their junction so as to obtain a fine
joint. The columns retained their outer casing, the fluting
being worked only a few inches on the upper and lower drums.
On the completion of the temple the fluting of the columns was
worked from top to bottom with that delicate entasis which
gave such beauty to its outline, and the treads and risers of
the stylobate were worked down to their smooth surface.
Although the Greek architects seem usually to have preferred
regular geometrical curves such as the hyperbola, the para-
bola, and the ellipse, especially for convex mouldings where
perfection of contour is more important than in concave
mouldings, an approximate curve struck from three centres,
and known as the false ellipse, was adopted (according to Pen-
rose) for the fluting of the column in the Parthenon ; the
centre portion of the curve had a radius equal to the width of
the flute, and the radii of the curves on either side diminished
with the decreasing width of the flutes in the upper portions of
the shaft, the principal object throughout being to accentuate
the arris.
In the Propylaea the curves were segmental, as also in most
of the earlier Doric examples in South Italy and Sicily. The
templet was applied at every bed-joint and the intermediate
space worked straight from one joint to another.
As they formed integral parts of the structure, the metopes
(111. 57, p. 73) and the Panathenaic frieze on the external walls
of the cella were probably carved in-situ, though the difference
in the style of the carving of the various slabs of the latter
has suggested to Dr. Murray that they might have been
sculptured before being raised to their position. This is
known to have been the case with the figures decorating the
pediments, as there is evidence that the walling behind
the figures had to be cut away in places to make room
for them. The only literary notice we possess of the sub-
jects of the pedimental sculptures is from Pausanias (Bk. I,
Ch. 24), who says ''the whole subject of the pediment over
the entrance" — viz., the East Pediment — "is the circum-
stances of the birth of Athena, and that of the pediment at the
back is the contest of Poseidon with Athena for the land."
78 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
Drawings made by Jacques Carrey in 1674 give the position of
the figures in the East Pediment, but in the West Pediment the
central group was already missing. Nothing is said by Pausanias
about the frieze representing the procession which took place
every four years during the Panathenaic festival (111. 60). The
frieze starts from the south-west angle, running east and north,
and meeting over the pronaos, where the procession arrives
W.J.A.del.}
60. — PART OK THE FRIEZE OUTSIDE THE CELLA OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS: THE
PANATHENAIC PROCESSION.
before the assembled gods who are grouped in the centre, seated,
and who receive from the hands of the priest the peplos, while
on each side the maidens selected to work the sacred robe
approach bearing religious offerings.
Opposite to the Parthenon, and on the north side of the
Acropolis, stands the ffr^rhtheum (Ills. 61 — 63), a building as
complicated in its plan as the former was simple. It was built on
two levels, had three porticoes of different design, and seems to
have been a combination of three temples in one. Whether this
THE CULMINATION IN ATHENS. 79
irregularity was due to its occupying the site of earlier buildings,
or to the necessity of preserving intact certain spots sacred
to the Greeks,* is uncertain; but the architect, whose name
is not known, would seem to have accepted the difficulties of the
problem and designed a building which more than any other-
shows the elasticity of the Greek style.
Owing to many alterations, even in Roman times, and to the
subsequent conversion of the temple, first into a church, and then
into a Pasha's residence, the restoration of its plan is necessarily
conjectural. The main block, built to be seen from the higher
level, covers an area of thirty-seven feet by seventy-one feet,
including the portico of six Ionic columns at the east end. The
west front of the block had in Stuart's time four semi-detached
Ionic columns between antae, and three windows.! On the
north side of the block was a broad flight of steps leading to the
lower level, and at the western end, but projecting westward of
the main block, a portico of six Ionic columns, four columns
in front and one behind each of the side columns. On the
south side, and close to the west wall, is the Caryatide Portico 1
(111. 62), the marble roof of which is carried by six caryatide
figures, four in front and two behind, all facing the south and
standing on a podium about nine feet high.
Internally, twenty-five feet and forty-eight feet respectively
from the east wall of the cella, are the attachments of cross
walls, which would divide the same into three chambers. Of
these, the eastern chamber, on the higher level, and entered
from the portico of six columns, is supposed to have been
the cella of the temple of Athena Polias,§ and the central
* It is on this site that, according to tradition, Athena and Poseidon are supposed
to have contended for the dominion of Athens, and the mark of the trident in the
rock, the well of sea water, and the sacred olive are all mentioned by Pausanias.
f These were all blown down during a hurricane in October, 1852 ; examina-
tion of the remains has led archaeologists to the conclusion that both columns
and windows were of Roman date, and replaced four isolated columns
in-antis.
I The term portico is a misnomer, for although there is a narrow opening in the
podium on the east side, intended probably for the priests only, it does not form an
entrance to the building. Tribune would be a better term.
§ In 1905, when excavations were being made under this temple, portions of
the remains of two windows were found which are considered to have been in the
east wall behind the Portico, one on each side of the doorway. According to the
account given in the American Journal of Archaeology, vol. x., by Mr. Gorham
Phillips Stevens (from whose drawings the illustration has been prepared), this
east wall was destroyed to make way for the apse of the Byzantine Church
established in the temple, and apparently the materials were utilised in the
foundation of the apse. Illustration 64 gives Mr. Stevens's conjectural restoration
of the east doorway and the windows, and the detail is worked out from a
8o
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
Caryatide Portico.
Portico of Temple of Athena Polins.
tECHTHEUM AT ATHENS, FROM THE SOUTH-EAST.
6IA.-A
POLIAS. B. TEMPLE OF
SHRINK OK K K E C H T H E U S
C- THE PANDKOSEUM. Q
TKIHUNK OK CARYATIDES.
62. — THE CAKYATIDE PORTICO (TRIBUNE) OK THE ERECHTHEUM
(SOUTH-EAST SIDE).
THE CULMINATION IN ATHENS.
Si
and western chambers are supposed to have been divided by
a screen of columns and constituted the shrine of Erechtheus.
The sanctuary of Pandrosus is assumed to have been situated
in the court to the west of the Erechtheum ; the entrance to
this court, in which the olive tree grew, being through a side
door in the North Portico. Under the western chamber is
an ancient cistern, originally covered with marble slabs, and
occupying the whole width of the temple ; and under the
North Portico is a crypt, on the rock floor of which there are
indentations, stated by Pausanias (I. 26) to have been pro-
64. — THE E/
OF THE ERECHTHEUM, SHOWING CONJECTURAL POSITION OF WINDOWS
AND DETAIL OF PORTION FOUND.
duced by the trident of Poseidon. The entrance to the shrine
of Erechtheus was from the magnificent central doorway
of the North Portico (111. 63), which has always been regarded
as of the finest Greek work, though according to Mr. Schultz *
it has been restored and added to in later periods. The
whole temple was built in Pentelic marble, with black Eleusinian
marble for the frieze, to which figures in white marble were
attached by clamps. The tympana of the east, west,
and north pediments were also in Eleusinian marble. The
intercolumniations and the relative proportions of diameter to
photograph published at the same time. The mouldings of the cornice and
architrave of the windows were richly carved with the egg and tongue, the
Lesbian leaf and dart, and the double guilloche.
* Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xii.
A.G.R. G
82 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
height of the columns vary in the two porticoes : in the East
Portico they are two diameters apart, and the relation of
diameter to height is i : 9*1 ; in the North Portico the
columns are two and a half diameters apart, and eight and a half
diameters high. The intercolumniation and relation of diameter
to height of the semi-detached columns of the west front
are the same, or nearly so, as those of the East Portico, the
bases of the columns being on a level two feet seven inches
higher than those of the latter. The capitals are of exceptional
richness, there being intermediate fillets in the volute, a
torus moulding, richly carved with the guilloche, above the egg
and tongue, and, underneath the
capital, a band or necking carved
with the anthemion. A similar
enriched band decorates the
antae, and is carried round the
whole building. The capitals of
the corner columns of both por-
ticoes have the volutes turned
anglewise on the diagonal, so as
to face both ways. The internal
angles within the portico had
65.— ANGLE CAPITAL OF THE TEMPLE therefore two volutes, intersecting
one another at right angles as in
Nike Apteros (111. 65), a somewhat unsatisfactory solution of
the problem. Though the architrave still retains the three
fascia, the dentils of the cornice which form such prominent
features in the Ionic temples of Asia Minor are here omitted
altogether and replaced by a carved cyma.
The caryatide figures of the South Portico or Tribune probably
represent the " arrephoroi " alluded to by Pausanias as " the
maidens who bear on their heads what the priestess of Athena
gives them to carry." The figures vary in the lines of the folds of
their dress and in their pose; the three on the left hand rest on
the right leg, and vice versa. The vertical folds of the dress (which
suggest the fluting of a column) are always on the side of the sup-
porting limb. The remains of two similar figures have been found
at Delphi,* of a much earlier period, according to M. Homolle,
dating from the end of the sixth century B.C., which may be
regarded as the prototype of those of the Erechtheum.
* See p. 102.
THE CULMINATION IN ATHENS.
Although the Erechtheum was probably commenced about
B.C., the works were apparently stopped and not resumed
till 409 B.C. The Temple of Nike Apteros was planned if not
built before the Propylaea, and may date from ^.40^ B.C. There
is still another small temple in Athens on the Borders of the
Ilissus (111. 66) which was fortunately measured and drawn by
Stuart before its destruction by the Turks in 1780. Although
in no sense archaic, it is considered to have been of early date,
470 — 450 ; the entablature is of exceptional severity, there
10
10
15 FEET
66. — ELEVATION AND PLAN OF THE IONIC TEMPLE ON THE ILISSUS.
being only one fascia to the architrave, and the bed mould of
the cornice consisted of a cyma-reversa and bead only.
The perfected type of the Doric Hexastyle temple exists in
the so-called Theseum, which owes its comparatively perfect
preservation to the fact of its having been converted into a
church by the Byzantine Greeks. It consists of a naos, with
pronaos and epinaos, and is surrounded by a peristyle with
six columns on the fronts and thirteen on the flanks (Ills. 67,
68). Only eighteen of the metopes are decorated with sculp-
ture : ten on the east front, and four on the north and south
fronts, adjoining the west end. A sculptured frieze runs above
the pronaos and epinaos, in the latter case being carried across
the north and south peristyles. The relative proportions of
diameters to heights of the columns and other details have led
G 2
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
Dr. Dorpfeld to give it a later date than the Parthenon, and
as the temple or heroon dedicated to Theseus is known to have
been built by Cimon in 469 B.C., the existing building required
another dedication, and is now recognised as the temple of
Hephaestos mentioned by Pausanias.
In this chapter there have been considered chiefly the buildings
of two distinct orders : the Doric Parthenon and Theseum, the
Ionic Erechtheum and the temples
of Nike Apteros and the Ilissus —
two types of early Greek work which
reach their culmination in the age
of Pericles. All of them, except per-
haps the Theseum, would be im-
possible anywhere else, for there
are marks of a distinctive Attic
style on each of the others. It is
to be noticed that the familiarity
with the Ionic proportion of
columns led the Attic artists to
reject the ponderous proportion of
the Doric columns, and to adopt a
mean which inclines more closely
to the Ionic than any pre-existing
examples. Yet the Parthenon, in
spite of this and other details which
have been noticed, such as its
zophorus or sculptured frieze, and
many of its ornaments, is sub-
stantially Doric, and, with the
exception of the Theseum, the
last temple in that style which the Athenians erected. Of
the buildings we have noticed, the Propylaea combines most
freely the Ionic-Doric principles, and most appropriately, each
finding its true place, while in the Erechtheum the Doric
survives in a few unimportant details. All of them thus in a
measure illustrate the coalescence of type which is characteristic
of Athenian work, as it was to some extent typical of the people
themselves.
67.— THE TEMPLE OF HEPHAESTOS
(THESEUM), AT ATHENS.
69. — MARBLE FRAGMENT FOUND IN THE HIERON AT EPIDAURUS, WITH CONJECTURAL
RESTORATION BY L. VULLIAMY.
CHAPTER V.
THE CULMINATION IN ATTICA AND IN THE PELOPONNESOS.
HAVING in the last chapter described the monuments
which illustrate the culmination of Greek architecture in
Athens, we now extend our enquiry to other work in Attica
and the Peloponnesos.
The Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis, which forms the
most conspicuous feature in the conjectural restoration (see
frontispiece, 111. i) by J. P. Deering Gandy, R.A., and now
in the Soane Museum, was designed 420 B.C. by Ictinus,
the architect of the Parthenon, but, beyond the scheme of its
plan (111. 70), no architectural remains have been found. The
excavations commenced in 1883 by the Archaeological Society
of Athens have revealed that there were two earlier temples
on the site, the second one having been destroyed by Xerxes.
The foundations of the present ruin, nearly four times the size
of the earlier temples, belong to the work set out by Ictinus.
The hall was one hundred and eighty-three feet square, with
seven rows of columns running at right angles to the principal
front, with six columns in each row. There were two entrance
doorways in the front, and also two on the right and on the left
sides. The hall was surrounded on all sides with steps or seats
for the devotees, which were cut in the solid rock. The row of
columns down the centre upsets the idea of any clerestory, but
86
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
the hall may have been lighted through one or more compart-
ments in the framed ceiling, and in that case only through the
Parian tiles of the marble roof, which, according to Plutarch,
was constructed by Zenocles.* In 320 B.C. a dodecastyle
portico was added by Philon,
the architect of the Arsenal
of the Piraeus, and there are
evidences of Roman restora-
tions at a later period. On
the site also was found a
portion of a Doric entabla-
ture, comprising three tri-
glyphs, on one of which is
carved a bunch of ears of
barley, on the second a
barrel, and on the third the
torches carried during the
ceremonies. The sacred
precinct of the temple was
entered through two en-
trance gateways known as
the Greater and Lesser
Propylaea. The Greater
Propylaea would seem to have been copied from the Propylaea
at Athens, of which it formed nearly a counterpart both in
design and size, except that there was no central passage for
chariots, and the hexastyle portico of the main front was
raised on a stylobate of six steps. In the Lesser Propylaea
there are ruts formed by wheels on the pavement, but they
had apparently no connection with chariots, there being no
entry for them in the peribolos walls. Beyond the fact that there
are three doorways, the central one of which was closed by
massive gates (evidenced by the marks on the pavement), the
plan differs from the ordinary propylaea. Between two walls
(which are supposed to have been decorated with detached Ionic
columns resting on a podium about four feet six inches high) and
on the right and left of the entrance, the pavement rises rapidly
to the central doorway, in front of which were two columns
with antae. The capital shown in 111. 71 crowned one of these
columns, and, so far as it is possible to judge by the richly-
* See Unedited Antiquities of Attica, p. 31.
70. — HALL OF THE MYSTERIES AT ELEUSIS.
THE CULMINATION IN ATTICA.
carved ornament, should belong to the third century B.C., but
the building was restored and added to in Roman times. Of the
columns decorating the side walls, a base, capital, and portion
of the entablature were found, and their position is shown on
LESSER PROPYLAEA
AT ELEUSIS.
the plan (111. 72), published in the Unedited Antiquities of
Attica. To this has been added a conjectural restoration of
the Order (elevation and section, 111. 73), in which nine
diameters have been given to the column.*
Although of the Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis no archi-
tectural features remain, we have in the
Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae in
Arcadia, 430 B.C., a remarkable example
by the same architect which suggests the
versatility of its author. We no longer
find the same delicate subtleties of curve
in stylobate or entablature as in the
Parthenon, either because the architect
recognised that such refinements were
not possible in any other material than
Pentelic marble, or, as suggested by Dr. Dorpfeld, the extra-
ordinary labour and accuracy required in the work at Athens
were of so costly a nature that they were not likely to be
* This Order was selected and published by Ch. Norm and (Parallels}, and
is reproduced in The Orders of Architecture (Plate VII.).
HE LESSER PROPYLAEA
AT ELEUSIS.
88
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
undertaken elsewhere. On the other hand, the plan (111. 74)
departs from the usual conventional arrangements in detail, and
new features are introduced which, in Athens, might have been
thought to have too progressive a tendency. The plan of
the temple runs north and south instead of east and west,
and behind the cella is a second chamber with a doorway
OFT
73. — CONJECTURAL ELEVATION OK
THE IONIC ORDER FLANKING
THE ENTRANCE OF THE LESSER
PROPYLAEA AT ELEUSIS.
N
10 20 30 40 FEET
74. — -THE TEMPLE OK APOLLO
facing the east. It is possible, as suggested by Reber, that
this covers the site of an earlier temple dedicated to Apollo,
which the architect was instructed to bring into his design,
and this would account for the unusual length of a temple
of this period, there being fifteen columns on the flank.
Externally the temple was Doric hexastyle, but on both sides
of the cella are Ionic semi-columns, which are attached to the
cella wall by small spur walls. This unusual arrangement, the
THE CULMINATION IN THE PELOPONNESOS. 89
close juxtaposition of the first spur wall to the massive masonry
of the north doorway and the diagonal spur walls at the south
end of the cella, would seem to have suggested to Cockerell
the possibility of there having been a thrust of some kind to be
75. — THE INI
AS RESTORED BY PROFESSOR COCKERELL.
~ ~ '-f A 0
resisted, and accordingly, in a sketch of the interior (111. 75),
he introduced a segmental vault, but without making any
reference to it in his description. To us the precautions may
seem excessive, as the thrust could only have been against the
east and west walls ; but the Greeks, as already pointed out,
were always timid in their stone construction, and preferred to
90 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
err in the direction of excessive strength than of too little
Further reference to this will be made later on, but as its con-
sideration raises the question of the construction of the Greek
roofs, about which so little is known, owing to the complete
destruction by fire or otherwise of all the timber therein
employed, a few words thereon may not be out of place. Two
instances have already been referred to in which it is surmised
that there were horizontal ceilings over the cella, viz., in the
Temple of Hera at Olympia, and of Concord at Agrigentum :
there was also a flat ceiling over the central and western
chambers of the Erechtheum at Athens, according to M. Choisy
(Etudes epigraphiques sur /' Architecture Grecque). The nature of
their construction is suggested in the same work, being based
on the roof of the Arsenal of the Piraeus at Athens, a descrip-
tion of which was found in 1882, engraved on a slab of
Hymettian marble. Although the building no longer exists,
having been burnt by Sulla in 86 B.C., the description given
in the specification is so clear and distinct that we know more
about its construction than if its remains had been found. The
arsenal was built between 340 — 330 B.C. from the designs of
Philon of Eleusis, to store the rigging, sails, ropes, etc., of the
Athenian navy. It was four hundred and thirty-one feet long
• , by fifty-eight feet wide, and consisted of a central passage and
two aisles. The former, twenty-one feet wide, served as a
covered promenade ; and in the aisles, separated from the
same by square columns twelve feet centre to centre and
screen walls between with doors in them, were stored the
sails and ropes. The square columns, thirty-five in number on
each side, carried huge beams (thirty inches wide by twenty-one
inches high) longitudinally, and transverse beams across the
central passage twelve feet centre to centre and over the
columns. On the centre of each of these transverse beams
rested a block of timber three feet long, which carried the
ridge-piece (twenty-one inches by sixteen and a half inches).
Resting on this, on the longitudinal beams, and on the
external walls were rafters one foot seven and a half inches
by eleven inches, and one foot three inches apart. On the
rafters, battens, six inches by two inches, and four inches
apart, carried the close boarding on which the Corinthian
- tiles were laid, bedded in mortar. From this description
it follows that the trussing of timber in roofs was unknown
' " "^s>.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
to the Greeks, and that the rafters were carried by the
ridge-piece and other direct vertical supports. Further
evidence of the same is given in the Lycian, Phrygian, and
Etruscan tombs, where are found reproductions of timber roofs
carved in stone.
Returning now to the example at Bassae, transverse beams
across the cella, just above the frieze richly carved with
figure sculpture, would have ruined the effect of the latter
so far as its lighting was concerned, and therefore Cockerell
in his section (111. 76) trusts to the rafters to be self-support-
ing in the centre, in which case, if there had been any
thrust, it would be counteracted by the spur walls of the cella,
as also by the weight of the frieze, cornice,
and wall shown in Cockerell's section. The
Professor in his section shows timber rafters
which are masked inside by linings and
coffers, but if marble rafters (hollowed out
like the beams*) of the north and south
peristyles (111. 77) had been employed with
the Parian tiles resting on them, there would
have been no necessity to hide them inside
or to fill the intervals between, and such a
scheme of construction would not only have
been similar to that of the ceiling of all
Greek peristyles, but would have accorded
with the statement of Pausanias (Bk. viii.
Ch. 41): "The temple of Apollo, the suc-
courer, is built of stone, roof and all," a description never given
of any other temple. Now in the roof of the Piraeus, as already
noted, it was necessary to provide the close boarding and a
bedding of mortar for the Corinthian tiles, the under-surfaces of
which would rarely be quite true ; the Parian marble tiles of
Bassae, however, were of such marvellous workmanship, and
fitted to one another so exactly, that they were probably carried
direct on the rafters. They measured three feet six and a half
inches long by two feet one and a quarter inches wide (being the
largest tiles known, and seven of them on each side covered the
roof exclusive of the ridge and the eaves tile), the covering tile
* The bearing of these beams is nearly thirteen feet ; that of the rafters on
each side of the cella would be just over seven feet. In order to lessen their
weight the marble beams of the peristyle were hollowed out as shown in
111. 77-
77. — MARBLE BEAM AT
BASSAE.
THE CULMINATION IN THE PELOPONNESOS.
93
being on one side worked in the same slab as the main tile (111. 78).
The translucency of these Parian tiles* was so great that
through them the cella might have been flooded with light had
the intervals between the rafters been left open ; these, however,
in Cockerell's conjectural restoration, are rilled with coffers,
he being of opinion that the cella was lighted by a single
central opaion in the same way as the Temple of Aegina,
where a block was found which might have been the
coping-stone of such an opening. At Bassae, however, only a
portion of a tile was found with an opening pierced in itt and
a raised rim round to prevent the rain running down through
it. Unfortunately, too
little remained to m/mmm r~*Mr* w»mJii™s
k --Z.J*- *
show whether such
piercing was confined
to a single tile, or
whether it was the
angle of a much larger
opening. In a second
visit paid by Baron
Haller, who was Pro-
fessor Cockerell's com-
panion at Bassae when
the temple was first
explored by him, two
other pierced tiles were
found, drawings of which were published in the R.I.B.A.
Transactions of 1865 : one of these seems to show a second
angle, which would give a length of eighteen to twenty
inches to the opening, and the distance from the centre
of covering tile to the inside of the rim being seven inches,
gives a width of eleven inches, always supposing that
the piercing was confined to one independent tile. Cover-
ing the cella in the length are eighteen tiles, and on each
side below the ridge tile two tiles. If a certain proportion
of the upper range of these tiles were pierced, the opening,
* In confirmation of this theory, see Penrose's statements in Whibley's
A Companion to Greek Studies (p. 221), and Professor Percy Gardner's views in
A Grammar of Greek Art (p. 37).
t A number of tiles with similar pierced openings have been found in Pompeii,
arid they also have projecting rims round them identical with those found at
Bassae. Drawings of some of these tiles are illustrated in Josef Durm's Die
Bauhunst der Romer (1905), p. 333, ill. 363.
SCALt Of FtET
78. — ROOF TILES AT BASSAE.
94
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
79- — THE IONIC COLUMNS OF THE CELLA OF THE TEMPLE OF
APOLLO AT BASSAE.
twenty inches by eleven inches, would have afforded ample
light to the cella, and the amount of rain which might fall into
the cella would not be considerable. That an opening of some
THE CULMINATION IN THE PELOPONNESOS.
kind was provided is suggested by the fact that the central por-
tion of the cella was sunk three inches below the paved recesses
between the cross walls in which the pedestals with their statues
stood. The statue of the god was in the further cella, out of
the way of any falling rain, and illuminated only through the
eastern doorway. The large opaion* shown in Plate V. (plan
of roof showing the ti found I " Cockerell) does not seem to
be a possible solution of the problem now that other tiles have
been found, and, moreover,
the moulding shown in his
section (111. 76) does not
exist on any of the tiles
found, and there is no doubt
that its extension across
five tiles, as shown, would
externally form a notch in
the roof, which would have
a very ugly effect.
The capital of the Ionic
order in the cella (111. 79)
is a new and original feature
designed to meet the special
requirements. Having only
a semi-column to deal with,
and desiring to detach com-
pletely three sides of his
capital, Ictinus designed one
with angle volutes at each
corner. Instead of carry-
ing horizontally the fillet
which connects the two volutes of the ordinary Ionic capital,
and which, owing to its junction with the curves of the
volute, always appear to dip in the centre, Ictinus raised it
and with a fine sweep made it a continuation of the curves
of the volutes. This appearance of sinking in the centre of
the upper fillet just referred to led, in earlier Greek Ionic
capitals, to an attempted correction of the same by the uniting
* In the Taylor buildings at Oxford, designed by Professor Cockerell, the
staircase hall is covered with a roof of similar design and with a skylight in the
centre. Round the wall and at the same distance from the skylight, as in
111. 75, the Professor has had reproduced the'Bassae sculpture; the result,
however, as regards the lighting of the figures, is disastrous, two-thirds of them
being in shadow.
80.-
Scale half-inch to one foot.
JAPITAL FROM THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO
AT BASSAE.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
of the second fillets of the volute with a curved fillet which
descends to the top of the echinus moulding. In the Erechtheum
capital there are intermediate fillets, to render the effect more
complete. The raising of the upper fillet, however, in the capital
at Bassae resulted in another difficulty, viz., that of designing
an abacus to fit it,* and the result is not quite satisfactory.
The abacus as found
aligns with the Corin-
thian capital at the
end of the cella. The
capital is not set out
on the same axis as
that of the shaft, and
the side faces are
diverse from that of
the front and have a
different inclination.
This capital is the
earliest example of
the order known, and
possibly predates its
supposed invention by
Callimachus as men-
tioned by Vitruvius. It
is probable, however,
that not only the idea
of the bell capital, but
its decoration with
acanthus leaves, is of
8I.-BASE AND CAPITAL OF A VOTIVE COLUMN AT DELPHI.
a tt C i 6 U t
origin. In the acan-
thus column found at Delphi (111. 81), and dating from the
same period, viz., the last quarter of the fifth century
B.C., the lower part of the shaft rises from a calyx of three
acanthus_leaves, and from the upper portion of the shaft
spring three other acanthus leaves which support caryatide
figures carrying a tripod. The great projection of these acanthus
leaves, and the vigour shown in their carving, testify that as a
* In the first publication of this temple by the Dilettanti Society (Vol IV )
and in Blouet's Expedition Scientifiqut de Moree, no abacus is shown, but it appears to
have been carved out of a separate block (of which Cockerell gives the drawing)
not known to earlier explorers.
THE CULMINATION IN THE PELOPONNESOS.
97
decorative feature the foliage of this plant must have been
adopted from a very early period. Of slightly later date, but
with Ionic capitals and bases which recall the purity of those in
the Acropolis, is the Temple at Messa in the island of Lesbos
(111. 82), an octastyle pseudodipteral temple with fourteen
columns on the flanks, and the usual plan of pronaos, cella,
and epinaos.
Up to the present our references to the temples have treated
of them as isolated buildings irre-
spective of their surroundings and
enclosures, and as a rule the
earlier travellers confined their
researches and descriptions to the
particular temple they had sought
for and discovered. But the prin-
cipal temples of Greece were invari-
ably surrounded by a wall forming
a sacred enclosure or temenos, in
which the principal shrine and
other subsidiary buildings con-
nected with it were erected. In
some cases, as in the Acropolis at
Athens, the rock formed the sacred
enclosure ; in other cases, as at
Olympia (111. 83*), where the site
was a fertile valley, or as at Delphi,
on the slope of a hill, the whole of
the sacred site was enclosed, and
contained not only the great temple
and minor temples dedicated to various deities, but treasuries
erected by various cities to contain their offerings and the
regalia of their processions ; stoas or colonnades, on the walls
of which were painted various episodes in the history of the
country, mythological or otherwise ; altars ; and votive columns
and statues, set up in memory of victors in the games or heroes,
or of munificent donors. In addition, the enclosures were often
planted with trees and sacred groves, and provided with
colonnades and exedra given by wealthy devotees.
The discovery of these accessories has been brought about
* This illustration is reproduced from A Companion to Greek Studies, edited by
Leonard Whibley, by permission of the Cambridge University Press, the
publishers.
A.G.R. H
m • Q a
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 FEET
82. — THE TEMPLE AT MESSA, IN THE
ISLAND OF LESBOS.
98 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
owing to the great change made in the method of research
during the last twenty-five years. The sites of the great shrines
are now in many cases completely excavated, and the superin-
cumbent earth removed to a distance. By this system not only
have new features in the plans been discovered which had
escaped the attention of earlier explorers, but the foundations
and the remains of numerous other structures have been found,
adding considerably to our knowledge. In fact, those of the
treasuries alone may be said to have added a new chapter to
the history of architecture.
The conjectural restorations made by some of the " Grand
Prix" students, such as those of Olympia, Epidaurus, Delphi,
and Delos, based on the actual foundations so far as the
buildings are concerned, and in many cases on the archi-
tectural remains, and supplemented by the addition of the
grove of sacred trees with which the sanctuaries were planted,
have suggested a magnificence, a combination of nature with
art, which it is difficult to realise now to its fullest extent, and
of which the only parallel is to be found in some of the
Buddhist sanctuaries in India, China, and Japan, where, in
consequence of a somewhat similar cult, temples, tombs, and
other monuments exist up to the present day.
The researches of the explorers on all these sites have
been greatly facilitated by the writings of Pausanias, who may
be looked upon as the " Murray " of Ancient Greece, and
with whose description it has been possible to walk through
the sacred precincts and to locate the principal monuments,
giving them their true names and dates — a course which has
been made easier by the discovery of a very large number of
inscriptions found on the sites. In some cases, and particularly
at Olympia, the inhabitants during the Byzantine period had
utilised the remains as materials for the building of enclosure
walls. By the removal of these walls the recovery of such
remains enabled the explorers to complete restorations which
the inscriptions on them assigned to other buildings on the site.
The conjectural restorations by Messrs. Laloux and Monceaux
of Olympia convey a fairly correct idea of the splendour of
that famous shrine ; whilst those of Delphi by M. Tournaire
of which the drawings were exhibited in the Paris Exhibition
of 1900 are even more remarkable owing to the magnificence
of the site on which the sacred enclosure was built.
H 2
100
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
Portions of the remains of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia
(111. 84) were already known, but the complete exposure of the
plan has revealed features hitherto unrecorded. Apparently
the building had never been converted into a church, as in
the case of the Parthenon and other temples in Greece, and,
therefore, the pavement is better preserved, and shows the
traces of the folding gates between the columns and antae of
the pronaos, as also those of the
great door leading into the cella.
Just within the same, on either
side, have been found the sinkings
in which it is supposed the newels
of a wood staircase were fixed,
which, according to Pausanias,
led to a gallery on each side of
the cella, and were continued up
to the space between the ceiling
and the roof. A range of seven
Doric^ columns on each side
divided the cella into a central
and two side aisles, and carried
the_gallery, with an upper range
of marble columns to support
the ceiling. Across the cella and
between the columns are the
traces of a stone screen about
five, feet high, with folding doors
in the centre and into each aisle.
From the second to the fifth
columns on each side were similar
stone screens fitted within the
central flutes of the columns.
Beyond the fifth columns, and
where the pedestal of the great statue stood, are traces of metal
enclosures. Access therefore to the cella, and by staircases
to the gallery, was given to privileged persons, so that they
could approach nearer to the chryselephantine statue of Zeus.
In front of the base of the pedestal was a pavement of bluish-
black Eleusinian limestone, enclosed by a raised border of
Pentelic marble, in which the oil, mentioned by Pausanias, was
kept, the oil being apparently necessary to prevent the ivory
50 40 30 20 10 0
00 FEET
84. — THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA.
THE CULMINATION IN THE PELOPONNESOS. 101
from splitting, and probably the wooden core from swelling, in
the damp climate of the Altis.* The temple, which was hexa-
style Doric, with thirteen columns on the flanks, was built in
the coarse conglomerate stone of the district, covered with a
thin coat of white stucco and painted. It was, however,_roofed
wittumarble tiles. The objection to the hypaethros in this
temple is more pronounced in consequence of the climate, but
there would be no objection to an opening in the ceiling through
which the light penetrating the translucent tiles of Parian marble
would have been sufficient to illumine the interior of the cella.
Akin to the temples, and situated within the sacred enclosure
of the Altis of Olympia, were buildings known as Treasuries,
which were built by the various cities taking part in the
Olympian games, for the reception of their offerings, arms, and
other properties. Similar treasuries existed at Delphi, Delos, and
other sacred shrines to which pilgrimages were made. The plans
of twelve of these treasuries have been laid bare at Olympia,
on a terrace at the foot of Mount Cronos (111. 83). These
buildings consist of a chamber about sixteen to twenty feet
square, preceded by a portico-in-antis, and are all of the Doric
order. One of the treasuries, that of Gela, is of more import-
ance than usual : the chamber measures forty-two feet by thirty-
five feet, and at a later date a hexastyle portico had been added
to it. Although but few remains were found on the spot, numerous
blocks of the cornice and pediments were found in the Byzantine
walls round the site which have been proved to belong to the
building^ and in these blocks of masonry were found nails which
showed that they were protected by terra-cotta slabs, of which
numerous brilliantly-coloured examples were found (111. 85).
Evidence of various kinds has been forthcoming which proves
that this treasury was built by Sicilian architects, and that the
terra-cotta plaques were imported from Gela, in the south of
Sicily, founded 690 B.C. The protection of timber roofs by terra-
cotta plaques was universal in Greece, but this is the only
instance known in which the tradition seems to have been
extended for the protection of stone. The date of this treasury
has been assumed by Dr. Dorpfeld to be the first half of the
sixth century B.C., the portico having been added a century later.
Although of smaller dimensions (twenty-eight feet by
* A similar precaution was taken in the Parthenon, except that in the latter
water only was required to counteract the intense dryness of the Acropolis.
102 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
twenty- one feet), the Treasury of the Cnidians, discovered by the
French at Delphi, is the most notably decorated example found.
The vestibule consisted of a portico-in-antis, in which caryatide
figures raised on pedestals, and carrying the polos with a pro-
jecting capital of singular design, took the place of columns.
The enrichment of the mouldings of the entablature and
pediment and the anthemion design on the soffit of the cornice
(111. 86), and round the architrave of the doorway, are Ionian in
style. The Treasury was built of Parian or Naxian marble, and
brilliantly coloured. Vivid traces of colour existed in the frag-
ments found, and the elaboration and carving of the mouldings
85. — TERRA-COTTA COVERING OF THE CORNICES OF ROOF I TREASURY OF GELA AT OLYMPIA.*
Colours of the terra-cotta : Light yellow, red, and black.
of the cornice are equal to those of the Erechtheum at Athens,
which it precedes by nearly a century. The frieze, two feet one
inch in height, was enriched with sculpture in high relief, painted
in red, blue, and green, the effect being heightened by bronze
spear-heads, wheels of chariots, and bronze harness fastened to
the marble. In the pediment were groups of figures of less
size, the upper portions of which were carved in the round and
detached from the tympanum at the back.
* 111. 85 is reproduced (to a smaller scale) from the magnificent work dealing
with the German researches at Olympia, entitled "Die Baudenkwaler von
Olympia," by F. Adler, R. Borrmann, W. Dorpield.
THE CULMINATION IN THE PELOPONNESOS.
103
Among the important accessories in the temenos of a great
temple were the stoas or colonnades which afforded protection
to the visitors or pilgrims to the shrine. The Stoa Poecile at
Olympia, so called on account of the paintings which decorated
the wall at the back, stood on the east side of the Altis, and
consisted of a double corridor three hundred and thirty-one feet
long, with columns of the Doric order outside, and an inner
range of Ionic columns inside to assist in carrying the roof.
At Epidaurus these colonnades, of which there were two
ranging along the north side of the enclosure, were of the Ionic
order, and one of the two was in two storeys. Their use here
was of greater importance, in that they served as the temporary
refuge of the patients who
came to the shrine of Aescu-
lapius to be healed of their
ailments.
At Delphi, besides the
Colonnade of the Athenians,
built against the raised terrace
of the Temple of Apollo, were
two others outside the en-
closure on the east and west
sides, where the pilgrims were
housed before their admit-
tance to the temenos.
* At Delos similar colon-
nades flanked the approach to
the propylaea of the temenos, and on the north side of the same
was the portico, three hundred and twenty feet long, known as
the Stoa of the Horns, so called from the bulls' heads on the
triglyphs. At the back of this portico, and entered from it,
were a series of chambers the destination of which has never
been determined. One of the most remarkable buildings at
- Delos is the Sanctuary of the Bulls, which measures two
hundred and ten feet long by thirty feet wide, with a tetrastyle
portico at one end, and at the farther end a hall at a lower
level, to which one descended by a flight of steps, placed
between piers decorated with two bulls on each side as bracket
capitals, and semi-Doric capitals on the other side of pier.
Though of later date, there are two other buildings at
Olympia and Epidaurus, within the temenos of these shrines,
86.— SCULPTURED DETAIL FROM THE TREASURY
OF THE CNIDIANS.
104
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
which should be noted. The circular building in the former,
called the Philiprjeum^ commenced by Philip 33oi__B1c., and
completed by Alexander, consists of a Circular ceTTasurrounded
by a peristyle nf eighteen Ionic columns. The walls of the
interior were decorated with semi-detached
Corinthian nrdsrt with, accord-
ing to T. Hayter Lewis, an upper range above
them reaching to the roof. The rafters of the
roof, covering both peristyle and cella in one
slope, were, according to Pausanias, held
together at the top by a bronze poppy, which
formed a. central finial. The cyma in terra-
cotta is shown in 111. n5, page 131. The
Rotunda (TJiolos) _at Epidaurus was a much more beautiful
example, and of its remains sufficient have been found to give
a conjectural restoration (111. 87). It is more probable that the
roof rose in one slope from the peristyle cornice to an open-
87.— PLAN OF THE
THOLOS AT EPIDAURUS.
88. — CAPITAL FROM THE THOLOS AT EPIDAURUS.
ing or impluvium of some sort in the centre, and was not
of the design shown in Defrasse's work.* The building con-
sisted of a circular cella, with an external peristyle of twenty-
six Doric columns, and inside a circle of fourteen Corinthian
columns, with extremely beautiful capitals (111. 88), showing-a
* Epidaure, par M. Alphonse Defrasse.
THE CULMINATION IN THE PELOPONNESOS.
marked advance on that already referred to at Bassae, which
precedes them by about thirty years. • Both the Tholos and
Theatre at Epidaurus are stated by Pausanias to have been
built by Polycleitos the younger, and date from about 400 B.C.
Among the structures erected in the sacred enclosures were
altars, some of which were of considerable size, but beyond their
foundations all traces of their design have disappeared. In the
great Altar of Zeus at Pergamum, discovered by the Germans
89. — BASE AND PORTICO OF THE GREAT ALTAR OF ZEUS AT PERGAMUM
(REPRODUCED FROM Pergame, BY M. PONTREMOLI AND MAX COLLIGNON).
in 1880, sufficient remains have been found to justify a con-
jectural restoration, at all events, of its magnificent podium
(Ill.Sg). The altar was built by Eumenes II. (191 — 152 B.C.)
on the second terrace of the acropolis overlooking the valley
of the river Seleucus, and was raised on a podium seventeen
feet six inches high, which measured one hundred and twenty-
eight by one hundred and ten feet. Round the sides, at a height
of eight feet from the ground of the terrace, was a frieze seven
feet six inches high, carved in high relief, representing the
Gigantomachia, or battle of the Gods and the Giants, and of
106 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
which three-fourths is now in the Museum at Berlin. In the
principal front, facing the east, was a flight of steps seventy-four
feet wide, which rose between wings of the podium, leading to
the altar, which was surrounded by a wall also carved with bas-
reliefs. On the outside of this wall was an Ionic peristyle,
which was carried to the front of the podium, returning on each
side of the steps, and (according to the German authorities*)
carried across the top of the steps in front of the altar.
On the terrace above the altar was the Temple of Athena
Polias, of the Doric order, enclosed in a square court, on two
sides of which was a colonnade in two storeys.
* This proposed restoration would, however, mask the great altar, the sacrifices
at which were probably intended to be seen from the plain below. Moreover,
it does not accord with the representation shown on the Pergamum coin
struck in the reign of Septimius Severus (193 — 211 A.D.), on which an altar, of
simple design and of less height than the Ionic peristyles, is shown standing
between them. In the conjectural restoration by M. Pontremoli (Pergame, E.
Pontremoli et Max Collignon, 1900), the peristyles are dwarfed by the immense
altar shown.
90. — CAPITAL FROM THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO
CUS AT MILETUJ
CHAPTER VI.
THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD.
WE now return to Asia Minor, to deal with the monuments
which still testify to the greatness of Greece even in her
decline. The supremacy of Athens was but short-lived, for
there followed a long succession of wars, Sicilian, Peloponnesian,
and Corinthian, draining all her energies, besides depriving her of
her leadership of the Greek race, to which Philip of Macedonia
showed himself to be the true heir. The next important event
politically was the triumph of Alexander in Asia Minor. After
bringing Greece to his feet in 334 B.C., he set out for Asia, where
in one year he added to his territory the whole of the Ionian
colonies, besides part of Lycia, Pamphylia, and Phrygia. From
Ancyra Alexander marched to meet the army of Darius III. from
Babylon in contest for the empire of Asia, and entirely routed
the Persian host. The success of his arms led to a revival of
architectural grandeur in Asia Minor, in which the qualities of
the magnificent and ornate are conspicuous.
We have already noted that in some of the earliest archaic
Ionic capitals that which is known as the egg and tongue
moulding was carried round underneath the volute, being in
fact the crowning feature of the shaft. It is not possible, how-
ever, to assume that it constituted a rule, because already in
the archaic Ephesian capital only the lower portion is visible
under the cushion of the volute, and the bead below has
io8
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
become the upper moulding. The tendency, however, in the
Alexandrian periods was to raise still further the carved echinus
so that it ultimately ranged with the second curve of the spiral
of— the-A2Xjlute, and in that case disappeared altogether under
the cushion. In the earliest example of the long list of temples
in Asia Minor, which we have now to describe, the Temple
of Dianaat^rienernear Miletus (a small but beautiful example
built in 340 B.C. from the designs of Pythios), only the lowest
fringe of the egg and tongue is visible, and here the bead which
rpmejp underneath it fa rarvpfl n\\{ of {he upper drum of the
^5 Via ft The temple wRg h^v^tyl^ with eleven columns on the
, and is of the ordinary plan, with pronaos, cella, and
e p i n JL Q s. One or
two of the capitals
of the peristyle and
the capital of one of
the antae are in the
British Museum.
The propylaeum of
the temenos of the
temple is of somewhat
later.. .date, and has
tetrastyle porticoes of
the Ionic order in the
front and rear, one
of the capitals of
which, now in the
British Museum, may
be from thirty to forty
years later than those of the temple. The walls of the pro-
pylaeum are, however, dejcorated externally with flat pilaster
strips* in which there is a slight diminution of the diameter,
a departure from Greek principles, which suggests a later
rebuilding. According to Pullan, there is no authority for
the square piers carrying the ceiling of the propylon as shown
in the restoration published in The Ionian Antiquities, vol. iv. ;
and the capital in the British Museum (111. 91) which, it
is supposed, crowned ..one of these piers, has an additioftgi
member above the abacus; moreover, on its upper- surface
are sinkings, which suggest thpf \\ rarri^d R bronz
91.— CAPITAL OF PIER CARRYING A STATUE IN
THE TEMENOS AT PRIENE. .
1 he capitals of the pilaster strips were apparently of the
THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD. log
same design * as this pedestal cap, and of two others
of much larger size, one of which is also in the British
Museum. To judge by the unfinished surface of the jnember
above the, abacus, it was i^r^b^bl^^hQ^lQ^^^h^^^ZQ. In
this cap also were sinkings, the use of which has lately been
disclosed through the discovery of one of the bronze statues
92. — DRUM OF COLUMN FROM THE TEMPLE OF DIANA (
off the island of Cerigo ; this was apparently wrenched off its
pedestal, as the lead which secured it .to its stone base is still
attached to the bronze foot. -^
Though not the largest, tile most important temple in Asia
Minor was the great temple of Diana (Artemis) at Ephesus.
* Failing another term, the Germans give the name of saddle to that portion of
the Ionic capital in which a second spiral is carried across the capital and down
to the top of the echinus. The term "cradle or sofa volute" might be applied
to the capital (111. 91).
no
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
We have already referred to the archaic temple built about
the middle of the sixth century B.C., which, according to the care-
ful investigations made in 1905, was built over the site of three
earlier, but much smaller examples. The archaic temple of
the sixth century war burnt in 356 B.C., and rebuilt imme-
diately afterwards at ;Ja higher level (9 feet, according to Mr.
Henderson), in still
greater splendour,
borrowing appa-
rently from the
earlier temple the
idea of the .^sculpt
tared columns found
only at Ephesus. It
was probably the
beauty of these
sculptured decora-
tions (which ex-
tended not only to
the lower portion
of thirty-six of its
columns, but alsp_
to square pedestals
carrying some of the
latter, 111. 93) which
caused this temple
to be classed
among the wonders,
of the ancientworld.
The site of the
temple was dis-
covered and exca-
vated by J. T.
Wood in 1869-74,
and the remains brought over and placed in the British
Museum. The conjectural restoration by Murray, based on
a long study of the sculptured drums and pedestals, which
form so important a part of the remains in the British
Museum, has been generally accepted by both English
and foreign archaeologists. The temple had one hundred
columns, thirty-six of which were sculptured on the
93. — SCULPTURED ^EDESTAL AND DRUM FROM THE TEMPLE
OF DIANA (ARTEMIS) AT EPHESUS.
THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD.
y
in
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
lower drum. Wood found two of the columns of the peristyle
oFthe north and south flanks in-situ, about one hundred feet
run of the lowest
step of the stylo-
bate on the
south side, and
the foundations
of a great portion
of the rest of
the structure,
which, with
Pliny's state-
ments, shows
that the temple
was octastyle,
dipteral, with
pronaos, vesti-
bule, cella, opis-
thodomus, and
posticum. The
chief problem to
be solved was
the relative posi-
tion of a series
of square sculp-
tured pedestals
(111. 93), not
specifically
mentioned by
Pliny, and the
thirty - six
columns with
sculptured
drums. Finding
that the height
of the platform
on which the
peristyle rested would coincide with that of the square pedestals,
Murray placed eight of the sculptured columns on the latter* both
* The raising of the Columnae Coelatae on the square plinths was suggested
many years ago by Fergusson, but it is still an open question, and if the researches
95. — PLAN OF TEMPLE OF DIANA (ARTEMIS) AT EPHESUS
AS RESTORED BY DR. MURRAY.
THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD. 113
at the east and west ends (111. 94). In the rear of these, standing
on the platform, are eight more at each end, and of the remaining
four sculptured columns two in the pronaos and two in the
posticum. A stylobate of four steps is carried round the whole
structure, and a flight of nine steps, to reach the platform at
the east and west ends, placed between the first and second rows
oLcalumns. The bases of the wall and columns tinted black
on the plan (111. 95), were discovered by Wood, and the founda-
tion of other parts of the temple, which show that beyond
the pronaos was a .vestibule in which were probably the
staircases leading to the roof, a cella with ranges of super-
posed columns on each side to carry the ceiling, the opistho-
domus or treasury beyond, and the epinaos or posticum in the
rear at the west end. The architects of the temple were
Paeonius and Demetrius, both of Ephesus; and the former is
said to have been employed, with Daphne of Miletus, to build
the temple of Apollo Didymaeus or Branchidae near Miletus. S-
. The temple of Apollo Didymaeus was the largest temple in Asia
Minor. There was an earlier temple on the site, with a sacred
way leading to it, which was bordered by the archaic seated
figures, some of which are in the British Museum, to which
'reference has already been made : this temple was burnt by
Darius, and after a partial restoration completely destroyed by
Xerxes. The new temple was so large that, according to Strabo,*
they were unable to roof it ; in other words, the cella was
hypaethral, one of the few examples about which there is no
doubt, though, curiously enough, Vitruvius does not refer to it.
Although chronologically it is given as having been rebuilt
shortly after its destruction by Xerxes, the remains suggest a
much later date. One of the two architects employed was
Paeonius, the architect of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, and
it is suggested by Messrs. Rayet and Thomas t that probably
shortly before the completion of the latter temple, about 334 B.C.,
made in 1905 (when the exact position of every stone on the site was carefully
noted, with its relative height), should show that there was no platform as sug-
gested by Murray, and that the steps were in one flight from the outer step shown
on 111. 95, it will be necessary to raise the square sculptured plinths and place
them on the same level as the circular sculptured columns alternating with them,
and possibly included in the thirty-six columnae caelatae cited by Pliny.
K Strabo (lib. xiv.) says: "In after-times the inhabitants of Miletus built a
temple which is the largest of all, but which, on account of its vastness, remains
without a roof, and there now exist, inside and outside, precious groves of laurel
bushes."
f Milet et le golfe Latmique, par Oliver Rayet et Albert Thomas.
A.G.R. I
u4
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
he was employed, with Daphne of Miletus, to build the temple
of Apollo Didymaeus. As the temple was ,.dipteralj(z.0., with
a double peristyle of columns all round), it was probably
carried out before Her-
mogenes, according to
Vitruvius, conceived the
idea of omitting the inner
row of columns in the
temple of Artemis Leu-
cophryne at Magnesia-
ad-Meandrum, making it
pseudodipteral. Hermo-
genes flourished during
the last quarter of the
fourth century B.C., so that
we shall not be far wrong
in attributing a date of
334—320 to the Didy-
maean temple.* This
would accord with the
design of its Ionic capi-
which are later than
those of Ephesus, and
with the exuberant rich-
ness of the ornament of
the bases of the columns,
in which they would seem
to have .attempted to
96. — TEMPLE OF APOLLO DIDYMAEUS AT MILETUS.
(Rayet and Thomas.)
dval^. though in another
direction, the famous
columnae caelatae of the
latter. The Didymaean
temple was not onlyjre_-
roarkable for its size, but
for its design. It was
deca&tyle and dipteral, with a deep pronaos, followed by an
antechamber, known as the Chresmographion, when- the oracles
* In the later excavations carried out by Messrs. Pontremoli and Haussolier, por-
tions of the external frieze were found with heads of Zeus and Apollo bearing so
strong a resemblance to the sculptures of the Great Altar at Pergamum built by
Seleucus II. (197 — 160 B.C.) as to suggest a later date for the completion of the Temple ;
on one of the Ionic capitals found, busts of Apollo decorated the volutes, with a bull's
head in the centre. M. Haussolier is also of opinion that there was no pediment.
THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD.
were delivered, on each side of which were stone staircases,
carried between walls. The cella formed an open court, to
which one descended by a flight of steps, the pavement being
sixteen feet six inches below the level of the peristyle. In the
centre of the cella no pavement was found, which led Messrs.
Rayet and Thomas to assume that it was planted with trees
and shrubs. At the turth^rrenTthey traced the foundations of
a shrine, measuring thirty feet by twenty-eight fp.p.tT opsn in
front* with ajitae on each side, the capitals of which were found
APITAL OF SEMI-COLUMN IN TEMPLE OF APOLLO DIDYMAEUS AT MILETUS.
on the site, decorated in
leaf ornament on either
the
side. In this shrine was placed the
bronze figure of Apollo, which was taken away to Ecbatana by
Xerxes, and brought back by Seleucus about 295 B.C. The
walls of the £ella. were decorated with jm men se ..pilasters . sixJJeet
.wjde^nAthree_feet deep, resting on a podium, so that their bases
ranged on the same level as those of the peristyle. Thejieight of
the pilasters, including capital and base, was nearly the same as
that of the peristyle columns. The capitals of the pilasters were
very y^rie^in design. (111. 90, p. 107), and hpfwpe" the
I 2
n6
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
nui a band sculptured with griffins and lyres. There were nine
pilasters on each side, and three at the west end, with return
responds at each angle. At the e_ast .endpf .the..cella,on either side
of the entrance door, were semi-detached co^rnns. the Corinthian
capitals of which are more fully developed than any example
hitherto quoted (111.
97). The spirals in
the centre of each
face, which carry the
anthemion ornament,
however, are small,
and leave too much
of the surface of the
bell uncovered.
In the temple at
Priene. already r e -
ferred to, the bases of
the columns of the peristyle rested on square plinths, %Rt"rpg
never found in the purer Greek temples, as they would interfere
with the free passage round. Similar 4>lin_tbs are found in
the temple of Ajxjllp Didymaeus, where the diameter of the
column is six feet six inches, notwithstanding the great pro-
jection which such a plinth must have had diagonally. In the
bases of the principal
part of the temple VWVWWWWl^^
there is considerable "-"• •" — •*" — - ""• * "
diversity in design,
and the npper_and
1 ower . torus
98. — DODECAGONAL BASE OF TEMPLE OF APOLLO
DIDYMAEUS AT MILETUS.
ings are richly carved.
Qne of the bases
found is quite excep-
tional in its design ; 99.— ANTA CAPITAL OF THE BATHS AT CNIDUS.
the scotia and lower
tprus are replaced by a dodecagonal base, each. face of which is
panelled and decorated within with conventional foliage, and
in one panel with a figure riding a sea horse (111. 98).
Next in date and dimension to the two temples just described
comes the Temple of Artemis Leucophryneat Magnesia-ad-Mean-
_drum. Originally dipteral and of the fifth century, it was rebuilt
by Hermogenes (330 — 300 B.C.) and made pseudo-dipteral.
THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD.
117
The new temple was or.ta.style^ with fifteen columns on the
flank, and, like the temple at Ephesus, was rais^^n .a platform.
Hermogenes was also the architect of the Temple of I^ionysus
(Bacchus) at Teos, a smaller example, hexastyle, peripteral,
with eleven columns on the. flanks. The capitals^jid- base
are of poor design. The temple of Apollo Sminthejis. in
the Troad (111. 100), which, with those at Teos and Priene
(111. 101), were published by the Society of Dilettanti in the
20 30 40 50 60FEET
100. — TEMPLE OF APOLLO SMINTHEUS IOI. — TEMPLE AT PRIENE.
(SMINTHEUM) IN THE TROAD.
fourth volume of the Antiquities of Ionia, is a .finer example,
with a further enrichment of the capital above the egg and
tongue moulding. The temple was octastyle pseudo-dipteral,
with fourteen columns on the flanks.
The antae capitals of the edifice at Cnidus, known as the
baths, are of great purity of design (111. 99). The rosettes on
the capital recall those often found on Greek stele.
Other less known Ionic temples in Asia Minor are those
of £ybele at Sardis, whose Ionic capitals (111. 102) were
specially admired by Cockerell ; of_JAphrod]te at. AjDhrodisias
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
(111. 103), and of Aizani inJLlirygia. The two latter are pro-
bably of late date, but as they were executed by Greek artists
still working on ancient tradition, they retain a much greater
purity of style than that_
found in Roman work. The
capitals of the columns of the
pr< maos at Aizani (111. 104) are
decorated with a single_ip_w
of aansees under the
volute?, constituting therefore
• . | j .1
.composite capitals, and the V
earliest known, if the date }
attributed to them (first cen-/^
tury B.C.) be correct.
\. Having now exhausted the
list of the Ionic temples in Asia
Minor, we have to retrace our steps in point of date to describe
other monuments of the Ionic order, the most important of
which, and dating from the middle of the fourth century B.C.,
CAPITAL OF THE TEMPLE OF CYBELE
AT SARDIS.
103.— TEMPLE OF APHRODITE AT APHRODISIAS
was the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus built by Queen Artemisia
in memory of her husband Mausolus, who died in 353 B.C.
According to Pliny, the monument ranked among the seven
wonders of the world, owing to the eminence of the artists \\h<>
THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD.
119
were called in to adorn it with sculpture. These were Bryaxis,
Leochares, Timotheus, Scopas, and Pythios. The monument
consisted of a lofty podium carrying a peristyle (pteron) of
thirty-six columns. Above the pteron was a pyramid contract-
ing itself by twenty-four steps into the summit of a meta. On
the top was the marble quadriga sculptured by Pythios. Pliny's
dimensions are sixty-three feet for the north and south sides
of podium (?), a shorter space on the fronts, four hundred and
eleven feet for the entire circuit of platform (?), one hundred
and forty feet for the total height, and twenty-five cubits for
the height of the pteron, which dimension accords with the
height of the order
in the British
Museum.
The site was exca-
vated in 1856 by Sir
Charles Newton,
and the remains
discovered brought
over and deposited
in the British
Museum.* Long
previous to their
discovery the con-
jectural restoration
of the monument
had been a favourite
problem with many
architects, and one of these restorations is now in the British
Museum. CockerelPs restoration was based on the description
given by Pliny and other authors, and although the actual
remains have proved it to be incorrect in some of its features, its
architectural design sets forth the intimate acquaintance of its
author with the principles of Greek art. Unfortunately Pliny's
description is so vague, and the remains found are comparatively
so few, that the problem is yet far from being solved. The
exceptions to be taken to Cockerell's design are, first, the square
piers at the angles, in the place of which were columns, as
evidenced by the portion found of an angle volute ; (2) the intro-
duction of the attic storey, for which there is no authority ;
* 111. 105 shows the restoration of the order as set up in the British Museum.
104.— CAPITAL OF COLUMN IN PRONAOS OF TEMPLE OF
JUPITER AT AIZANI.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
(3) the question whether the cella in the centre is in accord with
Martial's description of the Mausoleum as " hanging in open
air " ; and (4) the rise and tread of the steps of the pyramid
and their design,
which does not
agree with the
examples in the
Museum. Of other
restorations by
Fergusson, Pullan,
and Mr. J. J.
Stevenson, the
design of the latter,
published in the
Builder of August,
1896, is the one
which accords best
with the descrip-
tion and dimen-
sions given by
Pliny, Martial,
and others. Mr.
Stevenson's design
is based on another
though later tomb
at Mylasa. In it
he utilises the
steps with broad
tread (which un-
doubtedly belong
to the roof) for the
lower degrees of
the pyramid, and
raises the upper
portion into the
form of a meta
as described by Pliny by employing other steep steps which were
found on the site. The defect in his design lies in the abrupt
change from one to the other. If the junction of the two sets of
steps had been broken by plinths and antefixae, as in Cockerell's
attic storey, or, better still, by pedestals carrying the famous lions,
105. — ENTABLATURE OF MAUSOLEUM AS SET UP IN
THE BRITISH MUSEUM.
THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD. 121
these would have masked the transit from the low to the high
pitch of the pyramid. The tomb at Mylasa is of much smaller
dimensions, but its pyramid still exists, and in a sense recalls
Martial's description, as it is entirely supported by the columns
and piers round, the angles being tied inside by diagonal beams
of stone across the four corners. In the Nereid monument,
also in the British Museum, may be studied another example of
the substructure or podium on which such a tomb as that at
Halicarnassus was raised, and the bands or friezes of sculpture
with which it was decorated may be regarded as further
evidence of the correctness of Cockerell's restoration. The
structure carried on the podium in the Nereid monument was
the reproduction of a small Ionic tetrastyle temple, but in the
tomb at Mylasa just referred to, although it belongs to the
Corinthian order, we find a monument which was apparently
based on the design of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, and
possessing the three divisions of podium, pteron, and pyramid.
In consequence of the great weight which it has to carry there
are square piers at the four angles, and the intermediate supports
consist of semi-detached columns against a small central pier.
Though coming more within the range of sculpture than of
architecture, the marble sarcophagi found at Sidon by Hamdy
Bey, and now in the museum at Constantinople, are magni-
ficent examples of the decorative sculpture of the Macedonian
period, which in consequence of their good state of preservation
show the extent to which polychromy was employed to enrich
the elaborately carved mouldings.
LYCIAN TOMBS.
There is still a large series of tombs to which as yet we have
not referred, owing to the difficulty of determining their real
chronological position, and also because, although they betray
an apparently early origin, owing to the close imitation of wooden
forms, a closer analysis of some of them shows that their
design was largely influenced by the earlier stone architecture of
the neighbouring Greek cities. This influence is clearly shown
in the Lycian Ionic tombs, where the front of the tomb carved
in the rock is copied from a portico-in-antis with Ionic
columns : in fact, here a double transformation would appear to
have taken place ; the Lycians copied the earlier Greek stone
temples in wood, and then reproduced these copies in their
122
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
rock-cut tombs. The entablature is composed of the double or
triple fascia of the architrave, no frieze, but a range of projecting
dentils which have no meaning seeing that they are crowned with
a pediment. Dentils represent the ends of beams of squared
timber laid side by side, which in the original hut carried the flat
mud roof. Sometimes these beams are copies of unsquared logs,
and their round ends are shown above the pillar of the Lion's
I06. — TOMB OF PAYARA FOUND AT XANTHOS.
Gate at Mycenae. They do not seem to have been reproduced
decoratively at any later period. The ends of the squared
timbers, on the other hand, not only in Asia Minor but in Persia,
were retained, and constitute as dentils one of the most impor-
tant decorative characteristics of the Ionian and Persian styles ;
but they were reduced in dimensions, and were retained prob-
ably to give support to the projecting cornice. In the rock-cut
tombs of Lycia, however, these dentils are of almost the same
THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD.
123
107. THE CHORAGIC MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES AT ATHENS.
124 GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
dimensions as the original wood beams they represent, and
being cut in the rock the cornice needed no support. These
tombs, which are found in the south of Asia Minor, in Caria,
and in Lycia, exist in hundreds, and as a rule are cut in the
sides of cliffs. Broadly speaking, there are three types. The
first, direct copies of framed timber structures, those with the
horizontal cornices being probably the oldest. The second
type, some of which are rock-cut and some constructed, consist
of a sarcophagus with pointed curvilinear roof, of which a fine
example, the tomb of Payara(375 — 362 B.C.), found at Xanthos, is
in the British Museum (111. 106). This sarcophagus is apparently
copied from a portable ark or shrine, the staves or beams for
carrying the same being carved in full relief. It rests on a
double podium, the upper portion of which is carved with a
sculptured frieze of figures. In the third type are the Lycian
Ionic tombs already referred to, the principal examples of which
are found at Xanthos, Telmessus, Myra, Pinara, and Antiphellus.
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.
The only reference made by Pausanias to the Corinthian
order occurs in a passage relating to the temple of Athena.
Alea at Tegea. From his description it has been assumed that
the temple was of the Ionic order, and that inside the ceJla were
columns of the Doric order, above which_ (or next to which)
were columns of the Corinthian order. The researches made by
Dr. Dorpfeld, however, in 1879, proved that the temple was of
the Etaric-~order, of which many of the drums were found, so
that how the two other orders were utilised is not known, and
no Ionic or Corinthian capitals were found on the site.
--The best known example of the Greek Corinthian capital and
its most perfected type is that which is found in the choragic
Monument of Lysicrates (Ills. 107, 108), situated in the street of
Tripods leading to the Dionysiac theatre in Athens. We
have already referred to four examples of the order, viz., at
Bassae, Olympia, Epidaurus, and Miletus. In all these examples
the treatment of the leaves and tendrils is such a? to suggest
their having been copied in marble from metallic originals.
Now Callimachus of Corinth is stated by Vitruvius to have
invented this type of capital, and he was apparently not only
a sculptor, but a worker in metal. He is recorded by Pausanias
to have " made the golden lamps which hung in the temple of
THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD.
125
Ml III
Minerva Polias " at Athens, and probably " the bronze palm
tree hanging over the lamp and reaching to the roof," and there-
fore may have origi-
nally worked his 1
design in the Corin-
thian bronze or brass,
which, according to
Pliny, was held in the
highest estimation by
the ancients, thus
accounting for the
title given to the
order. In further
support of thistheory,
Pliny (xxxiv.) refers
to a porticus built in
Rome by Cn. Octa-
vius (i6oB.c.), which
was called Corinthian
from its bronze Corin-
thian capitals.
The capital of the
Lysicrates monu-
ment is deeper than
other examples, being
one and a half dia-
meters high, and the lower row of leaves are petals of some
other plant, which aie occasionally found in Greek sculpture
alternating with the acan-
thus. The upper row of
leaves of acanthus have be-
tween each leaf an eight-
petalled flower or rosace,
which, according to M . Choisy,
was copied from the head of
the pin which fastened the
metal leaves to the bell or core of the capital. There is no annulet
existing between the cap and shaft, but a sinking which suggests
its having been in metal, and the fiutings of the column terminate
in leaves. This is found sometimes in votive columns, and
we have already referred to this treatment in the capital from
moi
3. — THE CORINTHIAN ORDER OF THE CHORAGIC
MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES AT ATHENS.
109. — SCROLL FROM THE ROOF OF THE
MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES.
126
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
Naucratis. The monument is circular, with six columns, and
stands on a square plinth; walls filled in between the columns give
them the appearance of being semi-detached, but the columns are
complete : the filling-in was worked with a hollow to fit them.
The entablature repeats the mouldings of the caryatide
portico of the Erechtheum, but has a sculptured frieze. The
antefixae, which usually form the ter-
mination of the tile-covering rolls, are
here brought out in front of the corona,
and carved as decorative features.
The roof, which is in one block of
marble, has its upper surface carved
in imitation of bronze leaf tiles. In
the centre rises the finial designed to
carry the tripod, and from the base -of
the same are three helices, or scrolls
(111. 109), which it is thought sup-
ported figures or dolphins. In the
upper portion of this finial we recognise
the further development of the design
which we have already seen in the
acanthus column at Delphi. Here, in
addition to the acanthus leaves, we find
the helix utilised to give variety and
greater strength to the support of the
tripod. This monument is the earliest
example of the complex order in which
we find the triple fascia of the archi-
trave taken from the Ionic order, and
a return to the dentil cornice of the
Asia Minor examples, with less pro-
jection given to the dentils. The
frieze, ten inches high, is carved
with a representation of the story of
Dionysus and the pirates, who being thrown into the sea
become metamorphosed into dolphins.
The next important example of the Order is that found in the
great temple °f_J"pitpr Olympins (Ills, no, in), situated in
the plain to the south-east of the Acropolis at Athens. The
temple was built partly on the foundations of an earlier Doric
temple founded by Pisistratus. It was designed by Cossutius, a
HO. — THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER
OLYMPIUS AT ATHENS.
Hi
THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD.
127
Roman architect, and built by Antiochus Epiphanes in 174 B.C.
Penrose's researches in 1884 proved the temple to have been
octastyle, with twenty columns on the flanks. Its dimensions
were i^Jeet by 35 4 feet , and it was built in the centre of a
peribolos measuring 424 feet by 680 feet. The temple /as
jipteral. viz., with _tw^,jaw^.,Qf _coUimn& , on each side Oi
cell a, and with three rows in front and rear. There was i *
pronaos, but no epinaos, and in the rear.af -the-cella, and e.. Ted
from it, was the opi^jjiorlnrnus- The temple as design^ by
Cossutius was left incornplete, and in 80 B.C. the monolith
columns prepared
for the cella, as
also some of the
capitals and
drums of the peri-
style, were trans-
ported by Sulla to
Rome, and used
to decorate the
temple on the
Capitol (see p.
129). The work
was resumed in
the timeof Augus-
tus, but its com-
pletion and
dedication were
reserved for Ha-
drian, 117 A.D.
The temple is one of those described by Vitruvius as hypaethral,
but we are left in doubt whether the whole of the cella was
left uncovered or only its eastern portion in front of the pedestal
destined for the statue of the god which was afterwards set up
by Hadrian. In the latter case the columns of the cella may
have been provided by him to carry the ceiling over the statue
and the side aisles. There is of course no evidence that when
completed by Hadrian any portion of the temple was hypaethral,
because in the time of Vitruvius the cella, unprovided with
columns, would have been too wide to roof over, as in the case
of the Temple of Apollo Didymaeus. The diameter of the
columns of the peristyle was six feet four inches, and their
112. — CAPITAL OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER OLYMPIUS AT ATHENS.
128
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
height being fifty-six feet, gives a relation of diameter to height
ajL i to 8*6, exclusive of
the square plinth, an un-
usually solid proportion.for
the Corinthian order. Ac-
cording to Penrose, some
of the _ca£itcds (111. 112)
belong to the design by
Cossutius, being much too
pure in style to have been
executed under Augustus,
and still less in Hadrian's
time. The carving of the
foliage resembles more that
of the capital in the Tholos
of JEpidaurus, than that
found in the Archway. close
by and the Stoa, both
built by Hadrian. The
capitals, however, vary in
their execution, so that tin-
original design may have
been copied in Hadrian's
work. There are other
Corinthian temples in Asia
Minor, one at Euromus,
near Yakli, illustrated as
" Jackly"in volume I.of The
Ionian Antiquities published
by the Dilettanti Society,
and as " Labranda" in Sir
Charles Fellows's work on
Asia Minor. The temple
was
113. — STEI.E IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM AT ATHENS.
columns hav
Ihe names of
with twelve- columns on
the flanks, and, as shown
in Fellows's work, with
nineteen columns still
standing. Some,
on to themr with
jfap <jnnnrsL as in the case
129
From a photograph by E. G. Spiers.}
Euros. Apeliotes. Kaikias. Boreas.
"4 — THE TOWER OF THE WINDS AT ATHENS.
|
in the temples at Aphrodisias* and Mylasa. Of a second
temple at Ancyra, which was hexastyle peripteral, only the
* Vide 111. 103, page 118.
A.G.R.
i3o GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
cella and pronaos remain ; and there is a third at Sagallassus,
of similar plan.
There is one other well-known example of the Corinthian
order, though of later date, viz., that which is found in the
two small porches of the Tower of the Winds at Athens.
The bell of the capital is decorated with leaves similar to those
found in the capital of the Monument of Lysicrates, with a
single row of acanthus leaves round the base. Other examples
of capitals of the same design were found during the excava-
tions of the Theatre of Dionysus.
The porches of the Tower of the Winds at Athens, to which
the capitals belonged, no longer exist, but the octagonal tower
of marble, twenty-one feet in diameter and forty-four feet high,
is still well preserved, and is not only a beautiful feature but
one of the most characteristic buildings in Greece, the date
of its erection being probably in the first half of the first cen-
tury B.C.* On each side was sculptured a has relief represent-
ing the wind blowing from the quarter facing it, and on the top
of the roof was a huge Triton working on a pivot, with a rod
in his hand which pointed to the figure of the quarter in which
the wind lay. The two figures best seen in the illustration
(No. 114) represent, on the left, Apeliotes, the east wind,
showing fruit and flowers, and on the right, Kaikias, the north-
east wind, holding a dish of olives. Within the tower was a
water clock.
The favourite type of tombstone in Athens in later times
is the vertical slab known as a stele. The example (111. 113)
is now in the National Museum at Athens, and is probably
one of many hundreds which lined the sacred way from Athens
to Eleusis. The scenes represented in these sepulchral reliefs
are generally of a domestic character. Here the husband
seems to be bidding adieu to his wife, called away to another
world.
* It is mentioned by Vitruvius (Bk. i., chap. 5) as having been built by
Andronicus Cyrrhestes.
115.— SIMA IN PAINTED TKRRA-COTTA FROM THE P.HILIPPEUM AT OLYMPIA.
CHAPTER VII.
SECULAR ARCHITECTURE.
OF the typical arrangements of the Greek city, Delos^and
Jiriette- afford the clearest evidence, and indicate a vastly
different state of things from the primitive settlements of Troy
and Tiryns.
The house of the wealthy living, and the resting-place of the
noble dead, appear to have been the chief buildings of the
Mycenaeans ; but in all periods the dwelling-house of the Greeks
must have been an unpretentious fabric. Viewed from without,
it was of a simple nature, being designed only to shut out " the
noise and rattle of the town," the chambers facing inwards to
yards, and, in the more important houses, to peristyles. It
must be remembered that the Greeks of every period spent
their time mostly in the open air and in their places of public
assembly, and that their climate failed to develop the home as
a place of social intercourse. The house seems generally to
have been of one storey, with walls of unburnt brick on a stone
foundation, and flat-roofed ; windows were absent, and the
door opened on a comparatively narrow street. The examples
lately discovered in Athens, Delos, and Priene are of very simple
character, the usual features being a single courtyard, with
an exedra facing the sun and sheltered from the winds, and
one large room provided for feasts, with smaller rooms
and offices round the court and lighted from it : in the
K 2
132
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
more important houses found in Delos and Priene a peri-
style is carried round three sides of the courtyard. The
first portion of the description given by Vitruvius (Bk. vii.,
chap. 10) of thV Greek house is in accord with the remains
found, except tHat he fails to recognise the atrium in the court-
yard or peristyle. His description of the narrow passage
leading from trA street, with the patron's residence on one side
and the stables o\ the other, is also true if in the place of stables
we read offices. The writings of various authors also suggest
that the ordinary Greek house was simply a residence to which
the master of the house returned from his avocations in the city
to take his meals and sleep, and that during the daytime it was
left in the care of the chief matron of the establishment. The
second portion of
Vitruvius's descrip-
tion applies to the
more luxurious addi-
tions which crept in
at a later period,
examples of which
we find at Pompeii,
but it becomes
necessary to reverse
the order he gives.
In other words,
that which Vitruvius
calls the gynaeco-
nitis, or women's quarter, should be transferred to the rear, and
the atrium with its more sumptuous approach, and the exedra,
tablinum, triclinium, and other halls, become the guest-chambers
where the master of the house received his clients and supporters
and entertained his guests. No examples are known to exist of
Greek houses of this type, but the discoveries made by Messrs.
Heuzey and Daumet near Palatitza, in Macedonia, have revealed
the remains of a summer palace built about the middle of
the fourth century B.C. (111. 116). The principal front of the
palace, which faced the east, measured about two hundred
and fifty feet. On either side of the principal entrance were
spacious open porticoes of the Doric order. Three entrances in
the centre led to the prothyrum, whose ceiling was carried by a
double row of Ionic columns similar to those found in the
Il6. — PORTION OF THE PLAN OF THE PALACE AT PALATITZA,
AS RESTORED BY M DAUMET.
SECULAR WORK. 133
Propylaea at Athens and Eleusis. Beyond this was an open
court, with various halls to the right and left, and in front a
Hall of Audience, which at one time was richly decorated with
marbles. Passing through this, one entered an immense court,
about two hundred feet wide, which was surrounded by a peristyle
giving access on the north and south to various chambers, and
on either side of the Hall of Audience to two great halls. The
hall on the left or south side, which was circular, with a
diameter of thirty-six feet, was decorated with marble, and in
it the foundations of an altar or throne were found. This may
have been the Prytaneum, originally the house or hall of the
king or chief magistrate, where the foreign envoys or dis-
tinguished statesmen or generals were received and entertained.
On the north side was a square hall, which opened on to a court
farther north, and served for the entertainment of the king's
guests, and this is made more probable by th6 position of the
offices, kitchen, etc., found in the outer north wing of the building.
To the south of the circular hall were the private apartments of
the king. A conjectural restoration by M. Daumet of that portion
of the palace of which the remains were found is published in
the work by Messrs. Heuzey and Daumet (Mission Archeologique
de Macedoine, 1876), from which 111. 116 has been reproduced.
The simple and unpretentious character of the houses dis-
covered at Delos and Priene is due to the fact that the Greeks
would seem to have lavished their taste and skill on their public
buildings, and it is of these that we speak, as a rule, when
describing the architecture of Greece. To the temples, shrines,
treasuries, stoas, and votive monuments enclosed within the
sacred temenos we have already drawn attention, ancL_we_jK)W_~
come to the agora, or market-place, corresponding to the Roman
forum, surrounded by its colonnades or peristyles, called Stoas.
Adjoining the agora was the Bouleuterion, or meeting-place of
the city council, arranged something like a small theatre. Then
there was the great theatre, as a rule cut in the si,de of a hill ;
the Odeum, or music hall ; the Gymnasium ; Palaestra, and
the Stadium.
It has already been pointed out, in speaking of the temples at
Agrigentum, how the Greeks availed themselves of the resources
of the site and wedded nature to art. This is illustrated in a
remarkable manner at Delphi, where the enclosure forming the
temenos was built on a rapid slope. To what extent the same
134
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
principles guided them in the planning of their towns it is
difficult to say, owing to the paucity of examples remaining.
Judging from remains found, all the principal points of
advantage would seem to have been devoted to the temples, with
the exception of some of the early Mycenaean palaces at Tiryns,
Troy, and Mycenae; but even these sites, when built on in later
times, were given up to temples. Almost the only example of
a town, the main lines of which have been discovered, is that of
SECULAR WORK. 135
Ephesus (111. 117, p. 134), which was measured by Falkener,
the correctness of whose survey is attested by Wood, who before
he made his discovery of the site of the Temple of Diana
devoted some time to researches in the city. Although the
actual remains found are Roman, Wood states that in many
cases they were built on Greek foundations, many of which he
found, though as a rule the Romans rarely trusted to old founda-
tions, which they rooted up, building however on the same lines.
We may therefore fairly assume that the general lines of
the plan accord with the Greek city of Ephesus as laid out
in the fourth century. Falkener also draws attention to the
fact that the lonians laid out their streets in straight lines, with
cross streets at right angles to them, a custom which spread after-
wards to the rest of Greece. The site of the Temple (not shown
on the plan) was about seventy-five stadia, or four thousand
two hundred feet, from the Coressian gate in a north-east direc-
tion, and Wood was led to its discovery by an inscription found
in the Theatre stating that on the festival of the goddess the
statues carried from the Temple were to be met by the Ephebi at
the Magnesian gate and carried back through the Coressian gate.
This would allow of the procession passing through the main
thoroughfares of the town. The site of the Coressian gate was
found on the north side of the acropolis, called Mount Priene by
Falkener, but now corrected by Wood to Mount Coressus,
Mount Priene being the crag or hill on the south side of the
town. A covered portico extended from the Coressian gate to
the Temple, and the discovery of its foundations, and of a road
with deep-worn ruts in it, led Wood to the peribolos wall of
the Temple, of which he was in search, when he was fortunate
enough to find an inscription recording it to have been the
enclosure built by Augustus.
The principal monuments of the town, of which sufficient
remains were found by Falkener to form an important restora-
tion, were: the Arsenal with its storehouses in front of the Port;
the Agora Civilis, or grand forum, surrounded by peristyles and
exedrae; two Agorae Venales, or markets; two Gymnasia, one by
the Theatre, the other by the Stadium ; the Theatre and Stadium
both partially excavated in the sides of Mount Coressus; a square
enclosure with a portico round, supposed to be the Serapion ; and
the traces of a colonnaded street between the Stadium and the
Gymnasium leading up to the Coressian gate. The colonnaded
136
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
street is a feature which was found not only in Asia Minor, but
throughout Syria. The remains now found belong only to the
Roman period, but under the Seleucidae, from 300 to 167 B.C.,
the town of A^rtioch_in Syria was laid out with wide colonnaded
streets, crossing one another at right angles, the principal street,
from east to west, being about two miles in length. The
Il8. — THE STOA AT ASSOS AS RESTORED BY ROBERT KOLDEWEY.
central avenue for carriage traffic was open to the sky ; the
side avenues, bordered with shops and houses, had flat roofs
over them. Similar protection from the fierce tropical sun was
afforded in Greece by the porticoes round the market-places
and in the temple enclosures.
AGORAE.
Among the principal Greek buildings were the agorae, which
were of two kinds : firstly, those where the people assembled to
SECULAR WORK. 137
hear the decisions of their rulers ; and secondly, the places of meet-
ing for traffic and the transaction of public business. In both
cases the agora consisted of a large open square surrounded by
colonnades or stoas, in the former enriched with temples,
fountains, and statues. In the immediate vicinity of this agora
were the Bouleuterion, or senate-house; the Prytaneum, or
guest-house; and the Basilica, or court of justice.
The second agora had shops and stalls round, and a fountain
in the centre, unless, as at Elis, it served for other purposes.
From Pausanias's description we gather that the central space
at Elis, known as the Hippodrome, was used for training horses.
On the south side was the Umpire's Hall, a porticus with four
rows of columns, which divided it into three aisles. On the
left was the Umpire's residence, separated by a street from the
agora; on the right, similarly separated by a street from the
agora, was a second porticus, the Stoa of the Hellanocidae,
with a wall down the centre, so that there was a colonnade on
each side. Nothing is said about paintings, but statues and
pedestals stood against the wall on each side. The north or
fourth side had probably another colonnade.
The architecture of the agora was of the simplest kind, and
depended entirely for its effect on the ranges of columns which
carried the roofs of these stoas. This is shown in the conjec-
tural restoration by Robert Koldewey of the stoa at Assos
(111. 118). Although the columns were in stone, the roofs they
carried were always in wood, so that as the result of fires and
earthquakes the foundation walls only have been found. There
is one example of a stoa at Thoricus, in which instead of a
central wall there was a row of columns. In two examples, at
Alinda and Aegae, the agorae were formed on the slope of a hill,
and terraces made to support them. Underneath the colon-
nade which overlooked the valley are buildings in two storeys,
which are called market-houses by Texier. They may have
been utilised for that purpose, but their primary object was
the support of the terrace. As these substructures are Hellenic;-
and are almost the only examples of secular Greek architecture
which have been preserved to our day, they are of considerable
interest, as showing extreme simplicity of design with good
solid construction.
The example at Alinda (111. 119) is three hundred and thirty-
two feet long by forty-four feet wide. On the lower storey
138
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
is a corridor in the rear, sixteen feet wide, giving access
to a series of rooms in the front, sixteen feet deep, some
of which were lighted by windows, others through doorways
opening on to a terrace. The upper storey consists of two long
corridors, divided by a series of piers with semi-detached Doric
columns facing one another. The floor dividing these two
storeys has disappeared. This upper floor was lighted by
narrow apertures at the top, in the front wall only. This
substructure originally carried a stoa, whose roof was supported
by a row of columns down the centre, and piers on each side or
pedestals with a solid
balustrade or dwarf wall
of stone (five feet high)
between ; all this latter
portion being of Roman
date. The lower terrace
is built on the natural
rock, which is left un-
hewn (see 111. 117). The
main front of the super-
structure, four feet thick
and twenty-eight feet
high, is built in coursed
masonry crowned by an
ogee string. The courses,
nineteen in number, vary
in height apparently as
the masons found the
blocks to hand, each be-
ing worked to a convex
curve. The windows or smaller openings have deep architraves,
the doorways voussoired arches. The example at Aegae is of
similar design, with a front of two hundred and seventy-two feet,
and a return wing eighty-four feet long. It is true that these
buildings were only substructures to a porticus, but in themselves
they have a fine monumental effect, their architectural embellish-
ment, if it may be so called, being confined to the varied height of
the courses of masonry and their bossed surfaces. The Greeks
apparently trusted to this finely-worked masonry alone for the
external aspect of their buildings. The walls at Cnidus are built
with large polygonal blocks fitting accurately together, with
III). — SUBSTRUCTURE OF STOA AT ALINDA,
ASIA MINOR.
SECULAR WORK. 139
drafted edges round each block. As these walls have a substruc-
ture of regular squared masonry, they probably date only from
the third or fourth century B.C., and the selection of polygonal
masonry (the idea of which may have been taken from earlier
work) would seem to have been due to the fact that the Greeks
recognised its decorative value. This simplicity of treatment
lasted in Asia Minor even down to Roman times, and the rear
wall of the theatre at Aspendus, measuring eighty feet high and
three hundred and sixty feet long, has no other architectural
embellishment than that of its drafted and rusticated masonry in
courses of varying heights, the only Roman element which creeps
in being the moulded archivolts of the ranges of arches in the
upper portion of the wall.
THEATRES.
Originally the theatre was designed for the performance of
^ worship jjf DIonysusTlbut they
~~ice and popularity.
and were used^for a variety ~oTjpurposes not always neces-
sarily_dramatic^ Originally the stagey was of wood, as were
possibly the seats. A curved recess in an open hillside was
nearly ajwji^s__£xcavatecl to form the auditorium, thus saving
the great expense of raising ;i foundation for the upper
seats, whilst some beautiful prospect was sought for as a back-
ground. The wall at the back may first have become necessary
for acoustic reasons, but was used for displaying the scenes,
until it became usual about 150 B.C. to have an unvarying --
street scene, when this part was made a separate stage building.
- Three^ parts may^thus be specified — the orchestra, formmg at
Epidaunjj^^pmrTletejircle (but at a Idlei period encroached
urjon by the bringing forward of the stage) ; the cavea, or
aJiHltnrifim tnr f H^^p^TaJ-nfT^linH tt^ <jfa,ga. The height of
Jhe stage is a~~contested subject. AUpidaurus it formed
aplatform eleven or twelve~feeTTrgh, and was decorated with
three-quarter detached columns, and reached by flights of
steps in the centre and at the sides. In later times, and as />.
mndjri the reconstructed Theatre of Dionysjy-uaf Athens, the (f^y[ &^~T-
^tage_Is_about four feet hTgh anTtoS^fgect i*& the J.ogeionLor
speaking place, and a permanent stone proscenium decorated
with columns was built at the back. Throughout Asia Minor
the Roman theatres possessthis proscemurq.^which forms_an
140
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
feature^ with sometimes two tiers, of
columns. The orchestra. WRS the srene of the dance, and in
the centre was the altar of Dionysus, round which the chorus
danced. Traces have been found in the Theatre at Athens of
the original orchestra, which, like that at Epidaunis, formed a
complete circle. The
seats immediately round
the orchestra are_sojner
times iiL_jnarbk^ with
backs shaped like the
chairs of the early Vic-
torian period. It is so
in the Theatre of_pion
sus ai Atnens, wher__
there are sixty-seven
marble chairs inscribed
with the names of the
priests or other digni-
taries who occupied
them (111. 120).
The finest theatre, and^
oneof the best preserved,
is that at Epidaunis
(111. 121), with a diameter
of four hundred and fif-
teen feet ; the largest was
that of Megalopolis,
with an auditorium four
hundred and seventy-
four feet in diameter.
120. — CHAIR OF THE HIGH PRIEST IN THE THEATRE OthfiT GrCCk eXattlplCS
OF DIONYSUS AT ATHENS. . ~
exist at Syracuse, at
Segesta in Sicily, dating from the fifth century B.C., at Dodona
in Greece, and Pergamum and Tralles in Asia Minor.
Dating from the Roman period, but still retaining much of
the traditional arrangement of the Greek theatre, are a large
number of theatres in Asia Minor, two of which, Aspendus
(see 111. 190, p. 233) and Perga, were, when first discovered by Sir
Charles Fellows in 1840, almost complete, the former retaining
the gallery which ran round the upper part of the theatre.
The walls of the proscenium, with the three doorways leading
SECULAR WORK. 141
on to the stage, and enriched by pilasters or detached columns,
are in many cases found in sufficient preservation to allow of
their complete conjectural restoration. Other theatres are found
at Hierapolis, Myra (with composite capitals in the proscenium),
Patara, Aegae, Alinda, Ephesus (four hundred and ninety-three
feet in diameter), Laodicea-ad-Lycum, Magnesia, Telmissus,
Termessus, Pinara, Side, Assos, all in Asia Minor, Taormina in
Sicily (111. 122), etc.
121. — THE THEATRE AT EPIDAURUS.
THE ODEUM OR Music HALL.
No Greek example exists of the odeum. The one men-
tioned by Pausanias as near the Theatre of Dionysus, and
said by him to have been made in imitation of the tent of
Xerxes, is thus described by Plutarch : " The odeum, built under
the supervision of Pericles, has many seats and pillars within ;
the roof was made slanting and converging to one point, and
they say it was after the model and as an imitation of the king
of Persia's tent." Vitruvius also mentions " the odeum as you
go out at the left side of the theatre." It was restored after
142
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
the sack of Athens by Sulla, and (as stated by Pausanias)
according to the original design. Its position, near to the
Theatre, suggests that it was used for rehearsals and musical
contests, the latter introduced by Pericles, " who gave instruc-
tion to the performers, whether singers or players on the flute." *
PALAESTRAE AND GYMNASIA.
The former term was given to those establishments where
boys were trained in athletic pursuits ; the latter were reserved
122. — THEATRE AT TAORMINA IN SICILY.
for adults. The palaestra at Olympia consisted of a large open
court with a Doric peristyle round, and, on one or more sides, ot
a series of rooms for exercises under cover, dressing-rooms, baths,
etc. The gymnasia would appear to have been the prototype
of the Roman Thermae, except that they were built for gym-
nastic exercises of various kinds, the baths being of less
importance. Of the gymnasium at Olympia, which must have
been an establishment of considerable importance, the great
double-aisled porticus (six hundred and sixty feet long), on the
* Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, by Jane E. Harrison.
SECULAR WORK. 143
east side only, has been excavated. The examples at Ephesus
and Alexandra Troas, which are of Roman date, do not agree
with Vitruvius's description, which seems to accord better with
the Greek palaestra. The gymnasium of the Theatre at Ephesus
was surrounded on three sides with a covered corridor (Diaulos),
thirty feet wide, in the centre of which were the various halls
connected with the baths, the series of halls on the south
side being for various exercises and games, as in the Roman
Thermae. The xystus, also on the south side, was surrounded
with a porticus. In the gymnasium of the Stadium there do
not appear to have been any baths, and the eastern half, with
its corridor thirty-six feet wide, round a small central court,
may have served as the diaulos.
THE STADIUM.
The stadium was an elongated space six hundred to nine
hundred feet long, the site for which, like that of the theatre,
was selected close to the side of a hill, so that, at all events on
one side only, would it be necessary to build up an embank-
ment. At Messene it was built in a narrow valley, and at the
end where the goal was placed there were colonnades in the form
of a semicircle; and at Aphrodisias a similar arrangement existed
at each end. The oldest stadium in Greece was probably that at
Olympia, six hundred and thirty feet long ; the entrance to it
from the Altis is through a passage one hundred feet long and
thirteen feet wide, carried under the west embankment of the
stadium, and covered over with a stone barrel-vault, which is
considered to date from the third century, showing that the
Greeks were well acquainted with the arched vault, and employed
the same where, as in this case, it received ample abutment from
the ground on each side. The Panathenaic stadium at Athens,
six hundred and seventy feet long, was constructed in 330 B.C. by
the Greek citizen Lycurgus, and was built of poros stone. At a
later date, about 160 A.D., it was reconstructed by Herodes
Atticus in Pentelic marble. The largest stadium, but built in
Roman times, was that at Laodicea-ad-Lycum, in Asia Minor,
which was one thousand feet long, with semicircular termina-
tions at each end. At Perga a colonnaded gallery seven
hundred and seventy feet long was carried round above the
seats; here, as at Magnesia and Aizani, the stadia were built on
144
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
level ground. The Stadium at Ephesus was eight hundred feet
long, cut in the hill on one side and enclosed with masonry on
the other. It will be noticed (see plan, 111. 117, p. 134) that an
additional tier of seats was built on the hillside : this irregu-
larity is found in other examples, and may have been intended
here, as Falkener suggests, to give a more monumental appear-
ance to those who entered the town through the Coressian gate.
One other Greek secular building might here be mentioned,
viz., the Thersilion or Assembly Hall of the ten thousand
Arcadians at Megalopolis (111. 123). The plans, published in
1890 by the Hellenic Society, show that the hall covered an area
of thirty-five thousand square feet, and the columns which
carried its roof were on three sides of the hall, ranged in lines
which radiated towards the Tribune, so as to form the least
possible obstruction to the view from any portion of the hall.
No architectural features were found, but the bases of the
columns which remained in-situ proved by their respective
levels that the floor of the Assembly Hall sloped downwards
towards the Tribune.
;o?g n g> ay>^.gr»=-?5?"^.^w.™«tffi?.^
123. — RESTORED PLAN OF THE THERSILION.
[ '45 ]
CHRONOLOGICAL MEMORANDA
RELATING TO
CHAPTERS VIIL— XV.
12th Centy. B.C. Migration from Asia Minor into Etruria.
616 ,, Tarquinius Priscus builds Cloaca Maxima.
509 ,, Republic established.
330 ,, Etruria becomes subject to Rome.
272 ,, Supremacy of Rome in Italy.
241 ,, Sicily annexed by Rome.
146 „ Destruction of Carthage and Corinth.
86 ,, Sulla captures the Piraeus and Athens.
78 ,, Tabularium built by Catullus.
3iB.c.-i4A.D. Augustus builds temples at Rome.
c. 25 B.C. Vitruvius dedicates his book to Augustus.
23 B.C. Theatre of Marcellus built.
31 — 13 B.C. Portico of Pantheon and Thermae built by Agrippa.
64 A.D. Burning and rebuilding of Rome by Nero.
70 ,, Colosseum commenced.
79 ,, Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
82 ,, Arch of Titus erected, v
98 ,, Ulpian basilica built by Trajan. „
117—130 ,, Temple of Venus and Rome at Rome built and Temple
of Jupiter Olympius at Athens completed and dedicated
by Hadrian.
138—161 „ Antoninus Pius builds Baalbec.
194 >, Arch of Septimius Severus built. J
211—217 „ Thermae of Caracalla built. »•
304 „ Palace at Spalato built by Diocletian.
306—312 „ Maxentius commences basilica completed by Constantine.
3s8 ,, Transfer of Empire to Byzantium (Constantinople).
A.G.R.
[ 146 ]
124- — FRIEZE FROM THE ARCH OF AUGUSTUS AT PERUGIA.
CHAPTER VIII.
ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE.
THE well-defined outline of the Italian peninsula would incline
one to suppose that it had always been regarded as a single
country, and that it must have generally possessed the political
as well as the geographical unity it so well presents. But we
have already seen that its southern shores were colonised by
Greeks, who founded and raised many great cities, such as
Paestum, Tarentum, etc. The time of their appearance in
Italy almost coincides with the accepted date for the founding
of the city of Rome (753 B.C.), and at this time there may be
said to have been at least three divisions of the inhabitants of
the peninsula in addition to the Greek colonists : (i) The
Oscan and Sabellia tribes (generally the inhabitants of lower
and central Italy, and from whom the Romans sprang) ; (2) the
Etruscans, the tribe occupying the land between the Tiber and
the Arno ; and (3) the Gauls, who peopled the country north
of the Arno.
The earliest remains found are the tumuli erected over the
graves of the dead. One of these, the Regulini Galeasi tomb,
at Caere (Cervetri), with its small inner chamber covered with
horizontal courses of stone projecting one over the other, and
surmounted by a pyramid with a podium or base round, bears so
close a resemblance to the tomb of Tantalus on the north side
of the Gulf of Smyrna, as to lead Fergusson to say (in speaking
ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE.
of this and other tombs in the vicinity), " They seem as if left
there opportunely to authenticate the tradition of the Etruscans
having sailed from this port for Italy." Be this as it may,
we are still at a loss to trace from whom they derived that
which constitutes the most important architectural feature
in their works, viz., the arch and vault with regular voussoirs
in stone. The arch itself, both round and pointed, dates from
time immemorial ; and Professor Flinders Petrie's discovery at
Dendera, in Egypt, of pas-
sages six feet wide, covered
with barrel vaults of three
rings of voussoirs built in
crude brick, and dating from
3500 B.C., shows that, as
a method of construction,
the arched vault must have
been one of the earliest
known methods of covering
over space. The employ-
ment of stone, however, and
the working of the same in
regular voussoirs, indicates
a much higher state of
civilisation, and when we
note that these voussoirs
sometimes measured from
live to six feet in height,
as in the canal on the
Marta at Graviscae, it sug-
gests that some centuries
must have elapsed before
the masons could have ac-
quired such knowledge of stereotomy. This canal is supposed
to precede by about a century the well-known example of
the Cloaca Maxima at Rome, dating from the commencement
of the sixth century. The Cloaca Maxima (111. 125) is a
barrel-vaulted sewer which was constructed to drain the Forum
and other valleys. It is about eleven feet wide, from twelve
to fourteen feet high, and the vault is built with three con-
centric rings of voussoirs, each ring being about two feet six
inches in height. Built underground, these and other similar
L 2
125.— THE MOUTH OF THE CLOACA MAXIMA
AT ROME.
148 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE.
vaults possessed ample abutment ; but in the case of the
entrance gateways to their towns, such as those at Volterra,
Falerii, Fiesole, Alatri, and Perugia, the Etruscans trusted to
the abutment of the walls in which they were built. It is curious
to note that, at the same period in which they were employing
arched vaults, they also followed the old Pelasgian system of
the employment of horizontal courses corbelled out as in the
aqueduct at Tusculum. The same variety occurs in the
masonry of their walls; sometimes it is cyclopean or polygonal,
and sometimes squared stone.
The Arch of Augustus at Perugia (111. 126), so called because
it was restored by Augustus * after the destruction of the town
by fire in B.C. 40, is the finest Etruscan archway existing. It
is built in large blocks of travertine laid without cement, and
is remarkable, not only for the beauty of its masonry, but for
the knowledge in stereotomy displayed in the voussoirs of the
oblique arch. The frieze above the archway (111. 124) consists
of Ionic dwarf pilasters with circular medallions between, and
was apparently inspired by the triglyph frieze of the Doric order.
The most important architectural remains left of Etruscan
work are found in their tombs, which are of two kinds: (i) Those
consisting of immense tumuli, one of which, at Poggio Cajella,
near Chiusi, measures eight hundred and forty-five feet in cir-
cumference ; the chamber inside being of small dimensions,
containing stone benches on which the bodies were laid, and
also the relics of the deceased. These chambers were covered
over with horizontal courses of stone corbelled out one over the
other, and afterwards cut to a single curve each side. (2) Rock-
cut tombs. In these, where any width of span could be
obtained, the ceilings were carved in imitation of the house in
which the occupant lived ; and it is from them we obtain an
insight into the domestic architecture of Etruria.
The principal chamber in a tomb at Corneto probably
represents the atrium of an Etruscan house (111. 127), which
corresponds to the description given in Vitruvius (vi. 3) of the
simpler type of the Roman atrium, viz., the " cavaedia displu-
viata," in which there was an opening at the top, the roof
sloping down towards the sides. The rafters which carried the
roof are copied on the ceiling, which slopes down on each side.
Similar reproductions of the timbers of the roof are shown in
* The upper storey, above the frieze, was added by Augustus.
ENTRANCE GATEWAYS.
149
[From an engraving by Alfred Normand.
126. THE ARCH OF AUGUSTUS AT PERUGIA.
i5o ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE.
other tombs at Cervetri : in one instance, a flat roof or ceiling
with joists ; in a second, with a central ridge across the room,
the rafters sloping down on each side. In another well-known
tomb (also at Cervetri), additional support to the roof is given
by square piers with volute capitals. In this tomb are recesses
in the wall which suggest the chambers round the atrium, and
are here utilised as cubicles for the dead bodies ; whilst the
127. — INTERIOR OF TOMB AT CORNETO.
walls and piers are carved with representations of the house-
hold utensils, weapons, etc., as they might have been hanging
in the house.
The most important decorations in the Etruscan tombs are
the friezes, with figures in procession or dancing, painted in
bright colours, but conventionalised in a manner suggestive
of the treatment found on Greek vases.
(Tn consequence of the almost entire disappearance of the
foundations of any of the Etruscan temples, our knowledge of
their plan and design has hitherto been confined to the some-
what meagre description of Vitruvius^jwho makes no mention
TEMPLES. 151
of the terra-cotta cornices, antefixae and pendant slabs, of
which so large a collection has at various times been found
and stored in museums. The discoveries made within the
last fifteen years in Civita Lavinia, or Lanuvium, in Civita
Castellana, and in Luna, of the remains of important Etruscan
temples, which are now to be found in the British Museum,
in the Museum of the Villa Papa Giulio at Rome, and in the
National Museum at Florence, have thrown therefore additional
light on the decorative treatment of the roof of Etruscan
temples. [We have already, under Greek architecture, referred
to the ancient Greek custom of protecting the exposed parts
of the cornice and entablature with terra-cotta slabs richly
decorated with colour. The similarity of the terra-cotta slabs
found in Italy shows that the Etruscans adopted the same
methods of protection for the timber portion of the roof, except
that they modelled in relief (as well as painted) the terra-cotta
slabs."] There are, however, two features which, as far as we
know, are not found in Greece, the first being the pendant
slabs which were affixed to the widely-projecting eaves, appa-
rently to afford protection to the walls of the cella, which was
not, as in Greece, surrounded with a peristyle, and the second
a cresting above the cymatium of the pediment. This cresting
is shown in bas-reliefs representing the Temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus, referred to on page 156. The pendant slabs in the
British Museum from Lanuvium have the lower part moulded
like a hanging fringe, and are decorated in relief and in colour
at the back, showing that they were exposed to view below
the soffit of the projecting eaves. These were put together by
Dr. Murray in the British Museum, and served to give some
idea of the magnificent effect which these richly-coloured decora-
tive features displayed in the Etruscan temple. From the
description given by Vitruvius (IV. 7), it would seem that the
roof of the Etruscan temple had a pediment on the front only,
the other three sides projecting over and forming eaves, and
round these were hung the pendant slabs. It is not known
whether they extended across the front, where there would be
no need for them with the portico behind, and they would also
there interfere with the lighting of the cella through the door.
Further information is required also as to the way in which
the bold cavetto mouldings of the pediment terminated at
the angles.
i52 ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE.
Vitruvius (III. 2), speaking of the araeostylar temples, in
which the architraves were of wood, states, "the different
species of temples of this sort are clumsy, heavy-roofed,
low and wide, and their pediments are usually ornamented with
statues of clay or brass, gilt in the Tuscan fashion." At
Civita Castellana (the ancient Falerii) four fragments of
figures in high relief on terra-cotta slabs were found,* and the
holes in the latter showed that they were nailed to a wooden
framework. These and the terra-cotta pediments, cornices,
and pendant slabs suggest that the whole of the timber struc-
ture of the roof of an Etruscan temple was protected in
the same way as the Treasury of Gela at Olympia, to which
reference was made in Chapter V. (p. 103) ; in the latter
case the traditional custom extending even to the protection of
the stone entablature.
In the larger rock-cut tomb at Norchia the horizontal corona
of the pediment is shown curved upwards at each end, resem-
bling a reversed volute, the centre of which is carved with a
head, and the cavetto cornice dies into the top of this volute.
On the upper surface of the pediment cornices in the museums
of Rome and Florence there is a sinking about two inches
deep, which apparently held a cresting of pierced terra-cotta
work ; and in the representations on coins, and in the bas-relief
of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus now in the Palazzo dei
Conservatori at Rome, a similar cresting is reproduced, which
shows that it was a recognised feature in some Etruscan temples.
Two of the Etruscan temples in Rome referred to by
Vitruvius are those of Jupiter Capitolinus, on the Capitol, and
of Ceres in the Forum Boarium. In both of these cases the
portico would seem to have consisted of columns only, but in
the larger rock-cut temple-front at Norchia the angle supports
are piers, which show either that the front of the primitive
temple consisted of four columns-in-antis — that is to say, the
angle piers were the ends of the cella walls — or that for the
sake of greater strength (requisite in the case of an Etruscan
temple on account of the wide spacing of the columns) the
angle supports consisted of square piers. In the tomb of the
Tarquinii at Cervetri the square pier is surmounted by a strongly-
developed cavetto capital, such as could only crown a square
* The same description applies to those found at Luna and Telamon, now in
the museum at Florence.
TEMPLES.
153
pier. This, however, is not the only type of capital found in the
tombs ; there is a second variety, in which volutes form the
chief decoration ; not the constructional volute of the
Greek Ionic capital, but the decorative example such as is
128.— CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE.
R. P. S. del.
found in those from Cyprus. In the case of pilasters the
lower part of the capital, below the cushion, is decorated
at the angles with the anthemion ornament.
There is a second type of Ionic capital in the gateway
at Perugia (111. 124), which is probably a later development
of the Greek Ionic volute.
The dwarf pilasters which
subdivide the decorative
frieze above the gateway at
Perugia have capitals in
which a tendril supporting
the anthemion rises between
the volute and the egg and
tongue moulding. In the
capitals which crown the
each side of
opening above
129. — CAPITAL OF A COLUMN SUPPORTING THE
CEILING OF A TOMB AT VULCI.
pilasters on
the arched
this frieze the egg and tongue is omitted, and a flower decorates
the centre of the capital.
A further development of this capital, designed for a circular
column, is found throughout Etruria, in which the volutes,
still of Cyprian design, are more fully developed. Between them,
154
ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE.
on each face, is a head in full relief, and around the base of the
capital a range of eight leaves (111. 129).
In the conjectural restoration of an Etruscan temple (111. 128)
the description of Vitruvius has been followed so far as the plan
and timber construction of the roof is concerned, and for the
protection of the latter the remains found at Lanuvium have
been incorporated. In the museum at Florence are portions
of the figures decorating the pediment of an Etruscan temple,
upon which, and urxm those of the Tomb of Norchia, the
drawing is based. /It is generally assumed that the podium
of the Roman temple" was derived from that of the Etruscan
temple, as the comparatively low elevation of the latter seemed
to require some such raised platform to give it more dignity/)
130.— A TERRA-COTTA ANTKMX.
[ 155 ]
I3L— PORTION OF THE FRIEZE OF TRAJAN'S BASILICA.
CHAPTER IX.
EARLY WORK IN ROME.
THE rebuilding of Rome which commenced in the reign of
Augustus, and was carried on by his successors to a much
greater extent, has caused the destruction of all those examples
of the earlier developments to which the student would turn in
order to work out the history of a style. So far as the orders
are concerned, the Roman architects were content to adapt to
their own taste and requirements the forms evolved by the
Greeks, but showing a marked preference for the Corinthian
Order, which occurs more frequently in their temples than
either the Doric or Ionic Orders. The tendency to debase-
ment, which has already been noticed in the later examples of
Greek work in Asia Minor, was carried still further by the
Romans, except so far as the more complete development of
the Corinthian capital was concerned, [in the plans of their
temples, the Romans seemed to have made a compromise
between the Greek and the Etruscan : from the former they
borrowed the peristyle, from the latter they derived the raised
platform (which may have been deemed necessary in a town to
give a greater importance to the temple), the triple cella and
the far greater depth given to the front portico.] The descrip-
tion of an Etruscan temple given by Vitruvius (iv. 5) was
i56 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
probably derived from the Temple of Ceres, built 494 B.C. ;
and in the several rebuildings of the Temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus the original plan was apparently adhered to.
It is from the frequent descriptions of these latter, given by
various writers, and in the representation of the great Temple
in bas-reliefs and on coins, that a clearer idea of the main
features of its design can be derived, than from the meagre
account given by Vitruvius.
The Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was the principal build-
ing on the Capitoline Hill, the summit of which, even in
Republican times, was occupied by a large number of temples
and shrines, with countless statues and other works of art
(principally the spoils of Hellenic cities), which must have
produced an effect of great splendour.
The first Temple of Jupiter was founded by Tarquin I., and
completed by his son, the consecration taking place in 509 B.C.
This temple was burnt in the year 83 B.C., and reconstructed
on the same plan by Sulla in the following year. It was
Etruscan in plan, with wide intercolumniations, carrying an
entablature in wood; this was probably protected by terra-
cotta slabs similar to those already described in the temple
at Lanuvium. The pediment was filled with terra-cotta
statues, and on the summit carried a quadriga in terra-
cotta. This second temple was burnt in 70 A.D., rebuilt
by Vespasian on the old plan, but of increased height ; and
burnt again ten years later. The fourth temple was built
by Domitian with increased splendour, and with Corinthian
columns of Pentelic marble.* The original temple is con-
sidered to have been tetrastyle, with three cellae at the
back. At what period the front was made hexastyle (by the
addition of a peristyle on each side) is not known. A repre-
sentation of the temple on a bas-relief from the Arch of
Marcus Aurelius, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, shows
the pediment filled with sculpture, with a representation
of the famous terra-cotta quadriga (originally made at Veii
for Tarquinius Superbus) on its summit, and a rich cresting
rising above the pediment on each side, which recalls the
terra-cotta examples now in the museums of Florence and
* In 1875 an enormous drum, nearly seven feet in diameter, of a fluted column
in Pentelic marble was discovered on the Capitoline platform, which, according
to Dr. Middleton, can only have belonged to this temple. — Vide Rnnainsof Ancient
Rome, p. 365.
EARLY WORK IN ROME.
J57
the Papa Giulio at Rome. A similar cresting is shown on
some of the coins representing this temple ; and as it is not
found in the representations of any other examples, we may
assume that such decoration was confined to Etruscan temples.
We have dwelt on this subject here at length to show the
type of plan which must have influenced the Roman architect;
though this was not always necessarily strictly adhered to, as is
evidenced by three other temples side by side, portions of which
still remain embedded in the Church of S. Niccolo-in-Carcere.
All these temples were mounted on platforms, necessitated
perhaps by their close juxtaposition. Two of them were
peristylar, the third having no peristyle in the rear. The latter
and the Central Temple were of the Ionic Order, and the right-
hand temple of the
\ Doric Order, suggested
by the closer juxta-
position of the angle
columns as shown in
the marble plan,* so
that the triglyph might
come to the angle. \
The temples date froTrr
about 200 B.C., but may
have been restored at
a later period. Three fluted Ionic columns of the central
temple stand in the fa9ade of the church, with their entablature;
others and those of the two other temples are known from
drawings only, being now embedded in the walls of the church.
[There is, however, one fine and complete example still exist-
ing of an early Ionic temple, viz., that of Fortuna-Virilis
(111. 132), tetrastyle - pseudoperipteral, with a portico two
* The marble plan referred to was made during the reign of Severus,
222-235 A.D., being engraved on slabs of marble. A large portion of it was
found in the sixteenth century and placed in the Capitoline Museum. In
1867-68 other fragments were found in the courtyard of the Church of SS. Cosmas
and Damianus at the foot of a lofty wall of the third century, in which, at regular
intervals, were small bronze holdfasts by which the marble slabs were held. The
city was first surveyed in the time of Augustus, and a plan in colour on plaster
was drawn on the walls of the Porticus Vipsania in the Campus Martius. After
its destruction by fire a second plan was made by Vespasian and placed on the
walls of the Temple " Sacrae Urbis." This was also destroyed by fire in
191 A.D., and Severus's marble plan was affixed on the outer wall of the same
temple, being protected either by a projecting cornice or a portico. Since 1903
all the fragments of the plan have been transferred and set up in the garden of
the Conservatori Palace.
132. — PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA VIRILIS
(FORS FORTUNA).
i58
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
columns deep and raised on a podium. ^The purity of the
mouldings and carved decoration suggest meir being the work
of a Greek artist, and its date is ascribed to the early part
of the first century B.C., being built on the site of an earlier
temple founded by Servius. The employment of the engaged
columns to decorate the walls of the cella of this temple (111. 133)
is not necessarily a Roman invention, as we have already
133- — THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA-VIRILIS AT ROME.
referred to examples in Greece, the two most notable ones
being the great Temple of Jupiter at Agrigentum, and the
Choragic monument of Lysicrates. In the first case, however,
the immense size of the temple and the width of the space
between the columns required it; and in the second case, as
already noted, the shafts of the columns are complete, with
screen-walls worked in between. There are, moreover, three
other examples already referred to, viz., the Temple of Aescu-
lapius at Agrigentum, probably inspired by the first-named, the
EARLY WORK IN ROME. 159
Temple of Serapis at Taormina, and the Propylaea at Priene, all
however being of later date. The decoration nf a Hlank wall with
engaged_columns, such as is found in m^s^of the Roman pseudo-
peripteral temples, was, as a rule, quiteat variance with the prin-
ciples of^reeF^hitecture, though IFwas" probably ado'pfed by
the Romans for^two reasonsjftirstly7to save the space required
for a peristyle in a crowded city ; and secondly, to give more
space inside the cella to provide room for the numerous statues
and works of art brought over from Greece. ^
The earliest secular building still existing of the Republican
period is the Tabularium,* built by Catullus in the year 78 B.C.
It was built up against the Capitoline Hill, portions of which
were cut away for the purpose. The substructure consisted
of an immense wall built battering on its outer face, each
course of the peperino stone, with which it was faced, receding
one inch behind the face of the course below. The stones were
respectively four feet long, two feet high, and two feet deep,
laid in alternate courses of header and stretcher with a thin
layer of mortar in all the joints. At a height of thirty-six feet
from the ground was an arcade running from one end to the
other, and forming a public passage from one summit of the
Capitol to the other. This passage was lighted by a series of
arches opening towards the forum, with intermediate engaged
Doric columns, carrying an entablature (of which the architrave
only exists), the earliest example of this use of the orders
which in later times became universal. Poggio, an Italian
writer, says that in his time (fifteenth century) there was
another storey above this. A row of rooms opened into the
public arcade, and at a higher level in the rear was an immense
hall roofed with concrete quadripartite vaulting supported on
piers. It is not certain whether this hall dates from the early
period ; if so, it would be the earliest example of quadripartite
concrete vaulting known in Rome. A staircase from the forum
through a doorway led to this hall, which was blocked up
when Domitian built the Temple of Vespasian. The doorway
was square-headed, with a flat arch of travertine, and a
semicircular relieving arch above. A fragment of the Forum
Julium, built 47 B.C., on the north side of the Tabularium, still
exists, in which the same disposition of flat arch and semi-
circular relieving arch is found, the courses of masonry varying
* See 111. 157, p. 190.
160 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
somewhat in height and the face of each stone being bossed
or rusticated.
Apart from the temples and porticoes, the public monu-
ments of Rome, prior to the Augustan era, for architectural
effect depended more on their superb masonry than on any
decorative treatment, and the arcade of the Tabularium is
the first example (with the exception of the pseudo-peripteral
temple of Fortuna-Virilis) in which the purely decorative
application of the orders was resorted to to enrich the wall
surface. The Theatre of Pompey, 55 B.C., is said to have
been decorated externally with three ranges of superposed
arcades ; but, as it was virtually rebuilt on two or three
occasions, it is not known if the earlier decoration was copied
in its reconstruction. Its design resembled that of the
Theatre of Marcellus, which comes within the Augustan era.
For the reasons given in the first paragraph of this chapter
the few examples quoted or described give probably only
a poor idea of the earlier developments of Roman architecture.
Already at the commencement of the second century B.C. the
direct influence of Greece was shown in the transformation
of the Forum by Fulvius Nobilior, and, in imitation of the
Emporium at Athens, Aemilius Paullus erected a similar
structure by the Tiber and lined the quays with stone. The
first basilica, that built by the elder Cato, 184 B.C., consisted
(like the Greek agora) of an open space surrounded by porticoes.
Adjoining it was a second basilica built in 179 B.C. by Fulvius
and Aemilius Lepidus. This was rebuilt 50 B.C. by Paulus
Aemilius, and was remarkable for its monolithic columns of
pavonazetto. In addition to these public monuments, palatial
residences of importance were built on the Palatine Hill over-
looking the Forum, the interior courts and peristyles of which
were richly decorated with marbles, being the earliest Roman
buildings in which marble was used. Augustus, however,
extended its employment in the erection of magnificent
temples, theatres, and other buildings; and encouraged the
citizens to follow his example. It is true that, as a rule,
marble was employed only as a facing; but it led to the
substitution of solid concrete walls for those in unburnt
brick which prevailed in Rome up to his era.
The author to whom we are the most indebted for our
knowledge of the architecture of Rome, prior to the Augustan
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION. 161
era, is Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, an architect and engineer
who wrote a work entitled de Architecture*. In this work,
among other subjects, he describes in detail the different v
materials employed in building, and suggests the rules of
proportion which should guide architects in their employment
of the orders. His work would seem to have been written
in the latter part of his career, and it was dedicated to his
patron, Augustus, about 25 B.C. As no mention of any of the
important monuments erected by Augustus is made, we may
assume that he died shortly after his patron's accession. The
information he gives about Greek temples was obtained from
various Greek authors, with whose writings he seems to have
been acquainted, such as those of Ictinus, the architect of
the Parthenon; Hermogenes, the architect of the temples of
Diana at Magnesia and Bacchus at Teos, and others. Vitru-
vius never visited Greece, and he had apparently not heard of
the temples in Magna Graecia or Sicily, or he would scarcely
have put forward the assertion of " some ancient architects that
sacred buildings ought not to be constructed of the Doric
order" (IV. 3). The accounts of various materials which he
gives, however, in Books II. and VII. are of great value.
The three descriptions of walls given by Vitruvius are :
1. Walls of unburnt brick (lateres).
2. Stone walls in coursed masonry.
3. Concrete walls, with or without facing.
i. Walls of Unburnt Brick.
tFrom the lengthy description given of unburnt brick, the
>recautions taken to preserve the walls, the rules relating to
he thickness of walls, the manufacture of the bricks, the
ength of time they should be kept before being used, and
he numerous references made to unburnt brick structures
n Greece which the discoveries in the last few years have
:onfirmed, we may assume that it constituted a very impor-
tant element in the construction of the walls of private
residences, and was in fact the material referred to in the
boast of Augustus, viz., that he found Rome of brick and
left it in marble. Kiln-burnt bricks or tiles were employed
in Vitruvius's time for the protection of the upper part of
these crude-built walls, and for the covering of roofs. The
A.G.R. M
1 62 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
bricks used were two feet square, virtually the same size,
therefore, as those which were universally employed in the
time of Augustus. Vitruvius (V. 10) describes also a method
of building ceilings over the sudatorium, or hot room in the
public baths, in which similar burnt bricks rest on iron rods or
arcs two feet apart, the under-side first plastered with pounded
tiles and lime, and then finished with stucco or fine plastering.
" If this vaulting (concamerationes) be made double," he says,
it will be better, because " the moisture of the steam cannot then
affect the timber (i.e., of the roof or floor), but will be con-
densed between the two vaults." The only other references
to vaults concern those covering granaries and store rooms,
probably of small span. To the further development of the
vault reference will be made later on.
2. Stone Walls.
Vitruvius's references to stone walls in coursed masonry are
not very complete. He speaks with admiration of Greek
masonry because it was built of hard stones. The Romans,
of course, employed naturally the materials they had at hand,
and although they were obliged to build their walls with soft
tufa stone, these walls, some of which date from the earliest
period, still exist up to our day. The stones employed vary
from three to four feet in length, twenty-two to twenty-four
inches in height, and twenty-one inches thick. As tufa is a bad
weather stone, the walls were protected externally by a coat of
stucco. In the Tabularium tufa is used internally only, the
facing being of peperino stone quarried in the Alban hills,
which has the further advantage of being unaffected by fire.
Travertine stone, quarried near Tivoli, is a compact, hard lime-
stone, and was used by the Romans when great strength or
resistance to crushing was required, as in the voussoirs of arches.
The flat arches of the doorways, referred to when describing
the Tabularium and the Forum Julium, are of travertine. It
makes an excellent lime when burnt, and to its employment in
Roman mortar and concrete the latter partly owes its great
durability. There is, however, another material mentioned by
Vitruvius (II. 4), pozzolana, which he describes as being
found about Baiae and in the neighbourhood of Vesuvius
(but which, according to Dr. Middleton, exists in great
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION. 163
quantities under and round the city of Rome), and it is to
this material more than any other that the same author
attributes the immense strength and durability of the Roman
concrete, which he says contributed to make Rome "the
Eternal City." Curiously enough, the only reference in
Vitruvius to marble as a building material is in Bk. VII.,
where he speaks of its value when converted into lime for
plastering. The Temple of Julius, however, built 42 — 29 B.C., and
referred to by Vitruvius (III. 2) as an example of pycnostyle
(i.e., with narrow intercolumniations), was built in white marble
on a podium of tufa, peperino and travertine. The Temple of
Venus in the Forum of Caesar, built 48 — 46 B.C., was of similar
materials.
3. Concrete Walls with or without Facing.
Concrete was used in foundations and as a backing to walls
from the earliest times, and from the second century B.C. it
was frequently used for the walls of Roman buildings. A
clear description of the method
walls is given in Middleton's_ Rome, vol. ii. 47 — 62. They
were cast irT troughs formed by vertical posts three feet apart,
with wooden boards nailed on outside. Generally such walls
were faced, with small stones, the facing being of two kinds:
the most ancient (opus incertum) consisting of small blocks
of tufa stone three or four inches across, the outer face worked
smooth, the inner roughly worked. In the second kind (opus
reticulatum) the blocks were square on the face and built in
lozenge-wise, with close joints running in diagonal lines. This
was the method employed in the time of Augustus, but supple-
mented by the introduction of burnt brick quoins, bonding
courses at intervals through the wall, and brick arches. Early
in the first century of our era, the tufa of the opus reticulatum
was replacedJBy^nal^ulaF^BrlcEsIlFTegular courses, thelipex
of the triangle J)ejiig^d^dj£_the wall, ____
In the building of these walls there would seem to have been
an alternation of two processes. First, a semi-fluid mixture
of lime, pozzolana and small stones was poured in, then a layer
of larger^stones^ three to six inches across, which was laid
by hand. Then followed theHemi-fiuid mixture, and so on
alternately. TEe toprf the wall was
bonding colifse ot tilelTthrough the wall asabove mentioned.
M 2
164 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
A similar method of construction would seem to have been
-^employed from the time of Augustus in building vaults, but
^ intersecting barrel
jibs and ties of brick were
enipIoyeTln'sTTTo^ecoiiomise the centering.* Ordinary vaults
over~celiars^ or granaries of comparatively small span, it
may be assumed, were invariably built in concrete, as it was a
.^^-material already known to the Romans in the fifth century B.C.,
when it was used as a backing in the walls of Servius Tullius.
Vitruvius's meagre references to vaults suggest that they were
recognised traditional methods of covering over cellars, and
therefore requiring no detailed account. His description of the
ceilings over hot baths (already referred to) is given in Bk. V.
— chap. 10, and reads "iron rods or arcs, _pl_aced_ two feet apart and
suspended by iron hooks from an upper framing of timber, carry
tiles side by side, the upper parts of the joints being stopped
with clay and hair, and the under-side first plastered with
pounded tiles and lime and then finished with stucco and lime
plastering" — and again, the account he gives of arched ceilings t
may be taken as fair evidence that prior to the time of Augustus
no attempt had been made to cover over spaces exceeding eight
or ten feet with regular vaults. The introduction of the inter-
secting barrel vault,_ajidjthe jcj}^enng-over--of wide spaces with
barrel or segmental vaults, such as are^shown in Palladio's plan
of the Baths' of Agrippa, has raised a question as to the source
from which the Roman architects derived their knowledge of
this method of construction, and Professor Baldwin Brown, in
a valuable paper read before the R.I.B.A. in 1889, on the "Origin
of Roman Imperial Architecture," pointed out that tne various
records and descriptions given of the buildings erected in
Alexandria in Egypt when that town was laid out by Dino-
crates, the architect to Alexander the Great, show that the
vault was extensively used even in buildings of considerable
* The various methods employed are clearly set forth in M. Choisy's I' Art de
bdtir chez Us Romains, and in Viollet-le-Duc's Dictionnaire Raisonne, under the
article " Voute."
t Vide Book VII. 3, in which he describes how they should be executed with
parallel ribs of cypress, cut to the shape of the curve, and fixed to the floor-
ing or roof with iron nails; then Greek reeds, previously bruised, tied to them
\\ith cords made ot ttTe*^panish broom ; on the upper side of the arch a composi-
tion of lime and sand is to be laid, so that if any water fall from the floor above
or from the roof it may not penetrate ; the arches being prepared and interwoven
with the reeds, a coat is to be laid on the under-side: the sand being afterwards
introduced and then polished with chalk or marble.
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION. 165
height, the materials employed being burnt brick and mortar,
the latter of such excellent quality that up to the end of the
eighteenth century portions of walls still existed, although
exposed to the continued action of the sea waves. It is only
fair to assume, however, that in a country where the construc-
tion of brick vaulting dates back to between 3000 and 4000 B.C.
the building of the same and the nature of the centering
employed would follow on the old traditional lines ; and, if so,
the Roman Imperial architect owed but little to Egypt, as
the ancient Egyptian and the Roman methods differed widely.
In the erection of vaults the Egyptians dispensed altogether
with centering, and the tradition exists to the present day,
whereas (as will be seen later on) the Roman architect always
employed centres, on which the skeleton of the vault was first
built with arches in burnt brick. The filling-in of the same and
of the haunches was carried out by the two same processes
already described when speaking of the walls, i.e., the alter-
nation of layers of a semi-fluid mixture of lime and pozzolana
and of small stones; and as these layers (according to M. Choisy
and Dr. Middleton) are always horizontal, and would seem to
have been employed in Rome at an early date, the extension of
the same system from the wall to the vault would follow
naturally, without necessarily any foreign influence, except
that of the knowledge of a common practice in Alexandria of
vaulting over large spaces. The same might be said with
respect to the immense vaulted water reservoirs of Carthage,*
with which the Romans would be well acquainted.
There is, however, one invention of great importance which
may have an oriental origin, viz., the intersecting barrel vault,
to which attention has been already drawn. M. Choisy
instances a tomb in Pergamum, belonging to the beginning
of the second^century B.C., which is covered by two intersect-
ing barrel vaults regularly constructed with stone voussoirs.
It is a problem the solution of which is more likely to have
taken place in stone construction than in brick or concrete,
and its earliest examples would haveaT~comparatively small
span; but it must have been carried out by masojns long accus-
tomed to the erection of stone vaults, and the perfection of its
* The remains existing of large vaults are probably Roman, but no one has
examined their construction to see if any portion is of earlier, i.e., of Carthaginian,
date.
166 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
execution in this tomb in Pergamum suggests that it was by no
means the first attempt.
In the early republican vault, e.g., that of the Tabu-
larium, which is of small span, there would be no difficulty in
providing centres. When, however, we come to the great hall
of the Tepidarium* in the Baths of Agrippa, which in Palladio's
plan measures one hundred and seventy feet by seventy feet,
with a diagonal groin ninety-eight feet in span, the centering
required for the latter and vault would have had to be of
great scantling, and would have involved an immense cost,
had not the practical mind of the Roman architect con-
ceived the method which is so clearly set forth in M. Choisy's
work already quoted. The details vary slightly in the large
number of examples quoted and illustrated, but the principle
is the same throughout the Empire, so that, although no
remains have been found of Agrippa's work, it should be
safe to assume that it was built by the same method as
that employed in later examples. The -Roman vaults always
consisted of^regular__geometrical forms, such as the .con-
tinuous semicircular barrel vault, the intersecting barrel
vault (the groins of which were formed by the intersection
l)FTwo barrel vaults at right angles to one another), the
segmental vault, and the hemispherical dome.f
The researches of M. Choisy have shown that in their
inner construction the Roman vaults show the articulated
forms of the Gothic vault, with transverse and diagonal ribs, all
built in brick with horizontal ties, the web being a subsequent
filling-in. This method of construction was adopted not only to
economise the centering, but because it could be carried out by
large gangs of labourers working under a few skilled overseers
and the direction of the architect or engineer. The centering
was economised in two ways : firstly, the transverse and diagonal
ribs, being built first, formed when completed a permanent
centering by themselves, so that the scantlings of the timbers
employed in the temporary centering were comparatively
slight; and secondly, the latter could be employed again
for other portions of the vault. There remained, however,
* See statement, page 252, in which doubt is thrown on the correctness of
Palladio's restoration. (
f The hemispherical dome as a feature by itself, and riot the covering of a
semicircular apse of a hall, is first found in the Baths of Titus, 80 A.D.
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION.
167
another problem to be worked-out, the solution of which as
set forth by M.
Choisy constitutes
the most valuable
part of his dis-
coveries. Taking
the central bay of
the Baths ofL
calla as
the tj^ajxsA^-e-t-s-ej-
diagonal (111. 135),
and intermediate*
centerings having
been placed and
planks laid across
from one to the
other, the Romans
commenced the for-
mation of the vault
with a double layer
of bricks (measur-
ing I'n" square
and li to 2 inches A> Light framing; B, Planks laid across ; c, Double layer ot
. . Roman bricks ; D, Rings of bricks on edge ; E, Horizontal
thick), laid flatwise brick ties.
and breaking joint. This formed a shell-vault which relieved
the planks from the superincumbent
weight. Then over the principal
centerings they built rings of similar
bricks on edge, connecting these with
horizontal brick ties (111. 134). The
skeleton thus formed seems to have
been regarded by the Romans as
equivalent to the vertical posts already
described, which they employed in
building their walls; for the two pro-
cesses (i.e., the semi-fluid mixture of
lime, pozzolana and small stones, and
the layers of large stones) were
followed in the formation of their filling-in not only of the
* About eight to nine feet would seem to have been the average distance between
the timber centres, so that three or four intermediate centerings would have
been required in the Tepidarium of Caracalla.
134. — ORDINARY BARREL VAULT CONSTRUCTION, ACCORDING
TO VIOLLET-LE-DUC.
HE DIAGONAL RIB.
168 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
haunches, but of the whole vault, and, according to M. Choisy,
laid horizontally as in their walls. In other words, the brick
ribs, only, constituted the arched construction. The shell-vault
laid on the planks enabled the web to be thus filled in, and probably
accounts for its invention. In the case of large vaults, such as
those of the Palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill, and
in the Basilica of Constantine, a second superincumbent ring
was added above the transverse and diagonal ribs ; but the
vault was probably already self-supporting, so that the center-
ings could be removed to another bay. In theory at all events,
if not in practice, the resistance to thrust of such immense
vaults required buttresses of great projection, and these,
as we shall see later on, were provided. Dr. Middleton
points out that " it would have been impossible to vault their
enormous spans if they had use^jvajjltirig^o£4tfid^^
such as were built in mediaeval times. The Roman concrete
"vault was quite devoid of any lateral thrust, and covered its
space with the rigidity of a metal lid." This quality was given
to it partly by the nature of its construction, but mainly from
the peculiar quality of the pozzolana, which, when mixed with
lime, forms a very strong hydraulic cement; and, as Dr.
Middleton remarks,* "this pozzolana, more than any other
material, contributed to make Rome the proverbially ' eternal
city.' Without it, a great domed building like the Pantheon t
would have been impossible, as would also the immense vaulted
Thermae and a wide-spanned Basilica such as that of Con-
stantine." Dr. Middleton's further remarks on the same page
are not borne out in the Thermae, where the buttresses are of
great projection. The Romans did not seem to have realised
at first how very strong and substantial their concrete was, and
in the planning of the Thermae not only took every precaution
to supply a counter-thrust, but having, by their intersecting
vaults, concentrated this thrust on piers at a distance one from
the other, they utilised the spaces between so that the buttress
became an integral part of the building. The problem once
solved how to vault over large spans with a permanent cover-
ing indestructible by fire, not only gave an impetus to the
* Remains of Ancient Rome, vol. i., p. 9.
f Since Dr. Middleton's work was published the discoveries made by M .
Chedanne have shown that the dome of the Pantheon was constructed with
horizontal beds of bricks, so that his remark no longer applies here. To these
discoveries reference will be made later on.
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION. 169
development which constitutes the real Imperial Roman style of
Architecture, but it also led to a new type of plan, and this
spread to all parts of the Empire, with only such variations as
were necessitated by the materials at hand. Throughout Syria,
for instance, excellent stone abounded everywhere, but no pozzo-
lana; consequently the spaces vaulted over were comparatively
smaller than those in Rome, and, in justification of Dr.
Middleton's statements, all the vaults have long since fallen-in.
The qualities of the Roman mortar are always conspicuous,
however, and the ruins of the Temple of Jupiter at Baalbec,
amongst others, prove that its tenacity was greater than that
of the stone itself. The lines-of-fracture lie in the stone and
not in the mortar, which in the cores of their walls and vaults
seems to have been employed very much in the same way as
in Rome.
STUCCO, CEMENTS, AND MARBLE FACING.
We are indebted to Vitruvius * for the description given
of the marble cement (caementum marmoreum, or opus
albarium) used by the Romans, the care which had to be
taken in its preparation, and the materials of which it should
be composed. Its qualities were such that, when set, it had
the colour and texture of real marble, and was not much
inferior to it in durability. It was owing to the coating of this
kind of stucco given to the crude brick walls of the houses
built prior to Augustus's time in Rome, that they were able to
resist the weather. It was used also to preserve stone, especially
when tufa was the material employed. In Sicily and at
Paestum, and generally throughout Greece, the whole of the
stonework was covered with a fine coat of stucco to fill up the
crevices of the aqueous limestones, and to obtain a greater
refinement of detail in the profiles of the mouldings, with a
view to the ultimate decoration with painting. In Greek
buildings the coating was very thin ; in Roman work it was
usually about an inch thick, and sometimes extended to three
inches when it was intended to panel-out the surface, to sink
grooves in imitation of stone joints, or to imbed mosaics.
In the first chapter of Book VII. Vitruvius describes also the
* Book VII., 2, 3, and 6.
1 7o
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
formation of floors, preparatory to the laying of the marble slabs
or tesserae, and their subsequent grouting and polishing. For
the decoration of the upper portion of walls internally, and
of the vault, glass mosaics were, employed, worked sometimes
into large and elaborate pictures. * We have already described
5 FEET.
136. — EXAMPLE OF MARBLE PANELLING, ROME.
the facing of burnt brick given to walls built in concrete.
This facing had no constructive value, and appears to have been
only a decorative finish to the wall surface. It is singular,
therefore, that the same process should have been gone through f
* The example found at Pompeii, representing the defeat of Darius by
Alexander the Great at the battle of Issus, 355 B.C., was probably copied in
mosaic from some well-known Greek painting. See Ills. 204 and 205, from
M. Paulin's restoration of the Baths of Diocletian.
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION.
171
in the case of walls which, from the first, it was intended to
face or line with marble. The illustration (136) taken from
Middleton's Rome * shows at (H) the brick facing of a concrete
wall. This was, however,
covered with a concrete bed
for the marble (F), so that
the brick facing might have
been saved. (E) are slabs of
marble, slate or tile, bedded
in the concrete, against
which the marble panels of
large size (D) were fixed ;
and (C) the borders of same.
This system would be em-
ployed in facing the in-
terior walls of the temples,
palaces, and thermae. For
the exterior, 111. 137 shows
the marble facing of the
cella of the Temple of Con-
cord, in which the slabs are
held in position by iron or
bronze holdfasts, carried through into the tufa wall, the cornices
and plinths generally being in solid blocks.
* Illustrations 136 and 137 are reproduced by the kind permission of Messrs. A.
and C. Black, the publishers of Dr. Middleton's work.
TEMPLE OF
CONCORD AT ROME.
[ 172 ]
138.— PORTION OF THE FRIEZE 'OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN ON THE QUIRINAL AT ROME.
CHAPTER X.
THE ORDERS.
OUR description of the Greek orders was given in chronological
sequence, as we had first to search for the earliest forms known,
then to trace their development till they reached their perfected
types', and lastly to follow their decadence during the Alex-
andrian period. Even in this last stage they preserved their
rational basis, and formed still, not only the decorative, but
the leading constructive features of the monuments of which
they were part. When, however, we come to deal with the
Roman orders, our position is changed. With the exception
of the Corinthian order, no further development was possible,
and the employment of the modified forms of the Doric and
Ionic orders by the Romans seems to have been dictated by
the extreme simplicity of the former and of variety in the latter.
As a detached column there are few temples in Rome of the
Doric order, but it was employed in Pompeii, in Asia Minor,
and in various cities in Syria and North Africa. There are not
many examples either of the Ionic order still existing, but to
judge by the great variety and number of Ionic capitals used up
in the early Christian basilicas of Rome it must at one time have
been largely employed. In our description of Etruscan architec-
ture we have referred to three or four types of capitals, but in no
case do we find that which constitutes an Order, viz., a com-
bination of column and entablature designed in relation one to
the other. The Etruscan support was either square or circular.
THE ROMAN DORIC ORDER.
In the former case it probably carried a stone beam or archi-
trave, but except in tombs cut in the rock no examples exist.
In the Tuscan order* described by Vitruvius the proportions of
the column, with its base, shaft, and capital, are given. The
superstructure, however, being in timber only, protected by terra-
cotta slabs, never acquired any definite proportions. Already in
the third century B.C. some of the
elements of the Greek Doric order,
viz., the triglyphs and metopes, had
been imported, and the only impor-
tant influence which the Etruscan
column seems to have had was the
addition of a base to the Doric
column.
THE ROMAN DORIC ORDER.
The principal examples of the
Doric order in Rome are those
which are found in the Tabularium,
the Theatre of Marcellus, and the
Colosseum. In all these cases,
however, they were only engaged
columns, used in a decorative sense;
and, so employed, the difficulty
raised by Vitruvius as to the tri-
glyph at the angles never arose.
In the only Roman Doric temple
known, at Cora (111. 139), the tri-
glyph is placed at the corner and
not in the axis of the angle column,
as suggested by Vitruvius, and it
is difficult tO Understand why he I39- -DORIC CAPITAL AND BASE OF THE
should have objected, in a hexastyle
temple, to the slight contraction of
the intercolumniation of the two angle columns, especially as
he recommends a wider intercolumniation of the two central
columns to give a freer passage to those who approach the
* The only examples now existing of the Tuscan order are the three-quarter
detached columns on the lower storey of the Colosseum, but their proportions do
not agree with those laid down by Vitruvius, which are given for the isolated
columns of a portico ; he assigns to the order 7 diameters with a diminution at
the top of one fourth of the lower diameter. Their capitals should be half a
TEMPLE OF HERCULES AT CORA.
(Height of columns, 19' 8"
diameter, 2' 4^''.)
174
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
statues of the gods. In both the tombs at Norchia the triglyph
is placed at the extreme angle, and the same arrangement is found
in the tomb of Scipio, and in many of the sarcophagi, so that it
is possible Vitruvius's recommendation was never followed. The
Doric order of the Theatre of Marcellus (111. 140) (the favourite
example selected for publication) is always represented as an
isolated column taken from the angle of a building or temple,
instead of being a semi-detached shaft and part of the decorative
treatment of a circular building. The exact date of the Temple of
Hercules at Cora is not known,
but the almost Greek purity
of its design suggests an early
period, and it may have been
part of Sulla's work in that
town (B.C. 80), especially as
the echinus moulding of the
capital is similar to that of the
semi-detached columns of the
Tabularium, known to have
been built about the same time.
The next example in date is
that of the Theatre of Mar-
cellus, where the echinus still
preserves its conic section.
In the Colosseum even this
refinement is lost, and hence-
forth it becomes always a
quarter round, with a few
exceptions where an ogee
moulding replaces the echinus. The bases of the Temple
of Hercules at Cora are probably derived from Tuscan
sources. In the Theatre of Marcellus some trace of a base
is said to have been discovered of late, probably of the same
nature as that of the Theatre of Pompey, where a circular
die of slight projection exists under the shaft. In the
Colosseum and in later examples a base is generally found,
the principal exceptions being in Pompeii, which are probably
of much earlier date.
diameter high, one-third of which is given to the abacus, one-third to the echinus,
and one-third to the hypotrachelium with its apophyge. The base was also
half a diameter equally divided between the die or plinth and the torus
with fillet.
',2 .9
FEET
140.— DORIC ORDER OF THE THEATRE OF
MARCELLUS AT ROME.
THE IONIC ORDER.
175
THE ROMAN IONIC ORDER.
If one may judge by the great variety of Ionic capitals which
were utilised in the naves of the Christian basilicas, the Order
was in considerable favour in Rome. As, however, the capital
with canted^vofute isTarely found, it is possible that those so used
came from the porticoes which enclosed the Imperial Forums,
and at one time, according to Pliny, extended over the Campus
Martius. The capital of the Order must have perplexed the
Roman architect, especially as, in consequence of the increased
size of the pronaos, the awkward arrangement of the inner angle
would have been more con-
spicuous than in the narrow
Greek portico. The ultimate
solution of the problem is best
seen in the Pompeian capital
(111. 244), where the volutes
are all canted on the angles,
the projection of the volutes
being much less than that found
in Greek examples/lie carv-
ing of the volutes here is so
much more refined than in any
other Roman Ionic capitals,
that we may assume it was the
invention of a Greek artist^
[The principal examples in
Rome ot the Koman Ionic '
capitaTare those of the Temple
of Fortuna-Virilis, the Theatre
of Marcellus (111. i4i)7]and of the Temple of Saturn, the latter
of a very debased type. In Syria the Order was occasionally
employed, possibly because it was difficult to find artists to
carve the Corinthian capital. At Gerasa a portion of one of
the colonnaded streets and the great circular piazza have
columns and capitals of the Ionic Order.
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.*
If the Doric and Ionic Orders found but little favour with
the Roman architects in the designs for their temples, it was far
* The origin of the title 'Corinthian' given to the Order has never yet been
determined. The term is used by three classic authors— by Vitruvius, Pliny, and
Pausanias. The latter (viii. 45) refers to the Corinthian columns of the Temple of
141. — IONIC ORDER OF THE THEATRE
OF MARCELLUS AT ROME.
i76
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
otherwise with the Corinthian. Not only did the richness of its
decoration appeal much more to the Roman instinct, but it had
the special advantage of presenting the same design in all four
faces, and could be employed equally well for the peristyle of
a rectangular or circular building, or in the decoration of the
hemicycles which played so important a factor in the setting
out of the plan.
The Greek Corin-
thian capital, though
varied in design,
and in many cases
of great beauty, was
never completely
developed, and it
remained to the
Roman to system-
atise the double
range of leaves
which surround the
lower part of the
bell, and to give a
greater sense of sup-
port to the abacus
by the accentuation
of the spiral tendrils at the four angles. The type of capital
was probably already known in Rome, and, in fact, there is a
Athena Alea at Tegea, and his casual reference suggests that the term was well
recognised and required no description. The fancy description given by Vitru-
vius (iv. i) pf the capital is based naturally on the examples he had seen in
Rome, which were probably copied from the capitals of the Temple of Jupiter
Olympius at Athens, brought to Rome by Sulla, and they have no resemblance
to the earliest examples of the capital in Greece. It informs us also that it was
invented by Callimachus of Corinth. Now Callimachus of Corinth was the
craftsman who is said by Pausanias to have made a golden lamp for the goddess
Minerva Polias in the Erechtheum, and probably also the bronze palm tree reaching to
the roof which drew off the smoke. As the earliest Greek Corinthian capitals all
suggest a metallic origin, and as Callimachus is known to have worked also in
marble, it is conjectured that he reproduced in marble a type of capital which was
copied from one in bronze. Pausanias (ii. 3) refers also to Corinthian bronze,
which he says " got its colour by being plunged red-hot into this water," referring
to some particular spring. Corinthian bronze, for various reasons, was celebrated
in ancient times, and Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 13), speaking of the Porticus built
by Cneius Octavius in 168 B.C., says it was called Corinthian from its brazen
Corinthian capitals. The title, therefore, may have been given because it was
invented by Callimachus of Corinth, or on account of the material in which the
first prototype was wrought. Pliny's statement, however, goes still further, as it
suggests that the leaves and tendrils of the Corinthian capital were occasionally
wrought in bronze, instead of being carved in stone or marble.
142. — CORINTHIAN CAPITAL OF TEMPLE OF CASTOR
AT ROME.
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.
177
reference in Pliny to the Porticus built by Cneius Octavius
in 168 B.C., referred to in note (p. 175). The model, however,
on which the Roman Corinthian capital, as developed under the
Empire, was based was probably that of the Temple of Jupiter
Olympius at Athens (111. 112, p. 127), the columns of which Sulla
exported, to enrich the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome.*
Penrose was of
opinion that the
monolith columns
taken away at that
time were probably
those destined for
the cella of the
Greek temple, and
if utilised in Rome
were probably
placed inside the
cella of the Roman
temple, being
much too small for
the portico.
In the develop-
ment of the capital
the Romans not
only systematised
the double range of leaves and strengthened the angle spirals,
but they also masked the bell more effectually than we find in
the Greek examples. In the carving of the acanthus leaf, based
on the plant of the Acanthus spinosus, they made the section
lat in the place of the V section which characterises all Greek
work. In Syria, where the Greek artists would seem to have
been invariably employed, the V section was still retained, and
iven in the works carried out by the Roman Emperors in Athens
and elsewhere in Greece we find the same distinction. Even in
Rome itself there are one or two examples in which this charac-
teristic may be noted, as in the circular Temple of Mater Matuta
in the Forum Boarium. The assumption, therefore, which has
been made as to the employment of Greek artists in Rome is
not borne out by the best-known examples of capitals, such
as those of Agrippa's Portico, re-erected in front of the Pantheon
* See note, page 176.
A.G.R. N
rrri
143. — CORINTHIAN CAPITAL OF THE TEMPLE OF CASTOR
AND POLLUX AT CORA.
i78
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
of Hadrian, or of the Temple of Mars Ultor. There is, how-
ever, a peculiar refinement in the leaves of the capital of the
Temple of Castor at Rome (111. 142), which seems to follow
the olive leaf rather than the acanthus, and suggests the Greek
chisel. A second type of capital, found at Pompeii and in the
Temple of Vesta at Tivoli (111. 145), is decorated with foliage
which is based on
another variety of
the plant — the
Acanthus mollis.
A third type is
found in the capi-
tals of the Temple
of Castor and
Pollux at Cora
(111. 143), which
might be termed
Graeco-Roman;
it is also found
inOlympia, where
many extensive
works were carried
out under the pat-
ronage of the
Roman Emperors.
Later on, under
the Empire, the
lobes of the Acan-
thus spinosus dis-
appear, and the
Romans return to
the type of foliage
carved in the capi-
tals of the Temple
of Vesta at Tivoli, without, however, its vigorous character.
The leaves of the Composite capital of the Baths of Diocletian
show the ultimate phase of Roman work, not only in Rome,
but throughout Italy and the South of France.
The most beautiful example of the Roman Corinthian
capital is that which is found in the Temple of Castor already
referred to, and in this capital a new element is found which
144.— CORINTHIAN CAPITAL OF THE INTERIOR OF THE
TEMPLE OF CONCORD AT ROME.
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.
179
145. CAPITAL AND BASE OF THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI.
N 2
i8o
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
does not exist in any other example. Between the angle and
centre volutes rises a tendril from which foliage is carried along
the cavetto moulding of the abacus.
The desire for novelty led the Romans to many vagaries,
among which the capitals of the decorative order inside the
Temple of Concord (111. 144), where the volutes consist of
rams' heads, and in the Temple of Mars Ultor of winged
horses. In the Church of S. Lorenzo at Rome are capitals
with figures of Victory at the angles, and trophies of armour
on each face, and
in the Composite
capitals of the
Thermae of Cara-
calla a figure of
Hercules forms
the central feature
on each face.
The position
of the egg and
tongue and the
close resemblance
of the foliage of a
capital now in the
Church of S.
Niccolo in Car-
cere (111. 146) to
those which are
found in the Arch
of Hadrian at
Athens suggest
its execution by
one of the Greek artists whom Hadrian brought to Rome.
The entablature of the Greek Corinthian order was not
evolved from earlier constructional forms in timber in the same
way as those of the Doric and Ionic orders, and in the earliest
example, viz., that of the monument of Lysicrates (Ills. 107, 108,
pp. 123, 125), the sub-divisionsof the architrave, the figure decora-
tion of the frieze, and the mouldings of the cornice, would seem
to have been borrowed from Asiatic types of the Ionic order, the
dentils, however, being much reduced in projection. The Romans
followed the same course, except that in the earliest example,
146.— EARLY CORINTHIAN CAPITAL NOW IN THE CHURCH
OF S. NICCOLO IN CARCERE.
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.
181
147. — CORNICE OF THE TEMPLE OF CASTOR AT ROME.
<= && ieet.
148.— SOFFIT OF CORNICE OF THE TEMPLE OF CASTOR AT ROME.
i8a
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
149.— ARCHITRAVE OF THE TEMPLE OF CASTOR AT ROME.
viz., Agrippa's Portico of the Pantheon, the dentils are left
uncarved. The Romans, however, introduced a new feature
(i.e. the modillion), a corbel giving support to the projecting
corona. The spaces between the corbels were, as a rule, made
square, the soffit
«gi"L*jfciiff!,pjUiu.^ .WiWAlgJUlPm being sunk as a
coffer and decor-
ated with a centre
flower. The over-
elaboration in the
decoration of the
entablature of the
Temple of Castor
(Ills. 147—149) is
probably the result
of carving the orna-
ments which in the
Greek entablature
were only painted ;
but the relative pro-
portions of the mouldings, the greater importance given to the
dentil course, and the depth of the corona, place this temple
far above any other examples, with the exception, perhaps,
of the Pantheon and
the Temples of Anto-
ninus and Faustina,
in which 1 at ter
example there are no MT I r? /V^f f*~ WJTt\ \ \
modillions. Already
in the Order of the
Forum of Nerva the
decadence of the style
would seem to have
set in, owing to the
employment of in-
ferior artists, and this maybe observed in the cornices of the Com-
posite Order of the Arches of Titus and of Septimius Severus, in
the Thermae of Diocletian, and of the Corinthian Order of the
Arch of Constantine. The remains of the Temple of the Sun on
the Quirinal Hill* are of so refined a character, not only in the
* Du Perac calls it the Frontispiece of Nero, and gives a drawing of the rear
wall of the temple as it existed in 1674 (see frieze, 111. 1^8, p. 172).
150. — IONIC CAPITAL FOUND IN THE FORUM OF TRAJAN.
THE COMPOSITE ORDER.
183
151. — COMPOSITE CAPITAL FOUND IN
THE FORUM OF TRAJAN.
proportions of the Order, but in the profile and decoration of
the mouldings of the entablature, that it seems at first difficult
to recognise in it the temple built by Aurelian * on his return
from Palmyra in 273 A.D. The modillions are set back behind the
corona, take the same position,
and are of the same proportions as
the widely-projecting dentil mould-
ings of the Ionic temples of Asia
Minor.
THE COMPOSITE ORDER.
The earliest example of this
Order in Rome is found in the
Arch of Titus, but, as we have
already stated, earlier examples
exist in Asia Minor. It is usually
assumed that the Romans, con-
scious of the weakness of the
tendril volutes of the Corinthian order, replaced them by the
volutes of the Ionic order. This, however, is not borne out
by the facts. In one of the
earliest examples of the
Greek Ionic Order, viz., that
of the Temple of Apollo at
Naucratis (111. 45, p. 50>
the necking is already
decorated with the anthe-
mion. Its more perfect
evolution is found in the
capitals of the Erechtheum,
the Roman version of which
may be seen in an Ionic
capital found in the Forum
of Trajan (111. 150). The
selection of the acanthus
foliage in preference to the
anthemion t is found in the capitals of the pronaos of the
* The columns of this temple were fifty-eight feet high, and the entablature
nearly sixteen feet. The fragment of the entablature now in the Colonna gardens
weighs about ninety tons, so that Aurelian rttempted to rival the structures of
Palmyra in the size of the blocks of marble he employed.
f Prof. Meurer is of opinion that the anthemion is'derived from the flower of the
iTE CAPITAL OF THE ARCH
OF TITUS.
i84
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
-s
Temple of Jupiter at Aizani (111. 104, p. 119), where a single
row of leaves only is carved, and marks the next develop-
ment; and the adoption of the two rows of leaves in the
capitals of the proscenium of the theatres of Asia Minor
suggests that the Composite c^ tal originated in the desire
to give a richer effect to the capitals of the Ionic Order. Of a
similar type to 111. 146 is the capital, 111. 151, which may have
. been carved by the same
artist. In the Composite
capitals of the Arches of
Titus, Septimius Severus
and of the Thermae of
Diocletian, the upper fillet
of the volute is raised into
the cavetto moulding of
the abacus, and is carried
through horizontally;* a
similar treatment exists in
every Roman Composite
capital, of which there are
many examples still exist-
ing in the museums and
churches of Rome.
THE SUPERPOSED
ORDERS.
The combination of the
i;* arcade as a constructive
^ feature with the orders em-
ployed as a wall decoration,
and the superposition of
the orders, may be taken to
constitute that which vir-
tually became a new Roman order, inasmuch as in the earlier
examples there seems to have been a definite proportion both in
the intercolumniation of the shafts and the relative proportion
acanthus and its sheathing leaves, while the leaves on the lower part of the
stem form the prototype of those employed in the Corinthian capital.
* In many of the published drawings the volutes are represented as dying into
the echinus, and in the interpretation of the capital by the Italian masters and
as executed at the present day the origin and meaning of the upper fillet as
the junction of the volutes is entirely lost, as each volute is made a separate
feature tucked in on the top of the echinus.
153.— A BAY OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS
AT ROME.
THE SUPERPOSED ORDERS.
185
of the orders superposed. Thus in the Tabularium the
distance from centre to centre of column is five diameters, and
five and a quarter in the Theatre of Marcellus and in that of
Pompey. In the Basilica Julia it was five and a half. In the
lower or Doric Order of the Theatre of Marcellus (111. 153) the
columns are eight diameters high, and taper by one-seventh of
the lower diameter at the top, and this becomes the lower
diameter of the Ionic column above, of which the height is
nine diameters.
The upper
storey has gone,
so that it is not
possible to trace
the principle
further. In the
Colosseum,
where there are
three super-
posed orders,
the proportions
are defective;
and the mould-
ings, which, in
the ((Theatre of
Marcellus and
the Tabularium,
still preserved
some Greek
charactQi^ in the
Colosseum be-
come portions
of circles, and of a very commonplace type. This suggests that
the architect confined his attention to the general design of the
plan, and left the details to his subordinates. The distance from
centre to centre of the columns in the Colosseum is seven and
a half diameters, the Doric column is nine and one-third diameters
high, and the Ionic and Corinthian eight and three-quarters only,
all having the same diameter at the base.
In the interpretation of the Orders by the Italian Revivalists,
they would seem to have assumed that no order, in conjunction
with an arcade, was complete without a pedestal. There is
154- — THE TEMPLE OF MINERVA AT ASSISI.
i86
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
no example of this feature in the Doric Order in Rome, and
that of the Ionic Order in the Theatre of Marcellus and in the
Colosseum is part of a plinth which was required to give
height for the vaulting of the lower storey ; but they were not
detached features as
shown in Vignola and
Palladio. There is, how-
ever, one well-known
example in the Temple
of Minerva at Assisi (111.
154) where, to give addi-
tional width to the road
passing in front, the steps
are set back between
pedestals carrying the
columns of the main
front. In North Africa,
the columns decorating
the front of the Prae-
torium at Lambessa are
raised on pedestals, and
in Syria are other exam-
ples, as in the Praetorium
at Mousmieh (now des-
troyed), the so-called
temple at Sunamein
south of Damascus
(111. 155), the temple of
Kanawat in the Hauran,
the temple of Neptune
at Palmyra and the
Propylaea at Baalbec
(111. 162).
In the Roman Triumphal Arches pedestals were required on
account of the height of the central archway, but they vary so
much in the relation of their height to those of the columns
they carry, that no rules could be applied to them as part of
the Order. Thus in the Arches of Titus, Septimius Severus and
Constantine, the relation is as 2 : 5 ; at Beneventum 2:4; at
Tebessa 2:4!; at Orange 2:8; and at Ancona 2 : gij.
155. — TEMPLE OF THE GODDESS FORTUNA
AT SUNAMEIN (222—235 A.D.).
156.— THE ROMAN FORUMS.
CHAPTER XL
THE FORUMS OF ROME.
THE COLONNADED STREETS AND ENCLOSURES OF
TEMPLES IN THE EAST.
THE forum in Roman architecture corresponded to the
Greek agora already described in Chapter VII., and of which
there were two types — the Agora Civilis or public forum, and
the Agora Venalis or market place. Under the Republic
the Forum Romanum seems to have served both purposes,
as some of the chief temples and important public buildings
occupied sites round it, and up to the time of Julius Caesar
there were shops on both sides. Besides this, like the Agora
at Elis, it was used as a Hippodrome, and served for combats
and various other displays. Under the Empire these latter
were relegated to the amphitheatre, the circus, and the theatre;
markets were provided elsewhere, the Forum was cleared of
its shops, and became the great centre for the law courts,
exchange, and other buildings of public importance.
In course of time the Forum Romanum no longer sufficed for
the increased demands made upon its space, and a number of
Forums were subsequently built by succeeding Emperors,
e.g., those of Julius Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva, and
Trajan. All these additional Forums were planned symmetri-
cally ; and from their size and magnificence, both in design and
material, they give a far more complete idea of the Roman
i88 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
» architectural style than can be obtained by the study of the
temples, basilicas, and other monuments apart from their
surroundings.
-a* In Rome no importance would seem to have been attached
to the orientation of the temples, which were regarded more
from the monumental than from the religious point of view;
they occupied the most important positions facing the Forum,
only in a few instances being isolated in a court surrounded by
porticoes, in imitation of those in Greece. As a result of its
gradual growth, the Forum Romanum (111. 157) was not
symmetrically planned. The temples on either side or at the
ends, varying as they did in plan, in dimensions and orientation,
and being interspersed with other monuments, presented a much
more magnificent effect than when enclosed in a court, and so
resembled more the accidental and picturesque arrangement
of the Greek shrines. As already pointed out in the chapters
on Greek architecture, the Greeks not only selected beautiful
sites, but utilised their varying levels, and planned their
buildings in harmony therewith, thus wedding art to nature.
This was not always the case with the Romans, who, possessed
of greater means, invariably levelled their sites, and then set
out plans of symmetrical design in which a central axis
formed the chief characteristic (see 111. 157). When founding
new cities, or in cases where the ground was occupied by
unimportant buildings only, which could be cleared away, no
great difficulties presented themselves ; but in Rome, where
the ground in the vicinity of the Forum Romanum had already
in the first years of the Empire acquired an immense value,
the sites were frequently curtailed in size, and sometimes
abutted on other buildings or streets running at various angles,
and as it was considered to be of importance that the new
Forums should be contiguous to the Forum Romanum, the only
site available was that under the cliffs of the Quirinal Hill ; con-
sequently, at all events on the north-east side, they had to be
enclosed with lofty walls in order to mask the cliffs against
which they butted and the buildings surmounting them. The
1 height of the walls round the Forum of Augustus was over one
hundred feet, and such an enclosure would have had a dreary
effect if the Romans had not known how to give interest to these
walls by their decoration, and by the variety of their outline and
form. This will be better followed on reference to the plan
111. 157.
PLAN OF THE
FORUMS AT
ROME.
111. 157.
A. TABULARIUM.
B. TEMPLE OF VESPASIAN.
C. TEMPLE OF SATURN.
D. TEMPLE OF CONCORD.
E. ARCH OF JANUS.
F. TEMPLE OF AUGUSTUS.
G. TEMPLE OF CASTOR.
H TEMPLE OF VESTA.
I. TEMPLE OF JULIUS.
K. TEMPLE OF ANTONINUS & FAUSTINA.
L, TEMPLE OF PEACE.
M. BASILICA OF PAULUS EMILIUS.
N. TEMPLE OF MINERVA.
O. TEMPLE OF MARS ULTOR.
P. HEMICYCLES.
Q. FORUM OF JULIUS CJESAR.
R. TEMPLE OF VENUS.
S. EXISTING WALLS OF OFFICES.
T. ARCH OF TRAJAN.
U. LAW COURTS.
V. TRAJAN'S COLUMN.
W. LIBRARIES.
X. END OF PORTICUS ACCORDING TO
CANINA.
SCALE 100 50
100
I
200
I
300
40
I
ILL. 157.
PLAN OF THE
FORUMS
AT ROME.
BY A. F. V. DUTERT.
•X;
500
I
600
700
i
800 900 1000 FEET
111. 157.
PLAN OF THE
FORUMS AT
ROME.
O: - , ,,
7^*«^n '
it
THE FORUMS AND THEIR ENCLOSURES. 189
showing the Forum of Augustus, where it will be noted that
the temple of Mars Ultor (111. 157, O) is built at the farther end
of the site, thus giving an ample space to the Forum. As the
temple was erected against a portion of the Quirinal Hill cliff,
it was visible only from the front and sides, which may account
for the wide difference between its plan and that of a Greek
temple. Externally, far greater importance was given to the
portico of the front ; internally, a finer effect to the statue of the
god by the apse in which it stood. The irregularity of the site
at the back, on the right, has been balanced on the left, so
that, as seen from the Forum, the two sides would appear to be
symmetrical. In this Forum is one of the earliest examples
known of that feature which seems to have had a special
attraction for the Roman architect, viz., the hemicycle (P), and
we can thus appreciate, on examination of the plan, the magnifi-
cent effect of the expansion of the farther end of the court by
those semicircular walls on each side, decorated as they were
with ranges of niches flanked by monoliths of coloured marbles
and filled with statues, the whole of the rest of the surface of
the wall being covered with slabs of coloured marbles.*
To return, however, to the new Forums, the first one added
was that of Julius Caesar (Q), built on the north side of the prin-
cipal Forum. It was rectangular in plan, and was surrounded on
three sides by a porticus giving access to a series of vaulted
chambers, which are assumed to have been legal offices. Portions
of these still exist (S), to the simple architecture of which
reference has been made (p. 159). In the centre of the Forum
was the Temple of Venus (R), which is instanced by Vitruvius
as an example of pycnostyle, or close intercolumniation. The
temple was erected 46 B.C., and was peripteral hexastyle, of
the Corinthian order, and built or cased entirely in white
marble.
Reference has already been made to the next Forum built,
i.e., that of Augustus. To the Temple of Mars Ultor, which
formed its chief architectural feature, we shall return again.
* In the restored plan made by Charles Dutert, Grand-Prix of 1864, the
porticus is carried across the fronts of these hemicycles. In Dr. Middleton's plan
(vol. ii. p. 3), and also in Canina, it stops short of them, possibly a finer arrange-
ment so far as the effect of the great semicircular walls is concerned. Dutert's
plan represents the conjectural restoration of the Forum as it was in 175 A.D.,
so that the Arch of Septimius Severus is not shown on it, and it includes only
the discoveries made up to the year 1869, many years before the systematic
excavation of the Forum Romanum was commenced.
I go
10 20 30
158. THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME.
THE FORUMS AND THEIR ENCLOSURES. igi
The Forum built by Vespasian (111. 157), which is better known
as the Forum Pacis, was begun in 71 A.D. It was situate about
one hundred feet east of the walls of the Forum of Augustus,
and was rectangular, with a porticus round it, and enclosed the
Temple of Peace (L), of which no remains have been found.
The Forum of Nerva (111. 157) is the next in date, 88 — 98 A.D.
It occupied a site between the Forums of Augustus and Vespa-
sian, and the lofty walls on either side were decorated with a
series of detached Corinthian columns of Greek marble, twenty-
one on each side, with respond capitals only ; two of these
columns still exist, and show that above the entablature was
an attic with plinth and cornice, the latter being returned round
the corner, and probably carried statues to break the sky line.
In the centre of the portion which remains is a relief of Minerva
about life size. At the farther end of the Forum was a temple
dedicated to Minerva (N), hexastyle and prostyle, with an apsidal
termination to the cella similar to that of Mars Ultor. The
Forum is about one hundred feet wide., and it must have had a
magnificent effect with the side ranges of Corinthian columns.
The last Imperial Forum built, and by far the most magni-
ficent, was that of Trajan (111. 157), which was designed by
Apollodorus of Damascus, and covered an area equal to all the
other Forums put together. The latest researches of Signer
Boni have shown that portions of the substructure of this
Forum go back to the time of Domitian, and were built on a
site already covered with buildings of a more ancient date.
The Forum consisted of three parts, viz., the Forum proper,
the Ulpian basilica and the Temple of Trajan ; the first was
an open area surrounded by a porticus with a double row of
columns,* and flanked on the right and left by two immense
hemicycles; as the northern hemicycle had a series of shops and
offices several storeys high, the upper rooms in which were
entered from the top of the adjoining hill, it is evident that
this feature was designed to mask the overhanging cliff of the
Quirinal Hill, and (for the sake of symmetry) a similar hemi-
cycle with shops and offices was built on the south side. The
Forum was entered through a magnificent Archway (T), the
design of which is known from coins. The farther side of the open
area of the Forum was occupied by the Ulpian Basilica (111. 157),
* In Dutert's plan only one row is shown, insufficient, it would seem, to
carry a roof of fifty feet span.
192 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
inaugurated 113 A. D., consisting of a vast central nave surrounded
by a double range of columns in two storeys. At its north and
south ends were semicircular apses (U), covered with hemi-
spherical vaults. These apses were the law courts, and they may
have been shut off from the basilica by curtains or screens, so as
to mask the incongruity of the arcuated and trabeated styles in
the great circular arch opening of the hemicycle and the double
range of columns of the aisles carrying their entablatures.
In a central court beyond the basilica, which was surrounded
by a peristyle two or more storeys high, stood the famous
^Column of Trajan (V) 114 A.D. ; this was of the Roman Doric
order, raised orTa pedestal richly carved with reliefs of armour
and trophies taken from the Dacians. Winding round the shaft
(111. 158) is a spiral band of twenty-three revolutions, carved
with relief sculpture representing the history of Trajan's cam-
paigns against the Dacians. The shaft, built in large blocks of
Greek marble, has a lower diameter of twelve feet, diminishing
to ten feet under the capital. The whole column is one hundred
Roman feet (97*6 feet) high, the pedestal eighteen feet high.
On the top of the capital was a colossal bronze statue of the
Emperor, thirteen feet high A On either side of this central court
were libraries (111. 157, W), one for Greek, the other for Latin
MSS. The third part of the Forum was occupied by the Temple
of Trajan (111. 157), which was of the Corinthian Order,* octa-
style and peristylar, mounted on a podium and approached by
a flight of steps. The temple stood in a court surrounded on
three sides by a peristyle in two storeys, and was probably an
addition made to Trajan's Forum by Hadrian, who dedicated
the temple to the deified Trajan.
The plans of the several forums we have been describing
were governed to a certain extent by the sites selected, arid
the lofty walls by which some of them were enclosed would
seem to have been deemed necessary to mask adjoining
heights of cliffs, other buildings, and existing streets. In
the provincial towns, as in Pompeii, throughout Europe and
in the North of Africa, the enclosures of the forum were the
principal temples and shrines, government buildings, as the
Basilica, Senate House, etc., and Municipal Buildings, serving
* A monolith shaft of granite, six feet in diameter and fifty-five feet high, was
discovered on the site in 1887, and probably belonged to the peristyle of this
temple.
THE FORt/Mg AND THE'IR ENCLOSURES. r93*
as markets. The forum itself consisted of an open rectangular
area enclosed by a porticus or peristyle. On the foundation
of a new town the first consideration would appear to have
been the two chief thoroughfares, and these were laid out at
right angles to one another, running as a rule north to south
and east to west. In order to be as central as possible the
forum occupied an angle of two of the streets, but there were
always buildings between the street and the forum ; the
entrance to the central area of the latter being at one of the
narrow ends, so as to interfere as little as possible with the
covered porticus round it. The Forum of Pompeii, which may
be taken as a typical example, was about five hundred feet
long, north to south, and one hundred and fifty feet wide, in
both cases including the peristyle. At the north end, projecting
about one hundred feet into the forum, was the Temple of
Jupiter, and an entrance gateway, the Arch of Tiberius, at
the north-east corner. On the east side were in succession
the provision market, the sanctuary of the city Lares, a small
temple of Vespasian, the building of Eumachia (which was
probably a cloth market) and the Comitium, or voting place.
On the south side were three municipal buildings, and on the
west side the Basilica, to the north of which was the Temple
of Apollo in a court surrounded by a peristyle in two storeys ;
and, farther north, another market and latrines. Excepting
the Temple of Jupiter the only other monumental features in
the forum itself were statues raised on pedestals to various
Emperors and distinguished citizens.
The Romans, as a rule, employed their own style of architec-
ture, as developed during the first century of the Empire in
Rome, throughout all their dominions. The construction of their
buildings, however, varied sometimes on account of the materials
at hand (which were occasionally of an entirely different nature
to those in use in the Capitol), and at other times in order to
avail themselves of the special labour of the country. In Syria,
for instance, and more particularly at Baalbec, they employed
immense masses of stone, not only for the substructures of the
citadel, but in the temples themselves, which in dimensions are
far in excess of those employed elsewhere.
M. Ernest Renan* and his coadjutors in fact arrived at the
conclusion that the famous trilithon, the well-known group of
* Mission de Phenicie, Paris, 1864.
A.G.R. O
i94 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
three stones, which forms part of the substructure of the great
Temple of the Sun at Baalbec was the work of the Romans,
who had employed the traditional Phoenician labour of the
country. This is confirmed by other characteristics. Phoe-
nician architecture was megalithic ; when unable to find rocks
of sufficient height wherein to excavate their dwellings, they
employed stones of immense size, and aimed at obtaining joints
of such fineness that the ultimate work appeared to be in one
stone.* When working for the Romans (and employing the
classic orders), both capitals and bases are carved in the same
stone with portions of the shaft. This tradition was carried on
in later times under the Christians, when the arch of an arcade
was either cut out of a single block or divided into only three
voussoirs. This special characteristic is found throughout
Roman work in Syria, but for the moment our attention must
be directed to the laying out of their towns, which in the eastern
portion of Asia Minor and in Syria seems to have followed the
traditional requirements of the country in the erection of what
are known as " colonnaded streets." In consequence of the
great size of the stones, and of the difficulty of utilising cylindrical
blocks in the erection of more modern dwellings, a large number
of columns still stand erect, like bleached skeletons, on the sites
of the ancient cities. Owing to the great dangers involved in
visits to these cities, and the very short periods during which it
has been possible to stop there, no attempt has yet been made
(beyond the general survey of that which remains above
ground), to excavate and expose the foundations of the various
buildings which constituted the town apart from its main
thoroughfares. The folio volumes of Wood t and of Cassas J
give us the plans of the streets and of the principal temples of
Palmyra, but of the buildings which flanked those streets there
is no record. Many of the columns of the colonnaded streets
remain in-situ, and the bases of others allow of a complete
conjectural restoration of their extent being made; but the
buildings outside the covered peristyle on each side (being built
in coursed masonry, or only in rubble bedded in clay) have
long since been removed and utilised to construct the walls
of the town or houses for the numerous tribes which have since
occupied the site.
* See Ills. 164 and 165, pages 203, 204.
t Ruins of Palmyra, London, 1753.
I Voyage pittoresque dc la Syrie et de la Phoenicie. Paris, 1799.
THE COLONNADED STREETS. 195
From the writings of a Spanish Arab geographer who visited
Damascus in 1184, and described what he thought was a great
hall, but which is known from other sources to have been one
of the colonnaded streets leading to the Great Mosque built
on the site of the ancient temple, it may be gathered that the
central space between the rows of columns was open to the sky,
and that the side avenues were covered over with a terrace roof
which extended over the shops and offices on each side, and that
on this roof the occupiers of the chambers and shops passed the
nights in the summer. The shops and residential chambers
were in two storeys. This description applies to the great
street at Palmyra, where a projecting cornice still exists on
the side of the central avenue ; and the trace of the terrace roof
which covered the side avenue may be seen against the great
archway which terminated a portion of the colonnade.
The earliest records of these colonnaded_si£££ts are those
describing the city of Antioch, wriere Antiochus Epiphanes is
said to have laid out (about 170 B.C.) a street with double
colonnades extending more than two miles in length, with other
streets crossing it at right angles. Herod the Great also con-
structed a new street there with colonnades similar to those which
he had erected at Samaria, and many of the columns are still
standing erect at the present day. With the exception of the
latter, all the colonnaded streets in Syria belong to the Roman
occupation ; but the two bends in the main street at Palmyra
suggest that it occupied the line of a more ancient thoroughfare.
The central avenue of the principal portion of its main street
(which runs from west to east), is thirty-seven feet wide, and is
flanked by a row of columns thirty-one feet high on each side.
There were originally four hundred and fifty-four columns in this
street, of which one hundred and sixteen still stood erect in
Cassas's time (1795 A.D.). The side avenues were sixteen feet
wide, and at about six hundred feet from the eastern end was the
centre of an important cross street. In some cases, as at Antioch,
Bosra, Gerasa, and other towns, the intersection of two cross
streets is marked by a four-arched gateway vaulted over. At
Palmyra there were four immense pedestals only, each carrying
a group of four columns, with their entablature. With this
exception the entablature of the colonnade, measuring seven
feet two inches high, and crowned with a blocking course or
low attic, was carried straight through from end to end. In four
o 2
ig6
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
other cases where there were cross streets the columns were
replaced by archways. At the eastern end of this street was
an immense triple gateway (111. 159), with a central archway
twenty-three feet six inches wide and forty-five feet high, and
two side archways for pedestrians, eleven feet six inches wide
and twenty-three feet high. The gateway was apparently
159. — THE GREAT ARCHWAY AT PALMYRA, SHOWING ON THE RIGHT-HAND SIDE THE COLUMNS
OF THE PERISTYLE; IN THE DISTANCE is THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN.
planned to mask the junction of the street just described with
another street, seven hundred feet long, leading to the entrance
propylaea of the great temple. It is triangular am plan, and
seems to have been misunderstood by Wood, but is correctly
shown in Cassas's work. The angle of the two streets (one
to the other) is about 131°, and we assume that, after the
temple, with its immense enclosure was built, it was thought
THE COLONNADED STREETS. 197
right to connect its entrance with the main street, and the
great archway was designed for the purpose above mentioned.
In Damascus, the longest street, known as the " Via recta,"
ran from one gateway of the town to the other, and was 1,550
feet long. The main street of Gerasa was 1,880 feet long, of
which one portion, about 1,300 feet, had a range of columns
of the Corinthian order 25 feet high on each side, and the
remaining portion, columns of the Ionic order, 20 feet high.
This latter terminated in an immense circular piazza, appa-
rently to change the line of axis to an important temple
beyond. The remains of other colonnaded streets are found
at Amman, Bosra, Gadara, Pella, Apamia, Kanawat, etc.
They seem to have existed in every town, and are shown on
early maps as existing in Jerusalem, and at Pompeiopolis, in
the south of Asia Minor, a large number of columns still stand
erect.
At Bosra, where the town was regularly planned within walls
forming a rectangle, the main street ran from east to west,
joining the two gateways of the city. This street was inter-
sected by two other important streets running north and south,
and at their junction were tetrapylons which were vaulted over.
The existence of these colonnaded streets did not obviate
the erection of other public buildings, such as the forum, senate
house, etc. ; but with the exception of the temples, only the
colonnaded streets have been traced in the surveys made.
Reference was made in Chapter VI. to the placing of tablets
with dedicatory inscriptions on the columns of Greek temples.
These existed throughout Syria, but the Romans did more than
this, they erected statues as well. The shafts of the columns at
Palmyra are in three drums of stone, the central one about
two feet high only, with a corbel bracket (see 111. 159) pro-
jecting inwards towards the central avenue to carry a statue.
It was the custom of the citizens to raise statues to those
benefactors who had contributed to the magnificence of the
town by erecting buildings of public importance ; but whether
these corbels were all occupied, is not known. All the columns
standing erect in the great street have these brackets, and also
those of the peristyle or porticus round the peribolus of the
great temple.
The principal temples in Syria would appear generally to have
been enclosed in a great court, with lofty walls and porticus
ig8 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
round, similar to those of the Forums at Rome. The great
court of the Temple of the Sun at Palmyra is about seven
hundred and fifty feet square, the whole area being raised some
sixteen feet above the general level of the town, and enclosed
by a wall fifty feet high, which was entered through magnificent
propylaea with a broad flight of steps in front. The twelve
columns of the Propylaea are arranged in pairs, and the wider
central intercolumniation suggests that an arch was employed
SCALE 'pn||5m|y 'P 20 30 40 50 FEET R.P.S.dd.
160. — THE WEST FRONT OF THE PROPYLAEA AT DAMASCUS.
to span them instead of carrying through the architrave. The
height of the front wall (west) was eighty-three feet, the
peristyle on the inner side being sixty-one feet high (including
column and entablature), and the width between wall and
columns forty-five feet. The three other sides of the court
had a double peristyle, with two rows of columns thirty-four
feet high. At Damascus, the walled enclosure would appear
to have measured one thousand one hundred by one thousand
feet, with a double portico round, and two propylaea to the
east and west respectively. The inner part of the western
THE GREAT ENCLOSURES OF TEMPLES IN THE EAST. 199
Propylaea is still more or less perfect (111. 160). The extreme
purity of its detail points to its execution within the second
century of our era, and possibly in the first half. In com-
parison with the two great temples at Baalbec, built in the
second half of the century, it exhibits little of that decadence
of style which we find in the latter end of it, and, if it were
possible to ascribe a still earlier date, it might be the work of
the celebrated Apollodorus of Damascus, of whose services
Trajan availed himself when laying out his Forum at Rome.
There is one feature in it, however (i.e., the arch spanning
the central intercolumniation), which seems to be too startling
a novelty for this early
date. But a little later
there is an example in
the Temple at Atil (111.
161) in the Hauran,
which was built by
Antoninus Pius, and
is dated by an inscription
as A.D. 151^, The Greek
fret decoration of the
architrave at Atil is so
similar to that of this
gateway at Damascus
that the same date might
be fairly claimed for it,
and they both precede l6r._CAPITALOFTHE TEMPLEAT ATIL, SHOWINGTHK
the Well-known example SPRINGING OF THE ARCH BETWEEN THE TWO
O I 1 CENTRAL COLUMNS.
at Spalato by one
hundred and fifty-three years. In the great peribolus of
Damascus the double portico appears to have been raised above
the level of the city, and a flight of steps (as shown in 111. 160)
led down into the enclosed court, the temple itself being raised
on a separate platform.
The most important of the Syrian enclosures is that found
at Baalbec, where the principal temples were raised on an
immense platform, which constituted an acropolis or citadel.
Although at one time it was thought that the substructure of
the north and west walls might have been, according to Renan,
the work of the Seleucidae, erected on the site of a much
earlier temple (that of the Temple of Baal, built by the
200 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
Phoenicians), there is no doubt now that the buildings consti-
tuting the whole acropolis formed part of one great scheme
commenced by Antoninus Pius (138 — 161 A.D.). The whole
structure is artificial, and the foundations were carried down to
the solid rock, in some cases twenty-five feet below the ground,
above which the height of the platform is twenty-five feet at
the east end and thirty feet at the west owing to the slope
of the ground. If one may judge by the megalithic masonry*
employed, Antoninus Pius's work would seem to have been
stopped when the structure was about thirty feet from the
SCALE 10 0 10 20
40
100 FEET
R.P.S. del.
l62. — CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF THE PROPYLAEA AT BAALBEC.
ground, possibly on account of his death 161 A.D., and it was
not resumed till many years later, probably by Septimius
Severus (193 — 211 A.D.), the superstructure above that level
being in masonry of far less dimensions.
The entrance to the citadel was on the east side. A flight of
fifty-one steps, one hundred and fifty feet wide, led to the
Propylaea t (111. 162 and A, 163), a block measuring two
hundred and thirty-eight feet wide by forty-five feet deep, and
consisting of a portico, one hundred and sixty-four feet wide, of
* The wall carrying the Propylaea is twenty-five feet high, and consists of
four courses only of masonry ; these dimensions are exceeded by others described
on page 204.
f The illustration here given (No. 162) is based on the dimensions of plan made
by Joyau, Grand-Prix de Rome, who spent six months there in 1865, but died
before he was able to work out his conjectural restoration. It is a different
version from that put forward by Donaldson in his work Architectural Numismatica,
both being based on a well-known coin.
THE GREAT ENCLOSURES OF TEMPLES IN THE EAST. 201
REFERENCES.
A. ENTRANCE PORTICO.
B. HEXAGONAL COURT.
C. GREAT COURT.
D. TEMPLE OF THE SUN.
E. TEMPLE OF JUPITER.
F. THE TRILITHON.
G. CIRCULAR TEMPLE OF
VENUS.
MIO 0 10 ^0 30 40 50 60 1>
FlZS 0 ZS 50 75 100 123 150 175 £00 F
163. PLAN OF BAALBEC.
202 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
twelve Corinthian columns (on pedestals) in-antis.\between two_
wings of thirty seven feet frontage and forty-five feet deep\
The Corinthian order with its entahM"^ was carrierTn cross
the^win^Sj witrTlorrr'pil a^t^rs on the front anrLa similar number
on the returns. Wood conceived that there was an attic
storey above the cornice ; and in his conjectural restoration
he carried one along the whole front above the portico, but
there is no authority for it, and Prof. Donaldson in his
Architectures Numismatica, basing his conclusions on a medal
representing the Propylaea, assumed the scjuare dies which
rise above the entablature of thejvvings to be the bases of an
upper range ot^ormthian pilasters. The^same rne5al shows
that over the six central columns~there was a pediment, and.
that the two central columns carried an arch similar to that
in the Propylaea at Damascus. This portion of the temple
was built by Caracalla, about 212 A.D. The portico was
probably covered with a tiled roof rising from the cornice in
front to the rear wall of the bjgck, and intersected by the
pediment roof in the centre. \T~We find, therefore, in the
Propylaea at Baalbec a type of design based on the Temple at
Jerusalem, i.e., a central columnar portico flanked by two
towers. /The same type existed in the Temple of Sia in the
Hauran, built by Herod the Great.
Three doorways led from the Propylaea to an hexagonal
court B, surrounded by a peristyle * resting on a stylobate of
three steps. On four of the sides of this peristyle, and
separated from it by columns and piers, were four rectangular
halls of irregular plan. Three other doorways led to the great
court (C), with a peristyle on stylobate of three steps on three
sides. In the rear of this peristyle were eight rectangular and
other halls, those on the north and south sides alternating with
semicircular exedrae, these latter being vaulted in stone, and
the halls and peristyles having roofs in timber. Underneath
the whole ranges of these halls and peristyles in both courts,
are vaulted corridors sixteen feet wide, showing that the outer
portion of the great platform was artificial.
The Temple of the Sun (D) was axially placed at the further
* The discovery of these peristyles and the stylobate on which they rested, is
due to the Germans, who have been excavating there since the commencement
of 1899. In the centre of the court they found an immense altar with steps
leading up to it, and marble enclosures of what were apparently shallow basins
for water, one on each side.
THE GREAT ENCLOSURES OF TEMPLES IN THE EAST. 203
end of the square court ; it was of the Corinthian order,
decastyle and pseudodipteral with nineteen columns on the
flanks. The temple measured one hundred and sixty feet in
front by two hundred and eighty-nine feet deep, and was raised
in a lofty podium with an immense flight of steps leading up
to it, of which the lower portion has been discovered by the
Germans in-situ. Of the temple itself there remains part of the
great stereobate walls which carried the columns of the peri-
style, one side of which was utilised by the Moslems as the
~?py
w|iij?-%:^^v.r . ^
£***
164. — VIEW OF THE TRILITHON AT BAALBEC, SHOWING PLINTH COURSE AND SUBSTRUCTURE.
THE X X INDICATE THE POSITION OF THE JOINTS.
north enclosure of their fortress. Only six columns of the
peristyle remain standing on the south side, but portions of
others are embedded in the north wall. These columns, which
are sixty-five feet in height, carry still their entablature, which
is thirteen feet high. The German archaeologists cleared out
the interior, showing that the whole of the masonry of the
substructure of the cella had been removed, part by the
Christians when they erected their basilica, probably in the
sixth century A.D., and the remainder by the Moslems to
complete the enclosure walls of the citadel and of the town of
204 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
Baalbec. The excavators, however, laid bare the lower
foundations of the substructure of the cella, and the conjec-
tural restoration of the plan in 111. 163 is based on these and
on the design of the Temple of Jupiter, in which the cella wall
with its architectural decoration (see 111. 176) and the Sanctuary
are in good preservation.
In the substructure of the west wall of this temple, and
about twenty-five feet west of it, is the well-known " trilithon "
(F) consisting of three large stones,* each of them being about
sixty-three feet long, twelve feet high, and eleven feet thick,
which are raised some twenty feet above the ground outside,
on a plinth course of stones averaging thirty feet long each,
and a substructure of smaller stones. The joints between
these immense stones are so fine that it is impossible to insert
the small blade of a knife into them. These great blocks of
stone have been already alluded to (p. 199), and reasons given
for attributing them to the Roman period. On this point
Fergusson t states : " There seems no reason for doubting their
being of the same age as the temples they support, though their
use is certainly exceptional in Roman temples of this class."
In a court to the south of this temple, at a slightly lower
level, was the Temple of Jupiter (E), and about three hundred and
seventeen feet to the south and in the town is a small circular
temple (G) to both of which reference will be made later on.
* For further description see the Builder, February nth, 1905.
t History of Architecture, vol. i., p. 326.
& .:
165. — SITE OF THE QUARRY AT BAALBEC FROM WHICH THE STONES OF THE TRILITHON
WERE OBTAINED.
The illustration shows another detached block in-situ, measuring 77 feet long,
15 feet high, and 14 feet thick, and weighing 820 tons. The columns of the
Temple of the Sun on the left show that the three large stones had to be
transported a great distance.
[ 205 J
l66. — GARLAND FROM THE PANTHEON AT ROME.
CHAPTER XII.
TEMPLES, BASILICAS, THEATRES AND AMPHITHEATRES.
THE Greek temples, whether peripteral or otherwise, were
always isolated and intended to be seen on all sides. Except
in a few instances, they were raised on a simple stylobate
of three steps, and if built on the slope of a hill, as at
Delphi, or on an irregular or low site, they were raised on
a terrace or platform. The Romans, following probably
Etruscan customs, erected their temples on a podium, with a
flight of steps to the main front, flanked by projecting walls or
spurs of masonry, along which were carved the mouldings of the
podium. This, of course, gave a special importance to the
main front — an importance which the Romans emphasised by
an increased depth in the portico or pronaos. To have
repeated this at the rear for the sake of symmetry would have
had no value, unless the approach by the flight of steps were
added. So little importance, in fact, did the Romans attach to
the rear of their temples that even when the peristyle was carried
on both sides of the cella it was generally stopped at the rear
wall, which was carried through. This also was an ancient
Etruscan custom ; there may also have been other reasons. The
Greek temple was always orientated, the principal front, with
rare exceptions, facing the east. The Romans, on the other
hand, attached no value to this principle, and as their temples
were regarded not only as religious but as monumental struc-
tures, they were built on sites where they could best dominate
206 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
and be seen from the Forum, public place, or avenue which
formed the chief approach. Thus in the Roman Forum they
are found on all the four sides, and consequently face the four
points of the compass. The Temple of Mars Ultor (111. 1570)
in the Forum of Augustus, and the Temple of Minerva (111. 157 N)
in the Forum of Nerva, are placed at the farther end, so as to
give a larger area in front, and, as we have already suggested,
to mask the side of the hill excavated to obtain a level site.
This position has apparently ruled the design of the plans,
which must, when compared with Greek temples, be studied
in conjunction with their surroundings ; and in Rome this is
even more important than with Greek temples.
Besides the temples already referred to, there were others in
which the Romans followed more on the lines of the ' Greek
temples, in that they were isolated and enclosed in areas sur-
rounded by porticoes ; such as the Temple of Venus in the
Forum of Julius Caesar, the Temples of Jupiter and Juno in the
Portico* of Octavia, the temple built by Hadrian and dedicated
to Trajan in the rear of Trajan's basilica, the Temple of Neptune
in the Portico* of the Argonauts, the double Temple of Venus
and Rome, the Temple of Peace in the Forum of Vespasian,
the Temple of Apollo at Pompeii, etc.
There is still another important difference between the Greek
and Roman temples, viz., the increased size given to the cella.
For this there may have been two reasons : firstly, the Romans
by trussing the timbers of their roofs were able to roof over spans
never attempted by the Greeks ; and, secondly, the cella of the
Roman temple virtually became a museum into which the greater
part of the spoils of Greece, consisting of statues in marble
and bronze, were placed. The increased size required for the
cella may have led the Romans to adopt the pseudo-peripteral
plan, in which the cella occupies the full width of the portico,
the tradition of the peripteros being retained only in the
engaged columns which are attached to the external walls of
the cella. The principal examples of this are found in the
Ionic tetrastyle prostyle Temple of Fortuna-Virilis already
referred to, and the Corinthian hexastyle prostyle temple
known as the " Maison Carree " at Niflmes, which is the
best-preserved Roman temple in existence.
* We have retained the word " Portico," by which it is best known.
TEMPLES.
207
The work of the time of Augustus is, as a rule, more refined
in its details than that of later times ; but there were revivals
in the time of Trajan, of Hadrian, and of the Antonines, when
monuments were produced which for splendour of conception,
magnificence of material, and vigour of execution have never
been surpassed. Reference has already been made to the
materials employed in Rome up to and during the reign of
Augustus. To this Emperor is due the increased employment
of marble, which previously had only been occasionally intro-
duced as spoils from Greece. The marbles that were first
employed were imported from that country, and, excepting
those brought by Sulla* from Athens,
used in the decoration of the Temple
of Jupiter Capitolinus, were generally
introduced into the mansions of the
wealthy. Augustus not only embellished
the city with splendid monuments, but
induced others to follow his example,
and hence his boast that he had found
Rome of brick and left it in marble,
the brick mentioned (lateres) being the
crude brick which up to his time was
almost universally employed for ordinary
structures in Rome. The marble, how-
ever, was not used in the construction
of the walls, as had been the case in
Greece. The core of the Roman temple
wall was concrete with brick facing,
hard tufa or travertine ; and an external casing (only) of
marble, with slabs six to seven inches thick and solid cornices.
Nor did the Romans always follow the usual Greek custom
of building the shafts of their columns in drums. Monoliths of
various marbles appealed much more to their sense of monu-
mental effect. The white marbles principally used came from
Mount Pentelicus, Mount Hymettus, and the Isle of Paros, in
Greece, and from Luna near Carrara, in Italy, t
Coming now to the principal temples of which there are
remains existing, the Temple of Castor, 6 A.D. (111. 167), has
* See Penrose's Athenian Architecture, 2nd edition, p. 16.
f A list of these and of the coloured marbles are given in Prof. Aitchison's
lectures at the Royal Academy in 1889, published in the Builder of that year, and
also in Dr. Middleton's work on Rome.
167. — TEMPLE OF CASTOR AT
ROMF.
208
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
already been referred to, in speaking of its order, as the most
beautiful example in Roman architecture. The temple was
octastyle and peripteral, with a portico in front three columns
deep (111. 167). There were only eleven columns on the flanks,
instead of from fifteen to seventeen, the usual number for a
Greek octastyle temple. The temple was raised on a podium
twenty-two feet
high, faced with
thin slabs of
Pentelic marble,
with a solid
marble cornice
and base. The
three columns
still standing
and their en-
tablature were
of the same ma-
terial. Intern-
ally on each side
of the cella were
eight detached
columns raised
on a dado, the
latter serving as
a pedestal for
the statues
placed between
the columns.
sc,it 9r ic ^_j_ o » » aufi*/ The columns
carried an en-
tablature, but
served no pur-
pose beyond that of decoration,* for the Romans, who were
acquainted with the principles of trussed timbers, were able to
roof over much greater spaces than the Greeks, who introduced
columns inside the cellas of their temples in order to carry the
ceiling and roof. A similar employment of the classic orders
is found in nearly all the temples in Rome. Sometimes niches
* In the cella of a Greek temple the columns were introduced to assist in
carrying ceiling and roof.
The distance of the columns from the cella walls is twelve feet.
168. — COLUMNS OF THE TEMPLE OF MARS ULTOR AT ROME.
TEMPLES.
209
were sunk in the wall between the columns to give more space
for the statues and works of art, and semi-circular apses at the
further end, opposite the door, for statues of exceptional dimen-
sions ; one of these in the Temple of Mars Ultor is shown on
the plan (111. 157 o). This temple, built by Augustus 14 B.C.,
was one of the most sumptuous in Rome ; the columns, of
which only three remain (111. 168), their responds, and the
entablature were all in Luna marble. The cella wall was faced
in the same material, with a dado suggested possibly by the
vertical slabs round the cellas of the Greek temples. The
sculpture of the foliage of
the capitals and in the
coffers of the ceiling of the
peristyle is extremely vigor-
ous in its execution, but not
equal in refinement to that
of the Temple of Castor.
Although of much later
date, the Temple of Anto-
ninus and Faustina (142 A.D.)
bears witness to a purity of
style similar to that which
characterises the work of
Augustus; and as the frieze
is a reproduction of an
ancient Greek frieze at Delos
it is probable that in this
case a Greek artist was em-
ployed. It is not possible, therefore, in Roman work to decide,
as in the case of Greek architecture, the approximate period of
its execution. Some of the architecture of the first century is
almost as debased as that of the third century, and it would
seem to have been a question of the architect employed. The
entablature of the Temple of the Sun in the Colonna gardens,
on the Quirinal Hill (Ills. 169, 170), built by Aurelian 271 A.D.,
is quite equal in its design and execution to the work in Trajan's
Forum, a century and a half earlier.
Of the temples in the Forum, the Temple of Concord
(111. 157 D), built against the Tabularium, departs from the
usual plan, the width of the cella being nearly twice its depth.
The portico also only extended across the centre portion, leaving
A.G.R. p
10 0 10 20304050
100
l6g. — TEMPLE OF THE SUN AT ROME.
210
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
one bay on each side, in which a
niche with a statue in it is shown
in the medal of Tiberius. The tem-
ple was rebuilt by Augustus B.C. 7,
and the carving of the capitals and
entablature (now in the Museum of
the Capitol) is of great beauty,
though exception may be taken as
to the propriety of introducing into
the capitals rams' bodies of the
order inside the cella (see 111. 144,
page 178), with their heads and
horns taking the place of volutes.
The plan of the temple is of interest
as suggestive of the type adopted by
Agrippa for his temple dedicated to
all the gods, viz., the Pantheon, to
which reference will be made later
on. A less-known temple of the
Augustan era is that of Minerva at
Assisi, the capitals of which belong
to the Graeco- Roman type found
in the Temple of Castor and Pollux
at Cora (111. 143). Perhaps, for
want of space in front, the steps
at Assisi (see 111. 134, page 185) are carried back between the
columns, which are raised on pedestals, the only instance of
this arrangement in Italy, though examples are
occasionally found in Syria. Outside Italy the
most perfect Roman Corinthian temple existing
is that known as the Maison Carree at Nismes,
built by Antoninus Pius and dedicated to his
adopted sons Lucius and Martius (Ills. 171, 172).
Hexastyle, pseudo-peripteral, with a portico three
columns deep, it is well-proportioned, and its
sculpture is comparatively pure for provincial
work. The temple measures 59 feet by 117 feet,
and is raised on a podium n feet high, with a
Might of nineteen steps. The columns are 30 feet
6 inches high, with a diameter of 2 feet g inches,
and intercolumniation of two diameters.
K) 2O 3O 40 50 FEET
170.— TEMPLE OF THE SUN AT
ROME.
171. — MAISON
CARREE PLAN.
TEMPLES. 211
Nothing definite is known as to the nature of the ceilings of
the Roman temples, which may have been horizontal, with deep
coffers (a type of design which would be in harmony with the
K> 0 10 20 30 40 50
173. — THE TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME, AT ROME.
marble ceilings of the peristyles), or else open roofs richly
decorated, such as are seen in the earliest Christian basilicas of
Rome. The roof of Trajan's basilica is described by Pausanias
as being of bronze, but whether that referred to its external
covering in the place of tiles, to the ceiling inside cased with
p 2
212 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
bronze plates, or to the employment of trusses in bronze, is
not known. The roof of the Portico of the Pantheon, rebuilt
by Severus and Caracalla, consisted of three trusses of bronze
plates, two vertical and one horizontal, riveted together with
bronze bolts,* and is supposed to have carried a semicircular
ceiling, also of bronze plates, probably decorated with coffers
and ornaments in relief richly gilded. Considering the great
risk which such roofs (whether in bronze or wood) ran in their
destruction by fire, it is singular that the Romans, who already
in their amphitheatres, palaces, and thermae, had shown the
most perfect acquaintance with the science of vaulting, should
not have considered it essential to adopt this method of roofing
their temples, which contained by far the richest treasures, for
it is a fact that, except in the later work at Spalato, there are
only four Roman temples in Europe known to have been
vaulted over, viz., the Temple of Neptune (86 B.C.), the Temple
of Venus and Rome (131 — 35 B.C.) (Ills. 173 — 175), and the
Temple of Ceres and Proserpine, all in Rome, and the structure
at Nismes in France, known as the Baths of Diana. The second-
mentioned, built by Hadrian, was one of the most magnificent
of the Roman temples. It had two cellas, each with apsgs
set back-to-back, and a pronaos, the whole being surrounded
by a single peristyle, with ten columns at each end, and twenty
on the flanks. The side walls of the cella were of extra thick-
ness to carry the vault, and niches were sunk in them to hold
statues, with the usual decorative treatment of columns between ;
the apses were vaulted in coffers (Ills. 174, 175). The temple
was enclosed in a peribolus, with porticus all round (111. 173),
the columns being in granite or porphyry, the whole being
raised on an artificial platform in accordance with the advice of
Apollodorus. Although far less in size than some of the sacred
enclosures in Syria, this temple and its enclosure occupies the
largest area of any in Rome, measuring five hundred and forty-
one feet by three hundred and thirty-seven feet.
The temple at Nismes, known as the Baths of Diana, is in
its construction the most advanced in the science shown in its
vaulting, and might fairly in that respect be taken for an eleventh
* This is the description given in Prof. Lanciani's Ruins of Ancient Rome, in
which a drawing is published made by Dosio, an Italian architect, prior to its
destruction by Urban VIII. There is also a drawing of the trusses by Andreas
Coner in the Soane Museum, and a third by Philibert de I'Orme, a reproduction
of which was published in the R. I. B. A. Journal, Vol. XXI., 3rd series.
TEMPLES.
213
174. — VAULTED APSE OF THE TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME.
10 0
50
IOOFEET
I75- — TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME.
2I4 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
century church in Provence. The cella is spanned by a trans-
verse ribbed vault, virtually a barrel vault with stone ribs
underneath, rising above the detached columns on each side of
the cella, the definite purpose of which would seem to have
been to lessen the span of the ribs, as they are brought
forward to the same plane as that of the architrave below.
Outside the cella walls are narrow aisles, over which a barrel
vault is thrown to resist the thrust of the cella vault, an
arrangement adopted in French Romanesque churches of the
eleventh and twelfth centuries.
r^lf the architect of the Temple of Jupiter* at Baalbec(seelll. 163,
(page 201) had utilised the semi-detached columns and piers in
the same way as in the temple above mentioned at Nismes, viz.,
by bringing the vault forward, it is quite possible the cella might
have been vaulted. The columns there, however, as in Rome,
were used only for a decorative purpose ; there would be no
height for a circular vault, as shown in Wood's restoration,
and a segmental one could not have stood.! The temple itself
is one of the best preserved in Syria, and is built in masonry
of great size. It is difficult to understand why the architrave
and frieze of the great doorway should have been constructed
as a flat arch with voussoirs, seeing that in other parts of the
temple there are stones of far greater dimensions than the width
of the doorway. The temple was octostyle, peripteral, with a
portico of four columns deep, and a double row of columns in
front, the inner row being fluted. The cella was decorated
with semi-detached Corinthian columns (111. 176) against piers,
the entablature returning round both columns and piers.
^Between the piers were niches in two tiers. At the western
end (see 111. 163, page 201) was a square sanctuary, about half
the width of the cella, the floor of which was raised ten feet above
the ground, with a flight of steps in front ; steps on each side led
down into a vaulted chamber below the square apse. It should
be noted that in this temple, as possibly in the great Temple of
the Sun, the intercolumniation of the two central columns is
greatly in excess of the others, so that there is every reason to
suppose that it was spanned by an arch instead of an architrave.
* Judging by the sculptured friezes lately discovered the temple was probably
dedicated to ^Bacchus.
t The same remark applies to the vault shown over the portico. In Wood's
work the cornice in the cella is drawn six feet too low down, as thn entablature
of the portico and cella are on the same level.
TEMPLES.
215
176. CELLA OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER AT BAALBEC.
2i6 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
The Temple of the Sun at Palmyra departs from the usual
plan of Roman temples in Syria, in that its main axis is north
and south, and that one of the long sides, viz., the west, becomes
the principal front. The temple is octostyle and pseudo-dipteral,
with fifteen columns on the east and west sides. The principal
entrance doorway on the west side (probably added by Aurelian
when he restored or rebuilt the temple) is not quite in the centre
of the main front, and has been emphasised, first, by adding
engaged columns to the central column of the peristyle and its
neighbour (towards the north), and breaking the entablature
round them; and, secondly, by building the architrave and lintel
of a great doorway between these engaged columns. This
doorway, though not in the centre of the great court or of
the temple, lies on the central axis of the Propylaea. The
columns (sixty-five feet high) were probably of the Corinthian
order, but the ornamental portions of the capital, including
the abacus, have disappeared, leaving only the bell, the holes
in which suggest that it was encased with metal decoration.
There are other temples in Palmyra of smaller size. In one,
the Temple of Neptune, the six Corinthian columns of the
portico are raised on pedestals, which stand on a stylobate
of three steps. Reference has been made already (p. 186) to
other temples in Syria in which the same arrangement is
found ; unfortunately none of these temples have yet been
properly examined or described.
Among the temples in North Africa there is one example at
Sbeitla (Sufetula) which varies from any we have hitherto de-
scribed. The temple consists of three sanctuaries standing side
by side (about sixteen feet apart), each on a separate podium,
with flights of steps in front. All three structures are tetrastyle,
prostyle and pseudo-peripteral, but the central temple, of the
Composite Order, has semi-engaged columns round the cella,
the side temples having pilasters only of the Corinthian Order
round the cella walls. The three temples are placed at the end
of an enclosure surrounded by a peristyle, with a series of small
chambers at the back. The whole area covered measures
about two hundred feet wide and two hundred and forty
feet deep, and the entrance is through a fine gateway with
centre and side arches, flanked by columns on pedestals. The
central intercolumniation of the middle temple was, according
to Bruce, spanned by an arch instead of an architrave. The
TEMPLES.
177. THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT T1VOL1.
220
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
p. 331), and consisted of a peristyle of nine Ionic columns with
a diameter of twenty-three feet, and the Temple of Venus at
Baalbec (G 111. 163, p. 201) with a tetrastyle portico leading to
a circular cella round which are detached columns carrying a
cornice which sweeps back with segmental curves (111. 179),
designed to meet the difficulty of the junction between the
entablatures of a circular temple and a rectangular portico.
f Trie largest circular
I ""I" "| temple, and in some
I respects the most re-
markable monument
ever built, is the church
known as the Pan-
theon, which consists
of an immense rotunda
one hundred and forty-
two feet in diameter
and one hundred and
forty feet high inter-
nally, with a wall sur-
rounding it twenty
feet thick.
The rotunda is pre-
ceded by a Corinthian
portico (111. 182) one
hundred and one feet
wide and fifty-nine feet
deep in the centre.
The portico is octa-
style and three
columns deep, there
being two additional
rows of two columns
each behind the third and sixth columns. Some of the columns
are of marble, and some of granite. The masses of wall which
form the responds (if they may be so called) o"f the portico have
two large niches sunk in them, and were built and bonded into
the rotunda during the course of its erection.
On' the right and left, W. and E. of the central axis of the
rotunda, are two apses (111. 180) in the thickness of the wall,
each rising to the height of the main cornice of the lower order,
[80. — PLAN OF THE PANTHEON AT ROME.
CIRCULAR TEMPLES. 221
and having two columns in-antis in front. At the farther end
of the church is a similar apse, but of greater height, as the
cornice of the lower order becomes the impost of the hemi-
spherical vault which crowns it. The entrance doorway has
a barrel vault of similar height. In the axes of the four
diagonals are four rectangular chapels, with two columns in-
antis in front of them. There are other recesses between these
several chapels, lessening the amount of solid wall. The
hemispherical dome of the rotunda has vertical and horizontal
ribs, forming a series of deeply-sunk coffers.* There are thirty-
two vertical ribs and five ranges of coffers, which rise to where
the horizontal diameter of the dome is eighty feet. Above this
the vault is not coffered, but there is a central opening thirty
feet in diameter through which the church receives its only
light. The effect produced by this great opening to the light of
heaven is most impressive, and, as Fergusson says, "it is by
far the noblest conception for lighting a building to be found
in Europe." The lower order is forty-two feet six inches high
(111. 181), and the attic order twenty-eight feet six inches.
Externally the walls are faced with opus reticulatum in brick,
and divided by two strings or cornices. Up to the lower string
the walls were originally faced with marble, and above this string
with stucco, decorated with pilasters, as shown in Palladio's
A rchitectura.
The PajithQ^n wag originally considered tojiave been built
by Agrippa in consequence of the inscription on the portico,
and the style and character of the Order. But the discoveries
made by M. Chedanne in 1892 provedjjiai 4±ie-ix^uiidajvas
erected by Hadrian 120 — 124 A.D., and that the portico was partly
built of the materials of Agrippa's temple, which was taken
down at a later period, and re-erected to form th£_ejitrance portico
to the Pantheon. Subsequent excavations have shown, I ; that
the temple built by Agrippa consisted of an oblong cella with a
portico of ten columns facing the south t ; 2 ; that in front of this
temple, viz., on the south side, was an immense circular piazza,
of which a portion of the enclosing wall concentric with and
contiguous to the rotunda has been found ; 3 ; that this circular
* The upper and lower set-backs of these coffers, which were probably decorated
with carved mouldings, are inclined upwards, so as to display them to the
spectator in the church.
f The present portico faces north.
222
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
piazza was uncovered, as its pavement, found eight feet below
the floor of the Pantheon, sloped Downwards from the centre to
the circumference*; 4 ; the rotund^ was built on the site of the
^.circular piazza, t some seven to eight feet above the pavement
of the same ; and 5 ; at a subsequent period Agrippa's temple
and its portico were taken down and rebuilt at a higher level,
to form the portico of the existing Pantheon facing north.
In rebuilding the portico it was made octastyle instead of
l82. — THE PANTHEON AT ROME.
decastyle,! the eight columns of the front resting on what
must have been the rear wall of Agrippa's cella. The marble
monolith columns probably belonged to Agrippa's portico ;
the granite § columns in the rear were obtained when the
portico was re-erected. The entablature, with the inscrip-
tion on the frieze, and the pediment also belonged to Agrippa's
* It is probable that this piazza was surrounded with a portico, the foundation
walls of which were uprooted when the rotunda was built.
t This may have suggested to Hadrian or to his architect the idea of a
rotunda to occupy the whole site of the piazza.
I The foundation walls of travertine are one bay or intercolumniation wider each
side than the present portico.
^§ Granite was not imported into Rome before Trajan's time.
CIRCULAR TEMPLES. 223
temple, and with reference to the latter M. Chedanne made a
singular discovery in the course of his minute examination.
Agrippa's pediment, belonging to a decastyle portico, was of less
pitch than the existing pediment, and the marble blocks of its
cornice re-employed were inclined at a steeper angle ; conse-
quently the sides of the modillions, which originally were
vertical, have a slight inclination towards the centre of the
portico.
M. Chedanne's discovery of the actual date of the rotunda
was due to his having obtained permission to examine the
brickwork of a portion of the vault in which great cracks had
appeared, and a special scaffolding having been erected, he was
able to take out some of the bricks, which, to his surprise, were
stamped with dies known to be of the time of Hadrian. Further
examination was then made in other parts of the structure,
in every case resulting in the discovery of similar stamps.
M. Chedanne's researches, however, did not end there. He
had already noticed that the cracks came over one of the rect-
angular chapels, and from this and other observations he came
to the conclusion that the columns forming the front of these
chapels were part of the original construction, and were not
decorative features inserted afterwards. These cracks necessi-
tated the removal of some of the stucco facing of the attic
storey and revealed, i ; that above the entablature of these
columns there was an immense relieving arch of similar dimen-
sions to those over the entrance doorway and the principal
apse ; 2 ; above the columns were vertical piers of brick-
work rising to the soffit of this relieving arch; and 3 ; between
each of the three divisions were small discharging arches.
In a restoration made in 1747 the architect had cut through
all the central discharging arches in order to obtain a greater
depth for his niches, being unaware that they were integral
portions of the main construction. This was the origin of
the cracks, which had become so serious in 1892. Carrying
his researches further, M. Chedanne found that above the
cornice of the attic storey was a second relieving arch *
of similar size to the one below, with vertical piers over
those below, and other small discharging arches. The wall,
therefore, was vertical up to the inner coffer of the second
* All these relieving arches were not, as has been suggested, skin deep, but
carried back some eight feet.
224 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
range, so that the vertical ribs already referred to and the
first horizontal rib were actually built out in front of this
vertical wall.
M. Chedanne also found that the whole thickness of the
vault was built in brick laid in horizontal beds* up to the
level of the fourth range of coffers (or about two-thirds of the
height of the dome), and also in the proximity of the central
opening in the vault. It was not possible to examine the vault
between the fourth range of coffers and the central opening,
and here, where the diameter is reduced to about eighty feet,
according to M. Chedanne, a series of arches may have been
built round on a regular centering.
It has hitherto been assumed that the marble decoration of
the interior was originally carried out during a restoration by
Septimius Severus and Caracalla ; but we have already shown
that the columns in front of the chapels form an integral part
of the structure. From this it may be inferred that the con-
struction and decoration formed part of the original conception
of Hadrian's architect, for both the responds of these
columns and the entablature formed a necessary sequence.
The marble wall decoration between the chapels may have been
completed at a later period, and the niches with columns, entab-
lature and pediments added afterwards. The attic storey was
originally decorated with a series of marble pilasters, with
panelling between, the design of which is shown in Palladio's
Architectural, and in two of Piranesi's plates c. 1751 A.D.
Piranesi in his description says that the pilasters were in
porphyry, and the panels in giallo antico, pavonazetto and
serpentine — i.e., green porphyry. The capitals were in white
marble, t
All this marble panelling on the attic storey was taken away
in 1747, and the present decoration in stucco (111. 181) probably
dates from that time, as it is so shown in a later engraving of
Piranesi's published about 1761. The coffers of the vault were
all gilded with bronze centre flowers, of which M. Chedanne
found the bronze bolts in the vault. The great circular opening
in the centre of the vault still retains its bronze cornice, a draw-
ing of which by Philibert de 1'Orme is given in the Baron de
* The so-called horizontal beds slope down outwards about one inch in two
feet.
t Eight of the capitals of these pilasters are in London, viz.. six in the British
Museum, one in the Royal Academy, and one in the Soane Museum.
CIRCULAR TEMPLES.
225
Geym tiller's work, Documents inedits sur Us thermes d'Agrippa,
1883. The external roof, part of which is stepped, was originally
SCALE 10
10 FEET
183. — BRONZE DOOR OF THE PANTHEON AT ROME.
covered with bronze plates gilded. These were, however,
stripped off, and subsequently replaced with lead. The ceiling
of the portico was semicircular, and consisted originally of
A.G.R. Q
226
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE,
bronze plates. The massive doors (111. 183), with their fluted
Tuscan pilasters on each side, and the grating above, all in
bronze, and originally plated in gold) are the best preserved
examples in Rome. The doors are framed with large plates
of cast bronze, the
cyma-recta mould-
ings and the deco-
rative bosses being
also cast.
/ BASILICAS.
The first basilica
built in Rome was
the Basilica Porcia,
erected in 184 B.C.
by Porcius Cato,
who provided it to
relieve the over-
crowding in the
Forum. A portion
of it was set apart
as a court of justice,
and the remainder
served as an ex-
change for mer-
chants. A second
basilica followed in
174 B.C., which again
was pulled down in
54 B.C. to make way
for the Basilica Julia,
the complete plan of
which is now laid
bare in the Forum,
as shown on the right
of 111. 184. The central area of the Basilica Julia was two
hundred and sixty by sixty feet, and it was surrounded by a
double aisle of arches resting on piers, with transverse arches
carrying quadripartite groined vaults (111. 185). Over the outer
aisle was a flat roof on one side overlooking the Forum, and
l85' — PORTION OF THE DOUBLE AISLE OF THE BASILICA JULIA.
BASILICAS.
227
probably occupied by spectators when meetings were held
there, and above the inner aisle a gallery overlooking the central
area. Externally the lower storey was decorated with engaged
columns of the Doric order between the arches, and on the
upper storey, the wall of which was set back on the central
line of piers with Ionic pilasters.
The Ulpian basilica (111. 157, p. 190), though covering an area
slightly less, had in addition two great semicircular halls which
constituted the courts
of justice. Architec-
turally its interior
must have presented a
much finer appearance
than the Basilica Julia,
as monolith columns
took the place of the
arcade piers. The plan
was similar to that of
the Basilica Julia, with"
a central area with-
double aisles all rounds
and enclosure walls on_}
the two longest sides.
All the shafts of the
columns of the ground
storey were of red
granite from Syene, in
Egypt, with Corinthian
capitals of wh ite
marble. Galleries are
supposed to have been
carried over both aisles. As regards its roof, Canina in his
restoration shows a horizontal ceiling with deep coffers and a
trussed roof in timber, and he lights the interior by clerestory
windows above the galleries. Fergusson, on the other hand,
assumes the roof to have been in bronze and semicircular,
carried by bronze trusses or girders similar to those which
existed over the Portico of the Pantheon; and as Pausanias
says the roof was all in bronze, there seems to be some
authority for having a semicircular roof rather than a horizontal
one, as in the latter case the bronze plates would have a
Q 2
l86 — THE BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE AT ROME.
228 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
tendency to buckle. There is still a further reason which may
have led Fergusson to his conjectural restoration, and that would
be the utter incongruity of an immense horizontal coffered ceiling
over the hall, and a domical coffered vault over the hemicycle.
The third great Basilica, sometimes called the Temple of
Peace,* was commenced by Maxentius and completed by Con-
stantine (111. 186). It is half as large again as either of the
other two just described, and is totally different in its nature and
construction, being virtually a reproduction of the vaulted hall
of the Thermae known as the Tepidarium. It consists of an
immense hall two hundred and sixty-six feet long (exclusive of
apse) by eighty-two feet wide and one hundred and fourteen
feet high, divided into three bays, and covered with an intersect-
ing barrel vault, and aisles or side halls fifty-five feet deep. To
lessen the span the vault is brought forward and carried on
detached columns, and between the walls contrived to resist the
thrust are three rectangular halls on each side; these communi-
cate one with the other through large doorways, so that they
virtually constitute aisles. The vault of these halls or aisles on
the north side still exists, and displays deep coffers all built in
brick (111. 187). There were two hemicycles, one opposite the
main entrance in the centre of the south front, the other at the
west end. This great vault is one of those instances to which
reference has been made in Chapter IX. as of construction
possible only with pozzolana ; and the homogeneous nature
of the vault is shown in the fact that although the columns
which were supposed to carry it have gone, an immense mass
of overhanging concrete has stood unmoved for ages.
The Basilica Aemilia, on the north side of the Forum, was
celebrated as the most beautiful example in Rome, probably
on account of the magnificence of the marbles! employed in it.
The site is now (1907) being excavated, and already some fine
sculpture has been found.
Of provincial basilicas, that at Pompeii shows the simpler
type adopted, consisting of a central area enclosed by a single
aisle. The columns, three feet six inches in diameter, are built
* Possibly because it was at one time assumed to have been the temple built
by Vespasian
f The columns of the Christian basilica of St. Paolo fuori le Mura, destroyed
by fire in 1823, were at one time supposed to have been taken from this basilica,
but during the late excavations portions of these columns have been found on
the site.
BASILICAS.
229
187. VIEW OF THE THREE GREAT HALLS FORMING THE
SIDE AISLES OF THE BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE AT ROME.
230
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
of brick, each horizontal course consisting of nineteen bricks
radiating round a central core of rubble work, the flutings being
added afterwards in stucco. The height of the columns was
probably from thirty-two to thirty-three feet. On the aisle
wall are engaged columns of the Ionic order (111. 188), two feet
four inches in diameter, and about twenty feet high. At the
farther end of the basilica was a rectangular recess, raised
some four feet above the aisle and entered by steps on the east
side. This served as the law court, and the columns in its front
supported beams whose ends were let into the sides of the great
columns, thus inclining us to think that the aisles were similarly
roofed over at a low level, and that there was no gallery, except
over the entrance porch, access to which may have been obtained
by the staircase provided to reach the upper storey * of the
portico round the
Forum. The
central area of
the basilica was
probably covered
over by a hori-
zontal ceiling
carried by the
great columns
and lighted
l88.— IONIC CAPITAL OF AISLE IN THE BASILICA AT POMPEII. t Fl T O U °" Fl clcrC-
story openings above the aisle roof. As the rain may
occasionally have beaten in, a drain round the interior at the
base of the columns was provided to carry off the water.
The basilica at Fano built and described by Vitruvius
seems to have been lighted in a similar way, but above
a gallery.
The Basilica at Treves is interesting in that it shows how
the Romans designed their structures in accordance with
the climate. Here the basilica was simply an immense hall
lighted by two tiers of windows. The double tier suggests
that originally there was a gallery round the interior, carried
on columns.
* Of this upper storey the Ionic columns have been found, but no architraves;
it is probable, therefore, that it was covered with a timber roof with projecting
eaves.
THEATRES.
THEATRES.
231
The tendency in the later development of the Greek theatres
was to bring the stage forward into the orchestra, so as to place
the actors nearer to the spectators. In the Roman theatre the
orchestra was reduced to a semicircle, on the diameter of which
was the front of the stage. The greatest change, however, is
found in the scaena, which was raised to a great height and
decorated with great sumptuousness. The Greek theatre was
generally excavated in the side of a hill, so that no substructure
was required for the rising tiers of seats in the auditorium.
The Romans occasionally availed themselves of similar oppor-
tunities, as found in the theatres of Asia Minor and Syria. In
Rome, however, the introduction of^yaulting enabled the Roman
architect to build tier above tier of corridors, with staircases
leading to the various parts of the theatre. These corridors,
whilst serving as communication between the staircases, were
probably used as refuges in case of heavy rain, and that is
suggested by the fact that in most of the theatres excavated
in the side of a hill there are great porticoes which might be
used for that purpose. The outer corridors on the several tiers
were lighted by open arcades, the walls between being decorated
with columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian Orders, one
above the other. That which was first designed and developed
as a constructive feature became one of the finest architectural
compositions it was possible to devise, and, coarse as are the
mouldings of the Colosseum and incorrect the relative propor-
tions of the orders, there is no more impressive monument in
the world. The only example existing of a theatre in Rome is
that of Marcellus (111. 189), already referred to (see p. 185).
Unfortunately the two lower storeys only remain, the upper por-
tion having been rebuilt for other purposes, and whether there
was a third arcade or a blank wall with engaged Corinthian
pilasters is not known. The substructures of the auditorium
exist, and have been measured ; but nothing remains of the
scena, so that reference must be made to other examples
to determine its structural and decorative treatment. The
Theatre at Orange, sadly defective as regards its auditorium,
still retains its scaena wall to its full height, and sufficient
of the returns on either side to show that whilst in the Greek
theatres there was a complete break between the scaena
232
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
and the auditorium (so far as enclosure walls were concerned),
in the Roman theatre the two were brought into one archi-
tectural whole. The total width of the theatre at Orange
was three hundred and forty-three feet, inclusive of walls; the
stage being two hundred and three feet wide, and forty-two
feet deep. In the side wings next to the stage were staircases,
and beyond these, on the right and left, halls about forty feet
square, which seem on the ground and first floor to have been
" foyers " for retreat in case of rain. In the rear of the
stage, and running the whole width of the theatre, was an
2O OFEET
189.— PLAN OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS AT ROME.
immense portico for the same purpose. Vitruvius (v. 9)
refers to these porticoes which should be built " behind the
scenes, to which in case of sudden showers the people may
retreat from the theatre " ; they were also utilised for the
rehearsals of the chorus. Throughout Asia Minor and Syria
porticoes always formed essential adjuncts to every theatre.
Protection from rain led to the carrying of a sloping roof,
with ceiling under, over the whole stage. In the side walls of
the Theatre at Orange are seen traces of the roof, and on
the rear wall the sinkings in which the timbers rested.
This roof consisted of ceiling beams rising from the back at
THEATRES. 233
an angle of 30°, and forming cantilevers tied in by the rafters
of the roof, and partly carried by projecting piers of the
scaena wall as at ^spendus. In Caristie's* restoration the
slanting ceiling is shown as enriched with coffers. Such a con-
struction, two hundred and three feet long, could not have
been self-supporting ; at the back of the rear walls, therefore,
and carried on corbels, were masts with iron chains attached
to the upper timbers of the ceiling. The scaena wall exists
to its original height, and the sinkings at various levels show
that it was decorated with three storeys of niches flanked by
190. — THE THEATRE OF ASPENDUS.
marble columns and entablatures, and these were also carried
on the two return walls of the stage. In order to understand
the nature of these decorations it is necessary to examine
other examples, and in Asia Minor there are some in which
the lower storey of columns still remains, j At Aizani, in
Asia Minor, the scaena is more or less perfect ; its plan
is transitional between the Greek and Roman theatre, the
auditorium being horseshoe in form, and there being no
junction between the walls of the auditorium and the stage
buildings. The depth of the stage was twenty feet, and the
scaena, sixty feet in length, was decorated by a series of
* Caristie (A.), Monuments a Orange, 1856.
2j4 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
columns standing six feet from the wall and carrying a second
storey of columns. These columns were arranged in pairs,
with doorways between them, the central doorway being
flanked by columns of greater size. The lower storey was of
the Composite order, the upper Corinthian, and the covered
portico seems to have been under the stage. In still better'
preservation (when visited by Fellows in 1841) was the
Theatre of Aspendus (111. 190), also in Asia Minor, built by
-THE SMALLER THEATRE AT POMI
Zeno, the architect, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, 138 — 161
A.D. The illustration (No. 190) shows the auditorium with two
ranges of seats, twenty-one in the lower and eighteen in the
upper, with an arcaded gallery round, the only example exist-
ing except at Bosra, in Syria. The stage is similar to the one
described at Orange, and the line of the roof of its ceiling is seen
in the illustration, with the sinkings in the rear wall in which
the rafters and ceiling beams were fixed. It also shows the
decorations of the scaena, the columns only being missing.
In a better known example at Taormina (111. 122, p. 142), some
of the columns still remain, so that with these three examples
THEATRES.
235
the exterior of the Theatre of Marcellus, and the upper storey of
the Colosseum, it is possible to arrive at a complete conjectural
restoration of the Roman theatre.
Of other well-known examples, the Odeion of Herodes Atticus
(i66A.D.), at the foot of the Acropolis, and, like the Theatre of
Dionysus, partly hewn out of the rock, still preserves portions
of its outer walls and some of the marble casing of the seats.
The roof is stated to have been of cedar wood. This, however,
can only refer to that over the stage, which may have resembled
those at Orange and Aspendus, to which we have already
referred. Without internal sup-
ports, of which there is no
evidence, it is impossible that the
Romans could have covered over
the entire area, which had a
diameter of two hundred and
forty feet.
There were two theatres in
Pompeii, both of them partially
excavated in the rock. In the
large theatre (111. 192) the stage,
owing probably to its compara-
tively small size, is not brought
forward as in most Roman
theatres, and the seats are carried
in parallel lines beyond the dia-
meter of the orchestra. In the
smaller theatre (111. 191) nearly all
the seats are perfect ; in those of
the upper rows the irregularities of the cut rock are made
good by fixing slabs of tufa seven inches thick and one
foot wide to serve as seats. In both theatres are raised
platforms, close to the stage, called tribunals, occupied by the
provider or censor of the play. The parapet wall which
separates the tribunals from the cavea or ^ordinary range of
seats on each side of the theatre is terminated by a kneeling
figure of Atlas, and at a lower level the favourite device of the
winged hind leg of a griffin (111. 193).
Many other examples of theatres exist in Asia Minor, of
which the chief, after Aspendus, already referred to, are
Aizani (external diameter three hundred and eighty feet,
193. — GRIFFIN'S LEG FROM THE
THEATRE AT POMPEII.
236 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
stage one hundred and fifty-six feet, with six pairs of Ionic
columns decorating the scaena) ; Side (external diameter four
hundred and nine feet) ; Telmessus; Alinda; Aegae: and in
Syria those at Amman (external diameter four hundred and
twenty-eight feet, with forty-three rows of seats) ; Gerasa,
where the scaena still remains complete; Shuhba (external walls
perfect) ; and Beisan, said to be the best-preserved in Palestine.
Some of the above are published in Fellows's, Texier's and
Lebas's works, but are now in many cases almost entirely
destroyed.
AMPHITHEATRES.
It was thought at one time that the Romans derived their
amphitheatres from the Etruscans, but the example at Sutri,
where the seats, corridors and arena are all cut in the solid rock,
is now considered to be of later date than the Colosseum. Again,
it has been suggested that the temporary wooden theatres
of Curio, 50 B.C., gave the original model. Curio's amphi-
theatre consisted, according to the description given by Pliny,
of two large theatres built in wood and made to run on wheels
w< >r-king round on a central pivot (hence the name), so that whilst
the two theatres in the morning were used for dramatic represen-
tations, in the afternoon they were turned round to constitute an
amphitheatre. If that had been so, the earliest amphitheatre
would have consisted of two semicircular ends with a rectangular
portion between them. This is, however, not the case. The
earliest example known, the amphitheatre at Pompeii, which
may possibly date from the commencement of the second
century B.C., is elliptical. The arena there would seem to have
been excavated, so as to save the expense of a lofty enclosure
round the seats. The dimensions were four hundred and forty-
five feet the major axis, and three hundred and forty-one feet
the minor axis — an immense size for a second or third rate
provincial town.
The largest amphitheatre* is that known as the Colosseum
(Ills. 194, 195) (built on the site of Nero's Lake), commenced
by Vespasian in 72 A.D., continued by Titus, inaugurated in
82 A.I). J)y Domitian, and completed with its topmost storey in
222 — 244 A.D. by Alexander Severus and Gordianus III. The
* The amphitheatre of Pozzuoli was ten feet longer but thirty-five feet narrower.
194. THE COLOSSEUM AT ROME.
AMPHITHEATRES.
237
building is elliptical in plan, and measures six hundred and
twenty feet the longer axis, by five hundred and thirteen feet
the shorter axis. It was raised on two steps in the middle
w
Professor Guadet, del,
195. — PLAN AND ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE COLOSSEUM AT ROME.
of a great esplanade paved with travertine, the pavement of
the corridors up to the inner corridor sloping outward, to
allow any rain which might beat in to run out. Of the eighty
entrances, two of which were reserved for the Emperor and his
238 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
suite, seventy-six were numbered and gave access to all parts of
the cavea. The cavea was divided into four ranges of marble
seats, corresponding nearly in level with the storeys of the
exterior, the two lower ranges being separated by a passage
(Diazoma), the third from the second by a wall and balustrade,
and the upper range by the columns of the covered peristyle.
Access to the various seats was given by staircases built
between walls radiating to the arena corridors under the cavea,
by passages between the ranges of seats, and by steps below
the seats, the latter being divided into wedges (cunei). In
the two lower ranges the staircases radiate to the arena ; in
the two upper they are parallel to the outer wall. Generally
the lowest range of seats were occupied by the more distin-
guished citizens; the second by the middle class; the third by
_the poor; and the peristyle by women. FThe whole of the
exterior and the^rjrincipal corridors were built in travertine
stone irfTarge blocks carefully jointed, set without mortar, and
secured with iron clamps run in with lead; the inner walls
were built of tufa and concrete, with brick facing ; and all
corridors, staircases and substructures carrying the marble
^seats were vaulted in concrete^ The two principal entrances,
one on each side, were reserved for the Emperor and his court,
ministers and foreign ambassadors, and led to a platform
(Pulviar) raised above the other seats and protected by a wall
on each side. The arena measured two hundred and eighty-
seven feet by one hundred and eighty feet, and was surrounded ___
-4j^a^wal]Jifteen feet high, wrdi_JmjL-grille and other protection
OR. the top. The excavations undertaken by the French in
1811 — 13, revealed the existence of numerous passages round
the centre communicating with the dens in which the wild
beasts were shut up; putlog holes e*xist m the walls of the
passages under the arena in which joists carrying a series of
inclined planes were provided leading from the dens to the arena
level. Similar underground arrangements had long been known
at Capua and other amphitheatres.
The_extejiar_4s divided into four storeys, the three lower ones
being pierced with a series of arches of equal dimensions,
forming, as it were, a continuous arcade round the building,
and divided by three-quarter-detached columns of the Tuscan,*
* There are no triglyphs in the frieze of the lower order, the capitals have
Etruscan mouldings, and the bases are Etruscan.
AMPHITHEATRES. 239
Ionic, and Corinthian Orders, superposed on the respective
storeys, and carrying each a complete entablature, the archi-
traves of which are voussoired and carried back into the solid
wall. The upper storey is unpierced except by small windows
lighting the corridor underneath the upper range of seats or
gallery, and its wall is decorated with Corinthian pilasters
on lofty pedestals superposed on the other orders below.
Afrnyg thp windows -arp three projecting corbels in each bay
to carry the masts of the velarium, which rise through the
cornice. The proportion of the lowest Order is 'poor and
meagre, the column being 9 diameters high and 7^ diameters
centre to centre. In consequence of the height of the vault
over the ground floor corridor, the pavement of the corridor
above is raised considerably above the cornice of the Order, and
a podium or plinth is introduced, the cornice of which ranges
with the first floor pavement ; a similar arrangement exists on
the next floor. Under the columns the mouldings of the plinth
return on each side, and constitute pedestals, and it may be in
consequence of this arrangement that the Ionic column is only
eight and a half diameters in height, as also the Corinthian
column above. The results are very fine, and compensate for
the poorness of the ground storey. In order to afford pro-
tection to the first and second floor corridors solid balustrades
are carried within the imposts of the arcades.
The complete entablature of each order is carried round with-
out a break, and this and the sturdy nature of the three-quarter-
detached columns give a monumental effect to the Colosseum
which it would be impossible to rival. The applied decora-
tion of the orders, their superposition, and the jointing of
the architraves, in principle are all wrong, and should be
condemned ; but the portions of the external wall which
.xernain, rising to their full height of one hundred and fifty-
seven feet, and the splendid nature of the masonry, disarm
all criticism and constitute the Colosseum as one of the most
sublime efforts of Roman architecture.
It has never been quite determined whethei*,the velarium, the
stretching of which was done by sailors who were placed on
the roof of the peristyle gallery round, extended over the whole
or part only of the interior, and whether, when stretched, its
centre was the highest, or lowest part. Y*
A second example in Rome, the Castrense Amphitheatre, was
240
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
built by Septimius Severus or Caracalla for the soldiers of the
Praetorian camp. It was built of concrete and faced with brick,
with brick pilasters and Corinthian capitals in moulded terra-
cotta built in courses ranging with the bricks. Originally
there were three storeys, the two lower ones with arcades, as
shown in a drawing by Palladio in the Burlington-Devonshire
Collection.
The other amphitheatres of importance, taken in order of
dimension, were those of Capua, Verona, El Djem, Pola, Aries,
196. — THE AMPHITHEATRE AT VERONA.
Nismes, and Pompeii. The amphitheatre at Verona (111. 196)
has preserved nearly the whole of its stone seats, but retains
only four bays of its external walls. In the example at Pola, on the
other hand, the external walls exist, but the seats have all gone,
possibly because they were constructed of wood. In both these
cases the masonry is rusticated, with flat pilasters only between
the arcades, so that the superposed orders are not sufficiently
emphasised and the general effect is poor. In the amphitheatre
at Pola there are, on the diagonal axes, four projecting bays,
forty-three feet wide and ten feet projection, forming on the
THE STADIUM AND ROMAN CIRCUS. 241
ground storey open arcades, and containing staircases in the
two upper storeys.
In the amphitheatre at Nismes there were only two storeys
and an attic which supported the masts for the velarium. The
lower storey has three-quarter-detached piers, and above three-
quarter-detached columns of the Doric Order. The floor of
the first storey arcade was level with the cornice, and the
"mouldings of the entablature on both storeys break round
the pilasters and columns. The arch of the arcade of the upper
storey is carried as a barrel vault across the corridor, which
has a fine external effect, but destroys the continuity of the
corridor.
The amphitheatre of El Djem (Thysdrus), south of Carthage
in North Africa, ranks next in size to the example at Verona,
and was evidently built in imitation of the Colosseum, though
it differs from it in the orders employed for the three arcaded
storeys, the first and the third storey being decorated with
Corinthian columns, and the second storey with those of the
Composite order. The intercolumniation, gj diameters, is so
wide that it scarcely carries out the principles of the Roman
order as already described, and the columns being semi-detached
only, have not the vigour and boldness of the Colosseum design.
On the other hand, the masonry is of great excellence. The
stones were obtained from a quarry twenty miles distant, and
all the courses are, according to Mr. Graham, of the same
height, viz., twenty inches. The building was erected by the
Emperor Gordianus III., but was never completed. There were
sixty-four arches, and the three storeys rose to a height of eighty-
five feet. The fourth or attic storey required to carry the
velarium was commenced on the inner wall of the external
gallery, but never terminated.
THE STADIUM.
In imitation probably of the Greek stadium, Domitian built
an example in the Campus Martius, of which one of the piers
was lately discovered in the Piazza Navona, which now occupies
its site. He also commenced a second stadium, which was after-
wards completed by Hadrian and his successors, in a valley
between the Palaces of Augustus and Severus (see J, 111. 233,
p. 288). It differed from the Greek stadium in that under the
A.G.R, R
242 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
ranges of seats was an arcade twenty-two feet wide in two
storeys, with superposed columns of the Corinthian Order. It
was built in concrete encased in brick, and faced with white
marble, the columns, capitals and the entablature being in solid
blocks.
THE ROMAN CIRCUS.
There are scarcely any remains of the Circus Maximus, built
in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine Hills, and
dominated by the Palaces of the Caesars on the north side ; the
site was already used for fetes in the earliest days of Rome, and
Tarquin was the first to level the valley. His son erected an
arcade round, with shops, and ranges of seats above in timber.
Frequent fires destroyed the latter, and it was reserved for
Trajan to rebuild the seats in stone covered with marble. The
area measured two thousand two hundred feet in length by
seven hundred and five feet in width, and could hold three
hundred and eighty thousand spectators.
The Circus of Nero, built by Elagabalus, 220 A.D., was-
destroyed by Constantine in the fourth century.
Of the Circus of Romulus, built by Maxentius 311 A.D.
(111. 197), there still exist sufficient remains to determine the
plan, the arrangement of the seats, the spina, carceres, and the
Emperor's tribune. The area covered was one thousand six
hundred and twenty feet long by two hundred and forty-five feet
wide, and the spina was one thousand feet in length.
r:^
197.— PLAN OF THE CIRCUS OF ROMULUS. ~
A, A, seats (cavea) ; B, probably the pulvinar or station of the Emperor ; C, seat for a person of
distinction; D, spina; E, E, metae or goals ; F, ova; G, delphinae; H, H, stalls for horses and
chariots (carceres) ; I, I, two towers ; J, starting line of race; K, goal line of return ; L, entrance
of procession ; M, N, O, other entrances and exits.
243
CHAPTER XIII.
THE THERMAE OR IMPERIAL BATHS.
J
\
THE term Thermae is given to those immense bathing estab-
lishments built by the Emperors in order to ingratiate themselves
with the people.* They were devoted not only to baths, which
were of exceptional size and magnificence, but to every kind of
gymnastic pursuit — wrestling, boxing, racing, jumping, etc. — to
the training in the same for both youths and athletes, and to
various games. Beyond this, the Thermae were the resort of
the poets, philosophers and statesmen, who in the hemicycle
and other halls held forth and made known that which in our
day is printed in the daily newspapers or in books. Here, also,
poets and authors could read in public their latest works.
There has always been some difficulty in assigning the right
names and purposes to the several halls, principally owing to
the fact that, although baths are frequently mentioned in
ancient authors, no adequate description has been given of
the various processes which had to be gone through when
taking a bath, or of the other purposes of the Thermae.
One of the best illustrated works on the subject is that of
the Thermae of Caracalla, by Abel Blouet, of the French
Academy, published in 1828, and based on excavations made
in 1824 — 1826. A later work by M. Paulin, 1890, on the
Thermae of Diocletian, contains further information, and in his
conjectural restoration suggests even greater magnificence than
that shown in Blouet. The plans of the great Thermae were
measured and drawn by Palladio about 1560, when the
* Of ordinary baths such as those found in Pompeii there are said to have been
in Rome over eight hundred.
R 2
244 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
remains were far more extensive than at the present day.
These plans were published by Lord Burlington in 1730, and
by Cameron in 1772.
The principal value of the study of the plans of these Thermae,
however, lies chiefly in the principles observed in the setting
out, and in the aggregation of a number of halls together, of
different dimensions and varied heights, a problem which at
the present day has constantly to be solved, and from this
point of view the actual purpose and use of each hall is of
minor importance.
The earliest Thermae were those built by Agrippa about
20 B.C. in the Campus Martius, about two hundred feet south
of the first Pantheon. They were restored and added to chiefly
by Hadrian and Severus, and were preserved more or less com-
plete till the sixteenth century. Of other examples sufficient
remains have been found of those of Titus (79—81 A.D.),
Domitian (81 — 96 A.D.), Trajan (98 — 118 A.D.), Caracalla
(211 — 217 A.D.), Diocletian (284 — 304 A.D.), and Constantine
(306—337 A. D.) to enable fairly accurate conjectural restorations
to be made of them. The most complete is that of Caracalla,
whilst of Diocletian's Thermae two of the great halls still
exist in the Church of S. Maria degli Angeli, and others are
now occupied by the National Museum. Recent excavations of
the Baths of Titus have also revealed many features previously
unknown (see 111. 202, p. 251).
Although in detail the plans of the several Thermae vary,
they are all set out on the same principle, and as this is best
illustrated in those of Caracalla, its plan may be taken first.
Attention has been already drawn, when speaking of the Forums,
to the maintenance of the axis in the scheming out of the plan.
This is found in all the monumental work of the Romans, and
can even be followed in the smaller houses at Pompeii. A second
principle is the establishment of some central important feature,
and the subordination of all the other parts to it. In the
Thermae the Tepidarium, or central hall, constituted the nucleus
which governed the plan and around which all the other halls and
rooms were grouped.
The main block of the Thermae of Caracalla (111. 198)* has an
area of about two hundred and seventy thousand square feet —
* Reproduced from Dr. Middleton's Remains of Ancient Rome, by permission
of the publishers (Messrs. A. and C. Black).
THE THERMAE OR IMPERIAL BATHS.
245
greater than either the Houses of Parliament, the Law] Courts,
or the British Museum. The Tepidarium, or central hall (No. 2
HHUUUUU
21 14 21
198 —PLAN OF THE TH
1. Frigidarium.
2. Tepidarium. vs*-"^-
3. Halls.
4. Apodyterium.
5. Ditto.
6. Peristyle Halls.
7. Hot Baths.
8. Antechamber or Laconicum.
9 Calidarium.
10 Special Baths for Athletes,
ii. Hemicycles.
REFERENCES.
, 12. Entrance to Baths.
(13. Principal Entrance of the Thermae.
14. Private Baths.
15. Lecture Rooms, Libraries, and Porti-
coes for Promenading.
16. Palestrae.
17. The Stadium.
18. The Marcian Aqueduct.
19. Reservoirs.
20. Ancient House discovered on Site.
21. Staircases to Private Baths.
22. Internal Courts.
on plan), measures one hundred and eighty-three feet by
seventy-nine feet in the clear between the brick walls. It was
covered with an intersecting barrel vault, the soffit of which
246 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
was one hundred and eight feet above the pavement of the hall.
The hall was divided into three bays, and in order to resist the
thrust of the vault on the four central piers,* walls fourteen
to sixteen feet wide and fifty-four feet deep were provided on
the north side, and extended on the south side to eighty feet
in depth by arches thrown across the ante-chamber to the
Calidarium. The spaces between these walls, on both sides
of the Tepidarium, were utilised for tepid baths, and on the
side of the Frigidarium were developed into large semi-circular
recesses whkh_c^nstitu_ted_very important architccturaHeatures.
*n each side of the Frigidarium, and separated from it by a
peristyle of columns, were halls for the spectators of the sports
in the cold bath ; and again, beyond these, on right and left,
were other rooms, some on two floors, which were used either
for dressing rooms (apodyteria) , or for the oiling and sanding
of the body. Looking at the comparative importance of a
similar room at Pompeii, the entrance and side rooms in this
plan would serve better the purpose of the apodyterium than
that of a library as suggested by Blouet. At the end of the
Tepidarium were great halls separated from it by a screen of
columns, so that from one end to the other there was a vista
of three hundred and thirteen feet. Beyond these were hemi-
cycles(n), semicircular halls of considerable height, correspond-
ing to those set apart as law courts in the basilicas, and here
assigned to the philosophers and poets. On the south side of
the Tepidarium was an ante-chamber to the Calidarium, with
two baths in it, and possibly of a lower temperature than the
latter. The Calidarium (9) was a large circular hall covered with
a dome. In the centre was a circular bath.
The four other rooms (10) on each side of the Calidarium,
facing the xystus or garden, were probably used by those who
were engaged in the various exercises there. There is one hall on
each side which had no bath in it, and may have been used for
games at ball. We have still to note the open courts (6) on
the right and left of the block, with porticoes round them, for
promenading; and the halls beyond, called ephebia, which were
used for the training of youths. This completes the main block
of the Thermae of Caracalla.
* The thrust at the four angles was amply resisted by walls on the right and left,
one hundred and eight feet long, and in the front and rear eighty feet and fifty-four
feet respectively.
THE THERMAE OR IMPERIAL BATHS. 247
When we come to compare it with other examples, the theory /
we have put forward relative to the Tepidarium constituting the
nucleus round which all the other services were grouped will
become more evident. For the moment we pass on to the
immense enclosure in which the block of buildings above
described was situated, the entrance to which was on the north-
east side. Outside this enclosure was a portico giving access
to a series of private or what we should call " slipper" baths
(14). These were carried along the whole front and the return
ends ; of these private baths there was an upper storey, reached
by staircases (21).
Passing through the entrance gate (13), between the walls of
these private baths and the central block was a promenade one
hundred and thirty-one feet wide, which was laid out with
alleys of trees. This left an open space at the further end of the
site, of about four hundred feet in depth and one thousand one
hundred feet long, in which the exercises and games took place.
At the farther end of the enclosure, and in front of the series of
reservoirs (19) (in two storeys, supplied by the Marcian aqueduct)
was the Stadium (17), where the racing and athletic contests
took place. The two halls (16) in the centre of each side were
palaestrae, or exercise rooms, the rooms adjoining being for
those taking part in the contests and for service.
To the right and left of the enclosure were projections with
semicircular porticoes, used by the poets and authors as
promenades. In the central halls in front of these (15) they
recited their poems or speeches, and the other halls on either
side may have been libraries ; their purpose being for us of less
importance than their disposition.
Returning again to the central block ; the Tepidarium
(111. 199), rising much higher than the adjoining halls, was
lighted by clerestory windows above their roofs, and this is
generally the case with every group of halls — the central hall
always rising higher than the side ones (Ills. 204, 205) (even
when in the latter there are two storeys), and obtaining its
light by clerestory windows. It was always supposed that the
Frigidarium was open to the sky, but the discovery of many tons
of L or T-shaped iron below the pavement of the bath, bolted
together in the form of a St. Andrew's cross, has raised the
question as to whether it was not partially covered over by iron
girders encased in bronze, answering to the description of Aelius
248
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
Spartianus (297 A.D.), who, referring to the solar cells (cella
soliaris) says, "Cross beams of brass or copper are said to
have been placed on the top, to which the whole ceiling was
From a drawing by R. Phene Spiers.
199. — RESTORED INTERIOR OK THE TEPIDARIUM OF THE THERMAE OF CARACALLA.
entrusted, and so great is the span as to make learned mecha-
nicians say that this very construction is impossible." Dr.
Middleton says, speaking of the Frigidarium of the Thermae of
Caracalla, " In the upper part of the walls deep sinkings to
THE THERMAE OR MPERIAL BATHS. 249
receive the ends of the great girders which supported the
ceiling are clearly visible." As, however, the span was sixty-
eight feet between the great columns on each side, and seventy-
six feet between the buttress piers of the Tepidarium and the
north-east wall of the Frigidarium, it is at present difficult to
understand how the girders were carried without intermediate
supports.
Before passing to the other Thermae there are two important
points which still require some description, viz., the service of
the Thermae and their heating. In order to follow the first,
it should be noted that the whole of the Thermae of Caracalla,
including the enclosures, were raised on an artificial platform
twenty feet high.* The private baths to which reference has
been made as existing on the main front, and returning some
three hundred and seventy feet along the two sides, were in
two storeys, the lower storey on the level of the street, the
upper on the level of the platform. T_n_thp rpntrp of the
space__between the main entrnnre_and the central block ^
a triple service corridor (see Blouet), fifty-eight feet wide,
which was lighted and ventilated by circular openings at the
top, these probably covered over by bronze gratings. Similar
vaulted corridors were carried on each side of the central
block to the further end of the enclosure, with cross corridors
to the open courts and other halls where service was required
in the central block. These and vaulted chambers for stores of
various kinds occupied a considerable portion of the artificial
platform.
The hypocausts of the Thermae of Caracalla are shown in a
drawing reproduced from Dr. Middleton's work on Rome
(111. 200). Fromjhree to four feet below the pavement o£_the_
baths, on a bed of concrete, were laid the ordinary Roman tiles
(two feet square and averaging one and three-quarter inch thick).
On this ttoorjwere built small piers, two teet high,"oT^smaILex-
tiles, eight inches square. These piers carried a concrete floor
about twelve inches m thickness, on which was floated first a
layer of pounded tufa and potsherds, and then a thin course of
marble cement in which the mosaics were embedded or on
which marble slabs were laid (E). The furnaces, stoked and
* In one instance, on the left of the central block, a chance discovery
revealed the remains of a house (20, 111. 198) — which showed that the site was
then already occupied, probably with houses of an inferior class only — which
were thrown down and formed part of the substructure of the platform.
250
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
lighted from the inner courts (22, 111. 198), were at a lower level
than the hypocaust floor, and the smoke and heated air passed
under the floor to flues in the walls on the farther side of
the several halls. The flues consisted of socket-jointed clay
pipes, about twelve inches in diameter. For the halls which
required an exceptional heat the walls were virtually lined with
these flue pipes (H H). In rooms of smaller size the tile piers
were sometimes dispensed with altogether, the whole of the
concrete floor resting on ledges or corbels in the wall (D D).
Dr. Middleton gives one instance in the house of the Vestals
where there is a concrete floor fourteen inches thick with a
bearing of twenty feet. In this as in all the other cases we
must assume
that these
floors were
filled-in on
tempo-
rary support
of woodplank-
200.— PLAN AND SECTION OF THE HYPOCAUST OF THE THERMAE
OF CARACALLA.
semble very
closely those of
Caracalla, the
principal dif-
ferences being,
(I.) instead of the hall and hemicycle on the right and left of
the Tepidarium there are two halls of equal size; (II.) the ante-
chamber to the Calidarium is circular, with a circular open-
ing at the top, which suggests that it formed the laconicum
described by Vitruvius (v. 10) ; (III.) the Calidarium is a hall of
the same plan as the Tepidarium, with hot baths between the
buttresses; (IV.) the Frigidarium is two bays wider; (V.) the
entrance to the baths is on the chief front at each end, and
consists of a large vestibule leading to the apodyterium ; and
(VI.) the oiling and sanding rooms are placed on each side, at
the farthest end of the building.
In the Thermae of Titus (Ills. 201, 202) the late excava-
tions have shown that the Frigidarium was much larger
'.
I < 5
i H a
1 w £
w U
THE THERMAE OR IMPERIAL BATHS.
251
than that of Caracalla, and was enclosed with a peristyle on
three sides. The Tepidarium and halls on the south-west side
are similar to those of the Thermae of Diocletian. The vaulted
hemicycles (the earliest examples known) are placed on the
extreme right and left of the central block, beyond the peristyle
court. In front of the central block, on each side, is a circular
room, with a bath in the centre similar to that described in the
202. — PLAN OF THE THERMAE OF TITUS, RESTORED BY M. LECLERC.
Baths at Pompeii as the Frigidarium, and on the right and left
of the latter are the private baths. The enclosure in which the
main block is built is not so large as in the Thermae of Caracalla.
Passing through the entrance gateway, we enter the north
peristyle of the Frigidarium, and the corridor is carried to the
right and left, affording covered access — to various halls, to two
great hemicycles with circular promenades in the rear, and to
other private baths. On each side of the central block there
were wide promenades planted with bosquets, with exedrae or
f
252 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
semicircular marble seats and avenue of trees. The Stadium, at
the farther end (built over part of the Golden House of Nero),
was semicircular. In this case, as also in the Thermae of
Constantine, on the right and left of the enclosure were a
series of halls and two other hemicycles.
Of the Thermae of Agrippa, B.C. 20, there are no remains
existing, but the plan was measured and drawn by Palladio
before their destruction, and is published in Cameron's Baths
of the Romans, 1772. In Palladio's plan the Tepidarium is
shown similar to those examples we have already referred to,
except that it is placed at right angles to the main front.
There seems, however, to be some discrepancy between it
and the one given by Count Nispi-Landi,* who shows a
circular hall in the middle of the Tepidarium, with actual
remains of the walls of same. It does seem strange that at
this early period a hall one hundred and sixty-five feet long by
eighty-three feet wide, vaulted with an intersecting barrel
vault, should have been conceived. A central domed hall
(about seventy-five feet in diameter), as shown on Count Nispi-
Landi's plan, might have been covered with a conical vault like
the laconicumt in the Stabian baths at Pompeii, which is prob-
ably of much earlier date. In other respects the plan is similar
to those already described. At a later period Hadrian built,
between the Thermae of Agrippa and the Pantheon, an immense
rectangular hall adjoining the latter, which may have been
the Calidarium, and Septimius Severus afterwards added largely
to the Thermae on the south side and built a laconicum in the
centre, portions of which still exist in the so-called Arco di
Giambella. In a fragment of the marble plan I found in 1901,
this circular hall is shown with other rooms, and the inscription
underneath. Another plan of this portion of
the Thermae is published in the Baron de
Geymuller's work.§
* Nispi-Landi (Count), Marco Agrippa e i suoi tempi: le terme e il Panteon.
Rome, 1883.
t Dion Cassius, an historian of the latter part of the second century A.D., says
(liii. 27), " During this time Agrippa adorned the city at his own expense : in
memory of his naval victories he built the porticus known as that of Neptune ; he
constructed the hot-bath chamber, which he called the Laconicum gymnasium." " He also
finished the temple called the Pantheon." These statements would seem to
confirm Count Nispi-Landi's plan.
\ See note, page 157.
§ Documents inedits sur Its Thermes d' Agrippa, le Pantheon et les Thernifs de
Diodetien. 4to, Lausanne, 1883.
THE THERMAE OR IMPERIAL BATHS. 253
Among the other Thermae, in those of Domitian and Constan-
tine the Tepidarium constitutes the principal hall round which
the other services are grouped, the longitudinal and transverse
axes of the Tepidarium being the leading lines of the setting
out in all cases. In the Thermae of Trajan the Tepidarium
takes the form of a cross with an intersecting barrel vault.
The architectural decoration of the Thermae in its nature and
in the principles of its design seems to have been so similar in
all the examples quoted that no separate description of each is
required. Palladio seems to have confined his attention to the
main forms of the structure, including only the columns which
formed essential constructional features, so that all appear to be
the same in the series of elevations and sections given. There is
no doubt that in many cases Palladio's sections are purely con-
jectural, and indicate only a type of vaulting which he conceived
likely to have been adopted when comparing them with other
plans of similar design. It was reserved, therefore, for the
students of the French Academy to publish in two important
works the most complete sets of drawings of two of the Thermae,
already referred to, showing the actual remains existing and
conjectural restorations, which not only corroborate one another
so far as the decoration of the Thermae is concerned, but
suggest the type which was adopted in all the Roman Palaces.
M. Paulin has been able to carry his conjectural restoration
further in some cases than Blouet, because, istly, in the Church
of St. Maria degli Angeli, in the Ospedale Marguerite (now
the National Museum), and in the Church of St. Bernardo,
are preserved some of the halls of the Thermae of Diocletian,
retaining still their vaults, and on their external walls part of
the marble decorations ; zndly, the systematic exploration of the
last thirty-five years throughout Rome has revealed important
evidence as regards the construction and decoration of every class
of building ; and $rdly, drawings by various artists have been
discovered in the Ufnzi Galleries in Florence and in the various
libraries of Rome which show the actual condition of the
buildings from the fifteenth century onwards.
The remains found of the Thermae of Caracalla (immense
masses of brickwork and concrete) used to be looked upon as
a proof that the carcase of the structure was built first by the
architect or engineer, and the various marble linings, columns,
etc., were supplied and fixed afterwards by the decorative
254 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
artist. This, however, was not the case, for (as has already
been insisted on with reference to the Pantheon, p. 223) the
principal decorative features of the interior, viz., the columns
in front of the chapels, are parts of the integral structure of the
building. The same condition holds good with reference to
the great Thermae, for there are only one or two exceptional
instances in which the removal of the columns has not resulted
in the ruin of the structure. Owing to the cohesive nature of
the pozzolana concrete, the removal of the great columns which
were supposed to have assisted in carrying the vault of the
Basilica of Constantine has been accomplished without causing
projecting portions of the vault also to fall, but this is exceptional.
As a rule all the larger columns carried floors or vaults, and
their removal has been fatal. So with regard to the decoration of
the principal halls and courts : the series of two or three tiers of
niches, flanked by marble columns carried on corbels and sup-
porting entablature and pediment, were securely fixed to the
wall by these corbels and by the entablature blocks built into
the wall. These solid blocks of marble being sunk two feet into
the wall, must have been built-in whilst the carcase was being
constructed. Owing to their height, many of these marble
blocks have escaped the plunderer, and some still exist in the
outer walls of the Church of St. Maria degli Angeli. Again,
all the niches were regularly constructed in brick of the
required depth. These facts prove that the whole design was
conceived by the architect prior to the commencement of the
work, and that as soon as the plan was set-out, it ruled the
whole of the structure both constructively and decoratively.
For this reason it is not necessary to describe each set of
Thermae separately, nor is any lengthy account required. The
columns employed throughout the Thermae were generally of
marble, as also their entablatures ; the shafts of the same,
whether large or small, were all monoliths, and of various kinds.
The great shafts of the Tepidarium of Caracalla, thirty-eight feet
high and five feet four inches in diameter, were in granite ; others of
smaller size were of porphyry, oriental alabaster, giallo antico,
and numerous other marbles from the Greek islands. The
larger columns supported the vaults or the floors of the balconies
overlooking the Tepidarium, or formed screens between the
halls ; they likewise constituted the frontage to the halls round
the xystus, or carried the roofs of the numerous peristyles, so that
THE THERMAE OR IMPERIAL BATHS. 255
they were all constructional features. The smaller columns of
the niches and the whole of the marble facings were decorative,
and were not fixed till after the completion of the carcase.
The halls and courts were all paved with marble mosaic in
diverse patterns, with figures of gladiators, athletes, tritons,
and geometrical designs and borders. The steps, linings of
baths, bases, exedra, capitals, entablature, etc., were all in
white marble. The walls were lined with marble of various
colours and panelled like those of the Pantheon, up to
203.— CEILING OF TOMB IN THE VIA LATINA AT ROME.
a certain height, and above that in white marble up to the
springing of the vault. The upper portion of the walls and
the vaults were decorated in stucco with arabesque ornament,
similar to that found in the Roman tombs (111. 203). As in the
larger vaults, such as those of the Tepidarium, the inner lining
was already of tiles (for the constructive reasons given in
Chapter IX.), it was not possible to have the deep coffers
like those constructed in brick in the aisles of the Basilica
of Constantine. The panels, in consequence, could not be
of any depth, and were therefore filled with glass mosaic,
256 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
to accentuate the small figure subjects, which otherwise, at
their great height, would not have been distinguishable. Blouet
contents himself with reproductions of the panel subjects found
in the Roman tombs and at Pompeii ; whilst Paulin suggests
large figure subjects in mosaic (Ills. 204 and 205*) for
both walls and vaults. The walls enclosing the Frigidarium
were decorated with tier above tier of niches, flanked by
columns carrying entablatures and pediments, circular as
well as triangular. The existence of these in the Thermae
of Diocletian is shown by the niches sunk in the brick-
work and by the marble corbels ; Paulin's restoration is
corroborated by the drawings of an Italian artist of about
1475 A.D. in the Uffizi Collection, Florence, published in the
Baron de Geymuller's work. These represent not only the
niches, but the actual decoration of the immense buttresses of
the Tepidarium.t
Whilst in the interior of the Thermae the decorations in
marble and mosaic were of the most elaborate and sumptuous
character, the Romans do not appear to have attached the
same value to the external appearance, and they contented
themselves with covering the walls with the fine stucco we
have already described in Chapter IX., which, from its resem-
blance to marble and its great^ durability, required only the
imitation joints of stone to give it a certain monumental
character. This is the type of wall surface which has been
adhered to by Paulin in his conjectural restoration of the
outer walls of the Thermae of Diocletian, and the same was
probably adopted to protect and decorate the concrete walls
faced with brick which, from the time of Augustus, became the
favourite method of construction in Rome. Even the upper
portion of the Pantheon and the pilasters decorating the upper
storey were coated with stucco. A divergence from this custom
has been pointed out by Blouet, who found the remains of stucco,
three inches thick, inlaid with mosaics, which covered the
upper portion of the front of the central block of the Thermae
of Caracalla. Sufficient existed to show that the decoration
* Illustrations 204 and 205 are reproduced from M. Paulin's fine work, entitled
Les Thermes de Diocletian, published by Firmin-Didot et Cie.
f A further corroboration of Paulin's restoration of these buttresses will be
found in drawings by Palladio in the Burlington-Devonshire Collection, now in the
R. I.B. A., with the exception of the crowning feature, which is shown as a solid
buttress and without the canopy drawn by Paulin.
204. ONE BAY OF THE TEPIDARIUM OF THE THERMAE OF
DIOCLETIAN AS RESTORED BY M. PAULIN
A.G.R.
258
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
adopted was that which was found in the Thermae of Titus,
and is better known to us by the paintings in Pompeii, repre-
senting imaginary courts with porticoes and verandahs, such as
may have been derived from the ephemeral decorations of the
solaria or terrace roofs of the houses. This type of design is
shown in the conjectural restoration by Blouet of the external
wall of the central block facing the xystus, and in Paulin's
205- — SPHAERISTERIUM OF THE THERMAE OF DIOCLETIAN AS RESTORED BY M. PAULIN.
interior of the sphaeristerium (111. 205). The lower portion of
the walls of central block Blouet considers to have been faced
with marble, so as to accord in richness with the granite
columns of the various halls facing the xystus. All the other
walls, which were partially hidden by the groves of trees, were
simply covered with stucco.
Neither of the authors avail themselves in their restorations
of the terra-cotta work of the roofs which in Roman architecture
constituted a very important architectural decoration, and of
THE THERMAE OR IMPERIAL BATHS.
259
which so many remains have been found at Pompeii. The roof
tiles were all laid direct on the concrete vaults, but gutters
and gargoyles would have been required to collect the rain
and transmit it well beyond the walls. In addition to these the
acroteria of the gables and the antefixae of the roof covering-
tiles were much too important elements to have been altogether
ignored as they are in Blouet's work.
The so-called Temple of Minerva Medica (111. 206) is now
recognised as a portion of the Thermae of Gallienus (266 A.D.),
where it served the purposes of a nymphaeum. The absence
of any flue tiles in the walls, or even of the hypocaust, is a clear
proof that it could not have been a sudatorium, which has been
suggested on account of its
decagonal form. Its prin-
cipal interest is to be found
in the vault, in which the
earliest example of the
pendentive is found. The
corbelling out, however, is
of the rudest kind, and was
probably entirely masked
by the decoration. The
windows lighting the in-
terior are of considerable
size, so as to give plenty of
air and light (necessary for
the plants and flowers), and
are in two rings* — that is to say, an outer and inner arch,
the former of greater radius than the latter.
But few remains have been found in Rome of the ordinary
public baths, but in Pompeii there are three examples more
or less completely preserved, and therefore of great interest.
They are sometimes dignified by the title of Thermae, but
cannot be said to belong to that class of monument which we
have just described in Rome. The " older Thermae," north of
the Forum (so called because they were the first discovered),
included, besides a complete establishment for men, a small set
of baths for women, the hot rooms of both were heated by the
same furnace, in accordance with Vitruvius's description (v. 10).
* In the Palace at Treves are windows with three rings of arches, one set behind
the other.
2C6. — THE SO-CALLED TEMPLE OF MINERVA MEDICA
AT ROME.
S 2
260
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
They covered an area of about one hundred and seventy-one
feet square, exclusive of shops, which occupied two sides of the
enclosure, and consisted of an open court with peristyle on
three sides, a vestibule, ante-room, Apodyterium, Frigidarium,
Tepidarium, and Calidarium. Of these, the most interesting is
the Tepidarium (111. 207), which has preserved its vault richly
decorated in stucco, and a series of niches sunk in the wall
round the room, the piers between being decorated with figures
207-— TEPIDARIUM OF THE BATHS OF THE FORUM AT POMPEII.
of miniature Atlantes, two feet high. There was no hypocaust
under the room, and it was heated apparently by charcoal
in a large bronze brazier found in situ. The Calidarium was
heated by a hypocaust and flue tiles in the walls. It consisted
of a hall forty-two feet by sixteen feet wide, with a barrel vault
decorated in stucco, and a semi-circular recess at the farther end
which originally held the labrum ; above the same, in the vault of
the recess, being an opening which could be shut or closed at
pleasure. The other end of the Calidarium was occupied by
an oblong bath.
THE BATHS IN POMPEII.
261
The Stabian baths, discovered in 1857, were the oldest, having
been erected towards the close of the second century B.C., though
remodelled in later times. They covered an area of about
one hundred and sixty-four feet square, including a court
one hundred feet long by seventy feet wide, sufficiently
large, therefore, for various exercises. The two large
stone balls which were found lying in the court were
probably used for games of some kind. The peristyle was
on two sides only; on the third were rooms opening into
the court, which may
have been used for exer-
cises or games in bad
weather ; on the fourth
side * was a swimming
bath fifty feet long by
twenty-five feet wide,
and six feet six inches
deep, which in the
Roman Thermae would
have constituted the
Frigidarium, a title
which here is given to a
circular room covered
with a conical roof with
opening at the top, and
fitted with a central cir-
cular tank with marble
linings and seats round.
The conical roof was
plastered over, painted blue and studded with gold stars. The
same kind of Frigidarium existed in the Forum baths. Here
the square niches in the wall are found in the Apodyterium,
where they would seem to be of more use. The labrum, con-
sisting of a circular marble basin resting on a stone pedestal,
still exists in the Calidarium, as also the oblong bath at the
other end of the hall. Apparently these baths were originally
heated by braziers only, and in the restoration of the first century
* Illustration 208 shows the south end of the south-west wall, which was
decorated with reliefs in stucco representing those architectural fancies to which
Vitruvius (Bk. 7, chap. 5) takes such great exception. He condemns them when
painted even, but executed as these are in relief, they would have troubled him
still more had they been carried out during his lifetime.
38.— SOUTH-WEST WALL OF THE STABIAN BATHS
AT POMPEII.
262 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
A.D. hypocausts were introduced beneath the floors of the Tepi-
darium and Calidarium, and the walls of the latter were doubled
with flue tiles. As in the other example, there was a separate
and smaller set of baths for women, both sets heated from the
same furnace. The third establishment, known as the Central
Baths, was in course of erection at the time of the eruption, and
is interesting therefore as showing the latest developments.
It occupied about the same area as the Stabian baths, but the
porticus round the open court had not been built. Here the
swimming bath stands outside in the open court, as in the
Roman Thermae. The circular room in this case was arranged
for heating with hypocaust flue tiles, and was probably intended
for the laconicum, as described by Vitruvius (v. 10). The
circular room in the Stabian baths was covered over with a
conical roof, built in masonry laid in horizontal courses. The
dimensions of this room are small, as compared with the
laconicum built by Agrippa in Rome, to which reference has
been made on p. 252, but as no centering was required there
could have been no difficulty in its erection, and it might possibly
account for the construction of the hemispherical dome of the
Pantheon described on p. 234, where the bricks were laid in
horizontal beds. The two circular halls in the baths of Titus,
c. So; B.C., were probably roofed in the same way.
20g. — FRIEZE FROM THE TOMB OF THE GARLANDS AT POMPEII.
I/
CHAPTER XIV.
ENTRANCE GATEWAYS, ARCHES OF TRIUMPH AND OTHER
MEMORIALS, AQUEDUCTS, BRIDGES, TOMBS.
WHILST the Etruscan examples at Perugia may be regarded
as the prototypes of the entrance gateways to towns, there are
no remains of either Greek or Etruscan Arches of Triumph.
These may have been temporary erections in timber only,
provided on festal occasions, but not afterwards copied in stone
as permanent records.* Both entrance gateways and arches of
triumph would seem to have been erected to commemorate
some important event, and the only real difference between the
two is that the latter was an isolated feature which was generally
built in marble instead of stone, and did not constitute part of
the external wall of a city, as was the case with the entrance
gateways both at Verona and Autun; but even in the two
at Autun, in France, a festal appearance is given to them
by the arcaded galleries carried across above the archways ;
and in the two gateways at Verona we find a series of
enrichments in the form of semi-detached columns and shafts,
and pilasters carrying pediments within pediments, enclosing
semi-circular openings, which, are quite inconsistent with the
object of defence. I
* The Arch of Titus is known by its inscription to have been erected after his
death. The central portion only is original ; the two sides were restored in 1823,
the new portions being in travertine stone.
f It is not quite certain whether these gateways were decorated only, or built,
by the Emperor Gallienus (265 A.D.) ; but the decoration of the Porte dei Borsari
shows to how low a depth Roman architectural design in the provinces had
reached in the latter half of the third century.
264
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
There is, however, one salient difference: an Arch of Triumph
isj^enerallv jjupppsed to commemorate a victory, and as such
offers a splendid scope for"decoration with bas-reliefs setting forth
Jhe principal scenes oTa "campaign^ TEIsTTiowever, if we may
judge by coins, does not seem to have been the only object,
for the representations shown on them of the Arches of Trajan
and Domitian suggest that they were regarded primarily as
pedestals to carry large groups of sculpture ; the central feature
consisting of a triumphal car with four to six horses, or as in
210. — THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE AT ROMK.
the Arch of Domitian, with elephants ; in both cases Hanked
with statues.
The designs of two of the early arches of triumph, those of
Trajan, are known only by coins ; but some of the bas-reliefs
representing the Dacian victories, and a series of statues of
Dacian captives, which belonged to the arch erected on the
Via Appia, were taken away in order to decorate the Arch of
Constantine, he being unable to find sculptors, in his period,
of sufficient artistic ability to carry out work of this kind.
On the other hand, in its general design the Arch ofj^onstantine
(111. 210) is one of the best-proportioned of the triumphal arches."
ENTRANCE GATEWAYS AND TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. 265
It was built 312 A.D., to commemorate Constantine's victory over
Maxentius, and consists of a central archway and two side ones,
flanked by detached columns^ and responds of the Corinthian1
order, raised on pedestals and carrying an entablature which,
returns above each columrv^ The whole was crowned with an
211. — THE ARCH OF TITUS AT ROME.
attic storey, in front of which and over the four columns stand
the statues taken from Trajan's Arch. The arch as it stands
requires the quadriga, horses and statues, which it originally
carried, to break the skyline.
In the Arch of Titus (82 A.D.), on the Sacra Via, erected to
commemorate the taking of Jerusalem, there is only one central
266
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
archway, and the columns which flank it, and those on the
angles, are only semi- or three-quarter detached, so that they
form part of the actual core of the structure, and are not
purely decorative adjuncts, as in the Arch of Constantine.
The beauty of the figure sculpture in the frieze and elsewhere
is greatly enhanced by the .simplicity of the masonry through-
out, when con-
trasted with that
of the Arches of
Constantine and
Septimius Seve-
rus. The barrel
vault of the arch-
way is sunk with
deep coffers and
enrichments, in
the centre being a
relief of the apo-
theosis of Titus.
The famous re-
liefs on each side
below the vault
represent on one
side the Emperor
drawn in his
triumphal car led
by Roma and
crowned by Vic-
tory, and on the
other the spoils
taken from the
Temple of Jeru-
salem. The
columns decorat-
ing the archway are of the Composite Order, and are the
earliest examples known of its employment in Rome. As
the entablature is carried across between the two central
columns, some visible support seemed to have been required
in the centre, and this was met by the accentuation of the
keystone and its projection beyond the plane of the archi-
trave (111. 212). The figures carved on the keystones are
212. — KEYSTONE OF THE ARCH OF TITUS AT ROME.
213- THE ARCH AT BENEVENTUM.
ENTRANCE GATEWAYS AND TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. 267
those of Roma on one side of the arch, and of Fortuna on
the other. Great solidity is given to the base of the structure
by having a simple podium on each side to carry all the
columns, instead of a series of pedestals, as in other arches.
214. — THE GATEWAY OF THE SILVERSMITHS AT ROME.
As a frame for sculpture the arch at Beneventum (111. 213),
built 114 A.D. in honour of Trajan, is the finest example, as the
columns flanking the arch and at the angles, being only semi
and three-quarter detached, interfere less with the sculptural
bas-reliefs between them than in some other cases. The
subjects of the same and of the friezes represent the Dacian
268
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
wars and triumphs, and the order employed is the Composite,
the columns resting on a podium, as in the Arch of Titus.
Among other arches in Rome is that of Septimius Severus,
203 A.D., built to commemorate the Parthian victories, and
decorated with bas-reliefs of the various episodes of the wars.
The arch is similar to that of Constantine, with centre and
two side arches flanked by detached columns and responds
(but here of the Composite order), resting on pedestals. The
frieze, which in such a structure ought to be of greater depth
than usual, is here so narrow that the whole entablature seems
to consist of mould-
ings only. On the
other hand, greater
breadth is given to
the attic storey,
which is unbroken,
so as to give abun-
dant space and
more importance to
the dedicatory in-
scription.
The gateway built
by the Silversmiths in
honour of Septimius
Severus (111. 214), in
the Forum Boarium,
though of great
richness in sculpture,
215.— INTERSECTING BARREL VAULT OF THE ARCH OF JANUS g J^n e
IN THE FORUM BOARIUM AT ROME.
debased conception.
The Arch of Janus, also in the Forum Boarium, is one of those
structures, of which there are many in Syria, built at the junction
of four streets as a shelter. It is attributed to the age of
Septimius Severus, and consists of a square mass of masonry
pierced on each face with an archway, the interior being covered
by an intersecting barrel vault. The construction of this vault
is interesting, because, according to M. Choisy, it shows that
the same centering was used for both the intersecting groins.
These groins were built in two rings of Roman bricks (111. 215).
As soon as one of them had set, the hollow space between
the two rings was filled in with concrete, and the centering
2l6. THE ARCH AT ANCONA.
ENTRANCE GATEWAYS AND TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. 269
having been shifted round, the other double ring was
constructed, butting on each side against the first groin.
The arch at Ancona (111. 216) was set up in honour of Trajan
112 A.D., who built the harbour there. It is raised aloft and
approached by a flight of steps, and must be regarded as a
pedestal to carry a group of sculpture, now gone. As a pedestal
it is a fine conception ; but as an archway its proportions are
217.— THE ARCH AT ORANGE, FRANCE.
too elongated, and cannot be compared favourably with any of
the examples already described.*
Outside Italy, the Arch at Orange, in France (111. 217), is one
of the finest examples, though, in consequence of the mutilation
of the sculptural decoration with which it was covered, there
has been some difficulty in determining its date. It is generally
* The small arch at Rimini, erected in honour of the Emperor Augustus, is
interesting, as it evidently formed the model on which Alberti based the
of the Cathedral there built in 1450.
270
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
attributed to Antoninus Pius, better known as Marcus Aurelius,
who erected it as an Arch of Triumph to commemorate his
victories on the Danube and in Germany. It consists of a
central and two side archways, with semi-engaged columns
between the arches, and three-quarter-detached columns at
the angles, raised on pedestals, and all of the Corinthian
Order. It differs from other archways in the design of the
2l8. — NORTH FRONT OF THE ENTRANCE GATEWAY (PORTA NIGRA) AT TREVES, GERMANY.
sides, which are decorated with sculpture, pediments, and
other architectural features, thus giving them equal importance
with the two principal fronts. As the pediments were carried
up into the attic storey, an additional storey was added for
sculpture and inscriptions, which is much too heavy, and
deprives the archway of much of the grace which it otherwise
possesses.
The Triumphal Archway at Rheims was erected in the latter
years of the Empire, if one may judge by its general design
ENTRANCE GATEWAYS AND TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. 271
and debased sculpture. It consists of three archways, the
central one wider than the others, but all springing from
imposts on the same level. The piers at the angles and between
the arches are decorated by pairs of engaged columns of the
Corinthian Order, raised on pedestals, with niches between the
columns, as in the Arch of Titus. The whole structure is
surmounted by -an attic storey.
The entrance gateway, known as the Porta Nigra, at Treves
(Trier), is one of the most important examples existing, and is
still in good preservation (111. 218). It consists of an inner and
outer double gateway, with two storeys of arcades with attached
columns between. It is flanked by two wings, which are four
storeys in height. On the entrance, or north, side these wings
have a semi-circular front. Internally they measure fifty-five
feet by twenty-two feet wide, constituting, therefore, important
halls, though their purpose is unknown. At first sight, the
arcaded galleries seem to have served the same purpose as
those at Autun, but as the central court between the inner and
outer gateways is unroofed, they formed the only means of com-
munication between the wings, and the open court might have
been of service in defending the entrance if the outer gateways
were forced. As the gateway formed part of the external walls,
the entrance to the halls on each side may have been from the
ramparts, with an internal staircase in wood leading from
floor to floor. An apse was added on the east side when the
building was converted into a church in the middle ages, and
may have caused the destruction of an external stone staircase
on that side. The comparative rudeness of its architectural
features is probably due to its remoteness from the Capitol.
Reference has been made in Chapter XI. to the most impor-
tant archway in Syria (111. 159, p. 196), viz., that which was
erected to form the junction between the main colonnaded street
and that leading to the Propylaea of the Temple of the Sun at
Palmyra ; throughout the country, however, in every town built
by the Romans, entrance gateways are found which in their
design resemble Arches of Triumph, but were built to give
more importance to the entrance to a town or to some temple.
The sculpture is, however, confined to the capitals and bases
of the engaged columns with which they are decorated, or,
as at Petra, to the pilasters on each side of the principal
archways.
272
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
The same absence of sculpture is found in the entrance
gateways and triumphal archways in North Africa, where they
were extremely numerous. In one town alone, Lambessa (Lam-
baesis), there are said to have been forty arches still standing
in 1740 A.D. The most remarkable example in the country is
From a photograph by E. G. Spiers.
219.— EAST FRONT OF THE ARCH OF CARACALLA AT TF.BESSA (THEVESTE), NORTH AFRICA.
the quadrifrontal Arch of Caracalla at Tebessa (Theveste), which
was probably erected, like the Arch of Janus in Rome, at the inter-
section of two streets. It consists of a single archway (111. 219)
on each front, flanked by pairs of Corinthian columns raised on
pedestals. The frieze is made of unusual depth, so as to allow of
space for inscriptions, and it is, perhaps, in consequence of this
that no attic storey was provided. On the other hand, in its
place, and still existing over the north front, is a canopy consisting
MEMORIAL STRUCTURES. 273
of four columns carrying an entablature. There was probably a
niche in the centre holding a seated figure, and a second
canopy is mentioned as formerly existing on the south front.
The only legible inscription is one on the east face, dedicated
to Septimius Severus c. 212 A.D. The inscription on the south
face is thought to have been in honour of Caracalla. There
is another Arch of Triumph at Timgad, also in North Africa,
which was dedicated to Trajan, and consisted of a central
and two side arches ; over the latter are niches, flanked by
small columns supported on projecting corbels.
Next in importance to the arches of triumph come the
memorial structures, such as the columns of victory set up in
Rome and elsewhere, which, by the sculptured bas-relief deco-
ration of their shafts in the Trajan and Antonine columns at
Rome, gave even a better record of the campaigns undertaken
than that which could be obtained in the panels of a triumphal
arch. Cesar Daly's interpretation of the spiral bas-relief of the
Trajan column as the unfolding of the volumen or papyrus
scroll was a happy suggestion of the origin of this conception.
We have already referred in Chapter XI. to the Trajan column
(111. 158, p. 190). Its construction is very remarkable: it is
composed of thirty-two blocks of marble, of which eight form
the pedestal and twenty-one the shaft, the other three being
those of the base, the capital, and the pedestal which sup-
ported the statue of Trajan. The pedestal on which the
column stands is nearly a cube, measuring sixteen feet six
inches wide and eighteen feet high. It is decorated on three
sides with sculptural trophies of victory; on the fourth is the
doorway and dedicatory inscription. The lower diameter of
the shaft is twelve feet, and the spiral staircase of one hundred
and eighty-five steps is carved out of the solid marble, and
lighted by forty-three loopholes.
The Antonine column, erected sixty-three years later,
c. 176 A.D., by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus in memory of his
victories over the Germans, was copied, so . far as its general
design is concerned, from Trajan's column, and it was also
enclosed in a court with peristyles on two or more storeys.
Its height, ninety-six feet six inches (one hundred Roman feet),
including base and capital, is the same as that of the Trajan
column, its diameter being slightly in excess of the latter. In
both cases the column was of the Doric order, the echinus of
A.G.R. T
274
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
the capitals being carved
with the egg and tongue.
The base, twelve feet high,
but now buried, was com-
posed of three degrees or
steps.
The column built to the
memory of Antoninus
Pius, 162 A.D., by his
adopted son Marcus Aure-
lius, consisted of a mono-
lith of granite, forty-seven
feet high; it no longer
exists, but its pedestal,
carved with the Apotheosis
of Antoninus and Faus-
tina, now in the gardens of
the Vatican, is one of the
finest examples of Roman
sculpture.
Outside Rome, the col-
umns set up at Alexandria
in Egypt, Brindisi in Italy,
and Cussy in Burgundy,,
have no special value as
architectural designs, but
there are two other ex-
amples of memorial struc-
tures which should be
mentioned.
Thefirst, nearTreves (111.
220), is known as the Igel
monument. It is a remark-
able design, and were it
not for its history might be
fairly ascribed to the period
of Francis I. of France.
The pilasters which deco-
rate each face have a very
slight projection, and the
sculpture of the capitals and panels recalls the work of the
AQUEDUCTS AND BRIDGES.
275
Chateau de Gaillon panels, now in the court of the Ecole
des Beaux Arts at Paris. The monument was set up by
two brothers named Secundinus, and the sculpture decorat-
ing it represents various records of family history. It dates
probably from the time of Constantine. The second example,
the monument at St.
Remi (111. 221), in Pro-
vence, is square (fn plan,
and decorated with en-
gaged Corinthian columns
at the angles carrying their
entablature, and an arch-
way in each face. The
whole is raised on a lofty
pedestal decorated with
bas-reliefs and is sur-
mounted by a circular
structure consisting of ten
columns* carrying an enta-
blature and a conical roof
in stone.
AQUEDUCTS AND
BRIDGES.
Among the monumental
works of the Romans,
though probably regarded
by them purely as engi-
neering works of an utili-
tarian character, were the
aqueducts by which the'
thermae, baths, and foun-
221. — MONUMENT AT ST. REMI, PROVENCE, FRANCE.
tains were supplied withi
water. These structures
were by no means confined to Rome, for throughout the
Empire, and more especially in the Eastern portion of it, the
proper supply of water to the cities taken or founded would
seem to have been the first steps taken by the Romans in
civilising the barbarous tribes they had subdued. Throughout
* This would seem to have been the prototype of the turrets of the churches in
the Charente, and of St. Front at Perigueux.
T 2
276 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
North Africa and Syria there still exist extensive remains of
the arches which carried the channels by which water was
brought, sometimes from long distances.
It should be observed that the Romans were well acquainted
with the hydraulic principle that water in a closed pipe finds its
own level, and Vitruvius (VIII. 7) describes the leaden pipes
used, and the precautions to be taken so as to regulate the fall and
rise of the water. They found it, however, much less costly to
build level water channels, as the materials employed belonged
to the State and the labour was that of slaves. Lead pipes,
according to Pliny, were used extensively as rising mains to
supply the upper floors.
The earliest aqueduct built to bring water to Rome was
the Appian (312 B.C.), which was carried underground for eleven
miles, and this system was followed in the aqueduct (thirty-
four miles long) built by Trajan (109 A.D.) to supply his
Thermae, and in other cases. One of the first aqueducts in
which portions were carried on arches above ground was the
Marcian (144 B.C.). The loftiest arches are found in the Anio
Vetus (272 B.C.), some of which rise over ninety feet in height.
This and the Claudian Aqueduct (38-52 A.D.) were raised so as
to supply water to the highest hills in Rome. One reason for
suggesting that the Romans regarded them as engineering
works only, is based on the absence of any attempt to introduce
architectural features of a decorative nature. They depended
on their superb construction alone for their monumental
character. Attempts were made afterwards to enrich them
(where they crossed the entrance gateways of the city), by the
addition of niches, with pilasters, entablatures, and pediments
(as at the Porta Maggiore), but these are quite out of keeping with
their simple rusticated masonry. The construction of the piers
of the Marcian Aqueduct, which is one of the finest examples, is
of the type described by Vitruvius as " opus quadratum," viz.,
with regular courses of headers and stretchers two feet by four
feet and two feet high. Round the face of each stone is a draft
about one and a half inches to two inches wide, worked with a
chisel ; the centre is left rough and worked with a pick. The
arches are set back at their springing behind the impost,
leaving a ledge on which the centering was carried. The
stone employed is peperino, with travertine when greater
strength was required. Many of the aqueducts built in stone
AQUEDUCTS AND BRIDGES. 277
have been restored or added to in concrete with brick facing.*
The Aqueduct of Nero was in brickwork of the finest kind.
Of aqueducts in other countries, those of Segovia and Tarra-
gona, in Spain, where they cross valleys, are of greater height
than any in Italy, and in consequence, the arches are built in
two storeys. The upper arches of the Tarragona Aqueduct are
forty-two feet in height, and the lower ones fifty-eight feet,
with drafted masonry similar to that of the Marcian Aqueduct
above described, and the piers diminish in width and depth as
they rise. In the Segovian Aqueduct (111. 222) the upper arches
are about one-third only of the height of the lower ones, the
contrast giving scale to the latter. The piers of the lower arches
have offsets which take away much of their monumental effect.
By far the finest aqueduct is the Pont-du-Gard (Ills. 223, 224),
near Nf/mes, in the South of France. Its length across the
223. — THE PONT DU GARD AT NlfcMES, FRANCE.
afc .
valley is eight hundred and eighty-two feet, about the same as
that of the two examples in Spain ; but its height, one hundred '«v
and sixty feet, is greater, and it is divided into two ranges
of large arches and an upper row of smaller ones, " which
gives," as Fergusson says, " to the structure the same finish
and effect that an entablature and cornice gives to a long range
of columns."
Much of its present charm is probably due to its position in
the great valley of the Gardon, and to the exquisite colour which
in the course of ages the stone has acquired ; but in point of
design it is certainly the most remarkable building of its kind,
and this seems to be owing to two characteristics : firstly, in its
erection the architect renounced all those architectural super-
fluities with which the Romans were accustomed to surcharge
* The Alexandrine Aqueduct, which supplied the Thermae of Alexander
Severus, was built in concrete with brick facing ; and there is an example at Min-
turnae. a town of the Volci. where a decorative effect has been given to the wall
surfaces by the employment of different-coloured tufa in geometrical patterns.
278
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
their buildings; and secondly, it is the result of an attempt
simply to fulfil and meet the requirements of a well-defined
programme. The stream, which has worn its way in the solid
rock, is not quite in the centre of the valley ; in other words,
the slope on one side is less steep than on the other, and this
gives variety to the design.
But few of the bridges constructed by the Romans have existed
to the present day. Of the Pons Emilius in Rome, built by
Aemilius Lepidus in 179 B.C., the foundations only exist in the
Ponte Rotto. One of the best preserved in Italy is the bridge
From a water colour drawing by R. P. S.
224. — THE PONT DU GARD AT NISMKS.
built by Augustus at Rimini, with five arches, the three
central ones of the same span (each measuring 27 feet), and the
side ones about 20 feet. The spandrels of the arches are
decorated with niches, flanked with pilasters carrying entabla-
ture and pediment. Contrary to the usual Roman custom, the
bridge is not carried through on the same level, there being an
ascent and descent at either end. The same is found in a
second bridge built by the same Emperor near Rimini, with
seven arches and no architectural features.
The finest example of a Roman bridge is that across the
TOMBS. 279
Tagus at Alcantara, in Spain. The length of the bridge is six
hundred and fifty feet, with a level roadway through. It
consists of six archways, the two central ones about one
hundred feet span, those on either side sixty feet, and the
outer arches forty feet. As the sides of the valley rise on
either side, the relative proportion of width to height is
maintained, and scale is given to the central arches by
those on either side. Here also, as in the Pont-du-Gard, the
arches spring from different levels. With the exception of an
archway which is supposed to have been erected on the central
piers, there are no architectural superfluities. The qualities of
the design are based on its superb masonry and the graceful
proportions generally of the piers and arches.
TOMBS.
There is one other class of monument which the Romans
would seem to have borrowed from the Etruscans, viz., tombs.
The Etruscans, with some exceptions, seem to have considered
that the most lasting memorial was that cut in the solid rock,
such as those to which we have already referred at Norchia and
Cervetri. The earliest existing Roman tomb is that of Caecilia
Metella, of which the upper portion, consisting of a large
circular drum about ninety-three feet in diameter, still remains
more or less perfect on the Via Appia, outside Rome. It is
faced in fine masonry and crowned by an entablature with frieze
decorated with ox skulls and festoons of fruit and flowers hang-
ing between them. The square podium on which the circular
drum rested has been entirely stripped of its external masonry,
so that we have no clue to its architectural design. The tomb
of Augustus in the Campus Martius is known only from
descriptions, but it seems to have followed on the lines of those
of the earlier Etruscan tombs, such as that of Regulini Galeassi
at Cervetri. Of the tomb of Hadrian there still exists in the
Castle of St. Angelo the whole of the core and a portion of the
great circular drum, which, as in the tomb of Caecilia Metella,
rested on a podium. Here, however, the podium was three
hundred and forty feet square and seventy feet high. The drum
was surrounded with a peristyle of columns, and above this, and
set back on the rear wall of the peristyle, was an attic storey with
a conical roof. There is a tomb on the Appian Way Called the
280
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
Tomb of Cotta, which dates from the Augustan era, and in its
design recalls the early Etruscan tombs such as that of
Regulini Galeassi already referred to (p. 146). It consisted of
an immense mole, three hundred and forty-two feet in diameter,
with a pyramidal roof of marble slabs and a lantern crowning the
summit. The next tombs of importance, so far as dimensions
are concerned, are those which are known as Columbaria.
These were, however, always below the ground, and it is only
in a few cases that an upper storey existed. This very often
took the form of a small temple with a portico of four columns
or of two columns in-antis, and of these there were many
IB OF CALVENTIUS QUIETUS IN THE STREET OF THE TOMBS AT POMPEII.
examples on the Via Appia. The ground on each side of
the road was set out very much in the same way as in our
cemeteries, except that the tombs bordered the road only.
Spaces of so many feet frontage were allotted to the purchasers,
and enclosed with a low wall or boundary, in the centre of
which was built the tomb, square, oblong, or circular, carved
sometimes with figure sculpture in the same way as in Athens,
but more frequently decorated with pilasters or panelling sur-
mounted by a cornice and raised on a podium or on steps.
Sometimes the area would be surrounded with a richly decorated
wall, and marble seats. On the Via Appia nearly the whole
of the marble decoration of the tombs has been stripped off,
leaving only the concrete and tufa core ; but in Pompeii, outside
TOMBS. 281
the Herculaneum gate, a large number of tombs (111. 226)
have been found in-situ, and are now exposed to view,
suggesting similar types to those outside Rome. Of these, the
Garland Tomb, on the right in 111. 226, and in 209 and 227,
represents one of the best-preserved examples. Here at
Pompeii, as in Rome, the street of tombs was divided off on
each side, and the enclosures still remain, there being in addi-
tion, in the rear, small sepulchral chambers with niches to hold
the urns containing the ashes of the deceased. Exedrae in
marble and semi-circular niches with seats were provided for
the repose of those visiting the tombs.
There are but few examples of Roman tombs in Asia Minor,
Tomb of the Garlands.
226. — THE STREET OF THE TOMBS AT POMPEII.
but in Syria they are found in great numbers. The most
ancient are probably those in Palmyra. It is true that many
of them were erected before the submission of the city to Rome,
but their internal decoration with Corinthian pilasters shows the
full development of the Roman Corinthian order. These tombs
take the form of square towers from seventy to ninety feet high
and thirty to thirty-two feet square, resting on a podium with
no cornice, and two or three steps. Internally they are divided
into three or four storeys, each storey having a series of recesses
one above the other to hold coffins. On the ground storey these
recesses are divided by Corinthian pilasters, and the cornices
and ceilings of the chambers, all built of stone slabs, are richly
decorated. The upper storeys are simpler. In one example given
282
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
in Wood * the three storeys are suggested outside by a slight
diminution in the width of each, otherwise the sides are
vertical.! The towers are built of fine masonry with a simple
cornice, and externally the only decoration consists (half-
way up the tower on the principal front) of a projecting
canopy over a recumbent figure resting on a slab supported
by corbels.
The tombs at Jerusalem, all of which date from about the
middle of the first century of our era, are too mixed in their
style to allow of their being classed as Roman work. They
are all cut in the solid rock, with the exception of the upper
227. — UPPER PORTION (RESTORED) OF THE TOMB OF THE GARLANDS AT POMPEII.
part of the so-called Absalom tomb (111. 228), which has been
built in masonry. One of these tombs, known as that of St.
James, consists of a portico-in-antis of two columns between
wings projecting slightly on each side. These wings are carried
up a considerable height above the cornice of the portico, and in
Cassas's work J are shown as towers with a cornice on the top,
suggesting a similarity to the front of the Tejnple of Jerusalem,
where the pillars of Jachin and Boaz formed a similar portico
* Wood (R.)f Ruins of Palmyra, fol. 1738.
f The example as drawn in the Marquis de Vogue's Syrie Centrale is shown as
diminishing in width towards the top. It has apparently been reproduced from
a photograph taken with a tilted camera. A photograph of the same tomb in the
author's possession shows the sides absolutely vertical.
| Cassas (L. F.), Voyage Pittoresque de la Syrie, fol. 1799.
TOMBS.
283
between lofty towers, as described in the Bible. There are
three other tombs in Jerusalem, known as the Tombs of
Jehosaphat, of the Judges, and of the Kings. In each case
a court has been excavated and sunk in the solid rock, and the
entrance to the tomb cut on one side of it. In the two first
cases the entrance consists of a portico with moulded jambs
and lintel, surmounted by a pediment enriched with debased
Greek foliage. The
Tombs of the Kings
— now identified as
the tomb of Helena,
Queen of Adiabene,
c. A.D. 75 — is entered
through a porch con-
sisting of a portico-in-
antis, the face of the
jambs and lintel being
enriched with carv-
ing; above is a Doric
frieze with triglyphs
and a cornice. A
bunch of grapes in
the centre and a pal-
mette on each side
have been carved in
the place of three of
the triglyphs. The
entrance to the tomb
is on the left-hand
side of the portico,
and the rolling stone
by which the open-
ing was closed still
remains.
228.— THE TOMB OF ABSALOM AT JERUSALEM.
In other parts of Syria there are Roman tombs, which vary
in size from twenty-five to forty feet square, and are decorated
externally with Corinthian pilasters at the angles. Internally
they are covered with barrel vaults or with domes on penden-
tives, the latter consisting sometimes of stone slabs placed
across the angles. Some of the tombs in Central Syria are
sunk in the rock, and over them are built groups of two or more
284 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
columns held together by their entablatures. Others follow
the arrangement typified by that of the Tomb of the Kings :
viz., a portico-in-antis and occasionally a pediment.
The most important of the rock-cut tombs are the magnificent
examples at Petra. Cut in the vertical sides of a cliff, and
rising sometimes to over one hundred feet in height, the artist
was freed from the trammels of ordinary construction and was
able to realise his conceptions much in the same way as a painter
produces a theatrical scene. One of the examples which was
commenced but never finished, shows the method employed in
the setting out of the design. The steep slope of the rocky
cliff was cut away, leaving a vertical face of the intended
height and width of the tomb. The artist commenced by
drawing, on the rock itself, the various features of the proposed
design, and then (working from the top down to the base), cut
back into the solid rock to the depth required to leave his
conception in relief. In some cases, as notably in the Khasne,
a portico of two Corinthian columns-in-antis was sunk on the
lower storey, in the rear of which was the entrance door and
the sepulchral chamber. The principal tombs are those of
the Khasne (called by the natives the Treasury of Pharaoh),
and of El Deir : the Corinthian tomb, and the tomb with
the urn. The finest and best-preserved is that of the Khasne
(111. 229), divided into two storeys, the upper one with a
circular pavilion in the centre and two side wings with half
pediments, all carved with the Corinthian order. The lower
storey has a .tetrastyle portico in the centre, the angle columns,
however, not entirely detached, and two side wings. All the
mouldings and ornament suggest the employment of Greek
artists, and the remarkable resemblance of the central pavilion
to the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates suggests that it
was inspired by that building. The ornaments on the acro-
teria of the broken pediment would seem to be representations
of eagles : those of the pediment of the portico are not
distinguishable, but the figure sculpture of the tympanum
and frieze, and the figures on pedestals between the columns
on the upper storey, show that an artist of some repute
must have been brought over to execute them. Perhaps the
most remarkable feature in connection with these tombs is the
exceptional care which must have been taken, in cutting away
round the projecting features, as there are no instances recorded
229. THE TOMB OF THE KHASNE AT PETRA.
TOMBS.
285
of new blocks being inserted where too much had been cut
away. The projection of the abaci, which is greater than that
usually given, was probably regarded by the artist as a tour-
de-force. The illustration shows the very slight inclination of
the sides of the cliff, and how little had to be cut away to
procure a vertical plane for the setting out of the design.
The tomb of El Deir and "the Corinthian tomb" are of
similar design, the latter having a more solid ground storey.
The front of the " tomb with the urn " was carved in imitation
of the tetrastyle portico of a temple, but with semi-detached
columns only; the urn crowned the top of the pediment. This
tomb was preceded by an open court with a porticus on each
side, also cut in the rock, and a platform partly built in
masonry. There is a fifth tomb, of most decadent type, with
three storeys of Corinthian pilasters. As a rule the sepulchral
chamber was not decorated internally. In one instance only
semi-detached Corinthian columns are carved round the
chamber. As evidence of originality of design and richness
of execution, these tombs are remarkable examples of the
Roman style, of probably the second century of our era; but
the absence of any constructive character takes them out of
the range of serious architectural developments.
230.— SKULL AND GARLAND FROM AN ALTAR IN THE
MUSEUM OF THE VATICAN AT ROME.
286
231. — SIMA FROM POMPEII.
CHAPTER XV.
PALATIAL AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.
THE excavations on the Palatine Hill, commenced systematic-
ally by Napoleon III. under Signer Rosa in 1863, and con-
tinued since 1870 by the Italian Government, have laid bare
the walls of the greater portion of the various palaces, com-
menced by Augustus, continued by the Flavian and Antonine
Emperors, and extended by Septimius Severus. Although in
the centre of the plan (111. 233), on the site occupied by the
Villa Mills, there still remain other researches to be made,*
the restorations here shown of the plans of the Palaces of
Domitian and Severus are based on the walls actually found.
Of that of Augustus, the south part only has been excavated,
and it is probably to Guattani, who measured and published
this palace prior to the erection of the Villa Mills, that
M. Deglane owes his information relative to the north side of
the palace. The restoration shown in the section by Dutert
(111. 232) of part of Domitian's palace is based on portions of
the walls still existing, on similar halls found in the Roman
Thermae, and on the records of the marbles discovered in
* These have just (1907) been commenced and the church of S. Cesarius, once
the private chapel of the first Christian Emperors, has been found.
THE PALACES OF THE CAESARS.
287
1720 and described by Bianchini. Portions of the pavements
of almost every hall in the palace still exist, and in many cases
the lower part of the walls.
In these palaces, as in the thermae, the two chief principles
on which the Roman architect set out his plan are clearly set
forth : first, the maintenance of the axis ; and second, the
selection of some leading features which ruled its design. With
reference to the first principle it will be noted that the walls
of the several palaces and other buildings are not always
parallel or at right angles to one another (111. 233). These
Peristyle.
Throne Room.
Restoration by Dutert.
232.— SECTION THROUGH THE PALACE OF DOMITIAN ON THE PALATINE HILL AT ROME.
palaces were built in successive periods and by various
Emperors, and the axis of each addition was probably deter-
mined by the site available to be covered and by its prospect.
Where there is a variation in the parallelism of the axis, as
in the case of the Temple of Jupiter Victor (O), built 53 B.C.,
with that of the Palace of Domitian (S), built 85 A.D., the
irregular juxtaposition of the two is masked by the rooms on
the left of the Triclinium (X), so that anyone approaching
the temple from the south-west should not recognise that
the temple and the palace were not in parallel planes. The
second principle is shown in the Palace of Domitian by
the adoption of a central feature or set of features, such
288 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
as the Throne room, the Peristyle court, and the Tri-
clinium, with a room of peculiar shape, the nymphaeum, on
each side, the space at the back of the latter being filled
in with small service rooms. At the back of the Triclinium
are two small rooms of irregular shape, which allow the
south wing (containing the two Halls of the Academy (N),
to align with the axis of the Temple of Jupiter Victor and
its approaches. Again, on the right-hand side of the plan,
the central axis of the Palace of Severus (J) was not at right
angles with the Stadium (H). This was masked by an
immense hemicycle built by Hadrian (I), which formed a
tribune from which the Emperor and his suite viewed the
races in the stadium.
One of the most remarkable features in the plan is that
which is shown in the Palace of Augustus, overlooking the
Circus Maximus, where the two side wings have their fronts
placed at a slight angle to one another, and are united by an
immense segmental corridor (K) in several storeys, the effect
of which must have rendered this palace one of the finest
compositions of Roman architecture.
The principal approach to the Palatine Hill was by the Vicus
Apollinis (A), a road which started from the Sacra Via, on the
west side of the Arch of Titus, and led to an arched gateway (C)
which gave access to the sanctuary of Apollo on the one side,
and to the Palace of Domitian on the other. In ascending the
road, about one hundred yards from the Arch of Titus, on the
west side, stood the Temple of Jupiter Stator (B), of which the
foundations only have been found.
The palace built by Domitian was preceded by a portico (U).
The central hall (T), assumed to have been the Throne-room, was
covered by a barrel vault, which had the widest span of any in
Rome, the hall being one hundred feet wide by one hundred and
thirty-one feet long. The walls were ten feet thick on each
side, but the thrust of the vault would seem to have been
resisted by the halls on each side, there being buttresses outside
the basilica on one side and piers inside the Lararium on the
other side.* There were three great niches in the wall on each
side of the throne room, in which were colossal statues in
porphyry, and between these and the doorways were detached
* These are shown in M. Deglane's plan of existing remains, but omitted in his
conjectural restoration.
111. 233.
PLAN OF THE
PALACES OF THE CAESARS
ON THE PALATINE HILL
AT ROME.
O I
THE PALACES OF THE CAESARS. 289
columns of pavonazetto and giallo-antico, monoliths twenty-
four feet in height. Opposite the central doorway was the
throne, in a recess. All the walls were cased with marble
up to the springing of the vault, about sixty feet above the
pavement.
On the west side of the Throne-room was the Basilica (V).
with a row of six columns on each side, forming aisles, and
in this respect corresponding to the Egyptian Oecus * which
is described by Vitruvius (vi. 5). Opposite the main entrance
to the Basilica from the portico was an apse, with marble
seats in tiers round. On the opposite side of the Throne-room
was the Lararium (W), containing an altar and surrounded by
statues of the household gods. In the rear of the Lararium was
a staircase leading to an upper floor, and beyond a square hall.
It might here be noted that the Lararium and rooms behind it
were not of the same width as the Basilica : the most important
room, therefore, the Throne-room, which rose in height above
the others, was not in the central axis of the front, but this
was masked by the archway which gave access to the Area of
Apollo. Beyond the Throne-room was a great central court (S),
surrounded by a peristyle, with columns of pavonazetto marble
and halls on either side. In the centre, on the south of this,
was the Triclinium (X), or state dining-room, which opened
on each side t to what was virtually a conservatory, as in the
Nymphaeum (Y) were fountains, plants, and flowers, with
niches at the back in which were statues ; the centre portion
probably being open to the sky. All these halls, as also the
walls of the peristyle, were lined with rich marbles. The
pavement of the Triclinium was of the description known as
" opus sectile," which consisted of thin pieces of marble and
porphyry cut in shapes to suit the pattern.
The Palace of Augustus (K, L, M) covered less area than
that of Domitian, but contained a very much larger number of
rooms, the purpose and lighting of which are not very clear.
The north portion of the palace, which seems to have had its
principal entrance from the Area of the Temple of Apollo, has
not yet been excavated, so that the plan of that portion was
* The title of Egyptian Hall given to the great banqueting-hall in the Mansion
House is probably derived from Vitruvius's definition,
t The hall on the east side has not yet been excavated, being under existing
buildings.
A.G.R. U
290 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
probably taken by M. Deglane from Guattani's drawings, made
before the Villa Mills was erected. All the south portion has
been excavated, and the rich marble work of the lower
part of the walls and the mosaic pavements were found in-situ.
Portions also of the vaulting retained their rich decoration
in stucco work.
The ingenious way in which the rooms vary in their form and
proportions would be of greater interest if. we knew for what
purposes they were used, and how they were lighted ; and the
same applies to those of the northern portion of the palace, the
most singular features in which are the narrow passages (fauces)
between the chief reception halls. Here, as in the Thermae,
all the service of the Palace was carried on in vaulted corridors
underneath, and of these there must have been at least two or
three storeys under the south front, owing to its elevation above
the Circus Maximus.
No excavations have yet been made on the site of the Temple
of Apollo (F), so that its restoration, as well as that of its peri-
bolus, the peristyle round, and the circular temple, are purely
conjectural. Fragments of the fifty-two monolith columns of
giallo-antico, described in classic authors, have been found,
as also some of the torsoes of the statues of the daughters
of Danaus which stood between the columns. Of the equestrian
statues representing their husbands, the sons of Aegyptus,
which were erected on pedestals and stood in front as shown
on the plan, no remains have been found. All the autho-
rities are agreed that the Temple of Apollo was octastyle
and peripteral, so that M. Deglane's conjectural restoration
requires more explanation.
The famous Library of Apollo (G) consisted of two halls, used
as libraries, one for Greek, the other for Latin manuscripts;
and a central hall, the walls of which were decorated with
portrait reliefs of celebrated writers in the form of medallions
of gilt bronze.
The greater part of the Palace of Hadrian, built in the rear
of the great tribune which he constructed, facing the stadium,
is covered by the later Palace of Severus (J). The portion
included in the plan (to the right) shows only the tepidarium,
calidarium, and frigidarium of the thermae attached to the
palace, and substructures of the latter, which extended three
hundred and fifty feet from the stadium wall. To the north of
HADRIAN'S VILLA AT TIVOLI. 291
the Temple of Jupiter Stator (B) was the Palace of Caligula and,
to the west of the House of Livia (Q), the Palace of Tiberius.
On the left-hand side of the plan is shown the Crypto-
porticus (R), which extended from behind the Temple of
Jupiter Stator to the House of Livia. At right angles to this,
and crossing the staircase behind the basilica of Domitian's
Palace, was another vaulted corridor not shown on the plan,
affording a private access to and exit from the Basilica.
The Cryptoporticus was covered with a barrel vault, and
lighted by a series of windows on one side formed in the
springing of the same. The vault was enriched with paintings
and mosaics, and the walls were lined with slabs of marble
of different kinds, affixed by clamps of iron and bronze, some
of which still remain.
HADRIAN'S VILLA AT TIVOLI.
The great dissimilarity between the many conjectural
restorations of the plan of Pliny's Laurentine villa, based
on his description alone, shows the great difficulty which is
experienced when there are no actual remains upon which
to base any conception.
In this respect we are more fortunate when dealing with the
Villa of Hadrian near Tivoli ; for although completely wrecked
by Totila and his hordes in the sixth century, and excavated and
ransacked for treasures from the sixteenth century onwards (in
which operations considerable portions were further destroyed),
there still remained sufficient in the middle of the seventeenth
century to allow of fairly accurate plans being made by
Piranesi. Other plans were made by Nibby and Canina in the
first half of last century, and since then, in 1865, a much more
careful and systematic survey by M. Daumet, Grand Prix
de Rome, followed by others of the French school. The
plan here given is borrowed from Gaston Boissier's work,
Rome and Pompeii (111. 234). It was based on that supplied to
him by M. Daumet, so far as the range of buildings, which
include the imperial palace and libraries, the terraces, the
golden peristyle, the palaestra, and the poecile, are concerned.
The theatres, the gymnasium, the thermae, and Canopus are
taken from Nibby 's work, Descrizione delta Villa Adriana
.(1827). The site selected by Hadrian for his Villa is situated to
u 2
2Q2 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
the south of Tivoli, and consists of a ridge running from north-
west to south-east, and of varying heights, between two valleys,
one of which, called by him " the Vale of Tempe " (in recollec-
tion of the beautiful Thessalian valley which in the course of
his extended travels he had visited), is much deeper than the
other, and still preserves its natural features.
The total area which was occupied by the Villa is said by
Nibby to have been over seven square miles. We propose to
confine our attention to the most important portion only, viz.,
the Imperial Palace and the various structures in its vicinity
shown on the plan (111. 234).
The Villa was commenced about twelve years before Hadrian
gave up the cares of the Empire, and as the oldest portions,
according to M. Daumet, are those of the Imperial Palace,
we may assume that he commenced with his own residence;
he died, however, three years after his retirement (in 138 A.D.),
and therefore it is evident that a very large number of the
other structures must also have been built prior to his leaving
Rome. Opinions differ widely as to the exact purpose of
some of the various edifices, and whilst some archaeologists
maintain that in them, Hadrian attempted to reproduce some
of the more remarkable monuments which he had seen in the
course of his travels, others (and among them M. Daumet)
are of opinion that the names only of these monuments were
given to buildings, which were carried out in the Roman style.
In some cases, as in the Stadium and Palaestra adjoining, in
the Greek Theatre, and in the Poecile, these may have been
intended as reproductions of similar constructions in Greece ;
but as the Roman vault figures in most of them, it is evident
that the general scheme only was Greek, the construction
Roman. In the Imperial Palace and the great terraces
(portions of which were raised on immense substructures on the
side of the Vale of Tempe) the Roman and not the Greek
treatment of such work is very apparent, and even in Canopus,
built in recollection of the /amous resort of the Egyptians near
Alexandria, the whole of the building is essentially Roman, and
its only connection with Egypt was the name given to it and the
treasures brought from that country with which it was enriched.
The plan (111. 234) shows the general configuration of the
site on which the principal buildings were erected. The
highest point of the ridge is occupied by the Golden Peristyle (14) ,
294 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
so called on account of the richness of its marble decoration.
Thence the ground falls gradually about twelve feet to the
terrace of the Libraries, and the plateau or esplanade (5),
which was laid out as a garden, is about fifteen feet lower
still. Beyond that, towards the north, the ground sinks rapidly,
rising again farther on, so that the Theatres (i and 3) are partly
excavated in the sides of a hill, and an elevated plateau
gives a prominent position to the Gymnasium (4). On the
west side of the ridge the valley occupied by the Poecile (16) is
only six or eight feet below the Library terrace (7) ; but the
ground sinks again towards the south to Canopus, where an
artificial lake was excavated in the tufa rock.
At first sight the buildings seem to be arranged in the most
irregular way, and without much reference one to the other ;
but the various levels of the site, and the prospect and aspect
thought requisite for some of them, may have accounted for
this. As regards the Theatres, the Romans always availed
themselves of a hilly slope in which the cavea could be
excavated,* and the sites selected here at Tivoli accounted for
their position, as also for that of the Gymnasium. The two
Libraries faced north, in accordance with the rules laid down
by Vitruvius ; the walls remaining of these buildings still rise
to a considerable height, and in the western library some are
so thick as to suggest that they carried a tower used as an
observatory.
The position of the terraces (13) overlooking the Vale of
Tempe would seem to indicate that the residential part of the
Palace occupied the range of buildings and courts from the
Esplanade (5) to the Golden Peristyle (14), where the state
receptions were held ; and it was from these terraces that the
finest views were obtained — views which to the present day,
in consequence of the preservation of the natural features,
are still a source of admiration to the traveller. No. 9
on the plan we have assumed to have been the principal
Triclinium, because it faces north-west, an aspect also recom-
mended by Vitruvius. The various courts (10) of the Palace
are all planned regularly, No. n being apparently the private
residence of the Emperor. No. 12 (thought to have been a
basilica with double apse) was, according to M. Daumet, a hall
* The Theatres of Balbus, Pompey, and Marcellus, in the Campus Martius at
Rome, are exceptions, probably clue to the fact that the sites belonged to the State.
HADRIAN'S VILLA AT TIVOLI. 295
of declamation, and with the exception of the vaulted hemicycle
at the west end, was open to the air. The semi-circular lines
shown opposite were seats for the audience, and a velarium
probably was suspended over the hall.
Judging from the mosaic pavements found, and portions of the
columns of the portico and the walls, the Golden Peristyle (14)
must have been one of the richest monuments of Hadrian's time.
The octagonal hall on the south side, with four recessed niches
in the angles and a semi-circular apse on the south side, held
many of the most celebrated Greek sculptures and bronzes,
and, according to M. Daumet, was lighted from the top in a
special manner in order to display them to the best effect. A
series of terraces and peristyles at various levels led down to
the valley. All the walls and substructures cease, however,
about two hundred feet from the stream, so that nature again
asserted itself there, as it does at the present day.
The purpose of No. 2 on the plan is not known. Prof.
Lanciani calls it a Nymphaeum, which, to judge by the
drawing given in his work Ancient Rome, is the most
probable. By others it is called an Odeon, or music hall. The
one structure about which there is no doubt is the Poecile (16),
built in imitation of that at Athens described by Pausanias,
and here decorated with copies of the celebrated paintings
by Polygnotus which existed in the Greek example. The
remains consist of an immense wall seven hundred and fifty
feet in length, with a portico on each side, of which the traver-
tine bases on which the columns stood still exist in-situ, as
also the marble panelling .of the lower portion of the walls.
The walls of No. 15, called the Hall of the Seven Sages,
still exist in sufficient preservation to allow of a conjectural
restoration by Canina, not, however, worth very much, as his
work on the Villa of Hadrian is the poorest of his otherwise
fine conceptions. Between the Libraries and the Poecile, the
planes of which form an obtuse angle, there is a large circular
building (8) which seems to have been designed to connect the
two. Within the circular wall of the enclosure was a peristyle,
and in the centre (with a tank of water round, three feet deep,
and with four small bridges across) are the foundations of a
structure, the conjectural restoration of which has puzzled
many antiquaries. It may have been built to hold a celebrated
statue in the centre, and others in niches round.
296 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
No. 19 consisted of a court with semi-circular recesses, as in
the Forum of Augustus, and probably similarly decorated ; and
also a small temple dedicated to Castor and Pollux. No. 17 was
the Stadium, with Palaestra (18) on the east side ; and No. 20,
two complete thermal establishments, one for men, the other for
women. The small temple south of these is supposed to have
been dedicated to Mars, and the cluster of buildings north-
west of the Poecile and its court were those of the slaves and
retainers of the Emperor.
Of other buildings there is no distinct record, so that now
we come to the last and most remarkable building, that
known as Canopus. Canopus was a suburb about thirteen
. miles from Alexandria, in which there was a Temple of Serapis,
whither people proceeded from all parts of Egypt, some for
religious purposes and others for pleasure, for besides various
temples there were numerous hostelries on either side of the
canal which led there from Alexandria, and this on festal
days was crowded with the light barks shown in Egyptian paint-
ings not unlike the Venetian gondolas. Hadrian was apparently
attracted by what he had seen at Canopus, and in the valley
adjoining his villa he excavated an artificial lake, seven hundred
and eighty feet long by two hundred and sixty-two feet wide,
and at its south end erected one of those immense vaulted
hemicycles in which the Romans delighted, surrounded by
niches in which were placed the statues he had brought from
Egypt.* Raised aloft in the centre was the statue of Serapis,
the "great divinity of Canopus. Beyond, as may be seen in
Piranesi's etching, was a vaulted tunnel, down which water
flowed in cascades and supplied the artificial lake. On this
lake boat races took place, and, in order to recall the hostelries
of Egypt, there were a number of two-storied halls (21) on the
west side, where the guests invited by Hadrian took their
repasts and probably tarried awhile. The great hemicycle,
with a diameter of about seventy-five feet, was vaulted over, and
its walls lined with marbles, with columns between the niches.
In front of it was a double portico, on the marble roof of which
the principal visitors witnessed the games and races.
The ruins which remain at Tivoli represent only the more
solid portions of the constructions, but the landscapes which
* Many of the statues found, now in the Vatican, however, would seem to have
been carved in Rome in imitation of Egyptian work.
DIOCLETIAN'S PALACE AT SPALATO. 297
decorate the walls of Pompeii suggest that in the Roman
gardens there were many varieties of ephemeral structures in
wood (such as small temples, shrines, nymphaea, etc.), arbours
of trellis-work carrying vines, groves of laurel, streams, foun-
tains, and cascades. Alleys of trees are frequently referred to
by Pliny, as well as box trees cut into various capricious shapes,
which recall those existing at Versailles and in many of the
English formal gardens.
THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN AT SPALATO.
The Palace of Diocletian at Spalato, to which he retired
in 306 B.C., differed from the usual plan of a Roman villa
in that it constituted a fortress as well as a palace, the northern,
eastern, and western walls being protected by towers, and
the south front by the sea.* The palace measured six hun-
dred and ninety-eight feet from north to south, the north
front five hundred and seventy feet, and the south front five
hundred and ninety-two feet. There were three entrance
gates, called respectively the "Porta Aurea," or Golden Gate
(111. 235, A), on the north side, the principal entrance, facing
the avenue leading to the palace; the ''Porta Aenea," or
Brazen Gate (B), facing the east; and the " Porta Ferrea," or
Iron Gate (C), facing the west. Three avenues, thirty-six feet
wide, with covered arcades on each side, led from each gate up
to the centre of the whole enclosure. South of this was the
approach to the palace (D), consisting, on the right and left,
of an arcade in which the arches are carried direct on the
capitals without any intermediate entablature. In the courts
to the rear of these arcades were two temples — one dedicated
to Aesculapius (E), which was tetrastyle, prostyle, with a
vaulted cella ; the other, called the Temple of Jupiter, a
circular temple (F) with a domical vault, remarkable for its con-
struction, and decorated internally with niches and detached
marble columns of the Corinthian and Composite orders
superimposed. Externally the temple t was octagonal and
* Robert Adam, the author of the only complete description of the palace,
published in 1766, considered the towers to have been added as decorative fea-
tures only ; but the Romans at Palmyra and Baalbec adopted an entirely different
method of decoration when they desired to give a monumental appearance to
their structures. Besides, the inner and outer gates at the three entrances with
open courts between show that some kind of defence was intended.
f Fergusson considers this temple to have been built by Diocletian to serve as
his tomb. His remains are said to have been placed in a sarcophagus in one of
298 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
surrounded by a peristyle, the whole raised on a podium.
On the north side of the enclosure were great blocks of
buildings, supposed to have been those of the retainers and
servants.
The entrance portico of the Palace consisted of four columns
in-antis (G), the two central ones wider apart and spanned by
SCALE 100 50
100
200
400
500 FEET
235. — PLAN OK THE PALACE OF THE EMPEROR DIOCLETIAN AT SPALATO.
an arch, round which the whole entablature is carried in
the same way as in the Propylaea at Damascus (p. 198).
This portico led to a circular hall (H) lighted from the top,
which is virtually the only great hall still remaining. The
foundations of other walls show that there was an extensive
series of large halls (presumably lighted by at least two
the angle octagonal towers of the south front, probably the one on the west side,
near his own private apartments.
DIOCLETIAN'S PALACE AT SPALATO. 299
internal courts (I I)), the finest of all being the long gallery
called by Robert Adam the Cryptoporticus,* which consisted of
a corridor (K) five hundred and twenty feet long and twenty-
four feet wide, with a range of fifty-one windows on the south
side facing the sea. This great gallery served to connect all
the various halls on its north side, and, being probably filled
with works of art accumulated by Diocletian, must have pre-
sented a magnificent appearance. On the west side of the
palace the remains were found of a complete establishment
of baths (L). It is not, however, clear whether these were
in the basement, as suggested in Cassas's plan t ; or on the
principal floor as shown in Robert Adam's conjectural restora-
tion of the plan. They have been repeated on the opposite
side, but as yet there is not sufficient authority for such an
arrangement. The range of windows in the walls forming
the external enclosure shows that there was an upper storey
round the whole palace, interrupted only by the open courts
between the inner and outer gateways. Externally the design
of the southern gallery suggests that at each end and in the
middle were halls (M M) separated by columns. These halls
were raised higher than the main gallery, and lighted by immense
windows, a design being employed in them similar to that in
the entrance portico, viz., having a central inter-columniation
spanned by an arch. All the columns dividing the windows
were semi-detached and carried on corbels. The same disposi-
tion is to be observed in the Golden Gateway (111. 236), where
the upper part is decorated with a series of arches carried on six
detached columns, resting on richly-carved corbels. Within
two of the arches are semi-circular niches, and under the
latter two others which flank the relieving arch of the entrance
doorway. The principal interest attached to the palace at
Spalato lies in the decadent forms of some of its architectural
features, which are looked upon as the precursors of the
Byzantine and Lombard styles. As a matter of fact, the
decadence had already set in at least one or two centuries
earlier. It has already been shown (p. 199) that the arch
* The term cryptoporticus is, as a rule, given to a vaulted corridor underneath
the ground, which served either as private communication for the owner of the
house or palace, or for the service of an establishment. The term is quite as unfitting
for this great gallery as it would be for that at Haddon Hall.
t In the publication by Lavallee of Cassas's plans he copies without any acknow-
ledgment the conjectural restoration given by Adam.
3oo
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
over a wide central inter-columniation dates back to 151 A.D.,
being found in the Propylaea at Damascus (111. 160), and in the
Temple at Atil (111. 161). Capitals carrying an arch without an
intervening entablature are found at Pompeii.* Columns
carried on corbels existed in the Thermae of Titus, built in the
first century A.D., between the niches of the great hemicycles on
either side of the enclosure (see Palladio's work on the Roman
Thermae), and the accentuation of the Roman relieving arch over
a lintel by enriching it with mouldings, is found in the second
century in the synagogue
at Kefr Birim (111. 237)
twenty-four miles east of
Jean d'Acre, in Syria.
These are the four
leading features of the
decadence in Roman
architectural forms, and
although not introduced
for the first time in the
Palace at sPalato> they
are certainly exhibited in
it in a more striking
manner than in any other
building.
PRIVATE HOUSES.
The paucity of re-
mains of ancient private
houses in Rome, con-
fined almost to the House
of Livia on the Palatine, and to the House of the Vestals,
would, even with the descriptions of Vitruvius, give us but
a poor insight into their design were it not for the dis-
covery of Pompeii and Heiculaneum. It is true that these
latter were provincial towns of second or even third-nitc
importance, but a comparison of the design and execution
of their houses with the buildings just cited shows that
the difference consisted chiefly in the employment of real
marble in Rome instead of painted imitations, and in a
superior style of execution in the wall paintings. The lavish
Choisy, Histoircde V Architecture, p. 515.
236.— THE GOLDEN GATEWAY, DIOCLETIAN'S
PALACE.
PRIVATE HOUSES.
301
extravagance in the marble decorations of the mansions of the
more wealthy citizens, and the rapid growth in the use of this
luxury, are referred to by Pliny (xxxvi. 15), who says " that the
house of Lepidus (B.C. 76) was considered the finest in Rome,
and thirty years later was not the hundredth." According to
Pliny, the extravagance
consisted in the employ-
ment of monolith col-
umns of various Greek
marbles and the lining
of all the internal walls
with marble panelling
such as is found in the
Pantheon and in the
Palaces on the Palatine.
The descriptions de-
tailed by Vitruvius, and
the names he gives to
the several apartments,
apply so closely to those
found in Pompeii that
one is able to follow
generally the arrange-
ment of plan, though his
attention would appear
to have been directed
more to the correct pro-
portions of the various
rooms than to their rela-
tive positions which were
fixed by tradition.
IThe houses at Pompeii
seem all to have been
arranged on a similar
plan, thesizeand number
of the apartments varying according to the rank and means
of the owner and to local circumstances. There is but little
architecture in the exteriors, which consisted either of blank
walls or of shops with open fronts, and the light was admitted
to the rooms (at all events on the ground floor), from the
courts in the interior. This was doubtless for the sake of
237.— THE ENTRANCE DOOR OF THE SYNAGOGUE
AT KEFR BIRIM.
302
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
greater privacy, and the same custom still obtains throughout
the East. The houses of the upper classes were divided
into two parts, in accordance with the domestic customs of
the Romans and their double life ; the first being public and
the second private. The public part comprised the prothyrum,
atrium, cubiculae, tablinum, alae, and fauces. The private
part, the peristyle, triclinium, oecus, cubicula, bibliotheca,
exedra, lararium, and offices (see 111. 239).
The Prothyrum, or vestibule, was a passage between the
shops leading to the atrium. It was sometimes preceded by a
recessed porch. The Atrium was the largest hall in the public
part of the house, and it was here that the host received his
238.— THE IMPLUVIUM IN THE HOUSE OF CORNELIUS RUFUS AT POMPEII.
friends and supporters. Except in the case of the poorest
houses, the atrium was always lighted through an opening in
the centre of the roof called the compluvium, and the rain
falling from the eaves direct, or collected in a gutter and
passing through lions' heads (111. 231, p. 286), was discharged
into a tank called the impluvium (111. 238), about eighteen
inches deep and generally lined with marble. At one end
of the tank, and opposite the entrance to the atrium, was a
small marble table, and a figure in bronze or marble sometimes
holding a vase or flower from which water poured into the
impluvium. Of the five varieties of atriums described by
Vitruvius, the Tuscan atrium is the one which seems to
have been most generally adopted in Pompeii. The roof \\.is
PRIVATE HOUSES. 303
probably framed with two transverse beams crossing the atrium,
and two longitudinal beams trimmed between them to form the
opening or compluvium, in the same way as a roof or ceiling is
framed over a billiard table. These beams carried the roof
joists and ceiling. Where the width of the atrium was too
great to allow of its being spanned by beams, columns were
placed at each angle of the impluvium to support them, and
this variety is described by Vitruvius as the Tetrastyle atrium.
In houses of importance, where in consequence of the size and
number of rooms round the atrium more space was required,
a larger number of columns carried the roof with the com-
pluvium enclosure, and his arrangement was known as the
" Corinthian atrium."*
There was a fourth variety, known as the " atrium dis-
pluviatum," where the roof sloped down outwards (as seen in
the tomb at Corneto (111. 127, p. 150), so that the rain was
carried to the outside, away from the compluvium. This some-
times necessitated the employment of trough gutters, with rain-
water pipes in the angles of the atrium to carry off the rain.
These, however, Vitruvius says (vi. 3), "are constantly in want
of repair, for the pipes which receive the water from the eaves
being against the walls, and not capable of taking at once the
water which should be carried off, it overflows from the check
it meets and injures the woodwork and walls in this sort of
buildings." A much better light, however, he points out, was
given to the atrium and the rooms round.
The " atrium testudinatum " (where there was no opening in
the roof) was found only in the smallest houses or where there
was an upper storey. In these cases light was obtained from
an open court beyond.
The rooms round the atrium were : —
a. Cubicula, or small sleeping rooms, generally set apart for
visitors or for the male portion of the family.
b. Alae, or wings, recesses for conversation or reading.
c. Tablinutn, a large room facing the vestibule, always opening
into the atrium and sometimes into the peristyle or a portico
beyond, without any wall or separation. Curtains were probably
drawn across this room on either side, and in Herculaneum
and Pompeii bronze hooks have been found" to which they may
* The title had nothing to do with the Order in Pompeii, for as often as not
the capitals were either Tuscan or Ionic.
304 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
have been suspended. This room contained the family archives,
statues, and pictures.
d. Fauces, passages which admitted of passing from the public
to the private portion of the house without passing through the
tablinum.
In the private portion of the house were :—
e. The Peristyle, which resembled the Corinthian atrium,
having a colonnaded portico round it, but it was much
larger. The central court, open to the sky, was planted
with flowers and shrubs, with a small fountain in the centre.
The margin round this court was of stone and sunk in the
centre, to form a gutter to carry off the droppings from the
eaves.
f. Cubicula, or sleeping apartments, for the owner and his
family.
^ g. Triclinium, or dining-room, the name being derived from
the three couches placed round a central table, leaving the
fourth side open for the service. Sometimes these rooms were
of large size, so as to accommodate an increased number of
guests, and a summer triclinium facing the north is occasionally
found.
h. Oecus, the largest room in the private portion of the
house, usually in the central axis of the house and facing the
peristyle. According to Vitruvius, this was the hall occupied
by the mistress of the house and where she received her guests,
but it was also used as a banqueting room on special occasions,
probably on account of its size.
i. Pinacotheca, or picture gallery for easel pictures, not often
found in Pompeii.
k. Bibliotheca, or library, a small room to hold papyri or
rolls of manuscript.*
1. Exedrae, rooms corresponding with the alae in the public
portion of the house, but here occupied by the family or the
female guests.
m. Lararium, a chamber devoted to the Lares, or household
* In the excavations made at Herculaneum in 1753, a library in a private house
was discovered with bookcases round the walls and one in the centre of the room
Although it contained about 1,700 papyrus rolls, the room was not larger than
fifteen feet by twenty feet, which suggests that the Roman library was probably
used as a store only for such documents, which were taken out and read in thp
exedra or other apartments of the house ; and this is rendered more probame frofh
the fact that the Roman libraries were never warmed, either frpm^ear ofe fire or
from the damage which might be done to the papyrus rolls by insects or moths.
PRIVATE HOUSES IN POMPEII.
305
gods. Sometimes a niche at one end of the peristyle would be
considered sufficient.
n. Culina, the kitchen.
o. Xystus, or garden, at the back of the larger houses
only, sometimes with a portico facing it, or, as in the Villa
of Diomede, on all
sides.
The kitchen and
store-rooms were of
small size, and
placed on one side
of the farther end
of the peristyle, with
a back entrance.
The upper floor of
the house (when it
existed) was pro-
bably occupied by
servants or slaves,
but sometimes there
was a solarium, or
terrace.
The house of
Pansa is the best
representative of
the more important
residences in Pom-
peii, as it contains
nearly all the rooms
which are referred
to by Vitruvius. It
occupied, with the
shops, two bakeries,
and three small resi-
dences (all apparently let out by him), an entire block or insula
covering an area of about three hundred feet long by one hundred
feet wide. The entrance to the house (111. 239) was in the centre
of one end of the block, through a lofty doorway flanked by
pilasters in stone with Ionic caps, carrying presumably an
entablature and pediment, now gone. Passing through the
porch and vestibule (i), one enters a Tuscan atrium (2), with
A.G.R. X
SCALE ip . 0 10
239. — PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA AT POMPEII.
100 FEET
306 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
impluvium in the centre, and three small rooms (cubiculae)
(3) on each side, one of which (s) on the left was apparently
occupied by the " dispensator," who sold the produce of Pansa's
estate, as there is a door between it and one of the shops.
Beyond the cubiculae are two recesses or alae (4). Opposite
the entrance door was the tablinum (5), which opened also to
the peristyle beyond,* with a passage (7) (fauces) leading direct
from the atrium to the peristyle (9) and on the right and left
(8), two rooms, the smaller one a library, the other (6) a tri-
clinium. Beyond was the peristyle, with sixteen columns of the
Ionic order. On the right and left are two other recesses or
exedrae (10), and on the left three more cubiculae (n). In
the centre beyond was the oecus or reception-room of the
family (14) — a passage (17) leading to the garden in the extreme
rear — and the winter triclinium (15) on the right. Beyond these
again was a portico (18) overlooking the garden, and a small
room (16) which may have been the boudoir of the lady of the
house. To the left of the passage were the kitchen (culina)
and offices (19, 20, and 21) ; a second room of larger size (13) on
the right is thought to have been the principal triclinium ;
(s, s) were shops, the two at the corner of the block being in
communication with the bakeries (B) beyond. Besides, on the
left, were two rooms (h, h), each with an upper floor, and on
the right, three small houses (H, H, H).
Assuming the two doors in the prothyrum or vestibule to be
open, and the curtains at the rear of the tablinum and the
front of the oecus drawn aside, the passer-by in the street
commanded a view of the interior of the house from one end
to the other. This seems to have been the leading principle
on which all the houses in Pompeii were planned, and may
account in some cases for the elaborate nature of some of the
sculptural accessories, even in the smaller houses, such as that
of which 111. 240 is an example. Even in the case of a small
house, where the peristyle terminated in a wall, the wall was
painted to represent a garden beyond.
Variations from the plan just described are found in the
House of the Faun,t where the peristyle is turned the other
* In the House of the Silver Wedding fastenings in bronze were discovered /«-
situ which showed that curtains attached to them could be drawn across the rear
of the tablinum, and similar enclosures were probably provided for other door-
ways, as no doors except at the entrance of the house have been traced.
f The names given to the houses are derive'd from features found in them,
such as works of art or inscriptions with the names of persons.
PRIVATE HOUSES IN POMPEII.
307
way and its axis is not the same as that of the atrium (111. 241).
This was apparently in consequence of there being a second
residence on one side (probably occupied by some member of
the same family, as there are three or four doors communicating
between the two) . All the bedrooms of the family of the principal
house were on an upper floor over the oecus and triclinium.
In the House of the Silver Wedding* the atrium was
tetrastyle — that is, with four columns of the Corinthian order
supporting the ceiling. The dimensions of the atrium "(fifty
by forty feet) made it impossible to cover it in any other way.
The House of
Epidius Rufus had
a Corinthian atrium
with sixteen Doric
columns, but no peri-
style, there being
only a portico over-
looking the garden
at the back.
In the House of
the Tragic Poet, re-
markable for the
paintings it con-
tained representing
scenes from the Iliad,
the peristyle was en-
closed with a porticus
on three sides only.
Different from all
of these is the House of Vettius, excavated in the year 1894,
and in much better preservation than any building lately
discovered. Owing to want of space, the atrium adjoins the
peristyle, so that the tablinum occupies the position of one
of the alae, and has a wide opening towards the peristyle from
which it appears to be mainly lighted. The illustration (242)
shows the peristyle with its original decorative features, such
as pedestals with statues or figures, marble tables, baths,
hermae,t etc.
* So called because it was excavated in 1892, in the presence of the King and
Queen of Italy, on the celebration of their silver wedding.
t Hern.s or Hermae were in great demand by the wealthy Romans for the
decoration of their gardens, and they were generally crowned with the busts of
X 2
240. — FOUNTAIN IN THE HOUSE OF THE
BALCONY AT POMPEII.
308
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
JJ
Ait
i».' </ :
>' ~atij.'
:»':
•" «• >.
£»
i...» n
••V-*-'
*-J*
-«:•..
Iv -"I
The only two other houses which might be referred to are the
House of Sallust and the Villa of Diomede ; the former because
it apparently belongs to
another class of residence,
viz., an inn or hotel. On the
left-hand side of the vesti-
bule is a shop for the sale
of drinks, which has a wide
opening into the vestibule and
a door leading to the atrium.
On the right is a second room,
which was open to the street,
the vestibule, and the atrium,
and may have been the com-
mercial room or the land-
lord's office. There
is no
peristyle, but a porticus facing
a small garden in the rear,
where in the farther angle is
an open-air triclinium, which
still retains its marble table
in the centre and three stone
couches. The roof consisted
of a trellis, over which pro-
bably a vine was trained,
similar to many such retreats
to be found in Italy in the
present day. Here the rear
wall was painted to represent
a garden. The Villa of Dio-
mede was situated outside
the town, beyond the Hercu-
laneum Gate. It was built
on sloping ground, so that
the entrance door, in the
centre of the main front, is five feet above the roadway, and the
ground at the rear is at a lower level. The central axis of the
villa lies at an angle of forty-five degrees with the road, and the
philosophers and poets. They were derived from the Greek custom of raising z
heap of stones or sometimes a single block as a sign-post with distances insci
upon it. etc., to mark a boundary of land or a cross road, and were dedi
to Hermes, the god of roads and boundaries.
A. Occus. B B, Triclinia. C, Tablinum. D, Culina.
E, Alae.
241.— PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE FAUN
AT POMPEII.
PRIVATE HOUSES IN ROME. 309
triangular plot on the left of the entrance door has been utilised
for a complete set of baths. From the entrance porch (the only
example projecting in front of a house) one entered direct into
the peristyle. At first sight it resembles the Corinthian atrium,
especially as the tablinum occupies the usual position ; but the
centre court was planted with shrubs and flowers, with a fountain
in the centre as in a peristyle. The rooms round also are of
larger size, and one of them (probably the principal bedroom)
is of elliptical shape, with three windows overlooking a garden
being virtually a bow window. At the back of the tablinum
a colonnade with terrace in front overlooking the garden.
Under the terrace, at a lower level, was a series of rooms, of
which the vaults remained intact. These were all lighted
through a portico overlooking the garden, which measured
eighty-five feet by seventy-three feet, with a small fish-pond in
the centre, and beyond it an arbour with columns round carry-
ing trellis-work. The portico was carried on all four sides of
the garden, and consisted of square piers with moulded caps
standing on a low wall. Beneath the portico on three sides
were cellars in a cryptoporticus, vaulted and lighted through
openings in the low wall above.
HOUSES IN ROME.
Passing on to the two existing examples in Rome : the House
of Livia was on two levels. On the lower level, reached from
the cryptoporticus, was an open atrium (see plan (g), 111. 233,
p. 288), with tablinum and alae on each side, and to the right the
triclinium, by the side of which was a flight of steps leading to
a large number of rooms and a set of baths, all on the higher
level behind the tablinum. A staircase in the court round which
the bedrooms were placed led to an upper storey, of which
nothing remains.
The House of the Vestals (111. 243) differed from any of the
examples already described, in that it consisted mainly of one
immense atrium (one hundred and eighty feet long by forty-
eight feet wide), surrounded with a peristyle of columns in two
storeys giving access to a large number of rooms on three sides.
At the farther end of the peristyle was the Tablinum (A), a hall
forty-one feet long by twenty- nine feet wide, and forty-one feet
to the soffit of the barrel vault with which it was covered. On
3io
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
each side of the Tablinum, with doorways opening into it, were
three rooms assumed to have been the private rooms of the six
Vestal Virgins. Baths (B), kitchen and bakeries, and stairs to
the upper storey occupied the farther corner of the site. A
great portion of the upper storey of the House of the Vestals
still exists on the side of the Palatine Hill, and is of special
interest as being the only instance in which hypocausts have
been found above the ground floor. The rooms were small,
but the walls were all at one time faced with marble slabs, and
many of them contained baths sunk in the floor and lined with
marble. With the exception of the several offices, all the rooms
on the ground floor were also cased and paved with rich oriental
_ marbles on both
wall and floor,
and the columns
of the peristyle
were monoliths
of cipollino and
breccia coraline.
Comparing the
architectural de-
tail of Pompeii
with work in
Rome of the
same period,
there are both
Greek and Etrus-
can elements in the former which do not exist in the latter. This
is most noticeable in the mouldings and ornament and in the
character of the "orders" employed. The Doric order of
Pompeii approximates very closely to Greek work in the profile
of the echinus of the capital, the absence of a base, and in the
flutings. The slender proportions of the columns, approaching
sometimes nine diameters, arises probably from their having to
support a timber superstructure only.
The capital of the Pompeian Ionic order in which the
volutes are canted at the angles, projects much less than the
Roman-Ionic capital, where the abacus averages one and a half
diameters, whereas in Pompeii it is only one and a sixth. The
capital (111. 244), found in a house in the street of the theatres,
belonged to an engaged column, and its sculptor has introduced
n&rrij-t 4.TT \\
j- -c-^fcJ vi**CB+=+Aa+m\g
I • • I x
• • ! I xr
A, Tablinum ; B, Bath ; C, Site of Temple of Vesta.
243.— PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE VESTALS AT ROME.
POMPEIAN ARCHITECTURAL DETAIL.
244. — IONIC CAPITAL OF A HOUSE IN THE STREET OF THE
THEATRES AT POMPEII.
an original treatment in the carving of the side (111. 245).
The strong accentuation of the anthemion in the Pompeian
capitals (111. 188, p. 230), which fills the gap between the volute
and the egg and tongue moulding, is found in the Ionic capitals
of the Tomb of
Theron at Agri- ^BM^^MHHBHB^^^E^g^^MMBMMMBrr'
gentum, and in
the frieze of the
Etruscan gate-
way at Perugia
(111. 124, p. 146),
so that it is diffi-
cult to decide
whether it has an
Etruscan or
Greek origin.
Similar examples
have been found
at Olympia, but not necessarily of earlier date than these at
Pompeii.
In the Corinthian Order, however, the Greek type is absent,
there is a considerable variety of design in the capitals, but
rarely is the leaf foliage of the
•^MMMB ' - ^jjjjjjjjjjj^j acanthus spinosus found. The
type adopted in the capitals of the
Temple of Vesta at Tivol'i is the
most frequently followed, and the
three or four examples found are
absolutely of the same design. In
the capitals of pilasters or square
piers, where heads are introduced,
the lower range of leaves has the
same crinkled form as in the
Temple of Vesta example.
IN ILL. 244- We have already referred to
the rich decoration of the vaults of the baths and some of the
houses. There are unfortunately no vestiges of the roofs, or
representations of them in the paintings on the walls (except so
far as in the indication of the mutules of projecting eaves), and
no descriptions to suggest how the ceiling under the roof over
the atrium was treated. With the Tetrastyle^ and Corinthian
245.—
312
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
atrium there would be no difficulty, but in the Tuscan atrium
the span was sometimes rather large, and although the Romans
knew how to truss a roof, there is no reason for supposing they
had sufficient knowledge to enable them to truss a beam. Prob-
ably they contented themselves with the superposition of two
or more beams, binding them together with iron straps. The
ceiling under the roof formed so important a feature in the
Roman house that, if only to be in harmony with the painted
decorations of the walls,
it must have been elabo-
rately framed and
panelled or coffered,
and richly decorated,
painted, and gilt. The
only portion of the
Pompeian roof which
has come down to us is
its covering ; and the
large and varied collec-
tion of terra-cotta tiles,
antefixae, gutters, pen-
dant friezes, and other
features which have
been found in the exca-
vations at Pompeii show
us that great import-
ance was attached to
that feature. The sima
or gutter round the
compluvium, of which
246.-EXAIIPI.K OK ANC.KNT WALL IN POMFKII.
SOttlC VCty
examples, was the first
feature which would attract the attention of any visitor to the
atrium, and above this the antefixae forming the termina-
tion of the covering tile roll would rise and break the
skyline. The headpiece of this chapter (111. 231), is an example
of a type of gutter in which the ancient Greek form of the
sima seems to have been adhered to ; its decoration with lion's
mouth and griffins moulded on each side is full of vigour.
In the earliest houses found in Pompeii the walls are built in
ashlar, and, beyond a coat of stucco in the interior, do not
POMPEIAN INTERIOR DECORATION. 313
appear to have been painted. Only one or two examples still
exist, and they probably on account of their good construction.
After 80 B.C. the walls were built of rubble masonry of tufa,
laid in clay mortar only, with occasional bond stones, and these
required therefore a stucco coating to preserve them. In the
time of Augustus burnt brick was employed for quoins and
bond courses, and the rubble masonry was laid in mortar.
The system of building in concrete practised in Rome does not
seem to have extended to Pompeii, but the outside walls were
faced with opus incertum and opus reticulatum, subsequently
covered with stucco and painted. Externally the colours
employed were very simple, and confined to yellow, with a
darker colour for the lower portion. Sometimes, as in the
illustration shown (111. 246), there would be an architectural
treatment, with pilasters and panels between, all moulded in
stucco. In the main streets the fronts of the houses were
occupied by shops, which were probably gaily decorated with
colours. Otherwise the only architectural character given to
the house was that afforded by the entrance doorway, which
was flanked with pilasters and capitals in stone carrying an
entablature.
The rich coloured decoration of the interior of the houses
seems to have commenced about the end of the second century
B.C., and at first the wall surfaces were subdivided and
decorated in panels, the decoration being sometimes in imitation
of marbles, probably suggested by the real material in their
temples. At a later period, 80 B.C., it became the custom in
the better houses to decorate the walls with pictures copied
from well-known examples in Greece, and this new idea seems
to have called for a distinct system in the subdivision of the
walls, which henceforth consist of dado, wall, and frieze, the
dado being as a rule the darkest in colour.
These pictures were executed in fresco by painting in with
water-colour on the moist stucco of a freshly-prepared surface.
Vitruvius gives descriptions of the methods employed in Rome,
but those in Pompeii do not seem to have been so elaborately
prepared. As a rule the design and composition of the figure
subjects are so far superior to the execution that we may fairly
assume they are replicas of well-known subjects. On the
completion of the work it is thought that the colours were
heightened and fixed by the application of wax under heat,
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
and in consequence of this they are sometimes described under
the head of encaustic painting.
There are three, if not four, distinct styles of decoration in
Pompeii and Herculaneum, the earliest either Etruscan or
Cumaean, the second Greek, and the third Roman. To the
249. — nRONZE I.AMP STANDARD FROM THE VILLA OF DIOMKDK
AT POMI'KII.
first probably belongs the system of dividing the surface into
panels and varying the colours of same.
To the second, the introduction of reproductions of well-
known Greek paintings, sometimes enclosed with architectural
features, such as columns, entablatures, and friezes, all painted
in recollection of existing work in Greece or elsewhere, for the
designs are much finer than any architectural work in Pompeii.
POMPEIAN INTERIOR DECORATION. 315
In the third style the architectural accessories are of the
wildest description (Ills. 247, 248, see also 111. 205), and have led
some authorities to recognise in the attenuated forms given to the
columns a metallic origin. It is true that the use of iron and
bronze, to which we have already drawn attention, shows that
the Romans were well acquainted with these materials, and the
bronze candelabra, tripods, and lampholders (111. 249) found
in Pompeii have precisely that tenuity which is represented in
the columns painted on the walls; but on the other hand, the
mutules in the overhanging eaves, the panelling of the ceilings,
250. — THK TRIANGULAR FORUM AND REAR WALL OF THEATRE AT POMPEII.
and the arched ribs in the vault (all constructional features in
wood and concrete and brick), are rarely missed in these
paintings, and never found in candelabra or lampholders.
Whatever may have been the origin of the wire-drawn columns,
the effect of the general composition of these wall paintings is
of the most charming description, and one is often surprised by
the effect of distance suggested by them (111. 247).
There is still one other type of decoration, that which
consists in the representation of natural objects, such as plants
and flowers, etc.; and from the descriptions given of the mar-
vellous dexterity of celebrated Greek artists in this class of
316 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
work, we may assume that the Pompeian artists followed their
example, and sometimes with exceptional ability.
The examples of mural painting in Rome are not much
superior to those found in Pompeii, and the subjects seem to
have been of the same type. In the description given by Dr.
Middleton of the paintings in the tablinum of the House of
Livia, he records the. fact that in one of the pictures the
names of the figures represented were painted under each in
Greek letters, a fact which points to Greece as the probable
source from which the Pompeian paintings were derived. The
grace of the single figure subjects, and the excellence in the
composition of the principal frescoes, show that their artists
were acquainted with and attempted to reproduce a far higher
type of decorative painting than is likely to have been evolved
locally in Pompeii.
251.— FOUNTAIN INCRUSTED WITH MOSAIC IN POMI'KII.
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CORINTHIAN.
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TOMB. — IONIC.
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321
GLOSSARY.
M Abacus. — The uppermost member of a capital. Plain in
the Doric order, moulded in the Ionic and Corinthian orders.
The sides are concave in the Corinthian capital, and curved
over the canted volute of the Ionic capital.
Abutment. — The masonry, brickwork, or earth which
counteracts the thrust of an arch.
Acroterium (pi. Acroteria). — The plinths at the angles or
apex of a pediment provided to carry figures or ornaments.
The term is also applied to the latter.
/ Agora. — A public square or market-place in Greek cities
corresponding to the Forum in Roman cities.
Aisle (Lat., ala, a wing). — Term given to the side passages in
a basilica, separated from one another and from the central
area by columns or piers.
Ambulatory. — A covered promenade, straight or circular.
Amphiprostyle. — Term applied to a temple with portico of
columns in front and rear only. See TEMPLES.
Ancones. — (i) Projecting bosses left on masonry blocks ;
(2) the vertical corbels on either side of a Roman doorway
supporting the cornice over the same.
Anta (pi. Antae). — Pilaster (or corner post) of slight projec-
tion terminating the end of the lateral walls of a cella, and
serving as respond to a column. In the latter case the
columns are said to be in-antis.
Antefix. — The decorative termination of the covering tile-
rolls of a roof.
Anthemion (Gr. avQos, a flower). — Term given to the
sheathing leaves of the flower of the acanthus, sometimes,
but erroneously, called honeysuckle (Fr. palmette)9 employed
in various ways to decorate acroteria, antenxes, friezes, and
the necking of some Ionic capitals.
Apodyterium. — The dressing room- of the Roman bath.
A.G.R. Y
322 GLOSSARY.
Apophyge (a™', from, and <£evy<o, I flee). A. the inverted
cavetto or concave sweep taken by the lower part of the shaft
in the Ionic and Corinthian Orders in its junction with the
base. B. The hollow or scotia beneath the Doric echinus,
forming the junction between the capital and the shaft.
Apse. — A recess in the wall of a building, generally
semi-circular and vaulted over.
Apteros. — Without wings. Applied sometimes to a prostyle
or amphiprostyle temple, as, for instance, the Temple of Nike
Apteros, Athens.
Arabesque. — Term given to the moulded stucco and painted
decoration of the walls, vaults, and ceilings in the Thermae
of Titus, and in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Sometimes
employed to designate Arabian decoration.
Araeostyle. — Wide-spaced. The term given by Vitruvius to
the wide intercolumniation of the Tuscan portico, carrying an
architrave in timber. See INTERCOLUMNIATION.
Architrave. — A lintel in stone or beam of timber carried
from the top of one column or pier to another. The lowest
member of the entablature (q. v.). Applied also to the side
posts or jambs and the lintel of a door or window.
Archivolt. — A moulded architrave carried round an arch.
Arena. — The central space in a Roman amphitheatre wherein
the gladiators fought, or where contests with wild beasts took
place.
Arris. — A sharp edge formed by two surfaces meeting at an
external angle, as in the flutings of the Doric column.
Atlantes. — The Greek term for the male figures employed
in architecture in place of columns. See TELAMONES.
Atrium. — The entrance court of a Roman house, roofed over
at the sides, but open to the sky in the centre. In an
atrium of large size four or more columns would be introduced
to carry the roof. See CAVAEDIUM.
Attic. — Term applied to a story above the main cornice,
sometimes decorated with bas-reliefs, or utilised for an
inscription.
Attic base. — The favourite base of the Romans, consisting
of an upper and lower torus and a scotia between, with fillets.
Balneae. — The Latin term for the public baths.
Basilica. — The Roman exchange and court of law. An
GLOSSARY. 323
oblong, rectangular building with aisles round, and terminated
at one or both ends with a recess or hemicycle (large apse),
used as the Tribune.
Bibliotheca (Library). — A chamber provided with cases to
hold manuscript rolls.
Bouleuterion. — The Greek Senate House.
Cabling. — See FLUTING.
Calidarium. — The hot chamber of the Roman bath.
Canalis (Channel). — Term given to the space between the
fillets of an Ionic volute : in early work, convex; in the fully-
developed types, concave.
Carceres. — A row of stalls or horse-boxes at one end of a
circus enclosed by double doors, within which the chariots
waited till the signal was given for starting, when the doors
were simultaneously thrown open.
Caryatides. — Figures of maidens which take the place of
columns in supporting an entablature, as in the Tribune of
the Erechtheum, Athens.
Caulicolus. — The stalk of the acanthus plant as found in
the Greek stele and in Roman Corinthian capitals.
Cavaedium (the Roman Atrium). — According to Vitru-
vius (VI. 3) there were five kinds — Tuscan, Tetrastylar,
Corinthian, Displuviatum and Testudinatum. In the Tuscan,
cross-beams carried the roof, in the centre of which was an
opening called the compluvium ; the Tetrastylar had columns
at each angle of the compluvium, which carried the beams
round the opening; whilst in the Corinthian there were also
intermediate columns ; in the Displuviatum the roof sloped down
outwards on all four sides ; and in the Testudinatum there was
no opening in the roof.
Cavea. — The pit of a theatre, so called because originally it
was excavated in the rocky side of a hill.
Cella. — The enclosed chamber or sanctuary of a Roman
temple, corresponding with the naos of a Greek temple.,
Chresmographion. — The term given to the chamber between
the pronaos and the nave or cella of a Greek temple where
the oracles were delivered.
Chryselephantine. — The term applied to a statue in which
gold and ivory overlay a wooden core, the drapery and
ornaments being of the former and the flesh of the latter
material.
Y 2
324 GLOSSARY.
Clepsydra. — A vessel employed in ancient days to measure
time by the running out of a certain quantity of water. There
was one in the Tower of the Winds at Athens, and the turret on
the south side is supposed to have contained the cistern which
supplied the water.
Cloaca. — The name given to the sewers which drained the
low marshy grounds between the hills of Rome. The cloaca
maxima drained the Forum Romanum.
Coffer. — A sunk panel in a vault or ceiling.
Colonnade. — A range of columns. See PORTICO.
Columnae Caelatae. — The term given by Pliny to the
sculptured columns of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus.
Columbarium. — A pigeon-house. The plural, " columbaria,"
is applied to designate the apertures formed in walls to hold the
cinerary urns, and hence to the sepulchral chambers them-
selves.
Compluvium. — The uncovered portion of a Roman atrium.
Cornice. — The upper member of the entablature (q. v.)
subdivided into bed-mould, corona, and cymatium ; a term
also employed for any projection on a wall, provided to throw
the rain-water off from the face of the building.
Corona. — The lower portion of the projecting member of
the cornice having a vertical face.
Cryptoporticus (literally a secret passage). — Term given to
an underground vaulted corridor, lighted through openings in
centre or side of vault.
Cubiculum. — A bed-chamber.
Cunei. — The wedge-shaped groups into which the seats of a
theatre or amphitheatre are divided by radiating passages.
Cyclopean Masonry.— The term applied to the rude poly-
gonal masonry employed by the Greeks and the Etruscans in
the walls of their cities.
Cyma. — A moulding of double curvature. When the concave
portion is uppermost it is called a cyma-recta ; when the convex
part is at the top it is called cyma-reversa.
Cymatium. — Another term given to the crowning moulding of
an entablature when it takes the cyma-recta form.
Dado. — The lower portion of a wall when treated as a
separate architectural feature.
Delphinae (Dolphins). — Ornaments on the spina of a Roman
GLOSSARY. 325
circus ; in allusion to Neptune, the patron deity of horses and
racing.
Dentil. — Rectangular blocks in the bed-mould of a cornice,
originally representing the ends of joists which carried a flat roof.
Diastyle. — See INTERCOLUMNIATION.
Diaulos. — The peristyle round the great court of the Palaestra
described by Vitruvius (V. u).
Diazoma. — The Greek term for the passage which separated
the several ranges of seats in a theatre or amphitheatre.
Die. — The square base of a column. Applied also to the
vertical face of a pedestal or podium.
Dipteral. — See TEMPLES.
Echinus. — The convex moulding which supports the abacus
of a Doric capital. Also the circular moulding carved with
egg and tongue between the volutes and sometimes carried
under the cushion of the Ionic capital.
Entablature. — The superstructure carried by columns. It
is divided into three parts: viz., the architrave (the supporting
member, carried from column to column) ; the frieze (the
decorative portion) ; and the cornice (the crowning and pro-
jecting member). It is occasionally used to complete, archi-
tecturally, the upper portion of a wall, even when there are no
columns, and in the case of pilasters or detached or engaged
columns is sometimes profiled round them.
Entasis (cj/Tetwi/, to stretch a line or bend a bow). — The
increment or slight convex curve given to the column, in order
to correct an optical illusion, causing the shaft when it tapers
as it rises and is formed with absolutely straight lines, to appear
hollow or concave.
Epinaos. — The recessed porch in the rear of a Greek temple,
sometimes enclosed with bronze railings to protect treasures,
and called the Opisthodomus. The term is not found in any
classic author, it was formed by analogy with " pronaos," by
German archaeologists some fifty years ago to take the place of
the Latin word " posticum," when describing Greek temples.
Epistulion (Epistyle). — The Greek term for the architrave
(q. v.}.
Eustyle. — See INTERCOLUMNIATION.
Exedra. — A semi-circular stone or marble seat, or a
rectangular or semi-circular recess.
326 GLOSSARY.
Fascia. — The term given to the planes into which the archi-
trave of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders is subdivided.
Fauces. — Side passages between the atrium and peristyle in
a Roman house, or from the peristyle to the xystus or garden.
Flutes. — The vertical channels (segmental, elliptical, or semi-
circular in horizontal section) employed in the shafts of columns
in the classic styles. The flutes are separated one from the
other by an arris in the Greek' Doric Order, and by a fillet in the
Ionic, and Corinthian Orders. In early and late Doric columns
the flute was usually segmental, but at the best period, in order
to emphasize the arris, it was formed of three arcs constituting
what is known as a false ellipse ; a similar curve was given to
the flutes in Greek Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns and
in early Roman examples ; in later work the flute was semi-
circular. In the Roman Ionic and Corinthian Orders, the
lower portion of the flute up to about one-third of the height of
the column was sometimes filled in with a convex moulding, to
which the term cabling is applied. In one or two late Roman
examples the flutes were carried spirally round the columns as in
the Portico of the Agora at Aphrodisias in Asia Minor. Similar
spiral fluting is found on the sides of Roman sarcophagi.
Frieze. — The middle member of the entablature. Applied also
to any horizontal band enriched with sculpture. See ZOPHOROS.
Frigidarium. — The room or court in the Roman baths
containing the cold water bath.
Groin. — The arris formed by the intersection of two vaults.
Guilloche. — A continuous flat band or convex moulding
carved with interwoven fillets, leaving circular centres, some-
times filled with rosettes.
Guttae (drops). — Small pendant conical cylinders under the
triglyphs and mutules of a Doric entablature. See TRUNNEL.
Gymnasium. — A school for the physical education -and
training of adults.
Helix. — The spiral tendril which is carried up to support
the abacus of a Corinthian capital. There are four helices on
each face.
Hemicycle. — Term given to semi-circular recesses of great
size, sometimes vaulted.
Hieron. — The name given to the sacred enclosure of some
Greek temples, as at Epidaurus.
GLOSSARY. 327
Hippodrome. — The course provided by the Greeks for horse
and chariot racing.
Hypaethral. — Term given to a temple the naos of which
was wholly or partly open to the sky.
Hypocaust. — A space contrived under the floor of a hall or
room connected with furnaces, by means of which they were
warmed. Employed in Rome to heat the calidarium and other
halls of the Thermae and Balneae-, and, in colder climates, the
principal rooms of a house.
Hypotrachelium (Gk., under the neck). — One or more grooves
under the necking or gorge of the Greek Doric capital which
mask the junction of capital and shaft.
Impluvium. — A shallow tank in the atrium of a Roman
house, provided to receive the rain falling through the
compluvium.
Intercolumniation. — The distance between the columns of
a peristyle, always defined in terms of the lower diameter of the
columns. They are thus set forth by Vitruvius (III. 3) — Pycno-
style, where the columns are ij diameters apart ; Systyle,
2 diameters; Eustyle, 2\ diameters; Diastyle, 3 diameters;
and Araeostyle, 3j diameters ; the latter carrying architraves
in wood only.
Labrum. — A stone bath, circular or oblong. The large vessel
of the warm bath, sometimes of marble, granite, or porphyry.
Laconicum. — The sweating room of a Roman bath.
Lararium. — The room in which the Lares, or household
gods, were placed. Sometimes represented by a niche only.
Megaron. — The principal or men's hall in the Mycenaean
palace.
Meta. — The goal or turning-point for the chariots in a
Roman circus.
Metope. — Originally the open space between the beam-ends
of the Doric ceiling, and applied afterwards to the slabs filling
up these openings.
Modillion. — The horizontal corbels carrying the corona of a
Roman cornice.
328 GLOSSARY.
Module. — Usually the half diameter of the lower part of the
shaft of a column.
Mutule. — A projecting slab on the soffit of the Doric cornice.
Nymphaeum. — A chamber (sometimes subterranean) in
which were plants and flowers and a fountain or running water.
Naos. — The term given to the cella of the Greek temple.
Odeon. — A circular building in which rehearsals and musical
contests took place in Greece.
Oecus. — In Greek houses (according to Vitruvius, VI. 10)
the room in which the mistress of the house sits with the
spinsters. It was used also as a banqueting room. There
were four kinds of oeci, viz., the Tetrastyle, the Corinthian,
the Egyptian, and the Cyzicene.
Opaion. — The Greek word for the lacunaria or ceiling panels
of a peristyle. Applied also to an hypaethral opening in a roof.
Opisthodomus. — The treasury of a Greek temple (the term
is sometimes given to the epinaos when used for a similar
purpose).
Orthostatae. — The bottom course of the walls of the naos of
a Greek temple, generally twice or three times the height of the
upper courses.
Ova. — Seven marble eggs placed at each end on the spina,
one being removed after each lap of the race.
Palaestra. — A training school for boys in physical exercises.
Parascenium. — The side walls of the stage.
Peripteral. — Term applied to a building surrounded by a row
of columns. See TEMPLES.
Peristyle.— Term given (A) to a covered colonnade which
surrounds a building or court. (B) The inner court of a
Pompeian house.
Pinacotheca. — A picture gallery.
Podium. — The Greek term for a low wall or continuous
pedestal on which columns are carried. It consisted invariably
of a cornice, a dado and a plinth, and the Etruscan and usually
the Roman temples were raised on it. The term was also applied
to the enclosure wall of the arena of an amphitheatre.
Portico. — A porch or entrance to a building. The term,
when applied to a Greek or Roman temple, is classed as (Distyle-
in-antis), two columns between antae; (Tetrastyle Prostyle),
GLOSSARY. 329
four columns in front; (Hexastyle), six columns; (Heptastyle),
seven columns ; (Octostyle), eight columns ; (Enneastyle),
nine columns; (Decastyle), ten columns; and (Dodecastyle),
twelve columns. See TEMPLES.
Porticus. — A building with its roof supported by one or
more rows of columns, either in one straight line or enclosing
a court. The same as the Greek stoa.
Posticum. — The Latin term for the recessed porch in the
rear of a Roman temple.
Pronaos. — The porch in front of the naos.
Propylaeum. — The entrance gate to the Temenos or sacred
enclosure of a temple, when there is one doorway only ; when
there is more than one doorway, as at Athens and Eleusis, the
term propylaea is given.
Proscenium.— The stage in ancient theatres — a term some-
times given to the scaena (q. v.}. •
Prostyle. — Term applied to a temple with portico of columns
in the front.
Prothyrum. — The vestibule or entrance passage to the atrium
of a Roman house.
^ Prytaneum. — The state dining-room or guest-house in a
Greek city.
Pseudodipteral. — Term applied to a dipteral temple with the
inner row of columns omitted. See TEMPLES.
Pseudoperipteral. — Term applied to a peripteral temple
where some of the columns are engaged in the wall of the cella.
See TEMPLE.
Pteroma — The passage between the walls of the cella and
the peristyle.
Pteron (Gr. Wing). — The wing or lateral colonnade of a
temple, and by Pliny referred to, as the feature carrying the
superstructure of the tomb of Mausolus.
Pycnostyle. — See INTERCOLUMNIATION.
Pulvinar. — A cushion. Applied sometimes to the hemicycle
or enclosed space on the stadium where the Emperor sat on
cushions. See (I.), 111. 233.
Quadriga. — The ancient four-horsed chariot.
Regula. — A narrow strip under the taenia of a Doric
architrave, beneath which the guttae are carved.
330 GLOSSARY.
Respond. — (i) The wall pilaster behind a column. (2) The
wall pier carrying either the end of an architrave or beam or
the springing of an arch.
Scaena. — The back wall of the stage ; a term sometimes
given to the retiring room behind the stage, hence the word
proscenium.
Sima. — The term sometimes given to the marble or stone
gutter of Archaic temples to distinguish it from the cyma or
cymatium of later examples. The sima of the Archaic Temple
of Diana was 2 feet 10 inches high ; it leant slightly forward in
one plane, was decorated with figures in low relief, and was pro-
vided with outlets for rain-water at intervals in the form of lion's
heads. The cymatium, on the other hand, was ogee in section.
Spina. — The podium wall down the centre of the Roman
circus, on which the delphinae, ova, statues, obelisks, etc.,
were raised.
Stadia. — A racecourse of fixed dimension, viz., six hundred
Greek feet.
Stadium (Gr. Stadion). — A racecourse.
Stele. — Term given to (i) an upright Greek tombstone ;
(2) to the central acroterium of a Greek temple ; (3) to any
upright stone.
Stereobate. — The substructure of a temple.
Stoa. — In Greek architecture a term corresponding with
the Latin porticus (q. v.}.
Stylobate. — The upper step of a peripteral temple which
formed a platform for the columns. The term is often applied
to the three steps.
Sudatorium. — The sweating room of a Roman bath. Same
as laconicum.
Systyle. — See INTERCOLUMNIATION.
Taenia. — The projecting fillet which crowns the architrave
of the Doric entablature.
Telamones. — The Roman term for male figures
forming supports. See ATLANTES.
Temenos. — The sacred enclosure in which a
Greek temple stands.
Temples. — Types of Plan :
252.-TEMPLE Distyle-in-antis — Temple of Themis at Rhamnus
OF THEMIS
RHAMNUS.
(Doric, 111. 252).
GLOSSARY.
331
Amphidistyle-in-antis — Temple of Diana Propylaeaat Eleusis
(Doric, 111. 253).
Tetrastyle prostyle— Temple B. at Selinus
(Doric, 111. 35).
Tetrastyle amphiprostyle — Temples of the
Ilissus (111. 66) and of Nike Apteros at
Athens (Ionic).
Hexastyle peripteral — Heraeum at Olympia
(111. 18). Temples at Corinth (111. 20),
Syracuse (111. 22, 23, 25), Selinus (111. 35),
Girgenti and Paestum (111. 27, 28), the
Theseum at Athens (111. 67), and Temples
of Zeus at Olympia (111. 84), Aphaea at
Aegina (111. 42, Doric), and of Minerva Polias at Priene
(111. 101), and Dionysus at Teos (Ionic).
Octostyle peripteral — The Parthenon, Athens (Doric, 111. 52),
and Temples of Apollo (Smintheus), Troad (111. ioo),N
Artemis at Magnesia, Dionysus at Aphrodisias (Ionic),
and Zeus at Labranda (Corinthian), all in Asia Minor.
Octostyle dipteral — -Temples of Diana at Ephesus (Ionic,
111. 95), and of Zeus Olympius at Athens (Corinthian,
111. no).
Octostyle pseudodipteral — Temple T. at Selinus (Doric,
111. 35), Temple at Messa, Isle of Lesbos (Ionic, 111. 82).
Decastyle dipteral — Temple of Apollo Didymaeus (Ionic,
111. 96).
Circular Temples:
Monopteral — Temple of Roma and Augustus at
Athens (111. 254).
Peripteral— Tholos at Epidauros (111. 87); Phili-
peum at Olympia ; Temple of Vesta at Rome
(111.178).
Exceptional Plans :
Distyle pseudo-amphi. — Temples of Aesculapius,
at Girgenti (111. 41), and of Serapis, at
Taormina (Doric).
Prostyle pseudoperipteral — Temple at Cnidus (Corinthian),
Fortuna Virilis at Rome (Ionic, 111. 132).
Hexastyle pseudoperipteral — Maison Carree at Nismes
(Corinthian, 111. 171).
Heptastyle pseudoperipteral— Temple of Jupiter at Girgenti
(Doric, 111. 37)-
254. — TEMPLE
OF ROMA AND
AUGUSTUS,
ATHENS.
332 GLOSSARY.
Enneastyle peripteral — The so-called Basilica at Paestum
(111. 26).
Tholos. — Term given to a Greek circular building with or
without a peristyle.
Trachelium (Gk.). — The necking or gorge of the Greek Doric
capital between the annulets on the echinus and the grooves
which mask the junction of capital and shaft.
Triclinium. — The dining-room of a Greek or Roman house,
so called from K\LVT}, a couch, as it contained three couches
upon which the ancients reclined at meals.
Triglyph. — A projecting band dividing the metopes, empha-
sised with vertical channels and chamfers.
Trunnel. — A pin or peg. Carved in stone beneath the regula
of the architrave and the mutule of the cornice. See GUTTAE.
Tympanum. — Term given to the triangular recess enclosed
by the cornice of the pediment and the entablature.
Velarium. — An awning of great size stretched above an
amphitheatre to protect the spectators from the sun and rain,
used sometimes also in the atrium of a Roman house.
Villa. — In Roman architecture the term given to a country
mansion or palace.
Volute. — The spiral scroll of the Ionic capital.
Voussoir. — A wedge-shaped stone which forms one of the
nnits of an arch.
Xoanon. — A rude and primitive image, generally of a deity,
carved in wood.
Xystus. — A Roman garden planted with groves of plane trees,
and laid out with flower-beds. In Greece .the xystus was a
covered promenade.
Zophoros or Zoophoros. — Term given to a continuous
frieze sculptured in relief with the forms of human beings and
animals.
A LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS
RELATING TO
CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE
Most of which have been consulted in the preparation
of this work.
I.— GENERAL.
ARCHITECTURAL Publication Society's Dictionary of Architecture.
6 vols. 4(0. 1848 — 94.
CHOISY (A.). — Histoire de 1' Architecture. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1899.
D'Espouv (H.). — Fragments d' Architecture Antique. Folio.
Paris, 1896.
Ditto Second series. Folio. Paris, 1905.
D'Espouv (H.). — Monuments Antiques releves et restaure"s par les
architectes pensionnaires de 1'Academie de France a Rome.
Folio. In progress. 1906.
DONALDSON (T. L.). — Architectura Numismatica. 8vo. 1859.
DURAND (J. N. L.).— Parallele des Edifices de tout genre. Folio.
Paris, 1800.
DURUY (VICTOR). — History of Rome. Edited by Prof. Mahaffy.
Imp. 8vo. 1883 — 6.
DURUY (VICTOR). — History of Greece. Edited by W. M. Ripley.
4 vols. Imp. 8vo. 1892.
FALKENER (E.).— Ephesus. 8vo. 1862.
FELLOWS (Sir C.) — Journal during an Excursion in Asia Minor. 4to.
1839.
FELLOWS (Sir C.) and SCHARF (G.).— Lycia, Caria and Lydia. 4to.
1847.
FERGUSSON (J.). — History of Architecture in all Countries. Vols.
i and 2. — Ancient and Mediaeval Architecture. 2 vols. 8vo. 1893.
FLETCHER (BANISTER and B. F.). — A History of Architecture on the
Comparative Method. 8vo. 1905.
GAILHABAUD (J.). — Monuments: Anciens et Modernes. 4 vols. 4to.
Paris, 1855.
334 A LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS
LEBAS (P.) et REINACH (S.). — Voyage Archeologique en Grece et en
Asie Mineure. 4to. Paris, 1888.
LONGFELLOW (W. P. P.). — Cyclopaedia of Architecture in Italy,
Greece and the Levant. 4to. New York, 1895.
MAUCH (J. M. VON). — Die Architektonischen Ordnungen des Griechen
und Romer. 4to. Berlin, 1875.
MURRAY'S HANDBOOKS :
(a) Asia Minor. i2mo. 1895.
(6) Greece. i2mo. 1896.
(c} Rome and the Campagna. i2mo. 1907.
(d) Syria and Palestine. i2mo. 1903.
NORMAND.— Parallele des Ordres d' Architecture des Grecs et des
Romains. Folio. Paris, 1819.
PLINY.— Historic Naturalis XXXIV.— XXXVII. , translated by K. Jex
Blake, with commentary and introduction by Eugenie Sellers and
notes by Dr. H. L. Urwicks. London, 1896.
REBER (F. VON). — History of Ancient Art, translated by J. Thacher
Clarke. 8vo. 1883.
RENAN (ERNEST). — Mission de Phenicie. 4to. Paris, 1864.
REYNAUD (L.). — Traite d'architecture. 2 vols. Folio. Paris.
SIMPSON (F. M.). — A History of Architectural Development. Vol. I.
8vo. 1905.
SMITH (SiR WM.). — Greek and Roman Antiquities. 2 vols. 8vo.
1895.
SMITH (SiR WM.). — A History of Greece from the earliest times to
the Roman Conquest, revised by G. E. Marindin. 8vo. 1900.
SPIERS (R. PHENE). — The Orders of Architecture. 4to. 1902.
STURGIS (RUSSELL). — European Architecture. 8vo. New York, 1896.
STURGIS (RUSSELL). — A Dictionary of Architecture and Building.
Imp. 8vo. 3 vols. New York, 1901.
STURGIS (RUSSELL). — A History of Architecture. Vol. I. Antiquity.
8vo. New York, 1906.
TATHAM (C. H.). — Etchings of Ancient Ornamental Architecture.
Folio. 1810.
TATHAM (C. H.).— Etchings of Grecian and Roman Architectural
Ornament. Folio. 1826.
, TEXIER(C.). — Description del' Asie Mineure. Folio. Paris, 1839 — 49.
TEXIER (C.) and PULLAN (R. P.).— The Principal Ruins of Asia
Minor. Folio. 1865.
ViOLLET-LE-Duc (E. E.). — Lectures on Architecture. Translated by
B. Bucknall. 2 vols. 1877—1881.
VITRUVIUS (MARCUS POLLIO).— The Architecture of. Translated by
W. Newton. Folio. Lond., 1791.
A LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS. 335
VITRUVIUS (MARCUS POLLIO). — The Architecture of. Translated by
J. Gwilt. 4to. 1826.
VULLIAMY (LEWIS). — Examples of Ornamental Sculpture in Archi-
tecture. Folio. 1825.
Ditto New edition of 20 plates, with description by R. Phene
Spiers. Folio. 1907.
WATT (J. CROMAR). — Greek and Pompeian Decorative Work. Folio.
1897.
WHIBLEY (LEONARD). — A Companion to Greek Studies. 8vo.
Cambridge, 1905.
II.— GREEK ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHAEOLOGY.
ADLER (F.), BORRMANN, DORPFELD. — Die Baudenkmaler von Olympia.
Folio and 4to. Berlin, 1892 — 96.
BLOUET (G. A.). — Expedition scientifique de Mor6e (Peloponnese,
des Cyclades et de 1'Attique). 3 vols. Folio. Paris, 1831 — 38.
BOTTICHER (A.). — Die Akropolis von Athen. 8vo. Berlin, 1888.
BOTTICHER (C.). — Tektonik der Hellenen. Folio. Berlin, 1862.
BOUTMY (EMILE). — Philosophic de 1'Architecture en Grece. 8vo.
1872.
CHIPIEZ (C.). — Histoire critique des origines et de la formation des
Ordres Grecs. Sm. folio. Paris, 1876.-
CHIPIEZ. — Le Systeme modulaire et les proportions dans 1' architecture
grecque. 8vo. Paris, 1891.
CHOISY (A.). — Etudes Epigraphiques sur 1'architecture grecque.
Paris, 1884.
COCKERELL (C. R.). — The Temples at /Egina and Bassae. Folio. 1860.
COCKERELL (C. R.), DONALDSON (T. L.) and others. — Supplement
to Stuart and Revett's " Antiquities of Athens." Folio. 1830.
DEFRASSE (ALP.). — Epidaure. Folio. Paris, 1895.
DILETTANTI SOCIETY, Publications of:
(a] Ionian Antiquities. Folio. 1769.
(6) Unedited Antiquities of Attica (Eleusis, Rhamnus, Sunium
and Thoricus). Folio. 1817.
(c) Antiquities of Ionia. 3 vols. (Vol. i is an enlarged edition
of the "Ionian Antiquities" mentioned above). Folio.
1821 — 40.
(d] Principles of Athenian Architecture. By F. C. Penrose.
First edition. Folio. 1851. Second and much improved
edition. Folio. 1888.
DORPFELD (W.) and REISCH (E.). — Das Griechische Theater. Small
folio. Athens, 1896.
DURM QOSEF). — Die Baukunst der Griecher. 4to. Darmstadt, 1881.
336 A LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS.
FRAZER (J. G.)- — Pausanias's Description of Greece. 6 vols. 8vo.
1898.
FURTWANGLER (ADOLF). — Das Heiligthum der Aphaia. Folio.
1906.
GARDNER (E. A.). — Ancient Athens. 8vo. 1902.
GARDNER (PERCY). — A Grammar of Greek Art. 8vo. 1905.
GARNIER (J. L. C.). — He d'Egine, temple de Jupiter Panhellenien.
Folio. Paris, 1884.
PONTREMOLI (E.) et HAUssoLiER (B.). — Didymes. 1904.
HARRISON (JANE E.). — Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens.
Svo. 1890.
HELLENIC STUDIES, JOURNAL OF, published by the Society for the
Promotion of Hellenic Studies.
HEUZEY(L.)and DAUMET(H.). — Mission Archeologique de Macedonie.
Folio. Paris, 1876.
HITTORFF (J. I.).— Restitution du Temple d'Empedocle k Selinonte,
ou 1'architecture polychrome chez les Grecs. 2 vols. Folio and
4to. Paris, 1851.
HITTORFF and ZANTH (C. L. W. VON). — Architecture Antique de la
Sicile. Text, 4to. Plates, folio. Paris, 1870.
IN WOOD (H. W.). — The Erechtheion at Athens. Folio. 1831.
KOLDEWEY (ROBERT). — Neandria. Imp. Svo. Berlin. 1891.
KOLDEWEY (R.) and PUCHSTEIN (O.). — Die Griechischen Tempel
Unteritalien und Sicilien. Folio. 1899.
KOLDEWEY (R.). — Die Antiken Baureste der Insel Lesbos. Folio.
Berlin, 1890.
LABROUSTE (H.). — Les Temples de Paestum. Folio. Paris, 1877.
LALOUX (V.). — L'architecture Grecque. Svo. Paris, 1888.
LALOUX (V.) et MONCEAUX (P.). — Restauration d'Olympie. Folio.
Paris, 1889.
MiCHAELis(A.). — Der Parthenon. Text, i vol. Plates, i vol. Small
folio. Leipzig, 1870.
MIDDLETON (J. H.). — Plans and Drawings of Athenian Buildings.
(Journal of Hellenic Studies, Feb. 1900.)
MURRAY (Dr. A. S.). — A History of Greek Sculpture. 2 vols. Svo.
1890.
NEWTON (C. T.) and PULLAN (R. P.).— A History of Discoveries in
Halicarnassus.Cnidus, and Branchidae. Text, 2 vols. Svo. Plates,
i vol. Folio. 1862 — 63.
PENNETHORNE (J.). — Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture.
Folio. 1878.
PENROSE. — Athenian Architecture. See DILETTANTI, ante.
PERROT et CHIPIEZ. — La Grece Archaique. Svo. Paris, 1899.
A LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS. 337
PERROT and CHIPIEZ.— History of Art in Primitive Greece. 2 vols,
8vo. 1894.
PONTREMOLI (E.) and COLLIGNON (MAX). — Pergame. Folio. Paris,
i goo.
PUCHSTEIN. — Das lonische Capitell. 4to. Berlin, 1897.
RAYET (O.) et THOMAS (A.). — Milet et le Golfe Latmique. Text, 4to.
Plates, folio. Paris, 1877—80.
Ross (L.), SCHAUBERT (E.), and HANSEN (C.). — Der Tempel der
Nike Apteros. Berlin, 1839.
SCHLIEMANN (Dr. H.). — Mycenae and Tiryns. 8vo. 1878.
SCHLIEMANN. — Tiryns : The Prehistoric Palace at. 8vo. 1886.
SERRADIFALCO (Duca de). — Le Antichita della Sicilia. 5 vols.
Plates. Small folio. Palermo, 1834 — 42.
STUART (J.) and REVETT (N.). — Antiquities of Athens. 4 vols. Folio.
ijfa — 1815. A " Supplement," with contributions by Professors
C. R. Cockerell, T. L. Donaldson, T. Kinnaird and others, was
published in 1830.
WALDSTEIN (DR. C.). — The Argive Heraeum. 4to. 1902.
WILKINS (W.). — Prolusiones Architectonicae. 4to. 1837.
WILKINS (W.). — Antiquities of Magna Grsecia. Folio. 1807.
WOOD (J. T.) — Discoveries at Ephesus. 8vo. 1877.
III.— ETRUSCAN, ROMAN AND POMPEIAN
ARCHITECTURE.
ADAM (R.)- — Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at
Spalato. Folio. 1764.
AITCHISON (Prof. G.), R. A. —Lectures on Roman Architecture
delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy during 1889.
(Published in the Builder of that year).
AITCHISON. — The Roman Thermae. Sessional Paper, R.I.B.A. 1889.
BLOUET (G. A.). — Restauration des Thermes d'Antonin Caracalla a
Rome. Folio. Paris, 1828.
BOISSIER (G.). — Rome and Pompeii. Translated by D. H. Fisher.
8vo. 1896.
BOUCHET (J.). — Le Laurentine Maison de Campagne de Pline, le
Consul. Paris, 1852.
BROWN (Prof. G. BALDWIN). — Origin of Roman Imperial Architecture.
Sessional Paper, R.I.B.A. 1889.
BU.TLER (H. C.).— Architecture and other Arts in Syria. 4to. New
York, 1904.
CAMERON (C.)— Baths of the Romans, with the Restorations of
Palladio. Folio. 1775-
A.G.R, Z
338 A LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS.
CANINA (L.). — L'antica Etruria Marittima. 2 vols. Folio. Rome,
1846 — 49.
CANINA. — Gli Edifizj di Roma Antica. 6 vols. Folio. Roma,
1848—56.
CARISTIE (A. N.). — Monuments Antiques & Orange, France. Folio.
Paris, 1856—57.
CASSAS (L. F.). — Voyage pittoresque de la Syrie, de la Phcenicie, de
la Palestine, et de la Basse Egypte. 3 vols. Folio. Paris, 1799.
CHOISY (A.).— .L'art de batir chez les Remains. Folio. Paris, 1873.
CLERISSEAU (C.) and LEGRAND (I. G.). — Antiquites de la France.
2 vols. Paris, 1778.
DESGODETZ (A.). — Les Edifices Antiques de Rome. 4 vols. Folio.
Roma, 1822, 1843.
DESVERGERS (N.). — L'Etrurie et les Etrusques. Text, 2 vols. Atlas,
i vol. Folio. Paris, 1862 — 64.
DONALDSON (Prof. T. L.). — Pompeii. Folio. 1827.
DENNIS (G.). — Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. 2 vols. 8vo. 1878.
Du PERAC (S.).— I Vestigi dell' Antichitk di Roma. Folio. Roma,
1653-
DURM QOSEF). — Die Baukunst der Etrusker und der Rbmer. 4to.
Darmstadt, 1905.
DUTERT (F.). — Le Forum Remain et les Forums de Julius Cesar
(&c.). Folio. Paris, 1876.
GELL (Sir W.) and GANDY (J. P.). — Pompeiana: Topography,
Edifices and Ornaments of Pompeii. First and Second Series.
3 vols. 8vo. 1819—32.
GEYMULLER (Baron H. VON). — Documents inedits sur les Thermes
d'Agrippa, le Pantheon, et les Thermes de Diocletian. 4to.
Lausanne, 1883.
GRAHAM (ALEX.). — Roman Remains in Algeria and Tunisia. Sessional
Papers, R.I.B.A. 1884—5, 1885—6.
GUSMAN (P.) —La Villa Imperiale de Tibur (Villa Hadriana). Pre-
face by Gaston Boissier. 4to. Paris, 1904.
HOMO (LEON). — Lexique de Topographic Remain. i2mo. 1900.
LABACCO. — Antichita di Roma. Folio. Roma, 1567.
LABORDE (Marquis L. DE).— Voyage de 1'Arabie Petree. Folio.
Paris, 1830.
LANCIANI (Prof. R.).— Pagan and Christian Rome. 8vo. 1893.
LANCIANI. — Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome. 8vo. 1897.
LANCIANI (R.). — Plan of Ancient Rome. Folio. Rome, 1893—1901.
MARTHA (J.).— L'art Etrusque. Small 4to. Paris, 1889.
MAU (A.).— Pompeii : Its Life and Art. Translated by F. W. Kelsey.
New York, 1899.
A LIST OF SELECTED BOOKS. 339
MAZOIS (F.).— Le Palais de Scaurus, ou description d'une Maison
Romaine. Paris, 1822.
MAZOIS. — Les Ruines de Pompei. 4 vols. Folio. Paris, 1812 — 38.
MIDDLETON (Dr. J. H.). — The Remains of Ancient Rome. 2 vols.
8vo. 1892.
NIBBY (A.). — Descrizione della Villa Adriana. • Roma, 1827.
NICCOLINI (F. e F.). — Le Case e i Monumenti di Pompeii. Several
volumes large folio. Naples, 1854 — 189-.
NICHOLS (F. M.). — Roman Forum. 8vo. 1877.
NISPI-LANDI (Count). — Marco Agrippa e i Suoi Tempe : le terme e
il Panteon. Folio. Rome, 1883.
PALLADIO (ANDREA). — Architecture in Ten Books. Translated from
the Italian by James Leoni, with Notes by Inigo Jones. Folio. 1742.
PARKER (J. H.). — Archaeology of Rome. 8 vols. 8vo. 1874 — 77.
PAULIN (E,). — Restauration des Thermes de Diocletian. Folio
Paris.
PIRANESI (G. B. and F.). — Antichitk Romane : Illustrating the prin-
cipal Buildings and Antiquities of Classic Rome and its Environs.
1748—1778.
STRONG (MRS. ARTHUR). — Roman Sculpture. 8vo. 1907.
TAYLOR (G. L.) and CRESY (E.).— The Architectural Antiquities of
Rome. 2 vols. Folio. 1821 — 22.
THEDENAT (H.). — Le Forum Remain. Paris, 1898.
VOGUE (Comte de). — Syrie Centrale : Architecture Civile et Religieuse.
2 vols. 410. Paris. 1867.
VULLIAMY (H.).— Examples of Ornamental Sculpture in Architecture.
Folio. 1818.
WOOD (R.). — Ruins of Balbec. Folio. 1757.
WOOD (R.). — Ruins of Palmyra. Folio. 1758.
Z 2
INDEX.
Abacus, Definition of 321
Absalom, Tomb of ; Jerusalem . . 282
Abutment, Definition of . . . . 321
Acanthus 118, 177, 178, 183
Achaians 7, 8, 26, 49, 50
Acragas (Agrigentum), 28, 38, 41 ;
founded by Dorians . . . . 27
Acropolis, Agrigentum, 42 ; Athens,
65, 68 ; Baalbec, 199 ; Selinus,
32 ; Tiryns 12
Acroterium, Definition of . . . . 321
Adam (Robert), architect, quoted,
297 note, 299
Aegae, Stoa at, 138 ; Theatre at . . 141,
236
Aegean age in Greece 1-25
Aegean culture, Greek art essen-
tially the product of . . . . 24
Aegina, Temple of Aphaea at 37, 46
Aesculapius (Asclepios), Shrine of,
103 ; Temple of Girgenti, 44 ;
Spalato 297
Africa, North, Roman work in 186, 216
Agamemnon, Tomb of . . . . 16-22
Agorae, 133, 136-139; Definition of 321
AGRIGENTUM (Acragas), 27, 28, 38,
41 ; Site of Temples, 41 ; Tem-
ple of Aesculapius, 44 ; Temple
of Castor and Pollux, 42 ;
Temple of Concord, 42 ; Tem-
ple of Hercules, 42 ; Temple
of Juno Lacinia, 42 ; Temple
of Jupiter Olympius, 43 ; Tem-
ple of Vulcan ' 43
Agrigentum. colonised by Greeks 6
Agrippa, Portico of the Pantheon,
177, 182, 220, 221, 222; Ther-
mae of 166, 244, 252
Aisle, Definition of 321
Aitchison, Prof. G. , R.A., quoted
207 note
Aizani, Stadium at, 143 ; Theatre
at, 235; Temple of Jupiter
at 118, 184
Alae 303
Alatri 148
Alcantara, Bridge at 279
Alea, Temple of Athena, at Tegea 124
Alexander the Great . . 51, 107, 164
Alexandria; Egypt 164
Alexandrian period of Greek archi-
tecture 107
Alexandrine Aqueduct . . . . 277 note
A4jnda, Stoa at, 138 ; Theatre at . . 236
'/•Altar of Zeus, Pergamum\ .. .. 105
\Altars in Greek temples,,/ 54, 97, 105
^^mbulatory, Definition of . . . . 321
Amman, Colonnaded street at,
197 ; Theatre at 236
Amorgos, Island of, Rock Tombs
in 16
Amphictyonic Council 27
Amphiprostyle, Definition of . . 321
AMPHITHEATRES, 236-241 ; Colos-
seum, Rome, 231, 236 (Ills. 194,
195) ; Castrense, Rome, 239 ;
Curio's, 236 ; Aries, France,
240; Capua, Italy, 238; El
Djem, North Africa, 241 ;
Nismes, France, 241 ; Pola,
Dalmatia, 240 ; Pompeii, 236,
241 ; Pozzuoli, 236 note ; Sutri,
236 ; Verona, 240 (111. 196).
Ancona, Triumphal Arch at. . 186, 269
Ancones, Definition of 321
Ancyra, Temple at 129
Angle capitals . . 61, 82, 175, 310
(111. 65)
Anta, Definition of 321
Antae capitals . . . . 37, 61, 108, 117
(Ills. 32, 90, 99)
of Greek temple 14,24,30,37,71
342
INDEX.
Antefix, 30, 126, 151 ; Definition of 321
Anthemion, 58 ; Definition of, 321 ;
Origin of 183 note
Antioch, Colonnaded streets at 136, 195
Antiochus Epiphanes 127
Antiphellus, Tombs at .... 124
Antoninus and Faustina, Temple
of; Rome 182,209
Antoninus Pius 199, 200
Apamia, Colonnaded street at . . 197
Aphaea, Temple of ; Aegina . . . . 37
Aphrodisias, Stadium at, 143 ; Tem-
ple at 117
Aphrodite (Venus), Temple of ;
Aphrodisias 117
Apodyterium, 246; Definition of. . 321
Apollo, 54 ; Temples of Bassae, 67,
\ 87, 92 ; Delphi, 37 ; Metapon-
tum, ,3.7 ; Naucratis, 56 ; Pom-
peii, 193 ; Rome, 290 ; Syracuse 31
Apollo Didymaeus, Temple of;
Miletus 113, 1 16
Apollo Epicurins, Temple of,
Bassae 67, 87, 92
Apollo- Smintheus, Temple of
(Smintheum), Troad .. .. 117
Apollodorus, architect .. 191, 199, 212
Apophyge, 174 note; Definition of 322
Appian Aqueduct ; Rome . . . . 276
Apse, Definition of 322
Apteros, Definition of 322
AQUEDUCTS, 275-277. ROME : Alex-
andrine, 277 note ; Anio Vetus,
276; Appian, 276; Claudian,
276 ; Marcian, 276 ; Nero, 277 ;
Trajan,' 276 ; Minturnae, at,
277 note. FRANCE : Pont du
Card, Nismes, 277 (Ills. 224,
225). SPAIN : Segovia, 277 (111.
223) ; Tarragona 277
Arabesque, Definition of . . . . 322
Arcade and superposed orders . . 184
Arcadians, Assembly Hall of;
Megalopolis 144
Arch, Early date of 147
Archaic Period in Asia Minor, 49-
64 ; in European Hellas. . 26-48
Arches, Spanning central inter-
columniation, Temple at Atil,
199 ; Damascus, Propylaea at,
199 ; Spalato, Diocletian's
Palace at 299, 300
PAGE
Arches, Triumphal 263-273
Architrave, Definition of . . . . 322
Archivolt, Definition of 322
Archways, Reman .. 191, 193, 195, 196
Arena, Definition of 322
Areostyle, Definition of 322
Argolis, Rock tombs in 16
Argonauts, Portico of ; Rome .. 206
Argos, Archaic temple at . . 30 note
Aries, Amphitheatre at 240
Arrangement of Greek cities, 131,
134 ; Greek temples . . 54, 88
Arrephoroi 82, 183 note
Arris, Definition of 322
Arsenal of Piraeus ; Athens , . . . 90
Artemis Brauronia, Sanctuary of. . 71
Artemis Leucophryne, Temple of,
at Magnesia-ad-Meandrum .. 116
Aryans 7
Asia Minor, Archaic Period in . . 49-64
Colonnaded streets in 194
,, Early history of, 50 ;
Greek temples in . . 108
Aspendus, Theatre at . . 139, 140, 233
Assembly Hall, or Thersilion,
Megalopolis 144
Assisi, Tejnple of Minerva at . . 186
Assos, Stoaat, 137 ; Temple at, 46;
Theatre at 141
Athena, 54 ; Temple of (The Par-
thenon), Athens ..67, 68, 69, 72
Athena Alea,, Temple of ; Tegea .. 124
Athena Polias (Diana), Temple of ;
Priene . . . . 108, 116
,, ,, (Erechtheum) ;
Athens 79
„ ,, Temple of; Perga-
mum 67, 106
Athenians, Colonnade of; Delphi 103
ATHENS,^^ ; Acropolis, 65, 68 ;
Arch oFHadrian, 180 ; Arsenal
of the Piraeus at, 90 ; Athena •
(Ancient Parthenon), Temple j
of, 72; Athena (Parthenon).
Temple of, 72; Athena Polias
(Erechtheum), Temple of, 78 ;
Culmination of Greek Archi- '
tecture in, 65 ; Dionysus,'
Theatre of, 124 ; Hephaestos*
(Theseum), Temple gf, 83
Herodes Atticus, Theatre of,«
235; Ilissus, Temple on the.i
INDEX.
343
83 ; Jupiter Olympius, Temple
of, 126, 177; Lysicrates,
Monument of, 124, 180 ; Nike
Apteros (Wingless Victory),
Temple of, 71 ; Panathenaic
Stadium, 143 ; Pinacotheca,
70 ; Propylaea, 67, 70 ; Rock
cut tombs, 65 ; Tower of the
Winds, 130 ; Treasury of . . 33
Atil, Temple at ; Syria 199
Atlantes (telamones), 44, 260;
Definition of 322
Atreus, Treasury of, or Tomb of
Agamemnon 16-22
Atrium, 302, 303 ; Definition of . . 322
Atrium Vestae (House of the Ves-
tals) ; Rome 309
" Attic " base, 59 ; Definition of . . 322
Attica, Culmination of Greek archi-
tecture in 85
Augustus, Forum, Rome, 187-189 ;
Bridges, 278 ; Arch, Perugia,
148 ; Tomb of, Rome, 279 :
Palace of, Rome . . . . 288, 289
Aurelian, Column, Rome, 273 ;
Temple of Sun, Rome, 183 ;
Temple of Sun, Palmyra, 198,
216; Triumphal Arch, Orange
1 86, 269
Autun, Entrance Gateway at . . 263
Baal, Temple of 199
BAALBEC, Acropolis and great
courts, 199-204 ; Propylaea,
186, 200; Jupiter, Temple of,
169, 204 ; Sun, Temple of the,
202 ; Trilithon . . . . 193, 204. 214
Bacchus (Dionysus), Temple of,
Teos, 117 ; Theatre of, Athens 139
Balbus, Theatre of ; Rome . . 294 note
Balneae, defined 322
Barrel vault construction, Roman
methods of . . . . 164, 165, 166
Base, " Attic," 59, 322 ; Doric, 59;
Ionic 59
Basilica, Definition of 322
BASILICAS, Greek, 137 ; Paestum,
at, 35 ; ROME, 160, 192, 226-
230 ; Aemilia, 228 (111. 157!;
Constantine, 228 (Ills. 157,
1 86, 187) ; Julia/226 (Ills. 184,
185) ; Porcia, 226 ; Ulpian, 191 ,
227 (111. 157) ; Fano, at, 230 ;
Pompeii, at, 228 (111. 188) ;
Treves, at 230
Bassae, Temple of Apollo Epicurius
at 67, 87, 92
Baths (Thermae), Roman . . 243-262
,, Pompeii 259
Beisan, Theatre at 236
Beneventum, Triumphal Arch at
186, 267
Beni-hasan 30, 31 note
Bibliography of Classic Archi-
tecture 333-339
Bibliotheca, 304 ; Definition of . . 323
Blouet (C. A.), architect, quoted, 22,
96 note, 243, 256, 258
Boissier (Gaston), Plan of Hadrian's
Villa at Tivoli 291
Boni, Signer, Researches of, in
Roman Forum.. .. '. . .. 191
Bosra, Colonnaded street at, 195,
197 ; Theatre at 234
Bouleuterion, 133; Definition of .. 323
Branchidae, Temple of Apollo
Didymaeus ..113
Bricks, Use of, by Romans 161, 207,
268
BRIDGES, ROMAN, 278, 279 ; Alcan-
tara, Spain, 279 ; Augustus,
Rimini, 278 ; Pons Aemilius,
Rome, 278. See also Aqueducts.
Bronze, Use of, by Greeks, 125 ; by
Romans, 212, 225, 227,
315. See also Metals.
door of Pantheon .. .. 226
Brown, Prof. Baldwin, on Roman
vaulting 164
Bryaxis, sculptor 119
Burlington, Lord, on Roman baths 244
Burlington — Devonshire Drawings
240, 256 note
Byzes 48 note
Cabling (fluting) 326
Caecilia Metella, Tomb of ; Rome 279
Caementum Marmoreum . . . . 169
Caesars, Palaces of; Rome . . 286-291
Calidarium, 246, 250 ; Definition of 323
Caligula, Palace of, Rome . . . . 291
Callicrates, architect 68
Callimachus, sculptor . . . . 96, 124,
176 note
344
INDEX.
Calventius Quietus, Tomb of;
Pompeii 280 (111. 225)
Cameron (C.), Baths of the Romans 244,
252
Canalis, Definition of 323
Canina, architect, quoted 189 note, 291
Canopus 296
Canted volute 175
CAPITALS, Archaic and Greek
Doric . . ii, 21, 30, 31, 33, 47, 55,
58,70
(Ills. 4, 11,32, 43)
Greek Composite . . 118 (111. 104)
,, Corinthian ..96,104,116,
124-130 (Ills. 71, 80,
88, 97, 108, 112)
Ionic . . 55-62, 70, 82, 95, 107,
117 (Ills. 44-48, 65, 73, 76,
79, 102, 105)
Etruscan 153 (111. 129)
Pompeian Corinthian .. .. 311
,, Doric 310
Ionic ..175,310 (Ills. 188,
244. 245)
Roman Composite . . 183 (Ills. 151,
152)
,, Corinthian .. ..175 (Ills.
142-146, 154, 155, 161, 168,
170, 172, 176, 177, 179)
,, Doric . . 173 (Ills. 139,
14°. 153)
Ionic . . 175, 230 (Ills.
133, 141, 150, 188, 244, 245)
Capua, Amphitheatre at . . 238, 240
Caracalla, Thermae of, 244 ; Arch
of, Tebessa 272
Carceres, Definition of 323
Carians 49
Caristie (A. F.), architect, quoted 233
Carrara, Quarries at, near Luna . . 207
Carrey (Jacques), architect, quoted 78
Carthage 38, 165
Carthaginians, Defeat of . . . . 38
Caryatide Portico of the Erech-
theum ; Athens 79
Caryatides, 79, 82, 102 ; Definition
of 323
Cassas (L. F.), quoted 194, 195, 196,
299
Cassius (Dion), quoted 252
Castor, Temple of; Rome . . 178, 182,
207
Castor and Pollux, Temple of,
Agrigentum, 43 ; Cora . . 178, 210
Castrense Amphitheatre ; Rome.. 239
Cato 160
Catullus 159
Caulicolus, Definition of . . . . 323
Cavaedium, Definition of . . . . 323
Cavea, Definition of 323
Ceilings of Roman temples, &c.,
2ii, 212, 225, 227, 232, 255.
See also Roofs.
Cella, Definition of, 323 ; Origin
of; Greek, 31 ; Roman . . . . 218
Celtic art,Affinity of, to Mycenaean
art 9
Cements used by the Romans . . 169
Centering of Roman vaults . . 164-167
Ceres, Temple of; Paestum, 35, 37 ;
Rome 152, 155
Ceres and Proserpine, Temple of ;
Rome 212
Cervetri, Tomb at 146
Chedanne (C. P.), architect, re-
searches of, in connection with
the Pantheon, Rome . . 221-224
Chipiez (C.), architect, quoted .. 18
Choisy (A.), architect . . 43 note, 47,
90, 125, 164 note, 165,
166, 167, 168
„ „ on Roman methods of
construction . . 165, 166, 167, 168
Choragic monument of Lysicrates,
Athens, 124; Nikias .. .. 69
Chresmographion, 114; Definition
of 323
Chronological list of Greek tem-
ples 317-320
Chronology, Greek, xxii. ; Roman 145
Chrysapha, Tombstone at . . . . 34
Chryselephantine, Definition of . . 323
Cimon, architect 72, 84
Circular temples, Greek, 104 ;
Roman 218-236, 297
Circus Maximus, Rome, 242; Nero,
of, 242 ; Romulus, of . . . . 242
(111. 197)
Cities, Greek, Arrangement of .. 131
Claudian Aqueduct, Rome . . . . 276
Clepsydra, Definition of . . . . 324
Cloaca, Definition of 324
„ Maxima; Rome 147
Clytemnestra, Tomb of 21
INDEX.
345
Cnidians, Treasury of ; Delphi 27, 102
Cnidus, Baths of, 117 ; Masonry at 138
Cnossus in Crete, Dr. Evans's dis-
coveries at, 9 ; Description of
Palace at 9
Cockerell, Prof. C. R., quoted 22, 44,
46,47,57,89,92,93,119,121
Coffer, Definition of 324
Collignon (Max), quoted .. 106 note
Colonies, Greek . . 6, 27, 38, 50, 146
Colonnade, defined 324
COLONNADED STREETS : Greek,
135 ; Roman, 187, 194-197 ;
Antioch, 136, 195; Asia Minor,
in, 194; Bosra, 195, 197;
Damascus, 197 ; Gerasa, 175,
J95) J97 ; Palmyra, 194 ; Syria,
in, 194, 197
Colonnades, Greek . . 97, 103, 133, 137
Colosseum ; Rome . . . . 173, 174, 185,
186, 236-239
Colouring of Greek temples 30, 46, 63,
101, 102, 151
,, of Etruscan temples .. 151
,, of Pompeian houses . ; 313
Columbaria, 280 ; Definition of . . 324
Column, Naxian votive; Delphi . . 57
,, Trajan's ; Rome . . 192, 273
(111. 158)
Columnae Caelatae, 112, 114 ; De-
finition of 324
Columns of Victory, Greek, 96 ;
Rome, 273 ; Antonine, 273 ;
Antoninus Pius, 274 ; Trajan 192,
273
Comitium, Pompeii 193
Compluvium, Definition of . . . . 324
Composite Order, Origin of, 118,
184 ; Roman 183
Concord, Temple of, Agrigentum,
43; Rome 180,209
Concrete, Use of, by Romans . . 159,
161, 162, 163, 164, 168, 250,
254
„ walls, Roman method of
building 163
Coner (Andreas), quoted . . 212 note
Constantine, Thermae, 244, 253 ;
Arch 186, 264
Construction of Greek temples . . 75
Construction, Roman methods of. . 161-
Cora, Temple of Hercules . . . . 173
Corinth, 27, 33 ; Temple at . . 30, 32, 33
Corinthian Atrium 303
,, Order, Development of,
by Roman architects, 155, 172,
175, 176; Greek, 124-130, 176
note; Origin of title, 175 note ;
Roman, 175 ; suggested metal-
lic origin of 176 note
Corneto, Tomb at 148
Cornice, 6r ; Definition of . . . . 324
Corona, Definition of 324
Cossutius, architect 126
Cotta, Tomb of; Rome 280
Cradle or sofa volute . . . . 109 note
Crete, Dr. Evans's discoveries in,
8, 9 ; Rock tombs in, 16 ;
Cnossus, Palace at 9
Crimae, Rock tombs in 16
Croesus 51
Cryptoporticus, 291, 299 ; Defini-
tion of 324
Cubicula, 303, 304 ; Definition of. . 324
Culina 305
Cunei, Definition of 324
Curio's Amphitheatre 236
Curvature of stylobate and entabla-
ture in Greek temples . . 74, 87
Cybele, Temple of ; Sardis .. .. 117
Cyclopean, Definition of . . . . 324
„ walls .. 13, 22,. 139, 148
Cyma, Definition of 324
Cymatium, Definition of . . . . 324
Cyprus, Tomb of Tamossos in . . 58
Cyrene, Colonised by Greeks . . 6
Cyrrhestes. Andronicus . . .. 130 note
Dado, Definition of 324
Damascus, Colonnaded street at,
197 ; Enclosure at, 198 ;
Propylaea at 199
Daphne, architect 113
Darius 5*,i*3
Daumet (P. S. H.), architect,
quoted ..132, 291, 292, 294, 295
De Vogue, Marquis, quoted . . 282 note
Decadent features in Roman
architecture . . . . 199, 299, 300
Dedication of Greek temples, 54 ;
Roman temples 197
Defrasse (Alphonse), architect,
quoted 104
346
INDEX.
Deglane (H. A. A.), architect,
quoted 286, 290
Delos, Buildings at 103,131
Delphi, Apollo, Temple of, at, 27 ;
Naxian votive column at, 57 ;
Treasury of Cnidians at, 27,
102 ; Caryatide figures at, 82 ;
Votive column at 96
Delphinae, Definition of . . . . 324
Demeter (Ceres), Temple of,
Paestum 35
Demetrius, architect 113
Dendera. Frof. Petrie's discoveries
at 147
Dentil, Definition of, 325 ; Greek,
61, 122; Suggested origin of,
52 ; Roman 182
Der-el-Bahari 30
Diana (Artemis), Temples dedi-
cated to. See Temples, Greek.
Diastyle, Definition of 325
Diaulos, 143 ; Definition of . . . . 325
Diazomata, Definition of ..... 325
Die, Definition of 325
Dilettanti, Society of 96 note, 117, 128
Dinocrates, architect 164
Diocletian, Palace of, Spalato, 297-
300 ; Thermae 250
Dionysus (Bacchus), Temple of,
at Teos 117
,, Theatre of; Athens .. 139
Dipteral 331
Dodona, Theatre at 140
Domes, Mycenaean, 16; Roman,
166, 221, 283
Domestic architecture, Greek, 131 ;
Pompeian, 301-309; Roman,
286-301, 309
Domitian, Arch, 264 ; Palace, 286,
287, 288 ; Stadium, 241 ;
Thermae 253
Donaldson, Prof. T. L., quoted 22, 74, 202
Dorian colonies 27
Dorian invasion 26
Dorians 7, 26, 49
Doric base 59
Order, Greek 31. 55
,, Origin of . . . . 30, 47
,, Roman 173
„ Pompeian .. .. 310
,, style, Development of .. .. 26
„ temples (Greek). SeeTgmplts.
Dorpfeld, Dr., quoted 15, 72, 84, 87,
loi, 124
Dosio (C. A.), architect . . . . 212 note
Duperac, quoted 182 note
Durm (Josef), architect, quoted,
93 note
Dutert (A. F. V.), architect, 189
note, 191 note, 286 ; Plan of the
Forums at Rome, 190, 191 (111.
157) ; Restoration of Palaces
on Palatine Hill, Rome .. 286
(111. 232)
Dwelling-house of the Greeks . . 131
Echinus, Definition of 325
Egg and tongue moulding . . . . 107
Egyptian and Roman methods of
vaulting compared 165
Egyptian fluted columns .. .. 31
El Djem, Amphitheatre at . . . . 241
ELEUSIS, Hall of the Mysteries, 85;
Propylaea 86
Elis, Buildings at 137, 187
Enclosures of Greek temples . . 97
,, of Roman Temples in
the East . . . . 197-204
,, the Roman Forums 187, 192
Engaged columns, Employment
of . . . . 44, 126, 158, 173, 263
Entablature, Definition of . . . . 325
Entasis, 74, 75, 77 ; Definition of 325
ENTRANCE GATEWAYS : Etruscan,
148 ; Greek, 86 ; Roman, 263-
273. See also Triumphal A rches.
Ephebia 246
EPHESUS, 50, 135 ; Agora, . 135 ;
Archaic Temple of Diana, 56,
57, 59; Great Temple of Diana,
109 ; Gymnasia at, 143 ; Plan
cf the City, 135 ; Stadium at,
144 ; Theatre at 141
EPIDAURUS, Colonnades at, 103 ;
Rotunda (Tholos) at, 104;
Theatre at 105, 140
Epinaos, 54 ; Definition of . . . . 325
Epistyle, Definition of 325
Erechtheum, Athens 78
Erythrae 50
ETRUSCAN work, 146-154; Capitals,
153 ; Earliest remains and simi-
larity of tombs in Asia Minor,
146 ; Early barrel vaults, 147
INDEX.
347
Influence of, / on plan of
Roman temple*, 155 ; Temples,
150, 151, 152; /Tombs .. 148, 154
Eumachia, Buildaig of; Pompeii 193
Euromus, Tempi* at, near Yakli 128
European Hellas, the Archaic
period in . ./ 26-48
Eustyle, Definition of 327
Evans, Dr. , discoveries in Crete 7, 9, 10
Exedra, 97, 132,' 304; Definition of 325
Falerii, Entrance gateway at . . 148
Falkener (E.), architect, quoted .. 135
Fano, Basilica at 230
Fascia, Definition of 326
Fauces, 304 ; Definition of . . . . 326
Fellows, Sir Charles, quoted 128, 140,
144
Fergusson (James), quoted, 112
note, 120, 146, 204, 221, 225, 297
Fiesole, Entrance gateway at . . 148
Figure Sculpture, Greek . . . . 62
Flavian Amphitheatre or Colos-
seum, Rome 236
Flutes 326
Fluting of columns. ... 75, 77, 326
Fortuna-Virilis, Temple of ; Rome 157,
J75
FORUMS of Rome, 187-193; Augus-
tus, 187, 188, 189 (111. 157) ;
Boarium, 219; Julium, 159;
Julius Caesar, 187, 189 (111. 157);
Nerva, 182, 187, 191 (111. 157) ;
Pacis, or Forum of Vespasian,
187, 191 (111. 157) ; Pompeii,
193 ; Trajan, 187, 191 (111. 157) ;
Vespasian or Forum Pacis,
187, 191 (111. 157) ; Romanum,
187, 188 (Ills. 156, 157).
Forums, Provincial, 193 ; Pompeii,
at 193
Frieze, a Hellenic creation, 61 ;
Definition of 326
Frigidarium, 246, 247, 248 ; Defini-
tion of 326
Frontispiece of Nero . . . . 182 note
Gadara, Colonnaded street at . . 197
Gandy, J. P. . (Deering), R.A.,
Restoration of sanctuary at
Eleusis 85
Gardner, Prof. E. A., quoted . . 63
,, ,, Percy, quoted 74, 93 note
GATEWAYS, ENTRANCE : Autun,
263 ; Cnossus, Palace at, 10 ;
Eleusis, 86 ; Janus, Arch of,
Rome, 268 ; Palmyra, 196 (111.
159) ; Lions' Gate, Mycenae,
22 (111. 15) ; Perugia, 148 (Ills.
124, 126) ; Tiryns, Propylaeum
at, 13 ; Spalato, Golden Gate-
way at, 299 (111. 236) ; Treves,
271 (111. 218) ; Verona . . . . 263
Gela, Treasury of; Olympia 101, 152
Gerasa, Colonnaded street at 175,
J95. J97i Theatre at .. .. 236
Geymuller, Baron de, architect,
quoted 225, 252
Gigantomachia 105
Girgenti (Agragas) 28, 44
Glass mosaics, Use of, by Romans 170
Glossary of Terms 321 — 332
Gods of the Greeks 50, 62
Graham (Alexander), architect,
quoted 241
Greece, Colonies of, 6 ; its physical
features 5
Greek architecture, Aegean age of,
i ; Alexandrian period of, 107 ;
Archaic period of, in Asia
Minor, 49 ; in European Hellas,
26 ; Culmination of, 65, 85 ;
Decline of, 107; Influence of
material on, 6, 52 ; Influence
of religion on, 52, 53 ; its
influence on subsequent Euro-
pean art, 3 ; secular work . . 131
Greek Agorae, 136; dwelling-house,
131 ; Odeum, 141 ; Palaestra,
142 ; Stadium, 143 ; Theatres 139
Greek cities, Arrangement and
planning of 131, 134
Greek events, Chronology of . . xxii
Greek orders : Corinthian, 96, 104,
116, 124-130; Doric, 30, 3 1, 33,
47. 55. 58- 7° ; Ionic 55-62, 70,
82, 95, 107, 117
Greek race, Origins and character-
istics of 6, 7, 8
Greek religion 53. 62
Greek temples, compared with
Roman, 205, 206 ; Construction
of, 75 ; dates and dimensions
of, 316-320 ; Dedication of, 54 ;
Earliest peripteral example,
348
INDEX.
28 ; Orientation of, 54 ; Re-
finements in, 74, 76; Sacred
enclosuresof, 97 ; Sculptures of 77
For List see under TEMPLES.
Groin, Definition of 326
Guattani, quoted 286, 290
Guilloche, Definition of 326
Guttae, Definition of, 326 ; origin of 48
Gymnasia 133, 142, 143, 326
Gynaeconitis 132
Hadrian, Archway, Athens, 180 ;
Temple at Rome built by, 191 ;
Palace of, Rome, 290; Villa
at Tivoli 291-297
Halicarnassus, Mausoleum at .. 118
Haller, Baron, quoted . . . . 46, 93
Hamdy Bey, quoted 121
Harrison, Miss J. E., quoted 142 note
Hauran, Temple of Kanawat, in the 186
Haussolier, M., architect, quoted
114 note
Heating arrangements in Roman,
Thermae 249, 260
Hecatompedos, or naos of Parthe-
non 72
Helix, 126 ; Definition of . . . . 327
Hellanocidae, Stoa of, Elis . . . . 137
Hellas, European, Archaic period
in 26-48
Hemicyle, Definition of 326
Hemicycles 189, 191, 246, 251, 296, 300
Hemispherical dome . . . . 166 note
Henderson (A. E.), architect,
quoted 62, no
Hephaestos, Temple of (Theseum) ;
Athens 83
Hera, Temple of ; Samos . . . . 53
Heracleidae, Return of the . . . . 27
Heraeum, Temple of Hera (Juno) ;
Olympia 28, 47
Herculaneum 300
Hercules, Temple of, Agrigentum,
43 ; Cora, 173 ; Rome . . . . 219
Hermae, Use of, for garden decora-
tions, by Romans . . . . 307 note
Hermogenes, architect .. . . 114, 116
Herod the Great i95
Herodes Atticus, Theatre of. . 169, 235
Heroic age in Greece . . . . 8, 12, 25
Heuzey and Daumet, Restoration
of the Palace at Palatitza , . 132
PAGE
Hieron, Definition of 326
Hieron of Artemis Brauconia . . 71
Hippodrome, 137 ; Definition of . . 327
Hittorf and Zanth, architects,
quoted 32, 41
Hofner 4, 19
Homolle (M.), architect, quoted . . 82
Houses in Greece, 131 ; Pompeii,
301 ; in Rome 300, 309
Hymettus, Mt, Quarries at . . . . 207
Hypaethral, Definition of . . . . 327
Hypaethral temples, Greek . . 46, 101,
113,127
Hypocausts, 249, 260. 310 ; Defini-
tion of 327
Hypotrachelium, 174 note ; De-
finition of 327
Ictinus, architect . . . . 67, 85, 95
Igel, Monument at, near Treves . . 274
Ilians 49
Ilissus, Temple on the 83
Impluvium, 302 ; Definition of . . 327
Influence of Greek architecture on
subsequent European art . . 3
Influence of material on Greek
architecture 6, 52
Inscriptions on Greek temples,
128 ; Roman temples . . . . 197
Intercolumniation, Definition of . . 327
Intersecting barrel vaults . . 164, 165
Ionian revolt 51
lonians 26, 50, 67
Ionic base 59
,, Order, Greek, 55-62 ; Pom-
peian, 175, 310; Roman.. 175, 230
Jackly, otherwise Yakli ; Temple at 128
Janus, Arch of ; Rome 268
Jerusalem, Colonnaded streets, 197 ;
Temple at, 202 ; Tombs at 282, 283
Joyau (J. L. A.), architect, quoted
200 note
Judges, Tomb of; Jerusalem . . 283
Julia, Basilica ; Rome 226
Julium, Forum ; Rome 159
Julius, Temple of ; Rome .. ..163
Juno, in Portico of Octavia ; Rome 206
Lacinia ; Agrigentum.. .. 42
,, (Hera), Temple of ; Olympia 28,
Jupiter, Temple of, Aizani, 118,
184 ; Baalbec, 169, 204, 214 ;
INDEX.
349
Portico of Octavia, Rome, in,
206 ; Spalato 219
Jupiter Olympius, Temple of,
Agrigentum, 43 ; Athens 126, 177
Jupiter Capitolinus, Temple of ;
Rome . . . . 152, 156, 177
,, Stator, Temple of; Rome; 291
Victor, Temple of .. ..287
(Zeus), Temple of; Olympia, 48,
100
Kanawat, Colonnaded street at,
197 ; Temple at 186
Karnak 30
Kefr Birin, Synagogue at . . . . 300
Khasne, Tomb of the ; Petra . . 284
Kings, Tombs of the ; Jerusalem , . 283
Koldewey (R.), restoration of the
Stoa at Assos 137
Koldewey and Puchstein, archi-
tects, quoted 351
Labranda 128
Labrouste, quoted 37 note
Labrum, Definition of 327
Laconicum, Definition of . . . . 327
Lacunaria 33
Laloux (V. A. F.), architect, quoted 98
Lambert (M.), architect, Restora-
tion of the Acropolis at Athens 72
Lambessa, Praetorium at, 186 ;
Triumphal Arch at 272
Lanciani, Prof., quoted . .212 note, 295
Lanuvium, Discoveries of Etruscan
remains at 151
Laodicea-ad-Lycum, Stadium at.. 143
Lararium, 304 ; Definition of . . 327
Lateres (unburnt bricks) . . . . 161
Laying-out of Roman cities . . 188. 193,
194. J95
Lebas (P.), architect 236
Leleges 49
Leochares, sculptor 119
Lepidus, Aemilius 160
Lewis, Prof. Hayter, quoted. . . . 104
Lighting of Etruscan temples, 151 ;
Greek temples, 46, 55, 86,
93, 95, 101 ; Roman temples
and other buildings . . 221, 230,
247, 259, 295, 299, 301
Lions' Gate, Mycenae 22
Livia, House of ; Rome 309
Luna, Quarries at, near Carrara. . 207
Lycia 50, 51
Lycian tombs 51, 121
Lycurgus . . . ~ 143
Lydia 50, 51
Lysicrates, Choragic monument of;
Athens 124, 180
Magnesia-ad-Meandrum, Temple of
Artemis Leucophryne at 114, 116
Magnesia, Stadium at 143
Maison Carree, Nismes 210
Marathon, Battle of 38
Marble plan, Severus's . . 157 note, 252
,, facing of walls (Roman) 169, 170
MARBLE, Use of, by Greeks, 48
note, 62, 81, 92, 102 ; Romans,
160, 163, 169, 183 note, 189,
207, 224, 228, 254, 280, 301, 310
Marcellus, Theatre of; Rome .. 173,
174. 231
Marcian Aqueduct, Rome . . . . 276
Marcus Aurelius, Column of,
Rome, 273; Triumphal Arch
of Orange . . . . . . . . 186, 269
Markets, Greek, 135, 136 ; Roman 187,
192, 193
MarsUltor, Temple of ; Rome 189,209
Martial 120
MASONRY : Etruscan, 147 ; Greek,
10, 13, 15, 16, 18, 29, 89, 101,
138 ; Roman, 159, 160, 161,
162, 164, 165, 194, 200, 203,
214, 241, 268
Massalia, colonised by Greeks . . 6
Mater-Matuta, Temple of, Forum
Boarium ; Rome 219
Materials and construction
(Roman) 161-171
Mausoleum (Tomb of Mausolus)
at Halicarnassus 118
Maximus, Circus 242
Megalopolis, Theatre at, 140 ;
Thersilion 144
Megaron, Definition of, 327 ; Palace
at Tiryns 13
MEMORIAL STRUCTURES : Roman,
273-275 ; Antonine Column,
273; Column of Antoninus Pius,
274 ; Igel Monument, near
Treves, 274 (111. 220) ; St.
Remi, at, 275 (111. 221) ; Rome,
outside, 234 ; Trajan's Column,
350
INDEX.
192, 273 (111. 158). See also
Triumphal Arches.
Messa, Temple at ; Isle of Lesbos 97
Messene, Stadium at 143
Meta, Definition of 327
Metallic origin of Corinthian capi-
tal, suggested 176 note
METALS, Use of, by Greeks, 18, 50,
100, 104, 109, 124 ; Romans,
176 note, 211, 212, 224, 225, 227
Metopes, 33, 37, 77, 83, 173 (111.
57) ; Definition of 327
Meurer, Prof., Derivation of An-
themion 183 note
Middleton, Dr., quoted . . . . 156 note,
162, 163, 189 note, 249
'„ on Roman vault-
ing 168, 169
Miletus, 50, 51 ; Temple of Apollo
Didymaeus at 113, 116
Mills, Villa, Rome 286
Minerva Medica, Temple of (so-
called) ; Rome 259
Minerva, Temple of, Assisi, 186;
Rome, 191 ; Syracuse . . . . 34
Minoan age in Greece 8
Minos, Legend of . . 9
Mnesicles, architect 68
Modillion, defined, 327 ; intro-
duced by Roman architects . . 182
Module, Definition of 327
Monceaux (M.), Restoration of
Olympia 98
Monument of Lysicrates, Athens 124,
1 80
Mortar, Roman 162, 169
Mosaic, 169, 256, 295 ; Niche . . 316
(111. 251)
MOULDINGS, Etruscan, 151 ; Greek,
77, 81 note, 107 ; Roman, 158,
169, 174, 182, 183, 185, 284, 300
Mousmieh, Praetorium at . . . . 186
Municipal buildings, Roman . . 192
Mural painting, Pompeii, 313-315 ;
Rome 316
Murray, Dr. A. S., quoted 77, no, 112,
113 note, 151
Music Hall, Greek 141
Mutule, Definition of, 327 ; Origin
of 48
MYCENAE, 8, 49, 65 ; Lions' Gate,
22 ; Dr. Schliemann's dis-
coveries at, 7 ; Fortifications
of, 22 ; Tomb of Agamemnon
at 16-22
Mycenaean art, a local develop-
ment, 8 ; Affinity of, to Celtic
art 9
Mycenaeans 7-49
Mylasa, Tomb at 126
Myra 52, 124
Mysia 50
Mysteries, Hall of, Eleusis . . . . 85
Mythology, Greek 53
Naos, 54 ; Definition of 328
Naos hecatompedos 72
Naucratis, colonised by Greeks, 6 ;
Earliest example of Ionic
capital found at, 56 ; Temple
of Apollo at 56, 183
Naxos founded by Greeks . . . . 27
Neptune, Temple of, Paestum, 28,
3°. 31* 35 : Palmyra, 186,
216; in the Portico ofShe
Argonauts, Rome . . . . 206, 212
Nereid monument 121
Nero, Aqueduct of, 277 ; Circus of,
242 ; Frontispiece of, 182 note ;
Lake of . . 236
Newton, Sir Charles, quoted .. 119
Nibby, A., quoted 291
Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory),
Temple of; Athens .. 71,82
Nikias, Choragic monument of;
Athens 69
Nineveh 66
NISMES, Maison Carree, 210; Pont
du Card, near, 277 ; Temple
of Diana (known as the Baths) 212
Nispi-Landi, Count, quoted.. .. 252
Nobilior Fulvius 160
Norchia, Rock-cut tomb at . . . . 152
Nymphaeum, 259, 295 ; Definition
of 328
Octavius, Cneius . . 125, 176 note, 177
Odeum, Greek, 133, 141 ; Definition
of 328
Oecus, 304 ; Definition of . . . . 328
OLYMPIA, Heraeum, 28, 47 ; Jupiter
(Zeus), Temple of, 48, 100 ;
Palaestra at, 142; Philippeum,
104 ; Plan of the city (111. 83) ;
INDEX.
Treasury of Gela, 101, 152 ;
Stoa Poecile at, 103 ; Stadium
at 143
Olympieium, Syracuse 31
Opaion, 93 ; Definition of . . . . 328
Opisthodomus, 54, 72, 112 ;
Definition of 323
Optical illusions in Greek temples 76
Opus Albarium . . 169
Opus incertum 163
Opus reticulatum 163
ORANGE, Theatre at, 231 ; Tri-
umphal arch at 186
Orchomenos, Tomb at 16
Order, Definition of 17-2
Orientation of Greek temples, 54,
205 ; Roman temples . . 188, 205
Origin of Anthemion, 183 note ;
Greek Doric Order, 30, 47 ;
Greek antae, 14, 24, 30 ; Greek
figure sculpture, 62 ; Greek
lonic^ Order, 55, 58 ; Title to
Corinthian Order . . . . 175 note
Origins of Greek art 7
1'Orme, Philibert de, architect,
quoted 212 note, 224
Orthostatae, 29; Definition of .. 328
Oscan tribes 146
Ova, Definition of 328
Paeonius, architect 113
Paestum, Basilica at, 35 ; Temples at 35
Palace at Cnossus, Crete, 9 ;
Phaestus, Crete 9
Palace of Diocletian ; Spalato 297-300.
Palace of Tiryns 12
Palace near Palatitza, Macedonia 132
Palaces of the Caesars ; Rome
160, 286-291
PALAESTRA, 133, 142, 143 ; Defini-
tion of, 328 ; Delos, 103 ;
Ephesus, 143 ; Hadrian's Villa,
Tivoli, 296 ; Olympia, 142 ;
Priene, 133 ; Thermae of
Caracalla, Rome 247
Palatial and domestic architecture
(Roman) 286
Palatitza, Palace near 132
Palladio, architect, quoted.. 164, 186,
221, 224, 243, 252, 253, 256
PALMYRA, Colonnaded street at,
194 ; Great archway at, 196 ;
Temple of the Sun at, 198, 216 ;
Tombs at . . 281
Panathenaic frieze 78
Pandrosus, Sanctuary of, Athens. . 81
Pansa, House of ; Pompeii .. .. 305
Pantheon, Rome, 220 ; Agrippa's
Temple, 221 ; Bronze door of,
225 ; Construction of the roof
of, 212 ; Discoveries of M.
Chedanne 221, 223
Parascenium, Definition of . . . . 328
Paros, Isle of, Quarries in . . . . 207
Parthenon, Athens, 68, 72 ; Refine-
ments in, 74^ Sculptures of . . 77
Paulin (E.), architect, Restoration
of the Thermae of Diocletian 243,
253, 256, 258
Paullus, Aemilius 160
Pausanias, quoted 29, 69, 70, 73, 77, 81,
92, 98, 105, 124, 137, 211
Payara, Tomb of; Xanthos . . . . 124
Peace, Temple of ; Rome .. 191,228
Pedestals, Use of, in connection
with Roman orders, 185, 216 ;
Triumphal arches, 186, 264, 269
Pelasgi, the first inhabitants of
Greece . . 7
Pelasgian system of construction 148
Peloponnesos, 14, 26, 27, 50, 67 ;
Culmination of Greek archi-
tecture in 85
Pelops 50
Pendentive, earliest example of . . 259
Pennethorne, Sir John, quoted .. 74
Penrose (F. C.), architect, quoted 37, 69,
74- 75. 93 note, 127, 177
Pentelicus, Mt., Quarries at. . . . 207
Peperino stone 162
Perga, Stadium at 143
Pergamum, Altar of Zeus at, 105,
114 note; Vaulted Tomb at,
165 ; Discoveries at, 105 ;
Temple of Athena Polias at, 67, 106
Periclean age 67
Pericles 141, 142
Peripteral, Definition of 328
Peristyle, 304 ; Definition of .. .. 328
Pernier (L.) , excavations at Phaestus
9 note
Perrot and Chipiez, Messrs., quoted
12, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26
Persepolis, Great Hall at . . 57 note
352
INDEX.
Persian wars 38
Perugia, Arch of Augustus at 148, 153
Peruzzi, architect 219
Petra, Rock-cut tombs at . . . . 284
Petrie, Prof. Flinders, quoted 56, 147
Phaestus in Crete, Palace at. . 9, n
Phidias, sculptor . . . . 63, 68, 73
Philip of Macedonia 107
Philippeum ; Olympia 104
Philon, architect 86, 90
Phocaea 50
Phoenicians 194
Phrygia 50, 51
Phrygian rock tombs 51
Pinacotheca, 68, 70, 304 ; Definition
of 328
Pinara, Tombs at 124
Piraeus, Arsenal of; Athens. . . . 90
Piranesi, quoted 224, 291
Pisistratus 126
Pit graves 15
Plan, Severus's marble . . 157 note
Planning of the Roman Forums,
187, 192 ; Palaces, 287 ;
Temples, 155, 206 ; Thermae 244
Plaster, Use of, by Greeks . . . . 41
Pliny, quoted 112, 118, 119, 120, 125,
J75. X76 note, 301
Laurentine Villa of .. .. 291
Plutarch, quoted 86, 141
Podium, Definition of 328
Poggio, quoted 159
Poggio Cajella, Tomb of . . . . 148
Pola, Amphitheatre at 240
POLYCHROMV : Etruscan, 150 ;
Greek, 121 ; Pompeian, 313 ;
Roman 316
Polycleitus the Younger . . . . 105
Polygnotus, painter 68
Polygonal masonry, Greek . . .139
Pompeian architectural detail,
compared with that of Rome,
310 ; Capitals, 175, 310-315 ;
Interior decoration, 313 ; Metal
work 315
POMPEII, Basilica at, 228 ; Baths at,
259 ; Theatres at, 235 ; Tombs
at ..28i
POMPEII, Houses at, 300-309 ; House
of the Balcony, 307 ; Cornelius
Rufus, 302 ; Diomede's Villa,
308 ; Epidius Rufus, 307 ;
Faun, 306 ; Pansa, 305 ; Sal-
lust, 308 ; Silver Wedding,
306, 307 ; Tragic Poet, 307 ;
Vettius 307
Pompeiopolis, Colonnaded street at 197
Pompey, Theatre of 160
Pont du Card, near Nismes . . . . 277
Pontremoli (E.), architect, quoted
106 note, 114 note
Porta Nigra ; Treves 271
Portico, Definition of 328
Portico-in-antis ..13, 14, 3i( 71, 101
Portico of Erechtheum 79
Porticus, Definition of 329
Poseidon, Temple of, at Paestum 35
Posticum, Definition of 328
Pozzolana 162, 168, 169
Pozzuoli, Amphitheatre at . . 236 note
Praxiteles 29 note
PRIENE, Houses at, 131 ; Propy-
laeum at, 108 ; Temple of
Diana at 108, 116
Private houses, Pompeii, 301, 305 ;
Rome 300, 309
Pronaos, 54 ; Definition of . . . . 329
PROPORTIONS of temples and
columns : Greek, 28, 30, 31, 32,
35, 41, 44, 58, 81, 83, 128;
Roman 173 note, 184
PROPYLAEA, Athens, 67, 70 (Ills. 51-
54) ; Baalbec, 186, 200 (111.
162) ; Damascus, 199 (111.
160) ; Eleusis, 86 ; Palmyra,
198 ; Tiryns 14
Propylaeum, Definition of, 329 ;
Priene, 108 ; Tiryns . . . . 13
Proscenium, Definition of . . . . 329
Prostyle, Definition of 329
Prothyrum, 132, 302 ; Definition
of 329
Proto-doric column . . 30, 31 note
Prytaneum, 133 ; Definition of . . 329
Pseudodipteral, Definition of . . 329
Pseudoperipteral, Definition of . . 329
Pteroma, Definition of 329
Pteron, 119; Definition of .. .. 329
Pullan (R. P.), architect, quoted. . 120
Pulvinar, Definition of 329
Pycnostyle, 163, 189 ; Definition of 329
Pyramids 15
Pythios, architect and sculptor . . 108
Pythis, sculptor 119
INDEX.
353
PAGE
Quadriga, Definition of 329
Quarries, Luna, near Carrara, 207 ;
Mt. Pentelicus, 207 ; Isle of
Paros, 207 ; Mt. Hymettus . . 207
Rayet and Thomas, architects,
quoted 113, 115
Reber, Von, Prof., quoted . . 22, 88
Refinements in Greek temples . . 74,
76,87
Regula, Definition of 329
Regulini - Galeassi, Tomb ; Cer-
vetri 146
Religion of the Greeks 53
Renan, M. Ernest, quoted . . 193, 199
Respond, Definition of 329
Restorations of Grand-Prix stu-
dents 72, 98
Rheims, Arch at 270
Rimini, Bridge at 278
Rock-cut tombs ..15,51,65,122,148
Roman events, Chronology of . . 145
Roman methods of construction. . 161
171
ROMAN ORDERS, 172-186: Com-
posite, 183 ; Corinthian, 175 ;
Doric, 173 ; Ionic, 175, 230 ;
Pompeian Corinthian, 311 ;
Pompeian Doric, 310 ; Pom-
peian Ionic, 175, 310 ; Super-
posed 184, 231
Roman temples, 205 (for list see
under TEMPLES) ; ceilings of. . 211
ROME : Amphitheatres, 236 ; Aque-
ducts, 275 ; Basilicas, 226 ;
Bridges, 278 ; Circus, 242 ;
Cloaca Maxima, 147; Columns
of Victory, 273 ; Domestic
architecture, 286-310 ; Early
work in, 155 ; Forums, 187-
193 ; Founding of, 146 ;
Houses in, 300 ; Memorial
Structures, 273 ; Mural Paint-
ing, 316 ; Palaces of the
Caesars, 286-291 ; Rebuilding
of, 155 ; Stadium, Domitian's,
241 ; Temples, 205 (for list
see under TEMPLES); Theatres,
231 ; Thermae, 243 - 262 ;
Tombs, 279 ; Triumphal arches
and entrance gateways 263-273
Romulus, Circus of ; Rome . . . . 242
A.G.R.
ROOFS of temples, &c. : Etruscan,
151 ; Greek, 12, 29, 35, 46, 47,
48, 90, 92, 101, 113, 126, 127,
137; Roman, 159, 206,208,211,
212, 227, 232, 247, 259, 262,
302, 303, 311, 312
Rosa, Signer, excavations on Pala-
tine Hill, Rome 286
Rotunda, Epidaurus, 104 ; Pan-
theon, Rome . . 220
Sacred enclosures of Greek
temples 14, 97
Sagallassus, Temple at 129
St. James, Tomb of; Jerusalem . . 282
St. Lorenzo, Rome, Capital in
Church of 180
St. Niccolo - in - Carcere, Rome,
Capital in, 180 ; Remains of
temple in 157
St. Remi, France, Monument at 275
Samos, School of Statuary at, 50 ;
Temple of Hera at 53
Sanctuary of the Bulls, Delos, 103 ;
Pandrosus 81
Sarcophagi 52, 121, 124
Sardis, captured by Persia, 51 ;
Temple of Cybele at .. .. 117
Saturn, Temple of ; Rome .. .. 175
Sbeitla (Sufetula), Temple at . . 216
Scaena, 231, 232, 233, 236 ; Defini-
tion of 330
Scamilli impares 76
Schliemann, Dr., Discoveries of 7, 15
Schultz (R. W.), architect, quoted 81
Scipio, Tomb of 174
Scopas, sculptor 119
SCULPTURE : Greek, 22, 33, 37, 46,
•* [)(}, 617 68, 77, 81, 82, no, 119,
121, 130 ; Roman, 192, 264,
266, 267, 268, 280
Sculptured pedestals, Temple of
Diana (Artemis), Ephesus .. 112
Secular architecture in Greece .. 131
Segesta, 28 ; Temple at 38
Segovia, Aqueduct at 277
Seleucidae 136, 199
Selinus, founded by Dorians, 27 ;
Temples at .... 32, 33, 41
Senate House, Roman 192
Septimius Severus, Archways, 268 ;
Temple c f Vesta 218
A A
354
INDEX.
n
i
Serapis, Temple of, Taormina . . 44
Severus, Marble plan of, 157 note ;
Palace of, Rome 288
Shrine of Erechtheus ; Athens . . 81
Shrines of Greek temples, 53, 54,
97, 103, 115; Roman temples 192
Shuhba, Theatre at 236
Sia, Temple of, in the Hauran . . 202
Sicily, colonised by Greeks, 27 ;
Temples in 28, 32,
34. 38
Side, Theatre at 236
Sidon, 50 ; Sarcophagi at . . . . 121
Silversmiths, Gateway of ; Rome 268
Sima, 312 ; Definition of . . . . 330
Sites of temples, &c. : Greek, 41,
97, 133, 134, 188 ; Roman, 188,
192, 205
Spalato, Palace of Diocletian at . . 297-
300
Spina, Definition of 330
Stabian Baths 261
Stadia, Definition of 330
Stadium, Greek, 133, 143 ; Roman 241
Staircase, Palace at Cnossus, 10 ;
Temple of Zeus, Olympia, 100 ;
Temple of ApoTIo^ Dfdymaeus,
115; Temple of Concord,
Agrigentum 43 note
Statue of Athena at Lemnos, 68 ;
Athena in Parthenon, 68, 73 ;
Athena Promachos, 68, 72,
100 ; Zeus at Olympia . . . . 68
STATUES, Greek, 54, 62, 97, 109;
Position of in Greek temples,
54 ; Roman, 156, 174, 192, 197,
265, 273, 288
Statuette, Varvakeion Gymnasium ;
Athens 73
Stele, 15, 130 ; Definition of, 330 ;
Chrysapha, 34 ; Athens . . 130
Stereobate, Definition of . . . . 330
Stevens (G. P. ) , architect, quoted 79 note
Stevenson (J.J.); architect, Resto-
ration of the Mausoleum . . 120
Stoa, Definition of 33o/
Stoas
97. 103. 133, 137
Stoa Poecile ; Olympia 103
Stoa of the Horns ; Delos . . . . 103
Stone columns compared with
timber 29 note
Stone, Earliest examples of perip-
teral temples in, 33 ; timidity
in use of, by Greeks . . 33, 89
Stone walls, Roman methods of
building 162
Strabo 113
Stucco, Roman, 164, 169, 224, 255,
256, 260 : Greek 46
Stylobate, Definition of . . . . 330
Sudatorium, Definition of . . . . 330
Sulla 127,142,156,177
Sun, Temple of, Baalbec, 202 ;
Palmyra, 198, 216 ; Rome 182,
209
Sunamein, Temple of Fortuna at 186
Superposed orders, Roman . . 184, 231
Sutri, Amphitheatre at 236
Sybaris, colonised by Greeks . . 6
Synagogue at Kefr Birin . . . . 300
Syracuse, 28 ; Temple of Apollo
at, 31 ; Temple of Minerva
(Island of Ortygia), 34 ; founded
by Dorians 27
Syria, Colonnaded streets in, 19 j.,
197; Roman temples in. . .. 197
Systyle, Definition of 327
Tablinum
Tabularium ; Rome
. . 132, 303
.159. 173.174.
185
Taenia, Definition of 330
Tamossos, Cyprus, Tomb of . . 58
Taormina, Temple of Serapis at,
44; Theatre at .. .. 141,234
Tapering columns, Cnossus, Crete,
ii ; Heraeum, Olympia .. 29
Tarquinii, Tomb of the, at Cervetri 152
Tarragona, Aqueduct at . . . . 277
Tebessa, Arch of Caracalla at 186, 272
Tegea, Temple of Athena Alea at 124
Telamones (Atlantes) . . . . 44, 330
Telmessus, Tombs at 124 ; Theatre
at. . . . 141, 236
Temenos of Greek temples . . 97, 330
Temple, Greek, earliest peripteral
example 28
Temples, types of plan . . . . 330, 331
TEMPLES (GREEK). For dates
and dimensions of principal
Greek temples, see pp. 316-
320.
Aesculapius, Girgenti. . 44 (111. 41)
Ancyra, at 129
INDEX.
355
TEMPLES (GREEK)— continued.
,Aphaea ; Aegina . . 37, 46 (111. 42)
Apgfodite (Vemlb) , AplnuJlsla^ iTf
(111. 103)
Apollo, Delos, 75 ; Delphi, 27 ;
Metapontum, 37 ; Naucratis, 56,
183; Syracuse, 31; Thermon 30
note
Apollo Didymaeus ; Miletus ..113,
116(1115.96-98)
Apollo Epicurius ; Bassae. .67, 87,92
(Ills. 74-80)
Apollo Smintheus ; Troad .. 117
(111. 100)
Argos, Archaic temple at . . 30 note
Artemis Leucophryne ; Mag-
nesia-ad-Meandrum .. 114,116
Assos, at .... 37, 46 (111. 17)
Athena (Aphaea) ; Aegina 37, 46
(111. 42)
Athena Alea ; Tegea 124
Athena (Minerva) ; Syracuse . . 34
(HI. 25)
Athena (Parthenon) ; Athens 68, 72
(Ills. 49-52, 56-60)
Athena Polias (Diana) ; Priene. . 108,
lie
,, ,, (Erechtheum) ;
Athens . . . . 78 (Ills. 61-64)
Athena Polias ; Pergamum . . 67, 106
Castor and Pollux ; Agrigentum 43
Ceres (Demeter) ; Eleusis (Hall
of the Mysteries) 75
Ceres (Demeter) ; Paesturq 35, 37
(HI. 27)
Concord ; Agrigentum . . 43 (111. 38)
Corinth, at . . 30, 32, 33 (Ills. 20, 21)
Cybele; Sardis .. ..117 (111. 102)
Diana (Artemis), Ephesus,
Archaic temple of . . 56, 57, 59
(111. 48)
Diana (Artemis), Ephesus, Great
Temple of . . . . 109 (Ills. 92-95)
Diana; Priene . . 108, 116 (111. 101)
Dionysus (Bacchus) ; Teos .. 117
Erechtheum (Athena Polias) ;
•Athens . . . . 78 (Ills. 61-64)
Euromus, at ; near Yakli . . . . 128
Hephaestos (Theseum) ; Athens 83
Hera (Juno), Heraeum ; Olympia 28,
47 (HI- 18)
TEMPLES (GREEK)— continued.
Hera ; Samos 53
Heraeum ; Olympia 28, 47 (111. 18)
Hercules ; Agrigentum . . . . 43
(Ills. 37, 39)
Ilissus, on the 83
Juno Lacinia ; Agrigentum . . 42
(111. 36)
Jupiter, Aizani, 118, 184 (111.
104) ; Messa, at, Island of Les-
bos 97 (111. 82)
Jupiter Olympius ; Agrigentum 43
(Ills. 37, 40)
Jupiter Olympius ; Athens . . 126,
127 (Ills. 110-112)
Jupiter (Zeus) ; Olympia . . 48, 100
(111. 84)
Messa, at, Island of Lesbos . . 97
(111. 82)
Minerva (Athena) ; Syracuse . . 34
(HI- 25)
Nemesis, Rhamnus 75
Neptune (Poseidon) ; Paestum.. 35
(Ills. 28, 30, 31)
Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory);
Athens . .71, 82, 83 (Ills. 55, 65)
Olympieium ; Syracuse ..31 (111. 23)
Parthenon (Athena) ; Athens 68, 72
(Ills. 49-52, 56-60)
Philippeum ; Olympia . . , . 104
(111. 87)
Poseidon (Neptune) ; Paestum . . 35
(Ills. 28, 30, 31)
Priene, at 117 (111. 101)
Sagallassus, at 129
Segesta, at . . . . 38 (Ills. 33, 34)
Selinus, at 32, 33, 41
(HI. 35)
Serapis ; Taormina 44
Smintheum, Troad . . 117 (111. 100)
Theseum (Hephaestos) ; Athens 83
(Ills. 67, 68)
Vulcan; Agrigentum 43
Wingless Victory (Nike Apteros)
7i,82,83(Ills.55,65)
Zeus (Jupiter) ; Olympia . . 48, 100
(111. 84)
TEj^PLE^IROMAN), 205-226:
Aesculapius ; Spalato 297 (111. 235)
Antoninus and Faustina ; Rome
182, 209 (111. 157)
356
INDEX.
[AN) — continued.
193 ; Rome. . 290
(HI. 233)
Atil, at ; Syria . . . . 199 (111. 161)
Augustus and Roma; Athens.. 219
(Ills. 52, 254)
Augustus; Rome.. .. (111. 157)
Castor and Pollux ; Cora . . 178, 210
(111. 143)
Castor; Rome .. .. 178, 182, 207
(Ills. 142, 147, 148, 167)
Ceres and Proserpine ; Rome .. 212
Ceres ; Rome 152, 155
Concord ; Rome . . 180, 209 (111. 144)
Diana (known as the Baths);
Nismes 212
Fortuna; Sunamein .. 186 (111. 155)
Fortuna-Virilis ; Rome . . 157, 175
(Ills. 132, 133)
Frontispiece of Nero ; Rome
(Temple of the Sun) . . 182, 209
Hercules; Cora .. 173, 174 (111. 139)
Hercules; Rome 219
Julius; Rome .. .. 163 (111. 157)
Juno, in Portico of Octavia;
Rome 206
^Jupiter ; Baalbec . . 169, 204, 214
(Ills. 163, 176)
Jupiter Capitolinus ; Rome 152, 156
Jupiter.in the Portico of Octavia ;
Rome 206
Jupiter; Pompeii 193
Jupiter; Spalato 219, 297
(HI. 235)
Jupiter Stator ; Rome 291
(HI- 233)
Jupiter Victor; Rome.. 287 (111. 233)
Kanawat, in the Hauran . . . . 186
Lanuvium, at 156
Maison Carree ; Nismes .. ..210
(Ills. 171, 172)
Mars Ultor ; Rome . . . . 189, 209
(ills. 157, 168)
Mater Matuta, Forum Boarium ;
Rome 219 (111. 178)
Minerva; Assisi .. 186,210 (111. 154)
Minerva Medica (so-called) ;
Rome 259
Minerva ; Rome . . . . 191 (111. 157)
Neptune ; Palmyra . . . . 186, 216
Neptune, in the Portico of the
Argonauts; Rome .. .. 206, 212
TEMPLES (ROMAN)-«>H//«M«/.
Pantheon ; Rome . . 212, 220-226
(Ills. 180-183)
.PeacejRome . . 191, 228 (111. 157)
Saturn fTtom'e . . 175 (Ills. 157, 184)
Sbeitla (Sufetula) ; North Africa 216
Serapis ; Tivoli 296
Sia ; Syria 202
Sun, the ; Baalbec . . 202 (111. 163).
Sun, the ; Palmyra . . . . 198, 216
Sun, the ; Rome 182, 209
(Ills. 169, 170)
Trajan ; Rome 191, 192
Venus and Rome ; Rome . . 206, 212
(Ills. 173-175)
.-Venus ; Baalbec 204, 220
(Ills. 163, 179)
Venus, in the Forum of Caesar ;
Rome . . . .163, 189, 206 (111. 157)
Vespasian ; Pompeii 193
Vespasian ; Rome 159
(Ills. 157, 184)
Vesta (Mater Matuta) ; Rome 218, 219
(111. 178)
Vesta; Tivoli .. ..178,218,311
(111. 177)
Teos, Temple of Dionysus (Bac-
chus) at . . 117
Tepidarium . .' . . . . 245, 247, 252,
253, 254
TERRA-COTTA, Use of, by Etrus-
cans, 151 ; Greeks, 30, 46, 101 ;
Romans 156, 173, 258
^Texier (Ch.), architect, quoted .. 137
"^THEATRES, GREEK, 133, 139 — 141 ;
Asia Minor, 140 ; Dionysus,
Athens/i39 (111. 120) ; Dodona,
140 ; Epidaurus, 139, 140 (111.
121) ; Herodes Attica, 235 ;
Hierapolis, 141 ; Megalopolis,
140 ; Patara, 141 ; Pergamum,
140 ; Pinara, 141 ; Segesta,
140 ; Side, 141 ; Syracuse,
140 ; Taormina, 141, 234 (111.
122) ; Telmissus, 141 ; Termes-
sus, 141 ; Tralles 140
JRoM^Ur— 231-236, 294; Aizani,
233; Asia Minor, 139, 235;
Aspendus, 233 (111. 190) ;
Bosra, 234 ; Hadrian's Villa,
Tivoli, 294 ; Marcellus, 174,
175, 185, 186, 231 (Ills. 140.
INDEX.
357
141, 153, 189) ; Orange, 231 ;
Perga, 140 ; Pompeii, 235 (Ills.
191-193) ; Pompey, 160, 185 ;
Syria, 231 ; Taormina . . 141, 234
(111. 122)
Thebes 30, 31 note
THERMAE : Roman, 243-262 ;
Agrippa, 166, 244, 252 ; Cara-
calla, 1 80, 244, 249. 2537^56
(1115.198-200) ; Constantine,244,
253 ; Decoration of, 253-259,
261 (Ills. 199, 204, 205, 207,
208) ; Dipcletianjj84, 244, 250,
253 (rnsT2O4, Izo5) ; Domitian,
244, 253 ; Gallienus, 259
(111. 206) ; Greek gymnasia,
prototype of, 142 ; Hypocausts
in, 249, 259 ; Planning and
arrangement of, 244, 254 ;
Pompeii, 259-262 ^Trajan,_Z4j., ,_
253 ; Titus, 244, 250, 258 (Ills.
201,202); Spalato, at .. .. 299
Thermon, Temple of Apollo at . . 30
Theron, Tomb of ; Agrigentum
Thersilion ; Megalopolis
note
311
144
of
Theseum, Athens (Temple
Hephaestos) 83
Tholos, Definition of, 332 ; Epi-
daurus, at 104
Thoricus, Stoa at 75, 137
Tiberius, Arch of, Pompeii, 193 ;
Palace of, Rome 291
Timber columns, Cnossus, Crete,
10 ; Heraeum, Olympia . . 29
Timber origin of Doric column _.. 30,
47
Timgad, Arch of Triumph at . . 273
Timotheus, sculptor 119
Tiryns, Palace at, 10, 14, 31 ; Dr.
Schliemann's discoveries at .. 7
Titus, Arch of, 265 ; Thermae of. . 244,
250, 258
TIVOLI, Hadrian's Villa at, 291-297 ;
Temple of Vesta . . . . 178-218
TOMBS, ETRUSCAN : Cervetri,
146, 150 ; Corneto, 148 (111.
127) ; Decorations of, 150 ;
Norchia, 152, 279 ; Poggio
Cajella, 148 ; Regulini Galeassi,
Cervetri, 146, 279 ;_ Tantalus,
146 ; Tarquinii, Cervetri . . 152
GREEK : Agamemnon, 16, 22
(Ills. 7-14) ; Argolis, at, 16 ;
Clytaemnestra, 21 ; Lycian, 51,
121 ; Mausoleum, Halicar-
nassus, 118 (111. 105) ; My-
cenaean, 15 ; Mylasa, 120 ;
Orchomenos, 16 (111. 16) ;
Payara, Xanthos, 124 (111. 106) ;
Pergamum.in, 165; Phrygian,
51 ; Rock-cut examples, 15, 51,
65, 122, 148 ; Scipio, 174 ;
Tamossos, Cyprus . . 58 (111. 47)
POMPEIAN : Garlands, 281 (Ills.
209, 226, 227) ; Calventius
Quietus 280 (111. 225)
ROMAN : Augustus, Rome, 279 ;
Caecilia Metella, Rome, 279 ;
Cotta, Rome, 280 ; Hadrian,
279 ; Jerusalem, 282 (111. 228) ;
Petra, 284 (111. 226) ; Rock-
cut examples, 283, 2^4 ; Syrian
examples, 281 ; Via Latina,
Rome 255 (111. 203)
Tombstone, Greek 130
Tournaire (M.), architect, quoted 98
Tower of the Winds ; Athens . . 130
Trajan, Aqueduct of, 276 ; Arch,
191, 264 ; Column, 192 ; Tem-
ple, 191, 192 ; Thermae. . 244, 253
Travertine stone 162
TREASURIES, GREEK . . 16, 33, 37,
97, 101, 102
Treasury of Athens 33
Treasury of Atreus, or Tomb of
Agamemnon .. 16 (Ills. 11-14)
Treasury of Cnidians, Delphi ... ',37,
103 (111786)
Treves, Porta Nigra, near . . . . 271
Tribune 79
Triclinium, 132, 304 ; Definition of 332
Triglyphs, Definition of, 332 ;
Origin of, 47 ; Position of, in
Roman temples . . . . 173, 174
Trilithon; Baalbec .. .. 193,204
TR^MPHAL ARCHES and Entrance
^ Gatewaysy/Koman), 263-2,7^ ;
Ancona, at, 186, 269 (111. 216) ;
Autun, France, 263 ; Beneven-
tum, at, 186, 267 (Til. 213);
Caracalla, Tebessa, 272 (111.
219) ; Constantine, Rome,
186, 264 (111. 210) ; Domitian,
358
INDEX.
Rome, 264 ; Hadrian, Athens,
180 ; Janus, Rome, 268 (111.
215) ; North Africa, in, 272 ;
Orange, France, 186, 269
(111. 217) ; Palmyra, at, 196
(111. 159) ; Pedestals, in con-
nection with, 186, 264, 269 ;
Porta Nigra, Treves, 271 (111.
218) ; Rheims, at, 270 ; Rimini,
269 note ; Septimius Severus,
Rome, 184, 186, 268 (111. 184) ;
Silversmiths, Rome, 268 (111.
214) ; Tiberius, Pompeii, 193 ;
Titus, Rome, 183, 184, 186,
265 (Ills. 211, 212) ; Trajan,
Rome, 191, 264; Verona .. 263
Troad, Temple of Apollo Smintheus
in the 117
Troy 5°
Trunnel, Definition of 332
Tufa 162, 163
Tumuli 146
Tuscan atrium 302
Tuscan Order 173
Tuscan Temple, Vitruvius's de-
scription of 130 note
Tusculum, Aqueduct at 148
Tympanum, Definition of . . . . 332
Tyre 50
Ulpian Basilica, Rome . . 191 (111. 157)
Varvakeion Statuette of Athena 73
Vault, Early date of . . . . 147, 164
Vaulting, Egyptian and Roman
methods compared 165
VAULTS : Greek, 143 ; Etruscan,
147; Roman, 164^ 165, 192,
212, 214, 221, 22 8y 251, 266,
268, 297
Vaults, Roman methods of con-
structing 164, 165, 166
Velarium, 239, 241 ; Definition of 332
Venus and Rome, Temple of;
Rome 212
Venus, Temple of ; Rome .. 163, 189
VERONA, Amphitheatre at, 240;
Entrance gateway at . . . . 263
Vesta, Temple of, Rome, 218;
Tivoli 178,218,311
Vestals, House of the ; Rome . . 309
Vettius, House of ; Pompeii . . 307
Victory, Columns of; Rome .. 273
Vignola 186
Villa, Hadrian's, at Tivoli, 291 ;
Mills, Rome 286
Viollet-le-duc, architect, quoted . . 44,
164 note, 167
Viollet-le-duc, Illustrations of
barrel vault construction . . 167
Vitruvius, quoted. .31, 74 note, 76, 114,
124, 127, 132, 141, 143, 150,
161, 163, 164, 169, 173, 175
note, 301
Vitruvius, de Architectural, 161 ;
Description of materials used
in Roman buildings, 161, 162,
163, 169 ; Description of Roman
methods of construction, 161,
164 ; Description of the Corin-
thian Order, 175 note ; De-
scription of the Tuscan
Order 173
Vogue, Marquis de, quoted . . 282 note
Volterra 148
Volute, Definition of 332
Votive Column, 97 ; Delphi, 57 ;
Selinus 41
Voussoir, Definition of 332
Vulci, Etruscan capital at . . . . 153
Wall paintings, Pompeii, 313 ;
Rome 316
Walls, Materials used for, by
Romans 161,163
Walls of the Roman Forums . . 188
Whibley (Leonard), Companio i to
Greek SluJies . . . . 93 note, 97
Winds, Tower of, at Athens. . . . 130
Wood (J. T.), quoted ..no, 112, 113,
135
Wood (Robert), quoted.. 194, 196, 202,
214, 282
Wooden columns, Cnossus, Crete,
10 ; Heraeum, Olympia . . . . 29
Wooden origin of Doric Order,
30, 47 ; of Ionic Order, 56 ; of
Lycian tombs 52
Xanthos, Tomb of Payara . . . . 124
INDEX.
359
PAGE
Xerxes .. 85, 113, 115,
141
Xoanon, 53 ; Definition of . . . . 332
Xystus, 143, 305 ; Definition of . . 332
Yakli, Temple of Euromus, near . . 128
Zeno, architect
Zenocles .
PAGE
• 234
, 86
Zeus, Temple of Jupiter (Zeus),
Olympia
Zeus, Great Altar of;
Zophoros, Definition of 332
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Folio, half morocco, gilt. £4 4S. net.
FORMAL GARDENS IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.
A Series of Views, Plans and Details of the finest Old Gardens
still existing. With an Introduction and Descriptive Accounts.
By H. INIGO TRIGGS, A. R. I.E. A. Containing 125 fine Plates,
72 from the Author's Drawings, and 53 from Photographs
specially taken.
B. T. BATSFORD,
PUBLISHER,
94, High Holborn, London.
4
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ENGLISH HOUSES AND GARDENS IN THE XVIIxn AND
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BADESLADE, HARRIS, LOGGAN and others. With some views
of Oxford and Cambridge Colleges. Selected, with an Intro-
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THE CHARM OF THE ENGLISH VILLAGE. By. P. H.
DITCHFIELD, M.A., F.S.A. Illustrated by SYDNEY R. JONES.
A popular Account for general readers. With 120 attractive
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pen-and-ink sketches, with a Frontispiece in coloured photo-
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CONTENTS. — The Church — Manors, Farms and Rectories — Cottages —
Detail, Decoration and Interiors — Gardens and Flowers— Inns, Shops and
Mills — Alms-houses and Grammar Schools — Crosses, Greens and Old Time
Punishments — Barns and Dovecotes — Old Roads and Bridges — Rivers and
Streams — Sundials and Weathercocks, etc.
Demy 4/b, handsomely bound in art linen, gilt. 255. net.
THE ART OF THE PLASTERER IN ENGLAND. An
Account of the Decorative Development of the Craft, chiefly
in England from the XVIth to XVIIIth Centuries, but with
Chapters on the Stucco of the Classic Period and of the Italian
Renaissance, also on Sgraffito, Pargetting, Scottish, Irish and
Modern Plaster work. By GEORGE P. BANKART, Architect and
Craftsman. Containing over 100 full-page and more than 300
smaller Illustrations, from specially taken photographs, or of
specially prepared sections and mouldings, comprising in all
over 700 examples.
" A handsome work, providing in its copious illustrations a large presentment of English
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ENGLISH CATHEDRALS ILLUSTRATED. By FRANCIS
BOND, M.A., Hon.A.R.I.B.A., Author of "Gothic Architecture
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tectural history of every building of cathedral rank in England
and Wales. With 180 Photographic Illustrations of Exterior
and Interior Views, Ornamental details, etc.
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OLD ENGLISH COTTAGES AND FARM-HOUSES.
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Each volume contains 100 Photographic Plates, artistically
printed in Collotype, accompanied by Descriptive Notes and
numerous pen-and-ink Sketches.
(1) KENT AND SUSSEX. Photographed by W. GALSWORTHY
DAVIE and described by E. GUY DAWBER, Architect, F.R.I.B.A.
" Every cottage illustrated has interest through its picturesqueness, and the variety of them
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" All lovers of our domestic architecture should buy this book." — The Antiquary.
(2) SHROPSHIRE, HEREFORDSHIRE, AND CHESHIRE.
Photographed by JAMES PARKINSON and described by E. A.
OULD, Architect, F.R.I.B.A.
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volume." — The Building News.
(3) THE COTSWOLD DISTRICT, comprising parts of Gloucester-
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from Photographs specially taken by W. GALSWORTHY DAVIE,
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GREEN, Architect, A.R.I. B.A.
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joint production of a book of altogether exceptional worth." — The Rev. J. Charles Cox, LL.D.,
in The Antiquary.
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OLD ENGLISH DOORWAYS. A Series of Historical Examples
from Tudor Times to the end of the XVIIIth Century. Illus-
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specially taken by W. GALSWORTHY DAVIE. With Historical
and Descriptive Notes on the subjects, including 34 Drawings
and Sketches by HENRY TANNER, A.R.I. B.A.
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England." — The Building: News.
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THE APPRECIATION OF SCULPTURE. A Popular Hand-
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With 64 full-page Illustrations, reproduced in half-tone, from
photographs of some of the most notable examples of the art.
B. T. BATSFORD,
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Now Completed. Medium Svo, four parts in paper wrappers, prices
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GREEK BUILDINGS .REPRESENTED BY FRAGMENTS
IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM. By Professor W. R.
LETHABY. A Series of Illustrated Monographs upon notable
Classic Buildings, each containing a review of the chief facts
known concerning the respective subjects, the various theories
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formed after a thorough study of the existing remains.
(1) DIANA'S TEMPLE AT EPHESUS. With 29 Illustrations, in-
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EXAMPLES OF CLASSIC ORNAMENT FROM GREECE
AND ROME. Drawn from the originals by LEWIS VULLIAMY.
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Descriptive Notes, by R. PHEN£ SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
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A MANUAL OF HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Treating upon the
Evolution, Tradition, and Development of Architecture and
other Applied Arts. Prepared for the use of Students and
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of the Manchester School of Art. Second Edition, revised and
enlarged, containing 600 Illustrations drawn by the author.
" Not since the publication of Owen Jones' celebrated 'Grammar of Ornament1 have we
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ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE — GREEK, ROMAN, and
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and Development of the Classic Orders, and descriptions of
the plates, by R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Fourth
Edition, revised and enlarged, containing 27 full-page Plates,
seven of which have been specially prepared for the work.
MR. LEWIS F. DAY'S HANDBOOKS of ORNAMENTAL DESIGN.
NATURE AND ORNAMENT. Being a new treatise founded on
the author's " Nature in Ornament " which is now incorporated
in it. By LEWIS F. DAY. Two volumes, medium 8vo (9 ins.
by 6 ins.), cloth lettered.
Vol. I. — Nature the Raw Material of Design. With special
reference to Plant Form. Containing 120 pages and 350
Illustrations, comprising 500 examples, and a fine series of
specially drawn plates of plant form growth, and detail.
Price 55. net.
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Vol. II. — Ornament the finished Product of Nature. With very
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redrawn, of the treatment of Natural form in Design and
Decoration. Price about js. 6d. net. \2n preparation.
Crown 8v0, doth. $s. net.
LETTERING IN ORNAMENT. An Enquiry into the Decora-
tive Use of Lettering, Past, Present, and Possible. By LEWIS F.
DAY. With 200 Illustrations from Photographs and Drawings.
Crown 8v0, cloth. 35. 6d. net.
ALPHABETS, OLD AND NEW. Containing 200 complete
Alphabets, 30 Series of Numerals, Numerous Facsimiles of
Ancient Dates, &c. Selected and arranged by LEWIS F. DAY.
Preceded by a short account of the Development of the
Alphabet. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with many
further Examples.
Crown &v0, cloth. 55. net.
ART IN NEEDLEWORK : A BOOK ABOUT EMBROIDERY. By
LEWIS F. DAY and MARY BUCKLE. Third Edition, revised,
containing 80 full-page Plates, reproduced from photographs,
and 45 Illustrations in the text.
Demy 8v0, cloth^ gilt. 75. 6d. net.
ENAMELLING. A Comparative Account of the Development
and Practice of the Art. For the Use of Artists, Craftsmen,
Students, &c. By LEWIS F. DAY. With 115 Illustrations,
reproduced from special drawings and photographs.
" Mr. Lewis Day's new book on ' Enamelling ' is a most valuable treatise which will interest
alike both those who study and collect Enamels, and those who make them. Mr. Day sketches
the whole history of the art, and discusses cloisonne, champleve, repousse, basse taille, plique a
jour, and all the other varieties of Enamel in his admirably lucid and suggestive fashion. An
abundant array of illustrations shows fine and typics>l examples of each method." — The Tribune.
B. T. BATSFORD,
PUBLISHER,
94. High Holborn, London.
8
MR. LEWIS F. DAY'S WORKS— (continued).
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PATTERN DESIGN. A Book for Students, treating in a prac-
tical way of the Anatomy, Planning, and Evolution of Repeated
Ornament. Containing 300 pages of text, with upwards of 300
Illustrations, reproduced from drawings and from photographs.
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ORNAMENT AND ITS APPLICATION. A sequel to "Pattern
Design," and an Introduction to the Study of Design in relation
to Material, Tools, and ways of Workmanship. Containing 320
pages, with 300 Illustrations of Decorative Objects and Orna-
ment, reproduced from Photographs and Drawings.
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WINDOWS: A BOOK ABOUT STAINED AND PAINTED
GLASS. By LEWIS F. DAY. Third Edition, thoroughly
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duced from special drawings, and many other Illustrations.
Many of the plates in the previous edition have been redone by another
process, thereby enhancing their beauty and richness to a considerable
extent.
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MOOT POINTS : Friendly disputes upon Art and Industry between
WALTER CRANE and LEWIS F. DAY. 90 pages, with 8 Orna-
mental and very amusing Caricatures of the artists by WALTER
CRANE.
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OLD LACE: A HANDBOOK FOR COLLECTORS. An
Account of the Different Styles of Lace, their History,
Characteristics and Manufacture. By M. JOURDAIN, Joint
Editor of Palliser's " History of Lace." Containing upwards
of 120 pages, with nearly 100 Plates, comprising over 150
Historic Examples, from photographs.
"All who take any interest in the different styles of lace, their history, characteristics, and
manufacture, will find this handbook full of instruction, interspersed with copious illustrations
invaluable to the collector." — Lady's Pictorial.
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HERALDRY AS ART. An Account of its Development and
Practice, chiefly in England. By GEORGE W. EVE, R.E.
With 300 Illustrations of typical heraldic design, old and new.
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. — The Origin, Uses, and Aims of Heraldry —
The Evolution of Shield Forms— Heraldic Rules— Animals and Monsters
— Heraldic Birds and other Figures — Helm, Crest, and Mantling —
Armorial Accessories — Methods and Materials — Architectural Decoration —
Embroidered Heraldry— Some Miscellaneous Charges— Marks of Cadency.
Large Sv0, cloth. 5^. net.
A HANDBOOK OF PLANT FORM FOR STUDENTS OF
DESIGN. By ERNEST E. CLARK, Art Master, Derby Tech-
nical College. Containing 100 Plates (size loj ins. by y| ins.),
illustrating 61 varieties of Plants, comprising 800 Illustrations.
With an Introductory Chapter on the Elementary Principles of
Design, Notes on the Plants, and a Glossary of Botanical Terms.
" Such a book has long been needed, and the appearance of this handsome volume at such a
moderate price will be hailed with satisfaction by students of design everywhere." — Arts and
Crafts.
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DECORATIVE FLOWER STUDIES for the use of Artists,
Designers, Students and others. By J. FOORD. A series of
40 full-page Plates, coloured in facsimile of the Author's
original water-colour drawings, accompanied by 350 Studies
of Detail showing the Development of the Plant in successive
stages. With Descriptive Notes.
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DECORATIVE PLANT AND FLOWER STUDIES. For the
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Author's original Water-Colour Drawings, with a Description
and Sketch of each plant, and 450 Studies of growth and detail.
" Never before has the essential character of different plants received from the point of view of
their adaptability for decorative purposes the careful study and brilliant representation which they
receive at Miss Foord's hands in this exquisitely printed and coloured book."— Daily Telegraph.
"Alike to the lover of nature and the student of design, this volume will prove a rich fund of
delight and instruction." — The Queen.
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DECORATIVE BRUSHWORK AND ELEMENTARY DE-
SIGN. A Manual for the Use of Teachers and Students. By
HENRY CADNESS, Second Master of the Municipal School of
Art, Manchester. Second Edition, revised and enlarged, with
upwards of 450 Examples of Design.
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volume, which is likely to prove a powerful aid to those who propose to devote themselves to
designing, an occupation in which there is a wide and ample field." — The Queen.
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SOME TERMS COMMONLY USED IN ORNAMENTAL
DESIGN, their Application Defined and Explained. By
T. ERAT HARRISON and W. G. PAULSON TOWNSEND, Examiners
in Design to the Board of Education. With numerous Illus-
trations, including many beautiful examples of design.
B. T. BATSFORD,
PUBLISHER,
94, High Holborn, London.
10
Folio, buckram, gilt. ^5 5*. net,
OLD SILVERWORK, CHIEFLY ENGLISH, FROM THE
XVth TO THE XVIIIth CENTURIES. A series of choice
examples selected from the unique loan collection exhibited at
St. James's Court, London, in aid of the funds of the Children's
Hospital, supplemented by some further fine specimens from
the collections of the Dukes of Devonshire and Rutland.
Edited, with Historical and Descriptive Notes, by J. STARKIE
•GARDNER, F.S.A. Containing 121 beautiful Collotype Plates
reproduced in the most effective manner, and illustrating some
of the choicest specimens of the Art during the Stuart, Queen
Anne, and Georgian periods.
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ENGLISH INTERIOR WOODWORK of the XVI., XVII., and
XVIII. Centuries. A series of 50 Plates of Drawings to scale
and Sketches, chiefly of domestic work, illustrating a fine series
of examples of Chimney Pieces, Panelling, Sides of Rooms,
Staircases, Doors, Screens, &c., &c., with full practical details
and descriptive text. By HENRY TANNER, A. R. I.E. A., Joint
Author of " Some Architectural Works of Inigo Jones."
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THE DECORATION OF HOUSES. A Study of House
Decoration during the Renaissance Period, with suggestions for
the decorative treatment, furnishing, and arrangement of modern
houses. By EDITH WHARTON and OGDEN CODMAN, Architect.
With 56 full-page Photographic Illustrations.
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advice is characterised by so much common sense as well as by the best of taste." — The Queen.
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THE DECORATIVE WORK OF ROBERT AND JAMES
ADAM. Being a Reproduction of all the Plates illustrating
DECORATION and FURNITURE from their "WORKS IN ARCHITEC-
TURE," published 1778 — 1812. Containing 30 large folio Plates
(size, 19 inches by 14 inches) giving about 100 examples of
Rooms, Ceilings, Chimney-pieces, Tables, Chairs, Vases, Lamps,
Mirrors, Pier-glasses, Clocks, &c., &c., by these famous
Eighteenth-century Designers.
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PRACTICAL DRAPERY CUTTING. A Handbook on Cutting
and Fixing Curtains, Draperies, &c., with descriptions and
practical notes, for the use of Upholsterers, Cutters, and
Apprentices. By E. NOETZLI, formerly Lecturer and Instructor
on Upholstery at the Municipal School of Technology,
Manchester. Illustrated by 30 full-page Plates.
II
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OLD CLOCKS AND WATCHES AND THEIR MAKERS.
Being an Historical and Descriptive Account of the different
Styles of Clocks and Watches of the Past in England and
Abroad, to which is added a List of 10,000 Makers. By F. J.
BRITTEN. Second Edition, much enlarged, containing 740 pages,
with 700 illustrations, mostly reproduced from photographs.
" It is a book which may be augmented in the future, but will scarcely be replaced, and
which holds, in its way, a unique position in literature. . . . To the collector and amateur
it is indispensable.1' — Notes and Queries.
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HEPPLEWHITE'S CABINET - MAKER AND UPHOL-
STERER'S GUIDE; or, Repository of Designs for every article
of Household Furniture in the newest and most approved taste,
A complete facsimile reproduction of this rare work (published
in 1794), containing nearly 300 charming Designs on 128 Plates,
Original copies when met with fetch from £17 to ;£i8.
" Hepplewhite's designs are characterised by admirable taste and perfect workmanship. . . ,
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a few of them attain to a standard of refinement beyond which it seems hardly possible to go." —
The Cabinet Maker.
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ENGLISH FURNITURE DESIGNERS OF THE XVIIlTH
CENTURY. By CONSTANCE SIMON. Containing upwards of
200 pages, with 62 full-page Illustrations of choice and little-
known Specimens, beautifully reproduced in half-tone from
special photographs.
" This is a book of unusual excellence, for which students of Miss Simon's fascinating but
obscure subject will have very good cause to be grateful. So little is known of the lives and
personalities of the great cabinet-makers of the Georgian period that the additions to our know-
ledge which her industry and research have enabled her to make are not only of substantial value
in themselves, but will entitle her book to a distinguished place in furniture literature. The
illustrations add most appreciably to the value of this well-informed, original, and authoritative
piece of work, in which nothing is slurred over, and nothing taken for granted." — The Standard.
Demy tfo, art linen, gilt. -£i $s. net.
COLONIAL FURNITURE IN AMERICA. BY LUKE VINCENT
LOCKWOOD. An Historical and Descriptive Handbook of
the Old English and Dutch Furniture, chiefly of the i7th
and 1 8th Centuries, introduced into America by the Colonists.
With 300 Illustrations of Chests, Couches, Sofas, Tables, Chairs,
Settees, Cupboards, Sideboards, Mirrors, Chests of Drawers,
Bedsteads, Desks, &c.
To collectors, amateurs, and furniture designers this volume cannot but
be of the greatest interest and value, for while much of the furniture
illustrated is of English origin, all the examples are in keeping with the
best traditions of design and workmanship characteristic of English work of
the ,7th and ,8th centuries. 3
PUBLISHER,
94, High Holborn, London..
12
Folio, enclosed in portfolio. 155. net.
EXAMPLES OF FURNITURE AND DECORATION
DESIGNED BY THOMAS SHERATON. Containing a
selection of 167 specimens, reproduced on 16 Plates (18 ins. by
12 ins.), from his rare "Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's
Drawing Book," published 1791 — 1802.
Folio, cloth, gilt. £2 2s. net,
OLD OAK ENGLISH FURNITURE. A Series of Measured
Drawings, with some examples of Architectural Woodwork,
Plasterwork, Metalwork, Glazing, &c. By J. W. HURRELL,
Architect. Containing no full-page Plates.
For ingenuity and quaintness of design, richness of moulding, and
profusion of ornament, the old oak furniture of England is probably
unsurpassed by the contemporaneous work of any other country. Mr. Hurrell's
plates illustrate the true spirit of the work by means of an exhaustive
detailed analysis of its construction and design.
Imperial 4(0, in cloth portfolio, gilt, £i Ss.
DETAILS OF GOTHIC WOOD-CARVING. Being a series
of Drawings from original work of the XlVth and XVth
Centuries. By FRANKLYN A. CRALLAN. Containing 34 Photo-
lithographic Plates, two of which are double, illustrating some
of the finest specimens of Gothic Wood Carving extant. With
sections where necessary, and descriptive text.
FRENCH WOOD - CARVINGS FROM THE NATIONAL
MUSEUMS. A series of Examples printed in Collotype from
Photographs specially taken from the Carvings direct. Edited
by ELEANOR ROWE. Part I., Late 1 5th and Early i6th Century
Examples; Part II., 1 6th Century Work; Part III., i7th and
1 8th Centuries. The 3 Series complete, each containing 18 large
folio Plates, with Descriptive Letterpress, folio, in portfolios,
price i2s. each net ; or handsomely half-bound in one volume,
£2 ss. net.
" This invaluable collection . . . should be possessed by every carver, both professional
and amateur. . . . The plates are on so large a scale, and are so clearly produced, that they
become equivalent, for the purposes of study, to the original works." — The Architect.
Demy 8vo, cloth, gilt. 'js. 6d. net.
PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING. A Book for the Student,
Carver, Teacher, Designer, and Architect. By ELEANOR ROWE,
twenty years Manager of the School of Art Wood-Carving Ken-
sington, author of " Hints on Chip-Carving," " French Wood-
Carvings," &c. Containing 200 pages of Letterpress, with
169 Illustrations from Photographs and Drawings, showing the
Carver at work, Carving in progressive stages of execution, and
examples of Old and Modern Carvings.
"Out of the rich stores of many years' knowledge and experience of her subject, MissRowe
has given to all lovers of this beautiful handicraft a manual of the greatest value. Miss Rowe's
long experience of teaching has given her the fullest acquaintance with the needs and difficulties
of the carver, and thus her training is based upon a practical sympathy which maket it
peculiarly helpful." — The Queen.
13
Imperial 4/0, enclosed in strong portfolio Ss. 6d. net.
OLD ENGLISH WOOD-CARVING PATTERNS. A Collec-
tion of Facsimile Rubbings from Oak Furniture of the Jacobean
Period. Specially prepared for the use of Teachers, Students,
and Classes. By MARGARET F. MALIM. Comprising 30
Examples on 20 Plates (15 ins. x n ins.), reproduced by photo-
tint process.
These full-size reproductions of the delightful patterns found on Old
English furniture will be invaluable to wood-carvers of all classes ; for not
only are they exceptionally good from the standpoint of design, but so easy
of execution, that amateurs who have attained to but moderate skill in the
craft can successfully reproduce them without difficulty.
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WOOD-CARVING DESIGNS. A Series for Students, Teachers,
Designers, and Amateurs. By MURIEL MOLLER. With Fore-
word by WALTER CRANE. Six imperial sheets (31 ins. x 22 ins.),
comprising 31 Working Drawings of Panels, Frames, &c., with
Photographic Reproductions of the finished work, and 20 designs
for Furniture, in which the panels, &c., may be applied.
Crown 8vo, paper covers, is. net.
HINTS ON WOOD -CARVING FOR BEGINNERS. By
ELEANOR ROWE. Containing notes on the tools, selection of
the wood, and methods of carving, &c. Fourth Edition, revised
and enlarged, with 23 full-page and smaller Illustrations.
" The most useful and practical small book on wood-carving we know of." — The Builder.
" Full of sound directions and good suggestions." — The Magazine of Art.
Crown Svo, paper covers, is.
HINTS ON CHIP-CARVING and Simple Northern Styles. Con-
taining practical instructions on the setting out of the patterns,
on the use of the tools, and the methods of carving. By
ELEANOR ROWE. With 40 Illustrations.
"A capital manual of instruction in a craft that ought to be most popular." — Saturday Review.
Imperial folio, buckram, gilt. £3 $s. net.
ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH WROUGHT IRONWORK. A
Series of Examples of English Ironwork of the best period, with
which is included most that now exists in Scotland. By BAILEY
SCOTT MURPHY, Architect. Containing 80 fine Plates (size
21 J ins. by i4jins.), 68 reproduced from measured drawings, and
1 2 from photographs specially taken. With Descriptive Text.
" This volume stands alone as a unique collection of the best work in wrought iron done
in Great Britain. It is replete with exact delineations and precise dimensions technically and
thoroughly realised for the student and practical craftsman." — The Building Nevus.
Demy 8vo, cloth. 6s.
A HANDBOOK OF ART SMITHING. By F. S. MEYER,
Author of "A Handbook of Ornament." With an Introduction
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ARCHITECTURAL HYGIENE, or Sanitary Science as applied
to Building. By BANISTER F. FLETCHER, F.R.I.B.A., F.S.I.,
and H. PHILLIPS FLETCHER, F.R.I.B.A., F.S.I. Second Edition,
revised. With upwards of 300 Illustrations.
Royal Zvo, cloth, gilt. 1 55. net.
CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT relating to Building Works.
By FRANK W. MACEY, Architect. Revised, as to the strictly
legal matter, by B. J. LEVERSON, Barrister-at-Law.
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BOOKS FOR ARCHITECTS AND SURVEYORS.
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QUANTITIES. A Text-book explanatory of the Best Methods
adopted in the Measurement and Valuation of Builders' Work,
yth Edition, revised throughout and much improved by H.
PHILLIPS FLETCHER, F.R.I.B.A., F.S.I. With special chapters
on Cubing, Priced Schedules, Grouping, the Law, &c., and
a typical example of the complete Taking-off, Abstracting, and
Billing in all Trades. Containing about 450 pages, with 10
folding Plates and 100 other Diagrams in the Text.
" It is no doubt the best work on the subject extant." — The Builder.
"We compliment Mr. Phillips Fletcher on his revision, and on the accuracy of the book
generally." — The Surveyor.
" A safe, comprehensive, and concise text-book on an important technical subject. We
imagine few surveyors' or architects' shelves will be without it." — The British Architect.
" One of the most complete works upon the subject. Of great assistance to students." — The
Builder's Journal.
"A good treatise bya competent master of the subject." — The Building News.
B. T. BATSFORD,
PUBLISHER,
94, High Holborn, London.
24
PROFESSOR BANISTER FLETCHER'S VALUABLE TEXT-
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H. PHILLIPS FLETCHER, F.R.I.B.A., F.S.I., Barrister-at-Law.
Crown 8v&, uniformly bound in cloth, gilt. 6s. 6d. each.
LONDON BUILDING ACTS, 1894-1908. A Text-book on the
Law relating to Building in the Metropolis. Containing the
Acts in extenso, the By-laws and Regulations now in force,
notes on the Acts, and reports of the principal cases. Fourth
Edition, revised. Illustrated by 23 Coloured Plates. Including
the full text of the Amendment Acts of 1905 and 1908, and
the latest Requirements and Regulations of the London County
Council.
"IT IS THE LAW OF BUILDING FOR LONDON IN ONE VOLUME."— The Architect.
" Illustrated by a series of invaluable coloured plates, showing clearly the meaning of the
various clauses as regards construction." — The Surveyor.
DILAPIDATIONS. A Text-book on the Law and Practice. 6th
Edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged, with the addition of
all the most recent Acts and a large number of Legal Decisions,
including a chapter on Fixtures.
"An excellent compendium on the law and practice on the subject." — The Builder.
LIGHT AND AIR. With Methods of Estimating Injuries, Reporcs
of most recent Cases, &c. Illustrated by 27 Coloured Plates.
5th Edition, thoroughly revised to date, giving a concise but
practical resume of the present position of the law on the subject.
"By far the most complete and practical text-book we have seen. In it will be found the
cream of all the legal definitions and decisions."— The Building News.
VALUATIONS AND COMPENSATIONS. A Text-book on
the Practice of Valuing Property, and the Law of Compen-
sation in relation thereto. Third Edition revised and enlarged.
With an Appendix of Forms of Precedents and an extensive
series of Valuation Tables.
" Very useful to students preparing for the examination of the Surveyors' Institution." -
The Surveyor.
" A complete guide to valuing land and houses for mortgage, renting, or investment, as well
as for making valuations, when lands and houses are taken under compulsory powers by public
bodies or companies. The tables contained in the Appendix are especially valuable, and there is
an exhaustive index." — The Property Market Review.
Crown 87Y>, cloth, gilt. $s. 6d.
ARBITRATIONS. A Text-book for Arbitrators, Umpires, and all
connected with Arbitrations, more especially Architects, En-
gineers, and Surveyors, in tabulated form, with the chief cases
governing the same, and an Appendix of Forms, Statutes.
Rules, &c. Third Edition, revised and largely re-written.
" Especially useful to young surveyors as a compendium of the knowledge which professional
experience gives in more concrete form and with infinite variety of detail." — The Surveyor.
B. T. BATSFORD, Publisher, 94, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON.
BINDING SECT. APR
NA
260
A5
1907
cop. 2
Anderson, William James
The architecture of Greece
& Rome 2d ed., rev. and enl
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