ARGENTINE PLAINS AND
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WALTERLARDEN
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http://www.archive.org/details/argentiaeplainsaOOIardrich
ARGENTINE PLAINS AND
ANDINE GLACIERS
\
ARGENTINE PLAINS
AND ANDINE GLACIERS
LIFE ON AN ESTANCIA, AND AN
EXPEDITION INTO THE ANDES
BY
WALTER LARDEN, M.A.
LATE LECTURER AT THE ROYAL NAVAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, DEVONPORT
AUTHOR OF "RECOLLECTIONS OF AN OLD MOUNTAINEER"
WITH A MAP AND NINETY^NE ILLUSTRATIONS
NEW YORK: CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN
1911
• ••••»•••"
• • •<
,. • •,• • ;•• *, .' '• • • ••
'•••'••'• •• ••••••
{Ali rights reserved,)
PREFACE
For a book, written for an English public about a
foreign country or colony, to be satisfactory, it must,
I think, have one of three different origins.
The author may have spent his life, or a great part
of it, in the country of which he is writing, and at the
same time have kept in touch with England and
English life ; this last condition being essential if he
is to make his description vivid, or even intelligible,
to his English readers. I should say that we have in
our literature such pictures of, e,g,y Australian life.
But the case of a foreign country is different ; and, in
the case of Argentina in particular, this first sort of
book may never be written. For it seems to me that
the Pampas absorb men ; old Anglo-Argentines lose
touch with England, and feel no call to become
interpreters. When in England they feel cramped,
and only long to be back again in the free life of the
•' camp " X ; writing has no attractions for them.
Again, a very able and observant man might con-
ceivably make a raid into the country in question, stay
here and there for a week or so, converse with old
settlers of varied experience, and then make a good
* The plains. See p. 309.
226620
6 PREFACE
book out of his own observations, supplemented
largely by information drawn from standard works of
reference. Such books, written by travellers, are,
however, liable to be very superficial and full of
errors; most, I should say, are criticised unfavourably
by those who know the country well.
The third kind of book is that which describes
faithfully what the writer observed during a prolonged
stay in one district. Such a book may well fail to
give a comprehensive view of the whole country ;
but it should at least be fairly free from erroneous
statements, and should present with some vividness
the life of the country as the writer saw it.
It is a book of this last kind that I have attempted
to write, and my materials have been the following : —
It was as far back as 1868 that my brother went
out to Argentina, and he is there still. The regular
** letters home" told us of his experiences from the
very beginning. We read, in the earlier years, of
estancias built like forts, of unfenced cattle runs, of
encounters with Indians, of hunting in the wilds.
Then there came changes ; the retreat of the Indians
before advancing civilisation, the fencing in of runs,
the importation of better stock. Of revolutions, too,
we heard ; and later, of the spread of the industrious
Italian colonists, whose patient agricultural work has
transformed, and is still transforming, the Pampas.
In 1888-9 I p2Lid a visit of some six or seven
months to the estancia where my brother still lives.
I helped (in a very amateur way !) in the daily work,
PREFACE 7
and, by personal observation and talks with my
brother, gained a very fair idea not only of the actual
life on the estancia but also of much of the experiences
of an English settler in earlier times and in other
parts of this vast republic.
Twenty years later, in 1908-9, I paid a still longer
visit of some eight or nine months to the same
estancia, and therefore could observe the changes on
this particular estate : the advance in prosperity, and
the improvements in stock and in methods of work, as
well as the enormous agricultural development due to
the Italian colonists, to whom one- third of the estate
was at the time let out. And, with the help of a good
camera, I was able to carry back, in the form of some
800 negatives, a faithful record of the work of the
estancia, of the history of one of the disastrous locust
invasions, and of many other matters that came under
my observation. [Alas ! that my publishers can allow
me but 9 1 , out of all these, to be reproduced ! What a
vivid picture of things as they are out there could I
not have given with (say) 200 full-plate illustrations !]
Finally my notes, which were in fact the MS. of
this book in its rough form, were read carefully by
two English estancieros of good experience, so that I
may reasonably hope that no errors of importance will
be found in the statements made.
Argentina is changing rapidly ; but it may safely
be asserted that the descriptions here given of life on
an estancia and of the colonists' work will remain true
for a very long time to come. Only, as the years
8 PREFACE
pass, the zone of the most rapid changes moves
slowly outward ; so that the picture here given of
Santa Isabel as it was in 1908 may, in ten years' time,
stand for a picture of some other estancia more
remote from Buenos Aires.
Of my account of an expedition into the Andes,
and of my visits to Valparaiso and Santiago, I need
say nothing here ; it is obviously the record of a
passer-by, and, read as such, can hardly be misleading.
This book is essentially a personal narrative. But,
for the benefit of those to whom Argentina is little
but a name, I have given in an appendix some account
of the history and geography of the Republic and
some statistics indicating its present condition. This
brief summary is necessarily faulty ; and I recom-
mend all who wish to know more about these matters
to refer to other works, specially devoted to them,
published by Mr. Fisher Unwin and others.
In conclusion I would say that, for all the opinions
and views expressed in this book, and for any residual
errors that may be found in it, I alone am responsible ;
and further, that if any note an absence of personal
enthusiasm for Argentina on the writer's part, they
will find the reason for this frankly acknowledged on
p. 292 and elsewhere.
WALTER LARDEN.
Oxford, December y 19 10.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
The Voyage Out — Buenos Aires — La Plata
PACK
Small lines of steamers, advantages and disadvantages . . 23
Vigo . . . . . . . .25
Las Palmas . . . . . . . > ^1
A long spell at sea . . . . . . .28
Crossing the line ; rough treatment of steerage passengers . 29
Rio di Janeiro . . . . . . -SO
How Government got land cheap for a boulevard . . 30
Botanical Gardens and palm-trees . . . • 3^
Buenos Aires, changes since i888 . . . -32
Narrowness of the streets ; trams and noise . . -33
Bewildering network of trams . . . . -33
Does only wealth count in Buenos Aires ? . . -35
Eucalyptus and pine trees . . . . -35
The city of La Plata . . . . . .36
Museum at La Plata ; extinct armadillos, &c. . . -37
Zoological Gardens, Buenos Aires . . . '38
Botanical Gardens and Parks . . . . -39
The rifle range ; apparent slackness in military matters . 40
The great Agricultural Show ; the test and evidence of the
progress made . . . . . -41
CHAPTER II
History of the Estancia Santa Isabel — From Buenos Aires
TO THE Estancia — Changes Noticed on the Way
When, and how, Santa Isabel came into existence ; first begin-
nings . . . . . . . '42
The estancia in 1888 . . . . . -43
10 CONTENTS
PAGS
From Buenos Aires to Villa Cafias ; gain in prosperity, loss in
romance and picturesqueness . . . '45
Concerning " camp " towns . . . . .46
Argentine sunsets atone for much ugliness and monotony of
scenery ....... <S/
" Roads " in the camp . . . . . .49
Improvement in the estancia house . . . • 5°
CHAPTER III
The Estancia Santa Isabel in 1908— Changes and Pro-
gress— Stock and Crops in 1888 and 1908 Compared
Details of progress made in the past twenty years . .51
The water supply ; some history of the wells . . -54
Windmills and semi-artesian wells . . . '55
Fall in the water-level in wells . . . . -55
The water somewhat saline in Argentina . . • 56
Changes visible round the house . . . . .58
CHAPTER IV
The Population of Argentina — Natives and Colonists-
The Words " Criollo " and '* Gaucho "
Meaning of word " criollo " or " native "
Meaning of word " gaucho " . . . .
Inhabitants of country towns ....
Peons of the gaucho class ....
The old gaucho peon .....
Improvement in this class ; educational and humanising
influences ......
Some types described .....
The ItaHan colonists, purely agricultural ; a race apart, so far
The four-year system at Santa Isabel
How the colonists set to work ....
Other ways in which they earn money .
Some numerical details as to colonists' holdings
A colonist's expenses .....
Homeless life of the colonist ; always " moving on"
Not suitable for EngUsh peasant-colonists yet .
65
67
68
69
69
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
80
CONTENTS
11
The Staff and
CHAPTER V
THE Work on an
Isabel
Estancia such as Santa
The year's work .......
The stafiF dealing with the stock, from owner or manager down
to peons hired per day
Making hay or silo
Collecting men for sheep-shearing
Order of the day in shearing-time
Racing on Sundays ; gambling away wages
Not a high standard of shearing .
Yield of wool, &c. .
Dipping sheep for scab
Possibility of eradicating scab from an estate
Branding and dehorning calves .
The lazo and its use
Branding colts and mules
Counting stock
" Palenquearing " horses,
up and handled
Vaccinating cattle .
Sowing alfalfa
e., getting them used
to being tied
PAOB
8l
83
87
89
89
90
91
91
92
92
93
93
97
98
98
99
100
CHAPTER VI
Miscellaneous Matters connected with Life in the
Camp
Horse-breaking . . . . . . . loi
The recado, or Argentine saddle ..... loi
The bridle, headstall, &c. ...... 102
The domador (tamer) and his dress .... 103
Splendid teeth of the gaucho class .... 104
A camp auction ....... 105
Brick-making in the Argentine plains .... 106
Houses in Argentina, in the plains .... 109
Estancias in " Indian times " . . . . .110
Carts in the plains ....... iii
Horses used as " /afi^ros " . . . . . .112
EngHsh as spoken by Anglo-Argentines . . . .112
Denationalisation of immigrants . . . . .114
12 CONTENTS
PAOB
Absence of a new patriotism (?) . . . . • "5
Englishmen out there lack civic duties . . . .116
Higher ideals needed than the pursuit of wealth . • 117
CHAPTER VII
History of a Locust Invasion
First sight of locusts ; the armies come ! . . .118
They come first for a week to lay, not to eat . . .119
Dimensions of the locust . . . . . .119
Where they lay ....... 120
How the females bore and lay ; number of eggs, &c. . .120
A locust's jaws . . . . . . .121
What can be done ?...... 122
Possibility (?) of destroying the eggs . . . .122
Hatching out, a month after the laying . . . .123
Short account of the locust's life-history . . .123
Changes of skin . . . . . . .123
Locusts hop when small, march when larger, and finally get
wings and fly . . . . . . . 125
The new locusts at all stages very oily or juicy . . 126
Dates in, and whole period covered by, the locust invasion . 126
Burning young locusts ...... 127
Scooping them up when larger . . . . .129
Driving them into pits ...... 129
The last stage of saltona or hopper, marching armies . . 130
General devastation . . . . . • 131
The last change of skin . . . . . .131
Final stage, the voladora, or flyer . . . . 132
The end of the plague ...... 132
Mortality among voladoras ..... 132
What locusts will not eat ...... 133
Why the country is not ruined ..... 134
Possible usefulness of locusts in the past (?) . . . 135
CHAPTER VIII
Some Notes on a Few of the Argentine Birds
The rhea, or Argentine ostrich . . . . .137
The cock birds sit and rear the young .... 138
Protective mimicry (?)...... 139
CONTENTS
13
Boldness of cock ostrich when with young ones
Ostriches walking and running .
The teru-tero, or peewit
The lechuza, or small burrowing owl
A larger owl ....
The chemango, or common carrion hawk
The pechicolorado, or redbreast .
The common stork ; soaring in spirals .
The partridge race
Still flamingos to be seen
The hornero, or oven-bird, and its mud nest
The little caserela with its big nest
The brasa defuego ; protective mimicry .
Swallows, jays, doves, tijeretas, cardinales
PAGB
140
141
142
144
145
146
147
147
148
150
151
152
CHAPTER IX
Some Notes on a Few Argentine Beasts, Reptiles, and
Insects
Armadillos ; peludo, piche, mulita, maiaco
Hares ; European hare introduced and become a pest
Viscachas, comedrejas, hurones, skunks, foxes
The iguana and its ways .
The escuerzo, a joke on the part of Nature
Snakes, very few in Argentina ; the vibora de la cruz
The tarantula, an evil beast
The praying mantis, another joke of Nature's
The bicho de canasta, a strange life-history
A curious bee's nest of leaves
A burrowing wasp ; a wasp with a mud nest
Moths, fireflies, scorpions .
Leaf -storing ants ....
Mosquitos .....
154
157
158
159
161
163
164
167
168
173
173
174
176
177
CHAPTER X
Plant Life — Water — Meteorology
Trees ......
What grow in towns and open camp respectively
Pampa-grass, seems to be disappearing .
Pajaflechilla .....
Paja voladora ; a train set on fire, life lost
178
178
179
180
180
14
CONTENTS
« PAGE
Romerilla, the native poison weed . . . .181
Extraordinary increase of weeds since the camp has been
ploughed up ; thistles . , . . . 182
Native trefoil ....... 183
The water all more or less saline . . . . .183
Melincue salt laguna . . . . . .184
Weather and climate ; heat in summer . . . .185
Freshness morning and evening ; glory of the sunsets . .186
Severe frosts in autumn . . . . . .186
Mists in the plains ; not a dry climate as regards the nights
and mornings and evenings . . . . .186
Thunderstorms ....... 187
No such thing as " sheet lightning " as far as one can say . 187
Discharges mainly aerial (?)..... i88
Hot-ground mirages, or day mirages . . . .189
Cold-ground mirages, seen about dawn . . . .190
Need for telescope or binoculars in studying mirages . . 193
CHAPTER XI
To THE Andes — From Santa Isabel to Puente del Inca
— On to the Head of the Tupungato Valley, with a
Week of Camping Out there
fellow-
aridity
Men who climb regularly in the Andes .
Travelling in 1888 and travelling in 1909
Difficulties as to booking through ; friendly Chilian
travellers .....
The mountain railway ; extraordinary desolation and
of the scenery ....
Puente del Inca, what it is like .
Off to join Dr. Helbling in the mountains
Mules, Chilian saddles, and Chilian arrieros
Up the Tupungato valley ; fording rivers ; coots ; sleeping out
tentless .....
Composition of our party ; our head arriero
Dogs, to chase guanacos with
Rarity of clear streams ; glacier streams red with mud
Camp at mouth of Rio del Chorillo ; desolation ; sand-
mobile scree-slopes ....
Even the main stream slightly saline ; all springs
much salt and lime ....
dunes
contain
195
195
197
198
199
202
202
203
205
206
206
207
207
CONTENTS
16
PAGE
Tupangato sighted ; ascent of valley continued . . 208
Extraordinary powers and surefootedness of the mules . 209
Crossing small canons, dangerous work .... 209
A bad ford : how can the mules do it ? . . . .210
A third camp ; no larger animals save mules and a few guanacos
up these valleys ; no sheep or goats . . .211
Our final camp ; the limit of pasture . . . .212
The wind in the Andes ...... 213
The climbing conditions of our expedition too severe for
ordinary men . . . . . . .213
Peniientes, some discussion of their origin . . . 215
Dr. Helbling driven back by the wind ; the summit of Tupun-
gato not quite attained ..... 218
Solitary expedition to photograph Tupungato ; where future
climbers should camp when attempting this mountain . 219
Pinnacles of conglomerate : "rock Penitentes" . .220
Farewell to Tupungato — unconquered .... 220
CHAPTER XII
The Glacier Region at the Head of the Rio del Plomo
— Up the Valley of the Rio de las Toscas to the
MojoN ON THE Frontier — Back to Puente del Inca
Down to the mouth of the Rio de las Taguas
The hot saline springs and their calcareous deposits
Astray and alone .....
Another bad fording ....
Camp near the head of the Rio del Plomo valley
Reconnoitring ; snow mountains and glacier region
On to the Rio del Plomo glacier, and up one branch
Remarkable terminal cross-ridge of the glacier
The glacier all broken into Penitentes .
A mud avalanche, and what it finally leaves behind
Typical conglomerate cliffs
Curious saline springs ....
On to the glacier again ....
Leaving the Rio del Plomo glacier region
Guanacos seen .....
What the guanaco dogs can endure
Up the Cerro Rotondo ....
Waiting for provisions ; firing bushes as a signal
222
223
223
224
225
225
226
227
228
228
229
229
230
231
232
233
233
235
16 CONTENTS
PAGE
Off up the Cajon de Estoca, or Rio de las Toscas valley . 236
Plenty of salt springs (cold) and calcareous deposits . 236
Our last high camp ; a desolate spot ; cold . . . 237
The attractions of wandering in the Andes . . . 238
Off to the frontier ridge ...... 239
A cold valley ; a frozen stream under a midday summer sun . 239
Remarkable blade-like Penitentes .... 240
On the frontier ; a mojon at 16,500 feet above the sea . . 240
Return to Puente del Inca . . . . .241
CHAPTER XIII
Some General Notes, Observations, and Hints to
Travellers
Photography and cameras ..... 242
About hiring mules ...... 244
Baggage and provisions ...... 245
Some hints as to clothing ...... 246
General aspect of the mountains ..... 248
Glaciers and moraines ...... 248
Penitentes ........ 248
Bushes ; all thorny and inflammable — acerillo, cuerno de cabra,
2Lndyareta ....... 250
Reason for the thorniness (?)..... 252
Grasses — scant growth ; curious mode of growth of the com-
monest sort ....,*. 253
Explanation of this form of growth (?) . . . . 253
A few plants ....... 254
Birds and other animal life , . . . . 255
CHAPTER XIV
Near Puente del Inca and the Cumbre — To Chile;
Valparaiso and Santiago — Return to Santa Isabel
Expedition to the foot of Aconcagua
Laguna de los Horcones ; earth pillars .
At the foot of Aconcagua, 16,400 feet (?) above the sea
The rock Penitentes near Puente del Inca
A new type of arid desolation ; rounded outlines
Valle de Panta and Cerro de Santa Maria
257
258
259
259
260
261
CONTENTS
17
Enormous herds of cattle streaming over from Argentina to
Chile . . . . . . . .261
The tunnel-works on the Argentine side . . . 262
On the Cumbre ; lawlessness and murders . . . 262
Off to Chile ; driving over the Cumbre .... 264
Scenery on the Chilian side ; very grand . . . 265
Vegetation on the Chilian side ..... 266
Aridity, and yet possible fertility ..... 266
Valparaiso ; friendly spirit towards English . . . 267
Signs of the earthquake ; delightful climate . . . 267
Shipping activity ; naval schools .... 268
The lower classes a sturdy type ..... 269
Picturesque huaso dress ; gay ponchos .... 269
Women in black, with black mantillas, to be seen everywhere 269
Abundance of fruit on sale in the streets
Playa-ancha heights ; Miramar ; Vina del Mar .
Women-conductors on trams
To Santiago ; wonderful aridity en route
Situation of Santiago ; a fine city
Public spirit shown in the making of parks, &c.
The Parque Forestal ; the Mercado de las Vegas
The Cerro de Santa Lucia
The Quinta Normal, Museum, &c.
The Plaza de Armas and Cathedral
The Parque de Cousiiio and Avenida de las Delicias
Impressions of Chile as compared with Argentina
The spread and greenness of the Argentine plains very notice-
able to one returning from Chile
Back to Argentina ; a fonda at Junin
Santa Isabel once more ; wonderful recovery from the locust
invasion .......
270
270
271
271
272
273
273
273
274
274
274
276
276
277
278
CHAPTER XV
An Estancia in the Sandy Province of San Luis — A
Modern Estancia in the Province of Buenos Aires
— Back to England — Final Reflections
Different types of camp in Argentina .... 280
In the Province of San Luis ; undulating sand and trees . 281
Roads in San Luis contrasted with roads in Santa Fe . .281
Difference in the herbage ..... 281
Drying up of lagunas ...... 282
2
18
CONTENTS
The manager's house ; a larger homestead sketched out
Hollows fertile, higher ground not so ; contrast with Santa
No colonists ; direct ploughing for alfalfa
The medanos, or sand-dunes, give trouble
A laguna still full ; swans and other birds
The big Hortensia laguna and sand-dunes
Indian remains, arrowheads, &c. .
Big hawks ; Roseta ; spiders ; final remarks
A new estancia in the Province of Buenos Aires
Working either through colonists or by direct plough
alfalfa
The modern standard of comfort is higher
Natives, of gaucho class, taught to plough, &c.
Leaving Buenos Aires
The voyage back ; home waters once more
Final reflections on Argentina
PAGE
. 283
Fe 283
. 284
. 285
. 286
. 286
. 287
. 287
. 288
ing for
289
290
290
290
291
292
APPENDIX I
Some Account of the Geography and the History of
Argentina — Statistics indicating its Advance and
its Present Condition
The geography of Argentina ; the colonisation
How Spain treated her colonies ; Spaniards and criollos
Declaration of independence ; constitutional troubles in Argen-
tina ; internal equilibrium gradually attained ; Roca's
Indian campaign ; rise in value of land
The currency ; statistics as to present population and pastoral
and agricultural wealth, indicating Argentina's rapid de-
velopment ; weights and measures ....
296
298
299
302
APPENDIX II
Glossary of Argentine Words and Expressions, with
some Notes on Argentine Pronunciation . 308
Index
315
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Lazoing Calves in Argentina
Frontispiect
Vigo ; a Survival seen in 1908 .
Vigo ; the Market on the Quay
A Street in Las Palmas .
Bananas and Palms near Las Palmas .
La Plata ; Gateway of the Bosque
La Plata; the Museum ....
In the Parque Lezama, Buenos Aires .
guanacos in the zoological gardens, buenos alres
How Santa Isabel began in 1883
Santa Isabel in 1888 ....
Typical Street in a Camp-town (Melincu^, F.C.C.A
A CiLINDRO-JAGtJEL .....
A NORIA ......
The Pampas, sown with Alfalfa.
Sunset in the Pampas ....
A Gaucho, Old Style ; from a Photo taken in 1869
New Style ; Capataz, of Gaucho Class, in 1908
Cattle-peon of Gaucho Class, in 1908
PuESTO (Older Style), and Puestero, in 1908
Typical North Italian Colonist Family
Threshing Maize at a Colonist's
Tying Sheep for Shearing
The Receiving-table ....
19
FACING PAGE
. 26
. 26
. 28
28
36
. 36
. 40
. 40
• 42
. 42
. 46
. 54
• 54
. 58
• 58
. 62
. 62
. 70
• 70
. 74
. 74
. 90
. 90
20
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING PAGE
92
Carting away the Wool .
Dipping Sheep for Scab .
The Lazo falling on a Calf
Dragging a Lazo'd Calf .
Pielar-ing a Lazo'd Calf .
PlELAR-ING A YoUNG MULE (ALREADY LAZO'd)
Palenquear-ing Horses (2^ Years)
Beginning to Break-in a 3^ Years Mare
ESTANCiA IN "Indian" Times ; from a Photo taken in 1869
A Relic of " Indian " Times : Spy-tower still standing
92
94
94
96
96
102
102
no
at Melincu6, F.C.C.A., in 1909
The Locust of Argentina
Cutting-jaws of the Locust
Entensibility of Female's Body .
A Bunch of Locust's Eggs
The Hatching-out of the Locusts
Burning Young Locusts .
ScoopiNG-up Saltonas
Driving Saltonas into Pits
Change into Last Stage of Saltona
Last Stage of Saltona
March of Saltonas (Last Stage)
Saltonas on the Wall of the House
Maize Before, and the Same AfteR;
reached it . . .
Saltonas eating Maize-cobs
Willow-twig barked and gnawed by Locusts
Change to Last, le.^ to Voladora, Stage
New Voladora drying Wings and Legs
Cock-ostrich {rhea)
Baby Ostriches ....
. no
. 118
. 118
. 118
. n8
. 124
. 124
. 126
. 126
. 128
. 128
. 128
. 130
the Locusts have
. 132
. 134
. 134
. 136
. 136
. 138
. 138
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
21
FACINO PAGB
Prehistoric Armadillo, 12 feet long . . . .156
The Mulita, one of the Existing Species . . .156
The Oven-bird and its Mud Nest .... 160
Head of 4-feet long Iguana . . . . .160
The Escuerzo . . . . . . .162
A Tarantula, pinned out, from Underneath . . 162
Female Praying-mantis . . . . . .168
BicHo dk Canasta, House, and Cocoon . . .168
Puente del Inca ....... 200
Camp at the Mouth of the Rio del Chorillo . . 206
Crossing a Dry Gulley on Mules .... 206
Penitentes ........ 214
Penitentes with Rubble concealing the Connecting
Ice-base ........ 214
Our Arrieros near the Tupungato Camp . . .218
N.E. Face of Tupungato ; Glacier, etc., broken into
Penitentes ....... 218
View across the Rio del Plomo from our Camp . . 224
Glacier-region heading the Rio del Plomo Valley . 226
The Rio del Plomo issuing from the Glacier . . 226
W.N.W. Branch of the Rio del Plomo Glacier, and a
Tributary to it, both broken into Penitentes . 228
Typical Cliffs cut in Debris by River when at Flood-
level . . . . . . . .228
One of a Series of Curious Saline Springs . . . 232
Surveying on the Cerro Rotondo .... 232
Camp up the Rio de las Toscas Valley . . .238
MOJON NEAR the PORT. DEL MORADO ; ABOUT l6,500 FEET
ABOVE THE SEA (?) . . ... 238
Boss OF Yareta, showing the Spines .... 252
Medicinal Plant growing high up in the Andes . .252
22
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING PACK
So-called "Penitentes" (of Rock), near Puente del
INCA , . . . . . . .258
Road down into Chile ; from the Cumbre . . .264
Driving down into Chile ...... 264
A Glimpse into Valparaiso Harbour . . . .268
Street Scene in Valparaiso . . . . .268
In the Mercado de las Vegas, Santiago . . .272
Same Market; Zapallos and Sandi'as . . . .272
Plaza de Armas and Cathedral, Santiago . . . 274
In the Parque Cousino, Santiago .... 274
A Dried-up Laguna in the Province of S. Luis, showing
A Saline Deposit . . . . . . .286
The Hortensia M^danos, and Laguna, in the Same Part. 286
Sketch-map Illustrating the Expedition into the Andes 194
[*<,* Two of the illustrations are reproductions of photos taken in 1869 by
the writer's brother, and one is derived from a sketch made by the writer in
1889. The remaining eighty-eight are reproductions of photos taken by the
writer in 1908-9.]
ARGENTINE PLAINS
CHAPTER I
THE VOYAGE OUT — BUENOS AIRES — LA PLATA
In the month of August, 1908, after an interval of
twenty years to the very day, I set out for a second
time for Buenos Aires ; and again it was on a vessel
belonging to one of the smaller lines — a vessel of
some 6,400 tons, having a speed of about ten knots.
These smaller lines, in which the number of saloon
passengers may be anything up to about twenty,
offer some advantages. You are quiet, and you can
wear flannels all day long ; this last being no small
gain in the tropics, where white shirts may become
unstarched after half-an-hour's wear. If you have
three congenial companions you can play games all
day long, and you can with them visit the various
ports touched at very comfortably. If you like fresh
air, you will usually find the breezy smoking-room
upon deck available for sleeping in.
But there are drawbacks !
On such a small ship one cannot break up into sets
3^.;:.^,:: : THE VOYAGE OUT
in a natural way. One is brought into very close
contact with all one's fellow passengers, some of
whom may be quite uncongenial. Too often, inter-
course with some of these leads to jars, while the
holding aloof gives offence. The small ship-world is
cut off from all larger outside interests, and mole-hills
grow to mountains.
I myself suffered much from a fellow-passenger,
quite excellent, I believe, as a judge of oxen, who
** fancied himself " as an expert in science. I could
not agree that Mars (which I saw) was invisible
because it was "below the Northern hemisphere,"
nor that the mountains round Rio de Janeiro were
" under the sea a thousand years ago " ; nor did my
scientific studies at Oxford enable me to endorse his
views on the theory of binoculars, nor as regards the
compass. And my disagreement seemed to arouse
in him a singularly acute form of irritation.
However, in spite of some jarring, we all got on
together fairly well until near the end of the voyage.
Then there were earthquakes in evidence and erup-
tions imminent ; but — we landed !
Our first halt was at Vigo, which we reached at
3 p.m. August 2 1 St. I had been fortunate enough to
find on board a Mr. and Mrs, who were known
to me as having been neighbours of my brother in
Argentina; and we had adopted a nice young
Englishman as a fourth. It was a pleasant surprise
to find at every port that the landing and return could
be arranged for easily and reasonably ; but I would
VIGO 26
advise travellers to bargain for the return journey in
a boat and to pay at the end.
Vigo appeared to me to be a town that had long
been dead or sleeping, and was now waking to
modern life. There was much of ruin and decay ;
but everywhere there was also building ; and lines
were being laid for the electric tram. Fancy there
being a primitive ox-cart, whose wheels were very
nearly solid discs of wood, and electric trams in the
same street !
We had excellent coffee at an hotel, and then hired
a two-horse carriage (at only three pesetas, or less
than half-a-crown, an hour) and drove up to the fort
so as to get a view.
The fort itself was a mere antiquated ruin of stone ;
one modern shell would have made the ruin complete.
I tried my book-learned Spanish on an officer, asking
him if I might photograph it. He told me that was
''prohibido" ; and I quite understood how ashamed
any soldier must have felt of the picturesque but
wholly inefficient old place.
I had been accustomed on the Continent (even in
Switzerland) to a certain degree of dryness relatively
to our own humid country, where every nook is filled
with flowers, moss, or ferns. But, turning to the
country here, the impression of aridity was almost
startling, and weighed on me. Still the view was
fine. Barren it was ; but bold and free. The country
is hilly and the whole effect picturesque ; the fine
masses of eucalyptus and pine-trees relieve the
26 THE VOYAGE OUT
desolation. One could become attached in a personal
manner to such a land, as one — or at least I — could
not to the monotonous green plains of alfalfa of
modern Argentina.
On returning to the hotel we tried to pay our
coachman with half-a-crown. He was very good-
natured about the matter, but quite incredulous as to
the value of the coin. When we changed it at the
hotel for more than three pesetas he would not accept
the odd bit, but told us with light-hearted cheerfulness
to give it to a beggar. He was a capital sort of
fellow.
Next day I managed to get on shore again and
took photographs in the market. The illustration
shows how the women carry the heavy baskets on
their heads, using a pad. This method of carrying
gives an erect and well-balanced gait.
At 11.45 a.m. August 22nd we started off again.
Being at sea is — being at sea ; the scenery does not
change, and nothing happens. Life seems to stop
still and to contract until one reaches port again. We
were roused into more active consciousness when on
the evening of August 25th we found we were near
Las Palmas. We had to cruise about, awaiting the
day ; and we four only got some three hours on shore
on August 26th. I visited the place again on my
return, and will put together here what I noticed in
the two visits.
Las Palmas is the chief town of the island called
the ** Gran Canaria," one of the Canary Islands. It is
VIGO. A SURVIVAL ; SEEN IX IQOS.
VIGO. THE MARKET ON THE QUAY.
To face p. 26.
LAS PALMAS 27
mountainous, and appeared to me to be volcanic ; the
rock that I saw was, I should say, of the lava order
and somewhat porous. The breakwater, which serves
also as the quay, lies at some distance from Las
Palmas itself ; and, after landing, you drive along the
coast to the town.
There is little beauty in this drive ! We found it hot
and dusty ; straggling, ugly houses spoiled the road,
while failing to convert it into a street. Everywhere
was sand ; sand on the road, sand heaped up in dunes,
and sand collected about buildings and posts like the
snow in Switzerland in winter. I noted at the time,
*' this sand seems out of keeping with the character of
the island " ; and on my return voyage I learned that
it comes from Africa, blown over 1 30 miles of sea at
least. More; the sand reaches Teneriffe, some 190
miles from the mainland whence it comes.
The impression that I received of the population
was that they were a very mongrel lot, with much
negro blood in them. But I must add that, on my
return, after having got used to the Argentine
population, in which there is much mixed blood in
the lower strata, the Las Palmas folk impressed me
less unfavourably than when I first saw them. When
once we got to the town itself, the ugliness dis-
appeared ; the buildings were good, and the palm-
trees and other tropical or sub-tropical trees and
shrubs were picturesque and interesting to un-
accustomed eyes.
We stopped to see the Cathedral. The interior
28 THE VOYAGE OUT
was at the time somewhat blocked and disfigured by
a huge catafalque under which was to lie the body
of a Bishop of Las Palmas who had died recently.
But the whole effect was impressive ; and I was
much struck there, as I have been on the Continent,
with the organisation of a Church that can plant such
relatively magnificent buildings in such Heaven-
forsaken, out-of-the-way places.
The wardrobe of vestments, displayed for us with
much pride by a priest, did not impress me ; but
certainly it was a wonderful collection for a place
like Las Palmas.
Next we got into our carriage again and drove
uphill towards '* Monte," a mountain resort (I was
told) that limitations of time did not allow us to
reach.
Though the hills were bare and arid and hot,
we saw that bananas and other fruits grew luxuriantly
in the hollows — perhaps under irrigation.
On our return to Las Palmas we went into the
fruit market. A wonderful profusion of fruits !
Bananas, figs, apples, pears, pumpkins, melons,
grapes, plums, prickly pears, and passion-flower fruit.
Certainly the soil must be productive.
That was all we had time to see ; at lo a.m. on
August 26th we started once more, and this time
for a really long spell — to Rio di Janeiro.
• • • • •
We saw whales blowing, threshers leaping (attack-
ing the whales, I suppose), bonitos jumping, flying
A STREET IX LAS PALMAS.
BANANAS AND PALMS NEAR LAS PALMAS.
To face p. 38.
CROSSING THE LINE 29
fish; and once we crossed a tract of green water
(instead of the usual blue). I imagine that this was
a current of warm water in which organic life of some
sort abounded ; for green water implies a coarser-
grained suspended matter.
Stars changed slowly ; otherwise, and save for the
increasing heat, one seemed to be the centre of a
fixed and sharply-defined circle of ocean ; we were
**at sea," rather than sensibly travelling.
On September 2nd we expected soon to cross the
line, so there were ** Neptune " ceremonies. Judging
by what I saw, this custom would be " more honoured
in the breach than in the observance." The men —
hardly any are true sailors in these boats — began with
rum. The captain took care that first-class passengers
were treated fairly gently. But the case of the
steerage passengers was very different. These were
emigrants, scantily provided with clothes, ignorant
for the most part of English, and totally devoid of
any power of seeing fun in the function ("and that
was scarcely odd, because there " was not any there).
These men should be protected against such brutal
bullying. When one sees four or five well-fed and
rum-excited men drenching and covering with a filthy
mixture of soft-soap and tar a yelling and biting
emigrant who has probably no change of clothes and
no conveniences for cleaning and drying himself and
his garments, it is sickening. The thing, as I saw it,
should be stopped.
At 7 p.m. on September 9th we anchored inside
30 THE VOYAGE OUT
the islands Pay and Mai, near Rio, and next day had
four hours on shore. But, alas for our anticipations !
mist shrouded the hills ; and a gray sky took all the
brightness from what should be a most beautiful
harbour.
Our short visit left me with regrets that we had
not had fine weather, and twenty-four, or even forty-
eight hours to spend on shore ; for there are expedi-
tions to be made.
The modern main street is the fine Avenida
Central ; in this the up-and-down traffics are each
provided with a broad carriage-way ; while down the
centre, separating these, runs a line of great arc-light
standards. Round these last there are not only refuges
for foot-passengers, but even gay flower-beds. I was
told that the Government got the land for this huge
street very cheaply by rather sharp practice. The
plan was kept secret ; and the owners of the houses
that would have to be demolished were asked for a
return of the values of their properties. They, antici-
pating taxes, rated them very low, perhaps even at
one-third their values ; and then they were bought
out at their own valuation.
The narrow old main street looks very unpreten-
tious in comparison ; but it is still a great place for
shops, and the curio-shop is there. One could spend
a fortune on the lovely feather-work, familiar to
readers of Prescott, butterflies of enormous size and
wonderful hues, jewelry, tropical beetles mounted in
gold, and all sorts of things not to be found in London.
RIO DE JANEIRO 31
We took tram and made for the celebrated Botanical
Gardens.
At Buenos Aires, Valparaiso, Santiago, and other
sub-tropical places, the chief palms are those, of no
great height, whose stems bristle all the way up with
what appear to be the severed ribs of the huge
fronds ; and any clean-stemmed palms are stunted.
But as one approaches tropical Rio one is aware of
lofty trees whose bare trunks rise like columns of
uniform thickness to an enormous height ; the palm-
trees of the tropical islands of which one has read
when a boy. And in the Botanical Gardens there
are magnificent avenues of these ; some bearing
coconuts, other without them, the female and male
of the coco-palm respectively. But a drizzle much
spoiled our visit there.
On the tram-ride we saw wonderful trees and
plants in the gardens of the villas and houses standing
by the road-side. One tree especially remains pictured
in my memory. It had leaves of an intense and
translucent crimson that resembled the petals of some
magnificent flower ; I was told that it was a Poin-
settia.
We sailed again at 2.30 p.m on September loth ;
and after some difficulties with fog — through which
our captain navigated us very well — we picked up our
pilot at Ricolada light-ship, and anchored a long way
(12 miles .'^) off Buenos Aires during the night follow-
ing September 14th.
Next day the tender took us in an hour and three-
32 BUENOS AIRES
quarters to the quay ; and, thanks to the presence of
my brother and an emissary of the agents, Messrs.
Furlong, I got all my things, photographic stores in-
cluded, through the customs without examination ;
and soon we were at the comfortable, if somewhat
expensive, Phoenix Hotel.
I spent some little time in Buenos Aires with my
brother and his family after my arrival, and again
spent some ten days there by myself the following
June, when I was leaving ; so altogether I was able to
see and to photograph a good deal.
My recollections of the city from my visit of 1888
were somewhat faint ; but two important changes I
did notice. The first was in the sanitary arrange-
ments in the hotels ; and of this I will say no more
than that everything was now as it should be.
The second was in the paving of the streets, and in
the trams.
In 1888 all the streets were paved so roughly that
no carriage could drive along them save at walking-
pace. There were some lines for horse-trams, and all
the carriages were built of the right width for these ;
so that a carriage would trot along, the wheels on the
rails, and would have to stop and pull out of the way
when a tram came.
Further, the tram-horses were wretched, and one
more than suspected that there was much brutality in
the way in which they were used — and used up.
In some of the main streets blocks of stone would
be missing ; and it was quite possible to break one's
TRAMS 33
ankle, just outside some magnificent-looking hotel, in
a faulty place where a shadow from the arc-light — for
even in 1888 they had electric lighting — fell.
Now, in 1908, all the streets were beautifully
smooth — asphalt or wood, or both ; I forget now —
and electric trams of the overhead system ran along
practically all. I noticed that the street called the
Calle Florida was still, as in 1888, the fashionable
town-promenade, and had no tram along it.
But the defect of narrowness still remained ; and
both trams and carriages ran but one way along each
street. In the heart of the town I saw but one wide
street, viz., the Avenida de Mayo.
Oh ! the noise of the trams ! Wherever you go
there are these clanking cars hurrying along, trailing
an aerial screech behind them. The pavements are
crowded with foot-passengers ; but you must beware
of stepping off into the street to avoid collisions, for a
car will be on you at once.
And what a tangled web they weave every hour and
minute through the city. Do the conductors know
where they are going ? I knew one passenger who
did not. One day I came back, from a visit to La
Plata, to the station called the Casa Amarilla, and
took a tram with a view to getting to the lower end of
the Calle Cuyo. I tried to make out whether it was
the right tram; only the conductor, like (in my
opinion) all small officials in Argentina, was not help-
ful. By looking at the names of the streets and at a
small map I found I was going wrong ; but the con-
3
34 BUENOS AIRES
ductor seemed to think I had better get thoroughly
wrong before getting right again, and so I finally
reached the *'Once" station, very far from my
destination.
There I consulted one of the small, quiet, dark
policemen — (all the foot-police seem to be of some
small, dark, olive-complexioned race ; an Indian type
I should guess) ; — he gave me some hurried directions
and then would help me no further. I got into
another tram ; that was wrong ! Shooting out of this
I attacked another small dark policeman ; again a
hurried direction, followed as before by complete un-
consciousness of my presence. By chance I wandered
to a very " trammy "-looking corner, and there
enquired of a third small dark policeman. As his
directions were simply numero veinte-ocko (No. 28), I
did understand ; and I soon had the pleasure of seeing
the numbers of Calle Cuyo running down from an
ambitious 2000 to the modest 337 that was enough
for me. I had taken an hour and a half over the
journey instead of twenty minutes or less. |
As regards the gaieties of Buenos Aires, I can say
nothing, save that, in the way of cheap entertainments,
cinematographs were much in evidence.
It is, I believe, a city — as Argentina is a country
— where only wealth counts. Everywhere there are
good shops whose contents argue the commonness of
riches and luxury. There are theatres, races ; in the
park at Palermo splendid motors speed along the broad
ways ; hurry, crowd, and stir. A city to do business
TO LA PLATA 35
in, to find gaieties in, to spend money in. Not a city
to rest in, not a capital to get attached to ; so at least it
seemed to a middle-aged Englishman of quiet tastes.
I was told by people who admire the country that no
man could be distinguished in Buenos Aires save by
wealth ; that a writer, an inventor, a traveller, a man
of law, a politician, has no standing as such. On the
whole, I should say, the religion of Buenos Aires is
materialism. I was once reasoning with an Anglo-
Argentine concerning the value of literature in
education. Finally he said, " Well, Mr. Larden, it
comes to this ; I never knew a man yet who was fond
of poetry who ever gained a dollar on the Bolsa
(stock-exchange). I think that settles it ! " I agreed
that it did ; for what was the use of saying more ?
To return. As I have said, I saw nothing of the
gaieties of Buenos Aires ; but I visited the city of
La Plata (some hour or hour and a half distant by
train), the Zoological Gardens, various parks, the
Botanical Gardens, the Rifle Range, some races
(which were much as in England) ; and, finally, that
most important of all national functions, the great
Agricultural Show.
First, La Plata. From Buenos Aires you travel
over flat country that would be very monotonous, or
even (since it has lost its wildness) ugly, but that
everywhere, especially around the houses, there have
been planted fine groups of evergreen trees of forest
magnitude, pines and eucalypti. What a boon,
36 LA PLATA
from the point of view of beauty, the (Imported)
eucalyptus has been to Argentina! It grows rapidly
there in many parts ; though not (I was told) in the
open plains inland. Round the houses, too, I saw the
smaller kind of palms ; but these I believe require
even more shelter from wind.
La Plata seemed to me to be a city of the dead,
such as was found, deserted, in one of the stories of
the Arabian Nights. Splendid public buildings,
gleaming white gateways, magnificent avenues and
groves — and no houses, no people ! That is, the
streets were not much better than those of a camp
town, lines of scattered houses of no uniformity, and
the roads were in a chaotic state.
It was, I believe, planned as a great capital worthy
of the important province of Buenos Aires, and was
then left unfinished and never adopted by the wealthy
classes and by the tradesmen who supply their wants.
Buenos Aires remains the capital and centre of
Argentina, and also the business capital of the pro-
vince. La Plata is the political capital of the pro-
vince of Buenos Aires, and no more. So at least it
seemed to me ; I give my impressions merely (in this
case) as a tourist.
Its aspect gave a curious uplift to my mind after I
had been in Argentina some nine months (for it was
on my way back that I visited it). Here, at any rate,
was one flight of imagination, one aspiration after
some ideal of beauty and grandeur, in this very
material country. But it seemed to have failed ;
"■-. ^ .-.rtK».i
LA PLATA : GATEWAY OF THE BOSQUE.
LA PLATA : THE MUSEUM.
To face p. 36.
EXTINCT ARMADILLOS 37
beautiful in itself, but out of place here as a Grecian
statue in a Stock Exchange.^
I went first to the Museum, a magnificent building.
There I saw, among other things, the shells and
skeletons of the huge extinct armadillos, some about
II to 12 feet long.
It was interesting to note that these monsters,
unlike the modern representatives of the race, had
rigid shells. The tails were very " weird," and they
had joints. [See illustration facing p. 156.]
Giant sloths, too, were there, of still more enormous
size. Under a glass case I saw what I was told were
relics lately collected, by a British expedition, in
Patagonia. I had read that the skin of a giant sloth
had been found there, among implements of human
origin, and that hopes had been entertained that a
living specimen might be discovered. Here was the
skin, — there were bones of a sort imbedded in it,
making it a kind of cuirass — awls, &c., of human
workmanship, and the skeleton of the sloth itself ; but
no remains of human bodies. No living specimen
of the sloth was found. The skeleton was not of
the antediluvian hugeness of some of the others ;
but yet it was about 8 feet long.
Dr. Schiller, Professor of Mineralogy, whom I had
met in the Andes, was most kind and hospitable ; and
* The reader must remember that I visited this practical,
prosperous, and advancing country too late in life to take to it
thoroughly. One should emigrate to such countries when
younger, before one's tastes are formed and confirmed.
38 BUENOS AIRES
all whom I came across were very courteous and
patient with my weak Spanish. My ignorance of the
subject did not enable me to grasp all that I was told
of the connection between sloths and armadillos,
and of the gradual changes that took place in the
nature of the protective armour ; but I gathered that
there were such links, and that such changes had
gradually, through long ages, occurred. Another very
interesting collection was that of existing armadillos;
there appeared to be many more than the four sorts
that I had come across.
The Zoological Gardens at Buenos Aires were very
fine. These belong to the city of Buenos Aires (or
is it to the Republic ?)y and not to a private society, as
with us. It is probably for this reason, and because
of the relative cheapness of land, that there is a unity
of plan and an abundance of space that our Gardens
lack. We rightly value our English principle of
private enterprise ; but I should say that in Latin
South-America nothing of this public kind would be
done unless the State or municipalities took it in
hand.
Certainly everything in these Gardens was well
done. The condor cage was a huge erection ; in it
hawks and even eagles were flying about quite freely,
though the condors themselves, with their immense
spread of wing, had to be content with very short
flights.
An ant-bear was being led about by an attendant,
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS 39
and was very quaint. But it seems rather hard on
it to have been made so ridiculous just in order that
it might be able to eat ants.
The guanacos (animals of the llama race) were quite
delightful. There was a laughable aspect of old-
maidish primness and mild displeasure about the
animal when he (or she) began to think the visitor
(with a camera) a little too observant and somewhat
lacking in good manners. Sometimes, again, they
would come quite close and regard me with a very
gentle and bright-eyed curiosity. Of their spitting
habits I had no experience.
Of the fine lions and tigers, the elephants (including
a baby-elephant, born in the Gardens), and a very
lofty giraffe, of tapirs, pumas, jaguars, carpinchos (the »
largest existing rodent, I am told), and of the many
other animals to be seen there, all in full health and
animation under the warm Argentine sun and clear
sky, it would take too long to tell.
The Botanical Gardens well repaid a visit. To me,
no botanist, the great beauty of these Gardens lay in
a picturesque building of rough brick, very mellow
in colour, that faced the entrance-gate. From all
points of view it and its attendant palms and other
trees and shrubs had a most attractive appearance.
Indeed the soft, dark- red Argentine brick, usually put
together with bad mortar (if not mud) that soon wears
away and leaves a rough surface, is a most picturesque
building material ; it might take an English brick
house some two hundred years to look as old and as
40 BUENOS AIRES
mellow in tone as does an Argentine house in twenty
or even fewer years.
The Parque Lezama too, though small, was very
beautiful; ,and here again the red brick played its part.
The magnificent Palermo Park, with its broad
drives, its trees, and well-watered lawns, is a great
feature of Buenos Aires and a grand possession for
the city ; but it hardly lends itself to description.
One day a young Englishman, born in the country
and therefore liable to military service, took me to
have some rifle-shooting at the great city range.
There were innumerable targets of all sizes, but (I
think) none disappearing and none moving. You
could borrow a rifle (a Mauser made in Germany,
but with some slight modifications ordered by the
Argentines) and buy cartridges at $i paper (about
IS. 9d.) per twenty-five; there were no fees to be paid,
and all was well arranged.
But so far as I could learn about it from my com-
panion— an Argentine, legally, as already stated— the
military system in Argentina would appear to be very
slack. He had had six months' training some eight
or nine years ago ; that was all. He said that men
were supposed to keep up shooting ; but he had
never shot since, and had not been "run in." As
to periodical drill, that was not even in theory pro-
vided for. If his case was typical, an Argentine
army would be little better than a mob of men with
rifles. So I put down Argentina as another nation
that would do well to consider Switzerland's system.
IN THE PARQUE LEZAMA, BUENOS AIRES.
^GUANACOS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, BUENOS AIRES.
To facs p. 40.
THE AGRICULTURAL SHOW 41
But the sight in September was the great Agricul-
tural Show; that, watched year after year, affords a
good means of measuring the progress of the Re-
public. For, so far, Argentina's wealth lies in her
soil. Of what I take to be the main cause of this
enormous progress I shall speak later.
Here were now to be seen bulls worth from ;^500
to ;^3,ooo each ; Clydesdale and other draught stal-
lions worth ;^300 ; rams from £Z to over ;^200 ; and,
as a sign of wealth, racehorses up to ;^3,500. There
were all sorts of pumps (for watering the stock)
worked by windmills or petrol engines ; cutting,
loading, and threshing machines of the latest pattern ;
mechanical shearers ; locust-destroying machines ; in-
genious arrangements with sliding doors for working
cattle speedily and without injury — in some cases
doing away with the old rough methods of lazoing
and throwing the poor animals ; wire-fence menders ;
everything, in fact, that has been devised for advanced
farming and stock-rearing.
So here, in the vital centre of the Republic, I could
see at a glance how the country had been transformed
since I had last seen it. Of the actual changes I was
now to get a closer view ; for our stay in Buenos
Aires was over, and we were off next day to the
estancia away in the province of Santa F6, some
eight hours distant by train, where I had stayed
twenty years before. I remembered well how things
were there then ; and anticipated much interest in
seeing how matters stood now.
CHAPTER II
HISTORY OF THE ESTANCIA SANTA ISABEL — FROM
BUENOS AIRES TO THE ESTANCIA — FIRST IMPRES-
SIONS AS REGARDS THE CHANGES AND PROGRESS
VISIBLE EVERYWHERE
I WILL now say something of the origin and history of
the estancia that I was to visit once more after this
long interval. In the year 1882 my brother was
asked by the firm of Drabble (now converted into, or
absorbed by, the '* United Estancias Company, Ltd." )
to hunt up the boundaries of, and to report on the
capacities of, a piece of camp of six square leagues
(about 60 square miles) that had fallen into their
hands in 1857, and to which they had paid no attention
since. And rather later he received an offer from
them to manage it on shares (a system still in vogue,
and affording to capable and hard-working men of
negligible capital the best means of acquiring wealth) ;
they, of course, supplying all the money required
for fencing, building, and stocking. It lay some
100 miles from Rosario de Santa F6 ; there were no
fences round it nor any between it and Rosario ; all
the country was open ; all was wild camp, haunted
only a few years before by Indians.
42
HOW SANTA ISABEL BEGAN IX 1883.
(From a sketch taken in 1889)
SAXTA ISABEL IN 1 888.
To face p. 43.
HISTORY OF SANTA ISABEL 43
So he went down with some peons and arranged
with fencers ; living for a time in a covered cart, and
for seven months in a turf hut. Many a time had he
great difficulty in hitting off this dot in the vast plains
when returning from a solitary ride. This hut was
actually standing in 1888 when I paid my first visit;
it was buried in the monte (or grove) of peach-trees,
and was used as a hen-house. But I sketched it with
my brother leaning up against it, abolished the monte,
put in a sunset — and there I had the lonely pioneer
beginning his work !
I may mention here that he found gauchos and
others squatted on the land, and had to turn them
off. One man, of a superior class, occupied some
1 5 square miles ; he could not be got rid of for many
years, as there was a dispute as to boundaries. But
at last, after a wearisome lawsuit, he, too, went.
Gradually fences were put up, stock bought, brick
buildings erected, wells dug ; and before long there
was a fenced-in property with its estancia-house and
its staff of men.
So when I visited Santa Isabel in 1888 I found a
dwelling-house of brick with three good rooms, offices,
outbuildings, peons' quarters, and all that was necessary
for the comfort of an unmarried man accustomed to
the camp life of the earlier days of estancias in
Argentina. This little house, shown in the illus-
tration, still forms the core of the much larger and
more luxurious home of to-day. But things were then
in the rough. We had no milk nor butter, since there
44 ARGENTINE PLAINS
was no one who understood dairy-work ; there was
hard biscuit instead of bread, since no one there could
make bread ; vegetables were a delicacy unknown
save when, in the suitable season, pumpkins hap-
pened to have been sown and to be growing some-
where (for there was no gardener) ; and our meat was
the flesh of cows or sheep too thin and tough to sell !
We got up before sunrise, and went to bed at lo p.m.
My brother, judging by a still rougher standard, by
his earlier experiences, considered this *' luxury " ;
I did not!
There was a fence round the 60 square miles (or
rather round 45 of them, since 1 5 square miles were
still occupied by the native mentioned above), and
only about one fence across the property. And, save
for a patch near the house and a bit near a puesto,
there was no alfalfa ; all was native grass, of one sort
or another, that was poor food even in summer, and
in winter very bad ; nor could hay be made of it.
But the picturesque element was not lacking, and I
used to enjoy this. For there were, inside the ring-
fence of the property, various smaller lagunas carrying
duck of several species, and in the lower-lying parts
one often roused flights of birds, looking like snipe,
very good to eat ; while, when once I had passed
outside, all was open camp right away to the furthest
limit of my rides, viz., to Melincue, the camp town
some 16 miles off. In this vast outer region there
were larger lagunas, fringed with pampa-grass, where
swans, flamingos, spoonbills, ibis, egrets, duck of all
BUENOS AIRES TO SANTA ISABEL 45
sorts, and many other birds were to be found ; and I
was free to shoot anywhere. That aspect of Argen-
tina— the unspoilt Pampas — I thoroughly liked.
As regards material prosperity, at the time of this
first visit, not much could be said ; the cattle and
sheep were of a poor sort, and very little money
came in.
Such was the Santa Isabel that I remembered.
Well then ; on September 22, 1908, we set out from
Buenos Aires by train for "home." In the plains of
Argentina it is much as at sea ; around you is the
sharp circle of the plains, moving with you. I always
felt that one should say, ** We left such and such a
place, and after so many hours in the plains " (as ** at
sea ") *' we reached our destination."
It was much the same in this respect in 1908 as
in 1888 ; but now there were fences everywhere.
Everywhere alfalfa instead of native grasses, and
everywhere thistles — looking like a canker on the new
civilisation. All wildness was gone, and the monotony
was more oppressive than ever to a mountain-lover.
I was, however, glad to see whole flocks of ostriches
(the rhea) ; these, it seemed, were preserved by some
for ornament, by others for a small profit. For the
feathers are used for fly-brooms or dusting-brooms ;
and the right to pluck the birds once a year is
sometimes given to makers of these brooms for an
annual payment of about $4 (about 7s.).
Travelling was comfortable, but terribly dusty work ;
46 ARGENTINE PLAINS
long dust-coats of thin material were the usual outside-
wear for men. I may add that the meals on board
the trains are satisfactory ; that all respectable people
have to travel first-class ; and that berths for night
journeys can be obtained for a moderate extra
payment.
In the afternoon we reached the station of Villa
Canas, a typical camp-town distant some 15 miles
from the estancia.
They are queer places, these camp-towns! Re-
member that there are no trees in these flat plains
of alluvial soil, save such as are planted ; that such
a town has to become fairly big and important
before its municipality thinks of rendering it less ugly
by such planting ; that the inhabitants don't care
twopence — so it seemed to me — for the graces of life ;
that there is no stone anywhere, so that the streets
are deep in mud or dust according to the season ;
that extra buildings with galvanised iron roofs are
rigged up anywhere and anyhow ; and that streets
are dusty tracks bounded by irregular lines of detached
houses ; that dead dogs and the like are left in situ
until some policeman is ordered to tow them away and
leave them somewhere further off. Remember — but
you cannot remember what you have not seen !
Perhaps, however, I have said enough to suggest
the unkemptness, Godforsakenness, and dreariness of
a small camp-town on a windy day ! I have seen the
dust above Melincud from a distance of 1 8 miles.
Of course, in photographing streets in these towns
it
i'l
<!
3 ?
OS u
SMALLER CAMP-TOWNS 47
I went where there were trees, and I chose the best
points of view ; I could not immortalise the ugliness !
Hence the scenes, were idealised in my photographs.
A curious feature of the houses — which, by the
way, are all one-storied — of these smaller camp-towns
is that they have sham fronts ; that is, the side facing
the street is built up, so as to look more imposing, the
roof behind it being at a lower level. And, since the
houses are as a rule disconnected, you see them side-
ways as you walk up the street, and discover the fraud.
One beauty, however, they have, and that is colour.
And the splendid Argentine sun, as evening comes
on, lends to all this ugly mixture of dust and brick
buildings a glory that is quite startling. And my
nature, that seemed weighed down by the hot and
ugly reality of the noon-day, used to revive when I
felt the cool air of evening and saw everything
idealised in the sunset glow. Truly the contrast was
marvellous, and, as each day closed, the whole scene
was transformed.
The inns, or fondas, of these minor towns seemed to
be all much of the same type. Most of those that I
saw were corner houses, one-storied of course. You
entered by the bar, which was also a restaurant for
peons and others of the lower classes, unkempt and
swarthy men, who sat about drinking and playing
cards. Beyond a screen lay a more private salle-^-
manger. A door from this led into an open yard or
patio, round which ran the bedrooms. Food and
48 ARGENTINE PLAINS
sleeping accommodation might be tolerable, or even
fairly good (only you must not mind a taint of garlic
in everything) ; but in one respect, not unconnected
with sanitation, reform is much needed, and until
there is a change no Englishman (I cannot answer
for other nations) would willingly spend twenty-four
hours in a fonda. In 1888 things in this respect
were nearly as bad in the otherwise luxurious hotels
in Buenos Aires.
But all this time we are waiting at Villa Cafias
station. Here it was evident at once that my brother
was at home. In Buenos Aires the estancieros who
have come in from the plains to have a good time
are nobodies relatively to the wealthy men of busi-
ness of the city ; unless, indeed, they belong to some
well-known family of enormous wealth, and are living
as owners on one of the family estates. But here, out
in the **camp," the estanciero is a big man! We
were met by a covered wagonette (or volanta)
drawn by four horses for ourselves, and there was
one of the huge two-wheeled wagons for my big
chest and numerous other pieces of luggage, and
all that of my brother and his family. Our coach-
man was a good-looking young peon with a marked
strain of African blood in him, and the African love
of smartness and brightness of colour in dress was
much in evidence. He was, I learned, one of the
more confidential peons (peones de confianza). Such
men, even though they hold no permanent or highly-
paid post on the staff of the estancia, are trusted to
CHANGES IN THE CAMP SINCE 1888 49
ride into town with, or to fetch, considerable sums of
money. In Argentina it is not the gaucho class that
is untrustworthy.
In 1888 my drive from Melincu6 had been over
open camp, through the tall native grasses ; we saw
no fence until we reached the estate.
Alas, for the change! Prosperity had come, and
romance had gone for ever.
We now drove between wire fences along what are
called "roads." Two fences are run some twenty to
fifty yards apart (it varies in different parts and even
over different reaches of the same road), and all traffic
has to go between them. There is not the smallest
stone in all the vast alluvial plains of Argentina, and
it can be imagined to what a condition of dust such
'* roads " are in general reduced in the more normal,
dry weather, and what impassable depths of mud are
found in the hollows during, and long after, one of the
rarer periods of rain. When a road is ** made " (as in
a camp town, or across some bad, miry place) it is
only made with earth, and in general it is not made
at all. So, in a cloud of dust, we drove along. To
either side now, instead of the wild prairie, lay fenced
paddocks of alfalfa, in which cattle of quite a new and
well-bred appearance lazily fed or stood replete and
idle ; or else I saw vast sheets of linseed, maize, or
wheat, indicating a colonist's holding. And the
same changes were visible when we passed inside
the boundary fence of Santa Isabel. All looked
prosperous, and suggested wealth-making ; but I
4
60 ARGENTINE PLAINS
must confess that my heart sank a little as I
wondered what I could do each day, with the
resources of open camp and lagunas thus vanished !
But there could be no feeling other than that of
pleasure in seeing the changes effected in the house
itself. Rooms had been built on, pictures and
trophies were on the walls, good furniture and com-
fortable chairs abounded ; the bachelor's living-place
had disappeared, and there was a home instead.
There was a garden and a Swiss gardener, and
some little dairy-work was done. Of the increase
in prosperity and work there was also much evidence
in the huge new galpon, with its upper story for grain
and wool ; in the blacksmith-carpenter's workshop,
made out of what had been a sufficiently large
galpon in 1888 ; in extended peons' quarters and
other offices ; and last, but not least, in the signifi-
cant presence of an English gentleman acting as
book-keeper ; the accounts, which my brother
managed himself in 1888, being now far too much
for any estanciero to see to.
One more change must be mentioned before I close
this short account of my first impressions. Every-
where, both in the little town of Villa Cafias and to
either side as we drove along, I noticed an entirely
new feature ; the sentinel-like forms of the windmills
now used all over Argentina for pumping water into
the reservoirs that supply the houses or feed the
drinking-troughs ; tapering columns of open iron-
work some 30 feet, surmounted by the untiring vanes.
I
CHAPTER III
THE ESTANCIA SANTA ISABEL IN I908 ; CHANGES
AND PROGRESS — STOCK AND CROPS
Some years after my visit in 1888 the flood of Italian
colonists, spreading outward from Buenos Aires, had
reached Santa Isabel ; and it had been through them
that the changes had been brought about.
The land was let out to them, ten square miles at
a time, and what they found as rough camp, they left
as alfalfa pasture. Better stock was introduced, the
camp was subdivided by fences, more care was taken
in breeding ; and so, in a very short time, the profits
of the estate rose by leaps and bounds. I will give
some figures.
I. In 1888, on 45 square miles of camp (the other
15 square miles being *' in the courts " as mentioned
above), the stock was as follows : —
I. Cattle, About 5,650 cattle of " native " ' breed ;
» Cattle, horses, and sheep were none of them really native
to South America. But the stock introduced by the Spanish
conquerors gradually adapted itself to the coarse pasture and
rough life ; it became hardy, but, from the stock-raiser's point
of view, degenerate. Stock of this sort is called " native " or
criollo,
61
52 ARGENTINE PLAINS
yearly sales some 400 picked animals at about
£1 I2S. 6d. each. I remember that cattle could be
picked up at an average price of 14s. each !
2. Sheep. About 1,200 " native " sheep ; the sales
each year about 120 at 5s. each; and the whole of
the wool hardly brought in more than ;^ioo annually.
3. Horses. About 425 horses and mares, mostly
" native." A half-breed Cleveland stallion was be-
ginning to improve the race. Annual sales about
35 tamed and trained riding horses (they cost some-
thing to be broken in) at about £/\. each.
I remember that quite good riding horses could be
picked up at 30s. each. Mares hardly counted then ;
some were sold at 12s. each. If a prairie fire had to
be put out, some native estancieros would have a mare
killed and its body dragged over the smouldering belt
to extinguish it. Even at Santa Isabel I remember
that, fuel for branding having fallen short, two mares
were killed that their grease might be added to some
dry bones to make these burn. [This occurred in
1889, during my first visit.]
4. Agricultural produce. Practically none ; cer-
tainly none for sale, and not enough for home
consumption.
II. In 1908, on 40 square miles of camp (the other
20 square miles being under colonists) there were : —
I. Cattle. 9,000 of good breed, Durham chiefly.
The yearly sales about 1,400 to 2,000 at about
£^ 5s. each. [The value has risen since then.]
GREAT ADVANCE SINCE 1888 53
2. Sheep. io,ooo of good breed, merino chiefly.
Yearly sales, some 2,000 at 17s. 6d. each ; and about
64,000 lbs. of wool at 7rod. per lb. (more or less).
It will be seen from this item what an enormous
impetus has been given to sheep-farming by the
substitution of alfalfa for the coarse native grasses
which the sheep could not eat. [The advance of
agriculture, however, in the older camps has acted
in the direction of redMcing the number of sheep in
the Republic, as is noticed on p. 304.]
3. Horses. Some 630 to 640 mares and horses,
the Cleveland strain predominating. Yearly sales,
about 170 mares and untrained colts together, the
mares fetching £^ los. each and the ij-y ear-old colts
£\2i I2S. each. Since 1908 some picked colts of 2 J
years instead of ij years were sold at about ;^23 each.
4. Mules. Formerly none, now about 90. They
are very large, the offspring of Spanish jack-donkeys
and big mares of Cleveland strain. In 1907 about
60 of I J years were sold at ;^I3 12s. each ; since then
some of 2 J years at ;^23 each.
5. Agricultural produce. The estancia drew from
the colonists on the 20 square miles, without any
expense, one-quarter of all the produce as rent.
When the colonists, after holding the land for four
years, were about to move on, the estancia at its own
cost sowed alfalfa with the colonists' last crop ; that was
all. The colonists had ploughed and prepared the land.
Such were the enormous changes produced by the
54 ARGENTINE PLAINS
flood of Italian immigrants when they had reached
Santa Isabel and had been at work for a considerable
time.
The question of water-supply in the plains is one of
great interest, and I must make a digression here that
will explain the presence of the windmills that now
form such a striking feature of these flat and treeless
plains.
In old days there was for the house the poso or
common draw-well worked by hand, and the cattle
went to drink at the shallow lagunas that lay in the
hollows of the plains. [A "poso" is seen in the
second illustration facing p. 42.] The best land
however, does not (save in the sandy provinces, which
were not occupied earlier) lie in the hollows, and for
this and other reasons wells were dug and drinking
troughs constructed on higher land at suitable points.
[I may mention that it is extremely undesirable to
have a drinking-place in a hollow, since the cattle
tread this into a terrible morass in wet weather.] Of
course, in Argentina, horse-power being abundant and
machinery difficult to get, a horse and rider were at
first employed to draw the water. Such wells are
called jaguels, and are still in use. When the wheel-
and-axle principle is made use of, in which case the
name '' cilindro jagiiel" is given, a very large bucket
can be employed. In all forms the tipping and
emptying of the bucket is automatic.
Next came the noria, an elaborate piece of
^
A CILIXDRO-JAGUEL.
A NORIA.
To face p. 54.
WATER-SUPPLY IN THE PLAINS 55
machinery. In this a horse or mule, blindfolded,
goes round and round and works an endless chain of
buckets that dip into the water below and empty it
into the reservoir or drinking trough above.
In 1888 I saw nothing in advance of the noria.
It was inevitable, however, that wind should be
used sooner or later, and there were countries quite
ready to export windmill pumps to this new market.
And with this introduction of windmill pumps came
in also the semi-artesian ('*semi-surgente") wells, the
need of which had already been felt in connection with
jaguels and norias as the water-level fell year by year.
For, whatever the cause, whether it be due to the
introduction of alfalfa (as some think) or due to some
general climatic change, the water-level has fallen and
is falling. On Santa Isabel, as far as I could ascer-
tain (and I could see the fall in the case of one well
that I remembered), it had fallen from about eight to
about twelve yards below the surface since 1888 ; and
in the far-distant province of San Luis, where the
level of a well dug at my brother's homestead is now
three yards, it was much less seven or eight years ago.
Everywhere, too, lagunas are drying up.
Well, though the wind on the plains rarely fails for
long together, yet it is necessary to take advantage of
breezy days to fill up the big reservoirs. But it was
found that the wells, even when excavated right down
to a hard, impermeable layer that underlies the alluvial
soil and the fairly soft stuff below it, soon ran dry.
56 ARGENTINE PLAINS
If, however, this hard layer be pierced a new supply
of water is tapped. This will not rise to the surface,
but only to the same level as the surface-supply takes
up, and therefore the well is called *' semz-artesisin"
not artesian. [I should say here that the supply
lying adove the hard, impermeable layer is called the
*' surface-supply."]
At Santa Isabel an ordinary well is dug until the
water stands some 2j feet deep in it. Then a narrow
boring is run down through the hard layer until the
lower supply is tapped, and this boring is lined as far
as is necessary to prevent it from falling in, but not
further ; it keeps full better when not lined. The
tube of the pump runs down into this narrow boring
for some feet, so as to obviate still more completely
the chance of the supply temporarily running out,
since the level sinks during the pumping.
With jagliels, norias, and windmills the best plan is
to have a raised reservoir that keeps the drinking
troughs full by means of a float-valve. These reser-
voirs are usually "Australian tanks " ; the bottoms are
as a rule of stamped earth and the sides of corrugated
galvanised iron, which is banked up with earth outside.
I may mention here that everywhere I found
the water saline ; I believe that the salts are
mainly sulphates, chlorides, and carbonates of cal-
cium, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. And
certainly the *' semi-surgente " water is much more
saline than the old surface-supply.
SANTA ISABEL IN 1908 67
One of my first bits of work was to master the
new geography of the 60 square miles. This had
been a simple matter in 1888; for there was but
one main fence inside it, in addition to that cutting
off the disputed 15 square miles, and all was
rough camp of one quality.
Now, however, there were fifteen enclosures of
1,600 acres each, another such divided into four,
some smaller pieces round the homestead, and two
blocks of 6,400 acres each, distributed among
colonists whose houses (or huts) I wished to be
able to localise. When I went out into one of
the big paddocks and mounted a windmill, it was
curious to see how all this work of man disappeared !
Looking north, south, east, and west from a
height of 25 feet, all seemed still one vast empty
plain ; fences were not visible, and the homestead
itself, with all its spread of buildings, plantations,
and corrals, though really not far off, became a
merely unnoticeable roughness on the horizon. ^
And still, at night, the setting sun was cut sharply
by the horizontal-line of the horizon.
Round the estancia itself some of the changes were
' In the illustration showing one of these views, the part in
the foreground is that trodden bare by the cattle and sheep
that collect round the drinking troughs. The rest is alfalfa,
which had taken the place of the native grasses. Through
this alfalfa the sheep make pathways, after their manner. As
regards the sunset shown, I may say that, in developing the
negatives, one has a choice. One can develop so as to show a
well-defined disc cut across by a sharp horizon-line ; the sunset
58 ARGENTINE PLAINS
interesting. Some years after my first visit the
locusts began to come, and they have rarely failed
since then. So the big peach-monte disappeared first
of all, and willows and acacias were substituted.
But these too are doomed ; and soon there will be
left only the paraiso-tree, which locusts will not
eat. Fortunately this is a beautiful tree, bearing
flowers in springtime and berries later on, with
leaves of a pleasing form and of dark green colour ;
there is nothing of the gray look about it that
the native trees in the province of San Luis have.
The shape of the paraiso is something like that
of the hedge-row oak-tree, only more delicate ;
beautiful rather than sturdy.
Small birds had increased in number and variety
to a most extraordinary extent, and nesting was
in full swing. Their tameness was — not *' dreadful "
but — delightful. But why did some misguided
person introduce the house-sparrow ? Evidently it
finds the country a paradise ; and, grossly parody-
ing the tameness of the native birds, it has become
shameless. It pulls everything to pieces that it
can, attacks other birds' nests, chatters incessantly
everywhere, and robs caged birds of their food in
the very veranda. I could not keep my dark-room
looking as it does to the eye when viewed through a very dark
glass. Or one can develop (as here) so as to give the impression
of a dazzle, and so that the glare of the sun appears to invade
the horizon as it does to the naked eye unprotected by a dark
glass. In this case the " invasion " is an irradiational effect,
chemical on the sensitised surface, and retinal in the eye.
THE PAMPAS, SOWX WITH ALFALFA.
SUNSET IN THE PAMPAS.
To face p. 5«,
IMPROVEMENTS AND GROWTH 59
light-tight because of these pilferers ; they pulled
the stuffing out of the cracks.
I noticed too the great growth of the peons'
quarters, and the greater bustle of work. There
were more corrals ; and I saw the ** manga," a fenced
gangway with sliding doors for handling cattle, and
the long sheep-dipping trough of Portland cement.
There was a big fowl-yard now ; and the numerous
hay- and silo-stacks spoke of a provision for the
winter that was nearly unknown before. The cattle,
too, were not only of quite a different and improved
breed, but were amazingly fat. One curious change
was the extensive use of barbed wire ; it was
remarkable to me that the animals could have
learned to keep away from it. Injuries, however,
do occur sometimes.
There was, of course, now no free galloping over
the prairie ; one passed from paddock to paddock
through a series of gates.
To my brother, after his long years of hard life
and unprofitable work in past times, all this was a
source of delight and content, not unmixed with
the natural pride of the pioneer who has transformed
waste lands into a prosperous estate. But — I must
confess it ! — I regretted the old wild camp ; and
it was with some sadness that I saw vanish my
dreams of days out among the bird-life of the lagunas
that were now either dry or forbidden to me by
the formerly-unknown law of ** trespass"!
CHAPTER IV
THE POPULATION OF ARGENTINA — MEANING OF THE
WORDS "native" (or " CRIOLLO ") AND **GAUCHO"
THE "native" peon CLASS AND THE ITALIAN
COLONISTS IN THE PLAINS
In this book I am recording my experiences in the
" camp," and am not dealing with the towns ; I am
describing what I saw of the industries of agriculture
and stock-raising, and of the progress made since
my last visit, and am not touching the subject of
railway enterprise or of business and commercial
activities in Argentina.
For this reason I shall say little or nothing of the
foreigners (English, French, German, &c.), who,
however important financially, do not come under
one's observation when one is studying the life on
an estancia. I shall confine myself mainly to two
classes, viz., the native peons of the gaucho class,
who are employed in all work with cattle, horses,
and sheep, and the colonists (nearly all North
Italians) who are transforming the country by their
agricultural industry.
But I must first explain the meaning of two
"CRIOLLO ' OR "NATIVE" 61
words about which there appears to be much mis-
apprehension and confusion.
The word '' Criollo,'' or ^' Native ^
It cannot be too strongly insisted on that, on
the whole, the dictionary meaning of the word criollo
(which Anglo-Argentines translate into ** native") is
the true one, viz. : " one born in America or the
West Indies of European parents'' ; neither it, nor
the corresponding French word, Creole, imply the
admixture of dark blood. An English lady who
told me that her children were " Creole," because
born in the West Indies, was using the word
rightly ; and the old French Creole aristocracy of
North America would have been horrified at the
idea of having negro blood in their veins.
In Spanish America the word was used to dis-
tinguish the colonial-born from the Spaniards born
in Spain ; and I speak in Appendix I. of the more
or less political reasons for the distinction being a
real one as regards interests. It is true, however,
that in all the Spanish colonies the criollos (or
" natives ") did as a rule have dark blood in them ;
the reason for this being that Spaniards did not
in general take women with them ; they colonised
through men, and not through families. Hence one
finds that there is much Indian (and sometimes
negro) blood in practically all of those who belong
to the lowest classes, and in many of those who
belong to much higher classes. The word is never
62 ARGENTINE PLAINS
used of the aborigines ; and, up to the present time,
it is not used of any persons born in South America
whose European blood is not Spanish. Thus, my
brother's children, born in Argentina, are legally
Argentines, but would not be spoken of as criollos, or
"natives." I have come across a German born out
there whose language was Spanish and whose proper
name, Buchholz, had been transformed into the
Spanish shape Bujon ; but even he was not regarded
as a " native." When used in an adjectival sense,
however, the word has a wider meaning. If any-
thing of a specially Argentine sort, as lazoing, or
riding, or using the boleadoras, be done very well,
a spectator might murmur '' muy criollo'' ("very
native ") as he applauded ; and an Englishman or
Frenchman who had adopted the ways of the country
and talked the idiom well would be similarly charac-
terised in an adjectival way.
The word " Gaucho''
The true "gauchos" are, for all practical pur-
poses, a dying or extinct class in modern Argen-
tina. They were the " natives" of the plains; colonial
born, and therefore almost inevitably half-breeds
(though the name, like "criollo," does not imply this);
horsemen, hunters, owners of horses and cattle, and
quite averse from anything like patient agricultural
work; illiterate, half savage. They were a class,
not a race in any strict sense, as were also the old
trappers of North America. In the vast unoccupied
Photd\
GAUCHO, OLD STYLE.
(From a photo taken in 1869.)
[H. N. L.
NEW STYLE : CAPATAZ, OF GAUCHO-CLASS, IN I908.
To face p. 6j.
THE WORD "GAUCHO" 63
plains any gaucho could make his hut and settle —
as far as he cared to settle ; and as the land was
bought up and the owners came to raise stock, the
gaucho moved on. Sometimes he would, without
losing his independence, undertake to break in a
tropilla of horses ; or — but this was the beginning
of the end — hire himself out temporarily for cattle-
work.
Inseparable from the gaucho was his character-
istic dress and horse-gear ; and the latter persists
still. A shady felt hat with a handkerchief under
it that protected the back of the neck, another
handkerchief round the neck — (even now the peons
muffle themselves up round the throat in what
appears to us to be a very unnecessary way) — a
" poncho " (the oblong piece of flannel or of mate-
rial woven out of guanaco or vicuna hair, with a
hole in the centre for the neck, that served as a
protection from cold and wet), the " chiripi " (a sort
of shawl or poncho tucked into the belt and cover-
ing the waist, hips, and thighs), linen drawers, and
perhaps boots of untanned horse-hide — such was the
nature of that part of the dress that could be seen.
One had a general impression of loose drapery. But
I believe that instead of the very loose nether-gear
described, even a true gaucho might wear the baggy
trousers, buttoned in at the ankle, called ** bom-
bachas."
I must not, however, omit to mention the **tirador,'*
a very broad belt, containing pockets, usually covered
64 ARGENTINE PLAINS
with silver coins. I have seen them made of the
thick and soft carpincho leather. Into this belt was
stuck, at the back, the huge knife equally character-
istic of the gaucho class. As regards the horse-
gear, I describe this in £)hapter VI.
The gauchos, as I have said, were a class, and not
a race. If a gaucho's son adopted other ways of life
and other dress, he would cease to be a gaucho, ,
though, of course, he would still be a criollo. And,
on the other hand, I think that a pure Indian, if he
had joined the gauchos and had adopted their ways
and dress, would have been called a gaucho. But of
this I am not sure.
Like the word ** criollo," the word ** gaucho" is
much used adjectivally. An Englishman would be
called *'muy gaucho" if, in language, dress, horse-
gear, and skill with cattle and horses, he more or
less resembled the gaucho.
I will now return to the subject of " Natives and
Colonists."
Of the natives in the big towns — politicians,
professors, men of law, merchants, doctors, men of
business — I know nothing. From what I saw they
were much like what one would expect colonial Spanish
to be ; and signs of admixture with Indian blood,
which I suppose occurred to a considerable extent
in far-off days, had apparently vanished. I should
guess that nowadays society in Buenos Aires and
Rosario and other large towns is much mixed as
THE POPULATION IN TOWNS 65
regards race. Italians, Spanish, Germans, and immi-
grants from Uruguay and other South American
republics, if of the wealthier classes, all appear to aim
at dressing in the latest European fashion ; and, since
they as well as the wealthier " natives " speak (or aim
at speaking) proper Spanish, discarding Argentine
peculiarities of pronunciation, a visitor like myself
would hardly notice, in these "upper classes," any
sharp line of demarcation between natives and such
foreigners as were of Spanish or South American
nationality ; or even between natives and foreigners
in general, provided that these latter were dark and
spoke Spanish well.
In the fashionable street called the Calle Florida I
saw no characteristic Argentine or even Spanish
dress. The ladies' dress suggested Paris.
Passing to the small camp-towns, one may say that
the inhabitants are in the main native. Here the
official and business classes (including innkeepers and
shopkeepers) all appeared to me to talk Argentine-
Spanish ; but their dress was quite European.
Among the lower orders I saw many of the gaucho
class, wearing such remnants of the old gaucho dress
as have survived in these times of change and
modernisation. Perhaps these had come in to shop.
In passing, I may say that I was not favourably
impressed by the smaller Argentine officials — those of
the lower middle class. Station-masters, post office
clerks, tax-collectors — all appeared to me to be
singularly devoid of any desire to be obliging and
5
66 ARGENTINE PLAINS
helpful. To this lower middle class the provincial
priests and doctors also appeared to me to belong ;
and I should say that they also, as a whole, are (to
say the least) somewhat unattractive. I heard from
persons directly concerned many stories of the
extortionate conduct of the doctors of these small
towns ; and I came across one such case myself. Of
the priests — excepting those of Irish nationality — I
heard no good. It was noticeable that all reports
tended in the same direction ; and so I came to the
conclusion that it was a case of *' no smoke without
fire." Well, if the stories had truth in them, one must
conclude that (to put it very mildly) neither country
priests nor country doctors in Argentina do, as a
class, play the part of friends to the poor, nor tend to
raise their standard of right and wrong. I will leave
it at that ; and I do not think that Anglo-Argentines,
who are '* camp " men, will consider that I have been
unfair ; though of course there are exceptions in every
class.
I will now pass from the cities (of which, as I have
said, I know next to nothing), and from the camp
towns (where no one would wish to stay), to the open
camp itself; to the true Argentina of whose wealth
and progress we hear so much. Here we have,
scattered over the vast plains, estancia after estancia,
each in the centre of a huge property where stock is
raised ; ^ here too we have the tenant-colonists with
their relatively small holdings and their crops.
* See note at end of this Chapter, No. (i.).
THE GAUCHO CLASS 67
Passing over the proprietor or manager and his
mayor-domo, who, as likely as not, will both be
Englishmen, one may say that the population in
the " camp " is composed of two distinct classes, who
are also of two distinct races. These are, as I have
said already, the peons, ** native" by race, who deal
with the stock ; and the colonists, mainly North
Italians,^ whose work is agriculture.
First let us consider the native peon. He represents
the gaucho-class of older days, but has changed in
more than one way. In the first place he has lost his
independence : he is a paid servant, lives in quarters
provided for him, and is practically under orders for
twenty-four hours in the day. Inevitably the old free
gaucho spirit has nearly disappeared. Further, his
dress has become modernised. The horse-gear
(described in Chapter VI.) remains the same ; but
otherwise the modern peon on horseback is very
unlike the old gaucho, as may be seen from the
illustrations opposite p. 62.
In 1888 I did see ponchos and chiripd and other
parts of the gaucho dress worn by my brother's peons ;
and very picturesque many of them looked. But
to-day, caps, coloured sweaters, and other modern
articles of dress prevail ; and one can only be sure of
the tirador and knife. Baggy trousers tucked into the
boots, or even bombachas, are still common, but
ponchos appeared to me to be rare, and the chiripd,
if worn at all, was only worn about the estancia.
Certainly there is a falling-off in picturesqueness.
* See note at end of this Chapter, No. (ii.).
68 ARGENTINE PLAINS
But I think that there has been a vast gain in what is
of far greater importance.
As first known to the estancieros who employed
him as peon on their cattle runs, the gaucho was a
hardy fellow ; capable of sleeping out of doors even
when there was a frost, and that without grumbling ;
quite content with meat and yerba only as rations ;
working often from before sunrise until dark ; under-
standing thoroughly the handling of horses and cattle,
though in a crude and perhaps even brutal way ;
generous, I am told, to his fellows. He was in the
main a good servant as regards the rough work for
which he was wanted, and his labour was cheap ;
further, he would not in general rob his employer.
But he was ignorant, very stupid where mechanical
appliances were in question, full of strange oaths
(obscene in nature) ; not the sort of person who could
be allowed to come into contact with the estanciero's
family. There was a vast gap between him and his
employer ; he could hardly be, and certainly was not,
treated with the kindly faniiliarity with which a
proprietor in one of the older countries can, and often
does, treat his farm hands.
What else could you expect? These men had
never entered a school ; priests and doctors were
known to them for the most part (I have been given
to understand) as extortionate exactors of fees ; and
they were housed disgracefully, a whole family,
perhaps, sleeping in one room. Speaking still of the
old regime, when the estancieros were for the most
THE GAUCHO CLASS 69
part either natives or bachelor Englishmen who had
themselves been trained (only it was not training !)
in the rough pioneering school, I think one may
say that the peons were left to themselves ; no
one cared for their women and children in illness ;
no one troubled himself as to whether the woman of
the puesto were wife or not. Even as late as my
visit of 1888 I should say that this state of things
obtained at estancias of the older school ; and I well
remember the gap that yawned between us and the
peons ; I was warned not to try to learn Spanish by
talking with them. So it was that during my first
visit I received the impression the gaucho class, as
represented by the camp peons, was of a low type and
not intelligent or adaptable enough to be of use in
helping on the development of the country.
In my visit in 1908-9 I noticed a great change for
the better. ^ Even at Santa Isabel, which came into
existence under the old regime and therefore had
' Even in 1909, however, I found '* education " weak among
the peon class.
I here give a letter from a puestero's wife. The drift of it is
(she washed for me) that she apologised for the state of the
white shirts and collars, and said she would do the other things
for me as before, but would no longer attempt starching and
ironing.
'* Seiior Don Learden tenga la hondad de disculpar el planchada
no lo puesda aser mejor le dire Vst que yo le puedo segui lavando
me [ = mas = but ?] no el planchado no no me animo asies que si
Vst esta conforme seguires S,S. ^^F. A, "
I was pleased that I was able to interpret this !
70 ARGENTINE PLAINS
changed but slowly, the difference was marked. I
found peons trusted more ; I found them digging
wells, making terraplanes, building stacks, driving
sowing or reaping machines. I noticed also kindly
relations between them and the child of the estancia ;
and I myself found more than one quite companionable
when acting as my coachman.
The head man, or capataz, who was chief under my
brother (or under his deputy and understudy, the
English mayor-domo), had a strong strain of Indian
in him ; but he was a most reliable man, and gentle
and courteous in manner. [See illustration opposite
p. 62.]
Another man, Gomez, was markedly Indian in
type. He certainly looked like a murderer when he
was being photographed ; but his face lit up wonder-
fully when you "got at him" suitably; and he was,
I believe, a warmhearted man and fond of children.
He was, too, very adaptable ; you could turn him on
to anything. [See illustration.]
Our usual coachman (properly a cattle peon),
mentioned earlier, was of the Spanish-negro type,
and was of agreeable and quiet manners. His race
must have been very mixed, for his brother was
decidedly Spanish-Indian in aspect.
At a new estancia that I visited, where everything
was being started on the basis of modern ideas, I saw
still clearer evidence of improvement. The first sign
that I noticed was the change in the puesto. [See
pp. 85, 312.]
CATTLE-PEON OF GAUCHO-CLASS, IN I908.
3 W!" ii
PUKSTO (older style) AND PUESTERO, IN I908.
TO f.ice p. 70.
THE GAUCHO CLASS 71
The old style of puesto (such as still existed at
Santa Isabel in 1909, and is shown in the illustration)
was a two-roomed hovel of brick. When the family
was large and long, so that the elder children were
grown up while the youngest were babies (it is a
prolific country), the condition of things inside must
have been such as one does not care to consider
closely.
But, on the quite modern estate spoken of above, the
puestos were nice little houses of several rooms, and
were provided with a veranda. And I was surprised
to find that the *' plough-capataz," or head of the
ploughing that was there carried out on a very large
scale (for alfalfa was sown without the intervention of
colonists, a matter that will be explained later), was a
native of the old gaucho class. Verily the gaucho
forefather would have turned in his grave had he
known that his descendant was walking behind a
plough.
Beside the variety of work that is starting into
existence everywhere, there appear to be two new
influences that tend to raise the gaucho class in the
scale of civilisation.
Firstly, the cattle work is being humanised. The
animals are no longer knocked about as they were ;
they are too valuable. They are now, to a large
extent, handled by means of ingenious devices in the
way of sliding gates, &c. Hence the peon's work is
far less brutal than it was.
Secondly, there is growing up more of the patri-
72 ARGENTINE PLAINS
archal spirit. All over the country there are now
estancias belonging to married Englishmen who had
none of the rough pioneering work. The estanciero
looks after the peons, and helps them to get their
sons out into the world ; his senora is their doctor in
illness, and looks after the women and children. At
some of the larger estancias schools have already-
been started ; and such a movement is certain to
extend itself.
Whether politics will ever get honest ; whether
judges will ever consistently administer justice to poor
and rich alike ; whether country doctors will usually
be considerate and kind ; whether priests will, as a
rule, lead blameless lives and look after souls — I can't
say. But for the hardy, uncomplaining, and long-
neglected gaucho class I am thankful to be able to
feel that there is a better future in store.
Let us now turn to the agricultural population.
This is composed, we may say with sufficient accuracy,
mainly ^ of North Italian immigrants, called Italianos
in the Argentine. South Italians (called Napolitanos)
appear to keep to the towns and to do odd jobs ; they
are not such steady workers. These Italian colonists
form a population by themselves ; so far, they never
intermarry with the natives. Habits, ideas, food,
ways of life — all are different in the two races.
The industry of these colonists is wonderful ;
man, woman, and child, all work ; and, though they
are obliged to ride and to deal with cattle to some
' See note at end of this Chapter, No. (ii.).
THE ITALIAN COLONISTS 73
extent, they seem to take to agricultural work as
naturally as the Spanish-American did to hunting and
stock work. You would hire Italian colonists (if they
had time to spare) for ploughing or haymaking, but
not for work involving lazoing or the handling of
horses or cattle in matters unconnected with plough-
ing. They never seem to ride for pleasure ; but I
have seen the mother of a family managing five
none-too-well-trained bullocks yoked to a plough, and
quite little children will ride off bareback to bring
cattle or horses in. Those who came, as some still
come, to the country nearly destitute would take land
on ** halves " — that is, the owner would supply them
with everything, and would take half the produce.
With such my brother had to do at first, and very
troublesome people he found them. But for many
years he has had plenty to pick from, and he takes
none but those who have some capital. These " find
themselves " in everything, and pay a quarter of the
produce as rent; friction is thus avoided.
He has found that the soil at Santa Isabel — very
good soil — has a tendency to revert to the coarse
native grasses unless it be worked for crops for four
years. Hence he lets the land out to the colonists
for this period, and sows alfalfa with their last crop.
In some camps (those, I think, of rather sandier soil)
it now answers to the estanciero to plough the land
and to sow alfalfa at once, himself; and in the sandy
province of San Luis, which as yet has not attracted
colonists, this course must be pursued.
74 ARGENTINE PLAINS
At Santa Isabel I observed that the alfalfa near the
house, which had been regularly cut for hay, was
nearly as good as ever after twenty years ; but some
of the paddocks that had never been cut, and were
but thinly stocked, had begun to revert after but five
years, and were to be handed over to the colonists for
a second time.
The colonists on this estate take from four hundred
to eight hundred acres of land, receiving it in August.
Let us try to picture to ourselves how such a family
is then situated and what work lies before it. August,
which, of course, corresponds to our February, is in
general a month of bad weather ; cold rain, even
sleet, frosts at night, all may be expected. And these
colonists, arriving, will find nothing ready for them.
There is the bare plain of tussocky grass ; some kind
of hut has to be built, a well has to be dug, fences to
be set up, and the land to be ploughed. In fact, at
Santa Isabel there is a condition that 80 per cent, of
the good land be ploughed up during the first year,
and that each subsequent year this proportion of it
must be kept under crops.
The first year it is too late to attempt any crop but
maize, which is harvested as late as March or April.
The next ploughing comes about April, and the
sowing later. At Santa Isabel the crops for the re-
mainder of the time are mainly linseed and wheat ;
but I understood that there are districts where maize
is the main crop all the time. The linseed is grown
for the seed only, the stalks being wasted or used as
I* * * M 4
TYPICAL NORTH ITALIAN COLONIST FAMILY.
THRESHING MAIZE AT A COLONIST'S.
To face p. 74.
THE ITALIAN COLONISTS 75
litter. [To some extent we used linseed straw when
burning locusts.] Beyond the fact that maize was
usually the first crop, I did not observe any law of
rotation of crops ; I suppose that when land is so rich,
and is used for four years only, you need not trouble
about such matters.
Labour is scarce and dear ; and therefore the
colonist and his sons (or partners) plough and sow
the land in successive pieces, and so are able to
harvest it in successive pieces also. In Argentina
the summer is of generous length, and there is little
danger of running short of harvest-weather.
There are sometimes other ways in which the
colonists can exchange their one great asset — viz.,
patient labour — for money or its equivalent. I found
that where part of the land was too poor for crops of
alfalfa — it was the tierra blanca that lay in the hollows
— my brother paid the colonists about 17s. 6d. per
4^ acres (or $10 per ** square ") to plough and harrow
the soil and to sow it with rye-grass seed, which he
supplied. Thus, instead of letting this land lie idle,
he got a valuable winter-pasture that came in most
usefully when the alfalfa was withered and brown ;
so that he was not obliged to sell off his stock on
the approach of winter if prices were low. And the
colonist could thus turn idle days to profit. Again,
it is necessary — having regard to the devastation
due to the locusts, as also to the problem of winter
feeding — to understock the paddocks. Sometimes,
therefore, the alfalfa will altogether " run away from"
76
ARGENTINE PLAINS
the cattle ; and it answers both to the estanciero and
the colonists if the latter make alfalfa-hay on halves.
Here, again, they exchange their work for the
equivalent of money.
I took down some figures in the case of two of the
colonists on Santa Isabel, so that a more definite idea
might be acquired of the scale of things. But the
areas were given me in '* squares," and no one could
tell me whether these were ** new *' or " old " squares ;
that is, whether the squares in question were nearer
4 acres or 4^ acres. The metric system had not
yet, in practice, mastered and abolished older
measures of length and area. I have taken the 4^
acres as the more probable. I will call the two
colonist families A and B respectively.
Colonist.
Land held.
Amount
under
Linseed.
Amount
under
Wheat.
Linseed
harvested.
Wheat
harvested.
A
150 squares
(about
630 acres)
42 squares
(about
176 acres)
90 squares
(about
376 acres)
90,825
kilos ; or
about
200,000
lbs.
200,508
kilos ; or
about
441,000
lbs.
B
200 squares
(about
840 acres)
58 squares
(about
244 acres)
90 squares
(about
378 acres)
123,680
kilos ; or
about
272,000
lbs.
147,990
kilos ; or
about
326,000
lbs.
As regards prices, exact information may be derived
from those quoted in farming periodicals each year.
But what the colonists get is a different matter, and
THE ITALIAN COLONISTS 77
depends partly on their distance from the market. I
may, however, mention that for grain delivered to the
purchaser on the estancia itself in 1909, the prices
were —
For wheats $8. 15 -'(or 14s. 3d.) per 100 kilos (or 220 lbs.).
For linseedy $9.35 (or i6s. 5d.) per loo kilos (or 220 lbs.).
Thanks (!) to the locusts there was no maize to sell ;
but the price, for delivery on the estancia, would
have been about $4.40 (or 7s. 8jd.) per 100 kilos,
or 220 lbs. And the colonists would have received
about the same at their homesteads, free of taxes and
freightage. It is evident, therefore, that there is a
good deal of money to be made by a colonist of such
holdings as the above.
As regards their expenses. Much is done by their
own labour ; the building of adobe huts roofed with
corrugated iron, the digging of a well, the setting up
of fences, all involve some expenditure in material, it is
true ; but the labour of all this, as also that of plough-
ing and sowing, is saved by this industrious race.
They have to buy meat at the estancia when they
want it, and other supplies, such as flour for bread, or
biscuit (unleavened cakes) ready-made. Yerba, too,
if they drink it ; but this is cheap. It seemed to me
that they spent a quite appreciable amount in cordials
and wine ; we were always offered these strong drinks
instead of the Argentine national drink of yerba —
(called matSy usually, because drunk out of the mat^
gourds). There is a direct tax of $10 (or 17s. 6d.)
78 ARGENTINE PLAINS
a year for any carriage ; but farm-carts are not taxed.
For threshing the expense may be as much as is. 5d.
per lOO kilos for wheat, and 2s. id. per lOO kilos for
linseed ; and I have given above some idea of the
prices that he may receive for these grains on the
spot when threshed.
If we reckon things up at the prices quoted, and
deduct only the threshing expenses, we find that —
Colonist A received on the spot about ;^ 1,300 net
for his wheat, and £6^0 net for his linseed, or ^^1,950
in all, in the year. Out of this he had to pay one-
quarter for rent, and also his living expenses and
wages to labourers (employed probably at harvest-
time only).
Colonist B received ;^96o net for his wheat and
;^885 net for his linseed, or ;^ 1,945 ^^ ^^^> i^ ^^^ year.
Thus, these Italian peasants, living though they do
in a very rough and uncomfortable way, appear to
handle and to make a good deal of money.
In harvest they will probably, as already implied,
find it necessary to hire some labour, lest the loss in
the crop when cut prove great. And since they must,
as a rule, attract men away from more permanent
posts, they may have to pay them from los. to 12s. a
day as well as feed them.
It must be a curious life that these men lead.
They have no real homes, but merely uncomfortable
adobe and mud hovels in which they live for some
four years ; and they don't know where they are
THE ITALIAN COLONISTS 79
going next. Yet there is plenty of money to be made,
there is abundance of food, and they are their own
masters. They have their fortunes in their own
hands to a degree that would not be possible to men
of their class in Italy ; and they appear to like the life
and the climate. I observed, indeed, a remarkable
(and deplorable.'^) absence of home-sickness among
them.
The pick of the men that I saw will be moving on
to another part of the same estate for four more years,
so these will still feel at home.
There are estates — I believe mainly those of native
estancieros — that are let out permanently to colonists.
Whether, on these, the same men stay on the same
holding for a relatively long time, I cannot say ; but,
as far as I saw, the dwellings were everywhere of
the same uncomfortable kind. Beside the big stock-
owners (estancieros) with their native peons, and the
Italian colonists, there are also in the country small
farmers, of various races, called chaquereros (spell-
ing ?), who own their land and often have proper brick
houses. I saw such on the outskirts of the post-town
of Melincue and of other camp towns. But these,
as yet, do not form a relatively important class ; '
and therefore, when speaking of the agriculture in
Argentina, I have spoken only of the colonists who
are spreading like a fertilising Nile-flood over the
country.
That, then, was how things stood at Santa Isabel ;
^ See note at end of this Chapter, No. (ill.).
80 ARGENTINE PLAINS
and this was a typical estancia, though not the only-
type. The estanciero worked the stock with his staff of
natives — of the old gaucho class ; — while the Italians,
a race apart, drew their profit out of the soil in maize,
wheat, and linseed, paying their rent in kind, and,
when they moved on, left the land transformed and
fit for sheep or cattle of the best breeds.
Before closing this chapter, let me give one word of
warning.
Argentina is not {yet, at any rate) a country suitable
to the English emigrant of the usual " emigrant class " /
With respect to this statement, I will simply say, " Ask
any Anglo-Argentine." No English Emigration
Society should send its clients, the overflow of
crowded England, there. The Italian peasantry can
emigrate there in masses, and will do well ; but for
Englishmen it is a country for individual enterprise,
not for wholesale peasant-emigration.
"Note. — I have, unintentionally, generalised a good deal in this
chapter. So I will add a few words in order to make my position
clear. [See p. 6, lines 9-13.]
The statements —
(i.) that estancieros are in general stock-raisers (p. 66) ;
(ii.) that Italians form the main body of agricultural tenant-
colonists (p. 72) ;
(iii.) that small proprietors do not as yet play an important part in
the development of Argentina (p. 79) ;
are founded on my personal experience and on impressions received
from letters and from conversations.
I have not looked up the statistics of these matters; but I do not
think that I am far wrong.
CHAPTER V
THE STAFF, AND THE WORK, ON AN ESTANCIA
Leaving the colonists, who carried on their agri-
cultural work independently, alone, I will now
attempt to give some idea of the activities on the
40 square miles that was devoted to stock-raising.
In these will be included such making of alfalfa-hay
or silo as was needed for supplementary food for
the stock in winter.
My brother's mayor-domo was a young Englishman
born and brought up in the Republic of Uruguay,
working later in Argentina. Hence I can take as
of much more than local application a programme
of the year's work that he made out for me.
And here it is, beginning with the month of
March (autumn).
A Programme of the Years Work.
March. Dipping flocks for scab.
April. Calving ends. At some places marking
and dehorning calves begins toward the end of this
month.
May. Marking calves and foals, and dehorning
the former. Classification of breeding cows.
6 81
82 ARGENTINE PLAINS
Counting and stock-taking may be done now.
June. Weaning of calves. Sowing alfalfa. Dip-
ping sheep (for scab) before lambing.
July. Calving begins ; also lambing towards the
end of the month. [In some few places they have
lambing in April.] Sowing alfalfa may be going
on this month.
August. Calving and lambing continue.
September. Calving continues. Lambs are
marked.
October. Calving continues. Shearing takes
place. Perhaps haymaking begins.
November. Calving continues. Dipping flocks
for scab. Haymaking.
December. Calving and haymaking continue.
Curing for maggot.
January. Haymaking. Towards the end of
the month weaning of lambs. Curing for maggot
continues.
February. Haymaking may continue. Curing
for maggot continues. Classification of flocks.
Odds and Ends of Work.
Beside the above work there are ** extras" that
may or may not have to be done. I will mention
a few of these.
Vaccinating cattle for anthrax or for mancha
(''blackleg"). I saw this going on at Santa Isabel
in May, 1909. Other vaccinations, as of sheep or
of calves, are occasionally needed. When the
STAFF AND WORK ON AN ESTANCIA 83
locusts come [and there seems no reason why
they should not come every year], some work of
destruction has to be done, in order to satisfy the
Commissioners. I hardly think it too much to say
that in 1908-9, from October 25th to the end
of February, the whole of the staff might have
been (vainly !) employed in destroying locusts that
came to lay, ploughing up and destroying eggs,
burning young locusts, and destroying in various
ways the growing and grown locusts ! So, practically,
estancieros do a little when they can spare the
men for the work, mainly to avoid getting fined.
Handling colts and getting them tame enough
to be taken to market as *' unbroken " ; perhaps
breaking in riding-horses ; making terraplanes (raised
ways of beaten earth) across miry places ; repairing
fences ; seeing to windmills ; hunting up dead
animals and securing their skins ; and many other
odd jobs.
The Staff on the Estancia.
And now, what was the staff with which all this
work was done? The amount of stock to be dealt
with has already been given (see p. 52). First
there was my brother, head of all. Then, under him,
came the young English mayor-domo. These mayor-
domos are understudies of the estanciero. They
work for very little pay ; but, if good and capable,
their next move may be to a managership **on
shares " worth one or two or more thousand a year,
84 ARGENTINE PLAINS
and they may end by being wealthy men. I should
say that, as a rule, the climax of their training
(which may give them virtually a diploma of fitness
for a managership) comes when they take charge
of the estancia while the estanciero or manager is
away for six months or a year. I doubt whether any
capable mayor-domo would ever return to the sub-
ordinate post after that.
Of the house-staff (including the carpenter-black-
smith) I will say nothing.
Next in authority to the mayor-domo came the
capataz, of whom I have spoken already on p. 70.
He was, of course, a native ; he was a married man
with house and food free and £"] a month ; and one
of his sons got £2 12s. a month as puestero.
The capataz was the general head of all the
peons and was under the orders of the owner (or
manager) and mayor-domo only ; his opinion was
often asked, and had weight. He had certain
peons assigned to him of whom he disposed. The
other peons would get their orders from headquarters
direct ; but, if working in company with the capataz,
they were under him as a matter of course.
I found also a so-called **sheep-capataz," whose
special duty was to look after the flocks ; and he
directed any other peons who might be, from time
to time, told off for work with sheep. He got a
puesto (married quarters) and food free, and £^ ys. 4d.
per month. He was not under ^/^e capataz, but
was not nearly so important a man.
STAFF AND WORK ON AN ESTANCIA 85
Then came some eight puesteros (not including
the capataz's son and the sheep-capataz). These
had married quarters and food free, and received
£i I2S. per month. A puestero might have an
outer gate ot the property to look after ; one or
two paddocks of i,6oo acres each to ride round,
looking out for and reporting dead or sick animals ;
and a windmill or two to inspect daily, reporting
if anything were amiss. He might also have a
noria or jagiiel to draw water from ; but usually he
would turn this duty over to one of his children.
Of other peons paid by the month (or mensuales)
there were — first, the married pair, of whom the wife
cooked for the peons and the husband looked after
the smaller home paddocks ; and they got ;^4 7s. 4d.
per month between them. There were three men
directly under the capataz, getting £2^ los. per month
each. Also a man at £^ ys. 4d. per month to keep
the fences in repair. And finally, a man and boy at
£2 I2S. and £1 15s. per month respectively to look
after and draw water at some wells that did not come
under the charge of any puestero.
Peons at daily wages might be hired on special
occasions. But of such there were some dozen who
were practically as permanent as the monthly men.
These got bachelors' quarters and food and about
2s. yd. per day for ordinary work ; but if one was
doing cattle work on his own horses, he might get
as much as 4s. 4d. per day.
Thus there were on the estancia about twenty-
86 ARGENTINE PLAINS
eight natives, of whom probably any could be
turned on for stock work ; though it could by no
means be assumed that all could lazo well. The
men, however, actually available for any odd job
(such as killing locusts) would be very few, since
most had their day's work cut out for them already.
I will now return to the calendar, and will de-
scribe what I saw, beginning, however, with October.
Making Hay and Alfalfa.
I have already (pp. 75, 76) alluded to the making
of alfalfa-hay and to the sowing of rye-grass. But
I will now speak more definitely about this matter.
Alfalfa is a splendid pasture; but it has one weak
point : it withers away and becomes brown in winter,
affording then but little nourishment for the stock.
Fortunately, however, it grows up so luxuriantly
after rain through a great portion of the year that
it can usually be cut several times for hay ; and
alfalfa-hay is very good food.
How much of such hay an estanciero must make
depends on several things ; on whether he has sown
much rye-grass and other grasses which are green in
winter; on whether he has arranged with colonists
to make it for him ** on halves " ; on whether he
means to sell off much of his stock before the
winter ; and on whether the locusts that year are
so bad that he must use up some of his hay in the
summer before the locusts go and the alfalfa recovers
HAY- AND SILO-MAKING 87
itself. Hence I cannot be very definite as to the
amount of haymaking that went on as a regular
part of the yearns work.
Nothing in particular was going on when I
arrived ; but in October there was cutting of alfalfa
and cebadilla for hay and silo. [This cebadilla
ought to mean " barley-grass " ; but it doesn't !
It means a native oat-grass whose seeds are black
(they can be threshed out). Proper oats, such as
we make porridge of, are called avena.] Of the
cutting with machines there is nothing to record ;
nor can one say anything that is new of the hay-
stacks, save that, in the present wasteful Argentine
way (for there is land in abundance, but labour is
relatively scarce) the stacks were never thatched.
But the silo was more interesting. To dig a pit
for the green herbage as in England would have
required too much labour ; as would also the subse-
quent hoisting out of the silo when the cattle were
to be fed. So the silo was made in a stack.
The rough rule appeared to be to put on about
\\ metres depth of the green stuff, and then to wait
until the temperature half-way down this had (through
fermentation) risen to 50^^ C. (122° Fahr.). Then
another layer was put on.
When the stack got too high for hand-lifting, the
crane (cigliefia) was used. Of course this was worked
by a man on horseback ; most things were at Santa
Isabel! The horseman rode away, the rope being
fastened to the lazo-ring on his saddle, and the load
88 ARGENTINE PLAINS
rose in the air. He then circuited round, and the
load came over the stack. He rode in again,
and the load descended on the stack. [I may,
however, say here that, though Santa Isabel
stands in the very front rank of estancias as far as
stock goes, as has been shown over and over again
by the prizes won, my brother has a particular liking
for old methods where no harm is done by using them.
There are more modern stacking machines in Argen-
tina!] When the cutting of about 38 acres was on
the stack, earth was hoisted on to the top and was
built up into ridge form. This earth was not thatched,
but weeds soon grew on it.
When finished, the stack that I saw made was
23 feet long and \6\ feet broad. Its height I did
not measure until it had been settling under its own
weight and that of the roof for two days ; but it was
then 8 feet 3 inches high. Two months later it had
sunk to 6 feet 6 inches. There had to be a trench
made round it to take the liquid that was pressed
out ; and the smell of the whole was horrible. [My
brother, however, liked it ; the knowledge of the silo's
nourishing properties biased his judgment in this
case.] A rough calculation gave us that the 38 acres
of cutting yielded finally some 70 cubic metres of
silo, or about 63 tons weight of it.
Sheep-shearing,
The next business that came under my observation
was the sheep-shearing.
SHEEP-SHEARING 89
There were 6,520 sheep and 3,7CX) lambs to be
shorn ; and, of course, the regular staff of peons did
not suffice — very few of these indeed could be spared.
So my brother wrote to a man (he looked like a
one-eyed murderer when he came) who he knew
could collect some shearers ; others he got in other
ways. Finally, there were collected an alarming-
looking mob of ruffians (I never saw such a lot!)
— 35 men to shear, and 13 more to tie the sheep
and to help in other ways ; two women came with
them to cook. Some of the regular estancia staff
brought up the sheep at intervals to the pens into
which the doors of the galpon opened. The shearing
was done inside.
The order of the day was as follows : They began
work as soon as the sheep were dry enough ; dew did
not take long to dry off, but rain might make the
work very late in beginning. At 8 a.m. (if at work
already) they had half an hour for first breakfast,
consisting properly of yerba (Paraguay tea) and
biscuit. There seemed, however, to be meat ** going "
also.
Then they went on shearing in the galpon. The
tyers got sheep from the pens, tied their legs, and
brought them to the shearers inside. At a table the
wool was received and tied up ; and here the sheep-
capataz attended with a bag of latas or brass tokens,
giving one to each man for each sheep shorn. Later
on each lata was cashed for i^d., the pay, therefore,
for shearing a sheep.
90 ARGENTINE PLAINS
The shearing and tying I could not photograph
in the galpon, the Hght being too bad ; so I got some
of the men to come to the door.
In the illustration the tyer is wearing a most un-
gaucho-like sweater, a modern innovation ; but the
handle of the traditional Argentine knife can be seen.
I took also photographs of shearers at work.
The receiving table had to be photographed inside
the building ; and, in the five seconds of exposure
needed, the sheep-capataz (who is seen to be carrying
the bag of latas) slowly moved the upper part of his
body.
At 1 1.30 they knocked off work for an hour for the
real breakfast, the ''dejeuner k la fourchette," and at
this I think they had yerba and biscuit in addition to
the regulation rice and meat.
At 3.30 again there was half an hour for mate and
biscuit ; and when, at sunset, the day's work came to
an end, they again had mat6 and meat and rice.
Where and how they slept. Heaven only knows !
The native saddle consists of various rugs and sheep-
skins, &c. ; and these men are still gaucho enough to
sleep anywhere, so long as they have their saddles
with them — as all had. Many a time used my
brother in old days to go hunting " down south '*
for a few weeks ; and he slept on the open prairie,
using his saddle and a poncho as bed. Work was
suspended on Sundays ; and, as is usually the case
where men of the gaucho class are collected together,
there were races. In all such peons' races the riders
TYING SHEEP FOR SHEARING.
THE RECEIVING-TABLE.
To face p. 90.
SHEEP-SHEARING 91
(as far as I could learn) race bare-back or on a
cloth only.
Beside the races, gambling for latas (usually the
gambling is done with the throwing of a knuckle-
bone, unless this too is becoming out of date) went
on continually ; so that one man might bring up at
the end i,ooo or 2,000 latzws (worth some jCa 7s. 6d.
or /^S 1 5s. respectively), and another have none at all
to bring.
I should say that the shearing was very rough in
quality, and not at all remarkable for quantity ; these
shearers are " nowhere " as compared with New
Zealanders or Australians. One New Zealander
who turned up astonished them much ; the more,
as he had his sheep left untied. [That was another
year, not this time.] The best day's work for the
35 shearers was about 1,150 sheep; and the 6,520
sheep and 3,700 lambs took them eight or nine days.
The total weight of wool was 29,190 kilos or
64,220 lbs. It lay for some time, packed in bales
by hand, in the loft of the great galpon. Then a
contract was made with a man to bring carts and
to take it to the station at Melincud.
So he came with seven huge four-wheeled carts,
each drawn by about ten horses. There were ten
cartloads, a load being therefore about 3,000 kilos or
6,600 lbs.
Prices vary with the year and the season, as also
with the quality of the wool ;bat 7/0 ^- P^^ ^t>. gives
some idea of the price received.
92 ARGENTINE PLAINS
Scab and Dipping.
Scab seems a great curse in the country. The
sheep keep re-catching it, especially from the wire
fences on which other scabby sheep have rubbed
themselves.
My brother's young mayor-domo (see p. 8i) told
me that at his father's estancia in Uruguay they had
some years ago completely eradicated scab by eighteen
months' treatment. But they took the trouble to keep
their sheep from rubbing against the boundary fence,
which was probably infected by scabby sheep on the
other side, by putting up lower wires a yard from this
fence. At Santa Isabel things were not as yet so
carefully done ; for example, I noticed that scabby
wool was not completely removed from the fences.
Some fourteen days after the shearing all the sheep
were *' dipped " for scab. The theory is that the first
dipping kills the mature parasites but not the eggs ;
and a second dipping is given some two weeks later.
The double dipping was repeated perhaps even five
or six times in the year at intervals of about two
months.
Lazoing Calves for branding and dehorning, and Colts
and young Mules for branding,
I will now pass on to the lazoing of calves for
marking and dehorning, though this took place much
later (in April or May, 1909).
Calves were marked when from two to seven
•4i, i 'i : /'•
CARTING AWAY THE WOOL.
DIPPING SHEEP FOR SCAB.
To face p. 92.
BRANDING AND DEHORNING CALVES 93
months old. At Santa Isabel the dehorning was
performed at the same time ; and the process was
(I heard) so brutal that I could not have borne to
see it. This same young mayor-domo told me that
**at home" {i.e., at his father's estancia in Uruguay)
they did the dehorning quite successfully at a much
earlier age, when the calves were (I think) only
three weeks old ; it was not nearly so brutal then, but
required more skill and knowledge. But they could
not be branded so young ; the mark would not have
lasted as the animal grew.
As far as I know, the only practical use of de-
horning is that the dehorned animals are less likely
to injure each other when carried by rail in trucks ;
though I fear that mere appearance has a good deal
to do with this painful maiming being inflicted on the
poor beasts.
For both marking and dehorning the calf has first
to be lazo'd, and then to be thrown. For this last,
there have to be men on foot who lazo the legs of the
animal after the horseman has lazo'd it by the neck.
The lazo is of green hide, plaited or twisted, and is
about eighteen yards long. At one end it is fastened
to a ring fixed on the saddle ; and at the other end
there is a ring to give the necessary slip-knot. In
use, there is made at the free end a large noose of
some six feet diameter. The free part is laid against
this for some three feet ; and the cord of the noose,
the free cord, and usually the cords of one or two
small coils, are held in the right hand. The left hand
94 ARGENTINE PLAINS
holds the reins, the rebenque (a sort of thong-whip),
and another small coil or two of the lazo.
The big noose is whirled round the head, its
weight, and that of the iron ring (which is some
three feet from the hand), giving it *' go " enough in
spite of the very considerable air-resistance. [See
frontispiece.] When it is discharged the few coils
held in the left hand are also in the end let go, and
the lazo is finally left attached to the ring on the
saddle only. The animal is made to pull the noose
tight, the horseman merely hanging back or to
one side.
In 1888, when there was much lazoing of full-grown
"native" animals done at Santa Isabel, I remember
that I was very much disappointed with what I saw ;
one reads such wonderful accounts of what gauchos
do ! I believe that there are very striking exhibitions
given by picked cowboys of Anglo-Saxon race from
North America, who perform for pay ; but that is
another matter from the regular run of Argentine
lazoing.
Here the animal was pursued at a very short
distance, and the lazo flung when there was but little
relative motion. The object was — (I am still speaking
of 1888, when ''native" cattle were being lazo'd,
and dehorning was unknown at Santa Isabel ;
for in 1909, when the calves were to be dehorned,
they were intentionally lazo'd by the neck) — to get
the noose over the horns ; and I remember well how
often the neck was caught instead, and how complete
• * * *
THE LAZO FALLING ON A CALF.
DKAC.GIN'G A LAZO I) CALF.
To face p. 94.
LAZOING 96
misses were by no means rare. All the catching by
the feet that I saw in both my long visits of 1888 and
1908 respectively, was done by men on foot after the
animal had been lazo'd, and when it was plunging
about more or less in one place.
[This tripping up by lazoing the legs is called by
Anglo- Argentines ''pielaring," the native verb being
pielar^
The fact is, I suspect, that the lazo is a somewhat
clumsy and a very difficult instrument to use. These
men had been at it all their lives and were very good
horsemen, and if they could not astonish one by their
performances, it may be rather a point against the
lazo than against the men.
In the lazoing of the cattle-kind that I saw and
photographed during this second visit (1908-9), the
animals were, as already said, only calves, and the
work was not nearly so exciting to watch as it was
in 1888.
Indeed, the whole thing was more interesting then.
The camp was not yet cut up into a number of
paddocks, and the corrals were few and small ; so
most of the work was done in the open, and larger
mobs of cattle were dealt with. The various lots of
cattle were trained, in a rough kind of way, to collect
round one or another of several posts stuck up in the
camp whenever men on horseback came about them
shouting *' Buuuuu . . . ey!" buey being one word
for "ox"; and such a mass was called a rodeo.
Then a number of the men (I used to be one) kept
96 ARGENTINE PLAINS
riding round the restless group, numbering perhaps
1,000, or even more, to keep it together. Had
separating to be done, some tame draught-oxen were
stationed at some little distance as a decoy, and then
some of the men rode into the rodeo and picked and
drove out their animals, chasing them across to the
decoy-oxen. Work it was often to prevent the whole
lot from following them ! We, on guard, had to pay
heed to nip in the bud any tendency for an outward-
tending wedge to form on the edge of the rodeo.
Sometimes it happened that a calf would think that its
mother had been driven out, and would make away
from the rodeo, eluding the sentinels with the curious
stupid-seeming, but really cunning, agility peculiar to
calves and lambs. Then the real mother would
follow ; another calf, this also under a mistaken idea
that its own mother was going away, would follow the
cow, and so on. Soon a point, then a wedge would
be formed ; and vain would be all the frantic riding
and throat-splitting shouts of us horsemen ! The
rodeo had broken up ; all work was over for the
day, and the work so far accomplished was undone.
But all this was in 1909 a thing of the past. The
work was now (counting stock and some sorting
excepted) mostly done in corrals ; and, anyhow, the
breaking up of the camp into paddocks had made the
numbers to be dealt with, at one and the same time,
much smaller. Further, the cattle were now much
tamer ; they were Durham (mostly) and not
"native."
• » « • * *
• • • • *
PIELAR-ING A LAZO D CALF,
PIELAR-IXG A YOUNG MULE (ALREADY LAZO'd).
To face p. 96,
LAZOING COLTS AND YOUNG MULES 97
Returning to the lazoing witnessed in this last visit
of 1 908-9, I will here say a word about the illustrations.
In the frontispiece we see the lazo being whirled,
and it will be noticed that the lazoer holds but one
small coil in his right hand (see frontispiece). The fact
is, the manner of holding the lazo varies somewhat.
In the figure showing the lazo falling on a calf, the
horse's head is thrown right back against the rider's
chest, and the arm runs past the animal's eye. In
that showing the pielaring of a calf, the lazo running
from the animal's neck to the saddle of the horse-
man (who does not come into the figure) is hardly
visible. The distant white line represents a group
of the estancia gulls settled in a field. The young
mule (or is it in this case a colt ?) has also been lazo'd
already ; but here, too, the lazo running from its neck
is not very visible.
The lazoing of colts and of young mules for brand-
ing was much more exciting. The pace in pursuit
was great, and, as the animals might easily be
injured, the capataz himself did all the lazoing.
Owing to the pace much dust was raised, and so it
was almost impossible to get good photos until the
animals were actually lazo'd and the pielaring
began. Of course, mules and colts rear, while calves
do not, and the former came terrible croppers! I
have secured some photos that make very striking
lantern slides — one of the capataz lazoing in a cloud
of dust ; one of the " side-pull " from the saddle which
7
98 ARGENTINE PLAINS
a lazoer gives, by turning his horse sideways, when
he wishes to hold a captured animal ; one of a rearing
mule, and one of a mule in the act of toppling over
backward after rearing.
The smoke from the branding suggested pain, but
the animals showed no signs of it. Indeed, I do not
think that it would "answer" to make a real burn, a
sore, as the flies would then give trouble.
Counting the Stock,
The counting of the stock was interesting. My
brother and the capataz, each provided with a sort
of rosary of beads, went with attendant peons to one
paddock after another to count the cattle, some 500 or
600 at a time, while the sheep capataz with his men
counted the sheep in the pens.
The cattle were rounded up, and then the peons
made them pass in a thin line between the two
counters. The beads served to record the tens or
hundreds. A significant detail was that when I
photographed the process I had to stand so as to
be concealed by the horses of the break. The cattle
are used to horsemen, but the sight of a man on foot
would have made the animals unmanageable. So also
native cattle may horn, and other cattle will mob, a
man on foot. I had some uncomfortable experiences
of this.
' ' Palenqtiearing ' ' Horses,
Another of the regular operations that I witnessed
was the treatment that was given to untamed horses
PALENQUEARING. VACCINATING 99
of 2^ years old ^ in order to make them tame enough
to be exhibited at the Rosario sale as " unbroken " —
t'.e.y tame enough to be driven in mobs or to be tied
up. It was not the real breaking-in of horses ; this
last is done usually at 3 or 3! years old. The horses
were driven into the corral first, and then a headstall
{very strong!) had to be got on. In former days
they would have been lazo'd and thrown, but now
the less risky process of driving them into a manga
was adopted.
Each horse in turn was tied up to a palenque
(which is either a tying post or two posts with a
cross-bar) by means of a strong hide thong attached
to the headstall, and there it seemed to go mad with
panic and rage {?). The legs were tied together and
untied again, the horse was patted and handled, and
later on was flapped with a sack. The object was, of
course, to show the animals, first, that resistance was
useless and produced discomfort, and second, that no
harm came of it all if they did not struggle. The
panic of the horses made the process look brutal, but
no unnecessary force was employed. The roughness
of the whole thing was due to the fact that the
animals had grown up for the two and a half years
unaccustomed to mankind. The palenque gives the
name to this handling. [See illustration facing p. 102.]
Vaccinating Cattle.
Perhaps the vaccinating of cattle for anthrax or
else for " mancha " (blackleg) may be included in
' Of course they might have been younger j say ij years.
100 ARGENTINE PLAINS
the regular work of the estancia, as it is so often
performed. The cattle are introduced, so many at
a time, into the "manga" (a narrow, boarded-in
gangway with sliding doors, as already explained),
and the vaccinators, leaning over from outside,
vaccinate them behind the right shoulder. When
I witnessed (and photographed) this operation it was
performed with the lymph intended to protect the
cattle against mancha, and my brother and the
mayor-domo did it all themselves. One man can
vaccinate one hundred and fifty in an hour.
Sowing Alfalfa for Pasture,
The last regular work that I shall mention is the
sowing of alfalfa as I saw it. At Santa Isabel, as
already explained, there was no direct ploughing by
the estanciero, but he sent his peons to sow alfalfa
behind the colonists when these were sowing their
last crop. I noticed that the colonists were sowing
their wheat at a trot. My brother's alfalfa machines
followed more slowly, and by making several trials he
endeavoured to regulate the flow of seed to about
25 kilos per square, or 55 lbs. per 4^ acres. [Here,
again, there was doubt as to the exact value of the
** square" in acres.]
CHAPTER VI
MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS CONNECTED WITH LIFE
IN THE CAMP
Horsebreaking,
The breaking-in of riding-horses was not, at Santa
Isabel, part of the regular work. My brother sold
his colts unbroken, and usually bought his riding-
horses broken.
On another estancia, however, I witnessed some
breaking in, the subjects being in this case mares of
big make, 3J years old, that had never been touched
before. In the ** camp," at any rate, only geldings
are used for riding ; and I believe that in the present
case the breaking-in by riding was only a way of
getting the mares tame. It was somewhat unfortunate
that it took place in June (full winter), and in dull
weather ; for the light was then quite below the mark
for quick photography.
I had first better give some description of the
Argentine saddle, or recado. This is gradually built
up ; and hence saddling an unbroken animal is no
easy matter.
First come some skins or cloths. Then two long
va
102 ARGENTINE PLAINS
bolsters (called bastos), made of a stiff cane-like reed
covered with leather, that lie on either side of the spine.
[I seem to remember that, during my visit of 1888, I
saw some bastos made of wood.] These are con-
nected over the back and secured by a cinch under
the belly ; and this is the cinch, par excellence.
Next come several skins. The last but one of these
is a soft and woolly sheepskin that is always very
conspicuous at the back and front, through the wool
bulging up ; while the last of all is a shorter skin, soft
and smooth but not slippery, comfortable and cool to
sit on. A thin cinch round all keeps these later skins
in place ; but the first cinch mentioned is that which
holds the saddle on. Thus the Argentine saddle gives
a soft and flat seat, and is not peaked before or
behind ; it is a great contrast to the Chilian saddle.
The stirrups again are very unlike the Chilian
stirrups. They are flat discs of wood, often much
ornamented with leather and metal, with a hole for
the toe. This can be seen in the illustration facing
p. 62. Thus the foot cannot catch in them when a
rider is thrown. A rider can hold on tighter by turn-
ing the stirrups inward towards the girth ; and, if he
expects bucking, he will often tie his lazo (or his
boleadoras) across the saddle in the front, so that he
can get his knees under it. The usual bit is a curb of
some sort, used with a single rein ; and steering is
done by pressure on the neck. There is no ** throat-
lash " ; and so the whole comes away easily. There-
fore, if the horse is to be tied up, the headstall (bozal)
I « « •
PALENQUEAR-ING HORSES {2\ YEARS).
BEGINNING TO BREAK IN A 3^ YEARS MARK.
To face p. 102.
BREAKING-IN RIDINGHORSES 103
and leather thong attached to the headstall (cabresto)
must be kept on also. The reins are separate ; and
therefore, if a man be thrown (no unlikely matter in
plains where there are so many armadillo and other
holes) the reins and cabresto trail ; and the horse is
not much inclined to run away, lest he should tread
on one of the three thongs and hurt his mouth. When
a horse is being broken in, a bit is not used ; for it is
substituted a thong of green hide that grips the lower
jaw tightly behind the teeth. This is called a bocado.
The tamers, or domadores, that I saw were quite
young men — they have need to be ! — and wore the
chiripi and drawers and very handsome tiradores.
But they had on short jackets and caps ; there was
nothing of the old, draped gaucho looseness of dress
about them.
[By the way, it is curious how natives muffle up
their throats in nearly all weathers ! They seem to
consider this to be as important as is a cummerbund
in some climates. This domador had taken care to
have a very gay handkerchief round his throat.]
There was no manga at this estancia ; and so the
mares had to be lazo'd, thrown, and secured, before
the headstall could be put on. This was risky work ;
— the animals might well have been injured, since they
go wild with panic. When the first stage was over,
the animal was standing tied to a post by a very
strong thong.
Some restraint was needed during saddling ; so a
thong was thrown over the back, cleverly caught as it
104 ARGENTINE PLAINS
swung under the belly, and then made into a slip-
knot that was shaken back until it fell over the tail
and gripped the animal lightly above the hocks.
There was also some further restraint.
To describe in detail the saddling, and the getting
the bocado in, would be tedious. But it can be
imagined what patience was required. Often, when
the first skins were on and the bastos in place but not
yet secured, the animal would throw herself down and
hang gasping from the post.
Not only did this scatter the skins and bastos, but
the tying-up thong had to be lengthened out, the
mare kicked (with rope-soled slippers) to her feet
again, and then the thong shortened up and the
saddling recommenced.
A characteristic detail, I was told, was the
domador's use of his teeth as a third hand. One
often hears the ''splendid teeth of the peasantry"
spoken of by people who have not attempted to verify
the implied statement. But the gaucho class really
have magnificent teeth ; their meat diet gives the
teeth plenty of hard work (one essential), and the
diet and way of life between them are responsible for
absence of indigestion and of acid in the saliva.
Well, the riding looked bumpy, decidedly ! Twice
I saw a domador thrown heavily.
I succeeded in getting several photos of the actual
breaking in ; and these have made very interesting
lantern-slides. But, partly because I have had to
cut down my six hundred photos to some ninety for
CAMP AUCTIONS 105
purposes of illustration, and partly because the poor
light made them somewhat too defective in detail to
make good pictures, none of these are given here save
that of the struggling mare shown opposite p. 102.
There was another man, on a tame horse (called a
padrino or sponsor), who accompanied the rider as
far as was possible. One of his most useful functions
was heading the panic-stricken animal away from
fences and posts ; the mare, of course, understanding
jostling from one of her own race.
It was noticeable in all my photographs that the
rider never had his feet under the animal's belly. On
the other hand the lazo, tied across in the front, did
seem to keep his knees down.
A Camp Auction.
One very important way in which an estanciero
may make money consists in picking up stock cheap
at sales, keeping it for a few months or a year on
good alfalfa pasture to fatten it, and then reselling it
at perhaps twice the price paid. And this leads me
to speak of the camp auction. I went to see one ; it
is decidedly a feature of camp life.
An estanciero had died, and his property, by
Argentine law, had to be divided equally between
the children. I Such division naturally often leads to
sales of stock. There are firms of auctioneers, or
firms who employ them, that do very well in this
business. They get, on stock, 4 per cent, on the
money realised ; and, as sales are on a very large
^ I forget what share the widow has.
106 ARGENTINE PLAINS
scale, they can afford to spend money in attracting
purchasers. There is a good " breakfast " provided,
with wine ; there are drinks if you want them ; and
very often (I believe) special trains are run with free
first-class tickets. I have seen such advertised. The
auctioneer to whom I listened had the voice of a man
of brass ! His way (the usual way, I was told) of
calling out the offers already made was curious.
Were it, e.g., 8 J dollars (i.e.^ ocho y medio), he would
cry, ** Ocho y me-me-me-me-me . . . medio " ; and
this began to get on my nerves at last as a bad
stammer might. Personal appeals, by name, were
often made to my brother ; and the whole thing was
conducted with such untiring energy and undiminished
noise that one wondered how any human throat could
stand the wear and tear. In one feature the auction
resembled those at home, viz., the imperceptible way
in which bids were made. I — but I am not a business
man — thought my brother had never responded to the
auctioneer's appeals, but I learned at the end that he
had bought a trifle of i,ooo sheep and 500 cattle or so
— I am not sure of the numbers now.
A rgent ine Brick-making.
In the great alluvial plains of Argentina there is
no clay to be found. Bricks have to be made with
ordinary earth, and therefore — as in Egypt in old
times — " straw " is needed to bind the mud together.
I saw a piece of brick-making that was typical.
Some 100,000 bricks were needed for additions
BRICK-MAKING 107
to be made to the estancia. Now the bricks are
made by causing mares (the maids-of-all-work in
Argentina) to trample into a sort of clay earth, water,
and straw ; this is then moulded into proper shapes ;
these are sun-dried, becoming the well-known
*' adobe " ; and finally these last are burned into true
bricks in a kiln. So enclosures have to be made,
called ** pisaderos," in which the trampling is done ;
water has to be supplied ; land has to be levelled on
which the brick-forms may be dried ; a simple mould
for making the bricks is needed, and also some fuel to
start the burning, the straw in the bricks themselves
serving as the rest of the fuel. The bricks in question
were to be 30 cm. (or iif inches) long, 15 cm.
(5j^q inches) broad, and 6 cm. (2f inches) deep.
My brother covenanted with a man to make them
at the estancia for ^i 2s. ^d. ($13) per thousand,
there being special conditions respecting the per-
centage of soft bricks (or^bayos") to be allowed,
and the price of these. [Liability to softness is a weak
point in Argentine bricks.]
My brother supplied, of course, the land in its
natural state, with a well handy ; he lent fifteen mares
(poor brutes ! ) for the trampling, and posts and wire
for the pisaderos.
The contractor did all the rest. He came with five
men and wife and family, rigged up his own shanty,
supplied or bought his own food, collected refuse
hay, &c., for the mixing, and also bones, old carcases,
dung, &c., for fuel.
108 ARGENTINE PLAINS
He made two pisaderos, each about 14 yards in
diameter, and used them alternately ; trenches con-
nected these with the jagiiel.
When the mixture in a pisadero was ready, two or
three men made bricks from it separately. I do not
think I need describe the method, but will only say
that the moulds made two at a time, and that the bricks
were at first laid out flat, and then (when hard enough)
built into ridges to dry further into ** adobe." It is to
be noted that, in the adobe, the straw remains to give
toughness to the dried mud, while it serves as internal
fuel when real bricks are made.
It was characteristic of the plains of Argentina —
where children play with bones, and men sit on skin-
covered skulls, everything seeming to have to do with
the animal kingdom — that when I found decomposed
heads and ribs lying on the roads I knew that the
carts of they^^Z-collectors had passed that way !
[Oh! it was such a relief sometimes to get among
the blooming lino or the wheat of the colonists ; to get
away from bleeding hides, decaying carcases, and still
more from evidences of perhaps necessary but yet
cruel treatment of animals, such as dehorning ! This,
by the way.]
The finished kiln was in the form of a truncated
pyramid of base 42 J by 21 J feet, sloping height
13 feet, and top 2^ by i6j feet. At the bottom,
across the base, were eighteen passages each i foot
4 inches broad by i foot 6 inches high, to contain
the fuel that was to start the burning. Otherwise
BUILDINGS IN THE PLAINS 109
there were no spaces left designedly, only the un-
avoidable chinks, which were sufficient for the passage
of the flames and hot gases. A change of wind,
occurring after the kiln had been fired, threw out the
calculations of the brick-makers, and the burning was
not a good one — there was too large a percentage of
soft bricks (** bayos "). Still, there were rather over
the 100,000, and they sufficed for the building to
be done.
Some Notes on Buildings in the Plains.
This is a chapter of odds and ends, and so I will
put in here some notes on the buildings ** in camp."
The oldest buildings were, I suppose, the tents, or
toldos, of the Indians. These were made of mares'
hides and had a single ridge-pole. I saw none myself
— Indians have gone — but my brother told me of them.
Next to these in simplicity would come turf huts
(which can be made only on some soils), and mud
huts, which are still made by quite well-to-do colonists
as annexes to their adobe huts. One way of making
these is to erect corner posts, to stretch horizontal
wires between them, and then to double over the
wires roly-polies of mud having wisps of long grass
as cores. This forms a sort of mud screen that
preserves its shape in virtue of the wires and the
grass cores of the mud-rolls. Then both faces have
more mud thickly plastered on them, this mud
holding on to the surfaces on account of the un-
evennesses resulting from the construction described
110 ARGENTINE PLAINS
above. If the whole be whitewashed we may get
quite a nice-looking little cottage. Another sort is
made more as concrete houses in England are made.
Of adobe huts there is no need to say more ; adobe
is simply like bad and fragile brick. [See opp. p. 74.]
Turning to more ambitious buildings, the brick
houses of the estancieros, we may notice that these
have changed much in form. When Indians were
about the estancia was more or less of a fort, and it
always had a flat roof (an azotea) from which the
inhabitants could get a good view over the plains.
The illustration shows one photographed in 1869.
These times are not very distant, even in some of
the districts now covered with fences and near railway
stations. I think that some commissioners were killed
by Indians near Melincu6 (my brother's post town,
and one of his railway stations) only a very few years
before he came to settle there in 1883. There had
been an adobe fort and a brick watch-tower (man-
grullo) at Melincud. The fort had been destroyed by
rain, but the watch-tower was standing in 1909, and I
photographed it then. I have, too, a sketch that
I took in 1888 of a neighbouring estancia of singu-
larly simple form. It was a mere two-storied tower
with a flat roof, and also dated from *' Indian" days.
It was called the ** Pedernal." Of more modern
estancias I need not speak. They may have any
form, but I should say that most are one-storied and
have verandas. Nor need I describe further the very
characteristic houses of the camp-towns, as I have
• • • •
ESTAXCIA IX "IXDIAX" TIMES.
(From a photo taken in 1869.)
A RELIC OF '•INDIAN' TIMES.
(Spy-tower stUl standing at Melincue, F.C.C.A., in 1909.)
CARTS IN THE PLAINS 111
already spoken of these on p. 47, and they are
shown in the illustration facing p. 46.
Carts in Argentina,
In the vast stoneless plains of Argentina carts
travel either over the open camp with its tussocky
grass — land that is often swampy also — or along roads
(so-called) that may be deep in dust or mud. Hence,
I suppose, the huge wheels that have always been,
and are still a feature of the camp cart. My brother
in 1869 photographed a sort that was even then old-
fashioned, being made entirely without iron ; and I
took a fresh photo from one of his faded prints, to
preserve this interesting record of primitive Argentina.
Next in antiquity, and still in use, though, I fear,
obsolescent, comes the picturesque two-wheeled cart
with an awning (or *'toldo"), made in the ordinary
way of wood and iron. The wheels are 10^ feet
high, while the height of the cart from floor to roof
is 8 feet 10 inches, and the width inside is 4 feet
7 inches.
The commonest cart for general purposes is a four-
wheeled one that will carry three tons or more. Its
hind wheels are also loj feet high, and the " length "
of the cart (I am not sure how much this included)
has been given me as 59 feet. [All these measurements
were obtained for me by a friend from a native wheel-
wright in Melincu6 ; but, of course, I had to change
from metric to English measure.] This common sort
of cart may be seen in the illustration facing p. 92.
112 ARGENTINE PLAINS
One may have as many as twelve or thirteen horses
of all sorts, sizes, and colours, employed to drag these
huge ships of the Pampas. And as they appear to be
tied on anywhere — many to the sides — it can be
imagined how widely the teams spread out when
pulling begins ! Every native saddle has, or can
have, an iron ring attached firmly on its side, to which
(^.^.) the end of the lazo may be fastened. This ring
is much used also for traction. Either a rope or
thong is tied to it and to one side of the cart, the
horse being then called a 'Madero" (Spanish lado =
side), or the pole of a cart or low truck is fastened to
the ring direct. A boy on horseback pulled the hay-
trucks in this way.
English *' as she is spoke " in the Camp,
I doubt whether any other language so invades and
injures the English language as does Spanish in the
case of English residents in Argentina. And, seeing
that in any case literature is held of small account in
this land of practical aims, it seems a great pity that
the Anglo- Argentines do not take more pains to pre-
serve their own language pure.
Spanish is Spanish and English is English, but a
good deal of what I heard was neither ; and I would
fain appeal to my fellow-countrymen out in Argentina
to pay rather more attention to this matter, and not to
allow our splendid language to become (out there)
inferior to Spanish in richness. It seemed to me that
English is being injured in three distinct ways.
ANGLO-ARGENTINE ENGLISH 113
Firstly, it is being mixed with Spanish words, used
rightly but unnecessarily. I heard lujo used for
luxury, alivio for relief, and polvo de ladrillo for brick-
dust, and so on. Evidently many common English
words may soon be forgotten by the rising generation
of Argentine- born English.
Secondly, it is being mixed with Spanish words
used barbarously. An Englishman resident in France
does not say " I aimer dh^r very much," ** I manger d
a hasty lunch," or ** I b lesser d my arm." But in
Argentina the English residents use, in the case of
verbs without number, such forms as " That pivot is
gastard" (worn), where the Spanish verb is gastar
(to wear or spend) and the past-participle is gastado
(worn or spent); **he golpeard his foot against a
stone" (knocked it), or **they revocar'd the wall"
(plastered it).
Thirdly, English words are getting to be used in a
Spanish sense. I heard an English estanciero, a
Public School man, say that he and his family could
very well occupy six empty barrels. I thought of
"Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves," but he only
meant "make use of" (Spanish ocupar).
To regulate an account is to settle it {arreglar) ; to
despatch a messenger is to give him his instructions —
usually the day before he starts. The Spanish ** j "
is a rough aspirate, and juntar means to [join or]
collect. Thus one can ** juntar" maize. But surely
it is very barbarous to speak of "hunting" maize
instead of collecting it?
8
114 ARGENTINE PLAINS
Some Spanish words turned directly into English
forms may enrich our language. But I only came
across one such desirable (or, at any rate, unobjection-
able) case of this influence of Spanish on English.
The Spanish word aquerenciar is used in Argentina
of so attaching a cow to a certain camp that she no
longer seeks to leave it ; thus a cow becomes aqueren-
ciada to a new camp when she has had a calf there.
So when an English wife has become reconciled to
her estancia life and has settled down she may be
said to be querenched to it. The word is not pretty,
but it is expressive and not barbarous ; it represents,
quite fairly, the assimilative powers which are so
remarkable a feature of our language.
Denationalisation of Immigrants,
In this matter I can only speak of my experiences
in ** the camp," and so I pack this note also into the
present miscellaneous chapter.
I remember how often I have met Swiss and
Italians from the United States and elsewhere drawn
back to their native countries by home-sickness, and
how New Zealanders and other dwellers in Dominions
or Colonies look to England as *'home."
In Argentina, in the camp, I did not find this
Heimweh. Neither Swiss, nor Italians, nor English
seem to prefer *'home" to Argentina.
And this does not mean that they have transferred
their allegiance to a new country. I do not think
that any one will contradict me when I state that
IMMIGRANT DENATIONALISATION 115
there can hardly be any country where the sentiment
of patriotism for their adopted land among immigrants
is weaker than in Argentina ; where there is among
these less of the spirit that makes a man ready to
fight or to make sacrifices — not for his property or his
family, but for the land of his adoption. Argentina
is, in fact, as yet too impersonal to excite such a
sentiment ; it is a vast space scantily occupied by
various unblended nationalities.
No ; I am convinced that the dying-out of longing
for and interest in the fortunes of their real native
lands, which I believe to be in evidence among the
immigrants into Argentina, is not to be ascribed to
any true transference of patriotism, but rather to the
spirit of materialism that rules the country and
gradually infects those who come into it. This is, I
imagine, the weak point of new lands.
The present generation of older Englishmen, born
in England, now settled in Argentina, are, I venture
to think, in a position that is unfortunate both for
themselves and the country. For by Argentine law
they are not Argentines (since they have not been
born in the country and, we may safely assume, have
not naturalised themselves), and therefore cannot play
any part in managing public affairs. [Privately, I am
inclined to suspect, though I may be wrong, that the
true Argentines don't want any Anglo-Saxons, whether
born in the country or not, meddling with either
politics or "justice"!]
Hence they are limited to the pursuit of wealth,
116 ARGENTINE PLAINS
and the big English estancieros lack the healthy
influences of the public duties which fall to the lot of
the ''squires" in England or of the wealthy settlers
in our Colonies. So, I say, the position is in one
sense unfortunate for them.
It is unfortunate for the country, too. Can any one
assert that, in general, ''justice" is in a satisfactory
condition in provincial Argentina, in the " camp " and
in camp towns ? Would a peon even, of Argentine
race, to say nothing of an Italian colonist, have (again
" in general ") any chance against an important or
wealthy man unless the latter happened to be no
friend of the magistrate's? I do not mean to say
more here than what would imply that provincial
Argentina is to-day where provincial England was a
long time ago. Well, to come to my point. Here
everywhere are good specimens of that Anglo-Saxon
race whose special gift lies in the direction of ability
to manage public affairs and to administer justice in a
way that inspires confidence among the lower — indeed,
among all — classes ; and everywhere they remain un-
employed in these higher functions. So I say the
position is an unfortunate one for the country also.
Will the next generation of English born out there,
and therefore legally Argentines, sent home to the
Old Country to be trained in our public schools, and
therefore fully imbued with our best English traditions,
ever play a part in public affairs in Argentina and
influence the tone for good ? I cannot say ; but if this
is ever to come about, it must be through their wishing
IMMIGRANT DENATIONALISATION 117
it and the true (or Spanish) Argentines acquiescing.
But I would venture to predict that when, or if, it
does ever come to pass, those of English race who
thus take part in the direction of Argentine affairs will
also take a keener interest in matters concerning the
well-being of the British Empire, to which they will
still by race belong, than at present they appear to me
to do. As I said before, it is the limitation of men's
energies to the pursuit of wealth, or what I have
called materialism, and not patriotism for the new
land, that deadens the sentiment for the old home
of their race.
CHAPTER VII
THE HISTORY OF A LOCUST INVASION
(Schistocerca paranensis)
On October i8th, not long after I arrived at the
estancia, I went out one day (as I have mentioned
before) and climbed up on to one of the windmills
to view the country and its emptiness. The gulls,
of whom a number always stay about each estan-
cia, appeared to be rather excited ; and, looking up
towards the sun, I thought that I saw the reason.
For, high up, there was a thin drift of locusts,
whose gauzy wings caught the light and made
glittering specks in the air near the sun ; away from
the sun I could see nothing of them, for they flew
high and in very open order.
On October 25th we drove out to visit some
colonists, and at first things were as usual ; though,
no doubt, had my attention been called to it, I
should have noticed a haze on the horizon.
But soon we were in a drift of locusts ; and, seen
edgeways, the cloud (which I suppose covered many
square miles) formed a purplish haze that made the
horizon, usually as sharp as the rim of the sea, quite
invisible. I remember how one glittering windmill
118
Yi
-&
%
i
1
4^ . ■■■ -^
3
o
X
o
X
(=
THE LOCUSTS COME TO LAY 119
caught the sun and shone out of the cloud as a hght-
house out of a fog bank.
On our way home we passed a puesto that had
some willows (sauces) round it. The locusts had
alighted on these and loaded them, clinging on (as
usual) with their heads pointing in the same direction,
viz., upwards. And I noticed for the first time the
curious glimmering, brown-gray, streaky appearance
that this locust-load gave to the trees ; an appearance
that later became very familiar to me. These swarms
of locusts came (so it is believed) from the Gran
Chaco and other vast empty regions further north.
They came for some eight or nine days to breed and
to lay eggs ; they practically ate nothing — that was
not their business then. Night after night they
roosted, out of reach of the dew, on the sauces and
other trees, and yet I could not find any signs of
eating : only some of the vegetables in the garden
suffered a little, and here and there some maize was
touched. As the sun dried the herbage they de-
scended from their roosting places to the ground ; and
during the latter part of the eight or nine days, when
laying began to be conspicuous, they got very slug-
gish and no longer rose ; one trod on them. A large
female (the males were smaller) measured as follows : —
Across the spread wings 4f inches.
From tip of head to tip of closed wings, antennae not
included 2ff „
From tip of head to tip of tail 2J „
Length of straightened jumping leg overaj „
120 ARGENTINE PLAINS
The colours of both male and female were dull ;
a dull olive-green, black, and dull brown. [The new
race, developed later from the eggs as described
below, were brighter in colour.]
I think that one can say with certainty that the
locusts choose for their laying-grounds bare earth,
fairly beaten and hard ; in fact, the *' roads " receive
most of the eggs. Probably they lay also on the
small bare patches that occur here and there in the
alfalfa paddocks ; probably not on the loose ploughed
land of the colonists' holdings, but only on the tem-
porary roads that are made along and across them.
The female locust is most ingeniously adapted for
boring holes and laying eggs in them. At the end
of the tail there is something like a pair of jaws ; there
are two talons bent upward on the upper "jaw," and
two bent downward on the lower. The jaws are
thrust, closed, into the earth, and are then opened
out. Thus, bit by bit, a hole is made and the locust's
body is dragged down into it. The earth is not
excavated (save, perhaps, just at first), but it is
pressed sideways by the body when this is pulled
inward against the resistance of the jaws (which are
anchored at the bottom), and thickens as it is pulled
in. It is quite noticeable that a patch of road where
many locusts have made their holes and laid eggs
rises somewhat above the adjacent level. The sink-
ing of the body goes on until all that part of it that
lies below the thorax (i,e,, on the tail-side of the
thorax) is beneath the surface.
THE LOCUSTS COME TO LAY 121
Normally this part of the body is about i*i6 inches
long and is completely protected by scaly rings of
about J inch wide that overlap. But in the laying
locust this will stretch to as much as 3*32 inches long,
the rings then being separated and a transparent mem-
brane appearing between them. Eggs are laid in anc
elongated bunch which is covered with a glutinous
foam, and the hole above the eggs is filled with the
same. This appears to dry up later ; it probably
serves to cement the eggs together, and to harden
the walls of the hole so that they may not fall in.
A bunch may contain from 80 to 120 eggs^nd be
about I J inches long ; and the hole above will be
perhaps if inches deep, its total depth being thus
about 3 inches. But numbers and dimensions vary
a good deal.
The cutting jaws of these locusts are very power-
ful ; and I removed the soft parts of the mouth and
photographed these shears of black enamel. From
the top of the head to the bottom of the shears is
about 3^ inch.
As said already, the first swarm (or manga) of
locusts came on October 25th. The laying was
mainly on October 31st, November ist, 2nd, and
3rd. On November 3rd the numbers had lessened
perceptibly. And on November 4th one may say
that the locusts had gone, leaving behind them the
seeds of a plague that must be seen to be believed in.
But crops and grass were uninjured so far.
122 ARGENTINE PLAINS
What can be done? To drive sheep over the
laying locusts, or to beat them with wire flails, pro-
duces a heap of slain. But, half-an-hour later, all is
covered again. And then, look at those miles and
miles of roads, all laying grounds, running every-
where through the empty land!
/' If seven maids with seven mops " —
we all know Lewis Carroll's poem. Certainly I
believe that the best chance of reducing the plague
v/would be, theoretically speaking, to plough and
harrow all roads and bare spaces after the laying
locusts have gone and before the eggs get so ripe as
to be hatched by, and not killed by, exposure to the
sun. But it is a hopeless task at present. Even
could a plough be got into the hard earth, and the
inconvenience of having no firm roads for the carts
be put up with, the population is far too scanty for the
work.
The laying locusts had gone, and things looked
as usual again ; I did not at all realise the inevitable-
ness of the coming invasion. But about three weeks
later I saw the men putting *'tin petticoats" on the
fruit trees, and surrounding a part of the garden with
some 360 yards of tin barrier 18 inches high. [More
was enclosed later.]
And then one day, it was November 27th — i.e., the
w' predicted month after the beginning of the laying —
LIFE-HISTORY OF THE LOCUST 123
someone said to me, " They are hatching out on the
drive ! " So I went out to look. A harmless-seeming
sight enough it was. Here and there were to be
seen a few white specks and some little green things ;
that was all. I examined more closely, and saw the
little wingless locusts, about \ inch long and of a
tender green, scrambling up out of the earth quite
regardless of each other's feelings, one treading on
another. They appeared to come up with some of
the white egg-skin on, chiefly a bit that tied the hind
legs together, and of this they at once tried to get rid.
They soon got out and scattered, leaving a litter of
bits of egg-skins behind them. It seemed to me that
in a few minutes, or in a quarter of an hour, they got
dark in colour. [In the illustration — I hope it will be
reproduced well from the photo that I have by me !
— we can make out the little locusts and the bits of
white egg-skin ; and should also be able to make out
one small creature trying to disentangle its hind legs
from the embarrassing bandage.]
I will first make some general remarks about this
locust (which is called the Schistocerca paranensis)
and its life-history, and then will return to describe
in some detail our unavailing warfare with them, the
ravages they inflicted on us, and the inconveniences
that they caused.
As to their general history, it is one of progress
from stage to stage ; in each stage there is growth, and
then a change of skin, a further and more abrupt
124 ARGENTINE PLAINS
increase in size at this change being very noticeable.
And there are, I read, six changes of skin.
But the advance of the locust, from its first hatch-
ing, through these various stages was rendered less
easy to observe owing to the fact that there was, no
doubt, on the estate a mixture of swarms of various
dates of hatching. Certainly there were at least three
stages in evidence, at one and the same time, up to
near the end.
As regards the Spanish names used, I may say that,
properly speaking, the locusts are ''saltonas " (that is,
hoppers) until the last stage is reached, when they
come out with wings and are mature locusts ; and
then they are called '' voladoras " (or flyers). But
during the first few stages they have the nickname of
** mosquitos " ; this word, familiar to us as applied to
gnats, being merely a diminutive of " mosca," and
meaning '* a small fly."
Nature appears to make one or two attempts to
provide the creature with wings before she finally
succeeds. In the last change of skin but three the
saltona emerges with minute, but quite visible,
abortive wings (called wing-pads in a report of a
Locust Commission of 1898) ; in the next, with wing-
pads rather larger ; while in the last stage of saltona
they are very conspicuous though still quite useless.
At the last change (viz., to the voladora), they come
out with full-sized wings, though these are at first
damp and crumpled up. Nature seems then to make a
big jump, and to succeed suddenly.
THE HATCHING-OUT OF THE LOCUSTS.
BURNING YOUNG LOCUSTS.
To face p. 124.
LIFE-HISTORY OF THE LOCUST 125
In the changes the legs are (I believe) drawn out of
the old legs, the antennae (advancing in the number
of their joints) out of the old antennae. But I came
to the conclusion that the new wing-pads, or (at the
end) the wings, came out from underneath the old
skin, and not out of the old wing-pads.
In the earlier stages the little locusts progressed by-
hopping. They appeared to hop at random, and to
come down with their heads in any direction what-
ever ; yet on the whole there was a steady drift of the
seething, skipping mass — like sand-fleas on hot sarid
— in one direction. And the smaller they were, the
better could they cling to and climb slippery surfaces.
The very small ones could climb up inside an inverted
tumbler.
The larger they grew, the less they hopped and the
less they could climb. The great destructive armies
of saltonas in the last stage never employed hopping
as a method of progress, but marched with persistence
and purpose ; and they could not climb smooth sur-
faces well. Even top-boots, overhanging as they did
somewhat at the ankle, baffled the big saltonas. But
they could to some extent climb barriers at the cracks
where the tin-strips overlapped ; and, if one in a
thousand succeeded, that was enough for devastation
on the other side !
Of course, no barriers availed when the locusts
reached the voladora stage. One had to be content
with having had some fruit and vegetables up till
then, and one hoped that they would soon fly away.
126 ARGENTINE PLAINS
In all stages the saltonas had relatively big heads
(see illustration opposite p. 128), erected in a curiously
impudent way, so that their aspect excited dislike ; one
got to feel them to be obstinate and impudent personal
enemies. The colours, too, yellow, red, black, and
green, were annoying. This feeling of personal
hostility diminished (with me, at any rate) when the
voladora stage was reached and the ugliness and look
of impudence vanished.
In all stages too, including the last or voladora
stage, these new locusts were singularly oily or juicy
as compared with the old ones that came to lay ; and
this juiciness made the attempts to burn the mosquito
saltonas markedly unsuccessful.
/ In all stages they roosted above the ground at
night, getting into the warmth of the setting sun ; and
on very hot days they climbed up posts, getting on to
the shady side of them, and even up grass-stalks, to
get away from the baking earth.
To complete this general survey, I will give some
dates.
On November 27th they began to hatch out. By
December 24th they were several stages on, and were
i inch to I inch long. About January 9th I began to
notice the change to the last stage of saltona, which
was some ij inches long. Change to the voladora
stage began about January i6th; and about Janu-
ary 25th the voladoras predominated in numbers.
By February 2nd (when I left for the Andes) vola-
doras predominated greatly, and the remaining
'■ "-f
^— • -^
^
SCOOPING UP SALTONAS WITH THE CARCARAXA.
DRIVING SALTONAS INTO PITS.
To face p. i»6.
BURNING THE SMALL LOCUSTS 127
saltonas were meditating the final change and were
not eating much.
The latter part of February gave a story of flights
going away to north-west — it is believed that they go
northward round by the west — and of other flights,
also on the move, alighting in passing. When I
returned on March i8th there were only a few here
and there, like grasshoppers with us in England ; and
the last I saw of this terrible plague was a passing
cloud, high in the air, on March 23rd, drifting in their
curious way at 45° or so to the wind. [If there were,
e.g., an east wind, you usually saw the locusts, with
their heads pointing north, flying northward, but on
the whole drifting in a north-westerly direction. They
appeared to wish to go north, but to be disinclined
to face the wind at all.]
I will now return to the hatching-out and give some
details of our experiences. And I will say at once
that, beyond temporarily protecting the garden and
fruit trees against the saltonas, so as to put off the evil
day of destitution (in fruit, vegetables, and flowers),
as long as possible, i.e., until the locusts reached the
voladora stage, the fight with them was quite useless
in such a big invasion as this. Had we killed none,
more would have died of starvation ; that is all. But
we had to satisfy the Locust Commissioners and to
show corpses strewn about and pits filled.
In the earlier mosquito stages we could burn them
in some places ; viz., in the garden, on roads, and in
128 ARGENTINE PLAINS
such paddocks as had degenerated back to the wiry
and inflammable puna-grass. In green alfalfa they
had too much cover.
The plan was to look out for mangas by noticing
the brown appearance given when they roosted early
and late on the thistles and on the tops of the grass-
stems. A barrier was then erected to leeward of
them, and we advanced on them down the wind,
working with burning lino-straw, or with " naphtha
machines " invented for this purpose, the puna-grass
catching fire and helping us. [See illustration oppo-
site p. 124.] We then got deep carpets of the small
things up against the barriers, and the flames seemed
to wither them up and turn them white and red.
i /But, alas ! ten minutes later all would seem to be
alive again ; the fact being that they were so juicy
that the top layer protected those underneath, and
the latter soon came to the top. About Decem-
ber 24th we had to give over burning, since the
whole camp had become so dry that there was danger
of starting a fire that would reach the colonists'
crops.
[I may mention too that the undergrowth in the
home monte, a grove of paraisos, sauces, and acacias,
would readily have caught fire ; in which case, all the
trees would have been destroyed. So we had to
abstain from burning in the neighbourhood of the
monte, though in it and around it were millions of
locusts.]
By December 28th they had become big enough
*T ' J»
CHANGE INTO LAST STAGE
OF SALTONA.
LAST STAGE OF SALTOXA.
MARCH OF SALTONAS (LAST STAGE).
To fac« p. 128.
DESTROYING LARGER SALTONAS 129
(say from J to i inch long) for another method of
attack to be adopted.
In this a big iron scoop was employed, which is called
a '*carcarand" ; the name, I think, of the town where
it was first used. [See illustration opposite p. 126.]
This is about 10 feet long, and it is dragged by
means of a rope at each end attached to the saddle- ■/
rings of two horsemen who keep level with one
another and sweep the manga at a canter. In the
illustration this scoop is somewhat sunk in the
alfalfa, and is not well seen.
Pits, 1 2 feet long by 3 feet wide and 4 feet deep,
had been dug, and the scoop was emptied into them.
When full, the pits were covered in with earth.
While filling, projecting sheets of tin kept the locusts
in, or else a boy was employed to beat them down
with a branch. But twenty such pitfuls, represent-
ing some 2,800 cubic feet of smallish locusts, made
no difference ! It merely meant that one locust in a
thousand (or in 10,000, or in 10,000,000?) had
perished.
Rather later, on January 5th, I went to witness
another mode of destruction. In one paddock the
pasture had become so short that there was no
danger of a prairie-fire. So barriers were set up
converging to a pit whose borders were guarded with
overhanging tin sheets; and a manga was driven in
by men with naphtha machines, working down the
wind, the heat and smoke of the smouldering herbage
helping. [See illustration opposite p. 126.]
9
130 ARGENTINE PLAINS
At last — somewhere about January 9th — began
the worst period of the plague, when large numbers
of the saltonas had reached, and daily vaster and
vaster masses were reaching, their last and biggest
stage before the final change into voladoras.
It was now no longer a question of looking out
for mangas ; these big ij-inch hoppers covered the
whole country and marched in huge armies along
the roads, or across them from paddock to paddock.
With their big impudent heads, ugly colouring, and
caterpillar-like bodies, they were well adapted by
their appearance to heighten the loathing which
we felt for them. They occupied our mental vision ;
we saw them in dreams ; I see them still ! We could
now make them walk into pits, guiding them by
barriers ; but it made no difference. Flocks of
\J hawks and eagles, seen at no other time, came
(literally by the hundred) and devoured them ; but
it made no difference. They ate each other; they
got drowned (by the cubic metre) in drinking troughs
and wells ; we trod on them and beat them down
with flails ; they died for lack of food or attacked
by parasites — but it made no difference! If you
had not put on slippery top-boots, and if you stopped
for a moment anywhere out of doors, you were soon
covered with them. Innumerable as the sands of
the sea! They choked the machines that were
threshing linseed ; and it began to turn out an oily
Tip instead of clean seed !
Alfalfa was eaten down to the ground ; the leaves,
To face p. 130.
ARMIES OF BIG SALTONAS 131
bark, and even the tenderer wood of the sauces and
acacias was devoured ; they attacked clothes, and
even the hard silk-and-wood houses of the bicho
de canasta. I saw one begin to eat, alive, a brother-
saltona that was changing its skin and therefore
helpless ; and I could not feel much compassion
when, later, I saw a praying-mantis begin to eat
a saltona alive.
Oh ! the bareness and heat of the camp in those
days ; and the sickly locust-smell — something be-
tween that of bad hay and guano! It required much
doggedness to go on photographing under these
conditions, and developing in the now baking dark-
room ; but I did it. I wish that I could reproduce
here the whole series of my photographs ; but there
are far too many.
In spite of the loathing that one had acquired
for all locusts, it was interesting watching the last
change — from saltona to voladora — taking place. The
voladora emerged with its wings damp and crumpled,
and its long hind legs limp and useless. So, before
it was quite free, it bent up and got hold of the
twig or grass-stem with its front legs, and hung
there until its wings were expanded and hind legs
strengthened. But I think it was some days before
it could fly far; and up to the very last it remained
a much softer insect than the old voladora that had
come down from the north in spring to lay eggs.
Further, it was practically of the same size as the
132 ARGENTINE PLAINS
old, but had not the same tone of colour ; there
was a good deal of a warm pink-brown about it,
and it was more translucent in the sun.
These new voladoras soon covered the ground
everywhere and rose in short flights as one walked.
yThey seemed anxious to eat ; but there was little
V left for them. I saw them eating dead locusts, twigs,
bark, hard quinces — anything they could get. As
evening came on, they went to roost on trees, stacks,
or undergrowth.
With the arrival of this last stage in the life-history
of the locust, the interest of the invasion, for me,
came to an end. The rest was simply a matter
of more complete destruction of whatever could serve
as locusts' food. I soon went off to the Andes ;
but some further notes were taken for me at the
estancia. I learned that, all February, voladoras
went away to south-west, west, or north-west, though
one flight went eastward. [They are believed to
work round to the north and to make for the Gran
Chaco and other empty lands and to winter there.]
A noticeable feature this year appears to have
been the very large quantities found dead at the
foot of trees, posts, and other roosting places. The
capataz thought that hunger had killed them ; but
another man said that he had found gusanos (worms
or grubs) in the bodies ; and this would suggest
destruction by some parasitic fly. Perhaps both
views are right, the locusts having been so weakened
by hunger as to succumb to parasitic attack.
MAIZE (l) BEFOKE, AND (2) AFTER, THE LOCUSTS HAVK REACHED IT.
To face p, 131.
WHAT LOCUSTS WILL NOT EAT 133
It was curious to note what the locusts did not eat.
1. Paraiso trees. These were untouched. Yet
they roosted on them, and so cannot dislike their
smell.
2. Canes. This is a tall native cane, some lo feet
high, that looks not unlike maize. It was untouched.
3. Onions. Untouched.
4. Cucumbers. The fruit never touched, nor, I
think, the leaves or runners.
5. Sweet melons. The fruit never touched. But
it seemed both to me and to the Swiss gardener
that they bit the leaves and runners [sometimes
severing the fruit and so killing it], though they did
not devour them.
(^. Sandias (water melons) and zapallos (pumpkins).
The case of these is strange. The locusts ate the
leaves and runners ; and one would conclude that
the juices of these plants are not injurious to them.
Yet, when they were eating dead locusts, wood,
bark, and hard quinces, they did not touch these
plump, relatively soft, and tempting fruits! Every-
where in the garden I saw untouched sandias and
zapallos whose leaves and stems had vanished
entirely.
7. Certain flowers. I think sweet-williams and
foxgloves were untouched.
8. Of other trees, I understood that they are not
very " keen on " the eucalyptus, and that conse-
quently these are fairly safe from them if they have
other things to eat.
134 ARGENTINE PLAINS
From my account of the locust invasion it will
seem wonderful that a country can prosper where
such plagues recur for years together. Well ; I
think I can show how this is possible ; and I will
take the questions of agriculture and stock separately.
\j I. Agriculture. In the invasion that I witnessed
the locusts reached their full devouring powers too
late to eat the wheat and linseed. My brother's
colonists had but little maize, and the loss of this
did not much matter. Had their one crop been
maize, they would have had a ruinous year. But it
must be remembered that a bad year does not mean
the same thing to men who pay a quarter of the
produce as rent as it would to men paying a fixed
money-rent.
2. Stock. Up to the present time one may say
that in general the land is held by proprietors of
large estates who have in the past paid but little for
it, and who at any rate have no rent to pay. If an
owner is content to make, let us call it, ;^4,ooo a
year out of every square league of his land, instead
of trying to make ;^6,ooo out of it, he may put on the
camp only two-thirds the stock that it would carry.
Hence he can make as many stacks as he pleases of
alfalfa-hay and of silo, and can let the alfalfa much
outgrow the eating powers of the stock. The locusts
come, and the alfalfa is gradually devoured ; I saw
the camp almost bare and very brown even before
the locusts began to go. But there is always the
hay to fall back on ; and, if rain comes soon after
SALTOXAS EATING MAIZE-COBS.
WILLOW-TWIG BARKED AND GNAWED BY LOCUSTS.
THE PLACE OF LOCUSTS IN NATURE 135
the locusts go, the alfalfa springs up again as by
magic ; the cattle soon get fat again, and more hay
can be made before winter.
I may add that the locust plague did not prevail
with like severity everywhere. Round the railway
junction Junin, for example, distant some two hours
and a half by rail from my brother's station of Villa
Cafias, there were practically no locusts at all that
season ; and even at Villa Canas, only 12 miles or
so from Santa Isabel, the maize was not completely
destroyed nor the " sauces " barked.
But, taking all in all, no doubt the locust invasion
would be ruinous were the country full and were
rents and income more equally matched.
More than once my brother said to me, ** What is
the use of locusts ? "
Well ; in nature both pests and their destroyers,
taken together, seem unnecessary ; but the combina-
tion is useful, granted that the pests must exist. It
is a question of balance.
And in somewhat like manner, it seemed to me,
the locusts may have their use. When I noticed
how the alfalfa that had been regularly cut had
survived for twenty years, while that which was
never cut and was understocked had degenerated
after five years, the question occurred to me :
*' Granted these vast plains of native grasses which
far outgrow the eating powers of the native wild
animals, is it possible that the locusts, devouring it
136 ARGENTINE PLAINS
and leaving excreta and dead bodies on the spot,
have kept the plains in better condition than they
would have been without these invasions ? May it
not be the case that man with his herds of cattle has
disturbed the balance, and that this is but a time of
transition ? When all the land is occupied, will not
locusts be kept down and the balance restored ? "
I am not suggesting that locusts are a blessing ; only
that we may be witnessing a striking case of a balance
disturbed by man.
Why not, indeed, regard the Pampas as the feeding-
ground and the locusts as the natural wild animals
feeding on it — as bison elsewhere ? But I am out
of my depth here ; I believe I have accidentally got
into teleology, when I intended only to give the
actual history of a locust invasion !
CHAPTER VIII
SOME NOTES ON A FEW OF THE ARGENTINE BIRDS
[*-^* I do not attempt to make any list of birds, nor to
classify those mentioned. I merely give in these notes a few
things that struck me as an ordinary lay observer. The
measurements are taken from my brother's notes.]
The Rhea, or Argentine Ostrich,
Of the more common denizens of the Argentine
plains, the **rhea" or native ostrich is perhaps the
most interesting.
The general plumage of the cocks and hens is
much the same. They are nearly black on the top
of the head, down the back, and in the front of the
breast ; dirty white in the front of the neck ; and
white on the belly, rump, and thighs. For the rest,
rich browns and gray-browns prevail ; and, indeed, the
"black" is rather a dark rich brown. When the
creature opens and droops its wings, as it runs away
from you (as the cock bird always does when leav-
ing a nest of which the eggs are in a fairly advanced
stage), the body, thus seen from behind uncovered by
the wings, appears to be mainly white.
The cock is bigger than the hen, its colouring
137
138 ARGENTINE PLAINS
more handsome, and the feathers finer ; these feathers
are hardly handsome enough for wearing In hats, but
make very good fly-brooms. The cock, when it
stands well up, certainly looks down on a man ; but
it is extraordinary how inconspicuous it can make
itself when flattened on its nest.
The cocks do much as stallions do : the stronger
birds collect a harem of hens. In fighting for
mastery they push and wrestle with their beaks, but
do not kick one another ; so my brother told me. The
various members of the harem contribute to the same
nest, and eggs up to some fifty or so in number are
there collected. The peons told me that ** forty eggs,
and forty days to hatch them " was the average. I
suppose that the eggs laid later, getting more warmth
than those laid earlier, develop more rapidly. It is
the cock bird that sits ; and he sits very close when the
eggs are in an advanced stage. A bird that will move
off when you come on foot within two hundred yards of
it as it grazes, may let you photograph it at ten yards,
and come to within six yards of it, when sitting. And
it is remarkable how, when it does leave its nest, it
almost invariably trails its wings and tries to draw
you away. I have seen them move over the tall
grass like boats with sails set ; those boats that one
sees on the Lake of Geneva.
It is unfortunate that, of several photographs that I
took of ostriches thus leaving their nests, that which
was best adapted for reproduction shows the bird
with wings closed — an exceptional case.
'• ^«- *J
COCK OSTRICH (RHEa).
•
^-
J
BABY OSTRICHES.
To face p. 138.
THE RHEA 139
The largest egg that I came across was 5I inches
long, and 3! f inches in its greatest diameter ; and its
weight was i lb. 10 oz. I remember that once in
1888, when walking in the monte, I was suddenly
greeted with an appalling hiss. I started back in
alarm, and saw that I had nearly trodden on a
wicked flattened head and gaping mouth, behind
which lay what appeared to be part of the body of
a huge snake. It was the head and neck of the cock
ostrich which then hung about the estancia — (it was
called "tame," which meant that it would attack
a man on foot or a man on horseback without any
hesitation) — and it was sitting on its nest. The
resemblance to a snake was most striking.
The cock bird hatches out the young ones and
then takes them about with it ; and a most absurd
sight it is to see this great bird, so decidedly male in
appearance, and so irritable-looking when you get
near it, acting as nursemaid to some thirty or forty
children. The most characteristic sound that it
makes is a sort of booming ; but it summons the
young ones by making a gargling noise, and the
young call to it with a very sad kind of piping
whistle. [I remember that a young Italian colonist,
who had brought up some young ostriches by hand,
summoned them by gargling at them.]
The cock bird has no fear when the young are
with it. It will move off if the young follow it ; but
if a young one hide and stay behind, the bird will
turn back and charge even a man on horseback. No
140 ARGENTINE PLAINS
horse can stand this, and the only thing you can do is
to gallop away. On foot you are safe. For the bird
does not dart its head at you as a heron does ; and
you can easily catch its neck behind the head and
hold it down, so that the bird cannot kick you, and
can choke it mildly until it feels unwell. Then you
can let it go. It will probably tumble over backward
and make off sulkily. I had much experience of this
with the "tame" cock ostrich in 1888. But if you
held the head up, I think you might well be ripped
up by its kicks, for its legs are tremendous machines.
The bird, by the way, readily deserts its nest, even
breaking the eggs up if they have been touched.
Hence I was not able to count exactly the number
of eggs.
In walking, the ostrich has its wings closed, and it
swings its long neck backward and forward ; not in
time to its steps as a common fowl does, but quite
twice as slowly. In running fast the wings are
usually raised above the back, but not opened ; they
thus form a sort of wedge, and offer little resistance
to the air ; perhaps also the bird then finds its thighs
freer and cooler.
In sporting about, when their movements are very
queer and freakish, or when pressed by dogs, or when
leaving a nest, the wings are expanded and drooped,
and the head and neck often held much lower than in
ordinary running. Possibly the wings then serve to
baffle a dog (or tiger-cat) in its spring at the bird's
neck. My brother used to hunt them in old days and
THE ARGENTINE PEEWIT 141
told me much about them. He mentioned also a
habit that they have, when pursued, of suddenly
dropping and hiding in the grass. He lost one in
this way. They have, by the way, three toes, while
the African ostrich has two only.
The Teru-tero.
Wherever one goes, over wild camp or tame, one
finds the Argentine peewit, called, from its cry, the
teru-tero. As a matter of fact its cry is often
single ; and when broken by an r, so as to sound
like " erew," it is not repeated in pairs, as this name
would suggest, but is "erew, erew, erew, erew,"
over and over again.
As you see it on the ground it seems to have an
olive-brown back, black " shirt-front," white on the
rest of the chest and belly ; and when it spreads
its wings you see their handsome marking, white
in the front part and nearer the body, black at
the tips and at the ends of the main feathers.
The teru has a crest, and a sort of horny red
spur at the main joint of the wing.
Like a peewit it tries to lead you, or to scare
you, from its nest or young ; but it does not pre-
tend to be wounded. Very often it charges full
steam at your head, making a sharp turn when some
two yards off. At other times it alights near you,
crouches down to watch you, and then hurries away
with head bent down, as if it had suddenly remem-
bered a previous engagement. There is something
142 ARGENTINE PLAINS
very human about the bird ; but it does not trust
man, and is much less tame than many other birds,
though no one ever molests it. It looks singularly
brisk and practical, neat and well-dressed.
If you have not a headache, and don't want to
work out a problem as you ride, the teru-tero
certainly adds to the cheerfulness of the camp ; but
I got very tired of it.
The Leckuza, or Small Burrowing OwL
[Length from beak to tip of tail, qJ inches ; span
of wings, 2 feet.] Speaking in a general way, and
not with scientific exactitude, I should say that
the little lechuza occupies the top of every fence-
post in the Argentine, never sleeps, and has its head
fitted on with a peg, so that it can turn it quite
round without strain while observing a passer-by.
It seems to be out all day long, sitting on these
posts. If you come too near, i.e., within about six
yards, it gives a sort of " squirring " note — (an
onomatopoeic word) — like a partridge, and then a
vigorous ** bick-bick-bick," like a suspicious black-
bird ; and either goes to another post or comes
over you to inspect you carefully from a distance of
some eight yards. The above are its two notes in the
daytime.
If you pass one seated on a post, and do not
go too near, it steadily regards you, turning its
head as on a peg. Certainly it is quite happy
when looking clean over its own tail ; that I can
THE BURROWING OWL 143
answer for. They always reminded me of those
artificial birds, connected with Christmas-time, that
had removable heads ; for we children used to put
their heads on wrong way round.
They hover much, like kestrels. When dogs
pass, they often dash at them and seem to touch them ;
I have seen a terrier leap up into the air after
them.
One day my brother saw one of these little owls
flying close over the grass, bearing some object about
as big as itself. He chased it on horseback and made
it drop its load. To his astonishment, this proved to
be a young ostrich that he judged to be heavier than
the owl itself ! The father ostrich could almost have
swallowed this ambitious and determined little bird
of prey.
My brother, who knows birds well, told me that
it was a night-bird also, and that then it had a proper
owl's hoot.
The colour is on the whole brown, buff, and dirty
white, and there is a very pretty mottling.
Big Owl.
There was also a big [slightly horned] owl, i foot
3 inches long and 3 feet 3 inches across the wings.
This appeared to be really nocturnal in its habits ;
but it was not the least confused, nor was it mobbed
by other birds, when disturbed in the daytime. One
of these came close over me, very gravely inspect-
ing me.
144 ARGENTINE PLAINS
The Ckemango,
Of the various hawks that I saw at Santa Isabel
in 1888, there remained in 1908 only the chemango ;
or, at any rate, other kinds were but rare visitors.
This is a carrion hawk (which eats beetles and grubs,
&c., also) about i foot 3 inches long and 3 feet across
the wings ; it is of a dirty white underneath, while,
above, warm reddish-brown and reddish-brown-buff
colours prevail, only it has two dirty white bars on
the wings.
The main characteristic of this bird is its intense
vulgarity. It does look so very common. And then
its voice ! Take (so to say) the ordinary harsh scream
of any self-respecting hawk, and stretch out an inch
of it until it becomes a foot — so that all the fibres
show — and there you have the drawn-out scrawky
cry of the chemango. A mocking-bird might imitate
it if he wished to insult a dignified eagle.
I discovered the real use of the chemango : it is to
be photographed, sitting or flying. There could not
be a better subject for the study of birds on the wing.
But it can (and does) lay handsome eggs ; white
covered with warm red-brown splotches.
All camp-birds in these districts have to lay on the
ground or under it ; there are no trees or bushes in the
flat alluvial pampas. The chemango lays on the
ground.
Like the teru and lechuza, the chemango — with a
courage foreign to its vulgar nature — will charge dogs
(and sometimes men) when near its nest or young
THE ARGENTINE REDBREAST 145
ones. I once saw one actually strike a collie on the
neck ; there was an unmistakable shock and check in
its flight.
By the way, what did chemangos and lechuzas do
when there were no posts and railings in the camp to
sit on?
The chemangos undoubtedly eat carrion, as do the
gulls ; but both follow the plough, like rooks in
England, to devour the grubs, &c., turned up.
The Pechicolorado {pecho Colorado = red breast ; but I
give the word in its dictionary form).
One of the most attractive birds, as well as one of
the commonest in the alfalfa paddocks, is the pechi-
colorado. Everyone who knows it must admit that
in beauty it beats our robin hollow. And though it
does not come about the house, or in the garden ** eye
the delver's toil," as our robin does, still it is no gaudy
tropical bird that one could admire but not get fond
of; rather, it is a bird that one admires and likes — as
one does the lark or thrush.
Its size is about that of the starling. Keeping to
the adult male, so as to be on sure ground, I may
describe it as mainly of an intense black ; only there
is what looks like a white streak along the side of the
head just above the eye. Its glory lies in a magnifi-
cent crimson breast of tropical brilliance that shines
out in the sun and catches your eye at quite a con-
siderable distance when the bird is seated on a fence
or on the top of some tall plant. You certainly notice
10
146 ARGENTINE PLAINS
the crimson " flash " at distances at which the bird
itself would pass unnoticed. The ** shoulders " of the
wings have also some of this crimson on them. It —
the male, I imagine — has a curious habit of soaring
up some twenty yards or so, and then descending with
wings spread, tilted somewhat upwards and motion-
less, and tail expanded wide, uttering a pretty phrase
or two of song ; taking to flying again when it nears
the ground. I suppose that it is showing off to the
female ; and I take these latter to be browner birds
that I saw, having a much pinker, or less crimson,
breast. I trust that women will not have these
beautiful and harmless little birds slaughtered for the
adornment of their hats. In spring and summer these
birds go in pairs, but in autumn and winter they
associate in considerable flocks.
The Common Stork, or Ciguena.
These birds are (from tip of beak to tip of tail)
4 feet I J inches long; spread of wings, 7 feet 7 J inches;
length of leg, 2 feet 2 J inches. The general impres-
sion that one gets of them is that they are handsome
birds, mainly black and white. Like all the long-
necked and long-legged birds that I know, except
the heron, they fly with both neck and legs extended.
This bird is one of those that, when once high up,
continue to rise in spirals without flapping their
wings.
My own belief is that the birds discover local up-
casts of air (such as those that give cumulus clouds)
STORKS. THE PARTRIDGE RACE 147
and circle so as to keep in them. If this view be
correct, they are, relatively to the air, always sliding
gently down an inclined plane ; but, relatively to the
earth, are on the whole up-borne. For this, great
spread of wing would be required. I don't believe
in " screw-action " myself. Was it not Professor
Langley who first laid stress on the necessity of
considering the actual conditions of air-motion instead
of assuming that the air moved uniformly and hori-
zontally ? Watch paper and feathers in the air, and
you will see what a bird of big wing-area might do by
sliding about from one favourable place to another.
TAe PartHdge Race,
As far as I can say, I came across three species of
this race.
There was the big martineta, like a short-tailed
hen-pheasant. This was rather tame, and soon got
tired of rising and would try to hide. Then a small
partridge, still more tame, and still less inclined to rise.
And finally a very small partridge, absurdly tame.
This can be noosed with a piece of string at the end
of a cane.
It used to look rather ridiculous when a man with a
gun was, on a hot day, chasing a partridge in order to
make it rise. But one usually had to do this.
Many other camp birds I saw ; but I do not think
that I have much to say about them. Only I must
mention the masses oi flamingos that were sometimes
148 ARGENTINE PLAINS
to be seen at the edge of the salt laguna near Melin-
cu^. It was beautiful to see them rise, and to note
the two other colours — vermilion-scarlet and black —
that were then added to the rose-pink of the sitting or
wading birds. I saw flocks of many hundreds.
I saw, alas ! no more of the beautiful spoonbills and
egrets that I used to see in 1888-9; ^.nd I could no
longer visit the larger lagunas to search for the black-
necked swans and other interesting water-birds. All
was ** trespass " now, and I had to keep to the dusty-
roads. But the spoonbills, egrets, and various other
birds had really gone ; everywhere the wild life was
disappearing from these regions.
Of the numerous species of ducks, I will only say
that I heard from them whistling sounds, not quacking.
I will now turn to some of the birds that were not
seen, or seen but rarely, in the open camp, belonging
rather to the house and the plantation about it.
TAe Hornero, or Oven-bird.
While I was at Buenos Aires, when I went to the
races at Hurlingham, I noticed strange objects up on
the cross-bars of the telegraph posts and in other
conspicuous places.
These turned out to be the mud nests of the
hornero. The illustration showing the bird (unfor-
tunately back to us) and its nest is given opposite
p. 160. A comparison with the illustration of a
puesto, given opposite p. 70, in which a bread-oven
THE OVEN-BIRD 149
is seen to the left of the house, will explain the
name "oven-bird."
This bird is of about the size of a blackbird, and
has, like it, a rather long tail. Above, the colour is
mainly of a warm reddish-brown (a common colour in
Argentine birds); below, a buff or brownish white
(also a common colour). In some places, especially
in the upper tail-coverts, there is a **red " like that of
a red-start ; one could imitate it by mixing a little
vermilion with sepia.
The commonest note is a sort of chattering phrase
into which the bird throws extraordinary energy or
even passion, the whole body trembling and the
wings drooping and quivering towards the end. It
begins with the " bick-bick " of a suspicious blackbird,
and then it runs on with a quickening chatter, the
bird stooping like a man shouting his hardest.
The sound is noise, not music ; and, as with the
teru, one gets very tired of so much fuss about
nothing.
The nests are of mud ; and in all cases you turn to
the left after entering, in order to get to the inner
sanctum where the eggs are. These birds have a
mania for building, in season and out of it ; they
cannot resist the temptation of good mud. And they
build anywhere ! One built on the top bar of the
drive gate. That nest was soon shaken off. It then
built on the post ; and that was jarred off also. They
had nests in September, when I arrived ; and in
March (autumn) a pair built one on a cross-bar of
150 ARGENTINE PLAINS
the home windmill — and left it alone as soon as it
was completed.
The Casereta,
In many of the small trees near the house and in
the monte one saw big nests, like magpie's nests, but
of finer twigs. These belonged to the casereta — a
quiet little bird, of about the size of a yellowhammer,
which was of a light buff colour below, and of a
darker colour (not uniform, but streaked or spattered)
above. It seemed very small to make such a nest.
Its note is curious. Probably few of my readers
have ever let fall a steel ball, such as is used in the
ball-bearings of a bicycle, on to a solid glass slab ? It
goes ping ping ping ping— ping-ping-ping,
&c., quickening up in a hurried way. The quiet little
phrase of the casereta is like this ; a servant used to
call it the *' chatter-bird." The entrance to the nest
is at the side ; and my brother told me that it was
difficult to find the way in with the hand.
I myself disturbed no nests ; merely made such
observations as a pure spectator could make. It
was of little use examining any empty nests ; for the
intrusive sparrows might have been before me. I
could never feel sure that an empty nest had remained
as its rightful owner had left it.
The Bras a de Fuego (Live Coal of Fire),
For brilliance, nothing approached the brasa de
fuego. This was a distinctly smaller bird than the
THE BRASA DE FUEGO 151
pechicolorado, being of the size of a large tit, or of
a goldfinch. It was of a resplendent crimson all
underneath, and the head was mainly crimson too ;
above, it was black, and a thin line of black came
horizontally across the eye. When it flew, more
of the crimson was displayed. In the sun, one might
almost say, it flashed *Mike a jewel," or like crimson
enamel.
The nest was ludicrously small. One that I
measured was 3 inches across outside and ij inches
across inside, at the top. It appeared to rely en-
tirely on protective mimicry for concealment. For
the nests were built without shelter in the main
forks of small trees, some four or five feet from the
ground. [I speak from experience with some five
or six nests found in the monte.] They were always
of brown twigs and gray-green lichen. Whereas the
adult birds were brilliant as described, the young
birds were clothed with brownish, hair-like down,
having gray-green ''splashes" all over it, and they
looked like part of the nest, as the nest looked like
part of the tree. There were, as far as I saw, only
three eggs ; and in one case, where one of the eggs
was bad, the two small birds filled the nest to over-
flowing. I had told my sister-in-law of this curious
mimicry and had brought her to see this nest.
She looked down on it from a distance of about
two feet, and said, " But where are the young birds ? "
The disguise must have been very good, for she
came prepared for mimicry and yet was deceived.
162 ARGENTINE PLAINS
The Swallow Race,
About the house there were a number of the
birds which I take to be Sclater and Hudson's
"domestic martin." They were 7i inches long,
and I foot 3J inches across the wings. The colour
was blue-black above and white underneath ; but
the whole of the head appeared to be black. The
flight was stronger than that of our swallow, but
not so strong as that of the swift ; they had short
forked tails like our house-martin. The nests were
not hanging ; they were built on beams under the
eaves and appeared to be of hay banked up with
mud outside. The bird looked about the size of
our swift, but had not the same appearance — did
not look as though built specially to be a perfect
flying machine.
There was also about the house, and out in the
camp, a bird smaller than a martin and evidently of
the swallow or martin race. It was brownish black
above and white underneath, the white invading the
face. It appeared to build in holes in banks or in
crannies in the sides of the brick-lined wells, and
may have been the above writers' ** bank-swallow."
Various Other Birds,
Many other birds, too, there were. The queer
untidy jays (I think called by some perinchos\ who
never brushed their hair, and who always forgot to
put on their tail-coverts, so that one had a general
DOVE. TIJERETA. CARDINAL 153
impression of seeing the roots of the big feathers
exposed ; the dear little dove, smaller than a thrush,
very gentle, very tame, and with a surprisingly
strong coo ; the valiant little tijereta, with its
remarkable tail that opens and shuts like a long
pair of scissors (whence the name), that would
chase from its nest the relatively huge chemango
when this approached too near ; the " starling," as
my brother named it (called more properly the cow-
bird, I believe), that lays eggs in other birds' nests,
especially in the poor little tijereta's ; and many others.
It was very noticeable to me how, in the twenty
years, various species had found out this island of
trees in the treeless plains and had domesticated
themselves there.
One interesting bird was the cardinal, a bird
of about the size of a sparrow (or a trifle larger ?)
with a scarlet face, crest, and shirt-front. The back
was a cold brown (brown with black, not red, in
it). Underneath it was of a dirty white ; and this
white came round in a sort of collar that was very
narrow behind the crest.
These ^ birds are very common in Entre Rios (a
warmer climate), and my brother had introduced a
pair here. But, so far, they had not learned where
to build. A cat destroyed one nest ; another was
on too slender a branch, and the wind (stronger
here than in their native land) tossed the eggs out.
In their fourth nest of the season they at last
reared three young ones.
CHAPTER IX
SOME NOTES ON A FEW ARGENTINE BEASTS, REPTILES,
AND INSECTS
Armadillos,
Of the strange armoured mammals whose gigantic
cases I saw in the Museum at La Plata, there re-
main but very small modern representatives. In the
Argentine, as far as I know, four species occur ;
at any rate, my brother, in his forty years of obser-
vation in the more temperate regions, had seen no
others. At Santa Isabel I saw only one sort, the
peludo (" hairy ") ; I saw these alive several times,
and their holes were all over the camp : in fact,
they are a great nuisance. One fine specimen I
photographed and measured. Its total length, from
the tip of the nose to the tip of the tail, was 52*5 cm.
(or 20'6 inches) ; or, if the curves were followed,
58*0 cm. (or 2 2 '8 inches). The length of the tail alone
was 15 cm. (5-9 inches; and the length of the head
from the back of the forehead-plate to the tip of
the nose 1075 cm. (4*24 inches). The greatest
breadth of its armour, measured round the curve,
was 30'5 cm. (12*0 inches). This armour, of a hard
15i
ARMADILLOS 156
horny material, looked jointed throughout ; but as
a matter of fact the front and back parts were
practically rigid, while, between, came eight bands
connected by ** leather " joints. Thus its body had
considerable flexibility. All along the edge of the
armour was a sort of horny claws, ends of the armour-
bands, pointing backward ; and these would make
it more difficult to pull the animal backward out of
a hole. On both fore and hind feet it had five
claws, those on the fore feet being the more power-
ful ; the centre one of these was the longest and
showed 2*5 cm. (i inch) of bare horn. Coarse hair
grew from between the armour bands. Its nose was
soft like a dog's, but rather firmer.
The peludo eats grubs and the like, and is accused
of eating carrion. It is nocturnal mainly, I was
told ; and certainly I, who did not go out at night,
saw it mostly in the evenings. But it comes out
also in the daytime, though it appeared to me to
be then a little confused and blundering in its efforts
to escape back to its hole. It is not flexible enough
to roll itself up; and a good-sized dog easily gets
hold of the edge of its shell and crunches it up like
a biscuit. To my mind it is horribly fat and rich
to eat — I could not stand it.
In the sandy province of San Luis the common
armadillo was a very small one of the peludo type
called the piche. When I visited an estancia in
the province of Buenos Aires I found the mulita
(" little mule," so named because of its long ears)
156 ARGENTINE PLAINS
as well as the peludo, and I measured and photo-
graphed a good-sized specimen. In this the tota
length, measured along the curved surface, was
46*0 cm. (i8*i inches), the tail 16*0 cm. (6*3 inches),
the body 21*5 cm. (8-5 inches), and the head 8*5 cm.
(3-3 inches).
The main differences between it and the peludo
were that —
(i.) The ears were much longer, the head tapered
more to a point at the nose, and the protection to
the head was more uniform and had not the form
of a forehead-plate.
(ii.) The front and back parts of the armour were
really solid, and showed no division into bands.
There were six bands in the middle part connected
by '* leather " joints.
(iii.) The front armour had projecting cheeks, and
the mulita could tuck its head in between them, so
that, as regards getting really inside its armour,
it lay between the peludo and the mataco (to be
mentioned presently).
(iv.) On the fore feet were four claws only, the
two central ones being the biggest. On the hind
feet, five claws.
(v.) It was not hairy.
I was told that it does not eat carrion, and that
natives will not use the peludo as food, but will eat
the mulita.
It is a funny little beast, quaint in its deportment ;
and it is of the mulita's "shell" that those curious
PREHISTORIC ARMADILLO, 12 FEET LONG.
THE MULITA, OXE OF THE EXISTING SPECIES, l8 INCHES LONG.
To (ace p. 156.
INTRODUCTION OF EUROPEAN HARE 157
work-baskets are made that travellers so often bring
back from Rio or Buenos Aires.
A fourth kind of armadillo that my brother knew
was the so-called mataco. This can roll itself up
completely into the ball-form, and is the only one
of the four that can baffle completely the attacks
of dogs.
There is a good specimen, I believe, in the Dead-
letter Office, or in the Post Office ** Museum of
Curiosities." At any rate, years ago, we despatched
one that my brother had sent home (cleaned and
stuffed) to the Museum at Oxford, and it never
got there. I suppose that covering and address had
slipped off the rounded surface of the specimen.
Hares.
In the districts that my brother has known, viz., the
provinces of Santa F6, Entre Rios, and Cordoba, the
old native or " Patagonian " hare was never common,
and it is now either extinct or nearly so. But, some
time ago, some intelligent (!) person introduced what
is called " the European hare " — from Germany, I was
told. To me they looked like English hares, only
with rather longer tails. An English sportsman told
my brother —
(i.) That he had shot 6,000 (six thousand) hares
out here between May and September in one year
[I could see that they were a regular pest] ;
(ii.) That they are the same animal as the English
hare ;
158 ARGENTINE PLAINS
(iii.) That in the young female he had found one
young one, four or five usually in the mature female,
and as many as seven in some.
I noticed that when they ran away and paused to
reconnoitre, they not only sat up, but stood right up
on their hind legs. It was curious to see them stagger
sometimes, losing balance.
All over the camp there are not only armadillo
holes, but also shallow excavations made by these
animals when searching for food. These the hares
use with great skill for concealment ; the hindquarters
are sunk in the deeper part, while at the shallower end
lies the head with the ears flattened down, the animal
thus being able to watch its enemies. Thus lying, it
cannot be seen easily even on bare ground, and it is
ready to be off at once. My own belief is that the
hares '* improve " these holes, and I should not be
surprised if, in time, they learned to burrow. They
do (I am told) sometimes take to earth in viscacha
or peludo holes.
Miscellaneous Mammals,
I came across various other animals, but did not
see much of them. There was a marsupial called the
comedreja (for which, however, the dictionary gives
** weasel"), which has a prehensile tail; my brother
knew it well. There were the viscachas, which,
I believe, are like the North American " prairie-dog,'*
but are decidedly larger, whose holes are such a
nuisance, and which, now that there are the embank-
THE IGUANA 159
merits of Australian tanks to be protected, are being
killed out with carbon di-sulphide. There were
hurons, like large weasels ; foxes, too — I saw a gray-
sort with a very triangular face ; and skunks, a great
nuisance when they come about a house.
The Iguana,
Turning to reptiles, the most interesting was
certainly the big lizard called the iguana.
My brother brought in a large one, one day, and
I photographed and measured it. The total length
was 1*22 metres (4 feet), the tail 078 metre (2 feet
67 inches). When it breaks its tail off, the break
occurs a little way down it, not at the root, the
breaking-place being indicated by a sudden change
which there occurs in the nature of the scale-covering.
My brother has made notes about this creature at
various times since 1868, and here are some of them.
**(i.) It lays its eggs in holes." [Not always, as will
be seen later.] ** The entrance to the hole is small and
neatly lined around with dry grass. At the end of a
yard or so is the chamber, which is completely stuffed
with grass, in the midst of which are the eggs stowed
away, the whole being damp and warm. They lay in
November and December, and up to forty-seven eggs.
The eggs are like soft white pigeon's eggs.
" (ii.) When attacked by dogs, this creature raises
himself on his hind legs, and, with the support of his
tail, rushes at his adversary. When found in camp
they seldom take to flight, but manage by short stages
160 ARGENTINE PLAINS
to regain their holes, attacking the intruder in the
intervals."
[Remark. — In 1889 I saw one attacked by big
dogs. It faced them for a little time, and then
dropped its tail. This remained jumping about, and
the younger dog was attracted by it and stayed
behind. The older dog pursued the majority of the
animal, which was trying to regain its hole. To
continue the notes.]
" (iii.) Sometimes also they take to the water, and,
although watched narrowly for a long time in a small
laguna that was free of reeds, have not appeared
again.
" (iv.) When hens' or other eggs are fresh enough,
the iguana makes a hole in the end and cleans out the
interior with his long forked tongue. His chief food
is flies and beetles ; but he feeds greedily on the eggs
of the plover." [I think the teru-tero is here meant.]
** One thus engaged would not leave off lapping an ^^^
that he had broken until nearly trodden on, and had
disregarded the swooping and screaming of the parent
birds. In the stomach of one was found a cat-fish
6 inches long, and four eggs of the common coot, one
broken and three entire, all of which were sat.
**(v.) When the tail has been cast, they grow
another stumpy one again, but never a good one."
So run, in substance, these old notes. ^
* Though I have, for the sake of distinguishing these notes
from my own observations, used inverted commas, I should say
that I have not quoted verbatim from my brother's old records.
' /^ i ; »**•*■• y* ** "
OVEN-BIRD AND ITS MUD NEST.
HEAD OF A 4-FT. LONG IGUANA.
To face p. 160.
THE ESCUERZO 161
On January 30, 1909, my brother noticed, in the
midst of what had been (before the locusts came and
ate everything) a dense growth of big thistles, a heap
of dry vegetation. Suspecting that this concealed the
remains of a sheep killed by thieves, he got down and
kicked up the heap, which was 3 or 4 feet across. It
was a mass of rotted stalks, &c., all warm and damp
and caked together. A large iguana ran out, and
inside he found concealed some fifty eggs and baby
iguanas together. A perfect egg (which was flexible,
though fairly stiff) was 4*25 cm. (1*67 inches) long,
and 2*8 cm. (I'lo inches) in its greatest diameter.
A young iguana, judged to be recently hatched, was
21*5 cm. (8*45 inches) long, and of this the tail took
up 13*5 cm. (5-3 inches). The young ones had a
lot of vivid green about them, and their feet seemed
very slender (in proportion) as compared with those
of the old iguana.
TAe Esctierzo^
Nature is not always serious, and she certainly
made a joke when she devised the " escuerzo." It is a
toad of most remarkable colouring — (above, mainly a
vivid grass-green and various browns) — and marking ;
and when angry — that is, whenever it meets any one —
it growls and barks and blows itself out with air. It
bites, too, if you encourage it, having the wherewithal
to do this very effectively. When it squats, the tail
^ Strictly speaking, I believe the word escuerzo means any
kind of toad-
11
162 ARGENTINE PLAINS
part gets tucked in underneath, and its upper surface
is then nearly circular. In a specimen examined, the
length in this position was 4 inches ; but this was
not its true length, since its tail end was sunk in as
mentioned. Its breadth depended on its temper : the
two increased together, though I cannot say by what
law. When merely ruffled it measured 3J inches
across. The jaws are hard and bony, and the upper
jaw has small teeth in it. I read that the lower jaw
is a mere bony ridge : I did not examine this, as I
neither wanted to worry my animal overmuch, or hurt
it, nor to get bitten. The arc of the jaws measured
about 3 J inches ; it had a huge mouth.
The eyes stand up, when open, and look forward
much like the windows of a built-out attic-window on
a sloping roof, the roof of the window being repre-
sented by a sort of lid of skin. When it closes its
eyes they sink down and the lid sinks too ; so the eyes
are only prominent when it has them open.
The particular specimen that I examined had
become dispirited, and would not bark nor bite
when in captivity. I set it free on the monte drive,
and gently urged it with my toe towards the wilder-
ness of weeds to one side. It then recovered its usual
spirits somewhat. It blew its body out, the hind part
chiefly, as a man blows his cheeks out, so that it
looked like a distended bladder and the sun shone
through its skin. [The air appeared to be introduced
under the outer skin.] At the same time it lowered
its head, crouching on its arms and raising the hind
THE ESCUERZO.
A TARANTULA, PINNED OUT, FROM UNDERNEATH.
To face p. i6i.
SNAKES IN ARGENTINA 163
part of its body, and growled and uttered a kind of
hoarse bark. But it did not bite my toe nor a stick
that I brought under its notice ; it blustered only.
Needless to say that, being a toad, it has a great
reputation for having a poisonous bite. I found that
natives had a great horror of even a common toad ;
and certainly this escuerzo is alarming.
My brother told me that the plough sometimes
turns one up. The only one that I found was in a
marshy place. In July, 1898, the capataz discovered
the cranium of an escuerzo entangled in the wool on a
sheep's back ; the creature appeared to have bitten
into the wool and to have been unable to let go.
This cranium had been kept, and I photographed it ;
the small teeth in the upper jaw were visible. I
measured the jaw round and it was 3! inches ; a close
agreement with the measure of 3J inches that I had
taken from the living animal earlier.
Of common big toads I found plenty in the garden.
The Vibora de la Cruz.
Snakes are but seldom in evidence in the Pampas,
and the only poisonous sort that one sees usually is
the "vibora de la cruz " ("viper of the cross," from
the marking on its head). In a long visit in 1888-9,
I think I saw only two of these and one harmless
snake; in this still longer visit of 1908-9, I saw no
snake at all save a vibora de la cruz that my brother
had killed and brought in for me to inspect.
In 1889 I noticed a curious habit that these snakes
164 ARGENTINE PLAINS
have of rattling the end of the tail against the grass
with a very rapid vibratory movement.
Here are two notes made earlier by my brother : —
**(i.) A large vibora de la cruz that I killed had in
it seven perfectly formed young ones, each coiled
round in a separate bag. On liberating these, they
each and all rattled their tails" [i.e., against the grass
— for they have no rattles in the tail] ''and flew at a
stick presented to them just as the old ones do.
" (ii.) Vibora de la cruz killed at Santa Isabel on
May 4, 1903 ; length, 116 cm. (or 45*6 inches) ; girth,
14 cm. (or 5 J inches); liver, 18 cm. (7*1 inches) long.
It had in it 18 eggs, each 2*2 cm. (0*865 inch) long,
rather larger than a robin's egg. The heart was the
same size as the eggs. In the stomach were two rats.
It had four fangs in the upper jaw, and the lower jaw-
bone ended with two sharp fangs." [Remark. — I have
the skin of this one, at Oxford.] So run the notes.
On the whole, snakes in the Argentine do not count
as a danger.
The Tarantula.
[See figure opposite p. 162]. Mankind, puzzled
with " things as they are," has always had a
tendency toward shifting the responsibility for the
existence of moral evil on to an Evil Power that has
for a time licence to work his will. I, for my part,
should like to be able to ascribe to him the creation
of such creatures as the octopus and the tarantula.
Anything more repulsive, wicked-seeming, and in-
THE TARANTULA 165
human, anything more terrible than this last, were
its size only increased, I cannot imagine. It is,
perhaps, the presence of all that makes for destruc-
tion by poisoning, piercing, and rending, and the
absence of anything that suggests qualities that
we understand, that makes this huge spider so
abhorrent to us. For one thing, it has nothing that
one can call a head ! Even a locust has a counten-
ance, though impassive and sphinx-like. But the
tarantula, where one looks for a head, has only the
upper bend of two terrible curved talons or fakes ;
the eyes are set on a watch-tower on what a layman
would call the thorax ; and the mouth is a mysterious,
ravenous hole underneath, into which the falces
fiercely thrust the prey.
In the specimen that I measured, of the four pair of
walking-legs, the front and back pair were 2j inches
long each. And when killed and pinned out with
legs somewhat bent, the straddle was about 4J inches.
The feet of these walking-legs were elongated pads
with small claws at the end. Clearly they were not
used for tearing, but a pair or two (and the creature
has plenty) might be used for holding prey ; indeed,
it often stands up on the two hind pair and elevates
the other two pair threateningly. It climbed up
inside an inverted glass tumbler, but only with the
help of side-pressure, straddling across. Besides
these four pair of legs were a pair of shorter "arms'*
that ended with what looked like poison-sacs and
slender curved claws or needles. [In calling these
166 ARGENTINE PLAINS
"arms," I am (as always) speaking as a layman
entirely ignorant of the science side of natural history.]
What looked like the head proved, as I have said
already, to be the upper bend of two powerful falces
whose points normally curved into the maw under-
neath. I could not straighten these out ; but, by
using force, bent them enough to show up when I
photographed the creature from underneath. The
bared talons at the ends of these were of black horny
material and were -^^ ^^ it (more than J) inch long.
[Finding that I had room for but one figure of the
tarantula, I chose, for reproduction, this photo in
which the falces are seen, the creature being viewed
from underneath. As I write these words I do not
know how the reproduction will turn out ; but I hope
that the sacs and needles at the ends of the ** arms "
will show up clearly as in the photo.] I imagine that
these falces are used to grip and pierce, and the arms
with the poison-sacs to poison, the prey. One that I
had killed with ammonia had gathered up the cotton-
wool that had been soaked in the liquid, and thrust it
against its maw with these falces.
I killed another spider of about the same size ; it
was fatter and heavier, of rather less straddle, and
had no sacs and needles on its '* arms." Was it the
female tarantula ? I do not know.
I regret to say that I did not come across a very
remarkable spider described by Mr. Hudson in his
** Naturalist in La Plata" (ed. 1892, p. 193). This
creature chased Mr. Hudson when he was *' riding at
THE PRAYING MANTIS 167
an easy trot," and ran up the lash of his whip when he
slashed at it. A subject for a nightmare, indeed !
The Praying Mantis.
There are various mantises out here, of water and
of land, and all are very " weird."
But the commonest and most amusing — it is a relief
to turn to it after dealing with the tarantula ! — is the
praying mantis.
The female (as I took it to be) had only rudi-
mentary wings, and was the fatter and larger ; 3
inches long was a good size. The male had wings
and flew : it ran from 2 J to 2 J inches long. Both
male and female might be brown or green ; but
there was always a line of white spots down the
back.
These are the only insects with which I am
acquainted that turn their heads about and appear
definitely to look at things, ^ and that with both eyes,
as a dog does. Indeed, they looked as though they
were on a level with the higher animals as regards
observing things, feeling curiosity, getting alarmed, or
becoming bored.
One, to judge from appearances, learned a great
deal about the paraffin lamp, and noticed the connec-
tion between the turning of the milled head and the
increase of brightness in the lamp.
Their ways and attitudes are funny beyond words !
I have seen one throw itself back in alarm with its arms
raised above its head, like a servant-girl who meets a
' See illustration. But the antennae are really quite long.
168 ARGENTINE PLAINS
toad ; or again (apparently) bite Its thumb, or scratch
its head, or rub its nose.
The fore arms (held up in the air in a praying
position, usually) are very powerful ; one can feel
their grip.
I saw a male, 2 J inches long, seize a vigorous
saltona locust (in its last stage), a specimen about
\\ inches long and very strong, and begin to eat it
alive. It became evident then that the make of the
mantis was of great use to it. The powerful arms
gave the requisite grip, and the long, hard neck (or
thorax) put the delicate wings out of reach of the
locust's struggling hind legs.
The Bicho de Canasta.
One of the first things that I noticed when I reached
Santa Isabel and walked up the main path of the
monte was the prevalence of small objects, evidently
cocoons, hanging from the twigs of the sauces and
acacias ; there seemed to be a regular plague of them.
This was at the end of September. It was much
later that I witnessed the earlier stages in the history
of these, and then I learned some more facts from
Mr. Stuart Pennington, of Buenos Aires, which my
own observations on the whole confirmed. Here is
the story of the makers of these cocoons.
There is a caterpillar with strong jaws and front
legs, but with very ill-developed *' false" hind legs.
This, from the very beginning, makes to itself a house
pf twigs and leaves ; and it enlarges its house as it itself
FEMALE PRAYING-MANTIS.
BICHO DE CANASTA, HOUSE, AND COCOON.
To face p. i68.
THE BICHO DE CANASTA 169
grows larger. Further, while the earlier houses are
more irregular in form and made mainly of leaves, the
later houses are more regular in form and built up
mainly of twigs.
This caterpillar is called the " bicho de canasta,'*
or ** basket-caterpillar," the word "bicho," however,
being applied in a very general way not only to grubs,
insects, and suchlike, but even to such quadrupeds as
we in England call ** vermin."
These houses are lined with silk of an extraordinary
strength and toughness ; in fact, though you can crush
a house or cocoon, you cannot open it by tearing, but
must cut it open with very sharp scissors. While the
creatures, when smaller, wander about with their little
houses over the backs of leaves, the older and larger
ones, with heavier houses, when they intend to eat,
always anchor their houses firmly by means of silk to
a leaf-rib or twig. They then put out their heads
and a part of their bodies and eat with extraordinary
rapidity. When alarmed, they withdraw into their
houses and close the opening very tightly. At all
stages they can and do let themselves down (again by
means of silk), house and all, from any height, and
they can and do climb trees, dragging their houses.
When I cut off the twigs on which they were
anchored and laid them on a table, the small ones soon
unanchored themselves and began to drag their houses
about the table, but the big ones took perhaps half an
hour or an hour to get free, moving their heads about
much in the meantime. In one case I left in my
170 ARGENTINE PLAINS
dark-room a large one [it was the very one shown in
the illustration], whose house had much leaf on it in
the lower part, anchored to a twig. Next day I found
the bicho with its house on the far side of the room,
and all the leaf had disappeared, leaving the lower
part of the house a smooth brown tube, as it is in the
cocoon form. [See illustration opposite p. i68.]
When the bicho is about to turn into a chrysalis it
anchors itself very firmly to a small twig. And so
tough is the silk that the twig in growing cannot
stretch it. At the place of fastening such a twig
shows a thickening, and on breaking it here one finds
a flattened disc of silk with the original small hole in
the middle. The twig has thickened on each side of
the ligature, but has not been able to stretch it. This
throttling of the twigs must injure the trees much.
Outside, the cocoon is covered more or less with a
very flimsy and not tough coating of silk. To do
this I think the bicho must come out at night. Mr.
Stuart Pennington says (I condense what he told me)
that the male is an inconspicuous grayish-brown moth
with feathery antennae.^ The female undergoes the
final transformation in the "basket," which she never
leaves. She is a legless, almost organless insect with
only a very few tufts of feathers scattered about her
' I have read that all male moths that have to hunt up and
discover non-flying females have feathery antennae and that
they discover them even when hidden. These feathery
antennae, if we speak in terms of senses known to us, would appear
to be in some sense organs of scent.
THE BICHO DE CANASTA 171
body. Fertilisation takes place while she is in the
basket, the male finding her out in her concealment.
The female on impregnation throws off all useless
oro^ans. Hence it is that all that is found in the
baskets of the females is a mass of eggs and the
ddbris of a body.
To such effect wrote Mr. Pennington to me.
I myself, in September, 1908, observed always two
sorts of cocoons. One was longer and ended in a
more definite tube ; this was empty and the husk of
the chrysalis was in the mouth ; the moth (the male,
it would seem) had escaped. The other was plumper.
In this latter I found always a perfect chrysalis shell
(as it seemed) filled with a curious woolly stuff that
hardly looked like eggs. Perhaps, however, this
stuff was the remains of eggs already hatched. But
the chrysalis shell was apparently unbroken, or at any
rate could not be described (to quote Mr. Pennington)
as the " debris of a body."
I leave it "at that." Only I must confess that, had
Mr. Pennington not given me the above history, I
should have guessed that these chrysalis shells filled
with woolly stuff represented victims of the larvae of
one of those parasitic flies that lay their eggs in the
living caterpillar.
I may mention that in autumn (March), when I was
in a camp-town for the night, I noticed that each
electric light in the open patio attracted crowds of
moths that corresponded to Mr. Pennington's descrip-
tion of the male of the bicho de canasta.
172 ARGENTINE PLAINS
The numbers of these houses and cocoons on the
trees passes belief. I was told that when there is no
locust invasion, whose ravages swamp those of this
bicho, children are sometimes set to collect this latter
and are paid by the number of kilograms collected !
I will now add an observation that I made. When
I was there the locust plague was, as I have already-
said, of extraordinary severity. The big saltonas
even attacked the twig-and-silk houses of the bichos
de canasta, and they certainly left the bicho itself no
food to eat. I noticed multitudes of these, in every
stage of development, emigrating to dead trees and
attaching themselves there, though most were not
nearly mature and needed more food.
Later on (in May) these dead trees were covered
with houses, very few of full size and many quite
small, the inhabitants of which had, in general, died ;
and but few were covered with the regulation outer
coat of silk.
It seemed evident to me that the locusts had been
too much for the bichos de canasta and had driven
them prematurely from their food. And this streng-
thened in me a suspicion that this curious creature is
a case of the ''survival of the fittest." Certainly,
seeing that locusts eat each other, a caterpillar with a
house would be the one most likely to escape when a
locust plague came, unless, indeed, there were other
kinds that the locusts will not eat, as they will not eat
paraiso leaves. Again, can even birds extract the
bicho from its house? I required sharp scissors.
BEES AND WASPS 173
A Curious Bees Nest,
One day I was given two curious sticks or
tubes made of dry but still green-coloured leaves.
What appeared to be a complete one was 3J inches
long and about half an inch in diameter. It was
made of leaves rolled into the form of truncated cones
and fitted one into the other. I stuck it on to
a card and sliced the upper side longitudinally until
the inside came to light (a sharp razor did this without
breaking off much of the leaf-work) and the secret of
the thing was revealed, as also the construction. It
was clearly, as my brother had already told me, a
bee's nest. There were seven cells separated by neat
partitions made of many thicknesses of leaf. Each
cell was lined with wax and contained a grub and
what looked like bee bread. I did not see the bee
that makes this nest, but took it on trust, as my
brother knew about the whole thing.
Wasps Nests.
At one time there were to be seen busily and
swiftly glancing about over the hard and sun-baked
ground large wasps. These appeared to be some-
what extensible in body and could reach to a length
of one inch, and were yellow and black, with head
and eyes red. They dug holes, and in digging they
used the front legs and sent the earth flying between
their hind legs, as does a dog. When issuing from
a hole they first pulled bits of earth down into it,
grasping the lumps and walking backward down into
174 ARGENTINE PLAINS
the hole, and then went outside, turned their back to
it, and sent earth flying between their hind legs into it
again.
I was not quite satisfied with the evidence that I
collected from personal observation, but believe that
(i) they close the hole very often when leaving it
before all is finished, reopening it on their return ;
(2) when all is finished there remains buried one egg
and a number of dead or paralysed flies and other
insects.
I also found (and photographed) nests of mud
made (in any form) in the folds of an old sack.
These were empty, but my brother had the following
note about them, made years before.
** These insects " (wasps) ** make cells of mud in
which to deposit their offspring. After each cell is
finished, it is filled with dead" (paralysed?) ''spiders
of all sizes. In one I counted twenty-six, in another
only ten." [Clearly a single cell is here referred to.]
" On the top of these the egg is laid, and the whole
closed with mud." And so on. The nest reminded
me of those neat little nests made of wood-paper
that one finds so often in Switzerland attached to
the under-side of rocks ; but it was much larger and
quite irregular in form.
Miscellaneous Insects, &c,
I came across various fine moths. One was
large, 7 inches across the wings, and nearly
black, but with beautiful markings. In 1888 I
MOTHS, FIREFLIES, SCORPIONS 175
noticed that it appeared to feed on rotten
peaches.
Another, of the same appearance as a ** humming-
bird hawk-moth," only with a pointed tail, was if
inches long in the body and 3^ inches across the
wings. Its enormous eyes indicated night habits.
For what nocturnal flower did it need a proboscis
3I inches long? — for that was the length. Another
magnificent moth, when its wings were closed so
that the under-wings were invisible, was of a lovely
green with a row of white spots down the side ; the
tail was very pointed, and the thorax and head gave
a bold curve. The under-wings were of green, white,
red, blue, and black ; quiet in tone, however.
The first and last of the above three I saw living,
and was much struck with the dull red glow of the
huge eyes when the insects were in a dark corner of
a dimly lighted room.
The fireflies were a pretty sight, and one could
see them even against a fairly-luminous late evening
sky. They were little beetles about 1*15 cm. ('45
inch) long. The light came from two bands
underneath near the tail ; and I concluded that the
fitfulness of the light was only a matter of this part
of the body being in sight or out of sight. I found
no fitfulness in captured specimens.
Oi scorpions I saw but one all the time, and that
was only if inches long. It was very soft and
transparent while living ; and I do not know how
large these creatures grow in Argentina, nor whether
176 ARGENTINE PLAINS
they are harder and more opaque when of full
size.
Ants.
All the ants that I noticed were of the leaf-cutting
kinds. They were a great nuisance, as they would
entirely strip the leaves from the little montes of
willow (sauce) planted round the windmills.
The nests were underground, and converging to
the openings were a system of branching paths, like
main rivers and their tributaries, even 20 yards long,
quite bared of vegetation.
The loads carried were often absurdly big and
unwieldy.
Like Mark Twain, I have my suspicions as to
the intelligence of ants. For example, I set one
that was returning, laden, to the nest, going in
the wrong direction. It persisted in its perverse
course for 8 yards ; meeting laden ants, overtaken
by empty-handed ants, jostling against the laden
current, falling often. At last, as it seemed to me,
it happened to get up right way round, and,
without any muttered comments on its own stupidity
(or on mine) went home again. I dug a pitfall in
a path. It would have been easy for the ants to
have gone round it ; but they fell into it until it was
levelled up with the leaves and their carriers. Then
the stream passed over the top of all.
Who is it that has pointed out the curse that
socialism has been to ants and bees and such-like?
ANTS. MOSQUITOS 177
— how it has killed all progress ; a stereotyped and
elementary civilisation ? A community of bees may
be, qua community, superior to a community of dogs.
But, as a companion, a tame bee or a tame dog?
One can, for the purpose, assume the bee to have
suitable dimensions. I am sure that its stupid lack
of adaptability would be most annoying.
Mosquitos,
In 1888-9 J noticed a very remarkable fact con-
cerning the mosquitos.
These insects abounded in the camp, and were there
often very troublesome towards evening.
Yet one could sleep out in the veranda without
being touched by one of them, though, over the
garden fence only a few yards off, there were millions.
Further, the garden was some 80 yards long, the
40 yards nearer the house being cared for and weeded,
while the further part had run wild. If in the evening
one walked down the path, one was attacked as soon
as the weedy party was reached. But when one
returned, the insects dropped off as the weed-free
part was re-entered ; and, by the time the veranda
was reached, not one was left. Yet there was no
smoke to account for this.
In 1908-9 I never slept out; but certainly mos-
quitos were not one of the troubles of life.
12
CHAPTER X
PLANT LIFE — WATER — METEOROLOGY
Trees.
In the vast flat alluvial plains that I visited in the
provinces of Buenos Aires and Santa Fe, and that
I passed through on my journey through Cordoba
to the Andes, no trees grew naturally. As regards
those that were planted, it appeared to me that there
was a distinction to be made between the towns and
the open plains ; and I put down the difference to
the lack of shelter from wind that there is in open
*' camp."
In the provinces of Buenos Aires and Santa Fe,
as far as I am able to say — and perhaps I had better
keep to the province of Santa Fe, and to a latitude
of about 33° S. — one could plant round the estancias
peach-trees, sauces, acacias, paraisos, a kind of poplar,
pear-trees, and no doubt many others, all with very
successful results ; but the eucalyptus, palm-trees,
and others did not thrive at all.
Quite close to us, in the more sheltered square of
Melincu6, the eucalyptus grew splendidly, and I saw
in the gardens prickly-pears and other trees that
178
PAMPA-GRASS 179
would not ofrow out at the estancia. And in the
Still more sheltered parks and gardens of Buenos
Aires, which was rather further from the Equator,
palms and other subtropical trees grew freely. In
the case of Buenos Aires, the proximity of the sea
may well have had something to do with it; but
this consideration would not apply to Melincu6. It
appeared to me that in the open camp there was
not only more wind, but also much harder frosts in
autumn, winter, and spring than in the towns ; but of
this I am not sure.
Some Notes on Grasses,
The grass best known to English readers is the
Pampa-grass. When I visited the country in 1888-9,
while yet the camp near Santa Isabel was in its
native state, there was usually a fringe of pampa-grass
round the big lagunas. It appeared to me to be a
water-loving grass ; that is, it was found where the
water was not far below the surface. Round the
Melincu6 laguna it grew in big tussocks ; and as I
rode by such a tussock the plumes of grass would
rise higher than my head. In 1908-9 the land close
to the laguna was not alfalfa-sown, but left as it was ;
yet the pampa-grass had vanished. So, on my
brother's camp in the province of San Luis, pampa-
grass was very abundant some eight years ago, while
in 1909 it seemed all stunted and dying out. Here
the water, though somewhat sunk, was still fairly near
the surface. On the whole, I am myself inclined
180 ARGENTINE PLAINS
to put down the disappearance of pampa-grass to the
sinking of the water-level which seems universal ;
but the very able manager of an estancia that I
visited suggested another reason. He said that
formerly, when all the pasture was coarse grass, the
cattle would not touch the still coarser pampa-grass.
Now, on the other hand, when the pasture is alfalfa, the
cattle, he says, ** go for " the pampa-grass occasionally
as a change of diet, and thus keep it stunted.
A curious and troublesome grass about the camp
of Santa Isabel was (in 1888) the paja flechilla.
[Paja in Argentina is used not only of straw but
also of coarse grass ; and flechilla is the diminutive
oiflecha, an arrow.]
This has long seeds armed with very sharp points
and barbs. My brother has found them In the livers
and other organs of sheep; they are constructed to
pierce and then work inward.
The paja voladora is remarkable. It is the name
given to the long seed-bearing stems of puna and
some other native grasses. These break off, and,
in a wind, drift or roll in a curious way — quite
bewildering to the eye — over the surface of the
pampa. Such stems run up to 2 feet long. They
used, in old days when the camp was covered with
native grasses, to drift up against the fences ; and
sometimes In such masses that, in case of a prairie
fire, the heaps of paja voladora collected round the
posts would burn them up. I saw these heaps in
1888.
PAJA VOLADORA 181
About December i6, 1888, a terrible occurrence
took place in a railway-cutting between Candalaria
and Guardia de la Esquina. A cutting was filled
with this drifted grass. In the morning a train
passed safely through it, though the grass caught
fire. But in the afternoon, the cutting being again
filled, the train returned with the wind. The drifted
paja voladora caught fire again, and the flame ran with
the train. In five minutes this was on fire; eight
persons were so consumed that not even bones were
found, and eighteen were nearly burnt to death — I
cannot now say whether they survived. My brother
saw one young man who had lost his hands and
whose face was unrecognisable ; and whether the
above account be quite accurate or not, there is no
doubt that the horror of that cutting, "like an oven,"
could hardly be exaggerated.
Of grasses in general on the natural camp the
puna was the commonest about Santa Isabel ; it
was thin and wiry and grew in huge tufts, not un-
picturesque. But I well remember great sheets of
grass [paja colorada, I think) having a red seed ;
how wonderful it looked about sunset!
Weeds,
In old, pre-alfalfa days at Santa Isabel the chief
weed worthy of notice (and weeds did not abound)
was the poisonous romerilla. The ** native " cattle
and sheep seemed to know and avoid it ; but im-
ported stallions, bulls, and rams had and still have
182 ARGENTINE PLAINS
to be taught not to eat it. They are tied up, and
the weed is burned to windward of them, so that
they are well smoked. Curiously enough this teaches
them to dislike the green and living plant.
There was also some stramonium to be seen
growing luxuriantly in an odd place or two ; and
my brother told me that he cured himself of asthma
by smoking the dried leaves of it in a pipe. But
I should say that on the whole, on the rich alluvial
plains of dark soil, the native grasses had survived
all other plants, as the ** fittest." [In the sandy
camps of San Luis, where by the way the water
was near the surface, weeds of various kinds
abounded, and, as it seemed to me, grasses were
relatively scarce.]
At the present time, in the districts where the
land is rich and has been ploughed up, and where
crops and alfalfa have taken the place of the native
grasses, all this is changed.
Weeds have suddenly sprung up in quite an
appalling way. Take thistles alone. I do not know
how many sorts there are not — cardo negro, cardo
bianco y &c., and the worst of all is the cardo castillo.
In the monte the cardo bianco rose well over my
head ; in some of the paddocks I could not make
my way on foot through the cardo negro (I think
it was), and in many parts you cannot ride or drive
at all — the horses will not face the thistles.
In the ploughed land of the colonists I have seen
another sort of weed growing as regularly and densely
WEEDS. THISTLES. SALINE WATER 183
as the lino — and that is saying much ; and there
was land near Melincu^ that seemed to have regular
crops of weeds of other kinds again. Indeed I, in
my ignorance, several times mistook weeds for crops.
But the thistle plague is really a serious matter,
especially (in my brother's opinion) as regards the
cardo castillo ; for the thistles often abound in and
spoil the alfalfa pastures, while other weeds as a
rule do not invade these. The locusts, by the way,
appeared to eat the thistles first of all ; but I fear
they did not anticipate and hinder the seeding to
a sufficient extent to diminish the plague for the
next year (1910).
In this connection I may say that where the alfalfa
had been eaten down close, so that the ground was
nearly exposed, a native trefoil, which before (I
imagine) was kept down by the tall native grasses,
had spread wonderfully. In one paddock where the
alfalfa had failed and the herbage was excessively
short, this trefoil carpeted the ground. This is not
a weed ; it forms very good pasture.
Water.
When in the Andes I came across no water that
was not saline. Even the glacier streams left some
white crust on stones ; and any springs that I saw
issuing from the mountain-side were very salt and
also deposited much lime. [See p. 207.]
In the province of San Luis, nearer the Andes
than Santa F6, the water was more saline than in
184 ARGENTINE PLAINS
Santa F^ ; on the beds of the lagunas that had dried
up was left a thick white saline deposit, and the
margins of decreasing lagunas showed a white saline
rim. In both cases I speak of the ordinary lagunas
whose water was potable for cattle. [See p. 282.]
In Santa F6 I had not in 1888-9 noticed the saline
character of the wells, which then tapped only the
** surface " water; but in 1908-9, when we used
semi-artesian wells, this character was very marked.
When such water was placed in a pan on a paraffin
stove to keep the air humid, and evaporated, a very
saline residue was left. Yet we drank it !
The large laguna near Melincu6 was exceedingly
saline ; quite undrinkable. Part of this laguna was
usually dry ; but I have reason to believe that a
persistent wind in a suitable direction would flood
this, and it would later be left dry again. Certain
it is that sometimes the dry part would be crusted
thickly with salt.
One day when a turbulent wind raised high into
the air above Melincu^ and all the wide bare roads
a cloud of brown dust, visible from a great distance,
there was raised over this salt-crusted margin of the
laguna a cloud that was visibly white — a cloud con-
sisting mainly, I believe, of sodium chloride and sul-
phate ; and this whitened the grass for some distance
around.
Weather and Climate,
I can only speak of this, for certain, as regards the
regions about Santa Isabel ; but I believe that this
CLIMATE 186
was typical of a very wide area, perhaps of all the
Central Pampas.
In the spring, I found the mornings very fresh,
or even very cold and frosty, and the days hardly
too hot, well on into October or even somewhat
later.
But, during some three months or so of summer,
the heat of mid-day was certainly too much for a
white man on foot, though I never heard of actual
sunstroke. Even the peons of the gaucho class took
a siesta ; and a middle-aged Englishman, coming in
for dinner at 11.30 a.m., would not care to face the
sun again until after his 4 o'clock tea.
Shutters and closed windows were needed to keep
the rooms cool ; the air lying over the heated bare
earth of the garden or patio (yard) got very hot indeed.
On horseback of course one could do more ; but I
noticed in 1888 that the peons (more gaucho then)
wore handkerchiefs under their hats, and never
exposed their arms in haymaking. Ironwork in the
sun in summer became too hot to touch ; and, in my
wooden dark-room, water soon became so warm that
the films would float off plates or papers in ten
minutes.
In Valparaiso (about the same latitude, but kept
cool by the Antarctic current) I heard it said, ** This
is a white man's climate ; Argentina's (in summer) is
not." Certainly I, on foot, found the plains far too
hot in summer.
I must not, however, omit to speak once more of
186 ARGENTINE PLAINS
the beauty and freshness of the mornings and evenings
in the plains. Rarely, even in the heat of summer,
was there an oppressive night, and each morning the
sun arose over cool and dewy plains through the
freshness of which it was a delight to ride. And still
more perfect were the evenings ; indeed, long before
the sun set there was a tinge of red in his rays
that idealised everything. Squalid brick huts in the
suburbs of the camp-towns, dusty roads, even hides
hung on the fences, all assumed a glory that redeemed
the heat and weariness of the day ; and the sun as
he finally set flooded the shining surfaces of the
parched grass with crimson — it was as a sea of
colour.
I was very much surprised to find, as autumn
advanced, how necessary warm winter clothes were.
In May we had very hard frosts — even ice on the
pails ; but at midday it was still hot.
I consider the plains damp in one sense, since mists
at night were common ; and of course, where there
are mists, frost feels very cold. But all was dry in
the daytime under the splendid sun.
On the whole the climate, as I found it on both my
visits, is wonderfully steady. You get very long
periods of splendid sunny weather, broken only by
thunderstorms and violent wind. I heard that
August is the one cloudy and drizzling month. I
quite understand how Anglo-Argentines in England
pine for their glorious sun when they are shivering
through our usual long, wet, cheerless winters.
THUNDERSTORMS 187
Thunderstorms,
The season of my first visit to the Argentine,
1888-9, was very exceptional, and I was able to
observe as many as twenty-seven thunderstorms. The
trees round the house were low, and there were none
elsewhere ; and so, by getting up the ladder on to the
roof of the "galpon," I could observe the whole
horizon.
My observations confirmed my previous view that
there is no evidence whatever in favour of the exist-
ence of *' sheet-lightning," or *' harmless summer
lightning." When a mass of storm cloud appeared on
the horizon it would be lit up at intervals by a glare ;
and people on the ground perceived only the general
lighting up of the sky and called it " sheet lightning."
As the mass came nearer, I, in my observatory,
began to see the top of a spark as well as the glare.
Then I saw more of the spark ; and, at last, when
the clouds were near enough, I began to hear thunder.
Everything pointed to one kind of discharge, viz.,
the spark-discharge that makes the noise called
" thunder " ; but you cannot hear the noise as far as
you can see the light, and you can see the clouds
lighted up when the spark is below the horizon.
Further, numberless observations convinced me
that if the cloud-veil between the observer and the
spark were too thick, one saw a glare but not the
spark.
As far as I could see, thunderstorms came with an
upper current whose direction was contrary to the
188 ARGENTINE PLAINS
lower wind. I have had my hat blown off towards
an advancing thundercloud. This would at once
suggest friction between two layers of air, the upper
one, at any rate, laden with water-drops, as a cause
of the difference of electric potential excited, and
therefore the possibility of discharges in general
taking place between these layers rather than
between either and the earth ; though I do not
mean to imply that these last do not occur.
Observation on the whole confirmed this.
Santa Isabel covers some sixty square miles ; and
my brother used to compare notes with other
estancieros whose estates marched with his and
covered big areas also.
Now, in all these, the only elevated objects were
the estancias (with their montes), cattle, puestos, and
fences ; and men reviewed the camp daily to search
out dead animals and to inspect the fences.
Nevertheless, in these twenty-seven thunderstorms
(and in one the lightning flashed for thirty-six hours !)
apparently no fences were struck nor cattle injured,
though in other years some such damage had occasion-
ally been done. Does it seem probable that any
considerable percentage of the flashes came to earth .»*
I believe that most were aerial, between layer and
layer of air laden with the water-drops that form the
clouds.
In my photos branches, or tributaries, of a spark
were noticeable. I take it that when a spark has
** ionised " a path, and so prepared it, there are
MIBAGE 189
lateral discharges down steep potential slopes into
this path. But of course no photograph indicates the
order of sequence.
Hailstorms.
Of the tremendous hailstorms that sometimes occur
I had no personal experience ; I saw nothing very
unusual. But I noticed that all glass that was
exposed had to be protected with wire netting ; and I
saw how hail had battered the white-plastered mud-
house on the estate in San Luis. I was told of hail-
stones as big as pigeons' eggs ; and it can be
imagined what damage these could do.
Wind,
With the storms there usually came most violent
winds ; sometimes of quite tornado-like violence.
The rule was to close all windows and doors lest the
roof (though it was a very solid affair) should be lifted
off A pause, and then a reversal of direction of the
wind, was a common feature. I regret that I did not
make exact observations.
Day-mirage ; the Earth hot.
When the ground is heated and there is not too
much wind, there is maintained a layer of hot air close
to the ground that acts as a mirror. It is an irregular
mirror, such as that of a slightly disturbed sheet of
water, which, as we know, *' draws out" the image
of a lamp into a long waving line of light.
Much insight into the common day-mirage is given
190 ARGENTINE PLAINS
by the use of a telescope or binoculars ; indeed, the
person who has not used them is not competent to
dispute the statements of one who has.
As far as I could see, the horizon was not extended,
but the hot-air layer, reflecting the sky, made this last
seem to creep in like an estuary on the verge of the
field of view ; and the tongues of this seeming estuary,
that lay between the spectator and higher objects on
the horizon, reflected these also in an irregular way as
would rippling water. Hence such elevated objects
as the small trees round a puesto would have long
trembling reflections that made them on the whole
appear somewhat like palm-trees ; the head of this
palm-tree being the upper part of the tree, seen
directly, and the trunk being the long, drawn-out,
wavering reflection in the hot-air mirror that clung
to the ground. Small patches of bare earth would
give isolated mirrors like pools — patches, in fact, of
reflected sky ; and the bare dried-up part of the
Melincu6 laguna would seem to be filled with a sheet
of water, in which a horseman crossing it would appear
to wade.
Quite small differences in elevation of the spectator
would produce considerable changes in the appearance
viewed ; he could effect great changes by dismounting
from his horse or even by stooping in his saddle.
Dawn-mirages ; the Earth cold,
I was never in the plains in the latter part of June,
or in July or August, when (for all I know) there may
MIRAGE 191
sometimes be frosts that last on into the day. I was
only there when the frost was dispelled not long after
the sun rose. Hence, going by my own observations,
I am calling this second class of mirage '* dawn-
mirages " ; though, for all I know to the contrary,
" winter-mirages " might be a better title.
With the earth chilled by frost I found, by means
of binoculars, that the horizon was extended and that
objects usually below the earth's edge were seen ; and
further, that there were repetitions of the horizon-
line. [I refer to observations made at dawn.]
This became more evident as the light grew some-
what stronger and animals about the horizon-line
could be distinguished. I noticed then that an
animal on the horizon gave rise to repetitions in the
form of erect images, often repeated more than once,
above it ; these erect repetitions having inverted
images under them. Usually the animal and the
erect image next above it were connected by a sort of
column of broken image.
As the day advanced towards the actual rising of
the sun, watery intervals began to creep in between
the several horizon-lines ; and one noticed more
clearly that the aerial images often showed one objects
that were even then out of sight beneath the lowest
horizon-line. After sunrise, the last phenomenon
that occurred before all became normal would be,
as far as I could make out, various indistinct aerial
images over parts of the horizon ; and in these
images were indications (waving and distorted) of
192 ARGENTINE PLAINS
objects out of sight below the now clearly defined
horizon-line, with trailing inverted images under
them.
I sketched these phenomena in 1888-9, and used
some of these drawings in a paper that I wrote for
Nature when I returned to England later in 1889.
In 1908-9 I had photographic apparatus, but found
at once that no visible results could be obtained with-
out a tele-photo lens — which I did not possess ; the
angular height subtended by all mirages being very
small.
Of course, over a lake instead of a plain, the water
being at dawn relatively warm and at midday re-
latively cool, the two classes of mirage described
above are interchanged ; the dawn-mirages are warm-
layer phenomena and the day-mirages are cold-
layer.
With this interchange, I found that sketches of
mirage over the Lake of Geneva taken by Professor
Forel, of Morges, agreed remarkably well with mine
taken in Argentina.
I would add that the last I saw of the cold-layer
mirage may have been inverted aerial images alone ;
but the sun had already much disturbed the air layers,
making all very indistinct. At sea one would expect
that one might have, in the daytime, cold-air layers
not much disturbed ; and this might account for the
reported appearance of the inverted images of ships
that were themselves below the true horizon. My
wonder is that there is not more mirage at sea, and
MIRAGE 193
that the horizon is so sharp and at its right distance.
I suppose that the relatively equable temperature of
the sea may be the cause. The sea does not as a
rule — though a lake or still shallower pool may — get
very hot nor very cold as compared with the general
body of air above it ; and so does not, as a rule, give
rise to air-layers, clinging to its surface, that are
sufficiently different in density from the air above to
act like mirrors and to cause mirage. Of course, a
frozen sea is a different affair ; one would expect
mirage over polar ice.
In conclusion, I would suggest that the marvellous
accounts of mirages that are sometimes given would
never have been written had the observers used
binoculars. With them, a " palm-tree " is seen to be
a bush or rock with a trembling line of reflection
below it ; buildings become sloping rocks, or other
objects, made into a pattern by the adding of
repetitions and reflections sloping contrary ways ;
water becomes the reflection of the sky. In fine,
we only see in a mirage what there is to be reflected
and refracted ; non-existent cities and palm-trees may
be relegated to the Arabian Nights.
13
CHAPTER XI
TO THE ANDES FROM SANTA ISABEL TO PUENTE DEL
INCA BY RAIL — ON MULES TO THE HEAD OF THE
TUPUNGATO VALLEY CAMPING THERE FOR A WEEK,
WITH EXPLORATIONS ON FOOT
[^Note as to Maps and Compass-hearings. — The accompanying
sketch-map has been made on the basis of two sheets,
dated 1898 and 1896-7 respectively, of the ChiHan Frontier
Commission (''Comision Chilena de los Limites"). The
reader should not rely too much on it, but use it merely to
get some idea of the direction of my wanderings.
Nor, I fear, can my compass-bearings be relied on save
as roughly true.
When I went out to Argentina, I looked on an expedition
into the Andes as an off-chance, and did not equip myself
with any instruments. My pocket-compass had not been
adjusted for southern dip, and so the card carrying the
needle jammed somewhat on its pivot ; hence I could
not be sure that I had the true magnetic reading.
Further, even assuming that the declination was 14° E.
as given, I could not answer for there not being local mag-
netic disturbances. One series of springs witnessed to
much iron in the rocks.
To avoid risk of confusion, I have, in this sketch-map,
omitted the carriage-road which runs up the valley of the
Mendoza and passes over the " Cumbre ".]
On February 2, 1909, I actually found myself
starting off on an expedition into the heart of the
194
69°50
32°40
32''40'
32°50'
32° 50'
■33flO'
33°20'
^orLdel Morado
y
/ Tupungato
(22000?)
70° tV. of 6reenty/c/j 69**50'
SKETCH-MAP ILLUSTRATING THE EXPEDITION INTO THE ANDES.
To face p. 194.
TO THE ANDES 196
Andes ! I had learned that certain German and
Swiss gentlemen, in the employment of Argentine
Companies or of the Argentine Government, made a
practice of taking their holidays in the mountains.
Especially had I heard of Dr. Helbling (a mining
engineer) and his friend Dr. Reichert (of the Mining
Department of the Ministry of Agriculture). The
former got up Aconcagua alone ; the latter was driven
back next day by that terrible enemy of climbers in
the Andes, the wind, but later succeeded in climbing
Pollera alone. Of the extraordinary cold-resisting
powers, and I may say the very unusual carrying and
staying powers, of these gentlemen I had heard
enough to convince me that with my far less robust
make and my twenty years* seniority I was no well-
matched comrade for either. Still, when Dr. Helbling
— to whom I had been mentioned by the guide,
Abraham M tiller, and by the doctor, both of
Kandersteg — kindly asked me to join him, making
the condition, usual I believe with these climbers, that
we should be so far independent of each other that
neither should keep the other back, I gladly caught
at the chance of at least getting into the heart of this
great and little-known mountain range.
How travelling had changed since my former visit !
In 1888-9 rny brother and I set off on a round of
visits with a tropilla of some twelve riding-horses, a
bell-mare, and the foal of this last. We drove the
tropilla before us, changing mounts every four leagues,
putting up at estancia after estancia by the way
196 TO THE ANDES
quite in the old style. We had then been able to
carry with us only what we could stow away in small
saddle-bags ; and once, I remember, we had to gallop
hard to reach a homestead, seen as a wavering clump
on the horizon, lest a coming tormenta (storm of wind
and rain) should scatter our tropilla and leave us
drenched on the plains, horseless but for the animals
we rode. This old style of travel had its incon-
veniences ; but it was the real thing, and is one of
the vanished (or vanishing) charms of Argentine life.
Now, I went by train from the near station of Villa
Canas to the junction Junin that lies on the ** Buenos
Aires al Pacifico " Railway, and there tried to take a
ticket for Puenta del Inca, a station high up on the
narrow-gauge trans-Andine railway on the Argentine
side of the frontier and tunnel, since this was to be
our starting-point.
At Junin I began to feel very much alone. I had
had practically no opportunity of talking Spanish at
the estancia ; and the characteristic (?) lack of obliging-
ness of the' smaller Argentine official made things
more difficult. In answer to my demand for a ticket
I got a very short answer, and the ticket clerk then
became unaware of my continued existence. After
more attempts I went back to the platform and tried
a porter. He, no doubt with an eye to a tip — though
there is little of even this interested politeness to be
met with in this very Republican country — was some-
what clearer. The reading of a list of stations and
fares made it, in the end, pretty plain that the clerk
JUNIN TO MENDOZA 197
had said (at express-speed) ** No hay tarifa ** ; z.^.,
** There is no tariff" ; or ** I cannot book you there."
I had to take a ticket to Mendoza only, where the
change of gauge occurs. There was supposed to be
half an hour there for re-booking and re-registering
luggage.
In the night there were some Chilian gentlemen in
the sleeping compartment with me, and these were
most cordial and helpful. They told me that Chilians
were all friendly to the English, and that the naval
officers all talked English. My own experience later
led me to believe that both statements were true.
At Mendoza we arrived as the other train was
starting ; but my Chilian friends got hold of a
*' Villalonga " agent, and he — I gave him a tip of $5,
not far from los. — somehow smuggled my luggage
across ; only I had no *' guia " (or ticket) for it.
To go back to Junin.
I started from there at 12.30 p.m., and the train
sailed away through plains, plains, plains. Always
the same flat surface, always the same sharp circle of
the horizon. Only at 7 p.m. or so did I notice a low
sand-dune or two that somewhat broke the mono-
tonous level.
We reached Mendoza at 5 a.m. next day, of course
covered with dust. I had no time even to look round
me, but I have left an impression of orchards and
vineyards, and I should be quite prepared to hear
that it was a beautiful and fertile place. And close
before us were the Andes !
198 TO THE ANDES
Once on the mountain-railway — it is narrow-gauge
with rack-work in the centre — I had leisure to look
about me. Singularly gaunt and bare were the great
hills. Some snow-mountains were to be seen ; to the
left, some situated in South Mendoza, then Tupun-
gato (22,200 feet or so) as a rounded summit, and to
the right of this again perhaps the Descabezado with
the Cerro Plata behind it. Of vast snow regions I
saw nothing ; indeed, I received rather the impression
of snow over rock than of ndve and glaciers.
Now began the peculiar desolation of the Andes
as I saw them. [But it must be remembered that I
only visited one part.] The line ran up a desolate
gorge, at the bottom of which came tumbling down
a red muddy torrent, the river Mendoza, that did
not then suggest to me a glacier origin at all. It
was later that I got used to red muddy glacier
streams. Not a tree was to be seen ; indeed, I never
saw one again on the Argentine side, save at the flat
bit near Uspallata, where some had been planted.
Nor was there any pasture as in Switzerland, nor
chMets, nor cattle, sheep, nor goats ; not even water-
falls. All seemed not only desolate, but still in the
act of being destroyed ; the scree - slopes on the
mountain-sides seemed still on the move — and later
I found such slopes singularly mobile — and the
river had here and there cut its way through
enormous masses of debris. I saw too, what I came
across so often later, vast formations of what appeared
to be conglomerate rocks made out of the same
PUENTE DEL INCA 199
debris, I suppose by the cementing action of limestone
deposited by springs (?). I was surprised to note, as
far as Uspallata, near the stream, patches of pampa-
grass ; it seemed out of place so far from the
plains.
At about 1 1 a.m., February 3rd, we reached
Puente del Inca, a place about 9,300 feet above the
sea. Here was a station, stores for railway works,
mules and their stables, and a good- sized hotel.
But again, what desolation ! Not one tree ; only
thorny bushes, of which the hotel people had made
a small plantation, as can be seen in the illustration.
Even on the valley-bottom there was no grass, only
straggling weeds.
Here I and my luggage were turned out. Owing
to the forgetfulness of an Englishman whom Dr.
Helbling had asked to meet me, I was now some-
what at a loss. I had no ticket for my luggage and
the officials were unwilling to give it up to me.
They smoked cigarettes and expectorated, while I
felt forgotten and astray. At last they appeared to
think it less trouble to give up the luggage than to
take charge of it longer ; so it was loaded on a cart
and taken to the hotel. Owing to the above-mentioned
forgetfulness I could only learn there that Dr.
Helbling was already in the mountains — somewhere ;
and that he might return — sometime. Meanwhile I
looked about me.
The river here has found its way through the
earth and so has made a natural archway or tunnel
200 TO THE ANDES
that gives its name to the place — " The Bridge of
the Inca."
[In the illustration this natural bridge is to the left,
and the stream is below, out of sight. The hotel
is seen in the centre on higher ground, while the
hot baths appear clinging to the side of the gorge
at the entrance to the "tunnel." As one example
out of many of the unreliability of the information
imparted in the transitory literature of the magazines,
I may mention that I have seen the view here given
— or virtually the very same view — described as
** Railway Works at Inca"! This view was taken
from near the station, and nothing connected with
the railway is seen in it.]
Paths have been cut so that one can explore the
short tunnel ; and one notices at once the deposits
of limestone that bind the soil together and overlay
it with a whitish crust. Here issue forth hot springs ;
and these have been tamed and directed so as to
supply a series of fine baths, constituting a bathing
establishment that is being further extended.
From the waters of these hot springs rise bubbles
of carbon dioxide; and in the so-called ** stronger"
baths one feels very queer if one breathes near the
surface of the water. The temperature is from
840 F. to 970 F. I think I can say that these
Andine springs contain much calcium carbonate,
dissolved by means of the carbon dioxide, which is
as usual deposited when the gas is set free ; and they
also contain much of salts of sodium, potassium, and
^
^-^-
/«f;/-;j»>,.H¥,;.^v.v ■
PUENTE DEL INCA 201
magnesium, which give them an exceedingly salt and
bitter taste. You cannot drink them.
[I should feel confidence in the analyses of the
various waters when I found two independent analysts
giving the same results. But my faith in the analyses
was somewhat shaken when one analyst, of estab-
lished reputation, returned a report on some decidedly
saline semi-artesian water in which calcium oxide
appeared as the only important base, and sodium
and potassium were missing ; and in which the acids
appeared in quantities far too great for the bases
given. Other analyses showed that he had evidently
forgotten to look for sodium and potassium.]
Sitting in the veranda at the hotel, there were
times in the day when one might have felt Puente
del Inca to be a fine health-resort ; and there cer-
tainly was a wide range for the eye and very striking
colour effects.
But, for me, there was too much desolation, and
most of the quieter elements of beauty were lacking —
no pinewoods, no grass, no waterfalls, no chilets.
And after midday began the wind. O that wind!
You walk sideways, holding on your hat, and the
dust, dust, dust flies ceaselessly. I longed for the
rest of such places as AroUa in the Val d' Kerens, in
my beautiful Alps.
In the evening the Englishman turned up :
*' I clean forgot ! " It was too late to start
next day ; but the day after I was to go off with
202 TO THE ANDES
two "arrleros" (mule-drivers), whom Dr. Helbling
had sent back for food (and for me), to join this
companion-to-be in the Tupungato valley. So next
day I wandered up the desolate hill-side and got on
to a sort of summit — a mere projection standing out
over the valley — whence I could see much. I had
not then learned that in these regions, where every-
thing is on a very big scale, one should use a mule
as far as possible (and they are so sure-footed that
one can use them very far), and only walk when the
mule can go no further.
I had not any information as to the quantity of
luggage that I might take with me, nor as to the time
for which Dr. Helbling meant to be away, and
imagined that we should make excursions of a day or
two and return to the hotel at intervals. Hence I
went off very badly provided, and was fortunate to
be able to photograph as much as I did. I managed
this last by sending to Inca for my plates, entrusting
my key and a message to the first arriero whom we
sent back for more food.
On February 5th, at 7 a.m., we set off. I was
provided with a tough mule, used to the mountains.
The saddles were Chilian, peaked before and behind ;
the stirrups were guarded with leather in the front, so
that they were not unlike the front part of big shoes.
One's foot could not get caught in them because of
the leather guard, and so this danger was averted by
a different means from that employed in the Argentine
stirrup, in which there is no such guard. [See p. 102.]
INTO THE MOUNTAINS 203
For mountain-work there were usually two girths,
one going well back behind the belly to hold the
saddle on downhill, and the other much more
forward. Both arrieros were Chilians. One,
Evaristo Gonzalez, was much like any dark-haired
European of the Latin races. The other, nicknamed
the *'negrito," was a wild-looking fellow of Spanish-
Arab- Araucanian- Indian type. I heard that Chile
was colonised by Andalusians to a large extent,
and that these mixed much with the sturdy Arau-
canian Indians, who held their ground in a way
impossible to the very inferior Pampa Indians of
Argentina. So the Arab appearance of this man
very likely corresponded to a reality, since there is
much Arab blood among the Andalusians. His
mule, by the way, had very distinct zebra markings.
Beside us three riders there were two pack-mules.
Some three hours after our start, not far from the
place marked Punta de Vacas in the map, we left
the road and the main valley of the river Mendoza,
fording the stream ; and I saw Evaristo turn round
and look at my face to see how I liked it. It was
a very mild experience as compared with really
dangerous fordings that we made later.
We struck up the Tupungato valley, which runs
down, very nearly from south to north, into this
main Mendoza valley ; and some little way up this
the men saw two birds on a small sheet of water.
These proved to be very stupid, and let them-
selves be caught. They were, I suppose, a sort
204 TO THE ANDES
of coot. The toes were webbed, each separately,
and had at the ends very powerful claws directed
downward. The colour was a grayish-black, with a
little white at the tail ; the beak was yellow, and a
yellow horny plate reached up between the eyes.
At my suggestion they were released again ; and
they actually had to be shown where their pool was.
At 1 1. 1 5 we reached a powerful glacier stream,
the Rio Blanco, that joined the Tupungato stream on
its (true) left bank, coming in more or less from
west by north. Later in the day this stream
stopped Dr. Helbling's baggage-mules, and we
found it quite a serious crossing.
It is wonderful what these mules could do in the
way of fording! I have seen the water of these
tumultuous torrents half-way up their bodies on one
side and low down on the other ; the pressure must
have been very powerful indeed, and the footing was,
of course, about as bad "as they make it." Many
of my readers may have heard the stones rolling and
knocking together at the bottom of such a glacier
stream.
The stream passed, we halted to await Dr.
Helbling and the others ; and I wandered up hill-
sides and glissaded back down very mobile screes.
About 4 p.m. Dr. Helbling turned up ; but the
baggage-mules with the tent and sleeping-bags had
been stopped, as said above. Fortunately we were
as yet only some 8,200 feet above the sea, and with
the help of a fire and of my sleeping-gear, we passed
RIO BLANCO CAMP 205
the night in the open in tolerable comfort, or at least
without danger of frost-bite. But I saw that my
Jager sleeping-bag and macintosh double-sheet would
be quite inadequate higher up. I had, however,
been told already by Dr. Reichert that Dr. Helbling
had with him a spare sleeping-bag of more suitable
make that I could use.
Next day there was much delay in starting. The
rest of the mules had to come down from the Rio
Blanco valley, and then the men had to go on ahead
to improve an awkward place on our side of the
stream. To cross the Tupungato torrent was as yet
quite impossible. When they returned, asado [it was
meat impaled and roasted over or near the fire]
and coffee followed, and it was 2.30 p.m. before we
got off.
The party was large. The fifth horseman, not as
yet mentioned, was the head-arriero, Ambrosio. He
was Chilian, but European in appearance ; a sort of
thinner Sancho Panza, I should say. He (like the
others) wore a wide-awake, neck-kerchief, poncho,
rather loose trousers, and most inefficient boots with
pointed toes (our men could not act as porters, but
were mule-men only) ; and he was bundled up on the
top of his mule with all sorts of things about him —
like the White Knight in " Alice " : a lazo, boleadoras,
carbine. Dr. Helbling's ice-axe, bottles, cooking
apparatus, and other things that I have forgotten.
We had five pack-mules loaded and one spare one,
as well as the horse that serves to keep these animals
206 TO THE ANDES
together, as does the bell-mare in the case of the
Argentine tropillas of riding-horses. These mules
carry loo kilos in most difficult country, but 80 kilos
is a more merciful load. There were also three dogs,
taken to run down those guanacos of which Ambrosio
dreamed. Two were rather of the Scotch deerhound
type, but not so large nor so long in the head ;
yellowish fur (very warm), and feathery ears and
tail ; a curious look, half tired and half humble, in the
eyes. I saw later that they were overworked and
underfed. The third was rather like a very large
Irish terrier, but vulgar in appearance. I may say at
once that we saw but three guanacos in the three
weeks, and the dogs had but one chase. Guanacos
were to Ambrosio as the 20-pound salmon to the
fisher of well-whipped rivers — a dream and an
ambition. Soon after starting I saw, coming in on
the other side, a clear stream. This was a great
rarity ; I saw but three in the whole time. We
were never lucky enough to have a clear stream
to drink from ; the glacier-water that we drank was
so thick with red mud that I have mistaken it for
cocoa !
Towards 6 p.m. we came to the first real fork in the
valley, the Rio Blanco having been distinctly a side
stream. Now, the valley began to open out and showed
a wide shingly bed ; the continuation of the Tupungato
valley lay to the south, while down the other branch,
from the west by south, came the Rio del Chorilio.
We made for the corner where the rivers met, and
CAMP AT THE MOUTH OF THE RIO DEL CHORILLO.
CROSSING A DRY GULLEY ON MULES.
To face p. jo6.
RIO DEL CHORILLO CAMP 207
there camped, at about 8,500 feet above the sea, I
think.
Here, as everywhere, was desolation ; no trees, but
only thorny scrub and scant dry yellow grass, nearly
swamped by the sand heaped up under the drive of
the untiring wind. I shall say more later about this
fight between vegetation and sand. [I may mention
that quite low down, between the Rio Blanco and the
Punta de Vacas, there is a region showing well how
even big thorny scrub, and not only grass, is
swamped by the wind-driven sand ; it is a region of
small sand-dunes, and our present camping-ground
was another such.]
The mountain-sides seemed to be composed of un-
settled debris still " on the slide " ; no lichen coated the
stones, no vegetation bound them together. In parts
this debris had become conglomerated and stood up
in cliffs over the shingly bed, here very wide, of the
river ; these cliffs being cut by the water in flood-time,
when all the wide bed was filled. The bulk of
debris on the valley-sides is inconceivable I Over
the valley- bed, through which the river found its
way in many branches, was spread a flooring of mud
and stones, these last whitened by a slight saline
encrustation. A white patch or two here and there
on the hill-side, surrounded by a stain of dark green,
showed where a salt spring found its way out and
left its deposit of salt and limestone, and where
a dark rush-like grass was called into existence.
Otherwise desolation and aridity.
208 TO THE ANDES
We sat round the fire until 10.30 p.m., and then
Dr. Helbling and I retired to our tent.
From just above the camp, next morning, I saw
the big Tupungato ; a rounded mountain of about
22,200 feet above the sea, whose ascent is a matter,
not of climbing, but of endurance under the ad-
verse conditions of extreme cold and exceedingly
rarefied air.
We started at 9.15 a.m. next day (February 7th).
For some way up the valley had still this wide flood-
bed ; and about 10.15 ^•"^- we crossed the now
divided Tupungato stream to its (true) right bank,
and soon approached a second fork in the valley.
Our Tupungato valley came down from rather east
of south, while the other branch, that of the Rio
de las Taguas of the Chilian map, came in from
something like WSW. Up the opening of this
last valley, somewhat before we reached it, we caught
sight of the Pollera mountain (21,000 feet or so), or
Cerro de las Polleras, which Dr. Reichert had climbed
alone the year before. It lies between the two
valleys, not close to either.
This Taguas valley had a wide flat bottom ; but
our Tupungato valley now changed entirely in
character, and became more of a gorge. So we
here began real mountain mule- work. Hitherto I
had wondered how these animals, laden as they were,
had picked their way over, among, and up and
down, big blocks of stone ; but now I was to see
what they could do as regards the traversing of
DIFFICULT GROUND FOR MULES 209
dangerous slopes and the ascending and descending
the sides of steep-sided canons or gorges.
For we could no longer follow the river bed as
heretofore ; that ran in a gorge, and we had to
mount much above it. The hill-side where we
went was (as usual) a mass of debris, for the most
part fairly compact and firm. Sometimes we had
a steep rotten side to traverse, and it was not
pleasant to look down from one's mule ! About 1 2
o'clock we came to a part that seemed even to our
mule-men impracticable, and they went off to recon-
noitre. Dr. Helbling and I went across the bad bit —
and it was long — on foot ; and I noticed that he,
practised mountaineer as he was, had to take extreme
care. He had on unnailed riding- boots, but carried
an ice-axe. Queer ground for a mule carrying 100
kilos of baggage !
It proved that there was no other way, so the
mules had to come. [I may here mention the fact
that on the return journey a mule did fall here and
might have been killed. It had to be unloaded and
was brought up blindfolded.]
We next reached a fan-shaped talus, formed on
what must be called a colossal scale, of compacted
debris ; and through this the side stream to which
it was due had, changing its course from time to
time, cut various canons. [See illustration opposite
p. 206.]
We crossed one. To ascend its far side a steep
climb had to be made. My mule took the top bit
14
210 TO THE ANDES
at a rush, collided with Dr. Helbling's mule, and
slipped over sideways. With one of those sudden
movements that one can make on emergencies but
could not plan deliberately, I was off in a moment with
the bridle in my hand. The mule still had its front
legs on the edge, and so got up ; but it was a near thing.
One must never forget how serious even a broken
leg is when one is some two days of very rough
travelling on muleback from the main valley ; what
distance from a doctor, I cannot say. Another
canon completely baffled us ; but at last we were
able to pass its mouth down at the main stream.
The descent to this, especially the critical points at
which the mule changed from a **zag"to a "zig,"
were somewhat trying to a novice, and I needed the
front peak of the saddle as well as its back girth.
Ambrosio kept a look-out on the girths, I could see.
Later on we had to cross the Tupungato stream ;
and the water came in at the top of Dr. Helbling's
riding-boot — he having forgotten to heave up his
leg. Those who know what a glacier toi^rent is like,
and what its bed is like, will wonder how the mules
could stand the pressure. I did.
About 4 p.m. we came to another fork. Our
Tupungato valley came down from about the SSE.
and the other branch from the SW. The map
does not name this last ; but the arrieros called it
the ** Cajon del Zorro." [" Cajon " means a big box
or chest ; but the arrieros seemed to use it of a
valley or gorge. **Zorro" is a fox. Another valley
OUR THIRD CAMP 211
which the map called that of the " Rio de las Toscas,"
which I believe means River of the Rocks, they called
the ** Cajon de Estoca," in which ** estoca," I believe,
meant stone or rock.] So I suppose the river may
be called the Rio del Zorro.
We passed the junction, and, soon after, at 5.30
p.m., encamped. One of the habits of the hardy
Dr. Helbling was to travel all day without food ;
so we had none from about 7.30 a.m. to 6 p.m.
This camp — I can hardly say what its height was ;
perhaps 10,500 feet above the sea.
Some way below the camp we had roused from
the stream two ducks that looked like sheldrake ;
and near the camp the arrieros noticed guanaco-
spoors in the sandy soil. With reference to duck, I
will say here that in the whole three weeks we only
saw them on this and one other occasion. On the
second occasion they were swimming in the glacier
torrent, at the mouth of the clear stream men-
tioned on p. 206, holding their own against the
current. And in connection with the tracks of
animals it is worth mentioning the fact that one finds
mules up these valleys as far as two days' journey
from the main valley. [There seems little to eat ; but
there may be even less below, and they belonged to
poor men who could not afford to buy alfalfa-hay.
One of our arrieros possessed some high up in the
valley of the Rio de las Taguas.] It follows therefore
that tracks on the hill-sides across scree-slopes did not
argue, as they would at first sight appear to do, the
212 TO THE ANDES
presence of sheep or goats or guanacos ; for these
mules made such.
Next day (February 8th) we were off at 8.15
a.m., and at about 10.30 a.m. came to what
one may reasonably call the last fork in the valley;
though each branch did, in fact, divide again. The
Chilian map puts 3,460 metres (or about 11,350 feet)
at this junction for the height above sea-level. One
branch here came from south by east, and the other
from SSW., and Tupungato is in a sense between
them, though they do not reach far enough to embrace
it. We went up the branch to our right, this time ;
i.e., up that descending from SSW., and in about
half an hour we reached a spot where some stones
arranged for a fireplace, and some others for the
weighting of the edge of a tent, indicated (as I under-
stood) the previous presence of Mr. Vines one year
and of Dr. Reichert another.
We were in an extraordinarily desolate spot ; — a
waste of stones and of the usual spiny scrub ; slopes
of scree ; and, opposite, a hill-side of debris out of
which projected small cliffs of conglomerate, strongly
grooved by the action of rain, and (as I believe) of
wind-driven sand. These cliffs, red in colour, looked
well in morning or evening sun, and the shadows in
the deep grooves heightened the effect. We saw that
we were near our big mountain, but we were not in
a glacier region ; the snow of Tupungato, and a
shrunken glacier at the end of our valley, was all that
there was to be seen in this way.
THE CAMP NEAR TUPUNGATO 213
The mules had to be taken up the other branch
of the valley for pasture ; there they could find some
dry hay-like grass, and even greenstuff of a rushy
nature in one or two wet places.
Every noon came the wind, and by lo p.m. I was
very cold, even with all my spare clothes on and a rug
over me. At night it froze rather hard ; and even in
the tent, inside my Jager bag, that again being inside
a very warm, doubly-overlapping sleeping-bag that
Dr. Helbling lent me, I was nearly frost-bitten at
but 11,500 feet. Now Dr. Helbling's method is to
carry some thirty to forty pounds of things (sleeping-
bag, &c.) up to 18,000 feet or so, and then to sleep
in the open. Next day he makes his shot (nearly food-
less), and is prepared to keep moving for twenty-four
hours [as I believe he did on Aconcagua], and then to
sleep out again if necessary. For this programme I
had neither strength enough nor sufficient cold-resisting
power; nor had I these essential gifts even twenty
years ago, when I was as young as my companion. It
would have been suicide — or at least have meant loss
of limbs — had I attempted it ; even could I have
lugged my load up. So, after a wakeful night of
silent debate, I decided not to attempt to accompany
Dr. Helbling, but to wander off alone, perhaps to
16,000 or 17,000 feet, and to photograph; return-
ing always to the tent at night. Our compact had
provided for this course.
I went off with him to his first sleeping-place. We
214 TO THE ANDES
had to ascend (for one thing) a slope of screes, and
it took us over five hours! I, the same afternoon,
and he later, came down in twenty minutes, the
mobility of these slopes enabling us to do something
very like glissading all the way.
Dr. Helbling found he was not at all in the right
place for sleeping out, and came back in the dark.
Next day I went with him again to another place ;
and here I noticed th^ penitentes of which I had heard
so much.
I may say at once that during these three weeks in
the mountains in February, and another week after-
wards about Puente del Inca, I never (with one un-
important exception) met with ^^ any snow-patch that
had not been converted into ice (an *' Irish " form of
speech, but clear in meaning), nor any such ice-
patch, or clean glacier, that was not covered with towers,
pinnacles, or blades of ice varying from a few feet
up to 15 feet or so in height ; and this whether the
ice was on a level or on a slope. These white
columns or pinnacles of ice are called "penitentes,"
as resembling men in white penitents' dress.
It was significant of the universality of their occur-
rence that our arrieros used the word for snow or
glaciers ; " No hay penitentes por alii " (** There are
' I say " met with," not '' saw." For I cannot be sure
about all the snow seen high up on the mountains at a distance.
Certainly some snow very high up was broken into penitentes,
but I did not use my binoculars enough to be able to say more
than this.
PENITEXTES.
PEXITENTES, WITH RUBBLE CONCEALING THE CONNECTING ICE-BASE.
To (ace p. 214.
PENITENTES 215
no penitentes there ") was equivalent to ** There is no
snow or ice there." They, I suppose, spoke of nieve
(snow) in the winter ; but in our talks of where we
should find glaciers and snow, and where the hills
were of rock or earth, this was the one word used.
I shall not formally join in the penitentes con-
troversy, but shall merely give my opinions based
on personal observation, supplemented by information
that Dr. Helbling gave me. He had observed
much.
(i.) It has, I believe, been suggested or implied
that the nieves penitentes are the remains of avalanche-
snow, which is of course much broken up. But this
peculiar formation has certainly nothing to do with
the snow having avalanched. In fact, curiously
enough, the only snow that we saw that was un-
mistakably avalanche-snow was not broken into
penitentes.
(ii.) An ** east -to -west " arrangement of the
columns, blades, or pinnacles having been noticed,
this arrangement has been referred to the prevalence
of westerly winds. It must be observed, however,
that, whatever the direction of the upper wind
may be, that on the hill-sides and valley-bottoms
depends mainly on the direction of the valley.
Further, the penitentes occur just as much in wind-
sheltered situations as in those exposed to wind.
If there be an east-to-west arrangement, this must
be caused by the apparent diurnal path of the sun,
that being the only constant "east and west "factor
216 TO THE ANDES
in the conditions obtaining in these variously-directed
and deep valleys.
(iii.) I have seen ** glacier tables," or columns due
to the protection given by pieces of rock, classed
under penitentes. I may here remark that the only
ice that I saw that was not broken into penitentes
was moraine-covered ice. It was the clean ice (once
snow in some cases, glacier-ice in others) that was
broken up into penitentes ; moraine-covered ice had
the same appearance as it has in the Alps.
(iv.) I have seen the penitentes treated of as
depending initially on inequalities in density due to
slipping-motion or to a tendency to the same. But
they are formed equally on perfectly flat snow lying
on wide valley-bottoms where there was no motion
and no tendency to it. I have seen this. So far
I have given somewhat negative results. Positively,
I would say that —
(v.) I am convinced that the penitentes are due
to sun-action primarily ; though the extreme dryness
and coldness of the air, and the prevalence of wind,
all of which would tend to promote evaporation and
to prevent thawing in the shade, probably play an
essential part ;
(vi.) The sharper penitentes occurred on what had
been snow-patches, but were, in February, ice. On
glaciers they were clumsier. I imagine that the
peculiar action that forms penitentes finds snow the
more amenable substance to work on ;
(vii.) Where the penitentes have the blade forma-
PENITENTES 217
tion, it would be worth while seeing whether the
lie of the land is such that the sun only gets at
them for a part of the day, and therefore mainly
in one direction.
Dr. Helbling and I found a patch in which all
were like knife-blades parallel to one another ; and it
seemed to us that the sun only got at the patch about
midday, and that the blades were all edgeways to the
sun. [See p. 240.] I think that both Dr. Helbling
and Dr. Schiller told me that this was the conclusion
they had come lo^pyramids where the sun acted
through a great part of its course, blades where
it fell on the snow in one direction only (more
or less).
I noticed that the extreme mobility of the screes
resulted sometimes in the stones invading the patches
of ice (once snow) so as to cover the ice base from
which the penitentes rose. [See illustration opposite
p. 214.] One thus saw ice-columns apparently
rising out of stones ; but where the rubble-layer was
not too thick, I dug down with my axe and found
the ice flooring. This day again Dr. Helbling stayed
up above. The weather got so bad that I feared for
him ; but next day when I was on my way up I met
him returning safely. He had been obliged to use
his cooking-spirit to keep off frost-bite.
February 13th was a quiet day, so Dr. Helbling
went off again to sleep out. Next day (February
14th) the men set out on mules to look for guanacos,
their hope being that the dogs would ultimately drive
218 TO THE ANDES
one down, exhausted, to the valley-bottom, where
they could then shoot or lazo it. They had no
success. I went up high and photographed Tupun-
gato from the ridge above our camp. 1 saw that
much wind had arisen, and feared that Dr. Helbling
would not succeed after all. In the evening he
returned. He had got near the top (he thought
only some 300 feet below it), but was driven back
by the wind ; he had narrowly escaped frost-bite.
I think I remember reading in Sir Martin Conway's
account of his ascent of Aconcagua that an Italian
guide, accustomed like all guides to exposure and
much more warmly clad than usual, was frost-bitten,
though in full action, and nearly lost his legs. At
such great heights men can, as a rule, move but
very slowly, the sense of exhaustion being nearly
overpowering; so that a strong and intensely cold
wind is too much to fight against. I think I am
right also in stating that Sir Martin made defence
against cold the great point in his equipment.
On February 15th I went off by myself to explore
and to photograph. I will describe my route in some
detail, as both Dr. Helbling and I were convinced
that it had been a mistake camping where we did,
and that future would-be climbers of Tupungato must
camp more or less where I will now indicate. I am
sorry to say that the maps that I bought later in
Santiago, and of which I have spoken on p. 194,
appeared to me to be particularly unsatisfactory
about this region ; so that the sketch-map is not as
OUR ARRIEROS, NEAR THE TDPUNGATO CAMP.
^g^^t^^iw^^m^m
X.E. FACE OF TUPUXGATO ; GLACIER, ETC., BROKEN INTO PENITENTES.
To face p. 218.
WHERE TO CAMP FOR TUPUNGATO 219
reliable a guide as the verbal description here given,
though the dotted track marked will be a help.
Going back to the valley junction marked 3,460 in
the Chilian map, I went up the other branch ; that
which descends from south by east. I then turned
up the first valley to my right. [See p. 212, line 7.]
It was up this valley that a camp should be made ;
there is pasture for mules near the mouth of it. From
such a camp the great north-westerly arete of Tupun-
gato, the easy route up it, is far more accessible than
it was from our camp, and a convenient high sleeping-
place would more easily be found and reached.
I crossed the stream of this valley and ascended a
high ridge to my left (and so on the true right-hand
side of the valley). This ended, towards Tupungato,
in a sort of summit on which I was opposite to, and
in full view of, the north-easterly face of the moun-
tain. To the right lay the north-westerly arete of
the mountain by which Dr. Helbling had ascended
to so near the top. From the face descended a
glacier that drained into a valley to my left ; not
into the valley from which I had mounted, and
which lay to my right.
Both the snow patches (now ice) on the slopes of
my ridge and the glacier that lay before me were
broken into penitentes. Mist was creeping over the
mountain ; but I succeeded in securing in my photo-
graph a glimpse of the actual summit where some
rock showed up. On my way I had come across a
characteristic feature, viz., pinnacles of harder con-
220 TO THE ANDES
glomerated debris standing out of disintegrated debris
(t.e.y scree-slopes). Since such pinnacles resemble in
shape some of the snow or ice penitentes, they also
are called ''penitentes," in spite of their not being
white. The ** penitentes " near Puente del Inca,
well known to and visited by tourists, are of con-
glomerate. [So the word penitentes is used of two
quite different formations.]
It must have been about 5 p.m. when I turned
back. It was solitary there ! I realised that no
one knew where I was, that I had to find the way
back partly in darkness, and that the camp itself
was at least two long days' journey from the nearest
men. I was used to solitary wanderings in Switzer-
land, and to disregard the chance of " spraining an
ankle " as very remote ; but an uncomfortable con-
dition here was the intense cold at night.
I reached the camp in the dark, and found Dr.
Helbling, I cannot say anxious, but beginning
to think it possible that he might soon begin
to wonder where I was ; he was too much
accustomed to far more serious solitary climbing to
feel really anxious. So ended a week at the top of
the Tupungato valley. Save for its giving access to
Tupungato I do not recommend this valley at all !
Climbers might spend a month up the Rio del Plomo
valley with more profit and pleasure ; and I think that
Dr. Helbling spoke more favourably of the Rio Blanco
valley.
On February i6th we broke up camp, Dr.
LEAVING THE TUPUNGATO CAMP 221
Helbling leaving Tupungato unclimbed ; and at
9.15 a.m. we set off down the valley again, our objec-
tive being the glacier region at the head of the Rio del
Plomo, to gain which we had to turn up the valley of
the Rio de las Taguas (of the Chilian map) already
mentioned.
Note. — In my notes I called the face of Tupungato that is
shown in the illustration facing p. 218 the " northerly " face ;
and the arete by which the mountain was attempted by
Dr. Helbling the "westerly" arete. A study of the map
bought later made me alter these into " north-easterly " and
" north-westerly " respectively ; for I had not much confidence
in my jammed compass. Still, I here record what I actually
took down at the time.
CHAPTER XII
TO THE GLACIER REGION AT THE HEAD OF THE RIO
DEL PLOMO VALLEY UP THE VALLEY OF THE
RIO DE LAS TOSCAS (OR CAJON DE ESTOCA) —
BACK TO PUENTE DEL INCA
It was an easy day for us, this descent from our
Tupungato camp to the mouth of the Rio de las
Taguas ; and the canons that we had crossed before
did not seem quite so formidable the second time,
though twice a mule fell. We reached the Rio de las
Taguas about 4.30 p.m. ; and, turning up this valley,
camped near the mouth of it at 5 p.m. on the (true)
right-hand side of the river. Next day (February
17th) we set off at 10.15 a.m. Dr. Helbling soon
stayed behind to take some survey measurements,
while I went on with Evaristo. The negrito had
gone back to Puente del Inca for supplies. About
12 o'clock we came to a warm saline spring, the
water of which had deposited a huge fan-like sheet of
calcium carbonate that ended on the main valley-
river. The more soluble salts remain in the water,
and so there was a very thin sheet of exceedingly salt
and bitter water flowing over this white terrace, and
THE HOT-SPRINGS 223
falling in miniature cascades over the edge of it.
Up on the hill-side I could see another, smaller patch
of white crust due to another such spring.
Where the water came out from the ground there
grew dense masses of dark green rushes and rush-
like grass, as well as another kind of grass of gray-
green leaves spiked at the end ; and the water was
full of slimy green vegetable growth ; the arrieros,
by the way, called this last '* monte," though this
word in Argentina always referred to collections
of trees.
I stayed behind to photograph, and soon after-
wards had a curious experience of loneliness again.
In the Swiss mountains I feel at home ; but here,
where one had to do with the capabilities of mules,
to judge when their resistance was sheer cussedness
and when it meant that they knew they could not
do a thing, and where one had to judge whether
a muddy glacier torrent could be forded, I must
admit that I felt at times quite an inexperienced
novice ; I longed to be on my own feet with an
ice-axe in my hand.
Well, when I had finished my photography I
followed Evaristo's tracks as well as I could, and
at last found myself on the shingly river-bed. To
my right lay a powerful glacier stream, and, further
on, this swept the base of conglomerate cliffs on my
left. It was necessary either to ford the stream or
to get the mule up a steep-sided and rugged-bottomed
canon that opened on to the river-bed just below the
224 TO THE ANDES
cliffs. The mule refused the stream ; the mule refused
the canon. I did not wonder ; had I been a mule I
should have refused both. Evaristo and his pack-
mules had vanished on ahead. In about an hour's
time I began to wonder whether Ambrosio and Dr.
Helbling had passed me by some other route struck
earlier and lying further from the stream. It was a
queer feeling, being there alone ; a reserved and
obstinate mule is not a companion.
To my relief, in an hour and a half Dr.
Helbling and Ambrosio came up behind me. The
mule had been right to refuse the stream ; Ambrosio
would not venture to cross it. He dismounted (as
did we others) and dragged his unwilling animal
up the canon. It was indeed bad going ; no wonder
that I had not attempted it. Later on we had to
cross the stream. Ambrosio as usual managed this
very skilfully. He took such a place of crossing,
and such a course, that in the worst part the
direction was partly down-stream, and so an over-
whelming side-pressure was avoided. But he
watched my animal quite anxiously, I could see that ;
there was real danger in this fording.
The torrent we had crossed was the combined
stream of the Rio del Plomo, which is the upper
part of the Rio de las Taguas, and that of the Rio de
las Toscas, which came in about here. [Later on,
when we went up the valley of this latter river, I
took a view of the Rio del Plomo valley in which the
snow mountains at its head showed to some extent ;
' • • •*
THE RIO DEL PLOMO GLACIER 225
and, in spite of the desolation of the Andes, it was
beautiful.] We were now, therefore, on the true left
bank of the Rio del Plomo, and we were making up it
in a direction about west by north, and later WNW.
Cutting off a corner by rising on the hill-side, we
soon descended on to a very wide, flat shingly
valley-bottom (the river-bed in flood-time), and passed
some curious saline springs that I shall describe
later.
On this (true) left bank of the Rio del Plomo you
cannot reach the glacier on mules ; there are cliffs,
whose base is swept by the torrent, about one hour
below the glacier, that cut you off. And we found
that we could not now ford the stream ; it could only
be forded up to about lo or ii a.m., before the sun's
action on the glaciers had swollen it excessively.
So we had to camp this side of the cliffs.
From our camp the shoulder that ended in these
cliffs hid the glaciers ; but opposite to us were three
fine snow mountains that we nicknamed the *' Monch,
Eiger, and Jungfrau." Next day (February i8th) we
set off with mules to see "where we were," and
mounted the shoulder. From it we had a fine view
down the valley, as also of the mountains opposite
to our camp ; and we now saw something of the
big glacier region that headed the valley. There
were two main glaciers that joined near their common
end, and from a hole in the terminal wall of ice
the torrent issued.
Further than where we were the mules could
16
226 TO THE ANDES
not go on this side ; but a (veritable) guanaco-track
(it proved to be covered with guanaco spoors) down
the cliffs showed me where I, or any man used
to wandering in the mountains alone, might safely
descend on foot.
So next day, when Dr. Helbling went across
the stream with his instruments and mules and
drivers to reach the glacier by the other bank and
to sleep out near it, I went off with my camera, to
spend some hours up on the glacier, by way of the
shoulder and guanaco-track on this side.
This independence was characteristic of our wan-
derings ; Dr. Helbling had been used to it, and I
had wandered alone much in Switzerland. Charac-
teristic also was the way in which we ran short of
food. Sometimes we had no meat, sometimes no
biscuit or bread ; I have been out for a whole day
alone with but four sticks of chocolate to eat and
only muddy water to drink. [I might have had
more chocolate, but I always find this too sickly
for me on the mountains.]
I started at 7.15 a.m., topped the shoulder at
8.25, and, after some halts, reached the well-defined
lower end of an old terminal moraine at 9.30. This
showed a retreat of the glacier of some half mile
or more.
I found that the glacier ended off in an extremely
curious way. Down to very near the end it was
a descending stream of clean ice, broken into peni-
tentes of clumsy form, with the usual lateral moraines.
GLACIER-REGION HEADING THE RIO DEL PLOMO VALLEY.
THL KIO DEL PLOMO ISSUING FROM THE GLACIER
To face p. 226.
THE RIO DEL PLOMO GLACIER 227
But right across the end stretched a high ridge of
moraine-covered ice. A person descending the clean
ice in the centre of the glacier would, near the end,
lose sight of the valley and find himself sunk in a
hollow in which a good deal of water stood on or
flowed across the ice. Behind him would lie the
clean glacier that he had descended, and before him
would rise this transverse, moraine-covered barrier
of ice. Mounting this, he would again come in sight
of the valley, and would find himself at the top of
the terminal ice-cliff from whose foot the river issued.
What puzzled me was the abrupt change from
clean to dirty ice. Granted such a band of debris
across the end of the glacier, its protective action
would result in there being formed an elevated ridge.
But how did the band come there?
I looked to see if a lateral moraine could have
been deflected and forced across ; but I found no
evidence of this.^ The only way {as far as I know)
in which such a cross-belt of rubble could appear at
the end of a relatively clean glacier is by debris,
lying buried under the ice higher up, coming to the
surface through the melting action of the sun on
the cleaner ice lying over it.
The glacier, as said already, had two branches.
Coming down directly in the direction of the valley,
which was here about NW. to SE., there was
a shorter and wider branch — really a huge region
— ringed in by snow mountains. In spite of its
apparent (relative) shortness, I think that very
^ Nevertheless, this may have been the explanation.
228 TO THE ANDES
possibly this should be called the main branch. It
was, of course, a mass of penitentes.
Coming into it from about WNW. was a very
long branch, broken into more striking penitentes,
whose source lay in mountains that were much
further off. And into this, again, the mountain
group opposite our camp sent a tributary. The
penitentes of this last showed up very well, silhouetted
against the mountain-side beyond.
I left the photographing of the shorter branch
(which I have said might be called the main branch)
for another day ; and I made my way up the true
right bank of this WNW. branch and photographed
it. Its penitentes, and those of its tributary, came
out fairly well, but of course disappointingly small.
About I p.m. I set off back, crossed the combined
glacier again, and regained my old tracks on the
(true) left bank of the stream. Here I was hailed
by Dr. Helbling, who, as I have said, had gone up
on the other side. He had a message to send to
Ambrosio ; but, though the stream was not broad,
the roar of the water was so loud that at last he had
to write his message and throw it across in a weighted
handkerchief.
Between the shoulder spoken of as reached by us
on mules on February i8th and the camp, I came
across a good example of a mud avalanche and what
it ultimately leaves behind. The mud acts as a lubri-
cating and carrying medium, and stones and big
rocks are thus borne along over nearly level ground.
- * ' * »
1
W^j}rm
1
1
uu
-nr *•
*^
ai».
fig
iJI
WN.W. BKANCH Oi- KlU DKL PLOMO GLACIEK, AND A TRIBUTAKY TO IT,
BOTH BROKEN INTO PENITENTES.
TYPICAL CLIFFS CUT IX DEBRIS BY RIVER WHEN AT FLOOD-LEVEL.
To face p, 228.
CURIOUS SALINE SPRINGS 229
Then comes rain and washes out the mud : and
one wonders how the stones and rocks got there.
One sees this in the Alps, too.
February 20th was, for a wonder, rather a wet
and cloudy day. So I went down the valley to visit
the saline springs that we noticed on our way up to
our present camp.
As I descended I photo'd some typical cliffs cut
in the debris at the edge of the wide flood-bed of
the river down which I was walking. [See illustra-
tion.] At one place in these red, earthy cliffs there
cropped out low cliffs of a white rock veined with
gray ; and this rock, quite hard (like marble) when
newly broken, weathered into a soft white powder
that had a saline taste. It was close under these
white cliffs that there originated a line of remark-
able saline springs. And this was its fashion. Start-
ing from the base of these white cliffs was a white or
discoloured belt that widened as it went, ending, some
350 yards down the shingly flood-bed of the valley,
in a branch of the river. This belt was remarkable
for holes, or pits, varying from 3 or 4 feet across and
I foot deep to 12 or 15 feet across and 5 or 5 J feet
deep ; and there were others partly filled up and
evidently inactive. Speaking generally, these pits
had each an overflow-channel from its lower lip
(the word " lower " referring to the edge of the pit
that was furthest down the gently sloping valley-
bottom) ; and a few had in them bitter and
saline water. The overflow-channels were deeply
230 TO THE ANDES
coloured with red and orange, due to ferric hydrate
(an oxide of iron), I am sure ; and this red powdery
soil was very saline. Between these red or orange
channels the surface was crusted with bitter and
saline white salts ; but underneath this the soil was
red or orange. The ferric hydrate appeared to
come from those pits that lay nearer the cliffs ; but
some of it drained, through the channels, into others
further off. I may mention that when we descended
again our mules ate some of the mixed salts and
ferric hydrate. [See illustration facing p. 232.]
It was clear that, at times, saline water welled up
from places in the valley-bottom and formed these
pits by so welling forth. In pits once formed, sub-
sequent discharges would naturally overflow at the
lower edges, and so the channels would be cut out.
There was no activity then ; only three or four pits
had some saline water at the bottom ; this was cold,
and bubbles of air or gas kept escaping from it.
On February 22nd I went off again (practically
foodless !) and mounted the glacier. This time I
crossed that branch up which I had gone last time, and
mounted a high shoulder between the two branches.
In crossing, I had to find my way between coarsely
formed penitentes — very unlike the sharp pinnacles
or knife-blades that I had found on old snow-patches.
These were more like s^racs ; but there were no
crevasses, the ice having been thus broken into
pillars, &c., by some other action than that of the
steep or irregular bed that causes a glacier to split up
RIO DEL PLOMO GLACIER AGAIN 231
into s^racs. On this shoulder I lost sight entirely of
the branch I had been up before, but had a mag-
nificent view of the wide " main " branch of the
glacier (as I have called it) and the ring of snow
mountains surrounding it.
Save for the penitentes, which, in the clumsier form
in which they occurred on this glacier, might almost
be mistaken for s^racs — (if one did not wonder what
s^racs were doing on a glacier of such gentle slope !) —
the whole scene appeared to me quite familiar ;
I could almost have believed that I was on some
** Concordia Platz." And I could hardly believe that
I was hours from the camp, the camp two long days
or more to Puente del Inca, and Puente del Inca
separated by enormous distances of land and sea
from Switzerland ; nor that, the same evening, I
should be eating sheep's ribs with my fingers at a
camp fire, and later see Orion standing on his head.
Indeed, after twenty-seven years of routine teaching,
and even routine boating and bicycling, I had, all
through this Andes expedition, a great difficulty in
realising that I was myself To be actually camp-
ing out in the Andes — it seemed incredible !
On February 23rd we broke up camp. In descent,
instead of crossing the combined streams of the Rio
del Plomo and Rio de las Toscas, which together form
the Rio de las Taguas, at the part where we had
found it so dangerous when we came up (see p. 224),
we kept down the (true) left side of the river until
nearly opposite to the hot springs ; and there we
232 TO THE ANDES
crossed at a part where the river was more broken up
into branches. We were very sorry to leave the Rio
del Plomo valley. With its snow mountains and all,
in spite of the lack of trees and good grass, it had a
beautiful aspect.
As we came down the Taguas valley, and before
we forded, the negrito had gone up the hill-side to
inspect some mules of his. Suddenly I heard an
excited cry from Ambrosio, and, turning to look, I
saw two animals, that shone a rich red-brown in the
sunlight, "loping" with a very peculiar camel-like or
giraffe-like gait up the wide valley-bottom some way
off. I knew at once that they could only be guanacos.
The three dogs went off swiftly and silently ;
Ambrosio bundled after them with all his odds and
ends joggling about him, and the negrito came
madly down the hill-side on his surefooted mule.
[Evaristo had already been sent to Puente del Inca
for bread and a sheep ; our provisions had shrunk,
some days earlier, to bones, potatoes, and coffee.]
Soon Ambrosio came back ; he had the mules to see
to ; later came the negrito, and with him one dog —
who looked very humble.
We camped some lOO yards from the hot springs,
and Dr. Helbling and I had a luxurious bathe — our
first wash (I fear) for about two weeks. You cannot
(unless very young) bathe in the icy glacier streams.
Next day (February 24th) we set off on mules to
ascend the Cerro Rotondo, a rounded summit on the
wedge that lies between the Taguas valley and the
ONE OF A SEHIKS OF CURIOUS SALINE SPRINGS.
SURVEYING ON THE CERRO RO^SerSDO.
To face p. 232.
\
ON THE CEMIO ROTONDO 233
upper Tupungato valley. We started at 7.15 and
went at first down the valley (on its right side)
towards the junction of the two rivers. Soon we
came across the two other dogs. I will give their
history ; it explains why they looked so worn and sad !
They had had some food on the evening of the 22nd,
none on the 23rd. On the 23rd they had chased the
guanacos ; and, I suppose towards evening, had
returned, and had swum branch after branch of the
cold and turbulent river ; and there they were on the
24th, making for the mouth of the river where we had
camped before. And now they had to follow us up-
hill, and were to get no food until the evening ! A
forty-eight hours' fast, with hard work, cold water to
cross, and frost at night.
Near the junction of the rivers Ambrosio found a
possible way up — possible to such mules as ours.
The higher we got, the stronger was the icy wind.
Dr. Helbling and I were properly clad ; but Ambrosio
and the negrito felt it much — the latter almost wept !
On one narrow neck my mule (with me on it) was
very nearly blown over a cliff ; but I gave it a timely
pull with one rein, and it recovered itself. At 11. 15
we were nearly up ; and, considering the steepness of
the route and the pace of the mules (who scramble
quickly up steep places, though they are leisurely
and careful in descent), I should say we ascended
some 4,000 feet or so, and were therefore over
14,000 feet above the sea.
Dr. Helbling took measurements of the surveying
234 TO THE ANDES
nature with his photographic theodolite apparatus ;
and the negrito looked very funny as his assistant.
[See illustration opposite p. 232.] There was a strong
element of the child in this wild-looking fellow ; and
now he appeared most naifly surprised and pleased
to find that he was so clever as to be able to help in
surveying-work.
I took several views ; that up the Tupungato valley
was very interesting, and showed Tupungato far off ;
and I was glad to have another showing Pollera in
the distance. This latter mountain can also be seen,
to the left, in the illustration which shows Dr.
Helbling surveying.
Dr. Helbling had arranged for some lunch to-day !
At 3.30 p.m. — i,e.y after the quite short interval of
about nine hours since early coffee — we had each a
cup of hot chocolate, two sticks of chocolate to eat, and
three biscuits ; more than I ever had when off for the
day alone. [I may say that our main provisions were
raw potatoes, to be cooked, raw meat, or bones, to be
cooked also, and very hard " biscuit " that one had to
soak in hot soup or coffee. Hence there was little
available for lunches, and I appeared to be the only
one who hankered after food at midday.]
Rather later. Dr. Helbling and I found our way
home on our feet, doing a lot of glissading down the
endless and mobile slopes of screes. [I was glad to
find later that, sturdy mountaineer though he is. Dr.
Helbling had noted with respect his elderly com-
panion's ability to tackle rough terrain. He regarded
CAMP AT THE HOT-SPRINGS 235
as my one weak point my inability to stand sleeping
out, high up, without a tent, and considered this
inevitable at my advanced age. I felt quite pleased
when I heard this !]
We had intended next to go up the valley of the
Rio de las Toscas (or Cajon de Estoca), but Evaristo
had not turned up and the food had run out. Both
the night before and this night the men set fire to big
bushes of the inflammable acerillo as a signal ; and to
our relief Evaristo came up in the dark, guided by
this fire, and brought ample supplies (relatively speak-
ing) with him. How he made his way across the
river and over the rough ground in the dark I do not
know ; perhaps he had crossed the water before night
fell. It turned out that there had been no bread in
Puente del Inca, and he had waited until some was
baked. By the way, after our cold camps up the
Tupungato and Plomo valleys, the camp here seemed
very warm. Yet in the morning there was " cat-ice"
where the very saline water from the warm spring
flowed over the limestone terrace.
Having now some food, we set off about 11.15 a.m.
on February 25th for the Rio de las Toscas valley,
but we were a smaller cavalcade, since the negrito had
been sent back for good and all with some of the
mules carrying the instruments and part of the other
baggage to Puente del Inca. Of course, we had first
to re-ascend the valley of the Rio de las Taguas to
the junction of the Toscas and Plomo rivers.
236 TO THE ANDES
This valley of the Rio de las Toscas was more of a
gorge. The only practicable way up it was rather
high up on its (true) right-hand side, and even there
we had rather queer passages. I understood that
only one party had explored this valley before us, and
that was a part of the Boundary Commission who had
gone to set up a mark on the frontier at the head of
it near the *' Port, del Morado," a pass marked in the
Chilian map as being 4,962 metres (or 16,280 feet)
above the sea. This party had travelled with a host
of mules, I feel sure ; and certainly we found a kind of
track, as we had, in parts, up the other valleys. But
these tracks failed us, as a rule, when difficulties
came ; for the dangerous bits were usually steeper
parts where the ddbris that formed practically all the
hill-sides was continually slipping, destroying any
track. About 2 p.m. we came to a division in the
valley, a stream coming in through a gorge on the
other side {ie., on its true left side). We continued
nearly straight on, going about south by west.
I had observed that saline springs with their
calcareous deposits had been very numerous across
the river, and that there were not only surface sheets
of these deposits, but also what appeared to be cliffs
and also strata of them. The cliffs were really con-
glomerate cliffs overlaid with this crust, and the strata
were (I feel sure) sheets that had once been surface-
sheets buried by fresh slides of debris from above ;
for of the extraordinary mobility of the debris I had
had evidence enough. Especially at and near the
CAMP UP THE TOSCAS VALLEY 237
mouth of this tributary were the incrustations abun-
dant. We went to see one big spring and found both
it, its rushes, and its terrace of deposited limestone
very like what we had had at our last camp, only the
water was cold.
As dusk was coming on we reached what appeared
to be the end of all things. In reality we were not
nearly at the head of the valley, but we seemed to be.
Straiofht ahead the view was cut off bv a vast,
desolate-looking mountain of rock and scree-slopes.
To the right of it there appeared to be an insignificant
gorge, down which the river came (as we found later)
in a canon, like that of the Via Mala (in Switzerland),
but on a smaller scale. From the left, as we looked
upward, there descended into our valley from another
gorge, at whose head lay a small glacier region, a
tumbled mass of debris of incredible magnitude that
was carried forward on ground of but slight slope
to such an extraordinary distance that I wondered
whether it had not come down originally as a mud
avalanche (see p. 228). We seemed shut in, and,
apart from the fact that it was too late to attempt the
difficult-looking gorge down which the river came, we
saw that we had already slightly passed the limits
below which anything could be found for even our
hardy mules to eat.
So we turned back a little and soon found, con-
cealed in a narrow inlet cut by water in the banks of
debris, signs of the Commission having been there
before us ; for, for the first time in these wanderings,
238 TO THE ANDES
we found empty wine bottles — and plenty of them,
too!
What a God-forsaken region it was! And what
inhumanly desolate, arid, man-repelling mountains
these Andes were, so far as I had seen them !
Yet were I younger and at work out in the Argen-
tine I should certainly be drawn year after year into
the mountains, as Dr. Helbling and others are.
There is a fascination about the life — the wandering
on mules, the sitting out by camp fires, the exploration
of glaciers, and the walking up on to shaley ridges of
16,000 feet or so, even if one never climbed a peak.
But I feel pretty sure that with some expenditure of
money on eiderdown one could devise covering that
would enable even an ordinary man like myself to
sleep out, and that with warm gloves under water-
proof outer gloves, and boots made on the principle
of a recent form of ski-boot that I have seen, even
such an one as myself could stand the cold in the final
ascent. I do not think that it is necessary to have
the weight-carrying powers or cold-resisting powers
that I found Dr. Helbling possessed in so remarkable
a degree. I have in my mind dodges — but, alas ! it
is too late for me now ; all that I can do is to offer to
communicate my ideas to any one who would like to
have them, and with that I must pass on. [See hints
given later, pp. 246, 247.]
This was the very coldest camp we had been in.
I cannot give our height, but, judging by the vegeta-
tion, I should say that it was 12,000 feet above the
: ::' : :
^
1
f iflii,!****^
CAMP UP THE RIO DE LAS TOSCAS VALLEY,
^S^^-^^.
^ye^4
MOJOX XEAK THE PURT. DEL MOI^DO ; ABOUT l6,500 FT. ABOVE THE SEA (?).
To face p. J38.
THE MOJON ON THE FRONTIER 239
sea at least ; certainly higher than our camp in the
Tupungato valley.
Next day we set off at 9.15, and I presently dis-
covered that our director, Dr. Helbling, with his
usual independence of food, had not made any provi-
sion for lunch !
We soon reached the head of the visible valley and
then went up the narrow gorge to the right. Below
us the stream was hidden in a deep canon, and even
where we went the mules had to be led at first.
After this the valley widened out somewhat and
presented no difficulties for a long way. We crossed
the stream and presently came to the junction of the
two head branches of the valley. One came from
about west by north ; it was fairly open and showed
us a ring of snow mountains at its head. The other,
descending more from the south by west, looked less
attractive, but it was the branch we were to follow.
However, it proved to be much the wilder and the
more interesting as well as the longer of the two.
The stream from the former branch was a glacier-
stream and was red and turbid as usual. That down
our branch was of clear water. I was surprised to
see that, even at twelve o'clock under the fierce sun,
this stream showed as a ribbon of white, being, in
fact, nearly entirely frozen. Even at 4 or 5 p.m.
there was ice all along it. Considering that it ran
down a nearly bare valley, the soil and rocks of which
would greedily absorb the sun's rays in the daytime,
this gave a strong impression of the pitiless cold of
240 TO THE ANDES
the nights even in summer and below the (so-called)
"snow-line." The confusion of debris and rocks here,
at the end of the world, was wonderful ; indeed, it was
such bad going that for a considerable distance our
best route was up the bed of the half-frozen stream.
About twelve o'clock we sighted the mojon, a
boundary mark in the shape of an iron erection some
ten feet high or so on the frontier ridge on ahead.
And at about 12.30 p.m. Dr. Helbling and I set off
on foot to reach it. [See illustration opposite p. 238.]
The valley had ended in a sort of wide basin, and
here and there were snow-patches (now ice) that were
bristling masses of fantastic penitentes. Unluckily, I
had no plates to spare for photographing them.
We crossed one such patch on a slope. In this the
blade formation was very marked. Looking up the
slope, you saw between the knives edgeways ; looking
across, their broad sides hid the view. I have referred
to the penitentes of this patch already on p. 217. At
1. 1 5 p.m. we were on the ridge and looked down into
Chile, and in another half-hour were by the mojon.
This was at some height above the Port, del Morado,
and so, if the Chilian map be right, it should be about
16,500 feet above the sea. Thus we were con-
siderably higher than Mont Blanc, and yet were on
a bare shale ridge.
Very far off we made out Aconcagua, and com-
paratively near us was a big mound that showed no
sign of glacier and very little of snow. Yet this last,
from its position, was certainly the 22,200 feet (or so)
BACK TO PUENTE DEL INCA 241
Tupungato. Such an unpicturesque hump it looked !
Returning, we reached our camp late ; it was very
cold, and we ran short of fuel.
Next day (February 27th) we started back for
Puente del Inca, and, pressing the pace a good deal,
trotting over flat river beds and cantering over sand
when we had such easier terrain to traverse, we
managed the whole distance in two long days, sleep-
ing only at our old camping-ground by the mouth of
the Rio del Chorillo.
So ended my first and last expedition into the heart
of the Andes.
16
CHAPTER XIII
SOME GENERAL NOTES, OBSERVATIONS, AND HINTS
RELATING TO MY EXPEDITION INTO THE ANDES
Photography,
The photographer has several conditions to bear in
mind. His baggage mule may fall, or get into a
stream, as may his own riding-mule ; so he should
have apparatus, to a certain extent, in duplicate. It
is not easy to stop the whole train of mules on the
way, and so he should be prepared to take photo-
graphs without keeping everyone back while he gets
ready. Further, one is apt to feel weak high up, and
weight is a consideration. Then again, for photo-
graphing plants and flowers, one needs a long exten-
sion camera. And lastly, the prevalence of wind and
dust has to be allowed for.
Putting everything together, I should say that it is
desirable to have two cameras, both portable, and
both capable of being used on a small stand, one
lighter than the other. The lighter is to be carried,
slung round the shoulders ; it can then be held under
the arm during trotting or cantering. This camera
need not have long extension (which always involves
HINTS FOR ANDINE TRAVEL 243
extra weight), but should have a rising front and a
fairly quick shutter. The heavier camera should
have a rising front and a long extension, and also be
capable of being carried slung, like the other ; and it
should be provided with plenty of padding and a water-
proof case, so as to make it secure against immersion
in a river and against the shocks of falling. Its lens
should be double or triple, so that one can use a
single cell only and thus get larger views of distant
mountains ; but it is essential, having regard to the
drifting sand, that the front cell be then used ; other-
wise dust will get in.
Reserve plates and films should be, like the second
camera, protected against both immersion and shocks.
As regards arrangements for changing plates or
films, I will only say — remember the dust ! A huge
red bag, into which the head, arms, and half the body
can be inserted, should do very well. The great
advantage of this, over the red-lamp system that
demands a dark chamber, is that one can then change
plates out of doors when on an expedition. Perhaps,
however, that daylight-changing ** envelope " system
(Houghton supplies one form, and I saw another at
the Army and Navy Stores) would be still better. I
have not used this myself.
One further hint. I had read that, if {e.g.) ^-^
second were the exposure in the plains near sea-level,
then at elevation between 7,500 feet and 12,000 feet
the exposure should be ^^ second. If the photo-
grapher have found the right exposure on the
244 TO THE ANDES
brilliantly-lit plains of Argentina, I do not think that
he should risk so much reduction at 7,500 feet in the
Andes. I myself found that I did very well with the
same exposure at Puente del Inca (over 9,000 feet) as
in the plains, using the same camera at both places.
Mules and Mule-men.
About mules, one has to ** know the ropes." At
the hotel they were asking $1 Argentine (about
IS. 9d.)/^r hour for mules. Yet I know that mules
were to be had for longer engagements (at any rate
when several were taken) at %\\ per twenty-four
hours, including the mule-driver! More than this I
had better not say ; I am treading on delicate ground.
If a traveller can get behind the scenes, joining with
some Anglo- Argentine or other European who knows
the country, the latter can arrange matters. But if he
cannot do this, and cannot be put in the way of
making a private bargain with an owner of mules,
he should write to ''El Sr. Administrador, Hoteles
Sudamericanos, Seccion Campo, Mendoza, F.C.P.,
Argentina."
At any rate he will not have to pay at the absurd
rate mentioned above ; and he can bargain. Two
climbers would do well to have three arrieros (as one
has to be sent back now and then), and therefore five
riding-mules ; and, say, three or four baggage mules,
perhaps a spare one, and the usual idle horse to keep
them together. As already said, a mule will carry
100 kilos, but 80 kilos is a more merciful load.
HINTS FOR ANDINE TRAVEL 245
Provisions and Luggage.
Strong wooden cases, such that two slung one
on each side of a mule together weigh about 80
kilos when full, are good for stores ; and it is well to
have one long enough to contain the ice-axes. These
cases should be sent up to Puente del Inca in advance
by goods -train from Buenos Aires with stores of
Nestle's milk, jams, &c. Of course yerba (with the
corresponding mat^ gourds and bombillas), coffee,
sugar, and macaroni can be sent up also if the traveller
can learn about how much is wanted ; but these can
be bought at Puente del Inca. Cooking vessels,
enamelled iron plates and cups and such-like, must
also be sent up. Dr. Helbling had strong aluminium
vessels for cooking purposes, beside his lighter etna
intended for carrying up higher where mules could
not go. There is a ** store" at Puente del Inca, and
it would be well to arrange beforehand about prices.
The main things for which we sent back the men
were bread, biscuit, coffee, sugar, macaroni, and
sheep ; these last killed and cleaned, but with the
skins on. Up where we went, meat in the shade
would keep good for an indefinite time.
It maybe useful to would-be explorers of the Andes
if I state that when I paid over to Dr. Helbling my
share of the expenses (for food and mules and all)
of the three weeks' expedition from Puente del Inca
as a base, I found it came to about £^S' ^^ course,
246 TO THE ANDES
his kindness in letting me join when he had already
arranged everything and had his usual outfit with him
made the expense for me relatively small ; but at least
it can be seen that two travellers, who are already in
the Argentine, can explore the Andes, in the way in
which we did things, at moderate cost.
Porters and Guides,
I was told that at least two men who can use an
ice-axe and climb a mountain can be found at Puente
del Inca or thereabouts. Enquiries might be made
about them.
Clothing, ^c.
It would be out of place to attempt to give here a
list of things required for camping out in mountains
generally. I am confining myself to some hints that
seem to me to be useful for the Andes in particular.
And as regards clothing, I would say that any in-
tending climber will get some idea of the cold if he
reads Sir Martin Conway's book about Aconcagua.
Even at 12,000 feet only, and inside a tent, one had
to close up every crack round the neck ; and I was
cold even with a Jager sleeping-bag inside a heavy
one that Dr. Helbling lent me. In that, by the way,
there were air-cushions to go under the body; these
were essential. I should be inclined to say that it
would be well to devise something out of eiderdown,
with air-cushions too, if by trial these were found
necessary; and that there should be a strong bag,
HINTS FOR ANDINE TRAVEL 247
waterproof, to wear outside this in camp, and a much
lighter and less durable one to carry up when sleeping
out higher up. Perhaps instead of the complete eider-
down bag one might have a jacket and hood, and a
leg- bag to meet this. In any case there must be
a well-devised overlap at the junctions.
For boots, I incline to a new sort of ski-boot, with
a single seam down the top, that I found at Dethleff-
sen's at Berne. But these should be a model for shape
only ; the actual boots should be stronger, and their
seams better closed. The great advantage of these
is that you can get any amount of warm foot-clothing
inside them ; and, though so big, they do not fall into
folds as do big mountain boots. Large boots, frozen
in folds, are virtually small.
It must be remembered that over 18,000 feet or so
a man probably cannot climb difficult rocks or do
difficult ice work as at lesser heights ; it is usually
as much as he can do to walk at all. Warmth is
the essential thing ; and I feel pretty sure that these
clumsy boots, with crampons on if necessary, will
serve a man well enough for any climbing that he
is capable of at such great elevations.
Hand-gear, too, requires consideration ; certainly
warmth and free movement inside, and an external
wind-proof covering, are essential. The intense cold
and the prevalence of wind must never be lost sight
of. Of course a tent should be taken ; and one must
allow for strong winds and for stony ground. Lots of
metal tent-pegs are required ; our wooden ones broke.
248 TO THE ANDES
The General Aspect of the Mountains.
I think that I have already said nearly enough
about this. What struck me everywhere was the
active disintegration that was going on. The scree-
slopes were slipping, so that none were gray with
lichen ; the wind worked at the hill-side and tore up
sand, with which it heaped up dunes and buried the
bushes ; the rivers ran thick with mud. Well could
one imagine how, in old days, when shallow seas
reached the base of the mountains, the detritus was
carried out into these and formed the present vast
plains of Argentina ; sandier nearer the hills, of finer
alluvial mud further off.
No doubt the aridity helps on the destruction.
Save for a salt spring or so here and there, all is
dry ; and this discourages the growth of herbage
whose roots would bind the debris together.
Glaciers and Moraines,
If a glacier retreats from age to age without there
being any periods during which it again increases, it
seems pretty clear that it can but leave the hill-side
strewn with ddbris. It must surely be the halts, with
periods of partial recovery (known to have occurred
in the Alps), that produce those ridges of old lateral
moraine familiar to haunters of Switzerland. I saw
no such old lateral moraines in the Andes in my
limited wanderings. If they be indeed generally
absent, it would seem to argue that —
GLACIERS, MORAINES, PENITENTES 249
(i) BMer the glsLciers there have not had periods
of increase or partial recovery breaking the main
decrease ;
(2) Or the degradation, which is so rapidly going
on there, has obliterated such old moraine ridges.
Speaking of moraines, I remember a very curious
feature in the Andes.
Many of my readers know the *Zmutt glacier, and
remember how it is strewn with debris.
Well, up the Tupungato valley and also near
Aconcagua I saw what appeared to be glaciers made
of debris ; no stream was to be seen coming from the
end, and so I concluded there was no longer any ice
underneath. I take it that, here, glaciers laden with
debris had disappeared and the debris had been left.
But imagine the destruction that must have been
going on, when the top layer of ddbris left by a
vanished glacier is thick enough to look like a glacier
made of debris ! Near Aconcagua I saw also another
such in the making ; the top layer of debris was very
thick, but there was water coming out at the end,
which argued the presence of ice underneath the
rubble.
Penitentes,
Of these I have spoken already (see p. 214 ^/ seq),
I will only add two remarks : —
(i) No one should attempt to explain them who
has not seen them. One may see something like
them, only on a miniature scale, in Switzerland. But
when one sees glaciers, snow-patches on the level, and
250 TO THE ANDES
snow-slopes on mountain-sides bristling with these
strange pinnacles or knife-blades, one is amazed.
What is the condition that is here so different from
any that prevail in the Alps ?
All that I noticed was the more powerful sun, the
far colder and drier air, and the wind. The painful
cracking of one's finger-tips was one sign of the
dryness of the air ; the absence of excessive per-
spiration another. I should say, too, that one's
ability to withstand the sun even in a common cap
was another sign.
All pointed to a melting under the sun's direct rays,
with no melting in the shade, and an unusually rapid
evaporation.
(2) No one, I believe, has yet observed the snow
from the very beginning in winter. The regions in
which the penitentes are found in summer have, so
far, been inaccessible in winter, so that their life-
history has never been followed.
I think that much might be done from Puente del
Inca as a base.
Bushes,
When I come to the vegetable and animal king-
doms, I am obliged to speak as a layman ; I have, in
this department, no scientific knowledge at all. Still,
some observations may be of interest.
Where I went, there were no trees ; neither on the
way up from Mendoza (save some planted at Uspal-
lata), nor still higher up in the mountains. Of bushes
SPINY BUSHES IN THE ANDES 251
and scrub there was plenty, and these were all dry
and thorny.
About Puente del Inca and up to (say) 10,000 feet
above the sea there grew the thorny acerillOy a bush
of man's height or so. Every bush seemed to have
dead branches in it ; certainly you could, with a piece
of paper and a match, set fire to the lower part of any
living bush and cause the whole to blaze. This
was our fuel until we reached our highest camps ;
there it did not grow. Its leaves were like little
green rods with a groove down them that merely
suggested a central rib.
Overlapping this, and growing as high up in the
mountains as any scrub, was the lower and smaller
ctcerno de cabra, which was still more spiny. Lower
down, this grew more loosely; but, higher up, it
settled down to the form of a low boss (like gorse
kept down by sheep) whose rounded surface bristled
with formidable branched spines. Its leaves were
ordinary simple leaves with a central rib, more or
less of the shape of {e.g.^ privet leaves, but much
smaller.
Again, growing as high as this but never so low
as to overlap the acerillo, was the yareta. This
resembled the cuerno de cabra, but it formed denser
bosses, and its twigs seemed thick and swollen. This
swelling appeared to be due to a protective (?) covering
of a waxy substance that, when the plant was dead
and decaying, peeled off in very inflammable scales.
Its leaves were like those of the cuerno de cabra, but
252 TO THE ANDES
narrower ; and they were so folded together about the
central rib that at first glance they appeared to have
the rod-like formation of the acerillo leaves.
Returning to the extraordinary advance-guard of
spines that guards every boss, and that so suggests
defence, one naturally thinks of " survival of the
fittest " as the explanation of the spiny character of
all the plants. But there are practically no grazing
animals to eat them ; the wind, the aridity, the cold
are the enemies. I would (though quite ignorant in
this department of knowledge) venture the guess
that, under the climatic conditions prevailing, Nature
'*runs to thorns" when she means leaves ; that these
spines are a sign of a hard life, and not designed for
defence at all.
At our high camps we should have been badly off
had we depended on these living bosses of cuerno
de cabra and yareta for fuel ; for there was no thick-
ness of wood in them, and they burned up at
once. But the men dug up quite big dead roots
and branches, which they said were of old cuerno
de cabra. If so, ** there were giants in those days."
Nearer Puente del Inca were other thorny bushes,
much smaller than the acerillo ; I think I saw but one
that was thornless, and that looked rather like our
broom.
Grasses,
Round the saline springs, and in them, grew, very
luxuriantly, a rush-like grass of a deep rich green ;
BOSS OF YARETA, SHOWING THE SPINES.
MEDICINAL PLANT GROWING HIGH UP IN THE ANDES.
To face p. 352.
GRASSES IN THE ANDES 253
and outside this, where it was less wet, a gray-green
grass whose leaves ended in veritable spikes (another
spiny plant !).
But such verdant spots were exceedingly rare.
The one grass that you could count on up to, say,
nearly 1 2,000 feet was a coarse kind that was, at the
time of our visit, yellow and dry as hay.
It grew very curiously. Even if my theory be
wrong, at any rate the mode of growth is correctly
described.
One saw round tufts of it ; tufts with the centre
dead ; tufts with the centre filled with sand ; larger
circles with sand inside ; and fragments of circles that
would (completed) be several feet across. Looking
at a hill-side on which it grew, one was struck with
the resemblance of the grass circles to the coral
islands which one has seen depicted in charts.
My theory is that, in that arid climate, the centre
of a tuft died for lack of water, and that the outside
gradually extended outward " searching " for water
(so to speak), while the inside died away for lack of
it, the outside ring having intercepted it. Thus, what
would have been in the end, in a less arid soil and
climate, a big clump of grass, had become merely a
ring. In fact the clump grew, but its inside kept
dying.
The result looked very curious.
What a fight this grass and the scrub had with
the drifting sand! Bush after bush of scrub, and
tuft after tuft of grass, succumbed.
254 TO THE ANDES
Flowers and Small Plants,
A very remarkable plant was one that had a large
white flower (perhaps more than an inch across) of
a cup form. For the whole plant, leaves, stem, and
all, was such a mass of fine spines that to touch it
was like touching a nettle — save that there was no
after-swelling. I secured a very good photograph of
this that has made a splendid lantern-slide. Another
plant had somewhat the form of a toadstool, it
being built up of a number of very small green
and purple leaves, that overlapped one another, into
the form of a dome. [See illustration opposite
p. 252.] This grew among the stones, and was
not easy to distinguish ; and it had very long tap-
roots. An arriero told me that it was a ** stomach-
remedy " ; another man that '* an infusion of it was
good for purifying the blood." A very common
object was a big sort of pincushion of a flower
(or community of flowers), some six inches or more
across, that grew flat on the ground without visible
stem and looked like a sea-anemone. The mass of
little flowers that made it up were of a greenish
white, and curious little budding communities
occurred near the edges. The whole was neatly
framed in a ring of radially-directed leaves.
All these grew up to a height above sea-level of
12,000 feet or so, as near as I can say. At greater
heights, as 15,000 or 16,000 feet, I think I noticed
mainly a plant growing close to the ground that had
SOME ANDINE BIRDS 266
a head rather like that of an artichoke, but much
flatter. It was not unlike a house-leek, but the leaves
were finer, and it was not fleshy.
In what appeared to be its more complete form
it had a whitish flower, or family of flowers, in the
centre, and the artichoke-like leaves framed this
round.
Birds.
Birds were not plentiful ; but still, up to the limit of
the coarse grass or thereabout — say up to 1 2,000 feet
above the sea — they were '* there," though a party
with shot-guns would have soon starved had they
depended on them for food. Of water birds I saw
two coots, two birds like sheldrake, and a few duck ;
but all these were, I should say, at under 9,000 feet
above the sea. Higher up, and reaching, perhaps,
11,000 to 1 1,500 feet, were flights of a very pretty
little dove, different from, and larger than, the very
small dove of the plains, and highest of all were
partridges and stone-grouse — as they seemed to be.
When on the ground their shape was quite partridge-
like or grouse-like ; but they appeared to me to have
a touch of the sandpiper style in their flight and to
have unusually pointed wings. At about 10,000 feet
I saw also some '' guanchoSy" called **d'Orbigny*s
seed-snipe " in Hudson and Sclater's book.
There were, relatively speaking, plenty of small
birds up near our high camps. One was very quaint.
It was about the size of a robin, and was light brown
above and gray below. It ran along in a humble and
256 TO THE ANDES
stooping attitude, and then would suddenly stop and
stand very erect, pretending to be a penguin, look-
ing absurdly self-important. There were also small
crested birds that looked like finches.
Near Puente del Inca I saw sometimes a bird
about the size of a thrush with a long tail that was
mostly white and showed up conspicuously during
flight.
Of condors I saw just one, but that was only about
200 yards off. I told the arrieros that I had seen one,
and they were incredulous ; but directly I described it,
they said at once that it was a condor. They are very
common in some parts, Dr. Helbling told me, but
here there was little or nothing for them to eat.
Animals, ^c.
Three guanacos, some guanaco spoors, and the
excreta of some kind of mouse were all the evidence
of wild mammal life that we came across ; and, of
tame animals, only some mules.
I saw small lizards, a toad, some tadpoles (at about
8, 200 feet), a tarantula of small size — none of these
very high up ; and at 12,000 feet or so flies, a sort of
black wasp, and some quite uninteresting butterflies.
I remember, by the way, how a toad was once
found near the camp fire, and how the arrieros sprang
up and almost fell over backward in terror. They
were about to push the poor thing into the fire with
a pole, and were horrified when I took it up by a leg
and put it away safely among the scrub.
CHAPTER XIV
NEAR PUENTE DEL INCA AND THE CUMBRE ACROSS
INTO CHILE ; VALPARAISO AND SANTIAGO RETURN
TO SANTA ISABEL
I RETURNED then to Puente del Inca on February 28th,
after just twenty-three days spent in the wilds. It
certainly was very pleasant to get once more a
bed, baths, and good food ; and so I stayed on for
some days.
Dr. Helbling went off" again with an Englishman
of about his own age to attempt to cross a big
glacier region. The former was thirty-one hours on
the ice alone, with very little food ; he had to pass
a night in an ice-hollow (as giving some shelter from
the wind) and was obliged to stamp his feet all the
time, as the cold was terrible. That is the sort of
thing that he can do, and what I ought to have been
able to stand in order to be an equally- matched
comrade for him !
The other man turned back at the ice ; but I believe
he was out (also alone) for two nights — lost.
On March 2nd I had an interesting expedition
with a party of other people, mostly German-
17 ^
258 TO THE ANDES
Argentines, up the valley of the Horcones, our
objective being the base of Aconcagua. Quite early
in our ride the little Laguna de los Horcones was
reached ; and the view of Aconcagua over it, with
the reflection below, was very beautiful.
After a time we came across some earth-pillars,
something like those of Euseigne in the Val d'H6rens.
There had been a huge deposit of mixed earth and
stones, fairly compact, and in this some harder
masses of conglomerate. The rain acting on it had
washed away much and had left some big blocks of
the harder conglomerate perched on columns of the
softer stuff which they had protected. In the pillars
of Euseigne the columns are of silt and the crowns
are blocks of real solid rock.
Further on the valley branched. The branch to
our right (as we ascended the valley) was the shorter
and steeper ; that to the left was much longer, and
I was told that would-be climbers of Aconcagua go
up this latter. We went up the former, and, from
the map, I imagine that we ascended more or less
towards the north.
After a time we got on to the side of a dirty
glacier that descends from Aconcagua ; and, still on
our mules, wound our way up and between vast
moraines until we attained a height which Dr. Schiller
(who is Professor of Mineralogy at La Plata) gave
as 5,000 metres, or some 16,400 feet above the sea.
The glacier here was covered with debris, and
there were no penitentes on it ; as I have noted
#
#
I.'
r.' ^^
^*..
«'.>■'
NEAR PUENTE DEL INCA 259
already, I never saw penitentes on dirt-covered ice.
Aconcagua rose sullenly above us, more or less to the
north-west of us, I should say, partly shrouded in
mist. Certainly here was not the way up ; it was
a face of rock and ice down which debris fell.
By the way, later on, when I was in Santiago, I
came across an account of this expedition in a Chilian
newspaper. Only a German gentleman present, and
his niece and daughter, were mentioned, and no one
would have gathered that mules were used. It was
represented as a terrific ascent, and I feel pretty
sure that some day we shall learn that "a German
gentleman with two ladies ascended Aconcagua " !
Ours was, in point of fact, merely a tiring mule
expedition.
On March 4th I went off with a mule-man to visit
the so-called " penitentes." These were pinnacles of
rock (or conglomerate) sticking out of the screes, and
had nothing to do with penitentes proper, save as
resembling them in form. While up on a height
photographing these I turned round and took a
distant view of Aconcagua.
In order to reach the region of these *' penitentes"
we had come up a narrow gorge that was the mouth
of a valley running into the main valley (i.e., that of
the River Mendoza) from the south ; and we had
mounted a small hill in order to get a better view
of these rocks. We now descended into the upper
part of our valley, and found it wide and open. And
260 TO THE ANDES
here I came across another form of Andlne desolation.
Hitherto I had been in steep-sided valleys whose
flanks were covered with slopes of loose stones, at
the bottom of which huge boulders bordered the
river-bed. But now I found myself in a region of
gently rounded hills of smooth red soil, quite devoid
of vegetation. One wondered why it was not all
clothed with grass. It is the lack of water, I
suppose, that is the cause. Nothing here suggested
that we were in the giant Andes ; all seemed so
mild. Of course, big mountains were near ; but
to us, sunk in these gentle troughs, they were
invisible, and very harmless-looking curves cut the
skyline.
Lunch, or " breakfast," in these expeditions from
Puente del Inca was a great institution. We had
ribs of sheep roasted over the fire and eaten in the
fingers ; and my guide, the owner of the animals on
which we rode, made mat6 with coffee instead of
water, a decidedly good drink. This guide, Elias
Bergara by name, was very Indian in type, but a
nice fellow.
We took another way home, seeing more of these
bare hills. Then we reached the heights that looked
down on the hotel, from which there is a very fine
view of Aconcagua ; and we had a long and steep
descent down a well-made zigzag path. I was on a
horse this time, not a mule, and I was surprised to
see how well and safely it went on this and on other
occasions.
NEAR PUENTE DEL INCA 261
One more expedition I went, and this time with
a friend as well as Elias Bergara. We went up on
the north side of the valley of the Mendoza River and
cut across into the ** Valle de Panta." We soon got
among the same sort of bare red slopes and rounded
aretes that I had seen the day before. But, at
last, on reaching the top of such a ridge, a very
different scene lay before us. The other side
descended, steeply for the most part, into a deep
stony hollow ; and beyond this, seen broadside on,
was a fine rock-ridge, nearly level, the culminating
point of which, just opposite to us, was the " Cerro
Santa Maria." It was the rock-face of this which
Dr. Schiller had described to me as '* a rock-wall
I, GOO metres (3,250 feet) high."
We made our way down and had lunch below.
This view was a fine climax to the expedition, and
came on us very suddenly.
That brought my stay at Puente del Inca to an
end. But before I pass on, I must mention the
enormous herds of cattle that appeared to be, at
not very long intervals, streaming over from
Argentina to Chile by road. I saw none come
the other way It was a striking sight.
In 1 909 the final tunnel of the Transandine Railway
was not yet finished ; the line being opened on the
Argentine side as far as the station of Las Cuevas,
above Puente del Inca, and running thence (for
purposes of work only) up to the tunnel entrance
262 TO THE ANDES
where the works were. The contract was, I heard, in
English hands, and all the officials were English up
there. Indeed, all along this line the English seemed
to be in authority ; even the Customs' official on
the Chilian side at Los Andes was an Englishman
(in plain clothes).
A young storekeeper had asked me to spend
two nights at the works, and accordingly on March 6th
I went up to Las Cuevas by train. My host proved
to be ill, and so, somehow or another, I did not get to
see the tunnel. But I was told that the boring was
done by compressed air, and not by electric motor
machines, though there was electric light ; and further
that all machines, both for the boring and the lighting,
were worked by fuel, and not by water-power. The
tunnel workers were mostly Chilians, and appeared
to be a lawless lot ; murders were, I was told, not
infrequent on the road above, and officials carried
revolvers.
From Las Cuevas a good coach-road ran over the
pass called the '* Cumbre " (or summit), and when
I crossed (as indeed for a year later or more) the
through journey was here completed by means of
carriages and mules, the line being joined again
at Caracoles station on the Chilian side.
So next day (Sunday, March 7th) I walked up to
the top with my camera, taking an hour and a quarter,
and was able to secure some photographs at leisure.
There are fine views there ; and there is a colossal
bronze Christus set up in commemoration of the
OFF TO CHILE 263
settlement of the frontier dispute which had nearly led
to war. It was intended as a symbol of peace.
The well-made road, and this emblem of Christi-
anity and goodwill, made it difficult to believe that
one was in a sense in the wilds. Yet I was told that
my short expedition, unarmed, was very imprudent.
Indeed, on my return journey from Chile, the mule-
riders (who took short-cuts between the zigzags)
came across the decomposed body of a murdered
man ; and several other murders had been committed
up there within the last year or so. I understood
that the danger proceeds from the class who came
over to work in the tunnel.
I had a good view down into the valley by which
we were to descend to Chile next day ; and, turning
the other way, I had opposite to me, over the Cuevas
works, the huge Tolorsa, with a bit of Aconcagua
showing over it to my left.
On Monday I cantered down to Las Cuevas station
with one of my young hosts, who most kindly carried
on his horse my somewhat heavy little portmanteau.
There I was handed over to an English inspector,
whose special business was looking after this connec-
tion, by road, between the two terminal stations.
Really the Company had very inconvenient arrange-
ments !
In the first place I had not been able to book
through to Puente del Inca from the important
junction of Junin on the main line ; there proved
to be no time to re-register at Mendoza, and trains
264 IN CHILE
did not run every day ; so that (but for bribery !) I
had nearly been obliged to stay some two days at
Mendoza.
Next, starting from Puente del Inca, which is the
fashionable half-way mountain resort for Argentine
tourists, it was impossible for me to book to Val-
paraiso or Santiago, nor was there time to re-register
luggage on the journey. Finally, on return, it was
impossible for me to book and register my luggage
from Santiago to Junin ; I had again to try to rebook
at Mendoza.
At Las Cuevas there were a whole row of carriages,
and also a large number of mules, waiting at the station ;
I was put into one of the former. I had no ticket for
my luggage, and for my own right to travel I paid
a guard. It was somewhat confusing. There were
proper railway-guards, Argentines in khaki dress
(agents of some tourist-companies). Englishmen in
khaki costume also, and Englishmen in plain clothes
— all in authority. As regards the ascent to the
Cumbre, the riders on mules had the best of it. But,
for the descent on the other side, we in carriages were
certainly better off ; for we swept down smoothly in
our awning-covered carriages, while they jolted down
at a hurried trot [to which no one could rise] in the
sun and enveloped in a cloud of dust. The carriages
each held one beside the driver and four inside,
and were pulled by four horses abreast. The illustra-
tion shows our descent. The view back towards the
frontier ridge, over the Chilian end of the tunnel,
THE ROAD DOWX INTO CHILE, AND THE CERRO DE LOS LEONES : FROM
THE CUMBRE.
li^'
DRIVING DOWN INTO CHILE.
To uce p. 24}.
ON THE CHILIAN SIDE 265
which we got at a corner of the road as we neared
Caracoles, was very fine.
Getting into the train at Caracoles, we at first had
a winding descent of slight gradient over a wide
region that was very desolate. But when we had
reached the lip of this, the descent became very steep.
Indeed, the engineering of the railroad on the Chilian
side must have been a serious matter. On the
Argentine side it was a relatively gentle ascent up a
long valley ; there appeared to be no special diffi-
culties, though there was certainly some lack of
solidity in the mountain-sides traversed. But here
it was another matter. I have never been in such
grand rock scenery ; grandeur was the keynote, not
desolation or destruction, as on the other side, where
the mountains seemed to be in visible dissolution,
giving a certain rawness to the views. There were
magnificent crags, and these looked old and weathered
and gray ; and of debris there was no more than
there should be. Gripped for the most part by scrub,
plants, and lichen, these stone-slopes fell into place
as part of the *' eternal hills " ; and the line, with its
frequent short tunnels, gave one most impressive and
even startling views.
We had left Caracoles at about 2.30 p.m. At
Portillo, which had been for some time the terminus,
I got a photograph of the picturesque Laguna del
Inca, which is supposed to be bottomless (!). About
5 p.m., below Funcal, I began to notice trees and
grass on the valley-bottom. A curious feature of the
266 IN CHILE
lower part of this mountain valley was the huge rod-
like cactus, plants of which would be higher than a
man on horseback, mixed with trees of a European
aspect. Indeed, the fruit markets showed that the
climate is far from being tropical ; vines, pear-trees,
and peach-trees grow side by side with this big
cactus, the prickly-pear, and the spiny sort of palm-
trees.
A very striking place on the way down was the
canon called the " Salto del Soldado " (or soldier's
leap). I should say that the river of the valley that
we followed, which has cut this canon, is called the
" Rio Aconcagua."
Further down the scenery took the character with
which I became familiar when I travelled between
Valparaiso and Santiago, and between Santiago and
Los Andes. The hills were of extraordinary aridity,
practically bare of all vegetation save cacti and
thorny trees, and sandy in character. But wherever
man had settled on the valley-bottoms, and had
seen to irrigation, the vegetation was luxuriant. I
remember, too, the colour ; the crimson flowers of
the big cactus, a shrub that was one mass of crimson
bloom, and a parasitic plant that added a dash of
splendid crimson to many trees.
I had worry about my baggage at Los Andes,
and at Valparaiso could not get it out (having no
ticket for it) for some two days or so ; but at this
last-named place I was very pleased with the most
comfortable and moderate Hotel Royal, where I
VALPARAISO 267
met with much more courtesy and attention than (as
far as my experience goes) is usual in Argentina.
Indeed, I found the Chilians friendlier, altogether;
in Chile I felt more at home, more as I do in
Switzerland.
Fortunately I had with me in hand-bags my camera
and plates, and enough clothes to get along with, so
the lack of my heavier luggage did not hamper me
much.
Next day, March 9th, I went out to photograph
and to get my first impressions of Valparaiso.
Of the buildings I cannot say much. The town
had not yet recovered from the effects of the great
earthquake of 1906 (I think it was), and everywhere
one saw hoardings, temporary buildings, and
scaffolding.
The climate seemed delightful. I have never felt
so fresh and well in any town, or even in any place,
as I did in Valparaiso ; not even in mountain hotels
(when not climbing). I was told that a cold Antarctic
current sweeps the coast, and that this modifies the
climate, as does, in the opposite sense, the Gulf Stream
on our own west coast. Distinctly it is a climate
for Englishmen. The shipping and the evident
activities of shipping business, as also the presence
of a warship or two in the harbour, made the place
seem to me, after my seventeen years in Devonport,
quite home-like. And everywhere, in knots at street
corners and on the pavement, I saw Englishmen of
268 IN CHILE
a good stamp and prosperous-looking — business men
they appeared to be ; Valparaiso seemed full of them.
I had told the Acting-Consul that I wanted to see
the Naval Schools. So he sent me to the officer in
command of the port ; and this latter, a most
courteous gentleman who spoke English well, sent
me to another (also very courteous, also English-
speaking) at the Naval Engineering College. I was
finally handed over to a Scotsman who was an officer
there. I noticed that the cadets were being taught
English ; and the statement made to me by my
Chilian acquaintances in the train, that " Chilians liked
the English, and all Chilian naval officers spoke
English," seemed justified as far as my experiences
went. This college was in temporary buildings, and
of course seemed small after Keyham, the Chilian fleet
being small. But it looked thoroughly practical.
I was given to understand that the Chilian
authorities had considered our new naval scheme, but
had decided not to follow us in trying to ** teach
everybody everything ; " their engineer officers re-
main specialists, as ours were until the " New Naval
Scheme of Education " took effect. As to the Naval
Schools for the executive and other branches, they
were under repair, and I did not see them.
I am told that the Araucanian Indians, the chief
native race in Chile, were a fine and warlike people
who gave the Spaniards much trouble. From this
it resulted that, for the most part, the Spaniards who
colonised Chile were also of the more warlike and
* ^* *•• • -"* •
* • - •
A GLIMPSE INTO VALPARAISO HARBOUR, AT EVENIXG.
STREET SCENE IX VALPARAISO.
To face p. 268.
DRESS IN CHILE 269
adventurous sort ; and hence, that there grew up
a race of half-breeds of a bold and sturdy nature.
Certainly the porter, or carter, race that I saw
everywhere — they would naturally be in much
demand at a port — were men of fine physique and
bold faces. These men had usually the feet and part
of the leg bare, and wore a spur on the bare left foot.
This can just be made out in the illustration. I saw
them carrying burdens and loading and unloading
vans, and also riding one of the two horses that
drew the commonest sort of cart.
Gaily coloured ponchos were much worn, even by
men of higher classes. And a horseman in the
so-called huaso dress — which I understood meant the
dress of an estanciero or ranchero — with his broad-
brimmed straw hat, gay poncho, leather gaiters up to
his thighs furnished with silver fastenings, and lazo
attached to the saddle, was a very picturesque object
in the streets.
While speaking of dress I must not omit to say
that in Valparaiso and Santiago I 6aw everywhere
women in black dress with a black mantilla (as I
suppose it would be called) over the head ; though
there were others, of higher class or richer I presume,
in ordinary dress with hats, &c. I learned from an
elderly woman, in such dress, who sat next to me
in the train, that it had nothing to do with mourning
or with fasts of the Church ; she said it was ** for
economy mainly." I suppose this fashion is of
Spanish origin.
270 IN CHILE
It certainly gave a ** national " appearance to the
people which was lacking in Buenos Aires.
When one got away from the more crowded main
streets, fruit vendors and wayside fruit-stalls were very
noticeable. Seeing how arid the country looks, and
yet how cheap fruit is, I concluded that the soil must
be very fertile when watered.
I saw scavengers stop to eat huge water-melons,
and I doubt whether any are so poor that they do
not get fruit ; for, if it were so cheap when sold in
the daytime, to what depths of cheapness must it
not have descended at the end of the day ?
I visited the Playa-ancha heights, on which were
public grounds. These must be a great resource for
the people of Valparaiso ; they can easily get into
this cooler air and enjoy the wider views, since trams
run all the way up.
I went also by tram along the coast to Miramar,
and found there a good beach and plenty of bathing
accommodation. There, I noticed, the bathing was
not ''mixed."
Thence I went on to Vina del Mar, to which the
trams run also. This stands back away from the
sea. It is ^ke fashionable suburb of Valparaiso, and
there are the villas of the well-to-do business men.
The public gardens there are small, but the trees
and shrubs of the private grounds fill the place with
beautiful vegetation. But of Valparaiso it is the
harbour and the fresh air that remain in my memory
as the attractions.
SANTIAGO 271
One very remarkable thing that I observed both
in Valparaiso and Santiago I must note ; it speaks
well for the manners of the people. There were
many women-conductors (not drivers) of the electric
trams, and some quite young and pretty. There was
not a sign of bad behaviour towards them, nor
freedom in look or speech ; the people treated them
as people treat ticket-collectors on our trains.
On March 12th I set off for Santiago, the capital.
The train turned inland about Vina del Mar, up a
valley of sand, with hills on each side that looked
like big sand-dunes. Nearly all the way to Santiago
hills of this kind, sometimes big enough to be called
mountains, of sand or sandstone as it seemed to me,
were the feature of the scenery.
Up to some distance from Vina del Mar I saw
poplars, sauces, and vineyards on the valley-bottom,
the poplars brilliant with, and the sauces splashed
with, the crimson blossom of the parasitic plant
already mentioned ; and as we neared Santiago I
saw more and more poplars. But, in between, we
passed through scenery of which the extraordinary
aridity has left a strong impression on me. The
soil was absolutely bare and dry, and the only
natural vegetation appeared to be a tree or big bush
somewhat resembling our hawthorn in shape, but of
slenderer branches and narrower leaves, and the rod-
like giant cactus. There were bare earth flats that
should have been fields, and bare earth slopes that
272 IN CHILE
should have been verdant hill-sides. The land cried
aloud for water ! The crimson-flowered parasite on
the small trees somewhat relieved their bare and
stunted look, but nothing could make up for the
lack of a carpet of green herbage.
Some four hours after leaving Valparaiso we de-
scended from the hills that we had crossed on to a
level plain or flat valley-bottom in which Santiago is
situated. After the barrenness of the hills, even the
poor herbage of this plain, helped out by the poplars
planted, made it look almost green and fertile. But
when I left Santiago, where I had visited several
beautiful and well- watered parks, I saw in what a
barren flat the capital is really situated. Evidently
it was under water at some time not very remote
geologically ; the soil had the aspect of a dried
mire, and bore very poor and unattractive-looking
pasture.
But they have made a very striking city of Santi-
ago. It is well laid out, with good streets and one
central avenida of extraordinary width, and has in it
beautiful parks and gardens. In these, thanks to
continual watering, trees of all sorts — palms, euca-
lyptus, pines, and others — thrive, and there is even
excellent turf.
While I was there the weather was hazy, and the
ring of hills or mountains about the city looked very
beautiful.
I got, from the owner of the hotel, a list of places
to see (and to photograph), and set to work next
IX THE MERCADO DE LAS VEGAS, SANTIAGO.
SAME MARKET. ZAPALLOS AND SAXDIAS.
To face p. 272.
SANTIAGO 273
day. I first visited the little Parque Forestal. I
found it beautiful, but not large enough to hide from
view the houses round it.
It was no use photographing inside a building, so
I did not spend much time in the great Mercado
Central (central market). I went on soon to an
outdoor market, the Mercado de las Vegas, of less
pretentious character, where little but pumpkins and
water-melons was to be seen.
It was an interesting and picturesque scene.
I found the people very good-natured ; here, as at
Valparaiso, no one was too inquisitive, and no one
thought me intrusive. I was mistaken for a pro-
fessional once, and asked to take a photograph of
a man with his girl ; but that was not surprising in
a country where (I should say) hobbies are rare.
More than once the people posed for me most
obligingly. I went next to the Cerro de Santo
Lucia. This is a wonderful example of the land-
scape-gardener's art and of money spent for public
recreation. How much is natural and how much
artificial it was difficult to judge directly ; but, having
regard to the general aridity observed where man
had not worked, I should say that there was nothing
to start with but a bare rocky hill. Now, there are
on it winding roads, picturesque buildings, fine trees,
palms and aloes, rockeries, water-pools, and falling
water ; and, crowning it, reached by steps hewn in
rock, a platform commanding a wide view.
Artificial the place certainly is ; but equally certainly,
18
274 IN CHILE
it is beautiful and a place of refreshment of great
value for the people of Santiago.
Next day I went to see the Quinta Normal. Here
I found beautiful grounds with green turf, forest
trees, palms, and shrubs ; and standing in them was
a very fine building that proved to be a museum,
and also a smaller one that was a picture gallery.
All this part was well looked after ; constant water-
ing is the essential thing.
There were other regions belonging to the Quinta
Normal : vineyards, a football ground, small zoological
gardens, and a School of Agriculture with gardens
attached. They do these public matters very well
in Santiago.
Quite in the middle of the bustle of the city lies
the square called the Plaza de Armas ; and if you
retreat into the garden you can get a very fine
picture — the Cathedral seen through the palm-trees.
A photograph of this, one of the very many taken in
Santiago, is reproduced here. Last of all I went to
the large Parque de Cousino. The authorities do
not attempt to fight the aridity all over this. There
are drives shaded by eucalyptus, and a large oval —
intended for races, I supposed — that are all parched
and dusty. But south of these lies the part especially
intended for the recreation of the people, and that
is perfect for the purpose. The only flaw is the
unsightliness of electric light standards and wires ;
and these are needed if people are to go there
at night. There is beautiful turf — watered all day
PLAZA DE ARMAS, AND CATHEDRAL, SANTIAGO.
IN THE PARQUE COUSINO, SANTIAGO.
To face p. 274,
SANTIAGO 276
long, it seemed to me ! — and the trees and shrubs
that I had so admired elsewhere. But the great
attraction is an artificial lake fringed with shrubs and
giant grasses and with many strange birds about
it, both swimmers and waders. There is an island
with llamas on it, — I think the largest sort —
picturesque summer-houses, and boats. I said, with
intention, ''perfect for the purpose"; for the people
need these boats and summer-houses, though they
undoubtedly mar the more natural beauty of the
water and vegetation. It was all most restful ; shade,
freshness, and absence of dust and noise reigned.
On the way back I visited the great Avenida de
las Delicias. It is a wonderful street! Where I
struck it I found, first, a roadway wide enough for
up and down traffic of carriages on one side and up
and down trams on the other ; then a wide shaded
avenue for foot-passengers, with a narrower one by
the side of it ; then a belt of garden with flowers
and fountains ; and lastly, a second road and tram-
way like the first. This meant an enormous breadth,
and no photograph could take it in or do justice
to it.
On Monday, March 15th, I set off to re-cross the
Andes and to return to Santa Isabel, that now seemed
so far away on the Argentine plains ; and, as I went
home by the same route as that by which I came,
I will give no detailed account of my journey.
Chile is a narrow strip of territory of enormous
length, and my visit to Valparaiso and Santiago
276 IN CHILE
hardly seems to justify me in giving my impressions.
Still, if I point out first what a small portion I actually
saw of the whole country, it may be of some interest
if I say what struck me most about Chile as compared
with Argentina.
Firstly, after the vast formless plains of Argentina,
Chile seemed to me attractive through possessing
shape and character. You might be dropped almost
anywhere in the central pampas of Argentina, and
it would look all the same ; it would be like being
dropped anywhere at sea. But in Chile evidently
each part had its individuality ; and I felt that while
you might very easily acquire quite a passionate love
for ** life in the Pampas," in Chile you would rather
get a love for the country itself as your home and
adopted fatherland. I think patriotism would thrive
more in Chile than in Argentina ; just as love for
a person is more easily entertained than love for a
formless spirit.
Then, the population in Chile, so far as I saw
it, seemed more homogeneous, more of a nation ; while
in Argentina, which appeared to me to be rather a
vast region for " getting on " in than a country
in the sense that France is a country, the population
seemed to be as yet not a nation, but a mixture of
unblended nationalities.
Nevertheless, when (to pass over my long and
interesting return journey) I came once more into
the fertile plains that were such a contrast to the
aridity that I had found in Chile, I did feel it restful !
BACK TO SANTA ISABEL 277
The alfalfa had recovered from the locusts, and the
quiet spread of green plain refreshed the eye and
expanded the mind. Certainly, for all its monotony,
I felt the charm of **the camp."
It was about 2 p.m. on Wednesday, March 17th,
that I reached Junin, and the next train for Villa
Canas started at 12.30 p.m. next day! A small
boy, half negro, at the station suggested the
''Fonda Roma" as a suitable hotel, so I went there,
but with many doubts. It looked very native! I
was rather dismayed when I was shown a room with
five beds in it ; but I finally got one with only two.
After all the place was not so bad. I had my meals
in an open veranda looking into the patio — where
was a fountain with goldfish in it ; and, greatest
wonder of all, there was a place where I could
stand in a zinc bath and induce water to fall over
me from a rose up above — really and actually a bath-
room in a camp fonda that looked like any other!
At 2 a.m. I was knocked up to admit another man
to the other bed in my room. I believe I ought to
have refused, as such things as robbery can occur in
these fondas ; but he turned out to be quite respect-
able.
On Thursday, March i8th, came the last stage
of my long journey home. I went on by train to
Villa Canas, and there was met by good Gomez
(the man who looked like a murderer when he was
being photographed, but who had a kindly smile
latent), one of the "peones de confianza." It was
278 ARGENTINE PLAINS
pleasant to find how delighted he was to see me
again. This cordiality surprised and pleased me the
more, as my relations with the capataz and peons
of better standing had not been at all intimate,
owing to two unfavourable conditions ; firstly, they
had no nice clean room or house in which I could
go to see them, and secondly they seemed singularly
unable to adapt their talk to a foreigner who does
not easily catch what they say. You ask them to
"repeat that more slowly," and they merely shrug
their shoulders in despair, exclaiming *' j No compri-
ende V. ! " ('* You don't understand !"). Even better-
class Argentines were very inferior to Swiss peasants
in this ; about the highest classes I practically know
nothing.
At the estancia I found that the alfalfa, which I
had left brown and eaten to the ground by the locusts,
had so entirely recovered that they had been cutting
more hay. [The willow-trees had sprouted again
to some extent, but the harm done by the locusts
eating the bark was irreparable, and I believe that
soon my brother will have nothing but paraiso-trees
in his monte.]
I now set to work to develop plates. I had so
much to do that I sent my sixty films to Buenos Aires
to be developed, and they were done only moderately
well. The one hundred and twenty plates (!) I kept
to do myself ; and very hard work it was. These
hundred and eighty negatives, be it noted, represented
only the photographic activities of the six weeks of
BACK TO SANTA ISABEL 279
my absence from the estancia. My total work for the
whole time spent in South America was something
appalling; I developed 800 or 900 plates myself.
Very curious it was to see the past scenes of the
last six weeks coming out under my eyes, there in the
little dark-room at Santa Isabel.
So ended my expedition to the Andes and Chile.
All things considered, I felt — and feel even more
strongly now, at a greater distance of time — that I saw
and did a good deal. No plans had been made before-
hand, and I had been ignorant as to equipment.
Hence I was bound to miss much.
Besides memories, some very solid results remain ;
for I have the hundred and eighty negatives, and out
of these have had made a large number of very good
lantern-slides.
CHAPTER XV
AN ESTANCIA IN THE SANDY PROVINCE OF SAN LUIS — A
MODERN ESTANCIA IN THE PROVINCE OF BUENOS
AIRES — BACK TO ENGLAND — FINAL REFLECTIONS
I WAS apt to forget how vast was this Argentine
Republic, and how varied its territory ; and to pic-
ture it all as originally a huge treeless alluvial plain,
thickly carpeted with coarse grasses and dotted with
shallow lagunas. That was the type of country where
I had spent my time during my visits, and did in fact
represent a vast area. And although I knew that this
type, sown with crops or alfalfa, has been and still
is the main source of wealth of Argentina, and most
characteristic of it, still I was glad to have an oppor-
tunity of seeing another sort of camp that I shall
now describe. Some seven years before, my brother
had bought a little estate (only some 35 square
miles ! ) in the province of San Luis, and had been
working it through a manager. This property, called
by him " El Aguila " after a big ** medano " (sand-
dune) lying in it, he visited every year ; and now I
was to go with him.
On April 6th we put out to sea ; that is, we started
980
SCENERY IN SAN LUIS 281
from our port (the station of Melincu^), and for a long
way were accompanied by the familiar unchanging
prospect — the flat alfalfa-covered plains bounded by
the sharp-cut circle of the horizon. I suppose that the
change took place more or less gradually ; but I did
not take stock of it until, on the second day (for we
slept at Rufino en route) we neared the station of
Buena Esperanza.
Instead of flat, fertile, and treeless alluvial soil, we
now had deep sand ; and undulations and hillocks of
sand broke the general level. The natural vegeta-
tion seemed poor and scant ; there was much of the
" white weed " (yuyo bianco), " black rush " (junco
negro), and pampa-grass (stunted in these later days)
to be seen, with sand showing up in between ; so that
I wondered what the cattle could have found to eat
before alfalfa was sown. An abundance of trees,
scattered or in clumps, was a new and pleasant feature.
My brother had spoken of these in most enthusiastic
terms ; but I must confess that to me, brought up with
European standards, his "forests" were disappointing.
The trees were stunted, like big hawthorn-trees, and
the foliage was inconspicuous and gray-green; the
most common tree, the chanar, had the same kind
of peeling bark as the eucalyptus, and this gave it
to English eyes an unhealthy appearance.
In Santa Fe the roads were of dark earth that gave
easy, though dusty, travelling in dry weather, and
became nearly impassable in places when much rain
had fallen.
282 ARGENTINE PLAINS
Here, the reverse held good. The roads were of
sand, and were terribly heavy in time of drought,
while rain made them far more compact and easier
to traverse. At the present time there had been
a drought, and the roads were in consequence
very bad.
The manager, my brother, and I (with a little
baggage) were in a light two-wheeled trap, and to
pull this it took four good horses, with a relay of four
more at half distance. In Santa Fe, two horses could
have taken us the whole way in any but very wet
weather. And the riding-horse of one of the peons
who came with the carriage died the same evening of
pure exhaustion ! The further we got from the station
the more park-like did the country become. But how
one missed the bracken, the grass, the oaks and elms
and beeches, of our parks! Yuyo bianco, junco
negro, and chafiars formed a poor substitute ; and, as
already noticed, the pampa-grass is now mostly in a
stunted condition, on its way to disappearance.
Alas that the lagunas are vanishing here also ! Only
seven years before (to take one example) there
was a laguna that looked to my brother *' bottomless,'*
and on which he counted some five hundred black-
necked swans, beside innumerable other water-birds.
This is now dry ; a crust of salts covers the bottom,
and the swans are gone. In the illustration, repro-
duced from my photograph of this laguna, the white
crust of salts can be seen, and the rushes are the
junco negro spoken of above.
THE SANDY SOIL OF SAN LUIS 283
After but seven short years, of all the lagunas
that were on the estate when he bought it only one
remained that was still clear and fairly full ; and even
in this case, a second laguna that was more or less
linked with it had (practically) dried up. The others,
when I saw them, were either dried up or on the way
to this end. And in a shrinking laguna the water
appears to become green and foul, and there is a wide
muddy margin crusted with salt.
Still, when all is said, the glory of the morning and
evening sun remains. And if even the suburbs of
Melincue can be transformed and idealised by it, how
much more this undulating camp with its trees and
huge tufts of dark rush ! It was very beautiful then.
I found the present house where the manager lives a
very modest little building : the walls were of mud
(see p. 109), whitewashed, and the roof of corru-
gated iron.
But, with a view to a larger estancia sometime
in the future, a proper site had been left, a good
garden made, and a shaded path round a small
paddock, as well as an avenue of poplars up which
the future carriage-drive was to come, had been
sketched out as far as trees went.
I found that the conditions of soil here were very
different from those obtaining at Santa Isabel.
There, all the land was very fertile save in the
hollows left by old lagunas, and in these latter alfalfa
would not grow. The land in these hollows was light
coloured (tierra blanca), a mire in wet weather and a
284 ARGENTINE PLAINS
hard cake in dry ; while the higher and good land
was rich, dark, loose alluvial soil. And further, it
took about four years of ploughing and sowing with
crops before the good land was ready for alfalfa ; for
an attempt to get alfalfa earlier than this would result
in a too rapid reversion to the old native grasses.
Here, it was just in the hollows that the alfalfa
would grow, and not on the higher parts ; though it
all looked much the same, all appearing to be com-
posed of sand, save that the lower-lying land was
rather firmer. I imagine that, here, it is merely a
question of the depth to which the alfalfa-roots must
go in order to find water ; while in Santa Fe there
was a real difference in the soil on higher and lower
land respectively.
Again comparing, no colonists come (as yet) to
these sandy camps ; so the owner has to plough all
the suitable land and to sow alfalfa himself, training
the natives (the gaucho class) to this new kind of
work. Thus there are no preliminary crops ; alfalfa
is sown direct, and it holds its own.
By the way, I could not but wonder what will be
the fate of these sandy camps as the sinking of the
water-level proceeds. In the richer alluvial soil
moisture is retained, though the actual well-level may
be 12 or 14 yards below the surface. But here, with
the well-level only some two or three yards down in the
hollows, the sand seems to get dry very soon, and the
roots of the alfalfa have (I should say) to reach down
nearly as far as the actual water-level. What will
I
THE M^DANOS OF SAN LUIS 285
ppen when this sinks further ? Perhaps the answer
to this question is that it is possible, or even probable,
that when the alfalfa has established itself well in the
hollows, and grasses have been found that will grow
on the sand-dunes, the land will hold water better ;
for, not only will there be a network of roots, but also
the soil itself will in time become more disintegrated,
and therefore less porous, so that the capillary action
will be greater.
Not unnaturally, the main subject of my investiga-
tions, during my short stay, was the medanos (or
sand-dunes), of which I had heard much. Some of
these are bound by weeds, but some (medanos vivos,
or living sand-dunes) are always on the drift and
advance over the alfalfa. And the stocking of the
camp has added to the trouble. For wherever the
cattle collect, round the wells or under shade of the
trees, ^ the earth is laid bare and the mischief begins ;
the more, as the animals actually paw up the sand
and throw it over themselves as a protection against
the flies. As yet no grass has been found that can be
sown with anything like certainty that it will grow,
strike roots, and bind this loose sand. The wind
plays queer tricks. One big m^dano, that called El
Aguila, was mostly tied down by weeds. But some
eddy in the wind had kept a central hollow raw, and
sand blew unceasingly out of this through a gap and
advanced over the alfalfa. There used to be a pool
» So important, indeed, is this action of the cattle on the
camp that the manager wished to cut down all the trees !
286 ARGENTINE PLAINS
in the hollow which kept the sand somewhat damper
and less obedient to the wind ; but the water had
dried up, and only a clump of rather depressed-
looking reeds witnessed to its former presence.
I may here mention the fact that near all the big
m^danos that I saw were lagunas, full, drying, or
dried ; so that one was forced to conclude that the
mounds of sand had been formed by the wind scoop-
ing out hollows, rather than by a general scouring of
the surface of the camp.
I went to see the one laguna on the estate that
preserved its original beauty — the Petacas laguna.
Here I found water about as clear as that of our
Midland rivers, and abundance of reeds round the
margin. The usual medanos by the side were
clothed with trees, and the whole was beautiful — very
beautiful and peaceful towards evening. I saw on
it two black-necked swans and innumerable duck
and coots, and two stilted plovers waded on the
margin. Not far off I found some exceedingly
stunted specimens of prickly-pear, only a few inches
high ; but I do not know how they came there.
My last expedition was the most interesting. It
was to the big Hortensia laguna and mddanos, which
lay just outside the boundaries of my brother's
property. The laguna was large and the rushes
and pampa-grass around it very picturesque ; ** a
very likely place for pumas," my brother said, and
he had seen a good deal of these beasts in old
days.
• •• • »
A DRIED-UP LAGUXA, WITH SALINE DEPOSIT, IX THE PROVINCE OF S. LUIS.
:••■ "j-TT^Tr : t-^Ss*^-^
■1
THE HORTENSIA MEUANOS AND LAGUNA, IN THE SAME PART.
To face p. 286.
[ INDIAN REMAINS IN SAND-DUNES 287
I' The m^danos were on a very fine scale ; they
r were rippled all over, and among them were eddy-
i hollows, just like those found where wind acts on
I the light winter snow in the Alps ; only over-
j hangs (or cornices) were lacking to complete the
resemblance.
Here were found many good arrow-heads —
I (probably " scrapers " too, only the finders were
i not well up in stone implements) — made of flint,
fragments of pottery, and abundance of bones of
animals, especially skulls of the ** cuis " (if that be
the spelling) or little guinea-pig of Argentina. This
must have been a favourite camping-ground of the
Indians.
Of other things that I noticed here in this sandy
camp, I will mention a few. The chemango, or
carrion hawk, so plentiful at Santa Isabel, was scarce
here, but larger hawks abounded and were very
tame. Only the little "piche" appeared to repre-
sent the armadillos.
A curious pest was a plant called *'roseta." Its
seeds, about the size of small peas, were covered
with spikes of extraordinary hardness ; they would
(at any rate partially) penetrate, and stick to, leather
topboots. At first I knelt down to focus my camera,
but this was too painful. Then I squatted ; and
when, on one occasion, I overbalanced and fell
backward, these burrs rushed at me and stabbed
me all over. Any strength of language would have
been — I hope, indeed, it was — excusable !
288 ARGENTINE PLAINS
Another curious thing that I noticed was the
following : I saw a good many patches of short alfalfa
(where it had been eaten down close to the ground)
covered with some shiny white stuff that suggested
a parasitic vegetable growth. But it turned out
to be the web of a small spider that could be seen
in large numbers on the ground.
And, speaking of alfalfa, I may say that near
Buena Esperanza I saw large tracts of this that
had been attacked by some caterpillar or insect,
with the result that little was left but the stems.
I saw nothing in the rich alluvial camp in Santa
Fe so suggestive of there being other enemies
of alfalfa than the locusts.
One more word in review. Sandy and weedy
and desolate as this type of camp looks, there must
be much fertility in it, for it grows alfalfa well when
this has once taken root, and the garden of the
estancia showed a most luxuriant growth of pumpkins
and melons, as well as of the tall canes and other
plants.
On June 9, 1909, I left my brother's hospitable
estancia in Santa F6 and began to make my
way home.
I first paid a visit of a week to an estancia near
Villegas, in the province of Buenos Aires. And
here I saw camp of again somewhat different quality,
and also was much interested to see how, in various
ways, a quite modern estancia may differ from one
IN THE PROVINCE OF BUENOS AIRES 289
that was started years ago and in which, quite
naturally, the traditions of the old pioneering times
still have their influence.
First, as regards the nature of the camp. Here
it appeared to me to lie, in character, somewhere
between the rich black soil of Santa Isabel and the
sand of El Aguila. There was some sand, and
many ridges and mounds evidently once formed
by wind ; but there was no trouble, to speak of,
from " medanos vivos," and walking was not laborious
as it was in San Luis. Colonists, too, find it good
for crops and take up holdings gladly. I learned
that it answered to plough the soil and sow it with
alfalfa direct; and, though part of the estate had
been converted through colonists as at Santa Isabel,
the manager did a lot of the conversion in this more
direct manner, having employed at one time as many
as thirteen of Ransome's double-furrow ** Colonial"
ploughs.
I saw, therefore, that now there is plenty of camp
where the estancieros are independent of the Italian
colonists ; but none the less is it true that, in the
main, the prosperity of the country has been due
to these industrious agricultural immigrants. It has
been their work that such conditions now obtain
that an estanciero can, on suitable camp, work
independently of them ; for they, broadly speaking,
brought about, even though indirectly, the rapid
spread of alfalfa, of improved stock, and of the
railway systems. '
' I may be rating too highly the work of the colonists.
19
290 ARGENTINE PLAINS
I could not but be struck with a certain contrast
that existed between this modern estancia and those
of older type both as regards the greater comfort of
the homestead and as regards the improvement in the
peon class. The former is evidently merely a matter
of outlay. And since a modern property with its
alfalfa paddocks and improved stock will bring in
perhaps ten or fifteen times as much income as would
a property of the same size in the days of native
grasses and native stock, the owner can afford to
spend money in making himself thoroughly comfort-
able. As regards the improvement in the peon class,
I have already said enough in Chapter IV. I will
only add that a visit to such an estancia as this
leaves one with the impression that the old gaucho
class is being slowly converted into something like
a decently housed European peasantry of the farm
labourer and shepherd sort, though the nature of the
stock work preserves much of its old characteristics.
• ■••••
Save for a stay at Buenos Aires, the experiences of
which I have combined with those of my visit to that
city in September and have given already, this was
the end of my second stay in Argentina.
My departure from Buenos Aires was rather dismal.
On June 26th I drove down to the South dock, and
was soon waiting there with my baggage for a tender
that was to take me on board the " tramp *' on which
I had secured my berth.
The region where I found myself was dreary, if not
BACK TO ENGLAND 291
slum-like, in character ; the weather cold and the sky
clouded ; and there was in my mind just that amount
of uncertainty as to whether time and place were right
that gives a certain degree of uneasiness and even of
depression when one does not know the language of a
country well on its conversational side. However,
after some three-quarters of an hour a dirty little tug
turned up. The descent to it was down steep stone
steps, and I watched my heavy case, that contained,
among other things, some eight hundred to nine
hundred negatives, with much anxiety as it was half
carried, half slid, down to the water's edge.
The " tramp" was still in the *' Riachuello " (a creek
or inlet) taking in frozen meat ; but next day we
started, and Buenos Aires soon faded behind us.
Of our voyage back, I need not say much. We
started on June 27th, and on July 8th, early, passed
the strangely outlined island of Fernando Noronha.
On July 1 6th we found yellow sand on board, blown
over from Africa across some two hundred miles of
sea. Teneriffe was sighted on July i8th; and later
we landed at Las Palmas. Finisterre lighthouse was
seen on July 22nd, and on July 24th we began to
meet with our own warships engaged in autumn
manoeuvres. Once more I was in home waters ; and
again I felt, as I have so often felt in the mountains
in Switzerland, that "Coelum, non animum, mutant qui
trans mare currunt" is not true. The familiar sur-
roundings and the sight of English men-of-war (among
which I had spent seventeen years at Devonport) so
292 ARGENTINE PLAINS
affected me that I could hardly believe that I had ever
photographed locusts, or been mobbed by Argentine
bullocks in an alfalfa paddock, sat at a camp-fire in
the Andes with the constellations standing on their
heads before me, or wandered among penitentes.
In squally and hazy weather we passed up the
coast of England, making for Newcastle-on-Tyne ;
and there we landed on July 26th, after a voyage of
about thirty days.
And what were my final reflections ?
Well, one thing I now feel strongly is that, in
attempting to reproduce them, I must not allow my
own personal unsuitability to a new country such as
Argentina to colour these concluding remarks.
A middle-aged man, brought up in an old country
and nourished on an old literature, of necessity
prefers the old world. In spite of its material
poverty, so widely spread, it seems to him rich in
all that is immaterial — in thoughts, ideals, aspirations ;
in spite of its overcrowding and limitations of space
for the body, it seems to him to offer, for the mind,
spacious palaces of ancient splendour such as Tenny-
son dreamed of ; and in spite of, or rather perhaps
because of, its sorrows and anxieties, it seems to him
to afford much that should nourish the soul and tend
to ennoble the character. Necessarily, in a new country,
the atmosphere, the interests, and the aims are more
material.
Argentina is a land for the young and the enter-
ARGENTINA A LAND OF PROMISE 293
prising — for those who wish to ** get on." For such it
is indeed a land of promise.
I do not think that there is any other land, certainly
not among our colonies or our dominions, which offers
to energetic Englishmen, — (as explained already on
p. 80, I do not here refer to the ordinary " emigrant
class " of English) — who are still young enough to
adapt themselves, such wonderful opportunities.
Professional men, such as engineers, if only they
have suitable introductions and so can get a start,
will find interesting and highly-paid work. Men with
capital, if they " know their way about," can find invest-
ments giving 10 per cent, interest; or, if they wait and
learn the country, they may still be able to buy land
that will in a few years' time increase in value many-
fold. And lastly, but in my opinion this takes the
front rank in the openings to be found in Argentina,
if a man go out quite young and be prepared to work
hard, he may, without any help from capital, force his
way up through a mayor-domoship to a managership,
and finally become a wealthy estanciero on his own
account.
That, gentle reader, is what I have to relate con-
cerning Argentina — that huge, nearly empty land,
whose future yet lies in the lap of the gods.
Of its material prosperity there is no doubt ; for its
national greatness we must hope — it is hardly welded
into a nation yet.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
SOME ACCOUNT OF THE GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY OF ARGENTINA,
WITH STATISTICS INDICATING ITS PRESENT CONDITION
I HAD not intended to give any history of Argentina, or any
statistics relating to it, in this purely personal narrative. But,
on second thoughts, it seemed to me that it might be well to
put within easy reach of my readers some general account, however
incomplete and imperfect, of this Republic. For, huge though it
be, it is little more than a name to the majority of Englishmen.
With this object in view I have dived into various books — the
British Encyclopcedia {^^ B.E") of 191 o, Chambers's Encyclopcedia^
Keane's " Central and South America" Dawson's " South American
Republics^'' the Supplement to the Times of December, 1909 (" T'."),
the Statesman's Year-Book of 19 10 ("5. Y.BJ\ the Argentine Year-
book of 1909 ("^.K^."), Whitaker^s Almanack of 1910, and three
huge volumes of the Cinso National oi 1908 (" C.I^."), kindly lent
to me by Messrs. Neild, Crane & Co., of River Plate House,
London, E.C.
I must confess that I was dismayed to find how impossible it
seems to be to feel sure of any numbers quoted being right.
Could the population of the city of La Plata be about 70,000
in 1899 {Keane\ 45,000 in 1900 {B.E.)y and 80,000 in 1908
(S.YB.)}
Can the area of land under vine-culture be both about 39,000
hectares (A.Y.B.)^ and also 122,000 hectares {C,N. and T.) in
about 1908?
Can the number of sheep be 75,600,000 in 1907 {A. Y.B.,^. 166),
67,000,000 in 1908 (C.N.), and 120,000,000 in about 1909 (A. Y.B.^
P-33)?
296 GEOGRAPHY OF ARGENTINA
In truth, the more I studied these various sources of information,
the less confidence I felt in any figures other than those given
in the text as extracts from the estancia books.
I. Geography. — All authorities seem to agree in considering the
characteristic geographical feature of the Argentine Republic to be
its vast plains. We read of these plains as occupying perhaps three-
quarters of the whole territory ; or again, that, except for the Andine
foot-hills and some insignificant patches here and there, Argentina
is one vast level. Dawson describes them as extending for 2,000
miles from north to south and as being about 500 miles wide.
In the north, the region of the Gran Chaco, there are large tracts
covered with forests and as yet unsettled — inhabited only by a
scattered population of Indians ; and in Patagonia, in the south,
there are great areas covered with shingle and at present waste.
But there is a vast central part, flat, treeless (or nearly treeless),
and covered with deep alluvial soil — the region that was until
lately a sea of native grasses and is now being covered with grain-
crops and alfalfa. It is this part of the plains, the alluvial, treeless,
and fertile pampas, that is par excelle^ice the Argentina with which
the world is at present concerned ; the Argentina that has been,
is being, and will be developed ; the theatre of progress and the
source of wealth. In the future, the Gran Chaco to the north
and Patagonia to the south may have their turn; but their time
has hardly come yet.
Whether the area be 1,212,000 or 1,136,000 square miles, and
whether 400,000 or 600,000 square miles be suitable for crops
and alfalfa (my authorities are not in complete agreement),
clearly Argentina is very big. For Europe has an area of about
3,800,000, and England and Wales together an area of about
58,000 square miles; and one province of Argentina, Santa
Fe, a mere patch on the plains, has as much as 51,000 square
miles area.
If we take 500,000 square miles as suitable for crops or alfalfa,
and accept the official results which give less than 15 per cent,
of this as under cultivation in 1909, we see that there is indeed
room for a long time to come for the overflow of Europe. Indeed,
this is sufficiently indicated by the fact that the estimated popu-
lation for iQio of this fertile land, one-third the size of Europe,
is only about 6,000,000, or at any rate less than 7,000,000.
HISTORY OF ARGENTINA 297
II. History. Colonisation. — The history of the colonisation
of the region now called "the Argentine" is very different from
those which are given us by Prescott in his Conquests of Peru
and of Mexico. There was no " Argentine Empire " to stir a
soldier's ambition, no wealth of gold or silver to excite the adven-
turer's cupidity. To the north-west and west there was territory
that came under the rule of the Peruvian Incas, to whose power
even the Andes formed no bar ; but the vast grassy plains of modem
Argentina were probably nearly empty of inhabitants — scattered
tribes of Indians wandered over them. Indeed, such plains, to a
people who had as yet no horses, were perhaps not suitable as
a permanent abode or as the seat of organised communities.
And so, whereas the Spaniards found in Mexico and Peru
ready-made empires to be conquered, and therefore could grasp
these countries at once when the central powers had been con-
quered, the greater part of Argentina on the contrary was acquired
and colonised slowly as were the prairies of North America.
Coming from Chile and Peru, the Spaniards founded Santiago de
Estero in 1553, Mendoza in 1561, San Juan in 1562, Tucuman in
1565, and Cordoba in 1573. And by the end of the sixteenth
century there were settlements attached to the Spanish government
of Peru where now lie the more northern Argentine provinces of
Jujuy, Salta, Tucuman, Catamarca, Santiago de Estero, and Rioja,
as well as Cordoba further south ; while parts to the west, now
the Argentine provinces of Mendoza, San Luis, and San Juan,
were attached to the Spanish government of Chile under the
title of the province of Cuyo. It is remarkable that so much
of Argentina was originally settled without any use of the natural
entrance to the country, viz., the River Plate.
To go back a little, the River Plate was discovered in 15 16.
But the country was not very attractive to Spanish adventurers
who sought "Eldorado"; no glowing reports of treasure were
brought back.
In 1535 Buenos Aires was founded by Mendoza, but soon
abandoned again. And the first town permanently established
by Spaniards entering by the River Plate was Asuncion, in Para-
guay, this event taking place in 1536.
From Asuncion, in 1573, was founded the first town Ijang
actually in the Argentine plains of the River Plate, and that was
Santa Fe. It was not until 1580 that Buenos Aires was perma-
298 HISTORY OF ARGENTINA
nently founded by Garay. He brought horses, cattle, and sheep,
so that ranches might be started ; and the settlers found innumer-
able horses, descended from those left behind by Mendoza after
his attempt to found the city earlier. Those who had been born
in the country (crw//os) had not the "gold-fever" of the original
adventurers from Spain, and they soon took to stock-farming and
the free "camp-life." [See pp. 6i and 309 for " crioUo," and
p. 309 for "camp."] So, by 161 7, there was a considerable
area covered with ranches, both on the right bank of the river
Parana and also in what is now the province of Corrientes.
And in this year (or was it in 1620?) the Spanish Crown threw
the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Corrientes, Entre Rios,
and Uruguay together, separating them from Paraguay, and made
one province out of them. Although Uruguay is now a separate
Republic, this province of 16 17 (or 1620) may be considered to
have been the nucleus of the future Argentine Republic.
Spanish Way of treating the Colonies. — The Spanish way of treat-
ing the colonies was unbelievably oppressive and annoying for the
colonists. All was arranged for the convenience and profit of
Spain and of her merchants, and the interest of the settlers
was entirely disregarded. Spanish officials filled all the posts ;
priests played into the hands of the home authorities ; trade-routes
were fixed to suit Spain ; and the colonists might produce nothing
that Spain could supply.
Thus, to suit merchants at home, Buenos Aires actually had
to get goods by the route over the Isthmus of Panama, down the
Pacific coast to Callao in Peru, and then overland through Bolivia !
Nothing might reach Buenos Aires, nor leave it, by the natural gate-
way of the River Plate. Of course, however, there was smuggling.
Spaniards and Criollos. — Hence it was that in each colony
there were, so to speak, two races between which there was an
irreconcilable difference of interests. There was the race of
criollos, colonists born in the country, and the race of Spaniards
who came from Spain to fill all the offices and to suck the
blood of the criollos. Indeed, the immediate cause of the
separation from Spain, when it came, was not so much direct
discontent with subjection to the Crown; there is little doubt
HISTORY OF ARGENTINA 299
but that the fundamental cause, was the irksomeness of the
virtual subjection to the Crown's representatives ; it was pri-
marily a rebellion of crioUos against the Spanish office-holders. So
I gather.
A Second Stage towards the Formation of Argentina. — In 1776
there was a re-casting that threw together in one viceroyalty what
is now Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina ; the Spanish
governments of Peru and Chile losing provinces that hitherto
had been theirs. The River Plate was now virtually recognised
as the natural entrance to the country, and Buenos Aires was
made the capital, and became the port, of this new viceroyalty.
After this, the development of the country went on apace.
Declaration of Independence. — Napoleon's interference with Spain
early in the nineteenth century left the colonies without any
authority at home to whom loyalty was undoubtedly due; and
so criollos and Spanish office-holders were left face to face. In
Buenos Aires the criollos were determined to submit no longer
to the Spanish caste, and virtually independence of Spain itself
was declared in a meeting of May 25, 1810; a day that has
given its name to streets in Argentina, and that is regarded as
the date when freedom began.
Spread of Freedom in South America. — Buenos Aires and Argen-
tina played a great part, directly by force of arms and indirectly by
example, in the movement which made all South America free.
Many Argentines, such as Belgrano and San Martin, were conspicu-
ous in the struggle, and statues are now to be seen erected to their
memory. Especially, perhaps, does^,,San_3Iai±io,.. who earned
Argentine arms from Buenos Aires into Chile and^Beru, ther^uto
bring deliverance from the Spanish oppressors, deserve to be
remembered by the citizens of Argentina.
Constitutional Troubles in Argentina. — From the year 18 10 onward
there was no real danger of Argentina falling back under the
rule of Spanish officials ; independence was secured, though Spain
did not officially recognise it until 1842.
But there were terrible struggles for about half a century — not to
speak of one last settling movement that took place twenty years
after that — before internal equilibrium was attained.
300 HISTORY OF ARGENTINA
The main cause of the disturbance appears to have been the
fact that Buenos Aires, city and province together, was, through its
large population and its geographical position, much more important
than any other province, and naturally wished to represent Argen-
tina. It was not at all inclined to become one of a number of
federated States, and so to be obliged to recognise as its equals
communities of far less importance. These, on the other hand,
were by no means content to become mere appendages to Buenos
Aires, nor yet to see an independent and possibly hostile Buenos
Aires in possession of the gateway to Argentina.
To cut a long story short, the other provinces federated in
1853 ^^^ made out a constitution on the plan of that of the
United States, while Buenos Aires held aloof. But in i860 this
latter had to yield to superior force; and in 1862 the constitution
was settled, it being practically that of 1853. Buenos Aires
became capital of the Federation, and remained capital of its
own province as well.
Equilibrium finally attained. — Even by 1862 the constitutional
struggles were not quite over. The province of Buenos Aires
with its relatively huge capital, which was also the capital of
the Federation, was too powerful; and Argentina felt the want
of equilibrium. So troubles came again in 1880; and in about
1882 the city of Buenos Aires was retained as the capital of the
Republic, while, for the province of Buenos Aires, the far smaller
city of La Plata was chosen as capital. This adjustment of
weights appears to have been satisfactory; there have been no
more constitutional troubles since.
Troubles there have been, and possibly may be again, for, as
far as I can understand, there is a tendency among these Latin
races of South America for a discontented " Opposition " to have
recourse to arms or threat of arms. I imagine that they distrust
the results of elections, fearing — and having reason to fear? —
that the ballot-boxes may be " managed " by officials who belong
to the party in power.
About 1890, there was great trouble and discontent; I gather
that the finances and currency of the country had been juggled
with. And so there were barricades and street-fighting in Buenos
Aires, and the fleet began to bombard the city.
But since 1899, at any rate, the currency and finance have been
HISTORY OF ARGENTINA 301
on a firm and settled basis ; all seems prosperous and stable. And
the longer this state of things continues, the weightier will be
the interests opposed to any outbreaks or to any proceedings
likely to excite outbreaks. The more prosperous Argentina
becomes, the more averse she will be from anything that might
frighten capital away from the country.
General RoccHs Indian Campaign — Fortunes made in Land-
Speculation. — In 1878 General Roca made a great campaign against
the Indians, and drove them back. To pay expenses, the Govern-
ment sold the land thus gained at about eighty pounds per square
league (ten square miles). For some time people were rather shy
of speculating in this, fearing Indian raids, I suppose. I believe
that this land had only doubled its value in 1887, and only (!)
quadrupled it a few years later. I gather from the Censo Nacional
that this land sold comparatively recently for from ;^2,ooo to
;^4,ooo per square league, and still more recently for from
;£"5,ooo to ;£^5 0,000 for the same area ! Clearly there was, in
the years following 1878, a wonderful chance of making a big
fortune. So thought my brother, who did not beheve in the
Indians giving trouble. When he visited England in 1881 he
put the facts before some very wealthy friends, to whom ;^5,ooo
or ^10,000 would have meant little, and who could have bought,
say, a hundred square leagues without feeling it. What a fortune
would have been made ! In 1887 the ;^8,ooo spent would have
grown to ;^i 6,000; a few years later to ;^32,ooo; comparatively
lately to ;£2oo,ooo or ;£4oo,ooo ; and, by now, to from ;£^5oo,ooo
to ;^5,ooo,ooo!
But it was not to be; and he returned to work (and most
successfully) on the slow and steady lines of stock-raising in a
land of singularly rapid progress.
Another fact or two concerning the rise in value of land may
be of interest.
In 1882 the land at Santa Isabel (the estancia where I stayed)
was worth £^^10 per square league, and in 1890 it was worth
eight times as much. What it is worth now, I don't know;
I believe vastly more : very likely more than the land next
spoken of.
Again, in 1882 a Dutch company bought "cattle land" at
^75 per square league, and the same sold at ;£ 2 1,900 per square
302 STATISTICS
I
league m 1908 or 1909; while a better "wheat land" rose from
j^82 to ^30,700 per league in the same period.
I have reason to believe that a man who knows the country
can still buy land that may be worth four or five times as much
in (say) ten years' time.
Miscellaneous. — As regards the currency, I remember that in
1888, when I went out, the paper dollar was worth about 2s. 6d.,
and when I left in 1889, 2s. 3^d. In 1891, but two years later,
it was worth only io|d. ! In 1895 ^^ value was is. ly^d. ; while
in 1899 it was fixed at about is. 9d., or a trifle less; and at
that value — neglecting trifling variations such as occur in all
exchange-rates — it remains, and, it is devoutly to be hoped, will
remain.
Of revolutions we heard something through my brother's letters.
But the bloody struggles in the centres of disturbance hardly
stirred the distant " camp." Bands of soldiers would come round
for recruits; and all that my brother, and other estancieros,
experienced in the way of inconvenience from these revolutions
was, as a rule, the running away of their peons, or the sudden
appearance of strange peons who wished to be hidden. They had
no yearning for military glory.
III. Statistics, &c.
(i) Population and Area^ Foreigners and Immigrants, — Here I
shall give mainly the figures of the Statesman's Year-Book for igio ;
any given as from " CN." are taken from the Censo Naconial for
igo8. No doubt the latter is the more reliable source ; but I was
unable to find in it estimates of foreigners and immigrants for
to-day. In the S. Y.B., then, I find :—
Total population in 1895 8,956,000
Estimate for December 31, 1909 ... 6,806,684
[The C.N. estimate for 19 10 is, however, 6,060,684]
Estimate of foreigners, not including their
children if born in the country, for
1910 1,7M,784
STATISTICS 303
Estimate of composition of these
foreigners : —
Italians 843,540
Spaniards 424,085
French 104,990
English 26,324
Swiss 16,694
Germans ... ... ... ... 23,450
Austrians ... ... ... ... 24,785
Various nationalities, mainly from the
Latin Republics of South America,
especially from Uruguay 280,916
Estimate of the (wild) Indian population
for 1910 30,000
It will thus be seen that Argentina appears likely to remain
not only Latin, but also Spanish in race, in the main ; for, as noted,
the last large item is composed mainly of Spanish-Americans
(see C.N.).
For the three largest cities we have as the estimate for 1908 : —
Buenos Aires 1,189,252
Rosario ... ... ... ... ... 150,000
La Plata 80,000
The excess of immigrants into, over emigrants from, Argentina,
or the net gain, was : —
In 1903 34,574
In 1906 ... ... ... ... ... 165,520
And here again there was an enormous predominance of the Latin
races, Spanish and Italian in origin.
In the C.N. the total area of the Republic is given as about
2,952,551 square kilometres ^ or about 1,140,000 square miles, or
730,000,000 acres.
304 STATISTICS
(2) Stock. — Returns for 1908, taken from the C.N.
In 1908.
Gain or Loss since 1895.
Cattle
29,116,625
7,415,099 more than in 1895
Horses
7,53i>376
3,084,517
Mules
465,037
179^540
Asses
285,088
87,216 „ „
Goats
3,945»o86
1,196,226 „ „
Pigs
1,403,591
750,825
Sheep
67,211,754
7,167,808 less than in 1895
Concerning these tables I would make two remarks : —
(i.) That the improvement in breed is even more important than
the increase in numbers of stock. This was well seen in the com-
parison given earlier between the stock on Santa Isabel in 1888 and
1908 respectively (see Chapter III.). The following little table
further illustrates the matter. It relates to cattle in the province of
Buenos Aires, and is taken from the C.N. : —
Coarse native cattle (criollo)...
Half-breed {mestizo)...
Pure breed
In 1908.
8*7 per cent.
85-1
6*2
Of course, the "pure-bred" percentage must be very small; since
the races are being improved mainly through bulls, stallions, rams,
&c., and not by wholesale importation of males and females also.
(ii.) The falling off in the number of sheep is interesting.
Formerly, the natural grasses of the camp were in general too coarse
for sheep ; only the province of Buenos Aires, which was " refined "
earlier than the more remote regions, could carry many. Now, how-
ever, this province has passed on to a further stage, and agriculture
has made such strides there that there are about 18,000,000 fewer
sheep. But vast stretches of camp further out now carry alfalfa
instead of native grasses, and there the sheep have increased in
numbers. So, on the whole, the decrease is about 7,000,000 only.
STATISTICS
306
(3) Agriculture. — The following numbers are taken from the
C.N. :—
Nature of Crop.
Area Sown in 1895.
Area Sown in 1908.
Hectares.
Hectares.
Acres (Approximate).
Wheat
1,600,000
4,854,086
12,000,000
Maize ^
800,000
1,940,884
4,800,000
Linseed
300,000
1,266,825
3,130,000
Oats
—
386,261
955,000
Barley
—
93,689
231,500
Vines ^
—
122,457
303,000
Fruit trees ...
—
59»i9o
146,000
Alfalfa
712,006
4,656,707
11,500,000
Rye-grass, &c.
~~~
2,072,169
5,110,000
The above gives a total of about 38,000,000 acres as under culti-
vation ; while, taking a sort of average of the various statements
made, it seems probable that about 300,000,000 acres are capable
of cultivation. The errors can hardly be so great as to invalidate
the conclusion that Argentina is yet in its infancy as regards agricul-
tural development.
(4) Wine-making. — From the C.N.
for 1907 : —
I get the following results
Country.
Production in
Hectolitres.
Production in Gallons
(Approximate).
Argentina
Chile
United States
Brazil
3,171,000
2,700,000
1,600,000
320,000
69,800,000
59,500,000
35,200,000
7,040,000
* To illustrate the difficulty of feeling confidence in the numbers quoted, I may
mention that the S. Y.B. gives 7,345,500 (not 4,800,000) acres as under maize ;
while the A. Y.B. gives 39,000 hectares, and not 122,457, as under vine-culture,
and for about the same date, 1908.
20
306 STATISTICS
(5) Exports from Argentina in igo8.
;^5,ooo,ooo worth of frozen meat (Whitaker).
3,636,294 tons of wheat {S. Y.B.).
,711,304
maize
1,
,055.650
linseed
„
113,000
flour
„
3»55o
butter
,}
43,977
tallow
»
175,538
wool
„
The ton here referred to is the metric ton of about 2,200 English
lbs., being, in fact, 1,000 kilos. Mineral and other exports may be
neglected.
(5) Railways and British Capital. — Whitaker (1910) gives 1,300
miles of railways, ;£i 50,000,000 of British money invested in
them, and ;^5oo,ooo,ooo of British money invested in Argentina
altogether.
(6) Weights and Measures and Coinage.
(i.) The gold dollar is worth about 4s. The paper dollar has been, since 1899,
fixed at about is. g^^d.
(ii.) In the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, and Entre Rios, the old
league (still lingering on) is such that —
I square league = 1,600 ''square squares."
= 2,699*8 hectares.
= 10 '425 square miles.
= 6,671-66 acres.
So I square square = 4'i7 acres (about).
In the sale of Government land the *' metric league " is used ; and it is such
that— -
I metric square league = 2,500 hectares.
= 9*653 square miles.
= 6,17785 acres.
So I hectare = 2*47 acres (about).
[I may mention also that " 8 kilometres = 5 miles" is accurate to about i in 200.]
(iii.) As regards weight, there would appear to be some ambiguity about the
quintal. In the S. Y.B, it is given as ioi'40 English lbs., or 50 kilos exactly
(I imagine).
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 307
But the book-keeper on a large estancia, who deals with quintals continually,
tells me that the quintal of which I heard in 1908-9 was such that —
I (modem) quintal = 100 kilos = 220 English lbs.
He referred to the quintal of 100 kilos when he supplied me with the prices of
grain which I have given in Chapter IV.
(iv.) I take further, for volume, the relation —
I hectolitre = 22 gallons
as accurate enough.
APPENDIX II
GLOSSARY OF SOME WORDS USED IN ARGENTINA
Adobe. — Sun-dried bricks ; made, in the Argentine, of mud and straw.
Alfalfa (often shortened to alfa). — Lucerne.
Alfalfar. — A piece of land planted with alfalfa.
Armadillo. — A burrowing mammal protected by horny armour.
Arriero. — Used in the text of a mule-man, himself mounted, who
drove mules and loaded and unloaded them.
Asado. — Meat roasted in a particular way at an open fire.
Avenida. — Avenue or boulevard.
Azotea. — A flat roof accessible to the dwellers in a house ; a cha-
racteristic of estancias built in " Indian " times.
Bastos. — Long stuffed bolsters, lying one on each side of the spine of
the horse under the upper rugs and skins, which give the characteristic
flatness and breadth to the Argentine saddle.
Bayos. — A word used to designate the bricks that turned out soft in
the baking.
Bebideros. — Drinking-troughs.
Bicho. — Used of insects, caterpillars, &c., or of any " vermin,'' such
as foxes, viscachas, rats, snakes, frogs, Hzards, &c.
Bicho de canasta. — A caterpillar that lives in a house of leaves and
twigs ; as it grows larger, it enlarges its house.
Bien-te-veo ("I see you well."). — Name of a bird resembling a
kingfisher in form ; derived from its cry.
Bocado. — A thong put round a horse's lower jaw, behind the teeth,
used as a bit in breaking-in a horse.
Boleadoras. — A primitive hunting weapon consisting of three balls
connected by thongs, one being smaller and held in the hand. It is
whirled and thrown, and entangles the quarry's legs.
Bombachas. — A kind of loose wide trousers, buttoned in at the ankle,
much worn by camp natives.
Bombilla. — The tube, with a sort of perforated filter at the end,
through which yerba is drunk from the mate gourd.
Bordos. — Ridges, wind-drifted originally, in sandy camps.
Bozal. — Head-stall, or head-collar, of a horse.
Brass de fuego. — A small bird, mostly of a vivid crimson.
GLOSSARY 309
Cabresto. — Hide or leather thong attached to the headstall of a horse,
to lead or tie him up by. Much needed, since the bridle has no throat-
lash.
Camp (English form of the Spanish cam^o= plain). — Used in three
senses, (i.) The plains or open country as opposed to the towns. Thus
a " camp-man " means usually a man whose business is with the breed-
ing of cattle and the like. So also one speaks of camp life, a camp town,
a camp auction, (ii.) A block of land ; one can say, " I bought three
leagues of camp," " Mr. Smith's camp," and the like, (iii.) Land or soil,
as in "The camp is very sandy there," or " What sort of camp is it ? "
Canon. — Narrow gorge or gulley with steep-cut sides.
Capataz. — Foreman or headman.
Carcarand. — A long metal scoop used for scooping up hopper-locusts;
named from a certain town.
Cerro. — Hill. But used in the maps of high mountains, such as
Aconcagua.
Chcicarero (or chacrero, or chaquererof). — The holder of a chacra.
Chacra. — A holding of land of such relative smallness that the owner
or lessee is rather a small farmer than an estanciero.
Chanar. — A tree very common in the sandy camp that I visited in
April, 1909.
Chemangro. — A very common carrion-hawk.
^ ChiripA. — A sort of shawl or poncho, tucked in at the belt and cover-
ing the hips and thighs, worn over drawers. It is part of the loose
" gaucho '' dress that is passing out of use now.
Cigriiefia. — (i.) A stork or crane ; (ii.) the machine called a crane.
Colonist. — One who rents land for agricultural purposes.
Corancho. — A large kind of hawk.
Corral. — Enclosure for horses, cattle, &c.
Criollo (Anglo- Argentine " native "). — Keeping to the purely Argen-
tine use of the word — [see p. 61 for the more general sense] — we have
for its meanings —
(i.) When used as a noun, a person of Spanish origin born in Ar-
gentina. The word is never used of the aboriginal Indians,
(ii.) When used adjectivally, all that is characteristically Argentine
or is racy of the soil.
Cuis, Cuiz, or Cuizo (I am not sure of the spelling). — ^A sort of guinea-
pig native to Argentina.
Dollar. — The English word for peso. Usually means the paper dollar,
of which, ever since 1899, about ii^ go to £1. The symbol is $ ; but
in business one adds °*/i {moneda legal), or "/„ {moneda nadonat), or
™/c {moneda corriente.) The Argentine gold dollar, worth about 4s., is
a standard and not a coin in circulation. When this is referred to,
one adds oro, or **/, (oro sellado).
Domador. — A horse-tamer who breaks in riding-horses.
310 GLOSSARY
Bstancia. — Used in Argentina of (i.) the house on an estate ; (ii.) the
house and property regarded as a farm. Regarded merely as a piece
of land, the estate would be called " Mr. A.'s camp."
~ Bstanciero. — The owner of an estancia (house and estate).
'^"- Fonda. — The smaller sort of inn, inferior to an hotel.
Galpon. — Large permanent barn in which are stored implements and
produce (such as hides, wool, grain).
Gauche (see p. 62). — Camp native of the old type and way of life ;
a horseman and handler of cattle and horses, not an agriculturalist.
GTianaco. — A sort of llama which has rather coarse wool, larger than
the vicuna.
Guia. — (i.) Leader or tendril of a plant (such as the pumpkin) ; (ii.)
ticket for baggage ; (iii.) recently used of mountain guides, though (I
beheve) vaqueano is better in this sense.
Hopper. — The locust before it changes into the mature winged
insect. English for saltona.
Homero. — Oven-bird ; this makes a nest like a mud oven.
. Igruana.— A sort of lizard whose length runs up to 4 feet or so.
s_ Jagruel. — Well with bucket (emptying itself automatically), worked
by a horse ridden to and fro.
Jiinco. — Rush or reed.
Ladero. — A horse with rider helping to pull a cart by a trace attached
to the saddle-ring ; it goes at the side (lado) of the shaft-horse.
Lata. — A metal disc used in paying shearers, exchangeable for
money at the end.
Lazo. — A long rope of plaited or twisted hide, or nowadays, even
of hemp, with a slip-knot at the end ; used for noosing animals.
Lagruna. — Pool, mere, pond, lake, tarn.
Lechera. — Milking cow.
Lechuza. — The small burrowing owl.
Lino. — Flax ; grown in Argentina for the seed (linseed) only. A very
important Argentine crop.
Maizal. — A plantation of maize.
Mangra. — (i.) A flight or swarm of locusts whether winged or as yet
wingless ; (ii.) a narrow wooden " run," with sliding doors, used in
handling cattle and horses.
Mataco. — A rarer kind of armadillo that can roll itself up into
a ball.
Mate. — (i.) Properly a sort of small gourd or calabash, but always
used of the Paraguay tea (yerba) when drunk out of this ; (ii.) hence,
somewhat improperly, used of this tea when made in and drunk
out of other vessels.
Mayor-domo. — The understudy of the estanciero or manager, work-
ing under him, second in authority. Usually he aims at getting
a managership himself some day.
GLOSSARY 311
Medanoe. — Sand-dunes.
Mojon. — Boundary mark of any kind ; of wood, earth, stone, iron, &c.
Monte. — (i.) In Argentina appears to be used always of a grove
of trees, and never of a hill, (ii.) Our Chilian arrieros used it also of
weed in a pool. Probably to them it meant any kind of vegetable
growth that was not pasture.
:^ Mosqxiitos. — (i.) Gnats, as with us ; (ii.) used also of hopper locusts
in the earher and smaller stages.
Mulita. — A kind of armadillo, mule-eared.
Muy.— The Spanish for "very."
Native. — Anglo-Argentine word for criollo (q.v.). Never used by
Enghshmen of aboriginal Indians.
Noria. — A well with endless chain of buckets worked by horse
or mule that goes round and round.
Novillo. — The usual word for ox or bullock. Anglo-Argentines
always use this Spanish word.
Oficial. — Artizan, as carpenter, e.g. ; has a trade. Ranks above a
labourer. A bricklayer is an oficial ; a peon keeps him supplied with
bricks.
Padrino. — Sponsor. The word was also used when referring to
the tame horse which, with a rider, accompanied the domador when
he was breaking in an untamed animal.
Paja. — (i.) Coarse grass; (ii.) straw.
Palenque. — A post, or two posts with a cross piece, to which horses
are tied up.
>- Palenquear, to. — To accustom an untouched colt to be tied up
to a palenque and to be otherwise handled. This does not include
breaking in to saddle or carriage.
Pampa. — Grassy plain or prairie. "The Pampas" (plural) is used
of the vast plains of Argentina. Also the name of a territory of
this Repubhc.
V Paraiso (or Paradise-tree). — A very handsome tree, remarkable
for not being attacked by locusts.
Patio. — Courtyard of a house, more or less surrounded by the
buildings.
Pechicx)lorado. — A bird ; the male has a splendid crimson breast
and is otherwise nearly entirely black.
Peludo. — The largest kind of armadillo found in Argentina, more
hairy than the other sorts.
Penitentes. — (i.) The columns, cones, or blades into which ice and
snow in the Andes appear always to be broken up — probably by
the sun's action. Supposed to resemble persons in white penitents'
garb, (ii.) Used also of rock pinnacles of something the same form.
Peons (Spanish plural is peones). — Usually means the "hands" on
an estancia, workers with stock. But used more generally of any
312 GLOSSARY
unskilled labourers in camp or town. A man hires himself out as
a peon and ceases to be one when the contract is at an end.
Piche. — A small kind of armadillo.
Pisadero. — Enclosure in which mares trample (pisar) earth, straw,
and water into a tough mud for adobe or bricks.
Pose. — Well, with bucket raised by hand.
Potrillo. — A young colt.
Potro. — A colt.
Puestero. — Peon occupying a puesto,
Puesto. — A small hut or house for a peon, usually carrying with
it special duties. Sought after by married peons.
"Querenched" to a place means reconciled to it, settled down
contentedly in it (Sp. aquerenciado).
Rebenque. — A sort of whip, used by horsemen, composed of a
short thick handle and^^bert-Jaroad thong. It bangs a horse rather
than cuts it.
Recado. — The Argentine saddle, built up of many parts. See
p. lOI.
Rodeo. — A body of cattle rounded up in the open.
Romerilla.— A weed poisonous to stock of all sorts.
Roseta. — A plant having very spiny and hard seeds ; a great trouble
to dogs in camps where it abounds.
Saltona. — The locust before it changes into the mature winged insect.
Used generally of the later and larger stages only, the word mosquito
being used of the earlier stages.
Sandias. — Water-melons.
Sauce. — Weeping willow ; grows freely when planted in the
Argentine plains.
Screes. — In the part relating to the Andes I use this word, known
to mountaineers, for slopes of loose stones.
Sortija. — The ring used in a sort of tilting game that tests a
horseman's skill ; or the game itself.
Teru-tero. — The Argentine peewit, a spur-winged plover.
Tirador. — The broad Argentine belt, usually ornamented with silver
coins.
Toldo. — (i.) Indian tent; (ii.) awning to a wagon.
Tropilla. — Little troop. A troop of, perhaps, some ten or twelve
horses trained to keep with a bell-mare.
Vale. — Lit' "it is worth." An order for money, like a cheque.
Vaqueano. — (i.) Sub. a guide'; (ii.) adj. skilled in anything.
Vaquillona. — Diminutive from vaca, a cow, and meaning " heifer."
Varillas. — The rods of wood, iron, or twisted wire that keep the
wires of a fence at the right distance apart. There will be some five
of them between the posts, and they are not fixed in the ground
as the posts are.
GLOSSARY 313
Vlciafia.— A small kind of llama with very fine wool ; smaller than
the guanaco.
Voladora. — The mature winged locusts.
Yerba = " herb." — Used to denote Paraguay tea. But this latter,
when spoken of as a drink, is usually called mate, from the gourd
out of which it is nearly always drunk.
Yuyo. — This is a camp word, and the y in Argentina is sounded like
the j in jujube. Weed.
Yuyo bianco. — A weed very common in the sandy camp that I
visited.
Zapallo. — A sort of pumpkin ; much superior to our vegetable
marrow. It grows to an enormous size.
PECULIARITIES OF ARGENTINE PRONUNCIATION
(i.) // and y are pronounced like j in the word jujube.
(ii.) ado is pronounced hke ow in the English cow.
(iii.) z is pronounced Hke s [cazar like casar] ; not Hke th.
(iv.) c before i and e is pronounced like s, not like Ih.
A combination of the above peculiarities may make a word difficult
to recognise. Thus callado is pronounced cajow (see above for
j and ow).
Terminal s*s were often dropped ; dos and mas sounded much like
do and md.
Other ss may be dropped ; I have heard este sound very Hke ete.
The peons and others of the gaucho class had a very peculiar
way of dealing with certain combinations of words, mainly prepositions
and adverbs, I think. The only instance that I remember was the
transformation of de donde into something like de ande.
There are further peculiarities consisting in the sense in which
words are used. Thus the word recado means the Argentine saddle ;
but the dictionary does not give this meaning at all.
INDEX
ACERILLO, 251
Aconcagua, Mount, 240, 258, 260
Aconcagua, River, 266
Adobe, 107
Agricultural show, 41
Aguila, El (an estancia in S. Luis),
280
Alfalfa-
direct sowing of, 284, 289
hay made from, 76, 87
little use as winter pasture, 75
pests attacking, 288
the great pasture in Argentina,
Chap. III. and many other
places
sowing it with colonists' last
crop, 100
Andes —
expedition to the. Chaps. XI.
and XII.
animal life in the, 255
aridity and desolation in, 198,
207, 212, 238, 248, 260
Chilian side of the, 265
conditions under which the ex-
pedition was made, 195, 213
constitution of our party in, 205
cost of an expedition into, 245
hints for the outfit required, 242
plant life in, 250
results obtained in the expedi-
tion, 279
salt springs in, see Springs
wind in, 195, 201, 213, 218
Ants, leaf -storing, 176
Araucanian Indians, 203, 268
Argentina —
final reflections on, 292
history and geography of, 295
importance of wealth in, 35
military training in, 40
not suitable for English lower-
class emigrants, 80
not yet a real nation, 115, 276,
293
progress in, 41, 51, 302 et seq.
prospects for English settlers
in, 80, 293
scenery in. Chaps. II., III., XV.
statistics relating to, 302
sunsets in, 47, 186, 283
Argentine terms and pronuncia-
tion, 308, 313
Armadillos —
existing species, 154
giant, extinct, 37
Arrieros, Chilian, 203, 205
Asado, 205, 260
Auction in the camp, 105
Avalanche —
mud, 228, 237
snow, 215
Avenida, Central (Rio), 30
Avenida de las Delicias (Santiago),
275
Avenida de Mayo (Buenos Aires),
33
Azotea, no
315
316
INDEX
Baggage in the Andes, 245
Bee's nest of leaves, 173
Bicho de canasta, 168
Birds—
in the Plains, Chap. VIII.
in the Andes, 255
Branding calves, colts, and mules,
92
Brasa de fuego, 150
Brick-
in Argentina, picturesque, 39
how made in the Plains, 106
sundried (adobe), 107
Buenos Aires —
agricultural show at, 41
Botanical Gardens, 39
changes in, 32
parks, 40
rifle range, 40
trams in, 33
wealth the great power in, 35
Zoological Gardens, 38
Bushes in the Andes, 250
Cactus in Chile, 266, 271
" Camp " —
meaning of, 309
different sorts of (sandy, &c.),
281, 283, 289
Camp towns, 46
fondas in, 47, 277
Camps pitched —
at mouth of Rio Blanco, 204
at mouth of Rio del Chorillo, 207
at mouth of Rio de las Taguas,
222
at head of Rio del Plomo valley,
225
at head of Tupungato valley, 212
up the Rio de las Toscas valley,
238
by the hot springs, 232
Canasta, bicho de, 168
Capataz, 70, 84
Caracoles (railway station), 265
Cardinal, 153
Carts used in the plains, 11 1
Casereta, 150
Cathedral —
Las Palmas, 27
Santiago, 274
Cattle—
at Sta. Isabel, 51, 52
exported, living, to Chile, 261
Cerro de Sta. Lucia (Santiago),
273
Cerro de Sta. Maria (near Puente
del Inca), 261
Cerro Rotondo, 232
Changes in Argentina between
1888 and 1908, Chaps. II.
and III., &c.
Chemango, 144
Chile-
aridity in, 266, 271
Chilian side of the Andes, 265
dress in, 269
fruit in, 266, 270
impressions of, 276
naval matters in, 268
Climate in —
the Andes, 250
Argentina, 184
Valparaiso, 267
Clothing for the Andes, 246
Colonists, Italian agricultural, 51,
72, 284, 289
Comedreja, 158
Conglomerate —
needles or pinnacles, 219, 259
cliffs cut by the stream, 229
Coots—
in the Plains, 286
in the Andes, 204
Counting the stock, 98
Cow-bird, 153
CrioUo, 61, 309
Crops, the chief crops in Argen-
tina, 74, 305
Cuerno de Cabra, 251
INDEX
317
Cuevas, Las (railway station), 261,
263
Cumbre, the, 262
Dehorning calves, 93
Denationalisation of immigrants,
114
Dipping and scab, 92
Dogs to hunt guanacos, 206, 232
Domador, or horse-breaker, loi
Doves —
in the Plains, 153
in the Andes, 255
Ducks —
in the Plains, 44, 148
in the Andes, 211
Egrets, 44, 148
Emigration to Argentina, 80, 293
English language, as spoken in
Argentina, 112
Equator, crossing the, 29
Escuerzo, 161
Estancia, meaning of, 310
Estancia Sta. Isabel, Chap. II. and
elsewhere
staff and work on, Chap. V.
Estoca, Cajon de, 235
Fireflies, 175
Flamingos, 147
Flechilla, paja, 180
Flowers in the Andes, 254
Fondas (inns) in camp-towns, 47,
277
Foxes, 159
Frosts in Argentina, 186
Fruit-
in the Canary Islands, 28
in Chile, 266, 270
Gambling among sheep-shearers,
Gaucho, 62, 68, 310
Gaucho class, the, improvement
in, 69
Glacier, Rio del Plomo, 226, 230
Glaciers in the Andes, 214, 228,
248, 258
Glacier-streams in the Andes, 198,
206, 239
Grasses —
in the Andes, 252
in Argentina, 44, 73, 179
Guanacos —
in the Andes, 232
in the Zoological Gardens, 39
Hailstorms, 189
Hares, 157
Hay, alfalfa, 76, 87
Horcones, valley of the, 258
Hornero (oven-bird), 148
Horse-breaking, loi
Horses at Sta. Isabel, 52, 53
Horses, palenquearing, 98
Houses in the Plains, 47, 109
" Hunting" maize, 113
Huron, 159
Ibis, 44
Iguana, 159
Indian —
Araucanian, see Araucanian
remains, 287
times, no
JAGUEL, 54, 310
Jays, 152
Laguna del Inca, 265
Laguna, Hortensia, 286
Laguna, las Petacas, 286
Laguna, salt, near Melincue, 148,
179, 184
Lagunas —
and birds, 44
as drinking-places, 54
drying up of, 55, 184, 282
318
INDEX
Latas, 89
Lazo, and mode of use, 93
Lazoing calves, colts, and mules,
&c., 93
Lechuza (burrowing owl), 142
Lightning, 187
Line, crossing the, 29
Locusts —
history of an invasion of , 1 1 8 et seq.
determining what trees may be
planted, 58
recovery of camp after invasion
of, 277, 278
Manga, 310
Mantis, praying, 167
Maps of the Andes, 194
Mataco, 157
Materialism in Argentina, 35, 115
Mayordomo, 83
Medanos (sand-dunes), 285, 286
Melincue (a camp-town near Sta.
Isabel), 46, 178
salt laguna near, 148, 179, 184
Mensuales (monthly peons), 85
Mendoza —
town, 197
river, 198
Mercado de las Vegas (Santiago),
273
Military training in Argentina, 40
Mirage in the Plains —
hot-earth, 189
cold-earth, 190
Miramar (near Valparaiso), 270
Mojon, 311
on the Chile-Argentina frontier,
236, 240
Monte, 311
Morado, Port, del (a pass in the
Andes), 236, 240
Moraines in the Andes, 248
Mosquito —
gnat, 177
small locust, 124
Moths, 174
Mud avalanche, 228, 237
Mud huts, 109
Mules —
at Sta. Isabel, 53
used in the Andes ; their powers,
204, 208, 210
about hiring them, 244
Mulita, 155
Murders near the Cumbre, 263
Natives, 61, 311
Noria, 54
Ostrich (Rhea) —
still preserved, 45
some notes on, 137
Oven-bird, 148
Owl-
small burrowing (Lechuza), 142
larger, 143
Padrino, 105
Paja—
colorada, 181
flechilla, 180
voladora, 180
Palenquearing horses, 98
Palmas, Las, 26
Palms at Rio and other places, 31
Pampa-grass, 179, 199, 281
Paraiso-trees, 58
Parasitic plant in Chile, 266, 271,
272
Parque Cousino (Santiago), 274
Parque Forestal (Santiago), 273
Parque Lezama (Buenos Aires), 40
Partridge race —
in the Plains, 147
in the Andes, 255
Pechicolorado, 145
Peludo, 154
Penitentes —
of ice or snow, 214, 228, 240, 249
so-called (of rock), 219, 259
INDEX
319
Peones, Chap. V. and p. 311
de confianza, 48
Photographic outfit for the Andes,
242
Piche, 155
Pillars, earth-p., 258
Plata, La, the city of, 36
museum at the same, 37
Playa-ancha (Valparaiso), 270
Pollera (mountain), 195, 208, 234
Poso, 54
Progress in Argentina, 41, 51, 302
et seq.
Provisions in the Andes, 245
Puente del Inca, 199, 257
Puestos, old and new tjrpes, 71
Puesteros, 85
Pumpkin (zapallo), 28, 44, 133, 273,
288
"QUERENCHED," II4
Quinta normal (Santiago), 274
Quintal, the, ambiguity as to the
value of, 306, 307
Racing among peons on Sunday,
90
Recado (Argentine saddle), loi
Rifle-range at Buenos Aires, 40
Rio Aconcagua, 266
Rio Blanco, 204
Rio del Chorillo, 206
Rio di Janeiro, 30
Rio Mendoza, 198
Rio de las Taguas, 208
Rio de las Toscas, 236
Rio Tupungato, 203
Roads in the camp, 49, 281
Romerilla, " smoking " animals for,
181
Roseta, 287
Rotondo, Cerro, 232
Saddle—
Argentine (the recado), loi
Chilian, 202
Saline springs, see Springs
Saltona, see Locust
Sand-
blown from Africa to the
Canaries, &c., 27, 291
in the Andes, 207, 248, 253
in Buenos Aires, Province of,
289
in Chile, 266, 271
in San Luis, Province of, 248,
281, 285
Sand-dunes, see Medanos
Sandias (water-melon), 28, 133,
270, 273, 288
Santiago (Chile), 271
Scab and dipping, 92
Scorpion, 175
Sea, at, 26, 28
Semi-artesian, or semi-surgente,
wells, 55
Shearing, a low standard of, 91
Sheep at Sta. Isabel, 52, 53
Sheep-shearing, 88
Sheet-lightning, no such thing
as (?), 187
Silo-making, 87
Skunk, 159
" Smoking " animals for romerilla,
181
Smoking stramonium, 182
Snakes, 163
Soaring, 146
Sparrows introduced, 58
Spiders, tarantula, 164
Spider plague on alfalfa, 288
Spoonbills, 148
Springs, saline, 200, 207, 222, 229,
236
Staff to work an estancia, Chap. V.
Starlings (properly "cow-bird"),
153
Stork, 146
Stramonium, 182
Sunsets and sunrises, glories of,
47, 186, 283
320
INDEX
Swallows, 152
Swans, 44, 148, 282, 286
Tarantula, 164
Teeth, splendid teeth of the gaucho
class, 104
Teru-tero, 141
Thistles, 45, 182
Tierra blanca (not fertile), 75, 283
Tijereta, 153
Toads, 161, 256
Toldos, 109, III
Toscas, valley of the Rio de las
Toscas, 236
Travelling—
in 1888-9, 195
in 1908-9, 45, 196, 263
Trees—
in towns and in the camp, 35,
178
in the Province of San Luis, 281
Trefoil, native, 183
Tunnel on the Transandine Rail-
way, 261
Tupungato, Mount, 198, 208, 212,
234, 240
Tupungato, River, 203 et seq.
Turf huts, 43, 109
Valparaiso, 267
climate of, 267
inhabitants of, 269
naval matters in, 268
traces left by the earthquake in,
267
Vibora de la cruz, 163
Vigo, 24
Vina del Mar (near Valparaiso),
270
Viscacha, 158
Voladora, paja, 180
Voladora, see Locusts
Wasps, note on two kinds of, 173
Water is saline in Argentina, 56,
183, 282
Water-supply in the Plains, 54
Weather in Argentina, 184
Weeds, 181, 281
extraordinary modern increase
of, 182
the weed called romerilla, 181
Weights and measures, 306
Wells, 54
Wind-
in the Plains, 55, 187, 189
in the Andes, 195, 201, 213, 218
Windmills for pumping water, 50,
55
Wing-pads of saltonas, 124
Wire, barbed, 59
Women —
their dress in Chile, 269
as tram conductors in Chile, 271
Wool, yield of, at Sta. Isabel,
Work, routine of, on an estancia
Chap. V.
YUYO bianco, 281
Zapallos, see Pumpkins
UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY
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