-cs
ERICH F. SCrlMlQT
ARMENIA
TRAVELS AND STUDIES
VOL. II
ARMENIA
Travels and Studies
BY
H. F. B. LYNCH
Nature's vast frame, the web of human things.
Shelley, Alastor.
Who can foretell our future? Spare me the attempt.
We are like a harvest reaped by bad husbandmen
amidst encircling gloom and cloud.
JOHX K.VTHOLIKOS
Ariiicniati historian of the Xtli centmy
Ch. CLXXXVU.
IN TWO VOLUMES
with 197 illustrations, reproduced from photographs and sketches
by the author, numerous maps and plans, a bibliography
And a Map of
Armenia and Adjacent Countries
VOL. II
THE TURKISH PROVINXES
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
LONDON : 39 P.VTERNOSTER ROW-
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY
I9OI
All rights rese>~'ed
THb. LlliKAKl
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
SANTA BARBARA
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PAGE
Descend into Turkish Territory . . . . i
CHAPTER n
To Lake Van . . . . . . .11
CHAPTER III
Across Lake Van . . . . • .35
CHAPTER IV
Van ........ 38
CHAPTER V
From Van to Bitlis . . ■ . . .116
CHAPTER VI
Bitlis . . . . . . . .145
CHAPTER VII
From Bitlis to Mush — Mush . . . . .160
CHAPTER VIII
From Mush to Erzerum . . . . .174
CHAPTER IX
Erzerum . . . . . . . .198
VOL. II a 2
vi Armenia
CHAPTER X
Return to the Border Ranges — GaAarra, 6a\aTTa\ . . 225
CHAPTER XVI
Akhi.at .....
PAGE
CHAPTER XI
Revisit Armenia ..... 237
CHAPTER Xn
Across the Central Tableland to Khinis . . . 245
CHAPTER Xni
From Khinis to Tutakh . . . • .254
CHAPTER XIV
Down the Murad to Melazkert . . • • 264
CHAPTER XV
From Melazkert to Akhlat . . . . ■ -76
;8o
CHAPTER XVn
Our Sojourn in the Crater of Nimrud . . . 298
CHAPTER XVni
Round Nimrud by Lake Nazik . . • .314
CHAPTER XIX
Ascent of Sipan . ...... 3-6
CHAPTER XX
Back to the Central Tableland .... 34°
CHAPTER XXI
Our Sojourn on Bingol . . . • -3 59
Contents vii
CHAPTER XXII
rA<;E
Home across the Border Ranges . . . -379
CHAPTER XXIII
Geographical ....... 383
CHAPTER XXIV
Statistical and Political ..... 408
APPENDIX I
National Constitution of the Armenians in the Turkish
Empire . . . . . . .445
APPENDIX II
CHEiNiiCAL Constitution of some Armenian Lakes . . 468
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . .471
INDEX ........ 497
LIST OF PLATES
Lake Van with Sipan from Artemid
Plain of Alashkert from the Slopes of Aghri Dagh
Croup of Kurd Hamidiyeh Cavalry
(Jroup of Karapapakh Hamidiyeh Cavalry
The Kuseh Dagii from the Plain of Alashkert
VusuF Bey of Koshk .....
Kurd of Koshk in Gala Dress ....
Sipan from the Plain of Patnotz
V.\N FROM the Slopes of Mount V.arag .
Van : In lERiOR of the Mosque of Ulu Jami
Van : Frieze in Ulu Jami .....
Van : Cuneiform Inscription of Meher or Choban Kapusi
Van : Mount Varag from the Heights of Toprak Kala
Akhtamar : Church from South-East .
Akhtamar : Church from North-West .
Church at Akhtamar : Sculptures on North Wall .
Crater of Nimrud as seen on the Road from Garzik to Bitlis
Bitlis from Avel Meidan .....
Kerkur Da(;h from the South : Nimrud Crater in the
background ......
Young Kurd Woman at Gotni, Mush Plain
Well-to-do Inhabitant of Khaskeui, Mush Plain
Mon.astery of Surb K.\r.a.pet from the South .
Church of Surb Karapet from South-West
View South from the Terrace .at Surb Karapet
The Two Chapels at Surb Karapet ...
The Akh Dagh and the Plain of Khinis from the South .
The Central Tableland, Bingol in the distance, from near
Kui.Li ........
Kargabazar, across the Plain of Pasin, from the southern
-margin of the central tableland
ErZERUM from THE RoOF OF THE BRITISH CONSUL.ATE : THE
Citadel in the middle distance and Eyerli Dagh in
THE background ......
Frontispiece
To face page 2
Back to page 4
5
To face page 10
16
17
19
53
Back to page 106
,, 107
To face page 112
113
Back to page 130
131
To face page 132
142
145
161
163
,, 166
Back to page 1 76
177
To face page 178
180
186
191
193
208
Aruicnia
ErZERUM : ChIFTEH MlXARElI ....
Looking East-South-east from near iiie Kor Pass .
Castle of Kalajik, Upper KiiARSiiur
Monastery of Sumelas .....
Tekman and the Bingoi, D.\gh ifROM near Khedonun
Khamur from the Pass heiween Ali Mur and Khinis
Melazkert from the North : Sipan in the background
Akhlat : Iki Kube — (the Kala, ok Ottoman City, i\ the
p>ackground) ......
Akhi.at: Isolated Tomu .....
Akhlai : The KHARAii-SiiEHR, OR Site of ihe Ancient City
The Nimkud Crater from the Promontory of Kizvag
Sipan : View from the Western Summit over the Summfi
Region .......
Hamidiyeh Cavalry at Gumgum ....
Armenian Village of Gundemir : Bingol Cliffs in the
background ......
The Bingol Cliffs with the Head Waters of the Bingol
Su from the Village of Chaghelik
The so-called Crater of Bingol from about the centre of
the Moraine from Kara Kala
View from the \Ve.stern Summit of Bingol '^
Panorama from the Hill of Gugoghlan j
To fai
'.pa;.
211
230
236
247
252
269
285
290
292
298
334
357
359
360
369
373
ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
Caravan on the Black Sea — Tabriz Trade Route
Karakilisa from South-West
Akantz ......
Ruins of Arjlsh fro.m the Noriii
Ruins of Arjish from the South
Our Boat on Lake Van ....
Scene on the Island of Ktutz
Doorway of the Church at Kiutz
Bronze Shield from Toprak Kala
Bronze Fragment from Topkak Kala (British Museum)^
Ornament from Toprak Kala {Bkitish Museum) j
House of an Armenian Merchant at Van
Interior of Haykavank from the East
The Rock and Walled City of \'an
.Street in the Walled City
The Crag of Ak Kopri ....
Monastery of Yedi Kilisa (Varag)
10
26
28
29
34
62
63
81
102
104
105
I II
114
Illustrations
XI
Interior of the Church at Vehi Killsa
Van on the Road to Bitlis
Mountain Range along South Coast of Lake Van
Island of Akhtamar ....
Promontory of Surb (on the left the back of the
Crater ; in the distance Nimrud)
BiTLis : Fortified Monastery
Tunnel of Semiramis ....
Looking down Valley of Bitlis Chai .
Nimrud Crater from the Volcanic Plateau .
Armenian Village of Khaskeui, Mush Plain .
Terrace of Lava resembling Human Fortifications
Looking down the Valley of the Upper Araxes
Mejitli .....
Erzerum and its Plain from the South
Armenian Youths ....
Armenian Maidens ....
Five Generations of an Armenian Family
Range North of Ashkala .
On the Banks of the Chorokh above Baiburt
Armenian Cemetery at Varzahan
Kurdish Dancing Boy at Gopal .
Piece of Seljuk Pottery from Akhlat .
Tombstone at Akhlat
The Lake in the Crater of Nimkud
Village of Uran Gazi with Sipan
Grave on the Summit of Khamur
Sheikh Ora
l'.\GE
"5
ii6
119
130
140
155
156
157
161
165
189
192
207
215
216
221
229
232
234
254
285
291
302
332
340
LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS
I 'LAN oi' Van .
BiTLis AND Environs .
Plan of thk Ancient Fortificaiions of Melazkert
Plan of Akhlat ...
Interior of the Nimrud Crater .
NiMRUD and Surroundings
Plan of the Summit Region of Sipan
The Bingol Dagh on the North
The Bingol Dagh on the South .
To face page 8i
147
271
296
305
312
336
366
378
CHAPTER I
DESCEND INTO TURKISH TERRITORY
October 24. — The track which we were following winds for
some distance along the spine of the range. You cross and
cross again from the one to the other watershed, overlooking now
the open spaces of the southern landscape, now the narrow and
encumbered canon of the Araxes below the adjacent cliffs of
the tableland. The rocky parapets and gloomy valleys appear to
extend from basin to basin, at right angles to the axis of the
chain. West of the crags about us, and isolated from them,
rose a shapely mass with black but snow-streaked sides. Dark-
ness was falling when we descended from this lofty position into
one of the valleys of the southern slopes. In its recesses we
came upon a" little Kurdish settlement, which seemed to promise
shelter during the night.
Kurtler — Kurds ! No sooner have we crossed the frontier
than we find ourselves in their midst. The mountains of
Kurdistan are more than 100 miles distant; yet these parasites
fasten upon the countryside. Still their presence is appro-
priate and is not unwelcome, so long as they are confined to
alpine solitudes like those which surround the village of Chat.
Tufts of grass, interspersed with an endless crop of stones, were
the only pasture which we had seen for some time. Yet the
shepherds were in possession of a considerable stock of hay,
against the approach of a winter season which can scarcely lack
rigour at an elevation of 6700 feet above the sea. Their
habitations just protrude above the level of the ground ; and,
once within the doorway, you proceed through narrow passages
into the very bowels of the earth. In the darkness you stumble
upon the forms of cattle or wake a ragged child. We took up
VOL. II B
2 Armenia
our quarters in one of the largest of the subterranean chambers,
lit our candles, and spread our carpet on the bare soil. We
were surprised to discover that the roof of the apartment was
artificial — layers of mud and straw, held together by laths of
wood, and supported by huge beams. The walls, too, were
built up of rough stones, plastered together ; it was evident that
the room was only three-parts buried, and that it communicated
directly with the outer air. In fact we could see an aperture, the
rude counterpart of a window, above the opening to the winding
passage through which we had come. On the side opposite this
only entrance a square hole in the face of the wall nourished a
smouldering fire. The smoke wreathed upwards to a vent in the
roof, or was sucked inwards towards the tunnelled approach.
When morning broke we were glad to issue from the fetid
atmosphere of this human burrow into the pure mountain air.
A {^\N gaunt figures were standing upon the higher stages of the
eminence which had provided a suitable site for these under-
ground operations, and which rose like a large ant-hill from the
waste of stone. Women squatted before the doors of the
straggling tenements, weaving the bright rugs for which their
race is famed. We proceeded down the glen, along the banks
of a little stream. It finds an easy exit from the heart of the
mountains, threading the trough of one of the meridional valleys.
After riding for an hour and a half, we opened out the southern
landscape from some high ground above the village of A mat
(Fig. 108).
The great plain of Alashkert was outspread before us,
bounded on the further side by the snow-capped mountains of
the Ala Dagh, which stretched across the horizon from the east.
Just before us, this lofty range was seen to recede into the misty
background, the outlines bending away towards south-west. But
the barrier was resumed at no considerable interval by a chain of
hills, less distant, although of humbler proportions, called Kilich
Gedik, or the sharp sword. We could just descry the site of
Karakilisa, backed by the recess of the Ala Dagh. We knew
that the Murad must be flowing through that nebulous passage in
the opposite bulwark of the plain. The surface of the ground
below us was level as water ; the expanse was greatest in the
west. In that direction the spurs of the range upon which we
stood plunged by a succession of promontories into the floor of
the plain. We were reminded of the valley of the Araxcs in the
Descend into Turkish Territory 3
neighbourhood of Erivan. Both depressions have the appear-
ance of inland seas at the foot of the mountains, the one on the
northern, the other on the southern side. But that of Alashkert
is much more elevated (5500 feet), and less sheltered ; you miss
the presence of those extensive stretches of orchard and verdure
which soften the landscape through which the Araxes flows. The
eye wanders out over dim, ochreous tracts, broken by patches of
fallow, and seamed by white rivulets. Just below the Armenian
settlement we reached the margin of the level ground, and
cantered along, almost on a compass course. We saw several
insignificant villages ; but the district was wild, the soil for the
most part unreclaimed. Flocks of duck and geese took wing at
our approach ; cranes, with their long necks, sailed across the
sky. In the course of an hour and a half we reached the street
of Karakilisa, a distance from Amat, measured direct, of 9 miles.
A motley crowd collected round us as we enquired for the
government quarters ; a hundred curious faces were upturned
towards us, and our ears were greeted with the cry of Ferengi !
Ferengi ! passed like a shuttlecock from mouth to mouth. The
little town was full of stir ; new shops and houses were in course
of erection ; it was evident that trade and traffic were on the
increase. We had almost crossed it from end to end, when we
were ushered into a modest building, of which the hall or outer
chamber was thronged with people, for the most part peasants ;
while an old servitor or usher, with white beard and a flowing
robe, was marshalling the rows of slippers by the threshold of an
inner door. At our approach he drew aside the quilted curtain
which screened this sanctuary, and turned the handle and bade
us pass within. The low divan, which on three sides followed
the walls of the apartment, was already occupied by a full
complement of seated figures ; they appeared to be engaged in
deliberation when we broke in upon their seance. A little man
with vivacious eyes was directing the conversation ; he sat on the
only chair behind a table covered with faded baize. Although
we could scarcely doubt that our arrival had been announced
beforehand, we seemed to take these notables by surprise. The
little man rose from his chair ; the assembly huddled together in
order to give us place on the divan. Compliments were ex-
changed ; coffee and cigarettes were provided ; the discussion was
adjourned by tacit consent. One by one, after satisfying with-
out displaying their curiosity, the councillors stole from the room.
4 Armenia
Meanwhile the figure at the table — it was the Kaimakaui,
or district governor — had examined our numerous and weighty-
credentials, and had directed a billet to be provided and prepared.
Our effects, which arrived later, were not subjected to examination;
no excisemen or policemen dogged our steps. Such officials are
almost unknown in this happy country ! so we reflected with a
sense of immense relief. The way they worry the people in the
neighbouring empire passes the capacity of the uninitiated to
realise. The Greek poet was certainly wrong when he gave
expression to the sentiment that anarchy is the greatest of human
ills. Here we were, enlightened observers, exchanging order for
disorder with rapturous delight ! We were free to wander as we
willed, to enjoy a British liberty without so much as the restraint
of roads and walls. Coming from Russia, the contrast was
indeed startling ; independence is far preferable to feeling
reasonably certain that you will not be knocked on the head by
a Kurd.
The Kaimakam escorted us to the adjacent barracks, in
which a whitewashed room had been made ready to receive us.
It belonged to the quarters of the superior officer — with the
rank of Miralai — a Turk of great stature and broad shoulders,
to whom we were introduced. He wore a dark blue military
tunic of European pattern and material ; but he had forgotten
to fasten the lower buttons of this imposing garment, as well as
the upper ones of the trousers beneath. His mouth and ears
and nostrils were of unusual proportions ; the expression of the
face was kind, and denoted a childlike, buoyant nature — dc bonne
bete humaiiie, as one might say. In him we found an agreeable
and a sensible companion. He bustled about the place, was
accustomed to shave each Friday ; he settled every difficulty
with eh, ivallah ! accompanied by a hearty laugh. From time
to time the troops were visited by the Liva, or commandant, an
aged figure with a beard of snow. He had been at Plevna, and
had made the campaign of Bulgaria ; but nothing remained of
him now but a worn-out body, made doubly infirm by an
inveterate habit of getting drunk.
The peculiar care and constant plague of these high officials
were the newly-enrolled regiments which, under the name of
Hmnidiyeh, flatter the vanity but sap the throne of the reigning
Sultan. Am I guilty of indiscretion when I say that the pre-
vailing opinion of them in official circles is one of contempt, not
Fig. 109. Group of Kurd Hamidiyeh Cavalry.
Fig. 110. Group of Karapapakh Hamidiyeh Cavalry.
Descend into Tnrkisk Territory 5
unmixed with alarm? Your high-placed Turk will quote at
their expense his favourite proverb, tJie fisJi begins to stink from
the head. The young men are the sons of their fathers, who are
Kurds and brigands ; the example of the fathers is transmitted
to the sons. Something might be done, if the process were
arrested — if the recruits were removed from their homes. When
I objected that the Tsar's Cossacks presented in some respects
a hopeful analogy, I would be met by the reply that the Russian
autocrat employed strong measures, the like of which the Turkish
Government was too mild to enforce.
Perhaps my reader is already aware that the Hamidiych are
irregular cavalry, who owe their origin to the endeavour of the
Sultan Abdul Hamid to emulate the example which gave to
Russia her Cossack troops. They are recruited for the most
part among the Kurdish tribes ; the name of yeomanry expresses
the nature of their military service, but cannot be applied to the
class to which they belong. The force is still undergoing the
initial process of organisation. At the time of our journey it
afforded the principal topic of conversation. Yiizbashis, or
sergeants, of the regular army were being poured into the
country, and distributed among the villages, to instil into the
shepherds the rudiments of drill. Depots of arms were being
established in convenient centres ; and it was the intention of
the authorities to keep the weapons under lock and key, except
when they should be required for the annual trainings in spring.
Hundreds and thousands of suits of uniform were arriving in the
principal towns, loaded on bullock carts. Each regiment had
been allowed to exercise its own fancy upon the choice of a
distinctive garb. The result was an incongruous mixture of the
braids and gold lace of Europe with the Georgian finery of a
serried row of silvered cartridge cases, banded across the breast
of a skirted coat. How proud they seemed, and how insensible
of their ridiculous appearance in our eyes — the long-beaked
Kurds, the swarthy Karapapakhs, masquerading down the street
of Karakilisa in these strange creations of the tailors of Pera or
Stambul ! They did not require pressing to consent to be
photographed — a group of Kurds (Fig. T09), a group of Kara-
papakhs (Fig. I 10). Some of the principal officers of either
regiment are represented in my illustrations ; and I would beg
my reader to observe the seated Kurd in the Georgian dress —
it is Eyub Pasha with his son and nephew. Behind him stands
6 Armenia
his principal henchman, who, although a Kurd, has seen service
with regular troops.
In the caza, or administrative subdivision, of Karakilisa three
regiments of Hamidiyeh have been enrolled. Two are recruited
from Kurds of the Zilanli tribe ; the third from Karapapakhs.
This people — who take their name from their caps of black
lambskin — are found on either side of the Russo-Turkish frontier,
and are no doubt related to the Tartars of Azerbaijan. The
Kaimakam informed me — but I question whether his statement,
even if true, can apply to more than a small number — that the
fathers of those among them who inhabit this district were
followers of the famous Shamyl. According to his account they
were at that time settled in Daghestan, whence they removed to
their present seats. He added that their villages were 8 in
number in this caza ; that their regiment had a strength of
800 men ; and that they had branded no less than 650 horses
with the military mark. Their chief, Ali Bey, is a man of
hideous features, whom we recognised as the same individual
who had been seated in the place of honour, when we broke
in upon the deliberations of the Kaimakam. I now learnt the
purport of their lively discussion ; it had been a question of
fixing a price for grain. Months ago Ali Bey had made a
contract with the Kaimakam to supply the cereal for Government
purposes at a stated price. The time had just arrived for
delivering it into the granaries ; but the price had risen, almost
to famine rates. In the drawer of the green baize table was
securely buried the precious document, behind a lock of which
alone the Kaimakam possessed the key. How great was the
dismay of the wretched official to find that it had been abstracted,
and to recognise that the robbery might cost him his place !
His dcspoiler felt quite safe behind his Hamidiyeh uniform and
his paper figures of Soo men-at-arms.
But the Kaimakam was not the man to go to sleep beneath
an injury ; he possessed both energy and brains. He and the
Miralai would each evening repair to our quarters, and discuss
the events of the day over coffee and pipes. On one occasion, in
company with the Miralai, we had awaited to a late hour the
arrival of the Kaimakam. When at last he made his appearance,
his clothes were covered with dust and he was wearing his long
top-boots. His eyes were bright with excitement as he narrated
in vivid language the story of his day's work. Kurds from Lake
Descend into Turkish Territory 7
Baliik had made a foray into his district, and had plundered the
village of Mangasar, inhabited in equal numbers b\' Armenians
and Mussulmans. He had proceeded in person to the scene of
their depredations, and at the head of his motley followers had
forced them to retire after a sanguinary fight. What was the
origin of this man whose animated face and supple character
contrasted strangely with the wooden figures of officers and
notables who attended his divan ? He told me he was an
Albanian ; he was, of course, a Mohammedan ; but his whole
appearance stamped him a Greek. Compared with Kurds like
Eyub Pasha, with their resemblance to big birds, he stood on the
opposite pole of human development. Although in point of years
the youngest of the group, he led them all by the nose. A
situation had scarcely been stated when he had already discovered
the solution ; he shared the feelings as well as the thoughts of the
individual to whom he was lending his ear. I have no doubt
that he was far the superior of AH Bey in the successful practice
of every kind of deceit. He professed himself my friend ; I am
sure he took a pleasure in abusing the confidence which I was
obliged to affect. We had almost exhausted our stock of money
when we arrived in Karakilisa ; between us and the town of Van,
where we might hope to replenish it, lay the wildest districts
of Asiatic Turke)^ Semi-civilised communications are entirely
wanting in those regions ; it was even impossible to hire a
caravan. It was necessary to purchase horses ; three days were
consumed in finding the animals ; having selected four, at an
average price of £6 apiece, we were without funds to defray our
expenses in the town, The Kaimakam might no doubt have
advanced the few pounds in perfect safety ; but he had cast
longing eyes upon my gun. Alleging that he had already spent
the last instalment of his allowance, he insisted that the usurers,
who would supply him with the money, required that I should
leave the weapon in his charge. It was arranged that, the
moment the debt had been recovered, he would despatch the
valuable pledge to Erzerum. No sooner had we reached Van
than I contrived to send him the amount by way of Ba}'azid.
Weeks later, upon my arrival in the capital of his provincial
government, the gun had not yet come to hand. The ]''ali, or
Governor- General, was recently dead ; no successor had been
appointed ; the fact that I was an Englishman was scarcely worth
recalling to the petty authorities, daily witnesses of the feeble-
8
Armenia
ness of the British Government, and full of contempt for the
British Power. When my property was at last restored to me
through the good offices of Mr. Graves, the whole winter and
part of the spring had gone by. The Kaimakam had wreaked
his revenge ; the weapon came in broken pieces, and the barrels
bore the marks of heavy blows.
I was unable to ascertain with any accuracy the number of
the inhabitants, whether of the district or of the town. The
Kaimakam, although extremely communicative on other sub-
jects, professed to have been forbidden to make them known.
According to the most recent official statistics, the caza con-
tains no less than 58 villages, and possesses a population of 5 377
Fig. 111. Caravan on the Black Sea— Tabriz Trade Route.
Mohammedans and 1902 Armenians. For the town in particular
I have not had access to any information ; but I should judge
that the residents might be put down at 1500 to 2000, of whom
the Armenians would be nearly two-thirds. With the exception
of the shops, the houses are in general little better than the usual
village tenements, half buried beneath the ground. But Karakilisa
is increasing in importance day by day, being situated on the
great avenue of communication between Persia and the Black
Sea. Strings of camels, with their finery of coloured tassels, were
continually passing at a stone's throw from our door (Fig. i 1 1).
They were bearing the multitudinous wares of Europe for distri-
bution among the Eastern bazars. They proceed by way of
Trcbizond, Erzerum, and Bayazid to the city of Tabriz. The
place has also the advantage of being both a military and an
administrative centre ; there is always something going on. The
Descend into Turkish Territory 9
fashionable amusement of the day were the Hamidiyeh. A
luxurious coffee-house had just been built for their delectation ;
their name was on every tongue.
It was whispered in fear and terror by the poor Armenians.
I visited their bishop, and found him in a state of blank despair.
He was afraid to receive me, and sent me excuses — which,
however, I refused to accept. After some parley with inter-
mediaries he made his appearance — a stout figure, a thick-lipped,
common face. He refused to listen to the simple questions which
I addressed to him, and burst out into abuse. Europe, and
especially England, had played the part of swindlers towards his
miserable race. Their hopes had been incited by delusive
professions, which had only served to alarm the Sultan and let
loose the Kurds. Nor could they look to Russia, the arch-
offender, fanning the agitation for ends of her own. The poor
man continued in this strain until he was nearly beside himself ;
I was obliged to leave him to his rage. His diocese embraces
the districts between Zeidikan and Bayazid, and extends south-
wards to the borders of the vilayet, or Government, of Van. His
church at Karakilisa is little better than four stone walls. An
ignorant priest imparts instruction in a wretched httle building
which can scarcely be dignified by the name of school.
One afternoon we made an excursion to the point where the
Murad changes direction, and flows through the gap towards
the south. Between the barracks in which we were lodged,
on the extreme outskirts of Karakilisa, and the river, flowing
placidly over the plain, there extends a considerable tract of
marshy ground and low covert, the home of plover and in-
numerable water-birds. We crossed a stream which, coming
from Aghri Dagh, passes just beneath the barracks to join
the Murad a little further west (Kor Suj, and made across
the marsh in the direction of a little Armenian village which
stands on the left bank of the principal body of water, almost
due south of the town. Just below this settlement, called
Klip Keran, we forded the Murad, which was winding at the
foot of a gentle eminence of the southern border through a
pebbly and many-channelled bed. Either shore was quite a
museum of living wildfowl ; in especial we admired a beautiful
species of golden duck of which the wings were flaked with
white bands. Avoiding the swamp on the opposite margin,
we followed this bank for some distance ; and a little later
lO
Armenia
crossed back to the northern side. About a mile and a half
below Klip Keran the river describes a beautiful curve, and
enters the spacious passage of the hills. It is pushed southwards
by rising ground at the base of the Kilich Gedik barrier ; but
the higher outlines of that range, as well as those of the snowy
Ala Dagh in the east, are several miles removed from its shores.
It flows towards grassy hills, among which you lose the silver
thread which the eye has followed as far as a village, named
Dombat. The breadth of the Murad at the bend, where its
errant waters had issued from the marsh, did not appear to
us to exceed thirty yards. The intense stillness of the scene
Fig. 113. Karakilisa from South-West.
was in harmony with the quiet sunset which shed radiance
over mountain, river, and plain. From the lofty bulwark of
the northern chain, beyond the lake-like surface of the steppe,
rose the form of a single summit, overtowering its neighbours —
the shapely dome of the Kuseh Dagh (Fig. 112). The fantastic
profile of the system was drawn across the horizon in hues of
opal to the far east. In that direction we could clearly see
the magnificent bastions of Ararat, mounting the sky behind
these heights. The snowfields were flushed with a delicate
madder ; we noticed that from this side they appear to gather
to a single peak, the eminence upon which we had stood.
We remarked the convex modelling of the lower slopes of the
system along the opposite margin of the plain. A shorter
way was shown us for the return to Karakilisa (Fig. 113), which
leaves the river and crosses the head of the marsh.
a,
CHAPTER II
TO LAKE VAN
The principal artery of traffic in Turkish Armenia crosses the
land from west to east. It follows the direction of a series of
depressions : the plains of Erzerum, of Pasin and of Alashkert.
It consists of a carriageable track, or rough road of unequal
quality. The bulk of the transit trade between Europe and
northern Persia is conveyed on the backs of camels along this
route. The wall of protective duties which has been reared
by the Russian Government compels this commerce to flow
through a Turkish port and to adhere to Turkish soil. It
has been stimulated by the efforts of a series of British consuls,
resident at Erzerum, Robberies have been punLshed with
great severity ; and, at the present day, the traffic is seldom, if
ever, interrupted, although it passes through the Kurd-inhabited
districts about Bayazid, and the lawless border of the Persian
and Turkish empires.
South of this beaten avenue are situated regions which, in
spite of the researches of individual travellers, are still but
imperfectly known. The lake of Van remains a centre of
agriculture and primitive industry ; yet it lies beyond a zone
of feebly governed country which, year by year, is becoming
more difficult to cross. The pest of Kurds has settled firmly
upon these richly favoured territories, destroying agriculture
and banishing trade. What caravans there are travel in large
bodies, and every man is armed to the teeth. Between Erzerum
and the town of Van they choose between two routes according
to the season of the year. In summer they cross the mountains
behind the northern capital, and proceed by the plain of Khinis,
crossing the Murad at Melazkert. During winter they make
the round by way of Pasin and Alashkert, deviating on the
1 2 Armenia
confines of the latter district, and passing the river at Tutakh.
The approach through the town of Mush is used only once
a year, when the pilgrims journey from Erzerum to the cloister
of Surb Karapet. On that occasion the caravan, according
to my informants, continues its course as far as Van. By the
two first routes it is usual to follow the eastern shore of the
lake, which is reached near the little town of Akantz.^
VVe set out from Karakilisa on October the 29th, mounted
on our newly-j^urchased horses, and accompanied by a .:aptich
or gendarme. Our objective was this same Akantz ; the
principal intermediate stations were Tutakh and Patnotz. I
had thought it possible to accomplish the ride in the course
of two days ; our friends laughed at the idea. I decided
therefore to start in the afternoon, with the hope of arriving
on the evening of the third day. At a quarter-past three
o'clock we were making our way along the marsh to the point
where the Murad leaves the plain. After reaching the bend,
we proceeded down the passage which receives the river, towards
Dombat and the grassy hills which I have already mentioned.
On our left hand, at an interval of about 500 yards from the
left bank, rose the first gentle slopes of the Ala Dagh system ;
this high land was answered on the right bank, at about a
similar distance, by the outworks of the Kilich Gedik. The
Murad pursues its course between these two blocks of mountain,
and, a little lower down, forces its way through the narrowing
gap. Near Dombat both banks are of considerable elevation,
and the ridges appear to cross the direction of the stream.
Before arriving opposite the village we crossed the Sharian Su,
a tributary which collects the drainage of the western portion
of the plain, and which appeared to us to have a volume scarcely
less than that of the principal branch.
After passing Dombat — which was said to be inhabited by
Kizilbashes — we sank to a valle}' in which is situated the
Kurdish village of Zado, and ascended the ridge on its opposite
1 The following are my estimates of the mileage distances along oiiv route from
Karakilisa to Akantz : —
Karakilisa-Tulakh
Tutakh-Koshk .
Koshk- Patnotz
I'atnotz-Akantz .
Total
Distances.
23 miles
II ,,
17 „
87 miles.
To Lake Van 13
side. From the summit we commanded a prospect towards
Karakilisa, and were impressed by the serpentine course of the
river, flowing towards us in a pebbly bed which it threaded by
several channels. We were placed at a height of some 250 feet
above its waters. On a hillside further south we could now
discern our evening station, the little village of Avdi. It was
signalised by a green patch, due to vegetable gardens ; its
surroundings were bleak and bare. Arriving at half- past five,
we selected the best of the fifteen tenements as quarters for the
night. We were surprised to find a sergeant of the regular army
established in this miserable place. He had come to recruit
Kurds for the Hamidiyeh, and bitterly cursed his fate.
Next morning we were anxious to reach Tutakh before
mid-day in order to pass the night at Patnotz. At a quarter to
eight we were in the saddle ; it had rained during the night, and
heavy clouds hung over the hills. As we rose up the slope, we
caught glimpses of the mountains which bound the plain of
Alashkert upon the north. The plain itself had long been lost ;
we were at some distance from the river ; we looked across high
hills, which engulfed the invisible waters, to the summits of the
Ala Dagh. The doubtful track commenced to wind between
grassy slopes, strewn with boulders — a belt of country well
adapted to guerilla warfare, and reputed the favourite haunt of
Kurdish robbers. Horsemen would no doubt be completely at
their mercy in the blind recesses of these irregular valleys. At a
quarter to nine w^e approached the Murad, still high above it ; the
hills rose from either bank. In another half hour we obtained
our first view of the cone of Sipan, a gleaming object in the
south. Some two miles further the landscape opened, and
assumed the character of a vast steppe of broken and uneven
ground. Distant ranges encircled the expanse with dim outlines ;
Sipan alone was clearly defined against the sky. From the
Kurdish village of Koshk we obtained a fine view over this
country, with its waving surface featured by shadows from the
clouds. We had got behind the barrier of the Kilich Gedik ;
and the whole segment of the circle from north-west to south-
west was filled by comparatively level land. We observed
a prominent shape in the mountains of the furthest distance,
which we identified with the Khamur Dagh. Beyond the
Mussulman village of Okhan, the river, which had left us, took
a sharp bend, and joined our course. We made our way
14 Armenia
along it at a rapid trot and reached Tutakh a little after eleven
o'clock.
The little township does not possess more than about a
hundred houses ; yet it is the seat of a Kaimakam whose
administrative area includes Patnotz, and meets the boundary of
the vilayet of Van. It stands on rising ground, at some little
distance from the bank of the river, facing the lofty hills which
rise on the opposite shore, and push the Murad towards the west.
It is about equidistant from Karakilisa and from Patnotz, a ride
of some twenty-three miles from the first, and of twenty-eight
miles from the second. The inhabitants are for the greater part
Karapapakhs, imported into the district after the last Russo-
Turkish war. They can now boast of some 400 houses in the
caza, or a population of about 3000 souls. Agriculturists by pro-
fession, and by temperament robbers, they appear to be in an
extremely prosperous state. Their aged chief conversed with me,
and imparted several particulars which I had not known before.
He told me that they had emigrated from the province of Chaldir,
being dissatisfied with the Russian Government, who had not
treated them well in the matter of lands. The Sultan had
received them back, settled them in these fertile regions, and
allotted to them as much ground as they required. I questioned
him with some care about the original seats of his tribe ; he was
emphatic that they had always lived in Chaldir.^ Taylor tells us
that they became possessed of the villages and lands in that
province, and in the neighbouring province of Kars, which had
been abandoned by the Armenians who followed the army of
Marshal Paskevich upon his evacuation of Turkish territory in
1829. According to the chief, their original possessions in
Transcaucasia extended from Daghestan to Chaldir. The tribe
.supplies a regiment of Hamidiyeh for this caza ; the head men
were resplendent in their new uniforms, of which they seemed
very proud. Both here and at Karakilisa I was imprcsseci by
the diversity of type which is found among them. Mingled with
physiognomies of purely Tartar or Persian character were faces
which, with their lighter hair and fairer complexion, might have
belonged to a group of Circassians. With the exception of the
shops, singlc-storeyed stone buildings, the hou.ses in Tutakh are
1 At the time of Taylor's journey (1868) there were some 13,500 Karapapakh.s in
the mutcsarrijlik of Chaldir, which comprised the towns of Olti, Ardahan and Ardanuch.
The mutcsarrijlik of Kars counted 12,900 of this people, and that of Bayazid 2500
(Archives of British Consulate at Erzerum).
To Lake Van 15
the usual loose agglomerations of earth and rough stone. The
great majority of the population in the caza are Kurds; a scatter-
ing of Armenians are entirely at the mercy of their rapacious
Mussulman neighbours.
Our baggage animals, which had started from Avdi with us,
arrived at one o'clock. They were in charge of a second zaptieh,
to whom I had given instructions to find his way to Akantz as
best he could. A little before two we were again in the saddle,
making for the adjacent ford across the Murad. The river is
fairly broad just opposite the town, having a width at this season
of about 100 yards. It had spread beyond its average dimen-
sions in this region, and the water did not reach higher than the
horses' knees. We admired the clear, blue current, sweeping
past us — a stream neither sluggish nor impetuous, as befits the
beginning of a great river. From the opposite bank we proceeded
at right angles to its direction, up the side of the line of high hills.
At eighteen minutes after two we had wound our way to the
summit ; w^e stood on the surface of rolling downs. A little later,
when I thought we had reached the highest point of these uplands,
I took the reading of my aneroid. We had reached a level of
5800 feet, or of 560 feet above Tutakh. The exhilarating air,
the easy ground, the magnificent prospects rendered our ride most
enjoyable. Behind us was the outline of the Kilich Gedik, run-
ning from east to west. We could just see the crest of the Kuseh
Dagh beyond it, the summit of the dome. Towards the south
rose the irregular mass of the Khamur, and the beautiful landmark
of Sipan. That graceful mountain stood disclosed to three-
quarters of its height. Such are the rewards which Armenia
bestows upon the traveller, and which IMan is powerless to
destroy.
That insignificant creature lives in squalor amid scenes of
desolation which are due to himself alone. The soil is rich and
loamy ; but it is little cultivated, and lies idle beneath a covering
of rough grass. The climate is more propitious than that of the
corresponding highlands in the more northerly, or Russian portion
of the land. The rainfall is probably less ; but this disadvantage
may be balanced by the earlier maturing of the crops. We rode
for an hour without seeing a village, with the heights of the Ala
Dagh following our course away on the left. The first settlement
which we passed was Milan, inhabited by Kurds, which we were
careful to avoid. Those of their number whom we met were
1 6 Armenia
armed with numerous knives, and had rifles slung across their
shoulders. A little further I called a halt on the requisition of
the zaptieh ; he was very anxious that the plan of the journey
should be changed. It was half-past three o'clock ; we could not
reach Patnotz before nightfall ; if I persisted it was almost certain
we should be attacked. In crossing from the territory of the
Sipkanli tribe to that of the Haideranli, we should be obliged to
run the gauntlet of the armed parties which scoured the frontier
between these two hostile tribes. He pointed to a dot on the
grassy plain about us which he identified with the village of
Koshk. He said that it was the residence of the chief of the
Sipkanli, who from his official relations with the Turkish
Government would be obliged to shelter us. His counsel was no
doubt sound if one could only trust his estimate of our distance
from Patnotz. For some time we had been passing between two
opposite hill ranges, one on our left front, the other on our right.
On our point of course, in the middle distance, these outlines
approached one another, leaving between them a wide gap. The
ridge on the left, a spur of Ala Dagh, was said to bear the name
of Gelarash Dagh ; that on the right was called Kartevin Dagh.
It would be no short ride to the passage between the two ; and
this gave access, according to the zaptieh, to the plain in which,
upon its further confines, was situated Patnotz. Satisfied by his
explanations, I deferred to his judgment, and directed our steps a
few points off our true course, towards the village which he had
indicated. A shower of soft rain was falling as we entered Koshk
at four o'clock.
I have already introduced my reader to a Kurdish village ;
the description of one may be applied to all. But Koshk is
distinguished by a single house in the proper sense, a two-storeyed
building of stone. It is the abode of Yusuf Bey, chieftain of the
Sipkanli, whose portrait I was allowed to take (Fig. 114). His
followers gathered round us, a throng of Kurdish warriors,
prepared at any moment for a fight. Besides knives, each man
carried a rifle ; a band of cartridges was fastened across the
breast. I examined several weapons ; all bore the Russian
marks and letters. They told me that they were procured from
the Russian soldiers, probably Cossacks, in the frontier districts of
Kagyzman and Erivan. When a little later I questioned the
chief about this traffic, he expressed surprise that the soldiers
should be able to obtain firearms for the purpose of selling them.
Fig. 114. YusuF Bey of Koshk.
Fig. 115. Kurd of Koshk in Gala Dress.
To Lake Van 17
After some palaver we were ushered into his presence ; he
happened to be engaged in prayer. A broad divan followed the
bare walls of a spacious apartment, and rugs were spread upon
the divan. Several tall, lank figures stood on these bright carpets,
with stockings on their feet. They faced the window and the
light ; at the head of one of the two lines was placed an
individual whom we easily recognised as the mollah from his
humbler stature, stouter person and ampler robes. Their backs
were turned towards us as we entered ; we advanced a little, but
not a muscle of the faces moved. Then the silence was broken
by a deep, gurgling sound, which developed into the expression
of a series of labials, half a chant, half a spoken prayer. At
certain passages the figures bowed to the ground, or dropped to
a seated posture, and were still. To us it seemed an ideal
rendering of the solemn relation between man and the universe.
The litany completed, our hosts at once turned towards us,
with a sudden change of countenance which took us by surprise.
Yusuf Bey extended to us his massive but almost fleshless hand ;
his cavernous cheeks were lit by a smile. He and his brother are
men of more than ordinary proportions, and both are true t}'pes
of the Kurd. He told me that they were in daily expectation of
attack from Hoseyn Pasha of Patnotz. This miscreant, although
under the ban of justice, had been given the title of Pasha by the
Turkish Government, partly in order to recruit their new irregulars
among his tribe, and partly as a recompense for his bribes. He
had quite recently burnt some villages of the Sipkanli, and had
reduced the clan to poverty. Judging from the finery which was
displayed by the inhabitants of Koshk (Fig. 115), I could only
accept the latter part of this statement in a very relative sense.
The seats of the Sipkanli extend to the territory of Bayazid ; they
supply three regiments to the Hamidiyeh. After partaking of
supper, we composed ourselves to sleep in the same apartment
into which we had been introduced. The night was disturbed
by the weird cries which were exchanged at frequent intervals
between the patrols in the outskirts and the guard in the village.
Among the forty tenements which constituted this particular
settlement we were astonished to find that six were inhabited by
Armenians. Imagine the condition of these poor people, in
the very jaws of their enemy, who just allows them to exist and
no more ! The Turkish authorities, a long way distant, would
be quite powerless to assist them, even if they had the desire.
VOL. II c
1 8 Armenia
A poor stableman told us beneath his breath that their lot was
desperate, and that some of his countrymen had contrived to
escape to Russia.
The rawness of the climate in the plain of Alashkert had
disappeared when we reached Koshk.^ The weather became
mild, and the sun shone freely from a sky almost devoid of
cloud. When next morning we were again in the saddle at
twenty minutes after seven, the mown pastures looked green and
fresh after the rain of the preceding evening, and it was a delight
to breathe the crisp air. We could still see the distant dome of
the Kuseh Dagh ; the ridge on our left hid the lower slopes of
Sipan. We rode towards the still remote promontory of that
grassy ridge, and the gap between the outlines in the hills. At
a little after eight we had reached the passage ; it appeared to
have a width of about a mile. It leads from the undulating
plains about Koshk to the level plain of Patnotz. The ground
falls away by a succession of inequalities to a spacious area of
flat alluvial land. Beyond that lake-like surface rises the fabric
of a single mountain, the broad base, the vaulted slopes, the
massive crown. Sipan was at last exposed from foot to summit,
recalling by many a characteristic the majestic Ararat." There
was the same length of sweep, the same symmetry of structure,
the same rounded central form. And if we missed the gardens
and the immense expanse of the campagna of Erivan, this open
plain seemed to repeat the surroundings of Ararat on a scale
exactly suited to Sipan.
Near the opening we passed the tiny village of Burnu
Bulakh, inhabited by Kurds. We doubled the long promontory ;
it was evident it had been pushing us away from our true course.
Once rounded, we pursued a south-easterly direction, keeping to
the base of the hills to which it belongs. In these solitudes a
human figure is an unfamiliar object ; great was our surprise to
perceive several men running towards us from a recess in the
range. Stranger still was the discovery that they did not bear
arms ; we collected together, and awaited their approach.
When they had reached speaking distance, they unfolded their
story, and begged for protection at our hands. They were Turks
1 Temperature at 9 P.M. 53° F., and at 6.30 A.M. 41°. None of my readings at
Karakilisa reached as high as the tirst of these, though some were taken in the middle
of the day.
''' The comparison was also suggested to Koch, as lie approached Sipan from the
side of Melazkert [Keisc im poiitiscfuii Gebirge, p. 428).
To Lake Van 19
from the province of Kars who had deserted their lands and
homes, taking with them all their portable wealth. They said
that the Russian Government treated them very badly, favouring
the Molokans, and annoying the members of their religion and
race. They had resolved to seek new seats beneath the sceptre
of the Sultan, and had crossed the frontier in pursuit of this end.
Their journey had until yesterday been uneventful ; but last
evening, as they were approaching the territory of the Haideranli,
they had been savagely attacked. The Kurds had despoiled
them of all their possessions, and had been induced with difficulty
to leave them the clothes in which they stood. Poor fellows !
honest, sturdy peasants, returning to their old allegiance and to
the stronghold of Islam, only to find the one insulted by robbers
and the other a gaping ruin. All we could do was to take them
to the prince of the bandits, in the hope that he would be more
prudent than his wild bands. Inasmuch as they were without
horses it was impossible that they should accompany us to the
town of Akantz.
Not less eloquent an illustration of the decay of the Ottoman
Empire was the landscape through which we passed. Mile after
mile, the eye ranged across the floor of the alluvial plain to the
lower slopes of the great volcano which, with the hills circling
towards them, compose a basin-like area of vast extent. The
fertile soil lies idle, as though the waters had lately receded ; in
the distance some goats and cattle browsed the burnt and scanty
grass. Nature alone has made the most of exceptional oppor-
tunities ; and Sipan, with this plain on one flank and the lake of
Van upon the other, is worthy to rank among the most beautiful
objects in the natural world (Fig. i 16). There can be little differ-
ence between the level of the expanse on either side ; plain and
sea have an elevation of about 5500 feet. The summit of the
slowly -rising fabric which divides them attains an altitude of
13,700 feet. The history of the mountain may be studied to
advantage from this, the northern side. There can be little
doubt that it possessed a central crater, of which the walls have
fallen in upon the north. The southern rim still stands, pre-
senting an almost horizontal outline of sharp rock, harbouring
drifts of snow.' The processes of denudation have been busy
^ Upon my ascent of Sipan during my second journey it was ascertained that the
highest ridge of rock, as seen in this iUustration, is not actually the southern rim of the
crater. It is merely the side of the flat-topped mass of lava, upon which is situated the
eastern summit. The western summit is just visible in this illustration.
20 Armenia
with the slopes of this ancient cone, and have broken the surface
into knife-like ridges. We stood for half-an-hour in full face of
the pile. After crossing two little rivulets which wandered out
from the hills behind us, we arrived at half-past ten in Patnotz.
We found it nothing better than a wretched Kurdish village,
with some one hundred huts and numerous stacks of dried manure.
It is situated at the foot of the hill range which we had been
skirting, and which had gradually been circling round towards
Sipan. It overlooks the plain and the opposite volcano. About
thirty of the tenements are occupied by Armenian families, and
there is a row of shops which rise proudly from the ground. On
the further outskirts a large stone building was in process of being
erected ; the Armenian masons were busy with the work. It
was to serve as a school and for other purposes, and was due to
the policy in favour with the Sultan, of educating the Kurds. I
understood that the funds were provided by the Turkish Govern-
ment. W^e rode up to a group of people assembled before this
palace, and enquired for the chief. Among them was an individual
of heavy build and forbidding features, attired in a long coat of
military pattern, and displaying the brass ensign of the Hamidiyeh
on the sheepskin cap which he wore. It was Hoseyn Pasha, lord
of the Haideranli, and ruler of the territory of Patnotz. The
irregular mouth and nose, and the dull, sparkless eyes correspond
with the reputation which he bears. But discontent as well as
malice was written upon his countenance ; and the situation
explained the humour of the man. His followers would no doubt
argue that he was assisting at his own destruction ; this school
was the visible evidence of the Ottoman yoke. I have no doubt
that he would console them with the assurance of its futility ;
and I am certain that he would be right. Meanwhile he had
appropriated the completed apartments as a residence for him-
self. I waited for him to invite us to be his guests in his new
quarters ; but he beckoned to an attendant to find us a room
in one of the huts. So I dismounted, and myself led the way
into the schoolhouse, obliging him cither to affront or follow me.
He chose the latter course. Continuing the same tactics, I bade
him take a seat by my side on his own divan. In his company
was a fine specimen of the Kurdish nation, whose mien contrasted
with that of his chief; and a genial Turk who had travelled, and
was at once a man of the world and a parasite of the lowest type.
This gentleman was delighted to have an opportunity of con-
To Lake Van 21
versing about the affairs of the outside world ; it was to him that
I addressed the conversation until the sullen temper of the chief
relaxed. When I was able to put some questions in return for
those which I had answered, the tongue of Hoseyn Pasha had
commenced to flow. He told me he was the titular chief of
the Hasananli Kurds, a tribe of which the Haideranli, Adamanli,
and Sipkanli were offshoots or species. This widely-spread genus
extended to the Persian frontier. I asked him why his people
did not cultivate the plain, and augment their wealth and numbers.
He replied that in the absence of communications and markets
they were not encouraged to take such a course. We lunched off
some wretched cheese, inlaid with herbs in Kurdish fashion ; and,
after commending our companions to his sense of responsibility,
took leave at a quarter-past eleven o'clock.
I am sorry that I am not able to present a better description
of the features of the country between Patnotz and the lake of
Van. I hope that some future traveller will be able to ascend
the sides of the hills along the trough of which we rode for many
miles. I should advise him to devote at least three days to the
journey between Karakilisa and Akantz. The first night would
be spent at Tutakh, the second at Patnotz. Hoseyn Pasha was
astonished to hear of our intention to push on to our destination
by a single stage. But the zaptieh knew of no village in which
we might safely sojourn, before reaching the territory of Akantz.
The authority of the Turkish Government is little better than a
name among the valleys of the Ala Dagh. I was assured that I
had formed a wrong conception of the distance, which, measured
direct on the map of Kiepert, amounts to no more than twenty-one
miles. Arrived at Akantz, I computed that we had covered, from
station to station, no less than thirty-six miles. An incident which
occurred just after our departure contributed to hasten our steps.
A Kurd, mounted on a swift Arab, cantered ahead of us and was
soon lost to sight. The zaptieh was certain it was an emissary of
the chief, whose treachery he feared. The word would be given to
the bands in the district that helpless travellers were passing their
way. I think it more probable that he was bearer of orders not
to attack us on any account.
From Patnotz we proceeded in an easterly direction towards
the ridge which bounds the plain upon the east. It connects
with the hills which we had so long been skirting, and which
hollow inwards beyond the village. A few minutes before twelve
22 Armenia
we were on the summit of the low pass, and were leaving behind
us the landscape of the plain. We entered a broad valley, which,
with a grassy hill range on either side, stretched away towards
south-east. The range on our right concealed from view the
lower slopes of Sipan, and was distant about a mile. Its eleva-
tion above the valley was at first not greater than from lOO to
500 feet ; but, as we proceeded, it rose to a more considerable
altitude, and, at the same time, came closer up to the track. On
our left hand the barrier was more remote and loftier, some five
miles off, and some 1000 feet above our heads. The heights
were streaked with snow ; according to our informants, they belong
to the system of the Ala Dagh. We rode for several hours
between these two ridges, the ground rising as we advanced. Here
and there a little brook threaded the waste soil, flowing towards
the west. At one o'clock we came up with a long line of
bullock carts, travelling from Erzerum to Van. We counted no
less than seventy of these primitive vehicles, crawling over the
ground with creaking wheels. Several horsemen accompanied
the caravan, their persons bristling with arms of every kind. The
leader was a Turk of quality and some importance. He told me
that the journey occupied eight days, and that the Murad was
crossed at Tutakh. Each of the drivers was said to be in
possession of weapons, although they did not happen to be
wearing them as we passed.
Three-quarters of an hour later we crossed a nice stream
which, according to the zaptieh, flows into the lake. The trans-
parent current pursued for some distance a roughly parallel
direction to the south-easterly course upon which we rode. It
left us to diverge southwards towards the barrier on our right ;
but we could not discover at what point it pierced the hills. A
few horses were grazing upon its margin, and we wondered to
whom they might belong. The track continued to approach the
immediate foot of those hills, and they continued to increase in
height. But it became evident that the average elevation of the
ground had risen, for we were on a level with the higher slopes
of the opposite range. At three o'clock we reached the end of
the long valley, which narrows towards its head. The hills roll
away ; you stand on a lofty platform which commands a distant
prospect of the lake of Van.
Dismounting on the rough soil, we stood for half-an-hour in
contemplation of the scene. All our horses show^ed signs of
To Lake Van 23
fatigue ; that of the dragoman was quite exhausted, and his
plump rider required to be h'fted from the saddle. We had
covered, according to estimate, some 1 8 miles from Patnotz
and over 33 from Koshk. The instruments were uncased,
and the elevation taken, which I compute in round numbers
at 1000 feet above the level of the lake. Below us lay
spacious tracts of undulating country — friable soil, modelled into
hummock shapes. We could follow the long profile of the hills
on our left hand, dying away towards the still remote shore.
The waters were scarcely visible beyond the detail of the middle
distance — a glimpse of blue in the lap of the expanse. They
represent the gulf-like extremity of the inland sea, of which the
broad face is hidden from these slopes. But the scale and
tendency of the land forms prepared us for such a presence,
which they were aptly designed to usher in. We stood on the
edge of a great half-circle ; the view ranged to some sharp
summits, belonging to a ridge on the opposite side of the lake,
which must have been some 40 miles away. Our zaptieh knew
it under the name of Besh Parmak, or the mountain of the five
fingers. The arc of the curve was composed by the heights in
that direction, arresting the softness of the vaulted hills and
shelving ground. We were shovvm a long bank which had the
appearance of a mound, and was distinguished from similar shapes
by its size. It lay in the distant trough of the landscape, and
was said to overlook the town of Akantz.
I placed the dragoman on my own horse, and was obliged to
perpetrate the cruelty of riding his jaded animal. We had the
benefit of the incline ; but the nature of the ground was against
us, necessitating long winds. Deep gullies obstructed our
course ; or we were turned aside by rising land. If I have
estimated correctly, we were separated from our destination by a
space of fifteen miles. We took to the saddle at half-past three ;
we did not arrive until past seven ; and we must have covered
some eighteen miles. At half-past four we crossed the first
running water, and we were at the first village at a little before
five. Karakilisa (Black Church) is well named, for it possesses
a little church of black stone, with group of gables and conical
dome. It is inhabited by Armenians, and has an air of
prosperity ; we were refreshed by the rare sight ot a group of
trees. The next settlement, Hipsinek, was also Armenian ; we
had emerged from the wild Kurdish zone. As we neared the
24 Armenia
lower levels, the deep silence of the evening was broken by a
loud, rumbling sound. It was a river, descending from the
mountains, and flowing in a stony bed. They call it the Buyuk
Chai or Erishat ; we crossed it, and arrived, soon after, at a
village which bears the last of these names. It was half-past six
o'clock ; the light was uncertain ; we were near water and on
marshy ground. A villager was hailed ; he showed us the way
with a lantern to the solid land beyond. We proceeded at a
walking pace along the foot of a dark cliff to the houses of
Akantz.
CHAPTER III
ACROSS LAKE VAN
The Kaimakam of Akantz was in the company of his notables
when we entered his reception room. Along the walls of the
bare apartment stretched the usual cushioned seat ; a row of
figures, serried upon it, lined two sides. It was with difficulty
that place was made for us beside him ; and several minutes
were occupied by the exchange of salutes, each man bowing and
raising the hand to the chin and forehead. Coffee and warmth
revived the drooping person of the dragoman ; such was his com-
mand both of the Turkish and the German languages that it cost
him little effort to perform his task. While supper and a lodging
were being prepared for us, I was able to discuss plans with the
Kaimakam. He promised that he would endeavour to procure a
trading vessel to take us to Van on the following day. He
engaged to despatch our horses thither, as soon as they should
recover, by way of the southern shore of the lake. Unlike his
colleague of Karakilisa, he proved faithful to his word ; but I
regret to say that we never saw the dragoman's horse again.
That night and the following day I attended him myself; but he
appears to have died a few days after we left.^ It was arranged
that on the morrow we should visit the ruins of Arjish. I
enquired of our host whether he knew of the remains of a city on
the table surface of the cliff above Akantz. He confirmed the
information which is given by Vital Cuinet, and said that the
place was known to the learned under the name of Kala-i-Zerin.
The people call it Zernishan."
1 Mignan tells us that he purchased a gelding at Sulimanieh which carried him
from Baghdad to Tiflis across Kurdistan in 1 6 days, a distance of at least 800 miles
{Winter Journey, etc., London, 1839). I have heard of similar feats in the East, but
have not been anxious to place the veracity of my informants to the test.
" La Tiirquie cfAsie, Paris, 1892, vol. ii. p. 710, "Tout pres d' Akantz, a 2 kilo-
Armenia
According to the Kaimakam there are no less than 500
houses in Akantz ; but I am incHned to consider this figure
excessive. A number among them are well built, with good
walls and glass-paned windows ; and it was a change to erect
our camp beds in a clean and airy room. The population is
partly Mussulman and partly Armenian. I should say that the
former have the preponderance, although not in the proportion
which was assigned to them by the same authority of four-
fifths of the whole.^ The Armenians possess two churches and
a school, administered by a priest. Several regiments of
Hamidiyeh have their headquarters in the town. They are
Fig. 117. Akantz.
recruited among the Haideranli and Adamanli Kurds. Their
enrolment has been attended by the usual result — a general
relaxation of the law. Robberies are committed under the eyes
of the Kaimakam, and stealing is scarcely considered an offence.
While our effects were being conveyed to the lake in a little cart,
a clever thief made away with the yoke of the oxen.
The morning of the next day was devoted to preparations,
and the whole afternoon was occupied by our excursion to Arjish.
The site bears a few points west of a line due south from Akantz,
metres vers Test, se trouve una montngne qui renferme une carriere de pierre calcaire,
de 3 kilometres d'etendue, large d'environ 300 metres. Le sommet de cette montagne
se termine par im vaste plateau couvert des ruines d'une ville antique nommee Zernak
qui fut ties florissante. Les rues de la dite ville sont larges et coupees a angle droit ;
on retire de ses edifices de belles pierres siliceuses regulierement taillees dont on se
sert pour les nouvelles constructions."
' Cuinet [op. cit.) goes quite astray in his statistics both of the caza and town. He
estimates the Mussulman inhabitants of the whole caza at only 5129. Akantz and the
villages between it and the lake would alone contain as many or more.
Across Lake Van 27
at a distance of several miles. But the track across the plain is
obstructed by channels of water which compel you to deviate.
Leaving the town by the south side, we paused to admire the
cluster of houses, embowered in trees, and backed by the high
cliff (Fig. 117). A continuation of the same ridge rises behind
the gardens and orchards, which are about a mile away, upon
the east. Between us and the lake lay a broad zone of alluvial
land, of sandy surface broken by green oases. We rode through
two considerable villages, Hargin and Igmal. They are almost
buried beneath the foliage of tall poplars and forest trees which
are supported by a network of irrigation. The last of these two
settlements can scarcely be less distant than an hour's walk from
the shore. Beyond them the ground is patched with cultivation,
which in turn gives place to a desert, cut by dikes. The ruins
adjoin the lake, and accentuate the loneliness of the bleak waste
from which they rise (Fig. i 18 from the north, and Fig. i 19 from
the south).
Little is left above ground of the once important borough
of medicHEval repute. The crumbling walls of a castle, a ruined
chapel, a minaret are the principal monuments still erect. The
method of building is that of a more cultured age. A recent fire
had converted the brushwood into black patches. We looked across
the silvery waters to the opposite shore of the lake, from which a
range of hills rise. Behind this barrier towers a rocky ridge of
serrated outline, which, commencing at a point about east of the
ruins, extends westwards and groups together with the magnificent
chain on the southern margin of the sea. The arm beside which
we stood stretched away by a succession of promontories, to
spread towards those distant and snowy peaks in the south.
Arjish played an important part in the history of the Middle
Ages ; and there can be no doubt that these ruins are those
of the mediiEval city.^ On the other hand it is quite possible
that the name Arsissa, under which Lake Van was known to
Ptolemy, may be connected with a much more ancient Arjish,
which may well have stood on the high land overlooking the
modern town of Akantz. I regretted at the time of my visit,
and I have since had reason to deplore more keenly, our inability
1 I do not think that Vivien de Saint Martin is justified in supposing that the town
which was destroyed by the Georgians in A.D. 1209 was situated in a different locality
from that occupied by these ruins {N'oiiveaii Diitioiinaire de Gt'ographie Uiiiveiselle, Paris,
1879-95, ^"^' "^'Oi-'^ Ardjiz).
2 8 Armenia
Fig. 118. Ruins of Arjish from the North.
to protract our stay in the neighbourhood, and to examine the
site of the so-called Zernak, or Zerin, or Zernishan, of which I
have already spoken. Its situation seems to correspond with
that of the plateau of Karatash or Ilantash, where Schulz informs
us that he discovered traces of the sites of numerous buildings,
and at the foot of which, on the north-east, facing the plain, he
copied inscriptions in the cuneiform character, which, according
to the translation of Professor Sayce, record the planting of
vineyards in this region by the Vannic king Sarduris III., who
lived in the eighth century before Christ [c. 735 B.C.).^ The
inscriptions are found upon a series of three tablets, hewn in the
rock, some eight feet above the ground. One of the tablets is
without any characters."' Close by is the cave where a nest of
serpents or large lizards are reputed to have lodged since im-
memorial times, and have been seen by modern travellers.^ The
place is described as being situated about two miles east of Akantz
near the road to Haidar Bey.'* Messrs. Belck and Lehmann, who
have visited Akantz since I was there, were brought some objects
in bronze, of which one represented a serpent, and another con-
tained cuneiform characters. They were found by the natives
among the ruins of this Zernak.^ It will be interesting to learn
^ Schulz, in Journal Asiatiqiie, Paris, 1840, series 3, vol. ix. p. 322. Sayce, The
Cimeifonn Inscriptions of Van, in Journal 0/ the Royal Asiatic Society, 1882, vol. xiv.
pp. 649 se(j., and 1888, vol. xx. p]5. 3 and 19.
^ According to Dr. Belck ( Verhandluni^en der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie,
etc., 1895, Heft \'I. p. 599) the third tablet can never have possessed an inscription.
•'' See especially Mliller-Simonis, Du Caiicase an Golfe Pcrsicjiie, Paris, 1892, p. 393.
■* M tiller- Simonis, of>. cit. pp. 292 and 555.
'' \'crhandluu!:;en der B. G. fiir Anthropoloi^ic, 1898, Heft \'I. \>. 591. These
travellers add yet another name to the supposed ruins, viz. that of Sirnakar.
Across Lake Van 29
Fig. 119. Ruins of Arjish from the South.
the result of the excavations which they appear to contemplate.
In the village of Hargin, through which we passed, they have
found a large stele, with a cuneiform inscription of Argistis II.
(714-r. 690 B.C.). A second monument, containing records of
the same monarch, has been discovered by them in the same
district.^ The name Arjish agrees so nearly with that of this
Vannic king that one is tempted to suppose that it is derived
from it. And we may be rewarded by the bringing to light
of a city of Argistis, buried upon the summit of that salubrious
plateau of which the cliff backs the houses of Akantz.
The mediaeval city of Arjish was sacked by the Georgians
in A.H. 605, or A.D. 1208-9. The Arab historian, Ibn-Alathir,
who chronicles this event, states that its outcome was the desertion
of the place by the inhabitants, so that it remained in the ruinous
condition to which it had been reduced.- But there seems to
exist evidence to show that, like Ani, Arjish struggled on through
the centuries during which barbarism was increasing its hold upon
the land.^ It w^as known to Marco Polo (thirteenth century) as
one of the three greatest cities of Armenia ; and at the com-
mencement of the sixteenth century it formed one of the seven
fortresses which encircled the lakeof Van."^ In the summer of 1838
it was still peopled ; but in the winter of that year the waters of
1 Verhaiidhuigen der B. G. fiir Aiithropologie, 1898, Heft VI. p. 573.
2 See the extract from Ibn-Alathir in Fragments de g^ographes et d'kisiorieiis Arahes
etPersaits uu'dits, by Defremery, in Journal Asiatiqtie, Paris, 1849, series 4, vol. xiii.
p. 518.
3 Saint Martin, M^titotres siir PArnuUiie, vol. i. p. 136. We know that Ani was
a fairly populous town long after the date when it was formerly supposed to have been
deserted.
* Marco Polo, Yule's translation, London, 1874, vol. i. p. 47; and "Merchant
in Persia" in Italian Travels in Persia, Hakluyt Society, London, 1873, p. 160.
The other six castles were Tadvan, Vostan, Van, Berkri, Adeljivas and Akhlat.
30
Armenia
the lake rose, until in 1 84 1 they had attained an increase of
some 10 to 12 feet. The foundations of the houses gave way
and the supply of fresh water failed.^ Arjish was evacuated by
its reduced population, and is at the present day not tenanted
by a single soul. Marshes extend on either side of the ruins ;
that on the east appeared to me to be the more extensive.
We had been warned not to linger too long upon the site ;
the district is inhabited by some Kurds of ill repute. One of
them had been sighted making off to apprise his friends of our
presence. Yet darkness had fallen before we were clear of the
intricate dikes, among which it would have been easy for an
armed man or two to cut off our retreat. The villages lay before
Fig. 120. Our Boat on Lake Van.
us — a mass of gloom in the dimly lighted scene. We were glad
to pass within the fringe of their orchards ; and a little later
we were again in safety at Akantz. Meanwhile the necessary
preparations had been completed, and we were informed that a
vessel would be ready to receive us after we had partaken of a
meal. We set out at nine o'clock ; yet not a single light
flickered among the houses of the silent town. The boats
station at a point about south-east of the settlement, along the
margin of the sandy shore. It was after ten o'clock by the time
we reached the lake and our craft, from which the long stage
was dropped upon the sand to let us in (Fig. i 20). The vessel
was not decked, and we could spread our carpets within the
hollow of her lofty sides. Scarcely a breath of air was stirring ;
' Loftii.s, who visited .\rjisii in 1S52, has collected ihe fads relative to the inundation
{Quarterly Journal of Geological Society, London, 1S55, vol. xi. p. 319).
Across Lake Van 31
but- the breeze was expected, and it was decided to await its
approach. We composed ourselves to sleep beneath the stars.
At midnight we set sail. When I awoke at half-past seven,
the sky was blue in the zenith above my eyes. Set within that
field of brightness, the pale crescent of the moon marked the
boundary of a sheet of cirrus cloud. The gauzy tissues deepened
as they neared the horizon, and gathered into long banks of
heavy vapour, suspended about the summits of the chain of inky
mountains which borders the lake upon the south. In that
distant and gloomy range I at once recognised the features of
the mountains of Kurdistan. It was the same chain that I had
followed for weeks upon the waters of the Tigris, threading the
vast plains between Diarbekr and the Persian Gulf Day by
day those steep parapets, sharp peaks, and gleaming snows had
accompanied the peaceful voyage of my little raft.
How well I now recalled the longing I had then experienced
to explore the famous lake on their further side ! What a thrill
of pleasure I now felt to be floating upon its waters, expanding
towards those mountains with the proportions of a sea ! The
reflection of the blue vault above us paled and whitened as the
flood approached that long black line. Bank upon bank, the
clouds were serried upon the peaks, shot by the lights from the
snows. Here and there the fretted outline of a pearly bed of
vapour was drawn across the background of dull opal in the region
of the middle slopes ; or wreathing forms, like smoke, clinging to
the sides of some loftier eminence, broke the horizontal layers.
The scene behind us contrasted the softness of a southern
landscape with the stern grandeur of the coast above our prow.
The northern shores of the lake were bathed in light ; and the
hummock convexities of the Ala Dagh, streaked with snow
towards the summits, rose against a sky of transparent turquoise,
and sank to a surface of more solid substance, but not less pure
and not less blue. From these heights, across the long sheet
of azure water to dazzling snow in the heaven above our heads,
the fabric of Sipan mounted slowly to the flat rim of the central
crater, and, sweeping past us, declined, with equal majesty of
outline, to low ground in the west. The great volcano composes
one whole side of the lake, and faces full south. I observed
that the snow-line was perceptibly higher than on the occasion
when we had approached the mountain from the north. The
western limits of the lake were vague, and, in places, invisible ;
32 Armejtia
the mass of Nimrud, dim and cloud-streaked, had the appearance
of a long island, rising on the horizon between the sunny slopes
of Sipan and the nebulous barrier of the Kurdish chain.
It is this contrast — no chance effect of light and atmosphere
— between the more northerly and the more southerly coasts of
the vast basin that gives to the lake of Van its own peculiar
character and a beauty quite its own. On the one hand, length of
sweep in the form, and brilliancy of tone in the colouring — as seen
in the curves of the bays, in the profiles of the mountains, in the
texture of the soil ; on the other, startling steepness, black rocks and
deep shadows — one long serration, made more vivid by the snows.
Here a scene which recalls the luxuriance of the bay of Naples ;
there the features, the austere features, of a Norwegian fiord,
A fresh north-easterly breeze filled our huge lateen sail ; in
the hollow of the white fold were painted large in a russet brown
the emblems of a crescent and a star. The ship was heading
for a low promontory which showed up yellow against the shades
of the distance, and ended in a little island rock. That cape
conceals the site of the city of Van, as you approach it from the
east. The answering horn of a wide bay rose from the waters
in our wake ; we were skirting the eastern shore of the sea, with
its gentle hills and delicate hues. On the slopes we could just
discern a single small village, the only sign of the presence of man.
On we glide, and are soon almost abreast of the promontory,
opening the expanse on the further side. The line of the shore
curves inwards, and describes a wide half-circle, meeting the base
of the stupendous barrier in the south. The whole long range
is exposed to view, from foot to cloud-swept summit, from the
waters in the west to beyond the waters in the east. The eye
is arrested by a strange vision in the middle distance — a bold,
black rock, starting from a bed of white mist on the surface of
the sea. We learn from the sailors that it is the castled rock of
Van. When the mist clears, and the object appears in its true pro-
portions, it becomes a speck against the parapet of the great chain.
We approach the little island ; I decide to land upon it ; the
water shallows, and assumes a hue of pure cobalt. Then the bed
of soft white rock shines through the crystal element, and the
vessel takes the ground. One steps ashore with the feelings of a
Greek manner, come from afar to a strange land. Gulls circle
round us or rest tamely on the rocks ; surely we have sailed
across the bosom of the high seas.
Across Lake Van i^t^
Ktutz is the name of this enchanting spot, a name insulting
to a Western tongue (Fig. 121).^ We walked across a narrow
stretch of grass, strewn with boulders, in the direction of a crag
of the same white limestone, weathered yellow,^ by which the cliff
on the opposite shore of the islet falls away before reaching the
point. Against that crumbling surface rose the conical dome of an
ancient church, surmounting a picturesque group of gables, and,
below these, a cluster of mud walls. Several almond-trees, of great
age, spread their stippled foliage along the foot and up the side
Fig. 121. Scene on the Island of Ktutz.
of the cliff. We observed for the first time one of the primitive
structures which the people use for drawing water from their wells.^
The figure of a priest advanced to meet us ; he greeted us
kindly, and offered to escort us to the monastery. The finished
masonry of the dome, the careful juxtaposition of black with
1 It may help to advance the study of the changes of level in the waters of Lake Van
if I record that at the time of our visit (November 2) the island of Ktutz was almost a pen-
insula. The monks told us that in a few weeks' time the long neck of sand which almost
joined it to the land would be exposed from end to end. In spring the waters cover it.
- This rock, a specimen of which I brought home, may be described as a compact
limestone, largely consisting of foraminifera and fragments of mollusca and other inverte-
brate organisms.
^ The long pole shown in the picture projecting against the sky serves as a lever
for lifting the bucket.
VOL. II D
34
Arinenia
yellow stone in the roof, evinced the culture of a happier age.
The church consists of an outer nave and an inner sanctuary,
from which the former is separated by a solid wall. As at
Khosha Vank, near Ani, this outer building or projiaos is of larger
dimensions than the shrine to which it leads.^ It has probably
been added at a
later epoch. The
nave is accom-
panied by two
broad aisles. The
doorway through
which you enter
the inner chapel
is richly carved
in the Arab style
(Fig. 122). You
look from with-
out the open door
across deep
shadows to the
lofty dais of
sculptured stone
which supports
the high altar in
the apsp.
The inner
chapel must date
back to a remote
period, in spite
of the ogival
arches of the two
little doorways in
the apses of the
influence of Arab
pointed arches of
Fig. 122. Doorway of the Church at Ktutz.
narrow side aisles. These betray the direct
architecture, and are a solecism among the
which the rest of the edifice is built up. It is disposed in the
form of a Greek cross ; the dome rises from massive piers. The
apse on the north contains a chamber in which you are shown
I The measurements of the interior .nre as follows : — JVonaos, length 36 feet 2 inches
by 34 feet 4 inches. Church pro]ier, length to head of apse, 40 feet 7 inches (25 feet
ID inches to the dais supporting the altar, and 14 feet 9 inches from the dais to the wall
of the apse) ; breadth, 24 feet 8 inches.
Across Lake Van 35
the grave of John the Baptist, and a girdle which is said to have
belonged to the Saint. Frescos after the taste of the Persians
cover the smaller spaces — garlands and wreaths of bright leaves.
The archways are painted in quiet blues and reds ; pictures of
saints are suspended from the walls. Elaborate altar-pieces adjoin
the entrance, one on either side of the door. The iloor is carpeted
with rugs, and an air of comfort pervades the dimly-lit shrine.
This twilight serves to soften the gorgeous decorations which the
wear of time has assisted to subdue. Neither they nor the
interior which they adorn are of striking merit ; yet you leave
under the impression of a composite charm. We, as Englishmen,
were much interested by an old standard clock which, to our
surprise, bore on its face the name of Isaac Rogers, London. It
ticked away in the heavy quiet, an object so familiar that our
guide forgot to point it out.^
He was a pleasant individual, quite young, extremely ignorant
and without ambition to learn. He was called the monk Peter,
or Petros vardapct. Eight monks were on the foundation of the
cloister ; of these only four were in residence on the island. We
found them each in his cell, sharing the group of little buildings
which cluster at the foot of the church. All appeared to be
without work or occupation of any kind. They seemed to have
passed their lives upon the cushions of their couches, looking
across the tremulous shade of the almond trees to the Italian sea
and the soaring fabric of Sipan.
It was half-past twelve when we put off; the wind had
dropped, and scarcely enabled us to forge ahead. For several
hours we lay becalmed on the bosom of the lake, here at its
widest, in full face of the murk)' chain on the horizon, which was
reflected in hues of burnished steel. Banks of mist shrouded the
landscape, especialh' in the west, where the mass of Nimrud
seemed encircled by the sea. A pest of little midges covered
our clothes and blackened our papers ; then a shower fell, and
yet another, and the\' disappeared. About four o'clock a nice
breeze freshened, coming from the shore of low hills upon our
left. It brought with it rain ; but a little later the sun triumphed,
and burst the canopy of clouds in the south and west. A double
rainbow of great brilliancy rose from that near shore, revealing
the site of a little village. Our head was pointed to the rock of
' The reader of early travels in the East will be familiar with the figure of the
European watch and clock maker, to whom he is introduced in some distant city of Asia,
36 ■ Armenia
Van, which, at this distance, shows hke an island, even without
the assistance of mirage. The long barrier of the Kurdish range
declines in that direction, and gives way to a less steep and less
gloomy ridge ; but that outline again rises on the further side of
the city, to culminate in a lofty parapet of saw-shaped edge,
Varag — such is the name of this mass — commands the bay in
which Van lies from behind a spacious interval of garden and
field. In the landscape it strikes the last note of the tumultuous
theme which is suggested by the mountains in the south — a final
trumpet blast by which the procession marches onwards to the
Persian plains.
In the opposite quarter, across the lake, and against the
declining slope of Sipan the gardens of Adeljivas might just be
seen in shades of grey. Those of Artemid were more distinct —
a stretch of softness and verdure along the summit of a low
cliff of yellow substance near the foot of the black range. A
fragment of rock thrown seawards from those mountains was
identified as the isle of Akhtamar. But the site of Van engrossed
us, surpassing our expectations, high as these were. The rock,
which had appeared at a distance to be an island, projected
almost into the waters from a background of plain and without
visible connection on any side. Battlements crowned its horizontal
outline ; while at its foot and along the shore luscious foliage,
touched by autumn, covered all the inequalities of the ground.
From rock and garden, and from the vague detail of the middle
distance the eye was led upwards to the stony slopes of Varag ;
a bed of cloud lay captive upon them ; but the jagged parapet
stood out from a clear sk}-. Here and there, stray fragments of
vapour, flushed by the evening, floated outwards from the dense
canopy over the mountains in the south. The veiled snowfields
of the range were revealed in fitful glimpses of yellow, unnatural
light. . . . We moored our vessel by the side of a cluster of
similar craft at the so-called harbour, and took the direction in
which the town was said to lie. It is surrounded by a walled
enclosure, and nestles at the foot of the rock. Darkness had
fallen as we passed down its silent streets, made more gloomy by
the shadows from the cliff The bark of dogs, the sad refrain of
an Eastern song were the only sounds which broke the stillness
of the night. Then we entered a broad chaussee which stretches
inland to the suburb of gardens which usurps the importance of
the fortified town. There are situated the Consulates of the
Across Lake Van t^j
European Powers, and the residences of the principal citizens.
Poplars of great height rose from the irrigated ground on either
side of the road. Side lanes led away from this broad avenue
into the park of trees. After a walk which seemed interminable,
and which occupied no less than three hours, we arrived at the
British Consulate at half-past nine o'clock.
CHAPTER IV
VAN
Of the various sites which one might select upon the shores of
the lake of Van, none would present as great advantages for a
populous and self-contained settlement as that of the city from
which it derives its name. The great range along the southern
coast leaves little respite of even land between the waves and
the parapet of rock. The opposite margin of the bosom of waters
is filled with the fabrics of those huge volcanoes, Nimrud and
Sipan. Sipan, indeed, upon nearer acquaintance, is robbed of
some of his apparent extension ; and the low outlines on the
west and east of the dome-shaped mass upon the horizon will be
recognised to belong to a belt of limestone with intrusive igneous
rocks which the traveller follows all the wa}' from Akhlat to
Adeljivas, and upon which the volcano has built itself up. But
those hills, which from the neighbourhood of Van seem to consti-
tute the train of Sipan, are at once rugged and approach closely
to the shore. Arjish alone is backed by a zone of fairly even
and fertile country ; while, as regards the coast between Van and
the mouth of the LJcndimahi Chai, I do not know that it has ever
harboured a considerable city. On the other hand, the alluvial plain
which is confined by Mount Varag upon the east, and which may
be said to extend from a headland near the village of Kalajik on
the north to the high ground just north of Artemid upon the
south, affords a considerable area of rich soil, capable under
irrigation of producing the choicest fruits of the earth.
Of the beauty of the site it would not be possible to speak
too highly ; Init I tremble to provoke in my English reader a
nausea of descriptive writing. The Armenians have a pro\-erb
which is often quoted : J^(t// in this n'orld and panxdisc in the next.
The comparison might be justified under happier human circum-
Va7i 39
stances, the perversity of man having converted this heaven into
a little hell. Its aptness may be recognised during the course
of a walk in the neighbourhood, or from the standpoint of the
rock which supports the citadel. In the north across the waters
is outspread an Italian landscape — a Vesuvius or an Etna, with
their sinuous surroundings, on an Asiatic scale. Nearer at hand
and fully exposed, the long barrier of the Kurdish mountains
recalls the wildest scenery of the Norwegian coast. From the
city herself as from the extremities of the wide basin, the short,
sharp ridge of Varag is seen with pleasure to the eye, lifted
some 4500 feet above the waters, and, at evening, reflecting the
sunset in the most varied hues. The lake is not sufficiently large
to separate these various objects by distances which preclude
under ordinary conditions the simultaneous enjoyment of the
beauty of all from a single shore. And it is large enough to
spread at their feet with all the qualities of the ocean — the depth
and vastness and changing surface of the high seas.
I. — The Lake of Van
It is about six times as large as the lake of Gene^•a,
having an area of some 1300 square miles. Its western shore is
erroneously laid down in existing maps ; and this necessitated
a particular survey of that region during my second journe}^ the
result of which has been to invest the lake with a shape of
greater symmetry — a central body with two arms, one on the
north-east, the other on the south-west. The remainder of the
outline I have borrowed from the best available sources, adapting
them to the position of Van, of which the latitude and longitude
are approximately known, and correcting them as well as possible
by sketches, and readings to the principal points from the summit
of Sipan. If my reader will turn to the map which accompanies
this work he will, I think, be able to transfer, with the aid of a
^Q\\ illustrations, the features which are there conventionally de-
lineated into a picture visible by the mind's eye.
How strange it seems that at the end of the nineteenth
century one should be engaged in exploring and mapping this
fine country, one of the fairest and most favoured of the Old
World ! How should we be able to explain, still less to justify,
the circumstance to some visitor from another planet? It lies
about in the centre of the land area of our hemisphere ; the
40 Armenia
climate is bracing, water is abundant, the sun is warm. Yet it
is so little known to the more civilised peoples that their
travellers journey thither with the aid of a compass through
districts which are now deserts, but which are well capable of
supporting the races that are highest in the human scale. The
case would appear to have been much the same during the period
of the expansion of Greek culture and of the later and beneficent
sway of Rome. The knowledge displayed of these regions by
representative writers like Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy is, to say
the best of it, vague and fabulous. Yet Strabo, the contemporary
of Augustus, w^s a native of Asia Minor ; the countrymen of
Pliny had carried the Roman eagles to the Araxes ; and Ptolemy
wrote during the reign of the Emperor Hadrian whose statue,
commemorating his journey through the interior, looked out upon
the waves above Trebizond. The first of these authorities
plainl}' confuses the position of Lake Urmi with that of Lake
Van ; but he is well acquainted with the essential characteristics
of both sheets of water, different and strongly marked as these
are. The former is described as largest in area, and second in
size to the sea of Azof; its name is interpreted to signify the
deep blue (kvuv!} kp^i-jvevOelcra). The water is salt ; and there
arc salt works in the neighbourhood.^ The peculiar properties
which actually distinguish the latter exactl}' tally with the
language of Strabo, who, speaking next of the lake Arsene or
Thopitis, says that it is charged with nitre, which word would seem
with him to signify carbonate of soda," and that it washes clothes
as though thc}' had been scoured. He adds that the water is
undrinkable and supports onh' one kind of nsh. And he pro-
ceeds to relate a circumstance which is repeated and embroidered
by Pliny, and which is so curious that I cannot refrain from extract-
ing the whole passage from the work of the last-named writer.^
' Strabo, xi. 529. This account exactly corresponds to the phenomena presented
by Lake Urmi, and it is impossible to apply it to Lake Van as Kilter (Erdkiiitde, ix. p.
784) has done. It is quite true that Strabo has already six chapters back mentioned
and described the former under the name of Spauta, which is quite likely a misprint for
Kapauta, a corruption of the Armenian name Kapf)tan, which, in turn, is evidently
derived from the .Armenian word kapoyt, signifying blue (Saint Martin, Mt'»toires, i. ]i. 59).
In that passage he rightly places the lake in the Atropatian Media ; while in chapter
529 he speaks of it under a difterent name, that of Mantiane, and says that it extends
as far as .\tropatia. But that the .MaiUiane, as described by Strabo, is not our Lake
Wan, and that the latter is in many respects most faithfully portrayed by him under the
name Thopitis in sentences immediately following, there can, I think, be little doubt.
- Liddell and Scott, stih voce virpov.
' I'liny, Hisf. Natiiralis, vi. ch. 31, translated by Philemon Holland, London, 1635.
I have myself added the sentences in brackets.
Van 4 1
'■'■ Meet also and convenient it is to say somewhat of the river Ti}:;ris.
It begins in the land of Armenia the greater, issuing out of a great
source ; and evident to be seen in the very plaine (fonte conspicuo in planitie).
The place beareth the name of Elongosine (or Elegosine, Elosine, Elegos).
The river it selfe so long as it runs slow and softly is named Diglito ; but
when it begins once to carry a more forcible streame it is called Tigris, for
the swiftnesse thereof ; which iti the Median language betokens a shaft
f^sagittaj. // runs into the lake Arethusa, ~vhich beareth up aflote all that
is cast into it, suffering nothing to sinke ; and the vapors that arise out of it
carry the sent of nitre. In this lake there is but one kind of fish, and that
entreth not into the chanell of Tigris as it passeth through, nor more than
any fishes stvim out of Tigris into the water of the lake. In his course and
colour both he is unlike, and as he goes may be discerned from the other : and
being once past the lake, and incountreth the great mountain Taurus, he
loseth himself in a certain cave or hole in the ground, and so runs under the
hill, untill on the other side thereof he breaketh forth again, and appeares in
his likenesse, in a place called Zoroanda. That it is the same river it is
evident by this, that he carrieth through with him, and showeth in Zoroanda,
whatsoever was cast into him before he hid himselfe in the cave aforesaid.
After this second spring and rising of his he enters into another lake, and
runneth through it liketvise, named Ihospites ; and once again takes his way
under the earth through certain blind gutters, and 25 7niles beyond he
putteth forth his head about NymphcEum. Claudius CcBsar reporteth, that
in the country Arrhene, the river Tigris runs so 7ieere the river Arsania,
that 7i'hen they both swell, and their ivaters are out, they joyne both their
streams together, yet so, as the water is not mingled : for Arsanias being
the lighter of the ttvain, swimmeth and floteth over the other for the space
wel-neere of ^ miles : but soon after they part asunder, and Arsania turneth
his course toivard the river Euphrates, into which he entreth."
We need not discuss in this place the phenomenon last
mentioned, except to remark that the story may well have been
suggested by the propinquity of the sources of the Diarbekr branch
of the Tigris to the stream of the Murad, the ancient Arsanias.
The country of Arrhene is probably the same as that better known
as Arzanene, which is comprised within the present vilayet of
Diarbekr. Our present interest in the passage lies in the state-
ments relative to the Tigris, that it flows through two lakes called
Arethusa and Thospites. Strabo, in speaking of the same pheno-
menon, attributes it to one lake only, namely that of Arsene
or Thopitis. The river, according to him, rises in the Niphates
mountains, by which name he seems to be referring to the
Nepat of Armenian writers, the modern Ala Dagh. After
flowing through Lake Thopitis it disappears in a chasm at the
corner of the lake. It comes to light again in the province of
42 Armenia
Chalonitis ; and, although later on he attributes that province to
the Zagros, I cannot help thinking that the sense which his
informants wished to convey was that it came to light in the
mountains of the peripheral region. The mention of two lakes
by Pliny need not perplex us over-much ; for his Arethusa no
doubt denotes the Arjish arm of Lake Van, and his Thospites
the principal body of water with the city of Van, the Dhuspas of
the cuneiform inscriptions, upon its eastern shore. Ptolemy, on
the other hand, entangles the subject still further by separating
the lakes of Areesa — no doubt the Arethusa of Pliny — and
Thospitis by four degrees of longitude. This geographer does
not give us any indications as to the properties of the lake waters ;
but he tells us that the Tigris is partly a river of Armenia and
that its sources constitute Lake Thospitis. The position which
he assigns to the town of Artemita — ^which is probably the
modern Artemid — is further evidence that in speaking of Lake
Areesa or Arsissa he was in fact referring to Lake Van. One
cannot help concluding that his Thospitis with the town of
Thospia was actually the self-same sheet of water. The dis-
crepancy in longitude finds a parallel in the degrees assigned by
this writer to Lakes Sevan and Urmi. They are really upon the
same degree. Yet Ptolemy, under the names of Lychnitis and
Martianes, assigns to them the difference of over four degrees.
I think it is plain that the names Thopitis, Thospites, xA.rsene,
Arethusa, and xAreesa or Arsissa, are all applied to the great
basin with the two immemorial cities, Dhuspas — the modern Van
— and xArjish. Moreover, I should be surprised to learn that any
lake exhibiting the same properties had been discovered in the
belt of mountains south of Lake Van in which the present sources
of the Tigris are found. Put together, the scraps of information
retailed by the classical geographers go to show that in their days
there existed a widely spread belief that the Tigris drew its
waters from the tableland of Armenia, flowed through a lake
strongly impregnated with soda, and disappeared in a chasm at
its further and narrow extremity {\xv^o^) to come to light again
on the further side of the barrier of Taurus or, in other words, of
the parapet of mountains which arc aligned upon the south coast
of Lake Van. The mention of two lakes by Pliny and Ptolemy
may point to a former isolation of the Arjish arm. I have taken
the trouble to set forth these accounts — though not with all the
care that I should desire — because they have an important
Van 43
bearing upon the subject to which I now proceed — a brief notice
of some of the peculiarities which distinguish Lake Van.
It may not be out of place to cast one's look a little further
so as to include the other great lakes. That of Urmi in the
Persian frontier province of Azerbaijan has an area of 1823
square miles. Its extreme length from north to south is about
80 miles, and its breadth from east to west 24 miles. It
resembles its neighbour on the west in constituting an isolated
basin, many rivers flowing in but none out. On the other hand
its insignificant depth invests it with the character of a lagoon ;
the average being probably not more than 20 feet and the
maximum some 45 or 50 feet. Evaporation must be very rapid
over such a sheet of water ; and it is at once situated further
south than the lake of Van and at a level which is lower by
1500 feet (Lake Urmi, 4100 feet; Lake Van, 5637 feet).
Abnormal salinity is the special feature about the waters of Lake
Urmi ; and extensive beds of rock salt are found in their vicinity.
It has been estimated that they are six times as salt as the
ocean, though only three-fifths as heavily charged with saline
matter as the waters of the Dead Sea. Viewed from a height
they are coloured a deep azure, a characteristic usual with salt
lakes. If they are allowed to dry upon the body of the bather
it is as though he had been covered with flour, and neither fish
nor molluscs can live within them. The shores of the lake,
which are in general low, are impregnated with salt ; and the
margin, upon which are found fragments of fossil coral and shell,
shines like a white ribbon by the side of the blue. Three boats
of not more than 20 tons burden compose the entire fleet of this
inland sea.^
Very different is the description which may be given of Lake
Gokcheh (the blue) or Sevan- — the Lychnitis of Ptolemy, the
lake of Gegham or of Geghark in Armenian literature. It is
situated at a level of 6340 feet, and is therefore the most
elevated, if also the smallest, of the three great sheets of water
upon the surface of the tableland. It lies at a distance of about
130 miles north of the northern shore of Lake Urmi, and close to
^ I have derived these particulars not from personal observation, but for the greater
part from the notices of Abich ( Vergkichende chemische Untcrsuchungen der IVasser des
Caspischen Meeres, Ui'mia itnd Van-See's, Mem. Acad. Sc. St. Petersburg, 1859, Series 6
math, et phys. vol. vii. pp. 22 seq.) ; Loftus {Quarterly Journal Geological Soc. London,
1855, vol. xi. pp. 306 seq.); and Mr. R. T. GUnther [Geographical Journal, November
1S99, and Proceedings of the Koyal Society, October 1899).
44 Armenia
the barrier of the mountains of the northern peripheral region.
Its waters are sweet and support delicious salmon trout ; they
are said to attain a depth of 360 feet, or, according to another
observer, of 425 feet.^ Gokcheh is in fact essentially an Alpine
lake, lying restfully in the lap of a circle of mountains of which
those on the southern shore are of eruptive volcanic origin. It
has an outlet on the west to the river Zanga, and a portion of
its waters find their way through this channel to the Araxes.
The balance of opinion inclines to the view that this connection
is of artificial origin ; and when the lake is low, especially in
autumn, the stream will be almost dry."
But both Urmi and Gokcheh sink into obscurity when compared
to the lake of Van. Almost as large as the one and perhaps
deeper than the other, it at once combines some of the character-
istics of either basin and adds others essentially its own. Like
Urmi its waters are heavily charged, though with soda rather
than with salt. Its great elevation and its juxtaposition to the
mountains of the peripheral region recall corresponding features
in Gokcheh. But like a book which may borrow much from the
work of other writers, and yet produce an effect on the reader
which is wholly new, so one opens the landscape of Lake Van
with that particular emotion which only very beautiful and
original objects can produce. With the wondrous pieces of
natural architecture about the margins of this inland sea my
reader will become perfectly familiar as this work proceeds. My
present object is to fly very low to the ground, and to notice
such facts as appeal to the mind rather than to the eye. The
extreme length of the lake would seem to measure 78 miles,
and the breadth from north to south of the principal body about
32 miles. To all appearance it is very deep except at the
north-east and south-west extremities ; but no systematic sound-
ings have been taken to my knowledge, though it would be
extremely interesting to know whether indications can be traced
of the Arjish arm having once composed a separate unit. The
principal streams enter the easterly portion of the basin ; they
are the Erishat or Irshat near Akantz, the Bendimahi Chai, the
Marmed and the Khoshab. Several little rivers are collected in
the delta below the old Akhlat, and quite a nice stream cascades
1 Brandt and Wagner quoted by Sieger {Die Schwankiiiigen dcr hochannenischen
Seen, Vienna, 1888, p. 22).
2 Dr. W. Belck in Globus, 1894, vol. Ixv. p. 302 ; A. Owerin in Pelermann's
Mittheiliingcii , 1858, p. 471 ; Professor Hughes in Nat tire, l'"ebruary 1898.
Van
45
into the lake at the neighbouring village of Karmuch, which
probably collects a portion of the drainage of the plain between
Nimrud and Lake Nazik. No issue of the sea has yet been
discovered. None of the copious springs which feed the Tigris
on the southern side of the parapet of mountain, quite close to
the flood washing its northern slopes, has yet been shown to
possess any of the strongly marked qualities characteristic of
the waters of Lake Van. One of the most remarkable of these
springs is situated near the south-west corner of the lake, at Sach
in the Giizel Dere or beauteous valley— a valley with a specially
appropriate name.^ It has been examined by Major Maunsell,
who describes it as issuing from the base of a cliff and immedi-
ately constituting a stream 50 yards wide and 18 inches deep.
It is quite possible that this source of the Tigris may have given
colour to the belief of the ancients that the river flowed through
the lake and found an exit at its further end by an underground
channel. Another scarcely less interesting fountain in the neigh-
bourhood is that of Norshen at the head of the plain of Mush.
It rises in a circular pool with a diameter of 105 feet, from
which it wells over into a stream which runs to the Euphrates.
The natives hold that it is in connection with the lake in the
crater of Nimrud, and relate how a shepherd, whose staff, weighted
with a small parcel of coin, had sunk below the surface of that
deep mere, had one day been astonished to see the lost object
eddying in the current of the pool of Norshen. Careful scrutiny
of the spring during my second journey established the conviction
that it affords no outlet to Lake Van. Moreover, its position and
the delicious flavour of its water point to its being derived from
the limestones of the range on the south of the plain.
Analysis of the waters of Lake Van has furnished results
which are described as remarkable by the eminent chemist to
whom I submitted the sample which I brought home with me,
and which I obtained by swimming out from the rocky shore at
Erkizan, some distance east of the abandoned Ottoman fortress
of Akhlat. The amount of suspended matter has been found to
be very trifling ; while the proportion of solids in solution, princi-
pally carbonates of potassium and sodium, chlorides and sulphates,
is very large indeed. It is estimated that the alkalinity is equal
1 The traveller journeying along the Giizel Dere on the way from Van to Bitlis
cannot fail to be impressed by the insignificance of the water-parting between the small
stream, called Sapor Su, tributary to Lake Van, and the brooks which find their way
to the Tigris.
46 Armenia
to rather more than 3-j; ounces of ordinary soda crystal dissolved
in a gallon of water. The presence of a little silica accompanies
the alkali. The account given by Strabo of the cleansing
properties of the lake is thus confirmed in a striking manner.
Indeed, the bather issues from his swim as though his limbs
had been rubbed with soap — but with a soap of extremely
agreeable quality, leaving a velvety feeling upon the skin. The
great buoyancy of the waves enhances the pleasure of such
exercise, and they are at once pellucid and sparkling under the
ruffle of the breeze. On the other hand they are most un-
pleasant to the taste. The colour of the sheet of water cannot
be given in a single word ; and indeed it varies with extraordinary
range of scale. A cobalt of great brilliancy is perhaps the most
normal hue ; but a certain milky paleness is seldom quite absent,
becoming invested at morning and evening with an infinite
number of delicate tints.^
Only one kind of fish is found in Lake Van, resembling a
large bleak. But, often as I have bathed, I have never seen one
gliding through the water, or surprised a shoal while following
the shore. It is possible that they adhere to the estuaries of the
rivers, up which they make their way in large numbers to spawn
during the season of spring freshets. It is then that they are
caught in great quantities by means of barriers placed at the
mouth of the streams with baskets resting against one side.
The fish leap the barrier and fall into the baskets, after which
they are dried and salted. Seagulls and cormorants haunt the
lake, but are not very numerous ; nor have I observed a pelican,
although these birds are conspicuous on the adjacent lake of
Nazik together with many varieties of smaller waterfowl. The
main body of the sea never freezes over in winter, rigorous as
that season is at this high altitude.
A feature which has occupied considerable attention, especi-
ally among German writers, is the fluctuation in level of these
' To llie analysis of my sample by Mr. William Thorp I append that of Dr. Serda
of .Strasbourg from one brought by M. Mliller-.Simonis from Van and published on
p. 258 o{ Dit Caiicase an Golfe Persique, Paris, 1892. I have also thought it well to
include the analysis published by Mr. Criinther of the water of Lake Urmi. These will
be found in the appendix to this volume.
Small lakes impregnated with soda have lieen found along the south-east foot of the
Ararat fabric on the right bank of the Araxes. From sodas so derived an excellent soap
used to be made in Alexandropol, and, for all I know, may be still manufactured there.
The same practice is related of the inhabitants of \'an. See Aliich's article [op. cit.
pp. 32 seq.), and Loftus {op. cit. p. 320).
Van 47
Armenian lakes. There can be no doubt that they are all three
subject to more or less pronounced periodical changes ; and
various reasons have been assigned. Do these fluctuations
arise from the opening or closing of subterraneous issues or from
movements of the earth's crust ? Or may they be accounted for
by ordinary climatic conditions, such as the fall of snow and
rain and the consequent variation in the volume of the rivers
and in the activity of springs ? The economic state of the
country and the extent of irrigated land within the watershed has
been recognised as a factor, but a factor of insufficient importance
to produce the recorded results during the period reviewed. In
the case of Lake Van we are precluded from attributing these
fluctuations to the agency of subterraneous issues. Not a single
one of such has yet been discovered. Nor am I aware that any
such outlets to Gokcheh or Urmi have been noted by any
traveller. The evidence which may be collected in the case of
all goes to show that the islands are as much affected as the
adjacent shores. It may therefore seem unlikely that the changes
arise from movements at the bottom of the lake ; for these would
lift or depress the islands to some extent.^ If I venture to join
in the discussion I would submit the suggestion that we should for
convenience group the phenomena under two heads. Temporary
variations should be distinguished from any differences of a more
permanent nature the existence of which it may be possible to
prove."
It cannot be expected that we should be able to collect
evidence of a satisfactory nature in respect of the changes which
would fall within the first category. We have to rely upon the
statements and even upon the inferences which may be derived
from the writings of travellers. Even if we could rest contented
with the accuracy and sufficiency of such testimony in the case
of lakes which are so much affected by the melting of the winter
snows, it would not establish, except in a very approximate
1 It must, however, be noted that certainly in the case of Lake \"an no islands are
found far from the shore. The last rise in level took place about 1895 ; and in that
year there was an earthquake at Adeljivas. The inhabitants of Uran Gazi on the slopes
of Sipan assured us that this earthquake produced a rise in level of the Jil Gol, adjacent
to the village.
2 The subject is fully discussed by Abich (op. cit.) and by Dr. Sieger (^Di'e Schwan-
kungen der hocharmeuischen Seen seit 1800, Vienna, 1888, and Globus, 1894, vol.
Ixv. pp. 73-75). Notable contributions have been made by Loftus {op. cit.), by Strecker
(Zeitsckrift der Gesell. fiir Erdkiinde, Berlin, 1 869, pp. 549 seq. ) and by Dr. Belck
(Globus, vol. Ixiv. pp. 157 seq. and vol. Ixv. pp. 301 seq.; Zeitsckrift fiir Ethiwlogie,
Berlin, 1898, p. 414).
48 Armenia
manner, the beginnings and ends of the successive phases. Still,
the subject is so interesting that it is worth while to collate the
observations of which record may be found. In the subjoined
table I have endeavoured to perform this task ; and it has
already been undertaken with great diligence by Dr. Sieger. It
will be seen that a certain correspondence may occasionally be
traced in the periodical fluctuations which have affected the three
sheets of water.^ Perhaps the most remarkable evidence in this
sense is that which is furnished by the almost simultaneous observa-
tions for I 898. Messrs. Belck and Lehmann for Lake Gokcheh,
Mr. Gijnther for Lake Urmi, and my companion, Mr. F. Oswald,
and myself for Lake Van, all bear witness to a rise in quite
recent years. Our own investigations were made during the
month of July of that year, and were confined to the westerly
inlets of the lake. A prominent feature about these inlets was
the tendency of the streams to form shallow lagoons behind a
narrow barrier of alluvial sand. On the margin or even in the
bed of such lagoons one might often see a group of willows.
Some had been immersed a foot or two by the rise in the waters ;
and, while their neighbours on dry land were green and thriving,
these were quite dead. The most notable example was observed
by Oswald within the little broken-down crater on the southern
shore opposite Akhlat. It receives the lake within its enfolding
arms. • We have called it Sheikh Ora after a little village of
that name which was discovered in its south-east corner. Oswald
sailed across to examine this interesting spot while I was busily
engaged at Akhlat. Between the village and the water he came
across a small grove of willows upon which the lake had gained.
Those above the water line were evidently flourishing ; but those
which stood in the lake had been killed and their bark withered,
so that many of the stems were quite gaunt and bare. The
average diameter of the trunks of the dead and the living was not
appreciably different. It was therefore not a question of an
advance of the lake dating back very many years. On the other
hand there had been time for the chemical properties of the
water to exercise their destructive effect.
The same phenomenon of a rise in level was apparent on the
^ It will, however, be observed that there is a discrepancy between the condition of
Lake Gokcheh and that of Lake Van during the seventies and eighties. The testimony
of General Schindler and of Dr. Rodler is in favour of the view that Lake Urmi was
in agreement with Lake \'an during the same period (Sieger, Die Schwaiikiingeu, etc.,
p. 18).
TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE EVIDENCE OF TRAVELLERS IN RESPECT OF THE
FLUCTUATIONS IN LEVEL OF THE THREE GREAT LAKES.
Year.
Lake Van.
Lake Urini.
Lake Gokcheh.
1847
1852
c. 1875
Jaubert attests a gradual riSO
in the waters, threatening
Arjish and the suburbs of
Van {l^'oyage en Arinenie,
etc., p. 139).
Brant attests a relapse which,
according to the natives, has
effected a gain of one mile
in ten years to the plain on
which Arjish stands (^Journal
R.G.S. 1840, X. p. 403).
Loftus records a rise on native
authority, commencing dur-
ing the winter. In twelve
months, viz., by the winter
of 1839, the lake is said to
have risen nearly 6 feet. In
the next two years, viz., by
1841, it is said to have risen
altogether 10 to 12 feet,
necessitating the evacuation
of Arjish by the inhabitants,
the place becoming an island
{Quarterly Journal Geol.
Soc. 1855, p. 318).
Hommaire de Hell attests a
relapse ( / 'oyagc e>i Tiirquie,
etc., quoted by Sieger,
Sch'vankungeii , p. 6).
Layard attests a rise "during
the last few years." Many
villages on the margin are
partly submerged. Iskele,
the port of Van, is still in-
habited ; but the greater part
of the village is under water
(Nineiie/i anil Babylon, p.
408). [Layard was perhaps
only witnessing the effects of
the rise which commenced
1838.)
Loftus attests a considerable
relapse during recent years,
said by the natives to have
commenced in 1850. Arjish
is connected by a passable
isthmus to the mainland for
eight months in the year
{pp. cit. p. 318).
Strecker records a continuous
rise during the years pre-
ceding his writing, as evi-
denced by Turkish officials
of his acquaintance {Feter-
inanns Mitt. 1863, pp. 259
seq.)
A maximum at about this
period may be inferred from
the accounts given by Bishop
Poghos of Lim to Dr. Belck
{Globus, vol. Ixiv. p. 157),
and by the Rev. Mr. Cole of
Bitlis to Dr. Butyka {Globus,
vol. Ixv. p. 73). From this
period there appears to have
been a gradual relapse until
1892, and possibly later.
Evidence of Oswald and my-
self infers a rise during the
last few years.
Itil2
to
1829
1834
1852
1856
Morier attests a relapse.
The former island of
Shahi has become joined
to the mainland by a
swampy isthmus during
the last two or three
years {Second Journey,
p. 287, seg.).
Progressive relapse of
about 10 feet during this
period attested by Mon-
teith {J. R.G.S. 1833,
vol. iii. p. 56).
Relapse attested by Eraser
since his last visit in 1822
{Travels in Kurdistan,
pp. 47 seq., and Narra-
tive 0/ Khorassan, p.
321)-
Autumn. Rise attested in
general terms by Rawlin-
son {J .R.G.S. 1840, vol.
X. p. 8) and more pre-
cisely in 1839, by Per-
kins on native testimony
{Residence in Persia,
Andover, 1843, p. 394).
Rise has been gradual.
A relapse is attested by
Perkins to Loftus {Quar-
terly Jour7ial Geol. Soc.
1855, p. 307)-
Rise may be deduced from
N. von Seidlitz who
seems from a distance to
have seen Shahi, an is-
land in October {Peter-
7nanns Milt. 1858, pp.
228, 230).
Giinther chronicles a rise
during the last two years
on native evidence
(/ R.G.S. November
1899, p. 510).
1830
1859
to
1879
A low level, perhaps
a minimum, is at-
tested by Monteith.
The canal to the
Zanga is an insignifi-
cant runnel, supply-
ing the river with the
smallest portion of
its waters (/.ye. a .S".
1833, vol. iii. p. 43).
Lieut. Owerin of the
topographical staff
of the Caucasus,
estimates that nearly
Jth of the waters of
the lake find an
egress through the
canal to the Zanga
(Petermann's Mitt.
1858, p. 471). Other
evidence goes to
show that in the
forties and fifties
the lake was cer-
tainly higher than in
Monteith's time.
Relapse during this
period is assigned to
the lake by Brandt
{Zoologisclier An-
zeiger, ii. 523 seq.),
from whose obser\a-
tions we may infer
a minimum about
1879. Islands had
formed ; these again
had become a penin-
sula. The canal to
the Zanga seems to
have been scarcely
operative at all.
Relapse has con-
tinued. Trees plant-
ed thirty years ago
on the margin of the
water at the island
of Sevan are now
standing some 50
feet away, and some
7 to 10 feet above
the lake level. (Belck
in Globus, vol. Ixv.
p. 302).
Rise dating back
several years is at-
tested by Belck and
Lehmann. The trees
alluded to above are
now. standing in the
water {Zeitsclirift
fiir Ethnologie, 1898
p. 414).
VOL. II
50 ArTfie^iia
margin of the large lake in the crater on Nimrud. There the
brushwood, representing the growth of many years, was submerged ;
and much had already perished from want of sustenance. All
the evidence points to the fact that such changes are of a tempor-
ary nature, and that a period of increase is followed by one of
decline. The most probable explanation is that they are due to
climatic conditions, which, it is well known, are variously operative
over cycles of years. In the absence of any observatory in these
countries this question is largely a matter of surmise or, at best,
of inference. The existence of such periodical fluctuations may
be regarded as having been established ; it remains to consider
the changes of a more permanent order.
We must not forget that at a period relatively recent in
geological time this lake of Van was but a part of an extensive
inland sea, which appears gradually to have become divided up
into a series of basins. There can be little doubt that down to
quite a late geological epoch no such barrier had been constituted
between this basin and that of the plain of Mush, which immedi-
ately adjoins it upon the west. The waters have left their mark
upon the rocky boundaries of that plain ; and to their action I
do not think we should err in attributing the peculiar appearance
of the basal slopes of the Kerkiir Dagh, where they face the great
depression of Mush. To the same period perhaps belong several
terraces which may be traced upon the bush-grown face of the
southern coast of Lake Van beween Garzik and the Giizel Dere,
The highest of these is perhaps the most conspicuous, and may
be situated at an elevation of a hundred feet or more above the
present level. Just as the waters of the plain of Mush were
drained away through a narrow opening in the mountains which
hem it in upon the west, so it is quite likely that a similar vent
was offered by the gorge which cuts through the parapet of
Taurus in the direction of Bitlis, and at the present day affords
an easy passage to the caravans from the plains of Armenia into
the defiles of Kurdistan. Loftus chronicles a tradition that the
waters of Lake Van cover a plain that was once studded with
villages and gardens. The streams of Arjish and the Bendimahi
Chai — and presumably the Khoshab — are said to have met and
formed one large river about midway between Arjish and Bitlis.
His informants were under the belief that it had issued from the
plain through a hole in the earth ; and that when this passage
had been closed up by a sudden convulsion the present lake
Van 5 1
formed.^ This story is at least not lacking in verisimilitude, so
far as the existence of a former river is concerned. This river
would have probably flowed to the Tigris, of which it would have
been the principal branch. The cause of its being dammed up
was perhaps the outpouring of lavas from Nimrud, which have
formed the plateau between Tadvan and the head of the plain
of Mush — a plateau which rises to a height of 680 feet above
the lake, and, extending across from Nimrud to the face of Taurus
in the south, chokes the entrance to the Bitlis gorge. It is this
barrier which actually maintains the lake of Van. No eruptions
on this scale are recorded during the historical period ; and, of
course, it is not impossible that they were originally submarine.
These phenomena, which are partly attested by the ancient
lake terraces and in part suggested by the general structure of
the country, belong to an epoch which, if quite modern from the
standpoint of the geologist, probably lies beyond the range of
the archaeologist as well as of the historian. Much the same
conditions as at the present day appear to have prevailed during
the historical period — a vast sheet of water, deep and translucent,
dammed up by the volcanic barrier at its westerly extremity. I
think there can be no doubt that the permanent tendency of this
sheet of water has been to rise in level. Moreover, all the evidence
is to the effect that this tendency has been operative in the case
of the other two seas. Dr. Belck has recorded that in the year
1890 during the month of July he came across a little lake at
the eastern end of Lake Gokcheh, separated from it by a tongue
of land scarcely more than 5 5 yards broad, and connected with
it by a stream descending from the mountains and piercing
through the isthmus. On the margin of this shallow lagoon, near
the outflow of the stream, he discovered an ancient Armenian
graveyard of which the stones were under water. When he
returned in August of the following year they were only just dry.
His visit coincided with the latest stage of a period of decline ;
and it seems certain that since the time when the cemetery was
constituted the norm about which the fluctuations oscillate had
risen in a marked degree. The same traveller draws our attention
to the interesting circumstance that the three last lines of the
cuneiform inscription of Rusas the First {c. 730-714 B.C.), cut in
the face of the rock overlooking that same northern lake, have
been almost completely destroyed by the erosion of the waters,
1 Loftus, op. cit. p. 319.
52 Annenia
although placed just above their level in i 89 1. It seems incredible
that the Vannic king should have engraved his memorial in a
situation where it would be exposed to the periodical floods.^
As regards Lake Urmi I need only recall the important discovery
of Mr. Glinther in 1898. In the islands of that sea he found
many species of living animals which could not have crossed the
stretch of salt water, amounting to a distance of some 10 miles,
that at present separates their homes from the shore. In his
opinion the zoology affords conclusive testimony of these islands
having been joined to the mainland at no very distant date.
Upon one of them he found the skeleton of a wild sheep.'^ The
evidence which may be collected upon the shores of Lake Van all
points in the same direction of a progressive upward tendency.
Strecker has thrown out the suggestion that this process may
be accountable for the junction of the Arjish arm to the main
body ; and that we may therefore attach some credence to the
statements of Pliny that in his time there were two lakes.^ How-
ever this may be, we are not dependent upon such hypotheses,
or upon the stories current of submerged causeways or bridges.
The three old fortresses of Akhlat, Adeljivas and Arjish all bear
testimony to a considerable rise in the level of the lake since the
days when they were built. The walls of the first two on the
side of the water have either fallen in or are being slowly under-
mined. Arjish has been permanently abandoned by its inhabit-
ants. Immemorial villages, like that of Kizvag between Akhlat
and Tadvan, are being menaced by the latest periodical increase,
which seems to have commenced about 1895. Nature herself
speaks eloquently in the same sense. An ancient walnut-tree
which stands on the rocky bank of the lake in the gardens of
Erkizan, a quarter of Akhlat, had already been deprived of a
great portion of its foothold when we encamped beneath its boughs
in 1898. In the Sheikh Ora crater a giant mulberry, which may
have been some 500 years old, was standing with half its roots
in the water and was already doomed. The most obvious ex-
planation of this gradual rise in the norm of the lake level is
furnished by a cause, which must be constantly operative, namely
the increase of sediment deposited upon the bottom. But
whether this factor by itself be sufficient to have produced such
1 Globus, 1894, vol. Ixv. pp. 301 and 303.
2 Geographical Journal, November 1899, j). 513.
3 Zeits. Gescll.f. I'.rdkuudc, Berlin, 1869, vol. iv. ji. 550.
J
jX^L.:,.,>^m>«tm^i^^^tst»^^^m^^Ss:!^M^^
P'an 53
important changes is a question upon which I am not qualified
to pronounce an opinion/
II. — The Ancient Empire of Van
Deep in the curve of the bay, which with minor indentations
extends from the promontory and island of Ktutz to Artemid,
lies the isolated rock with the mediaeval city at its southern
foot and the long line of gardens stretching eastwards across
the plain towards the slopes of Mount Varag. These various
features are disclosed or suggested in my illustration (Fig. 123),
which was taken from those distant slopes. But before I invite
my reader to explore the ancient township, something must be
said upon a topic which here fascinates the traveller's interest
equally with the characteristics of the strange lake beside which
he sojourns. I have already on several occasions remarked upon
the insignificance of the human element in these Armenian land-
scapes. At Van for the first time we become sensible of a
different impression, derived, not indeed from the peoples who
now inhabit the country, but from the monuments of a remote
civilisation which abound in the neighbourhood, and of which
the spirit is wafted towards us across the ages. Here the massive
substructures of an aqueduct, there the Cyclopean masonry of
the fragment of a wall tell the tale of man's mastery over Nature,
and insensibly conjure the vision of the plains crossed by great
roads, the rivers spanned by bridges, the fertilising waters brought
from afar. Our curiosity is enhanced by the inscriptions in the
cuneiform character which are deeply incised in the hard stone
of the various works. But it rises to the degree of fervour when
we survey the rock of Van, clearly recognised as the very navel
of this old polity. Its precipitous sides are quite a library of
inscriptions, carved upon their face in spaces polished by human
hands. Square-cut shadows disclose the entrances of chambers
hewn into the calcareous mass at a considerable height above
the level of the plain. And something in the spirit of the works
and in the choice of situation at once distinguishes them from
the rock dwellings, such as those at Vardzia near Akhalkalaki,
with which we have become familiar during the course of our
journey south. It is evident that in their original purpose they
1 Indications of a similar rise in the norm of the level of Lake Goljik in the southern
peripheral region have been noted by Prof. Josef Wiinsch {Mitth. der K. K. geog.
Gesellschaft, Vienna, 1885, vol. xxviii. pp. 15-17).
54 Armenia
were only a feature of a large design which mocks the scale of
the existing fortifications.
By what people were they inscribed, these regular lines of
elegant characters ; and who were the kings who sojourned
upon this delightful platform, which seems to have been raised
by a freak of Nature in the midst of the plain with its westerly
extremity almost reaching into the lake ? Armenians, Persians,
Arabs, Seljuks, Tartars, Turkomans, Turks — all have come and
passed or stayed, and none have been able to return an answer
to the question invited by the writings on the citadel. They
have had recourse to the resources of Oriental legend, or have
been content with the explanation that these inscriptions are
talismans, sealing treasures long since buried in the heart
of the rock. The fame of the place is widely spread over
all the surrounding country, forming as it does the kernel of a
populous city on the confines of Armenia and Kurdistan. It has
been described by the national historian of the Armenians in
terms which in many respects portray the existing features in a
singularly faithful manner. Moses of Khorene attributes the
works to an Assyrian queen Semiramis, and relates on the
authority of Mar Abas Katina and from Chaldaean sources the
story of her fruitless passion for the reigning king of Armenia,
Ara, and of the death of that monarch while resisting her endeav-
ours to obtain his person by force. The queen is said to have
accompanied her armies to the northern kingdom, and to have
founded the city as a summer residence for her luxurious court.
The tale is beset by incidents which reveal its fabulous nature ;
and the historian informs us that several such legends relating to
Semiramis were current among his own countrymen.^ At the
same time he deplores the lack of culture among his ancestors,
to which he ascribes the absence of native annals.'^
It has been reserved for our own age to penetrate the
mystery, which, indeed, is only now as I write being dispelled.
Quite early in the nineteenth century, while the future excavators
of the Assyrian cities were either unborn or were still in their
nurseries, a young French student, Jean Antoine Saint Martin,
the son of a tradesman in Paris, was fired by the account of the
inscriptions at Van contained in the pages of Moses of KJwrene^
1 Moses of A'/toi-eite, i. i8. - I/u'd. i. 3.
^ See the memoir of Saint I\Tartin by Brosset prefixed to vol. xiii. of Lebeau's
Histoirc dii Bas-Eiiipire, and Saint Martin's article in \\\<t Jour)ial Asialique for 1828.
Vmi 55
Mainly through his efforts the French Government- — always
solicitous of the interests of culture — were induced to despatch
a mission to Armenia in 1827, engaging the services of a young
German professor, Friedrich Eduard Schulz. The first report of
the explorer was published by Saint Martin in 1828.^ By a
piece of misfortune, happily rare in the annals of travel in these
countries, Schulz was murdered by the Kurds in 1829. But his
papers were recovered and brought to Paris, where they seem to
have awaited in obscurity the awakening of interest in Oriental
antiquities which was consequent upon the discoveries of Burnouf,
of Lassen, and of Rawlinson. An instructive memoir, together
with copies of forty-two inscriptions at Van and in the neighbour-
hood, appeared under his name in 1 840 in the pages of the
Journal Asiatique. Schulz's copies have been found to be in the
main remarkably accurate, although he had not the smallest
knowledge of the language in which they were composed. Little
by little the contents of the tablets in a similar character which
are spread over Persia yielded up the secrets which they had so
long maintained ; and the excavations in Mesopotamia furnished
Orientalists with the necessary material to enable them to under-
stand the languages of the cuneiform inscriptions furnished in
such profusion by the buried cities of the plains. But with the
exception of the great tablet in three columns and as many
tongues which is such a conspicuous object on the southern face
of the rock of Van (Schulz, Nos. IX., X., and XL), and an inscrip-
tion on a stone in the remains of a wall at its base (Schulz, No. L),
none of the Vannic records agreed with the syllabaries already
discovered, or could be translated into any known language.
Schulz had indeed perceived that the first of these monuments
contained the names and titles of Xerxes, son of Darius ; and
when Layard visited Van and took new copies in 1850, it had
come to be recognised that this tablet of Xerxes resembled other
Achaemenian inscriptions, and was very nearly word for word
the same as those of this Persian monarch at Hamadan and
Persepolis.^ The characters upon the stone in the wall were
exactly the same as those of Assyrian writings ; and, although
the inscription had not been satisfactorily deciphered when
Layard's book was published, that investigator was able to dis-
cern that the language also was x^ssyrian, while that of all the
^ Journal Asiatique, Paris, 1828, vol. ii. series 2, pp. 160-188.
2 Layard, Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, London, 1853, p. 394.
56 Armenia
remainder, in spite of the similarity in character, was pecuHar to
Van, and baffled decipherment. In the meanwhile other equally
perplexing inscriptions had been discovered in districts of the
tableland remote from the city of Semiramis ; and a partially
successful endeavour had been made by the English Orientalist
Hincks to read the mysterious texts.^ But the problem remained
unsolved for very many years, while the stock of inscriptions
collected by travellers in various parts of Armenia was continually
increasing. A great step forward was made by the discovery by
M. Stanislas Guyard, announced in 1880,^ that the phrase at the
conclusion of many of the Vannic texts represented the impreca-
tory formula found in the same place in their Assyrian and
Achsemenian counterparts ; and this enabled Professor Sayce of
Oxford to proceed rapidly with their decipherment, upon which
he had been engaged for some years.^ Mainly as the result of
his labours we are now enabled to gather their meaning, and to
add a new language and a new people to the museum of the
ancient Oriental world. Since he has written, the number of
known Vannic texts has been doubled by the German scholars
and travellers, Professor Lehmann and Dr. Belck. They have
also, in a series of most instructive articles, called up the vanished
civilisation from the grave,*
We now know who built Van and by whom these tablets
were engraved upon the face of the citadel. As the horizon
opens with each advance in our acquisition of the vocabulary
and with each addition to the catalogues of texts, we are intro-
duced to no obscure dynasty which slept secure behind the
mountains, but to a splendid monarchy w^hich for at least two
centuries rivalled the claims of Assyria to the dominion of the
ancient world. The native designation of the imperial people
was that of Khaldians or children of Khaldis, just as the Assyrians
reflect the name of their god, Assur. The constitution of the
' "On the Inscriptions of Van," Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1848, vol. ix. ,
two papers read by Dr. Hincks on 4th December 1847, and 4th March 1848.
" JotiDial Asiaticpie, Paris, 1880, vol. xv. series 7, pp. 540-543.
^ Professor Sayce's papers are contained in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
vol. xiv. 1882; vol. XX. 1888; vol. XXV. 1893; ^ol- ^^^''- 1894. They should be
referred to in the first instance by the student who wishes to penetrate further into
the subject.
* To the names of Belck, Guyard, Lehmann, and Sayce, should be added that of
Professor D. H. Miiller of Vienna, the author of several papers on the suVjject, of which
the most important is entitled " Die Keilinschrift von Aschrut-Darga, entdeckt und
beschrieben von Professor J. Wtinsch, publicirt und erklart von Dr. D. H. Miiller,"
Vienna, 1886.
Van 5 7
State was that of a theocracy in which Khaldis occupied the
supreme place. The company of the remaining deities were
spoken of as his ministers, and the whole land appears to have
borne his name.^ It was the wrath of Khaldis that was invoked
against whosoever should destroy the tablets ; and with him
were coupled in a kind of Trinity the god of the air and the
sun -god. The seat of Khaldis was the city of Dhuspas, the
modern Van ; and all conquests were made by the king in his
name. Dhuspas was the capital of the territory of Biaina, from
which the king derived his title. We can readily trace through
literature the corruption of the word Biaina into the existing
form, Van ; it figures in the shape of Buana in the writings of
Ptolemy and in that of Iban as late as Cedrenus.' In the course
of time it had come to be applied to the city ; while the name
of the city was transferred to the province in which it was placed,
and became the Dosp or Tosp of Armenian writers." The
contemporaries and rivals of the Vannic monarchs, the rulers of
Assyria, styled the northern kingdom Urardhu or Urarthu ; and
this is the same name that appears in the Bible in the familiar form
of Ararat. They make no mention of the local appellation of
Biaina ; although it seems possible that the district called Bitanu
or Bitani in the Assyrian inscriptions may be connected with
the latter name.'* On the other hand there can be little doubt
that the Turuspa of the Assyrian annals is the Dhuspas of the
monuments of Van.
The Khaldians take their place in this new chapter of history
at least as early as the latter half of the ninth century before
Christ. Their language was neither Semitic nor Indo-European ;
1 So we read in the newly-acquired text of the stele at Topsana (Sidikan), near
Rowanduz : — " Urzana, son of Shekikajana, fled to Khaldia ; I, Rusas (i.e. Rusas I.
of Van) marched as far as the mountains of Assyria " (Dr. Belck in Zeitschrift ficr
Ethnologie, Berlin, 1899, p. 1 16). [The translation of this passage appears, however,
to have been altered by Messrs. Belck and Lehmann. See Sitzitngsberichte der K. K.
Fretiss. Akad., Berlin, June 1900. It would appear natural that the Khaldians should
have called their land after their god, and Dr. Belck [ioc. cit.) appears to entertain no
doubt upon the point. On the other hand Prof. Sayce informs me that he has never
found the name Khaldia in the Vannic inscriptions ; and that in Assyrian Khaldia
signifies the god Khaldis.]
^ Cedrenus, Hist. ii. 774.
3 Saint Martin, Mimoires stir V Armenie, vol. i. pp. 13 1 and 138. Cp. Moses of
Khorene, iii. 35, "inhabiting Van in the province of Dosp" with the title of the king
in the inscriptions " king of Biaina inhabiting the city of Dhuspas."
* Professor Sayce makes the suggestion [Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1882,
vol. xiv. p. 394). The expression Bitani seems to have been loosely used ; but it
appears to have been applied to the peripheral region south of Lake Van, and it may
survive in the name of the river Bohtan.
58 Annenia
and it is therefore impossible to connect them either with the
Assyrians, who were Semites, or with the Armenians, who belong
to the Indo-European family. They ruled over the tableland
which is now Armenia before the Armenians had appeared upon
the scene ; and it was the movement of races with which was
connected the Armenian immigration that seems ultimately to
have occasioned their dispersal and the overthrow of their power.
Their dominion appears to have been due in no small degree
to the happy choice of Van as their capital. Assyrian history
ranges beyond the probable date of that foundation, to a period
when Urardhu was perhaps an obscure province in the neighbour-
hood of the modern Rowanduz in Kurdistan. The Assyrian
armies in their marches northwards were opposed by a con-
federacy of petty princes whose country is called Nairi in the
Assyrian inscriptions. That loose term evidently embraced a
considerable portion of the Armenian tableland ; for it was in
the plain of Melazkert that the Assyrian king, Tiglath-Pileser I.
{c. I 100 B.C.),^ overthrew the united forces of the kings of Nairi
and erected a memorial tablet which has been preserved to the
present day.""^ In a restricted sense the name Nairi was applied
by the Assyrians to the province about the middle and upper
course of the Great Zab ; and the lakes of Van and Urmi,
between which that territory was situated, were both known as
the Upper seas or seas of the land of Nairi, Lake Van being
sometimes distinguished as the Upper sea of the West, and Lake
Urmi as the Eastern or even as the Lower sea.'^ The kingdom
of Urardhu is for the first time mentioned by the Assyrians in the
reign of Ashur-nasir-pal (885-860 B.C.) ; but it is not before the
ensuing reign of Shalmaneser II. (860-825 B.C.) that we have
certain evidence of an Assyrian army marching into Armenia to
attack the territories not of a league of Nairi princes but of a
monarch of Urardhu. This prince, of whom no records have
been discovered in Armenia, is called Arame. His capital, of
1 Messrs. Belck and Lehmann adopt a later date, viz. c. looo B.C. See Vcrhand-
hin^eti der Berl. Gesell. fiir Anthropoloi^ie, 1898, p. 569.
^ Recently discovered by Messrs. Belck and Lehmann ( Vcrhandlungen der Berl.
Gesell. fiir Anthropologic, 1898, p. 574).
3 Great confusion has been caused by the f;ict that the Assyrians had no distinctive
names for the two great lakes. The subject is elucidated by Schrader (Die Navien
der Mcere in den assyrischeti Inschriftcn, Abh. Berl. Akad. Wiss., 1877, Berlin, 1878,
pp. 169 seq. ; Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie, 1886, pp. 81 seq. ; Sitzungsberichte der K.
Pr. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1890, pp. 321 seq.) and by Dr. Belck in Verhandlimgen (tit
supra), 1894, p. 4S5.
Van 59
which the site is at present unknown, but which certainly lay to
the north of Lake Van, bears the name of Arzasku. Arame was
signally defeated in 857 or 856 B.C. and abandoned his capital.
His cities as far as the sources of the Euphrates (Murad ?) were
taken by Shalmaneser in 845 or 844 B.C. When next we hear
of a king of Urardhu we are able to recognise in his name the
earliest of the rulers who appear in the Vannic texts. And this
monarch, Sarduris the First, the contemporary of the same
Shalmaneser and his antagonist about 833 B.C., was the founder
of the fortress of Van.
No better position for a stronghold against a Power operating
from the lowlands in the south could have been discovered by
the builders of an empire on the Armenian plains. In the later
phases of the history of Armenia the movements of empires and
peoples have generally proceeded between the east and the west.
Against such currents the city of Van composes a minor obstacle,
which they avoid on their more normal and northerly course.
Always secure with a fleet on the lake and the passes of Mount
Varag fortified, the true military value of the place only advances
into first-rate importance when the centres of the hostile forces
h'e in Mesopotamia. It is screened in that direction by perhaps
the most impenetrable section of the entire outer or Iranian arc
of the peripheral mountains which support the tableland.^ More-
over, the circumstance that the arc has snapped and sent out
a splinter into the districts on the north, represented by the
mountains in which the Great Zab has its source, and, further
north, by the elevated but not impassable waterparting between
the basin of Lake Van and that of the Araxes, has had the effect
of concealing Van within the fork of a twofold parapet where it
reposes with its back against the complex barrier and defies
attack from the south or south-east. The approach from the
west along the southern shore of the lake is interrupted by the
spurs of the great range ; and the Assyrian armies were compelled
to make the detour by the plain of Melazkert, gaining the plateau
by one of the passes north of Diarbekr and leaving it upon their
return home through one of the passages east of Rowanduz where
the sea of mountains settles down to a regular course. Such an
immense circuit through a hostile country necessitated resources
on a vast scale, the existence of which among the Assyrians fills
the mind with admiration when we contemplate the squalor of the
1 See Vol. I. Ch. XXI. p. 423.
6o Armenia
Oriental empires of the present day. But there can be no doubt
that all the advantages lay on the side of their northern adver-
saries, to whom was offered a reasonable chance of annihilating
their hosts, or, in the event of defeat, the secure alternative of
shutting themselves up in their capital and there awaiting the
passing over of the storm. These considerations serve to explain
the comparative immunity and the rapid development of the
empire of the successors of Sarduris the First ; at a time, too,
when Assyria was governed by such warlike monarchs as Shamshi-
Ramman and Ramman-nirari.^ It was reserved for Tiglath-Pileser
the Third to beard the lion in his den, and to appear before the
walls of Van. But even this gigantic figure failed to capture the
citadel, although he appears to have destroyed the garden town
at its feet (73 5 B.c.).^ The ultimate effects of his campaign may
be measured by the fact that the inveterate and sometimes
successful adversary of Sargon (722-705 B.C.)* was the Vannic
king Rusas the First. And the northern empire is still a force
with which the Assyrians have to reckon as late as Ashur-bani-
pal, the Sardanapalus of the Greeks (668-626 B.C.).
So far as our knowledge at present extends we may regard
Sarduris the First as the initiator of a remarkable and far-reaching
revolution among the peoples of the tableland. The title which
this monarch bears, that of king of Nairi, as compared with that
of his successors, kings of Biaina,^ connects him with the earlier
period of the confederacy of Nairi princes which his dynasty
under the aegis of the god Khaldis was destined to supplant.
His son, Ispuinis, and his grandson Menuas at once extended the
empire and added to the works upon the citadel of Van ; and
the latter was the principal author of that magnificient canal
which to the present day under the fanciful name of Shamiram-Su,
or river of Semiramis, conducts the waters of the Khoshab to the
suburbs of Van."* Menuas may, therefore, be considered as the
1 I retain the former spelling of the names of Shamshi-Hadad and Iladad-nirari.
'■^ An admirable account of the operations of Tiglath-Pileser III. is given by Professor
Lehmann in the Vcrhandltingen der Bcrl. Gese/I. ft'ii- Aitthropohg^ie, 1S96, pp. 321 seq.
The scheme of the defences of the Vannic kings is al)ly elucidated by Dr. Belck (Zeit-
schrift fiir Assyrioloi^ie, 1 894, vol. ix. p. 350, note).
■* His next successor, Ispuinis, is styled king of Nairi in the Kelishin inscription and
king of Biaina in that of Ashrut Darga. The succeeding monarchs are kings of Biaina,
inhabiting the city of Dhuspas (Van).
^ The best account of the Shamiram-Su or canal of Menuas is that given by Dr.
Belck [Zcitschrifl fiir Ethnologie, 1892, pp. 137 u'q.). I am under the impression that
the greater part of the waters of the canal still find their way to the quarter of Van
called Shamiram.
Van 6 1
founder of the garden town ; although at that time it is probable
that it was situated south of the citadel rather than, as is now
the case, at some distance to the east.^ During the reign of the
successor of Menuas, Argistis the First, the Vannic dynasty reached
the zenith of its power. The kinglets of the valley of the Araxes
had been dispossessed of their fertile territories, and the great
city which was afterwards known as Armavir rose from the
banks of the river in honour of the god of Van. The whole
extent of the Armenian tableland, such as it is described in the
present work, with the possible exception of some of the most
northerly districts, was subject to the rulers residing on the shore
of the great lake ; and their inscriptions recording conquests are
found as far east as the province south of Lake Urmi and as far
west as the Euphrates near Malatia. In that direction they came
in contact with the Hittites ; while their neighbours on the east
were none other than the Minni of Scripture, residing in the
more southerly portion of the Urmi basin and the adjacent
districts."' The inscriptions on the rock of Van enumerate the
feats of arms of Argistis the First and Sarduris the Second.
No records have yet been found further north than Lake Gokcheh,
Kanlija, near Alexandropol, and Hasan Kala, near Erzerum.
South of their capital the wild districts of Shatakh, Norduz
and Mukus have been scoured by travellers in quest of such
monuments, but hitherto without result.
With one exception no systematic excavations have yet been
made upon any of the sites of the cities and strongholds of the
Vannic kings. When these shall have been undertaken we may
expect to have drawn an impressive picture of the attainments of
their people in the arts. The single instance of such efforts — and
it is not one of which we need be proud '' — has been directed to
1 Perhaps Dr. Belck, to whose penetration this discovery is due, has a little
exaggerated his point when he assumes the necessity of an interval of 5 kilometres
between the former site of the garden town and the rock of Van {Zeitschrift fiir
Assyriologie, 1894, p. 350). It would seem, rather, that the present quarter of Shamiram
represents a portion of the old settlement as watered by the Menuas canal.
^ " Set up a standard in the land, blow the trumpet among the nations, prepare the
nations against her (sc. Babylon), call together against her the kingdoms of Ararat,
Minni and Ashchenaz . . ." (Jeremiah li. 27). The latter kingdom seems to have
been situated between the Medes at Hamadan and the Minni.
3 It must always be remembered that such enterprises are due with us to the energy
of individuals, rarely encouraged and inspired by our learned societies or assisted
financially by our Government. I trust, however, that the trustees of the British
Museum will awake to the fact that excavations of the most comprehensive order can
now be conducted in Armenia, and that the soil is practically virgin. With the assist-
ance of the German Embassy at Constantinople Messrs. Belck and Lehmann were
62
Armenia
the low limestone hills which overlook the gardens of Van upon
the north, and which in their neighbourhood bear the name of
Toprak Kala. In or about the years 1879 and 1880 operations
were conducted upon this eminence under the direction, as I have
gathered, of Captain Clayton, then our consul at Van, and of Mr.
Hormuzd Rassam.^ Tunnels were opened into that part of the
site which disclosed the buried remains of an ancient settlement,
and which was found to have been covered with buildings com-
Fic. 124. Bronze Shield from Toprak Kala (British Museum).
posed for the most part of sun-dried bricks. The most important
result of the enterprise was the laying bare of a temple, still
containing quite a number of bronze shields with cuneiform
inscriptions, embossed and chased with ornamental designs and
the figures of animals. Some of these may be seen in the British
Museum and others in the Museum at Berlin. They represent
enabled not only to dig down the hill of Toprak Kala to the solid rock, but also, as
it would appear, to transport their finds to Berlin.
1 I cannot discover that any report of these excavations has ever been published.
But, since writing this chapter, Mr. Hormuzd Rassam's book, Asshitr and the Land of
Nimrod (New York, 1897), has come into my hands. Mr. Rassam's excavations on
the hill of Toprak Kala took place in 1880, and some account of them may be found in
his work, pp. 377-S.
Van
63
Fig. 125.
Bronze Fragment from Toprak Kala
(British Museum).
votive offerings on the part of the kings, and were suspended
upon the walls in the manner shown by an existing bas-relief from
the palace of Sar-
gon at Khorsabad.
Indeed that sculp-
ture portrays the
destruction by the
Assyrians of the
temple of Khaldis
in the city of Mut-
satsir, not very far
from the present
town of Rowan-
duz. The dimen-
sions of the edifice
were small, only
69 feet by 44
feet, measured at
the foundations.
But the walls were built of great blocks of hewn stone, and
traces of a pavement in a kind of mosaic were found.
The doors appear to have been of bronze. Outside
the entrance stood a block of marble which was
hollowed out and was probably used for sacrifices. At
the time of my visit little was to be seen of this in-
teresting structure, for the vandal
townspeople had removed its
masonry for building purposes.
Large faced blocks, taken thence
and perhaps from other edifices,
were being rolled down the hillside.
Only a fraction of the objects found
was brought away by Messrs.
Clayton and Rassam ; their work-
men abstracted the remainder, from
whose hands some portions have
filtered into Europe. Toprak Kala
has quite recently (1898) been the scene of further excava-
tions, this time on the part of Messrs. Belck and Lehmann.
They have dug out the substructures of the temple to its
foundations, cleared away the rubbish which obstructed a long
Fig. 126. Ornament from
Toprak Kala (British Museum).
64 Armenia
subterraneous passage, debouching into a large chamber which
may have served as a reservoir, and which was fed by an
artificial duct deriving its water from a neighbouring spring ; and
discovered a wine-cellar containing colossal vats, some engraved
with Vannic writing and one with a Persian cuneiform inscription.
We also owe to their labours the discovery not far from the
temple of a space which seems to have been set apart to receive
the bones of the sacrificial animals and of the human beings,
captives of war, who had been offered up to the god. They have
acquired numerous objects, of silver as well as of bronze and iron,
including weapons and ornaments of various kinds. But the
principal service which they have rendered is the identification of
Toprak Kala with the city of Rusas mentioned in the stele near
Keshish Gol on the slopes of Mount Varag. The inscription on
that monument, if rightly deciphered, leaves little doubt that King
Rusas, probably the first of that name, made use of that little lake
as a partly natural and partly artificial reservoir, and conducted
its waters along the foot of the Toprak Kala heights to the region
occupied by the present site of the garden town. The earliest
ruler mentioned on the shields is Rusas the Second ; while we
know from their contents that the temple was built or restored
by Rusas the Third in honour of the god Khaldis. All the
indications favour the assumption that in consequence of the de-
predations of Tiglath-Pileser the Third some change was made in
the disposition of the city. The heights of Toprak Kala seem in
some degree to have usurped the importance of the citadel, and
to have been used as defences for the extension of the gardens
in that direction.'
The culture of the Vannic kingdom was perhaps borrowed
from the Assyrians and was certainly derived from the Meso-
potamian plains. The legend of the passion of the queen of
Assyria, the consort of the eponymous hero Ninus, for an
Armenian king who suffers death at her hands and is restored to
life," contains, so far as it expresses the intercourse of the pre-
1 For the excavations at Toprak Kala the various writings of Messrs. Belck and
Lehmann should be c<.m?,w\\.&<S.{l'\'rhaii(ilitugcn dcr Berl. Gescll. fiir Aiithropologie, 1895,
pp. 612 scq., and 1898, pp. 578 scq. Cp. aXso Zeitsc/irift fiir Assyriologie, 1894, pp. 356
and 357, note). For the canal and the city of Rusas or New Dhuspas see their remarks
in Zcitschrift fiir Ethnologic, 1892, pp. 141 scq.; Verh. dcr Berl. Gescll. fiir Antli.
1892, pp. z^"]"] seq.; 1893, pp. 220, 222, 223; 1898, p. 576; Zcitschrift fiir Assyr.
1894, pp. 349 scq., and 1 899, p. 320.
- This is evidently the older form of the legend of .Semiramis in Armenia. The
Christian liierarchy softened down or obliterated the coming to life again of Ara.
Van 65
Armenian peoples, a considerable kernel of truth. xAra and
Semiramis are none other than Tannmuz and Istar, the Adonis
and the Aphrodite of the Hellenic myth ; and the advent from
Assyria of the voluptuous queen in quest of a beautiful but
reluctant lover may be connected with the introduction from
abroad of the worship of Istar.^ However this may be, it is
certain that the earliest inscriptions found at Van are in the
Assyrian language and character ; while those of the successors
of Sarduris the First, although composed in the Vannic tongue,
show but slight deviations from the cuneiform writing as practised
at Nineveh. There is evidence to show that long after the
disappearance of the empire of the Khaldians Assyrian influences
lingered on in the land. I shall have occasion to remark these
traces in the study of the architecture of the church at Akhtamar ;
and they compose a factor which should never be quite absent
from the mind when examining the masterpieces of Armenian
medieval art. The Vannic dynasty are not the symbol of
resistance on the part of rude mountaineers to the approach of
civilisation moving up from its immemorial seats. Far rather do
they represent the beneficent spread of arts and letters over the
Armenian plains. The favourite sites of their cities are not the
recesses of the mountains of the tableland, but some small emi-
nence from a wide extent of level and fertile ground, as typically
embodied by the rock of Van and the mound of Armavir. They
are builders of canals to irrigate the land, of roads to traverse
even the scarcely passable ridges of the peripheral region, of
bridges to span the great rivers. If we are still in the dark with
respect to their ethnic affinities, we need harbour no doubts upon
the character of the civilisation which they contributed to diffuse.
Like Adonis they have been carried down the stream of
time, and over them the eddy has long since closed. The spade
of the archcEologist reveals the charred remains of their later
stronghold on the heights of Toprak Kala overlooking the gardens
of Van. But by what people and at what date were they stricken
to the ground, and their temples and palaces given to the flames ?
It is the disadvantage of a histor}^ which is derived from inscrip-
tions, that issues as well as origins must remain obscure. I am
1 The name of this goddess only occurs in one inscription, viz. Sayce, No. XXIV. ;
and it is interesting to observe that this is an inscription of Menuas. The name is
written ideographically like that of Istar in Assyrian and is rendered Saris by Professor
Sayce. It is noticeable that Sariduris or Sarduris is the name borne by three of the
Vannic kings.
VOL. II F
66 Armenia
not aware that any certain answer can be given to the first part
of the question, and the date of the supreme catastrophe which
must have overtaken the city can only be approximately fixed.
The Vannic records differ in one important respect from those of
Assyria ; they do not contain a single date. The chronology is
therefore dependent upon the mention in them of an Assyrian
monarch or by the Assyrians of a contemporary ruler of Urardhu.
The latest inscriptions hitherto discovered belonging to the
northern kingdom are those of Rusas the Third, the son of
Erimenas, who lived in the time of Ashur-bani-pal. But a
successor of this prince is mentioned in the Assyrian annals as
having sent an embassy to Nineveh about 644 B.C. His name
is the familiar one of Sarduris, and he takes his place as the
third king of that name. It would appear likely that at the
time of his embassy he had only just begun to reign ; and we
should probably be justified in protracting the span covered by
the Vannic dynasty at least as late as the death of Ashur-bani-
pal {c. 626 B.C.). This date brings us down to the dawn of
Oriental history as contained in the works of Greek writers.
In the pages of Herodotus the Armenian tableland as well as
Assyria form portions of the great empire of Darius (5 2 1-486 B.C.)
and Xerxes (485-465 B.C.), which had succeeded the loose rule
of the Scythians. And this new era has left behind it one of
the most impressive of the monuments upon the rock of Van.
On its southern face, in full view of the walled town at its base,
is inscribed the trilingual record of the Persian conquest. " A
great god is Onnarjd, who is the greatest of gods, ivJio has created
this earth, who has created that heaveti, who has created mankind,
who has given happiness to man, who has made Xerxes king, sole
king of many kings, sole lord of many. I am Xerxes the great
king, the king of kings, the king of the provinces with many
languages, the king of this great earth far and near, son of king
Darius the AcJicemenian. Says Xerxes the king: Darius the
king, my father, did matiy ivorks through the protection of Ormazd,
and on this hill he commanded to make his tablet and an image ;
yet an inscription he did tiot make. Afterzvards I ordered this
inscription to be written. May Ormazd, along zvith all the gods,
protect me and my kingdom and my zvork}
1 The Ciiiuifonn hiscriplions of I 'an. Journal of Royal Asialic Soticty, 1 882, vol. xi\-.
p. 678. The languages arc Babylonian, Persian and " I'rotomedic," placed in parallel
columns.
Van 67
Years before this noble pronouncement was engraved in its
imperishable arrowheads the empire of Assyria had come to an
end. Nineveh was laid desolate in 606 B.C. by her Babylonian
subjects assisted by the hordes of the Scythian king.^ Within a
very brief period of the history of these countries ethnic changes
on a vast scale had taken place. New nations had appeared
upon the scene. The Cimmerian nomads, followed closely by
the wild tribes of Scythia, had penetrated southwards from the
countries on the north of Caucasus and swarmed over the settled
lands. Ancient kingdoms tottered and fell into the human surge.
It is just at this period that we come to hear of the x-\rmenians.
All the evidence points to the conclusion that they entered their
historical seats from the west,^ as a branch of a considerable
immigration of Indo-European peoples crossing the straits from
Europe into Asia Minor and perhaps originally coming from homes
in the steppes north of the Black Sea. Just as their kinsmen,
invading Europe, drove the old races before them, such as the
Etruscans, the Ligurians, and the Basques, so the Armenians seem to
have filled the void which may have been created by the ravages
of the Scythians and to have supplanted the subjects of the old
Khaldian dynasty in the possession of the plains of the tableland.
That this revolution was not accomplished until at least as
late as the fifth century before Christ may be gathered from the
pages of Herodotus. The Armenians are known to this father of
historians as inhabiting the mountainous country about the sources
of the Halys and those of the Tigris, extending round towards
the Mediterranean in the neighbourhood of Cilicia, their boundary
on this side being the Euphrates.^ On the other hand the
Khaldians or Urardhians have not already disappeared, although
they have obviously declined to a subordinate position. They
are mentioned under the name of x-\larodians,^ and they are
1 Professor Sayce (Early Israe/, London, 1899, pp. 238-239) adopts this date and
considers that the classical writers confounded the Scythians with the Aledes. A priori
this view would seem probable, having regard to the natural evolution of the history of
the times.
^ According to Herodotus (vii. 73) the Armenians were Phrygian colonists and were
armed in the Phrygian fashion. The view of the ancients seems to have been that the
Phrygians, as well as the Asiatic Thracians, had migrated from Europe into Asia Minor.
•' Herodotus, i. 72 and 194 ; v. 49 and 52. In the catalogue of the satrapies of the
empire of Darius Armenia is joined with the unknown district of Pactyica (iii. 93). In
the Behistun inscriptions of Darius, the Persian and Scythic texts everywhere employ
Armenia for the more ancient Assyrian title Urardhu.
* For the certain identification of the Alarodians with the inhabitants of the kingdom
of Urardhu or Ararat, see Sir. H. Rawlinson's essay in Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. iv.
p. 245.
68 Armenia
joined with the Matienians and Saspeires or Sapeires in the
eighteenth satrapy of the Persian empire/ Herodotus leaves us
in the dark as to the exact localities in which they lived, although
he indicates that the seats of the Saspeires lay to the south of
the Kolchians, who inhabited the southern shore of the Black Sea
in the neighbourhood of the Phasis."-^ He informs us that
Alarodians and Saspeires were both armed like the Kolchians,
and the fact that the satrapies were organised with a view to
ethnic affinities suggests the possibility that the two names first
mentioned had come to be applied to one and the same race.
Other considerations seem to point in the same direction, Down
to a comparatively recent period we find a people called Chald-
ians (as written in the Greek character) or Chaldaeans occupying
the mountains between Trebizond and Batum. There can be
little doubt that they represented the remnants of the Vannic
people, and they were almost certainly the same as the Alarod-
ians of Herodotus and probably the same as the Saspeires, who
have perhaps left their name to the present town of Ispir.^ When
the Armenians had expelled the ancient inhabitants from the
settled country we know from a most interesting chapter in the
Cyropaedeia of Xenophon that the latter took refuge in the
mountains. They fortified inaccessible peaks and lived by
plunder, raiding down upon the plains."* Our knowledge of the
geography may at this point assist our historical investigations ;
and we may be reasonably sure that we shall find the relics of
the dispossessed Khaldians inhabiting the fastnesses of the peri-
pheral ranges which border Armenia upon the north and south.
That this was the case in the northern region is proved by
the long survival of the name Chaldia ( = Khaldia) among those
inhospitable heights. Professor Lehmann has collected with a
thoroughness of which his countrymen alone seem capable, a
catalogue of passages in Greek and Byzantine writers making
mention either of the Chaldian people or of the province to which
they gave their name.'^ That people are sometimes called Chaldeans
' Herodotus, iii. 94, and cp. vii. 79. - Ibid. i. 104.
^ Professor Rawlinson would identify the Saspeires with the Iberians of later writers
(Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. iv. p. 233). In view of the prevailing opinion that the old
Vannic language has some affinity with modern Georgian, this identification is most
interesting. Ispir is situated on the threshold of the northern peripheral region, on the
river Chorokh. ' Xenophon, Cyropicdcia, bk. iii. chs. i, 2 and 3.
^ Zcitschrift fiir Elhnoloi^ie, 1892, p. 131 ; Vcrhandlungoi der Bcrl. Gesell. fiir
Anthropologic, 1892, p. 487, 1895, pp. 578 scq., 1896, p. 320; Zeitsclirift fiir Assyriologie,
1894, pp. 82 seq., and p. 358, note I.
Van 69
in classical authors. But that this was an error seems sufficiently
proved by the name of the province — Chaldia ; by the survival
side by side of the variant form — Chaldians, and by the practice
of Armenian writers to distinguish between the name of the tribe
on their northern frontiers and that of the Chaldaeans. Chaldia
with the capital Trebizond formed one of the military themes of
the Byzantine empire ; and I should like to add yet another
reference to the lists of Professor Lehmann, this one taken from
the travels of the Castilian ambassador, Don Ruy Gonzalez
Clavigo, in the year 1404. Setting out from Trebizond on his
way to Erzinjan, we find him travelling on the third day out
through the snowy mountains of the province of Chaldia to the
castle of Tzanich which stood on a crag ; and on the morrow, in
the evening, he arrives at the castle of the duke of Chaldia, where
all caravans pay toll. The territory formed a part of the empire
of the Grand Comneni ; and the name has survived to the present
day as that of a diocese of the Greek Church with the capital
Giimiishkhaneh on the road from Trebizond to Baiburt.^
It is not so easy to trace the remnants of this ancient people
in the southern zone of mountains. Their presence there is
attested by the march of Xenophon with the relics of the Ten
Thousand. A body of Chaldaean or, more properly, of Chaldian
mercenaries oppose his passage of the Bohtan branch of the
Tigris.- They are described as of independent spirit and warlike
nature, and, like the Karduchi, the modern Kurds, as still
maintaining their political freedom. One is tempted to enquire
whether the present so-called Chaldsean or Assyrian Christians, who
are spread about the districts in the neighbourhood of Julamerik
watered by the Great Zab, may not supply the necessary and
missing link. But here we approach a thorny and difficult
question, upon which the limitations of the present enquiry forbid
us to touch.^ It will be better capable of discussion when some
unanimity shall have been attained upon the origin and ethnic
affinities of the subjects of the old Vannic kings. The Chaldean
Christians are reputed to have fled into the mountains from
Mesopotamia as late as the era of Timur. Baghdad and then Mosul
1 Narrative of the Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, translated by C. R. Mark-
ham, Hakluyt Society, London, 1859.
- Xenophon, Anabasis, iv. ch. 3, v. ch. 5, vii. ch. 8.
^ The remarks of Layard {Nineveh and its Remains, London, 1849, vol. i. p. 257)
and Badger (The Nestoriaus and their Rituals, London, 1852, pp. 177 seq.) serve to
iUustrate the complexity of this question.
70 Armenia
would seem to have been the earlier seats of their patriarchate.
The name Chaldsean is not one which they apply to themselves,
although they believe in their " Assyrian " origin. There is held
by some scholars to be the widest etymological and original differ-
ence between the name of the people who were called after the god
Khaldis and that of the Babylonian Chaldees or Chaldaeans. But
the question of a possible racial or cultural link between them
cannot at present be regarded as already negatived.^
Although the whole subject of the Vannic kingdom has
scarcely yet arrived beyond its infantile stages, the knowledge
already attained serves to throw quite a flood of light upon the
early history of Armenia and of the Armenians. In a former
chapter- I had occasion to remark the obscurity of Armenian
chronicles prior to the advent of their Arsakid dynasty. The
people known as Armenians to Darius and to classical writers
have always been accustomed to prefer the name of their reputed
progenitor, Hayk, the son of Togarmah, great-grandson of Japhet.
They call themselves the Hayk or children of Hayk. They
believe that their ancestor emigrated from Babylon in a north-
westerly direction and ultimately arrived upon the shores of Lake
Van. They style the line of their primeval kings the Haykian
dynasty, and they relate in a fabulous manner the early struggles
of this dynasty with the Assyrian Power. Their historians admit
that for this period they are destitute of native annals, and they
deplore the illiterateness of their forefathers. It would almost
seem as if they had presented us with a darkened and legendary
account of the history of their predecessors, possibly mingled with
the experiences of their own race. That the people of the Vannic
kings were not Armenians is proved by the distinctive character
of their language. That their empire continued to exist until at
least as late as the latter half of the seventh century before Christ
is a fact which is beyond doubt. Nothing which we might be
inclined to attribute to the Armenians has been found at Toprak
Kala. On the other hand, wc may gather from Xenophon that
after a period of mutual distrust the Armenians intermarried with
the Khaldians whom they had dispossessed.^ To this extent they
may inherit the blood of that ancient people which gave to
' Compare the remarks of Sir II. Kawlinson (Rawlinson's Herodotus, iv. p. 248) and
of Professor Lehmann {V€rhandlitns,cn dcr Her!. Gcscll. fiir Aiithropoloi^ic, 1S95, p. 580).
2 Vol. I. Ch. XVI. p. 286.
^ Xenophon, Cyropicdeia, lik. iii. ch. ii. 23.
Van 7 1
Armenia a degree of civilisation which in many respects it has
not been privileged since to enjoy.
The Armenians, like all capable and conquering races, borrowed
much from the culture and attainments of the older inhabitants.
Their most ancient cities — Van, Armavir, and perhaps Melazkert
, and Arjish — were foundations of the Vannic kings. The city of
Hayk, as it has long been called, in the Hayotz-dzor, south-east of
Van, has disclosed to the first essays of the modern archaeologist
the familiar features of a Khaldian settlement.^ But Persian
influences left upon them a more visible impression ; and their
supreme god during the pre-Christian era was not the Khaldis of
the Vannic texts but the Ormazd of the inscription of Xerxes,
" who has created this earth, who has created that heaven, zvho
has created mankind^ '
Sequence of the Vannic Kingsi^
Aranie. — No inscriptions. Known only through those of the Assyrian
king, in which he is styled king of Urardhu. Attacked in 860
or 859 B.C. by Shalmaneser II. and again in 857 or 856 B.C. in
1 Ver/iandliingen der Berl. Gesell. ftir Authropologie, 1898, p. 591. I would
especially refer my reader to Dr. Belck's remarks upon this subject in the same publica-
tion, 1895, P- 606.
2 WTiile this chapter is going through the press some further articles by Drs. Belck
and Lehmann come into my hands. These deal with their recent journeys and researches
in Armenia (Sitziingsberichte der K. P. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1899, pp. 116 seq. and pp.
745 s^l- '■> the same publication for 1900, pp. dif) seq.).
^ Messrs. Belck and Lehmann commence the sequence : i. Lutipris, 2. Sarduris I.,
3. Aranie, 4. Sarduris II., thus attributing to their Sarduris I. the inscriptions which
record the construction of the walls from the rock of Van to the harbour. They suppose
a Sarduris II., son of Arame, as the antagonist of Shalmaneser II., and suggest that
Sarduris I. was the contemporary of Ashur-nasir-pal II. (885-860 B.C.) (Zeitsckrift fiir
Assyriologie, 1897, p. 201). This arrangement throws back Lutipris to about 900 B.C.
They promise us an essay upon the subject (see Verhandhaigeii der Berliner Gesellschafl
fiir Anthropologic, 1894, p. 486; Z. Assyr. 1897, PP- 200, 201, 202). At present I
do not feel convinced by the grounds they have brought forward. No inscriptions of this
Sarduris II. have been discovered ; nor does any mention appear to be made of works
by a predecessor of the same name or by Arame in the inscriptions near the Tabriz
gate at Van which they have discovered (see under Ispuinis infra). Of Lutipris no
inscriptions exist ; he is only known as the father of SarcUiris. Pending further enquiry
the hypothesis of Professor Sayce seems to me to hold the field : "I am more inclined
to conjecture that Sarduris I. was the leader of a new dynasty ; the ill success of Arrame
in his wars with the Assyrians forming the occasion for his overthrow . . . the introduc-
tion of a foreign mode of writing into the country looks like one of those innovations which
mark the rise of new dynasties in the East. The consolidation of the power of Darius
Hystaspis was, we may remember, accompanied by the introduction of the cuneiform alphabet
of Persia" (f.R.A.S. 1882, p. 406). To this I should like to add that it seems conso-
nant with the true order of. events that not until after the defeat of Arame was the site of
Van most happily selected as a sure stronghold against Assyrian attacks — a choice which
was largely instrumental in producing the extraordinary development of the northern
kingdom under Ispuinis, Menuas, and Argistis.
72 Armenia
his capital, Arzasku (site?).^ His cities as far as the sources of
the Euphrates were taken by the same monarch in 845 or 844 B.C.
1. Sarduris I. — Son of Lutipris. Three inscriptions {Zeitschrift fiir
Assyriologie, 1899, p. 315) on massive blocks of stone, forming part
of a wall which extended from the western extremity of the rock of
Van roughly in a northerly direction towards the harbour across
the plain ( Verhandbingen der Berlijier Gesellschaft fiir Atithropologie,
etc., 1897, p. 305). Appears to have been the initiator of the
fortifications of the rock of Van. Bore the title : '■'•king of the world
(Sar KiTsati), king of iVairi." Attacked about 833 B.C. by the
general of Shalmaneser II. ; styled king of Urardhu in the Assyrian
inscriptions.
2. Isptdnis. — His son. Several inscriptions, in which he is more
commonly associated with his son Menuas. The inscriptions are
found as far apart as the Kelishin Pass between Rowanduz and
Ushnei, the hill of Ashrut-Darga, east of the village of Salekhane,
east of Van and the Van region, and Patnotz, north of Sipan. His
title is given in the Vannic text of the Kelishin stele as : king of
JVairi, king of Suras {i.e. of northern Syria -), inliabiting the city
of Dhuspas ; and in the inscription of Ashrut Darga as: king of
Biaina, inhabiting the city of Dliiispas. Is probably the Uspina
from whom the general of the Assyrian king Shamshi-Ramman III.
(825-812 B.C.) captured 11 forts and 200 villages during his
campaign against Nairi. His newly-discovered inscription near
the Tabriz gate at Van appears to ascribe the construction of the
works upon the citadel to himself, his father Sarduris, his son
Menuas and his grandson Inuspuas {V. Anth. 1898, p. 575).
3. Menuas. — His son, associated with his father in the government, and
afterwards with his own son, Inuspuas. To this king belong the
largest number of the inscriptions yet discovered, ranging from the
Kelishin Pass and the rock of Tashtepe, near the southern shore of
Lake Urmi (Sayce, y.i?.^.-5. vol. xiv. p. 386; Belck, Z. Assyr.
1899, p. 313), the latter of which commemorates his conquests in
the kingdom of Minni {V. Anth. 1894, p. 481) in the east, to Palu
on the Lower Murad in the west; and from Van and the Van
regions in the south to Hasan-Kala, near Erzerum, in the north.
Perhaps his most important conquest was that of a great portion
of the valley of the Araxes on the northern side of the Ararat system.
1 May Arzasku have been situated in the great plain at the southern foot of the Ararat
system, now known as the district of Alashkert ? The inscription of Shahiianeser runs :
" From Dayaeni (which Dr. Belck identifies with the district about the modern Delibaba)
I struck camp and approached Arzasku, the capital of the Urardhian Arame. The
I'rardhian Arame was filled with fear . . . and deserted his city. To the mountains
Adduri he fled up ; behind him I followed ; a great battle I fought in the mountains. . . .
Arame was compelled, in order to save his life, to take refuge in an inaccessible mountain."
Dr. Belck suggests that Adduri may have been the name applied by the Khaldians to
Ararat and the Ararat system ; and that it may survive in the modern Akhury or Arguri
( r. Anl/i. 1893. p. 71).
- /'. Antli. 1896, pp. 323 and 325. The translation is, however, open to question.
Vail 73
Menuas may be regarded as the founder of the original garden city
of Van, which probably occupied a somewhat different position
than at the present day, and extended to the borders of the lake,
where it received the waters of the canal since called the Shamiram
Su, coming through Artemid — a work on a great scale, which we
now know to have been constructed principally by this monarch,
and which provided the volume of irrigation necessary for an
extensive settlement. Records his conquests. Extensively re-
stored Melazkert (Z Assyr. 1892, p. 262 ; V. Anth. 1898, pp. 569
seq.) and founded Arzwapert, north-east of Arjish. His title is : the
great king, the king of Biaina, inhabiting the city of Dhuspas.
4. Argistis I. — His son. Numerous inscriptions which show that he
extended the conquests of Menuas, especially towards the north.
These inscriptions are found as far north as Kanlija, near Alex-
andropol, and Sarikamish, on the road from Kars to Erzerum, by
which route he probably advanced or retired from the districts
north of the Ararat system. From those at Van, which are in fact
detailed annals of his conquests, we learn that he met and overcame
the armies of Assyria on more than one occasion in the regions
south-east of Lake Urmi. His reign represents the culminating
point of Vannic empire. He ascribes to himself works upon the
rock and in the city of Van ; and he was the founder of the city of
Armavir in the valley of the Araxes (K A?ith. 1896, p. 313). He
bore the title of: the great king, the king of Biaina, inhabiting the
city of Dhuspas.
5. Sarduris II. — His son. Numerous inscriptions, distributed over a large
area of country, one being found in the south-east corner of Lake
Gokcheh, another (discovered by us) near the western summit of
the Bingol Dagh,^ and yet another as far west as the Euphrates
near Malatia in Asia Minor. The first and last record conquests
in those countries. Ascribes to himself works upon the rock and
in the city of Van, and gives a list of his conquests, including
some over the Assyrian monarch Ashur-nirari 11., 754-745 B.C.
{V. Anth. 1898, pp. 570-77). But these successes were followed
by disasters which dealt a severe blow at the Vannic kingdom.
With the accession of Tiglath-Pileser IH. of Assyria (745-727 b.c.)
a new area is initiated in the relations of these two great Powers
of the day. The clash seems to have come in the year 743 and
in connection with the endeavour of Tiglath-Pileser to possess
himself of the strong place of Arpad between the present towns of
1 The inscription is contained on one face of a recumbent stone which can with
difficulty be distinguished from the boulders lying round. The stone has been well
shaped and dressed. The characters have been much mutilated by the figure of a cross
which has been incised upon the face of the stone. The first line evidently contains the
name of Sarduris, while the second was probably occupied by that of Argistikhinis, or
the son of Argistis. In line 7 a conquest is recorded, and in line 8 occurs the
name of Alusia. Professor Sayce has kindly supplied this brief account of the contents,
and I trust that he will publish the text.
74 Arme7iia
Aleppo and Killis, the key of northern Syria, a country over which
the Vannic kings had for several reigns upheld pretensions.
Sarduris headed the league against the Assyrians and drew off the
king from the siege of Arpad. He was, however, signally defeated
" near Kistan and Khalpi, districts of Kummukh " (Kommagene),
and pursued as far as " the bridge over the Euphrates, the
boundary of his kingdom." Subsequently, in 735 B.C., Tiglath-
Pileser carried the war into the very heart of the Vannic country,
and at length appeared before the city of Van. Sarduris was
obliged to shut himself up in the impregnable citadel, while his
adversary massacred his warriors and his people in the city at its
feet, and erected a statue of himself in front of it. He then
ravaged the territory of Sarduris over a space of some 450 miles,
meeting with no opposition anywhere. (For the sequence of these
events, made known to us by the Assyrian inscriptions, see V. Anth.
1896, pp. 321 seq., and Smith's Assyria^ London, S.P.C.K. 1897,
pp. 83 seq.). Sarduris increased the importance of the city of
Armavir, and ascribes to himself works upon the citadel and in
the city of Van. Bore the title : king of kings ^ king of the land of
Suras, king of Biaina, inJiabiting the city of Dhuspas. Styled king
of Urardhu in the Assyrian inscriptions.
6. Ritsas I. — His son. The author of at least two important extant
inscriptions, that of Kolani-Girlan (Alutshalu), on the face of a
rock overlooking Lake Gokcheh, and that of Topsana (Sidikan), in
the district of Rowanduz in Kurdistan, discovered by Rawlinson
and recently examined by Dr. Belck (Zeitschrift filr Ethnologic,
Berlin, 1899, pp. 99-132). The first records conquests and the
restoration of a palace ; the second, which has, however, not yet
been published, conveys noteworthy facts bearing upon the
relations with Assyria. We know from the Assyrian inscriptions
that the Vannic kingdom was by no means crushed by the campaign
of Tiglath-Pileser ; for the son of Sarduris, this Rusas the First,
displayed great activity in inciting the neighbouring principalities
against the successor of the conqueror, Sargon (722-705 B.C.),
among which may be specially mentioned the kingdom of Minni,
south-east of Lake Urmi, and the almost impregnable territory of
Mutsatsir or Ardinis near Rowanduz. Sargon tells us how, in
714 B.C., he penetrated into Mutsatsir, which contained a temple of
the god Khaldis, the god of the Vannic kingdom ; how its king
Urzana fled, and how he plundered and burnt the city, rifled the
temple and carried off the statues of the gods. He relates that
Ursa, king of Urardhu {i.e. Rusas L), upon hearing of this disaster
to his ally and of the carrying off of the god, committed suicide.
The contents of the inscription of Topsana throw doubt upon this
latter statement. They are to the effect that Rusas restored
Urzana to his kingdom, led his armies as far as " the mountains of
Assyria," and restored the offerings to Khaldis in Mutsatsir.
If, as seems probable, the Rusas of the shattered stele of
Van 75
Keshish Gol near Van be this first king of that name, then we
must ascribe to this monarch the various works which are mentioned
in that inscription (Sayce, No. Ixxix.), and which, as Messrs. Belck
and Lehmann have conclusively shown, should be referred to
Toprak Kala, an eminence from the plain some little distance east of
the rock of Van and close to the present garden town. These works
appear to have been : the constitution of the Keshish Gol into a
reservoir, the conduct of its waters to the Rusahina, or city of
Rusas, as distinct from Dhuspas ; the laying out of this new city,
with numerous vineyards and gardens, and the building of a
palace there. Rusas I. may therefore be regarded as the author
of the transference of the site of the garden town from the south
to the east of the rock of Van, where it was protected by the
heights of Toprak Kala. The necessary irrigation was drawn from
the Keshish Gol instead of or in addition to that derived from the
canal of Menuas. The change was probably made in consequence
of the destruction by Tiglath-Pileser of the old town, although he
was unable to effect the capture of the citadel or rock of Van (Z.
Ethnologie, 1892, pp. 141 seq. ; V. Anth. 1893, p. 220; Z Assyr.
1894, pp. 349 seq.; Deutsche Rundschau, Christmas 1894, pp. 411
seq.; V. Anth. 1898, p. 576 ; Z. Assyr. 1899, p. 320). Rusas I.
is styled Ursa, king of Urardhu, in the Assyrian inscriptions. Those
of the Vannic Monarchy, hitherto published, do not furnish a title.
Argistis II. — His son. The mention of this ruler in a Vannic text
was discovered by Messrs. Belck and Lehmann in an inscription
on a shield from the temple at Toprak Kala, now in the British
Museum (Z. Assyr. 1894, pp. 82-99; ^p. Z Assyr. 1892, pp.
263 seq.; V. Anth. 1895, p. 595) ; and two of his own inscriptions
have recently been found by these investigators in the neighbour-
hood of Arjish ( V. Anth. 1898, p. 573). They have not yet been
published. This prince is alluded to in the Assyrian annals. He
appears to have endeavoured to repeat the tactics of Sarduris IH.
against Tiglath-Pileser III., and to have succeeded in inciting the
king of Kummukh (Kommagene) against Sargon. But his efforts
only resulted in the subjugation of Kummukh by the Assyrian
monarch in 708 B.C. (Smith's Assyria, 1897, p. 116).
Rusas II. — His son. So known to us from the inscription on the
shield above mentioned (Z Assyr. 1894, pp. 82-99, ^^^d 339 seq.;
V. Anth. 1895, P- 596)- 'Two new inscriptions of this king have
been found by Dr. Belck at Adeljivas {V. Anth. 1898, p. 573),
in which he is stated to have conquered the Hittites and Moschians.
He is also mentioned on a clay tablet discovered by Messrs. Belck
and Lehmann at Toprak Kala (Van). He was the contemporary
of Esarhaddon of Assyria (681-668 B.C.), and is mentioned in an
Assyrian inscription of that reign (H. Winckler, AltorientaHsche
Forschungen, 2nd ser. vol. i. 1898, p. 41 ; and see Z Assyr.
1894, p. 341)- , . ,j r T,
, Erimenas. — Known only from an inscription on a shield from the
76 Armenia
temple at Toprak Kala, now in the British Museum, as being the
father of Rusas III.
10. Rusas III. — His son. Rebuilt the temple of Khaldis on Toprak Kala
(shield inscriptions in the British Museum published by Prof
Sayce, No. lii. \x\ J.R.A.S. 1882, pp. 653 seq. For Tuprak Kilissa
read Toprak Kala, Van, and cp. Z. Assyr. 1892, p. 266; Z. Assyr.
1894, p. 97 and pp. 339 seq.; V. A/it/i. 1895, p. 595). An
inscription of this king has been found at Armavir (Sayce, Ixxxv.).
Sent an embassy to Ashur-bani-pal of Assyria about 655 B.C. (Z.
Assyr. 1894, p. 342). Bore the title: f/ie great king, inhabit-
i7ig the city of DJuispas.
11. Sardnris III. — Known through the Assyrian inscriptions as having
sent an embassy to Ashur-bani-pal about 644 b.c. (Z. Assyr.
1894, P- 342).
III. — Van towards the Close of the Nineteenth
Century
With the single exception of the remains of a mosque en-
riched with traceries and Arabic legends in a style worthy of
the best traditions of Saracenic art, there remains no vestige in
Van of any period of prosperity and splendour subsequent to the
era of the pre-Armenian kings. It is true that the whole region
is subject to seismic influences, and that many of the monuments
of later ages may have succumbed through this cause. There
exists a tradition that the isolation of the rock of Van itself
is due to an earthquake in very ancient times, resulting in its
severance from the heights adjacent on the east. Several
visitations of considerable severity have probably occurred during
the historical period; thus we learn that in the year 1648 of
the Christian era one-half of the wall of the fortified city, as
well as churches, mosques and private houses, were shattered by
successive shocks and fell to the ground.^ But it is at least
doubtful whether posterity has been deprived of many treasures
by this agency or by the scourge of such a destroyer as Timur.
Van must have occupied a subordinate position among the
capitals of the Achcemenian empire ; and her ancient temples,
together with the structures of her former magnificence, appear to
have been demolished at a very early date. A restoration is
ascribed to an xArmenian king of the Haykian dynasty, who is
said to have lived a little prior to the Asiatic conquests of
Alexander the Great. But the very fact that this monarch is
1 Arakel, ap. Abich, Gcoloi;. Forsch. in dcii kaitk. f.aud. N'ienna, 1882, part ii. p. 440.
Van 7 7
named Van, and is related to have rechristened the city of
Semiramis after himself, invests the story v/ith a fabulous char-
acter/ Greater credit may be attached to the statement of
Moses of Khorene that the place was rebuilt by the first ruler of
the Armenian line of the Arsakid or Parthian kings. "^ A colony
of Jews, with the high priest of their nation, were settled in Van
by one of his successors, the contemporary of King Mithridates
of Pontus and his ally against the Roman Power.^ These Jewish
captives appear to have prospered in their new seats ; and about
the middle of the fourth century of our era they are said to
have numbered 18,000 families, who were again transported into
captivity, this time into Persia, by the ruler of the new empire
which had arisen in Asia, the Sasanian king Shapur.'* Neither
Arsakids nor Sasanians appear to have laid much store by the
city ; and, indeed, the centres of political gravity in the Asiatic
world had undergone a marked change since Assyrian times.
The tableland of Persia had become incorporated into the
imperial systems of Asia, giving ready access into the Armenian
highlands. Europe had already appeared upon the changing
scene of Oriental despotisms, and the real struggle was between
the East and the West. When the Mohammedan empire of the
caliphs had supplanted that of the Sasanian fire-worshippers,
Persia and Armenia formed parts of the new structure. With the
decay of the edifice it might appear that a fresh era had dawned
for the Christian Armenians, supported on the west by their
co-religionists of the Byzantine dominions, and capable of forti-
fying Van against the assaults of the Arabs operating from
Baghdad and the lowlands in the south. In such circumstances
was born the Armenian kingdom of Vaspurakan, which flourished
for awhile during the Middle Ages, and of which this city was
the capital. We have already glanced at its history while
pursuing the annals of its contemporary at Ani, and have had to
deplore the lack of cohesion among the Armenians at that period,
which precluded them from playing a part of first-rate importance
in the world movements of the time. We have seen the king-lets
of Van bowing the head to the Seljuk invasion and creeping for
safety into the bosom of the Byzantine empire.^ Perhaps we
have not overlooked the picturesque interest of the pact they
1 Saint Martin, Meinoires sttr PAniieiiie, i. 138. ^ Moses of Khorene, ii. 8.
3 Ibid. ii. 19. ■* Faustus of Byzantium, iv. 55.
- Vol. I. Ch. XVIII. pp. 357, 359.
j^ A rv tenia
concluded, under which the heirs of the Romans took over the
city of Sarduris and Menuas as an outpost of the civilised world.
After the Byzantines had been carried away by the storm of
barbarism the annals of Van, in so far as it is possible to follow
them, are of scarcely more than local interest. The place must
have settled down to that long spell of half-conscious existence
under which it sleeps and heaves and moans at the present day.
Its garrison of Turkomans offered a prolonged resistance to the
armies of Timur ; and, if the citadel was indeed virgin after the
lapse of ages, to the savage Tartar belongs the boast of having
torn her defences away. When Van was visited by a European
traveller at the commencement of the sixteenth century, the
Persian Shahs of the Safavid dynasty were in nominal ownership
and a Kurdish chieftain in real possession of the fortress. This
individual went so far as to coin money with his own stamp ;
but he was ejected after a prolonged siege by the general of Shah
Ismail the First (a.D. 1502-24) and the inhabitants brought
over to Persian allegiance.^ In the year 1534 the keys of the
city were brought to the vizier of the Ottoman sultan, Suleyman
the First.- The Ottoman Turks thus became masters of a
fortress on the side of Persia which they converted into one of
the strongest places in their empire. In the seventeenth century
it is said to have fallen to Shah Abbas I.,^ but it was recovered
by the Turks. Their rule has perpetuated the abuses of the
Kurds ; and in the forties of the nineteenth century Van was
again in the tender keeping of a rebellious chief of that turbulent
people. Khan Mahmud.
In spite of all these revolutions the Armenian people still
maintain themselves in large numerical preponderance in the
city and neighbourhood of Van. It was about the shores of this
lake that, according to their traditions, their ancestor, Hayk,
established some of their earliest seats. For at least 2500 years
they have kept their hold upon them, and have become accustomed
and inured to see the empires come and pass, reaping their
harvest of tears from the Armenian peasantry. Since the
impressions which I am about to record were committed to paper
a fresh massacre has decimated their community. And now, as
1 Merchant in Persia {Italian 'I'ravch in Persia, Ilakluyt Society, 1873, PP- 179
seq.). The Kurd is called Zidibec.
2 Von Hammer, Geschichie des Osiit. Rciches, iii. 145.
^ Kitter, Erdkiiude, ix. 980. But the date he gives, viz. 1636, will not suit the
chronology.
Van 79
I put them together, comes a piteous appeal from the American
missionaries, despairing of preserving the hves of the famished
survivors who have lost their livelihood, but begging for help on
behalf of their crowded orphanages. The perspective of history-
helps to correct the sentiment of blank despondency engendered
by the contemporary condition of the Armenian inhabitants.
At the time of my visit they numbered two-thirds of the popula-
tion of the town and gardens of Van. This proportion has no
doubt been reduced by recent events ; but it is almost equally
certain to be redressed. The fecundity of this people is not
less remarkable than their persistency ; and their presence is
needed by the officials who exploit the land. It would seem
that the Armenian inhabitants of Van have been increasing
during the present century. There can be little doubt that the
proportion which their numbers bear to those of the Mussulmans
has been tending to become greater. Consul Brant records that
in the year 1838 Van contained not less than 7000 families, of
which only 2000 are ascribed by him to the Armenians.^ This
estimate represents a population of about 35,000 souls, of whom
25,000 would be Mussulmans and 10,000 Armenians. The
total agrees approximately with the most reliable statistics which
I was able to obtain. At the time of my visit the town, including
the gardens, was believed to be inhabited by 30,000 people; but the
Mussulmans numbered only 10,000 to the 20,oooof the Armenians.
I received the impression that these figures were correct in respect
of the proportion of the Armenian and the Mussulman element.
In the aggregate they appeared to be a little too low. If we
include the population of the caza or neighbourhood of Van, we
shall probably not err much in arriving at a total of at least
64,000, made up of 47,000 Armenians and 17,000 Mussulmans.
Consul Taylor in 1868 reckoned the inhabitants "of Van and
the neighbourhood," by which he would appear to mean of the
town and caza, at 17,000 Mussulmans and 42,000 Christians.
For Christians one might almost write Armenians.-
1 Brant mJou>-)ial of R. Gcog. Soc. 1841, vol. x.
- Taylor in archives of the British Consulate at Erzerum. Report of March 18, 1869.
The estimates of Jaubert in 1805 ( Voyage en Arrnhiie, etc. p. 138), and of Layard in 1850
{Nineveh and Babylon, p. 392), appear to have reference to the walled town only. The
former counts 15,000 to 20,000 souls, the majority Armenian. The latter says that Van
may contain from 1 2,000 to 1 5,000 inhabitants. Shiel's figure for the population, including
the suburbs, in 1836, of 12,000 people, "of whom 2000 are Armenians," is plainly in
error (J.K.G.S. 1838, vol. x.). Vital Cuinet {La Turqiiie d''Asie, Paris, 1892, vol. ii.
pp. 654, 691), whose statistics I have seldom found reliable, includes 500 Jews in the
8o Armenia
When one contemplates the vast extent of the garden
suburbs and the closely-packed quarters of the walled town, it
is difficult to believe that not more than 30,000 people inhabit
so imposing a place. Let my reader refer to the plan which
accompanies this chapter. I based it originally on one published
in the fine book of M. Muller-Simonis,^ and I filled it in during
my daily rides. It at once enables me to dispense with a tedious
topographical narrative, and serves to show the distribution of
Armenians and Mussulmans. On the left of the paper is repre-
sented the rock of Van with the cuneiform inscriptions and the
city or fortified town at its southern base. On the right extends
the hill ridge of Toprak Kala, commencing on the west with the
bold crag of Ak Kopri, and making a bay towards the gardens
as it stretches in an easterly direction, presenting the side of what
is actually a nearly meridional mass. Between the two lies the
plain — a bower of leafy gardens, most dense along a line drawn
south of Ak Kopri, but continuing westwards from the southerly
outskirts of those thickly-planted quarters to the district of
Shamiram or Semiramis, south of the citadel. Mussulmans and
Armenians are distributed over the area of these suburbs, and
they share between them the population of the walled town.
Some quarters in the gardens are peopled exclusively by
Armenians, some by Mussulmans, and some by both alike.
The names which I have placed upon the plan are in some cases
those of quarters, and in others of blocks of houses and enclosures.
The citadel or rock of Van is occupied by the garrison alone, and
none of the townsmen are permitted to ascend that delicious
platform.
The tall poplars and luxuriant undergrowth hide the houses
of the suburbs as you approach Van from the plain in the south.
But penetrate within the foliage and you will find clusters of
habitations which grow in frequency and importance as the central
avenue is reached. Along that well-trodden thoroughfare —
population of Van — the remnant of the colony transported thither by the Arsakid Tigranes.
My enquiries in several quarters elicited replies that no Jews were known to inhabit
either the town or the caza, but that there were 25 families at Bashkala.
With regard to any special elements in the population of the town and caza of Van
I was informed as follows : — -There may be some few score Circassians ; but there is no
regular Circassian settlement here. The Armenians are practically all Gregorians. Of
Chaldi:^;an Christians, whether adherents of their old faith or converts to Roman
Catholicism, only a few stray individuals would be found in the town of Van. But I
was informed of a settlement of them — Nestorians — about the shores of Lake Archag,
north-east of Van. ^ Dii Caticase an Golf e Per siqtie, Paris, 1892, p. 190.
PLAN OF VAN
BASED UPON A PLAN PUBLISHED
BY M,P. MiJLLER-SlMONIS
Scale- 'approximatcH: 19.000
Explanation :
A Cif<tdei I au/nf?'
B Mediipvni. watled a'ly, contuutint]
baxarx and business quarters.
C Garden town
1 Tabrix tfate
* Iskeir -
5 Ctutrr/i oT Savkax'anii
G • - Xorashm
T Arakh
8 - Jlanka.sin-r
ft Place otShach F&ijhaii
10 British Consulate < our residerttc t
11 Dominican 3/issicn
IW/;/rtv of tftiarters or htock.s- of
Imildintjs in capitaLs.
Van 8 1
filled at morning or in the evening by a stream of pedestrians
and riders, wearing the fez and more rarely the turban, some in
flowing Oriental robes, others attired in European dress — a
number of stately residences abut on the road with their gardens
around them, and dissemble the squalor which for the most part
reigns within. Extremely picturesque are some of these lofty
houses, with verandahs disposed in various and fanciful manners,
as may be seen in my illustration of the dwelling of a wealthy
Armenian inside the precincts of the walled city (Fig. 127). The
fact that a large number of the inhabitants of the garden town
Fig. 127, House of an Armenian Merchant at Van.
proceed daily to their different places of business in the city
partly accounts for the paradoxical smallness of the population,
which ebbs and flows between the two. Here in the gardens are
the private residences of the Vali or Governor of Van and of
the principal officials. Most of the rich Armenian merchants
have their dwellings among these quarters, where are also situated
the various European Consulates. It is here that are housed the
principal schools, and are located the most considerable of the
churches. It is therefore scarcely correct to speak of the garden
town as a suburb ; far rather does it bear to the narrow and
crowded streets at the base of the citadel a relation analogous to
that of the ]Vest End of London towards the City and the Strand.
Among these groves we spent a pleasant and fairly restful
VOL. II G
82 Armenia
fortnight, housed in the empty apartments of the British Consulate
near the cross-roads of Khach-poghan. There, in the great room
containing the safe, and the scroll enumerating the consular fees
payable by the only two subjects of Her Britannic Majesty who,
besides the Consul, are resident at Van, my companions erected
their camp beds. Mine was placed in a little chamber on the
further side "of the spacious landing, which was open to the air.
Here I could receive visits and read and write. My windows,
paned with glass, looked out upon a sylvan scene of fairy-like
character. All this verdure is produced by irrigation ; and it is
the peculiar quality of such artificial sustenance that plants and
trees preserve the perfection which in northern latitudes can only
be admired in a conservatory. The storm clouds, dissolving in
rain, do not disturb this southern climate and play havoc with
the leaves. Moss and mildew are unknown beneath this dry,
continental atmosphere and the rays of this brilliant sun. The
air is saturated with light, streaming from a heaven which is
always blue. Into the liquid canopy start the needle forms of
the poplars, forced from the soaking earth with wand-like stems.
Apples and peaches and pomegranates — all the hardier fruits
which can withstand cold winters — attain a beauty of form and
an excellence of flavour which would do credit to better gardeners.
Here at Van they grow much as they please. Melons and
cucumbers find just the conditions under which they thrive. All
this pulsing and exuberance extends unchecked through the long
summer ; and when the autumn is at length at hand, towards
the end of October, the change is only marked by the gradual
passing over of shades of green into shades of gold. The leaves
remain on their branches until the withered stalks can hold no
longer ; but of violence there is rarely a trace. The sky becomes
black and rumbles ; some showers fall, and Sipan is clothed in
white to his lower slopes. But the passing darkness of the day
only enhances the goldness of a foliage which awaits the first
coming of the snows. Such were the phases of the year, which,
towards the middle of November, were silently being accomplished
before our windows.
These cross-roads, Khach-poghan, are situated almost in the
centre of the most thickly-populated districts of the garden town.
On the whole it is a painful impression which one receives from
daily intercourse with one's fellow-creatures at Van. The salient
feature of the situation is the war between two opposite elements —
Van 83
the one of restless energy, measured almost by a European standard ;
the other passive, suspicious, fitfully aflame. Neither is endowed
with the capacity of government ; and the least numerous and
least capable rule. The Armenian subject majority spend lives
which are certainly laborious and create whatever wealth the
city possesses. The Mussulman dominant minority grow fat
in the mostly highly-paid sinecures, or employ the most keen-
witted among the Christians to devise ingenious schemes for
robbing the public or the public funds. Over all presides an
imported official of little ability and no education ; and a few
troops, under the orders of an independent commander, who is
a centre for intrigue, redress the balance in favour of the least
enlightened and most corrupt.
Things are in the habit of going on in this haphazard
manner, jolting and creaking along. But within the last decade
or two a new spirit has been born, which my reader knows under
the name of the Armenian movement. Here at Van, no less
than elsewhere, it has been a clumsy birth, as might be expected
from its parentage. It springs from the two elements above
indicated, and flourishes most in the circumstances described.
In its ultimate origin it is at once a product of economical
conditions and a reflection of the spirit of the times. It causes
the old elements to ferment beyond recognition and to assume
the most incongruous shapes.
The phenomenon is most remarkable in the case of the
Turks. One may remark, by way of parenthesis, that there does
not appear to be any evidence of an actual settlement of Turks
in Van or the neighbourhood. Among the Mussulman inhabitants
of the town about six families or clans, comprising each on the
average some fifty persons, may be classed as of Turkish descent.
Of these the most prominent are the Timur Oglu ; then the
Jamusji Oglu, or sons of the buffalo driver, and the Topchi
Oglu, or sons of the artilleryman. From their ranks was formed
a kind of oligarchy, which ruled the city in former times, and, as
was natural, developed a fine taste for faction and had its counter-
parts of Guelphs and Ghibellines. The passion for intrigue has
survived among them longer than the ability to indulge it in
methods of their own choosing. Their power has been much
curtailed by the progressive centralisation of all government at
Constantinople. But they still maintain their hold upon much
of the machinery of the administration, filling the offices which
84 Armenia
are not under the direct patronage of the imperial authorities,
such as the presidencies of the municipaHty, the administrative
council, and the judicial courts. With the exception of these
families there are very few real Turks in Van ; and in the country
districts the Mussulman population are probably for the most
part of Kurdish origin. They speak both Turkish and Kurdish.
The more peaceable among them, who are accustomed to settled
pursuits, disown the name of Kurds and affect that of Osmanli,
or Turks of the ruling race. They do not belong to any Kurdish
tribe. Their sympathies are on the whole on the side of law
and order ; and their aversion to the turbulence of the tribal
Kurds counteracts and perhaps outweighs their jealousy of their
Christian neighbours.
An enlightened Government would seize upon these points
of union and forge from them strong links to connect society in
defence of common interests against the excesses of the Kurds.
Van is situated upon the threshold of the Kurdish mountains,
close to the immemorial strongholds of Kurdish chieftains, whence
they descend with their motley followers into the plains. No
sooner had the centralising tendencies in the Ottoman Empire
come near to establishing upon a permanent basis the unquestioned
supremacy of Ottoman rule in these remote districts, than the
Armenian movement commenced to make itself felt. The truth
is that those tendencies were of impure origin. The officials
at Constantinople were concerned with nothing less than the
extension of good government. But they were clever enough to
perceive that such modern inventions, as, for instance, the telegraph,
gave them the means of controlling for their own purposes distant
territories which in former times had been left more or less to
themselves. The telegraph substituted the authority of a clique
in the Palace at Constantinople for the rough-and-ready but often
honest and, on the whole, well-meaning methods of a Turkish
pasha of the old school. It is quite possible that the good old
pashas would have brought about the ruin of the country, which,
indeed, was in effect ruined long before they appeared on the
scene. But things might have gone on longer ; their rule could
not have cost one quarter the existing misery ; and the travelled
person would at least have preferred spending his life in their
shadow than within reach of the wings of the eagle of Russia
and the quills of her bureaucrats.
From one cause or another the whole character of Mussulman
Van 85
government has undergone a marked change within recent
years. It is scarcely possible to recognise in the ruling circles
of such a city as Van the Turkey of our fathers. Fear and
suspicion are written upon every face. These passions are trans-
mitted to the rank and file of their co-religionists; the air
is full of rumours of Armenian plots. In the old days there
would have been a riot and quite possibly a massacre ; and
everything would settle down. At present a swarm of spies,
under the direction of emissaries from the Palace, keep the old
sores open and daily discover new opportunities for inflicting
wounds. All the vices of the Russian bureaucracy have been
copied by willing disciples in the capital, and sent down to the
provinces to serve as a model. One may assert without ex-
aggeration that life is quite intolerable for an inhabitant of this
paradise of Van.
The spies smell out a so-called plot and denounce its authors
to the Governor, who, poor man, is tired to death with their
reports. If he fail to follow it up, he is accused at Constantin-
ople, and runs the risk of losing his post. If he interfere, his
action may quite well lead to bloodshed at a time when his
efforts at pacification were commencing to bear fruit. I gathered
that a certain Vali of Bitlis had discovered a working solution
of the difficulty. His principle was to go one better than the
informers, and himself to organise a huge plot against himself.
When this sedition had been quelled by his soldiers just at the
time that suited him best, his zeal would be rewarded by the
despatch of a decoration from the Palace, and he would be left in
peace for some time.
Of course the power of the Kurds is daily on the increase in
such circumstances as these. The Palace leans towards them ;
their petty leaders are taken to the capital and invested with
high orders. The wretched puppet of a Governor does not dare
to overawe them, as even his slender resources would well enable
him to do. On the other hand, the former docile, cringing spirit
of the Armenians has given place to a different temper. Partly
they are goaded by the spies into so-called rebellion ; and, in
part, they have been aroused to a consciousness of their own real
miseries by the persecution of the most respected of their clerical
leaders and by the spread of education.
The Armenian movement has had the effect of resolving their
community at Van into two distinct parties. The one is animated
86 Armenia
by the spirit of the present Katholikos, His Holiness Mekertich
Khrimean. The memory of his noble life, spent so largely
among them, outlives his long absence from their midst. The
evidence of his work and example is spread over the city, and
may readily be recognised in the demeanour of those who have
shared his thoughts and aims. His last period of residence in
this, his native place, would appear to have come to an end in
1885. At that time he was bishop of Van as well as abbot
of Varag. His labours were directed to the education of his
countrymen ; " educate, educate " — the girls no less than the
boys — may be said to have been his watchword. His personal
influence and the power of the pulpit, when occupied by such a
preacher, were thrown into the endeavour to awake those dormant
feelings which few human beings, however much their spirit may
have been broken, are entirely without. To realise their manhood,
and what they owed to themselves and their race was the constant
exhortation which ran through his sermons and penetrated to the
inmost selves of his flock. Schools sprang up in abundance
beneath the magic of his individuality, and teachers were imbued
with that enthusiasm for their high calling without which their
profession savours of drudgery and tends to produce a similar
impression upon their pupils. But the spirit of truth is too often
akin to the spirit of revolution, and there are bonds from without
as well as from within. When the scales fell from the eyes of
this downtrodden people, the naked ugliness of their lot as helots
was revealed. Their native energies were transferred from the
domain of money -making to that of social improvement and
political emancipation. The craft of their minds, abnormally
quickened by the long habit of oblique methods, exchanged the
sphere of commerce for that of politics. What wonder if they
infused their politics with a character at which your superior
European would sometimes frown and more often smile ? He has
been trained by a long spell of comparatively pure government ;
while the Armenians have been a subject race for over nine cen-
turies, are honeycombed with the little vices inherent in such a
status, and are quite unused and as yet unfit to govern themselves.
So the old Armenian nature underwent and is still experi-
encing a process of fermentation and change. At the same time
it threw off some of the characteristics which had been hitherto
among the most pronounced. Rashness and contempt for calcu-
lation took the place of the old qualities of servility and time-
Van 87
serving. In the domain of the community these discarded
quah'ties were represented by individuals and by a party. The
watchword of this party has been submission to the powers that
are, and the soHd argument which underlies the counsels of those
who inspire it is based upon the apparent hopelessness of resist-
ance and the tragic failures which such resistance has already
involved. But the sympathy of the impartial spectator can
scarcely be enlisted on their side, even if his judgment incline to
their views. They are not the new Armenians, chastened by
sorrow and sobered by reflection, but, for the most part, the very
dregs of the old. Their leader in Van is the bishop of Lim,
commonly known as Bishop Poghos. This prelate has long been
resident in the city. His talents have been employed to counter-
act the influence of the present Katholikos ; and he has stood at
the head of his opponents. When Khrimean departed from his
see he named Bishop Poghos his vckil or deputy, it would seem
in the hope of promoting peace. But the inhabitants do not
appear to have favoured this solution, and the bishop has not held
the office for the last several years. He did me the honour of
coming to see me — a man of great bulk of body and in advanced
years. His features are of the blunt order characteristic of so
many Armenians ; and one might doubt whether he could ever
have understood the personality of such a man as Khrimean.
Such, perhaps, is not an unfair analysis of society at Van and
of the transformation which the principal elements have been
undergoing. Several massacres of the Armenians have done less
to exasperate them than the importation of Russian methods into
their daily life. The place swarms with secret police. Should a
Mussulman harbour a grudge against an Armenian, he endeavours
to excite the suspicions of one of these agents ; the house is
entered and searched from roof to cellar. Perhaps some harmless
effusion of patriotic sentiment is found in the desk of a son of the
house, a student. The poem is seized and the youth thrown into
prison. Arms are said to be concealed, and a pistol may be
discovered. The whole family is at once rendered suspect.
One might multiply these instances almost to any extent ; but
my object is not to excite resentment against the Turkish
authorities, only to show the folly of their procedure. If they
would only return to their old traditions and try to govern less,
the situation would be immensely improved.
I feel sure that such counsel would be appreciated and even
8S Armenia
tendered by the Pasha if he were consulted by those from whom
he takes his orders. But it would have been in doubtful taste to
speak one's mind out to him, the intercourse between us having
been confined to the courtesy of an exchange of visits. Nor was
he the man to enter usefully into a discussion of the subject.
He had come to Van in the pursuit of his profession of Governor
some twenty months ago. A Mussulman Georgian of good
family, whose ancestral estates lie in Russian territory, not far
from the coast of the Black Sea, he could probably lay better
claim to a preference for straight over crooked dealing than to
any of the more special qualities of a statesman. The Moham-
medans who emigrate from the Russian provinces into the
dominions of the Sultan are most often those who are unable to
sustain competition with stronger elements, given fuller economical
play under Russian rule. The Vali of Van, notwithstanding his
name and a certain dignity of presence, could scarcely hope to
occupy a position of equal importance in the empire of the Tsar.
I found in him a man of little or no education, about fifty years
of age. Tall and of large frame, his features were almost hand-
some, except, perhaps, the mouth. He habitually wore a smile
upon his face. There he would sit in his long, bare room from
morning until evening, sipping coffee with his visitors and puffing
cigarettes. He appeared to encounter all kinds of difficulties in
the vicarious management of his property in Russia ; but one
could not doubt that the comely beard would grow white in the
Turkish service, and the groves of Kolchis know him no more.
We spoke of the Kurds and of the redoubtable Hamidiyeh
regiments, of which, he assured me, no less than twenty had been
instituted in his vilayet, including the mountainous region of Hak-
kiari. He stated that their horses had already been branded, and
that the prescribed strength of each regiment was from 600 to 700
men. Passing from this magnificent topic to the sphere of prose
and of reality, he lamented the want of communications in the
country, ascribing most of the troubles of the time to this cause.
But when I enquired whether it would be permissible to organise
a service of transport on the lake, bringing out a steamer or two
and the necessary craft, he replied, as I expected, that one must
apply at Constantinople, and that he had no authority to sanction
the possession even of a pleasure launch. He had himself em-
barked upon the enterprise of constructing a road to Bitlis along
the southern shore of the lake. But it did not appear to have
Van 89
yet got further than the village of Artemid, less than a half day's
stage. The Vali called my attention to the peculiar hardness
of the walls in Van, although built of nothing better than mud.
They remain intact for years and years. He also sang the praises
of a coal mine, a short way distant, which he hoped would be
exploited some day.
Commerce and industry find in the Armenian population of
Van a soil in which they would flourish to imposing proportions
under better circumstances. The city is not situated upon any
artery of through traffic, and a trade with the Russian provinces
can scarcely be said to exist. The imports from abroad are
carried in bullock carts or on the backs of pack horses by stages
of almost endless number. Perhaps the bulk of them are derived
from the port of Trebizond, travelling through Erzerum. From
that provincial capital there are two main tracks, the one, which
is used in summer, by way of Tekman or the plain of Pasin,
passing through Kulli and Melazkert ; the other, frequented in
winter, making the detour along the plain of Alashkert and cross-
ing the Murad at Tutakh. The journey from that township is
not without danger as far as Akantz on Lake Van. The caravans
are accompanied by armed men, and are constantly on the alert
against attack by bands of Kurds. Communications with Persia
are conducted principally through the town of Kotur, and, more
rarely, through Bashkala. On the south the territory of Van
is separated by almost impenetrable mountains from the lowlands
of Mesopotamia. But some cotton goods find their way up from
the Mediterranean and through Aleppo and Diarbekr along the
passage of Bitlis and the southern shore of the lake. I was
informed of a more direct route which, after leaving Bashkala,
passes by way of Gever, Shemzinar (Shemdinan ?) and Rowanduz
to Erbil and so to Baghdad. But it was represented as encoun-
tering considerable natural difficulties between Shemzinar and
Rowanduz.
Native industries, such as the production of various kinds of
textiles, as well as a number of small handicrafts, are necessarily
confined within very humble limits, owing to the poverty of the
country. Wages are low, and the price of bread is apt to become
high under a system of commercial rings which involves the
Government officials in the artificial production of a famine. At
the time of my visit wheat stood at an almost prohibitive figure ;
yet large quantities of the cereal were reputed to be stored, and
go Armenia
no additional supplies were encouraged to come in. Many of
my readers will be familiar with the circular wafers, resembling
pancakes, which take the place of our loaves of bread throughout
the East. Never very palatable, as I think, they are really
unwholesome, besides being nasty, in the paradise of Van. They
appeared to be compounded of a gritty mud with an admixture
of dough. We endeavoured in vain to procure some white bread ;
the bakeries were said to be forbidden to supply such a luxury
to any but the V^ali's table. The wretched bakers are a class
subject to constant persecution ; the officials have the right and
even the duty of inspection ; and this is tantamount to asserting
that the bread is sure to be bad and its producers at their wits'
end to squeeze from the staple the necessary bribes.
Corruption has wormed its way into every department of the
administration. I enquired of a prominent citizen, who impressed
me as a man of parts, and to whose house I was obliged to wade
through mud which lay ankle deep upon the central avenue of
the garden town, whether a municipality were an institution
unknown to Van. He replied that, on the contrary, they possessed
an elaborate machinery for the regulation of municipal affairs.
Were Christians excluded from the body ? — By no manner of
means. — Then what prevented him and those of equal calibre
with him from attending to such important affairs ? The answer
came that those Armenians who served upon the Board were
mere robbers or abettors of robbery. No honest man with a
reputation to lose could consent to co-operate ; should he make
the endeavour he would rapidly be edged out. Such is the
manner in which the paper reforms which tickle Europe are in
practice transferred to the category of grave abuses.
There must exist a trace of light in every gloomy picture ;
and at Van the ray falls upon a little band of artisans and
craftsmen as well as upon a few of the tradesmen and merchants.
These elect are without exception Armenians. Our money
matters were adjusted with a promptitude and a spirit of honesty
which revealed capacities that came as a surprise after our
experiences in Russian territory. Yet there is here no bank in
the proper sense of the term. We were in want of warm over-
coats, and gave a light cape as a model ; it was repeated in a
thick cloth imported from European Turkey with a skill which
would not disgrace a West-End tailor. My Van coat has since
that day been my constant companion ; no wet has ever pene-
Van 9 1
trated the coarse but cunning texture, and not a stitch has given
way. Work in metal is produced with a sleight of hand and
sureness of eye which are nothing less than extraordinary. The
jewellers bring you objects which, although fanciful rather than
artistic, are little wonders in their way. And from the back-
ground of such brighter memories shine the eyes of the great Van
cats — as large as terriers, with magnificent tails and long fur,
with the gait and fearlessness of dogs.
If you could only forget the shadows or wipe them away like
a picture-restorer, there would not be absent other elements of
light and hope. But a very long vision would be necessary for
their discernment, and senses in other respects keen. For one
thing — in spite of the spies, and all the miserable stories of
Armenian brides carried off by Kurds who go scot-free— a larger
atmosphere seems to surround the immediate political environ-
ment, disclosing vistas into freedom. There is none of that feel-
ing of quite irremovable pressure, which in the Russian provinces
is already sealing the springs of human activity as a noxious
climate sits upon the lungs. Freaks there are, and wicked freaks
on the part of Government ; nor does there exist any security
for life and property. Officials and public bodies are woefully
ignorant and hopelessly corrupt. In spite of these real miseries
I should not hesitate to consent to endure them, were the alterna-
tive the lot of an Armenian in Russia. But this is, perhaps, a
purely personal impression which I need not expect my readers
to share.
Some acquaintance with the outside world is derived by the
citizens as a result of the immemorial custom among the male
Armenian inhabitants of migrating for a number of years to
Constantinople and returning home when they have amassed a
certain competence. Married men leave their families behind.
Visits from Europeans are naturally few and far between ; but
two or three political consuls are generally in residence, and there
is a fairly numerous American Mission. The Americans are
under the protection of the British Consul ; and it is pleasant to
recognise these two elements working silently and unseen together
in the van of humanity and civilisation. The British Consul
deserves a special measure of esteem and sympathy. He fights
the same battles as the devoted missionaries ; but he has no
public, however much limited, to applaud his efforts and stimulate
him with their enthusiasm upon his return home. He corresponds
92 Armenia
with an Ambassador entirely ignorant of the local conditions; his
reports moulder iii the pigeon-holes of an impalpable Foreign
Office ; and the least show of zeal is often rewarded by one of
those snubs which your British official, and especially the younger
diplomatists, have a natural talent for inflicting. The quality
lacking to the average Englishman of a heart permeating manners
is possessed in a marked degree by the Americans. Their
Mission on the extreme eastern outskirts of the garden town is
an oasis of human kindliness and light and love. It was presided
over by Mr. Greene, assisted by Mr. Allen and by Dr. Raynolds,
who was on leave of absence at the time of our visit. The lady
workers included Dr. Grace Kimball, with a large medical practice,
and Miss Fraser, a young and charming Canadian lady, who was
at the head of a staff of Armenian teachers in the school for
girls attached to the institution. In their society it was my
privilege to spend several pleasant and profitable evenings, making
drafts upon the varied experiences of Dr. Kimball, and realising
what a blank is presented by social life in Mussulman countries,
where freedom of intercourse with women would be regarded as a
crime and where cultured women in the true sense are almost
unknown.
I received abundant testimony to the morality of Armenian
women, even under circumstances which may be regarded as
distinctly unfair. Although husbands leave their brides behind
when they migrate to Constantinople, infidelity is uncommon.
Were it otherwise, the fact could scarcely escape the observation
of a lady practitioner. It often happens that a widow, about to
marry again, will bring her young child to the feet of the
missionaries, beseeching them to bring it up and educate it in her
place, as their monument — for so she puts it — before God. But
it never occurs that they are offered illegitimate offspring. For
this reason, if for no other, they are disinclined to believe the
aspersions which are usually cast by the authorities upon the
character of Armenian women abducted by the Kurds. A less
bright side of the Armenian character was, they said, their
inveterate treachery towards members of their own race. In this
respect, as well as in the domain of personal chastity, there appears
to exist a rough analogy between the Armenians and the Celtic
population of Ireland. But one must be careful not to press the
resemblance too closely, the two peoples being fundamentally
unlike.
Van 93
The gruesome stories, which we find it difficult to credit in
Europe, of the miseries endured by the inmates of Turkish prisons
were abundantly confirmed upon unimpeachable evidence. The
most ordinary sanitary precautions are neglected, until the cells
attain an unspeakable condition. Mussulmans are often able to
obtain certain relaxations in the rigidity of their confinement.
They plead that it is impossible for them to worship Allah upon
floors which are in this state. Perhaps they will be accorded
permission to emerge for a time into the open air. Christians
are seldom favoured with similar indulgences ; and it often
happens that an unhappy youth, immured upon mere suspicion,
will be sent home in a dying condition, suffering from poisoning
of the blood.
The American Mission at Van is only one of the many
establishments which have been spread over the face of Asiatic
Turkey by the pious enterprise of the Protestant inhabitants of
the New World. It is an established etiquette between the
various Societies of the same faith, although not necessarily of the
same nation, to avoid overlapping into one another's spheres ; and
from an early date in the present century the Americans entered
this field and made it their own, working their way into /\sia
Minor and thence into Mesopotamia. Their Society is supported
by the Congregational Church of America ; and this particular
Mission was founded as late as 1871. Their activities are
practically confined to the Armenian population professing the
Gregorian religion. But I understand that the making of
proselytes is no special or paramount- object of the teaching
which they dispense. If, perchance, these lines should reach an
American public, I would venture to entreat the supporters of the
Mission to emphasise rather than to check this wholesome spirit
of abnegation among the devoted men and women who serve
their interests so well. The Church is at the present day the
only stable institution which the Armenian people possess. No
Armenian of education — whether priest or layman — doubts that
it is in need of reform. Reform will come from within as the
result of the growing enlightenment which the Church herself is
engaged in propagating under extraordinary difficulties among
her scattered communities. To wean her children from her,
while she is still in the stress of a noble purpose, would be to
promote that cruel spirit which lurks in all religions when they
are assailed in their instincts of maternity from without. Such
94
Armenia
an endeavour would be at once in a high degree impolitic, and
alien to the highest principles of Christianity — mutual tolerance,
humility, love.
The circumstances are not the same as when Luther reared
the standard of rebellion ; nor are Americans sons of the
Armenian Church. Their true mission is to compose rather than
to accentuate the internal differences which the strong wine of
their personality can scarcely fail to elicit among the congregations
with whom they are brought in touch. The Armenians are
scarcely less Protestant than themselves in their attitude towards
the Church of Rome. I should hesitate to expound such
arguments in a manner so didactic were I not convinced that
they are recognised in their full force by the thinking minds who
influence the aims of the Mission. Throughout the extensive
field which is worked from this centre only seventy-five adults
have been received into the Protestant Church. But the standard
of wholesome living has been incalculably raised both in the
material and in the moral sphere. The sick receive skilled
treatment ; schools are opened in the most needy villages ; the
alms of Europe, as well as of America, are distributed among the
necessitous poor. The effect of a massacre is somewhat softened
by the institution of numerous orphanages. Such are some of
the results of over twenty years of labour, upon which the Society
may look back with unmixed pride. In the eyes of the traveller
they are likely to outvalue the long roll of converts which some
of the constituents of the Mission might desire to possess. There
is always a certain element of selfishness in proselytism which is
peculiarly repugnant to the ordinary visitor to distant lands.
The healthy absence or subordination of such an element
among the Americans has contributed in no small measure to
their success. The missionaries live on good terms with the
Armenian clergy, and are sometimes invited to preach in their
churches. They are loud in their praise of the tolerance of the
Armenian hierarchy. They assured me that no attempt is made
in their schools to convert the pupils from their ancestral religion.
An early opportunity was afforded me of visiting these schools.
They are two in number, one in the gardens and the other in the
walled city. To both are attached companion institutions for
girls. The school in the gardens was attended by i i o boys and
I I 5 girls. That in the city had only a third of this number.
The better-to-do among the people pay a small yearly fee, ranging,
Van 95
according to the standard of education which they may be receiv-
ing, from 15 to 60 piastres.^ The highest class are expected to
pay the last-named sum. Boys enter the school at seven years
of age, and some remain as late as their sixteenth year or even
into their eighteenth. The course consists of primary, inter-
mediary and high-school classes ; and to each class it would be
usual to devote three years. The curriculum of the highest class
consists of English and French among foreign languages, algebra
and geometry in the domain of mathematics, and physics and
physiology in that of natural science. History is taught under
certain drawbacks. I saw a copy of Xenophon's Anabasis which
had been abstracted from the trunk of a teacher, and in which the
name of Armenia had been erased with a penknife from the map !
Indeed, one of the greatest difficulties under which they
labour within recent years consists in the enforced mimicry of
Russian methods by the little Turkish officials. Their books are
stopped on the road or sent back. Restrictions are placed upon
the choice of books ; and both Milton and Shakespeare are
suspect. The Bible comes through ; and a very handsome Bible
it is, printed by the Society in modern /Armenian. They sell it
for a small sum. The Armenian clergy prefer the old, classical
Bible, which, however, few of their flock quite understand. The
enterprise of the missionaries has also produced a Testament in
the Kurdish language, which they dispense to those Armenians
living in the recesses of the peripheral region who have forgotten
their native tongue.
Mr. Greene was of opinion that the sons of parents who possess
some education are not inferior in natural abilities to the average
x'\merican boy. In the English class I listened to some very fair
reading, certainly as good as in the Russian seminary at Erivan.
Some very practical theses were expounded ; why, for instance,
should one sleep in a bed and not on the floor ? For four
reasons : a floor is cold, dirt collects upon the floor, gases hang to
the floor, damp affects the floor. There can be little doubt that
the Armenian schools are greatly benefited by competition with
the less fashionable American institutions. They at least receive
a certain stimulus and some new ideas. This is notably the case
in respect of their schools for girls, which owe their development
to the x^merican example.
During the course of our stay in Van I visited every school
1 One lira or Turkish pound contains 100 piastres and is equal to iS shillings.
96
Armenia
both in the city and the garden town. In no better and surer
way IS the traveller enabled to gauge the attainments of the
community among whom he sojourns. The Armenians possess
no less than eleven such institutions, each dispensing both primary
and secondary education, and counting as many as 2180 pupils in
all, of whom about 800 are girls. The majority, namely six, are
purely ecclesiastical foundations, that is to say, they are attached
to the churches and largely supported by Church funds. But
four are owned and managed by private individuals, attracting to
them the children of the wealthier parents. The single remaining
unit is contributed by a school for girls which is due to the
munificence of a wealthy Russian Armenian, the late M. Sanasarean.
It has received the name of Sandukhtean. In numbers it is
surpassed by the Church school of Hankusner, which has a roll
of 250 maidens. These attend in the private residence of the
present Katholikos, the author and patron of the college. The
four private schools number about 400 scholars, of whom over
100 are of the female sex. All these schools, with the single
exception of Yisusean, are situated among the gardens. This
last, of which the name signifies that it is dedicated to Jesus, is
attached to the ancient churches of Tiramayr and Surb Paulos
in the walled city and close to the foot of the rock.^
The ecclesiastical schools are housed in buildings adjoining
the several churches to which they are attached. But they do
not necessarily bear the same name as the church. Coming
from Russia, it is curious to hear the loud grumblings which are
1 I append the names and situations of the Armenian schools. Private schools are
marked with a T'.
No. of
No. of
Name of School.
Male
Female
Where situated.
Pupils.
Pupils.
I. Arakh
150
Arakh quarter of the gardens.
2. Norashen
300
Norashen quarter of the gardens.
3. Yisusean
200
100
Walled city.
4. Hankusner .
250
Hankusner quarter of the gardens.
5. Sandukhtean
...
150
Norashen ,, ,, ,,
6. Khach-poghan
155
Central avenue of gardens.
7. Lusavorchean P.
90
30
)> )) > )
8. Haykavank .
^S
15
Haykavank quarter.
9. Paragamean P.
50
25
Norashen cjuarter of gardens.
10. Pusantean P.
75
,, ,, ,,
II. Lukasean
45
10
Norshen-Sufla quarter of gardens.
1375
80s
Vail 97
called forth among the Armenians by their obligation to pay to
Government a tax of two per cent upon their incomes towards
the expenses of education. Government pockets the money
but fails to provide a Christian school. In Russia they do not
complain of the imposition of the corresponding tax, but would
be eager to throw away at least double the amount in considera-
tion of being permitted to retain and develop their own unassisted
schools. What the Armenians would desire above all things both
in Russia and in Turkey is the refund by Government under certain
conditions of the tax levied upon them for education. Taking
into account the efficiency of their schools, the purely political
nature of the opposition they encounter, and all the peculiar
circumstances of the case, one is inclined to come to the con-
clusion that both Empires would be well advised to accede to the
wishes of their Armenian subjects upon this point. At least those
wishes are likely to enlist the sympathies of impartial men.
Except for the protection which is afforded in their relations
with Government by the close connection with the ecclesiastical
organisation, the Armenian schools display a detachment from
hierarchical influences which no friend of true education can fail
to admire. The teachers are almost without exception laymen ;
and knowledge is allowed to pursue its own salvation. Formerly
there existed in Van an institution for preparing teachers ; but
it was closed by Government for political reasons some years ago.
Its place might probably be taken by the Sanasarean college at
Erzerum ; yet I only met one master who had been equipped by
that wealthy foundation, and the fact deserves remark. The rest
had been chosen from the ranks of the best-educated citizens ;
and, in the absence of any other but a commercial career for
young men thus qualified, the teaching staff attracts a fairly high
class. No limits are placed by Government upon the standard
of instruction — the sentence sounds strange ; and one requires to
have come from Russia to appreciate the magnanimity of the
concession. But Russian methods have crept in within recent
years, and the private schools have already been regulated. In
all schools gymnastics are rigidly prohibited, on the ground that
the boys might be drilled and might rebel ! Such puerilities are
balanced on the other side by the comparative latitude which on
the whole the schools enjoy.
Text -books, translated or compiled from European sources,
are supplied by the printing presses of the Mekhitarist order in
VOL. II H
98 Armenia
Venice and Vienna. I enquired why the Bible had not been
issued in modern Armenian by the organisers of the Church
schools. The reply came that the difference between the ancient
and modern tongues was not so great as between Latin and
Italian ; and that it was desirable that Armenians should be
familiar with their best literature, written in the same classical
speech. The curriculum comprises, besides the Armenian
language, religion and literature, a fairly thorough study of the
Turkish tongue, both written and spoken. French is also taught ;
and two of the masters at Yisusean conversed in fluent French.
The natural science course includes astronomy and physical
geography ; while mathematics, anatomy, geography and general
history figure in the routine of one or other of the grades.
Leaving out of account the primary course, most of the schools
have a higher as well as an intermediary grade. Li both a
pupil remains some three to four years. He might complete the
course in about his sixteenth year. But the majority are much
too poor to be able to remain more than half this term ; and in
the school of Arakh, the largest in Van, I counted only sixteen
youths attending classes in the highest grade. Only five were in
the last year. About one-half were competent to contribute a
small payment, the highest sum being a couple of mejidiehs or
40 piastres a year.
The oldest of these schools are Yisusean and Arakh, both
founded nearly fifty years ago. The latter may perhaps serve
as a typical example of the scholastic institutions attached to
the churches. Its proper name is the somewhat cacophonous
one of Thargmanchatz, or the school of the translators — Sahak,
Mesrop and their companions. It is situated in the Arakh
quarter of the gardens and in the same enclosure with the church.
You are shown into a reception-room of moderate proportions
with a coarse divan at one end and a few chairs. Upon the
walls are suspended a photograph or two, displaying the features
of well - known ecclesiastics. A single priest and a bevy of
lay teachers will be assembled to do the honours. On the
occasion of our visit there were not less than twenty people
present, and we were addressed in passable English by one of the
teachers who had come from the x^merican school. Coffee was
served and cigarettes. No matter what the subject of conversa-
tion might happen to be, a certain middle-aged and sour-faced
individual who sat in a corner would always insist upon putting
Vail 99
in his say. To the remonstrances of his companions he would
retort with much vehemence that his only privilege left in life
was freedom of speech. In that cause he had withered in prison,
from which he had only just been set free, and to which he was
likely soon to return. Then he proceeded to heap curses upon
the Turks and their government, until I was obliged to say that
one of us two must leave the room. As a guest in a Turkish
city, it would ill become me to listen to treason against hospi-
table and considerate hosts. The strange thing about this
incident was the fact that these teachers should be willing to
harbour such a suspicious character. He did not belong to the
school. The reputation of the place was jeopardised by his
presence. What children — so one reflected — these people are !
The younger pupils in the primary class will be collected in
one vast room, seated on benches or on the floor. They are
attired in nondescript and ragged cotton garments ; and few
even of the older scholars are possessed of suits in cloth. A
number of smaller classrooms, with forms and blackboards, are
approached from a long passage. Although the windows are all
open, an unpleasant odour pervades the air ; this is a character-
istic which we deplored to our cost in every school at Van. It
was evident that not even the American missionaries had yet
succeeded in inculcating personal cleanliness. Perhaps some of
the young people display the Jewish type — a relic probably of
the colony settled in Van by the Arsakid king and said to have
been removed into Persia by Shapur. These are by far the most
favoured. The vast majority, however, have the less pronounced
and more irregular features common among the youth of Europe.
But their eyes are all very dark and very bright, shining like big
beads. They look extremely intelligent. The little girls did
not impress me as being very attractive ; though, again, among
the older maidens some beautiful Biblical types may be seen.
These betray Semitic blood. The teachers in the girls' schools
were all very plain — broad as galleons, with round faces, straight
hair and crooked eyes ; what was wanting in their busts seemed
to have been added below the waist.
Van, at the time of our visit, was the proud possessor of no
less a dignitary than a Director of Public Instruction. What-
ever may have been his full Turkish title, he was always addressed
by the less ornate style of Miidir. By origin he was an Albanian,
by religion a Mussulman ; he spoke French well, and impressed
lOO . Armenia
me strongly as a zealous and capable man. It is a pity, and
indeed a shame, that such material is not employed to fill the
higher administrative posts. Although the Turkish schools fell
more particularly within his province, to him was assigned the
regulation of the Armenian private schools. They were con-
strained to submit their syllabus for his approval, and also their
text -books. Changes or additions to their teaching stafif were
subject to the same sanction. I am not quite sure that these
rules did not equally apply to the Church schools ; but, however
that may have been, they were in practice mildly enforced. The
Turkish scholastic system, as it is operative in Van, comprises
three grades. There is first the primary ; then the secondary,
which is termed RiislidiyeJi ; and last the college or lycce, called
Idadiych. Of official primary schools not one existed prior to the
arrival of the Mudir, only a few months before ourselves. The
Mussulmans were in the habit of sending their children to small
schools attached to the mosques. This practice had only partially
been discontinued since the institution by the new functionary of
six primary schools, numbering altogether some 240 boys. Of
these fresh foundations I was only invited to visit one. Second-
ary education was dispensed in three institutions of the Rushdiyeh
class to about 350 students in all. The Mudir was in hopes
of opening an Idadiyeh during the following summer ; and it was
also his ambition that Christians as well as Mussulmans should
attend the course. The bringing together of the two elements
would certainly work to their mutual advantage ; and the ex-
periment might succeed if it were tried on social and educational
grounds, and not as a political thrust against the Armenian
schools.
Of the three secondary institutions only two deserve remark,
the third being apparently in an inchoate state. Both are situated
on the great avenue leading from the walled town and forming
the artery of the gardens. So far as I could ascertain, neither
dated more than a few years back. The spacious buildings in
which they are housed, the fine classrooms, the dress of the
pupils — everything contrasts to their advantage in external
matters with the comparative squalor of the Armenian schools.
We did not see a single untidy youth ; the air was sweet, the
floors scrupulously clean. Scholars and teachers, with the
exception of a mollah or two, were attired in a distinctive uniform.
Such, indeed, was the case in both institutions ; but it was a more
Va7t I o 1
noticeable feature in the more numerously attended of the two,
popularly known as the military school. The Mudir was careful
to explain that it was not in fact a military school ; that it so
appeared was due to the circumstance that they had been unable
to obtain good civilian teachers, and had been obliged to have
recourse to the military academy at Constantinople. I was the
more inclined to give implicit credit to this statement after making
the acquaintance of the staff of the purely civilian school. It was
evident, however, that the instructors in the companion establish-
ment had not abandoned any of their military methods. They
wore their uniforms, and all their pupils, even the youngest, had
been drilled. Here again we were introduced to a copy of
Russian institutions ; and we might almost have been visiting the
Russian High School at Erivan. The curriculum included the
French, Persian and Arabic languages. The boys had evidently
learnt by rote, but had learned well. They could draw maps of
the countries of Europe on the blackboard. One of their number
stood up and answered all geographical questions with an accuracy
which no German boy could excel. The outline of England was
rapidly sketched in from memory ; and, when I enquired the
situations of even Greenwich and Gravesend, they were each
assigned their proper place. The population of London was
correctly given. Most of the faces one saw around one were
extremely intelligent ; and only in a few instances were those
dull, stupid features conspicuous which are not rare among the
settled Mussulman population. All, without exception, were
Mohammedans, and the majority the sons of officials. Unlike the
Armenian boys, most of whom wear a shapeless cap, every youth
had a clean fez with tassel upon his head. In the evening they
would canter off on richly caparisoned horses ; but, to sum up
the relative merits of the Arrnenian and the Turkish schools,
while the first contemplate Knowledge, the second pursue her
image, heedless of the resentment which the sensitive goddess
keeps in store.
While one is walking through the gardens, paying visits to
the various schools, the attention will often be distracted to the
very interesting churches, of a type which I have not seen in any
other x'\rmenian town. It might not be inappropriate to call them
log churches, although the outer walls are built of stone. The
oldest is no doubt that of Haykavank, situated in the quarter
of the same name. I was unable to ascertain its ag-e. But it
I02
Ainnenia
represents a transition form from the usual stone edifice to the style
of the other four churches in the gardens, in which the columns of
the nave, the roofs and the interior fittings are exclusively of wood.
The exteriors of all are featureless and plain. In Haykavank the
nave is separated from the aisles by four stone piers as well as by
sixteen wooden
shafts, eight on each
side. The face of
the dais supporting
the altar is also of
stone. Light is
thrown upon the
interior through
three box - shaped
structures in the
roof, each contain-
ing four windows
(Fig. 128). The
shafts are in every
church mere trunks
of trees with the
bark lopped off
them ; and at the
west end, seen in
the background of
my illustration, will
always be situated
a wooden gallery
for the women. The
floors are carpeted.
The most attractive
of the five is Norashen, remarkable for its two octagonal domes
in wood. The largest is Arakh, with a length inside of i 3 5 feet
and a breadth of a little over 56 feet. It appears to have been
built as late as 1884 on the site of a smaller edifice. Nor is
Norashen said to have been constructed more than about fifty
years ago. It is remarkable that of these five churches of the
gardens ^ — the remainder are known respectively as Hankusner
and Yakob — all, with the exception of the last, are dedicated to
the Virgin. The same may be said of two out of six in the
walled town. The fact would seem to point to something approach-
FiG. 128. Interior of Haykavank from the East.
Van 103
ing a cult of the Virgin, though plainly not for the reason for
which, according to Voltaire, she was worshipped in old F'rance.
One may be disposed to linger awhile in two of these churches
— Haykavank and Hankusner. The first is filled with the musty
memories of the dark ages, and the second with the vivid mag-
netism of a personality which has not yet been removed from
our midst. The ancient stone crosses inlaid into the dais of
Haykavank, the painted reliefs of angels in the screen of the altar,
and a most barbarous carved panel of the Last Supper are so
many survivals of pure mediaevalism. The dingy logs and the
rickety boxes in the roof, through the little windows of which the
sweet light falls, are in harmony with the stiff figures, overlaid
with gaudy but faded colours, which turn towards one from the
shrine. From an adjoining apartment comes the sound of a chant
by the choir at practice — a graceless music, sung through the
nose. During a respite from this discord you hear the tick of an
old standard clock ; and, moving towards it, read the name of its
English maker years ago — Markwick Markham of the city of
London. It has a companion of its own kind in this same church.
Here they have stood and ticked in company for, I wonder, how
many )-ears ! The colleague is by Michael Paieff of Vienna, and
has a song chime, so sweet and clear and pure. . . . Hankusner,
on the other hand, if devoid of any antiquities, is associated with
a name which should always be honoured in Armenian history,
and with a spirit which calls to the Church to throw off her
mediaeval fetters and look into the light of the day. It was in
that humble structure across the river, beneath the cliff of Toprak
Kala, that Mekertich Khrimean was for many years accustomed
to address his countrymen, standing upon the low dais by the
altar beneath the roof of logs. His humble residence is situated
on the Van side of the stream. You knock, and a man in the
garb of a peasant steps forth and holds your reins as you dismount.
Yet he is the nephew of the supreme pontiff of the Armenians.
He informs you that this was the house in which the Hayrik was
born. It is now tenanted by the girls' school. The rooms are
neatly maintained, but their walls of mud are neither plastered
nor papered. That which used to serve as his sleeping apartment
contains a couple of wooden divans, used as seats by day and
couches by night. Two pictures, one in oil and the other a crayon,
portray the familiar face in youth as well as in age. What a
handsome type, with the magnificent features and silky black
I04
Armenia
beard ! The remaining frames, most, no doubt, due to the piety
of his relations, display by the side of Armenian texts the title
page of a journal upon which figures in all his splendour the eagle
of Vaspurakan.
It is quite a ride from the heart of the gardens to the walled
city. The central avenue leads through great open spaces some
time before the gate in the east wall is reached. On the left
hand, across the fields, lie the less dense plantations of the quarter
of Shamiram. The main entrance adjoins the rock which sup-
ports the battlements of the citadel, and is called the gate of
Fig. 129. The Rock and Walled City of Van.
Tabriz. Extremely picturesque is the appearance from this side
of the precipitous ridge, with the long serration of the mediaeval
wall sharply outlined against the sky, and the ponderous towers
crowning the hump of the mass (Fig. 129). It forms the
northern side of the irregular parallelogram which is described
by the walls of the city at its southern base. The area thus
enclosed is of very moderate size, and the central and southern
quarters seem pressed for room. These constitute the busy
portion of the town, containing the bazars and the mosques.
The former are, as usual in the East, thronged with motley
figures ; and quite a crowd collected as I set up the camera
Van
105
inside a booth upon which were spread out a variety of cheap
comestibles (Fig. 130). The mosques, of which there are three
besides smaller places of prayer, are not, I think, worthy of
remark. Only two, Kaia Chellaby and Khusrevieh, are at present
frequented by the faithful. The third, Topchi Oglu, in the more
northerly quarter, is now no longer used. Its minaret may be
seen on the right side
of my illustration de-
picting the house of a
rich Armenian in this
district (Fig. i 27). In
addition, there is at
least one mosque in
the garden suburb,
known as the Hafizieh.
Khusrevieh deserves
attention for its cunei-
form slab, built into the
pavement upon the
threshold of the build-
ing. It was swimming
in mud when we el-
bowed our way towards
it through a Friday's
assembly of not too
friendly bystanders. I
had been informed of
the existence of a
not discover its where-
FiG. 130. Street in the
Walled City.
second tablet, but could
abouts.^
But there exists in the city a ruined mosque which mocks
these Turkish edifices and is really a noteworthy example of
Arab art. It is strange that it does not appear to have been
mentioned by any traveller. The Ulu Jami, or great mosque, is
situated in the western quarter, under the precipice of the citadel
rock, which is here at its highest, and of which the sheer escarp-
ments tower into the sky. The rareness and humility of the
adjoining houses permit the view to wander from the remains of
this beautiful building along the face of the upstanding limestone
1 The text of the slab in this mosque (which he calls the Kurshun mosque) has been
copied and published by Dr. Belck in \he Zeitschrift fiir Assyrioloi:;it', 1892, vol. vii. pp.
257 seq. See also Vcrhandlnngen der Berl. Gesell. fiir Aiithropologie, 1898, pp. 570,
575 (Sayce, No. \Xyj)^., Journal R. A. S. 1894, p. 707).
io6 Armenia
to the great tablet with the inscription of Xerxes some Httle
distance east of where you stand. Two great periods of world
history are embodied in these two monuments ; and, as we gazed
upon them, the rock and tablet were bathed in the yellow light of
evening, while the mosque was in shade. No one could tell us by
whom it had been constructed, nor when it fell into decay. The
pigeons build their nests in the crannies of the kiln-burnt bricks
of which it is composed. In the centre rises a pillar, seen on the
left of my illustration ; the angles are filled with the stalactite
architecture dear to the Arabs (Fig. 131). The clay traceries upon
the walls are as hard as stone and as delicate as ivory (Fig. 132).
The Armenian churches are in general situated in the close
vicinity of the overhanging parapet from which the works of the
citadel frown. Although for the most part of considerable
antiquity, none has any claim to architectural pretensions, such
as one might expect in the capital of the mediaeval kingdom of
Vaspurakan. Indeed in their original form they are small and
quite plain stone chapels ; and the church proper has probably
been added at a much later period, being furnished with the log
pillars and plank boxes in the roof characteristic of the churches
in the gardens. Access to the chapel is gained through an
opening in the dais at the east end of the church. The entrance
will usually be closed by a door with double folds. In some
churches or on some occasions this door will be thrown open
when service is being held. The priest will then stand with his
back to the congregation upon the step on the threshold of the
chapel. On the other hand, I have also attended when one
would scarcely divine the existence of such an inner sanctuary.
The priest performed his functions upon the dais of the church
before an altar of the usual gaudy order. It is therefore evident
that the uses of the larger building oscillate between those of a
mere pronaos and a church in the proper sense.
These edifices are six in number : Surb Tiramayr (the mother
of the Master, i.e. Jesus Christ), Surb Vardan, Surb Paulos,
Surb Neshan or the token, so called from a relic of the Cross,
Surb Sahak, Surb Tsiranavor. The last is of almost tiny pro-
portions, and is named after the Virgin with the purple robes.
A seventh chapel, close to Surb Paulos, bears the name of
Surb Petros, or St. Peter, but was severely shaken by an earth-
quake a few years ago, and has been partially destroyed to
prevent it collapsing. High mud walls, such as may be seen on
Fig. 131, Van : Interior of the Mosque of Ulu Jami.
Fig. 132. Van ; Frieze in Ulu Jami.
Van 107
the left of the photograph of the house in Van (Fig. 127), enclose
the courts in which the churches are built. You enter through
a low door of great weight after hammering with a ponderous
knocker. The most interesting of all is certainly Surb Paulos ;
and the teachers in Yisusean, who accompanied me on my visit,
were inclined to ascribe it to the times of St. Thaddeus. I see
no reason to doubt that certain parts of the chapel date back to
an epoch before the advent of St. Gregory, when Christianity
must have flourished in Vaspurakan. Surb Paulos seems to
have served as a model to the other churches ; and the chapel
is approached through the usual pronaos or church proper. The
inside dimensions of the chapel are 57 feet by 27^ feet; and the
thickness of the stone wall on the west side, where it is capable
of being measured, is not less than 7 feet. Of rectangular shape,
the disposition of the interior is not abnormal. You have an
apse on the east side, preceded by a dais or raised stage in
stone ; and the roof centres in a conical dome of great depth and
admirable masonry, in which a row of loophole apertures admit a
scanty light. The dome is supported by piers adhering to the
walls. There is not a trace of plaster or ornament in the place ;
and the dark hue of the naked stone enhances the gloom. We
observed three blocks which had been built into the walls and
were inscribed with cuneiform characters. But they appeared to
have been hewn without any regard to the inscriptions, which
must have suffered considerable mutilation. Better treatment
had evidently befallen a large inscribed slab which had been
used as a lintel or upper stone, roofing a niche in a recess of the
south wall. The arrowhead writing was well preserved. In this
same wall we admired a most beautiful Armenian cross, carved in
bold relief upon a stone panel 5 feet high and 4 feet broad. We
seemed to be able to read a date — 409 of the Armenian era or
A.D. 960. My reader is already familiar with these crosses (Fig.
59, Vol. I. p. 271) ; but I regret that the light in the sanctuary
was much too dim to enable me to photograph the most artistic
specimen of this form of ornament which I remember to have
seen.^
1 For the cuneiform inscriptions in Surb Paulos (Boghos) see Schulz's Memoir, pp. 298-
99 ; Layard, Nineveh and Babylon, p. 400 (I do not know why he calls it the church of
St. Peter and St. Paul); Verhandliingen der Berl. Gesell. ficr Anthropologic, 1898, pp. 570
and 573, and Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie, 1899, p. 320. They are being subjected to
fresh examination by Messrs. Belck and Lehmann (Sayce, Nos. XXXI. and XXXII.).
In addition to these I noticed a mutilated inscription on a stone in the doorway of Surb
Vardan (sec Verh. Anthrop. 189S, p. 572), and two inscribed slabs in the apse of the
io8 Armenia
The citadel crowns the summit of the isolated ridge which
forms the northern side of the fortified town. This is the famous
rock of Van (Fig. 129). It rises to the height of about 300 feet
from level land on all sides. The ridge is narrow in proportion
to its length, and has a direction a few points north of an east-
west line. In shape it has been compared to the back of a camel,
the citadel occupying the hump. The sides of the mass, which is
composed of a limestone so hard that it resists a knife, are most
precipitous on the south. They are most amenable at the western
and eastern extremities. The remains of an ancient wall with
inscriptions of Sarduris the First may be discovered at the western
end. The wall was probably protracted to the lake in the
neighbourhood of the present harbour. There are no houses on
the north side. The ground in that direction is waste or disposed
for pasture ; and a little marsh adjoins in one part the base of the
rock. We tried our best, but in vain, to obtain permission to visit
the citadel. The Pasha was powerless and the Commandant
obdurate. The majority of modern travellers have met with the
same refusal, due, no doubt, to a desire to hide the nakedness of
the place. The blandishments of Schulz, as well, perhaps, as the
hopes he held out of discovering treasure, were successful in
effecting a temporary breach in the tradition of official obstinacy.
He was admitted within the gate of the inmost fortress, to find it
occupied by a garrison of two living creatures — an old janissary
and a tame bear. Later visitors, more privileged than ourselves,
tell of a few obsolete cannon. The disappointment which is
engendered by the attitude of the authorities may be appreciated
by the fact that the caves of Khorkhor and other antiquities are
included within the fortified area. I have endeavoured in the
accompanying note ^ to offer some description of them, largely at
ruined Surb Petros, one in fair preservation (Sayce, No. XLVIIL). I was unable to pene-
trate into the chapel of Surb Sahak, into the walls of which similar fragments of the
stelai of the Vannic kings have been inserted (Sayce, Nos. XLV. and XLVL).
1 The most detailed, as well as the most lucid and impressive, account of the Gurab,
or rock of Van, is still that of Schulz [Joiirrial Asiatique, 1840, vol. ix. ser. iii. pp. 264
seq.). But the remarks of Layard {Nineveh and Babylon, pp. 395 seq., with woodcuts of
the rock chambers), Tozer (Turkish Armenia, London, 188 1, pp. 347 seq.) and Miiller-
Simonis [Du Caiccase an Golfe Persiqtie, Paris, 1892, pp. 246 seq.) may be consulted.
The only entrance to the citadel is by a path which is conducted up the western
declivities of ihc rock from a point closely adjacent to the gate called Iskele in the north-
west angle of the fortitied town. In Schulz's time this path ascended in a north-easterly
direction between a double row of modern walls, composed for the most part of mud.
After following these walls for some little distance it arrived in front of a solid wooden
door, studded with large nails and strengthened by bars of iron. This gate afforded
access to the Castle, and was never opened except by an express order from the Pasha.
Van I 09
second hand. The general impression which we may receive is
that the ancient works upon the ridge behe the hopes excited by
The castle enclosure was flanked by walls of greater height and solidity than those
without ; it contained a number of modern buildings, such as barracks, a small mosque,
and a powder magazine. Mr. Tozer was shown a very deep naphtha well in this
neighbourhood, running down vertically into the rock. The oil, which he describes as a
brown, half liquid mixture, could be reached by means of a pole. The house of the
commandant and the prison are situated within the enclosure, where may be seen a
number of old bronze cannons, curiously ornamented and quite obsolete. Schulz
describes the antiquities upon this portion of the rock as consisting of two groups of
cave chambers. I. The southern front of a mass of rock which immediately adjoins
the most elevated part of the whole formation — that part which lower down displays the
tablet of Xerxes, and which is crowned by the powder magazine — has been hewn down
in a vertical direction for a space of about 60 feet. Nearly in the centre is situated an
open doorway, surmounted by a smaller aperture to admit light. Both openings have
been damaged by human hands, evidently with intention ; and no trace of any ornaments
or inscriptions remains. The doorway conducts into a vaulted cave chamber, some 45
feet long and 25 feet high. The rock has been less carefully worked than in the case of
the caves of Khorkhor. Nearly in front of the entrance, a second doorway in the
opposite wall gives access to a smaller apartment, 20 feet long and 10 feet broad, called
the Neft Koiou or spring of naphtha, the fumes of which fill the room. At the time of
Schulz's visit this inner chamber was nearly filled up by a structure in kiln-burnt bricks
and veiy hard mortar, of which the purpose was not apparent. 2. Quite close to the
Neft Koiou, in the block of limestone, adjoining it on the left hand, which rises from the
tablet of Xerxes to the powder magazine, may be seen a hole of irregular shape and some
3 feet in diameter, through which one crawls into a group of five rock chambers, of which
the largest is 30 feet long and 20 feet broad. The walls of these caves are rudely
fashioned, without ornament or niches. In one of them Schulz found human bones.
Perhaps the most remarkable and certainly the most famous series of such excavations
upon the rock of Van are known by the name of the caveS of Khorkhor. They are
situated in the steep south-west side of the mass, overlooking a garden which in Schulz's
time belonged to the Pasha, but which is now in a desolate and weed-grown condition.
The garden bears the same name as the caves — a name of which the etymology is neither
Armenian nor Turkish, and which, according to Professor Sayce, may perhaps be taken
back to the word Kharkhar, signifying to excavate, found in Vannic texts (J.R.A.S.
1882, p. 572). The chambers are visited from the same side as the citadel, and at first
by the same path. The remains of steps and of even spaces, hewn out of the rock,
suggest that one of the principal approaches to the platform in antiquity was taken by
this way. But, after following this avenue for some little distance, you turn to the right,
leave the stairs, and clamber along the side of the rock, until you emerge through a
fissure upon the southern face and see the garden at your feet. From here a staircase of
twenty steps, almost obliterated in some places, slopes along the face of a mass of precipitous
crags, in which is placed the entrance to the chambers. The limestone has been carefully
flattened and polished, and is covered with inscriptions outside. At the commencement
of the stair is seen a little grotto, containing a seat which commands fine views over town
and plain. On the right of the grotto is a long inscription in three columns, separated
from one another by vertical lines. It has suffered not a little from the impact of cannon
balls ; but is still in a fairly legible condition. It records the conquests of Argistis I.
(Sayce, Nos. XXXVU. XXXVIII. XXXIX.). The continuation of this record is found
a little further on, at the end of the stair, and after turning an angle of the rock. It is
incised upon the outer face of the polished limestone about the doorway to the caves
(Sayce, Nos. XL.-XLIV. ; see also Hyvernat's memoir in Miiller-Simonis, op. cit. p. 531).
This aperture, some 6 feet by 5 feet in dimensions, leads into a chamber 32 feet long, 19 feet
broad, and lOj feet high, which again communicates with four lesser rooms. The walls
are hewn out with extraordinary care, and ten niches or oblong recesses, 3 feet high and 2
feet broad, are distributed over the sides of the principal apartment about 3^ feet above the
ground. Incisions with holes in the centre are placed in the spaces between each pair
iio Armenia
the account contained in the pages of Moses of Khorene. They
do not amount to much more than a few groups of chambers
excavated in the rock. The purpose which these caves served
was almost certainly that of tombs ; though they may also have
been used as refuges in time of war. It must, however, be
remembered that all the ancient structures upon the rock have
long since been destroyed. The same fate has befallen even the
staircases. Some of the recesses appear to have been destined to
receive bas-reliefs ; and if such may have been the case, these
images have been demolished. Yet enough remains, especially
the elegant characters of the many inscriptions, to fill the mind
of niches, and may have held metal lamps. The floor has been excavated in two places
into squares a few inches deep. The smaller rooms are furnished with recesses similar
to those described. One of them adjoins a space resembling the head of a pit or shaft,
which, however, has been completely filled in with rubble. It probably represents a
subterraneous communication with a spring which gashes from the foot of the rock in the
garden below.
The remaining excavations and inscriptions are disposed as follows over the
circumference of the ridge : — i. East of the Khorkhor, but on the same south face, and
approached from the side of the gate of Tabriz, you easily recognise a partly natural and
partly artificial platform, fairly high up on the rock. A spacious doorway connects this
ledge with a cave of which the dimensions, according to my own measurements, are 3 1
feet by 21 feet. This chamber communicates with three smaller grottos, one approached
by a door in the wall opposite the entrance, and the other two by similar apertures in the
adjacent walls. The three subsidiary rooms are long and narrow. The one opposite
the entrance contains a dais and steps at its narrow west end ; and that on the left hand
is furnished with recesses at each extremity. Lower down on the side of the rock one
observes a small aperture to which it is possible to gain access. It only measures some
4 feet by 3 feet. In the stone above has been hewn a long but shallow recess, about 3 feet
in width. One wonders whether it may have been destined to receive a coffin. The
hole gives access to a chamber 23 feet 7 inches in length and 14 feet in breadth. Three
sides are furnished with recesses 2 feet 6 inches in depth, placed 3 feet 4 inches from the
"^round. 2. Inscription on the rock near the gate of Taijriz, much effaced, but copied
and deciphered by Messrs. Belck and Lehmann. It contains the names of the kings
Menuas and Ispuinis, together with those of the father of Ispuinis, Sarduris, and his
grandson Inuspuas {Verhatidlnngen der Berl. Gesell. filr Anthropologie, 1898, pp. 571,
575). The same travellers mention the discovery by them of three new inscriptions on
the ridge, which appear, however, to be of minor importance {ibid. p. 571). 3. On the
northern face of the rock, not far from the Tabriz gate and below the line of fortifications,
are situated two artificial recesses at an interval of about twenty paces. That on the
right contains a long inscription upon the wall which is on your left as you stand within
the recess ; it records conquests by Sarduris II. (Sayce, No. XLIX.). This grotto bears
the name of Kha/.ane-Kapusi or gate of treasure. 4. On the same side, a short distance
further west, and upon a surface which has been hewn down vertically and flattened, are
seen three tablets incised into the rock, one of them being on a level with the base of the
rido-e. Each member of the group contains an inscription ; and the three inscriptions
have one and the same text. It is of Menuas, and a])pears to commemorate a restoration
of the tablets by that monarch (Sayce, No. XX.). 5. On the same side, near the summit,
and almost directly above the grotto Khazane Kapusi (Hyvernat ap. Miiller-Simonis, op.
tit. p. 548), is a large cave, at present comprised within the fortifications, and inaccessible
from below. On the right of the entrance is an inscription of King Menuas, purporting
that a series of chambers were constructed by him as tombs in this place (Sayce, No.
XXL).
Van
III
with admiration of that old race and vanished culture. They were
certainly not lacking in the instincts of imagination ; and, year by
year, they must have taken pleasure in gazing out upon the
landscape from the grottos constructed to receive them when they
died. \ people of Cyclopean walls, embossed shields and chariots,
they would almost
seem to have be-
longed to the race
of giants, preceding
the evolution of fox-
like man.
I must not close
this chapter and dis-
miss the memories
of the paradise of
Van without be-
stowing some little
space upon the
surroundings of the
city, which abun-
dantly justify the
Armenian proverb.
The governing fea-
ture of the nearer
landscape is the
lofty parapet of
Mount Varag, dis-
tant from the citadel
some eight miles
in an easterly direc-
tion and nearly ten
miles from the margin of the lake. The plain rises gradually
beyond the limits of field and garden to meet and mingle with
those slopes. Spurs connect the mountain with the irregular hill
mass on the north of the suburbs, which in its totality appears to
be known under the name of Zemzem Dagh. Like Varag itself,
these hills are composed of a hard limestone ; and their south-
westerly extremity is signalised by a very bold, detached crag,
standing forth like a sentinel (Fig. 133, and see the plan). This
portion of the mass is known as Ak Kopri, which means in
Turkish " the white bridge." That is the name of a straggling
Fig. 133. The Crag of Ak Kopri.
112 Armenia
quarter, inhabited by Mussulmans, on the north side of the Httle
river and close to the crag/
The stream itself is also called Ak Kopri ; and, coming from
Van gardens, we crossed it by a little bridge. Standing close to
the crag, which we reached after a short ride, the view ranged
widely in all directions except that of the cliffs at our back.
Looking west and south we had the great plain before us, bounded
only at an interval of many miles by low hills circling from
Varag into the lake in front of the distant barrier of the Kurdish
mountains. Turning round, we commanded a view of uncultivated
flats, extending several miles to another line of bare hills ending
on the west in a crag, called Kalajik. The only trace of verdure
in that landscape were the gardens of the village of Shahbagh.
But the outlines of the promontories, the blue lake, the distant
fabrics of Nimrud and Sipan, composed into a picture it would
be difficult to forget.
The level ground in the direction of Kalajik forms the first of
two extensions of the plain of Van, properly called. Retracing
our steps for a short distance, we soon turned off in an easterly
direction, and rounded the bluff of Ak Kopri. We found ourselves
in the bay of cliffs which faces Van gardens ; and we were soon
standing in front of the great cuneiform inscription, which contains
such an interesting list of the gods worshipped by the Vannic
people, and of the sacrifices which were appointed for each god.^
The tablet is hewn into the rocky slope of the cliff, about 50
feet above the level and cultivated ground (Fig. 134). Some 10
feet below it is a shallow cave. Three successive jambs recess
inwards to the face of the tablet from that of the rock, which has
been flattened on either side. The depth of the recess is 4
feet 2 inches. The dimensions of the tablet or polished surface
containing the inscription are a breadth of 6 feet 5 inches and a
height of about 1 7 feet 6 inches. From a distance the recessed slab
has all the appearance of a door giving access to a grotto behind.
1 The Armenian gentleman in whose company I visited the locaHty regarded Ak
Kopri as a Turkish misnomer for Ak Karapi, a word which he derived from Kar, a
stone, and Ap, narrow way in Armenian. The word would signify the narrows of the
white crag, or the narrow way separating the crag from the hill. That is a sample of
Armenian etymologies. Another derivation is from Ak Kirpi, the white hedgehog.
- Sayce, No. V. It is an inscrijition of Ispuinis and Menuas, and is known locally
as Meher Kapusi (the gate of Meher, derivation unknown) or Chohan Kapusi (the
shepherd's gate; so called from a shepherd to whom the "Open Sesame" of the
treasure-house, which the slab is supposed to seal, is said to have been revealed in sleep.
He entered ; but forgot the talisman, and never returned).
Pig. 134. Yan: Cuneiform Inscription of Meher or Choban Kapusi.
>
Uu
Va7t 1 1 3
After continuing our direction for no great space we mounted
to the summit of the cliff. It may be some 200 feet high.
But the flat top rises at its southerly extremity to a level of
about double that altitude above the gardens of Van. These
are the heights of Toprak Kala. From a cleft in the mass we
opened out the upper valley of the Ak Kopri Su, the second
of the extensions of the plain of Van of which I have spoken
(Fig. 135). The mountain in the background of my photograph
is Varag.
The monastery of Yedi Kilisa, situated on the slopes of that
mountain, is the most frequented of the numerous cloisters in
the neighbourhood ; and thither we made our way on a fine
November day. The first snowstorm of the coming winter had
raged during the night ; and the snow was lying in spite of a
brilliant sun. A ride of some seven miles along the windings
of the track brought us to the door of the enclosure. We had
passed over rising ground, in places furrowed by the plough, but,
except for the oasis of the village and monastery of Shushantz,
entirely devoid of trees. A mere fleck upon the white canopy
of the hills on our right hand had been named to us as the
cloister of Surb Khach. Our Armenian friends in Van were fond
of speaking of these foundations as centres of light and learning
in the older and happier times. They have been scattered with
a liberal hand over this magnificent landscape ; yet how they
have fallen from their estate ! Two poor monks, who lived on
gritty bread and salted cheese inlaid with herbs, received us at
the gate. One was the abbot, or rather the deputy of the abbot ;
for that office is still held by the present Katholikos, the Hayrik
or Little Father of the Armenians. Daniel Vardapet — for so
he was addressed — is a type of the better- educated priest. A
delicate man some fifty years of age, his features were those of
a Casaubon. I am afraid his attainments would not compare
with those of that scholar ; yet he had the suavity and the speech
of a cultivated man. His assistant was a monk of the peasant
class. Some fifteen youths were housed in the cloister — the
remnant of the school founded there years ago by Khrimean. A
cloud of unusual gloom enveloped the destinies of the ancient
place ; and one might doubt whether the gentle Daniel had ever
experienced so many calamities during the thirty-five years which
he had passed within these walls. The most severely felt of all
the blows which the Turkish Government had been raining upon
VOL. II I
114
Armenia
them was the loss of their printing press. Some short while back
the officials appeared and walked off with the precious instru-
ment, of which the voice had been mute for many years. They
erected it in Van, and, having kidnapped an Armenian compositor,
used it to publish an official gazette. In company with the
Mudir I had happened to pass the building where it was lodged ;
and my companion remarked to me that he was looking for-
ward to obtaining some money for his schools with the proceeds
of the sale of the paper.^
Fig. 136. Monastery of Yedi Kilisa (Varag),
The site of the monastery is a dip or pass upon the outline
of gentle hills which stretch from the more southerly slopes of
the mountain to confine the plain upon the south (Fig. 136).
From its windows only a vista of the lake is obtained. The
church consists of a larger pronaos with the usual conical dome,
communicating on the east by a richly moulded and spacious
doorway with a chapel or sanctuary." The interior of this chapel
recalls features in St. Ripsime at Edgmiatsin. It has four
apses or recesses, one on each wall, separated from one another
1 Since I have mentioned the name of Daniel Vardapet it is only just that I should
add that he stated to me that the press had been hired.
^ The inside dimensions of this chapel are : extreme length from recess to recess,
38 feet 7 inches, and extreme breadth, 30 feet.
Van
115
by deep niches. The whole is surmounted by a conical dome
(Fig. 137). In the floor of the pronaos are seen three stone
slabs with inscrip-
tions. They cover
the remains of King
Senekerim, of the
Armenian mediaeval
dynasty, his queen
Khoshkhosh and the
Katholikos Petros.
The frame of an
altar erected upon
the site of these slabs
has been stripped of
all its ornaments.
This act appears to
have been commited
by the Hayrik, and
out of anger against
Senekerim.^ The mild
features of Daniel
Vardapet contracted
as ' we spoke of that
monarch ; and he
assured me with some
vehemence that he
would dig out his
bones and cast them
on the rocks were it
not for his title of king of Armenia. The chapel of Yedi
Kilisa is most interesting to the student of architecture, and is
no doubt a work of considerable antiquity. A ruined chapel
on the south of the building contains a much-effaced inscription
to the effect that it was constructed by the lady Khoshkhosh,
daughter of Gagik and queen of Senekerim.^
1 See Vol. I. Ch. XVI. p. 237.
- The statement of Layard {Nineveh and Babylon, p. 409) that the church is a
modern edifice is scarcely correct, and is quite erroneous if it be taken to include the
inner sanctuary or chapel.
Fig. 137,
Interior of the Church at Yedi
Kilisa.
Fig. 138. Van on the Road to Bitlis.
CHAPTER V
FROM VAN TO BITLIS
The journey from Van to Bitlis may be performed in four days ;
it is a ride of about a hundred miles. But no traveller will
desire to omit a visit to the isle of Akhtamar, which will occupy
another day. Nor is it well to press in haste through a country
of such manifold interest, and along a coast which for beauty of
feature and grandeur of surroundings can scarcely have an equal
in the world. It was at Van that, for the first time since setting
foot upon Armenian soil, we had been introduced to a civilisation
in any sense comparable to the scale and dignity of the landscapes
through which we passed ; and, although the monuments of that
vanished culture belong to a remote antiquity, they are well
calculated to divert our minds from the contemplation of the
works of Nature, or at least to recall us to a sense of the power
of man. The spirit of that race of iron which held in check the
Assyrians still lingers over the scene of their exploits. You
leave the ancient city with an added element of interest in a
country which was the home of so great a people, and which still
retains the memorial of their sway. But that country was also
From Van to Bit lis 1 1 7
the centre of a mediaeval kingdom, the contemporary and some-
times the rival of the dynasty which has left us Ani as an example
of their craft and taste ; and, such is the concern of the modern
Armenian in the history of his nation, that long before you will
reach Van you will be familiar with the name and arms of the
kingdom of Vaspurakan/ It was therefore with curiosity that
we set out upon our journey, and with regret that we were obliged
by the season to narrow the sphere of our wanderings to the
regular stages of our prescribed route to Erzerum.'
At a little before noon on the 1 6th of November we mounted
our horses in the court of the American Mission, whither we had
proceeded to take leave of our friends. We passed by the church
of Arakh, and emerged from the zone of gardens upon the surface
of the bare plain. The usual stoppages in connection with the
baggage, which seldom fails to begin by slipping from the horse's
back to beneath his girth, enabled us to fill our eyes with the
vision of the bay and beauteous city which we might never
contemplate again (Fig. i 38). We had purchased two new horses,
1 For the history of the medinsval kings of Vaspurakan who flourished in the tenth
centuiy, I would refer my reader to Vol. I. Ch. XVIII. of the present work, to the second
volume of Chamchean {History of Armenia, translated by Avdall, Calcutta, 1827, pp. 65
seq.), and to Saint Martin's translation of the history of John Katholikos, who was an
eye-witness of the events which he records during this period, and one of the principal
actors in them (Paris, 1 84 1. See the index, sub voce Gagig). The vivid narrative of
the last of these writers transports us into that distant age. The eagle which was the
emblem of the princes of the Artsruni dynasty appears to have been connected with
the ancient prerogative of their family to be the bearers of the golden eagle before the
king (see Saint Martin, Memoires siir PAniienie, vol. i. p. 424). I have already related
how the present ruler of the Armenian Church has taken revenge upon the last of the
kings of this dynasty for his cowardly cession of his dominions to the Byzantine emperor
(see Vol. I. Ch. XVI. p. 237).
2 The following are the intermediate distances along the track according to my
estimates: — Van to Artemid, 8 miles; Artemid to Vostan, 15 miles; Vostan to
Akhavank (Iskele), 8 miles; Akhavank (Iskele) to Enzakh, 13^ miles; Enzakh to
Kindirantz, 17 miles; Kindirantz to Garzik, 9 miles; Garzik to Sach, 16 miles; Sach
to Bitlis, 1 1 miles — Total, 97i miles.
As far as the promontory of Surb the path either leads over little plains interposed
between the lake and the mountains, or crosses the rocky spurs which descend from the
range into the waters, forming promontories. Of these spurs the most formidable is
that which is scaled beyond Enzakh (Pass, 7600 feet) ; but the descents to the plains of
Kindirantz and Surb are both long and arduous. Beyond Surb the track for the first
time follows along the base of an almost vertical parapet of mountain, rising immediately
from the water's edge. This romantic course is pursued for some distance west of
Garzik ; when the lake is left behind, the Giizel Dere is entered, and you pass almost
imperceptibly from the basin of Lake Van into that of the Tigris. It now only remains
to cross from the Giizel Dere into the valley of Bitlis, which is done by way of the Bor
Pass, 7490 feet.
On the whole the route along the southern shore of Lake Van is by no means an
easy one. The principal difficulties to an engineer occur between Enzakh and the
Giizel Dere.
1 1 8 Armenia
one for the dragoman and the other to carry our effects. You
require a good animal for the last of these purposes, who will trot
along by himself. But throughout our journey we experienced
the greatest difficulty in obtaining serviceable beasts at any price.
Even at Van my choice was narrowed by the various ailments of
the other candidates to a sturdy four-year-old who had not known
work. This youngster, an iron grey, was no sooner set at large
than he set off at full gallop across the plain. His career was cut
short by the rapid overthrow of his load, which dragged him
panting to the ground. But we trained him to perfection before
reaching the northern capital, and I sold him at a profit in
Trebizond. Worse fortune attended our second purchase, that of
a seasoned horse of milk-white hue. I noticed that he was
limping about an hour out of Van ; and, to my surprise, when I
came to examine him closer, he proved to be an ingenious
substitute for the one I had bought. The colour was the same,
and also the appearance ; but not the points which had influenced
my selection, although they would not appeal to the dragoman's
eye. The knave of an Armenian who had concluded the sale
with me had abstracted his former property from my stable, and
had put in his place this unsound hack. 1 sent him back in
charge of the zaptieh with a letter to Mr. Devey ; but I do not
knov/ whether our Consul ever recovered my stolen steed. He most
kindly sent me on a fine horse of his own, which reached us safely
at Vostan. Such are the tricks of these subtle Armenians, whom
long centuries of oppression have ingrained with every kind of
turpitude. As we rode along this shore, one regretted God's
covenant, that He \\ould be patient with the hopeless race of man.
To overwhelm them in these waters and people afresh the scene
of their crimes, would, it seemed to us, be the kindest and wisest
plan.
The weather was delightful — a climate mild as spring, made
fresh by the expanse of sea. The rays of a hot sun flashed
through a crystal-clear atmosphere, which disclosed wide prospects
over lake and land. P'ragments of white cloud floated above
the outline of the Kurdish mountains, less gloomy beneath the
newly-fallen snows (Fig. 139). In the west, Nimrud was faithful
to its appearance of an island, separated by a strait from the
train of Sipan. But to-day we could see the walls of the vast
crater — a caldron of which the rim appeared commensurate with
the area of the island, risinij in a robe of white from the waves.
From Van to Bit lis 1 1 9
We were pointing towards the high land in the direction of
Artemid, the southern Hmit of the spacious plain of Van. When
near the village, we struck a road which the Pasha was building,
with the avowed intention of extending it to Bitlis. Workmen
were busy upon it, and there was quite a stream of little bullock
carts, conveying stones and soil. It follows the margin of the
lake, and the drive along it to Artemid will be a treat such
as few cities can bestow. The castled rock, backed by the
fabric of the great volcano beyond the distant headland of the
ba}- ; the noble lake, intensely blue, expanding to the distant
Fig. 139. Mountain Range along South Coast of Lake Van.
Nimrud, yet plashing tamely with tiny wavelets on the sand —
these are answered in the opposite direction, across the poplars
which hide the village, by the precipitous walls, sharp edges
and deep shadows, characteristic of the stupendous barrier in
the south. Although the distance between Van and Artemid
does not exceed eight miles, it was after two before we arrived.
We mounted the side of the hill ridge which meets the lake at
this point in a bold and high cliff. Gardens decline along the
easier levels towards the invisible margin of the shore. You
look across the foliage to the fabric of Sipan, no longer covered
by the horn of the bay (Frontispiece).
Artemid ! the Greek name, and the memorials in the neigh-
bourhood of that early civilisation which is revealed by the
inscriptions of Van, suggest, no less than the striking site, the
I20 ArTnenia
possibility of further discoveries, when the place shall have been
thoroughly explored.^ A hasty examination would have been
of small service, and we were anxious to reach Vostan. So we
rode, without halting, through the straggling settlement, and did
not draw rein until we had reached a point some two miles
beyond it, where it was decided to rest our horses and take lunch.
We were still crossing the barrier of hills which support the
gardens of Artemid ; our situation was elevated, and the view
superb. We were able to follow on the horizon the outline of
the Ala Dagh, although those mountains were over sixty miles
away. They were loftiest on a bearing a few degrees east of
1 The compiler of the index to Ritter's Erdkiiude confuses this Artemid with the
' kprejxira. i] iv rrj Bal3v\u)vla of Strabo xi. 5 1 9, which, according to Ritter (ix. 508),
is probably identical with the Artemita in Apolloniatis of Isidorus Charax [Mansioiics
Parthica, c. 2 in Geographi Gnrci jMiiwres, Paris, 1882), and is to be sought in
the district watered by the river Diyala, which joins the Tigris near Baghdad. An
Armenian Artemita is mentioned by Ptolemy (c. 13, section 21, and c. 8, section 13,
edit. Nobbe, Leipzic, 1843).
Schulz tells us that the present village was in his time sometimes called Atramit
(he himself writes it Artamit) "par une transposition de lettres qui rappelle un nom fort
significatif dans I'ancienne mythologie orientale " {Journal Asiatiqiie, 1840, ser. 3, vol.
ix. p. 310)- The same traveller was rewarded for his researches in the vicinity by some
interesting finds.
In a little valley about ij miles west of the village (une demi lieue), and about a
hundred paces from the lake (environ une centaine de pas au dessus du lac), among a
quantity of blocks of stone, fallen from the hill above, he discovered a cuneiform
inscription, engraved upon one of these blocks. Professor Sayce translates this
inscription as follows : — " Belonging to Menuas of the mother Taririas, this monument
the place of the son of Taririas she has called" {The ciincifovDi inscriptions of Van,
Journal R. Asiatic Society^ London, 1882, vol. xiv. p. 529). Dr. Belck, on the other
hand, would render it : — "This abode, which belongs to Tarias, daughter of Menuas,
is called the palace of Tarias " ( Verhandhmgen der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthro-
pologic, 1895, p. 608).
At a little distance from this block Schulz found another inscription, which, owing
to exposure to damp, was scarcely distinguishable. He describes it as being engraved
on a large stone on the left hand of an ancient aqueduct, built up of several layers of
massive stones, several five or six square feet in height. They are irregular in shape
and not connected by cement ; but are held together by their own weight. The
conduit which they enclose is square in form, and of sufficient height and breadth to
enable one to stand up inside it. Schulz endeavoured to penetrate within it, but was
unable to proceed further than some twenty paces, the passage being obstructed by a
large block which had fallen in from the colossal wall (Schulz, op. cit. p. 313).
The hillside above this little valley separates it, he goes on to say, from a kind of
upper terrace, over which runs the way from Van to Vostan, among masses of rock,
detached from the adjacent heights. Between these rocks flows the Shamiram Su,
an artificial channel which has its source some nine leagues south of Van, and which,
after passing through the gardens of Artemid, has been conducted to the immediate
neighbourhood of the city, where it debouches into the lake. So far as Schulz was
able to follow its course, it was nowhere embanked by masonry {ibid. p. 313). It
was on this terrace, at a distance of ij miles (une demi lieue) from Artemid in a
south-westerly direction, immediately by the side of this Shamiram Su, and on the
road between Van and Vostan, that he discovered the important inscription which
reads according to Professor Sayce: — "To the children of Khaldis the gracious
Fro7n Va7i to Bit/is 1 2 1
north ; and in that direction there was a fine peak, overtopping
the neighbouring summits which fretted the edge of the long
wall of snow-clad heights. A little further west we could see
those heights receding towards the south, to the passage of the
Murad. In the ridges which bordered the gap we well recognised
the outworks which the river pierces between Karakilisa and
Tutakh — the same ridges which, from our standpoint on the
slopes of the Ararat system, had composed a distant parapet, so
faintly seen that we questioned the impression, between the two
blocks of mountain on the southerly margin of the plain of
Alashkert.^ The landscape south of Ala Dagh was now out-
Menuas, the son of Ispuinis, this memorial has selected. Of Menuas the memorial
he has named it. To the children of Khaldis, the multitudinous, belonging to
Menuas, the king powerful, the king of multitudes, king of the land of Biainas,
inhabiting the city of Dhuspas. Menuas says — whoever this tablet carries away,
whoever removes the name, whoever with earth destroys, whoever undoes this
memorial ; may Khaldis, the air god, the sun god, the gods him in public, the name of
him, the family of him, the land of him, to fire and water consign " (Sayce, op. cit. pp.
527-2S). Messrs. Belck and Lehmann render the word translated by Prof. Sayce as
memorial : canal, aqueduct. The rock upon which the inscription was found is known
under the name of Kiziltash from its reddish hue.
In the village of Artemid itself Schulz saw the remains of the wall of an ancient
edifice on the summit of the cliff. According to Armenian tradition it was formerly a
residence of the Armenian kings. Below it he found an ancient conduit (Schulz, ibid.
p. 311). I have summarised Schulz's account afresh because Ritter's summary of it
(Erdkiuide, x. 294) misled me.
The inscription on the Kiziltash has been photographed by M. Miiller-Simonis,
and reproduced in his book (Dii Caiicase an Golfe Pcrsiqite, Paris, 1892, p. 252).
Professor Sayce conjectures that these inscriptions served to commemorate the com-
pletion of the works connected with the Shamiram Su, and even goes so far as to
suggest that the monuments erected by Queen Taririas may have given rise to the
traditions about a great queen which in the course of time became transferred to the
mythical Semiramis {op. cit. p 529).
Dr. Belck has within recent years found four more inscriptions in or near
Artemid which have been translated by Sayce {Journal R. Asiatic Soc. 1893, pp. 8 seq.).
Two are without importance ; the remaining two are in the sense of the inscription on
the Kiziltash, and are therefore canal inscriptions.
Among the notices of Artemid contained in the works of travellers, a few useful
remarks may be gleaned. Shiel {Journey in i8j6) tells us that in his time it was a
large Armenian village of about 350 houses. Brant (1838) speaks of it as populous,
and alludes to the quantity of fruit which was grown there. He approached it from
the side of Vostan and the Anguil Su, after crossing which he came upon the Shamiram
Su, which he describes as an open canal, supported by a wall in some places. Schulz
was impressed by the squalor of the houses ; according to him it was peopled half by
Armenians and half by Mussulmans ; the latter dwelt below the cliff", on the border of
the lake (Schulz, op. cit. p. 310). Ussher (before 1865) calls it an Armenian village,
and adds — " The flat summit of the rocky hill, on the slope of which the village stood,
was surrounded by an ancient wall, built of huge stones laid one upon another without
mortar or cement of any kind, and resembling somewhat in appearance Cyclopean
remains" {From London to Persepolis, London, 1865, p. 324). Miiller-Simonis {op.
cit. p. 270) speaks of the " grandes substructions du caractere le plus ancien " which
support the Shamiram Su at a certain point three-quarters of an hour on the further side
of Artemid, coming from Van. ^ See Fig. 108, p. 2.
122
Armenia
spread before us ; it was indeed an instructive view. Whatever
eminences broke the expanse were comparatively humble ; a
zone of plains or vast steppes would appear to be interposed
between that barrier and the lake of Van. Recalling the pro-
spects about Tutakh, we arrived at the conclusion that those
steppes are continued towards the west ; and subsequent travel
established the fact that they extend from the foot of the plateau
of Bingol Dagh towards the longitude of Bayazid in the east.
The only object which arrested the eye in the direction of Ala
Dagh was a high hill on the southern shore of the arm of the
lake, with a village and gardens at its base. It was said to be
the village of Alur. Ararat was not visible ; but for the first
time we discerned land between Sipan and the crater of Nimrud.
The two mountains appeared to be joined by some low hills.
Proceeding at four o'clock, we commenced to descend after
half an hour from the range of hills which we had now crossed.
In the plain before us, bordering the lake, we could see a winding
river which our zaptieh knew under the name of Anguil Su, but
which, I believe, is more correctly spelt Enghil Su (Brant's Anjel
Su). It comes from the territory of Mahmudia, where it is called
the Khoshab.^ But we had not yet reached the floor of the
valley before we were confronted by a swift stream which,
fortunately for us, happened to be spanned by a bridge. It was
the famous Shamiram Su, flowing towards Artemid along the
slopes of the hills. I was informed that it has its source in some
springs about two hours distant, near the village of Upper
Mechinkert, and that a portion of its waters find their way into
the Anguil Su at the neighbouring settlement of Lower Mechinkert.
After irrigating the orchards of Artemid, it pursues its course to
the gardens of Van, in which it is said to become absorbed."
There can be no doubt that it is an artificial conduit ; left to
itself it would join the lake at the foot of this plain. My
informant attributed to Semiramis the conducting of it as far as
Artemid. We remarked the exceptional pureness of the current.
Soon after crossing it, we reached the right bank of the Anguil
Su at a convenient bridge. The basin proper of the river may
have a width of some two miles, and it is a distance of three or
^ For Mahmudia and a striking photograph of the castle there, see Binder i^Au
Kurdistan, Paris, 1887, pp. 123 seq.).
^ The course of the Shamiram Su has been followed and described by Dr. Belck
(Zeitschrift fiir Ethiioloi^n'e, Berlin, 1892, pp. 137 seq.). It is carried across the Anguil
Su or Khoshab by means of a conduit, made of wood, which spans the stream.
From Van to Bit lis 123
four miles from the bridge to the lake. Looking up the valley,
we could follow the outline of the Kurdish mountains as they
circled round towards Varag ; that ridge itself was concealed by
the hills behind Artemid ; but, although the range beyond had
diminished in height after leaving the lake, it was still the same
range of bold parapets and snowy peaks. The most elevated
portion lay in the direction of Akhtamar, where there was a lofty
mass, known as Mount Ardos.
The stream, which had a greenish hue, was not more than
some thirty feet wide ; a number of rivulets, driving flour-mills,
come in on the left bank. We had left that bank before opening
out the village of Anguil or Enghil ; it lies below the bridge,
on the further side of the river, and consists of some sixty or
seventy neat houses, inhabited by Armenians and a {&\v Kurds.
On the same shore, about a mile lower down, is situated the
village of Mesgeldek. Some high ground separated us from the
plain of Vostan ; but it dies away before reaching the lake.
Gaining the summit of this moderate eminence, we looked across
some flats and marshes to a hillside which projects from the foot
of the mountains, and forms a promontory of the shore. The
foliage which softened the lower slopes of the headland belonged
to the gardens of Vostan. We followed the bay of higher land,
and reached the village of Atanon after over an hour's ride from
the Enghil Su. Just beyond this Armenian settlement the zone
of orchards commences ; in the plain below a swift stream flows.
An isolated house on its right bank was indicated to us as the
residence of the Kaimakam of Vostan. We reached this edifice
at ten minutes before seven, having covered a distance from
Artemid of about fifteen miles. In the place of the official, who
happened to be absent, we were received with great kindness by
his brother. We were invited to pass the night in the room of
audience ; and quilted coverlets, filled with cotton, were spread
on takJits or wooden couches, after the manner of the East.
After supper and conversation we enveloped ourselves in them,
and were not long in falling asleep.
When morning came I commenced to explore and realise our
surroundings. Vostan is no town, nor even a village, but is a
district or zone of gardens at the foot of the Kurdish mountains
about the spurs of Mount Ardos. On the east it extends to the
village of Atanon, and on the west to the promontory. The
orchards keep to the high land about the base of the range ;
124 Armenia
between them and the lake there is an extensive strip of alluvial
soil which, in the neighbourhood of our quarters, had a width of
about two miles. I was assured on all sides that there were four
or five hundred houses within the limits of the district of Vostan ;
but people get confused when dealing with an area of this
description, and with the dispersed units of which such a settle-
ment is composed. I doubt whether there could be found more
than half that number. The Armenian families have emigrated ;
their room, but not their place, has been filled up, at least in part,
by Kurds. As a natural consequence, it is impossible to obtain
the bare necessaries of a little corn, or a shoe for a horse. A
small church still remains, a memorial of better times, which is
said to have existed for many centuries. We could see its plain
four walls and small conical dome to the east of the Kaimakam's
house. We were told that it is still attended by a priest.
It is only on the neighbouring slope of the bold promontory
that Vostan can be said to assume a concrete existence ; and,
even there, the group of buildings which feature the hillside are
but the remains of the ancient town. You see the relics of an
old castle, the ruins of a church, and a mosque where the faithful
still pray. On the margin of the lake, below the headland, a
little mausoleum of yellow stone still rises above the grassy soil.
I set out on foot to visit the site, in the company of the doctor of
law for the caza of Kavach. My companion — a man of middle
age and intelligent face — bore the name of Mustapha Remzi
Efifendi, and was known as the Hakim. After jumping many
ditches, which often compelled us to deviate, we arrived at the
mausoleum standing among the debris of an ancient cemetery, on
rising ground, at an interval of a few hundred yards from the
peaceful waters of the lake. It is indeed a charming monument,
of highly-finished masonry, fresh and clean as on the day when it
was completed. In shape it is dodecagonal, and it has an inside
diameter of i 5 feet 8 inches. The surface of the roof of stone —
in form a cone with twelve sides — is relieved by a moulding of
geometrical pattern ; a sculptured frieze and a long inscription in
Arabic character runs round the walls, just below the roof A
familiar feature are the niches with stalactite vaulting ; a small
doorway, surmounted by a moulding in this character, gives access
to the interior from the side of the lake. The Hakim read to me
an Arabic inscription which is placed above this entrance ; it was
translated for me in the following sense. " This mausoleum
Fi'oni Van to Bit lis 125
belongs to the daughter of the ruler here in Vostan, Sheikh
Ibrahim." According to my companion, the name of the lady
was Halimeh. I doubt whether her remains still repose within
the enclosure of this jewel which is her tomb. The door is gone,
and the vault yawns as though it were unoccupied, except by
a heap of rubbish and debris. One admires the taste of the
architect, who refrained from decorating the interior and left
intact the restful influence of the spaces of wall.
From this cemetery we proceeded up the face of the hillside
which juts out from south to north and meets the lake. The
remains of the castle are situated upon the summit ; the mosque
and the ruins of the church lie beneath it, upon the middle slopes.
The castle has no pretensions to architectural merit, and very
little is left of the church. Some stones engraved with crosses in
the old Armenian fashion could still be seen in the masonry of the
last of these buildings, a mere chapel rather than a church. But
the mosque is an edifice of respectable proportions, having inside
dimensions of 65 feet 7 inches by 64 feet 4 inches. From the
outside it is nothing more than four walls of hewn stone,
surmounted by a dome of clay. But when you enter the spacious
chamber the eye is pleased by the vaulted ceilings, and by the
double series of open arches which support the roof. These
arches are three in number in each series, and between each there
is a space of wall veil. In this manner one may say that there
are a nave and two aisles ; but these aisles are of greatest length in
the opposite direction to that of the altar, which faces the entrance
door. In fact the arrangement is that usual in a Christian church,
except for the position of the altar. The ceilings are built of plain
kiln-burnt bricks, and neither they nor the walls are decorated in
any way. A fine feature is the dome, in the aisle furthest from
the door. The incjubair, or pulpit, on the right of the altar is a
richly-wrought structure of wood. An inscription records that it
was the gift of Khosrov Pasha, and that the donor restored the
mosque in the year of the Hegira 850 (A.D. 1446), I have almost
forgotten to mention that between this mosque and the castle is
placed a little building with three windows, said to be the tomb
of Sheikh Ibrahim.
Who was Sheikh Ibrahim, who was Khosrov Pasha ? The
answers which I received to these questions did not go far to
dispel my ignorance. The Hakim called them Arabs, and
connected them with the caliphate ; yet he admitted that they
126 Armenia
were a branch ot the family which reigned in Konieh, that is to
say, of the dynasty of Seljuk Turks. To Sheikh Ibrahim he
attributed the foundation of both mosque and church, with the
intention of inducing his Moslem and his Christian subjects to
tolerate and respect each other's creed. He added that the last
of this line of rulers was one Izzeddin Shir Bey.
We returned to the house of the Kaimakam, where I joined
the remainder of my party. All were in the saddle by ten
minutes to four o'clock. We mounted the slope of the hill
which forms the promontory, and which we found to be a spur
of Mount Ardos. It is crossed at a point behind, or on the south
of the castle ; the ascent is steep and the decline none too short.
Nearing the strip of shore on the opposite side of the barrier, we
were impressed by the outcrops of red granitic rock and green
serpentine, the beds lying side by side. At half-past four we
gained the level, and proceeded at the foot of some hills which are
interposed between the range and the shore. These recede after
some distance, and circle away from the lake, leaving a spacious
bay of low and, in places, marshy ground. On the further horn
of the shore we were shown a group of trees and slowly-rising
wreaths of smoke. It was Akhavank, known to the Turks as
Iskele (the port), the residence on the mainland of the Katholikos
of Akhtamar. Although the sand on the border of the water was
rather powdery, we found it better than the broken ground inland.
It was pleasant too to ride by the side of the crystal water, and
look down into the blue depths. Several little villages could be
seen at the foot of the hills ; they appeared more clearly from the
lake next day. We reached Akhavank at ten minutes to six, and
I estimate the distance from Vostan at about eight miles.
A two-storeyed white-faced house, an upper room, built out,
like a verandah, with large windows overlooking the lake ; stables
and appurtenances of various application- — -the whole relieved
against a background of poplars and fruit trees — such is
Akhavank, the residence of His Holiness the Katholikos Khachatur
(given to the cross) of Akhtamar. The house was full of people,
and the stables of horses ; it so happened that the Kaimakam of
Vostan was on a visit, accompanied by a numerous retinue. The
interior of the building was bare and uncomfortable, rooms and
passages alike. Full decadence was written large on the squalid
furniture and cheerless walls. I was ushered into a long apart-
ment, facing the bay, and composing one side of the first floor.
From Van to Bitlis 127
A fetid smell of garlic, and the want of ventilation, almost over-
powered me. At the further end of the room, on a Kurdish rug,
spread on the floor at the foot of the divan, sat or squatted a fat
priest, attired in a black robe edged with sable, and wearing the
usual black silk cowl of conical form, to which a cross of dim rose
diamonds was attached. His back rested on quite a little nest of
cushions ; a few papers and a little bag lay at his side. On the
adjacent couch beside the wall were seated several persons of
various types of physiognomy and styles of dress.
I saluted, and received the salute of the figure on the floor ;
it was the Katholikos of Akhtamar. He spoke of his advanced
age and growing infirmities ; he was seventy-four years old, and
had been possessed of his dignity for no less than thirty years.
His tomb was already built ; nothing remained but to spend the
interval and descend into the grave. This touching sentiment is
often used as a becoming pretext for idleness by better people
than Khachatur. But, as he spoke, the tongue lolled heavily from
side to side, and the voice seemed to struggle with an advanced
asthmatic affection. In reply to my enquiry why he did not
reside in the island, I received the answer that at Akhavank he
was in a better position to receive his guests and satisfy their
wants. It is, no doubt, a paying business to keep such a
monastery, provided always that you manage it well. You must
personally superintend the arrangements for the picnic, or others
of lesser station will abstract your clients. You must be careful
to keep well with the Government officials, or pilgrims will be
afraid to come.
So the Katholikos of Akhtamar discards his pomp, is seen
and eats with his guests in the same room round the same tray.
On this occasion he was the centre of what was certainly a curious
party, assembled against the evening meal. Servants entered
with a circular platter on which were arrayed the various viands,
and placed it before His Holiness. Requested to seat myself on
the right of our host, I endeavoured, as best I might, to fold my
legs beneath my body on a carpet by his side. Opposite me sat
a Kurd, an old man who was still a giant, with bony hands more
than proportionate to his size. From his sunken cheeks projected
the beak of a vulture between small and deeply-caverned eyes.
One of the pupils had almost entirely disappeared, leaving a patch
of red within the hollow of the contracted eyelid, from which a
mucous fluid was discharged over the parchment skin. Of such a
128 Armenia
face smiling could scarcely be expected ; my neighbour remained
grave, taking his fill of each dish, and fixing me with his single
eye. On my right was the Kaimakam, a little man of no
particular characteristics, wearing a fez and European dress.
Although a Georgian and a relation of the Pasha of Van, you
would take him for a Turk. Towards myself he was profuse of
compliments and attentions, expressing his regret that he had not
been present in Vostan to receive us, and blaming the British
Consul for not having written to announce our stay. An officer
of zaptiehs whom I had brought from Vostan with me — a mad
fellow who had lathered his pony by the wildest manoeuvres as
we rode along the sands — and some of the principal attendants
of the Turkish official, completed the company who were privileged
to share the meal of the Katholikos and sit at his pewter tray.
But on that tray my eyes discerned with ill-concealed fright
a spectre invisible to my fellow-guests. The shade of Hunger
floated over the messes of meat and unpalatable vegetables,
swimming in oil or ghee.^ I could not eat the gritty pancake
bread, or the salt cheese inlaid with pieces of green straw. Nor
was I able with success to emulate the politeness of Julius Caesar ;
a sickness came over me when I tried. The old priest was at
liberty to dip his fingers into my dishes and pick the choicest
bits. I could scarcely swallow a few morsels ; but >my host was
much too stupid to see through the excuses which I made.
I felt that the cross might have joy of Khachatur, and left his
presence when the dishes had been removed. On my guard
against the prejudice of a bad dinner, I reflected that at Varag
the pangs had been the same ; yet what pleasant recollections
remained of that visit and of the companionship of the quiet
Daniel Vardapet ! I sought out the steward of His Holiness, and
of him enquired for a sleeping-place. Zado was the name of this
personage ; he was an Armenian, but looked like a Kurd. He
was the most influential of the clerical officials, and certainly
smelt the worst. With him came Avo, the trustiest of his
henchmen, proud of his antecedents as crossing- sweeper in
Stambul. We were by them desired to spread our blankets in
the draughty antechamber ; but I made them surrender a large,
unoccupied room. We were astonished to find within it a stack
of cane -seated chairs, and puzzled our heads to discover the
purpose for which they were used. Zado informed us that they
' Clarified fat or butter, which is generally used for cooking purposes in the East.
From Van to Bit lis 129
were arrayed on great occasions ; but nobody was aware that
they were objects of necessity to a European or even that they
had come from Europe to these wilds.
Dawn had not yet broken when the boatmen we had ordered
entered our apartment, and summoned us to avail ourselves of
the breeze. In spite of our entreaties over night, the tea and
eggs were not forthcoming ; hungry we went on board the little
bark. The sun rose above the horizon before we put off — a
bright and joyous morning, the colours starting from land and sea,
and the still waters of the lake becoming every moment more
transparent and more blue. x\ light air, moving from the shore,
just ruffled their even surface. The plank was drawn inwards,
the broad square-sail set, and we glided easily away.
The crag of Akhtamar lay before us ; behind us the sinuous
shore at the foot of the parapet of the Kurdish range. Who
would expect that these crystal depths should contain such
nauseous elements, like a beautiful but poisonous flower ? The
water of Lake Van is charged with chemical matter, and is briny
and putrid to the taste. You remark the absence of fish, and
recall the contrast of the teeming inlets of a Lake Geneva or a
Lake Lucerne. Nor are the coasts alive with boats and the
expanse with white-winged vessels ; you rarely find a shallop
within the numerous creeks, although at times you may discover
quite a fleet of lateen-sailed craft crossing the broad sheet of sea.
They are manned almost exclusively by Armenian sailors ; and
when I asked the eldest among our crew whether there were any
of different nationality, he said that with the exception of about
five Kurds, only Armenians pursued this calling. They are
simple, hardy fellows, easy to get on with ; they conduct a small
coasting trade. Those who had taken us from Arjish were at
Akhavank when we arrived, and were full of joy, kissing our
hands, to see us again. I had asked them to convey us to
Akhtamar ; but they told me it was impossible, as their ship was
loading and, besides, it was not their turn.
The island is distant about two miles from the nearest shore
and more from Akhavank. At its westerly extremity a bold cliff
of hard grey limestone rises to a height of about eighty feet above
the waters, in face of the monastic buildings on the mainland.
From this crag the ground declines towards the east, and affords
a level site for the church and cloister. The bight, where the
vessels moor, is situated on the southern coast, not far from the
VOL. II K
i^o
Armenia
bluff on the west (Fig. i 40). Within the space of an hour we were
nearing the inlet, and, a little later, stepped ashore.
Besides the cliff and the tiny bay there is not much of
Akhtamar ; yet the little church looks small, even among such
surroundings, the work of a jeweller rather than of an architect.
In our company were two young clerics, deputed by His Holiness
to escort us, the one a priest of the peasant type and with the
ignorance of a peasant, the other a deacon who had been educated
at Constantinople and who affected to despise his colleagues and
superiors. In spite of his pale face, this second Khachatur (given
Fig. 140. Island of Akhtamar.
to the cross) was not less stupid or less indolent than the rest.
Two more priests were in residence upon the island ; but neither
belonged to a higher social or intellectual grade. None among
them knew more about the place and its history than a few stereo-
typed words, learnt by heart. Press them further, and they
would burst into an inane giggle, the vardapet of Akhavank
giving the cue.
How one regretted the society of the well-read monks of
Edgmiatsin, from which community and spiritual government
this monastery became dissociated during the religious quarrels of
the twelfth centur}-.^ We walked to the cloister on the south side
' I would refer my reader for further information concerning the origin of the
patriarch etc. of Akhtamar to Ritter {Erdkitude, vol. x. p. 261), and to the authorities
there cited.
Fig. 141. Akhtamar: Church from South-East.
Fig. 142. Akhtamar: Church from North-West.
From Van to Bit lis 1 3 1
of the church ; the low mud wall joins the outer wall of the
narthex on the west, and is produced so as to form a court.
There is nothing interesting in the residence of the monks or in
the apartments of the Katholikos. But the edifice which they face
is indeed a remarkable monument and, so far as my experience
extends, unique. Its dimensions are not large : a length of 48
feet 6 inches and a breadth of 38 feet (interior measurements).
The characteristics which impress the eye, accustomed to the
beauties of Armenian architecture, are the height of the compo-
sition with its lofty walls and central tower, and the elaborate
mural decorations. As usual, the effect is marred by the additions
of a later age. On the south side a belfry and portico, giving
entrance to the interior, are due to the misplaced piety of a
katholikos of the eighteenth century ; and the same personage
contributed the spacious narthex or pronaos which adjoins the
church upon the west.^ The eye is obliged to remove these later
excrescences before it is enabled to seize the merits of the design.
My reader will recognise the first of these features in the illustra-
tion taken from the south-east (Fig. 141). The companion picture
from the north-west corner exhibits the low narthex coming
forward beyond the side of the church (Fig. 142).
A work of the first quarter of the tenth century is disclosed in
all the freshness of its original appearance." Some of the figures
which project from the walls have sufifered partial fracture ; but
the rich friezes are almost intact. Beginning at the base, we have
first a broad space of plain masonry, enhancing the value of the
sculptures above, from which it is separated by a band of deeply
chiselled stone. This band, like the friezes, is both continuous
round the building and in emphasised relief. It consists of a
spiral geometrical pattern, representing the vine. Life-size human
figures, interspersed with the forms of animals, compose a
series of pictures rather than a procession, and rest upon the
moulding just described. They are also in relief, and stare out
^ An inscription over the door of the narthex is to the effect that it was constructed
by Thomas, Katholikos of Akhtamar, in the year of the Armenian era, 121 2 (a.d.
1762).
- In the geography ascribed to Vardan, a work of the thirteenth century (translated
by Saint Martin, Menioires siir l\-irnienie, vol. ii. p. 429), it is said of Akhtamar : " On y
trouve I'admirable monastere de la croix bati par Kagig, roi des Ardzrouniens."
According to Chamchean, quoted by Saint Martin \op. cit. vol. i. p. 140), the monastery
was founded in a.d. 653 by a prince of the Reshtuni family, named Theodore.
We are informed by Thomas Artsruni (ninth century) that King Gagik brought the
stone for building this church all the way from the province of Aghznikh, extending to
the Tigris and now comprised within the vilayet of Diarbekr.
I •;2
Armenia
at the visitor with all the naivete of the early Middle Ages.
Subjects from Bible history succeed one another, varied by the
gaunt figures of Christian saints. Here you remark the colossal
figure of Goliath, armed with club and shield (Fig. 141) ; there it
is Adam and Eve, standing naked beside the tree of life, and, a
little further, the serpent tempting Eve (Figs. 142 and 143). The
treatment of the human form is primitive and almost barbarous,
recalling the Romanesque. One is impressed with the combina-
tion of naturalism, nay of realism, subdued, and at times checked
by hieratic convention. These sculptures pass over into a restful
region of unworked stone, and are succeeded by a row of heads, the
heads of animals and birds, jutting out at irregular intervals from the
face of the building. Above them, again, you admire the freedom
and extraordinary intricacy of the most elaborate of the friezes.
Hunters and wild animals and strange birds are represented,
woven together by branches of vine with clusters of grapes.
Higher still another band is drawn along the eaves of the roofs,
except on the north and south sides of the apse. Rampant
animals are the principal subject ; but on the north side of the
western arm you observe a row of human heads. A somewhat
similar frieze is seen below the roofing of the central tower or
dome.
It may perhaps be found that this exterior discloses elements
which, blended together, are of high importance to the study of
art. The form of the church, the geometrical ornaments are
Byzantine in character ; on the other hand, of all the churches
which we visited during our wanderings none other was decorated
with bas-reliefs of human figures after the manner of this edifice.
Such treatment would be repugnant to the chaster spirit of the
architects of Ani, and may denote that the standard of culture in
the southern principality was not so high as- in Shirak. The
friezes partake of the nature of those with which we are already
familiar ; but they are more daring and much more freely drawn.
They may constitute an important link between the art of the
ancient Assyrians and the art of the Arabs and the Byzantines,
Layard, who visited Akhtamar, has most pertinently drawn our
attention to the resemblance between the principal frieze and the
embossed designs on some bronze dishes which were discovered
at Nimrud (banks of the Tigris) ; but he has not noticed that
the bulls' heads which adorned the ends of the arms of the
king's throne at Nimrud are almost exactly reproduced in some
Fig, 143. Church at Akhtamar; Sculptures on North Wall.
From Van to Bit lis 133
of the stone ornaments which project from the face of this
church/
I have said that a narthex of later origin adjoins the building
upon the west ; it was from that side that we entered the interior.
The facade of this narthex is as bald and plain as its inner walls
and the rude flagstones of the floor. The ceiling is low ; in the
centre a shallow vaulting rests upon four arches and piers. It has
a length of 32 feet i i inches, and a breadth, from north to south,
of 36 feet 5 inches. It does not contain an altar, and the only
object which you remark within it is a large block of stone. Our
companions informed me that it is placed over the grave of
one Abdul Miseh, a king, as they supposed, of the Artsruni
dynasty. If this block be the same as that upon which Layard
saw some cuneiform characters, their Abdul Miseh may be a
corruption of the name of the great king Menuas, revealed by the
researches of Western scholars."
Four steps lead up from the narthex to the little, undecorated
doorway by which we entered the principal building. The
interior may perhaps be described as consisting of four apses, the
whole surmounted by the lofty dome. A feature are the deep
recesses, narrow at the entrance, which are placed one on either
side of each apse, and are seen from the outside between the arms
of the cruciform figure. The apses on the west and east are
deeper than those on the north and south ; the most southerly
contains a gallery of which the face is adorned with images, two
heads of bulls and two of rams, the head of an elephant and of a
tiger, carved in full relief out of the stone. In this gallery we were
informed that King Gagik had been wont to pray. The walls
had been adorned b\^ rich frescos ; but little of these remained.
The apse on the north communicates with a vaulted chamber and
a little chapel, where is preserved the holy oil.
A cemetery surrounds the church, from the south-east corner to
the north side. Issuing by the portico on the south, we stopped
to remark an ambitious tomb of which the stone was fresh from
the chiseller's tool. On the sides of the recumbent portion
were represented the figures of apostles — a frieze which had
probably been copied from some rude work of the Middle Ages,
1 Layard, Nineveh and Babylon, London, 1853, PP- '99 ^'^'^ 4^4- ^ would ask
my reader to compare the illustration of the bronze bull's head with the head in my
photograph (Fig. 141) on the right hand or north of the furthest recess of the apse.
2 But the stone which Layard saw in the portico has probably been removed to the
library.
134 Armenia
and which was coloured in gaudy reds and greens and blues.
Upon the upper surface of the slab was engraved a long in-
scription, and beneath the inscription the grand emblem of the
double-headed eagle, with cross and mitre, the eagle of Vasp-
urakan. The headstone was adorned with the portrait of a
katholikos, wearing the cross of diamonds on his cowl. The
features were those of our host ; it was the tomb of Khachatur,
into which he had told us that he was preparing to step. The
legend set forth that the grave had been dedicated on Sep-
tember 12, 1893. Following this announcement, came a farewell
message from His Holiness, conceived in the following terms : —
/ approach thee, O fair grave, ivith a greeting ; my secrets to tell I have
710 tongue, because they were lost before I came to speak with thee. The
generations of my people 1 grieve to relinquish ; I Khachatur, given to the
Cross, 7t'ill obey the Cross (es Khachatur i Khachis kupakchini). When I
come to thee, all the manifold memories will have vanished. IVhatever I
may leave behind me — the holy oils, the library, the cowl, the stole, the staff- —
/ leave them to serve as a memory of me for my successors. Lastly I approach
my people and ent^-eat them to be loyal to Siiltan Hatnid, the illustrious,
because during my tvhole life I have found help from him and from his high
officers. My soul will be protected by the weekly prayer of my pupils ; pray
for me weekly for a while and forget me not.
On the east of the building there is a little chapel, now in
ruins. I was informed by the Katholikos that it is even older
than the church. Returning to the monastic quarters, we asked
to be shown the library, and were ushered into a small, white-
washed room. Five little shelves, occupying a single side of the
apartment, hold all the manuscripts and books which the monks
possess. Neither the vardapet nor the deacon was conversant
with their contents ; but the manuscripts, so far as we were able to
examine them, were all concerned with Biblical subjects. Two
stones, engraved with cuneiform inscriptions, are kept in this
room.^ The treasure was carried off by the Kurds years ago ; -
but our companions were able to produce several mitres and some
rich embroideries, of which one piece, worked with the device of
the double-headed eagle, appeared to be of considerable age.
After a last look at the remarkable church, with its many
faces of fresh pink sandstone, mottled by the subtle reliefs with
^ Of these one was circular in form. If it be tlie same as Sayce's No. XXIX. (op.
cit. vol. xiv. p. 537) it is an inscription of Menuas recording a visit to the island.
- Ussher [op. cit. p. 332) tells us that the Kurds had carried off many manuscripts
which they destroyed from sheer wantonness, using the covers to make soles for their
boots.
From Van to Bit lis 135
light and shade, our Httle party retraced its steps to the peaceful
harbour, and embarked on the homeward voyage. The breeze
had veered for our convenience to the opposite direction, and
wafted us towards the mainland. We passed close to the bold
crag, and to the tiny islet which, crowned by the remains of a
fort and a diminutive chapel, juts out from the south-westerly
extremity of the sea-girt cliffs. Before us lay the horn of the
ba}' on the west of Akhavank, and in the foreground, a second
islet, the rock of Arter, which, like its fellow, supports a little
shrine. Sipan was seen in all his majesty, sweeping across the
horizon, until the outline of the base was covered by the outline
of the promontory. From that headland three little barks were
stealing towards us, specks of white on the expanse of blue. In
the south the snows of Ardos streamed with sunlight above hori-
zontal layers of cloud. I could hear the heavy breathing of my
fellow-passengers ; the water eddied softly in our wake.
In the space of about an hour the plank was again lowered
and the stern allowed to graze the sand. The Kaimakam and
his retinue were assembled on the shore — the high officers men-
tioned in the message on the tomb. I received their greetings
and good wishes, and, promising to rejoin them, passed with the
dragoman to the apartment of the Katholikos. I found His
Holiness seated on the same rug at the foot of the divan, in the
same posture and attired in the same ceremonious dress as when
he had received us the preceding day. The same cowl with the
diamond cross enveloped the forehead, which, judging from the
thick lips, flat nose and little eyes, was better hidden than revealed.
He beckoned his people to withdraw ; we were alone with the
Patriarch ; Turkish contempt still shrinks from converting the
chamber of a Christian prelate into a permanent lodging for a
Kaimakam. So our host was free to answer the questions which
I addressed to him without fear of being reported by malevolent
tongues. He informed me that his patriarchate was quite inde-
pendent, both of Edgmiatsin and of Constantinople. But he
was in the habit of consulting with the Patriarch of Constantinople
in respect of such Church matters in which collaboration was
mutually useful. Artemid is the easterly limit of his spiritual
kingdom, and is included within its area. On the west it com-
prises a portion of Garchigan, but does not extend as far as
Kindirantz. On the south, the cazas of Mukus and Shatakh are
either its boundaries or contribute constituent districts.
136 Ai'iJieiiia
The practice of their religion he assured me was quite free,
emphatically he repeated, " quite free." The political troubles
which convulsed the country were caused by scamps {chapkinef)
on the side of the Armenians, and by bad Kaimakams. I
questioned him closely as to whether, when he was young, the
Armenian population was not much more numerous along this
shore. He answered that the country on the south was at that
time inhabited by them in far greater numbers than now ; but
there was no perceptible difference along the coast. He admitted,
however, that during his youth there were Armenians residing at
Vostan.
At this point in the conversation my host pronounced the
name of Zado ; and forthwith divine fragrance announced the
presence of the major-domo, attentive to the faintest call.
Obedient to his master's behests, he proceeded to unlock a large
wooden box, and to lay out upon the floor a number of tawdry
State Orders and Firmans of investiture. Es Khachatur i Khachis
ku-pakchim ! Some of these objects the Katholikos regarded with
especial reverence, devoutly pressing them to his lips. Religion
has become a trade with such as this prelate, and they themselves
hotel-keepers and show-mongers. Each pilgrim leaves the equiva-
lent of double what he costs. Placing a suitable present in the
hands of his Holiness, which he accepted after many protestations,
I took leave of Khachatur for ever.
Resuming our journey at four o'clock, we crossed the high
land on the west of Akhavank, and again descended to a strip of
plain, bordering the shore. On the opposite side of the deep
inlet, which was now disclosed to its furthest recesses, lay the
arm of the long promontory which encloses the landscape in
the neighbourhood of Akhtamar. About halfway in, along that
coast, we saw a considerable village, said to be an Armenian
settlement, called Mirabet.^ Further inland, at the head of the
gulf, is situated the Armenian village of Norkeui ; while on the
rising ground, at the extremity of the plain, a little to the east of
^ I will not attempt to explain or reconcile with one another the maps of Kiepert,
Cuinet, and Glascott {Journal R.G.S. 1840, vol. x.), and the surveys of Hommaire de
Hell {Extrait dii Voyage en Tiij-quie, etc., Paris, 1859) and others. Such is the
ignorance of one's guides that one cannot do more than question them closely as to
the names of villages and put down the information without much confidence in its
exactness. What is true of the names of villages is also true of mountains. That portion
of the range which lies on the west of Mount Ardos is named Karkar in Kiepert's map ;
a friend of mine who had travelled in the country knew it under the name of Varkar.
I was not made acquainted with either of these names.
From Van to Bit lis 137
Norkeui, the Kurdish hamlet of -Sarik receives the torrent of a
long cascade, descending precipitous cliffs. We turned our backs
to the lake and passed between the two last-named settlements,
towards an opening of the hills on the opposite shore. A stream
or little river issues from the cleft and flows towards Norkeui, A
single telegraph wire, taken across the plain, followed us on our
left hand. At half-past five we were in the fork, entering a long
and stony valley, with a main direction from south-east to north-
west. It is well watered, and what soil there is has been rendered
productive by artificial channels. The swirling current swept past
us at the foot of a sparse grove of golden-leaved forest trees.
The vista backwards was closed by the broad-shouldered Ardos,
with gleaming snows and precipitous sides. Our destination was
Enzakh, an Armenian hamlet of some dozen burrows, in a lofty
situation at the head of this valley. It was nearly seven when
we arrived, having covered a distance of some thirteen miles,
and attained an elevation of about 6900 feet.
When we issued from our fetid quarters on the following
morning (November 19), a frost lay on the ground. At
nine o'clock we were in the saddle, proceeding in a westerly
direction in order to cross the wall of the valley. It is lofty, and
is scaled by a precipitous path. Before taking the main ascent,
we passed by a lonely chapel, surrounded by a stone enclosure.
It is known to the Armenians under the name of Surb Yakob
(or Agop), and to the Kurds under that of Gubudgokh. The
interior consists of a dome, resting on four arches, and a deep
apse. The priest was not forthcoming, having left his eyrie to
purchase bread. It was nearly ten o'clock when we reached the
summit of the ridge at an altitude of about 7600 feet.
Although the ground was flecked with snow in the immediate
neighbourhood of where we stood, the sun had already warmed
the mountain air. We halted for half-an-hour in order to realise
our position. We had come a little south of a westerly course
from Enzakh. Our ridge appeared to be a spur from the
barrier in the south ; but it increased in height as it approached
the invisible lake. The mass of rock in that direction was
called by our guides Ak Kul ; they knew nothing of Kiepert's
Mount Gubudgokh. These heights compose the promontory on
the west of Akhtamar, and, in a country of railways, would no
doubt be pierced by a tunnel. In the east we could discern the
summit of Varag ; a succession of ridges lined the west.
138 Armenia
pursuing an almost meridional direction, the most distant
covered with snow. Continuing our march at the back of Ak
Kul, I counted no less than six of these parapets, without
including those of lesser significance. They appeared to be
inclined a few points towards the east. I hammered off a
fragment of the characteristic strata, a mica-schist, weathered a
pale reddish hue.
For over an hour we were involved in this sea of mountains,
our course being clearly indicated by a line of telegraph posts,
dipping and rising to the troughs and up the crests. But at a
quarter before twelve we emerged from this wild and uninhabited
district, and again overlooked the lake. We were approaching
the easterly end of the beautiful bay of Baghmesheh (garden of
oak), and were about to follow the upper slopes of the lofty block
of hills which confine the narrow respite of the shore. Our
present position w'as about two miles distant from the calm
water, and at a considerable elevation above its level. We
rode for half- an -hour along these slopes, through a bush of
oak which nowhere attains the proportions of trees. A few
boats were moored against the sand, and we could descry a
few huts. Zenith and sea were intensely blue ; but grey
vapours came floating towards us, concealing all but the shining
summit of Sipan. From the further extremity of the bay we
again saw the 'isle of Akhtamar, and, behind it, dimly perceived,
the rock of Van.
It cost us little effort to ascend from our track on the hill-
side to the summit of the ridge which forms a headland on the
west. The view from that eminence in a westerly direction
recalled none of the landscapes through which we had passed.
At our feet lay a plain of perfectly level surface, enclosed on all
sides by hills. On the side of the lake a line of heights shut out
this plain from the shore, resembling a huge dam. After a
descent of half-an-hour we reached the floor of the formation,
which is a little more elevated than the surface of the lake.
Under this eastern wall lies the Armenian hamlet of Goli, while,
on an opposite slope, at the head of the valley into which the
plain narrows, is situated the village of Kindirantz. We rode for
half-an-hour from the first to the last of these settlements, deviat-
ing south of our direct course. I was anxious to visit in his
capital the Kaimakam of Garchigan, For Kindirantz is no less
a place than the seat of government for that caza, although it
From Van to Bit lis 139
cannot boast of more than thirty houses.^ We arrived before two
o'clock, having completed a distance of some seventeen miles
from Enzakh.
The Kaimakam was at his post and delighted to receive us.
We found in him an official who did honour to his country, active
and strenuous in spite of his white hair. He had built himself a
house with solid walls of masonry, a rare luxury in these wilds.
It had of course been erected by Armenian workmen ; but he
complained of the backwardness and laziness of the Armenians
inhabiting his administrative district. He told me that it com-
prised no less than seventy-six villages, of which only twelve were
peopled by that race. But I noted that of the five settlements
in the plain of Kindirantz, three, including his place of residence,
were Armenian. The largest village in his caza was, he said,
Kordikran, inhabited by Kurds. But it was not so well situated
for purposes, of administration as Kindirantz. The Kurds in his
district were all settled on the land, and formed the large
majority of the population. They sent recruits to the Nizam or
regular army. He assured me that since his arrival in the
country complete security for life and property prevailed. I have
no reason to doubt his word.
Kindirantz must be five or six miles distant from the lake,
and the plain may have a length from north to south of five
miles, with an average breadth of about two miles. A nice
stream descends from the hills in the neighbourhood of the little
town. In connection with this plain I may mention a natural
phenomenon which repeats itself every year. When the snows
melt in spring and the torrents rush down from the mountains, the
plain becomes completely submerged. The line of heights on
the side of the lake prevent the egress of the waters, which
attain in places a depth of about ten feet. The flood ultimately
escapes through three principal subterraneous passages, besides
several minor outlets. The water rushes through these natural
tunnels in the dam formed by the cliffs, but it takes a considerable
time for it all to disappear. When the land is again revealed, the
peasants sow their crops, which, in some years, yield an excellent
harvest. But it often happens that the}^ are withered by the
fierce sun of summer, which has already commenced by the
^ Cuinet places the population of Kindirantz at 4064 souls, which is absurd. Nor
are there any Jews in the place. His statistics for the caza include 600 gypsies and
some Yezidis ; but the Kaimakam assured me that 100 was a better figure for the
gypsies, while he was not aware of the presence of any Yezidis.
140
Armenia
time that the lake has run out. To this cause the Kaimakam
attributed the poverty of the neighbouring villages. I have no
doubt that the little stream, if properly utilised, would go far
towards irrigating their lands ; and if a proper tunnel were cut,
and reservoirs constructed, the soil might be made as fertile as
any in the world.
We proceeded on our journey at four o'clock, accompanied by
the Kaimakam, who rode a fiery grey horse. His saddle rested
on a light blue cloth, bordered with a yellow fringe ; the trappings
and bridle were adorned with yellow tassels. He himself was
Fig. 144. Promontory of Surb.
(Oil the left the back of the Sheikh Ora Crater ; in the distance Nimriid.)
attired in the civil dress of Europe, and wore the fez. He could
not control his steed, although a good horseman ; the youngster
who carried our baggage became enlivened by the example, and
set off at a canter with his load. The Kaimakam galloped after
him ; but our colt was in condition, and showed him his heels
until he was arrested at an adjacent village. This escapade cost
us time, and it was nearly half-past five before we had scaled
the heights on the west of the plain. At our feet lay the lake,
about two miles away. It is the peculiar favour of this fascinating
seaboard that, often hidden, it is always new and always fair.
Not a patch of ragged coast disturbs the impression of ideal
beauty, resuming and blending the choicest features of other
From Van to Bit lis 141
shores. Our landscape of this evening embraced the westerly-
extremities of the white, unruffled expanse (Fig. 144). The
sun was declining beyond the colossal crater of Nimrud, a true
caldron rising from the lake on the opposite margin. Deep
shadows clothed the promontories between our standpoint and
the mountain, among which a bold headland, seen on the left
of my illustration, jutted out in the form of a peninsula. It was
named to us after a neighbouring village, the cape of Vanik.
During my second journey it was found to conceal a small crater.
In the foreground we overlooked the soft foliage of the village
of Surb, with fertile fields and a little bay of U-shaped curve.
It caught the light from the western sky,, and reflected the tender
tints on the very threshold of the pale water and gloomy rocks.
I was informed that it is inhabited by Armenians and Moslems.
We left it on our right hand as we descended by a precipitous
path.
West of Surb the mountains descend to the immediate border
of the lake, and the track is taken at no great height above the
water along their steep and rocky sides. It follows every bend in
the outline of the shore. This characteristic was new to us, a
crowning variety of the manifold features which rendered memor-
able our journey along the coast. As we advanced along this
path we opened out the majestic Sipan, seen from foot to summit
in the failing light. Night was closing when we arrived at a
recess in the barrier, harbouring some fine chestnut trees. There
is situated the village of Garzik, with thirty small tenements, of
which twenty are inhabited by Armenians and ten by Kurds.
The Kaimakam had sent forward a horseman, and our arrival
was expected ; a stable of unusual loftiness had been prepared.
Hay had been laid on crates, and rugs spread upon this primitive
mattress, destined to be our bed. Our horses rested near us,
my colt and the Kaimakam's show -horse munching peacefully
side by side. Our kind friend of Kindirantz related stories to
us, while we watched the smoke wreathing upwards to the central
aperture in the roof of logs.
One of these stories was suggested by a question which I
put to him, whether monogamy was strictly practised by the
Christians. He told me — and his statement was confirmed from
Christian sources — that the possession of several wives was not
an infrequent occurrence among them, in spite of the ban of the
Church. Not that the priests were a model of chastity according
142
Armenia
to his experience, which agreed with the conclusion arrived at
by a bishop of RumeHa, his friend and countryman. That
prelate had told him that four wives were allotted to a Moham-
medan, one to a Christian and all to a bishop. I asked whether
the Armenians intermarried with the Kurds in a village of mixed
population like Garzik. His answer, which was in the negative,
explains the stories of abduction which make such a show in
our Blue-books. A Kurd sees a pretty Armenian girl of his own
village, and, as often as not, a mutual passion arises between them.
The lady is not always an unwilling victim, as our Armenian
friends would lead us to suppose.
We slept soundly in spite of the fleas which made a meal
upon us, and were again in the saddle at a quarter before eight.
After taking leave of the Kaimakam, who returned to Kindirantz,
we continued our journey along the path on the mountain-side.
For three-quarters of an hour we made our way beneath the
precipices, until we again emerged upon a strip of plain. Vanik
it is called, after an Armenian village ; it has a depth of about
a mile. We crossed it in a quarter of an hour, and entered a
natural passage between a promontory of the lake and the main
range. This passage became a valley of bleak and rugged
aspect, and we did not see the lake again. At half- past nine
we left the telegraph wires, which we had been following for some
distance ; they stretched away on our right hand. They are
taken by Elmali to Tadvan and Bitlis by a more northerly and
less direct course. The prospect opened towards the north ; we
were in face of the mass of Nimrud, no longer separated by an
arm of the sea (Fig. 145). A little later we arrived upon the
banks of a stream which flowed along with us for some way.
We crossed it by a ford near an ancient bridge of hewn stone
which had been allowed to fall into ruin. Pursuing a westerly
course, we passed through a considerable village, inhabited by
settled Kurds. It is called Gotok, and is distinguished by some
caves, adjoining the track, with artificial niches and chambers.
It contains no less than seventy tenements, and is included within
the limits of the vilayet of Bitlis. It seems a prosperous place.
Our stream, which they named Sapor, now flowed off upon our
right towards Lake Van. We ourselves took an almost south-
westerly direction, while our rugged valley became more spacious
and more fair. It assumed the form of a strip of plain, between
opposite ridges, stretching away to snow-clad mountains in the
From Van to Bit Its 143
south. It is known as the Guzel Dere, or beautiful valley ; we
thought it deserved the name. We met and saluted a shepherd
at the head of his flock ; as usual in the neighbourhood of
Bitlis, he was armed with a rifle. At half-past eleven we entered
a side valley, almost at right angles, on a course a little north of
west. We could see our track, climbing the side of a lofty ridge
of mountain at the head of this opening. The Guzel Dere was
lost to view, extending towards the spine of the chain. A ride
of a quarter of an hour brought us to the Armenian village of
Sach, situated at the upper end of this side valley. It is
composed of fifty houses and possesses a church ; but its in-
habitants are extremely poor. They subsist on cakes of millet
seed, and have little corn or barley, although the soil in these
valleys is extremely rich. When I upbraided them with their
indolence, I received the answer that labour was useless so long
as the peasant was not permitted to enjoy the fruits of his toil.
We halted in this village for three-quarters of an hour, and
then commenced the ascent of the ridge. The pass has an
elevation of about 1900 feet above Lake Van ; and one can
readily appreciate the reasons which have influenced traffic to
prefer the easier if somewhat lengthier route by way of Elmali.
The actual scaling of the parapet occupied half-an-hour ; patches
of snow clung to the rocks about the summit. It is called the
Pass of Bor, from an Armenian village in the opposite valley.
We reached that settlement at three o'clock ; it lies in the water-
shed of the Tigris, to which a stream flowed from the further side
of the ridge we had crossed, a tributary of the Bitlis Chai. The
people of Bor appeared to us to be on the verge of starvation ;
the women had for the most part been reduced to mere skeletons.
It is a place of some size, and I afterwards heard of some
interesting tombstones w^hich were said to belong to this town-
ship. This upper portion of the valley has a breadth of three-
quarters of a mile, and expands as you proceed. We pursued a
westerly course, and arrived at the junction with the road from
Tadvan. The telegraph wires are carried across the heights on
the north of the valley, which at this point are insignificant. We
stopped to visit an ancient khan, built of hewn stone and of
considerable size. Beside it is a new bridge, also of finished
masonry, recalling the grand old days. I was informed that it
liad been constructed by the present Vali of Bitlis, though, heaven
knows ! he has no excuse for such lavishness. The stream which
144 Armenia
it crosses and which flows in a deep gorge is spanned by a less
presumptuous structure which might suffice for all ordinary needs.
Further evidence of this childish but truly Oriental habit of
embellishing your capital while your kingdom is quaking about
you was furnished by a metalled road which commences at this
point and puts the traveller in a good mood. After passing a
second bridge, traversing the chasm of a torrent which came
towards us on our right hand, we turned with the valley to a
south-westerly direction, which was maintained for about i-|-
miles. We then defiled into the deep recesses of the net-
work of valleys in which repose the castle and town of Bitlis. It
was after four o'clock, and I estimate the distance from Garzik
at 27 miles. Between Kindirantz and that village we covered
about 9 miles, which gives a total of just under 100 miles from
Van.
CHAPTER VI
BITLIS
Not far south of the Hne of junction of the volcanic plateau west
of Lake Van with the first outworks of the main Taurus range,
where the level spaces of the elevated tableland of Armenia break
away to the crest and trough of Kurdistan, there, within the
threshold of the chain but at the very head of the mountainous
country, lies the picturesque town of Bitlis. Coming from the
north, the traveller is impressed by a change of scene which is at
once sudden and complete. In place of the great plains, divided
by irregular mountain masses of eruptive volcanic origin, he is
introduced to the regular sequence of ridge upon ridge and valley
after valley, which are in fact the steps, or succession of mountain
terraces with stratified formation, leading down to the burning
lowlands of Mesopotamia. The clouds no longer float in tranquil,
feathery beds, but sail across the sky, grazing the peaks. The
rivers hiss in the gorges and are white with foam instead of
winding with sluggish current over the flats. The glare of the
open and treeless landscape is succeeded by the gloom of over-
hanging parapets ; and, while the margin of the streams will be
overgrown by willows and poplars, the forest trees, among which
the walnut and the elm are conspicuous, flourish upon each oasis
of deeper soil. Even the Kurdish shepherds have failed to destroy
a vegetation favoured by moisture and shade.
It is a place of beginning and ending, of ways radiating out-
wards, of ways closing in. South of the town the valleys collect
together ; slope approaches slope, increasing in acclivity and hold-
ing the united waters as in a vice. About the site itself the
walls of mountain recede, forming an amphitheatre of command-
ing heights upon the north. Passages thread their way within
the folds of that landscape, following side valleys of which the
VOL. II L
146 Armenia
pleasant spaces caress the eye until they are lost to view in a turn
of the fold. The sense of imprisonment, which soon outweighs
the romance of a sojourn among the mountains, is a feeling
foreign to the genius of these surroundings. Far rather is one
diverted by the variety of the expanses which preclude the palling
of this essentially alpine scene.
Yet, in spite of the comparative openness of such a situation,
you do not see Bitlis until you are well within her precincts. The
body of the town — the mediaeval castle, the minarets and the
bazars — lies in the trough of a deep gorge. The river which
threads the valley is composed by the union of two main streams,
the one coming from the north through a direct passage from the
plains of the tableland, the other from the east, the direction of the
Giizel Dere and the road to Van. The waters meet at some little
distance above the settlement, to bury themselves on a south-
westerly course in a ravine or canon with a depth of about lOO feet.
From either side of the ravine rise the slopes of the mountains,
leaving no great interval of level ground. The road is taken
along the right bank upon the summit of the cliff ; and after
a few winds reaches the commencement of the houses. They
cluster on the cliffs on both sides of the stream and mount the
first acclivities of the mountain walls. Of a sudden the valley opens
and the river changes direction, settling down to a southerly course.
Two side valleys with confluent streams enlarge the views. Tier
upon tier the flat-roofed dwellings are terraced up the slopes, and
are seen extending into the recesses of the hills. It will be about
a quarter of a mile from where you reached the first buildings ; and
still the castle and the bazars are hidden from sight. It is not
until that venerable pile is already passed that the banks of the
river flatten. It grazes the eastern side of the platform of rock
supporting the battlements, and is soon joined by the tributary
to the right bank. These are the most densely-built quarters.
Stone bridges with a single span of arched masonry present the
most charming prospects up the labyrinth of houses to the castled
rock of which the figure is that of a wedge with the broad side
facing south. The water bubbles over the boulders in its bed,
which is not more than thirty or forty feet wide. From its
margin rise the slender stems of willows or poplars. A little
lower down the second tributary rustles in, this one to the left bank.
But the river soon resumes its burrowing and boring tendency,
and compels the houses again to take refuge up the slopes on
BITLIS AND ENVIRONS
Scale: 1 Mile = llnclx
OY 1 : 63.360
o '^ ^ - ? Miles
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Engraved and |iriiited by
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Bit lis 147
either side. The expanse narrows and assumes the form of a
single trough in the mountains, threaded by a thin line of foam.
The most comprehensive view of the city may be obtained from
these southern limits, just before the entrance of the affluent from
the east. It forms the subject of my illustration, which was taken
from a position in the Avel Meidan (Fig. 146) — the quarter in
which is situated the American Mission, and where, since the date
of my visit, has been established the British consulate, the pioneer
of the political and commercial intercourse of the states of the
West with this remote Oriental town.
I have endeavoured to portray the principal features in the
topography of Bitlis on the little plan — hastily executed upon the
spot — which accompanies this chapter.^ The old castle in the
well of the expanse, towards which the valleys converge, suggests
the appearance, when seen from a standpoint on one of the
adjacent heights, of a gigantic starfish. The long feelers of the
creature, represented by the valleys covered with houses, straddle
somewhat about its slender body. Abundance of water and
the shade of trees favour the place as a residence ; but these
advantages are balanced by the heats which prevail in summer
and by the quantities of snow which collect in winter. The
southern aspect of the site makes it a trap for the fiery sun ;
while its elevation of 5200 feet above sea-level enables the snow
to lie during the winter months, when it accumulates to a great
depth, as in a natural reservoir. On the other hand the houses
are the best built in this part of Asia, and their solid walls are
almost proof against extremes of temperature. It is quite s
pleasure to observe their substantial masonry after the habitual
rubble or plastered mud of Eastern dwellings. Here at Bitlis
they are composed of blocks of hewn stone, broken by a layer or
two of thick beams, to equalise the shock in case of earthquake.
The walls are double, and the stone is faced on the side of the
interior as well as upon that of the garden or the street. A layer
of mud and rubble is sandwiched between the two walls. Very
little mortar is used to bind the blocks together, which consist of
a yellow lava weathering to a warm grey. This lava is found in
abundance in the troughs of the valleys, having presumably
flooded down them from the volcanic plateau on the north. A
quarry of white marble in the western valley, some three miles
1 It does not pretend to be more than a very rough sketch plan. It indicates the
various niahallas or quarters.
148 Armenia
distant, supplies ornamental material. Window glass is brought
from Europe and extensively employed. There are only wanting
our open fireplaces and groups of stone chimneys to complete the
resemblance to an English west-country town. In Bitlis the
rooms are warmed most usually by braziers and more rarely by
European stoves.
The importance of the situation can readily be appreciated
when we reflect upon the geographical conditions. The entire
section of the Tauric barrier between the Great Zab on the east
and this valley of the Bitlis Su upon the west is composed of quite
a network of lofty mountains, extremely difficult to cross. To
these natural obstacles, which have played an important part in
the history of these countries, are added dangers to traffic arising
out of the lawlessness of regions which it has never been easy
to police. Bitlis commands the approach to the first important
natural passage between the districts about Lake Van and the
Mesopotamian plains. The avenue of communication is taken
down the valley of the Bitlis Su, and, crossing thence into that of
the Keser Su, to the town of Sert, a distance of about forty miles.
Although this route has not as yet been rendered passable to
wheeled traffic, it is well adapted to caravans. At Sert you are
already upon the fringe of the lowlands and in a different climate.
On your one hand lies Diarbekr, with its ready access to the Medi-
terranean, and on the other Mosul, upon the navigable waterway
of the Tigris, whence in any other country but Asiatic Turkey a
service of first-rate steamers would afford quick access to the
Persian Gulf West of Bitlis there are several passages, the
routes converging upon Diarbekr ; but they are for the most part
less accessible to the great plains of the tableland. It is therefore
towards this avenue that the traffic is directed between widely
distant centres of the plateau country and Aleppo or Baghdad.
It is not so very long ago that this door between highlands
and lowlands was in the keeping of a line of Kurdish princes.
The Merchant in Persia, who travelled in the early portion of the
sixteenth century, describes Bitlis as a town of no great size, ruled
by a Kurd in only nominal allegiance to the Shah of Persia, and
named in the peculiar jargon of these early adventurers Sarasbec.
The castle, with its spacious area, high walls, turrets and towers,
was occupied by this petty feudal sovereign.^ A century later the
^ Merchant in Persia, in Italian Travels in Persia, Hakluyt Society, London, 1873,
V- 157.
Bit lis 149
Bey of BitHs impressed Tavernier with, his show of power ; he
could place in the field no less than 20,000 to 25,000 horsemen
besides a quantity of good infantry. He resided • in the castle,
approached by three successive drawbridges ; and his private
apartments were situated in the last and smallest of three courts
through which the visitor made his way on foot to audience. The
Bey acknowledged neither the Sultan of Turkey nor the Shah of
Persia, and was courted by both on account of the strategical
value of his city, barring the communications between Aleppo and
Tabriz.^ When the Jesuits founded a mission in Bitlis in the
year 1685 they were kindly received by the ruling Bey. But
that prince was in nominal subjection to the Sultan, each succes-
sive ruler paying to the Porte a small present as a matter of form
upon the occasion of his accession."- In the eighteenth century
the padre Maurizio Garzoni, who sojourned for eighteen years
among the Kurds in the interests of the Propaganda at Rome,
speaks of the dynasty of Bitlis as one of the five considerable
principalities which divided between them the Kurdistan of his
day. The remainder were respectively located at Jezireh, Amadia,
Julamerik and Sulimanieh.-^ The last of this old order of princes
at Bitlis was a man of many-sided and remarkable character,
whose romantic history one peruses with breathless excitement in
the dry reports and correspondence of Consul Brant, the eye and
ear of the famous Stratford Canning. His name was Sherif Bey;
and he built a fortified palace on the heights which confine the
valley on the east. The site of his residence I have indicated on
the plan, although it has long ago been razed to the ground.
After a life of chequered fortune and fox-like resistance to the
Turkish power he was finally overwhelmed by the operations of
Reshid Pasha and taken a prisoner to Constantinople in 1 849.
It appears to have been this prince who first deserted the ancient
castle, which has now fallen into complete ruin. Since his over-
throw Bitlis has been governed by a Turkish pasha, and it forms
the capital of a vilayet bearing its name.
The derivation of that name does not appear to be known,
although it was prevalent in the time of the i\rab geographers,-^
1 Tavernier, edition of Paris, 1679, vol. i. book iii. p. 303.
- Fleurian, Estat p7-esent de FAnndnie, Paris, 1694.
•^ Grammatica e vocahulario della lingua Kiirda composti dal P. Maurizio Garzoni,
Roma, 1787. See Ritter, Erdkunde, vol. ix. pp. 628, 630.
* Abulfeda quotes Ibn Hauqual and Azizi to the effect that Bitlis was a small and
prosperous town seven parasangs distant from Akhlat. He adds that in his time it was
surrounded by a semi-ruinous wall.
150 Armenia
The place seems to have borne the earlier appellation of Baghesh,
and to have belonged to the Armenian province of Beznuni.^
Local tradition ascribes the origin of the castle to the campaigns
of Alexander — a persistent belief which has no foundation upon
any known facts. A laughable story is gravely related in this
connection. The King of Macedon was impressed by the
advantages of the site as he journeyed past it at the head of his
army. Detaching one of his generals who was called Lais, or
Lis, he ordered him to erect a stronghold at the junction of the
two streams and to endeavour to complete it against the return of
the royal forces. The general executed these commands to the
very letter ; and when the King retraced his steps to the valley
which had excited his admiration, he found it defended against
his entry by a formidable fortress. After in vain employing all
the arts known to the besiegers of his day, he contrived to
possess himself of the person of his revolted subject. When that
rebel was introduced to the royal presence, he defended his
action against the vehement reproaches of his master in the
following brief speech. " My lord ordered me to build him a
strong castle, the strongest which should yet have been con-
structed. How could I better convince my lord of the obedience
of his servant than by successfully resisting in that castle the
greatest warrior of the world ? " Alexander was pleased by the
words, but playfully observed in the Persian language that Lis
was a very naughty man, bad Lis. The epithet adhered to the
name of the general and survives in that of the town to the
present day. This is a good example of an Oriental yarn.
The connection of Bitlis with Alexander is probably
apocryphal ; but the number of Greek coins that are dug up and
offered for sale to the traveller argue the extension of the later
Hellenic culture into the recesses of this distant valley. During
my stay at Akhlat in the course of my second journey several of
these pieces in silver, derived from Bitlis and the neighbourhood,
were brought into my tent. One of them, a coin of Antiochus
the Sixth of Syria, lies before me as I write. Greek inscriptions,
perhaps of the Roman period, are said to be forthcoming in the
vicinity. But such hearsay should be received with considerable
caution ; and the same remark will apply to the statement made
to Shiel by an aged native that there had existed an inscription on
the wall of the castle ascribing its foundation to a date 300 years
^ Saint Martin, M^nwircs sur P Armi!iiic, vol. i. p. 103.
Bit lis 1 5 1
before the prophet Mohammed.^ The Arabic writings seen on
the ruins, but unfortunately not copied or translated by modern
travellers, have most likely, almost without exception, disappeared.
The population of the town appears to have increased during
the present century. In 1814 it was believed to consist of not
more than i 2,000 souls, one-half Mussulman, and the remainder
Armenian." Brant computed the number of families in 1838
at 3000, or from 15,000 to 18,000 souls. • Of these, two-thirds
were Mussulman, and one-third Armenian, besides 50 families
belonging to the Jacobite persuasion.^ In 1868 Consul Taylor
speaks of 4000 families, of which 1500 were Christian, that is
to say Armenian.'* At the time of my visit the population of
the town probably amounted to close on 30,000 souls, 10,000
Armenians, 300 Syrians or Jacobites, and the rest Mussulman
Kurd. The official figures for the town and caza, comprising
Tadvan and the head of Mush plain, showed a total of just over
44,000 inhabitants, including about 15,500 Armenians. If we
would equalise the number of the females to that of the males,
1 5 per cent must be added to these figures.'^ Bitlis owes its
somewhat flourishing state mainly to its position as a provincial
centre ; but it does a trade in gall-nuts and gum, collected in the
surrounding country, as well as in loupes or whorls found on the
trunks of the walnut trees and exported to France for veneering
purposes. The nuts of these trees furnish an oil which is also
marketable, and madder root is found in the district and used for
dyeing purposes. From the leaves of the oak and other trees,
the villagers in the neighbourhood collect manna — an old-world
practice still in vogue in Kurdistan.
I would now invite my reader to accompany me in a ride through the
town. Our starting-point will be a fine house on the heights of Bash
Mahalla, immediately adjoining the road from Van. A stone bridge
crosses the road from the precincts of the mansion to the dwelling of the
ladies of the family, surrounded by a pleasant garden. The best rooms
of the salamlik or larger residence had been placed at our disposal by one
of the notables of Bitlis, by name Shemseddin Bey. Adjoining this
1 Shiel m /oiintal R.G.S. 183S, vol. viii. p. J t,.
^ Macdonald Kinneir, Journey through Asia jMiiior, Ar/neiiia, and Kurdistan,
London, 1818, pp. 393 scq.
^ Brant mJ.K.G.S. vol. x. pp. 379 seq.
-* Archives of British Consulate at Erzerum.
'■' In detail the figures are: Mussulmans, 27,673; Gregorian Armenians, 15,317;
Armenian Catholics, 130 ; Armenian Protestants, 647 ; Syrians, 342. Males and females
are given separately in the rough census on which these statistics repose ; and, owing to
the difficulty of access to the women, the latter are always in an apparent minority.
152 Ar7nenia
quarter are the open spaces of the Gok Meidan, where you may admire
an old medresseh, now used as a miUtary store — a fine square building in
hewn stone with four turrets at the corners, and a rich fagade in the Arab
style on the south side. The place is overgrown with weeds. Ancient
elm trees spread their shade over the ruins of a mosque not many feet
away. Adjacent is a cemetery with numerous headstones and two
considerable mausolea. In this same district, not far from the residence
of the Pasha, is situated the small mosque called Meidan Jamisi. A
mollah dispenses instruction to some twenty little boys in a small den of a
room close by. Descending the cliff-side to the main valley by a paved
way, we pass the little mosque of Dort Sanduk, and the Armenian church
of Karmirak. The latter, although presided over by the bishop of Bitlis,
is an unpretentious building of four plain stone walls, with two rows of
three stone pillars in the interior and crowned by a small dome. The
bishop — poor fellow — will probably be in prison ; that was his residence
on the occasion of our sojourn. Attached to the church is a school with
four teachers and over a hundred pupils, who certainlji impressed us as
better-to-do than at Van. Quite a number were wearing cloth clothes.
The prison, full of Armenians, frowns out from the edge of the cliff.
We make our way down the trough of the valley and past the castle. It
is nothing better than a shell, the inner structures having fallen in or
yielded their masonry to serve as material for other buildings. On an
eminence, overlooking the pile, is placed the Turkish High School or
Rushdiyeh, with seventy scholars and four instructors. Our visit was ex-
pected, but no preparations could conceal the squalor and general decrepi-
tude of the institution. Most of the pupils were quite small boys. Where
was the Mudir or Director of Public Instruction ? It transpired that he
too, although a Mussulman, was in prison. He had been complaining to
Constantinople that the military authorities had turned him out of the
building destined to serve as a High School, and had converted it into a
store. The officers retaliated by locking him up.^
The Syrian church is situated in the same quarter — that of Kizil
Mejid, or the red Mejid. Mejid is said to be a proper name. A plain
little whitewashed chapel nestles under the cliff, and here the service is
read in the Syriac language, and a Syriac Bible lies upon the desk. Not
that any of the congregation understand that tongue ; they speak
Armenian and are familiar with Turkish. The Bible is expounded to
them in Armenian, which may be said to be their native tongue. When
we reflect that the services of the early Armenian Church were celebrated
in the Syriac or the Greek languages, this transformation in the old order
of things is not without interest. The attendant priest, a charming man
who had come from Diarbekr, seemed half aware of the irony of the
situation. He went so far as to say that the Armenians had usurped the
Syrian religion and then set up a separate Church. But the differences
' Vital Cuinet [La Tiirquie (TAsie, Paris, 1892) gravely asserts that there exist' 283
scholastic establishments in the vilayet of Bitlis, with 309 teachers and 18,858 pupils of
either sex !
Bit lis 1 5 3
between the Churches amounts to little more than a divergence in the
preparation of the consecrated bread. The Syrians use leavened bread.
There was sadness in his voice when he related the fortunes of the
Jacobite community. In old days he maintained that they had been
much more numerous ; and he believed that the principal mosque in
Bitlis had originally been a Syrian church. Some had emigrated ; the
greater number had become Armenians. A Jacobite marries an Armenian
wife whom he leaves a widow; the woman brings up the children in the
Armenian faith. I enquired why the faithful remnant spoke Armenian to
the exclusion of any Syrian dialect. He replied, " Because this earth is
Hayasdan (Armenia).' He added that there were some 1500 Syrians in
the sanjak of Sert, mostly in the districts of Sert and Shirvan. Their
spiritual ruler is the patriarch of Mardin.
The Armenian Catholics are a mere handful among the inhabitants of
Bitlis. amounting to not more than fifteen families, of which only three or
four represent the converts of the former Jesuit Mission, founded here in
1685. The remainder have becom# Catholics during quite recent years.
Persecution and schism have dealt hard blows at the Catholic community.
In 1838 they did not number more than fifty citizens, and their priest had
been taken a prisoner by the Gregorian Armenians and cruelly beaten at
the monastery of Surb Karapet above Mush plain. ^ In the eighties that
well-informed and genial ecclesiastic. Father Rhetore of Van, speaks of
them as the most neglected and disorganised body in Bitlis, which had
dwindled during the Kupelianist movement and from other causes from
thirty to nine families.- The advent of an energetic pastor, who had
studied in the Jesuit college of Beyrut, has infused new life into the flock.
He speaks French fluently, has travelled widely, and is an accomplished
man. A school has been recently opened. The Catholics of Bitlis have
had good reason to resent their treatment at the hands of the Gregorians ;
but their spiritual leader displayed an antipathy towards the Armenians of
the national persuasion in which religious hatred had overcome the bonds
of race.
Very different is the attitude of the American Protestant missionaries,
whose flourishing establishment is situated in the Avel IMeidan within the
angle formed by the confluence of the stream from the eastern valley with
the main Bitlis river. If their conversions excite the jealousy of the
Gregorian hierarchy, their proselytes display no tendency to divest them-
selves of their nationality, but, on the contrary, remain Armenians to the
core. This fact does not increase the goodwill of the Turkish official
classes towards the Americans. Founded in 1858, their Mission en-
countered the same opposition on the part of the Armenian clergy as had
formerly been experienced by the Catholics. It was not until after the lapse
of seven years that a nucleus of five professed Protestants was formed : and,
once a start had been made, progress was rapid. Of late years the labours
of the missionaries have been wisely directed to the extension of their
1 Bore, Corr. et Meiiioires, Paris, 1S4O, vol. i. pp. 39S, 399.
2 Rhetore, Lcs Missions Catholiqiies, Paris and Lyons, 1881, pp. 565-567.
154 Armenia
schools rather than to the propagation of Protestant doctrine. Debarred
from working among the Mussulmans, they have supplied the Armenians
with priceless advantages in the shape of a college in the provincial
capital, and no less than fifteen schools in the smaller towns and villages
comprised within the limits of the vilayet. About one- half of the
attendants are and remain Gregorian. The college dispenses three grades
of education : the High School, the intermediate and the primary grades.
At the time of our visit twenty scholars were included in the first of these
categories, fifty in the second, and about sixty in the third. There were
fifteen boarders living on the premises. The teachers numbered four,
besides the missionaries, the principal teacher having graduated at the
important American institution in Kharput. Some eighty girls, some of
them boarders, were receiving instruction. Of these the residents were in
most cases inhabitants of Bitlis, parents preferring that their daughters
should avoid passing to and fro in the streets. The majority pay for
their maintenance in kind. They impressed me as being very neat and
clean. The Mission was under thf direction of Messrs. G. C. Knapp,
R. M. Cole, and George Knapp — all zealous, experienced, and amiable
men. Their Board have constructed a large church in the quarter, the
community supplying a small portion of the funds. There are about
loo professed Protestants in Bitlis, and about three times this number
of attendants at service. The Protestants of the whole vilayet may be
counted at 1200, including those who have made no public profession.
The valley which stretches eastwards from the quarter of the mission-
aries is only sparsely built over. The houses belong to the Avekh
ward. Fields of cabbage occupy a considerable portion of the level
area, which is dotted over by poplars and other trees. At a distance of
about two miles from the confluence of the stream is situated among
lonely surroundings the x\rmenian monastery of Astvatsatsin and an ad-
jacent church which belongs to the Jacobite community. The buildings of
the cloister have fallen into ruin, and are tenanted by a single priest wear-
ing the dress of a peasant and not distinguishable in other respects from the
lowest of the peasant class. When we alighted at the entrance, a figure
stepped forth to hold our horses, whose full, round face, large eyes and
sturdy limbs, clad in loose trousers, impressed us as belonging to a good-
looking youth. But the shirt, happening to open, displayed the bosom
of a maiden. The church was so little lighted, one could scarcely
discern the architecture ; but one may say in general of the monastic
churches on the outskirts of Bitlis that they are well-built stone structures,
with four plain walls on the exterior, unbroken by any projection on the
side of the apse. The interiors display features typical of Armenian
architecture — the lofty dome, supported upon arches rising from detached
pillars, and the stone dais at the eastern end in front of the apse upon
which the altar is reared. Their peculiarity is a partiality for Arab
stalactite ornament, as seen in the capitals of the pillars and in the altar
pieces. The most remarkal)le is Surb Joannes, belonging to the
monastery of Amelort in the western valley, or Koms Mahalla. Other
examples are Astvatsatsin, in the village of Koms at the head of that
Bitlis
155
valley, and the church of the fortified cloister of this same name among
the hills bordering the main stream upon the east. A track from Van and
the Giizel Dere, leaving the village of Bor on the north, comes in over the
hills at the extremity of the eastern valley.
Issuing again from this minor trough and regaining the principal
artery, we may extend our ride to the fortress enclosure of the monastery
last mentioned — a curious receptacle for a sanctuary dedicated to the
mother of Christ (Fig. 147). In spite of its massive walls, it was rifled by
Kurds during the last Russo-Turkish war ; and you may still see the
imprints of the large stones which they hurled at the door communicating
Fig, 147.
SiTLis: Fortified Monastery.
with the treasury adjoining the apse of the church. The ignorant
peasant who was priest in charge informed us that the cloister had been
in possession of charms wherewith to raise the dead to life ; with these,
too, the marauders had made off. A sheep was bleating in the yard ;
his fat tail had been bitten off by a wolf, while he grazed upon the sward
outside. . Wolves enter the streets of the town during winter and have
been known to carry away the dogs.
Returning by the right bank of the Bitlis river, we may thread our
way through the crowded bazars. They are nothing better than roofed
passages, narrow and low. An old Khan with a fine doorway in the
Arab style, adorned with the figures of two snarling lions, varies the
monotony of the shabby booths. The Arab facade with inlays of marble
of the Sherifieh. mosque adjoins the masonry of the bridge over the
western confluent. We were unable to penetrate within the walls of the
156
Armenia
principal mosque, at the foot of the castle ; but it did not appear to offer
interesting features. There is a persistent tradition that several of the
mosques in Bitlis were formerly Christian churches. A question of still
greater interest, but which I regret I have failed to elucidate, attaches to
the age of the various edifices. One cannot help remarking a strong
family resemblance between them, all being markedly under the influence
of the Arab style. They are evidently the outcome of a period or periods
of building activity, which I have been unable to locate in the history of
the city.
Not the least interesting among the experiences of a sojourn at
Fig. 148. Tunnel of Semiramis.
Bitlis will be the excursion to the so-called tunnel of Semiramis. You
follow the course of the river for a distance of some four miles below the
castle along the avenue of communication with Sert. A metalled road
has been constructed for some portion of the way, representing the
abortive attempts to connect the two centres by a carriageable chaussee.
It breaks off within li miles of the tunnel, to be succeeded by sporadic
patches of levelled inclines. These fitful reminders of the puny civilisa-
tion of the present day struggle forward for no great space into the
alpine scene. Limestones on the heights above, dark lavas in the
trough below accompany your course. Mineral springs well up in
abundance along the path. The tunnel is an artificial work, attributed
to the Assyrian queen, which pierces a wall of rock blocking the narrow
valley and completely cutting off the path (Fig. 148). The barrier has
been formed by deposits of lime and other ingredients left by a spring
Bitlis
157
bubbling in a basin some 150 feet above the track and over 300 feet
above tlie right bank of the river. The water in the pool is clear as
crystal to the eye, but it tastes strongly of iron. Iron rust reddens
portions of the surface of the rock, and is conspicuous on the huge
boulders in the bed of the river, detached by the hissing torrent from
the base of the parapet. The tunnel has a depth of 22 feet and a height
of about 18 feet. It seemed to constitute the only egress from the
gorge. The view from this standpoint, looking down the passage of
the mountains, is in the sternest vein of alpine landscapes (Fig. 149).
Fig. 149. Looking down Valley of Bitlis Chai.
Bitlis, like Van, was in the throes of a Reign of Terror when
we were guests within her precincts. The storm was then
brewing which was to burst in the Sasun massacre, the fore-
runner of the whole series of butcheries. The town was full of
tales relating to a notorious Armenian conspirator, who not many-
months ago had been captured in the Sasun region, some said
by treachery and others at the hands of a Kurd disguised as an
Armenian. His name is Damadean, and he was lodged in the
jail at the time of our visit. Sasun is comprised within a section
of the same zone of mountains as those which rise about the site
of Bitlis. In other words, it is a district of the southern peripheral
ranges of the Armenian tableland, and it lies to the south of the
plain and town of Mush. The Armenians who inhabit it are on
158 Annenia
terms of subjection to the Kurdish chiefs, to whom they pay sums
fixed by custom for protection against other Kurdish tribes.
Each chief has his own Armenian dependants, who are in posses-
sion of arms. Being a race of mountaineers they are noted for
their courage and stubbornness ; and there can be little doubt
that Armenian political agitators, such as Damadean, fixed upon
them as suitable material for a conflagration. The object of these
men is to keep the Armenian cause alive by lighting a flame here
and there and calling : Fire ! The cry is taken up in the
European press ; and when people run to look there are sure to
be some Turkish officials drawn into the trap and committing
abominations. On this occasion the scene of the trouble had
been the village of Talori or Talvorik — the same village which
played a part in the later tragedies. Its inhabitants earn a live-
lihood by the primitive exploitation of mines of iron, and there
is sufficient wood in the neighbourhood for smelting purposes.
Damadean had for some time been busy in the district, and he had
endeavoured to effect a coalition between Kurds and Armenians
to resist the levy of taxes for Government. At the same time the
Vali of Bitlis, Tahsin Pasha, happened to be on bad terms with
the authorities at Constantinople, It was said in Bitlis that he
was delighted to be afforded an opportunity of recovering favour
by suppressing a so-called rebellion. The result of these opposite
tendencies was a little piece of warfare, in which Turkish troops,
accompanied by the Vali in person, appeared before Talori.
Taxes were demanded and refused. The villagers, who had fled
to a strong place in the vicinity — where they had already
successfully resisted two tribes of Kurds friendly to the Govern-
ment— stated to the official envoy with much reason that they
could not afford to pay a double set of taxes, one to Government
and the other to Kurds. If they yielded to the present demand,
was it likely that the chiefs would forego payment when the
Turkish force had turned their backs upon Sasun ? The Vali
appears so far to have acted with good sense, that he avoided
bloodshed. He recovered the cattle which had been carried off
by his Kurdish allies and liquidated his claims from the proceeds
of their sale. His services were rewarded by a decoration from
Constantinople ; and he was able to pose as the restorer of the
authority of Government, the ringleader being in his hands.
These events occurred in the month of June.
Damadean is a good type of the Armenian revolutionary
Bit lis 159
He received a sound education in the school of the Mekhitarists
at Venice, and he is said to speak both the French and the
Enghsh languages. Some ten years before our visit he came to
Mush as a teacher in one of the Armenian schools. The real
miseries attendant upon the social and political lot of his country-
men are nowhere more eloquent than in that remote town. They
spoke to the soul of an Armenian who had tasted the liberties
of Europe without succumbing to the vices on the surface of
European life. The actions of such a neophyte are in so far
misguided that they operate upon much too low a plane. They
produce disturbance rather than wholesome change. The
despairing usher shook off the dust of Mush from his feet ; and,
when he returned after a protracted absence to pursue his old
vocation, the profession was only a cloak to the designs he had
matured in Constantinople as a petty conspirator and correspondent
of European newspapers. When his plans were sufficiently ripe,
he exchanged the dress of his office for that of a peasant in
Sasun ; and the disguise enabled him to pass to and fro between
the town and the adjacent mountains in the capacity of a seller
of firewood. Disposing of his logs in the houses of the principal
officials, he had ready access to their confidential servants. No
move was made of which he had not been apprised. His career
was cut short in the doubtful manner already indicated ; but it
was not calculated to accomplish abiding results.
CHAPTER VII
FROM BITLIS TO MUSH MUSH
At twenty minutes past eight o'clock on the morning of the 25 th of
November we set out for the neighbouring town of Mush. It is the
capital of a sanjak, or larger administrative division, belonging to
the vilayet of Bitlis. It is situated on the further side of the wall
of mountains which divide the watersheds of the Tigris and the
Euphrates, and at a distance by road from the provincial capital
of rather over fifty miles. You retrace your steps towards the
valley of Bor and the telegraph wires, in order to cross by an easy
and almost imperceptible ascent to the volcanic plateau on the
western side of Lake Van. The lavas from Nimrud, and perhaps
from lesser volcanic fissures near the base of the Kerkiir Dagh, have
levelled the inequalities of the ground in this direction, and have
risen, as it were, to the rim of the basin in which the tributaries
of the Tigris have their source. Indeed, as you diverge from the
valley on a northerly course through a side valley or opening in
the hills, you skirt the margin of a shallow stream, an affluent of
the Bitlis Chai, which has its origin on the very lip of the volcanic
plateau. We made our way up the current babbling over the
rocks, through a bleak but comparatively open scene. On our
risfht was an ancient khan in a ruinous condition, of lesser dimen-
sions than the one on the road from Van to Bitlis which we had
already passed. In its neighbourhood the track bifurcates, one
branch maintaining a northerly direction, and the other inclining
a little eastwards in the direction of Tadvan. Sipan now came
in view on our right front, seen from the summit to the middle
slopes above the outline of the plateau. A little later, we stood
upon the actual floor of this table surface, at an elevation of 800
feet above the higher quarters of the town of Bitlis.
It was ten o'clock. I called a halt, and took a photograph of
Q
From Bit lis to Mttsk — Mush 1 6 1
the Kerkiir Dagh, which rose in front of us, hiding Nimrud (Fig.
150). You just obtain a peep of the crater of the giant volcano
on the west of that bold elevation. We could not discover traces
of a crater on Kerkiir, which appeared to compose an isolated
mass. The level ground upon which we stood extended in both
directions, towards the west and towards the east ; but the con-
figuration of this high land was such as to conceal completely the
waters of Lake Van. We now commenced a more westerly course,
and in another hour had passed the Kerkiir Dagh and were in
Fig. 151. Nimrud Crater from the Volcanic Plateau.
full face of Nimrud (Fig. 151). The heights of the Kerkiir are
seen on the extreme right of my illustration, descending by bold
bastions to the steppe. After a second halt we arrived upon the
edge of the plateau, where it overhangs the great plain of Mush.
We had been walking or trotting along for a space of nearly an
hour, excluding stoppages, from the point at which my first photo-
graph was taken.
The prospect from this position was at once far-reaching and
instructive. On our right hand, a few miles off, rose the caldron
of Nimrud from the table surface upon which we stood. Behind
us there was nothing but the undulating steppe. Our barometers
were now sensible of a slight decline in elevation^ — a decline of
about 350 feet. We were placed at a level of 5500 feet;
abruptly before our eyes the ground fell away to the head of
the plain, 1000 feet below. The appearance of the plain of
Mush recalled our view from the slopes of Aghri Dagh over the
VOL. II M
1 62 Armenia
district of Alashkert. Both depressions are in fact the beds of
former lakes, to which the mountains descend in bold promontories.
On that occasion we were overlooking the breadth of an even
area ; to-day we were commanding the length. And what a
curious commencement of the plain that feeds the Euphrates, this
colossal dam, looo feet in height and several miles across! The
boundaries of the depression are, on the north, the train of Nimrud,
which extends for a short distance towards the west. Further on,
the line is continued by a range of lofty hills, which, as we looked,
extended across the horizon, their summits topped with snow.
The Kurdish chain contributes the southern and continuous
barrier. Our course was indicated by a distant headland of that
southern border, bearing about west-north-west.
The descent to the plain occupied nearly an hour, and it was
one o'clock before we were again on level ground. The first
steps of the declivity led us past a little village, and along a torrent
which contributes its waters to the Euphrates. The name of
Morkh is applied both to the hamlet and to the stream. Looking
backward, we observed a little conical crater on the flank of
Nimrud, resembling a boil, and facing the Kerkiir. Eruptive
volcanic stones were strewn upon our path. Lower down we
threaded our way through some low bush of oak. When we
reached the head of the plain, a hill mass of no great height, and
evidently of volcanic origin, rose between us and the descending
train of Nimrud. We could see the trees of the Kurdish village
of Norshen, beneath the mountains of the southern border, and
scarcely more than half-a-mile away.
In less than half-an-hour we arrived at a handsome mauso-
leum, standing in the midst of an ancient cemetery, and now
fallen into a ruinous state. It was circular in shape. I was not
aware at the time of the existence in this neighbourhood of the
spring of which Mr. Ainsworth speaks.^ But at Erzerum I learnt
that I had passed by it,- and was made acquainted with an
interesting theory of its origin. It is said that a shepherd,
pasturing his flocks on the slopes of Nimrud, happened to lose
1 The Sources of the Euphrates, \r\. Journal R.G.S. 1895, pp. 173 seq. Mr.
Ainsworth conjectures that the water of this well, which he describes as a crater fountain
having a basin 220 feet in circumference, comes from Lake Van. I should doubt it.
The same careful observer is not quite right in speaking of it as " the source " of the
Kara Su. It is no doubt one of the sources, but the Morkh Su, already mentioned, is
the first of these westward-flowing streams. For further particulars in regard to the
pool of Norshen see Chap. XVIII. p. 317 of the present volume.
Fig. 152, Young Kurd Woman at Gotni, Mush Plain.
From Bit lis to Mzish — Mush 163
his staff, which was weighted with a purse, in the waters that
collect in the caldron of that great volcanic mass. A little
later the same staff was found on the bank of the stream which
issues from this well. Such an occurrence is not improbable on
a priori grounds. It is only necessary to recall the connection
generally accepted as subsisting between the pool on the summit
of the Little Ararat and the Sirdar's well in the valley at its feet.
While in Erzerum I was also given a copy of the Arabic inscrip-
tion on the mausoleum just described. It records that it is the
tomb of a certain emir, Karanlai Agha, who died in the year of
the Hegira 689, or of our era 1290.^^
Our mid-day stage was the Kurdish village of Gotni, which
we reached at two o'clock. It is situated at the foot of the
southern border range. With the greatest difficulty we obtained
some hay for the horses and a little milk for ourselves. My
Swiss had gone in pursuit of the grey colt with the baggage and
provisions, and had ended by losing his way. He did not
appear before we were all very anxious about him ; but the
Dutch cheese and white loaves, a present from the missionaries,
were not less relished because they arrived after our scanty meal.
This was the first village inhabited by Mohammedans in which
I was allowed to photograph the women. I obtained this favour
by dint of considerable cajolery and judicious presents to the
elders and to the ladies themselves. But my success cost me
dear during the subsequent journey, and was one of the causes
of our bad treatment at Mush. One of my models was a damsel
of no little beauty — a full-blooded, strapping girl. It was evident
that she was the belle of the whole settlement, and she was
certainly an exception and a contrast to the lank creatures who
were her comrades (Fig. i 52)." The zaptiehs spoke of the women
of Gotni as little addicted to prudery, and, indeed, as amiable
sinners. They told me that in exchange for a mirror or kerchief,
purchased for ten paras in the bazars, they were in the habit
of receiving the supreme favours of these fair ones ; and, once
1 I am indebted to the excellent Yusuf, dragoman of the British Consulate at Erzerum
and my friend from childhood, for a copy and translation of this inscription : " In the
name of God, the merciful and most compassionate, this is the tomb of the great emir,
Melik-ul-Umara, Karanlai Agha, who was taken from this place of corruption to the place
of mercy and immortality, a Moslem, believer in one God, on the 5th day of Ramazan
in the year 689."
2 My photograph of the belle of Gotni displays such a lack of good features that I
must refrain from reproducing it for fear of belying my impression. In its place I offer
a picture of one of the best -looking of her less flourishing comrades.
164 Armenia
contracted, the alliance could always be resumed. A feature of
the bargain, upon which they did not fail to lay emphasis, was
that their companion provided them with food during their stay.
Proceeding at four o'clock, we arrived in half-an-hour at the
promontory which had been our point of course. We were
obliged to cross the neck of this rocky cape, in order to avoid
a marsh. Nor was the surface of the plain less boggy to which
we descended — such is the neglect or inability on the part of the
natives to profit by the natural advantages so lavishly bestowed.
We were obliged to hug the headlands of the southern barrier
for some considerable time. When at last we struck into the
open plain on a more north-westerly course, the village which
was our goal proved to be completely destitute both of barley
and of hay. We were therefore escorted by a peasant to a
neighbouring settlement, in the recesses of the spurs. It consisted
of some thirty miserable tenements, of which ten belonged to
Armenian families and twenty to Kurds. No grain was possessed
by this village, but, after much wrangling, a little barley was
produced. This sufficed to feed the horses, and we decided to
spend the night there ; the name of the place was Zirket.
But which of these underground hovels was the least re-
pugnant as a lodging for the night ? The first I entered
displayed the flicker of a fire of dried manure, and was almost
filled by the dim forms of cattle. But I could hear a human
cough and the wheezing of sick people ; and, as I advanced, I
stumbled upon a prostrate figure. It was muffled in a ragged
shawl, and I could not see the features ; when I touched it on
the bare feet it did not move. No better fortune attended a
visit to a neighbouring hut ; it was more lofty, but it was
tenanted by a huddled group of women, one of whom was unable
to move from the ground. Returning to my first choice, I
ordered the cattle to be ejected, and the sleeper to be taken to an
adjacent stable. We slept beside our horses and were attacked
in force during the night by a formidable army of minute
enemies.
The ride to Mush on the following day occupied four-and-
a-half marching hours. Our average course was a little north of
west. The plain in the neighbourhood of our station was some
five to six miles broad, and villages became both larger and more
frequent. The same line of high hills still composed the northern
barrier, and the Kurdish mountains that on the south. Ice lay
From Bitlis to Mush — Mush
i6 =
upon the puddles during the early morning, but was soon melted
by the sun. The marshes continued but were less obstructive ;
they afford food to large flocks of wild geese. The villages in
the plain appeared to be for the most part Armenian, but some
Armenian villages are in part inhabited by Kurds.^ We halted
for a meal in one of the largest of these, the Armenian settlement
of Khaskeui (Fig. 153). It is a typical Armenian dwelling-place,
resembling a series of ant-hills ; but my illustration does not
comprise the knot of venerable trees which adjoin it, an unwonted
Fig. 153. Armenian Village of Khaskeui, Mush Plain.
landmark in the expanse. In Khaskeui there are no less than
300 houses and 2 churches, besides ruins of more ancient
sanctuaries. But the school had been closed by order of
Government, and only one per cent of the peasants could read or
write. I found the priest an ignorant man ; — poor fellow, he had
been lately imprisoned on a summons for withholding taxes. If
1 It would probably be safe to .say that the Armenian element predominates in the
plain proper, and the Kurdish element in the villages bordering upon the plain along
the southern border range. Writing in 1838, Consul Brant reported as follows : "In
the whole plain of Mush there are not any Mohammedan peasants intermingled with
the Armenians : a fact which would clearly point out this country as belonging rather
to Armenia than to Kurdistan ; indeed the tent-dwelling Kurds are evidently intruders,
and the stationary Kurds, it cannot be doubted, belonged originally to the nomad race "
{J.R.G.S. 1840, vol. X. p. 347).
1 66 Armenia
only Armenian patriots would see to the reform of the rural clergy,
what an inestimable harvest the race would reap ! The inhabit-
ants of this village were a good example of Armenian peasantry
— such broad shoulders, and massive hips ! They were fairly
well-to-do, some in easy circumstances (Fig. 154). One is im-
pressed by their resolute look.
Khaskeui has an open site on the floor of the spacious plain,
while Mush nestles under the wall of the southern range. Our
course was again directed to one of the headlands of the barrier,
bearing about west-north-west Proceeding at a rapid trot, we
reached our landmark in three-quarters of an hour, and, after
doubling it, turned due west. We were riding across the fork of
one of the deepest and most spacious of the valleys formed by the
spurs descending from the chain. High up on the hillside above
the head of this opening we admired the position of the famous
cloister of Arakelotz Vank — a walled enclosure surmounted by
a conical dome.^ The windows of that eyrie must command an
immense prospect, for the chain of hills had declined to less
significant proportions on the opposite margin of the plain. We
ourselves could see the shining summit of Sipan above their long
outline. They almost die away at a point about due north of
this position, but are soon succeeded by a still more lofty and
snow-capped range. The valley is dotted with several villages,
and crives issue to a stream called the Arakh. Where we crossed
it, the water was trickling over a stony bed which must have been
nearly a quarter- mile broad. As we closed the view of this
valley, we passed the large Armenian village of Tirkavank, on the
side of the hill.
But this recess was no sooner passed than it was succeeded
by another inlet of this coast of hills, backed by snow-clad heights.
Scarcely less spacious and not less fair than the valley of the
/\rakh, that of the Garni Chai is enclosed by two protecting
promontories, opening towards the expanse of plain. At the
head of the western arm, a rocky spur projects into the bay at an
angle from the promontory. Increasing in height as it proceeds,
it takes the appearance of a rounded hill, rising isolated from the
floor of the valley. Screened by the headlands from the winds,
yet in full possession of the plain, it is indeed an enviable site.
^ I refer the reader with some hesitation to Cuinet's account of this monastery {La
Titrquie d\4sie, Paris, 1892, vol. ii. p. 584, vilayet de Bitlis). See also Saint Martin,
Miiiioires sicr PArnu'iiie, vol. ii. pp. 431, 467-
Fig. 154. Well-to-do inhabitant of Khaskeui, Mush Plain.
From Bit lis to Mush — Mush 167
The hill is encircled by tiers of houses — horizontal lines of flat
mud roofs — -which lead up the eye, like steps, to the vaulted
summit. In former times a castle rose from that proud eminence
— probably a work of the Armenian Middle Ages. It has been
razed to the ground, and the simple houses usurp the space once
embellished by the city's crown. We were soon within the pre-
cincts of the town of Mush.
It was evident that our arrival had been expected. Groups
of people were collected in the street up which we passed, and
were occupying posts of vantage along the route. I have little
doubt that their interest in us was due to the attitude of the
authorities towards our visit, rather than to curiosity on the part of
such semi-animate individuals to see a European enter their town.
The presence of the chief of the police, attired in a new greatcoat,
from the brass buttons of which flashed the device of the crescent,
was alone sufficient to attract a crowd. He stood in front of his
office, facing the main street, and saluted us gravely as we wound
up the steep ascent over an irregular pavement towards the
central bazar. In the foreground of the picture before our eyes
rose a massive minaret with a spacious gallery ; and we admired
the rambling design, composed of the admixture of yellow and
brown blocks of stone, which varied the surface of the circular
column of masonry. It belongs to the mosque of Aladdin Bey.
The humble houses straggle down the side valleys, from which
the stalk-like trunks of poplars rise. Looking backwards, the
eye rests upon the green of tobacco fields in the main valley ;
and we noticed that the large leaves had already been gathered,
leaving the stems of the plant almost bare. The gaunt sticks
were preparing to wither under the first severe frost. Little
foliage remained upon the trees in the gardens, and the poplars
were already stripped of leaves.
The dwellings are constructed of rubble -stone, faced with
mud. Some are whitewashed ; but in the case of the greater
number lapses of the mud coating reveal the rudeness of the
structure behind. The flagstones in the bazar were swimming in
filth of every description as we picked our way through the
accumulation of heterogeneous objects — bullock carts, piles of
straw, the skins of slaughtered animals with the entrails gathered
up within the skin. The bazar of Mush is a mere aggregate of
miserable open booths, clustering about the base of the minaret.
The richest merchant — an Armenian — owned a stall which was
1 68 Armenia
not much larger than that of a costermonger. In this booth we
observed the figure of a general in blazing uniform, squatted on
the boards and gossiping with the shopman. It was none other
than the Commandant of the troops. The place was crammed
with sightseers, clad in red and blue cottons ; their loose shirts,
open to the waist, revealed the breasts of the men and the
bosoms of the women, in whom bad diet, unwholesome tenements,
and ceaseless toil had destroyed the graces natural to their sex.
It was painful to see such a collection of miserable human
beings ; and the lank features and dishevelled locks of the old
women haunted us for many a day. From the bazar we were
escorted to the government house, in order to be received by the
Aliitesarrif ox chief civil official of the sanjak of Mush.
A wooden staircase, reeking with filth and scattered with the
debris of the tumble-down edifice, gave access to the first floor.
A vagrant, nondescript crowd thronged the stairs and landing,
from which a thick curtain, drawn aside, allowed us to pass into
an inner apartment. Seated on the divan before us were several
figures, to one of which — a fat old man with a fez and a shabby
European coat — we were introduced as being the Mutesarrif.
His coarse features, abnormally large ears, and the heavy lobes
of the wrinkled under-lids of his dull eyes, prepossessed us against
him at first sight. His stomach had become distended with
continual sitting, and the scanty hair upon his head was quite
white. A smart young man, wearing a fez, was seated upon his
left hand, and a mollah with a white turban and dark robes upon
his right. The first was his secretary ; and the second — a thin-
featured, little man, who never moved a muscle during the whole
interview — was no less a dignitary than the Mufti of Mush. On
either side of this central group were serried the other notables,
members of the Mejlis.
Even the Mutesarrif himself appeared afraid to utter a word.
No topic of conversation would unloose their tongues. Why had
we come? What untowardness would result from our visit? —
that was the question buried in those gloomy souls. I elicited
the interesting fact that not one of them had ever heard of the
code of Napoleon. When I mildly remarked that it was said to
be the civil law of Turkey, the Mutesarrif broke in with the
observation that he now remembered to have been told that there
was such a code.
Bystanders eyed us curiously as we issued from this visit, and
From Bit lis to Mush — Mush 169
I quite expected to be escorted to the jail. We were agreeably
surprised to be conducted to the best house in the place — stand-
ing by itself in a sunny situation overlooking the valley on the
east. I expressed a desire to go to the bath. The answer was
that in a couple of hours it would be at our disposal. When we
arrived, there was not a single soul within the building except
a couple of attendants. Incense had been burnt in the really
spacious and comfortable chambers, which were newly swept and
fragrant and clean. We were ministered to by an Armenian boy
of unusual comeliness — the curves about his sash made it difficult
to distinguish him from a girl. When we stepped forth into the
night we were awaited by a muffled policeman, who took us home
and joined in the circle of our visitors until we retired to rest.
The chief commissary of police with the new coat and the
brass buttons — office and uniform modelled on a Russian
pattern — had a busy time during our stay. Happily he was by
nature an agreeable man ; but he was fresh from Constantinople.
His poor brain had been crammed with all those irksome regulations
which have been spread over the Russian Empire and a great
part of Europe, presumably from a Prussian source. An English-
man, it is true, should perhaps endure them with complacency ;
for does he not owe his wealth and his colonies to the prevalence
of this cancer among his neighbours, and to his own complete
freedom from the disease ? Passports were examined at Mush
for the first time since our arrival in Turkey — a country in which
the traditionally liberal treatment of travellers is gradually giving
place to measures of exclusion. My letters of introduction were
read with mingled feelings — disappointment that they rendered
necessary very special and delicate treatment, and relief that they
clearly placed the responsibility for our visit upon officials in a
high place.
We were rarely left alone — not even in our own apartment ;
for we slept and ate in the principal room of the residence allotted
us, from which it was impossible to exclude the master of the
house and his companions ; and the presence of a single visitor
was always accompanied by the entrance of the commissary or his
adjutant. One of the two was never absent from our side. The
anxiety of such a novel charge sat heavily upon both of them ;
both looked quite worn out by the time we were ready to depart.
Early on the morning following our arrival we were quite
ready to sally forth ; but the lesser official was already astir, and
I/O
Armenia
besought us to postpone our walk until he should have apprised
his chief. The commissary was not long in coming, his toilette
half completed ; and no sooner had he saluted us than his sleepy
eyes fell on the camera case, and he enquired what it might
contain. A camera ! had we received an u-adeJi from the Sultan
to take photographs of what we saw ? All photography was for-
bidden unless such a permit were forthcoming. So we abandoned
the camera with good grace.
Well, whither shall we direct our steps ? Let it be to the
Rushdiyeh — the Turkish official school. We are informed that
the building is under repair. It is actually in a ruinous condition,
and no such institution really exists. Then to the remains of the
old castle. — There is no such thing as an old castle. — Well, to
the site upon which it stood. The climb through the town is
really quite worth while. The view from the summit of the hill
is extremely pleasing — the bold walls of the valley expanding to
the level plain, the mountainous background soaring upwards and
white with snow, and in the folds of this expanse the little hill of
Mush — a mere button upon which you stand. The neck which
connects this eminence with the arm of the main valley is dotted
over with the headstones of deserted graveyards, seeming from a
distance like bleaching bones. You look down into the glen
between the two elevations through which trickles the Garni Chai.
In its lap lies a white edifice which is indicated as the barrack,
and towards its head you admire the form of a second minaret,
resembling its companion in the bazar. The summit of the hill is
flat ; and, although the houses rise up to the margin, the platform
itself is still bare. The debris of the old castle are strewn upon
the grass, but not one stone remains upon another. Most have
been taken away as building material.
Let us proceed to the school of the Armenian Catholics. — Yes,
certainly, if such be our desire. — We wind down the town towards
the valley on the east, and arrive before the enclosure of a newly-
erected church. That is the Catholic Church ; — but where is the
school? It is situated just opposite; — oh! but it is closed. — •
Certainly, the school is closed. — The church at least is open ; let
us pass in. — Certainly, and we enter the building. The first to
enter is the commissary, followed by four policemen in military
dress. The bleak walls of the brand-new edifice echo the clank of
their boots. A single figure is present — the black-robed figure of
a priest ; and it crouches on the high altar, visibly trembling, such
From Bit lis to Mush — Miish 171
as we may imagine some male Hypatia of olden times. While I
greet the priest from the doorway, a soldier walks across, and
dares the wretched creature to address a word to us. On our
part there is nothing to be done but to keep our tempers.
A very interesting church ! — Now let us visit the remaining
churches. That building close by is the principal church of the
Gregorian Armenians ; it is withal a very poor place. The door
is open ; we have been expected ; not a soul is present. Pursuing
our way, we meet an Armenian priest — a young, broad-shouldered,
open-faced man. He seems inclined to speak, so we ask him
how many churches there may be in Mush. He answers, seven ;
but the commissary had said four. A soldier addresses him in
Kurdish ; the poor fellow turns pale, and remarks that he was
mistaken in saying seven ; there cannot be more than four. I
turn to the commissary and ask him to take us to the teacher in
the school of the United Armenians — a philanthropic institution
with some schools in the provinces and headquarters in the capital.
The reply comes that he is absent from town. The school is
enjoying a holiday. There can be no doubt that they have all
received orders to close their schools ; but it is not probable that
many schools remain in such a place. The Protestants have
closed theirs.
Such are a few of our experiences during our short sojourn at
Mush. We were not merely shadowed by the police, but prevented
from enjoying any of the profit and pleasure which a traveller
seeks in return for all his trouble and expense. To protest to the
Mutesarrif would have been worse than useless ; and the policy of
the British Foreign Office is so weak in these countries that we
lose the advantages of our Consular system. When I called upon
the chief official to take farewell, I congratulated him upon the
possession of such an energetic commissary, and begged that he
would recommend him in the despatch which no doubt he was
preparing for a suitable reward. His efforts had, indeed, been
completely successful ; we had scarcely communicated with a
single soul in Mush. I thanked him for the politeness with which
our seclusion had been effected ; and the old man rose, and
accompanied me to the door. . . . W^hat iniquities had they been
committing and were desirous of screening ? Terror, the most
abject terror, was in the air. We drank it in from the very atmo-
sphere about us — a consuming passion, like that of jealousy — a
haunting, exhausting spectre, which sits like a blight upon life.
1/2 Armenia
Such a settled state of terror is one of the most awful of human
phenomena. The air holds ghosts, all joy is dead ; the sun is
black, the mouth parched, the mind rent and in tatters.
Mush is the most mis-governed town in the Ottoman Empire.
Ever since the inauguration of closer relations between Europe
and these countries, the testimony of the few Europeans who have
realised and noted such facts bears out this judgment almost to the
letter. It is less easy to assign any definite cause. The disease
has become chronic ; and its symptoms are so familiar that the
inhabitants have grown callous to their condition. It is only
Damadeans, and such imported members of the community, that
such deeply-rooted evils impress.
The Mussulman majority are probably almost all of Kurdish
origin ; and since the enrolment of the Hamidiyeh irregular cavalry
they openly profess the name of Kurd. The slopes of the hills
around Mush are covered with vineyards and gardens ; and in each
garden there is a small, two-storeyed house, resembling from a dis-
tance a scattering of bathing-machines. The Mussulmans retire
to these gardens during summer, and superintend their cultivation.
The whole winter through they sit idle in Mush. There they
consume a great quantity of tobacco ; and all this tobacco is con-
traband. It is their custom to buy their wives, the best-looking
and best-born women sometimes fetching not less than a hun-
dred pounds. All are obstinate in their belief that it was the
Prussians who enabled the Russians to conquer Turkey in the last
war. Their hope is that this assistance will not be forthcoming in
the future, and they are therefore confident of success in the con-
flict which they foresee. And they pit their Hamidiyeh against
the Cossacks.
The Armenian minority are artisans, smiths, makers of
everything that is manufactured in Mush. They are carpenters,
plasterers, builders. All the keepers of booths which we passed in
the bazar plainly belonged to this race, I am unable to supply
any reliable statistics for the town itself; but my impression
was that the population was certainly less than 20,000 souls. In
the cloister of Surb Karapet it was believed that Mush contained
nearly 7000 houses, of which 5000 were occupied by Mussulman
and 1 800 by Armenian families. Although this estimate is
certainly too high, it would appear that the population has been
increasing. In 1838 Consul Brant speaks of 700 Mussulman
families and 500 Armenian, which would give a total of not more
From Bit lis to Mitsh — iMusk 173
than some 6000 or 7000 souls/ Thirty years later, Consul
Taylor, who also visited the place, computed the inhabitants of
Mush and the vicinity, not including the plain, as numbering
I 3,000 souls, 6000 Armenians and the rest Mussulmans.- In the
plain of Mush the Armenians are in a large majority, the official
figures for the caza allowing them a total of 35,300, as against
21,250 Mussulmans. Some 2500 of their number are Catholics
and about 500 Protestants.^
The origin of the name of Mush is wrapped in obscurity.*
It formed the capital of the old Armenian province of Taron
under the rule of the princely family of the Mamikoneans.°
At the present day it contains two considerable mosques with
minarets, four churches of the Gregorian Armenians and one of
the Catholics. The Gregorian churches are named Surb Marineh,
Surb Kirakos, Surb Avetaranotz, and Surb Stephanos. None are
of any size or of much interest. There are three fine khans in the
neighbourhood of the bazar. Our host informed us that not less
than thirty-six Hamidiyeh regiments had been enrolled in the
sanjak ; but he added that none had yet been constituted in the
sanjaks of Bitlis, Sert and Genj. These four sanjaks compose
the vilayet of Bitlis. The first portion of his statement was
almost certainly false, even on a nominal basis.
1 Brant \n Journal R.G.S. 1840, vol. x. p. 351. Koch in the forties estimated the
population at 1000 Mohammedan and 415 Armenian families, or a total of about 8000
souls {Reise im pontischen Gebirge, etc., Weimar, 1846, p. 405).
2 Archives of the British Consulate at Erzerum.
^ For the Catholics of Mush and Mush plain, see Bore {Correspondance et Aldmoires,
Paris, 1840, vol. i. p. 398), and Smith and Dwight {Missionary Researches in Armenia,
London, 1834, p. 429). They have evidently increased in numbers since the time of
these writers.
* The subject is discussed by Ritter, Erdkiinde, vol. x. p. 816.
® Saint Martin, Meinoircs snr rAri/ic^nie, vol. i. p. 102.
CHAPTER VIII
FROM MUSH TO ERZERUM
In travelling from Mush to Erzerum, you cross, the block of the
Armenian highlands from their southern margin almost to their
northern verge. Should the season be that of summer, it is
possible to perform the passage on a course nearly as straight as
a bee-line. For the mountains which face the traveller from the
depressions of this region are, for the most part, but the sides of
a higher table surface over which he may ride for miles without
drawing rein. But this higher surface is much too elevated to
render the journey pleasant, or even safe, at the commencement
or during the progress of an Armenian winter. It is more
prudent to adhere to the great plains at a lower level, through
which the tributaries to the Murad wind their way ; and from
these to cross to the deeply-eroded bed of the Upper Araxes,
which affords a luxurious approach to the northern districts.
This route once adopted, two deviations are suggested which will
not lengthen the journey by many miles. The first is a visit to
the ancient cloister of Surb Karapet (John the Baptist), on the
northern border range of Mush plain ; the second, a short sojourn
in the ancient burgh of Hasan Kala, not far from Erzerum. The
northern capital will be reached by convenient stages in six
travelling days, the distance covered being about i6o miles.^
; total is distributed, acco
rding to my estimates, as follows : —
Mush-Surb Karapet
25 miles
Surb Karapet-Gumgum
28^ ,,
Gumgum-Khinis
24" „
Khinis-Kulli
23h »
Kulli-Mejitli
13
Mejitli-IJasan Kala
22i „
Hasan Kala-Erzcriini
23
Total . 159^ miles
From Altisk to Erzeruin 175
It was the 29th of November, just after half-past nine in the
morning, when our party of four Europeans and four Turkish
soldiers defiled into the plain from the hill of Mush. The
iron-grey colt was being led by one of our new companions, the
more docile that he anticipated release. Were we prisoners and
these our jailers ? I asked the question of the principal man,
who was a sergeant with the name of Mevlud Chaoush. A black
shawl, reaching to the shoulders, was wound about his head as a
protection from the weather. His irregular and forbidding features
never broke into a smile, nor did his lips move except to utter
a command. We passed several deserted burying fields, with
fallen headstones, and forded the Garni Chai, a mere torrent in a
wide bed. More than half-an-hour had passed before we doubled
the western promontory, and struck our true course across the
plain.
We skirted or could see several hamlets — dots in the expanse,
which had the appearance, usual in this country, of a sea. No
hedges or artificial boundaries parcel the ground ; no leafy trees
blend in the distance to a soft, grey mass. The harvest had been
gathered, and you could scarcely tell the difference between the
cultivated and the unreclaimed soil. Marshes, instead of a net-
work of irrigation channels, received the waters babbling down
from the southern range. After several halts, rendered necessary
by the freaks and misfortunes of the baggage horse, we reached
at half-past twelve the considerable Armenian village of Sheikh
Alan, near the ford of the Murad. About a mile beyond the
village we approached the margin of the noble river which we
had followed from Karakilisa to Tutakh.
It appeared to be flowing in two channels through a bed
having a width of 200 yards or more. After fording the first of
these branches, which was about 30 yards across,, we made our
way over a beach to the second branch. It was some 100 yards
in breadth, the water reaching to the horses' knees. When we
had gained the opposite bank, which was firm and well-defined,
we prepared to say good-bye to the Murad. What was our
surprise to meet a third and magnificent river, sweeping towards
us in an independent bed ! It was buffeting its high left bank,
at the extremity of a beautiful curve, and the flood was much too
deep to venture in. So we followed the current until the bluff
sent it swirling to the opposite margin, diffused over a wider space.
Even at this point the passage was not without risk ; but an
1 76 Armenia
experienced villager piloted us safely to the further side. From
bank to bank was a distance of about 80 yards, and the wavelets
wetted our horses' flanks. The confluence of the Kara Su, the
stream which collects the drainage of the plain of Mush, is
situated some little distance above the ford.^
Following with the eye the course of the river, we searched
in vain for a gap in the mountains among which it disappeared.
These describe a bold half-circle at the western extremity of the
plain, not many miles from where we stood. The heights on the
north join hands with the heights upon the south, and appear to
prevent all issue from the plain. From the ford we proceeded
in a north-westerly direction to the village of Ziaret. It is an
Armenian settlement with 150 tenements, and possesses a church
but no school. The kiaya'^- or head of the village, was quite a
civilised individual ; and such was his politeness that he sent his
own son with me, to wait on me during my sojourn at Surb
Karapet. He informed me — the usual story — that there had
been a teacher in the village, but that last year he had left
(euphemism), and his place had not since been filled.
After a stay in this settlement of an hour and three-quarters,
we continued our journey at a quarter before four. Our course
was about the same, and we reached the foot of the northern
barrier at half- past four o'clock. Although the level of the
ground had risen, the ascent to the monastery occupied over an
hour. It is situated among the uppermost recesses of the wall of
mountain, at an elevation of about 6400 feet, or of 2200 feet
above the trough of the plain. ^ We wound our way up a cleft in
the face of the rock, through a bush of low oak. The temperature
fell, and we became enveloped in banks of cloud. A drizzling
rain turned to snow before we reached the cloister, and next
morning the adjacent slopes were cloaked in white. The monks
informed us that it was the first fall of snow which they had
experienced during the course of this brilliant autumn.
1 I should like to refer my reader to Mr. Ainsworth's valuable book (Travels and
Researches in Asia Minor, etc., London, 1842, vol. ii. p. 383) for a description of the
twfo interesting old bridges which he found, one spanning the Murad, some distance east
of our ford, and the other a former bed of the Kara Su. See also Koch, Keise im
pontischen Gebirge, etc., Weimar, 1846, pp. 410, 411.
2 The head man in a Christian village is called kiaya, and in a Moslem village
mukhtar. He is responsible to Government. There is no official chief of agglomera-
tions of villages, like the Russian Pristav.
'■' The accepted average elevation of the plain of Mush appears to be 4200 feet.
The readings of my barometers agree fairly well with this figure.
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hic. 155. Church of Sure Karapet from South- West.
From Alusk to ErzcTuin 177
A walled enclosure, like that of a fortress, a massive door on
grating hinges — such is your first impression of this lonely fane
(Fig. 155). My illustration shows the long line of monastic
buildings on the south ; the gateway is on the west. You enter
a spacious court, and face a handsome belfry and porch, the
facade inlaid with slabs of white marble with bas-reliefs (Fig. i 56).
We were conducted to a long chamber, with walls of prodigious
thickness, recalling our Norman refectories. It was nearly six
o'clock ; the monks received us without surprise, and had probably
been forewarned by the Mutesarrif When I asked for a separate
room, it was pleaded that none was vacant ; and the preparations
of Mevlud to sleep by our side in the long chamber convinced me
that resistance would as yet be vain. With the best humour we
joined in a meal of extreme frugalit)', which was spread upon
trays and partaken of by all the monks. Of these there were six
in residence and six absent, one being confined in a Turkish
prison. Four deacons were also of the company ; but conversa-
tion was difficult in the presence of the silent Mevlud. Our hosts
were superior people, judged by the standards in this country ;
and after supper, over the glow of a number of braziers, we
were drawn together by common sympathies. In particular I
was attracted to a well-read monk of quiet demeanour, whose
personality and name I hesitate to disclose.
The morning broke serene and clear; a brilliant sun embraced
the landscape which from the terrace outside the walls, where is
situated a little cemetery, was outspread at our feet (Fig. 157).
The eye sank to the floor of the plain or was lifted to the
summits of the mountains, which were seen in all the variety of
their many forms and myriad facets above beds of vapour,
clinging captive to the middle slopes. This sea of clouds con-
cealed the river where it issues from the expanse to be buried
in the amphitheatre of heights. But my companion, the mild-
tempercd monk, told me they could sometimes hear from this
terrace the hissing of the waters as they enter the passage. They
call the place Gurgur, a name imitative of the sound which, when
the air is heavy with cloud towards the end of winter, is loud and
long-maintained. Then they say that spring is near at hand.
He added that the ruins of an Armenian fortress may still be seen
within the gorge. Its ancient name was Ha}'kaberd.
I must regret the loss of a great portion of my notes, made
during the course of this day. The monastery is one of the
VOL. II N
lyS Ar7nenia
■oldest in .Armenia, and was certainly founded by the Illuminator
himself. He came hither after his famous conversion of King
Tiridates, when many of the princes of the land had espoused his
religion and his sacred cause. But that cause and religion had
become divested of their peaceful character ; and it was rather
with torch and sword than with the lamp of the teacher and the
staff of the missionary that the Christian saint appeared on the
threshold of this beauteous plain. He had been apprised of the
existence of two heathen temples, standing on the spot where now
the cloister .stands. They were an object of especial reverence
by a colony of Hindu refugees, long since established under the
sceptre of the Armenian kings. They worshipped two idols,
which were made of brass, with colossal proportions, and were
known in the country under the names of Demeter and Kisane.
These interesting figures, with the ancient cult which they re-
presented, were doomed to destruction at the hands of the
Christians. The attendant priests raised the alarm among their
lay brethren, and St. Gregory and his friends were obliged to
reckon with a hostile force. But the Hindu warriors with their
Armenian allies were defeated in two battles, and their sanctuaries
were razed to the ground. A Christian church was erected upon
the site which they had occupied ; and the body of St. John the
Baptist, translated from Cassarca, took the place of Demeter and
Kisane, These events are related by the Syrian Zenobius, an
eye-witness and a lieutenant of the Saint. I had perused his
narrative overnight in the pages of Ritter, and I was anxious to
know whether it were known to my companion. I found him
conversant with every particular of the story, and he expressed
his conviction that these heathens were Hindus. He was equally
certain that the gypsies, who may still be met with in the country,
were descendants of this colony. He told me that their language
was known as Sanskrit among the Armenians.^ He led me
within the enclosure, and showed me a little chapel situated upon
the west of the church. In that chapel he assured me that St.
Gregory had said his first mass, and it stood on the site of the
temple of Kisane. That of Demeter had been, he said, the
larger of the two shrines."
' I have already mentioned the presence of gypsies in the caza of Garchigan. I did
not meet willi any during my first journey.
- See the account of Zenobius of Glak as given in the pages of Ritter [Erd/citiide,
vol. X. pp. 553 seg. and 703), and of Langiois {Collection des historiens dc PAniidnie,
From Mush to Erzcrum i 79
What portion, if any, of the present edifice is the work of
that remote age, I am unable to pronounce. My impression
is that earthquakes are held to have destroyed the original
structure. The two chapels on the east, with their polygonal
towers and conical roofs, are probably the earliest in date of the
existing buildings. I reproduce them on a larger scale, my
picture having been taken from the gallery of the monastic
buildings on the south (Fig. 158). The body of the church
immediately adjoins them ; it is spacious, but not remarkable
for architectural beaut}' or richness of ornament. It is in the
character of a large conventicle, and the roof is flat. Slabs,
inlaid in the floor, cover the graves of princes and warriors, of
whom we read in the pages of Armenian historians. The bloody
wars against the Sasanians are recalled by the tombs of Mushegh,
of Vahan the Wolf and of Sembat. The grave of Vahan is
denoted by a slab of black stone, before the entrance to the more
southerly of the two chapels. That of Sembat is said to be
situated near the threshold of the companion sanctuary, which
is dedicated to St. Stephen. Near the wall on the south repose
the remains of Vahan Kamsarakan.^ Slabs are wanting in the
case of the two graves last mentioned. Inscriptions are found, I
believe, on some. The porch and belfr}' on the west are of no
great antiquit}', as the reader can see for himself.
What with the Kurds and the suspicions of the Turkish
Government this once flourishing monastery has been stripped of
much of its glamour ; indeed the monks are little better than
prisoners of State. The new buildings on the west, erected by
Bishop Mampre, have never }-et been used. They were destined
to receive the printing press, and the relics of the library. But
the printing press — the wings of knowledge, said my companion
— was placed under the ban of Government as early as in 1874.
The library was pillaged by Kurds during the first half of the
Paris, 1S67, vol. i. pp. 344 scq.). Zenobius is reputed to have been the first bishop of
this monastery.
I must add that the work purporting to have been written by Zenobius and called
History of Taron, from which Ritter quotes and which is translated in Langlois — and
which the monks of Surb Karapet prize so highly — is regarded by modern scholars as a
collection of legends made in the eighth or ninth centuries, and valueless as a historical
document (see Gelzer, Die Anfiinge der an/ic/iischen Kirche, in ]\'rha)idlniigeii der koiiig.
Sachs. Gesellschaft der Wiss. zti Leipzig, phil.-hist. Klasse, 1895, P- 123). A much
more trustworthy account of the doings of St. Gregory in this neighbourhood is that given
in the Agathangelus treatise. I have summarised it in Vol. I. Ch. XVI. pp. 295, 296.
1 For some account of the doings of all these worthies see the history of John
Mamikonean (translated in Langlois, op. cit. vol. i. pp. 361 scq.').
i8o Arnienia
present century, and its contents burnt or littered about the
courts. Nor is it possible for the community to pursue their
studies, since any book which deals with the history of their
nation is confiscated by the authorities. I think I have alread}'
mentioned that the same officials seize and burn our Milton and
our Shakespeare. And yet the ambassadors of Europe dally on
the Bosphorus, powerless to redress these wrongs and avenge these
insults. It is because in Russia they practise similar iniquities,
and because Europe stoops to sit at Russia's feet. Upon such
matters we conversed when the air was a little clearer, after a
fierce encounter between Mevlud and myself. That sinister
personage had presumed to accompany me to my host's room ;
but I peremptorily ordered him out. 1 told him that if he
ventured to invade the privacy of a priest's apartment I would
undertake to have both the Mutesarrif and himself dismissed.
We left the cloister — which is generall\' known under the
name of Changalli, from its bells, heard in the plains from afar ^ —
on the morning of the first day of December, a little before noon.
Snow lay thickly upon the ground ; but the thermometer at
eleven o'clock stood at four degrees (Fahrenheit) above freezing
point. The atmosphere was free of vapour, and a kind sun
shone. We made our way to the heights behind the monastery,
and kept zigzagging up and along them for over two hours.
When the process had been completed after a tedious ride to the
pass, during which the horses would often flounder in the snow,
we had not ascended to a difference of level of more than 1500
feet, nor had we progressed more than 3^ miles. The better
course, I feel sure, would have been to proceed in an easterly
direction along the level terrace or open valley in which the
cloister stands, leaving the neighbouring hamlet of Pazu just on
our right hand. We could then have climbed the parapet which
shelters these lofty uplands ; or we might have scaled it in the
immediate vicinity of Changalli. The black chaoush and his three
myrmidons were indifferent guides."
Because the pass is no pass in the ordinary sense ; it is merely
' The older names are Glak Vank (fiom its first abbot), and Innaknean A'ank
(nine sources).
^ The moment that I placed my route on my map, I discovered that not the chaoush
but my compass had misled me. The direction, as plotted, was quite wrong, as also
were the shoots to known landmarks. Happily I was able to fix the position of
Dodan with some confidence during my second journey ; and the route has been
adjusted accordingly. It is evident that the rocks of the plateau behind Surb Karapet
must be heavily charged with magnetite.
Fig. 158. The Two Chapels at Surb Karapet
From Mttsli to Erzcrum i8i
the edge of a tableland. Mile after mile towards the north
stretched the undulating snow-field, swept by the winds, pierced
by spinous blades of grass. We stood at an elevation of nearly
Sooo feet. Below us, infinitely deep, lay the magnificent plain
of Mush, bounded on the further side by the barrier of the
Kurdish mountains, crossing the landscape from the invisible waters
of Lake Van. In one continuous wall they swept across the
horizon, serrated, sharply chiselled above the deep valleys opening
transverse to the line of the wall. Taurus they call the range,
adopting a nomenclature which the West must have borrowed
from the East. Taurus was very high where the Murad dives
into the mountains ; nor did the peaks appear less lofty on its
right bank. We saw them circling towards the river from behind
the plateau upon which we stood ; but I was unable to trace the
origin of this northern chain. It formed a marked exception to
the outlines north of Taurus, which were vaulted or horizontal.
Nimrud was seen to join the two contrasting landscapes, placed
across the head of the plain. The neighbouring Kerklir looked
more rounded than when we had first observed it, while, north of
the Nimrud caldron, the swelling contours of the Sipan fabric
were doubly soft in a robe of recent snow.
This was our last complete prospect over that great depression
which is know'n as the plain of Mush.^ We proceeded at half-
past two, and rode at a trot over the plateau, first on a northerly
and then on a north-easterly course. The rock appeared to be of
an eruptive volcanic description. By half-past four we arrived
upon the opposite margin, where the ground abruptly sank to a
wide trough of broken country, with a small plain, level as water,
at its western end. We ascertained that this fresh depression had
an elevation of about 5000 feet, or a difference in height of 3000
feet from the pass at which we measured that of the plateau.
On the further side rose a cliff of such gigantic proportions that,
when we reached the middle slopes of the descent into the hollow,
it reminded me of the landscape in the narrows of the Araxes,
with those cliffs raised to double their size. From a distance we
had wondered at the strange appearance of this flat-edged mass,
which seemed to embrace us in a wide segment with precipitous
sides. A nearer view disclosed the direction it was pursuing, and
1 From Norshen in the east to the passage out of the Murad at Giirgur is a distance
of about forty-five miles. Brant, adopting different results, and possibly different measure-
ments, ascribes to the plain of Mush a length of " nearly forty miles" [J.R.G.S. 1S40,
vol. X. p. 352).
1 82 Ar})wnia
enabled us to trace, although in a most imperfect manner, its
connection with the orography of the eastern districts. That
direction was approximately latitudinal, but inclined a little
towards the south. The further east the mass proceeded, the
more it lost its cliff-like character, the nearer it approached to
the characteristics of a mountain range. In this form it was
protracted to dimly visible limits, joining the distant outlines
of Sipan.
I had read many accounts of the famous Bingol Dagh, the
parent mountain of the Araxes and of the principal tributaries of
the Euphrates, and, in some sense, the roof of Western Asia.
None had prepared me for the vision before our eyes. The actual
walls of the crater were not, I imagine, visible ; but those cliffs
had no doubt been covered by deep beds of lava which had added
to their height. The greatest eminence on the extinct volcano is
that of Demir-Kala, which must be situated not far from the edge
of the cliff It has an elevation of 10,770 feet.^ But the
mountain proper is but a wart on the face of the lofty tableland
from which it rises, and which it has contributed to shape. I
tried to examine the relation of this tableland to the plateau
which we had crossed, but was prevented by the lie of the land
upon the west.
While descending into the plain, we passed through a Kurdish
village of some size, called Randuli. We now opened out the
whole extent of the even surface — a floor at the foot of towering
cliffs. The plain may have a length, from west to east, of about
three miles and a breadth of two miles or less. Water serpents
through it in all directions, to collect in a little river which our
people knew under the name of Dodan Chai, but which is
apparently more generall}' known as the Bingol Su.- Four
villages of some importance are situated in the plain — Baskan,
Gundemir, Diyadin and Dodan. The last-mentioned is placed at
its eastern extremity and close to the river which bears its name.
All four are inhabited by Armenians. Having gained the level,
we forded the stream above the village, and at six o'clock rode
through Dodan. Night was falling ; we followed a track which
had been made by the bullock-carts, at some little distance from
the left bank of the river. We were skirting on an easterly course
' This altitude was ascertained, and tlie natural features, described with so much hesi-
tation in the present chapter, were elucidated during the second journey (see Ch. XXI.).
- Brant, op. cit. pp. 347 scij.
From Miish to Erzcriun i8
o
the base of the northern heights, along the trough of irregular
surface which we had overlooked. The soil was deep and black,
covered in places by a crop of stones. It seemed as if the valley
were choked by the shapes of hills. We were over two hours in
reaching Gumgum.
The village or little town — for it is the ca[)ital of a caza, the
caza of Varto, belonging to the sanjak of Mush — is situated in
the long valley of which I have been speaking, between the
Bingol and the block of mountain on the north of Mush. A
small river flows below it at some little distance, which joins the
Bingol Su some two or three miles south of the town. The
united waters issue into the Murad or Eastern Euphrates about
eight miles south-east of Gumgum. The direct road to Mush
is taken along the Murad, which, after the confluence, finds a
passage through the hills. It reaches the plain at the village of
Sikava.
We were received by the Kaimakam, who lodged us in his
room of audience, a chamber of which the stone walls were daubed
with whitewash, while the massive logs of the ceiling were left
bare. A single window, with panes of greased paper, difiused a
dim light by day. A little lamp revealed the burly figure of our
host, seated on the divan. Beside him, but in shadow, we might
just discern a face and features which were recognised as familiar
to us. We identified this pleasant countenance and chiselled
lineaments with those of the silent chess-player at Mush. It was
in fact the Hakim Effendi, learned in the law ; though for what
purpose he had travelled to these unruly wilds we were unable to
ascertain. He had brought his law books with him in a kluirjiii,
or little saddle-bag, which was placed by his side on the couch.
So he travels from place to place, the name and shadow of a
dispensation which he has not the power to enforce. Even under
the eyes of the Kaimakam cases of theft, and even of robbery, are
of daily occurrence and go for the most part unredressed. Enter-
ing the stable allotted to our horses, I was m.et by an Armenian
woman, a poor old hag with bare feet and in rags. She moaned
and wrung her hands, explaining, in answer to my enquiry, that
her cows had been displaced to make room for us. She would
never see them again — and, in fact, next morning I was grieved
to learn that two had been stolen.
The town occupies a fairly high site in the valley, having an
elevation of about 4800 feet. A few houses, in the more proper
184 Armenia
sense of the word, serve to magnify the appearance of the place.
But the tenements are for the most part the usual ant-hill
burrows ; and I do not think that in all there can be more than
eighty dwellings, of which ten may be inhabited by Armenians.
The Kurds have a large preponderance in the caza ; they are, for
the most part, of the Jibranli tribe. This tribe furnishes three
regiments of Hamidiyeh cavalry, recruited in Varto. The tribes-
men spend the summer on the pastures of the Bingbl Dagh, and
the winter in villages of their own in the plains. They travel as
far as Diarbekr, and even Aleppo, taking their vast flocks to those
markets. Or they sell the sheep to middlemen who travel from
all parts of Turkey, and establish their headquarters in Khinis.
During the night it froze hard ; but on the following morning
the air was warmed by a brilliant sun, shining in a clear sky.
The thermometer stood at 2)7' before we again set out. Leaving
at a little after eleven, we proceeded on an easterly course,
towards the heights which rise behind Gumgum. I was unable to
ascertain the exact connection of these hills with the block of the
Bingol ; but, whereas we could still perceive that distant outline in
the west, it was lost to view as it came towards us, stretching
east. The northern barrier was now composed by the hill range
already mentioned, which, at this point, appeared to be inclined
towards south-east. After crossing a considerable stream, flowing
down to the trough of the valley, we commenced at twelve o'clock
the ascent of these hills.
Looking backward, one was impressed by the uneven char-
acter of the ground from which we rose. The valley is choked
with hills, especially on the south-east, and it may have a width
of about eight miles. The soil is covered with tufted grass, which
must afford fine pasture in spring and early summer. The
southern border consists of the mass of mountain which we had
crossed from Changalli ; but it had sensibly declined and w^as still
declining in height. Beyond its sheet of snow the peaks of
Taurus commenced to be visible ; and when we reached the pass,
before one o'clock, we could see the broad ribbon of the Murad
lying in the plain of Mush. The river had passed the gap in the
barrier on the north of that plain, which, it was evident, becomes
much lower at the point where the passage is effected, the outlines
sinking towards either bank.
We were standing in snow, at an elevation of 6600 feet. On
our left front rose the cliffs of the Bingol plateau, that mighty
From Mush to Erzeriun 185
presence which for awhile had been concealed. They were still
stretching from west to east, but were seen to turn towards
north-east, in the direction of where we knew Khinis to lie. The
eye pursued their long perspective into the distance, where, at a
point about north-north-east, they broke away into a range of
mountains, the range which bounds the plain of Khinis on the
north. I was still unable to define the relation of the heights
upon which we were placed to the mass from which they appeared
to come ; but they must contribute to compose the long line of
heights which we had seen extending from the Bingol towards
Sipan.
How great a part has been performed by the action of water
in shaping the relief of this land may be realised by the frequent
occurrence of perfectly flat depressions between the masses of
higher ground. Thousands of feet below those levels lie these
sheltered spaces, rendered fertile by winding streams. Such was
the nature of the little plain to which we descended, appearing
land-locked on every side. It is known as the Bashkent ova,
or plain of Bashkent, from a Kurdish hamlet through which we
presently passed.^ Jt is situated at the comparatively lofty
level of about 6000 feet. On the east it is enclosed by that
irregular lump of mountain which we had first seen on the
furthest horizon from before Tutakh. Khamur it is called. The
ridge was some miles distant ; but its outworks, a succession of
sand-like convexities, rose from the margin of the plain. The
western limit were the cliffs of Bingol, frowning above the ova,
and sending out a spur towards the Khamur on its northern
verge. Towards that spur we made our way across the plain,
on a north-easterly course. The flat surface has a length of
about 3^ miles, and is covered with marshes or rank weeds.
Besides Bashkent we could only see a single other hamlet, said
to be inhabited by Kizilbash Kurds. We reached the summit of
the rounded and opposite heights at half-past two o'clock. They
may be described as flanking outworks of the Bingol plateau,
and they have an elevation of about 6550 feet. A little later,
while still following along the side of these slopes, we came to a
halt and partook of a scanty meal.
At a quarter-past three we were again in the saddle. Our
course remained easterly, at about the same level ; and at half-past
1 But I must reconl the fact that the people of Bashkent, wlien asked the name of
their plain, replied, Khinis oz'a.
1 86 Armenia
three we were on the top of one of those bulging spurs which
project from the side of the cHffs. The horizontal edge of the
lofty tableland was now just above us ; and, inasmuch as we
were now able to pursue a north -north -easterly direction, it is
evident that the mass must recede towards the north. Indeed
it is probable that it describes a curve, concave to the plain of
Khinis ; we seemed to get behind the cliffs. On our right hand
we were followed by the deformed shape of Khamur, now many
miles away. The horizon was fretted b\' the long outline of the
Akh Dagh — a fine, bold range with connections circling towards
Khamur.
In a short time this mountain landscape was seen in fuller
significance ; a vast expanse of level depression was opened out.
The black chaoush and his three myrmidons had taken their
departure at Gumgum ; and I was able to unpack the camera.
I directed the lens to north-east, towards the plain and the
distant Akh Dagh (Fig. 159); and next to south-east, upon the
Khamur.^ We reached the level at about five o'clock, after
crossing a spur of the plateau, strewn with volcanic stones.
Khinis was seen, a speck in the lap of the- plain, towards which
we rode at a rapid trot. At a quarter to six we arrived upon
the deeply-eroded banks of the river of Khinis, which we forded
and entered the town.
By directions of the Kaimakam we were lodged in his own
office ; he made his appearance early on the following day. A
burly old man, with a head of great size and a massive fore-
head, with huge dimensions below the waist. This habit of body,
which seemed to aggravate an advanced asthmatic affection, was
due to continued sitting rather than to intemperance of diet.
Our conversation was soon directed to the condition of the
country — a subject upon which he held strong views. The
people of his caza were, he said, almost without exception, liars,
rogues and thieves. The Government did what it could ; but
the officials were not competent, being ignorant men like his
humble self Schools ? There was supposed to be a Rushdi}'eh in
Khinis, but it was a Rushdiyeh only in name. As for the Kurds,
they were the plague of his existence ; you reaped them where
you had not sown. Five houses - here, there fifty people — im-
possible to count or to bring to count. If you wished to get
1 I have not reproduced my photograph of Kliamur, for a view of whicli I may refer
my reader to Ch. XII. Fig. 177, p. 252.
Front Mitsh to Erzcrtnn 187
anything out of them, }'ou must borrow a stick from a bear-
tamer and beat them about the head.
He proceeded to inform me that the town was the principal
centre of the trade in sheep, fattened upon the pastures of the
Bingol Dagh. ^Merchants come from the great cities, notably
from Damascus, and make their arrangements in Erzerum.
They bring their own shepherds, whom they send to Khinis
when their agents there have concluded the purchase and received
the flocks. It is at about the present season — that of early
winter^that the trade is at its height. The sheep are driven
across the mountains to Diarbekr, whence they are despatched
through the plains to the Syrian centre. My host added that
it was no very easy matter to get them safely through the snow
to the head of the Mesopotamian plains. To me it seems a most
remarkable feat.
I asked the Kaimakam whether he could tell me the number
of the inhabitants ; and, forthwith, he most kindly consulted his
registers. According to his figures there are 387 houses in
Khinis, besides numerous shops. Of the dwellings 250 are
inhabited by Mohammedans and 137 by Armenians. The
former are censused at 1350 and the latter at 586. But there
is a large discrepancy between males and females in the case of
both denominations in favour of the males. He was of opinion
that the figures for the Armenians were too low ; they evade the
census in order to avoid the militar}- tax. Small and large, he
put the total of villages in his caza at 287. It forms part of the
vilayet of Erzerum, and its borders march with those of the caza
of Erzerum.^
He knew of no Yezidis within the limits of his district ; but
g}'psies wander through it in summer. Of Kizilbash Kurds he
believ'ed there to be about fifteen villages. The principal tribes
in the neighbourhood are the Haideranli and Zirkanli, besides
about eight villages of Jibranli Kurds. Four battalions of
Hamidiyeh are said to be enrolled in the caza.
I am sensible of the defective standpoint of my photograph
of Khinis, taken, to avoid suspicions, before entering the town.^
But it clearly shows the mingling rivers, with their cavernous beds,
sunk into the volcanic soil. It shows the castle — of which the
1 In Consul Brant's time (1838) Khinis belonged to the pashalik of Mush, and was
supposed to contain no more than 130 houses. It is described as "a most wretched
town" [op. cit. p. 345).
- I have decided, after all, not to reproduce this photograph.
1 88 Armenia
ruins display a face of hewn stone upon a structure of agglomerate
rubble — and, in the background, behind the picturesque disorder
of the clambering township, the distant terrace of the Bingdl
plateau. At eleven o'clock on the 3rd of December we were
winding our way in the shadowed gorges, about to issue upon the
plain on the north.
The day was fine, with a warm sun and a blue sky ; the air
was fresh and strong. Before us, and on every side, stretched the
undulating surface, of rich and friable brown loam. It is subjected
to primitive methods of cultivation ; but at this season it was
difficult to trace the hand of man. We saw no villages ; what
there are must be hidden in laps of the ground ; and Nature, a
kind and bountiful Nature, is allowed to revolve her seasons
almost in vain. Bright streams come bubbling down from the
distant framework of mountains, and wind on a south-easterly
course to the far Murad. We passed no less than three of these
tributaries to the river of Khinis. The first was flowing between
high banks of volcanic rock, and sheltered a beautiful church in
the old Armenian style, called Kilisa Deresi, or the church in
the valley. Around this monument were grouped the tall head-
stones of a disused cemetery, some engraved with the elaborate
crosses which were so dear to the ancestors of the unhappy people,
now the bondsmen of parasite Kurds. Even as we stood in
admiration of this charming building, an active Kurd in a showy
dress stepped into the path. He vaulted upon the back of a
graceful chestnut Arab, which was being led to and fro. We saw
him cantering off to the neighbouring Armenian village, and we
wondered upon what errand he was bent. At a quarter-past one
we commenced to ascend to a passage of the hills which confine
the plain upon the north.
In the space of half-an-hour we had reached an elevation of over
6000 feet. We stopped for some little time to fully realise the
scene which we were now about to leave behind. The terraces of
the Bingol plateau had been following our steps at some distance
on our left hand. We had come in a northerly direction from
Khinis ; and the heights we were preparing to cross were an
immediate spur from that table surface, linking it to the long range
on the north of the plain. Both that spur, or connecting ridge,
and the range which it joined, tended to incline south-west from a
latitudinal course. The plateau itself was now close up ; indeed
it rose immediately above us, on the west of our winding track.
From Mush to Erzerum
189
It is therefore plain that it must have pursued a north-north-
easterly direction, since it had formed a distant background to the
town. I turned the camera upon the flanking ridge (Fig. 160),
and then mounted to an adjacent eminence, almost on a level
with the surface of the plateau. My illustration shows a formation
characteristic of the edge of the terraces, great blocks of stone
welded together as if
by a human hand.
The surface is flat and
is covered with rough
grass, of which the
higher stalks pierced
the covering of recent
snow.
So little interest
is taken b}' the people
in their surroundings
that even the Kaima-
kam was unable to
tell me the name of
this adjacent range,
which forms a loft\'
barrier to the plain.
He was of opinion
that it was called the
Akh Dagh (white
mountain) or Tekman
Dagh ; to some it
was known as the Kozli Dagh. I prefer to retain the name
which I heard the most often, that of Akh Dagh. East of these
linking hills it assumes lofty proportions ; but it appears to die
away in the remote south-east.
In the south, far away, rose the mass of Khamur, with hill
ranges circling round the plain. Above those humble outlines
was revealed the whole fabric of Sipan, some sevent}' miles distant
from where we stood. Such is the extension of these vast depres-
sions ; you cannot define their limit ; they render easy the traffic
of peace or the passage of war. And we may reconstruct in fancy
the remote period, when many of these bold landmarks were
wreathed in smoke and reflected fires, and thundered with the
energy of the Globe.
Fig. 160. Terrace of Lava resembling
Human Fortifications.
190 Armenia
Proceeding at two o'clock, we reached the pass in twenty
minutes ; it is just under 7000 feet. We were now in the basin
of the Upper Araxes, approaching the districts on the north.
The passage into a new sphere could scarcely have been accentu-
ated with more emphasis than on this day. We dived into a
dense fog ; the cold was intense ; and, whereas not a single flake
had hitherto lain on the track, it was now all strewn with snow.
Nor was the change of a merely local application ; it was the
commencement of a new order of things.
We rode on a northerly course through beds of vapour over
lofty uplands at an elevation of more than 6000 feet. The track
had been worn by traffic, tracing upon the snow-fields winding
furrows of rich brown soil. A Kurdish village was passed, where
our zaptiehs changed with others ; and, a little later, we overlooked
a considerable depression of the surface — the wide valley of a
river it appeared to be. It was clothed with snow and wreathed
with mist. We descended into this valley, said to belong to the
district of Tekman, and crossed the river, called the Bingol or
Pasin Su. It was flowing due north, and had a breadth of about
I 5 yards. On the opposite margin of the depression is placed
the Kurdish village of KuUi, where we arrived at a quarter-past
four. It is situated at a level of about 6000 feet ; and, whereas
at Khinis (5540 feet) we had enjoyed a temperature of 32° at
10 P.M., the thermometer now registered at 7 P.jM. no less than
7^ of frost (Fahrenheit).
The settlement consists of about fifty tenements, of which
six or seven belong to the Zirkanli tribe and the remainder to
sedentary Kurds.^ These latter are liable to service in the regular
army. A single house is conspicuous among the huts of mud
and stone ; it is used as a receptacle for travellers. We found it
in the occupation of a detachment of Turkish soldiers, on their
way from Melazkert to Erzinjan. Horses and men alike were
quartered in the building ; but, after some parley, room was found
' It is interesting to compare Brant's account of Kulli in 183S. Mis words are : —
" It formerly contained a great many Armenian families. I was told that 200 emigrated
to Georgia, and only about 15 Mohammedan families now reside among extensive ruins"
{op. cit. p. 344). In 1893 the transformation has been completed, and Kulli has become
a Kurdish village. The successive steps of the process, which is of general application,
may be defined as follows :
1. Emigration or disappearance of Armenians (friends of Turkey make excuses).
2. Lapse into barbarism : enrolment of Hamidiyeh (friends of Turkey exult).
3. Standing nuisance at the doors of Russia (a heavy calm).
4. Russian conquest (Turkey disappears, her friends having preceded her).
I %J,.
4^^
^^^^> ■ :;:^
o
H
From Jllusk to Erzcrum ' 191
for us. We joined in the circle of officers collected round the open
fireplace, in which cakes of tezck glowed. Among other things I
learnt that four regiments of Hamidiyeh are enrolled in the caza of
Melazkert. They are furnished by the Hasananli tribe.
Next morning before eight we continued our journey, the
temperature registering 14' of frost. Mist still hung over the
valley ; but we soon were raised above it, again ascending to the
table surface which borders the depression on either side. Full
sunlight streamed upon the undulating snow-field, and was re-
flected in tin)' rays from a thousand little crystals, placed, like
diamonds, on the heads of encrusted flowers. It was, indeed,
over the face of an immense block of elevated country that our
course was directed for some little time. Here and there, especi-
ally in the north, it appeared to be broken by chains of mountain;
but the closer you approached such an apparent barrier, the more
it assumed the familiar features — the flat edges, and the fanciful
castles with their Cyclopean walls. At half-past nine we obtained
a view of the Bingol Dagh itself, in the furthest horizon of the
south (Fig. 161). We stood at a level of 7130 feet.
At ten o'clock we turned off eastwards to the bed of mist
suspended above the river, which lies in a deep trough. Following
for awhile along the sides of the lofty cliffs which confine it, we
admired the play of the vapours, wreathing like jets of steam.
From the edge of the cliffs on either bank, the table surface of
the higher levels was seen to stretch east and west, and back to
the peaks of the Akh Dagh — a sheet of snow, only broken by
the gorge. The Bingol Su was pursuing a north-north-easterly
direction, which became more northerly as we progressed. The
fog lifted and disappeared ; we descended into the bottom of the
gulf, which opened on either side the further we rode. At a
quarter to twelve we arrived in the Kurdish hamlet of Mejitli,
where we decided to make our mid-day halt. We had come a
distance of about i 3 miles from Kulli. The river, which had a
breadth of about 20 or 30 yards, was flowing some 50 feet below
the village, with a rapid current, flashing over the rocks. The
site of the village is a little plain on the left bank of the stream
having an elevation of about 5800 feet.
It has already been said that the valley of the Bingol Su, or
Upper Araxes, offers an easy approach to the districts on the
north. The river pierces a wintry region of the table surface, and
traffic is carried along its bed. But some 2\ miles below the
192 ' Armenia
village of Mejitli it enters a deep and impassable gorge. You
mount to the summit of the lofty precipices which overtower its
serpentine course. Again in the saddle at half-past one, we
reached this commanding eminence at a quarter-past two. Nor
did we descend afresh into the trough of the stream, which pro-
ceeded to thread a chaos of mountains in the east.
The view from any point was one of savage beauty (Fig. 162).
By slow degrees the flat surface of the elevated plateau was
becoming riven and broken up. You could still discern the level
Fig. 162. Looking down the Valley of the Upper Araxes
FROM BELOW MEJITLL
snow-fields, burying the stream in the south, and coming towards
you on either bank. But the cloak of winter had not yet hidden
the yellow grass on the adjacent slopes ; while in the east the
scene was changing to a wild landscape of hill and mountain,
upon which the snow had not yet effected a hold. A few miles
further these features inci"^eased in definition. The layers of lava
gave place to hard limestones, forming peaks which had weathered
a soft white. Masses of rock, of a hue which was green as the
rust of copper, or red like that of iron, were exposed on the sides
of the hills. From a foreground of tufted herbage, sown with
yellow immortelles, we looked across this troubled region in which
the river wound its wav — a ribbon of changing colours, skirting
o ,
u
From AIus/i to Erzeriun 193
the foot of sweeping hillsides or confined in narrow clefts of
stupendous depth. In the far east we caught a glimpse of the
snowy dome of the Kuseh Dagh, which overlooks the plain of
Alashkert.
At four o'clock the track diverged, and led us over the
undulating plateau which still continued, but with less regularity,
in the west. A short turn towards north-west brought us almost
to the threshold of the broad depression of Pasin. The ground
fell away by a succession of convexities to a level surface, deeply
seated at our feet (Fig. 163). But far in the north, on its
opposite margin, again appeared the cliffs of a plateau, exalted
thousands of feet above the plain. It represents the extreme
extension of the tablelands of Armenia, to be succeeded by the
peripheral ranges in the north. It w-as carried west and east,
across the horizon. In this neighbourhood it is known as
Kargabazar.
We descended into one of the long valleys by which the
heights we were leaving meet the plain. If Erzerum be the next
objective, you cross to its western side and proceed by way of
Ertev. Our own point was Hasan Kala, a more northerly course,
leading through the village of Ketivan. That considerable
Mohammedan settlement is situated at the end of the valley,
whence you issue upon the spacious expanse. We rode at a
rapid trot from this southern verge of the plain to the opposite
margin, upon which is placed the castle and town. It formed a
welcome landmark, which we reached in just an hour, arriving
beneath the dusk at half-past six.
The town, which has a population of several thousands, clusters
at the foot of a long ridge of volcanic rock which projects from
the towering background of mountain into the floor of the plain.
The southerly extremity of that precipitous ridge is crowned by
lines of battlements, a work ascribed to the Genoese.^ But the
present masters of the country have neglected the fortifications,
and have fallen back upon Erzerum. Pasin lies at the mercy of
their good neighbours, the Russians, who already hold its doors.
After fording the river of Upper Pasin, the Kala Su, as it is called
— -a sluggish stream, flowing in a divided channel — we passed
through a feudal gateway within a wall which was in ruins,
^ See Ritter [Erdkimde, vol. x. pp. 390 si-q.), and Brant (op. cit. p. 341). Hamilton
(Researches in Asia Minor, etc., London, 1842, vol. i. p. 185) throws doubt upon the
popular belief that this and similar castles were built by the Genoese ; but I know not
upon what foundation he may have based his scepticism.
VOL. II b
194 Armenia
and groped our way through irregular lanes heaped with filth.
Quarters were at last discovered in a new and well-kept coffee-
house— a room of some size, with a wooden stage or dais erected
around the bare walls. Upon this stage, behind the half-screen
of an open balustrade, a number of loungers in various dress, some
wearing the turban, others the fez, others again the Persian lamb-
skin cap,^ were gathered in groups, sipping coffee from delicious
little cups, and drawing the fragrant fumes of the Persian tobacco
from hubble-bubble or kaleon. In a further corner, away from
the light, one could not mistake some tall, lean figures, and
features of big birds of prey ; we were indeed in the presence of
some officers of Hamidiyeh, conspicuous by the brass ensigns on
their lambskin caps. They were spreading their coverlets for the
night, or were turned towards the wall, bowing the head and then
the body in prayer.
We slept in an inner room of this clean little tavern, and
resumed our journey at eleven o'clock on the following day. The
streets were alive with people, a motley band of human beings —
for Hasan Kala, with its warm baths and numerous khans and
shops, lies on the main road to Tabriz. It is lifted a little above
the face of the plain and has an elevation of about 5600 feet.
You look back upon its crumbling walls with a certain sympathy
for its fallen greatness, and wonder whether it will again rise, like
Kars, from its fallen station under a further advance of the
Russian Empire towards the Mediterranean. Behind this deserted
fortress — which, nevertheless, I was forbidden to photograph — we
admired the huge bulwark of the mountain barrier, mocking the
works of man. There was the same flat edge, which had so often
excited our wonder, to those formidable cliffs. East and west, in
a long and horizontal outline, they were drawn beyond the range
of sight. The corresponding features on the south of the plain
were less emphasised, the long valleys softening the abruptness of
the higher ground.
Pasin — the reader may remember — is one of the principal
links of the chain of depressions which connect the extremities of
western Asia, and facilitate intercourse between east and west.
From the narrows of Khorasan to the fantastic parapet of the Deveh
Boyun, it has a length of no less than forty-four miles. Our way
to Erzerum led us along this spacious avenue, and, after crossing
the humble barrier which I have just mentioned, debouched upon
^ Which, by the way, is, I believe, made in Eiitflaiidowi of cloth. Qiioiisqite tandem !
From Musk to Erzeriuu 195
the city on the opposite side. We were able to ride at leisure,
along a course direct as an arrow, free to observe the stream of
traffic on the highway.
An element of special interest were a number of bullock-carts,
laden pell-mell with heaps of Hamidiyeh uniforms, destined for the
rank and file. They slowly made their way towards Hasan Kala,
groaning and creaking as they went. Long strings of Bactrian
camels — huge, large-humped, shaggy animals — -defiled with a
lulling symmetry of movement and measured, noiseless tread.
By their side walked the drivers, Tartars with skins of parchment,
their features scarcely visible beneath their sheepskin caps. Of
wayfarers there were many, and of the most divergent types.
Some were mounted on little hacks, here and there a whole family
— turbaned Mussulmans, astride of their overhanging mattresses,
to which were attached a jangling cluster of cooking pots. A led
horse would be encumbered by a still more formless bundle, which,
as you approached, displayed a pair of human feet. Brawny
Armenian peasants, a scattering of thick-set Lazes, a Kurdish
horseman or two swelled the throng.
There are several large villages in the plain of Pasin ; but to
what race or mixture of races do the Mohammedan inhabitants
belong } I was impressed by the difference in the physiognomy
of these people, which was quite unlike the type prevailing among
settled Kurds. The question of the racial composition of the non-
Kurdish element, inhabiting the districts on the north, remains a
subject for further research. The Armenians are in a decided
minority in Pasin.^
A broad chaussee with flanking ditches is carried along the
plain, almost in a straight line. But many of the culverts have
fallen in, forcing vehicles off the road into the soft soil on either
side. Still our horses liked the change, wearied by their long
journey and much clambering over rocks. The ground was free
of snow, even on this fifth day of December, and the air was
comparatively mild.^ The further we proceeded, the more the
expanse narrowed and the perspective of the two long barriers
1 I will again cite Brant's account, written in 1S38 : — "The greater portion of the
Armenian peasantry emigrated into Georgia when the Russian army evacuated Turkey,
after the peace of Adrianople ; in consequence of which emigration, the population "of
the villages has been much diminished, and there is a great deal of ground uncultivated
for want of hands" {op. cit. p. 341).
- The season was, it is true, rather exceptional. But it is a noteworthy fact that all
these great plains — Mush, Khinis, Pasin — were without snow at this advanced date.
Already in March the snow begins to melt.
1 96 Armenia
closed. From afar we fixed our eyes on what appeared to be an
artificial earthwork, thrown across the narrow head of the plain.
At half-past one we were at the foot of this apparent fortification,
with broken ground on either hand. The muzzles of cannon were
turned towards us from the flat top of the colossal mound, and
from two hills which rose on the south of the road. Indeed we
seemed to face a completely impregnable position, impossible to
circumvent. And from a distance one would think that the
meeting walls of mountain were joined together by a transverse
dam.
Approaching closer, the road is seen to find a passage between
the hills on the south and the adjacent flat-topped mass. The
width of this passage may be about half-a-mile. Once within
the answering horns you cross a spacious amphitheatre, in which
the secret of the formation is revealed. The two hills belong to
the southern wall of mountain, but so also does the mound. And
a line of heights circle inwards from behind the two hills, to
protract the circle outwards to the horn of the mound. Hills and
mound are left behind before those heights are breasted ; or, to
continue the figure, you scale the tiers of the amphitheatre at the
point most remote from the narrow opening on its eastern side.
Such is the position which, due not to man, but to a freak of
Nature, arrests the flow of traffic or the tide of battle. The
linking heights — the opposite curve of the circle- — are widely
known through the literature of travel and of Asiatic warfare as
the Deveh Boyun, or the camel's neck. The humps and head
are represented, the first by the two hills, and the second by the
mound. The pass, to which the road climbs, is situated on the
neck of the camel ; but a second ridge must be surmounted,
which is a little higher, and has an elevation of about 6850 feet.
From the Deveh Boyun to Erzerum must be a distance of
several miles, since, although we rode at a rapid trot, we did not
reach the city in less than fifty minutes. Two facts, which were
unexpected, became clear as we proceeded. In the first place,
the position is by no means so strong as it might appear, even to
a near view, from the eastern side. There is at least one, and
there are probably more than one passage between the mound
and the northern wall of the plain. This circumstance, and the
peculiar character of the ground on the west of the barrier, which
is broken up into precipitous heights, are in favour of the attack,
in so far as they necessitate the employment of a considerable
Fro7n Ahish to Erzeruni 197
defensive force. The second surprise was perhaps more personal ;
I had formed the conception of a transverse parapet leading
immediately into the plain of Erzerum. But the parapet is
succeeded by the broken ground of which I have spoken, and of
which the heights are crowned with batteries. The road is taken
along the face and among the recesses of the southern barrier ;
and you are already above the picturesque site of the famous
fortress before you overlook the full expanse of the level land.
We arrived within the enclosure of the circumvallation at a few
minutes before three.'
1 Branl estimates the distance between Hasan Kala and Erzemm at only eighteen
miles {op. cit. p. 341). If he is speaking of the distance by road he makes, I think, a
considerable error. My own estimate is twenty-three miles.
CHAPTER IX
ERZERUM
We rode through empty spaces, Httered with ruin and refuse,
haunted by miserable and filthy dogs, to a street of some width,
bordered by substantial stone houses, down the incline of which
we checked the pace of our mounts. It leads to the north-
eastern quarter of the city — a quarter which is numerously in-
habited by Christians, and where are situated the Consulates of
the European Powers, notably those of Great Britain, France and
Russia. The British Consulate is housed in a small but comfort-
able residence at the northerly extremity of the street. There
we were received with emotion by the principal dragoman — an
Armenian with a handsome, frank and engaging face, whose curly
black hair had become tinged with grey. I had not seen the
excellent Yusuf for many a long year, not since the time when
he used to delight the fancy of childhood with dainty boxes, or
the figures of various animals, which he would fashion with
exquisite skill in a kind of silver wire — an art practised by the
silversmiths of the East. What tales he would tell us in England
of this distant Erzerum ! We used, as children, to try and realise
the features of the scenes of which he spoke — the great Mesopo-
tamian deserts, the encampments of the Arabs, the khans on the
roads to the highlands in which the traveller rested, the mountains
and the snow-clad plains. Alas ! for the powers of description ;
how different it all looked, when after many years these various
landscapes were successively unfolded before the eyes ! Yet they
spoke to the very soul of the child grown to manhood, perhaps
reviving hidden germs in the lengthy process of heredity, or
recalling those early efforts to make pictures of them, or appealing
in virtue of none of these causes, but by the magnetic power
inherent in themselves. And here at last was Erzerum, with
Erzerum 1 99
Yusuf standing before the door and running forward with open
arms ! My reader will, I feel, pardon this little personal digres-
sion, embodying, as it does, one of my most permanent memories
of the northern capital.
Another link of a not less personal nature must be mentioned
in order to explain the length of the sojourn which the present
writer made in Erzerum. It extended from the commencement
of the really cold weather to the approach of spring. Wesson and
Rudolph were committed to the kind offices of the Russian Consul,
M. Maximoff, who furnished them with the necessary facilities for
returning home through Russian territory by way of Sarikamish
and Batum. The Swiss had been experiencing the discomforts of
home-sickness ; and the resourceful Wesson, who would make a
most excellent campaigner, was obliged for private reasons to
abandon a nomad life and resume his habits as a Londoner. It
was my intention to work up my material in Erzerum, and to
devote a fortnight or more to this end. Our Consul, Mr. R. W.
Graves, most kindly placed two rooms at my disposal, and insisted
upon my being his guest. A friendship sprang up between us,
born of similar age and many common tastes ; and, speaking for
myself, I may say that our solitude a deux in this corner of Asia
formed one of the most agreeable experiences of my life. I do
not remember having spent a single dull hour. His conversation,
charm of manner and kindliness of disposition were a resource
which was never wanting to revive one's intelligence after long
hours devoted to writing and to books. I was so happy and he
so hospitable that the weeks had become months before all the
excuses which waved away the round of duties in England had
one by one become exhausted, and I tore myself from his side.
This lengthy stay, followed as it was by two subsequent visits,
has made me feel quite at home with the subject of this chapter.
And the fact that I have approached Erzerum from the three
directions in which it is most accessible, from the east, from the
west and from the south, enables me to speak, in so far as a
civilian traveller may judge such a question, of the strategical
importance of a city which is probably destined to play a leading
part in any future struggle between the Russian and the Ottoman
Empires. For an Englishman this side of the subject has a
special interest ; since the possession by Russia of this strong
place would mean her control of the head waters of the Euphrates,
which issues in the Persian Gulf. It is a maxim of peculiar
200 Ar7nenia
appropriateness to such a country as Asia that he who is master
of the sources of a river is master of the lands through which it
flows. On the other hand, such an event would closely affect all
Europe ; for there would then exist no important barrier between
the Asiatic provinces of Russia and the shores of the Bosphorus.
Indeed Erzerum resumes in herself the importance of Turkish
Armenia as a factor in the world movements of the near future.
Mistress of this spot of ground, Russia is mistress of these vast
provinces. It is plainly the duty of a writer who has enjoyed the
advantages which I have mentioned, not indeed to pander to the
feeling of blind animosity against Russia, but to place his readers
in possession of the essential facts, in the hope that at least they
may not be taken unawares by any advance of the northern empire
in this direction.
Our large map will, I hope, make clear and preclude the
necessity of minutely describing the topography of the site with
its surroundings far and near. What the basin of Lake Van
and the plain of Mush are to the southern districts of Turkish
Armenia, that are the plains of Pasin and Erzerum to those on
the north. They represent depressions of the surface of the table-
land and constitute arteries of communication between east and
west. The northerly is separated from the southern string of
depressions by a block of elevated plateau country, which is most
compact and continuous on a line between Mush and Erzerum,
and more broken into irregular lines of heights with intervening
plains between the northern shore of Lake Van and Pasin. An
invader coming from the east and desirous of forcing his way
westwards will find all his roads converging on either one or
other of the two strings of depressions. The block of lofty table-
land, seared by the action of ice and water, and covered for the
greater part of the year with snow, causes them to be deflected
as by an impassable obstacle, though it is in fact by no means
impervious to an army during summer, when the principal
difficulty would be the absence of supplies. The geographical
position of Russia is decisively in favour of an advance by
the most northerly of the two main avenues. She might
detach a column to move upon BitHs ; but the objective of this
force would be the lowlands of Mesopotamia rather than Asia
Minor west of the Euphrates. There can be little doubt that the
weight of her onset would be thrown into the northerly channel ;
and Pasin would fall without a blow beinsr struck. At that
Erzeruni 201
moment she would be confronted by the defences of the Deveh
Boyun — an impregnable barrier if only held by a sufficient
force.
We have seen at the close of the last chapter that the Deveh
Boyun consists of a composite ridge, thrown across a narrow
portion of the northerly depression, and dividing it into two. It
is due to an outbreak of lava — a hard trachyte — which has
pursued a direction almost at right angles to the general structure
of the country, its elevation being nearly meridional. Similar
outbreaks are readily recognisable in the northern border heights
of the plain of Pasin ; but those ridges are of little geographical
importance, losing themselves on the confines of the plain. On
the other hand the Deveh Boyun, the most westerly of the series,
determines the drainage of the great basin. From its eastern
slopes the waters flow to the Araxes, and from those on the
west to the Euphrates. On the one hand lies Pasin, and on the
other the plain of Erzerum. The height of the pass over the
parapet is not more than some 500 to 800 feet above the level
of the adjacent plains. But the ridge is defended by a line of
modern forts ; and, if these were captured, the invading army
would find itself enclosed within a space which, while it can
scarcely exceed a width of about four miles, can be swept by the
fire from hei"-hts on the north and heights on the south. These
positions, which have all been fortified since the last Russo-
Turkish war, rest against the slopes of the parallel walls of
mountain, confining the depression on either side.
There does exist, I believe, a narrow passage through an
irregular valley between the Deveh Boyun main ridge and the
northern wall. But this approach by the flank is commanded by
some of the forts already mentioned. Nor would the fate of
Erzerum be necessarily determined if both the ridge and the
works which protect it had been occupied by the enemy after a
series of frontal attacks and great loss of life. There would
remain the defences of the Top Dagh, a hill mass, or, as they
would say in South Africa, a series of kopjes, separated from the
Deveh Boyun by the valley of a small tributary to the Euphrates
derived from the wall of mountain on the south. The Top
Dagh bristles with forts, of which the most conspicuous are Forts
Mejidieh and Azizieh. It immediately abuts on the enceinte of
the city which it screens from attack from the east. The city
lies with its head upon the talus or accumulated rubble which
202 Armenia
fans out from the heights on the south. Its feet touch the floor
of the plain.
Under modern conditions Erzerum is by far the most im-
portant strategical position throughout the length and breadth of
the country described in this work. The heights confining the
plain on the south are in fact the edge of the great block of
tableland interposed between the plain of Mush and the northern
capital. Although the ground mass of that lofty stage is
composed of stratified and old igneous rocks, yet more recent
eruptive volcanic action has played an important part in its
configuration. To this agency are due the bold mountains along
its northern edge which constitute such a noble background to
the town. The most conspicuous peak is that of the Eyerli
Dagh, or saddle mountain, so called from the shape of its
summit. The loftiest is situated a few miles further east, and
stands a little back from the line of heights. It has an elevation
of 10,690 feet above the sea, or of 4500 feet above the city.
It bears the same name as that of the steep ascent to the plateau,
and is known as the Palandoken, or saddle shifter. Between
these two commanding peaks is placed a cirque or huge basin
from which the detritus is emptied into the plain. It has been
supposed that the peaks are only the upstanding sides of a huge
broken-down crater represented by the cirque. It seems more
probable, however, that this great hollow is due to erosive
agencies, and it may originally have been commenced by glacial
action.
Standing on the roof of your house in Erzerum, you can
scarcely conceive the approach of an invader by a turning move-
ment across those heights. It is, indeed, no easy matter to
discover any natural passage ; but there are in fact four. The
most easterly is Aghsi AcJiik (his mouth is open — though I can-
not agree that such is the case.) It leads over to some villages
in Tekman. Further west is the valley called Abdurrahman
Gazi after a holy man, reputed to have been the standard-bearer
of the prophet, whose tomb is a favourite resort in summer.
Next comes the Palandoken, grazing the peak upon its western
slopes after finding a way along the eastern declivities of the
cirque. The fourth and most westerly is that of Kirk De'irvien,
or the forty mills. Of these the only approach of any importance
is that of Palandoken. It constitute? the summer route to the
districts on the south. The pass, just west of the peak, has an
Erzerwn 203
elevation of 9780 feet, and is commanded on either side by two
modern forts. A metalled road, constructed during recent years,
at once connects these important outposts with the city and
affords tolerable gradients to caravans. As you examine the
ground in this direction you observe a fortified hill on the south-
west of the enceinte ; it is called the Keremitlu Dagh.
The wall on the north of the plain is scarcely less im-
penetrable, though Nature has cloven it almost through by the
defile known as the Gurgi Boghaz, or Georgian gates, down which
flows the infant stream of the Euphrates and is carried the road
from Olti. But the portion of the Russian possessions from which
it leads are mountainous and poor in supplies, and the narrows
are blocked on the Turkish side by modern fortifications. In a
geographical and geological sense this northern barrier corresponds
to that on the south of the depression. A plateau-like character
is not one of its least pronounced features — a feature which is
presented with startling fidelity in the outline on the north of the
plain of Pasin, where the heights are called Kargabazar (Fig. 163,
p. 193). West of the Gurgi Boghaz they are broken into peaks,
of which the most symmetrical is the beautiful cone of Sheikhjik
— a constant source of admiration to an inhabitant of Erzerum.
It consists of a mass of trachyte which has welled up from the
middle of a crater.^ As these heights extend westwards they
have been less subjected to eruptive disturbances ; and the fine
landmarks of the Akhbaba Dagh, the Jejen Dagh and the Kop
Dagh are composed of non-volcanic rocks. But these eminences
serve to accentuate the prevailing flatness of the outline, which
remains the outline of a block of tableland. Of little comparative
width, this mass declines upon the north to the valley of the
Chorokh.
Erzerum, it will have been seen, is almost as difficult to get
round as it should be impossible to take by direct assault from
the east. If only Turkey were a naval power, able to cope with
her adversary by sea, it would be a long time before this bulwark
of her Asiatic empire could be broken down by a Russian attack.
Herein lies the value to Turkey of help from a first-rate naval
Power and the hopelessness of her position should it not be
forthcoming. With her fleet in undisputed possession of the
^ The cone of Sheikhjik was visited by Dr. Wagner in the forties and has been
described by him at some length (Reise fiach Fersieii, Leipzig, 1S52, vol. i. pp. 231
seq).
204 Armenia
Black Sea, Russia might laugh at the irresistible defences of
Erzerum. It would only be necessary to hold the garrison by
an advance on the side of Pasin ; and the real attack, if it were
ever made, would come from the west, the vulnerable side,
delivered by a column which should have been landed at the
port of Trebizond, and which there would be nothing to prevent
marching to Erzerum along the chaussee. Sevastopol and Odessa
rather than Kars and Erivan are the storm centres from which
will be let loose the forces that will sweep the Ottoman Empire
out of Asia, when we shall be confronted with a brand-new set of
barriers, precluding for the second time in history the entrance of
commerce and enlightenment into these magnificent territories.
In taking leave of this part of the subject, I must not omit to
mention the route which a Russian army might be expected to
follow in its progress westwards after the fall of Erzerum. As
far as Erzinjan the course of the Euphrates would in general be
followed, when the northern border heights would be crossed and
the entry to Asia Minor effected by way of Karahisar. There
are no difficulties to traffic along this avenue. On the other
hand, an advance from Mush, the side of the southern depression,
could only be undertaken by mountain paths above the course of
the Murad, which have never been touched by an engineer. It is
therefore probable that the tide of war would be diverted for
some time to the lowlands, when it might threaten the south-
eastern districts of Asia Minor from the side of Diarbekr.
On three occasions, all during the course of the present
century, Erzerum has been at the mercy of Russian armies. In
1829 it was actually taken by Marshal Paskevich, whose troops
penetrated as far north as Gumushkhaneh and to within eighteen
miles of Trebizond.' Recovered by Turkey at the ensuing peace,
it was threatened by a similar fate after the fall of Kars in
November 1855. It was only saved by the Russian reverses in
other quarters and by the early termination of the war (Treaty of
Paris, March 1856). In 1877 the Russians forced the Deveh
Boyun barrier, which in those days was unprovided with proper
defences ; but they met with a serious repulse in an attempt to
storm the forts on the eastern flank of the enceinte. The
investment was not completed until the month of January 1878 ;
and, although the place was held by their armies as a material
guarantee during the negotiations for peace, it was retained by
^ Smith and D wight, Missionary KeseaJ-ches in Armenia, London, 1834, p. 62.
Erzeruui 205
the Sultan under the terms of the treaties of San Stefano (March
1878) and Berlin (July 1878). Since the conclusion of that
campaign the advantages of the position have for the first time
been turned to proper account ; and, if in the future the system of
forts should be found provided with the most modern ordnance
and held by a sufficient garrison, Erzerum may still earn the
glory of owing her preservation to the sword rather than to the
pen.
But not only is this fortress the key to Turkish Armenia ;
it also defends the most important of her trade routes. The
principal avenue of the commerce between Europe and northern
Persia passes through Erzerum. This traffic, which is conducted
by means of numerous strings of camels, was originally founded
by the Genoese. Its flourishing condition long after the disappear-
ance of these great merchants is attested by the Jesuit missionaries
in the latter half of the seventeenth century.^ As early as the
year 1690 we hear of a British commercial agent residing in
the city.- In those days even a portion of the trade with India
found its way through Erzerum. After the initiation of a
service of steamers on the Black Sea in the year 1836, the land
routes between the provincial capital and Constantinople or the
Mediterranean ports gradually fell into disuse. On the other
hand, the trade itself received a great impulse, and has continued
to increase year by year to the present day. In place of the
almost endless stages of land carriage through Asia Minor,
European steamers discharge their goods at the port of Trebizond,
whence they are conveyed on the backs of camels through
Erzerum and along a series of plains to the Persian city of Tabriz.
In the year 1842 it was ascertained that the number of packages
disembarked at Trebizond in transit for Persia was about 32,000.
In 1898 this trade had increased to over 5000 tons; and in
1 The Jesuit father, Thomas Charles Fleurian (Estat prdsent de HArinhiie, Paris,
1694, 8vo, p. 81), speaks of Erzerum as '' capitale de la haute Armenie sous la domination
du Grand Seigneur . . . une fort grande ville . . . fort peuplee et fort riche ; c'est le
centre du commerce de tous ces pais-la. Les caravanes qui vont de Perse a Alep, ou
a Smirne, ou a Constantinople ; ou celles qui viennent de ces memes endroits en Perse
passent toutes a Erzerom."
- Tournefort, Voyage an LcvaJit, Paris, 17 17, vol. ii. p. 279, and cp. Schillinger,
Persianische tind Ost-Indianische Reise, Niirnberg, 1707, Svo, p. 81. It is a relief to
read the warm sentiments of Tournefort towards Mr. Prescot (such was the name of the
British agent) in contrast to the verjuice with which our contemporary French travellers
think it their duty to steep their pens when speaking of English enterprise or its agents
in distant lands. The contrast enables us to measure the difference between the France
of Louis XIV. and that of the Presidents.
2o6 Ar^nenia
a normal year the value of the imports into Persia is about
^600,000. About two -thirds of this trade belongs to Great
Britain. It is to be hoped that the trunk railway which already
exists in Asia Minor will be extended to Erzerum, where it should
be joined by a branch line from Rizeh or Trebizond. From
Erzerum it could be continued without the intervention of any
natural obstacle through Bayazid to Tabriz ; and from Tabriz it
would proceed through Teheran and Ispahan until it effected a
junction with the Indian railways. The capital to construct this
railway should be subscribed in Europe generally ; and a certain
percentage of interest should be guaranteed on the revenues of
Turkish Armenia as a provincial unit, as well as on the revenues
of Persia.
The population of Erzerum, especially the Armenian element,
has undergone a remarkable oscillation during the nineteenth
century. In 1827 it appears to have numbered as many as
130,000 souls. ^ Another but lower estimate gives a total at that
period of 16,378 families, or from 80,000 to 100,000 souls. Of
these 3950 families, or from 19,000 to 24,000 people, were
Armenians of the national religion." The Russian occupation of
the city in 1829 was followed in 1830 by a general emigration of
the Armenian inhabitants, who followed the Russian armies upon
its evacuation. Those were the days when Russia was assisted to
her conquests by Armenians and hailed by them as a deliverer.
Numbers of their countrymen — it is said by Armenians not less
than 40,000 — had already emigrated into the Russian provinces
from the frontier districts of Persia in the train of the Russian
army when it retired from Tabriz at the peace of Turkomanchai
(1828).^ What with the exodus of Armenians both from the city
and the plain — which before those times was probably inhabited
by an Armenian majority — and the various calamities of a dis-
astrous war, the population of Erzerum had declined to a total
of not more than 15,000 souls in 1835.'* Only 120 Armenian
families are said to have remained behind.' At the time of my
1 V>t7LXi\\n Joitr>ial K.G.S. 1836, p. 201.
- Smith and Uwight in op. cit. p. 64. There were also 645 famihes of Armenian
Catholics and 50 of Greeks. The remainder were Mussulmans.
^ C. F. Neumann, Geschichtc dcr Ucbersiedliing von 40,000 Arnieniern welche itn
Jahre 1828 aits der Pcrsischoi Provinz Adebaidschan nacli Ritssland anivanderten (from
Russian of S. Glinka), Leipzig, 1834, Svo.
■* Brant, loc. cit. It is generally supposed that not less than 60,000 Armenians,
headed by their bishop, accompanied the retirement of Paskevich's army.
■' Smith and Dwight, op. cit. p. 441.
E7'zertim
207
first visit the inhabitants numbered about 40,000, exclusive of
a garrison of 5000 or 6000 men. The official figures assigned
some 10,500 to the Armenians, 26,500 to the Mussulmans, 1400
to the Persians and strangers, and about 500 to the Greeks. Of
the Armenians some 500 succumbed in the great massacre of
1898. It is evident, however, that the town has been returning
to its former condition ; and there can be no doubt that with
the most moderate instalment of tolerable government the older
F-,iSf^?&:
Fig. 164. Erzerum and its Plain from the South.
figures would be soon surpassed. I was informed by the Persian
Consul that some 30,000 to 40,000 head of camel were yearly
counted as having passed through the city. The money spent by
their owners for provisions and sundries in Erzerum amounts to
about i^T90,ooo or, in sterling, iJ^8 1,000 a year. Such is the
value to the city of the Persian trade.
The aspect of Erzerum, when seen from without, is sombre
and unattractive. This impression is principally due to the colour
of the stone of which it is built and to the scarcity of trees. I
am tempted to offer my reader two illustrations of the place, the
one taken from the higher ground on the south, and displaying
2o8 Aruienia
the features of the great plain with the city in the foreground and
in the distance the lofty outline of the northern heights (Fig. 164) ;
the other looking south-west from the roof of the British Consulate,
with the castle in relief against the slopes of the Eyerli Dagh on
the right of the picture (Fig. 165). This view does not comprise
the peak of Palandoken, situated a little further to the left. The
eminence in the centre is a nameless mass, intermediate between
the two greater mountains and screening the cirque from the
plain. A curious feature in the landscape of the city, when seen
from very near, are the chimneys, which look like rows of dove-
cots. The smoke escapes at the sides. It is strange that the
inhabitants display so little love of verdure, for the sun is always
brilliant and productive of glaring lights, while during two or
three months of the year its rays are fierce. The few gardens that
there are grow quantities of lilac, of a perfection of bloom and
colouring and perfume which surpasses any examples I have seen
elsewhere. Abundance of delicious water flows down from the
heights on the north ; and under happier circumstances the slopes
and the plain outside the city would be dotted with dwellings
embowered in trees. At the present day, when once you have
passed outside the enceinte, you feel like a ship which has taken
to the open sea. Not a hedgerow, no oasis of foliage diversifies
and softens the naked and vast expanse. You steer your course
whither you will. For at least five months in the year the
ground is covered with snow — an unbroken sheet spread over
mountain and plain. Little specks in the landscape are recognised
as villages ; and now and again a gliding object — it might be a
boat on the ocean — moves swiftly towards the city and, approach-
ing nearer, is seen to be a sledge. The climate of Erzerum has
been compared to that of St. Petersburg, but the comparison is
most unhappy and in many respects fallacious. Sun and sky
belong essentially to the South. It is only the great altitude of
over 6000 feet above sea-level that produces the rigour of winter
and the crispness of the summer nights. My daily observations
of temperature during the months of December and January
supply the following results. In December the highest reading
at 9 A.M. was 37° Fahrenheit, or 5" above freezing-point ; and
the lowest at the same time of the day was 8°, or 24" of
frost. During January the maximum at 10 A.M. was 30°
Fahrenheit, and the minimum at the same hour was 1 8^°
centigrade, or 3° below zero of Fahrenheit. Double windows
u d
w z
I D
h O
K
W "
D "
5 I
;:2 I
0 <
a: w
. o
1 <
Erzeruin 209
and German stoves are necessaries in such a climate ; and, as you
take your ride of an afternoon and gallop over the powdery snow,
it is necessary to protect the ears against frost-bite. On the
other hand, it is not^easy to realise the severity of the weather, so
brilliant are the rays of the sun. And the warmth of walking
exercise completes the illusion of a snowfall in summer, while
your spaniel ranges widely over the endless white surface, intent
upon his forbidden pursuit of the larks.
The charm of the place — and it has a charm which must
appeal to all sensitive minds — consists in the grandiose scale of
the surroundings — the sculpturesque beauties of the parallel lines
of mountain which meet in the perspective of the west ; the subtle
effects of light and tint, which are those of some summit in the
mountains transferred to the habitable earth. The setting of
the sun and the rising of the moon reflect the originality of such
conditions. The plain itself must be close upon 6000 feet high ;
it has a length, from west to east, of eighteen miles, and it is
not less than some ten miles across.^ In its trough lies the
infant stream of the Western Euphrates, which, rising on the
slopes of the Dumlii Dagh,"' a mountain of the northern border,
is for some little distance lost in a zone of marshes, almost
opposite the city but not less than about five miles away. These
marshes are quite an aviary of all kinds of wildfowl, which,
besides supplying eggs to the inhabitants of the neighbouring
villages, afford most excellent opportunities to the sportsman.
The enceinte, or circumvallation of Erzerum was constructed
during the period between the war of 1855 ^^^ that of 1877.
It consists of a rampart or ramparts of earth with ditches, and
resembles the enceinte of Paris. Cannons are mounted upon it
at intervals. It embraces an area of about three square miles,
and is furnished wath four principal gates. That on the west is
called the gate of Erzinjan, and the one on the east the gate of
Tabriz. The gates on the north and south-west are named
respectively the Olti and Kharput gates. Each gate is guarded
by sentries. The space enclosed within this rampart is only
^ The plain of Erzerum may be said to commence on the west at the village of
Titgir.
2 The excursion to the DiimlU Dagh is a favourite one in summer. The sources of
the Kara Su, or Western Euphrates, have been visited and described by Wagner {Reise
nach Persiett, Leipzig, 1852, vol. i. pp. 237 seq.) and by Strecker {Zeitschrift fi'ir
Erdkiinde, Berlin, 1869, pp. 159 seq.). For a catalogue of the various species of birds
found in the marshes of the Kara Su or in the neighbourhood of Erzerum see Curzon,
Armenia, London, 1854, chap. x. pp. 143 seq.
VOL. II P
2IO Armenia
partially covered by buildings, the town occupying not more than
about a square mile of ground. Down to comparatively recent
times Erzerum consisted of a citadel and walled city, with suburbs
lying outside the walls. These walls, which dated back to the
Byzantine period, were double and defended by sixty-two towers.
They were further protected by a moat. Their circumference
appears to have been not less than three or four miles, and no
Christian was allowed to reside within them. They were provided
with four gates, bearing the same names as those in the present
enceinte. Texier, who visited Erzerum in 1839, records that
Greek characters were to be seen upon the gates, and crosses
incised in the stones of the walls. Both features were evidently
of Byzantine origin. His authoritative testimony is supported
by at least two of his predecessors, Hamilton (1836) and Poser
(162 1 ). The last-mentioned traveller describes a marble bas-
relief and Greek inscription which he saw upon one of the gates.
I have little doubt that this bas-relief is the same of which Yusuf
spoke to me as having been copied by Consul Taylor in the
sixties and taken to the British Museum. The document is,
however, not forthcoming in our national treasure-house, and the
original has disappeared. Only in the central and more southerly
quarters of Erzerum did I observe a few remnants of the old
walls. The citadel is still in existence, crowning the highest
ground in the city, and it still contains the famous old tower.
It seems to have served as a watch-tower, and was provided
with a clock which the Russians carried away in 1830. In
old days the captain of the Janissaries resided in the citadel ;
and the only occasion upon which a pasha of Erzerum would
enter that sanctuary was if he came to have his head cut off.^
Not many ancient buildings remain in the city, which has
not seldom been visited by severe earthquakes. One of the
most violent occurred in the month of June 1859, destroying or
seriously damaging 4500 houses, overturning several portions of
^ For the citadel and old walls of Erzerum the following works may be consulted : —
Reyse von Coustantiiiopel, etc., by the Hoch Edelgeborener Herr Heinrich von Poser
und Gross -Nedlitz, Jena, 1675, 4° ; Tournefort, Voyage au Levant, Paris, 1717,
vol. ii. pp. 260 seq.; Moiier, J^onrney through Persia, Armenia, etc.,- London, 1812,
pp. J^IO seq.; Macdonald ¥Jmx\€\x, Journey through Asia Minor, Armenia, etc., London,
18 18, pp. 366 seq.; Hamilton, /Researches in Asia Minor, Poiitus and Armenia,
London, 1842, vol. i. pp. 178 seq.; Texier, Description de rArnit'nie, Paris, 1842,
part i. pp. 68 seq.; Koch, Reise im pontischen Gebirge und tiirkischen Annenien,
Weimar, 1846, pp. 274 seq., and Curzon and Wagner /;/ operihus citatis. Koch informs
us of a Cufic inscription on the watch-tower in the citadel which was copied by his
companion, Dr Rosen. He adds that it would be published in due course.
Fig. 166. Lrzerum: Chifteh IVIinareh.
Erzerum 211
the old walls and levelling nine minarets with the ground.^ The
most pretentious edifice is the old medresseh or college, called
Chifteh Minareh or the double minaret (Fig. 166). My illustra- Chifteh
tion is from a photograph taken many years ago, before the ' '"^'"*^ •
caps of both minarets had fallen away. I was unable to obtain
permission to enter the edifice, which was being used as a military
store. It has been described at some length by more than one
of my predecessors, and it is, I believe, an architectural solecism."
The facade of hewn stone with elaborate traceries contrasts with
the brickwork of the pair of circular towers which rise from stone
piers on either side. The circumference of each tower is diversified
by eighteen small shafts, morticed into the main mass. The
space between each pair of shafts is filled by a triangular mould-
ing, of which the edge or narrow side faces outwards. Shafts and
moulding are built of reddish kiln-burnt bricks, inlaid with small
blue bricks. At the base of either pier is a large panel, framing
an elaborate ornament in sculptured stone. Between the upper-
most sprays of a bunch of foliage or feathers rests the device of
a double-headed eagle. The stalks or quills of the garland rest
in the hollow of a small semicircle, which is supported by the
interlaced forms of two dragons. The question is suggested
whether this double-headed eagle be the well-known emblem of
the Roman empire over East and West. But we know that the
emblem was adopted by the Seljuk dynasty of the Ortukids and
by their successors the Ayubids ; ^ and, indeed, if one were left to
one's own judgment, one might well suppose that this was a
monument of the Seljuk period. On the other hand, a Cufic
inscription, communicated to Professor Koch in the forties by the
dragoman of the British Consulate, is to the effect that this
building and an adjacent mosque were founded by a nameless
benefactor during the caliphate of Malek Khan and in the year
of the Hegira 351 (A.D. 962). The inscription is described as
consisting of two portions, one on either tower.'* Personally I
1 Dalyell \n Journal K.G.S. 1863, p. 235 ; Dove, Zeitschrift fiir Erdkiindc, Berlin,
1859, p. 67. The older travellers mention the circumstance that the houses in Erzerum
were constructed of wood. Now they are all built of stone.
2 I would refer my reader to the accounts of Hamilton, Texier, Curzon, Koch and
Tozer.
2 The Merchant in Persia, who travelled in the early part of the sixteenth century,
noticed the emblem of an eagle with two heads and two crowns on the buildings of
Diarbekr, once the capital of the Ortukids, and mistook it for the imperial arms. See
the translation of his work by Charles Grey {Italian Travels in Persia, Hakluyt Society,
London, 1873).
* Koch, Rcisc im pontischcn Gebirge, etc., Weimar, 1846, p. 2S4.
212
Armenia
Ulu Jami.
Relics of the
old walls.
Holy well.
could not discover any trace of Cufic writing, nor, so far as I am
aware, has such been observed upon this monument by any of
my predecessors. Adjoining the building on the south side is a
circular tomb in hewn stone, resembling the mausolea at Akhlat,
which are works of the thirteenth century. Tradition ascribes
the tomb to a Sultan of Persia.^
The large mosque of Ulu Jami is not more than a few steps
distant from the entrance to Chifteh Minareh. It has rather a
vast interior with several vaulted aisles ; but it is devoid of
architectural pretensions. I was shown an ancient paper be-
longing to this mosque, in which it was stated that it had been
built by the Head of the Government and Religion, Mohammed
el-Fateh, in A.H. 575 or A.D. i 179.
The most pleasing situation in the city is that which is
presented by the disposition of the buildings as you make your
way southwards up an irregular ravine or gully, down which
trickles a little stream. On your right hand the high ground is
crowned by the bastions of the citadel ; while to your front, on
the same heights a little south of these grim walls, rise the
slender towers of Chifteh Minareh. The slopes on the east are
much gentler, and are covered with houses, terraced up the
incline. Here and there you may discern a pile of stones, or a
block of masonry abutting on a house. These fragments are the
relics of the old walls, which formerly separated the great
mosque, the Chifteh Minareh and the citadel from the suburbs
with which these buildings are now continuous. One may turn
aside among the houses to visit a holy well, which is frequented
by both Mussulmans and Armenians. The former assert that it
is situated on the spot where the successor of Sheikh Abdul
Kader of Baghdad is said to have met his death. The latter
attribute its origin to a miracle, by which the water welled up
from the ground upon which was shed the blood of two of their
martyrs, the brothers Isaac and Joseph. They met their fate in
A.D. 796.^ The spring rises from the mud floor of a humble little
house, and is quite tepid to the touch.
1 Hamilton was informed by his guide that the Chifteh Minareh itself was built by a
Sultan of Iran " 570 years ago." That was in 1836. The same traveller speaks of a
building in Erzerum somewhat resembling Chifteh Minareh but with one minaret only.
It seems to be the same as that described by Texier under the name of Mourgo-Serai.
I was assured that no such edifice exists at the present day.
- Samuel of Ani in Migne, Patrologicc cursiis coniplctus, series Gra:ca, Paris, 1857,
vol. xix. p. 706.
Erzerum 213
I need not detain my reader with any description of the
churches, because Erzerum has always differed from other Churches.
Armenian centres in not possessing any remarkable Armenian
temples. The early travellers speak of two insignificant chapels,
and one of these still remains. During the forties the Armenian
inhabitants set about building a more spacious edifice ; and
Curzon tells an interesting story in connection with the enterprise,
which may explain the origin of the number of old sculptured
stones which are such a feature in the walls of many an Armenian
church. The priests, he says, urged their flock to bring in the
tombstones of their ancestors ; and the response was so warm
that there was quite a rush of able-bodied Armenians, carrying
tombstones from the graves of their families on their backs.
Many were unable to obtain a place in the walls or windows for
their contribution to the structure of the house of God.^ I do
not know whether the edifice of which this traveller speaks is the
same as the present cathedral. In addition to the little chapel of
which I have spoken, this is the only church of the Gregorian
community of Erzerum. The city is the centre of one of their
dioceses and was inhabited by a bishop at the time of my stay.
Monsignor Shishmanean — such was the name and title under
which I was introduced to this prelate — received me with some
show of state, being attended by all the members of his lay
council. He conversed quite fluently in the French language.
The popular basis of the Armenian Church is one of its most
remarkable features, and, with the rapid spread of education
which is now in process among the community, ought before
long to be productive of far-reaching reforms. This lay council
consists of notables chosen by the people ; and, in a vacancy of
the see, the patriarch at Constantinople submits to them the names
of candidates among whom to choose a successor to their late
bishop. In Erzerum this lay body is an operative factor in the
life of the community ; but I doubt whether its counterpart could
be discovered in such centres as Bitlis or Mush. It exercises con-
siderable influence in the government of the Sanasarean school, Sanasarean
to a brief account of which I now proceed.
The origin of this institution — designed to dispense a higher standard
of education than that which obtains in other Armenian schools in
Turkish Armenia — goes back to 18S1. In that year Mr. Madatean, one
of the three existing Directors, visited the provincial centres at the
1 See also Vol. I. Ch. XVI. p. 261.
2 14 Armenia
invitation of a wealthy Armenian gentleman, the late Mr. Sanasarean. He
returned to Erzerum with several pupils, chosen among the poorer class.
In 1883 the school entered upon its present premises, which have been
considerably enlarged since. .Its patron, Mr. Sanasarean, died in 1890,
bequeathing a sum of about ^30,000 to his foundation and directing his
executors to draw up a constitution. This charge has now been fulfilled.
Two councils have been appointed — one at Constantinople under the
presidency of the patriarch, and the other at Erzerum under that of the
bishop. Thus the college is under the protection of the Church ; and it
is with the patriarch or the bishop that Government deals. Three
Directors were chosen to preside over the teaching staff, and to dispense
instruction themselves. The council of Erzerum consists of this
triumvirate, who hold office for life, and of three notables, one of whom
vacates his charge every year. It has also been provided that, upon the
decease of any member of the triumvirate, his colleagues shall take his
place until the number shall have been reduced to one, so that eventually
there may be only a single Director. Of the two councils that al
Constantinople is supreme. They administer the revenues, which have
been increased since the death of the founder by the receipt of at least
one substantial legacy. The institution has been launched with every
promise of success, although it seems likely to be destined to undergo
vicissitudes before attaining a full measure of usefulness.
The Sanasarean college is essentially a boarding college, and day
pupils are not encouraged. It has a roll of not more than about eighty
inmates, of whom nearly half are the sons of parents in narrow circum-
stances, and pay nothing for maintenance. About fifteen youths are
natives of Erzerum, and the rest are derived from the provinces. A few
will have journeyed hither all the way from Constantinople. It is expected
of the gratuitous scholars that they shall all become teachers in the various
Armenian schools throughout Turkey. Of the sixty members who had
already completed the course at the time of my visit one-half had adopted
the scholastic profession. I went carefully over the school, and was
delighted with the arrangements. The dormitories are large and kept
scrupulously clean, and the same may be said of the classrooms. There
are a hospital attached and a playground. The technical school is well
provided with lathes and all kinds of implements, and some excellent
work is forthcoming from the young handicraftsmen. Boys enter the
college in about their tenth year, and leave at the age of seventeen or
eighteen.
The course comprises a preparatory class and six higher classes. The
subjects taught are in the first place the Armenian and the Turkish
languages, the former comprising both the ancient and the modern speech.
Of foreign tongues French and German are included, but neither Latin
nor Greek. The history of the Armenian Church and nation is imparted
under great difficulties and without the aid of books. These would be
confiscated by the Censor. In mathematics the curriculum provides for
algebra and geometry ; and in natural science for geography, geology,
botany, zoology, astronomy, anatomy, chemistry, and physics. Commercial
Erzerum
215
book-keeping can also be learnt. Music is studied and practised with
much appreciation, and there are several tolerable performers on the
violin. The prospectus of studies must by. law be submitted to Govern-
ment ; but the Mudir or local director of public instruction confines his
energies to an occasional and friendly visit.' Most of the text- books are
German. The teaching staff numbers- twelve members, including the
Directors ; the French master had recently arrived from France. It is
desired that the teachers should have passed through this school, and
then have rnmpletcd their studies in Europe. A certain portion of the
Fig. 167. Armenian Youths.
funds have been set aside to meet the expenses of one or two students
during their residence abroad. Two have already proceeded to St.
Petersburg, and two more are about to leave for Reichenberg in Bohemia
in order to study in a technical school.
I offer my reader a group of the scholars of this institution, with a
picture of the founder in their midst (Fig. 167). The faces are full of
character and determination. Nor should I wish to omit a similar
group of the comely maidens of Armenia, taken at Edgmiatsin and showing
the national dress (Fig. 168). I received the impression that there was
something wanting to the vitality of the school, that the pupils were not
using their talents to the best advantage. For instance, when I asked
them for the result of x^y x x-y, they were obliged to make the sum
2l6
Arinenia
and could not supply the result off-hand. Personally the Directors are
charming men, neither self-assertive nor obsequious. All three have
studied in Germany ; but not one of them has taken his doctor's degree.
They told me that they had in this obeyed the expressed desire of their
patron, M. Sanasarean. But, although there can be little doubt that they
made excellent use of their opportunities, it is most pernicious to the
interests of the school that their example should be made a precedent.
By what means can the Council ensure that the young men sent abroad
to study have really penetrated into the inner circle of European scholar-
ship ? Only by requiring that they should not return without obtaining
Fig. 168. Armenian Maidens.
its badge. It also seemed to me strange that the pupils passed from
class to class by length of residence rather than by merit. Other
drawbacks, the first of which might be easily remedied, were the
absence of sports and games as a prominent feature of school life, the
want of touch with the Armenian schools in the Russian provinces, and
the unreality of the diplomas granted by the institution, which have not
as yet become the key to a variety of careers. The fact, too, that the
minds of the Directors have been filled with the ]]edagogic lore of
Germany militates against success. That so-called science betrays the
weaknesses of the powerful German intellect. In Germany its pedantic
influence is counteracted by military service; but this wholesome cor-
rective is wanting to the Armenian youth of Erzerum.
In addition to the Sanasarean college, the Gregorian community
possess no less than six ordinary schools. Of these the principal is
Erzerum 2 1 7
attached to the cathedral and is named Artsenean. It is attended by
about 200 day scholars, and corresponds to an Armenian school of two
classes in Russia. The school for girls, called Ripsimean, appeared to be
well administered; it has a roll of 350 maidens. The Armenian Armenian
Catholics of Erzerum province number several thousands of souls ; and the Catholics
city is the seat of one of their bishops. Their school, which is conducted
by four French priests, is considered one of the best in the town. It is
attended by over 100 pupils, of whom nearly one-third are Gregorians.
A little boy of three did the honours of his class, when I availed myself
of the kind invitation of "Cao. freres. He addressed me in the following
speech, delivered with the most graceful gestures : — " Monsieur ! Soyez
le bienvenu ; que le ciel vous protege, cher Monsieur ! "
The American missionaries have a large establishment with schools American
in Erzerum. Their mission was founded in 1839. It was presided over ™^^'°"^"^^-
during my residence by the Rev. W. N. Chambers, a man in the prime
of life with fine physique and a face of great beauty, which corresponds
to the nobility and sweetness of his character. His wife and worthy
companion — one of the most charming and refined of women — was
perpetually busy with her girls' school. One reflected upon the value
to the womanhood of the Armenian race of such an example as hers.
In taking leave of the American missions, it is pleasant to dwell upon
this memory, which, indeed, illustrates the kind of benefits which they
confer upon the country better than all the figures in their reports. They
raise the standard of life, and diffuse an atmosphere of wholesome
living. I ought to add that their missions are conducted by quite
exceptional men and women^ — of a type and perhaps of a class far higher
than one would expect. One admires in them a broad tolerance and
entire absence of all cant. One says farewell from the depth of the
heart.
Education is provided for the Mussulman population by a single but
well-appointed institution. It combines the courses of a Rushdiyeh, or Rushdiyeh.
High School, with that of an Idadiyeh or lycee. It is housed in a spacious idadiyeh.
new building in the centre of the town, and I found it occupied by
130 pupils, of whom 45 were boarders. Youths enter the school between
their eleventh and fifteenth years, and stay seven years. Of this period
three years are spent in the lower and four in the higher course. There
are about eight teachers. The majority of the scholars were attired in
a quasi-military uniform ; the rest were in civil dress. All looked in
excellent health. The dormitories were provided with brass bedsteads ;
and I noticed that the linen was scrupulously clean. Shining napkins
were spread out upon the table of the dining-room, which was lined with
a row of chairs and provided with crockery. Adjoining the school is a
small hospital. The course comprises the same subjects as those in the
curricula of the Van schools ; and, although this school professes to dispense
a much higher standard, it is in fact less advanced than the so-called military
school at Van. This is the only Idadiyeh in Turkish Armenia ; and the
admirable official who acts as coadjutor to an invisible Director of Public
Instruction informed me that in the year preceding my visit a Govern-
2i8 Armenia
ment order had been issued, to the effect that all candidates for sub-
ordinate posts in the civil service should be required to produce a
diploma from an Idadiyeh. I learnt on the same authority that there
existed a Rushdiyeh in each caza of the vilayet of Erzerum with the
exception of the caza of Terjan.
We found Erzerum in a condition verging upon famine.
During my residence several people died of inanition, and the
poorer classes were only just alive. I was informed that there
was no lack of grain in the place ; but it was all in the hands of
merchants, and they refused to sell except at famine prices. A
short harvest in 1892 had been followed by insufficient sowing,
owing to the consumption of the seed for food. Grain was said
to be lying at Trebizond on Government account ; but the officials
pleaded that they were unable to obtain transport. Some of them,
if not all, were no doubt confederates of the Corn Ring. The
same state of things was prevalent at Van ; and throughout our
journey we had great difficulty in obtaining barley for our horses,
even when offering exorbitant prices. One may present some
conception of the acuteness of the sufferings of the townspeople
by recording some particulars of prices and wages. Wheat was
selling at 50 piasters a kilc, or about 2\ piasters an oke (2|- lbs.).
The price of bread was 2 piasters an oke. A healthy man requires
at least three-quarters of an oke of bread a day, in addition to his
ration of sheep's tail or meat sausage, of which the working classes
lay in a provision in the autumn. The wages of a carpenter or
skilled labourer are in good times 8 piasters a day. But hundreds
of workmen were seeking employment at i ?, piasters, and the best
paid among the makers of cigarettes for the regie were receiving
a daily wage of 2 piasters. Rice at Erzerum is quite a luxury,
and potatoes are so little grown that they may be left out of
account. How was a man to pay for his lodging, provide food for
his family and himself, and obtain tezek, or cow-dung cakes, for his
fire upon the current wages ? I was shown the kind of bread
upon which the majority were living ; it looked like a thin pan-
cake, and its staple consisted of a black grain or seed. But the
principal ingredient was mud and chopped straw. The cruelty
of the situation was accentuated by the fact that all kinds of
comestibles were spread out upon the booths of the bazar. One
regretted the absence of the glass windows of our shops. Here
the temptation might be touched as well as seen. There is no
poor-law, and no poor-houses. People starve in the Streets. A
Erzerum 2 1 9
Mussulman girl of great beauty came to our house, and begged
piteously for food, showing her face. We endeavoured to obtain
for her a place as servant in the residence of some Turkish ladies.
But it was well known that there was many a brute in Erzerum
who, like the Spectre of Hunger in the pregnant lines of Alfred
de Musset, demanded kisses as the price of a piece of bread.
The economical condition of the surrounding country is woeful
in the extreme. The great plains from Pasin to Lake Van were
being raided by bands of Kurds. I shall describe in a future
chapter how this predatory people came to be established in the
agricultural centres. Erzerum was full of accounts of their open
attacks upon the industrious peasantry ; and even the Mussulmans,
as, for instance, at Hasan Kala in Pasin, were petitioning Govern-
ment for protection. It is true they did not dare to call their
assailants to book as Kurds, but described them merely as
brigands. It was well known that these bands were led by
officers in Hamidiyeh regiments — tenekelis, or tin-plate men, as
they are called by the populace, from the brass badges they wear
in their caps. The frightened officials, obliged to report such
occurrences, take refuge behind the amusing euphemism of
such a phrase as " brigands, disguised as soldiers." The scourge
had almost exhausted the Armenian population, and was now
commencing to sit heavy upon the Mussulmans. The Armenians
were emigrating as fast as they could. The Russian Consul
informed me that he had been obliged to issue no less than 3500
passports to Armenians during the current year. The Russians
did not want them ; but what were they to do ? I learnt from
another source that in the caza of Khinis alone looo Armenians
had left their homes, the majority in abject poverty, and had taken
refuge across the frontier.
With a famine in the provincial capital and the adjacent
territory stripped by marauders, the inhabitants of any other
country would have risen in revolt against the Government. But
the population of Asiatic Turkey, in spite of religious differences,
are the most easily governed in the world. All the talk about
Mussulmans and Christians flying at each other's throat is talk,
and moreover very idle talk. During my subsequent visits to
Erzerum it was admitted to me by Turkish officials that the
massacres of 1898 were perpetrated in these districts by bands of
imported ruffians. The still unavenged guilt of these abominable
orgies does not lie upon the Mussulman population. Only on
2 20 Anneiiia
one occasion during my residence did the famished townspeople
of the doininant reHgion come near to measures of insubordination.
They sent their women — a method of petition which is neither
usual nor lightly to be dismissed — in a body to Government
House. Thence the petitioners proceeded to the residence of
an official of the Treasury at Constantinople, who had been
despatched to Erzerum to make enquiries into the scarcity. The
indignant matrons assailed his ears with the pertinent question :
neye geldin, whereto didst thou come ? Dissatisfied with the
answer they received, they smashed the windows of the function-
ary ; but nothing came of the demonstration.
All through that anxious time the civil government was in
abeyance ; and nothing was set up in its place. The Vali was
recently dead ; his successor had not been chosen ; the deputy
Governor was at once a puppet and an imbecile. An honest man
with a few policemen at his back could restore not only order but
prosperity. There is only one essential of any importance : to
reorganise the territorial boundaries of the provinces, select good
governors and invest them with extensive powers. If my reader
be inclined to smile at the choice of my epithet when applied to
a Turkish official, I can only say that I much regret my inability
to introduce him personally to the present holder of the office of
Vali of Erzerum. I was privileged to make the acquaintance of
Raouf Pasha on the occasion of my second visit. His career
through a long life has been one of much distinction ; he is
honest, just, capable, humane. If such a man could only be
freed from the leading-strings of the capital, he would go far
towards a happy settlement of the Armenian question, and of
the still more important question, the continuance of the Ottoman
Empire.
The Armenian inhabitants of the provincial capital are under-
going a state of transition from their ancestral customs to the less
straitened manners of the West. But these customs die a hard
death, and the emancipated Armenian who has studied in Europe
must feel their fetters upon his return to his native land. Let us
suppose that he wishes to marry ; he must have recourse to his
mother, or, if she be dead, to a female relation. A bride is chosen
for him, whom, as likely as not, he does not see until the marriage
ceremony has been performed. If the parents of the bridegroom
be still alive, the newly-married couple reside with them ; and it
is the custom that, while sons and daughters are permitted to
Erzertun
221
speak to their parents, a similar license is not usually accorded
to the sons' wives. Thus a maiden quits a home where freedom
of intercourse and speech is allowed her to enter one where she
is not permitted to open her mouth. A son may not smoke in
the presence of his father ; and great are the agonies endured jb}'
the younger generation in this respect alone. The earnings of
the sons are handed over to the father, who rules the family quite
in the patriarchal style.
A single family comprises a very large number of members.
Fig. 169. Five Generations of an Armenian Family.
all living in the same house. In one house in which I visited
there were not less than thirty. I photographed a group of five
generations in this family, each person being in direct lineal
descent. The infant is the son of the pretty young lady on the
left of the picture, and it reposes on the lap of her great-grand-
mother (Fig. 169).
To Erzerum belongs an antiquity which, if not remote, is at
least respectable ; and her history, or rather the glimpses which
we obtain of that history, illustrate the time-honoured struggle
between East and West. Founded during the reign of the
second Theodosius (a.d. 408-450), at the instance of one of the
222
Armenia
greatest of the early Armenian patriarchs, and upon the site of a
village which dated from ancient times,^ the new city received the
name of Theodosiopolis, and was designed to constitute an outer
bulwark to the Roman Empire of the East. In the description
of this event which we receive from Moses of Khorene the
traveller recognises the familiar surroundings of the present town.
The emissary of the emperor had journeyed over an extensive
tract of country in search of a suitable site. His choice at length
fell upon a position in the province of Karin, at the foot of
a mountain in which several rivulets had their origin. At no
great distance were situated the sources of the Euphrates, which,
collecting into a sluggish stream, formed a large marsh, supporting
abundance of wildfowl, on the eggs of which the inhabitants
lived. The province lay in the centre of the country. Upon
this site were laid the foundations of a fortified city, defended
by moat and walls and towers. Baths of solid masonry were
erected in the vicinity over the hot springs which welled from the
ground."
Seized in the year. 502 by the Sasanian king of Persia at the
inception of his war with Rome, this remote stronghold was
shortly afterwards recovered by the Emperor Anastasius and
restored to its former fame.^ The fortifications were enlarged
and increased by Justinian ; ^ but at the close of the sixth century
it again fell into Persian hands.^ I do not know that we are
able to follow its fortunes during the campaigns of Heraclius, who
is said to have assembled there a council of Armenian bishops
(a.d. 629?).'' In the year 647 Theodosiopolis became the prize
of the Arabs ; and more than a century elapsed before it was re-
gained by the Caesars under Constantine the Fifth (755).'^ That
monarch razed the walls, reduced the inhabitants to slavery, and
transported a great number of Armenians of the Paulician sect
1 Procopius, de bell. Pcrs. lib. i. c. lo. The student must be careful to distinguish
this Theodosiopolis from the fortress of the same name on the Khabur. The letter of
the emperor to the patriarch Isaac is given by Moses of Khorene, lib. iii. c. 57.
2 Moses of Khorene, lib. iii. c. 59. Thousands of eggs are still collected in these
marshes during spring by the inhabitants of the plain of Erzerum. The hot springs
mentioned are evidently those of Ilija, a good hour's drive to the west of Erzerum.
•^ Noldeke, article "Persia" in Eiicy. Brit. 9th edit. vol. xviii. p. 611 ; Procopius,
de Edificiis, iii. c. 5.
* Procopius in Uk. cit. In the time of Justinian the frontier of Roman Armenia
skirted the Persian frontier from the city of Amida (Diarbekr) as far as Theodosiopolis
{ibid. iii. c. i ).
'•' Indgidgean, ap. Neumann, quoted by Ritter, Erd/ciaidc, vol. x. p. 759.
" Issavcrdens, Armenia and the Armenians, Venice, 1878, p. 109.
"^ Indgidgean in op. cit.
Erzermn 223
to Constantinople and to Thrace.^ Shortly after this event it
appears to have been rebuilt by the Mussulmans ; and it played
an important part during the wars of Leo (886-91 i) and his son
Constantine Porphyrogenitus (911-959) with the Arabs in the
neighbouring province of Pasin." But the waves of Mussulman
conquest were closing in upon the Eastern Empire. About the
commencement of the thirteenth century we find the place in the
possession of a prince who bears the Turkish name of Toghrul Ben
Kilijarslan. From his hands it passed into the dominions of the
Sultan of Iconium.^ The Seljuk Sultan was known as the lord
of Erzerum, just as his Ottoman successors bore the title of lords of
Kars.'* The rule of the Seljuks was followed by that of their
Tartar conquerors. In the first half of the fifteenth century
Erzerum was in the keeping of the Turkomans, from whom it was
wrested by the Ottomans under Mohammed 11.^
The name Erzerum dates from Mussulman tim.es, but its
exact derivation is obscure. It may either signify the land (Ard
in Arabic, Arz in Turkish) of Rum, or of the Roman Empire ; or
it may be compounded of this last name and of the name of an
unfortified town in the vicinity which was known as Artze or
Artsn. It is quite probable that this town was at an early date
called Artze of Rum to distinguish it from another Artze in the
south of Armenia which lay within the Persian sphere.'' Local
tradition places the site of the first of these Artzes close to the
present city and on or near the banks of the Kara Su. We
know that the place was sacked by the Turks in the middle of
the eleventh century ; ' and according to Saint Martin the sur-
vivors took refuge within the walls of Theodosiopolis, to which
1 Cedrenus, edit. Bekker, p. 463 ; see Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. liv.
2 Constantine Porphyrogenitus, de Adm. Imp. c. 45.
^ Von Hammer, Gcschichte des Osm. Reiches, vol. i. p. 25.
* Kyriakos, ap. Ritter, Erdkimde, vol. x. p. 760.
^ Travels of Evliya, translated by Von Hammer, London, 1850, vol. ii. p. 108.
•^ Abulfeda, Annales, edit. Reiske, iv. p. 367. For a plan and account of the ruins
of the southern Arzen see Taylor in J.R.G.S. vol. xxxv. pp. 26 seij. Evliya speaks
of four towns bearing the name of Erzen, viz. Erzen in INIesopotamia, Erzen Akhlat,
Erzen Rum, commonly called Erzerum, and Erzenjan (Von Hammer's translation, ii.
202). The word Erzen or Arzen is discussed by Bore, Corr. et Ale/noires, Paris, 1 840, vol. i.
pp. 184 K'^. 'iir&cker (Zeifschrift fiir Erdkimde, Berlin, 1869, pp. 152, 153) seeks to
identify our Artze or Artsn with the site of the modern village of Karars near the right
bank of the Kara Su or Euphrates, north-west of Erzerum.
^ Cedrenus, pp. 772, 773. He speaks of Artze as a kw^uottoXis in the neighbourhood
of Theodosiopolis which is described as a strong fortress. A vivid contemporary and
native account of the sack of Artze is furnished by the Armenian historian, Aristakes of
Lastivert. See Prudhomme's translation in the Revtie de l' Orient, Paris, 1863, vol.
xvii. pp. 275 seq.
2 24 Armenia
they transferred the name of their own populous town.^ However
this may be, the ancient Armenian name of Karin is still applied
to the present city." The monuments of the Eastern Empire
have been seen in Erzerum by modern travellers ; and the chain
of history has not been broken in a manner to disparage the
identity of the Roman fortress with this key to the Asiatic
dominions of the Ottoman Turks.
1 Saint Martin, Mi'inoircs sur P Anneiiic, vol. i. p. 68 ; Tournefort, Voyage dii
Levant, Paris, 17 17, vol. ii. p. 276.
^ Erzerum is also known to Armenian writers under the name of Karnoy Kaghak
(Kalak) or town of Karin, from which the name of Kalikala, used by Arabic authors, is
probably derived.
D'Anville is certainly in error when he seeks to identify Theodosiopolis with Hasan
Kala in Pasin.
CHxAPTER X
RETURN TO THE BORDER RANGES — SaXarra, ddXarral
From Erzerum to the Black Sea, at the nearest point, near Rizeh,
is a distance as the crow flies of 88 miles, or, measured to
Trebizond, of i 14 miles. Yet the distance by the main road to
the ancient capital of the Grand-Comneni is little less than 200
miles/ This large discrepancy is due to the great height of the
block of mountain on the north of the plain of Erzerum, and,
more especially, to the essential character of the sea of troughs
and ridges, interposed between the town of Baiburt and the coast.
The Turkish Government have built a magnificent cJiaiissce across
this country, constructed in the seventies by French engineers.
1 Since writing this description, General Sir Charles Wilson's most admirable Hand-
book for Asia Minor (London, Murray, 1S95) ^^s come into my hands. He gives
the dis'tance between Erzerum and Trebizond, ineastired in miles along the cliaussee, at
I99j niiles. Another account makes the total 196^ miles. I enquired in official circles
at Erzerum whether there were extant any exact record of the distance ; a search was
made in the archives with a negative result. A certain proportion of the milestones aie
still erect ; but many have disappeared, the course of the road has been changed in
places, and the milestones have been replaced, probably in an arbitrary manner. My
own record, which is based on careful estimates of pace and time, is as follows: — Erzerum
— Ashkala, 33 miles ; Ashkala — Pirnakapan, 10 miles ; Pirnakapan — Southern Kop Khan,
2 miles ; Southern Kop Khan — Kop Pass, 5^ miles ; Kop Pass — Northern Kop Khan,
5g^ miles ; Northern Kop Khan — Maden Khan, 6^ miles; ]^Iaden Khan — Baiburt, io|
miles ; Baiburt (bridge) — \'arzahan, 6 miles ; Varzahan — Osluk Khan, 6 miles ; Osluk
Khan — Khadrak, 8 miles; Khadrak — Vavuk Pass, 4^ miles ; Vavuk Pass — Alurad Khan,
lo^- miles ; Murad Khan— Lower GUmtishkhaneh, i6j miles ; Lower Gumlishkhaneh —
Ardasa, 16^ miles ; Ardasa — Southern Zigana hamlet, 9^ miles ; Southern Zigana village
— Zigana Pass, 4^^ miles ; Zigana Pass — Upper Hamsi Iveui, lo-J miles ; Upper Hamsi
Keui — Jevizlik, 15^ miles ; Jeviziik — Trebizond, 20 miles. Total, 199J miles. A
carriage (victoria) can be obtained in Trebizond. Such a vehicle, drawn by two horses,
together with. a cart for the luggage with a team of three, costs for the whole journey
£1^ : I OS. But, if I may offer a recommendation to the traveller, it is to render himself
independent of the chaussee by purchasing horses and riding. Large deductions from
the mileage may be made in this way, and the jolting avoided which is inseparable from
a metalled road kept in bad repair. Indeed wheeled traffic is as yet quite an anomaly
both in Turkey and in Persia. On the other hand, it is extremely difficult to buy good
horses in TreVjizond, although they may be readily purchased in Erzerum.
VOL. H Q
2 26 Arm Cilia
But whatever its value in time of war, it has failed to revolu-
tionise the methods of transport in vogue from immemorial time.
Vehicular traffic is conducted between the termini in summer, and
in winter the journey is feasible on a sledge. But the camel, the
mule, and the packhorse are still the principal means of carriage,
and the caravan has not yet fallen into disuse. With horses
which were short of work after their long rest in Erzerum we
reached Trebizond during the height of winter in six days.
At this season of the year the traveller is warned to beware
of the blizzards which render formidable the crossing of the Kop
Pass. The name of that pass is pronounced with a certain
degree of terror in the bazars and coffee-houses of Erzerum.
Each winter brings its catalogue of disasters to man and beast,
buried in the driving snow on those bleak heights. Nor is it
easy to perform the passage in a single day from Erzerum,
waiting in the city for a favourable occasion. The Kop is
situated about forty miles west of the provincial capital ; and
the barrier upon which it is placed — the wall on the north of
Erzerum — can scarcely be surmounted at a more adjacent point
while it is covered by the snows. For it is only the continual
plying of caravans across a pass which, in this latitude and at
so great an elevation above the sea, renders it practicable all the
year round. Caravans have chosen the Kop, and there is
nothing left to the traveller but to acquiesce in their choice. It
was therefore decided to make our first day's stage at the village
of Ashkala, on the banks of the Euphrates, a stage of over thirty
miles, and thence, on the following day, should the weather be
favourable, to take the ascent of the range.
We set out at eleven o'clock on the morning of the 6th of
February — a dim winter's day, when the sun was struggling with
the grey mists spread over the face of land and sky. The
thermometer registered no less than 20"" of frost (Fahrenheit) ;
plain and mountain were completely covered with deep snow.
Even the road scarcely revealed a patch of brown soil, and was
distinguishable only by the parallel dints of the ditches in the
foreground of the white expanse. But the city was conspicuous
on the lowest slope of the southern barrier, where the vaulted
summits and bold convexities of that lofty wall of mountain
sweep into the lake-like plain. There it lay, a sombre mass,
from which projected into the murky atmosphere the outline of
a tower, the needle forms of minarets. On its either flank, in a
Return to the Border Ranges — ^oKarra, OdXaTra ! 227
wide half-circle, the chain of heights advanced into the open,
more elevated and less contracted towards the north-east,
declining but more adjacent on the west. In both directions, the
opposite horns of this bay of snow-clad eminences appeared to
touch the answering parapet in the north — west and east in a
long, straight line, fretted b}' the shapes of cones and humps,
stretched the barrier of that still distant range. The point of
apparent intersection between the two outlines are, in fact, the
open doors of the plain. In the north-east it is the inlet which
leads towards Olti, known as the Gurgi Boghaz : in the west the
valley which receives the Kara Su.
Our course was directed towards Ilija, a village of above-
ground houses at the foot of the western promontory, near some
hot springs. The summer road to Erzinjan diverges towards
the west shortly after you have left Erzerum. It is taken across
the horn of heights, up a partial opening, which, however, was
barely visible. The view across the plain and along the summits
of the northern barrier extends from the Deveh Boyun and the
distant heights of Kargabazar to the Kop mountain in the west.
Several individual heights may be distinguished from their
fellows : Sheikhjik, a beautiful cone, north-west of Erzerum ;
then Akhbaba, a cockscombed outline, and next Jejen, a sym-
metrical peak. The flat-topped, broad-shouldered mass, which
closes the series, is the Kop, beneath whose shadow lies the
pass.
In the village of Gez — a cluster of houses, partly Moham-
medan and partly xA.rmenian — we made a stay of twent}- minutes,
and said farewell to some of our friends, who had dri\en out to
meet us in a sledge. Sleighing is much in favour during the
winter, both among rich and poor. Little black specks come
gliding over the snow-field in the neighbourhood of the town.
Taking shape, they are seen to consist sometimes of a lean hack
drawing a couple of longitudinal logs, placed upon skates ; or a
graceful car, drawn by a pair of high-stepping horses, brushes
past you at a rapid trot. Near Ilija we crossed a stream of
warm water, which proceeded to follow us on our right hand ;
and at three o'clock we had reached the spot near the extremity
of the promontory where the Kara Su might be expected to
enter the narrows.
But the river was quite invisible, buried beneath the canopy
which stretched to the opposite mountains without a break.
2 28 Armeiiia
After doubling the horn, which was low, and was succeeded by
gentle eminences, we made our way down the valley, between
these hills and the northern barrier, through a dreary landscape
upon which the mist hung. A fine fox with a sweeping brush
made off across the snow, and found it difficult to escape from
sight. I viewed him away with a shout which surprised our
followers, giving vent to a whole season's abstinence. At four
o'clock we passed the lonely station of Yeni Khan ; and, an hour
later, a road branched off across the hills, leading to Erzinjan.
In another half-hour we crossed the mouth of a large side valley
through which was hissing a considerable stream. It comes
from the mountains on the north, and is called the Serchemeh
Chai ; the combined waters below the junction with the Kara Su
are generally known as the Frat or Euphrates.^ We were
surprised to observe the manner in which the connection was
effected between this ice-free torrent and the buried Kara Su.
Descending to the trough of the valley, the rapid current was
introduced into the same bed in which the companion river slept;
nor did it dip beneath the canopy, but hurried along by the side
of its partner, fretting the edge of the ice. When we crossed, a
little later, by a substantial bridge to the right bank, the united
ice and flowing water had a width of fifty paces. The valley
had narrowed and become almost Alpine in appearance since the
bifurcation of the roads. In such surroundings is situated the
picturesque village of Kagdarich, just above the bridge, on the
right bank.
Again the hills opened after our passage of the river, and,
nearing Ashkala, composed a plain. We reached our destination
at a quarter to seven, beneath the shadows of night. It is a
Mohammedan village of some size, with a few Armenian houses ;
the houses are above ground. The valley must have in places a
width of six or seven miles. Its character became apparent as we
rose above it on the following morning, after crossing an affluent
to the Frat, called the Kara Hasan Su, which was almost concealed
by a crust of ice. Like the plain of Erzerum, it has probably been
covered with a sheet of water during no very remote geological
period. The floor of the valley presents, in fact, an almost level
surface; but a special feature in this second lake-like extension of
' According to Strecker {Zcil. Enik. Berlin, 1869, vol. iv. p. 147) the Serchemeh
Chai has a shorter course and brings less water than the Kara Su. I should consider
diat of these two uppermost constituents of the Frat, the former has the greater average
volume.
Return to the Border Ranges — ^aXaTra, dcLkarra ! 229
the Euphrates basin is a bold mass of rock which protrudes in
the neighbourhood of the village, isolated from the heights upon
the north. The close resemblance of this hill to some of the
spurs from those heights suggested the conception of a remote age
when this valley was in its infancy, and the mountains which now
rise on its opposite margins were integral parts of a single block
of elevated land. The further we advanced towards the west, the
more the plain narrowed ; we were pursuing a diagonal course
along the lower slopes of the northern barrier, and we could see
the river at some distance, partly ice -encrusted, and partly
threading the snow in several tiny channels.^
February 7. — We had left Ashkala (5520 feet) at half-past
Fig. 170.
eight, with the promise of a perfect day ; for the vapours had
become collected into shining masses, and the sun was mounting
into a clear, blue sky. Just before losing the landscape of the
plain, I stopped to take a photograph of the summit-formation of
a spur from the northern range (Fig. i 70). I was struck by the
resemblance of the flat edge of this eminence to the outworks
of the Bingol plateau. A little later we entered a side valley
through which flowed a small and partially ice-bound stream.
Proceeding up it a short distance on a northerly course, we arrived
at eleven o'clock in the pretty alpine village of Pirnakapan.
Beyond this Mussulman hamlet, which is graced by a grove of
willow trees, the valley becomes a gorge. So steep are the crags
which overhang it that in many places they were free from snow.
We were now at a level of about 6000 feet, and, as it were, about
to take the ascent. The rocks of this region are highly folded,
1 The basin of Ashkala has been treated in its geological aspects by Abich in his
usually masterly manner {Geologische Forschungen in den kaitkasischen Ldndern, Vienna,
1882, pt. ii. sect. I, pp. \00 scq.y.
230 Armenia
and consist of serpentines and limestones weathered to various
hues. Two partridges were seated fearlessly on one of the ledges
a few yards from where we rode. The actual climb begins a little
further on, where the scene opens and you stand at the bottom
of the towering wall. There is situated among the snows the
Southern Kop Khan, from which the start is made. You see the
cJiaussce winding in a long series of spirals to a lofty gallery of the
range. It covers a distance between Pirnakapan and the pass of
about J^ miles.
To that gallery, which is nearly as elevated as the pass, we
proceeded to follow a much shorter track. In half-an-hour we
had gained the position after a valiant escalade, and the camera
was at once brought to bear. But our enemy was, alas ! the sun,
an inexpugnable adversary, shedding his rays from just the
quarter which we wished to embrace. Regretting the absence of
the resourceful Wesson, I was obliged to turn the instrument
towards the east-south-east. In that direction we commanded
the upper valley of the Euphrates (Fig. 171); but we were robbed
of a picture of the important landscape in the south.
It was a little after noon ; the mountains streamed with light,
and only above the deeply-seated river valley a heavy mass of
vapour hung. All the summits which are seen on this side of
that vapour belong to the block of mountain on the north. The
conical peak on the left of the illustration is the beautiful Jejen
Dagh. Beyond the mist, the distant heights are those of the
southern border in the neighbourhood of Erzerum.
In another half-hour we had reached about the highest point
upon the undulating snow-fields of the summit region. The Kop
itself, the mountain which gives its name to the pass, is a flat-
topped mass, rising with steep slopes on the right of the road.
The pass has an elevation of 8048 feet. So brilliant was the sun
that we were enabled to linger, and to attempt to realise the
panorama of the south.
The traveller who should approach Armenia by this well-
beaten avenue might fail to discover the characteristics of a great
tableland in the configuration of that extensive portion of her
area which is outspread from this pass. It is true that the range
he crosses resembles a large block of hard material rather than a
chain of mountains in the more usual sense. But the outline of
this mass is broken into peaks of every shape ; and the opposite
ranges display the same features, the whole combining to produce
Return to the Border Rans^es — ^aXarra, OaXaTra ! 231
<i
the impression of a troubled sea. How different was this land-
scape from that which I had overlooked from the pass of Zikar
on the north ! Yet the explanation of this diversity does not, I
think, belie the conception which a wide experience had inculcated
in my mind — the conception, namely, of a vast mass of elevated
country of which a prevailing characteristic is the flatness of its
surface. For in this landscape the levelling influence of the lavas
are almost absent, while, on the other hand, the operation of the
various processes of denudation have been conducted on a colossal
scale and with conspicuous results. The ancient sedimentary
deposits have been worn by their action into peaks of considerable
relative height, while the plains with their lake-like beds have, as
it were, usurped the character of the mountains by which they are
overhung. Reserving for further study the country between Frat
and Murad on the west of Erzerum and Mush, I need only
remark that its present aspect from the standpoint of this pass
was somewhat foreign from the idea of prevailing flatness which
similar prospects had invited me to form.
Two, and only two, distinct chains of heights were visible in
the south. The first, which was apparently the lower, was that
on the south of Erzerum, the Palandoken and the continuing
eminences toward the west. Behind this outline rose a second
and also horizontal series, which were identified by my informant,
a zaptieh who lives on the mountain, as the range on the north of
the Murad or Eastern Euphrates, known to him under the same
name as that of the district of Terjan. Between these two chains
lay a mass of vapour, suspended above the river which joins the
Western Euphrates below the town of Mamakhatun. A third
and further range, that of the Kurdish Mountains, beyond the
Murad, was not, and, according to the same authority, could not
be descried from this pass.^
Proceeding on our northward journey at ten minutes before
two, we entered, a little later, a break in the mass. In the
hollow flowed a torrent, partially encrusted with ice, the first of
the streams which find their way to the Black Sea. As we
1 Alacdonald Kinneir (Journey through Asia Minor, etc., London, l8l8, p. 358)
seems to have mistaken tliis Terjan range for that on the south of the Murad. He is
respectfully followed by the laborious Ritter {Erdkundc, vol. x. p. 743)- l^"' that
erudite geographer, to whom we owe so much, should have been more careful to qualify
the statement (p. 741) that the range which is crossed by the Kop Pass constitutes the
" Nordbegrenzung des armenischen I'lateaulandes. " A few months' personal travel
would have stood him in good stead after all his minute analysis of the works of
travellers.
2^2
Armenia
advanced, this shallow opening became a deep gorge, leading,
almost directh% towards the north. The road was taken by easy
gradients down this convenient valley, and, after a course of over
five miles from the culminating point of the pass, reached the
shelter known as the Northern Kop Khan. Here we rested for
an hour and a half, continuing our ride at half-past four o'clock.
We kept the torrent on our left, still adhering to the gorge, which
displayed a fine view backward to the top of the mountain mass.
A wall of stupendous height crowned its uppermost end, and
displayed the familiar flat edge. The strata, of a marmorised
limestone, which overhung the glen were much contorted, like
Fig, 172. On the Banks of the Chorokh above Baiburt.
the grain of a knot in a tree. After crossing a stream, in part
icebound, which we recognised as the Chorokh, we arrived at a
quarter-past si.x at the little settlement of Maden Khan (5455 feet)
near Halwa Maden, distant some 6|- miles from our last halting-
place, or about 29 miles by the road from Ashkala.
I do not propose to follow in detail the further stages of our
journey to the coast of the Black Sea. But I have not yet
taken my reader to the extreme geographical limits of the
country which in the present work I am endeavouring to describe.
From Maden Khan it was still a ride of one and a half days to
the pass where you bid farewell to the Armenian plains. This
northerly extension of the highlands of Armenia is watered by
the Upper Chorokh.
February 8. — Leaving the cluster of wayside hospices in
which we had passed the night, our course was directed west-
Return to the Border Ranges — ^uXarra, 6aXaTTa\ 233
wards down the stream. On either bank rose hills of marble
with no great relative elevation, covered, like the valley, with deep
snow. The current sometimes flowed in an open channel, and as
often plunged beneath a continuous crust of ice. Not a single
tree, nor even a bush, was visible in the landscape. A little
further down the hills opened, and gave place to a stretch of
plain (Fig. 172). At the western end of this expanse they again
circled inwards, and the valley took an abrupt turn towards the
east. At the mouth of this passage is situated the castle and
town of Baiburt, barring the approach to these uppermost reaches
of the Chorokh.
But on the west of this picturesque and ruinous fortress the
heights which deflect the river to its long course toward the east
command the stronghold and detract from its value in modern
war. Indeed they constitute an undulating upland or plateau,
framed by the convex shapes of distant hills. At about its
highest point this plateau has an elevation of some 5620 feet.
Leaving the town, we made our way across this upland in a
direction of west to west-north-west ; and, in a little over an hour,
overlooked one of the flat depressions which have already been so
often described. Upon its snow-clad surface was placed an Armenian
village with three fine buildings, now in ruins, a relic of the old
times. What an eloquent memorial those shapely forms and
that finished masonry still preserved to a cultured and beneficent
race ! Varzahan was the name of the village ; but we had again
been placed under surveillance, and it was impossible to perpetuate
the image of these decaying remains.^
The ova or plain of Varzahan, to which we descended, is,
in some sense, a westerly extension of that portion of the valley
of the Chorokh which lies below the town of Baiburt. Yet it
was separated by a range of hills from the trough in the surround-
ing outlines through which we knew that the river must flow.
These hills circle southwards from the latitudinal chain of distant
heights which confine this ova and the Chorokh valley alike. A
passage is no doubt found by the streams which collect in the
plain and find their way to the Chorokh. We were reminded by
its appearance of the plain of Erzerum, of which many of the
features were reproduced on a smaller scale. It seemed to strike
^ But one of them has already been drawn by Layard (A'/ncvck and Babylon, p. 7);
and I here reproduce a photograph taken during our second journey, which shows some
interesting examples of old Armenian tombstones with rams' heads in the cemetery of
Varzahan (Fig. 173).
234
Anne Ilia
the last note of the distinctive theme to which we had been
Hstening for so many long months. The plain has an elevation
of about 5300 feet, and it is possible to scale the heights on its
northern border
and, in summer,
to pursue the
journey to Tre-
bizond/ But in
winter you are
taken up an
opening at its
westerly extrem-
ity which we may
call, after a con-
siderable village
which lies within
it, the valley of
Balakhor. This
\alley conducts
you in a westerly
direction, to the
ridge or ridges
which form the
water-parting on the south of the Ljxus, and on the west and east
of the Kharshut and Chorokh.
It was towards those dividing heights that we set out on
the 9th of February from the lonely station of Khadrak in the
valley of Balakhor. The stream which waters this valley and
finds its way to the plain of Varzahan was buried beneath a
continuous canopy of snow. The heights on either side were of
insignificant elevation, relative to the general level of the ground.
In half an hour a way diverged, well beaten by traffic, leading to
Kelkid and Erzinjan. It branched off on the left hand ; we
were at the head of the valley, surrounded by an amphitheatre of
hills. Our course was directed to the wall upon our right ; and
in another ten minutes we had gained the eminence. We were
standing not exactly on a ridge, but on the face of an upland,
over which the winds sweep in stormy weather with considerable
force. Yet another half- hour brought us to an elevation of
6468 feet, the saddle of the Vavuk Pass. We had arrived upon
1 Yqx the stages see Ch. XI. p. 240. The route is sliown on my map.
Fig. 173. Armenian Cemetery at Varzahan.
Return to the Border Ranges — ^oKarTa, ddXarral 235
the boundary line between two vilayets, of Erzerum and of
Trebizond.
I was informed that quite recently a Tartar horseman had
met his death while carrying the post across this pass. He was
overtaken and overwhelmed by a ti/^e or blizzard before he could
reach the shelter of the valleys on either side. Indeed the loss of
life to beasts of burden is considerable along this road. No more
eloquent evidence could be furnished of the want of humanity in
the natives than the callous indifference to the sufferings of dumb
animals which day by day is displayed upon these passes. Such
a habit of cruelty at once argues a lapse into barbarism, and
explains the perpetration of the nameless horrors which so often
shock the conscience of the West. We kept passing strings of
heavily-laden quadrupeds, which with their dull eyes, drooping
heads, and fleshless bodies, covered with sores, had lost the
distinctive qualities of the horse. None of them had any thighs
to enable them to breast the ascents, and most were incurabh'
lame. Their hocks were bent with curbs or swollen by spavins ;
one poor beast was dragging his hind legs behind him, and
another had one of his forelegs bent almost double. Neither — it
could not be doubted — were destined to reach Trebizond. So
they crawl over the ground, from year's end to year's end, until
they close their miserable existence by sinking exhausted on a
pass. Even at the moment of liberation they are doomed to a
prolonged agony ; and, having been martyred all their life by the
barbarity of the human animal, they become victims of his
perverse humanity in their death. You will see them prone upon
the road, where their drivers have abandoned them to kick out
their life in the snow. Religious scruples prevent these misguided
monsters from giving them the despatch. We were sickened on
one occasion by the spectacle of a wretched horse which, with
glazed eyes, continued to paw in a convulsive manner a space of
ground which in his agony he had cleared of ice. At the end of
my revolver I compelled one of the drivers to sever his jugular
vein.
From such scenes the traveller turns to the contemplation of
Nature, not only with a sense of relief, but under an added
consciousness of her sublimity, the high exponent of the harmony
of things. The pass of Vavuk divides two landscapes of exactly
opposite nature, and leads over into a new climate and a new
world. The opposite wall of rock is dotted with low fir trees,
236 Ai'menia
which, as you proceed, increase in height and shade. The
opposite valley to which you descend is already warm by com-
parison with the bleak highlands from which you have come. By
the time the river is approached, the winding reaches of the Kharshut,
free, even at this season, of ice, great rolling masses of cloud are
sailing over the mountains, distilling into mingled snow and rain.
Even at this distance the senses recognise the sea. All the
characteristics of the border ranges, aligned in a deep belt upon
the coast, are displayed during the successive stages of a ride
of two and a half days. If the forests are less luxuriant than
on the side of the Rion, the view in places recalls, even during
this season, those tree-clad parapets. Valleys of immense depth
are overtowered by rocky precipices ; it is essentially a land of
crest and trough. And just as the scene contrasts with the
Armenian landscapes, so the people and the types are new. The
familiar features of the Greek take the place of the Armenians,
and the ear is greeted by the language of the Greeks.^ Yet
another pass must be traversed, the wintry pass of Zigana (6640
feet), and from its further slopes expands a vista of the distant
sea. The thermometer has risen to 62° by the time the sea-
board is reached. And there, at Trebizond, the roses blossom in
the gardens while the Armenian rivers are buried beneath the ice.
1 Not that all the people one meets of distinctively Greek type are Christians.
Especially in the valleys most remote from the coast, as in that of the Kharshut, the
inhabitants of Greek race have largely been converted to Mohammedanism, or have
become Mohammedan for prudential or worldly motives. So complete has been the
transformation in some places, that, when I asked my host at Besh Kilisa — a man whose
physiognomy showed him to be a typical Greek — to what nationality he belonged, he
replied "Osmanli." A section of the inhabitants of Hamsi Keui— a village south of
the Zigana — represent a transitional stage. Their children are baptized, but a mollah
recites prayers over them. They bear a Mohammedan and a Christian name, as, for
instance, that of Ahmed Apostolos. When they die the papa and the mollah dispute
the corpse. They have neither church nor mosque. When they meet a Greek they bid
him kallispera, and, when a Mohammedan, incrhaba.
o
CHAPTER XI
REVISIT ARMENIA
Four years had elapsed since the close of my last journey.
Armenia had in the meanwhile been the scene of tragedies which
had touched the conscience of the West. Petty disturbances
among the mountaineers in the wild fastnesses of Sasun, south
of Mush, were magnified by the provincial authorities into the
appearance of a revolution, and were suppressed with savage
cruelty. The example of a single massacre was not sufficient to
overawe the Armenians ; the Palace had tasted blood, and their
special agents throughout the provinces were eager for the work
anci its rewards. Against the counsels of their best officials and
the entreaties of Turkey's truest friends, the Palace organised
a series of butcheries on a great scale. The events in Sasun
were followed by similar atrocities not only in the towns and
villages inhabited by Armenians but also in the capital itself.
Europe, deeply pledged to secure good government among the
Armenians, was unwilling to embark on a policy of decisive
action, paralysed by the mutual jealousies of the principal Powers.
During those dark times the country had been closed to travellers ;
and it was only with the greatest difficulty that I was at length
enabled to complete the studies which had been interrupted on
the former occasion by the rigour of winter.
June 7, 1898. — On a day of early summer, when the air was
fresh and the sun warm, my friend Oswald and myself set out
from Trebizond, to perform the journey which forms the subject
of the last chapter in the reverse sense. I have already described
the stages from Erzerum to the Vavuk Pass ; but it may be
desirable to notice briefly the intermediate section between the
sea and that natural threshold of the Armenian tableland. For
a distance of over a mile the cJiaussce follows the coast beneath
238 Armenia
the shadow of that table-topped mass of dark porphyritic lava
which is known as Boz Tepe. The view ranges over the con-
siderable delta of the Pyxitis — a strip of sand and pebbles
projecting far into the sea, which is discoloured for some distance
by the suspended sediment. But the large prospects are at once
lost as you enter the river valley and proceed at right angles to
your former course. The stream is swirling along, divided into
several channels, and overhung at a respectable interval by tall
cliffs. In places the outlines open and disclose a country of
rolling hills, as where the large and white-faced monastery of
Aiana is seen high-seated in a charming landscape on the right
bank. It is indeed an admirable approach to the recesses of the
Pontic chain, this valley of Deirmen. It leads with much of the
straightncss and space of a church's nave through the lofty and
intricate outworks of the range almost to its spine at the Zigana
Pass.
Before we had completed ten miles the wooded heights on
either hand were dotted with the dark forms of the first spruce
firs. The valley narrows ; the walls grow steeper, and tower to a
greater altitude ; but you never lose the expanse of sky. If the
scene recalls Tyrol you are not conscious of confinement ; there is
none of the chill and darkness of an Alpine glen. The character
of the landscape is influenced by the alternation of tuffs with
lavas ; the latter become much darker and more compact. To the
tuffs are largely due the softer spaces of field and garden ; while
the lava, which has cooled into a roughly columnar structure,
produces parapets of immense height and precipitous crags. A
little below the town of Jevizlik we stood in wonder at the foot
of a cliff composed of a rock of this description. It fills the angle
between the main stream and a tributary to the left bank, and it
must be at least 1500 feet high. The columns of lava suggested
the appearance of an organ of colossal proportions. And what a
romantic feature, the bold perspective of the side valley, the
cultivation carried upwards by almost impossible gradients, the
vivid green of the young corn contrasting with patches of fallow
land, coloured a light purplish-brown ! Along the summits of
the wide amphitheatre of ridges the forest rises against the field
of the sky.
Jevizlik, the first station, is reached at about the twentieth
mile ; it is situated just below the confluence of a considerable
stream which comes in on the right bank. A rough road diverges
Revisit Armenia 239
from the diaussce at this point, and follows the course of the
tributary. It leads to the famous monastery of Sumelas, a ride
or sharp walk of three and a half hours. We passed bands of
pilgrims on their way to this resort— whole families, an entire
village packed up and piled upon horses, the women astride with
their babes beside them, the men on foot. The monastery is
built on a ledge of an almost perpendicular wall of mountain, at
a height of 4450 feet above sea-level, and of 800 feet above the
torrent which hisses at the base of the rock. It is placed almost
at the head of the beautiful valley of Meiriman — a valley which,
indeed, is narrower than that of the Pyxitis, but which combines
in its various stages all the features, of this fair land. Orchards
and stretches of forest trees clothe the easier gradients at the
mouth of the opening — a large circle of heights soaring up into
the heaven above purple slopes, where the soil is exposed by the
plough. Clusters of wooden chalets overlook the winding river,
and each bolder eminence is crowned by a white, stone chapel.
As the valley becomes a glen — the term is ill adapted to express
the scale upon which Nature has worked — the vegetation increases
in luxuriance and changes in character, until the scene assumes
that strange and almost supernatural appearance which has found
such just expression in the weirdness of the Kolchian myths.
The foliage, which almost obscures the light of the brightest day,
is composed of alder, lime, walnut and elm, of beech and Spanish
chestnut, of ash and, on the higher slopes, of tall firs. Trees of
holly, of azalea and of rhododendron suppl}- an undergrowth
which at this season is ablaze with bloom. In the autumn the
pink, poisonous crocus {coldiicwii) springs from the rocks, of double
the length and size of the ordinary flower. Fungus with crimson
stools start from the silver lichen, which diffuses an unearthly light.
Long streamers of grey-green lichen float on the lower branches,
from which a profusion of creepers are festooned. Here and there
the thicket opens to an expanse of lawn. The forest is fed by
the clouds collected in this caldron of Nature ; and from the
month of May to that of October the windows of the monastery
are seldom greeted by the rays of the sun (Fig. 175).
The traveller to Erzerum who is in search of romantic scenery
could not do better than follow this valley of Meiriman. It is the
route which I selected upon our return from this second journey ;
but it is not practicable during the winter months. A steep
ascent from the head of the glen leads to a country of grassy
240 Armenia
uplands, rising gradually to the pass of the Kazikly Dagh. This
pass is the more easterly counterpart of the Zigana, but exceeds
it in height by more than looo feet (8290 as against 6640 feet).
The barrier on the north of the plain of Baiburt is crossed at the
Kitowa Dagh by a pass of 8040 feet (as against the 6470 feet of
the Vavuk Pass). Beyond the Kazikly Dagh there is a fair track
which is used by caravans in "summer ; but between that point
and Trebizond they pursue a shorter route. This approach to
the plains of Armenia is almost in a direct line, avoiding the long
detour by Gumushkhaneh. The journey from the cloister of
Sumelas to Baiburt may be performed in two days.^
On the present occasion we were constrained by perverse
orders from Constantinople to follow the chaussee. The tributary,
which we crossed at Jevizlik by a bridge of several arches,
appeared to bring almost an equal volume of water as the river
which it feeds. The upper stages of the main valley are pictur-
esque in character, with none of the gloom and savagery of the
vale of Meiriman. The slopes on either side terrace upwards into
the haze of the sky ; and for some miles above Jevizlik they are
alive with settlements. At mid-height you admire the frequent
clusters of the villages ; the churches are built on projecting
pinnacles of rock, and consist of a group of gables surmounted by
a dome and approached through a belfry with two storeys of open
arches. A white-faced monastery is seen high up on the opposite
or left bank of the river ; it fills a niche or natural recess in a
vertical wall of rock, and its roofs are overhung by the roof of the
cave. The stream is spanned at frequent intervals by little stone
bridges with single arches, the arches highly curved and the
roadway rising to the centre of the bridge. In one place the way
which led up the cliff-side to a village was flanked at its upper end
by a strong tower from which the inmates could resist attack from
below. Above this inhabited zone, at the foot of the firs, near
the crests of the ridges, sparse hamlets or isolated chalets are just
discerned in the vague detail of the uppermost slopes. A report
of guns, sounding distant, comes from one of those eyries where
1 The following are tlie stages : — Jevizlik — Sumelas, loi miles ; Sumelas across the
Kazikly Dagh to Tashkopri, 1 1 miles ; Tashkiipri via Tshorak Khan and across the
Kitowa Dagh to Mezere Khan, i8j miles ; Mezere Khan to Baiburt, 177? miles. From
Baiburt the summer road to Erzerum 7'iA the Khosabpunar Pass may be taken, the stages
being: — Baiburt — Maden Khan, 10^ miles; INIaden Khan to Khosabpunar village on
the south side of the pass (S600 feet), 28 miles ; Khosabpunar village via Maimansur to
Erzerum, 29 miles. Total distance from Trebizond by this route, 145 miles, as against
the 199 miles of the chams^e. See Ch. X. p. 225.
Revisit Armenia 241
they are celebrating a marriage feast. In the fields, with their
strange gradients, men and women are at work, the men lithe of
limb, the women square-set, with skirts to below the knee and thick
stockings on their legs. It is a dreamy southern scene, in one
hand beauty, in the other squalor ; and it repeats on a large scale
the characteristics of those transverse cuttings which extend from
the coast to the highlands of Asia Minor and are inhabited by a
population of Greek race.
The chaussce follows the right bank, at some height above
the stream, in full possession of the views on either hand. The
valley maintains its width ; but the nature of the landscape
changes ; cultivation ceases, and the forest descends to the road.
Thickets of rhododendron are seen for the first time — the tree-like
bushes with which we are familiar in England and the large
flowers. The brakes were a mass of bloom ; a little higher we
met the azaleas ; the yellow azalea and the pale mauve petals of
the rhododendron were in the splendour of their latest blossoming.
In the lush forest we noticed the beech tree, the walnut, and the
maple, the hazel, the oak and the elm ; the elders were in full
flower, and the cherry trees were conspicuous for their number
and size. The more open spaces were covered with masses of
forget-me-nots ; calices of hellebore, withered yellow, rested on
the rank grass ; and yellow mullein, filling the air with its subtle
perfume, rose from among the rocks. Little waterfalls leapt
through the deep shade of narrow clearings ; we were nearing
the head of the valley. A bed of sandstone, holding the
moisture like a sponge, interrupts the lava beds. The ridges
circle inwards ; the valley becomes an amphitheatre, and its
stately character is preserved to the last.
Upon a terrace of this amphitheatre the little settlement of
Lower Hamsi Keui commands the long perspective towards the
north. It is distant some fourteen miles from Jevizlik and
thirty-four from Trebizond. We made our stage at the Upper
Hamsi Keui, over a mile beyond the Lower, by a continuous
ascent. It is situated above one of the two larger side valleys
which converge towards the hamlet first named. It is from here
that you commence the first portion of the climb to the Zigana
Dagh, through forest glades in which the spruce firs alternate
with the beech woods, and which are carpeted with an under-
growth of rhododendron and azalea and tall palm-leaved bracken.
As we rose on the following morning above our surroundings we
VOL. II R
242
Armenia
looked in vain for the vista of sea, the horizon being veiled in
mist. Our ears were greeted by the song of nightingales, and
by the clear call-notes of the cuckoo ; while the plashing of
innumerable streamlets and waterfalls mingled to a background
of tremulous sound. Flocks of sheep were passed on their way
to their summer pastures, and we could hear their liquid bells
from afar. They were accompanied by shepherds with dogs not
much smaller than mastiffs, which had long white hair and tails
like a fox's brush. The side valley is left behind, and then a
second and still smaller valley ; until the forest ceases and you
enter the region of dreary heights. But the azalea still continues,
mounting the ridge like our English gorse and not less riotous of
flower. Patches of snow remain unmelted even at this season.
At the saddle of the pass we had covered about 10 miles and
risen nearly 2600 feet (Upper Hamsi Keui, 4060 feet ; Zigana
Pass, 6640 feet).
The slopes are inclined at an angle of about 30 and the
rock is much decomposed. Time was wanting for a careful
examination ; but Oswald favoured the conclusion that it is hard
and holocrystalline, similar in character to that of the Kitowa
Dagh further east. The descent is long and gradual from the
pass to the valley of the Kharshut, which eats its way through
wild mountains to the Black Sea. The road is carried along the
heights, on the east of a basin of ridges, by a succession of terraces.
In winter, when the snow spreads a carpet at the foot of the fir
trees, the view is at once inspiring and superb. But in summer
the long stretches of barren yellow talus — a trachyte, decomposed
and weathered a staring yellow, fatigue the eye and repel the
sense. There is a certain contrast in the vegetation of the
southern slopes. The luscious forest has disappeared, and so
have the rhododendra. ; but the azalea and the spruce firs still
clothe the walls facing the Pontic winds. On the other hand, the
Scotch fir takes the place of its slenderer rival on the parapets
which are less exposed to the moisture. At the foot of the main
descent are placed at intervals three hamlets with numerous
caravanserais. The first is Maden ; the other two are known
respectively as the Upper and the Lower Zigana (4330 feet). The
distance from the pass to the Lower Zigana may be about 4^ to
5 miles. Thence it is another j\ miles to the bridge over the
Kharshut (3100 feet). The landscape, of immense extent and of
the most savage character, is framed in the south by the serrated
Revisit Armenia 243
outline of the Giaour Dagh, veined with snow and capped by cloud.
Between the pass and the hamlets we noticed huge volcanic dikes
seaming the hillsides with bold causeways of finely crystalline rock.
The little town of Ardasa on the banks of the Kharshut
affords shelter for the night. It is placed at a distance of about
2 miles above the bridge, and of about 24^- miles from the Upper
Hamsi Keui. The straggling settlement is overtowered by a cliff
some thousand feet in height, perhaps a limestone and coloured
a rusty brown. On the summit are seen the fragments of a
mediaeval castle. Between Ardasa and the pass of Vavuk we
followed next day the winding river, tracking it up almost to its
source. The valley is fairly open, with a number of side valleys ;
but the scene is desolate and bare. Not a remnant of the azalea
enlivens the landscape ; the vegetation adheres to the margin of
the water — fruit trees and willows, the large mauve flowers of the
field-iris, hawthorn in bloom, the yellow blossoms of the barberry.
There is a certain air of comfort in the pretty wooden houses
with their gables and wooden roofs, shining white. But this note
is often and quickly lost in the sounding discords of a chaotic
Nature — the shales and limestones compressed into almost im-
possible contortions and baked and uplifted by huge bosses of
igneous rock. Beyond such a devil's gorge, which is overhung
by a robber's eyrie, is situated the considerable town of Giimush-
khaneh, famous for its silver mines, now no longer worked. You
leave it on your right and pass through a lower suburb, at a
distance from Ardasa of about 16^ miles.
Another i o miles brings you to the large village of Tekke ;
and about 2 miles further a bridge crosses the Kharshut. It
takes a road which here diverges to follow a tributary to the
left bank, and which leads across the Giaour Dagh to Erzinjan.
We sl,ept at Murad Khan, a comfortable shelter, having made
a stage of about 33 miles (alt. 4430 feet). On the morning
of the loth of June we again pursued the river, now become
shallow, and were soon passing beneath the castled crag of Kalajik,
one of the wonders of the journey to Erzerum (Ch. X., Fig. i 74,
taken in winter). The size of the ruin and the scale of the
outworks, which defend each ledge of the limestone precipice, far
surpass the similar fastnesses in this wild valley. At 7 miles
we left the stream to ascend by easy gradients the gentle slopes
of the Vavuk Pass (6468 feet). At the saddle we had covered a
distance of rather over 10 miles.
244 Armenia
We stood on the threshold of the Armenian tableland,' beneath
a new climate and in face of a new scene. The contrast impressed
Oswald, who saw it for the first time, and who at once seized the
special features of this new world. We had crossed the zone of
sparse fir trees ; the summit is completely barren ; the plain
before us, as well as the rounded outlines of the opposite hills,
devoid of vegetation of any kind. Only by the margin of a
slowly-flowing river beneath us beds of buttercups marked out in
patches its idle course. Limestones and shales are the material
of this and the further eminences ; it is a country of soft, swelling
downs on a large scale. The clouds stand arrested on the
higher summits of this barrier ; the sky beyond is pellucid, the
air bracing, the tints warm. As we made our way beneath the
night to our distant goal beyond Baiburt the evening star was
shining with the brilliance of a beacon, and my friend mistook
the milky way for a luminous cloud. When we arrived in
Erzerum (6168 feet) on the 14th of June the lilac filled the
gardens with its heavy scent. It was commencing to blossom
in our native country before we left its shores behind.
CHAPTER XII
ACROSS THE CENTRAL TABLELAND TO KHINLS
The site of Erzerum is already familiar to my reader ; he sees
her towers and minarets on the southern margin of a lake-Hke
plain, and raised on the dais of a fan of detritus from the southern
line of heights. He knows the large surroundings of that city of
inspiring prospects : the long and regular line of the block of
mountains in the north, with their Sheikhjik, their Akhbaba, Jejen
and Kop ; the vague and gloomy passage of the Gurgi Boghaz
through those mountains ; and in the east the transverse parapet
which interrupts the issue eastwards, that freak of Nature, the
Deveh Boyun. The southern barrier, which rises in the peak of
Palandoken to a height of 4500 feet above the town, would
appear to constitute an impassable obstacle to traffic ; and in fact
precludes it during the winter months. Yet there are several
natural openings in the steep slopes of that barrier, leading to the
uplands of Tekman on its further side. Of these the principal
passage is that of Palandoken, crossing the so-called crater of the
Palandoken — Eyerli Dagh.
June 20. — Our course was directed up the fan of detritus to this
Palandoken Pass.^ Our little horses, full of corn, curveted along
the path through the dreary waste of water-worn stones. Erzerum
was soon behind us, lost already in the expanse. What a contrast
between these cities of Asia and those of Europe with their
suburbs and villas ! These repose upon their plains like a ship
upon the ocean, which you speak, and all is soon again blank.
1 The following are my estimates of the mileage distances along our route to Khinis :
Erzerum — Palandoken Pass, 7j miles ; Palandoken Pass — Madrak, 8 miles ; Madrak
— Khedonun, ii^ miles; Khedonun — Kherbesor, 8| miles; Kherbesor — Ali Mur, 7
miles ; Ali Mur — Khinis, i8 miles. Total, 60^ miles. Such estimates throughout this
work are based on pace and on time occupied ; and the results have been checked by the
positions fixed by cross bearings.
246 Armenia
In half- an -hour from the enceinte we gained a metalled road,
which follows the course of a torrent of some size. It leads to
two modern forts, planted high on the southern slope, on either
side of the pass. The pass itself is placed beneath the peak of
Palandoken, upon its western flank. The road goes winding up
the gorge, and along the eastern side of the so-called crater,
crossing and re-crossing the torrent by a number of bridges.
A nameless and minor mountain of symmetrical proportions
and vaulted form rises on the northern margin of the cirque.
We passed between it and the slopes of Palandoken, supported
by the outworks of the larger mass. Patches of snow lay on the
grass at this increased altitude, their melting remnants fringed by
bright fieldflowers. On the banks were Pulsatillas, with their
drooping bells and scent of wine; buttercups and marsh marigolds
in the beds of the runnels ; forget-me-nots in profusion on every
side. Still the scene was bleak in character ; and the sailing
cumulus clouds sent their shadows over a surface which has been
worn by ice and snow and water, and seems alien even to the
hardiest plants. Such was the appearance of the irregular caldron
on our right hand — a yawning hollow sapping the bases of the
adjacent peaks. Closed on the south, it sends its drainage
through deep valleys to the plain. The white face of a limestone
rock interrupts the more grassy spaces, and is varied by the
darker serpentines. The soaring heights around the cirque are
of eruptive volcanic origin, and display the lava flows. After a
sharp ascent, the cJianssce reaches the standing southern wall of
this caldron, and is taken, in a fine gallery, for some distance
along its northern slope. Its cliff-like outline extends from the
heights of Palandoken to those of Eyerli in the west. A turn of
the road conducts us to the pass (9780 feet).
It was three o'clock ; but the snow lay in sheets over the
hollows, and the temperature was only 46° Fahrenheit. Grey
clouds veiled the sky in the northern landscape, and were
collected in inky masses about the snowy peaks of the Chorokh
region. The view in that direction, and along the two parallel
lines of heights which border the course of the Frat, impressed us
in a double sense. On the one hand it was the great height of
the summits in the north, which now showed up behind th'e cone
of Sheikhjik ; we concluded that they must belong to the group
of mountains in which the Chorokh has its source. The other
fact which appeared plain was the rising and massing of both
Across the Central Tableland to Khinis 247
lines of heights in the far west. Following the chain upon
which we stood across the slopes of the Eyerli Dagh, or pursuing
the outline of the opposite barrier across the plain, the long per-
spective westwards met in shining masses of mountain, covered
with snow and with precipitous sides. In the case of the
opposite barrier, Kop and Jejen and Akhbaba were dwarfed and
humbled by those Georgian heights upon the one side, and, on
the other, by those giants in the west.
A soldier, muffled in an overcoat, descends upon us from the
nearest fort, and bids us to desist from our investigations. — The
tripod had been erected : and they could see us taking bearings,
which in this country, devoid of maps, is regarded as spying.
But the bearings had been taken, and we were not loth to leave.
The road becomes a track as you descend the southern slopes ;
we might say farewell to roads for many weeks.
Tekman lies before us — a vast plateau, a continuous basin,
stretching towards the foot of a gently vaulted opposite mountain
with long horizontal outline and shield-shaped slopes. It is the
outline of the Bingol Dagh ; such its appearance at this distance ;
it is thirty-two miles away as the crow flies. It constitutes
the opposite rim of the basin, the counterpart of these heights in
the north. Snow is lying in large quantities even upon its lower
contours, a fact explained by their northern aspect and rounded
shape (Fig. 176).^ The southern declivities of the barrier upon
which we are standing are only flecked with snow. Bingol is
little more than the culmination upon the horizon of the long
outline of the tableland — a snow-clad ridge of little relative
height. In places hard, black rock shows through the shining
canopy, just below the crest of the ridge. In the east the
highest point is but an eminence of the cliff-like parapet ; but in
the west there is a low vaulting which resembles a peak. In
front of this western summit rises a mass of dark rock.
No intervening forms obstruct the view over the basin to that
long, low, east-west ridge. Nor further round, towards the east,
is the landscape interrupted, except at an immense interval and
by imposing shapes. At a distance of fifty-two miles, a second
shield-shaped giant is less conspicuous because only streaked
with snow. It is Khamur, a volcanic mass beyond the plain of
' The illustration was taken from a hill near Khedonun, almost in the centre of the
basin-like area. But the appearance both of basin and of mountain are substantially
the same from the Palandoken Pass. I may refer my reader to the similar landscape
taken in winter (Ch. \"III. Fig. i6i).
248 Armenia
Khinis — a plain concealed by these higher levels, but indicated
in places by a sharp edge, where the plateau breaks abruptly to
the floor of the plain. As the train of Khamur declines, a very
lofty and pronounced mountain towers up into the sky. None
of our attendants know its name ; but it is the Akh Dagh, seen
in profile, the boundary of the Khinis region on the north. It is
forty miles distant ; such are the limits in that direction ; while in
the west the eye is arrested by outlines from the adjacent heights.
We cannot see Sipan for haze.
A better standpoint than that of the pass from which to
realise this region is afforded by the brow of a hill a few miles
west of the village of Madrak, to which we mounted on the
following day. What a bleak and lonely scene ! A country of
rolling dowais extends on every side, framed by the distant land-
marks just described. Yet the prevailing hue is not that of
grass, even at this season ; but of naked limestone, weathered a
pale ochre, or of serpentine, dull-green or bluish-grey. Both
rocks compose hills of a gentl\' rounded character ; the lime-
stones are most often capped by slabby lavas, which resist the
crumbling and contribute to the horizontal appearance of all
higher forms. The few clouds which have scaled the barrier of
the Palandoken send liquid shadows over the undulating expanse.
Of cultivation there is little — in places a patch of light reddish-
brown ; the stones are thickly strewn upon the fallows. The
sparse hamlets, built of mud and stone, are lost in the folds of
the hills.
We were disappointed with the flora. We saw whole beds of
white anemones ; vigorous fennel and slender ferns filled the
crevices between the rocks. The long grass was coloured by
the ubiquitous forget-me-nots ; magenta primulas flourish in the
frequent little marshes, and masses of buttercups along the
margins of the streams. Such flowers, although common and
humble, filled the air with perfume ; and few countries in the
world are endowed with such strong, sweet air. The earlier
hour and the clearer day enlarged the scope of our vision ; and
the snow-robed Sipan, a second Ararat, was a ghostly presence
in the south-east. We strove to identify the outlines on the
extreme horizon of the half circle ; but several even of the
larger masses were not marked on any map. In the west the
general level of the country was higher, and with less distinctive
forms. In that direction the opposite heights, of Bingol and of
Across the Central Tableland to Khinis 249
Palandoken — the rims of the basin — appeared in perspective
ahnost to meet. And over the edge of the Bingol series you
could see the mountains on the north of the Murad, emerging in
the far south-west. Looking backwards to the northern barrier,
we saw the white face of the limestone emerging in patches from
the rough grass on its slopes. It is little more than the elevated
and broken rim of the plateau country over which we were making
our way. The Akh Dagh showed up boldly on the limits of the
shallow synclinal described by these wintry, waterworn uplands.
Deeply eroded in that direction, they present a flat and more
uniform surface as they stretch, mile upon mile, with gently
shelving contours, to the opposite slopes of Bingol.
What track will you follow, or. what course will you shape
towards Khinis and its fertile plain ? The natives take a route
by Tashkesen and Chaurma, and descend to the plain over the
Akhviran Pass. They travel in armed caravans. We had passed
such a cavalcade on the road from Palandoken, at the head of
which, surrounded by attendants, armed to the teeth, rode a
woman, muffled and veiled. But a portion of this route I had
already followed during my former journey ; and I was anxious
to penetrate into the little -known region in the direction of
Bingol. The Kurdish village of Madrak is situated on the further
side of an affluent of the Araxes, at a distance of some eight
miles from the Palandoken Pass. Although it lies in a hollow,
near a marsh, abounding in snipe, it is about looo feet higher
than Erzerum (7061 feet). Our zaptieh professed to know a
track which led in the desired direction, and which should take
us by a direct route to Khinis. Starting at three o'clock, after a
morning of storm and rain, we followed a path which conducted
us in a southerly direction across the downs. A single hamlet
was passed by, and after a ride of over an hour we overlooked a
spacious valley and a considerable stream. On its left bank is
placed the considerable Kurdish village of Duzyurt ; the gay
dresses of the inhabitants brightened the scene. We forded the
stream, which must join the one on the north of Madrak ; the
water was pellucid, but barely reached to our horses' knees.
Regaining the uplands on its further side we enjoyed a larger
prospect ; the whole of Bingol was exposed to view as well as
some of the outlines in the east. Forget-me-nots shed a shimmer
of blue through the grass which, as usual in this region, was
thickly strewn with stones. At half-past five we were high up
250 Armenia
and in face of a second river valley ; some rude buildings were
collected on the down. We followed the course of this valley
some little distance towards the east, and pitched our tents near
the hamlet of Khedonun {6'j i 3 feet).
A band of armed Kurds, richly attired, were watering their
horses, or strolling idly along the banks of a little stream. The
hamlet is situated on its left bank. The inhabitants of this region
are at the present day exclusively Kurds ; but I was informed
that, as regards the district of Tekman in general, they are of
comparatively recent importation. The Armenian inhabitants
left en masse with the armies of Paskevich, and the Kurds
occupied their vacant villages. The Kurds of Khedonun were
said to belong to the Jibranli tribe — a tribe which is strong
in the caza of Varto. But among the Kurdish population some
have been brought from the distant vilayet of Diarbekr, at the
head of the Mesopotamian plains. These belong to the Zireki.
Our people fraternised with the horsemen ; they composed the
escort of a bridegroom who had come to the village from a neigh-
bouring hamlet in quest of a bride. The wedding was to take
place on the following day.
Although settled on the land, these Kurds are distinctly tribal,
and glory in the fact of being Kurds. Indeed throughout the
country which I crossed during my second journey, if I asked
people whether their village were " Osmanli," I received the
emphatic answer, " Kurd." Khedonun may serve as a sample of
the settlements of this district. It seemed fairly well-to-do. The
wealth of the villagers consists of their flocks and herds, upon the
produce of which they subsist. During winter they stable them
in the group of buildings which we had passed, and last winter a
pack of wolves destroyed their flock. They said that bears
abounded in the neighbourhood. They sow a little wheat, and
plant some onions and cabbage ; they profess to have tried
potatoes, but it was a failure, owing to the late frosts. Indeed
the night was very cold, not much above freezing ; and even at
ten o'clock on the following morning the shade temperature was
only 62, although from sunrise the day had been warmed by a
brilliant sun. The wedding was extremely picturesque. The
procession, all on horseback, made a circuit of the countryside in
the lap of which the hamlet lies. The bride was robed in a red
shawl, and sat astride of a milk-white horse. A veil of yellow
silk, which floated in the breeze, completely concealed her face.
Across the Central Tableland to Khmis 251
On either side rode two women, veiled and dressed in white.
The horsemen, in gala attire, followed or flanked the ladies ; all
proceeded at a walk. But from time to time this irksome restraint
was broken through by an explosion of wildness ; and a shouting
warrior, mad with excitement, would dash forward at full gallop,
brandishing his rifle like a stick.
The Araxes, or Egri Chai, as it is called in the district, flows
at a little distance south of the hamlet and receives the runnel
which skirts Khedonun. That it was the Araxes appeared plain
from the volume of water which it brought, from the direction from
which it was flowing, and from our subsequent research. Mount-
ing to an eminence south of the village, we observed some lofty
mountains on the sky-line in the west. The boldest peak among
them lay almost above the course of the river, as it meandered
towards the east. One of the Kurds knew that peak by the name
of Sheikhjik. The relation of these mountains to the plateau
country we were enabled to ascertain at a later date. Looking
up the valley we could see that it was carved out of calcareous
deposits, overlaid by flows of lava or tuff. These deposits, which
are without doubt lacustrine in character, extend for some miles
towards Bingol.
June 23. — After fording the Aras we made our way for some
considerable distance up the fairly broad valley of another little
river, which was already close to its confluence. The valley
favoured our course, having an almost meridional direction ; the
river was coming straight down from Bingol. The peculiar charm
of this region is the number of delicious streams which furrow the
breezy downs. With their grassy valleys and blue surface they
refresh and please the eye, and in part atone for the absence of
trees. The sides of the valley were seen to consist of a very
white lacustrine limestone ; these rocks were varied a few miles
further, and at length almost superseded, by sheets of dark brown
tuff. Among such surroundings is situated the considerable
Kurdish village of Kalaji, backed by a low cliff of rectangular
blocks of tuff, and overlooking the stream from its left bank.
At this point we crossed the river and regained the uplands ; our
landmarks were again in view. The snowy peak which we called
Sheikhjik lay on our right, above high outlines of these undulating
downs. Behind us stretched the outline of the Palandoken
heights ; while before us rose the western and more pronounced
eminence of the long ridge of Bingol. Our guide was making
2S2
Armenia
for a village at the foot of Bingol which bears the name of
Kherbesor.
Hitherto we had been pursuing an almost southerly course ;
it was time that we should be turning towards the east. This
wide curve is dictated by a block of limestone hills, which inter-
poses a sea of peaks, with little relative height, between Khedonun
and the plain of Khinis. We had now reached the base of the
platform which supports Bingol ; it breaks off just on the south
of the village of Kherbesor in a line of cliffs, which concealed the
eastern summit. We were in the district of Shushar ; our further
progress was directed up a wide valley between those cliffs and
the block of hills with the rounded peaks. The cliffs appeared to
consist of a dark lava, overlying calcareous lake deposits, which
again overlay the tuffs of the plain of Kherbesor. At a distance
of some five miles, Vv^e crossed a col (7340 feet) over a ridge of
limestone, joining the block of hills to the uppermost extremity of
the cliffs. Thence we descended to a spacious and roughly-
circular valley, a kind of caldron among the bleak heights. It
sends its drainage to the Araxes in a stream which skirts the
eastern outworks of the block of limestone hills. The hamlet of
All Mur, which nestles in the lap of this hollo\\', has an elevation
of 7180 feet. It belongs to the district of Khinis. It takes its
name from a grey-beard who became our guide on the following
day, and who was the founder of the settlement. Ali Mur and
his people are Kizilbash Kurds. He told me that they had
found on this site the relics of a village known as Kharaba, and
a cemetery which he believed was Mussulman.
Next morning we made our way in a south-easterly direction
up the amphitheatral heights. In less than an hour we arrived
at the col (7490 feet), a ridge of limestone hardened to marble,
just outside the limits of the lavas of Bingol. This pass lies some
miles south-west of that of Akhviran, and, like that pass, leads
down from the plateau country to the lower levels of the plain of
Khinis. Our immediate surroundings were lofty downs from
which rose the ridge of Bingol, both summits being fully exposed.
Beyond a vast trough, in which the plain of Khinis lay, the mass
of Khamur loomed large (Fig. 177). In the south-east soared the
snowy shape of Sipan, infinitely high.
As we descended we overlooked two deeply-eroded canons,
that on our right hand being much the more pronounced. The
stream which flows within it is known as the Bingol Su ; a smaller
Across the Cenh^al Tableland to Kliinis 253
affluent was coming down the minor canon. All these waters find
their way round the Khamur elevation by a long course to the
Murad. The face of the canon of the Bingol Su displayed lavas
and tuffs to a depth of about 1 00 feet ; these were seen to overlie
the limestone, and it was evident that they had come from Bingol.
Similar terraces capped the cliffs of the minor stream. The ride
over the tongue of high land which separates the canons was not
only remarkable for the wide prospects which opened before us,
but also for the refreshing change to a little vegetation and to
a kinder climate. Little oak trees clothe tHe slopes, and an
abundance of wild roses ; these and purple peonies were in full
bloom. When we reached the bed of the smaller river and, after
fording it, followed the Bingol Su, the pleasantness of our first
impression was increased. The valley had become wide, but with
high cliffs on either side ; that on the right showed a face of lava,
capped by tuff. These tuffs in the Bingol region resemble blocks
of masonry, and have the horizontal outline of a wall. The
heights on the left bank were of marble. The river winds like a
snake through a fairly wide meadow, in which the grass was
vividly green. Tall willows spread their shade over the crystal-
clear water ; and our English fieldflowers, the poppy being most
conspicuous, coloured the luscious undergrowth. Grave storks
were busy in the marshy places ; the song of nightingales was
heard in the groves. The limbs relaxed beneath this summer ;
we were loth to leave the sweet valley after a ride within it of
three-quarters of an hour. The river enters a gorge before issuing
into the plain ; our path took us up the heights above its right
bank. For some time we enjoyed fine views over the level
country in the east, and then descended to the bed of a tributary.
Here I greeted and Oswald admired the lonely " church in the
valley." ^ /\ little later we arrived on the edge of the canon in
which reposes the town of Khinis (5550 feet).
1 See Ch. \III. p. iS8.
Fig. 178. Kurdish DanciiNG Bt
CHAPTER XIII
FROM KHINIS TO TUTAKH
We pitched our tents upon the plain, above the caiion, on soil
consisting of a deposit of lacustrine sands and gravels, overlying
the lavas and tuffs from Bingol. Far and wide, in an immense
half circle, stretched the even, treeless surface — a surface scarcely
less blank or less receptive of the hues of the sky than the waters
which once rippled there. In the opposite direction rose the
shield-shaped mass of Bingol ; we stood at the foot of the several
terraces of lava which mount like steps from the plain to the
upper platform, whence volcanic emissions on a large scale have
poured towards the lower levels. Following the outline north-
wards, on the confines of the plain, its general character is that of
a long bank, with scarcely perceptible declivity ; until, about in
the region of the pass over which we had journeyed, it again rises
and becomes almost horizontal, curving over into the precipitous
marbles of the Akh Dagh, which oppose a barrier of commanding
proportions in the north. The flat edge of the Tekman high-
lands is due to a capping of lava, from which the Akh Dagh
From Kliinis to Tutakh 255
.limestones are free. In the recess of the curve, and in front of
the horizontal outline stands a hill of marble with a gently rounded
summit. The eye returns to the series of gloomy terraces lead-
ing upwards to the eastern summit of Bingol. Deep canons sear
the lower slopes.
Khinis was little changed since I had last stood in its gloomy
valley ; but I noticed a larger sprinkling of Kurds with the
vulture features, and a greater display of the Hamidiyeh ensign in
their lambskin caps. They appeared to have nothing to do ; but
the Armenian craftsmen were, as usual, busy at work in their
booths. The old, outspoken Kaimakam was dead. I could
scarcely conceal my feelings when I was introduced to his successor,
who, on his part, was at some pains to dissemble his want of ease.
It was my old acquaintance, the Kaimakam of Karakilisa ; but I
refrained from alluding to the adventure about the gun, I was
lost in astonishment at the change in his appearance. Four
years ago he was a supple young man, full of spirits, proud of his
wit, and spending his leisure in hunting Kurds. He had become
middle-aged, almost old. His eyes had lost their lustre and his
figure its shape. He rolled on the divan as he spoke. I
enquired after Ali Bey, the rascally Karapapakh ; the reply came
that he too was dead. He had pined away — such was his phrase
— under Government surveillance. The resourceful character of
my old host was the one quality which appeared to remain to
him. My cook had mutinied that morning, and could not be
found anywhere ; but he soon succeeded in tracking him out.
He seemed to regret the society of the stupid miralais, the
delighted gallery to which he used to play. A single companion
of this description was vouchsafed to him at Khinis — an officer
of the regular army stationed in the town to drill the Kurdish
yeomanry. I enquired of this individual whether I could be
shown a regiment exercising. He replied that they were called
out only during April. Had they trained last April ? The
answer was in the negative, but it was hoped they would do so
next year. They were very brave men.
My present object was to follow the course of the Murad from
Tutakh to Melazkert.^ By shaping a direct course to the former
of these places, we might become involved in an intricate,
1 The following were our stages to Tutakh: — Khinis — Dedeveren, 17 miles;
Dedeveren — Gunduz, 8 miles ; Gunduz — Gopal, 9. miles ; Gopal — Rashan, 8j miles ;
Rashan — Alkhes, 23^ miles, several of which might have been saved ; Alkhes — Tutakh,
I Si miles. Total, 84^ miles.
256 Armenia
mountainous country ; but, on the other hand, we should avoid
the beds of the rivers, and become better acquainted with the
configuration of the land. Leaving Khinis soon after noon on
the 26th of June, we gained the valley of the Bingol Su ; and, as
far as the large Armenian village of Chevermeh, followed its
tortuous channel. Low cliffs, composed of lacustrine deposits,
border the meadows through which it flows on either hand.
Chevermeh, where we forded the stream, has some 150 ant-hill
houses ; it is surrounded by a pleasant oasis of willow trees, which
cluster at the confluence of the Teghtap Su. A few small fields
of potato and of vegetable marrow indicated a rather higher
standard of life. A hedge of pink wild roses was a pleasure to
see. Several very young girls, almost naked, were playing in the
shade by the water, and we were surprised to observe the fairness
of their hair. Some of the villagers are Protestants, devoted
disciples of Mr. Chambers, the head of the American Mission at
Erzerum. They are indebted to him for relief during the past
years of bad harvests ; but they professed themselves confident of
an excellent harvest during the present year. The missionaries
have established a school and orphanage in their midst. The
village reflects the greatest credit upon the Americans, the people
being well spoken and polite. They have their share, too, of
material prosperity ; and we had seldom seen such herds of cattle
and droves of horses.
Having gained the heights on the left bank of the river, we
struck obliquely across the plain, in the direction of the Akh
Dagh, which shone in the softening glow. It is well named tJie
ivJiite mountain, being composed of hard calcareous rock, which
scarcely supports a trace of vegetation. Seen from in front, it
forms a chain many miles in length, inclined, roughly speaking,
towards south-east. It has been carved out into valleys of great
depth, from which rise a succession of bold peaks. This portion
of the plain of Khinis is little cultivated, and in a most hap-
hazard manner. There is, however, an abundance of water, and,
if stony, the soil is fairly fertile. From, time to time we were
compelled to turn aside from a patch of corn which already was in
ear. The large Armenian village of Kozli was seen reposing on
the basal slope of the Akh Dagh. Another Armenian settlement,
that of Yeni Keui, lay directly upon our course. The day was
drawing to a close as we approached Dedeveren, a Kurdish village
where we decided to camp. Wc had been travelling through a
From K/iiuis to T2Uakk 257
country which was typically Armenian — a spacious plain, quite
treeless, but clothed with warm and delicate hues, and framed in
the distance by mountains of great individuality. In one direction
itwas Bingol ; in another Khamur ; while Sipan stood so high that
he could be seen from the river valley, always a ghostly presence
in the sky. We pitched our tents a little distance west of the
village, and looked across its stacks of tezek and wreathing smoke
to the dim white form of Sipan. It is characteristic of Kurds
that they never approach one another if they have anything to
communicate. They remain at a distance and shout. Such
clamour is at its height towards evening, when the flocks and herds
are brought in from the pastures. Groups of gaily-dressed people
had gathered round us ; a little boy, stepping forward, makes an
offering of a snow-white rabbit. The setting sun sheds a glow of
orange and amber above the horizontal outline of Bingol. A
single group of clouds, torn into tatters, as by a storm, repose
motionless against the lights of the western sky. As those lights
wane a crescent moon has risen above the white mountam, and a
little dew falls. Soon the watchman sends his long-sustained cry
into the night, arousing the bark and howling of the dogs.
Next morning we proceeded towards the extremity of the
Akh Dagh, where it sinks into the plain. After passing a copious
spring, welling up in a little basin (the source of the Akher Gol
Su), we reached the Armenian hamlet of Gunduz. Our path had
led us over ground which was fairly high, and was composed of
travertine. A new mountain had come to view behind the
Khamur heights. Although of imposing size, it is not placed
upon maps ; and none of our people knew its name. It was the
bold and isolated Bilejan. From Gunduz we made an excursion
to the banks of the Bingol Su, at the large Armenian village of
Karachoban. The stream was winding at the base of the
Khamur heights, through a river-valley about a mile in width.
The fact that these heights are not the train of a volcano, as their
appearance might suggest, had already been divined as we made
our way at a distance ; it was now established beyond doubt.
They were seen to consist of lacustrine deposits ; higher up,
patches of white limestone emerged from the scanty bush. The
lavas of Khamur rose at once above and behind them, towering
up in terraces. The block of mountain had become low ; the
river pierces its extremities about two miles below the village.
There it assumes its natural course, so long interrupted, and
VOL. II s
258 Armenia
meanders idly to the Murad. The Khamur heights are crossed
by a track which we could see from the plain of Khinis in the
neighbourhood of Dedeveren. A portion or the whole of that
section of the block is known as Zirnek Dagh.
While we were returning to Gunduz a party of four horsemen
were seen galloping towards us from Karachoban. They proved
to be an officer of zaptiehs and three men. We had received a
summons, when in the village, to visit the officer; but had excused
ourselves from want of time. It was a forbidding picture, these
zaptiehs living at free quarters in an Armenian village. The
fierce and almost black face of the officer fawned obsequiously
upon us when he had learnt who we were.
From Gunduz we made our way over some grassy heights
which continue the outline of the Akh Dagh. They are composed
of intrusive rock, mainly basic in character. The marble of the
Akh Dagh, dipping to the south-east, is interrupted by them ; and
the range, as such, is brought to an end. The pass across them
is low (6265 feet), but it commands fine prospects over the
country beyond the plain of Khinis. A portion of the Akh Dagh
comes to view, seen on its reverse side. Two bold ridges were
observed, plunging in an east-north-east direction, down from the
summit region to a little river. It became clear that the axis of the
range, as seen from the plain of Khinis, does not correspond with
its axis of elevation. In fact the Akh Dagh appears to consist
of a number of ridges, ranged in echelon towards east-north-east.
A sprinkling of snow rested on the north-eastern slopes, from
which those on the south-west were entirely free. Sipan was
exposed from foot to summit, answered further west by another
almost insular mass, the sombre rock and jagged outline of
Bilejan. Vast tracts of plain were outspread at our feet — without
a tree, with only a few rare patches of cultivation, the soil, where
exposed by the plough, being coloured a rich brown. The air
which we were breathing was strong and invigorating, while the
sun, even near five o'clock, was warm. Motionless grey clouds
were suspended over the Akh Dagh ; towards evening they
increased in gloom ; it lightened, and a few drops of rain fell.
Such is the counterpart upon the tableland of the storms of the
Pontic region. A village lay below us at the beginnings of the
tracts of plain ; it was the Armenian village of Gopal, in which we
were to pass the night (5643 feet).
One often wonders, while encamping in such a village as
From Khinis to Tiitakh 259
Gopal how the burden of life can be sustained by its inhabitants.
Their property, their hves, and the chastity of their women are at
stake from day to day. They exist under a perpetual Reign of
Terror ; and Fear, the most degrading, the most exhausting of
human passions, is their companion from hour to hour. Con-
spicuous in this village were a band of Hasananli Kurds, parasites,
no doubt, on the industrious Armenians. A Kurdish agha, in a
gay dress which displayed some beautiful embroidered silk, visited
us in our tent. We admired the sheath of his dagger, which was
finely chased. Between these Kurds and the petty officials and
the hungry zaptiehs, the Armenian cultivator hovers on the
margin between life and death. From time to time a revolution
is invented by an ambitious functionary, and the village becomes
the scene of bloodcurdling deeds.
Gopal is situated at the confluence of two little streams which
collect the drainage of the mountainous country on the east of the
Akh Dagh, and issue upon the plain near the village. The spot
is indicated on Kiepert's map by the site of a place named
Karakeupru ; but we were assured that no such village exists in
the neighbourhood, and that Gopal had never borne this name.
Further doubts as to the topography of the map decided us on an
excursion to the point where the streams, which unite at Gopal,
discharge into the Bingol Su. Our guide conducted us across
the plain, which has here the character of downs, through which
the river flows in a deeply-eroded bed. Gopal itself rests on a
wide flat of alluvial land ; and the level of the plain on the south
and east is appreciably higher than that of the plain of Khinis.
It has, indeed, been flooded with sheets of lava, which have
probably issued from several points of emission at the base of the
hills which confine it on the north. These lavas appear to have
flowed towards the south-east ; in places they are overlaid by
calcareous marls. Spaces of grass occur which are almost free
from stone, and over which it is a pleasure to canter. On the
horizon rise Sipan and Bilejan. In the middle distance we
remarked a bold escarpment of limestone which we had noticed
at Karachoban. It forms one side of the gorge through which
the Bingol Su issues from the plain of Khinis. The beds were
seen to be dipping almost directly towards Sipan ; and they are
probably continued across the river into the Khamur heights.
After a ride of over an hour, we arrived at the tongue of high
land filling the fork between the two rivers. Deep below us, at
2 6o Armenia
the foot of the cliffs, which are here composed of Hmestone,
meandered the meeting streams. In one direction we looked up
the gorge of the Bingol Su ; in another towards the face of the
cHff on the left bank of the Gopal Su, which must be several
hundred feet high. The village of Murian, on its right bank, a
little above the confluence, was a mere speck in the bed of the
river at our feet. But we could see its inhabitants running in all
directions, the size of ants, and like ants which have been disturbed.
Horsemen came spurring up the steep side of the precipice, of
which we occupied the neck. Our position was so strong that we
had full leisure for our occupations, myself with the mapping,
Oswald with the rocks. Krimizi Tuzla is neither at nor near this
confluence, as the map of Kiepert shows. The joint waters flow
off towards Bayaz Tuzla, which, however, was invisible. The eye
follows their winding reaches for some distance as they cut their
way through a succession of low, white hills. Murian belongs to
the vilayet of Bitlis, and Gopal to that of Erzerum.
In the meantime the horsemen had formed in line on the
level ground north of our position. They proved to be a band
of Kurds in the employ of a Kaimakam who resides in [this
remote village. That official stepped forward and saluted us
with deference ; at his side rode a sergeant of the regular army,
commissioned to drill the Kurds. These are members of the
great Hasananli tribe. The Kaimakam escorted us for a part of
the way to Gopal, over the spacious downs. I employed my
brief experience with yeomanry in England in the endeavour to
put his retinue through some simple exercises. The sergeant
translated the words of command. But it was impossible to keep
them in line for any time. They would burst forward, each
trooper vying with his neighbour, and careering over the plain,
the rifle brandished like a spear. The more I saw of Kurds the
deeper grew my impression that they would be completely
worthless in time of war.
On the outskirts of Gopal were encamped some gypsies, who
■subsist by making sieves.^ It was late in the afternoon of the 28th
of June before we left the village, and mounted the cliff on the left
bank of the stream. For several miles we rode in a north-easterly
direction across the upland plain. These levels extend from the
ridges of the Akh Dagh, in the west, to a barrier of marble heights
ivhich rose on our point of course, and appeared to be continued
> See Ch. VIII. p. 178.
From Khinis to Tutakh 261
southwards in a roughly south-east line. The prospect over the
region in the direction of Lake Van disclosed an immense area of
comparatively even country, limited only by the insular masses of
Sipan and Bilejan. These masses were in some sense linked by
the long outline of a range of hills, which, in fact, compose the
southern edge of the Murad basin, and beyond which repose the
waters of the great lake. Khamur was boldly defined in the
south-west.
I feel that I shall exhaust the patience of my reader if I
follow in detail the remainder of our journey to Tutakh. I have
brought him along the outskirts of the important plain of Khinis
to the region about Lake Van. In case he may be a traveller,
desirous of guidance over the wild country which separates Gopal
from Tutakh, I would offer the suggestion that he should shape a
direct course by his compass ; I doubt that he would be obliged
to deviate often or for very far. Such advice would have saved
ourselves from getting lost in the intricate districts to the north
of such a direct line. Nobody knew the way ; there are few
villages ; and, although the inhabitants appeared to belong
exclusively to the Hasananli, each village was at feud with its
immediate neighbours, and it was impossible to obtain guides.
Moreover the division of the day into tedious units of hours is a
process which in that region is unfamiliar and scarcely known.
During the summer the few inhabitants are scattered in the
yailas ; the remnant in the village is largely composed of old
men and women, besides the children, male and female, whose
naked stomachs are distended by the quantities of gritty bread
they are obliged to consume. Such scenes of abject poverty are
rarely tempered by a brighter vision — the vision of youth, mature
and unimpaired. The few young women and girls, who have not
followed the flocks and herds, will be busy at their weaving of
material for the black tents, stretching the long strands of goat-
hair twine, and adding the woof to the web. Their loose cotton
trousers display the slimness of their limbs ; and it is a pleasure
to watch the rhythm of their bodies, seated by the side of their
task with knees apart.
But neither Oswald nor myself regretted our wanderings.
By adhering to the higher levels we obtained a picture of structural
features, which not only confirmed the studies we had pursued
together, but also contributed several interesting facts. It is in
this region that the ereat lines of elevation and mountain-making
262 Armenia
describe that beautiful curve which attains its greatest orographical
significance in the mountains which border the highlands of
Armenia and Persia on the north and on the south. In the
south it is the line of the Armenian Taurus arching over into
that of the Zagros chain ; while in the north the wider span of the
alps of Pontus and the Chorokh region is deflected into the border
range of Russian Armenia and into the mountains of Khorasan,^
Within the area of the Armenian tableland this curve may be
clearly traced ; for instance, it is conspicuous in the trend of the
mountains from Palandoken to Kilich Gedik, and in that of the
Aghri Dagh further north. Even in the country over which we
were travelling, some distance south of the former of these
barriers, and of comparatively even nature, the strike of the
stratified rocks displayed the change in direction ; while the
sheets of lava, which overlay them, were evidently due to zones
of weakness, where the stress of bending over had been attended
with fracture, and the apex of the arc had given way. Speaking
generally, the rocks consisted of older limestone, hardened into
marble, and varied by igneous material, crystalline in character
and of intrusive origin. Upon this foundation rested layers of
later limestone; while over all were outspread the lavas, sometimes
covering the entire series, at others swathing the base of marble
eminences. These lavas had welled up from fissures, for the
most part on the north of our track ; they had flowed towards
the south, in the direction of the still distant Murad, often
following the trough of the river valleys, and sometimes altering
the course of the drainage. The change of strike in the stratified
rocks was observed in the neighbourhood of the village of Alkhes.
There the axis of the limestone folds was almost latitudinal ;
and, as we neared Tutakh, it assumed a direction of east-south-
east. This was also the direction of the several valleys between
Alkhes and the Murad.
In many respects the region resembles Tekman ; the higher
levels over which we passed have an elevation of from 6000 to
7500 feet. But the lavas have played a greater part in its
configuration ; and the streams, which were mere runnels, have
eaten to an immense depth and flow in meridional valleys. Thus
we were always either picking our way over a sheet of lava,
crumbled into boulders and yellow with fennel, or descending
hundreds of feet into a deep valley through which trickled a
' The suljject is discussed, Vol. I. Ch. XXI. pp. 422 scq.
From KJiinis to Tutakh 263
rivulet. We crossed only one considerable stream — the Kersuk
or Kersik. It was winding through a gorge composed of
limestone overlying serpentine, and was changing its course from
south-east towards the south. At the bend, on the left bank, at
some height above the river, is situated the picturesque village of
Alkhes. The channel had a breadth of only a few paces ; but
the water reached to our horses' girths.
The district about Alkhes, and for some distance west and
east, is known by the name of Elmali Dere, or the vale of apple
trees. These pleasant trees, with their grey-green foliage, are
found in abundance in the valley and side valleys of the Kersik.
But the dreary fennel is almost the only plant on the higher
levels ; nor can the eye, far and wide, thence discern the shape of
a tree. In the north the mournful landscape is framed by the
mountains which bend south-eastwards into the Kilich Gedik.
At Alkhes they were known under the name of Khalias Dagh ;
at Tutakh, where our informants were better educated, under that
of Mergemir. Towards the south, upon the limits of a wide
semicircle, rose the snow-clad and still distant summits of the
Ala Dagh, rose Sipan and Bilejan. An unknown mountain, o'f
relatively humble proportions, concealed the western slopes of the
giant of Lake Van ; it proved to be Kartevin, a volcanic and
insular mass, on the left bank of the Murad.
CHAPTER XIV
DOWN THE AIURAD TO MELAZKERT ^
The perfume of a hayfield, in which the mowers were busy,
greeted our approach to the town of Tutakh. It came as a
refreshing change after the dreary lava -sheets overgrown with
fennel, and the stony paths, down and up, across the valleys.
Great rivers impress their dignity upon their surroundings ; and,
although we failed to discover the Murad until we were close
upon it, the larger folds of the down-like country, and the
growing sense of space, appeared to indicate that we were
already near our goal. Twenty minutes before our arrival on the
outskirts of the settlement, the white waters were seen winding
far below us, at the foot of the hills. In the bare brown
mountains from which they had issued, curving towards them
from the outlines in the north, we recognised the distant horn of
the crescent to which they had pointed at Alkhes as the heights
overlooking Tutakh.
Those brown slopes indeed belonged to the barrier which the
Murad pierces upon its egress from the plain of Alashkert. No
trace of stratified rock could be detected upon them ; nor was
Oswald, on the following day, when he examined a section of the
bank of the river, successful in finding among the pebbles,
embedded in the side of the cliff, any examples which were not
derived from an eruptive origin. The face of the plain itself,
through which the river wanders towards the basin of Melazkert,
has been flooded with sheets of lava, which have probably flowed
in a southerly direction, and which extend at least as far as the
right bank. Along the opposite margin rise grassy heights,
volcanic in character, and placed like an outer buttress in front of
^ The stages are as follows : — Tutakh — Gargalik, 12^ miles ; Gaigalik — Melazkert,
24I miles. Total, 37^ miles.
Dozvn the Mttrad to Melazkei't 265
the ridges of the Ala Dagh. These are succeeded by the lavas
of the Kartevin. Just below Tutakh the Murad enters a low-
gorge ; but the remainder of its course is spent in a wide, alluvial
bed, at the foot of rounded eminences on either shore. Almost
exactly at the point where the troubled ridges of the Kartevin
Dagh commence to sink into the plain of Melazkert, the heights
on the right bank roll away. And, a little lower down, the river
reaches the trough of the basin, which is about 450 feet lower
than the level of Lake Van.^ There it changes direction with
almost startling abruptness, and flows off westwards through an
expanse of even ground.
The country upon the right bank of the Murad, over an area
which is roughly limited by the town of Tutakh on the north,
and by the villages of Dignuk and Murian (on the Gopal Su)
upon the south and west, would appear to present features which
do not widely differ from those of the higher region we had just
crossed. As we overlooked a portion of that area from some
of the loftier eminences which border the left bank, we were
confronted by the familiar shapes of grassy, treeless downs ; of
terraces of lava or tuff sloping towards the river, of valleys deeply
cut in the barren soil. The single river which effects a confluence
through that region is the Kersik ; it enters the Murad at the
foot of lofty cliffs. But the flowering yellow fennel was either
absent or less conspicuous ; and its place was taken by a purple
vetch, of restful hue and delicate petals, climbing the hillsides,
like a heather, yet more intense.
It is interesting to compare this impression of the country,
formed during our journey along the river, with the conception of
its character already present in our minds before we had reached
Tutakh. It was while descending from the upland plain above
the left bank of the Kersik, as far north as the village of Alkhes,
that we had for the first time obtained a prospect from a com-
paratively low level over the expanse in the direction of Sipan.
We stood nearly at the bottom of a wide valley through which
trickled a little stream. Yet the view towards that landmark was
almost uninterrupted ; we appeared, indeed, to be crossing a gulf-
like extension of the great plain from which the mountain soars.
As often as we became involved in the intricate down country,
1 The calculation is based on the difference between the level of the lake (5637 feet)
and that of the Murad at the old bridge of Melazkert (5174 feet). Both levels were
taken with the boiling-point apparatus.
266 Armenia
while pursuing our easterly course to Tutakh, so, not less often,
we emerged upon similar openings, where the downs seemed to
tongue into the plain. The Kartevin Dagh was the only eminence
which in part screened the volcano ; but it did not extend beyond
a portion of its westerly slopes.
A fierce sun had already browned the scanty herbage of
the hillsides, and at noon the thermometer registered 85°
in the shade. We were constrained to abandon our tent, and
to seek the shelter of a stone building, one of the few above-
ground edifices in Tutakh, A spacious room was placed at our
disposal by the authorities, with thick walls and a lofty ceiling,
constructed of logs. A carpet of thick felt and the gay trappings
of the divan added an appearance of comfort to a sense of cool-
ness. But the carpet was overlying a layer of filthy hay, and the
divan was nothing better than a stage of mud and straw. The
place was indeed a hotbed for noxious insects ; legions of fleas
continued and intensified the torments which had been interrupted
at the approach of night by swarms of flies. Our visitors in the
apartment — one might almost say our companions — were an
officer of police, a most intelligent individual, and the Colonel of
the Karapapakh Hamidiyeh. The former informed us among other
matters that the post to Erzerum is always carried by way of
Karakilisa. Caravans proceed in summer across the Kilich Gedik
to Zeidikan, and so by Pasin to Erzerum. Between Tutakh and
Melazkert one has the choice of two ways ; one may follow either
the left or the right bank. But the fords lower down are said to
be less reliable, and we were recommended to proceed by the left
bank. The colonel of Karapapakhs was attired in a Circassian
dress and spoke Russian fluently. He told me that his people
had emigrated from Zarishat (in the Kars-Kagyzman district)
after the last Russo-Turkish war. Their earlier seats had been
in Daghestan. By remote origin he asserted that they were
pure Turks. They contribute altogether three regiments to the
Hamidiyeh, of which two are furnished by Tutakh and by Kara-
kilisa, and the third by the tribesmen of Sivas.
July 2. — The Murad opposite Tutakh had a width of a
hundred yards ; but it was not deeper than two and a half feet.
After crossing the ford we proceeded along the left bank, some-
times winding over the westerly slopes of the grassy eminences
which screen the Ala Dagh, at others following the alluvial flat in
the bed of the river. Lavas, tuffs, and dark volcanic sands were
Down the Murad to Melazkert 267
conspicuous on the heights and in the valleys. Oswald observed
the frequent introduction of a conglomerate, consisting of well-
rounded pebbles or blocks of lava, interbedded with volcanic sands.
It may denote that the lake, which filled the basin of Melazkert,
extended at one time to this region. A new landmark rose in
the north — the magnificent dome of the Kuseh Dagh ; while,
among our old companions, Khamur could still be seen, and we
were in full view of Sipan and Bilejan. But neither the dreary
downs on the right bank of the river — our only prospect of any
extent — nor the bed of the river itself, with its pebble-strewn
flats of alluvium, afforded any refreshment to the eye. No restful
groves cast shadows across the sheen of the water, where, here
and there, a flock was browsing on the scanty herbage, or a herd
of buffaloes wallowed in the oozy mud. I was reminded of the
bed of the Tigris below the town of Diarbekr ; and, indeed, the
Murad flows through these plains of Armenia with much the
same appearance as that of its companion at the head of the
Mesopotamian plains. It is a slowly-flowing river ; ^ and it might,
I suppose, be made navigable from Tutakh as far as Karaogli.
Locks would be required ; but the lower region is so fertile that,
with better government, such works might prove remunerative.
We passed through several villages ; but they are, for the most
part, mere hamlets. One of the largest was Gargalik. With the
exception of Bai'ndir, a Karapapakh settlement, they are inhabited
by Sipkanli and Hasananli Kurds. We did not meet a caravan ;
there were few wayfarers ; but from time to time an ill-miened
Kurd, armed with a muzzle-loader, rode by, taking stock of us
as he passed. At Gargalik, where there is a ford between two
villages of this name, we were ushered into the largest of the ant-
hill tenements. A burly figure, richly dressed, could just be
discerned in the dim light, suffused over the cavernous chamber
from an aperture in the roof. The figure was seated on the little
dais which, in such dwellings, divides the chamber from the stable,
and from which rise the wooden pillars that support the roof A
strong odour from the horses and cattle, almost beside him,
vitiated the air. We waited for some little time while the devotee
bowed and muttered, or, with head upraised and lifted voice,
uttered the climax of his profession of faith. Then, after a brief
silence, he approached us, and received our hands, and welcomed
us to his abode. It was AH Bey, son of the defunct Yusuf
' The fall between Tutakh and Melazkert can only amount to about lOO feet.
268 Armenia
Pasha, and chief of all Sipkanli Kurds.^ It was evident that he
had been apprised of our approach, for he displayed three
imperial decorations on his breast. And he showed us a cigar-
ette-case, of gold encrusted with jewels, the gift of the Sultan,
accompanied by an autograph letter. As far as the Kartevin the
inhabitants are Sipkanli ; lower down the villages are peopled by
Hasananli Kurds.
A heavy shower — which was a rare occurrence — and the
approach of night decided us, when we were opposite the village
of Hasuna, to take shelter there and encamp. It is inhabited by
Hasananli, who described themselves as raya, or cultivators, and
it is surrounded by patches of cereals. Each head of a family
owns his patch and his animals. The men stand about and loiter
in the grove of willows ; the women work incessantly from morn
till night. On the following day we mounted to one of the peaks
of the Kartevin Dagh, which rises immediately above the village.
The purple vetch, and a shower of tiny blossoms from the white
gypsophila, varied the monotony of the arid slopes with their
boulders of lava. Flowering flax, the vivid green of wheat,
already in ear, softened the base of the ridge up which we climbed.
Nearing the summit, we came upon the yellow immortelles ; a
little apple tree, bush-high, rose from the crevices in the crags of
the peak. This crest had an elevation of 7580 feet above the
sea, or of 2400 feet above the village. But the ridges on the
north attain a greater height, perhaps of several hundred feet.
The Kartevin Dagh appeared to us to be a radial mass, with a
number of bold ridges and deep valleys. It is entirely of eruptive
volcanic origin.
The basin of Melazkert, with the plain at the foot of Sipan
in the direction of Patnotz, was unfolded, mile after mile, at our
feet. From the parapet upon which we stood a sharp ridge,
with precipitous sides, plunged at right angles into the level
expanse. At its extremity lies the village of Karakaya, on the
right bank of a little river, which loops along the plain, coming
from Patnotz. We see it joining the Murad ; and we see the
bend of the Murad, which, after receiving this, the second of its
considerable affluents below Tutakh, turns westwards, and is soon
lost to view. A dark speck, almost in the foreground, at a little
distance from the larger river, is recognised as Melazkert. The
1 This Yusuf Pasha is not the same as the Vusuf liey who received me at Kiishk
(see Ch. II. p. 16).
Dozvn the Miirad to Melazkert 269
plain of Patnotz is continuous with the plains of the Murad, and
both were covered by a single lake in no remote geological period
— a lake extending into the plain of Khinis. The appearance of
the expanse is not untrue to its origin ; and it would seem as if
the waters had but recently receded from these gently-shelving
and boulder-strewn tracts. Around them rise the great volcanoes :
Sipan, seen from base to summit, and still robed in a mantle of
snow ; Bilejan, the black mountain, with here and there a fleck
of snow, with the outline of the Nimrud crater emerging behind ;
Khamur, above the region towards w^hich the river is flowing ;
behind Khamur the snow-field of Bingol. We observe the low,
white hills which join the outlines of the two first-named masses,
and which screen the lake of Van. The marble peaks of the Akh
Dagh rise with startling boldness ; and, further round, we follow
the outline of the Mergemir. In that direction the fields of lava
with their yellow fennel are conspicuous features in the scene.
The circle is completed by the ridges of the Ala Dagh, capped
with shining snow. And, turning again towards the south, we
admire a small blue lake, reposing at the feet of Bilejan. The
snows of Taurus just emerge beyond Nimrud.
After regaining our encampment, we resumed our journey in
the late afternoon. Almost opposite the village, the heights on
the right bank recede, and describe a line of cliffs at right angles
to their former course. The country opens to the plain ; but the
site of Melazkert was hidden by an escarpment on the left bank
of the Patnotz river, where a bed of lake-deposits falls away to
the alluvial flats. The track is seen winding over the crest of the
bank, made conspicuous by the white soil. The evening was far
advanced as we approached this high ground from the floor of
fine sand, overgrown by bush and clusters of iris, which fills the
area between the two rivers. The affluent, which we forded, was
perhaps not wider than fifteen yards ; but the water was almost
uniform in depth, and reached to our horses' knees. Mounting the
little ridge, we made our way over powdery soil, and soon over-
looked the dark mass of Melazkert. The light was failing as we
passed through the broken lines of ancient walls, near some
barracks alive with bugle-cries.
We were ushered into the principal room of a single-storeyed
stone building, through a dark passage, in which we groped our
way. The light of candles fell upon the cushions of a broad
divan, and upon the hale complexion of an old man with snov/-
2 70
Armenia
white hair. He came towards us with outstretched hands, while
the chief of our escort introduced us to the Kaimakam of Melazkert.
His zaptiehs, to the number of six, had already accompanied us
for some distance ; we had met them ranged in line and presenting
arms. Our host informed us that he was seventy-five years of
age, and that a new front tooth was coming in place of one he
had lost. He was a native of Bitlis. His sorrow was sincere
that he could not lodge us ; the town did not possess a suitable
house. He therefore begged us to erect our tents in the ancient
citadel, where there was a fine site for a camp. We were soon
proceeding thither, over ground which sloped upwards to a ruinous
cross-wall. The jet of a fountain shone in the twilight from a
recess beside the entrance, whence we mounted to a spacious
platform, backed by a tower and encircled by walls. Tower and
walls alike were massively built.
The moon rose above the tower, which screened the ghost-like
Sipan, from a richly mottled bed of cloud. It was a full moon,
casting the parapets into darkness, and whitening the roofs of
the houses at our feet. A little later, as we were preparing for
sleep, the pale gold surface of the orb displayed but a tiny crescent
of light. It was the shadow of our globe which was passing
across the moon ; but the vision was rapidly lost in the bed of
cloud.
It had scarcely become day when the deep voice of the
venerable Kaimakam was heard beside our tent. He had come
to enquire after our needs ; and he promised to endeavour to
obtain a turkey from one of the Circassian villages in the plain.
But when I asked whether he were acquainted with some educated
person, capable of indicating to us the various objects of interest,
and perhaps of connecting them with the history of the town, his
face became a blank, and he was emphatic in declaring that, by
Allah ! no such individual existed in Melazkert. But was there
no school, no Armenian teacher ? I pressed him, but he spoke
the truth when he answered in the negative. He added : " All
the people here are very little people, occupied by the pressing
needs of daily life. They have already forgotten what happened
forty years ago, and they will remember your visit for forty years.
Beyond these limits they have no knowledge whatever."
The Kaimakam was right ; Melazkert is a heap of ruins, from
which some pygmies have collected the stones and built tenements.
A squadron of cavalry, quartered in the town, may lend a
M ELAZKERT
II V V, l.vmii .uul V Osu-.'
Dozvn the Murad to Melazkert 2 7 1
semblance of life ; but it is a deceptive semblance, for the place
is dead.
We descended from the citadel at the eastern extremity of the town,
resolved to conduct a careful search. Let me enumerate in order,
proceeding from east to west, the ancient edifices that still remain. All
are built of the same black, basaltic lava which forms the material of the
towers and walls ; but, as this lava is highly scoriaceous in character, the
stone cannot be properly dressed. The architect has therefore had
recourse to a more suitable agent for the enrichments of his design ; a
calcareous rock has been brought from a distance and inserted in the
dark v/alls. In such calcareous stone is carved the honeycomb ornament
which fills the apex of the arch in two niches on the southern front of a
spacious but deserted khan. It is a building in the fine old style, with a
lofty and vaulted roof; a square aperture in the centre of the roof admits
light and air. Adjoining the khan upon the west are placed the remains
of the most interesting monument, the church of Erek Khoran Astvatsatsin.
Its name, the three altars, is evidently derived from the three apses
which are a feature in the design. Yet most old Armenian churches are
built upon this pattern, if the name apse may be extended to the lateral
chapels. In the present case these chapels are almost as large as the apse
proper. The nave is separated from the broad aisles by two rows of three
pillars apiece ; from the pillars spring pointed arches, which appear to
have supported a vaulted roof. But the roof has fallen in ; we could find
no trace of a dome or tower ; and the pillars on the north side were strewn
in pieces on the floor. The basal stones of two of the columns are
octagonal, and were probably taken from some edifice of earlier date.
The interior has been faced with calcareous stone, admitting of fine
chiselling. A frieze of honeycomb pattern, and two niches with the same
ornament have been introduced into the apse. The floor of the apse is,
as usual, raised above the floor of the nave, and the face of the dais, so
formed, is enriched with a relief of little arches, composed of mouldings
with geometrical designs. In the centre of each arched space is the figure
of a cross. Carved mouldings also adorn the font, adjoining the more
northerly of the two chapels. The exterior, which displays the usual
black lava, is without any interesting feature.
■It was evident that the walls had once been covered with frescos ;
traces of this form of decoration were found on the capitals, and a few of
the larger subjects might still be recognised. In the apse is portrayed the
figure of Christ receiving baptism from St. John. The faces of the walls
dividing the apse from the lateral chapels are devoted to secular subjects.
On the one we discovered the head, and part of the figure of a king,
wearing a gold crown. His left hand rested on the richly-chased scabbard
of his sword ; his right supported a sceptre with a globe. The fresco on
the other face was almost obliterated ; but a crown and a portion of a
head, probably that of a queen, were conspicuous among the faded colours.
Both heads rested on golden halos. One can scarcely doubt that these
portraits are those of the founders of this church, which was evidently the
2/2
Armenia
royal chapel. I copied with difficulty the following almost illegible
inscription, placed by the side of the king : — H80:i0b&O . Sr*10
Such is all that remains of this pleasing piece of architecture ; the interior
has an extreme length of sixty-five feet and a breadth of a little over forty
feet.
An almost similar edifice is that which is named Surb Sargis ; it may
have been the general town church (length of interior, sixty-six feet; breadth,
thirty-nine feet). It is situated in the portion of the fortress furthest
removed from the citadel, and not far from the south wall. It is still
employed as a place of worship, but is maintained in a filthy state. The
two rows of three pillars are still standing ; and one of the pillars is
composed of a slab-shaped monolith, engraved with an elaborate Armenian
cross. It is evident that it was imported from some other place. The
present roof is a rude structure of logs, quite flat, and concealing the
features of the former design. The altar-piece in the apse appeared to us
to be the old one ; but its effect was spoilt by daubs of staring colour.
An altar of primitive pattern, composed of a slab of stone, resting
horizontally upon a stone column, was standing in the southern side
chapel. A little sacristy adjoins the similar chapel on the north,
projecting from the outer wall of the church. Abutting on the western
front of this sacristy, and extending along the remainder of this outer wall,
is placed a small and independent chapel, which repeats the same design.
It is known under the name of Arab Kilisa, or church of the Arabs ;
by which term I presume that the Nestorian Christians are denoted. It
is now a mere ruin.
A building of later date than these churches, but no doubt the
outcome of a period of comparative prosperity, is the mosque which is
placed just beneath the citadel, and which reminds one of similar
structures in Bitlis. A nave and two aisles, with two pillars apiece ; a
low central dome, pointed arches and vaulted ceilings — such are the
features of a design which is evidently, to a large extent, a copy by
Mohammedans of the Christian architecture. The interior, as well as the
pointed arch over the entrance, is built of blocks of pink and black
volcanic stone ; the outer walls are of faced lava. The recess of the altar
is inlaid with white marble. Adjoining the mosque is a medresseh or
college. The mosque is well kept up.
We spent nearly two whole days in Melazkert, visiting the
remains of the former splendour of the place and occupied by
drawing out the plan which accompanies this chapter. We
estimated the length of the city at 750 yards, and its breadth
at 500 yards. The former measurement was taken from the
tower in the citadel to a tower in the walls at the opposite
extremity. Both the site, and the character and disposition
of the fortifications remind one strongly of Trebizond ; and it
would be a matter of ereat interest to determine the nature
Down the Mjirad to Melazkert 273
of the connection to which the similarity of design may have
been due. Melazkert is built upon a flow of lava, a feature
of little importance in the general configuration of the plain ;
but this lava sheet descends to the alluvial flats about the
Murad in much the same manner as the site of Trebizond shelves
to the sea. Like the city by the Euxine, the Armenian fortress
is flanked on two sides by ravines ; these ravines are indeed
flatter than those of its counterpart ; but the platform which
supports the citadel and palace is 100 feet higher than the
trough of the ravine on the north. There are similar little
streams trickling along in either hollow ; and a similar double
line of walls, with towers at intervals, encircles the area of the
fortified town. Suburbs there may have been ; but they have
long since disappeared ; the cemeteries are placed outside the
walls. The solid octagonal tower at the extreme south-east end
of the citadel may quite probably have served as the model for
the tower of John the Fourth, at Trebizond. Indeed, could we
see this site under the luxuriance of the Kolchian foliage, the
resemblance would at once appeal to the eye. The only trees at
Melazkert are a few willows ; but springs of cold, clear water well
up from the ground.
So far as we could judge from a hasty examination, the Murad
may at one time have flowed quite near the walls ; but the
bridge of the mediaeval city is at least two miles west of the
town. The road is taken over low and marshy ground, and
crosses a side torrent of considerable volume, when quite near the
bridge. This torrent is said to be derived from springs in the
plain ; it eats its way through a lava stream. The gorge is
spanned by the single pointed arch of an ancient bridge — a
structure so massive that it has resisted destruction, and still
rears intact its elegant facing of pink and black volcanic stone.
Worse fortune has attended the noble structure which once
joined the banks of the Murad. Of its thirteen or more piers
only four are standing ; some have rolled over and compose
masses that defy the stream. On those that remain you admire
the exquisite masonry, and the skilful variation of black with pink
stone. The arches are much pointed, and are close together ;
the bridge describes a curve down stream. On the opposite
margin we remarked the foundations of an ancient road, under-
lying the grass on the hillside. At the present day a road does
not exist in the country, and the river is crossed by fords.
VOL. II T
2/4 Armenia
Indeed the city presents a strangely pathetic spectacle of
fallen greatness, of a culture which has disappeared — more
touching by the contrast with the blank of the present, by the
sufficiency and eloquence of the monuments that remain. We
are by them enabled to reconstruct the splendour of the citadel,
which was perhaps the palace ; the stateliness of the double walls
with their picturesque towers ; the frescos of the churches, the
magnificent bridge, the broad, paved road. An Armenian genius
produced these works, and a Turk destroyed them. Now only
some forty Armenian families grovel among the ruins of a past
which they ignore. A few small shops, some kept by Armenians,
a few by Kurds, dispense Manchester cottons and some of the
necessaries of life. There is not a house that is not built out of
the remains of the old town. The little windows are screened
with paper or bits of calico. The Kaimakam cannot tell you the
number of the inhabitants. His clerk is ill, and he himself has
no idea of the number ; yet they are not so very many to count.
It is possible that he is dissembling ; yet he is very ignorant ; he
laughs at our notion of climbing Sipan. He says that, years
ago, during the course of an exceptional season, when the summit
had become almost free of snow, one man was said to have
reached the top. One can see that it is the snow which appeals
to their doubts and raises their fears. What life you see around
you is feeble and squalid — wicked, even, in a small way. And it
seems as if the storks, which lend sanctity to the decaying towers,
were the incarnation of the grave, sad thoughts that rise in the
mind.
The history of Melazkert, such as we see the city in these
ruins, appears to be little better than unknown. We turn in vain
to the pages of Saint Martin or of Ritter even for a few cardinal
facts. If the story of the empire of the Grand Comneni, as
unravelled by the labours of Fallmerayer, still remains in the
vivid language of its illustrious exponent a phantom picture,
lacking the reality of life, then the mediaeval kingdom of the
Armenian kings who reigned in Melazkert may be described as
but the shadow of a shade. Their capital occupied the site of
one of the oldest of Armenian cities, and derived its name from
Manavaz, the son of the mythical Hayk.^ It was possessed by
1 The original name is Manazkcrl, wliich the Turks have corrupted into Mela/kert.
In the older name there perhaps lurks that of Menuas, the Vannic king, who reigned
in the ninth century before Christ (see Ch. IV. p. 71).
Down the Aliwad to Me/azkert 275
princes of this name during the Arsakid period, tracing their
descent to the progenitor of the Armenian race.^ Melazkert was
known to the Byzantines as an independent city ; but, Hke Ani,
it fell during the eleventh century to the arms of Alp Arslan.
The same century witnessed the defeat of the Byzantine Caesar
by the Seljuk conqueror in the neighbourhood of its walls. The
fate of Ani appears to have been repeated on the banks of the
Murad, for the city can never have recovered under its Moham-
medan rulers. At the present day the Armenians, to whom
it owed prosperity, have been almost driven away from the
neighbourhood. At Hasuna we observed one of their deserted
graveyards ; and again another between that village and the
town. These and the crumbling towers and churches of the
ancient fortress are the melancholy landmarks of the progressive
ruin of the Armenian inhabitants."
1 Saint Martin, Mt' moires siir I Aniu'uie, vol. i. p. 251.
2 I have transcribed my impressions, as written on the spot. But it is possible that
the present aspect of the walls as well as the bridge may be due to the Mohammedan
rulers of Melazkert. The great tower in the citadel may well be later than the
eleventh century. Still there can be little doubt that the work was carried out by
Armenians, and in harmony with the original plan.
Unfortunately almost all the inscriptions have disappeared. We observed a slab of
calcareous stone inserted in the north wall, and engraved with an Arabic inscription,
but it was much obliterated. A slab of the same material, and in the same condition,
containing an inscription, probably in the Syriac character, is built into the Kaimakam's
house. We were told that a number of inscriptions had been abstracted by the son-in-
law of Raouf Pasha, Vali of Erzerum.
Outside the citadel, lying upon the ground, we examined a well-preserved cuneiform
inscription, engraved upon two sides of a block of granitic rock, unlike any stone found
here. I was under the impression that it had already been discovered and translated ;
so we did not take a copy. I now find that we should have done well to copy it.
Scheil {Reaieil de travaux relatifs a la philologie et a P arch^ologie egypt. et assyr., Paris,
1896, vol. xviii. pp. 75-77) describes and translates an inscription which, he says, was
recently discovered at Melazkert by the district engineer, but he does not mention the
exact locality. It is an inscription of Menuas, recording a restoration.
Within the citadel, near our encampment, one of those large stones which have
been elsewhere described, incised with the elaborate traceries of an Armenian cross, was
seen among the debris. It was in excellent preservation, having only recently been
dug out in situ.
CHAPTER XV
FROM MELAZKERT TO AKHLAT
In one of the ancient towers of the wall on the west was residing
a Kurdish chief, surrounded by a posse of his followers. Perhaps
he was in some sense a hostage to the Government, or perhaps
he was acting in a representative capacity towards the five
regiments of Hamidiyeh, each with 500 men, which, he assured
me, were furnished by his tribe. His name is Riza Bey, and he
is the brother of Fethulla Bey, chief of all Hasananli. His
brother resides in the village of Dignuk, on the right bank of the
Murad near Melazkert. Riza Bey came to visit us in the citadel
and I returned his visit in the tower. His window commanded a
fine prospect over the alluvial plain in the direction of the Murad
— all the detail, of crumbling cemetery, of willow-grown hollow,
of channelled flats, framed by the deep embrasure. My host was
seated on a divan, covered with a beautiful Kurdish kilim ; he
was readily distinguished by his ferocious black moustache. He
gave evasive answers to my questions about the annual trainings ;
one hears so very much, and one sees so very little of this
formidable Hamidiyeh ! Melazkert is a kind of headquarters for
the force ; and I feel sure that, if even one regiment were in
actual existence, it would have been paraded for our benefit.
Late in the afternoon of the 5th of July we forded the stream
in the southern ravine, and, after crossing an extensive and very
ruinous cemetery, made our way over the plain of lava which
stretches without interruption to the base of the still distant Sipan.
Our course was directed to a village on its southern confines, at
the foot of those heights which have already been mentioned as
extending between Sipan and Bilejan. You may canter the
whole way, for the ground is fairly even, although broken here
and there by mounds of black boulders, which may represent
From Melazkert to Akhlat 277
either minor outbreaks of volcanic matter, or the sites of steam
vents through the sheet of cooHng lava. In places there is a
thin covering of marly deposits ; and, where these occur, the soil
becomes fertile. But it is little cultivated — only in patches, and
in a very primitive fashion. The village proved to be Circassian ;
its name was Kara Ali ; a second Circassian settlement, called
Yaralmish, was its close neighbour upon the east. Our track
commenced to ascend, immediately beyond Kara Ali, up the face
of the opposite heights. The nature of these hills was at once
apparent from the character of their forms and from the change
in vegetation. We rode over the slopes of downs, resting the eye
on fresh pastures, and with the song of the lark in our ears. The
purple vetch was resplendent on the cliff-sides. Here and there
a white patch disclosed the calcareous nature of the underlying
rock. The village of Demian {raya Hasananli, alt, 6690 feet) is
situated below the crest of the ridge, in full view of the plain.
There we decided to encamp for the night,^
July 6. — What a landscape to wake up to ! The side of our
tent towards the plain had been left open during the night. We
overlooked such an immense expanse of earth — nude, or veiled in
transparent mists, and quite unconscious of the presence of man !
Even we, who were already accustomed to such visions, had
never yet seen the like. Reach upon reach, in large surroundings,
we traced the course of the Murad, flowing towards us from
Tutakh ; loop upon loop, we followed its waters into the dimness
of the west, flowing away through the plain. The contrasts in
the lighting were less impressive this morning ; but last evening
the river was thrown into pronouncement, and lay like a parti-
coloured riband in the expanse. From vivid whites and tender
greys it became a sheen of gold under the red blaze of the setting
sun.
The pass, or crest of the ridge (6870 feet), is close behind
Demian, Among our landmarks, besides Sipan, the Akh Dagh
was most conspicuous, and, although probably less lofty, because
quite free from snow, dwarfed the intermediate mass of Khamur.
The dome of the Kuseh Dagh was the bold feature of the scene
in the north ; while Kartevin rose like an island in the plain at
our feet. This pass is but the edge of a deep block of hill
country, interposed between the plain and the lake of Van, The
^ Our stages were : — Melazkert — Demian, lo miles ; Demian — Akhlat (Erkizan),
2O5 miles.
278 Armenia
hio-hest level which we attained, during our passage across it,
belonged to the ridge on the north of the village of Khanik, and
was a level of 7690 feet. That ridge was composed of Eocene
limestone, perhaps a travertine, while the ridge behind Demian
displayed the familiar fossils of the widely-distributed lacustrine
rocks. Coralline limestones of Eocene epoch, much altered and
hardened, perhaps by the action of hot springs, constitute the
backbone of the mass ; while on its southern side the lacustrine
series is represented by the purplish-brown sandstones of the hills
behind Akhlat. Sipan has burst through the zone of limestone
hills, probably about in the central region ; the volcano has been
built up upon their debris, and overtowers their almost uniform
levels. Yet the stratified rocks are little diversified by volcanic
outpourings : and only once, namely just upon our departure
from the valley of Khanik, did we ride over such material, a dark
volcanic tuff. It is indeed surprising, the limited extension of
the flows of lava even from such a giant as Sipan. When we
looked across to the mountain from the lofty down behind
Demian, the block of hills appeared to compose an outer sheath
to the volcano, recessing inwards around its contours. And the
plain or pedestal of lava at the foot of Sipan was seen tonguing
into the recess at our feet. Through that valley was winding a
little stream, which would probably become lost in the plain.
We descended into the valley, which supports several Kurdish
villages, and rose up the opposite side. From this ridge to the
o-uardhouse on the southern side of the block is the wildest
portion of this bleak zone. We passed only one village, the
Circassian settlement of Khanik, during our progress from the
ridge to Akhlat. The axis or strike of the limestones is in
an east-north-east direction ; they are carved out into deep and
irregular valleys.
Extraordinary precautions had been taken for our safety
during the passage of this region. Our escort from Melazkert
consisted of eight zaptiehs, and of the head man of the village of
Akhviran, a notable of high rank in the Hamidiyeh, who had been
commissioned by Riza Bey to accompany us. At Khanik we
were met by no less than fifteen zaptiehs ; and this little force
skirmished up the heights adjoining our track, to protect us from
an ambuscade. Arrived at the guardhouse (7560 feet) we were
saluted by a detachment of regular cavalry, mounted on snow-
white horses. As we rode down this line of troops, an individual
Froui Melazkert to Akhlat 279
in civil dress stepped forward and took our hands. It was the
Kaimakam of Akhlat. His servants had prepared tea in the
solitary little building which rises like a beacon from the wilds.
Our further progress was a procession. We were sorry to
lose the cavalry, who were under orders to return to the guard-
house. They manoeuvred in admirable fashion ; and the motley
zaptiehs, careering in all directions, were a poor substitute to the
eye. The Kaimakam rode by our side. But this little touch of
humanity was quickly lost and soon forgotten in the emotions
which were inspired by the unfolding scene. The landscape of
Lake Van, overtake it where you may, can scarcely fail, with a
traveller susceptible of such impressions, to bring tears to the eyes.
And there it lies, deep down below us, streaming with sunlight,
intensely blue and intensely pale. How startling is the change
from these rounded forms about us — from the dome of Sipan,
wreathed in cloud, from the unbroken circle of the Nimrud crater,
islands of mountain in an expanse of plain and hill — to the jagged
and snow-capped parapet of the Kurdish mountains, reflected
into the mirror of waters on the opposite shore ! But this evening
we miss the gloom which is wont to envelop those mountains ;
the clouds are suspended high above the outline of peaks ; and
the face of the wall is tinted a delicate yellow, relieved by
shadows of a pale violet hue. The shadows mark the relief of
the almost vertical escarpments, and have the appearance of a
long succession of pointed spears. Among the landmarks along
those shores we recognise Mount x^rdos, broad-shouldered above
a headland in the east ; a blue shadow in the lake, slightly raised
above its surface, may denote the isle of Akhtamar. The long
promontory of Zigag juts out from the Nimrud crater towards the
beautiful bay of Surb, on the opposite shore.
Almost at our feet we see the top of a leafy tree, then
another, and then a long grove. And immediately we enter the
deep shade of the gardens which fringe the southern margin of
the sea (5637 feet).
CHAPTER XVI
AKHLAT
July 15. — We have spent eight days at Akhlat. They have
been days which we shall always remember with delight. Our
surroundings, our occupations, the little comforts of our daily life,
have been all that we could desire.
We are encamped in an orchard by the side of the lake. The
water plashes against rocks, at the foot of a well-defined bank,
some twenty yards from our tent. We look across a floor of
green, dappled with shade and sunshine, through the varied
intervals of the grove of fruit trees, beneath the perfect foliage, to.
a field of light, with changing colour and ever-changing appear-
ance, whence a freshness is wafted towards us across the flowering
grass. Such oases are not, indeed, infrequent in Asia, where they
derive enhancement not only from the contrast which they offer
to the general treelessness of the land, but also from their
special climate — the soil cooled by irrigation, and the leaves
developed to a perfection with which we are unfamiliar in the
West. Luscious clover, white and red, purple vetch with a
delicate perfume, the long, trailing stalks and pale mauve flowers
of chicory, luxuriate on the damp soil. The cherries were small
and yellow when we arrived ; now they hang in bright red
clusters before our tent. An old walnut tree protrudes its gnarled
branches and thick foliage over the water on the margin of the
grove ; and two rollers, which have built their nest in an in-
accessible crevice of the trunk, flit to and fro, in search of food for
their young. The hues of the lake are repeated on their breasts ;
while on their backs and in their wings this azure blue is subdued
and softened by rich browns, resembling the branches where they
repose.^
1 Coracias garrtiliis, belonging to a family closely allied to the kingfishers and bee-
eaters. But what hideous names have been given to this beautiful bird !
Akhlat 281
Our little horses are picketed in the deep trench which divides
the orchard from the sterile ground on the north and east. They
forget the road beneath the shade of flowering olives, of which the
strong scent reaches to our tent. The cook, who has so often
mutinied and repented, is now all alacrity and zeal. Our luxuries
have been a turkey, some French beans of exquisite flavour, and
little cakes of bread, in which our cook excels. The cherries are
of the wild species — for the people are too lazy to graft ; but,
when stewed, they afford a delicious dish. No steamer disturbs
our repose ; no discordant note is uttered from morn to eventide.
We are self-sufficient, mobile, always at home. The world is our
house, and we move easily from room to room. It never rains ;
the moisture is controlled by man, who directs it whither it pleases
him and for as long. The air is so dry that, with very little
care, all danger of malaria can be kept at bay.
But the old imam, who owns and appears to live in this
garden, turned the water one early morning into the channels.
He must have known that it would deluge our tent. He might
have warned us to surround it with a shallow trench. I took
revenge by cutting a trench to the lake. The wizened old thing
did not display the smallest resentment. They say he is mad.
He sits in the garden all day long, smoking cigarettes of his own
manufacture, muttering to himself, his eyes fixed upon the lake.
When night arrives he goes to sleep in the grass. He has never
worked ; but nobody works. The idea of work is not repugnant ;
it is simply an idea which they do not possess.
Man is here a shadow — a mournful presence. And the women
appear conscious of some immense and inexpiable sin. The
children are seldom gay ; you never hear laughter. Their poor
little naked bodies are burnt brown by the sun, and their
stomachs are distended by indifferent food.
Each morning we bathe in the lake. The water is delicious
to the skin, bracing and at the same time soft. A certain soapi-
ness in its composition produces a cleansing effect ; yet to the
eye it is transparent as crystal. Swimming out into deep water,
the thermometer registered 68°, or exactly the temperature of the
shade at 6.30 A.M. The rocky shore shelves down with a measure
of abruptness, so that in breezy weather the waves do not break
until they reach the ledge. The bather is soon across this fringe
of surf.
And the colouring of the water ! Riding early to the ruins.
282 Armenia
or returning towards sunset to our camp, it is always a new effect,
or a fresh and startling combination, differing from anything either
of us have seen elsewhere. When the surface of the expanse is
ruffled, the restless, sparkling water is at once intensely green and
intensely blue ; an aquamarine so vivid that it must be over-
powering, an ultramarine so deep that it may not yield. Twilight
lasts but a little time; yet the brief space is many times multiplied
by the number and variety of dissolving tints. The landscape of
sea and mountain is overtaken by complete stillness. The lake
becomes the colour of an iridescent opal, green, blue, and pearly
white. The mountains are lightly tinged with delicate yellows
and warm greys, faintly shaded in the recesses of the chain of
peaks.
The latest aspect of the scene is at once the richest and the
most mysterious. All blue has passed from the sky and from
the face of the sea, except here and there, under a lingering breath
of wind. A dull golden tint is spread over the waters, cloaking
the underlying green. In the distance, towards Van, great
shadows of indigo lie on the lake, and envelop Varag to half
height. From these emerges the crested ridge, a pink madder.
Varag rests against a background of vague clouds, purplish-blue,
the only touch of redness in the landscape. . . . Such effects are
no doubt enhanced by the sublimity of the surroundings — the
wide sea, the Kurdish mountains, Sipan, Nimrud ; but they may
derive a special quality from the character of the water and from
the great elevation of the lake (5600 feet). Its pallor, combined
with its blueness, is perhaps the particular characteristic which
becomes imprinted upon the mind.
Our only regular visitor is the Kaimakam — Mohammed Fuad
Bey — a Circassian of middle stature and in middle age. A frock
coat, of black cloth and European pattern, displays the litheness
of his figure. His face is remarkable for the brilliancy of the
small eyes. He is the hero of a recent adventure with the Kurds.
The other day some Hasananli carried off from an Armenian
village a considerable body of cattle. The Kaimakam despatched
after them a contingent of regular soldiers, with instructions to
pursue a prescribed route. He himself followed, accompanied by
a single zaptieh. The soldiers appear to have lost their way ;
and the Kaimakam was alone when he fell in with the marauding
band. He rode straight up to them, pointed to the cattle, and
ordered them in the name of the Government to give them up.
AkJilat 283
He added that his own honour was at stake. The Kurds of course
refused, seeing one unarmed man and a zaptieh opposed to their
own numbers and arms. Whereupon the Kaimakam proceeded
to drive off the cattle, calHng to his attendant, who, however, was
too much terrified to be of use. The Kurds at once opened fire.
One bullet entered the open overcoat of the official, and came out
through the opposite flap. Another pierced the frock coat which
he habitually wears. His horse was shot in two places, but was
not disabled. This occurred before the Kaimakam could draw
his pocket revolver, which he at once aimed at the nearest Kurd.
The man fell ; his companions gathered round him, and almost
immediately made off, carrying the body with them. They
appear to have regarded the Kaimakam's as a charmed life, and
to have explained to themselves his courage in this way. The
cattle were quickly driven home and restored to the Armenians.
This exploit is the principal topic of conversation at Akhlat.
The Kaimakam has received neither thanks nor reward. The
loss of his horse, which died shortly after from its injuries, has not
yet been repaired. The Palace no doubt deplores the loss to the
Empire of a Hamidiyeh brave.
I was anxious to visit Akhlat during the course of my first
journey ; but the lateness of the season compelled me to push on.
The project so long deferred is at length realised. The con-
ception of the place which was present in my mind, before we
commenced to investigate the ruins, may be expressed in a few
words. A number of beautiful mausolea, illustrating the best
traditions of Mohammedan art in a manner by far surpassing
the similar buildings we had seen elsewhere — a ruined city with
mosques and minarets standing on the margin of the lake, and
backed by the remains of a still older city, which perhaps dated
from the period of the caliphs — such was the idea, so full of
promise, which I had gathered from the oral accounts of travellers
or formed from conversation in the country. Not much more is
to be gleaned from books.^ Writing now that we have completed
our plan of the place, examined the monuments, and copied the
inscriptions, I propose, in the first place, to submit a few general
1 The credit of whatever information we already possess is due, among modern
travellers, almost exclusively to Englishmen. I may cite Brant {Journal R.G.S. 1840,
vol. X. pp. 406 seq.), Layard {Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, London,
1853, pp. 24 seq.), and Tozer {Turkish Armenia, London, 188 1, pp. 315 m-)- The
last of these writers does not appear to have read Layard's account, which would
have saved him some lengthy speculations. Ritter {Erdkunde, vol. x. p. 326) may also
be consulted.
284 Armenia
remarks, and then to resume the experiences of our several
excursions, blending them into one.
Akhlat is the name of a district, comprising a number of oases,
on the northern shore of the extensive bay which is bounded on
its southern side by the long promontory of Zigag. This district
is divided for administrative purposes into five distinct quarters.
The first is Erkizan, the seat of government for district and caza,
where the Kaimakam resides and where we are encamped. The
second is Iki Kube, or the two mausolea — so called from a pair of
tombs which stand close together in the desert, some distance
west of Erkizan. This district comprises the walled city on the
shore, as well as the village of Kulaxis, situated in a ravine, a
good walk in a northerly direction from the two tombs. The
third quarter embraces the area of the older city, and is called
indifferently Kharaba and Takht-i-Suleyman. The remaining two
are outlying, Tunus, on the east of Erkizan, at an interval of
about half-a-mile ; and Kirklar, in the opposite direction, west
of the quarter of Kharaba and the ravine in which the older city
lies. The population of the entire district cannot much exceed
6000 souls, of whom the majority inhabit the quarter of Kharaba
or the gardens of Erkizan. Of this number only 200 would
appear to be Armenians, residing about the ravine of the older
city.
The block of limestone hills which we crossed from Melazkert
extend from Adeljivas along the shore. In the neighbourhood
of Akhlat they recess away towards Lake Nazik, leaving an
extensive margin of fairly level land. But the coast itself, between
Erkizan and the delta of the streams below the older city, has
the character of rounded cliffs, shelving to the lake. The soil is
composed of purplish sandstones and conglomerates, which, as
you approach the older city, are overlaid with lava and pumice.
Both the sandstones and the pumice tend to arid, dusty ground ;
while the yellow pumice reflects an overpowering glare. Yet this
ground, when thoroughly watered, becomes extremely fertile ; and
it is characteristic of Akhlat that the oases are the most luxuriant,
and the intermediate spaces the most sterile of all these shores.
Thus Erkizan is a deep belt of shady orchards, while the walled
city is surrounded by powdery waste. Groves of aged walnut
trees clothe the ground on either side of the ravine of Takht-i-
Suleyman ; but, if you ride from the walled city towards Kulaxis,
the light streams, and the dust rises in clouds. In such a waste
Akhlat
^85
Fig. 1£
the number of rivulets is surprising ; and they flow with a vigour
which is not less strange.
It is probable that the more ancient city was surrounded by
suburbs. The mausolea are spread over a considerable area ; and,
even in Erkizan, the houses are built up with the faced stones
which are characteristic of the
ancient masonry. In this
quarter we remark, beside the
base of a tomb, a capital, en-
riched with an Arab ornament,
and a large stone, elaborately
chiselled. Both these objects
are observed at random, lying
unheeded on the ground. The
Government house is a solid
stone building ; the graceful
pointed arch which we notice
over a doorway would seem to
indicate that the influence of
the monuments is still alive.
Adjoining it is placed the
prison. There are two or three shops, with deep verandahs over
the shop, the whole surmounted by the roof. The dwellings are
widely scattered ; and, if window glass were universal, they would
present an appearance both of solidity and of comfort. Little
lanes intersect the gardens ; the murmur of water and the scent
of the flowering olives fill the air with sweetness and pleasant
sounds.
Such are some of the notes one makes when on a day of
midsummer we wend our way on horseback through the straggling
settlement of Erkizan with the purpose of exploring the ancient
sites. As we pass the prison, an old Armenian protrudes his
head from one of the windows, and begs us to intercede on his
behalf. On the outskirts of the oasis we are met by the
Kaimakam, mounted on a white mare, with black and yellow
trappings, and with a two -months -old foal at foot. In his
company, and in that of a green-turbaned khoja, whom he employs
as writer, we pass an old mulberry tree on the fringe of the fertile
zone, and enter the waste on a westerly course.
A ride of twenty minutes, walking our horses, brings us to the iki
kube, or two tombs (Fig. i8i and see the plan, Nos. i and 2). They are
Piece of Seljuk Pottery
FROM Akhlat.
286 Armenia
separated by an interval of about ten yards. Let me describe, once for
all, the design of such edifices, known in the country by the name of
kutnbet. A circular, or drum-shaped structure rests on a deep pedestal,
which slopes outwards to a square base. But the four angles of the
pedestal are cut away in the shape of a wedge, the point of the wedge resting
on the base. The whole is surmounted by a conical roof On the level
of the ground, an arched aperture gives access to a chamber, built in the
hollow of the base. In this chamber, or beneath its floor, was presumably
placed a coffin : but the catafalques, if such existed, have disappeared.
The ground, too, has buried the base in most cases, so that you can only
just crawl through the top of the arched aperture. On the other hand,
the floor of the circular structure, resting on the pedestal, is high above the
ground ; and, in the absence of any stairs, you are obliged to clamber up
the face of the pedestal, making use of little crevices in the stones. Four
open doorways, placed at regular intervals in the circumference, at once
serve as entrances to the upper chamber, and as windows, through which
the landscape expands on every side.
It is supposed that the prospective occupant of the tomb, or the pious
visitors to this place of burial, would sit and rest within this cool, circular
chamber, beneath the lofty roof, enjoying the views of the country around.
They would, however, have needed a ladder to reach the entrances. The
interiors are quite plain; in one instance (No. i) we observed traces of
plaster ; but, as a rule, there is neither ornament nor covering of the surface
of the masonry, in which one admires the even joints of the blocks of
faced stone. The material of these tombs is stone throughout — a pink
volcanic stone. All the resources of the decorative sculptor are lavished
upon the exterior, especially about the doorways, the four niches in the
intervening spaces, and the cornice beneath the roof In some cases
raised stone mouldings enrich the surface of the roof Sometimes a frieze
is carried beneath the cornice, the most effective being hewn out of white
marble.^ They are inscribed with sentences from the Koran. The
beautiful Arabic letters vary the effect of the elaborate geometrical patterns
in the decorated spaces of the walls beneath. The personal inscriptions
are usually found over the doorways ; and, in some instances, are engraved
upon white marble slabs. The two tombs which we are now visiting both
possess such inscriptions; the khoja copied them; they are in Arabic prose.
Those on the first tomb (No. i) record that it is the burial-place of a great
Emir, by name Nughatay Agha, and of the lady, wife to Nughatay. The
date of his death is given as a.h. 678, or a.d. 1279. The second tomb
is described as that of Hasan Timur Agha, son of this Nughatay, who died
in A.H. 680 or A.u. 1281.-
Quite close to the //'/ kuhe, in a north-westerly direction, is situated
^ The white stone which may be seen inserted in the masonry of some of the tombs
at Akhlat is not a true marble, but a compact limestone, easy to chisel. It must have
been brought from a distance, perhaps from the opposite shore of the lake, as we met with
no such stone in situ during our wanderings.
'^ I am indebted to my friend, Mr. E. Denison Ross, for careful translations of these
and the following inscriptions.
Akhlat 287
a third tomb, which is still erect (No. 3). It is less richly decorated than
the preceding, and is without any commemorative inscription. Making
westwards, we at once enter one of the shadiest of the oases, passing a
fourth mausoleum within its fringe (No. 4). A much less tasteful structure
than the others, it is also of different design. Within the chamber are
ordinary graves, with marble headstones; the inscriptions on the headstones,
and on a marble slab in the wall outside, indicate that it was the burial-
place of some Kurdish princes of Modkan in the first quarter of the
eighteenth century. Almost opposite this tomb, which is without archi-
tectural merit, a most curious edifice, quite ruinous, is observed upon
some waste land (No. 4^). Built into a pile of massive masonry are some
slabs or blocks of stone, of Cyclopean character. The largest has the
appearance of a lintel ; it is twelve and a half feet long and three in
thickness. The recess behind the slabs, upon which it rests transversely,
is blocked up by a wall. A portion of a grinding stone is seen lying on
the ground, perhaps belonging to a linseed press.
The oasis belongs to the quarter of Iki Kube, and the gardens contain
a number of modern dwellings. It is remarkable for the size and leafiness
of the walnut trees. The remains of several ancient edifices rise from
among the foliage, or are strewn upon the grass. The most notable is a
square building of some size, with an octagonal and conical roof (No. 5).
The walls are featured by square windows ; but the architecture is plain
and without ornament, and the appearance is stumpy and without grace.
Perhaps it was a tomb like the rest. A smaller mausoleum of similar
design is seen by the wayside (No. 6). It is almost buried beneath the
ground. Before we leave the oasis, to visit the walled city on the shore, we
are shown a subterraneous and vaulted chamber, now used as a store for hay.
We now change direction and cross a zone of desert between the oasis
and the walled city. AMien close to the north-western tower, we pause to
admire the site, which commands the whole expanse of the lake. The
view is only bounded by the distant ridge of Varag, which rises behind
Van. The walls describe the figure of a parallelogram, of which the two
long sides have a length of about a quarter of a mile, and descend in a
south-easterly direction to the margin of the lake. The breadth of the
figure, along the shore, is about half its length. The slope, although
gradual, is not inconsiderable ; the north-western tower is 130 feet higher
than the level of the lake. The wall on the south overlooks a shallow
ravine, through which trickles a little stream.
The character of the walls may be described as a single rampart, with
hollow towers at intervals, some round, and others pentagonal. The
rampart has a thickness of about six feet, and consists of a pile of stone,
faced with hewn and jointed blocks after the manner of the old Armenian
masonry. But the greater part of this facing has fallen away or been
stripped off, displaying the raggedness of the pile within. We could find
no evidence of breaches having been made in the enclosure ; nor were
there any visible traces of its having undergone a siege. The wall along
the shore has long since disappeared ; ^ and the lake has encroached
^ Brant {op. cit. p. 407) attests its existence at the time of his visit.
288 Armenia
upon its rocky bank. About halfway down the more southerly wall
is situated the inner walled enclosure of the palace or citadel.
This inner fortress comprises an area which is roughly rectangular, and
which is of no great extent. It is flanked along the three inner
sides by a rampart and towers, but the city wall is at the same time the
wall of the citadel along the fourth or outer side. The site is signalised by a
slight projection of the fortification, and by the greater propinquity of the
towers to each other. From the tower at the north-eastern angle of the
citadel a cross wall is carried down to the sea. The upper portion of the
principal enclosure, as well as the space within the citadel, is now com-
pletely bare. Nothing but the foundations of houses and buildings can be
discovered within that area. The few modern houses are collected in the
south-east corner, and have been built from the material of the old fortress.
Their inhabitants resemble phantoms rather than human beings ; but the
orchards, which are confined to this lower part of the enclosure, enhance
the picturesqueness of the old kala, sloping down the hillside to the blue
water.
Three gateways, from which the gates have disappeared, give entrance
to the enceinte, two in the rampart on the north, and one in that upon
the south. The upper gate in the north rampart is in a ruinous condition,
the plinths having been broken away. The lower entrance is situated
about opposite to that in the south wall ; a road extends between the two
through the cross wall. Both these gateways are surmounted by inscribed
slabs. The legend over the first is written in Persian verse, and recounts
that the fortress was built by order of Sultan Selim. The date is given in
a chronogram as a.h. 976 or a.d. 1568. The inscription upon the
second is in Turkish verse, but the chronogram is obscure. It sets forth
that the kala was built or restored by Sultan Suleyman the Second (a.d.
1 687-1 691). The citadel is entered by a handsome gateway, facing
towards the sea. This entrance consists of a pretentious piece of
architecture, flanked on either side by a tower. The doorway leads into
a vaulted chamber, where the passage into the citadel is placed at right
angles to the outer door. The inscription above this entrance is in
Arabic prose, the characters being relieved by a ground of enamel in
various colours. It is to the effect that the fortress was built by Sultan
Suleyman, son of Sultan Selim. Suleyman is styled, in the pompous
language of the East, the Alexander of his time. It would therefore
appear that the citadel is due to Suleyman the First, surnamed the Great,
who came to the throne in a.d. 1520; and that other portions of the
fortifications were undertaken under subsequent Sultans, notably Selim II.
and Suleyman II.
The only buildings of any importance within the enceinte are two
mosques, which are rapidly falling into ruin. The largest (No. 18) is
placed just opposite the gateway of the citadel, and is of charming
proportions and design. The entrance is approached through a spacious
portico, which extends the whole length of the wall. The piers or
columns, which must have supj^orted the roof of this structure, in the
form of a fac^ade, are no longer in their place. But one still admires the
Akhlat 289
vaulted and groined ceilings, the vaulting being done in brick. And
through the openings in the side walls, with their ogee arches, pleasant
prospects are obtained. The face of the main wall, against which the
portico rests, is decorated in a simple and efficacious manner by means of
an alternation of bands of white marble with bands made up with blocks
of black and of pink lava. The main doorway, which gives access through
this wall into the mosque, is surmounted by a pointed arch. A slab of
white marble over the door is inscribed with a legend in Persian verse.
It relates that the mosque was erected by Sikandar or Iskandar Pasha ;
a chronogram gives the date of a.h. 976 or a.d. 1568. On either side of
the doorway, as well as above it, openings with ogee arches admit light
into the interior. In front of, but contiguous with, the portico on its
south-west side, a massive circular minaret rises into the sky. It is seen,
like a landmark, from afar. It does not taper perceptibly ; but the
honeycomb cornice which supports the balcony is surmounted by a
second tower of smaller diameter. The cupola has fallen from this
uppermost shaft. A band of white limestone, and two bands of black
lava encircle the even masonry of pink lava. A heart-shaped stone, high
up, is engraved with Arabic characters, setting forth the name of the
founder, Sikandar Pasha, and giving the date as a.h. 978 or a.d. 1570.
The interior of the mosque is of extremely pleasing design — a circle
described by eight pointed arches, springing from a square ground plan.
Four of these form recesses at the angles of the square ; the remainder
rest against the walls. The members of the arches are built of stone ;
but the walls are lined and the vaultings constructed with narrow bricks.
The dome rests on the points of the arches, encompassing the interior
with its beautiful curves. From the outside it is octagonal in shape. In
the south wall are three apertures which serve as windows ; two are of
fair size. The dimensions are a square of 42 feet 6 inches. The altar
is built of white marble, and the masonry throughout the building is
carefully faced and joined.
The second mosque, situated just outside the cross wall, is smaller,
but of similar design. The portico is still perfect, the cups of the three
ceilings being supported by pointed arches, resting on two columns with
uncarved capitals. But this mosque is built throughout of stone, marbles
of various hues being introduced. A legend in Persian verse above the
doorway is to the effect that it was constructed by the Kazi^ Mahnmd, in
A.H. 996 or a.d. 1587.
Such is the kala or Ottoman fortress, and what it contains. The
architecture, although careful, and, in the case of the mosques, pleasing,
displays a distinct decline in the arts. The admirable traceries in stone
of the so-called Seljuk buildings are nowhere to be found. Persian
influences make themselves felt.
We proceed from the kala in a south-westerly direction, on a course
about parallel to the outline of the shore. The high ground, shelving to
the water, is barren and stony. At a distance of nearly a mile we arrive
at an isolated tomb, of which the site is a little headland of the coast,
commanding the inner curves of the bay of Akhlat. It is the most
VOL. II U
290 Armenia
beautiful of all the mausolea, in fact the only object of excelling beauty
at Akhlat (No. 7, Fig. 182). It stands as a surpassing monument of Arab
architecture, engrafted upon the Armenian style. Its masonry is fresh as
upon the day when it was completed, six centuries ago. But the ruins of
a companion building, which stood not far behind it, and which collapsed,
according to my informant, about two years back, are ominous of a
dissolution which is perhaps nearer than we might expect. I have
therefore reproduced its features in a careful photograph, and have
endeavoured to invest them with the hues of reality. I do not know that
I need add much to the general description already given of similar
edifices. But in this tomb all the merits of the style are seen to
culminate ; — in none do the proportions attain such exactitude, or the
ornament such a combination of extraordinary elaboration with the
simplicity and stateliness of the highest art. Tradition relates that these
companion tombs are the burial-places of two brothers, and the work of a
single architect. For the elder brother was designed the structure which
has now fallen, and which is said to have been greatly inferior to that
which stands. This individual lived to see the more finished monument
erected, and to brood over the invidious contrast between his own and
his brother's tomb. His anger was visited upon the daring architect, who
was condemned to lose his right hand. The story sounds plausible, for
there exists no personal inscription upon the beautiful tomb. We ignore
the name of the personage for whom it was built. On the other hand
the fallen structure possessed such an inscription, which our khoja had
fortunately copied before it succumbed. It commemorates the great
afid noble Emb', Shadi Ag/ia, son of the great Emir, Sai/ghiir Agha, son of
Khaghan Agha. The date is a.h. 672 or a.d. 1273. The language is
Arabic prose.
Although the appearance of the kumbet does not suggest size, the
dimensions are about the largest of all these tombs. The upper and
circular chamber has a diameter of 22 feet ; and each side of the square
base which supports the structure is close upon 30 feet long. Although
the floor of the lower chamber is partially silted up, it has a height of
16 feet. Beneath the deep cornice runs a frieze of white marble, with an
inscription from the Koran. The body of the building is composed of
the usual pink volcanic lava. The interior displays no trace of plaster,
nor is it ornamented in any way.
Between the isolated tomb and the ravine of the ancient city, the
ground is covered by the headstones of an extensive cemetery, a kind of
Kensal Green or Pere Lachaise. But our European pattern of marble
slabs, with thin incisions, are pale and paltry when compared with these.
The fact that a majority of these headstones are still erect attests their
extraordinary solidity. In all, or almost all, cases they have the form of
a pilaster, surmounted by a honeycomb frieze. The silhouettes of these
friezes are extremely picturesque against the lights of the sky. The stone
has weathered brown and carries a little lichen. The head of the dead
man is placed towards Mecca, turned upon his right shoulder. The
headstone faces the feet and the rising sun. The face bears the inscrip-
riu. 1^:^, Akhlai : IsuLATtL. Tomb.
Akhlat
291
tion in Arabic character ; on the reverse the ornament, which forms the
subject of the accompanying illustration (Fig. 183), is an almost universal
feature. Some of these graves are of the same date as the kumbets, or
even earlier, while some are rather later. They represent a comparatively
high standard of civilisation, in which the arts were
cherished and extensively practised.
Continuing our course along the shore, but still
high above the lake, we come to the point where the
headland breaks away to the alluvial flats of an
extensive delta. This delta constitutes the inner
recess of the bay, screening a lagoon of some size.
It is formed by the deposits of two streams, which
meet close to us, and of which the more easterly
flows from the ravine of the ancient city. Yet a
third stream enters the shallows some distance
further west. The strip of alluvium in front of the
lagoon extends from this headland to the opposite
curve of the bay. It is probable that the gradual
rise in level of the lake has caused these little
streams to deposit a quantity of sediment out of pro-
portion to their volume. So narrow is the strip of
soil, that a peasant is digging a trench across it
with nothing but his hands. He is wanting to •.''-'■
let out the surplus water from the lagoon. Several
tall willows are growing within the delta, to
which we immediately descend. From a bush at our side a young
cormorant takes wing, and falls clumsily into the lake below. Reversino-
our direction, we ride up the principal valley, at first over the soft sand.
Again commence the orchards, and again the air is scented by the flower-
ing olive trees. The valley becomes a glen, and the bed of powdery
silt gives place to slabs of rock. The stream cascades beside us, from
one ledge to another, beneath the shade of walnuts, willows, and poplars.
Some little children are bathing in the deeply-shadowed water; a tiny
calf stands on the shore. And a little further, behind the sparkle and
effervescence of a waterfall, the site of the city comes to view.
Beyond the single pointed arch and little battlements of a stone bridge,
you see the sharp end of a wedge-shaped platform, rising above the detail
of the luxuriant valley like the prow of a gigantic ship. It cleaves the
valley into two (Fig. 184).
The situation of old Akhlat resembles that of Bitlis ; but it is Bitlis
shorn of its castle, and without the lofty mountains towering above it on
every side. It is nothing more than a valley, cut by water deep into the
lava, with a long spit of columnar lava rising up from the valley floor.
The direction of this valley is roughly north and south. Of its two
branches, that on the east of the citadel is wider but less deep ; while
that on the west is narrower but more profoundly carved. These side
ravines unite at both ends of the citadel ; although on the north the
junction is less obvious. There is no stream in the eastern ravine. The
Fig. 183.
292
A^niienia
platform, which supported the citadel, is both highest and most broad
towards its northerly end. Its greatest width is about 100 yards, and its
length, from end to end, less than 500 yards. Its height above the
stream is some 200 feet. The top of the platform is flat ; all buildings have
been razed ; the tread sinks in the powdery soil. It is crossed by two
depressions, which must have always been a source of weakness. The
almost demolished remains of immensely thick walls still rise in some
places from the upper sides.
The ascent to the platform is from the valley on the east ; on our way
we pass a line of miserable shops and a cluster of houses, built of stone.
Caves in the side of the basaltic lava have probably been utilised in the
construction of these tenements. The inhabitants have an emaciated and
sickly appearance, being in fact extremely poor. A track leads up the
cliff to the head of the platform, whence a fine view over the adjacent
ravines is obtained. That on the east is almost treeless, but the higher
levels of the western ravine are thickly clothed with trees. The verdure
descends the clefts in that opposite parapet, which towers above the
citadel. Stone houses nesde among the foliage. It is surprising how
little remains of the ancient city. On the slope of the eastern valley,
which is, comparatively, a low gradient, a portion of the wall of some
considerable edifice is still erect, and fairly well preserved. It is an
extremely lofty wall, being flanked by buttresses ; the masonry is of jointed
and faced stone. Below it are observed some remnants of a vaulted
edifice, possibly a bath. Beyond the fragment of a wall, and on the
surface of the high ground, rises a ruinous round tower. In that direction
we notice traces of a rampart.
In the opposite quarter, beyond the western ravine, the standing
portion of a ruinous kumbet emerges from the trees on the summit of the
cliff, and forms a landmark from afar (No. 9). It is the tomb of the
" lord of Emirs " — so runs the inscription — Hasan Agha, son of Mahviud.
The date of his death is given as a.h. 672 or a.d. 1273. 0>^ the same
summit the bases of two large and similar buildings may be discovered
among the orchards.
Descending from the platform, we endeavour to trace the line of the
walls, which enclosed a considerable area on the east of the citadel, and
were brought down into the ravine. The result of our labours is shown
on the plan. The round tower, already mentioned, which has an inside
diameter of fifteen paces, evidently stood at one of the angles of the line
of walls.
Tust outside, and on the east of this line of fortifications is situated a
little mosque, in pink volcanic stone, and by its side a tomb (No. 8).
This kumbet differs in style from all its fellows, the circular structure,
which is supported by the usual form of pedestal, being open upon the
side that faces away from the wall of the mosque. On that side the
conical roof rests on ten short columns, with honeycomb capitals. These
columns rise from the lower portion of the drum, which is richly decorated.
Above them, and below the roof, runs a frieze with an inscription. In
the side opposite the wall of the mosque is an aperture or entrance, set
Aklilat 293
within a recess with honeycomb ornament. The interior of the tomb has
a diameter of fifteen and a half feet.^ The inscription, which is the
longest of all these personal records, and, indeed, usurps the position
which in the remaining mausolea is reserved for verses from the Koran,
may be briefly summarised as follows. It is in Arabic prose. " This
tomb preserves the remai/is of the g?-eat and laudable king, honoured among
the sultans of the world for his valour in war, and for his zeal ifi the pro-
pagation of the Faith — -Mubariz-ud-Din, Bayindar Bey, son of the late
Rustem Bey. Under the auspices of his royal banner were vindicated the
rights of sovereignty and the ordering of government. During his life he
triumphed over his enemies with the aid of his victorious armies. He died in
A.H. 886 (a.d. 148 1 ). Here also was buried Zen Alohammed, his son, zvho
died in a.h. 894." The inscription upon the mosque refers to the same
personage, as having erected it. But Bayindar is styled ^^ the ransomed
emperor" and " the master of the stvord and of the pen, the author of the book
Majmu-ul-Makarim. "
Having visited these meagre relics on either cliff of the volcanic valley,
we descend to the western ravine. The stream is flowing beneath the
deep shade of trees, and prattling over ledges of rock. This portion of
the ravine is termed Takht-i-Suleyman, or Solomon's throne, from the
appearance of the lofty platform which it skirts. Just north of the citadel
the valley narrows, and becomes a deep gorge. We make our way along
the side of the cleft. It was once spanned by the single arch of a stone
bridge. A little distance further, the stream from Kulaxis joins our stream,
coming in on the left bank through a ravine and by a cascade. Pursuing
our course up the glen, for the space of half-an-hour from the confluence,
we reach the Armenian village of Madavantz.
Madavantz is a semi-troglodyte village, which reminds one of Vardzia
(Vol. I. Fig. 18, p. 80). The dwellings are only partially built out from
caves in the face of the lava. The place seems as old as the hills.
The valley has become extremely narrow, and the cliffs rise with consider-
able steepness on either bank of the little stream. The village of caves
overhangs the right bank. On the left bank is a little church, of which
the interior chapel and altar are sunk into the rock. The main body is
built out, and is supported on stone columns. The priest informs us
that the chapel was built by the Apostle Thaddeus, who also preached at
Madavantz. However this may be, it evidently dates from a hoary
antiquity, and it is by far the most ancient building in the whole district.-
It is dedicated to the Mother of God — Astvatsatsin.
Let me review, for the sake of the reader who may not have
leisure to pursue the excursions which are embodied in the above
description, the results and impressions of our visit to these ruins.
There are two distinct sites of cities which once were prosperous,
^ Woodcuts of this tomb are given by Layard {op. cit. p. 24) and by Mullei-Simonis
{op. cit. p. 313).
- Madavantz belongs to the caza but not to the casaba, or home district, of Akhlat.
294 Armenia
but which now harbour a mere handful of miserable human
beings. There is the walled fortress on the shore, a work of the
sixteenth century, built by order of Ottoman Sultans. It is
usually termed the kala, or fortress ; while the more ancient
site in the ravine north-west of this kala is generally alluded
to as the kJiarab-sheJir, or ruined city. In the case of the
Ottoman stronghold the walls and two mosques, one with a
fine minaret, are still erect. But it is rather the happy
choice of situation that impresses the traveller, than any special
merit in the architecture. If Akhlat should ever recover her
former position, let us hope that the new city will grow around
this site. At the present day, even the seat of administration
for the district has been removed from the kala to the suburb of
Erkizan.
Of the older city in the ravine scarcely a remnant remains,
although it is still possible to trace the foundations of the walls.
On the other hand, several of the mausolea are still erect, and are
distributed over a considerable space of ground. These, and
extensive graveyards, are the monuments of that ancient city
which have been spared by the ravages of war and the lapse of
time. Among the tombs, there is one of particular excellence,
reproduced in my illustration (Fig. 182). It would do honour to
any school of architecture. It is one of the fine things in the
world. A glance at the illustrations of the circular chapels of Ani
(Vol. I. Ch. XVIII. Figs. 85, 86, 88), and at some of the elaborate
stone traceries of the Armenian style {ibid. Figs. 73 and Jj) will
throw light upon the source of the inspiration which produced it,
or contributed thereto in the greatest degree. This and the
several similar tombs at Akhlat are all works of the latter portion
of the thirteenth century. A later and less pleasing development
is the tomb of Prince '. Bayindar, erected at an interval of two
centuries.
But who was Bayindar, and who the persons with the
cacophonous names to whose memory these mausolea were built ?
The East, which ever opposes the type to the individual, leaves
so little for busy History to explore. At a time when Dante
was composing the Divine Comedy^ and when the Italian cities
were commencing to throb with a new life of which every impulse
is reflected both in literature and in art, architects, whose names
soon perished, were erecting these monuments to princes of whom
the names alone remain. What little may be gleaned from the-
Akhlat 295
sources at my disposal of the history of Akhlat, may be summar-
ised in the following short account.
The place is first known under the name of Khlath, and as
an important Armenian town. Literature thus confirms the
surmise which is readily suggested by the little chapel in the
gorge at Madavantz. Indeed, one feels that this village of caves
is perhaps the oldest of these ancient sites, like the crypt upon
which in Europe has risen the edifice of some Gothic cathedral,
but which once served as a Druids' shrine. The shrine still
remains ; but the churches and monasteries have disappeared
which, even as late as the end of the thirteenth century, were
flourishing at Akhlat.^ But the city does not appear to have
again come into Armenian possession after its conquest by the
Arabs during the era of the caliphs. Its close vicinity to the
Kurdish mountains and to the passage of Bitlis explains the
long sequence of Mussulman rule.
The Byzantine Empire, however, was successful in wresting it
from the Mohammedans, but only for a short time. It paid
tribute to Leo VI., a successor of the Caesars (A.D. 886-911);
and it was annexed to the Empire under Basil the Second (in
993). But it fell to the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century,
from whose hands it passed into those of the Merwanids, a line of
Kurdish princes which had arisen from the debris of the caliphate,
and whom the Seljuks had dispossessed of their seats about
Diarbekr.^ The rule of these Kurds appears to have been so
harsh that they w^ere driven out by the inhabitants ; a warrior
of Turkish descent, who had been the slave of the Seljuk
governor of Maraud in Azerbaijan, was called in as their Prince.
This individual, by name Sokman, founded a so-called Seljuk
dynasty, which, under the pompous title of Shahs of Armenia,
reigned at Akhlat for upwards of a hundred years (i 100-1207).'^
They were succeeded by the Ayubids, descendants of the
renowned Saladin, and of Kurdish extraction. The great siege
of Akhlat by the Sultan of Kharizme (Khwarazm) falls within this
period. The event still forms the centre of the slight historical
knowledge which is possessed by the least uneducated of the
1 Geography, attributed to Vardan ap. Saint ^lartin, JA'aioires sur PAniiJnh', vol. ii.
p. 429. One of these monasteries contained the leather girdle of St. Gregory, and
another was consecrated Ijy the saint himself.
2 Constantine Porphyrogenitus, de Adiii. Imp. c. 44, in vol. iii. p. 196 of the Bonn
edition. . ^ Lane- Poole, Mohammedan Dynasties, London, 1894, p. 118.
* Deguignes, Hist, des I/iiiis, Paris, 1756, vol. i. p. 253 ; Lane-Poole, op. fit. p. 170.
296 Aj'mcnia
present inhabitants. They attribute to it the present condition of
the walls. After two attempts which were unsuccessful, the sultan
made desperate efforts to reduce this strong place. Twenty siege
machines were brought against it from the side of the sea ; and,
so complete was the investiture, that the besieged were compelled
to kill their dogs for food. It was at last taken by storm (in
A.D. 1229). But the triumph of Jelal-ud-Din was not of long
duration ; his successes aroused the alarm of the Seljuk sultan of
Iconium ; and the bloody battle of Akhlat at once decided the
fate of his prize and sounded the death-knell of the Kharizmian
empire.
The overthrow of that empire by the Mongols afforded a
passage to these savage hordes towards the south. They became
masters of the city in 1245. We are informed that they made it
over to a Georgian princess, who had married a son of one of the
Shahs of Armenia.^ To this period are due the mausolea which
we still admire, and some of which appear to have been erected
to princes of Mongol origin. My authorities throw no light upon
the point. I am not aware that Nughatay, or Hasan Agha, or
the son of Saughur are known to history. They preserve equal
silence upon the period which produced the tomb of Bayindar,
master of the szvord and of the pen. But we can scarcely doubt
that he was a chieftain of the Turkoman horde of the White
Sheep into whose possession the greater part of the country had
passed during the progress of the fifteenth century."^ Akhlat was
incorporated in the Ottoman dominions under Sultan Suleyman
the First in A.D. 1533-1534.^
That the place continued to prosper after the catastrophe of
the great siege by the Sultan of Kharizme is attested not only
by the monuments which have been described, but also by the
evidence of books. It was known to Abulfeda at the end of the
thirteenth century as a flourishing town, which he compares to
1 Saint Martin, quoting Chamchean, Hiit. vol. iii. p. 221.
- Layard {op. at. p. 26) mentions a local tradition that all these tombs were built by
Sultans of the Ak-Kuyunli (White Sheep) and Kara-Kuyunli (Black Sheep) Turkomans.
The inscriptions show that this cannot be the case. The Venetian traveller Barbaro,
who visited the country during the first half of the fifteenth century, found it in the
possession of the horde of the Black Sheep. They were driven out by the rival horde
of the White Sheep under Uzun Hasan (1466-1478).
Layard speaks of Bayindar as a known sultan of the White Sheep horde, I know
not upon what authority.
^ Von Hammer, Geschichte dcs osmanischen Keiches, vol. iii. p. 143. Akhlat
ajipears to have contained the tombs of some of the ancestors of the Ottoman ruling
House {ibid, note to p. 144 on ]). 676).
PLAN OF AKHLAT
\ out on the spot by H.F.E. Lynch and Y. Oswald in 18£
Scale 672 Yards - 1 Inch
or 1 : 24-.192
■yards
..<^'
•"^ O asts ■".:■' "-i ,\
io,
fUll"^
THE K ALA
Dr Ottoman fortress of Akhlat
Scale 224 Yards - 1 Inch.
^y Tajfls
AkJilat 297
Damascus. A century later, it is described by Bakoui as one of
the principal cities of Armenia. Its decline appears to date from
the commencement of the sixteenth century, though the district
no doubt derived a certain glamour from the erection of the
fortress on the shore.^
^ The Merchant in Persia {Travels of Italians in Persia, Ilakluyt Society, London,
i873> P- 160), who visited Armenia in the first quarter of the sixteenth century,
describes it as follows : — "This Calata {sic) was anciently a large city, as can be seen
by the buildings, but is now reduced to a small fortress."
CHAPTER XVII
OUR SOJOURN IN THE CRATER OF NIMRUD
July 1 6. — It was half-past two in the afternoon before our prepara-
tions could be completed, the pack-horses having already started
with their loads. Our orchard looked untidy, in spite of the care
which had been taken to preserve its freshness from the usual
litter of a camp. Still the old imam was profuse of gratitude, his
wizened face relaxing into a smile which vexed his muscles to
produce. Good-bye to our delicious home, and to our two blue-
breasted friends ! Their loves have already ripened, and their
young will soon be fledged. Journeys many, and various homes,
and different fates await us — fragments all of universal matter
and soul. But when we sink at last upon the lap of Nature, may
her bosom reward the constancy of her own devoted lover with
the perfume of the memory of this home !
Our course was directed past the iki kube and across the
ravine towards Nimrud. Not a ripple awoke the vivid greens and
azures of the lake upon the pallor of the surface of pale turquoise.
The light was already mellowing as we approached the tomb upon
the headland, throwing the proportions into relief with delicate
shadows, and enhancing the natural tints of the pink volcanic
stone against the background of restful blue. Before us, upon the
horizon, the grassy circle of the gigantic crater filled the landscape
of the west (Fig. 185, and plan).
Descending into the delta, we forded the two streams and
rose up the opposite cliff side. The more westerly of the pair
approaches the alluvial flat by a fine cascade over a ledge of lava.
These lavas are seen to have followed the course of the valley, as
it expands before you towards the north-west. A similar feature
was observed in the ravine of Madavantz. It proves that these
Oitr Sojourn in the Crater of Ninirnd 299
valleys are older than the lava, which must have poured down
them in a very liquid condition.
From the high land, over which we were again making, and
which is here covered with pumice sand, we obtained a view of
Bilejan. But our attention was soon diverted by the picturesque
situation of a large village on our left hand. A rapid if only
momentary change in our surroundings had taken us by surprise.
It is due to a bed of dark, glassy lava, perhaps an ancient flow
from Nimrud, or from a fissure about its base. A deep stream,
which is crossed by a bridge, eats its way through the hard rock,
and descends by several waterfalls to a lagoon within the bay.
The village is placed at some little distance from the shore of the
lake, upon a platform of lava on the right bank of the stream. It
possesses two small churches, which are evidently very old. On
the outskirts, which we crossed, was a small field, planted with
marrows, an unusual luxury in this neighbourhood. The in-
habitants are all, I believe, Armenians.
But Karmuch and its black valley, with the willows and the
waterfalls, were but an incident — and the last incident — in the
scene. An almost uniform plain, of very shallow gradient,
stretched from all sides towards the crater in the west. Covered
at first by pumice, a brown lava comes to the surface, and extends
to the actual wall of the circular mass. Dry watercourses seam
the entire region, which, however, is so even in its general
character, that it would almost seem to have once been covered,
up to the base of the crater, by the waters of the lake. At first
the soil is barren, supporting only some burnt herbage ; in such
surroundings we sank to the trough of an extensive depression, in
which is situated a deserted cemetery of some size. But when
the lava is reached the vegetation commences, and continues
to the foot of the higher seams. The spangled blossoms of
atraphaxis, which I had not seen since my first journey, were
conspicuous, but only here and there. The prevailing flower was
a large forget-me-not, almost the size of a little bush ; and, later
on, a wild pea, pink and white. The higher we rose the more
frequent became patches of standing corn, though by whom
planted it was difficult to conceive. Our people said they belonged
to a distant Armenian village at the foot of the crater, called
Seghurt or Teghurt. The soil, where exposed by the plough, was
a rich brown. Small blocks of obsidian, coal-black in hue, were
scattered over the o-rass. Now and again a tortoise waddled over
300 Amncnia
the sand. So we rode for a distance of many miles, until the wall
of the crater rose like a rampart above our heads. We had
reached an elevation of 6880 feet, or of over 1000 feet above the
level of Lake Van.
After a short halt, we led our horses up the slope, which
has a gradient of \2\ It was covered with grass, and whole
beds of wild pea. These sides of the crater are seamed with
deep gullies, which display in section the lava-flows. The
dark green obsidian of the uppermost beds was glittering in the
sun. A direct ascent of twenty minutes brought us to the
surface of a natural terrace, at a height of 7900 feet. We were
surprised to find a well-used track, making use of this terrace to
reach the summit of the circular wall. Less astonishment was
aroused by the presence there of a troop of cavalry ; they had
come to meet us from their camp within the crater. For more
than a week, both cavalry and infantry had been patrolling this
strange place, in anticipation of our visit. It is indeed probable
that, without these extraordinary precautions, we should have
found it impossible to carry on our work. That we were able
to go where we pleased, whether in or around the crater, we owe
to the kindness of the local authorities, and, in particular, to the
late Vali of Bitlis. Our excellent friend, the Kaimakam of
Akhlat, personally accompanied us, and remained with us during
our stay.
The view from this terrace over the landscape of the east is
one of the most inspiring that could be conceived. The western
inlets of Lake Van, with their long promontories and varied
outline — with the precipitous barrier of the Kurdish mountains
rising along the one shore, and from the other the fabric of Sipan
— are perhaps the most beautiful portion of the inland sea. They
scarcely figure upon existing maps. Certainly when you rise
above them, and the expanse of the water is spread beneath you,
and Sipan emerges free of all lesser heights — while as yet their
essential detail has not been lost by distance, but the vast
prospects, which they lack, have been regained — these western
inlets arc the pride of the scenery of Lake Van. The setting
sun sheds a mellow light upon the great volcano, robed in snow,
upon the white summits of the Kurdish range, upon the dim
outline of Varag. Around the field of pale water are shed a
thousand delicate hues, over peak and dome, and buried garden
and arable. We can still sec the lonely tomb upon the headland.
Our Sojourn in the Crater of Niinrud 301
On the opposite coast we see Surb, fairest of little bays ; the
steep cliffs behind Garzik ; the arms of the Sheikh Ora crater,
almost encircling the lake admitted to its inmost core.
Such is the landscape — so full of light and most ethereal
colour — that has dazzled the eye during the ascent of the rampart.
We ride on, along the terrace, with the uppermost slope on our
right hand. It has a gradient of about \f\ and is largely
covered up with white pumice sand. The track worms its
way to a fork in the outline, which we reach in about ten
minutes. It is just after six o'clock. The ground falls away,
and a scene expands before us which Mother Earth, rejDentant of
her orgies, has acted wisely in surrounding with a wall.
The whole circumference of the gigantic circle towers around
us, the vaulted slopes of the outer sides breaking down with
precipitous cliffs, which, in some places, attain a height of over
2000 feet above the rubble at their base. The impression of
height and steepness is accentuated by the lighting — the sun
setting behind the crater. The same circumstance increases the
weirdness of the vast spaces of the interior, with their multitude
of chaotic forms. Flatness is the prevailing characteristic of the
bottom of the basin — but the surface has been blown out by
subterranean explosions, or sunk into deep pits, or flooded with
viscous lavas, oozing up, and cooling into comb-shaped crags.
Here it is a shapeless hill covered with white volcanic dust ; there
a lava stream, resembling rocks from, which the tide has receded,
that compels a large circuit from point to point. The coarse
herbage has already been burnt by the sun, and its hues assimilated
to the volcanic sand. These ragged yellows intermingle with the
sombre lavas ; and the only touch of beauty in this hell of Nature
is a little piece of blue at its furthest side. It is just a glimpse
that we obtain of the principal lake.
But what is the meaning of these many paths which scam the
interior, arguing a considerable traffic to and fro. Are there
villages in the crater ? We have never heard of any ; we are
assured that none exist. Not a fire, no light is anywhere visible ;
but the tracks are broad, and have all the appearance of being
regularly used. We feel surprise and express it to the Kaimakam.
He answers naively that Kurds come here now and then.
After a short halt, the whole party defiles down the narrow
path — zaptiehs, cavalry, a detachment of infantry. Looking
backwards, it is a long, thin line from base to summit, the
?02
Armenia
number of horses making an imposing array. Arrived at the
foot of the wall, we skirt the cliff for some distance in a north-
westerly direction. It is our object to find some shade for our
camp. But in this search we become involved in some deep
ravines, covered with groves of aspen and birch. Juniper conceals
the hollows in the rocky surface, and adds to our difficulties in
the failing light. None of the trees are of sufficient height for
our purpose ; and the Kaimakam entreats us to avoid these
wooded ravines, which are, he says, the favourite haunt of bears.
They descend to the shore of the warm lake. At last we espy a
Fig. 186. The Lake in the Crater of Nimrud.
clearing, a kind of platform, free of brushwood, yet close to the
aspen groves. It overlooks, at a considerable elevation above it,
the mirror of a fresh-water lake. The peaceful water fills the
whole western segment of the crater. Great, black masses in the
heights about us intensify the darkness ; they are composed of
obsidian, pure, and black as jet. On a tiny promontory of the
opposite shore a shepherd's fire starts from the shadows. Failing
shade, it is just the site for an encampment, and here we erect
our tents (Fig. i86).
The morning breaks serene and clear ; we have slept, as
usual, with our tent open upon one side. It has been chilly
during the night ; but the temperature rises with great rapidity
as the sun mounts above the rim of the crater. A charming
landscape is framed within the opening of the green canvas,
Otir Soj02irn in the Crater of Nimrud
o^j
receiving the mellow light from behind. Beyond the foreground
of quivering aspens and white-stemmed, tremulous birches, the
eye rests upon the transparent surface of the lake. The opposite
segment of the circle of cliffs is mirrored in the water with all
the wealth of detail which they possess. Where these images
cease, the surface is blue, like any other lake in the recesses of
the mountains. We miss the changing effects and splendour of
colour, characteristic of the lake of Van.
We descend through the groves to the margin of the water,
to take our morning's bathe. The declivity is pretty steep, and
there is a difference of level of 300 feet between our camp and
the lake. The wood is still cool and fresh. Tall stalks of
flowering yellow mullein rise within it ; and the prevailing green-
ness is relieved by patches of pink from the rosebay willow-herb,
or of pale salmon from clusters of poppies. It seems quite a
nursery for a variety of insects, this crater of Ximrud. Last
evening, as we arrived, the bushes were dotted with sleeping
butterflies, reminding us of the appearance of those shreds of
coloured cotton which are affixed by devout pilgrims to the shrubs
round their sacred place. This morning the air is all hum and
bright wings ; we notice the swallow-tail in abundance, the
marbled white, some clouded yellows, a multitude of fritillaries,
a few tortoiseshells.
The water is pure as crystal ; but it feels cold, having a
temperature of 64° Fahrenheit. To the taste it scarcely differs
from ordinary water, although we thought it was at once more
pleasant and more bracing to the skin. It is evidently increasing
in level. Many of the trees along its margin are submerged.
We saw no fish, only some small leeches and fresh -water
shrimps.
If only one had a boat, and could take soundings, and could
cross to the opposite shore ! It is probably very deep. The
walls of the crater are so precipitous, that one cannot walk along
their base. Nor is it possible to reach their summit, except on
the eastern side of the great circle, in which we occupy a fairly
central position. It is therefore necessary to make a very long
detour when we wish to visit any point on the west of the
crater.
From our platform we see the worn tracks in all directions.
Yet not a single Kurdish tent, no shepherd, no wayfarer can we
descry in the wide landscape of the volcanic basin. We observe
304 Armenia
paved holes in the ground, where it is evident that bread has
recently been baked. There are stone enclosures for penning
cattle. More and more clearly we realise that the crater must
be inhabited, and that this floating population have decamped at
the approach of the soldiers. They will return the moment their
backs are turned. Indeed the place has the worst reputation as a
harbour of lawlessness ; and the Turkish Government might well
have disclaimed responsibility for our safety in a spot so remote
and wild. They deserve our gratitude for what they have done.
Have all quarry left the haunts of the great hunter, whose
name is attached to one of the most remarkable among the
mountains of the world ? One of our party is prepared to swear
that he saw two bears in the dusk of evening ; they trotted away
at his approach. And indeed, one night, I myself was awakened
by something rummaging between the outer and the inner roofs
of our tent. There are no dogs here ; was it a bear ? I rose,
but could discover nothing — only the fact that our sentries were
in a dead sleep. At nightfall our escort light extensive bonfires,
and sing the wailing love-songs of the East. At intervals the
bugle sounds ; then there rises a loud cheer. The bugle, the
cheers, the leaping flames, the tremulous chantings — even our
watchmen are not proof against the contrast with such excitement
of the heavy stillness of the midnight hours. And perhaps the
bears have joined the brigands in taking to flight.
For eight whole days we remained upon the mountain, busily
employed in examining the crater and its surroundings, and in
making a careful plan. We had been joined by Captain Elliot
and Mr. Monahan, Her Majesty's Consuls respectively at Van
and Bitlis. Captain Elliot was desirous of making use of this
favourable occasion in order to study Nimrud. He gave us most
valuable assistance in measuring the crater ; and while he and
Oswald were engaged with our telemeter within the basin, I was
reading with the prismatic compass from one point to another
along the summit of the cliffs. By the time their labours were
completed, I had prepared a drawing of the interior, as well as of
some of the features of the crater walls.^
1 The accuracy of the results obtained with our .Steward telemeter was well tested
on Nimrud by these cross-readings from salient points along the edge of the crater.
The principal credit, however, for the excellent measurements, taken under great diffi-
culties, owing to the uneven surface of the ground, is due to Captain Elliot, who was
ably seconded by Mr. Oswald.
INTERIOR OF THE NIMRUD CRATER
asui-id and m;ii'lu-il l.y H.FH l.yiu-U and Y It^wixiii in .luly ib
Sralo I Mile - 1 Inch or I : G3.3G0
I av/' ">■"''"'■/>'
Otiv Sojourn in the Crater of Niviriui 305
In delicious air, under a warm sun, yet always tempered by
a cool breeze, my portion of the task was a pure pleasure. On
the other hand, my companions looked fatigued in the evening.
When my turn came for work inside the crater, I readily under-
stood the cause. From noon to three o'clock the conditions were
most exhausting. The sun flamed above our heads, and the
rock reverberated under our feet. Refreshment came when the
wind rose, but it was in the nature of a strong draught. On one
occasion I let fall a lighted match by accident ; it set fire to a
whole side of the central hill. Our people and the soldiers cut
down branches and made arbours ; but, even so, they suffered
during the heat of the day. Our cook implored me to move
camp, and not deprive his wife and children of their sole support.
If only the floating population of the place would allow the little
trees to grow into wood ! But they need firing more than shade.
The shade temperature was never excessive — some 80° to 85°.
And the nights were cool, necessitating a double blanket. When
we arrived, there still remained a patch or two of last winter's
snow within the wide area of the interior.
The commanding position, the imposing dimensions, the
remarkable preservation of the Nimrud crater cannot fail to
arouse the curiosity of the traveller, as he sees it from afar or
passes it by. In summer it is a circle of grassy cliffs with a
vaulted outline ; during winter and autumn, when the higher
levels are early robed in snow, it is a startling presence against
the sky (see Fig. 145, p. 142). From any point you command but
a small portion of the vast circumference, which, measured upon
our plan, amounts to 14^ miles. Of unequal height, the edge of
the basin is most elevated upon the north, where at two points it
attains an altitude of nearly 10,000 feet. It is lowest upon the
east and west ; in either quarter the outline dips to a level of
8100 feet. But the circle is nowhere broken; the rim of the
caldron remains intact, although worn down and, in places,
chipped. With two great depressions on either side, the lake
of Van (5600 feet) and the plain of Mush (4200 feet), such a
presence fills the landscape and engrosses the eye.
Nor is the imagination disappointed when the interior of the
crater is seen for the first time. I have already described the
impression which that view produced upon us, entering it from
the east. The lake fills almost the whole of the western half of
its area, at a level of 7656 feet. The remaining portion consists
VOL, II X
o
06 Armenia
of older lava streams, covered with pumice, and of some more
recent, which bristle with sharp crags. The eastern shore of the
lake is deeply indented, and the volcanic matter has cooled in
the form of high banks. The figure described by the walls of
the crater is almost exactly circular, the diameter being greatest
along an east-north-east line, or between the fork, where we first
entered the basin, and the passage in on the west (c and
m on plan). The distance between these points is nearly
5 miles (8500 yards). Nimrud is therefore one of the largest
perfect craters in the world.^ The period during which it
seethed with a lake of molten matter, which overflowed into the
lower levels on every side, must date far beyond the limits of
history. At the present day not a wreath of smoke ascends from
the volcano ; though at times a little landslip sends the fine sand
into the air, with much the same appearance as a cloud.
But the student of volcanic phenomena could not select a
better example of the successive stages of eruptive activity. In
an earlier stage we must suppose the walls of the crater some-
what higher, and the area considerably narrower which they
enclosed. The earliest lavas, in the case of Nimrud, were of an
acid and viscous description (rhyolitic augite-andesites) ; and, as
often as they rose above the lip of the caldron, they did not
flow very far. But the later basaltic lavas had a larger
extension ; and to them is due, in no small measure, the plateau
on the east of Tadvan, which acts as a dam to the lake of Van.
The molten lava surged against the precipices which confined it,
and gradually wore them back. The work of enlargement was
advanced by violent explosions, which were principally directed
against the western and eastern sides of the volcanic basin. The
uppermost and steepest portions of the wall were, on these two
sides, completely blown away. This epoch in the life of the
volcano, the storm and stress of a tumultuous youth, was followed
by the gradual subsidence of its energies. The streams of lava
were confined to the interior of the crater, and the deeper
portion came to be covered with a lake. It was perhaps at this
1 Among craters similar in character to Nimrud the best comparison would seem to
be afforded by the Crater Lake of Oregon (Cascade range). The average diameter of
this crater is a little more than 5^ miles, and while the inner slopes around the lake are
precipitous, those facing outwards to the platform upon which the crater is reared are
gentle. The highest point is 8200 feet above the sea, and the lake has a depth of 2000
feet (see J. S. Diller, American Joiinial of Science, 1897, p. 165). The well-known
craters in the Sandwich Islands are much smaller than Nimrud, the largest, Kilauea,
having a maximum diameter of 2^ miles.
Our Sojourn in the Crater of Ninirud ^O"]
period that were produced the little craters which figure on the
outer slopes of the principal caldron, roughly along meridional
lines. Such minor points of emission were also formed within
that caldron, and from them proceeded some of the older flows
which cover its floor. Explosions again occurred ; but their
effects were only local. They blew away portions of the little
craters, and sent up showers of dust, which, falling to the ground,
cloaked the surface of the lava streams. The latest and
moribund stage is represented by those bosses of lava which form
such a conspicuous feature. The viscous matter welled up along
old lines of weakness, and from the chimneys of the little craters.
One of these bosses divides a small warm lake from the main
sheet of water ; others form little peninsulas in the principal lake
(C, D, E). They have all the appearance of being fairly recent,
and they are not yet overgrown with wood. Finally one may
mention some extensive flows of cinder, about the base of the
little crater on the outside of the mountain, on the north of the
circle of cliffs. They might have issued a few months ago.
To these various manifestations of the expiring forces of the
volcano is due the present weird and troubled aspect of the
interior, which formed the basis of our first impression. The
little wood is confined to the neighbourhood of the lake ; the
remaining portion is barren and rugged. A high hill, covered
with pumice, and about in the centre of this region, affords an
admirable standpoint from which to survey the whole (L on
plan). The little lakes which figure on the plan are due to the
melting snows. I doubt whether you would find a spring of
good, fresh water ; we all drank the water of the lake. The warm
lake is situated beneath the escarpment of the wall on the north,
and is almost contiguous with the principal sheet of water (A).
Its level is about the same. But it differs from the other
lagoons in respect of its colour, which, owing to the abundance
of vegetation in its vicinity, is a yellow -green, resembling an
English village pool. It is said to possess healing properties ;
but this I should be inclined to doubt. Oswald, who waded
about with unflagging curiosity, hunted out the several emissions
of bubbles. Their intermittent nature reminded us of similar
phenomena in the shallows of Lake Van. Perhaps the gas is
merely due to decaying vegetable matter upon the bottom, and
the temperature principally to the powerful effect of the sun's
rays. The water in this lake, as in the big one, is rising in level,
o
08 Armenia
a fact which is probably due to the increased action of mineral
springs. It is flat and mawkish to the taste.
I should say that it might be possible to ride round the edge
of the crater within a space of seven or eight hours. But the
outline is so uneven, and the ground in places so difficult, that, at
the best, it would prove a very hard day's work. We devoted
considerable portions of several days to making the circuit, re-
visiting certain of the most important points. The ride is so
remarkable, that I propose to follow it in some detail. The
changing scenes which you overlook from a moderate height, from
choice positions, among immediate surroundings of the grandest
order, are nothing less than the geography of this part of Asia,
outspread before you beyond the skill of maps.
The large feature, the leading motive of the immense land-
scape is the likeness, and yet the contrast, between the two great
depressions on the west and east of the lofty stage upon which
you stand. Both are bounded on the south by the long barrier
of the Kurdish mountains ; both oppose to that deep belt of
serried ridges expanses of perfectly even surface. But, while the
one dazzles the eye with its splendour of outline and brilliance of
colouring, the other is always dim, grey, vague, and unseizable.
Neither view is ever lost for very long. Even while you are in
possession of the long perspective of the plain of Mush, stretching
to the horizon with a wealth of subdued detail, like the nave of
some great cathedral in the West, between the crags in the
opposite quarter, through some fork in the outline, the blue lake,
the point of a promontory, a glimpse of Sipan may still be seen.
Let us start from the point at which we entered the crater, from a
level of 8150 feet (c on plan). It will be early in the morning, when
the sky is flaked with cloud — beds of vapour, grey and white, scarcely
concealing the field of blue, and unmoved by a breath of wind. Proceed-
ing northwards along the wall of the crater, we rapidly ascend. Our
horses' hoofs sink in the powdery pumice sand, which is held together in
places by bushes of flowering spircea, and by tufts of grass, among which a
small species of campanula hangs its pretty little violet bells. The pumice
tells the story of the violent explosions to which the present aspect of the
crater is due. They have enlarged the circumference of the walls of the
basin ; and their effect is clearly visible from the interior as one looks to
the side of the wall up the edge of which we now ride. Whereas the beds
of lava on the north and south walls, which are the most lofty, are seen in
section as perfectly horizontal sheets, on this north-eastern wall, as well as
upon the face of the corresponding cliff on the west, they have a down-
ward slope. It is obvious that all the layers at the time of emission must
Our Sojoitrn in the Crater of Ninirud. 309
have been horizontal around the original crater rim ; and the pronounced
obliquity of the beds on the western and eastern sides is due to their being
exposed by explosive agency at a point where they had commenced to
descend to the surrounding plains. The underlying lava is of the usual
description, a rhyolitic andesite with a thin selvage, or upper surface, of
obsidian, which shines like jet in the sun. The basaltic lavas, with their
cloak of pumice, ease the gradient of the slope towards the plain in the
direction of Akhlat ; but the explosion has produced a steepness up which
the horses are obliged to zigzag, in making north, along the edge of the
cliff. A turn outwards discloses the harmony of the landscape of Lake
Van ; a turn inwards the mystery of the scene within the crater. The
higher we rise, the more abruptly the outer slope of the wall sinks to the
plains about its base. The pumice disappears ; the lava gets the upper
hand. After a climb of some duration, we reach the summit of the wall
on the north, at a point which is almost immediately above the hot lake
(b). Our elevation is now 9750 feet; and this lofty level is continued,
with little intermission, for some distance towards the west.
The greatest eminence of the cliff stands back from the lip of the
crater, say at an interval of 80 yards from the point described. Here,
among huge blocks of reddish-brown rock, I take the boiling-point. The
mean of this reading with another, registered on a subsequent day, gives a
result of 9900 feet. We are therefore standing on the highest pinnacle
of the whole circumference. Pinnacle and slope are free of snow ; but
snow would lie at this season were it not for the steepness of the slope of
lava. The lava does not appear to have extended much beyond the foot
of the immensely lofty crater wall. Beyond some broad-shouldered
bastions, we look down into the plain south of Lake Nazik ; we range the
shores of that lonely lagoon. Not a tree can be discerned in that wide
landscape ; no strip of verdure fringes the margin of the blue water ;
scarcely a patch of cultivation features the plain. The block of limestone
hills between us and the dome of Sipan, forming the coast of Lake Van,
recess away behind Akhlat towards Lake Nazik ; and, from this height,
one might suppose that the level of the plain below us were continued to
the borders of the inland sea. The conspicuous mountain, besides Sipan,
is the rugged mass of Bilejan, rising to a sharp-edged ridge. The outlines
in the north, Khamur and Bingol, remained misty during the whole of our
stay. But the delicate bedding of cloud, which may collect towards
morning, soon gives way, as the day advances, to a sky of the purest blue.
West of this position, the rim of the crater flattens, although its
immediate edge is much broken, apparently by earthquakes, the fissures
in the surface of rock necessitating detours outward, towards the lower
levels. We are approaching the little crater on the outside of Nimrud,
of which mention has already been made. The wall still maintains its
considerable altitude, the height of an eminence of huge boulders, by
which we pass, being again 9750 feet. The little crater is situated at
some distance north of the main basin, but before the ground falls away
to the plain. Indeed we are now in the neighbourhood of the extensive
flows of basaltic lava which are such a feature on the north-west side of
310 Armenia
the great crater. Such is the insignificance of the object for which we are
making, that it might well pass unobserved from the edge of the cliff.
But the curiosity is aroused by a long, low ridge, like a volcanic dike,
which, commencing almost at that edge, is produced at right angles, in
the direction of the plain. Realising the feature, one observes that the
field of lava on the margin of the cliff is raised up into a saddle along a
meridional line. A little further northwards, and at a lower level, pasty
rhyolitic lavas have oozed up from long, narrow fissures along the eastern
base of the ridge. At its extreme end there is a mass of the same lava ;
and at that point the ground breaks away towards the lower region.
Slanting off from the edge of the cliff in a north -north- westerly
direction, we reach the eastern base of the low ridge. It is flanked on
this side by deep fissures in the surface of the ground — gloomy chasms,
partially filled with perpetual snow. Towards their upper or southernmost
end there is a small circular pit, from which protrudes a boss of rhyolitic
lava. A little lower down the several fissures combine, and form a long
trough. This trough has been partially filled with a mass of lava, which
stands up with rugged crags. From the base of this lava an extensive
flow of cinders blackens the ground for a considerable distance towards
north-east. The trough or principal fissure again splits up into minor
cracks, as it reaches the elevated platform of the terminal crater.
In a manner exactly similar to the upwelling of lava within the fissure,
the little crater has been filled up with the same pasty matter. This
forms the mass at the extreme end of the meridional ridge. The walls
of the basin are beautifully modelled, the shape being preserved by a
pavement of basaltic lava. The pool of rhyolitic lava is, of course, a
much later feature. Like the same phenomena in the interior of the
great crater, which are all due to the expiring forces of Nimrud, the
appearance of the mass is that of a boss. One cannot fail to be impressed
with the contrast which is presented between the smooth and rounded
sides of this almost circular basin, and the monstrous pile which has arisen
in their midst.
We cross to the further or western side of the terminal crater,
observing that its walls are fractured by the lava on the north and south.
We descend to another flow of cinders. Hard by is a little Kurdish yaila,
at the foot of an extensive patch of snow. We enquire whether they can
tell us when these cinders were emitted ; for they might have issued a
year ago. They answer that they have always known them there.
Leaving the hollows, we regain the neighbourhood of the cliff, which is
bordered, in this quarter, by a broad field of basaltic lava.
We make our way over this field, in a south-south-westerly direction,
towards an eminence of the crater wall on its westerly side. A conical
hump rises from the lava at no great distance from the edge of the
caldron, and forms a conspicuous landmark, as well from the interior
as from the summit of the cliffs (o). The field is extremely even, being
composed of a pavement which suggests the appearance of a military road,
fallen into disuse. This characteristic is, of course, due to the columnar
lava. In places this even surface is overlaid with cindery blocks.
Oitr Sojourn in the Crater of Ninirud 3 1 1
Patches of grass occur, from which the snow has just melted ; these will
be browsed by a dark flock with their Kurdish shepherd. At first the
direction of flow which was followed by the lava is towards the region we
are leaving behind : but a little further on it inclines towards the plain of
Mush. In the neighbourhood of the conical eminence we come across
some blocks of obsidian, which are probably due to the last violent
explosion.
From the summit of our landmark all these features become clear ;
we overlook these extensive fields of basalt. Judging from the manner in
which they have flowed, it would, at least, appear probable that at one
time in the history of the volcano the wall was extremely high on the side
of the plain of Mush. Indeed one is surprised at the limited amount of
matter which has been outpoured in the direction of that great depression.
The conclusion is suggested that the explosion which produced the lake
blew away the upper portion of the wall on the west. This conical
eminence marks an independent point of emission, which vomited lava
after the wall had been thus reduced. The flows are seen to have
branched out in all directions, even towards the present edge of the crater.
This eminence is the second conspicuous pinnacle of the circle, as
seen from immense distances in the northerly regions. We can see the
two summits of the Bingol rampart, while Bilejan is fully exposed. The
long perspective of the plain of Mush is outspread before us, flanked on
the south side by the base of the Kurdish mountains, and, on the other,
by a line of heights which recall the appearance of the block of limestones
between the plain of Melazkert and the lake of Van. To that broad belt
of heights the lavas descend with precipitous escarpments, and also to the
plain. The dim surface of the level ground is seamed with rivulets,
which, towards evening, flash in the light. Sheets of light in the distance
represent the course of the Murad, after it has entered the plain. The
head of the depression is remarkable for a pronounced terrace along the
foot of the heights, perhaps denoting the level of a former lake.'^
From this pinnacle, which has an altitude of 9676 feet, we arrive, by
a rapid descent, at the fork in the outline which corresponds to the dip
in the opposite wall on the east, whence we started on our ride. The
elevation of this fork is almost exactly the same, 8140 feet. We are here
on the longest axis of the circular ellipse (c-m). A path enters the
crater from the direction of the plain of Mush, and debouches on to a
little promontory at the foot of the cliffs, the only projection from their
abrupt sides. The promontory, which is covered with scrub, is probably
due to a local flow of lava ; a few little islands are placed at its extremity.
It would not be possible to make use of this entrance to reach the high
ground on the east of the lake, owing to the steepness of the walls on
either side and the absence of any beach. The outline again rises on the
south of this passage, although the outward slope is fairly well rounded.
But after crossing some bold cliffs, over ground flooded with tuff",
you sink for the second time to a considerable hollow (i-k, alt. 8700
feet). This depression on the south-western side of the crater wall is
1 Or it may merely represent the terminal walls of lava streams.
3 1 2 Ar7nenia
remarkable for a somewhat singular phenomenon. From the edge of the
crater you overlook a grassy terrace, some one hundred feet down the
cliff-side. The slope of this step-like prominence is inclined upwards
from the face of the cliff, so that the edge of the terrace is not much
lower than the edge of the crater. It is probable that it represents a
piece of the crater wall which has slipped down into the lake. Along
the middle of the terrace runs a ridge of lava, about parallel to the cliff.
We have already passed several of such dikes.
Rising gradually, we soon leave the terrace behind us, and our
attention is directed to the interesting features on the outside. Below us,
from the eastern margin of the plain of Mush, rises a volcanic mass of
imposing proportions, almost flat and slightly hollow at the top. A
number of little conical summits emerge from the platform, and the
mountain is thickly covered with brush. The slopes on all sides, except
towards Nimrud, appear extremely abrupt. It is separated by a little
upland plain from the sides of the crater ; and it is clear that the mass
has acted like a dam to the flows of molten matter. It has turned them
in the direction of Tadvan, as well as towards the plain of Mush. My
people confirmed the name under which I have already made it known
(Ch. VIL Fig. 150). It is called the Kerkiir Dagh.
I have also alluded in a former place {ibid}j to the little parasite cone,
high up on the outer wall of the crater on the south. Passing it now
from above, it looms much larger ; and it is succeeded, lower down, by
quite a series of volcanic vents. These are all in the same line with the
more pronounced feature, and roughly in the same line with the dike and
crater on the north of Nimrud. Rising always higher, we make our way
with some caution along an edge which has become knife-like in character.
Indeed it is in places not more than 8 or 10 feet wide. On our left
hand descend the vertical walls of the crater ; on our right a slope of about
30^ seems scarcely less precipitous to the eye. The lavas descend with
bold bastions towards Tadvan. The highest point on this side of the
crater is on this edge ; it has an elevation of 9430 feet.
The view embraces the wild ridges of the Kurdish mountains on the
south, capped with snow on their topmost peaks. Trees in a hollow and
a winding road among the recesses of that barrier are recognised as mark-
ing the site of Bitlis. Below us lies the wooded platform of the Kerkiir
Dagh ; the plateau of lava, between the plain of Mush and the shores of
the great lake, appears to shelve with gentle gradients towards those
waters. We discern the verdure about the village of Tadvan. In the
north we may descry both summits of the Bingol ridge ; while the dome
of the Kuseh Dagh is a bold, vague presence in the sky. From this lofty
portion of the crater wall the descent is rapid and continuous to the beds
of pumice which cloak it up on the east. We again overlook the
beautiful inlets of Lake Van. We avail ourselves of a track which leads
from Tadvan into the caldron (e), in order to reach our camp. The
outline of the circle of cliffs again rises a little between this point and the
track from Akhlat.
RROUNDINGS
and r. Oswald in Julv i«l)8
■■%f::
iJ"-
L, A K IE
Debes , J^eipzjg
NIMRUD AND SURROUNDINGS
mapped liy H f li Lynch and F Oswald in .July IhiiH
my
Our Sojourn in the Crater of Ninirud
jM
I have taken my reader a long ride, round the vast circum-
ference of the crater — an excursion which, when presented in the
form of a narrative, may be too tedious for his taste. Let me
therefore endeavour to present in a summary manner some of the
conclusions which were engendered in our minds. Faithful to the
laws of eruptive volcanic agency, this huge crater has arisen on
the margin of a great depression of the surface of the tableland.
In spite of the considerable difference in their present elevation,
the lake of Van and the plain of Mush may be regarded as parts
of a single basin. Indeed it is mainly due to the emissions of
lava from Nimrud that the lake is now separated from the plain.
The region on the north of the crater is considerably higher,
though in closer connection with the lake than with the plain.
Nature has produced this manifestation of violence in the stress
of her effort to complete a harmonious design. The curving over
of the great lines of mountain-making has resulted in this ex-
plosion of forces, usually under control. But as we make our
way in silence beneath the stillness of the night, threading the
chaos of tumultuous forms on the floor of the crater, we may yet
reflect upon the relative insignificance of such violent action, even
in a country where it has operated on so great a scale. The
stratified rocks are seldom wholly absent in the landscapes, as
they are wanting to the savage landscape of the Nimrud caldron ;
and, when you think you are admiring the long train of a volcano,
a closer inspection reveals slowly-built, sedimentary mountains,
upon which the volcano has been reared. Nature has preferred
regularity of achievement, a quality reflected by the moral sense
of Man.i
1 A single paragraph in an article by Major Clayton, R.A. , entitled " The Mountains
of Kurdistan" [Alpine Journal, Aug. 1887), is the only account known to me of the
interior of the Nimrud crater. Brant confines himself to the following grotesque
description (Journal R.G.S. 1840, vol. x. p. 378): — "The Nimrud range {sic) runs
nearly north and south, but at its southern extremity is terminated by a cross range {sic),
called the Kerku Tagh, running east and west. "
CHAPTER XVIII
ROUND NIMRUD BY LAKE NAZIK
July 25. — A sharp ride of an hour and a half brought us down
from the crater to the village of Tadvan. The descent is more
continuous than on the side of Akhlat ; the outer slopes of the
mountain are seared with deep gullies. Crossing the orchards of
the straggling settlement, we pitched our tents on the west of the
village, upon the margin of a field of late-sown wheat. A line
of well-grown willows, fringing the bank of a tiny stream,
promised shade during the later hours of the day, when the sun
should be at our backs. That welcome shade was indeed
commencing to subdue the brilliance of the young corn while the
canvas was being stretched. We looked out over the green field
across the waters to the smiling landscape of the opposite shore.
The curve of the little harbour of Tadvan was turned towards us,
backed by a lofty boss of rock. Quite a number of picturesque
craft were lying within it ; but only one, so far as I know, was
laden. She was carrying wood and charcoal from the Bitlis
district. The rest were doing nothing, many of the men having
families here. All this time I had seen but a single sail upon
the lake, besides that of Captain Elliot's boat. But sea-gulls
there are, to give life to the waters, with their beautiful white
wings.
Tadvan was in a state of commotion, or what passes as such,
in a country where all spirit has been gradually extinguished
among the population of Armenian race. Although this village
is Armenian, they did not hesitate to betray to the authorities
four of their countrymen, who had taken refuge in their midst.
These individuals appear to have been under the ban of the law,
and, indeed, were alluded to as briga)ids. One never hears talk
of Kurdish brigands ; though I have never met a Kurd who was
Round Ninirud by Lake Nazik 315
not more or less a brigand, nor an Armenian who either justified
or deserved the name. The notorious AH Bey, police officer at
Bitlis, hurried to the scene. He surrounded the hut which
harboured the men ; fire was opened upon them, which they
returned, and a zaptieh was shot. A villager, who tried to
mediate, was killed. Then Ali Bey collected straw, and set light
to it, and literally burnt them out. I was told that all four
succumbed. All this happened a day or two ago. I informed
the Kaimakam that I should like to kick the official if he would
be so obliging as to come my way. When one is kindly treated
by the authorities, one endeavours to avoid getting very angry,
except before their face.
We spent several days in the neighbourhood, making ex-
cursions, and mapping in these unmapped shores of Lake Van.
The Kaimakam was obliged to leave us and return to Akhlat ;
we were sorry to part, having become mutually attached. The
Armenian villages of this district are evidently very old, and
have probably existed from the dawn of history. One of the
most flourishing is Kizvag, which occupies a situation of ideal
quality as a home of Man. It is placed on the southern horn of
a beautiful little bay, sheltered on the north by a bold promontory,
from which rises a knife-like ridge. This ridge is composed of a
lava which has welled up along a latitudinal fissure. One rides
there over layers of lava and pumice, some of which show traces
of having been deposited in water. The corn was already golden
in the fields, very tall in the stalk and heavy in the ear. We
had never seen finer crops. Vines flourish along the base of the
promontory ; but a vineyard is a rare occurrence in these scenes.
The air was always radiant and invigorating, in spite of the heat
of the sun. Kizvag is a considerable place ; but the houses are
the usual ant-hills. The dress of the people is gay. The women
wear the embroidered aprons which are such a striking feature
of their national dress ; but the designs were finer than any we
had seen. I endeavoured to purchase a few ; but all the new
ones were vastly inferior ; it was only the old ones, now torn and
faded, that showed any taste. It is the same in Persia, and
Central Asia — everywhere in the East. It is a fact for which
one may discover explanations ; but none appear altogether
adequate.
The lower slopes on the opposite shore of the lake are well
wooded, and this pleasing landscape circles round towards
3i6 Armenia
Tadvan. The wood is due to the character of the rock, a mica-
schist, yielding a fertile soil. But higher up on the face of the
range the hard marbles come to view, and, while their surface is
well adapted to take the hues of the sky, it is inimical to all
vegetation. About a hundred feet above the water, you perceive
a well-marked terrace, denoting a former level of the lake. I
have already remarked that the level is again rising ; and the
same occurrence, which was presented in so striking a manner at
Arjish (Ch. III. p. 30), is already threatening the village of Kizvag.
The hill of Tadvan, at the promontory, is not volcanic, being
composed of marble and mica -schist. It is less lofty and
extensive than that of Kizvag ; the summit is crowned by the
substructures of a ruined fort. This fort was erect and proud at
the commencement of the sixteenth century.^ Nothing remains
at the present day but a deep pit, which was perhaps a reservoir
for water. The inhabitants of Tadvan are in a deplorable con-
dition, the women in rags, the children mostly naked. It was
pitiable to see the women stretching out their arms towards us,
imploring us to give them food. We distributed a little money.
From Tadvan we directed our course towards the head of
Mush plain across the volcanic plateau west of Lake Van." Our
track conducted us past a projecting outwork of the opposite
range, well wooded and consisting of mica-schist. The extremity
towards Nimrud is faced with lava. You mount gradually above
the fertile surroundings of the lake to arid and, therefore, sterile
ground. A few patches of burnt grass, some beautiful holly-
hocks, with very large white flowers, are about the only vegetation
which it supports. On the right hand rises the Kerkiir Dagh,
covered with flourishing brushwood, and, behind Kerkiir, the
immense mass of the Nimrud crater. In the opposite direction
the barrier of the Kurdish mountains is less bold and imposing
than at other points. This is partly, no doubt, due to the
flooding against them of volcanic matter. The plateau attains
its highest level at about a third of the whole distance from the
point where we gained its surface to the head of Mush plain.
The altitude by boiling-point was 6320 feet, or 680 feet above
Lake Van.
We were impressed by the fact that in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the Kerkiir the ground slopes towards that upstanding
^ Merchant in Persia, Travels of Italians in Persia, Ilakluyt Society, London,
1873, p. 159. ■' The name Rava is sometimes applied to this plateau.
Round Nimrud by Lake Nazik 3 1 7
mass. And the broad valley, which we knew must contain the
beginnings of the Bitlis Chai, was screened by a somewhat higher
level of the field of lava. It may be that this is due to the lavas
having swept round Kerkiir, leaving a slight depression at its
southern foot. Oswald rode off to investigate the material of the
Kerkiir, and found it to consist of a mass of trachyte. The slopes
are covered almost to the summit with talus, and it is evidently
a very old volcanic boss.
The plateau descends to the plain by two lower terraces, the
descent being fairly gradual in each case. The Kerkiir is also
screened by a bastion-shaped terrace of talus which sinks into the
plain. I have already described this stage of our journey (Ch. VII.
p. 162) ; and I shall only pause to give some account of our visit
to the pool of Norshen, which I had omitted to examine during
my first journey.
About fifty yards west of the tomb of Karanlai Agha lies an
almost circular pool. It is slightly embanked for the purposes
of irrigation, and, in places, on its margin there are distinct
vestiges of masonry. It is thirty-five yards in diameter ; and, in
the centre, did not appear to be much more than five feet deep.
But our guide from the village believed it to be deeper, adding
that it had recently drowned a bullock, which had ventured too
far in. There is no trace of this pool having arisen in a crater,
although the material, through which the spring wells up, is a
tuff. The water is crystal-clear, and is furnished in abundance,
giving rise to a little river. It is extremely pleasant to the taste,
like water which has come from the chalk. It is cold too ; for at
7 P.M., while the temperature of the air was 80° Fahrenheit,
that of the water was only 51°. The villagers believe that it is
derived from the lake on Nimrud. It is much more likely to be
in connection with the springs of the chain on the south. The
tomb exactly recalled those of the same period at Akhlat ; indeed
it is of the same date. The upper portion has fallen into ruin.
In the adjacent cemetery there are the same headstones with
the honeycomb friezes which we admired about the site in the
ravine at Akhlat. A stork was standing on the topmost pinnacle
of the crumbling edifice, of which the outline was clearly defined
on the western sky. The great plain was veiled in haze, due to
the intense heat. Beyond the headlands and little promontories,
the sun — a red orb — sank behind delicate beds of perfectly
settled cloud.
3i8 Armenia
The situation of the pool of Norshen is well adapted to serve
as a standard of the elevation of the head of Mush plain. Tested
by boiling-point, the level is 4630 feet, which represents a decline
of 1000 feet from that of Lake Van. This difference in level is
mainly responsible for a distinct change of climate ; the plain of
Mush is quite a furnace in July. Norshen itself, although high-
seated above the floor of the depression, must be one of the
hottest places in the plain. It is screened by the volcanic plateau
and by the outworks of the great range, under the wall of which
it lies. The level ground at its foot has been flooded with lava ;
and the pavement, thus formed, glows in the sun. There are a
few shady trees on the outskirts of the village, but we were
obliged to erect our tents in the open, for want of a suitable
place among those groves. In the morning the heat became
unbearable under canvas. The inhabitants are a surly, un-
mannerly set of people, all of Kurdish extraction. The news
of the death of the Vali of Bitlis had already reached them ;
and they were evidently quite out of hand. Our zaptiehs — an
abominable lot, sent from Bitlis by the deceased Governor — came
near to exciting a serious affray. It did not promise well for the
success of an excursion into the wildest districts, that those
blackguard Kurds at Bitlis had poisoned the Vali, and that our
escort seemed as much pleased by the removal of the least
vestige of discipline as the unruly people through whose country
we were about to pass.
July 30. — Starting at eleven o'clock, we made our way across
the plain towards the lofty block of heights by which it is
confined upon the north. We could already see our track,
showing white among the brushwood towards the summit of that
long barrier. Even at its upper end, the plain of Mush is
of considerable breadth, the distance, measured direct, between
Norshen and the foot of that parapet being about eight miles.
Two gently vaulted hills, standing close together, are conspicuous
features in the plain. We reached the base of the largest and
most easterly of the two in about three-quarters of an hour.
Oswald rode off at the canter to examine its composition, while
we continued our course. He found it to consist of a cindery
lava, the flows radiating outwards, especially towards north-east.
It has therefore been an independent centre of emission. The
ground which we had been crossing is not cultivated, from want
of streams, and the slabby lava was aflame with sun. Pushing
Round Nimrud by Lake Nazik 319
our horses, we distanced the hill and were approaching the
opposite confines of the plain, when I called a halt in the hamlet
of Gol Bashi, the first that we had seen. It takes its name from
a delightful spring that wells up in the village, with a temperature
of only 55'. Inasmuch as the stream was dry which passes
Morkh and Norshen, this pool is perhaps entitled to be regarded
as the source of the Kara Su, owing to the permanence of the
water which it supplies. Another such source is the pool beside
the tomb.
A little river collects below Gol Bashi, fed by this and by
other springs. The plain is perfectly flat in that direction, and
was green with cultivation. The adjacent farms belong to a bey
in Bitlis, who has built a good stone house for his steward in the
hamlet. Proceeding on our course, and when near the foot of
the wall before us, we rose gradually over the surface of a flow of
lava. The flow skirts the base of the opposite parapet for some
distance towards the west. At the same time it radiates into the
plain. It is strewn with blocks and small fragments of jet-black
obsidian, which have come from the cliffs above. High up on
the terrace, thus formed, is a grove of lofty oak-trees, by the side
of water running down from the face of the cliff. A small
Kurdish hamlet nestles beneath them, and an ancient cemetery,
buried in foliage. Cattle and a flock of sheep were resting in the
shade, the sheep panting, and the bullocks lolling their tongues.
Black goats, alert and elastic with life, browsed the lower shoots
of the oaks. The ascent of the wall begins at this hamlet of
Karnirash, and took us over half-an-hour to complete.
The face of the parapet was seen to be the side of a stream
or streams of rhyolitic lava with the usual obsidian. They are
overlaid, towards the summit, with a pavement of basaltic lava.
These lavas have probably proceeded from Nimrud ; but at a
time when the crater was in its infancy, and when its walls had
not yet reached their ultimate height. For those walls towered
high and abruptly above us, nor did we think that these lavas
could have welled over from that lofty rim. How far west the
emissions may extend it was impossible to determine exactly ;
but the appearance of the block in that direction, when we
reached the summit, seemed to disclose, at no great interval, the
stratified rocks. The upper slopes of the barrier are abundantly
wooded, though only with dwarf oak. We were astonished at
the great size and beauty of the hollyhock petals, large as
320 Armenia
clematis on our English garden walls. The hollyhock is the
flower of the surroundings of Nimrud, as the yellow mullein is
the flower of Bingol, It flourishes on the' plateau of tuff to
which this pass leads over, blossoming white and, much more
rarely, a purple pink. The pass has an elevation of 6950 feet or
of 2300 feet above the plain.
We soon lost the little wood as we proceeded over the plain
of tuff in a north-north-easterly direction. Nothing but the bare
pavement, and here and there a patch of burnt herbage ; and
only those large white flowers to refresh the eye. On our right
hand the vast crater, steeply contoured down towards us ; before
us Bilejan, again exposed. But the stifling atmosphere of the
trough behind us had given place to pleasant breezes, and we
rode along gaily over the even ground. All of a sudden I hear
shouts in the direction in which we are going ; and, coming up,
observe a group of men in fierce altercation by the side of a
small drove of cattle. They prove to be one of our escort and
another zaptieh, unknown to me ; the rest are peasants, on foot.
Our man is threatening a peasant, bending over on his horse ; his
comrade has blood on his face. The fellow pays not the slightest
heed to my peremptory orders ; so I send for the zabet or officer
of the company, in whom, however, owing to his fussiness and
manifest cowardice, I have not the slightest confidence. The
zabet, with his extravagant verbiage, does nothing better than
inflame the matter ; and the wretched wayfarer is on the point of
being murdered when I seize his assailant and pull him off. The
would-be murderer then faces round, and, as we are both on
horseback, extricates himself and turns on me. In an instant he
levels his rifle at my chest, and brings it to the cock. Happily
for me, my companions all ride up at the same moment, and
force his arm up from behind. None of us can learn the cause of
the dispute. I take the man on with the greatest reluctance,
fearing he may do worse harm if allowed to rove.
For some short time we had been skirting the immediate
outworks of the Nimrud mass ; a new feature was introduced
when these turned off to the east-north-east, and gave us space in
the direction we were pursuing. Before us lay a wide depression
of the surface, the levels about us tonguing into that lower
ground. The heights on the further side were of no great
relative elevation, but they screened a considerable portion of the
pile of Bilejan, and they completely concealed Lake Nazik. We
Round Niinriid by Lake Nazik 321
could see, at this distance, our track winding across them ; they
were evidently of volcanic origin. Sipan now came in view ;
and those heights stretched across the horizon towards the heights
on the west of Sipan. The depression did not appear to have
much westerly extension ; but it was continued, mile after mile,
towards the east. I can scarcely doubt that the drainage which
collects within it finds its way into Lake Van.
We forded a nice stream of crystal-clear water, flowing into
the plain, along the base of Nimrud. At this point we passed
an extensive cemetery. Perhaps there was a village in the im-
mediate neighbourhood ; but we saw no habitations as we rode
across the plain. The trough of the shallow basin is followed
by the course of a rivulet, which, at this season, had run dry.
According to a single reading of the aneroid, it has an elevation
of 6460 feet. The ground consists of a decomposed lava ; nor
did we observe lacustrine deposits, though one cannot doubt that
this plain was once the bottom of a shallow lake.
It was six o'clock before we reached the opposite heights,
and commenced to mount the side of a ridge covered with a
pavement of lava. But from the summit of this low vaulting we
overlooked a second ridge, with a grassy valley of some breadth
at our feet. Not a glimpse as yet of the lake. After fording
the stream in this hollow, which was flowing towards the plain,
we rode through the Armenian village of Mezik, situated at the
base of the second and principal ridge. A short ascent brought
us to the slope on the further side, whence, at last, the long-
hidden waters came to view. We had struck the lake close to
its south-western extremity, towards which we lost no time in
directing our course. At this upper end there is a marsh and
a considerable stretch of alluvial soil, which, however, does not
extend to the east of the beginnings of the lake. It was a
tedious ride over stony slopes to the floor of these meadows ; but
still no village was in sight. Mistrusting our escort, but without
a guide, I hesitated for a moment whether to follow thdm up the
valley towards the west. But one of them was so positive he
knew well where the village lay, that I resolved to try him for a
certain time. He proved to be in the right ; but the light was
already failing when we entered the Kurdish settlement of Nazik.
It is situated out of view of the lake, on the right bank of a
pleasant stream, which feeds the marsh along which we had
passed. The ridge, against which it lies, is the same that we had
VOL. II Y
322 Ar7nenia
crossed, and the same that we had seen from afar. It had first
attracted our attention as we descended into the great depression,
having a bold conical peak, a little west of the village. The
people received us with marked coolness ; and no sooner had we
commenced to erect our tents by the side of the stream than
they offered objections, and bade us remove to some other place.
They said that our tent would face that of a great bey on the
opposite margin of the water. I answered that I should place
ours in such a way as to respect decency ; but that, if it were a
question of either party moving, it would better become the bey
than us, who were his guests. This speech had a good effect ;
but supplies were not forthcoming, and, as usual, I summoned the
mukhtar (head of the village). After much delay they bring me
a lean greybeard, with sunken cheeks, beak nose, long yellow
teeth and a cavernous voice. He laughs grimly when I address
him as mukhtar. It is evident that these people hate the
Turks.
July 31. — In the early morning our entire escort appear
before the tent, headed by the zabet, whom I admit. He
complains that the villagers refuse, for love or money, to supply
food for themselves and horses. At the same time the five or
six privates approach, and make use of threatening language to-
wards me. Realising how the matter stands, I endeavour to
persuade the officer to get out of the place as quickly as possible
with his men. He urges that we shall then be at the mercy of
these Kurds ; I retort that I prefer it so than to be at his. He
answers with some reason that to desert us might cost him his
post ; but I reply that he may regard himself as already cashiered
should he dare to disobey my deliberate orders. A compromise
is at length arrived at, under which he undertakes to dismiss his
men, provided I will allow him to remain. He also begs that he
may send the man who attempted my life back to the head-
quarters at Bitlis. But this last proposal I refuse to entertain.
After much palaver, they are all induced to take themselves off,
with instructions to await us on the shore of the lake. The
villagers, seeing them gone, and ashamed to abuse our confidence,
at once adopt a much more friendly tone. The Bey of Nazik,
a young man, brings his little brother with him, and converses
with us in our tent. On the opposite bank, beyond the willows,
lies the encampment of the older bey, who does not appear to
belong to the village. His two large tents, of black goat-hair,
Round Nimrud by Lake Nazik 323
are open on this side. The coarse canvas, with several supports
and considerable span, descends within a few feet of the ground.
At the bottom, a screen of reeds at once provides shade and a
pleasant draught of air. Similar screens divide the interior into
compartments ; in the centre sits the bey, an oldish man, who
never smiles, by the side of a cradled baby which rarely remits
its cries. A young woman, who may be his wife, or one among
them, is engaged in swinging to and fro a large vessel of earthen-
ware, which they use for making cheese.
It was eleven o'clock before we again reached the corner of
the lake. There we took the boiling-point. We found that the
elevation was 6406 feet, or about the same as that of the
depression which we had crossed on the previous day. The
water tasted like very flat lake water. Proceeding along the
southern shore for some distance, we kept the ridge, over which
we had ridden last evening, close up on our right hand. It had
grown considerably lower and was dying away. It consists of
a stream of lava from the little peak which has already been
mentioned. Further eastwards, the line of low heights is
continued by what appears to be an independent, latitudinal
volcanic ridge. The lake widens rapidly from the little bay at
its westerly extremity, and describes, so far as we could judge
from a hasty survey, a triangular figure of which the base is on
the south, and the apex in an inlet of the northern coast. Its
greatest length is from west to east. The opposite shore
appeared to consist of a block of heights in connection with
those west of Sipan, and of streams of lava, descending from
Bilejan. The wide stretch of sand along the shore may perhaps
be regarded as an indication of a somewhat higher normal level
during recent times. From a boss of dark lava, forming a
promontory, we obtained a far-reaching view. We could see but
a single village on the lake ; and that settlement clustered on the
extreme point of a little cape, just east of the one upon which we
stood. It was Jezirok, partly Kurd and partly Armenian, the
only village, as we afterwards learnt, which is placed immediately
upon these shores. About half-a-mile away, we overlooked an
islet, white with the droppings of waterfowl. Indeed it is a
nursery for many varieties of this description, and was alive with
wings and sharp cries. Pelicans abound on Lake Nazik,
swimming, singly, like swans, over the mirror of waters, or
sweeping above our heads with rapid, shooting flight, in move-
324 Armenia
ments perfectly combined. There must be fish in plenty beneath
that blue surface, which lends a touch of beauty to the dreary,
yellow landscape, and derives enhancement from the distant
snows of Sipan.
We now left the lake, and gained the further slope of the
low ridge on the south, whence the view extends over the broad
depression at the foot of Nimrud. Here we remained for some
considerable time. While I was engaged in mapping, Oswald
made one of his beautiful drawings of the wondrous landscape
before our eyes. The northern buttresses of the great crater
towered up from the opposite margin of the level ground at our
feet. We could plainly see the volcanic dike leaving the rim of
the caldron, and bursting the northern wall of the little terminal
crater. Turning towards the east, the heights on that side of
the lake displayed a number of conical forms. But the outline
appeared unbroken, as it extended towards Sipan. Between it
and the Nimrud outliers we obtained a distant glimpse of the
waters of Lake Van.
Our course was directed towards that vista, over the bare
surface of the plain, which widens considerably ; it is completely
covered over with brown lava. It might be made a granary ; yet
it is now but little cultivated ; and rarely were we deflected by a
patch of standing corn from a course almost as straight as a bee-line.
Lake Nazik was never in sight, although its waters find an outlet
into the great lake.^ We saw only a single village, at some
distance on our left hand. Low hills confine the plain upon the
east, but a dip in the outline disclosed a deep ravine. The cleft,
which was now dry, would give issue to the water collecting in the
depression, which we now left behind.
Soon after crossing these heights, we entered the barren high-
lands on the north of Akhlat. The lava, which is thickly covered
with pumice sand, shelves away towards Lake Van. A little river
Vv'hich we forded, coming from the direction of Lake Nazik, must
be the same that cascades into the delta below the site of the old
city, and is perhaps derived from the lake. Its water had exactly
the same flat taste. On our right, in the direction of Nimrud, we
observed a broken-down crater, which has sent its principal flows to
1 The Kaimakam of Akhlat, who knows the district well, assured us that there was
a permanent outlet. Layard, on the other hand, speaks of an intermittent one {Dis-
coveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, London, 1853, p. 21). I regret that I am
unable to express certainty on the point. In the case of Lake Bulama, however, I am
able to vouch for the fact that its waters find tlicir way to the Murad.
Round Niinrud by Lake Nazik 325
Lake Van. A little further on we descended into the ravine of
Akhlat, and crossed the stream within the hollow ; and not long
after we were again in our shady orchard, and in the society of
the Kaimakam. The old imam was there, squatting among some
beanstalks, taking foretastes of paradise. His mad son was not
long in coming, nor his scold of a daughter-in-law ; while in the
morning the pretty little girls made their appearance, slipping
gracefully on their errands through the bush. But our home was
no longer there ; we felt as emigrants feel when their voyage is
already prepared. I handed over my rascal zaptieh to the
Kaimakam, who consigned him to the prison. The rest of the
crew, with their zabet, I dismissed. After resting a single day,
we set out for Adeljivas, along the shore of Lake Van. The ride
was shorter than we expected, for the position of Akhlat is wrongly
placed upon the best existing maps.^
^ The following are the approximate distances along the route described in this
chapter: — Tadvan to Norshen, I2| miles; Norshen to Nazik, 23^ miles; Akhlat to
Adeljivas, 15 miles.
CHAPTER XIX
ASCENT OF SIPAN
August 2. — Walking our horses all the way, we reached
Adeljivas in four hours, excluding stoppages. The track follows
the shore of the lake the whole distance, and you never lose the
expanse of waters. In fact, it is the base of the block of lime-
stones on the west of Sipan that you are skirting throughout the
ride ; although at first, and for some distance, the stratified rocks
are superseded by intrusive material of igneous origin. These
sombre heights are flanked by low foothills of purple conglomerate,
which have been thrown into a succession of shallow folds, with
an axis parallel to the shore. But as you approach Adeljivas the
igneous rocks give way, and the conglomerate thins out and dis-
appears. The limestone meets the waters, which it tinges with
its own white hue. Hardened almost to the state of marble, it is
in places full of corals. The scene becomes remarkable in the
neighbourhood of the town, where cliffs of this description and of
great elevation descend abruptly into the depths above which you
ride.^ Where these recede and leave the shore, giving place to a
wide alluvial strip at the foot of Sipan, long concealed, is situated
Adeljivas. The castle clings to the cliff; the gardens clothe the
alluvial soil. In other respects our journey was not, perhaps, note-
worthy. Besides Tunus, we passed only a couple of hamlets the
whole way. Such oases of verdure — for the walnuts are especially
fine — were much more rare than one would expect. But the
district is unsafe ; and it was patrolled by soldiers before we
passed. This precaution was perhaps due to the presence by our
side of the Kaimakam of Akhlat. His colleague of Adeljivas
came out to meet us, near the border of his administrative district.
' Oswald took several careful observations of the dip of these limestones. The norm
was 50' south hy east.
Ascent of Sipan 327
The promontories along this shore do not protrude far ; but they
are bold, and with several prongs or bluffs. They offer no diffi-
culties to the road. Lagoons have been forming on a large scale
within the bays, due probably to the rise in level of the lake.
Passing through the enclosure of the ruinous walled city, which
recalled the Kala or Ottoman fortress at Akhlat, we encamped
among the gardens of the more modern quarter.^ The trees are
well grown, and provided us with deep shade. At least one con-
siderable stream descends from the interior ; the oasis is of some
extent. Early next day we made our way in the lightest of
clothing from our tents in the heart of the orchards to the margin
of the shore. It was some little distance, but the walk was all that
we could wish. The morning is the time to enjoy the picturesque-
ness of any Eastern town. There will be shadows to give relief
to the scene, and light sufficient to bring out the colours. The
deep white dust upon the lanes has not yet been disturbed.
Draughts of freshness from the groves and gardens keep the air
sweet and cool. Such a straggling lane or two, between low walls
of mud and stone, took us past an old mulberry tree studded with
red fruit, and a fountain gushing forth by the side of the way.
So we came to a little valley, opening out towards the lake, and
harbouring a swift and shallow rivulet, black with the shadows of
an avenue of willows. A mass of foliage, on either side of the
adjacent meadows, screened the pleasant place from fortress and
suburb, except for a glimpse of the citadel in the west.
We stripped on a narrow margin of pebble -strewn shore,
regretting our purple rocks at Akhlat. The water is shallow for
some distance out ; but, in spite of the embouchures of the
irrigation channels, it was most intensely blue. We swam forth,
enjoying the buoyancy of the waves, with the distant barrier of
the Kurdish mountains before our eyes. Their bare escarpments
towered up to their crown of snow. In the reverse direction the
landscape was already flooded with light, and the foliage merged
into the general brilliancy of tone. A conspicuous object was
the ruinous citadel, proudly placed against the cliffs — the single
1 The best account of Adeljivas is that of Tozer {Turkish Armenia, London, i88l,
P- 335)- The width of the enclosure is given by him as 250 yards, on the side of the
shore. The parallel lines of walls descend into the water. Within the enclosure "one
ancient mosque with a minaret remains, and also part of anotlier considerable building.
The mosque, which is now used as a storehouse for corn, appears to be of the same date
as those in the castle of Akhlat ; it is massively built of stone, with but little ornament,
and its arches are pointed and slightly ogived." Miiller-Simonis has a nice woodcut
{Dit Caiicase an Golfe Persiqiie, Paris, 1892, p. 301).
328 Armenia
witness in the scene to a period of human masterfuhiess in direct
contrast to the actual insignificance of the human element in
this fair and richly-gifted land.
When we returned there were two wooden couches with
leather seats, and a couple of chairs, of similar pattern and equal
shabbiness, arrayed upon the sward. These unusual objects had
been unearthed for our benefit. They were not long in finding
occupants among the personages of importance who were desirous
of paying us the honour of a visit. The Commandant of the
garrison came, accompanied by his aide-de-camp ; they were
followed by the burly mufti, and by several notables ; last of all
came the two Kaimakams. It was a medley of striped military
trousers and gold lace, of flowing cloaks and white turbans, of
black frock-coats and the tasselled fez. Each had a word to
say upon the details of the expedition ; each could help if one
would only give them time. My great regret was that time
failed me to receive their suggestions ; there were indeed so
many things which must be done. First I had to feed and
water my horses, for the forage had not arrived in the early
morning. When it came, the several owners were at variance,
one with another ; and I was obliged to seize it by force. Then
there were my people, who would surely go without their
breakfast rather than take the trouble to procure victuals. These
I had provided with great difficulty overnight ; but the cook
had experienced trouble with his fire. Such everyday concerns
were augmented on this occasion by several affairs of much
greater consequence. It was necessary to engage at least ten
porters ; when these had been got together with infinite difficulty,
there was no possibility of arriving at terms and a price. By
the time the Kaimakam appeared, the orchard was alive with
people, all intent on delaying the conclusion of their several
bargains for the mere love of talk. That official was of great
assistance, because he fixed the price himself, and ordered each
man to conclude his business on those terms.
But there was one matter which called for very delicate
treatment, and of which the ultimate issue was not so clear. It
was most important that our escort, during the journey through
the wild districts interposed between Sipan and Bingol, should
be composed of men who might be trusted at least so far as not to
involve us in unnecessary brawls. They must obey my orders to
the letter ; but my authority could only exist by delegation from
Ascent of Sipan 329
a higher authority ; and it was essential that they should both
respect and fear this source. Now the Kaimakam of Akhlat
alone inspired me with confidence that his men would think
twice before daring to play the fool. But Adeljivas belonged to
the vilayet of Van ; and his colleague would certainly insist in
sending his own zaptiehs at least as far as the borders of that of
Bitlis. And at what point in that bleak region could one hope
to pick up the others? Fortune came to my aid in arriving at a
settlement. It so happened that the Vali of Van had not been
informed of our intention to enter his province. Indeed the
ascent of Sipan had not formed part of our original programme.
Now the Vali was alarmed at the prospect of a possible visit on
our part to his capital. Adeljivas was so very near ; we should
be across in no time. And Van was in a state of unrest. His
subordinate had telegraphed overnight that we had arrived, and
might return after our excursion to Sipan. This it was in the
interest of the Vali to prevent. A message came that very
morning, conveying greetings from his Excellency, but enquir-
ing whether we were furnished with a permission to travel,
or even with a tezkere, or travelling pass. Of course he well
knew that no such documents were in our possession, since the
whole question of the right of the Palace to prevent Englishmen
from travelling had been raised in connection with our persons.
The incident brought the very wind into our sails which we had
been courting on every side. We had not the least intention of
going to Van. But the Kaimakam of Adeljivas would now be
anxious to be rid of us for good and all. When therefore I
placed before him the two alternatives, of returning and perhaps
proceeding to reason with his Excellency in the capital ; or of
pushing on direct from Sipan and leaving his territory as fast as
possible — the latter course was at once and joyfully approved.
And when I made it a condition that the men of the Kaimakam
of Akhlat should be allowed to meet us at the base of the
mountain upon our descent, this proposal was also accepted
without demur.
It was noon by the time these various matters had been
decided — not a bad piece of work under the circumstances.
There only remained the last and saddest of our duties — to
say good-bye to the energetic and admirable official who had
accompanied us thus far on our road. What a contrast between
this Circassian, lithe of figure and nimble of mind, and his heavy,
330 Armenia
thick-skulled colleague of Adeljivas ! In the latter I had
recognised the former Kaimakam of Vostan — him whom I had
met at Akhavank. What memories arose of Khachatur and his
famous dinner ! I learnt that he had already descended to his
tomb. . . . Nothing could be more pathetic than the spectacle of
an honest man, endeavouring to cope, not only with the inherent
difficulties of his post, but also with the tricks of such rascals in
high places as you see on every side. Such is the lot of the
Kaimakam of Akhlat. It touched us to the quick. It is quite
as sad as the sufferings of the Armenians. In the Turkish
service there still remain a number of excellent officials — men
well capable of dealing with the Armenian question in a manner
conformable at once to humanity and to their country's good.
But they are flouted, and set aside. Some retire, others are
constrained to effect a shabby compromise ; while the younger
or less steadfast become rapidly demoralised, and end as badly as
they commenced well.
Two villages had been mentioned as both presenting a good
base from which to climb Sipan. One was Norshunjik, and the
other Uran Gazi. The first is situated on the south-western side
of the mountain, and the second rather more round towards the
west. Uran Gazi — a Circassian settlement — was, after some
debate, selected, owing chiefly to the reputation and resources of
its head men. It may be reached in about two hours from
Adeljivas. Riding in a northerly direction, we pursued a winding
track which became involved in the recesses of the hills. We
must have been close to the break-off of the plateau of limestone
on the west of Sipan ; but the view towards the east was never
open. The limestone was all about us, white and barren as
usual, in striking contrast to the verdant scene we had left
behind. So high did the escarpments tower, that although we
continued to rise at a considerable gradient for a space of about
an hour, it was only towards the latter portion of the ascent that
we obtained a view of the summit region of the great volcano.
But the vista towards the lake was of striking beauty, with the
ruinous castle standing up against the blue. Deep below us on
our left hand we admired the site of a walled monasteiy, high-
seated in a broad valley. There was more traffic along this
track than one might have expected ; we kept meeting laden
donkeys and a number of wayfarers. The adjacent slopes were,
in places, strewn with blocks of lava.
Ascent of Sipan 331
When we reached the pass, we were standing on the edge of
an undulating plateau, and were still within the zone of the lime-
stones. A slight descent from this point brought us almost
immediately to a shallow but very extensive depression. It had,
in fact, the appearance of a vast plain, somewhat of an oval, with
an axis roughly from east to west. In the latter direction we
could see the plain tonguing into the limestones, or, in other
words, the almost latitudinal limestone ridges sinking into the
plain. But these were dwarfed in the east by the flows of lava
from Sipan, of which the huge frame was now fully exposed. In
particular a bold stream plunged down from the summit region,
ending in dark, precipitous sides. About in the centre of the
depression lay a little lake, fringed by marshes, and bordered by a
deep belt of what appeared to be a white efflorescence adhering
to its shores. It was the Jil Gol (lake of rushes), once of consider-
ably greater extent. A village, just a speck at the western
extremity of the bold ridge of lava, was identified as Uran Gazi.
Behind us the limestones stood up like a wall, screening the lake
of Van.
Except for the marshes, there was not a trace of verdure in a
landscape devoid of trees or even of bush. Far and wide, the
surface of the plain was broken only by mounds or gullies — the
mounds heaped up with blocks of black lava, the gullies doubly
darkened by the same material. ^ Indeed the whole depression
has been covered with lava, probably to some considerable depth.
Its elevation above sea-level is not much less than 7700 feet.^
These lavas, which must have been of a liquid nature, may have
been, in part, emitted from the volcano during its infancy, but
have largely issued from fissures in the plain. Flooding into the
limestones, they compose such a lofty pedestal that the volcano
somewhat loses height. The climber is not ungrateful for their
help.
In another three-quarters of an hour we reached Uran Gazi,
and were received by two Circassian notables, resident in the
village, Murad Effendi and Shakir Effendi. I think I have
already observed upon the superiority of the Circassian villages to
those of their neighbours, Armenians or Kurds. The bread they
make is eatable ; fair cheese can be obtained ; the tenements are
much more solidly built. Great stacks of hay had already been
collected against the winter. The Circassian skirted coat and the
' This is the height of the village of Uran Gazi.
Armenia
Circassian cap are still worn ; and, indeed, this people cling to
all the customs of their native country, from which the Russians
have compelled them to wander out. Of our two hosts, Murad
was in the prime of life ; while Shakir, although advanced in
years and with snow-white hair, still retained his vigour and
vivacity. It is the vivacity of the Circassians which is so
impressive in the moral sphere, just as in the physical sphere it is
the brilliance of their eyes. Murad Effendi buckled to, with the
result that in an hour and a half all was prepared for the start.
Fig. 187. Village of Uran Gazi with Sipan.
Tezek fuel for the fire, and hay for the horses, and for ourselves a
lamb and several chickens — such were the burdens which were
ready for the shoulders of the porters, four of whom had already
arrived.
The position of the village, at the extremity of the bold ridge
of lava (Fig. 187), may be taken as representing the furthest
westerly extension of the flows of lava from the volcano, as we
see it now. The ridge itself has an axis of about west-south-
west. At four o'clock we made our way along its southern margin,
up the broad valley by which it is .separated from similar outliers
on the south. The caterjis, with the packs, followed this valley
to its head ; but our guides, whether from' knowledge of the
A sec n t of Sip an ■i>'h})
ground or from mere impatience, were not long before they led us
right up the wall of the ridge. Dismounting, we dragged our
horses over the rocky surface, at considerable peril to their legs.
The summit was, however, almost perfectly flat ; and, although
the upward slope and the craggy nature of the ground rendered
progress rather arduous and slow, the breadth of the ridge enabled
us to pick a wa)\ In this manner we struggled on for about an
hour, when, at six o'clock, I called a halt. The caterjis were not
in sight, and, when last we had espied them, they were still in
the trough of the valley. There they would have remained, with
our tents and baggage, knowing well that we must come to them.
I sent an officer with instructions to bring them up by force ;
and, after waiting until night, we were at length rejoiced by their
arrival, and encamped on a stretch of sward below a large patch
of snow. Our elevation was 10,300 feet.
August 4. — The ascent of Sipan offers no difficulties whatever
at this season, and is, indeed, a delightful excursion. There is
the joy of awaking to a landscape so inspiring — such a wide
segment of a circle, almost without limits on the horizon, framed
by the heights descending upon either side. From the rocky
island of the Kartevin to the western slopes of the Nimrud crater,
an immense region is outspread at our feet. Flatness of outline
is the almost universal characteristic ; and the marble peaks of
the Akh Dagh, conspicuous even at this distance, are at once an
exception and a solecism. Further west, the \\&\\ extends to the
even ridge of the Bingol Dagh, flecked about the centre with
snow. Nearer masses of imposing aspect are Bilejan and Khamur ;
an unknown mountain, which, later in our journey, we came to
know as Kolibaba, rising with lesser proportions between the two.
But the plains outdo the mountains, resembling a wide sea —
although surely no sea can be surrounded by such commanding
objects. The treeless, yellow surface commences deep below us,
and stretches without a break to the Kartevin. Low ridges come
edging towards it from the block of limestones, which, in the
west, appears to encircle the lake of Xazik, and to divide it from
that of Gop. The outline of the block grows in height towards
Lake Van.
It was t^^■o o'clock in the afternoon before we were ready to
start upwards, turning our backs upon this scene, and on foot.
The ten porters carry our flying tent and our wraps, besides a
little tezek fuel for our camp fire, and four long poles for taking
00
^ Armenia
measurements. They perform their work in an admirable manner,
never grumbHng and never stopping to talk. Their features
betray their Armenian origin, although they are Mussulmans.
The westerly eminence of the summit region towers high above
us ; but there is no beach of boulders to impede our progress,
like upon Ararat, and no causeways to circumvent. The tops
of the streams of lava are always fairly level, although they are
rocky at the sides. They consist of a basic augite-andesite, with
conchoidal fractures, which grows more glassy as you approach
the higher region. Stretches of grass are not infrequent, watered
by the melted snow. Little runnels descend the slope with a
pleasant, gurgling sound, but cease to flow when the sun goes
down. In three-quarters of an hour we open out Lake Van, the
ridges collecting towards the summit circle. The gradient of the
slope is now 33-^°, the highest registered on this side of Sipan.
We are above and among large patches of snow. But the going
is very easy, the ground being covered with turf and flowers. It
is quite a little garden of forget-me-nots and pink daisies and
buttercups and campanulas. These raise their heads above an
undergrowth of pearl -wort. There is no juniper or yellow
immortelle to be seen. Soon after four o'clock this flowery slope
gives way, and we enter the summit region, with the westerly
eminence on our left hand. Before us lies a deep and irregular
basin filled up with masses of snow.
Such perhaps is the most concise description of the strange
scene about us and at our feet (Fig. 188). My illustration was
taken on the following day from the top of the westerly eminence,
or western summit of Sipan. Our position now is on the slope
of that lofty eminence, on the upper margin of a field of snow,
which is not visible in the picture, but which descends to the little
lake in the foreground. The lake is known as Kirklar Gol,- or
lake of the forty Mussulman saints, and is probably due to the
dissolving of the snowy sheets which hem it in on either shore.
The slope on the opposite, or southern side of the basin is very
steep where it sinks to the pool ; and it sometimes happens that
the snow falls headlong and in a mass into the blue water.
West of the lake, and especially beneath the western summit,
the edge of the basin is low ; indeed we have entered into the
summit region by a natural passage or partial cleft.
Adhering to the skirts of this western summit, or taking refuge
upon the snow from the deep rubble on its uppermost slope, we
Ascent of Sip an 335
proceed in a north-north-easterly direction towards the northern
side of the basin. A new flower chngs to the powdery surface
above the snow — sweet-scented arabis. The bold bluff of the peak
above us joins on to a pronounced ridge, corresponding to the
ridge on the right of the illustration, of which, indeed, it forms
the counterpart on the north. We now open out a most remark-
able object — a round and very lofty mass, built up, it would
appear, of rubble, and of such dimensions that not only does it
fill the basin on its eastern side, but even destroys and supersedes
the peripheral figure. It looks as if it were flat upon the summit,
from which rise a number of little conical peaks, like cairns. Its
sides are so steep that they are nearly free of snow. We exclaim,
" There is Kerkiir, piled upon Sipan ! " The only feature which
we miss is the oak scrub. The mass is well shown in the photo-
graph, but not the second little lake which nestles in a lap of
snow at its foot. This pool is separated from the first by a low
saddle in the hollow of the basin, of which it collects the waters
on the east.
The ridge upon which we stand narrows and becomes knife-
like, as it bends towards the northern extremity of the upstanding
mass. It provides the scantiest strip of bare but level rock
between sheets of- snow on either side. On the north it is a
cornice of snow above the plains, thousands of feet down. In
that direction there would appear to be a tremendous abyss.
Xor is the slope towards the basin of tolerable gradient ; it is so
steep that it would be difficult to descend to the second of the
lakes without making a considerable circuit. Still this ridge
appears to offer a convenient site for our encampment, owing to
its central position. There are a few piles of rocks, nearly as
high as a man, which will prevent us being swept into the depths
on either side, in case a storm should arise. The only danger
would be a sudden drift of snow. I give orders to erect the tent
against one of these little screens ; and, accompanied by a
Circassian, Oswald and I continue our march towards the lofty
platform on the east.
Our slender parapet ends in its steep and talus-strewn side,
which we commence to scale. We step from block to block, the
boulders consisting of a light brown lava, which has broken up
with sharp angles. There can be no doubt that this mass is the
latest result of eruptive action upon the summit of Sipan. The
whole or nearly the whole of the eastern portion of the crater was
336 Arm cm a
blown away, and this cone raised upon its ruins. It is almost
circular in shape. The level parts of the platform, upon which
we emerge from the rocky slopes, are covered with snow and ice ;
but the cairns, of which there are too many to count, protrude
from the white canopy with little beaches of brown rock. It is
hard to tell at a first glance which is the highest of these piles.
Our Circassian conducts us to one among them on the north of
the mass, which, indeed, is the most elevated of all. When we
have clambered to the summit, we are amazed to find a screen,
rudely erected from the boulders by a human hand. It provides
us with just the shelter which we shall require for our observations
upon the following day. We have reached an altitude of 13,700
feet.^
The sun is setting ; so the tripod is rapidly erected, and the
bearings of the principal mountains registered with the utmost
care. Happily the sky is almost free of cloud. Ararat soars into
space, a magnificent object, both peaks of the greater mountain,
although almost merged by the perspective, being distinguishable
by the naked eye. The bold snow bastion on the west is seen to
the fullest advantage. But the Little Ararat is almost hidden by
nearer outlines ; and only the summit of that graceful cone is
exposed. If the mountain of the Ark be without equal, or even
rival, in a landscape which in all directions is sublime, it possesses
at least a neighbour with many attributes in common — -the Kuseh
Dagh, beyond the plain of Alashkert. That giant overtops the
land forms, almost from the very base — a truly inspirhig sight.
It is so essentially a great mountain, towering up to a symmetrical,
but deeply vaulted dome.
Night is falling as we descend to our little tent upon the
ridge at an elevation of 13,000 feet. But our poor porters and
the several zaptiehs who have, quite unnecessarily, scrambled up
— how shall we protect them against the rigour of the night ?
They prefer to remain with us ; so we wrap them up in the
stout red cloth which we have by us for our measuring poles.
They cower over the smouldering fire against the screen. But
' It would require a series of very careful observations to determine whether this
eminence — which I shall call the eastern summit — or the western summit of Sipan be the
higher. By boiling-point we obtained the following results : — Eastern summit (4th
August), 13,590 feet; western summit (5th August), 13,714 feet. But these readings
were taken on different days. On the other hand, the aneroid registered : — Eastern
summit (4th August), 13,650 feet ; eastern summit (5th August), 13,790 feet; western
summit (5th August), 13,754 feet. At present the question must be left open — and
indeed it is not of much im[)()rtance.
PLAN OFTHE
SUMMIT REGION OF SIPAN
incasiircd and drawn oiil by
H.F. R. Lyiuli and t'.O.sw-ad in August 1898
Scale 1 Milo = 2 luclios
or l: 31.680
Mile
Explanation:
J^-ffix/Ziesf point on tJic miind ,
Von-lfh'r - s-titrwti- mass cornposi'nff
the eastern summit f point from
\Hii£lL the reoAings to Ararat, etc
irci-e tttJuen. J AUiticcLe 13. TOO feet
B.C.D.E. Sini7la.r cxiirn-Tike eminences
distr-ibuted over t7ie surface of
(7iis mass.
\^. Western sununtt. Alt . 13.7 oo feet
'K.'L. Conspicuous eminences OJi
the sou tliern rim of the Itasin-
F. Xarrow ridge coniposinc/ tJie
northern rim. of t7ie basin
G. Our camp upon tJiis ridge,
AZtiticde 13.o:>5 feet
1 Kir7t7ar Gi)l.smali lahc ISnuiUlahB
xl.d 1.,
Published by Lon'^jmaus , Green & C°,Lioncloi\
Ascent of Sipan 2)?)1
the temperature scarcely sinks as low as freezing- point in the
sheltered places, and at dawn the lake below us is free of ice.
August 5. — Neither my companion nor myself are able to
sleep, although we are quite fresh for our work next day. The
same experience befell our party upon Ararat ; at these high
altitudes one does not seem to require sleep. We are up before
the sun ; but the light is already sufficient to disclose the great
world, silent at our feet. Not a vestige of cloud is clinging to our
mountain ; and, as the sun rises, all the outlines in the distance
are well defined. To Oswald is apportioned the task of taking
measurements, and he starts off over the snow-fields with his
telemeter and his poles. I mount to the summit of the platform
on the east, which is reached at half-past six. There I erect my
instruments in the same cairn which we visited yesterday, and
which may be called the eastern summit. The pools on the way
arc thinly crusted with ice.
With what joy I look out from the well upon the cairn, and
am greeted with the sight of Ararat in all his majesty, without a
particle of cloud ! Every minute the outline grows in distinctness,
and each familiar feature becomes clear. How radiant the fabric
looks — such a bright presence in the sky, above the summits of
the Ala Dagh ! Those mountains pass insensibly into the out-
lines on the east — the horizontal heights of the Persian tableland.
Westwards it is a series of plains. The plain of Patnotz, deep
below us, joins the plain of Melazkert ; that expanse is continued
into the region of Bulanik, threaded by the silver channel of the
Murad. Kartevin and Bilejan rise like islands from this sea-like
surface, in which are lapped the blue waters of Lakes Nazik and
Gop. In the north the undulations of the plateau country are
continued up to the barrier of the Mergemir — Kilich-Gedik ; but
that outline is so low that you almost see the plain beyond it,
supporting the base of the Kuseh Dagh. Further west the plains
are bounded by much bolder masses — Khamur with Bingol
showing up behind. The peak of Palandoken is just perceived.
But the Nimrud crater is a conspicuous object — not the least
remarkable feature in the scene. How vast it all looks ! — stray
clouds throwing liquid shadows, and earth reflecting the glow of
morning in vague, mysterious lights and hues.
In the opposite direction the contrast exceeds expectation —
for one is standing in the border region on the outskirts of the
plateau, and near the serried ranges which confine it on the south.
VOL. II z
IT^S Armenia
Never have I seen those ranges look so steep and savage, the
seams rising Hke spear-points from the water's edge. Nowhere is
their outline more broken into peaks, more exactly the opposite
of the outlines on the north. And the contrast is enhanced by
the sea to which they descend — the dream-like presence of the
sweet sea of Van. Pleasant verdure softens the landscape of the
nearer shores, with their sinuous inlets, already deepening to an
intense blue.
I remain about three hours upon this summit, and then
proceed to the highest eminence on the eastern margin of the
circular figure, in order to overlook the eastern arm of Lake Van.
On my way there a strange incident occurs. My Circassian has
told me that there exists a ziaret, or place of pilgrimage, in
the vicinity of this cairn. Curious, and half doubtful, I ask him
to show me the spot, which he says is close by. What is my
amazement w^hen, opening out a slight hollow of the snowy
surface, we see before us a group of Mohammedan women,
standing upon the ice with bare feet and ankles, and prostrating
themselves before a pair of stag's horns ! Indeed the antlers are
so thickly covered with little bits of rag that it is impossible to
say for certain to what species of animal they belonged. Stranger
still is the fact that a band of women — I count twelve — should
have risked their lives in this way. Tantuni religio ! . . . And
yet the Kaimakam of Melazkert is quite unshaken in his belief
that only one man, and he in exceptional circumstances, has ever
trodden the sacred summit of Sipan ! ^
After spending nearly another three hours upon the eastern
eminence, during which I draw in the portion of the lake which
lies before me, because I recognise several errors in the existing
map, I return to our camp upon the ridge. Oswald has just
completed his arduous work upon the snow ; and the combination
of our labours produces the following results, which must be taken
as approximate. The long axis of the figure described by the
summit region is but little inclined from an east-west line. The
centre of the circular mass, to which the eastern summit belongs,
is a little north of a line drawn from the western summit in
an easterly direction. The ultimate points of this axis are,
on the west, the western summit, and on the east, the emi-
nence upon which I last stood. The distance between the two
1 Such ziarets exist upon almost all the iirominent mountains, great or small, in this
part of Armenia. The custom no doubt comes down from an epoch of Nature-worship.
Ascent of Sipan 339
is one and a quarter miles. The breadth of the basin is just
under a mile.
The Circassians and the porters dance with delight when the
order is given to take down the tent. They appear to have made
up their minds that we shall keep them shivering for another
night. All give utterance to devout and repeated AlJiamdilallaJis,
thanks be to God ! Our last duty is to scale the western summit,
and to become familiar with the scene which it commands.
We overlook the small circular lake of the Aiger Gol, on the
southern slopes of Sipan. It perhaps fills the basin of a parasitic
crater. The elevation of this peak is about the same as that of
the eastern summit, namely 13,700 feet. On our way down we
recognise the traces of a bear ; and we reach our standing camp
without further incident at about five o'clock. It has been a very
full and delightful day.^
1 It will be recognised from the above description that the summit of Sipan is much
more basin-like than that of Ararat. Sipan probably possessed a crater in the proper
sense. That of Ararat is so much worn down that it can scarcely be said to exist.
Sipan appears to have been built up by successive lava streams, which became more
and more viscous, until that finally emitted had no power to flow at all, and merely
welled up, forming the circular mass on the east. The lava composing that mass is
spongy and glassy, a glassy mica-andesite. The narrow ridge, upon which we camped,
and which may represent the northern rim of the old crater, consists of a slabby rhyolite
with impure obsidian ; it is covered up with cindery slag. The western summit and
surrounding rock is made up of a lava somewhat similar to that on Nimrud — a dull im-
pure obsidian with ill-developed spherulites ; the flow structure is well marked. Tuffs
were nowhere to be seen. But a bastion on the northern side of the mountain was
cloaked with grey pumice sand.
The ascent of the mountain is described by Brant [J.K.G.S. 1840, vol. x. pp. 409
seq.) and by Tozer {Turkish Armenia, pp. 327 seq.). But they both largely under-
estimate the height. They appear to have been misled by the fact that the highest points
are free from snow in midsummer ; but the sunmiit region in general is a mass of snow
even at that season. On Ararat such piles of rock, on which the snow has been unable
to obtain a footing, are found quite near the summit, which is nearly 17,000 feet high.
Fig. 189. Grave on the Summit of Khamur.
CHAPTER XX
BACK TO THE CENTRAL TABLELAND
We were received with the greatest kindness by Shakir Effendi
upon our return to Uran Gazi. The vigorous old man came to
sit with us in our tent, and gave us some account both of himself
and of his people. It appears that he has held the office of
Kaimakam of Adeljivas, and that he occupied that dignity for four
years. He is the Reis or supreme chief of all the Circassians in
these districts ; and he gave me a list, which should prove of some
interest, of their villages/ He added that the population was in-
creasing. The founders of the settlement, of whom Shakir was
one, came to these seats after the last Russo-Turkish war. They
were emigrants from the district of Kars, a home which they had
adopted after the Russians came into possession of their native
^ The list i.s divided into cazas and villages : — Adeljivas caza — I, Uran (lazi ;
2, Kogus. Van caza — 3, Shikhare ; 4, Shikhuna ; 5, Azikare ; 6, I'akis. Akhlat caza
— 7, Kholik ; 8, Agjavireh ; 9, Yogurtyemes ; 10, Develik ; II, Khanik. Melazkert
caza — 12, Serdut ; 13, Varelmish ; 14, Kara AH; 15, Simu. Biilanik caza — 16,
Gopo. Khinis caza — 17, Lekbudagh. I'arlo caza — 18, Charbahur ; 19, Charbahur
Tepe ; 20, Akhpoghan ; 21, Zirnek ; 22, Budag ; 23, Shekan ; 24, Aineh. In addi-
tion to these — I will not vouch for the spelling — there were, he said, to be found
Circassians on the side of Erzerum.
Back to the Central Tableland 341
mountains. When the Russians captured Kars they received
notice to quit, or, as Shakir put it, they were told to get out
{Aideh !). They took ship, and landed upon the shores of the
Black Sea within Turkish territory. But no arrangements had
been made to settle them anew. They were starving and being
decimated by sickness, when the Queen of England came to their
aid. Her Majesty told the Turks that they must either find the
land without delay or she herself would provide land within her
dominions. This speech spurred the Turks on. In this way
they became established in Uran Gazi. This kind action on the
part of our Queen would always live in their memory. They are
on good terms with the Turks, but they are preparing to move on
again. That inexorable Russian advance !
As for the Kurds, they regard them as scarcely human beings
and do not fear them at all. But they are held in great awe by
the Kurds. Unlike the wretched Armenians, they are allowed to
carry arms, which they know how to use with effect. And you
hear the laughter of children in their villages.
While I was engaged in writing, the indefatigable Oswald
scoured the plain in all directions. He found the limestones on
its margin highly marmorised, full of corals ; they must belong to
the Eocene period. The efflorescence on the border of the Jil
Gol is not in fact an incrustation, but is due to a bleached felting
of confervcB. Rushes abound, but they had already been cut.
The waters find an egress through two funnel-shaped basins, near a
large crack in a boss of lava. They disappear beneath the ground
in little whirlpools, and are believed to come to the surface at
Adeljivas. Shakir assured us that, if anything, the lake is now
on the increase ; it has been increasing since the earthquake
which was so destructive at Adeljivas about five years ago. This
earthquake did little damage at Uran Gazi. Although the
village is now about a mile distant from the lake, good water
may be found at any point in the vicinity by digging a short
distance down.
August 8. — Nimrud and Sipan having now yielded up their
secrets, it was our next object to explore Bingol. But, on the
way, we were anxious to follow the course of the Murad, the
reaches of that river between Gop and Charbahur being practi-
cally unknown. We were also desirous of climbing Khamur.
Our first day's stage was to be the village of Gop.'^ W^e there-
' The intermediate distances along the route described in this chapter were as
342 Armenia
fore crossed the plain in a north-westerly direction, the way
being indicated by a Circassian guide. After riding about three
miles we reached the foot of some low hills, confining the plain
on that side. Against their first slopes lay a Kurdish hamlet —
Karaghun. Issuing into a valley, we rose above it to the crest
of the hills, which, as we expected, were down-like in character.
For some little distance our way led over these downs.
But I need not tire my reader by taking him over old
ground ; he will readily recognise that our surroundings were
much the same in character as during our journey across this
region from Melazkert. For the second time we were crossing
the block of stratified rocks on the west of Sipan ; but on this
occasion we were already within their northerly and less elevated
zone, and we might, no doubt, have descended to the plain, and
followed along their base. We struck our former route above
the village of Demian, after passing through the same valley to
which we had then come down at Akhviran, and which we now
entered above the large Kurdish village of Shebu. It is an inlet
of the great plain at the foot of Sipan. But our guide preferred
to take us along the slope of the mass, all the way from Demian
to the village of Leter. For that is the direction which these
heights pursue.
I have little doubt that these stratified rocks come up again
on the east of Sipan, and the view from the eastern summit
disclosed in that direction very similar block-like heights. They
probably sink beneath the volcanic system of the Ala Dagh. In
this northern zone the downs consist of lacustrine deposits,
sandstone, and a limestone full of the little shells known as
viytihis} The sandstone underlies this inytihis limestone,
indicating, as Oswald observed, that the great lake, which once
covered this region, grew deeper before the latest earth -move-
ments set in. Throughout the ride from Demian to Leter, a
distance of 5^ miles, we overlooked the flat region which is due
to the action of those former waters, and through which the
Murad flows. But a gale of wind was in our face ; the plain was
shrouded in haze — a treeless and little-inhabited district, which
might, no doubt, be made fertile and prosperous.
Leter, a large village, partly Kurd and in part Armenian, is
f(jlIovvs : — Uran Gazi viA Leter and Lake Bulania to Clop, 32 miles ; Gop to Charbahur,
deviating to the confluence of the Bingtil Su (Khinis) with the Murad, 52| miles ;
Charbahur to Gumgum, 6| miles; Gunigum to Gundemir, 9^^ miles. Total, ioo| miles.
' Mytiliis (Congeria) polytnorphiis.
Back to the Central Tableland
vj^O
situated on the confines of the plain. It is built upon lava, black
and slabby in character, which has broken through the lacustrine
deposits. Similar bosses, resembling those near Uran Gazi, but
larger, rise up from the level expanse beyond. The direction in
which the inhabitants pointed towards the village of Gop was
plainly not that of the lake of the same name. We had already
obtained a glimpse of its waters, lying almost west of where we
now stood. Anxious to visit the lake, we shaped a course which
we thought would find it beyond a screen of low hills. The
plain in that direction was very rudely cultivated, white holly-
hocks and a large mauve thistle crowding out the ragged corn.
At about 6\ miles from Leter we passed through the first village
we had since seen, the large Armenian settlement of Kekeli.
And in another ten minutes we stood on the summit of the
eminence which had concealed the lake for so long.
It was nothing more than a low hill, an isolated mass of lava
rising up from the plain. It was crowned by a little chapel, put
together with stone and mud, and provided with a wicker door.
Looking through, we discovered a large stone, engraved with a
cross, which was, no doubt, the object or symbol of worship.
Before it, three little lamps reposed on a horizontal slab. From
this standpoint we overlooked the extent of the waters, of which
the nearest shore was still some two miles off. The lake is
bordered by level ground upon the east and south, and by
considerable heights on the west and north. On the west it is
Bilejan, sending outwards radial buttresses with deep valleys from
a central, meridional ridge ; lesser heights in connection with the
mountain, and of volcanic origin, descend to the waters along the
northern shore. A slight depression separates this series from
Bilejan, and they, in turn, sink somewhat steeply into the plain.
At that point, and at their foot, lies the large village of Sheikh
Yakub, beside which flows the stream giving issue to the lake.
In the opposite direction, beyond the plain on its southern
confines, it is overlooked by an extension of the heights on the
west of Sipan, which are continued up -to the mass of Bilejan.
It would appear that volcanic action has been busy throughout
this region ; and we thought we saw a grassy crater among those
heights. Beyond the outline of the barrier emerges a little
conical peak, which we recognised as the cone on the west of
Nazik. Bilejan itself does not look as if it ever could have
possessed a crater, and it is probably due to upwellings of lava
344 Arincnia
along a meridional fissure. The highest points along the central
ridge may have an elevation of some 9000 feet.
A brisk breeze was blowing as we made our way to the brink
of the water, churning up its muddy depths. Indeed this lake is
thickly charged with dark sedimentary matter — a characteristic
which has given rise to a name under which some know it, Lake
Bulama, or the muddy lake.' Another and not more savoury
feature is its odour, which is fetid and nauseating. An
abundance of fresh-water mussels were strewn on the shore, and
several pelicans were floating on the waves. In shape the lake
appeared to be almost circular. Its elevation, as one would
expect, is much less than that of Nazik, being only 5550 feet.
In point of verdure its surroundings are quite as mournful as
those of its neighbour, while the lake itself does little to relieve
their monotony.
From the north-eastern extremity of this unattractive sheet
of water we followed the course of the foul stream by which it is
drained. It took us to the foot of the heights already mentioned,
and through the village of Sheikh Yakub. It is a very large
Armenian village, which has probably been prosperous, but which
is now in a state of extreme destitution. All the inhabitants
were in rags. Boys up to the age of puberty were quite naked,
and girls to their fifth or sixth year. The village was full of
soldiers, who were standing on the roofs. I summoned their
officer, and enquired what their business might be. He answered
that Ibrahim Pasha, adjutant of Kurd Hamidiyeh, was about to
visit the place. In Gop I ascertained that the object of his visit
was to restore some property which had been carried off by
Kurds. Such at least was the explanation which I received. It
was certainly not a bad idea to quarter all these troops upon
starving people ; they would think twice before claiming redress
a second time. But I suspect that it was a rather clumsy lie.
Gop is situated in the plain, some miles distant from the
lake, at the foot of the extreme slopes of the heights which
border the northerly shore (alt. 5150 feet). Although the
place is the capital of the caza of Bulanik, it is a large village
rather than a town. The Kaimakam informed me that there
were 400 houses, all but 50 inhabited by Armenians. The
district of Bulanik comprises some of the most fertile land in all
' Layard (Discoveries in tlic Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, Lontlon, 1853, p. 20)
speaks of it under the nnnie tjf the Lake of Sliailu.
Back to the Central Tableland 345
Armenia, and is of considerable area. Towards the east it
includes a large portion of the plain of the Murad below the
town of Melazkert ; while, on the west, it reaches across the mass
of Bilejan and its outliers to a second extensive stretch of fairly
level ground. That region slopes away from the northern border
heights of Mush plain to the Murad and the opposite heights of
Khamur ; it sends a tributary to the left bank of the great river,
and one of its principal and central villages is that of Liz. The
fecundity of the soil is probably due to a happy combination of
calcareous marls with the detritus of eruptive rocks. The grain
which it produces is of excellent quality, in spite of the fact that
the fields will be full of thistles. The peasants are miserably
poor. The Kaimakam explained that their rags, and squalor
were matter of custom [tabiat) ; and, in fact, they had plenty of
money, hoarded away. It is possible that such an hypothesis
may indeed govern some of his actions ; but I doubt whether he
put it forward in good faith. The main cause of their destitution
is plainly the want of security, coupled with the impossibility of
exporting their crops. But usury is also a factor of considerable
importance, the husbandman having generally borrowed to buy
his seed at rates which rob him of most of the earnings of his
toil.
From Gop we made a second excursion to the lake, riding to
one of the most conspicuous of the volcanic eminences which
rise from its northern margin. It is a distance of about four
miles. The ascent commences on the outskirts of the village ;
but it is at first very gradual, the slope consisting of marly clays.
These beds were full of inytilus in perfect preservation, and were
seen to have been overlaid with tuffs. About halfway, we came
to the walled monastery of Surb Daniel, containing the relics of
a saint of that name. The ancient chapel has been restored.
Over the altar was conspicuous a picture of the Virgin and Child,
The one or two resident priests were sunk in abject ignorance,
but they were in possession of some good farm buildings within
their enclosure. We remained for some time upon the peak
which we had selected, and from which we obtained a fine view
of the lake and its surroundings. While I was mapping, Oswald
sketched. We could see two villages on the level ground south
of the lake — Khashlu and Piran. In the plain towards the
Murad several settlements were visible upon a line between Leter
and Gop,
346 Armenia
August 10. — It was ten o'clock in the morning of a fine
summer's day when we resumed our journey, and set out in a
north-westerly direction across this spacious plain. Travelling at
this season is most agreeable in Armenia ; it scarcely ever rains,
yet one is never overpowered by the heat of the brilliant sun.
Pleasant breezes float across the expanse. The harvest was
being gathered in. Our landmarks were in full view — Sipan,
Khamur, Bilejan. A little river meanders through the deep soil,
on a course towards the Murad. It receives the waters which
irrigate the village of Gop, and, among them, those of the stream
from the lake. It has its origin some distance east of Gop. It
is called the Kor Su. At first our track took us about parallel
with its banks ; then we crossed it at the large Armenian village
of Yungali. Anxious to visit the point of confluence of the
Bingol Su with the Murad, we now diverged towards the north.
The nature of the ground compelled us to cross the latter river a
little above the junction. It was flowing in a very broad, alluvial
bed. In width it may have been about a hundred yards ; nor in
any place did the water reach much above our horses' knees.
Except for the great islands of mountain about us, we might have
been standing upon the Mesopotamian plains. Our approach
disturbed a group of large eagles, so heavy that they were
obliged to run before taking wing. The Bingol Su came in
through a deep channel, which washed the girths of our horses.
It did not seem to be more than forty yards wide. But, although
sluggish, it must bring a very considerable volume of water ; for
its contribution extended to about half the width of the joint
river, being clearly distinguished by the quantity of sediment
which it sustained. From this confluence we followed the course
of the Murad, riding over the plain on the right bank, with the
stream. A flock of wild geese were resting in the pebbly bed,
nor did the shapely birds move as we passed them by. One of
our escort was successful in securing a fine specimen with a bullet,
which provided us with an excellent meal next day.
But the features of the landscape soon underwent a change ;
for the river was approaching the foot of the Khamur heights.
At first it was low hills, consisting of lake deposits, which we
skirted on our right hand. But near the Armenian village of
Karaogli a bold ridge comes into prominence, and it extends all
the way to Shakhberat. It is of eruptive volcanic origin. It is
an important member of the scries of heights of which Khamur
Back to the Central Tableland 347
forms the dominant mass. East of Khamur that series rises to
a considerable elevation before declining to the valley of the
Bingol Su. The highest ridge, as seen from this district, lies
some distance towards the north, and is called the Zirnek Dagh.
On the other hand, this volcanic parapet comes right up to the
river, which follows along its base. At the same time hills
started up from the plain upon the left bank. It was evident
that they were volcanic and in connection with Bilejan, of which
we were opening out the more westerly and less deeply carved
side.
These features transformed the scene with startling rapidity ;
the idle river was no longer able to flow where it pleased.
Some two miles below Karaogli it enters a deep gorge, and
throughout its course to the plain of Mush it is, with little
intermission, confined in a narrow bed. Except during the
passage of the block of heights on the north of that plain, the
Murad performs no considerable feat. It follows the general
trend of the lines of elevation, and one would expect its course
to be fairly tranquil through this region. But the lavas tease the
river ; they have welled up along fissures, and have converted the
wide valley into as inhospitable a district as any through which
it passes on its long journey to the Persian Gulf.
Our mid-day halt was spent beneath the shade of a grove of
willows, on the margin of some fields of hemp and cabbage,
which softened the site of Karaogli. But, the village left behind,
we soon entered the narrows, the track being taken along the
cliff-side, at some considerable height above the hissing, silvery
water. The Murad pierces a mass of lava belonging to the
ridge on its right bank. It seemed a wayward thing to do ; for
the ground is lower just south of the gorge, and appeared to
invite the river. While still within the cleft, it was spanned
by a wooden bridge resting on several piers of solid masonry.
This is probably the first bridge over the Murad below Tutakh.
Issuing from the cliffs, the tortuous reaches opened out into an
easier country, and a wider prospect was unfolded on either side.
For the first time we obtained a view over the plain on the west
of Bilejan, bordered on the south by the still distant heights, on
this side of the depression of Mush. But the volcanic hills on
the left bank were not long without a successor ; the outline was
taken up by a second block of similar origin ; and the scene
aeain became restricted to the immediate surroundings of the
348 Armenia
river, which were stony and bare and bleak. We passed only a
single Kurdish hamlet during our ride to the cirque or caldron of
Shakhberat. There the river makes an S-shaped bend through
a fairly wide valley, enclosed on all sides by volcanic heights.
The ridge and peak of Kolibaba is seen to full advantage, con-
fining the valley on the west. Two little Kurdish villages,
Arenjik and Shakhberat, lie on the slopes and in the lap of this
spacious cirque.
August II. — ^The level of the Murad at Shakhberat was
tested by two readings of the boiling-point apparatus on
successive days. It was found to be 4900 feet. The village
commands a view of the summit of Khamur, the highest point of
the amphitheatre in which the hamlet is placed. But that lofty
ridge is in part screened by the slopes of Kolibaba, and by the
parapet which has skirted the right bank of the river all the
way from Karaogli. That parapet joins the mass about opposite
the summit ; and it is only at the head of the valley between
Khamur and Kolibaba that the outline and slopes of the
principal ridge are fully exposed. The shortest way to the
summit, but certainly the steepest, would lead up that valley by
a fairly direct course. But our guide preferred to take us by a
more easterly approach, up the face of the parapet. He was a
very pleasant fellow, a khoja or village priest ; and he looked well
with his clean white cottons, astride upon his mare. But the
notion that we really intended to mount to the actual peak was
repugnant to his good sense. Climbing Khamur meant to him
proceeding to an adjacent eminence and thence contemplating
the airy heights above your head. Such a spot was provided
under circumstances of luxury by the site of a hamlet high up on
the ridge. A rustling stream flows through it, which has been
dammed and made into a lake ; and round the pool trees have
been planted to shade the flocks. It was indeed a charming
foreground to the immense landscape which already extended to
Nimrud. But the khoja s dallying was soon cut short ; the track
ceased at this village, which bore the unworthy name of Ganibuk.
He was forced to lead us across a beach of large boulders, and
through some thickets of oak scrub. The ascent became pro-
nounced, and, when at length the flat top was reached, the main
mass was still distant, and looked very high.
The composition of the ridge, which wc had now surmounted,
is at once interesting and typical of the whole region. It
Back to the Central Tableland 349
consists of a series of deep beds of lake deposits, separated one
from the other by bands of lava. At first the lava was seen to
be basaltic in character and compact ; but towards the summit it
became scoriaceous. The fact would seem to indicate that,
while the earlier issues were submarine, the latest flows were out-
poured when the land had risen above the water, and the present
configuration was being attained. The platform upon which we
stood was composed of a sheet of lava, and so was the summit of
the opposite ridge of Khamur. But as we rode into the shallow
trough which separates the two eminences, the greyish-white
marls again came to view. We could see them on the escarp-
ments of both ridges, which, further east, became gradually
separated by a deep latitudinal valley. We could observe the
soft material where it was baked into a yellow porcelain by
contact with the cap of lava on the Khamur ridge. Far and
wide, towards east and south, the landscape wore the same hues
and appearance ; the same character appeared to belong to the
heights on the north of ]\Iush plain. Descending into the
depression and rising again on its further side, we reached the
actual peak or highest part of the Khamur ridge after a zigzag
climb up a slope overgrown with fennel. We had attained an
altitude of 9850 feet.
Although the outline of Khamur assumes a somewhat pointed
shape when seen from the south, as from the cirque of Shakhberat,
yet the summit is nothing more than a fairly flat and narrow
platform, which slopes away with some abruptness on the north
and south. The lava upon this platform is slabby in character
and may be described as an augite-andesite. There is no
crater on the summit and one cannot speak of Khamur as a
volcano in the proper sense. In fact it is a considerable block of
elevated land, in the western portion of which volcanic action
has played a great part. The foundation of the block is probably
composed of Eocene limestone, which has been overlaid by later
lake deposits. This limestone comes to view in a remarkable
manner as you survey the eastern half of the mass. The ridge
upon which you stand extends for a mile or two in that direction,
and presently sinks to a somewhat narrow upland valley. This
depression can be clearly seen from the adjacent region, whence
it has the appearance of a notch in the outline of the mountain.
Its eastern slope leads over into a very broad block of mountain,
of w^hich the central region is hollow and basin -like in shape,
350 Armenia
and the outer sides steep and high. They are perhaps steepest
and most lofty on the south. It is in fact one grand synclinal,
described by beds of hard limestone, which, from a distance,
o-roups with Khamur in a single mass. The axis of the mass in
that direction is about east-north-east.
The prospect towards the west is not of lesser interest, and
is certainly even more strange. Time was wanting to examine
this extraordinary region, which, indeed, it would require several
days to explore. The ridge of Khamur is joined on to the
northern portion of another great block of elevated land. The
eastern wall of this plateau projects some distance towards the
south, almost up to the right bank of the Murad. But the deep
valley, which is formed by this projection and by the ridge of
Khamur, is filled up by the lofty pile of Kolibaba — a peninsular
mountain, only connected beyond a considerable depression with
the slopes of the main ridge. It is plainly of eruptive volcanic
origin, and it is somewhat circular in form. Its sides are strewn
with talus and clothed with oak scrub. Our guide and the
people of the district knew it under the name which I have
given, and which they averred to have been that of a holy man
who had been buried there. Though who this prophet might
have been, or what he wrought, or when he lived, not a soul
among them knew. Throughout this district, as far as Bingol,
the tops of mountains will be often crowned by the rude enclosure
of some sage's grave. Such a monument was a conspicuous
object on the very peak of Khamur ; and with its headstone, a
huge slab grimly resembling a human bone, might have- been
disposed to receive a giant's remains (Fig. 189).
But to return to the scene before us — this adjacent plateau
on the west extends all the way to Bingol. Indeed it is
connected with the southern margin of the Bingol pedestal by a
bold saddle, due to a flow of lava. This feature was, of course,
scarcely visible from Khamur ; but the continuation of the
Khamur ridge might be traced throughout the region, being
distinguished by a succession of bold bosses, rising along its
northern margin. These peaks are especially pronounced at
their inception, and appeared to rise almost immediately from
the northern shore of a large lake which was irregular in form.
Near its south-east corner lay a second, much smaller and
circular lake. Neither figure on any map which I have seen.
They are evidently rather deep, for their colour is an intense blue.
Back to the Central Tableland 351
Such are some of the characteristics of this curious region, which
may be included among the Khamur heights. It rises above
the Murad with cHff-hke sides, which scarcely decline at all to
the elevated level of these lonely azure lakes. ,
The view from the summit of Khamur may be divined b}-
my reader ; nor need I attempt to describe it in any detail.
It embraces Palanddken and Bingol on the north ; Nimrud,
Bilejan and Sipan on the south. On one side lies the plain of
Khinis, bordered by the peaks and ridges of the Akh Dagh,
which are seen to their fullest advantage. On another it is the
basin of the Murad, with Sipan rising in all his majesty from an
expanse of level and cultivated ground. In yet another }-ou
overlook the plain and village of Liz and the course of a winding
river. From no standpoint does the character of the country, as
a succession of sea -like plains, become imprinted with greater
clearness on the mind. Nor is any district in the nearer Asia
better adapted to become the granary of a prosperous and highly
civilised land. We descended in failing light by the valley on
the side of Kolibaba, and reached our camp with some difficulty
in three hours.
August 12. — On the following morning we set out to follow
the Murad, as far as its egress from this region through the
heights which border the depression of Mush. Much the same
features were continued throughout the stage. The cirque of
Shakhberat is enclosed upon the west by a stream of lava from
Kolibaba. This emission has flowed in an almost meridional
direction, and has forced the river to bend away to the south.
After passing through the Armenian village of Akrag, which is
placed on a higher level of the basin-like area, we breasted the
bold ridge which has been formed by this lava, and crossed it
just south of a little parasitic cone, emerging from the side of
the mountain. Some low oaks flourish among the boulders ;
the rock is a glassy augite-andesite. The ridge leads over into a
little plain, bordered upon the north by the wall of the Khamur
plateau, and with a high rim upon the side of the river, which
cannot be seen. The plain has evidently been covered by a lake
in fairly recent times. A crack in the rim of the basin displays
the channel through which it was drained. On the side of
Kolibaba an old beach line was visible, some fifty feet above the
level of this plain. The soil consists of a black clay which is
not cultivated, but which must be very rich. It took us nearly
252 Annenia
an hour to cross to the opposite side, where it is confined by an
outwork of the Khamur heights.
Our further journey, which occupied the better part of a whole
long day, need not be followed step by step. We had arrived at
a spot where the dominant lineaments of the landscape had
already become pronounced. These prevailed with little variety
all the way. On the right bank, at an interval of two to three
miles or more, rose the wall of the Khamur plateau. The further
west we proceeded the more irregular it became, the less dis-
tinguishable from the massive spurs which it put out. These
outworks descend into the river valley, which is flooded and
choked by the lavas. Both in the valley and on these slopes the
lavas have the upper hand ; but the grey lacustrine marls are
seldom absent or for long. They provide favoured stretches,
covered with luscious herbage, where a little stream may trickle
down from the barren heights. Still the scene remains wild,
bleak rather than of impressive ruggedness ; there is space
along the margin of the river, which flows in a deep canon
through the sombre eruptive rock. Some stunted oak springs
from the crevices among the boulders, but it rather enhances than
relieves the mournful aspect of the surroundings.
On the left bank a new feature came into prominence : a long
and fairly lofty ridge, with perfectly horizontal outline, many
miles away on the south. But the slope of this broad mass was
continuous to the brink of the river, where it was broken by the
stream into cliffs. Its gentle gradient and almost level surface
somewhat softened the rigour of the landscape. It was seen to
ccwisist of a sheet of lava, which had covered up the marls, and
which must have issued in a very liquid condition. The heights
upon which it is built are the northern border heights of Mush
plain ; and this block of heights approaches closer and closer to
the Murad, as it eats its way through the district on a westerly
course. Such was the character of the country beyond the
winding, hissing river throughout the whole stage. Villages there
were none, and hamlets few. A single oasis of any importance
was observed high-seated upon the slope in the south, near the
break in the outline where the Murad pierces through the block.
We should have been pleased to spend the night in that extensive
and leafy grove, which belongs to a village called Ali Gedik.
But we were assured that the river was not passable, and we
were obliged to push on to Charbahur. After following a
Back to the Central Tableland 353
romantic gorge where the Murad has again been wayward, and
has preferred to saw a passage through a towering parapet of
lava rather than to follow easier ground upon the south, we rode
for some distance along a wide stretch of alluvial soil in which
the river at length reposes from its arduous labours. The
Circassian village of Charbahur is placed at some distance from
the waters, on the northern margin of the broad strip of willow-
grown land.^
Charbahur is backed by a barren slope of the Khamur heights,
and is screened from all freshness on the side of the north. On
the other hand, it is exposed to the sultry southern breezes, which
find their way through the passage of the Murad, acting like a
funnel to the furnace of Mush plain. There were said to be
some sixty houses in the village ; but I should say that there
were more. Some of the tenements are well built, resembling
neat cottages ; but unfortunately they swarm with fleas. The
standard of living is far higher than among the Armenians ; but
one feels that there is little or nothing in the race. Our im-
pression of the Circassians did not improve upon longer acquaint-
ance ; although they are by no means the worthless and predatory
people which they are sometimes represented to be. Their
conspicuous characteristic is an inordinate love of swagger ; and
their handsome figures encourage the tendency of their disposition.
One afternoon, as we were busy at work, a bugle sounded ; and
immediately a band of horsemen galloped into the village. One
by one they passed our tent at the utmost speed of their horses,
jumping to the ground and vaulting back into the saddle, while
still at full pace. Those Cossack manoeuvres heralded the
approach of their chief, Suleyman Pasha, who, it appeared, was
riding over from the neighbouring capital of the caza in order to
honour us with a visit. When he arrived the place became full
of irregular troops, with w^iom were combined a small detachment
of regular cavalry. Dismounting from a well-bred horse, he came
towards us with hands outstretched, tall and supple, with a
rhythm of movement which at once revealed his Circassian blood.
His large and animated eyes, the thin, aquiline nose, the high
forehead and the black hair, waving on brow and chin, were set
off by the contrast of a very correct uniform — a deep-blue tunic
' The distances are as follows :— Gop to Karaogli (including one considerable
deviation), I2| miles; Karaogli to Shakhberat, lo miles; Shakhberat to Charbahur,
30 miles. Total, 52| miles.
VOL. II 2 A
354
Armenia
with a pale crimson collar. The voice suited the man ; it was
resonant and was meant to be so, and his words were accompanied
by a profusion of gestures. He was followed by two valuable
English pointers, which, however, he did not treat with proper
respect. To him the world was a gallery ; yet he lacked the
mind of the actor ; and, while his principal occupation was the
giving of orders, his directions were not less empty than his
words. But these defects were in the nature of inherited failings ;
personally he was extremely kind, and, I believe, a staunch friend.
He spoke with gratitude, which was sincere, of the service which
had been rendered to his countrymen by England and England's
Queen. It has sunk deeply into the hearts of Circassians. At
home we are too much imbued with excellent business principles;
and few of us realise the value in politics of sentimental considera-
tions, especially when we are dealing with the untrained peoples
whose destiny happens to link with ours.
The most interesting occupants of such a village are, no
doubt, the girls and young women. They retain their fair com-
plexion even in this climate, as well as their roundness of face and
form. Several among them would come to the margin of an
adjacent stream, in order to wash their grain. Their bare feet
were as shapely as their hands. From Charbahur we made an
excursion to the passage of the Murad, riding first to the con-
fluence of the important stream which collects the drainage of the
southern slopes of the Bingol plateau. A ridge from the Khamur
heights extends across the wide valley, choking it up and checking
the drainage of its considerable extension towards the west. The
stream cuts through this obstacle a little west of Charbahur,
issuing into the alluvial plain at the Circassian village of Charbahur
Tepe. It joins the Murad at the egress of the river from the
valley. It comes in beneath the shade of willows and silver
poplars. It brings a large addition to the waters of the Murad,
and is by far its most important tributary since it received the
Bingol Su. Unhappily this affluent bears the same name as that
river ; but I need not fear that my reader will confuse the two.
This Bingol Su had a width of about 30 yards ; its depth was
fairly uniform, and it reached above our horses' knees. ^ The
Murad now becomes a stately river, recalling, both by its volume
and the manner in which it flows, the course of the Danube
1 A horse's knee would represent a depth (jf i foot 5 inches, and a horse's girth
2 feet 9 inches.
Back to the Central Tableland 355
in Upper Austria, We forded it at a point some 3 miles down
the passage, where it was over 100 yards wide and reached
above our horses' girths. It had descended to a level of 4570
feet.
The cutting through the broad block of mountain which is
interposed between the plain of Mush and the long valley through
which the river has been flowing for so many miles — a valley
which is continued as far west as the little plain of Dodan — is
perhaps too broad to be described as a gorge. Yet the heights
on either side descend to the margin of the Murad, which has
turned at right angles to its former course. It pursues this
southerly direction until it has gained the floor of the Mush
depression. From the ford we mounted the slopes on the eastern
side of the valley, and, after a sharp climb, reached the summit
of the block. Our position was a little south of that pleasant
grove which has been mentioned, belonging to the village of AH
Gedik. We stood on a sheet of lava ; but the limestone was all
about us, on the face of the cliff, in the bed of the river, where it
formed long ridges, fretting the current into rapids. It was
seen to contain fossils of the cretaceous period, and its strike
or axis of elevation was towards east-north-east. The heights
on the opposite bank appeared to be of similar nature. The
view extended over the plain of Mush. Mush itself was seen
nestling in a recess of the border range. We could see the
village of Sikava, well in the plain, and the almost imperceptible
break in the wall of mountain where the Murad issues from the
plain. In the north, the line of cliffs belonging to the Bingol
plateau dominated the scene. Bingol itself was either hidden
behind their lofty edge, or could not be distinguished from the
mass. We returned to Charbahur not along the valley, but down
the gentle southern slope of these heights. Its even nature is due
to a flow of basaltic lava. We found the Murad above the
junction with the Bingol Su to be flowing in two separate
channels, which we forded and so returned to our camp.
August 15. — To reach Gumgum and the westerly extension
of the long valley, it is necessary to cross the ridge from the
Khamur heights which I have mentioned ; such was our purpose
and our next task. We found it to consist of grey lacustrine
clays and marls with interbedded lavas. A thick layer of tuff
occurs high up on the ridge ; and the summit of the whole
formation displays a cap of basaltic lava, sloping northwards in
356 Armenia
the direction of Gumgum. The parapet lessens in height as it
stretches obHquely into the valley towards the block on its
southern verge ; yet even at the lofty col, over which our track
lay, it was less elevated than the corresponding ridge which joins
the Khamur heights to the Bingol plateau, and which is
surmounted by the road from Gumgum to Khinis. As we
descended, a pleasant stretch of fairly even ground lay beneath
us, in the lap of which we could see the capital of the caza. It
was watered by several streams, which issue from the slopes of
the wide amphitheatre described by the Khamur heights and
the bold outline of the Bingol cliffs. One river alone was seen
to proceed from the very heart of the Bingol system, coming into
the plain through a tremendous chasm in the cliffs. Above that
abyss we obtained a glimpse of the western summit of Bingol.
Further west the great valley was choked up with minor heights,
rising up from its floor. On the south it is bounded by the
commanding block of mountain which continues, across the
passage of the Murad, the long wall of the northern border of
Mush plain. Limestones, buff and white, could be seen high up
on that flat-topped mass, with the same axis of elevation as those
further east. The scene was bleak, without a tree and scarcely a
bush.
Gumgum had evidently blossomed since my last visit, for
it possessed at least two stone houses above ground, besides
several little shops. We found it in a state of extraordinary
commotion, owing to the presence of Suleyman Pasha. A troop
of regular cavalry, mounted on white horses, had met us on the
road. They had been sent as a guard of honour to escort us
into the place. The scene before the Governm.ent building was
extremely picturesque ; and what was our astonishment when we
beheld, among the medley of Circassian cavalry, a ragged band
of horsemen whom we at once identified as Kurds, and in whom
wc recognised the much-talked-of Hamidiyeh ! Here indeed was
food for the note-book and the camera ! On the steps of the
building stood the Kaimakam, not my friend of the first journey ;
and beside him the Hakim in a black robe. Behind these were
gathered the notables, and among them a giant who enhanced the
imposing nature of the show. When we had received and
returned the greetings of this distinguished company, we were
ushered into the presence of the Pasha, seated in an inner room.
He overwhelmed us with every token of kindness ; and, when the
Back to the Central Tableland 357
Kai'makam read me a telegram relating to a supply of money, he
waved him aside with a gesture of magnificent contempt, and
drew from his pocket a reel of gold which he begged me accept.
A little speech, modelled on his own, seemed to allay the sting of
my refusal ; but he insisted upon our taking with us to our camp
on Bingol a detachment of cavalry. This offer was gratefully
accepted. Orders were at once given to prepare a repast. The
servants left the presence with a deep obeisance ; but, alas ! it
transpired, after a considerable interval, that there were no viands
in the house and none to be found. All this time the audience
chamber was filled full of as strange a company as it had ever
been our privilege to see. Suleyman Pasha appeared to hold a
roving commission in connection with the Hamidiyeh. But the
men of his own race, settlers in the country, had come in from all
directions to do honour to a countryman in his high position,
and to a nobleman in whose veins their bluest blood flowed.
The Circassians furnish recruits to the regular army, differing in
this respect from the tribal Kurds. But, jealous of their ancestral
customs, they maintain the irregular cavalry, of which a strong
contingent was gathered together in Gumgum, The principal
men, one by one, were introduced into the apartment ; each
bowed low and kissed the Pasha's hand. To each was assigned
a seat on the divan. Most had passed the middle age ; their
wizened and wrinkled faces harmonised with the drab hues of the
Cossack dress. The Pasha was resplendent in his blue and
crimson uniform ; several swords, in richly engraved and valuable
scabbards, rested by his side. Near him sat a grave and gloomy
personage in European uniform. His cruel face displayed the
true Tartar lineaments and expression ; yet he was a Kurd, and the
colonel of one of the four Hamidiyeh regiments recruited among
the Jibranli tribe. The Pasha treated him with great courtesy,
if with a little condescension ; but, although he received the many
orders which were addressed to him with military obedience, his
manner scarcely concealed the irritation which they produced.
There was mischief in the man's face. He is seen on the left of
my illustration (Fig. 190); his bugler, a young Kurd, richly
attired, is placed on his left hand. Behind him are some of his
horsemen, of which in all there were mustered a hundred, after
extraordinary exertions on the part of the Pasha. Yet the
nominal strength of the regiment is six hundred. The whole
force — regulars and irregulars, Kurds and Circassians — were drawn
358 Arme7tia
up in a half-circle for our benefit. The regulars were, as usual,
a fine body of men ; of the rest the very refuse were the Kurds.
We did not regret to leave a scene which was pathetic as
well as humorous, and to set forth on an expedition to one of the
most remarkable of those works of Nature with which Asia — past
mistress of violent contrasts — appears to mock the contemporary
littleness of her sons. We had experienced the greatest difficulties
in obtaining supplies ; for the wretched shopmen, alarmed at the
inundation of undisciplined soldiery, had absconded after barring
up their humble booths. The promise of some cavalry had
proved empty ; none came or intended coming. We had said
good-bye to our excellent escort from Akhlat, of whom the officer,
a handsome man with charming manners, had suffered in health
owing to the hardships of the journey. But we had been met by
our tried and trusted zabet from Erzerum ; and to him was attached
a fellow-officer from Gumgum with several men. We might have
proceeded on a fairly direct course to our mountain, which indeed
is situated almost north of the little town. But I .was anxious
to retrace my former journey as far as Dodan, in order to com-
plete my rough survey of this interesting region, interrupted
on that occasion by failing light. Our course was therefore
directed up the long valley, with the outline of the stupendous
Bingol cliffs on the one side, and, on the other, that of the border
heights of Mush plain. At the hamlet of Alagoz we forded the
stream which comes down through the great chasm, and which,
perhaps, for want of a better name, we may call the Gumgum Su.
It unites at this point with the combined streams which water
the plain, and the joint river flows off through a gorge in some
minor heights to effect a confluence with the Bingol Su. I have
already mentioned that the valley is choked up with insignificant
hills ; on its southern margin flows the river last named. Eruptive
volcanic action has played a great part in its configuration ; and
the axis of the masses of lava which rise up from its floor is
about the same as that of the plain of Mush. These eruptive
hills arc varied by heights composed of limestone, or of marls
and clays, interbedded with lava and tuff. After a long ride
through this wild scene we at length emerged upon the plain of
Dodan, level as the lake which it must have supported in fairly
recent times. Dodan lay beneath us ; but we pushed on to
a further village, the picturesque and pleasant settlement of
Gundcmir.
CHAPTER XXI
OUR SOJOURN ON BINGOL
GUNDEMIR is an Armenian village of considerable size, better
built than is usually the case (Fig. 191). It possesses an ancient
church, and the houses cluster round it, rising up the slope of a
little eminence from the plain. The place is evidently as old as
the hills. Several groves of lofty poplars spring from the surface
of the level ground, which extends in all directions except on
the north. One will enclose a field of cabbage, another fringes
a tobacco plantation, with the large and luscious leaves. Most
of the male inhabitants were absent in their yaila ; the women
were busy threshing this season's corn. The head man was
present, one Avedis Effendi ; and he supplied all our wants with
the utmost zeal. We were glad to be back in an Armenian
village, after our experience of the Circassians at Charbahur.
From our encampment on the margin of such a grove of
shady trees we could study at leisure the features of the plain.
I have already noticed its appearance and extraordinary sur-
roundings (Ch. VIII. p. 182) ; and this second visit enabled me to
answer some of the questions which were suggested, but could
not be resolved, on the former occasion. While the ova is
immediately bounded on the south by the block of heights which
we know as the northern border heights of Mush plain, the
northern boundary of the whole wide valley — the towering Bingol
cliffs — are distant several miles from the confines of this lake-like
depression, in which that valley comes to an end upon the west.
The intermediate zone is filled up by hill ridges, of which the
axis is the same as that recorded in the last chapter, when we
were journeying along the valley from Gumgum. It is an axis
similar to that of the plain of Mush. It is evidently a line of
volcanic elevation, being almost at right angles to that of the
360 Armenia
stratified rocks. Of these ridges — with their beaches of lava and
sprinkHng of oak scrub — two descend and die out into the plain.
The more easterly leaves our village close upon the right hand,
skirts Dodan, and ends in a series of little cones, which push the
river to the very foot of the barrier on the south. Its neighbour
on the west composes the heights on the north of the plain. It
comes down from the uppermost slopes of the Bingol plateau,
and determines the drainage of the Bingol Su. It appears to be
connected on the south-west with the sheets of lava which have
built up the westerly and plateau-like boundary of the plain — a
barrier which has been eaten into by a deep canon through which
a stream descends into the plain. The name of that affluent to
the Bingol Su we learnt to be the Sherefeddin Su ; it enters the
ova at the village of Baskan. The Bingol Su approaches the
plain on a meridional course, bounded on either side by the two
ridges above mentioned, and watering the orchards of Gundemir.
It has almost crossed the ova when it is joined by its affluent ;
it then turns eastwards and settles down to a course towards the
Murad.
August 16. — It was afternoon before we were ready to start
on our journey towards the still distant outline of the Bingol
cliffs. After fording the river, we made our way up its right
bank, along the pebbly alluvial bed, which had a width of about
a quarter-mile. In half-an-hour we crossed an outlier from the
ridge on the west, leaving the river on our right to flow through
a gorge between this ridge and that upon the east. Emerging
on the further side, we stood in an extensive depression with
nothing between us and the base of the cliffs (Fig. 192). On
our left hand, the ridge on the west was seen extending in a
north-westerly direction to the very face of the opposite parapet ;
a conical eminence, consisting of lava built up on lacustrine
deposits, was a conspicuous feature upon the mass. Its com-
panion on the east had the appearance of being more isolated ;
and the prospect in that direction was far-reaching over the
undulating basin of the Bingol Su. At the Kurdish hamlet of
Chaghelik we again crossed the river, and struck a fairly direct
course for the cliffs. The belt of detritus and broken ground
which extends along their base is of considerable depth. All the
way we were riding over lava, tending to decompose into brown
sand. Our track was indicated on the face of the barrier by a
very white appearance, due, as we found, to the dust of a pink
i>
o
H
Our Sojourn on Bingbl 3^^
lava. Layers of lava and tuff were seen in section along that
face. The actual ascent occupied nearly an hour ; and it was
growing dark as we opened out the surface of the plateau. We
had attained an elevation of some 8500 feet, or of 3500 feet
above Gundemir. Let my reader picture to himself the cliffs of
Dover raised to seven times their present height.
The air was heavy with perfume ; yellow mullein, ablaze with
flower, rose in profusion from the even sheet of lava. Far and
wide it spread before us, sometimes rising to a barren knoll, as
often sinking to a grassy hollow. \\\ such a faint depression, by
the side of a tiny runnel, we fixed our encampment for the night.
The shadows hung about us ; but the western sky was shot with
fire above a sea of ridges, billowing towards us, and buried in the
depths of the landscape before ever they could attain our airy
platform. The phenomenon was new ; nor were we able to
grasp its whole significance until we had become familiar with
the relations of this uniform tableland to that country of ridge
and trough in the west.
The solitude of the place, and its remoteness from any
human settlement disposed us to receive to the full the spirit of
our surroundings ; nor was the mood disturbed throughout our
stay on Bingol. So plastic is the nature of man that one must
regret his confinement in cities, and his exclusion — which is
sometimes life-long — from communion with the natural world.
Such communion is at once a spiritual and a mental exercise ;
and the greater grows our knowledge of the phenomena around
us, the more complete becomes the fusion of soul wath soul.
The Hebrews copied from Asia her vastness and her essential
harmony, and translated them into their religion and laws ; the
inspiration has grown feeble during its passage through the ages ;
but the source is still open from which it sprang. One feels that
its ultimate origin must be placed in this country ; and that the
fables, which are woven around the infancy of our race, resemble
the mists which hang to the surface of some stately river, but
have been distilled from the solid waters which they veil. The
natural setting of those legends are a Bingol and an Ararat — the
one the parent mountain of the fertilising streams, the other the
greatest and most imposing manifestation of natural agencies
working to a sublime end. And Europe, with her turmoil of
intellect and clash of religious opinions, has need of the parent
forces from which she drew her civilisation, and of which the
362 Armenia
spirit speaks to the spirit of the humblest of her sons in the
same accents and with the same high purpose as of yore.
We debated on the following morning in which direction we
should proceed. Where should we find a yaila from which to
draw our supplies during our sojourn upon the mountain ? We
were as yet a long way west of the so-called crater, and we were
led to hope that we might find such a Kurdish encampment just
below and on the south of its main wall. We therefore set out
in a north-easterly direction over the undulating surface of the
plateau. The smoothness of the ground, over which we rode for
many miles, is characteristic of this extensive and remarkable
tableland, and is due to the slabby nature of the sheets of lava,
which must have issued in a very liquid state.^ In this region
they are seen to have flowed towards south and west. They
support an abundance of yellow mullein which grows to a great
height. The flowers of this beautiful plant are as delicate as
their perfume ; and we did not regret that on Bingol they take
the place of the monotonous fennel. The mullein is the flower
of the surroundings of Bingol, just as atrapJiaxis spangles the
base of the Ararat fabric, and spiraea and giant forget-me-not haunt
Nimrud. But violets we had not yet seen ; and here they grew
in plenty, on the margin of each patch of melting snow. Their
perfume was like that of our garden description ; and, while the
upper petals were mauve, those below paled off into white. The
little hollows of the ground were moist and grassy, having
collected a little clay. Over such a scene without limits a few
white clouds were floating, borne by delicious breezes across the
field of intense blue.
After riding for over an hour without any landmark we
reached the summit of a meridional vaulting of the table surface,
due perhaps to the emission of lavas from a fissure. From this
point we could see the western summit of the so-called crater
bearing about east-north-east. It looked a mere hill, like any
other of the irregular eminences. The trough below us, on the
east, was seen by Oswald to slope southwards, and to become
trenched by the course of a southward-flowing stream. This
rivulet would therefore be the head branch of the Bingol Su.
Beyond this valley we mounted a second meridional ridge,
coming towards us from the western summit. The view now
' The lava may be described as a fine-grained augite-andesite, grey in colour with
distinct augite crystals. It is slightly scoriaceous superficially.
Our Sojourn on Bingo I 363
extended along the entire wall of the crater, seen on its southern
and rounded side. Its basin and steep cliffs have a frontage
towards the north, and were, therefore, hidden from sight. A
bleak scene lay before us in the hollow, framed on one side by
the ridge upon which we were standing, and on the other by the
long perspective of the wall on the north, stretching, like a huge
rampart, towards the east. Into that hollow we made our way
in an east-south-easterly direction, in search of the vaunted yaila.
After riding over stony and difficult ground for over an hour, I
called a halt, deciding to abandon the quest. We could see that
we had reached a point about south of the eastern summit, for
the outline of the rampart was already preparing to decline. To
proceed further would be to occupy an unsuitable position for
the purpose of exploring the mountain. Our tents were erected
a little north of the head of the chasm through which flows the
Gumgum river. Two zaptiehs were at once despatched with
orders to carry on the search, and to bring back with them
whatever food they could find. They discovered the yaila at
some distance in an easterly direction, but still within reach of
our camp. The Kurds supplied us with milk and mutton ; but
for flour and corn we were obliged to send to Gumgum, and for
charcoal all the way to Khinis.
We remained in this camp for six days, finding it to be
an excellent situation. From early morning until evening we
pursued our work upon the mountain, visiting the basins on the
further side of the rampart, taking measurements and ascertaining
altitudes (see the two plans accompanying this chapter). It may
be best to resume our results in a single picture, embracing
first the mountain, next the immediate surroundings, and last
the features of the landscape which it overlooks.^
The Bingol Dagh consists in the main of a narrow and
almost latitudinal ridge, with an axis which is inclined towards
^ Existing literature on the subject is not satisfactory. I may cite the following :
— Koch, Reise im pontischen Gebirge, etc., Weimar, 1846, pp. 365 scq., and p. 333 ;
Der Kankasiis, Landschafts- und Leheus-Bilder, bv the same author, published posthum-
ously, Berlin, 1882. See the chapter entitled "Der Berg der tausend Seen." P. de
Tchihatchef (1858), Asie Mineitre, part iv. , Geology, Paris, 1867, vol. i. pp. 279-
2S5 ; Kotschy, Reise von Trapezunt, etc., in Petermann's Mittheilungen, i860 ;
Strecker, Bciti-iige ziir Geographie von Hoch-Armenien, in Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft
fur Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1869, pp. 5125-^(7. ; Radde in Petermann, 1877, pp. 41 1 seq.
Of these, Radde's article is the most reliable, and is, indeed, a valuable contribution, so
far as it goes. Abich has endeavoured to make the best of these accounts. See
Geologische Forschiingen in den kaiikasischen Ldiideni, \'ienna, 1882, part ii. sec. I,
p. 77, and pp. 87 seq.
364 Armenia
west-north-west and east-south-east. The Httle relative elevation
of this rampart above the plateau, which supports it as a pedestal
or base, is the cause of the insignificant appearance of the
mountain, which, in winter, is almost concealed or merged into
its surroundings by the continuous sheet of snow (Fig. 161,
p. 191, and Fig. 176, p. 247). The fact that it is highest at its
eastern and western extremities, and that from those peaks horn-
shaped eminences project towards the north, with a curvature convex
to the inner area, and with a rapidly decreasing elevation — this fact,
together with the abruptness of the face of the ridge on the side
of the north, give it the semblance of the standing southern wall
of a huge broken-down crater when seen from a distance on that
side. A nearer view from the same side destroys the unity of
this conception ; the crateral area is broken into two. It is seen
to consist of a somewhat smaller basin upon the east, and of one
rather larger on the west. The two basins, which are both
perfectly open towards the north, are divided by a meridional
ridge, which is joined to the main rampart at a third eminence,
intermediate between the western and eastern summits, and
resembling them in character, although not so high. This
medial ridge, like the two horns, dies rapidly away into the
plateau. From the extremity of the western horn, which opens
out in a north-westerly direction, to the recess of the bay formed
by its companion on the east is a distance of about ^\
miles. While the western and eastern summits — the highest
points on the entire ridge — attain an altitude of 10,750 feet, the
level ground just north of the main slope of the detrital fan has
an elevation of 9000 feet. On the other hand, the line of cliffs
on the south of the rampart by which the plateau breaks away to
the valley of Gumgum are over 9000 feet high along their edge.
These measurements may serve to define in figures some of the
characteristics which I have endeavoured to describe.
Before pursuing a more intimate and detailed study, it may
be well to fix in our mind some of the leading positions, and to
assign to them convenient names. Our predecessors have given
three such names to the principal eminences. The western
summit is called by them Bingol Kala (the Bingol castle), that
on the east Dcmir or Timur Kala (the iron castle or the castle
of Timur), and the intermediate hump, which is joined to the
meridional ridge, Kara Kala (the black castle). I took some pains
to ascertain whether these names were known to the Kurds, for
Our Sojourn on Bingo I 365
none of my escort had ever heard of them. The yaila from
which we drew supplies was the most considerable in the district,
and belonged to one Mahmud Bey. This Kurdish chieftain was
absent from his encampment, scared by the presence of Suleyman
Pasha, with his demands for Hamidiyeh, in the close neighbour-
hood of his lair. But his son came to our camp, and one of
his near relations, a middle-aged and unusually intelligent man.
He said that they knew the mountain under the name of
Bingol Koch, or, translated, the Bingol caldron. They had no
particular designation of the highest parts. When I mentioned
the three castles he reflected a little, and then answered that the
western eminence was known in old times as Bingol Kala ; but
with the other names he was quite unfamiliar. I see no reason
on that account to reject these designations. Kara Kala is well
adapted to express the prevailing sombreness of that peak with
its dark and broken ridge. Demir Kala may serve to remind
us of what is probably a historical fact, that the Great Timur,
or Cold Steel, marshalled his armies among these congenial
surroundings, and here celebrated his victories with women and
wine and song. The statement, however, of one traveller that
the eastern summit consists of several storeys of walls, put
together by a human hand, must be regarded as fabulous. He
vouches for the fact, and adds that, according to what he learnt,
an iron door had been removed from the castle and taken to Khinis
some forty years previous to his visit.^ He supposes the fortress
to have been erected by Timur. The manner in which the lavas
have cooled upon the rampart suggests the appearance of such
a human structure at certain points. But the feature is most
noticeable just west of Kara Kala, where the outline assumes the
shape of two round towers.
To these names I should like to add one other, for which I
have no authority. Just below the western summit a bold, talus-
strewn ridge extends from the face of the cliff in a northerly
direction, rising as it proceeds into a tumbling mass of lava, and
ending in a conical eminence of the same material. Indeed it con-
stitutes an inner wall of the western basin. It may not be inappro-
priate to call this rampart Aghri Kala, the rough or rugged castle.
The only eminence along the main ridge of a pointed and
peak-like character is the western summit, or Bingol Kala
1 Strecker, op. cit. p. 516. This writer calls the western summit Toprak Kala, or
the earth castle.
o
66 Armenia
(10,757 feet). Its effect is heightened by the rapid decHne and
termination of the parapet just west of this position, as well as by
the increasing flatness of the ridge as it extends towards the east
after a gentle descent. At the time of our visit this summit was
completely free of snow. On the north it breaks away with
great abruptness to the basin ; but on the south it slopes off into
that vaulted meridional ridge which has been already mentioned
during our passage across it to our camp. The western summit
can be reached with great ease from the south or south-east, or
along the edge of the main rampart. The average gradient will
not be more than 15". It is strewn with talus, like all these
slopes ; the actual summit is fairly level, and is partially covered
with blocks of lava. Following the top of the rampart eastwards
from Bingol Kala, its general character is the first feature which
seizes the eye. On the south it presents an evenly -vaulted
slope, which is continued in an east -south -easterly direction,
almost in a straight line. On the north it is hollowed out in the
form of a cirque, which, bounded on the west by Aghri Kala, and
by Kara Kala on the east, has the appearance of a crater with
three standing sides. The particular feature of the rampart in
the direction of Kara Kala and beyond that eminence is the
breadth of the platform which it presents. At no other part is it
so easy to ride along it, as well as to scale it from the south.
The northerly slope of the shallow vaulting is always covered by
a sheet of snow, which descends into the cirque. The passage
from the south into the western basin lies west of Kara Kala,
and is not difficult for unloaded animals. Indeed it is the only
pass across the Bingol rampart, which, further east, increases in
the steepness of its northern face.
Kara Kala projects from the parapet some little distance
towards the north, at the head of its meridional ridge. But this
feature is not observable from the southern side of the mountain,
where the rampart is seen to pursue its long, straight course.
The gradient of the southern slope increases as you approach
Demir Kala, but does not exceed 23''. The platform along the
summit gradually narrows, until in Demir Kala it becomes an
upstanding mass of blocks of lava which must be climbed,
stepping from block to block. The lava, which east of Kara
Kala has shown traces of obsidian, is somewhat scoriaceous and
in places weathers a brick rcd.^ The summit is flat and fairly
1 A fairly compact augite-andesite.
PLAN OF THE BINGOL DAGH, OR MOUNTAIN OF THE THOUSAND POOLS
(ALSO CALLED THE BINGOL kOCM. OR CALDRON OF A THOUSAND POOLS]
ON THE NORTH
mpasiired and drawn out li.y H F. B I.yncli and F.Oswald m Au^usl IBaK
Scale 1 Mile- 1 Incli or 1:63360
I'ublislipd bv l-oneuiatis. Cicoi. A C?. I.ondo
Ojir Sojoicrn on Bingo I 367
free of boulders, which, however, are piled in a beach further east.
The level at Demir Kala (10,770 feet) is fairly well maintained
for some distance, and produces the bold effect of the horn on
the east. But the cliff, after turning northwards, soon comes to
an end, being separated from the bank-like continuation of the
horn by a narrow but passable cleft. This long, meridional bank
composes the eastern wall of the eastern cirque, which is bounded
on the west by the medial ridge from Kara Kala. The character
of the rampart in this eastern basin is much the same as in the
western cirque, although more uniform in point of height. From
the south it has the appearance of a straight and gently vaulted
bank ; from the north, that of a curved outline with steep cliffs.
Just as Bingol Kala is joined on the south to a meridional
ridge, so is Demir Kala in connection with another such outside
parapet, which continues the main rampart in a south-easterly
direction, far beyond the limits of the cirque. This parapet is
beautifully vaulted on the south-west, where it determines the
drainage of the Gumgum Su. But on the north-east it breaks
away to the grassy ground outside the basin with piles of
boulders which are somewhat difficult to cross. Indeed it was
always a most laborious matter to reach the eastern cirque from
our camp. If we took the pass between the western summit and
Kara Kala, there was the medial ridge, with its beach -like
terraces, to surmount. If, on the other hand, we made our way
up the south-western face of the outer parapet, we encountered
the difficult descent on the north-eastern side, and, when this feat
had been accomplished, we were obliged to ride a long way north
before it became possible to cross the bank which confines the
basin on the east. For a man on foot it is feasible to descend
the cliffs of the main rampart at several points, and a horse may
scramble through the cleft formed by the break-off on the north
of the wall of the eastern cirque. But such an attempt is not
less dangerous than the endeavour to lead an animal up the
snow-slope in that cirque. It seems an easy matter; for the
snow extends from the floor of the basin to the edge of the cliff,
which at the time of our visit was free from snow. But it nearly
cost us the lives of a zaptieh and several horses. When the
gradient was at its steepest the snow gave way, and the manner
in which one horse by a series of plunges reached the summit was
a remarkable example of the power of nervous energy.
It is plain from this description that the conception of the
368 Armenia
mountain, as seen from the north, is likely to be considerably
enlarged and modified by a visit to its southern side. Instead of
a single ridge we have a series of ramparts, which describe a
figure somewhat resembling an H. The transverse bar of the
letter represents the main parapet with the three summits, Bingol
Kala, Kara Kala and Demir Kala. The two uprights will
correspond with the horns of the basin on the north, and with the
connecting ramparts on the south. A medial projection should
be added to the transverse bar, in order to include the meridional
ridge from Kara Kala. Finally the upright corresponding with
the northern horn on the west should be split into two short
arms. Of these the inner arm will represent Aghri Kala.
At the risk of becoming tedious, I have thought it well to
insist on these features, in order that our statement may enable
the practised reader to judge for himself whether Bingol ought to
be regarded as a volcanic crater in the strict sense of the word.
Before adducing additional facts, which may point to a negative
conclusion, I should like to mention the explanation which
appeared to us on the whole more probable of the phenomena
with which we are dealing. It is evident that the latest emissions
of lava were much more acid and viscous than those which pro-
duced the plateau surface of the surroundings of Bingol, If we
assume that all these lavas issued from fissures rather than from
a crater, then the formation of such ramparts in the final stages
may be readily explained. The molten matter, welling up from
its original vents, became too viscous to flow far. It massed in
the form of vaulted ridges along the axis of the parent fissures,
or in their neighbourhood. I have already noticed the rounded
nature of these various ramparts when seen from the south, as
from the standpoint of our second camp. The transverse parapet
with the principal summits has the appearance of a long, straight
bank, flanked at its extremities by two similar banks, which
project towards the south like wings. Look where you will, the
slopes are gentle, and strewn with fragments of lava, which in
some places have the appearance of loose tiles. Within the
figure, thus formed, rise the head waters of the Gumgum Su,
collecting, with a network of streams, both from the west and
from the east. They combine at the head of the great chasm, to
flow through its shadowed depths towards the plain.
It is true that this vaulted and bank-like appearance of the
ramparts is not characteristic of any of the slopes towards the
Oiir Sojourn on Bingol 369
north. Indeed the exact contrary is the case. But at this stage
of the enquiry we are introduced to a feature which is perhaps
the most remarkable of all these phenomena, and which it is
surprising that none of our predecessors should have observed.
When I descended for the first time into the western cirque,
Oswald, who had been engaged there in taking measurements with
the telemeter, pointed out to me evident traces of the action of ice.
Quite close to the cliff on the south the bosses of lava within
the basin have been worn by a glacier moving towards the north.
Smooth on top, and with an almost flat surface upon the south,
they are rough and precipitous on their northern sides. The
rock is very distinctly striated, the striae pointing in a northerly
direction. The feature continues and gains in definition as you
follow down the cirque. Between the bosses the ground is
covered with turf and oozes with water, which collects in pools or
little tarns. Blue gentians are found in abundance within these
peaty hollows, while the violets scent the air in the neighbourhood
of the snow. Some distance further, when you are already outside
the limits of the cirque, and have reached a level of about 9000
feet, the moraines commence to form. We visited this district
from the west, and made our way in an easterly direction across
the moraines. They were seen to consist of a medial and two
lateral moraines, of which that in the centre proceeds from the
extremity of the meridional ridge from Kara Kala, and must
have separated two glaciers, issuing one from either cirque (Fig.
193). The lateral moraine upon the west seemed about in a line
with Aghri Kala ; but a branch of the glacier must have flowed
towards north-west, for the extremity of that ridge has been cut
down by the stream of ice. This moraine is so pronounced that
it is difficult to realise that there are now no longer glaciers on
Bingol. On both sides it is bounded by a lofty embankment of
blocks of rock, embedded in soil. The summit, which is broad,
bristles with upstanding boulders, and in the hollows there are a
number of lakes and pools. A stretch of level and grassy ground
is interposed between this rampart and the medial moraine, which
shows a similar embankment on its western side. A little river,
collecting the drainage of the western cirque, flows in the trough
of this grassy depression. The lateral moraine upon the east is
in fact that great fan -shaped bank, which extends northwards
from the horn of the eastern cirque. Again in this basin a
branch of the glacier has diverged, and broken its way through
VOL. II 2 B
370 ArTnenia
the cleft in its eastern wall. The floor of the cirque is much
more grassy than that of its neighbour on the west, but the
masses of rock are striated in a similar manner.
The principal reservoir for the ice and snow has been the
broad platform between Kara Kala and the western summit.
Thence have issued towards the north extensive fields of moving
ice, while the melted snow has poured into the hollow on the
south of the platform and has carved down the great chasm.
We could not trace the action of ice upon the rocks in that
direction. I do not know whether we should be justified in
dating the disappearance of these glaciers as far back as the
glacial epoch. Striking evidence of the existence of a glacial
period in these countries has been collected by a modern
traveller in the highlands with their marginal region on the side
of the Black Sea.^
We are therefore justified in assuming that the abruptness of
the ramparts on the north, as well as the carving out of the main
ridge into cirques, is largely due to the erosive action of ice.
Leaving this subject, I would ask my reader to follow us in an
excursion to the interesting region on the south of the mountain.
For perhaps the most remarkable characteristic about Bingol is
the great plateau which it has contributed to form ; and the
features of that plateau which engrave themselves most deeply
into the memory are the towering cliffs with the chasm on the
south.
As we surveyed the scene from our encampment — in which
there was not a trace of snow — the eye was taken naturally to
two particular points. One was a graceful cone, just at the head
of the great chasm ; the other consisted of a pile of lava on the
eastern side of this gorge, and some little distance from its
margin. It appeared to emerge from the plateau at about its
highest level. It is indicated by the letter x on the plan. To
reach it we were obliged in the first instance to cross the intricate
ridges and troughs through which the streams find their way into
the chasm. But beyond this troublesome zone stretched the
undulating table surface, strewn with stones or covered with coarse
grass. When we arrived at our landmark we found the pile to
be loftier than we expected ; indeed its summit is the best stand-
point from which to overlook the country on the south and east
' W. Gifford Palgrave, \n Nature, vol. v. 1S71-72, p. 444; and vol. vi. 1872, pp.
536 seq.
Our Sojourn on Bingol 371
of Bingol. The blocks of which it is composed are derived from
a lava which may be described as a basalt. They are full of
magnetite, affecting the compass. This basalt is part of a stream
of the same lava, which is traceable to the upstanding crags of the
pile X, as a probable point of emission. Towards the west the
flow does not appear to have extended for a great distance ; but
in the direction of south-east it has travelled further, and has
produced important results. It connects the Bingol and Khamur
plateaus, being traceable as far as the foot of a conical eminence
on the latter mass. The lava from the south-east rampart of
Bingol has also flowed in that direction, while towards the peak
X it has described a curve of exquisite symmetry.
The view embraces that strange plateau on the west of the
Khamur ridge and the blue lakes which it supports. The slope
of its crinkled surface is tow^ards the plain of Khinis, at its
south-western or upper end. So far as we could judge, the mass
consists in the main of limestone, capped by lava in the south.
Descending from this eyrie I rode to the edge of the cliff, in
order to ascertain its height. I stood at a level of 9240 feet,
while that of Gumgum, a speck in the plain which stretched
from the base of the cliff, is about 4800 feet. On either side,
towards the chasm or towards the floor of the plain, the ground
was falling away with stupendous precipices. In the trough of
the abyss lay the Gumgum river, resembling several fine threads
of silver.
Our return journey led us past the yaila of Mahmud beneath
the wall of the south-east rampart. It occupied an ideal position,
in a spacious meadow, and on the banks of the principal branch
of the Gumgum river. The chief's tent faced towards us on the
opposite margin, as we rode along the left bank of the stream.
The goat-hair canvas, spread with many supports over a wide
area, divided up into compartments by screens of osier, had the
appearance of a roof with many gables. In the shadowed recesses
one observed a medley of luxurious cushions and of household
utensils of every kind. Women, gaily dressed, and unveiled,
although very bashful, mingled with the group of men, collected
to see us pass. The chief's son, a mere youth who had just
returned from six years' residence in a school at Galata (Constan-
tinople), was pacing to and fro in a remote part of the meadow,
a picture of the out-of-place. Round the tent of the chief, in a
wide and respectful circle, were ranged the much ruder tenements
372 Armenia
of the tribesmen — mere pens of boulders with a strip of canvas
overhead. The older women had the weird and witch -like
expression which one sees in the faces of the Highland women
in the background of a novel by Walter Scott.
Underlying the lava, and at the head of the great chasm, is
placed a bed of tuff. It forms the biilk of the beautiful cone
already mentioned, which has been preserved and invested with
its peculiar symmetry by a capping of hard lava. In the hollows
about its base yellow mullein grows in profusion, and campanula
witli its bell -shaped flowers. Making our way over the col
which joins the cone to the plateau of our encampment, we
proceeded to lead our horses up the slope. But nothing would
induce our zaptieh to take his animal with him ; he declared that
such an act would be impious on the part of a believer, for we
were treading sacred ground. Indeed, when we reached the
summit, we found an enclosure of stones, protecting a human
grave. It was evidently a place of pilgrimage for the district.
Our attendant prostrated himself on the ground outside the
boundary and took from within it a handful of dust, . which he
preserved. I asked him to whom he might be paying so much
honour. He replied that it was the grave of Goshkar Baba, or
father shoemaker. The holy man had in fact been shoemaker to
the Prophet, and had therefore been buried here centuries ago.
When I enquired whether he had ever done anything great
during his lifetime besides making shoes, he answered, " Bashkar
yok " — " No, he did nothing else." From this eminence we
could see the basalt on the face of the cliff below x, overlying
streams of lava which were relatively shallow, and were inclined
some 6' to south -south -west. The layers on the western side
of the chasm are also thin, and slope in the same direction, with
a gradient which slightly increases as they approach the edge of
the cliff.
It remains to notice some of the features of the panorama
which expands from the summits of Bingol. The view comprises
Palandoken, the Akh Dagh, the plain of Khinis ; Khamur, with
Kolibaba ; Sipan, Bilejan, Nimrud. The patience even of an
assiduous reader would be exhausted by the attempt to draw its
full meaning from this varied scene. We may confine ourselves
with more advantage to a particular segment of the circle, taking
our standpoint on the western summit, Bingol Kala (Fig. 194).
I may mention that one day, while we were making our way in
Kumk Hasan Da^K
Outliive of Kker Ve s o r clnfl%
itatj^ or serpentine
lEW FROM WESTERN SUMMIT OF BINGOL
^SK.tclvei \y HJBXTnck.Angua 1898)
B INGOL KAl. A
Fig. 19J
L«v,.i -teiTK. ot tt kill of G gogUan yoregrounoi) MtigkA.Su fimwii lower a«vin ili
_ L O I
(Slutctti ly HIRLjnch on file 2.^ August i
P, .,_ ' as kitflu.Su.tnlmtaiTto Eastern EqJuatrti
ANORAMA PROM THE __H I.L L, OF G U G 0 G H L A It Mafiliii Tillage
i
a
Our Sojourn on Bingol 2)1 2i
that direction from our camp on the south of the rampart, Oswald
discovered, just behind the actual peak, a large slone with
a cuneiform inscription. It was lying on the ground, only-
distinguishable by an eye like his from the adjacent blocks of
lava. Over the almost obliterated characters had been incised
the figure of a cross, with a circle at its upper end. This stone
may have served to define a boundary, both in the times of the
Vannic and of the Armenian Kings.^
The scene which forms the subject of my outline sketch
extends from east-north-east round to west. The foreground
includes the westerly horn of the main rampart, with Aghri Kala,
seen in perspective, projecting into the cirque, and, just beyond
that ridge, a bank of detritus, probably due to the action of the
glacier. The little lakes on the right of the picture belong to
the western cirque, and are seen to send streams which tend to
meet in the distance, and which flow at the bottom of canons
into the plain of Khinis. Both this series and the pools in the
eastern cirque drain into the eastern Bingol Su. They are in
fact the highest sources of the Murad or Eastern Euphrates, and
their waters find their way to the Persian Gulf. Looking further
into the landscape, we see the back of that long line of cliffs on
the further side of which lies the village of Kherbesor (see p. 252).
It is an important barrier in a geographical sense, for it con-
stitutes the parting between the head-waters of the Murad and
the streams which find their way to the Araxes. The outline
rising on the north of these cliffs belongs to a group of limestone
hills, which extend to the north-western extremity of the plain of
Khinis, and to the pass of Akhviran (a, a). In the background
the bold profile which looms upon the horizon represents the
extension of the Palandoken heights.
The peak of Palandoken is a well-defined feature ; and
equally prominent is the break-off in a cliff-like form of the high
ground west of the village of Madrak. The outline of that high
ground is continued for a long distance westwards (/?, d), until it
declines behind the ridges in the west. Between Bingol and
that outline, which we may call the Madrak line of heights, the
land forms are insignificant and vague. It is that country of
rolling downs at a great elevation over which we journeyed from
' Strecker (o/>. cit. p. 515) states that he found a stone three feet long and two feet
broad, inscribed with cuneiform characters, lying on the ground in a depression east of
Kara Kala. It was surrounded by the gravestones of a little cemetery. For an account
of the inscription on our stone see Ch. IV. p. 73.
3 74 Armenia
Madrak to Kherbesor. I would ask my reader to observe how
the ridges in the west die out into that extensive block of
water-worn plateau. Let him follow the outline (c) from a
somewhat pyramidal summit on the east of Sheikhjik ; or let
him notice, both in this drawing and in the one which I shall
presently offer, the direction of the Sheikhjik ridge («), and its
tendency to extend into the watershed of the Araxes. West of
Sheikhjik he sees quite a sea of ridges ; but in the middle
distance all the forms are flat and the surface even — the surface
of the Bingol plateau.
Bingol ! the thousand tarns — one grasps the significance of
that poetical name at this season of the year. The feature is
largely due to the peaty soil which has been deposited by the
action of glaciers in ancient times. The lakes and pools which
collect the meltings of the deep canopy of snow would be almost
impossible to count. In the foreground, between Aghri Kala
and the horn of the western cirque, lies such a conspicuous flash
of blue water. I am inclined to regard this particular pool as
the source of the Araxes ; for although it be possible that one or
other of the streams which rise outside the rampart may have a
slightly longer course, this source is probably the most elevated
of all. But the most interesting of all the features in the middle
distance is the outline, as seen from behind, of the plateau itself
{e, e). Its equality of surface is due to the liquid nature of the
lava — a grey, basaltic augite-andesite — and not to flows of tuff.
In the west it must fall away to a river valley, separating it from
the sea of ridges in that quarter which we noticed from our first
encampment on Bingol. The outline in that direction is in some
places the edge of a cliff; but at others it assumes a vaulted form.
I shall presently show that this latter shape is due to rounded
hills of serpentine, which have acted as a dam to the lavas.
A hill of the same form is seen much further east, quite close to
the western cirque. Although we did not examine this particular
eminence, it is probable that it consists of the same old rock,
representing the former configuration of the land. The Bingol
plateau merges insensibly into the highlands of Tekman, and the
collective figure may be known for geographical purposes as the
Central Tableland.
But that long break-off upon the west to a river valley — with
the wild ranges, a solecism in the landscape, towering up upon
its further side — is such a strange and fascinating characteristic
Ou7'' Sojourn on Bing'dl 375
that, even apart from its great geographical significance, it merits
careful study upon the spot. Let me therefore take my reader
a distance of many miles and place him upon the summit of a
lofty hill at the head of that valley, just west of the village of
Gugoghlan. The position is clearly indicated in my sketch from
Bingol Kala, and forms the standpoint of my second sketch
(Fig. 195). The hill itself is built up of limestone — probably
Eocene — overlying serpentine, and capped by recent lava. On
the left of the picture you see in perspective the Bingol rampart,
with Bingol Kala rising boldly at its western end. You observe
the serpentine hills damming up the lavas in two separate zones.
The break-off of the Bingol plateau is now exposed in face,
and a conspicuous feature are the cliffs which it forms {e). The
head waters of the Araxes are fanning towards us in pronounced
caiions, deflected at first by the one zone of serpentines, and a
little further by the second zone. But it is the general level of
the plateau surface which in fact determines their new direction,
and prevents them flowing into the basin of the Euphrates.
And this level is due to the massing of the lavas against the
bases of the serpentine hills.
Deep down in the valley below you meanders the Merghuk
Su, on its way to the Murad. It soon winds away from its
almost southern course, to thread the ranges, which already
commence to rise from its right bank, with a direction which
will probably average south-west. What a contrast between these
ridges and the plateau on the east ! They have the appearance
of stepping up to its very margin, for their axis is about west-
south-west and east-north-east. Tier upon tier they rise, one
behind another, extending into the far horizon on the south-west.
Their eastern limit, as seen in the perspective of the drawing, is
the bold mass, like a sentinel, of Sheikhjik. But north of that
mountain you observe the gentler outlines {b and c) which were
so prominent in the last sketch. The abrupt ending of the
outline b — the Madrak line of heights — figures as boldly in this
landscape as in that from the summit of Bingol. And the way
in which both outlines die away into the block of the tableland
is not less clearly and unmistakably defined.
I might write many pages were I to pursue this subject
further ; I must content myself with a statement in a very
summary form of the conclusions at which I arrived. In the
first place it is misleading, and indeed it is incorrect, to speak of
3/6 Armenia
a meridional line of elevation with orographical significance as
connecting Palandoken with Bingol. It is strange that such a
practised observer as the great Abich should have fallen into
such a grave error/ The lessons which may be derived from the
landscape of this important region may, in this connection, be
grouped under two heads.
In the first place the fundamental line of elevation is that
almost latitudinal line with which we are so familiar, and which
may be specified as a west-south-west — east -north -east line.
The lie of the country is determined in the principal degree by the
strike of the stratified rocks. Between Bingol and Palandoken the
ridges in the west tend to die out into a single block of elevated
land. Further east this central tableland becomes split up, and
gives rise to mountains rising on the margin of lake-like plains.
Such mountains are represented in a striking manner by the Akh
Dagh ; and we have already observed the commencement of this
transition in the outline a, as seen from Bingol Kala. But the
country on the east still maintains its essentially plateau-like
character ; while the region on the west and south-west of
Sheikhjik and the hill of Gugoghlan is continued in all its
wildness between the two branches of the Euphrates, into the
districts of Kighi and Terjan. The great height of the ridges
points to the conclusion that, in addition to the activity of
denuding agencies, they owe their characteristics to a more
pronounced or less impeded operation of the forces which have
determined the elevation of the country as a whole.
In the next place it appears plain that, although volcanic
action has no doubt been a factor of considerable importance in
producing the level surface of the districts on the north, south,
and east, the tendency to a strongly pronounced plateau country
is independent of such action. A striking example of this
tendency on a very large scale may be derived from the manner
in which the outlines north of Gugoghlan mass together and die
out into the region of Tekman. Throughout this country, as
elsewhere in Armenia, the lava streams have played an important
part, and have done more than any actual lines of volcanic
mountain-making to determine the drainage of the land.
A little incident of our stay on Bingol may deserve to be
recorded, if only because it furnished us with an opportunity of
^ See Gcologische Forschungcn in den kaiikasischen Ldndern, Vienna, 1882, vol. ii.
pp. 7, 85, and 89.
Oitr SojotLYu on Bingol 2)77
admiring the vast extent and strange brilliance of the heaven
above us during a whole summer's night. On the last day of
our visit we gave orders to our people to move our encampment
across the rampart into the western cirque. Oswald and I,
accompanied by two or three zaptiehs, proceeded to the eastern
extremity of the principal ridge, and remained there, mapping
and drawing, until near sunset. Before it commenced to grow
dark we descended into the eastern cirque ; but the light had
already faded before we could surmount the ridge from Kara
Kala, and we became involved among its crags and stones. For
nearly an hour we groped our way, leading our horses, and
coming near to breaking their legs. When we obtained a view
over the snow-sheet and the tumbled bosses in the western
cirque, we searched in vain for any sign of our camp-fire. By
the light of a crescent moon we proceeded to the margin of the
snow at the foot of the cliff on the north of the basin. Even
from this eminence we could not discover any sign. We then
rode down the cirque, towards the open country ; still not a
trace of our people. The zaptiehs endeavoured to discharge their
rifles ; and one man accomplished the feat after several misfires.
We ourselves filled the air with the reports of our revolvers ; but
no answering signal came. We were surprised at the absence of
any Kurdish encampment in the neighbourhood of the mountain.
There was not a glimmer of the lights of a yaila near or far.
Was the tale of the frequency of such summer-quarters on Bingol
a fable, or had the Kurds been scared away by the dread of
Suleyman Pasha, who might require them to make some show for
his paper regiments ? Or had we courted an attack by dividing
our forces, and were our servants and our papers and our baggage
at the mercy of thieves ?
It was clearly not to much purpose debating such questions ;
we had no alternative but to pass the night where we stood.
Both were clothed in the thinnest of garments ; but our zaptiehs
lent us their overcoats, of such material as they were. We
established ourselves within a circle of loose boulders, which had
probably been reared by shepherds as a pen. The wind came
sighing down from the snowfield in the cirque, and blew through
the apertures of the low wall. Our poor horses shivered and
starved. Oswald and I attempted sleep under the partial cover
of a small camp table which we had with us for our mapping.
It was to no purpose, for our limbs became numb. Meanwhile
Tf^S Arme7iia
the moon had vanished ; but the heaven was still alight ; one
could scarcely see the stars to greater advantage than from the
open flats of such a lofty platform. These last nights we had
been observing the advances of Jupiter to Venus — a stately and
not too intimate intercourse, as becomes gods and stars. Venus,
the most engrossing of all the dwellers in the firmament, a true
motJier of the inhabitants of heaven, had been receiving the some-
what distant approaches of Jupiter, and the wooer had almost
mingled with his bride. To-night they had travelled apart —
we reflected upon the mournful omen, with something of the
impertinence of the astrologers of old who presumed to connect
the operations of the celestial bodies with the puny fate of a
kingdom or a king. Pacing to and fro, we realised the paradox
of perfect discomfort and keen pleasure. One of our zaptiehs
appeared to encompass the same result by surrendering his senses
to quite an orgy of ecstatic prayer. When at last the suffused
splendour of the Milky Way became pale, and the first flush of
dawn was thrown over the dim land forms, we emerged from our
flimsy harbour and rode towards the west. A little later horse-
men were seen, coming towards us at a dangerous speed over the
sheet of snow and the rocky ground in the south. They proved
to be our escort, wild with excitement, and quite speechless when
they arrived. It is strange that none of the natives have the
smallest conception of locality ; they had encamped miles away
from the appointed place. They had been riding all night in
quest of their charge, and had by fortune, as a last chance,
extended their search to the scarcely ambiguous position of our
prescribed tryst.
iH ON THE SOUTH
GS ON THAT SIDE
ncl\ ;iud F. Os^rald in August 1898
.s , Green A- V°, London
Warner s, Debes , Leipzig
THE BINGOL DAGH ON THE SOUTH
WITH SURROUNDINGS ON THAT SIDE
ured aiul iii;ipi.^.l tiy 11 V 11 L\^^.■h .nxd V ll^^;;il,l u, Aii>_Mi.;i 1
CHAPTER XXII
HOME ACROSS THE BORDER RANGES
August 24. — We found our camp a long distance south of the
western summit, and, after a short sleep, resumed our journey.
We simply followed a compass course to the head of that river
valley along which the Bingol plateau breaks off on the side of
the west. The general flow of the lava over which we rode was
towards north-west. We crossed the first zone of serpentine hills
through a deep valley with heights on either side. Beyond the
passage we issued upon a lower plain of lava, where the stream
of molten matter had been diverted by the serpentines, and had
circled round them, flooding down into the plain. In the section
displayed by a river cliff within the limits of this region we
observed a bed of columnar lava some twenty feet in thickness,
overlying lavas to a depth of some eighty feet. Near this point we
reached the first village, the Kurdish settlement of Bastok. It is
placed upon one of the head streams of the Aras, which we forded,
and, not long after, arrived on the banks of the main channel at
the Kurdish hamlet of Shekan. The Aras had already become
a little river, and was known to the villagers under that name.
We crossed it, leaving it to flow off into an alluvial plain, along
the marginal heights of which we rode. This is the first plain in
the proper sense of the word through which the Araxes winds.
It is situated at an altitude of about 7000 feet, and may be
called, from a village on its northern confines, the plain of
Altun.
We discovered a Kurdish village at the eastern foot of the
hill which had been our landmark and point of course. It bears
the name of Gugoghlan. It fronts the plain of the Aras, which,
on the north of the hill, is only separated by a low lip of ground
from the basin of the Murad. Such is the habit of these water-
380 Aimienia
partings. I remained for two days in this village, drawing and
mapping on the hill. Oswald preceded me to Erzerum. Our
journey thither led us across the central tableland, a little west of
the route pursued during our outward march. I have already
dealt with the general characteristics of the region, and shall only
add a short account of any fresh features.
Gugoghlan already belongs to the district of Shushar, while
the villages on the further side of the Sheikhjik mountain are
included in that of Kighi. The western and north-western sides
of the Altun plain have been flooded by a lava which appears
to have issued from the neighbourhood of Sheikhjik and also
from the heights upon its northern margin. Our way to Erzerum
took us over this sheet of lava. In a depression between two
such flows we passed an extensive yaila, belonging to Zireki
Kurds — a tribe of which the main body live about Diarbekr, and
of whom these people are a colony. North of the yaila we
commenced the ascent of that latitudinal wall of mountain which
at once forms the limit of the plain of Altun, and sends the
Araxes off towards the east.
It consists of lava overlying lacustrine deposits, and the
summit is perfectly flat. You may ride in any direction until
you are stopped by a river valley, which will be deeply cut and
bordered by commanding heights. I had for guide an old and
almost toothless Kurd, whom I had instructed, with some mis-
givings as to his knowledge, to lead a course as straight as possible
to Erzerum. The usual route from Gugoghlan would be by way
of Madrak, keeping to lower levels but rather longer.
But at this season of the year when elevation is of no
consequence, the snow having long since disappeared, it is just
as well to follow the most direct line, and keep as high as possible
and near the water-parting. From one side of the flat vaulting
the streams will flow westwards, and from the other towards the
east. We crossed no less than six tributaries of the Araxes.
Of these the first three converged rather closely together, and
they probably compose the stream upon which is situated the
village of Khedonun. Their valley or valleys have lofty parapets
which required to be turned. I observed that the lavas upon the
hillsides had in some places cooled in a columnar fashion. The
direction of the first and most imposing of these valleys was
towards south-south-east. North of the series the country again
became flat, and the views far-reaching; we were in fact
Home across the Border Ranges 381
approaching the spine of the whole block of heights. Two new
branches were crossed, both flowing into a wide depression which
we overlooked in all its extent. They were separated by a
considerable stretch of very elevated land. Their situation points
to the conclusion that they take their waters to the stream which
skirts the village of Duzyurt. Making our way from one to the
other, we rode at the foot of outcrops of lava upon our left hand.
Some were circular in form. Blue gentians are found in the
grassy places, and the more northerly of the two streams is placed
at a level of no less than 9400 feet. The highest point along
our route lay some little distance further north, and may have
been some 200 feet more elevated. It may be called the pass
over this plateau region. The block of heights is separated from
those of Palandoken by a depression, which is crossed by a
saddle-shaped neck of land. On one side of this vaulting water
flows to the Euphrates, and on the other to the Araxes. The
affluent to the Araxes is one of the branches of the Madrak river.
We forded it near the head of the trough.
We did not pass a single village, not even a yaila, during our
ride from the encampment of Zireki Kurds to the Palandoken
ridge. The surface of the plateau consists of a slabby lava,
which probably overlies the limestone with no great depth. The
lavas appear to have issued from approximately east-west fissures
at a time when the country had been already carved out into the
main features of its present contour. Especially remarkable, as
we neared the Palandoken line of heights, was the whiteness of
their face where the rock was exposed. The limestone, which
perhaps constitutes the bulk of that block, is probably of Eocene
age. We struck a course up the slope of those heights a little
west of the more westerly of the two forts ; and we issued into
the so-called crater of Palandoken-Eyerli Dagh, w^here we en-
camped by the margin of the first northward-flowing stream.
On the following morning I made the ascent of the peak of
Palandoken. The result of my test of boiling-point on this single
occasion gives it a height of 10,690 feet. It is therefore about
at the same level as the highest points on the Bingol ramparts
on the opposite side of the whole wide basin. Like its close
neighbour on the west, the equally bold Eyerli Dagh, it is of
eruptive volcanic origin. But the cirque between the two has
probably never been a crater ; it seems more likely that its
peculiar form is mainly due to the erosive action of snow and
382 Armenia
ice. We had not time to make any careful examination of the
wide area which the cirque covers. But this view was suggested
by all the phenomena which came under our notice/ The basin
has been cleared out by two gorges, and the matter is deposited
on the wide detrital fan which extends some distance into the
plain of Erzerum. A patch or two of snow were still visible in
the hollows ; but the peak and steep, boulder-strewn sides of
Palandoken were completely free of snow.
From Erzerum to the coast we took a fairly direct route,
travelling by the pass of the Jejen Dagh (8600 feet) to fjaiburt,
and thence by the passes of the Kitowa (8040 feet) and Kazikly
(8290 feet) Daghs to the monastery of Sumelas." But the great
height of the passes and the general ruggedness of the country
are against the prospects of this route as a possible avenue of
constant communication between Trebizond and the Armenian
fortress. A future railway will probably follow the devious course
of the existing cJimissce by way of Giimushkhaneh, or will strike
a direct course for the seaboard, issuing at the port of Rizeh.^
But to the traveller who is in search of romantic scenery one
may confidently recommend the summer road which we adopted.
The passage of the first barrier will afford him a near view of the
beautiful peak of the Jejen ; while the later journey lies among
the summits of the Pontic alps and among some of their wildest
glens. The last stage will introduce him to one of the most
remarkable valleys in this or any other land. He should
endeavour to arrange his visit during his return homewards, when
the features of the tableland, with their majesty of form but
bareness of surface, are freshly graven upon the mind. The
contrast to that landscape which he will find in the Vale of
Meiriman is at once sudden and complete. Vegetation of be-
wildering beauty takes the place of grandeur of outline ; and only
the impressive scale upon which Nature has moulded her work
in Asia remains constant to the end.
1 Both Oswald and myself had read Abich's account of this so-called crater. He
appears to regard it as a volcanic crater in the strict sense. I am inclined to think that
his drawing is very much exaggerated {Geo/o,ifisc/ic ForschtDigen in den kaiikasischen
Ldudcrn, Vienna, 1882, II. Tiieil, pp. 73 ct seq.).
■^ For the stages see Ch. XI. p. 240.
^ An account of this route which I have before me gives the distance between Rizeh
and Erzerum as only 119 miles. It leaves Ispir (in the Chorokh valley) a little to the
east.
CHAPTER XXIII
GEOGRAPHICAL
My purpose in the present chapter is to collect the threads of
that part of the narrative which was occupied with the natural
features, and to endeavour to weave them together into a
composite but single fabric, capable of being appreciated as a
whole. In the pursuit of this object I shall postulate familiarity
on the part of my reader with the contents of the companion
chapter dealing with the same subject which belongs to my first
volume ; and it is not without misgiving that I compare the
scantiness of my present material with the multitude of facts
with which the researches of Herrmann Abich have enriched our
knowledge of the Russian provinces. I am dependent almost
entirely upon the gleanings of my own journeys and of those
accomplished by my friends within quite recent years ; and it
has been impossible to commence the writing of this chapter
before the completion of the map embodying these results.
What it may, perhaps, be hoped without excessive presumption
is that the framework, at least, of our subject, the geography of
South-Western or Turkish Armenia, can now be established with
some degree of certainty ; and that succeeding travellers may
be enabled to recognise at a glance the more imperfect parts
instead of losing themselves in the almost unknown or falsely
known.^
No better standpoint could be selected from which to
^ I must not omit to record the assistance which I have received from the map of
H. Kiepert, Provinces Asiatiques de r Empire Ottoman. The sheets which cover the
Armenian country embody the results of my predecessors, which have been compiled
with great judgment. I have also had access to two Russian maps embracing portions
of the country, (i) scale lo versts = one inch, 1889, (2) scale 20versts = one inch, 1899.
But the map of Kiepert with all its merit is necessarily sketchy ; and the last Russian
map is flagrantly incorrect.
384 Armenia
commence a survey of the geography than the spine of that range
whence we descended into Turkish territory during our journey
southwards from Kagyzman (Vol. I, Ch. XX. p. 409, and Ch.
XXI. p. 436). It carries the present frontier between the Russian
and Turkish Empires, and in fact divides the area of Armenia
into two parts. In a political sense it forms a boundary of
considerable significance, shutting off Russia from the waters
which issue in the Persian Gulf. More than once have her
victorious armies flooded across this barrier, and not less often
have they been compelled by the provisions of the ensuing
peace to withdraw to its further side. The length of the range,
its ruggedness and the relative height of the passes, compared
with the plains on either flank, are features which must have
operated throughout history to invest it with an importance
unrivalled by the other systems which furrow the surface of
the Armenian tableland. From the Kuseh Dagh (11,262 feet)
in the west to Little Ararat (12,840 feet) in the east is a distance
of nearly lOO miles; and throughout that space the chain
is made up of such lofty peaks as the Ashakh Dagh (10,723
feet), Perli Dagh (10,647 feet), Sulakha Dagh (9644 feet) and
Khama Dagh (11,018 feet). The passes reach from 7000 to
8500 feet ; while the level of the plain of the Araxes does not
exceed 3000 feet, nor that of the plain of Alashkert 5500 feet.
In appearance the barrier as a whole resembles the mountains of
the peripheral regions ; there are the same deep valleys, jagged
outline, precipitous slopes. It seems some daring invasion of
those mountains into the plateau country ; and the semblance
is accentuated by the beds of marl along its northerly base into
which the long transverse parapets plunge (Vol. I. Fig. 106, p.
419). Highly crystalline rocks, such as diabase, and even syenite,
of which the spine of the more westerly portion is probably com-
posed, have played the principal part in its configuration, where
recent eruptive action has not built up a sequence of volcanic
fabrics, such as Kuseh Dagh, Perli Dagh, the peaks about Lake
Ballik, the Great and the Little Ararat.
This range, to which collectively we may apply the name of
Aghri Dagh or Ararat system, constitutes the principal inter-
mediate line of elevation between the northern and the southern
zones of peripheral mountains. It has been subjected to intense
folding pressure, and during the process of bending over from an
east-north-easterly to a south-easterly direction a partial fracture
Geographical 385
of tlie arc it describes has taken place. From the western shore
of Lake BaUik, an upland sheet of water lying at a le\el of 7389
feet, we are, perhaps, justified ill tracing the extension of one
branch of the system along the water-parting between the INIurad
and the Araxes south-east to the Tendurek Dagh, and through
that volcano into the line of hills which divides the basin of Lake
Van from the streams which find their way into the Araxes.
Thence the elevation may be followed into the southern peripheral
region, forming, as it were, a splinter from the chain of Zagros-
which has struggled upwards through the plateau country to its
very heart. The prevalence of crystalline rocks, which have been
classed by Loftus as granite, has been attested along the inner
edge of Zagros all the way from near Khorremabad in Persia
past Hamadan to the sources of the Great Zab ; and they extend
from the western borders of Lake Urmi at least as far as the
district of Bayazid. ^ It seems probable that they are in con-
nection with the granite rocks of the Aghri Dagh, where they
are found to the west of the Perli Dagh along the axis of this
northern intermediate system."
The more northerly and principal branch in an orographical
sense would appear to consist almost exclusively of recent volcanic
mountains, stretching from Perli Dagh in an east-south-easterly
direction to the Pambukh Dagh, west of Great Ararat. In this
neighbourhood the line is taken up by the fabric of Ararat,
raising the barrier by slow stages to nearly 1 7,000 feet, and
having an axis from north-west to south-east.^ The sequence
comes to an end in the Little Ararat, whose slopes descend on
three sides to fairly level plains. An interesting feature about
the range in its more westerly portion are the outbreaks of
andesitic lava along its base upon the north. These eruptions
appear to have culminated in the peak of Takjaltu (8409 feet)
near Kulpi, which forms a landmark to the districts on that side.
Thence the fissure which gave issue to the andesite may be
traced westwards, keeping parallel to the chain. The eruptions
liave disturbed the sedimentary rocks, and their incidence can
be certainly attributed to the Miocene period.^ Further east the
1 See the map of Loftus in Quarterly Journal of the Geological Soeiety, vol. xi.
London, 1855, p. 247.
- See the map of Abich in Geologische Forschuugeu in den kaukasisc/ien LanJern,
Vienna, 1882, Atlas, Karte L ; and part ii. p. 141.
^ A fine view of the range at this point is displayed by Abich, op. cit., Atlas
table iii. * Abich, op. cit. part ii. p. 155.
VOL. II 2 C
386 Armenia
upwellings of lava along the slopes of the mountains have all
the appearance of having been discharged into a sheet of water
spread over the surface of the Ararat region.^
West of the Kuseh Dagh, the bell -shaped mountain, this
intermediate line of elevation may be plainly followed upon the
map along the southern confines of the plain of Pasin through
the limestones which the Araxes threads in a landscape of savage
grandeur before its entry upon the level expanse. From the left
bank of the river the heights are continued for many a mile, until
they are distinguished by the Palandoken-Eyerli Dagh volcanic
system (10,694 feet) just south of Erzerum. A slight inclination
southwards through the Karakaya Dagh into the volcanic Keupek
Dagh, and further south into the Khach Dagh, the southern
boundary of the province of Terjan, takes the line with clear
definition through the Girdim Dagh and the Baghir Dagh into
the lofty and extensive barrier of the Merjan-Muzur Dagh (about
12,000 feet), facing the plains about Erzinjan. The progress
of the elevation across the Euphrates through Asia Minor to the
Mediterranean appears to be indicated on the map of Kiepert
by the Sarichichek Dagh, west of Egin, whence it is probably
protracted between the Taurus and the Anti- Taurus chains.
The Anti-Taurus would appear to be represented in Armenia by
the system which enters the country in the Chardaklu Dagh
(long. 39, lat. 39.55), and extends in the form of an elevated
block of tableland through the Sipikor Dagh, Dadian Dagh
(i 1,000 feet), Kop Dagh into the Dlimlii Dagh, north of Erzerum,
and the Chorokh region.
The importance of the orographical system which we have
now traced from Ararat to Muzur Dagh, and from Lake Ballik to
the Zagros range, may be appreciated in a geographical sense by
one or two reflections. In the first place it provides the natural
frontier between the country about Lake Van and the Persian
province of Azerbaijan. This frontier may probably be regarded
as the natural eastern boundary of Armenia during its course
from behind Bayazid to the Avrin Dagh, overlooking the valley
of the river of Kotur. At the present day it forms the Turko-
Persian border ; while the more northerly branch, which effects a
junction in the neighbourhood of Lake Ballik, divides the Russian
and Turkish Empires. xA.s the most pronounced constituent of the
Asiatic structural design within the limits of the tableland, the
' Ahich, op. cil. iJ.ul ii. p. i6o.
Geographical 387
system carries over the Tauric lines of elevation into those which
have determined the configuration of the Iranian highlands. It
encompasses this result in a most impressive manner, standing up
from the plateau region with precipitous slopes on either side and
suggesting to the mind the conception of a backbone to the
country as a whole. It is at this point that in the Shatin or
Aghri Dagh it effects the bend over into Persia, but not without
partial fracture and consequent dislocation. At the same time
we should be mistaken in attributing to the system functions
analogous to those of the mountains of the peripheral regions.
Even the Aghri Dagh is deprived of many of the qualities
essential to a barrier by its narrowness and by the extension of
the open plains on either flank. The border between the Lake
Van basin and Azerbaijan consists of a line of hills rather than
of mountains in the proper sense. The extension of the elevation
along the southern confines of the plains of Pasin and of Erzerum
takes the form of the lofty rim of the central region of the
tableland, and not of a mountain range. That term might,
perhaps, be applied to the cretaceous heights of the Merjan-
Muzur Dagh ; but these again are probably due to the resistance
of the Dersim block, the plateau-like country which they limit
upon the north.
I have already traced the course of the mountains of the
northern peripheral region, the effective barrier between Armenia
and the coast of the Black Sea, throughout their prolongation
upon the confines of the tableland, and have drawn the natural
frontier inwards in the neighbourhood of Ispir across the valley
of the Chorokh to the northern border heights of the plain of
Erzerum (Vol. I. Ch. XXI. p. 431). The analogous zone upon
the south is composed by the main chain of Taurus, separating
the highlands from the low-lying plains of Mesopotamia and
buttressing them up on that side. This chain appears to have
succeeded in accomplishing the curve into the Iranian direction
without undergoing fracture to any material extent. The
symmetry of the arc described as seen from the plains about
Diarbekr has already enlisted our admiration {ibid. p. 424). The
spine of the range may be followed along the southern shore of
Lake Goljik to the Palu Dagh, east of the town of Palu. Thence
it is taken along the plain of Chabakchur and the left bank of
the Murad to the confines of the plain of Mush. Conspicuous
with sharp peaks which are seldom free from snow, it stretches
388 Arinenia
past the depression of Mush into the landscape of Lake Van,
where it recalls the sombreness of the Norwegian coast. Through
the Karkar Dagh (long. 42.47), and, further east, through the
Bashit Dagh, west of Bashkala, it makes steps southwards to the
threshold of the basin of the Great Zab ; and the elevation may
be traced on the further side of the river in the peaks of the Jelu
Dagh, said to attain a height of between 13,000 and 14,000 feet.^
An impressive feature of this Taurus range, and one which
ought not to escape the attention whether of geographers or of
political students, is the manner in which it appears to have sunk
down along its southern edge between the 39th and 42nd degrees
of longitude. In places the girdle of mountains becomes so
narrow that its effectiveness as a barrier is much impaired. From
the town of Arghana, which must lie almost at the southern foot
of the chain, it is a direct distance of not more than 28 miles to
the confines of the plains about Kharput. These may be attained
from Diarbekr. on the lowlands without encountering a greater
altitude than less than 5000 feet. The position of the town of
Haini (2800 feet) appears to correspond to that of Arghana ; and
thence the Murad may be reached in 22 miles direct by a pass of
only 4200 feet. In such a climate heights like these are quite
insignificant, and they would not offer at any season an obstacle
of much importance to an army operating from the lowlands in the
direction of the Armenian plains. This sinking-down of Taurus
has been accompanied, as indeed one might expect, by volcanic
action on a considerable scale. The Karaja Dagh, which lies to
the south-west of Diarbekr, is not a mountain of much relative
height. You may ride at a trot across its long-drawn undulations,
admiring the sea-like expanse of the plains around. Yet it
represents an extensive outpouring of lavas in recent geological
times. It would appear to be in connection with some of the
greatest of Armenian volcanoes, and with a string of depressions
extending across the plateau. The line may be easily recognised
through Nimrud and Sipan to Tendurek and Ararat.
With the exception of the Dersim block, lying to the south
of the Merjan-Muzur Dagh, which has not yet been satisfactorily
explored, the remaining lines of elevation within the limits of the
tableland are probably for the most part derived from the Taurus
system. In this connection it is most interesting to take due note
of the phenomenon that, side by side with the results of the later
' K. Clayton, The Moitntains of Kurdistan, in the Alpine Joiirtml, 1887.
Geographical 389
earth movements which have most largely determined the existing
configuration of the land, an older movement may be discerned
with a wide extension in Turkish Armenia, rearing mountains
along a south-west — north-east line. We ourselves remarked
this phenomenon on an impressive scale in the Akh Dagh, an
elevation of highly marmorised limestone, which may well be older
even than the Cretaceous period. It rises up on the north of the
plain of Khinis (Ch. VIII. p. 186, Fig. i 59), which it confines in an
east-south-easterly direction. Though we were unable to test the
strike of the stratification, the appearance of the ridges of which
it is composed almost demanded the conclusion that they were
originally members of a series of heights with a north-easterly
course. Even as far east as the region to the south-west of Lake
Van, where the Taurus is pursuing a general trend towards east-
south-east, the strike of the older rocks was ascertained to be
north-east. A glance at the map will show that the heights
which confine the course of the Gunek Su pursue a north-easterly
direction. Those on the right bank, extending to the basin of
the Kighi or Peri Su, may be clearly traced into the Taurus on
the west of Palu, to be represented further south by the Chembek
Dagh and Mastikan Dagh, constituents of Taurus to the south-
west of Kharput. In the opposite direction the line may not
unreasonably be regarded as extending beneath the volcanic
accumulations of the Bingol Dagh through the Akh Dagh into
the hills confining the plain of Alashkert upon the south, known
as the Mergemir or Khalias Dagh. The younger movements
may find expression in the present trend of the two last-named
systems, and, further south, in the Kbshmiir Dagh, Shaitan Dagh
and Javresh Dagh, mountains through which the Kighi Su breaks
in a narrow defile after leaving the Khindris Ova or plain. These
last extend with impressive orographical distinction to the south-
western edge of the Bingol plateau.
The Koshmlir Dagh effects a junction with the mountains of
the Dersim ; and it would almost seem as if that region had
refused to submit to the folding pressure, causing the earth weaves
to work round it and, like the plateau of Azerbaijan, on the
east of Armenia, favouring fracture rather than subordination in
any complete sense to the general structural laws.^ Yet I cannot
doubt that the Dersim should be included within the limits of the
1 For some account of the geology of Azerbaijan see C. Grewingk, Die geognostischen
tnid orographischcn I'erhaltnisse dcs ndrdlicheti Pcrsiens, St. Petersburg, 1853-
390 Armenia
country which forms the subject of the present enquiry. The
name appears to be applied more strictly to the mountainous
region lying to the east of the upper reaches of the Muzur Su,
between that river and the town of Kighi Kasaba. But it may
be used to embrace also the country to the south of the Merjan-
Muzur Dagh, as far west as the great bend of the Western
Euphrates and up to the right bank of the Murad on the south.
Separated from the important Turkish military station at Erzinjan
by a range of mountains covered with snow during six months in
the year, it slopes gradually towards the river on its southern
confines, well wooded in many parts, abounding in minerals, but
broken and rugged especially in the northern and eastern districts.
The original home of an Armenian population, who probably
entered their historical seats from the west, it is dotted over with
the ruins of Armenian churches, monasteries and villages, and is
mainly but sparsely inhabited by Kizilbash Kurds. ^ The natural
boundary between Armenia and Asia Minor is the course of the
Western Euphrates between the town of Kemakh, the burial-place
of the Armenian Arsakid kings, and its passage through Taurus
below Keban-Maden. North of the Euphrates the line may be
drawn in a more or less arbitrary manner from above Egin to the
mountains of the northern peripheral region.
The boundary of Taurus is clearly defined from one end of
Armenia to the other, describing a symmetrical curve along the
threshold of the Armenian highlands, and affording a number of
standpoints whence the contrast may be appreciated between the
plateau country and the peripheral mountains. A string of great
plains extend on its inner or northern side, but plains quite
different in character from the lowlands about Diarbekr, and framed
in a landscape never wanting in the long-drawn outlines of the
loftier levels. The plain of Kharput, with an altitude of something
over 3000 feet, commences the series on the west. It is reached
from the west and the south by a number of easy approaches,
the Tauric barrier being readily surmountable in this neigh-
bourhood. The town is built upon a hill, not far south of
the Murad, on the northern confines of the plain ; and the old
' The best account of this country is that of J. G. Taylor,y^./v. 6'..^?. vol. xxxviii. 1868.
I may also refer my reader to two articles by Dr. Butyka {Milt, der K. K. geographischcn
GescUschaft in IVicn, vol. xxxv. 1892, pp. 99-126 and 1 94-2 10), who has collected the
scanty notices of his predecessors and added his own experiences. I have made use of
some unpublished material in the preparation of this part of my map ; but it is far from
sa isfactory.
Gcograph ical 391
castle overlooks the expanse at a difference in level of about
1000 feet. Various estimates assign a population of from 13,000
to 25,000 souls to this ancient Armenian borough ; and, although
the Armenians are in great minority in the city, they have a large
preponderance among the inhabitants of the surrounding region.
It has been estimated that not less than from 130 to 150 villages
are situated in the vicinity. The vine flourishes and is cultivated
at this moderate elevation ; and the dwellings are for the most
part constructed of mud and brick with two storeys, in striking
contrast to the unhealthy underground burrows in which the
peasantry cheat the rigour of an Armenian winter over the greater
portion of the area of the tableland. Fear and plum trees grace
the outskirts of the settlements, and the mulberry grows in such
profusion that the silk crop is often of considerable value.
Kharput has become a centre of American missionary effort — on
the whole a salutary and civilising influence in these lands. Their
educational activities are represented by a well-equipped institu-
tion founded in 1876 and bearing the name of Armenia College.
Thither flock the Armenian youth from all parts of the country,
to grow up beneath the example of the most progressive of
Western peoples. Within recent years the value of that example
has somewhat diminished in their eyes, owing to the impunity
with which the organisers of Palace policy in Constantinople
have applied the torch to the property of American citizens and
the ban of the censor to the loftiest creations of Western literature.
These are little misunderstandings which will disappear.
A fairly level country extends from the territory of Kharput
eastwards to the confines of Palu. The Murad wanders in many
channels over the expanse, approached at an interval which is
always diminishing by the Tauric barrier. The river is forded
to the right bank before the castled rock is reached, past which
it flows in a single stream. It washes on three sides the steep
declivities of the platform upon which the town is built. Palu is
described to me as a thriving borough with about 2000 houses,
which gives a population of from 10,000 to 12,000 souls. Six
hundred are said to belong to Armenian families and the re-
mainder to Kurdish people. A bridge with eight arches and a
length of 190 yards connects the place, just to the east of the
loop described by the river, with the opposite or left bank. On
the north extends a plain in connection with that of Kharput
and productive of abundant crops. Rock chambers and a
392 Armenia
cuneiform inscription of the Vannic king, Menuas, recording his
conquests and emblazoned with the name of Khaldis, his supreme
god, remind the traveller that he is already approaching the centres
of that old civilisation which existed before the Armenians, and
was perhaps the highest that these lands have known.^
From Palu a fair track leads through Temran into the
Khindris plain, and thence to Erzerum. The passage of the
Shaitan Dagh into the plain may be effected at different points,
but the pass to Lichig has an elevation of over 8000 feet. The
Government are proposing to carry their new carriage - road
between Kharput and Erzerum through the gorge of the Kighi
Su. Two routes are offered between Palu and the next great
plain at the foot of Taurus, comprised within the territory of
Chabakchur. The upper route proceeds through Khoshmat to
Chevelik in the valley of the Gunek Su, crossing a mountainous
region and attaining elevations of 6000 to 7000 feet above the
sea."' The lower follows the gorge of the Murad and is more
in use during winter, but it is described in no very favourable
terms. The narrows commence just east of Palu and extend to
Chabakchur. A waterfall brings to an end the navigation of the
river, which is conducted with no small difficulties by means of
rafts. When at length the plain is reached communications
become better ; and the valley of the Gunek Su affords an easy
approach to Erzerum, though one which would not be agreeable
during winter. Between Chabakchur and the plain of Mush the
Murad is again confined in a gorge, and its course is still requiring
to be explored. A mule track is forthcoming, which keeps
close to the river, passing through the district of Genj, I am
informed that it would be impossible to convert into a good road.
The more usual route is by Menaskut, entering the plain below
Surb Karapet after traversing a mountainous but well -wooded
country.
One may say in general terms of the extensive region we are
now leaving that the pleasant plains along its southern margin
are by no means the dominant feature. The territory lying
between the two great rivers, the Western and the Eastern
Euphrates, which is bounded on the north by the Merjan-Muzur
Dagh with its continuation eastwards in the Baghir Dagh, Girdim
' See the inscription and translation Ijy Professor Sayce in the Journal of the Koyal
Asiatic Society, vol. .\iv. 1882, No. XXXIII. p. 558.
^ Tozer, Turkish Ar)ttenia and Eastern Asia Minor, Lonilon, 1S81, pj). 256 seq.
Geographical 393
Dagh and Khach Dagh ; and on the east by the westerly edge of
the Bingol plateau and the water-parting from Bingdl to Palandoken,
the mountain landmark just south of Erzerum — all this area,
measuring some 140 miles from west to east and on the average
50 miles from north to south, is intersected by a sea of mountains,
threaded, indeed, by considerable streams, but always difficult
and in winter almost impossible to cross. The constant acclivity
towards the north, the height of the barrier on its northern confines,
and the indifference of the approaches from the east combine to
shut it off from the stream of human movement, which is diverted
into other channels. We can scarcely understand the history of
these countries without appreciating this fact. Be the movement
from east to west or from north to south, the main current is sure
to eddy along the outskirts of this territory, either pursuing the
broad avenue of the valley of the Western Euphrates, or turning
aside from the plateau region and flooding across the peripheral
mountains into the lowlands of Mesopotamia. As might be
expected under such conditions, the country is for the most part
under little control. Strange people who are classed as Kurds,
but speak a dialect called Zaza, and for the most part profess a
liberal religion which holds the scales between Christianity and
Islam, compose the bulk of the inhabitants in the mountainous
parts. The Government works from the upland plains, of which
there are many and of ample extent, and from such centres as
Kighi Kasaba and Pulumer. If my reader will turn to my
sketch from the hill of Gugoghlan (Fig. 195, p. 373), he may
realise at a glance the rugged nature of this region and the
contrast which it offers to the normal surface features. It
comprises the ridges in the west and south-west of the panorama ;
and the Merghuk Su, which meanders towards them, is the name
of the head waters of the Kighi Su, issuing in the plains about
Kharput. Travellers praise the woodlands which clothe great
parts of the country, though they were not visible from the
standpoint of my drawing.
The next great plain at the foot of Taurus derives its name
from the town of Mush, built against the wall of the range. It
extends from north-west to south-east for a distance of over 40
miles, crossed at its lower end by the wandering stream of the
Murad, to which it sends a dull and almost stagnant tributary.
How clean the line of Taurus stands out on the southern margin
of this flat and almost limitless expanse ! Under happier human
394 Armenia
conditions the plain would soon become a garden and granary,
favouring the vine and the luscious growth of the tobacco plant
as well as all kinds of cereals. At the present day marshes
extend over a great part of the area, and the Armenian peasantry
— one of the brawniest and most sturdy in the world — have been
reduced by the excesses of the Kurds to abject indigence. Mush
is in communication at all seasons of the year with the great
grain-growing districts of Bulanik and Khinis, and with the plains
of Pasin and Erzerum. It is little more than a step — indeed a
step in the literal sense — up to the fertile territories on the north
of Lake Van. Ready access is always forthcoming through the
Bitlis passage to the Mesopotamian lowlands. The Mush plain
represents a considerable subsidence of the plateau region, the
average elevation being only 4200 feet. Thence you pass across
the dam formed by lavas from Nimrud to the much higher level
of Lake Van (5637 feet). That inland sea, with the gulf-like
extension of the even area up the valley of the Khoshab, the
district of Hayotz-dzor, forms the appropriate termination of
the string of level spaces outspread at the base of the chain
which comes from the Mediterranean during its passage along
Armenian soil.
In the companion chapter of the first volume I have en-
deavoured to suggest the characteristics of the mountains of the
northern peripheral region. The corresponding zone upon the
south which is occupied by Taurus is distinguished by many
similar features. There are the same sharp peaks, precipitous
slopes, narrow valleys and swift streams and rivers, composing a
landscape which, except for the greater scale of the phenomena,
is essentially and constantly alpine in character. Unlike our
Alps but like the barrier on the side of the Black Sea, one valley
is ever higher than the* trough which lies behind it, each crest
more lofty than the last, as you journey towards the edge of the
tableland whether from the coast of the northern waters or from
the alluvial flats which extend to the Persian Gulf. Of moisture
there is less among these southern mountains, and we miss the
exuberance of the Pontic vegetation. But forests of dwarf oak
relieve the sternness of the scenery, and the knots or whorls on the
trunks of the numerous walnut trees sustain an industry which
attracts the most adventurous of native traders, causes them to
sojourn in these wild districts, and enables them to supply the
markets of Europe with excellent material for veneering purposes.
Geographical 395
The summits attain their greatest elevation in the Jelu Dagh, a
group of peaks just east of the valley of the Great Zab which are
at least as high as 13,000 feet. But by the time the summer is
well advanced the landscape is almost free from snow. West of
the Zab a labyrinth of valleys feed the long course of the Bohtan
Su across the mountainous belt. The barrier has more than
trebled in lateral extension since confining the territories of
Kharput and Palu. Even the Tigris, which has been idly
spreading over the vast alluvial flats about Diarbekr, is compelled
to become a mountain stream. Above the primeval village of
Hasan Keif it enters the narrow gorge which pierces the foot of
Taurus as he reaches out into the plains in the hill range of
Midyat. It is in that gorge that the Bohtan effects the conflu-
ence ; and well I remember the roar of the tributary and the
genuflexions of my companions as the swirling water eddied
around our raft. The Tigris is henceforward a noble river at all
seasons, and when Jezireh is soon passed its brief activity is
over and it luxuriates in open spaces till reaching the Gulf
All this alpine country between the edge of the tableland and
the plains of Mesopotamia, which is watered by the numerous
constituents of the Tigris, is the original and natural home of
the Kurdish people, the true Kurdistan or Kurd -land. These
shepherds love the mountains as the Arabs affect the plains ; but
they need the warm plains during the winter season when their
fastnesses are covered with snow. They descend to the foot of
the chain with their numerous flocks and herds, and camp on the
lower course of some southward-flowing tributary or even upon
the banks of the great river. The winter climate of the lowlands
is temperate and delicious ; the long Kurd with his loose limbs,
hollow cheeks and beak nose meets the neat and nimble Arab.
The coarse but perky little highland horse is watered from the
same flood to which the Arab leads the graceful creature prized
beyond all other possessions, of skin like satin, limbs like ivory,
and head which is the supreme embodiment of high courage,
docility and intelligence. The noiseless raft surprises a group of
Kurdish women bathing quite nude upon the margin of the sandy
bed. A man is watching over them, and they seem without
concern. Two specks are descried upon the bosom of the waters ;
the current brings them nearer ; they are swimmers from the
opposite bank with the chest supported on an inflated skin.
Within a few yards of your calek they emerge upon the bank,
396 Armenia
Arab maidens who would delight a sculptor with their slim forms
resembling deer, and who have never learnt the sin of human
nakedness. Slowl}^ they free the- air from the buoyant skins,
unbind the bundle on their heads containing their loose
cotton garment, and make their way to an invisible village or
encampment.
When summer comes the annual migration to the recesses of
the mountains has taken place, and whatever Kurds are not
detained in the lowland villages, which are fairly numerous in
spite of the aversion of the tribal Kurd to a life within walls,
have already ended their brief sojourn in the country of the Arabs
and are stretching their goat-hair tents upon the upland pastures.
Streams of cattle, sheep, horses and goats obstruct the passes ;
the shepherds have doffed their felt cloaks and clamber over the
boulders, their women beside them, mounted or on foot. The
glades and gorges become bright with red and blue cottons, and
Kurdish girls with comely faces and white ankles are seen on the
mountain paths. Long-drawn shouts are carried far across the
hiss of the torrents, and wurra, zvurra I or //<?, Jio ! announce the
locality of the speaker or awake the attention of callous ears.
The Kurd is a picturesque and welcome presence among these
solitudes, and it is only when he has been severed from his
natural surroundings that he becomes odious and an enemy of
the human race.
Of the principal communications across Taurus with the
tableland of Armenia I have already glanced at those connecting
Diarbekr with Kharput and Erzerum through Arghana, and with
Erzerum through Haini. The latter is a direct and, in spite of
the great elevation of the country which it traverses between the
plain of Altun and the northern capital, nevertheless a promising
route. Mush plain may be reached from Diarbekr by way of
Kulp and the Gozme Gedik Pass (6645 feet). But between this
approach and the Bitlis passage the country is ill-controlled, nor
am I aware of any favourable and beaten tracks. The Bitlis
passage represents the main avenue between the lowlands and
the country about Lake Van (Ch. YL p. 148) ; from Diarbekr it
is entered by way of Zokh and from Mosul through Sert. I shall
not stay to discuss the various more or less direct routes across
the mountains between Sert and the city of Van ; nor can I
speak from personal knowledge or even conjecture of those which
conduct to Van from Jezireh-ibn-Omar, or from Mosul by the
Geograph ical 397
valley of the Great Zab.' The entire region to the south and
south-east of the great lake — Khizan, Mukus, Shatakh, Nurduz —
has been scoured in recent years by various travellers whose
experiences have not to my knowledge as yet appeared in print."
I should now propose to dismiss this part of my subject, dealing
with the zones of peripheral mountains and the intermediate lines
of elevation upon the surface of the tableland which they enclose;
and to bring under review some of the remaining features
characteristic of the Armenian highlands in their westerly ex-
tension from the spine of the Ararat system to the confines of
Asia Minor.
Hitherto our study of the orography of this Tauric Armenia
has been mainly occupied — it is interesting to recall the fact —
with lines of folding of the earth's crust. Indeed the country as
a whole has not been subjected to recent volcanic action in the
same degree as the plateau regions lying to the north of the
spinal mountains^ — the territories of Akhaltsykh, Ardahan, x'^khal-
kalaki, Alexandropol and Kars. At the same time it has not
escaped the operation of these agencies ; nor have they worked
upon a less impressive scale. Be it lavas flooding over the
sedimentary deposits and levelling the inequalities of the ground
— what more startling manifestation could be offered of the
process than the Bingol plateau with its piled-up la}'ers of lava
and tuff? Or if volcanoes in the strict sense be matched against
volcanoes, there are Nimrud and Sipan to enter the lists with
Alagoz and Ararat. Several mountains which are due to eruptive
action have been added to the map in the course of my own
journeys. Such are Bilejan and Kartevin. The roll will be
increased as our knowledge is carried further of the districts on
the west of Bingol and Palanddken.
A striking analogy in some respects to the Russian territories
which I have just specified is provided by the surface features of
the Bingol plateau, with its continuation northwards in the shape
1 H. Binder describes the route from Mosul through Amadia, Julamerik, Kochannes
and Mervanen to Van [An Kurdistan, en Mdsopotamie et en Perse, Paris, 1887). See
also W. F. Ainsworth, Travels in Asia J\Iinor, etc., London, 1842, vol. ii. pp. 179
seq., with geological section from Mosul to Lake Urmi.
2 For the geology of the Taurus between Diarbekr and Kharput an article by W.
Warington Smyth in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 1845,
vol. i. pp. 330 seij., may be consulted. I do not understand his statement that the
breadth of the main ridge of Taurus between Arghana and Kharput is nearly 50 miles.
Loftus [op. cit. p. 344) has drawn a geological section from Bitlis through Sert to
Jezireh-ibn-Omar. Like the Zagros, the range may be said to consist in the main of
nummulitic limestone.
398 Armenia
of a deeply eroded block of land to the confines of the plains of
Erzerum and Pasin. This extensive region lies about south-west
of the corresponding area of rectangular shape within the Russian
frontier. It performs the same function of a roof to the adjacent
countries ; and just as the one stage gives birth to the Kur and
the Arpa Chai, so the other feeds with countless channels the
earliest course of the Araxes and contributes the largest propor-
tion of the waters of the Murad. The streams which decline
from its north-westerly extremities swell the volume of the
Western Euphrates. Built up on the south with lavas and tuffs
to the extent of thousands of feet, it has throughout been flooded
with volcanic matter. Taken in relation with the general
structure of Tauric or Turkish Armenia, we may apply to this
elevated stage of the plateau country the designation of the
Central Tableland.
My reader is already familiar with the characteristics of the
region — the basin -like appearance, the long parapets on the
northern and southern edges, in the one case culminating in
the volcanic peaks of Palandoken (10,694 feet) and Eyerli, in
the other distinguished by the eminences of Bingol (nearly 10,800
feet). The limits of the Bingol plateau are clearly defined on
three sides, and may readily be recognised on our map. On the
north it merges insensibly into the Shushar and Tekman districts,
though at some points, as, for example, the cliffs just south of
Kherbesor, lines of demarcation may be laid down. How the
waters of this plateau converge together in the shape of two fans,
as they are precipitated from the highest levels towards the north
and towards the east, burying themselves ever deeper into the
volcanic soil ! The one group is collected in the plain of Khinis,
and the other by the course of the Araxes between the plain of
Altun and the narrows on the north of Kulli. There in the
hollow of the basin the levels are still lofty — the Altun plain
with about 7000 feet and Kulli with about 6000. Ascend to
the table surface from the beds of the rivers, and you register
heights which range between 7000 and at least 9000 feet above
the sea. A country with down-like outlines, composed of lime-
stones with intrusive serpentines and Pliocene lake deposits capped
by sheets of the ubiquitous lava — an expanse sterile and vast at
all seasons, and in winter covered with snow — a softly billowing
surface dappled by the shadows of cumulus clouds and shot with
colour from a network of blue streams — such, I think, are the
Geographical 399
most permanent impressions of our journeys across the Central
Tableland.
Volcanic action is largely responsible for the configuration of
this tract of country, filling up hollows, preserving the sedimentary
deposits with overlying sheets of lava. The extent of the
operation may best be gauged on the south-western extremities
of the Bingol plateau. There the ridges in the west are seen
stepping up, one after another, almost to the margin of the
elevated platform where your tents are spread. The setting sun
invests them with an added glamour of gold and purple ; yet
how futile this fretful array against the solid land about you,
dimly spread in horizontal spaces beyond sight ! The yellow
mullein which scents the air springs from the ruin of all those
ridges, growing upon the tomb of their deeply-buried remains.
But further north, where the sway of the lavas has already
become feeble, the same phenomenon, a little modified, may be
observed. Survey the scene as it is unfolded northwards from
the western summit of Bingol or from the hill of Gugoghlan
(Ch. XXII. p. 373, Figs. 194 and 195). What a contrast between
the landscape of the west and that of the east ! All those ridges
in the west are dying by themselves into the down-like spaces
of the Central Tableland. Here the lavas have been a con-
tributing but not the principal cause.
The truth is that we should here be standing quite near the
point of greatest constriction between the inner and outer arcs.
In other words, it is just west of this region that the greatest
compression of the Armenian highlands by earth movements
may be supposed to have taken place. A natural consequence
of the process would be the ridging up within a narrow space of
the normal surface elevations. East of an imaginary line between
Bingol and Palandoken the area becomes enlarged. Room is
given for the ridges to spread ; they flatten out and almost
disappear. At the same time the change from the Tauric into
the Iranian direction soon commences to make itself felt. Moun-
tain and gentle hill, the rocks on the heights and those in the
hollows are all imprinted with the stamp of a new-born force.
In the most central districts we recorded this change in what
geologists call the strike between the villages of Kanjean and
Alkhes in the region called Elmali Dere or Vale of Apples.
There the stratified rocks have been flooded with sheets of lava,
which have presumably welled up from fissures. A glance at
400 Armenia
the map will show that all the outlines are bending over, those
on the north-east and those to the south-west of this point. And
a little looking brings home the fact that most of the great
Armenian volcanoes are situated at or near the bend.
The tendency to a strong-pronounced plateau country is in
Armenia, and especially in the south-western territories, inde-
pendent of volcanic action. Herrmann Abich aptly describes the
effect of this tendency upon the mountain masses when he
speaks of their constant, nearly horizontal summit line.^ Yet
the heights which elicited this appreciation belong to the system
west of Bingol, and are mainly composed of stratified rocks.
Horizontality is the prevailing characteristic of the outlines on
the north of the series of plains from Pasin in the east to
Erzinjan in the west. Those outlines belong to a block of
elevated land from over 9000 to about 8000 feet above the sea.
Lavas have accentuated the feature in the case of the border
heights of Pasin (Ch. VIII. p. 193, Fig. 163) ; but when, further
west, the barrier consists of limestones and old igneous rocks, the
same appearance of a flat-topped mass, representing a higher
stage of the plateau region, is only varied by some beautiful shapes
emerging upon the sky-line, such as the Cretaceous peaks of
xA.khbaba and Jejen. If you dravv a section between the western
extremity of the plain of Mush against Taurus and the maze of
valleys which feed the Chorokh on the north of Erzerum, the
true character of the land will be exhibited in a striking manner.
You will commence with a level plain of immense extent from
west to east and with an average elevation of 4200 feet. Pro-
ceeding northwards, you scale a wall of 8000 feet, only to find
yourself upon a platform almost as flat as a billiard-table, over
which the track leads without much change in level for a distance
of many miles. This stage breaks off upon the north to a little
plain even as water, lying in the lap of an extensive depression
of not more than 5000 feet. You cross the depression with a
parapet of 8400 to over 9000 feet closing the landscape with
gigantic cliffs before your eyes. It is the edge of the Central
Tableland. The journey is long from this, its southern margin,
to the corresponding rim upon the north — water-worn downs with
an average altitude of over 7000 feet. After registering heights,
always on the level, of about 9000 feet, a descent is made to the
vast expanse of the Erzerum plain (5700 feet). The mass which
1 Abich, op. cil. part ii. p. 119 note.
Geographical 40 1
rises on the north of that phiin contains the sources of the
Western Euphrates and leads over to the deep valleys which
sustain the Chorokh. It is flat-topped, and attains a level of
about 9000 feet.
The most fertile and agricultural districts lie to the east of
this section ; they are generally separated one from another by
inountains of recent volcanic origin, upon which, however, with
the possible exception of the Tendurek Dagh, a wreath of smoke
is never seen. The plain of Khinis (5500 feet) is screened by
Khamur from the plains of Bulanik and Melazkert (5000 feet),
where some of the finest grain in the world is grown. Bulanik
is divided into a western and an eastern territory by the radial
volcanic mass of Bilejan. The line of heights which are inter-
posed between Western Bulanik and Mush plain are probably
partly due to lavas which have welled up from fissures, and are
easily crossed almost at any point. The plain of Mush (4200
feet) and the level country of almost endless extent between
Sipan and the Murad are shut off from the cornfields and
orchards of the basin of Lake Van (5637 feet) by the immense
circumference of the Ximrud crater and by the block of limestones
and lake deposits upon which Sipan is built up. The region
between Lake Van and the hills of the Persian border is parcelled
out into a number of districts by such volcanic eminences as
Varag Dagh, Pir Reshid Dagh,^ and Tendurek Dagh, which last-
named mountain has sent its lavas a great distance south into
the Abagha Plain." All the way from Tendurek to the plain of
Khinis eruptive agencies have fastened upon the land on a con-
siderable scale. A large area is occupied by the radial volcanic
system known as the Ala Dagh, but very scantily explored.
It is succeeded further west by the Kartevin Dagh. The
extensive territories between Kartevin on the south, the plain of
Khinis on the west, and the Sharian-Mergemir Dagh barrier on
the north, are for the most part covered with sheets of lava.
But the plains of Alashkert (5 500 feet) and Pasin (over 5000 feet)
are worthy to rank with the most favoured regions ; and this
sequence is continued westwards by the plains of the Western
Euphrates, commencing with that of Erzerum (from 5750 to
about 3800 feet). North again of this series one may specially
^ I cannot speak with certainty as to the geological nature of the Pir Reshid Dagh.
^ For Tendurek, which appears to be in a solfataric condition, see Abich's article in
the Bulletin of the FreJich Geological Society, 2nd series, xxi. pp. 213 seq., and Letter
from T. K, Lynch in P.R.G.S. xiii. pp. 243, 244.
VOL. II 2D
402 Armenia
instance the plain of Baiburt (5000 feet), which is a typical
Armenian plain.
As you travel from plain to plain, from one basin to another,
the horizon is most often filled by some shapely volcanic outline,
slowly rising from the floor of the expanse. Yet the stratified
rocks are seldom absent, emerging from the volcanic layers or
only capped by a thin sheet of lava. Dominant among them are
the limestones of various geological periods, from the Cretaceous
and probably earlier, to the Pliocene deposits, when the greater
part of the country must have been covered by a lake of fresh or
brackish water. Intrusive in the earlier limestones are found a
variety of old igneous rocks, such as diabase, gabbro and serpen-
tine. The serpentines combine with the limestones to form rounded
hills or downs with soft outlines. Sometimes a cap of lava has
preserved a particular piece of limestone, and the result has been
a summit with a point like that of a needle overtopping adjacent
and undulating forms. Where the old igneous rock occurs in a
zone, a sombre landscape is forthcoming, as for instance above
the northern shore of Lake Van between Akhlat and Adeljivas.
Or when the highly marmorised older limestones have the upper
hand, there ensue sterility and glaring light. These latter rocks
have a fairly wide extension and compose prominent lines of
mountain. For example, they have bestowed upon the plain of
Khinis its northern boundary ; and nowhere are they seen to
greater advantage than in that shining and richly modelled barrier
appropriately named the Akh Dagh or White Mountain. During
the journey from Gopal to Tutakh on the Upper Murad they were
constantly emerging from the sheets of lava ; and in the south
we found them in the vicinity of the southern peripheral moun-
tains. They alternate with mica- schist in the Elmali Dere and
Giizel Dere, districts at the south-western extremity of Lake Van.
And they stretch across the water to form the promontory of
Tadvan.
A rather later series of limestones would appear to be repre-
sented by the slopes over which we climbed to the Vavuk Pass
between Gumiishkhaneh and Baiburt. There they are placed on the
very threshold of the Armenian tableland; and they are distributed
in a wide zone over the northern districts of Armenia, extending
all the way from the Merjan-Muzur Dagh in the west to be
represented by many a summit of the deeply eroded Chorokh
region. The block of heights on the north of the Western
Geographical 403
Euphrates is composed to a great extent of such Hmestones ; and
both in the neighbourhood of the Kop Pass, and during the
descent northwards from the pass of Khoshab Punar, we have
been able to identify them by the evidence of fossils as belonging
to the Cretaceous period. The several startling eminences from
the surface of this elevated stage — a surface which is characterised
by prevailing flatness and horizontality of the summit-line — are
mostly due to upstanding masses of limestone, such as Akhbaba
and Jejen. In the south we recognised the fossils of this same
series of rocks upon the line of hills which border upon the north
the great depression of the plain of Mush, where these give
passage to the ]\Iurad.
Later still in date, and of almost constant prominence in the
landscapes both of the plateau region and of the peripheral
mountains, are the limestones of Eocene age. They are, perhaps,
more usually associated with softer features, especially when they
are interbedded with shales. Writing from memory, one may
best recall the incidence of their impressive features at such widely
distant points as the Palandoken line of heights, on the south of
Erzerum and Pasin, and where they whiten the waters of Lake
Van in the neighbourhood of Adeljivas. This pretty town with
sweet-sounding name lies at the foot of a lofty cliff composed
exclusively of white chalk. As you lunch in one of the caves
along the road from Akhlat, numerous corals are observed
imbedded in the rock. Even where volcanic action has
fastened upon such heights with greatest persistency, the white
face of this rock or of the softer Pliocene deposit is seldom absent
from the scene. Eocene limestones and Pliocene deposits are
prominent over the area of the Central Tableland ; and the
limestone emerges on the further side of the plain of Khinis
to compose the Zirnek Dagh, continuing the outline of Khamur.
The almost limitless expanse through which the Murad winds
between Tutakh and Melazkert reveals most clearly its essential
character as a country of rolling chalk downs beneath the
covering of a cloak of lava. The southern limit of that expanse
would seem to the eye to be volcanic, misled by the precedent
of the immense extension of the train of Ararat. But when
the barrier is at length reached it is found to consist of Eocene
and Pliocene limestones, forming a pedestal for the fabric of
Sipan.
Scarcely a less prominent surface feature are the Pliocene
404 Armenia
lacustrine deposits,^ crumbling in the hand with masses of fresh-
water shells. There can be no doubt that at an epoch contem-
poraneous with the outpouring of lavas a lake or lakes extended
from Erzinjan, Erzerum and Pasin across the region now occupied
by the Central Tableland, and through Khinis to the plains of
the Murad and Sipan. The interior of Asia Minor and the
tableland of Persia were covered with lakes at the same date ;
but that these were salt in the case of Persia is proved by the
melancholy saline deserts which disfigure immense tracts of the
soil of Iran. In Armenia they have been productive of the
greatest fertility, their wholesome sediments having mingled with
volcanic matter and become constituent of rich brown loams. It
seems likely that the purple sandstones and conglomerates along
the northern shore of Lake Van are the representatives of similar
conditions within that basin. One is justified in supposing that
the waters became gradually more shallow, until they remained
only on the surface of the numerous greater and smaller depres-
sions, which still bear their imprint to a degree which must be
convincing even to an unpractised eye. A chain of separate
lakes was formed, spread broadcast over the land, and washing
the promontories of the heights. Such lakes appear to have
existed at Alexandropol and in the plain of Erivan ; over Pasin,
the plain of Erzerum, and that of Erzinjan ; in the districts of
Khinis, Alashkert, Bulanik and probably Mush, to say nothing
of the smaller sheets of water. They were drained away as a
result of the increasing elevation of the land as a whole ; and,
probably, in some cases the process was accelerated by uptilt,
causing erosion of the adjacent barriers to be accelerated. The
lakes which exist at the present day are almost exclusively due
to lavas filling up the mouths of valleys and forming dams on an
immense scale.
The relation of geology to geograph}' must always be
intimate ; and in such a country as Armenia it is scarcely
possible to travel without becoming absorbed in the open book
of that fascinating study, as day by day the eye is greeted by a
* The Miocene deposits are found in tlie valleys, e.g. in those of the Frat (Western
Euphrates) and Araxes.
An interesting fact has been brought to my notice by Mr. F. Oswald, my friend and
companion during my last journey. There may be seen in the Tiflis Museum the
remains of a mammoth which was discovered in the lacustrine deposits of the Alexan-
dropol district. Similar remains had already been found in deposits of similar character
and age in the neighbourhood of Khinis by Colonel J- Sliiel. These are in the British
Museum, where they have been christened Elephas ari/ieniacus.
Geographical 405
new page. The architectural quality of the structural features
is perhaps the main incentive, stimulating the curiosity to com-
prehend the underlying design. But the absence of wood and
the sparseness even of vegetation permit and invite the interest
to centre in the forms and hues and texture of the material
which has been the vehicle of the large idea. Nature is revealed
in her sculpturesque rather than picturesque beauties ; nor will
her admirer regret the nakedness of his love. But the climate
suffers from the prevailing treelessness of the landscapes, being
deficient in moisture for the most favourable development of the
human race. One feels the skin growing contracted as in most
Eastern countries, and the native sappiness of the flesh becoming
impaired. There is no reason why this country should not be
strewn with woodlands, and her plains verdant with a kinder
rainfall and extended irrigation. Patches of forest, but thin and
miserable, still struggle towards the interior from the luscious
zone in the north. They are seen on the sides of the passes at a
distance from the villages. But with the exception of the very
thinly populated districts of Kighi and the Dersim, and the slopes
of the Soghanlu mountains south-west of Kars, the land has been
denuded of any covering as a result of progressive economical
decline. Centuries of unchecked licence on the part of tribal
shepherds — Tartars, Turkomans, Kurds — have brought about
the destruction of a source of salubriousness and wealth which
under any circumstances would require careful husbanding.
So the clouds are little tempted to descend upon the earth,
and the sky lowers without bringing rain. The country streams
with light, and the pavements of ubiquitous lava burn like an
oven beneath the untempered ra}'s of the sun. In winter the
glare is blinding ; for the ground is covered with snow, though
not generally to any great depth. These are disadvantages
which are not entirely without remedy ; and there is nothing
needed but less perversity on the part of the human animal to
convert Armenia into an almost ideal nursery of his race. The
strong highland air, the rigorous but bracing winters, and the
summers when the nights are always cool ; a southern sun, great
rivers, immense tracts of agricultural soil, an abundance of
minerals — such blessings and subtle properties are calculated to
develop the fibre in man, foster with material sufficiency the
growth of his winged mind and cause it to expand like a flower
in a generous light. One feels that for various reasons quite
4o6 Armenia
outside inherent qualities this land has never enjoyed at any
period of history the fulness of opportunity. And one awaits her
future with an expectant interest.
Both branches of the Euphrates wind their way by immense
stages at the foot of these mountains, in the lap of these plains.
The eastern branch, called Murad, contains the greater volume,
rising in the neighbourhood of Diadin near the base of the Ararat
system and traversing Armenia almost from one extremity to the
other. The principal affluents are the Bingol Su, bringing the
drainage of the plain of Khinis ; the Gunek Su, and the combined
waters of the Kighi and Muzur rivers. The more westerly
channel is composed in its infancy by two streams of almost
equal size, one descending from the Dumlu Dagh and flowing
sluggishly through the plain of Krzerum ; the other, and perhaps
the greater, springing in the neighbourhood of the sources of the
Chorokh in the elevated district of Ovajik. The Kelkid and
Chorokh are both in their upper courses typical Armenian rivers.
The Araxes takes its birth upon the Central Tableland, and its
true source is probably represented by the little lake which
appears in my drawing from the western summit of Bingol
(Ch. XXII. Fig. 1 94, p. 373). What a contrast between this wealth
of waters, many of which might be rendered navigable, and the
hopeless sterility of great parts of the interior of Persia, from
which no river finds its way to the ocean !
All these rivers wind slowly and silently over the surface of
the tableland, threading landscapes which most often expand
beyond the range of sight. They find a tardy issue through the
zones of peripheral mountains, where they meet the hiss of
torrents and the spray of waterfalls. When one reflects with
closed eyes upon the experiences of travel it is not the dividing
heights that fill the mind. What are these for the most part but
the higher stages of the plateau country ? It is the plains, great
and small, with their lake-like or sea-like surfaces ; and it is the
ever-present feature of the volcanic outlines, spaced at large
intervals. The streams part on their course to widely distant
oceans from a scarcely perceptible rise in the ground. Earth is
spread about you, nude and quite unconscious of the restless
presence of man. A variety of delicate and transparent tints are
shed over the modelling, due to the atmosphere and the volcanic
nature of the soil. The hues deepen in the blue ribands of the
flowing waters, in the gem-like appearance of those that are still.
Geographical 407
And when the vision has nearly faded there remain the shapes of
Ararat and Sipan, the campagna of Erivan, the ineffable beauty
of the lake of Van. . . . The area of the country which has been
delimited within the Turkish frontier measures 35,599 square
miles. If we add this figure to the Russian territory (Vol. I,
p. 445) we may conceive a geographical unity nearly equal in
extent to England and Wales.
CHAPTER XXIV
STATISTICAL AND POLITICAL
When after the close of the last war between Russia and Turkey
the leading statesmen of the European Powers assembled in
congress at Berlin in the year 1878, they were approached by
delegates from the Armenian people, one of whom was no less
a personage than the present Katholikos, or High Priest of the
nation, His Holiness Mekertich Khrimean. In answer to the
enquiries of the Plenipotentiaries upon what portions of the
Ottoman Empire the Armenians — of whom they had heard
during their studies of the classics at school and college — still
bestowed the glamour of an historical name, the delegates
addressed themselves to the excellent map of the late Professor
Kiepert and endeavoured to trace upon it the approximate limits
of their country, embracing its area by a coloured line. Kiepert's
map, displaying on its face this interesting addition, is now
slumbering in the archives of the Berlin Foreign Office, and I
have been permitted, by the courtesy of the German Government,
to hold it in my hands. So far as I remember, the area
comprised within the coloured line corresponds approximately to
that which is indicated in a document presented to Congress by
the delegates, under the title of a project for an Organic Regula-
tion to be applied to the new Armenian province which they
desired to see established. The delegates asked that this
province should be administered by Armenian officials ; and
when they were requested to state what proportion its Armenian
inhabitants would bear to the Mussulmans, they furnished figures
for the vilayets of Erzerum, Van and Bitlis (excluding Sert) which
placed the numbers of the Mohammedans at 528,000 and the
non-Mohammedans at 1,172,000.' All the country between the
1 See Blue-l)ook, Turkey, No. 6, 1S81, \). 127.
Statistical and Political 409
Russian and Persian frontiers on the east, and a line drawn
between Tireboli on the coast of the Black Sea and the confluence
of the Kizil Chibuk Chai with the Euphrates on the west, was to
be included in the new Government. The northern boundary
was the coast line of the Black Sea ; while that on the south
extended from the Euphrates to the river of Bitlis, and so through
the wild districts south of Lake Van back to the Persian frontier.
At a congress of Oriental diplomatists both their demands and
their statements would have been perfectly understood. One-half
of the former might possibly be conceded, and the smallest
fraction of the latter accepted. The collective wisdom of Europe
assembled in the Prussian capital may perhaps have received a
hint in this sense. The delimitation on the map of Kiepert was
a far greater puzzle ; how many members of Congress had even
heard of the publication of the learned and laborious German
Professor ? But it was evident that there must be districts
somewhere containing an Armenian population ; so a clause was
inserted in the Treaty to the effect that the Porte was pledged to
carry out reforms in tJie provinces inhabited by Armenians}
The Plenipotentiaries returned to their respective countries
immensely pleased with themselves and with their work. Europe
forgot all about the Armenians, nor have the Powers collectively
displayed up to the present day the smallest interest in the
Armenian Question. Only England has taken the matter in the
least seriously ; and the reaction which marred the results of the
far-seeing policy of Lord Beaconsfield — and which was perhaps
induced by the theatrical character of that eminent man —
prevented us from striking while the iron was still hot. The
important position which we had attained in the councils of the
Ottoman Empire by the provisions of the Cyprus Convention
was early and perhaps irrevocably lost. When Mr. Gladstone's
Government came to deal with the complexities of the Armenian
1 The clause in the BerHn Treaty relating to the Armenians is as follows : — Article
61. "La sublime Porte s'engage a realiser sans plus de retard les ameliorations et les
reformes qu'exigent les besoins locaux dans les provinces habitees par les Armeniens et
a garantir leur securite centre les Circassiens et les Kurdes. Elle donnera connaissance
periodiquement des mesures prises a cet effet aux puissances qui en surveilleront
I'application."
The Armenian delegates to the Berlin Congress presented a memoir to the European
Plenipotentiaries in which they set forth their cause. It is published by De la
Jonquiere in his Histoire de P Empire Ottoman, Paris, l88i, pp. 39-44. They also drew
out a project for an Organic Regulation to be applied to the new province. It was to
be administered by an Armenian Governor-General appointed by the Porte with the
consent of the Powers.
4IO Armenia
Question, they could scarcely expect to enjoy the goodwill of the
Turkish Government, which, out of office, they had done their
utmost to disparage and humiliate.
An attempt was made by Mr. Goschen, Ambassador at
Constantinople under the Gladstone regime, to grapple with the
inherent difficulties of the case. Immediately after the Berlin
Treaty a number of able consular officers had been despatched by
England over the whole of Asia Minor with instructions to report
upon the general condition of the country, and upon the measures
of reform, extending over the whole field of Turkish administration,
which it would be necessary to recommend. Their reports are an
interesting contribution to the literature of Blue-books ; but in
respect of the Armenian Question our Ambassador cannot have
been enabled to extract from them the information which was
necessary to provide him with that sure ground upon ivJiicJi to
build that he was seeking to acquire. The Armenians them-
selves, for whom he was working, supplied him with misleading
statistics, and seem never to have inspired him with any real con-
fidence as to the soundness of their cause.^ As a consequence,
no definite plan was placed before the Porte, and, what is more
important, no definite policy seems ever to have been brought to
the mind of our Ambassador or of his colleagues representing the
signatory Powers. The teasing activity of England in Asia
Minor, and the reports of misgovernment in every direction which
she showered upon the Porte, seem not only to have alarmed
Turkey but the European Powers as well ; and it only required
a word from Prince Bismarck to dismiss the whole question of
Armenian reforms.-
1 The statistics of population were supplied by the Patriarch Nerses to Mr. Goschen.
They may be found in Blue-book, Turkey, No. 23, 1880, p. 274. Mr. Goschen,
writing to Lord Granville on 15th July 1880, says: "My strong feeling is that the
Powers cannot commit themselves to any plan until they know the real facts about the
population. It would not do to build on a mistaken basis, and I feel convinced that no
one has sure ground. The Patriarch's figures arc as exaggerated as those of the Porte
on the other side. Again, how to deal with the nomad Kurds ? All must depend on
the physical force of the two different races and religions. If the Armenians should be
in a minority it will be dangerous to give them the same institutions which we should give
if they were in a majority, dangerous to themselves" (Blue-book, Turkey, No. 6, 1S81,
p. 16). And, again, in another despatch of 23rd July: "With regard to the actual
project of reforms, the letter of the Patriarch is conceived in such vague phrases that but
little advantage is to be derived from it in elucidating the problem to be solved "
{ibid. p. 20).
'■^ See Lord Granville's despatch, loth February 1881 : " In consequence of the
objections raised by the German Government, Mr. Goschen will not be instructed to put
forward the Armenian Question immediately on his return to Constantinople."
Statistical and Political 41 1
What was the problem ? The Berlin Treaty spoke of tJie
provinces inhabited by the Armenians. But the Armenians have
become scattered in considerable numbers over the whole extent
of Asia Minor. This dispersal is the consequence of compara-
tively remote historical events. To require the Porte to intro-
duce reforms in tJie provinces inhabited by the Arnieniajis, and to
supervise the carrying out of the new measures, would amount to
little less on the part of Europe than to take the whole of Turkey
under tutelage. But there might be certain districts in which the
Armenians were in a majority, and where they might be able to
provide the necessary machinery of government, enjoying a certain
measure of local autonomy while remaining subjects of the Sultan.
Neither the Armenians themselves nor the British Consuls appear
to have furnished satisfactory evidence towards such a solution.
What is needed by statesmen who have to deal with Asiatic
problems is an intimate knowledge of Asiatic geography. During
all the long series of our investigations into the Armenian
Question this side of the subject was almost ignored. The
Armenian Project of which I have spoken embraced within the
area of the proposed province outlying regions which present such
dissimilar economical and political problems, that it would have
been an act of political madness to endeavour to weld them
together under the rule of a mere Governor-General. Our own
Consuls, partly, no doubt, owing to the vague character of their
instructions, fell into the same error. For instance, in estimating
the population of the Armenian provinces, vast outlying districts
were included, such as the sanjak of Hakkiari belonging to the
vilayet of Van, where the Armenian inhabitants are few and far
between, and where the character of the country and people is
so wild and intractable that they could with difficulty be
controlled from an Armenian centre. The problems that are
presented to a Governor on the tableland of Armenia are
quite sufficient to absorb his attention and exercise his resources
without the addition to his jurisdiction of the mountains of
Kurdistan, which, if Russia were mistress of the country, would
be constituted into a military Government and subjected to
military law.
It must be my endeavour, in proceeding to the statistical
aspect of my subject, to avoid, as far as possible with the existing
Governmental areas, this lamentable mistake. As in the case
of the Russian provinces, I shall adhere as closely as may be
412
Annenia
feasible to the natural boundaries of the tableland of Armenia,
such as they have been determined in the preceding chapter
and delineated on the little map which accompanies the political
chapter of my first volume. Just as it was necessary in some
instances, when dealing with the Russian territory, to overstep the
limits of the natural frontier, so I am now compelled by the
statistical units at my disposal to diverge at certain points from
that established line. Reference to the map of which I have
spoken (Vol. I. p. 452) will enable my reader to compare the
geographical with the statistical area. The latter is made up of
the Governments or divisions of Governments indicated in the
following table. Since this statement was compiled the numbers
of the Armenians have been reduced by the massacres of 1895.
In the vilayet of Erzerum between 2500 and 3000 people were
butchered ; in the town of Bitlis not less than 800, in that of
Kharput 500, and as many as 2800 in Arabkir. Reliable figures
are wanting for the losses in human life throughout the country
districts of the vilayets of Van, Bitlis and Kharput. But they
must have been considerable, and whole villages were wiped
out. About 50,000 to 60,000 Armenians fled into Russia from the
eastern vilayets. But many of these have already returned, and a
few years of settled government would enable this prolific people
to make good the deficiencies in their ranks. Later estimates,
affected by such special circumstances, would be more misleading
than those which I now present.
TABLE III. — Population of the Armenian Tableland in Turkey
(about the year 1890)
Moslems.
Christians.
Others.
Total.
Armenians.
Greeks.
VILAYET VAN 1
Town of Van
Merkei-Caza of Van .
Other Cazas of Van Sanjak .
Total
1 0, 000
7,000
35,229
20,000
27,000
28,644
30,000
34,000
63,873
52,22g
75^644
127,873
' The figures for the town and merkez-caza of Van are based on my own knowledge.
Those for the other cazas of Van sanjak are the Turkish official figures for 1890, except
in the case of Adeljivas caza, where I have substituted a private estimate.
Statistical and Political
413
1
Moslems.
Christians.
Others.
Total.
Armenians.
Greeks.
VILAYET BITLIS^
Town of Bitlis and Merkez-
27,673
16,094
342
44,109
Caza
(Syrian
Christians).
Other Cazas Bitlis Sanjak .
18,593
14,306
32,899
Total Sanjak Bitlis .
46,266
30,400
342
77,008
Sanjak Mush —
Town and Caza of Mush .
21,246
35,328
56,574
Other Cazas .
42,572
25,873
68,445
Total Sanjak Mush .
63,818
61,201
125,019
Sanjak Genj —
Town and Cazas
Total of the three
35,370
5,583
40,953
145,454
97, -^84
342
242,980
Sanjaks
VILAYET KHARPUT2
Sanjak Kharput .
120,000
85,000
'334
422
206,756
Sanjak Dersim .
Total
62,000
8,000
70,000
182,000
93,000
1334
422
276,736
VILAYET DIARBEKR3
Caza Palu ....
45,580
15,150
60,730
VILAYET ERZERUM*
Sanjak Erzerum —
Town of Erzerum .
26,554
10,434
484
1422
38,894
Other Cazas .
207,261
57,358
330
1797
266,746
Total Sanjak .
233,815
67,792
814
3219
305,640
Sanjak Erzinjan
155,879
31,091
2456
2182
191,608
Sanjak Bayazid .
Total
Grand Total
38,801
7,885
...
568
47,254
428,493
106,768
1 3270
59(>9
544,502
S5J,75S
387,746
1
4604
6733
1,232,841
^ The figures for Bitlis vilayet are the Turkish official figures for 1893.
2 The figures for Kharput sanjak are an estimate made for me by Consul Boyajean of
Diarbekr, at the instance of Consul R. W. Graves. I had previously calculated that the
Christians were in a majority in that sanjak. The population of the Dersim sanjak has
been estimated from various sources. The estimate is little better than a guess.
■■^ The figures for caza Palu have been furnished by Consul Boyajean.
^ The Turkish official figures, as annexed to the British Consular Trade Report for
1887, have been adopted for the vilayet of Erzerum.
Except in the cases of Van town and caza, and possibly in those of vilayet Kharput
and caza Palu, a large percentage might be added to the figures above given in order to
provide for the imperfect registration of females. Under this head the figures for the
other cazas of Van might be increased by 10 percent; those for Bitlis vilayet by 13
per cent ; and those for Erzerum vilayet by 7 per cent.
Armenians
906,984
Greeks
Turks
489,931
Russians
Kurds
479,676
Others
Tartars
306,310
414 Armenia
The Moslem population may be divided into Turks and
Kurds as follows : —
Turks (Sunni Mohammedan) . . . 442,946
Kurds (Sunni Mohammedan and Kizilbash) . 410,812
Total 853,758
It may be interesting to add these figures to those which I
have given for the Russian provinces. The population of the
country as a whole for the statistical area delimited on the map
will be represented by the following figures : —
52,367
28,844
84,439
Total 2,348,551
In the case of the Turkish provinces I have found it a task of
the greatest difficulty to arrive at a statistical estimate of the
population upon which it might be possible to rely. The results
resumed in Table III. are the outcome of a long and laborious
investigation pursued in the country itself, in which I was some-
times aided, but more often bewildered, by the lists which I had
in my possession, and which have either already been published,
or were furnished to me by private friends. In the absence of
a census conducted on scientific principles, any figures can only
be approximately correct. Two possible sources of information
exist which, in the first instance, it is natural to consult. The
first are the official lists which are published in the almanacs of
each Government, and which profess to give the numbers both
of Mohammedans and of Christians inhabiting each caza or
administrative sub-division. The second are the books of the
diocesan authorities who, under the 14th and 96th Articles of
the so-called Armenian constitution (of which I shall speak later
on), are enjoined to maintain complete records of all births and
deaths among Armenians in the diocese, and to provide copies
to the Central Bureau of the Patriarchate in Constantinople.
But the diocesan authorities are chary of recording information
which conflicts with the number of Armenians who are placed for
purposes of taxation upon the Government lists, and these lists
themselves are founded upon a system of which it is the tendency
to underrate the number of the population, Mohammedan and
Christian alike. Owing to the seclusion of women in the East,
Siaiisiica/ and Political 4 1 5
no serious attempt is made to count the female population ; while
in the case of males the figures in the official statistics are derived
from the military census, which is at best a very imperfect
record, and which each man strives his utmost to evade. All
Mohammedan males are liable to be enrolled in the army, while
the Christians are obliged to pay an annual tax which exempts
them from military service, and which is incident at birth. In
the case of the sedentary population it is probable that the
Christians evade this census to a greater extent than their
Mohammedan neighbours ; for the budget of a Christian family
is immediately menaced by the birth of a male child. On the
other hand, there are extensive districts on the southern portion
of the tableland in which the Kurdish tribes inhabiting them
are in a state approaching independence, and have never been
counted at all. The official lists must for these reasons be used
with much discrimination and care. In one Government they
will be compiled with some measure of completeness ; in
another they will be defective as regards the Armenians ; in yet
another as regards the Kurds. In addition to this source
of information there are the estimates which have been made
in particular districts by private people engaged in business,
and who know their own district well. The figures which
emanate from the Armenian Patriarchate, and which have found
their way into the Blue-books, have evidently been designed
to subserve a political purpose, and may be dismissed under a
sense of disappointment and disgust.
Two further points are suggested to me as calling for
special remark. In the first place, I am satisfied that the total
population of the Turkish provinces is in excess of the figure
which I give. That figure only shows a percentage of population
to the square mile of less than thirty^ ; in the Russian provinces,
which can scarcely be called populous by comparison, although
they probably contain less waste land, the percentage is over
forty -nine. Secondly, while the greatest care has been taken
to get the totals of the different peoples at least correct in the
proportion which they bear to one another, it is probable in the
cases of the Armenians and of the Kurds that even for this
purpose the figures are a little too low. I have preferred to
1 The statistical aiea with which we are dealing for the Turkish provinces measures
42,814 square miles. If we were to adopt the area delimited by the Armenian delegates
to the Berlin Congress, the proportion of Christians to Mohammedans would be still
smaller.
41 6 Armenia
content myself with reproducing the statistical materials which,
however imperfect, I consider the best, and only to mention in
this connection the general impression which I have received/
Among the inhabitants of the Turkish provinces who are
classed as Mussulmans there exist considerable differences both
of race and of religion ; but for our present purpose it is most
useful to distinguish them according as they are Turkish or Kurd.
Under the former name I have counted the Mussulman population
of the northern portion of the Government of Erzerum, or, to use
more specific language, of the entire Government of Erzerum,
with the exception of the sanjak of Bayazid and the cazas of
Khinis, Kighi and Terjan. I have also included as Turkish one-
half of the Mussulman inhabitants of the caza of Pasin. In the
Governments of Van and of Bitlis the only portion of the
population which I have thought it safe to number as Turkish
are the Mussulmans in the towns of Van, Bitlis and Mush ; as
citizens in Governmental centres they are attached, if not by a
common origin, at least by a common character and common
sympathies to the interests of the ruling race. In the cases of
the Government of Kharput and of the Governmental division of
Palu, I have been unable to verify by personal acquaintance the
estimates which I have adopted as the best ; these estimates
make the Turkish about as strong as the Kurdish element in the
sanjak of Kharput, and a little less numerous in the caza of Palu.
That part of the Mussulman population of the sanjak of Dersim
who are counted as adherents of Government may most usefully
be classed as Turkish and have been included in the roll of
Turks. In the several Governments the remainder of the
Mussulman inhabitants compose the total which has been given
for the Kurds.
' It is interesting to compare these results, which were obtained quite independently
and before I had seen his estimate, with the figures given by the late Mr. Taylor, for
many years British Consul for Erzerum and the surrounding country. Mr. Taylor
knew the country intimately, and had travelled extensively in it. On his figures are
based those which have been given by his successors in office, and which appear in the
Blue-books. After making the necessary deductions for districts annexed to Russia
since the date of Mr. Taylor's reports, his estimate of the population, as adapted to the
area with which we are dealing, is as follows : — Turks, 348,350 ; Kurds, 466,982 ;
Christians, 352,657 — total, 1,167,989. This estimate corresponds in a satisfactory
manner with mine, after we have made allowance for information, either new or more
complete, which has appeared with reference to certain districts since Taylor's time.
The census shows that Taylor under-estimated the Turks who inhabit the northern
cazas of Erzerum vilayet. Taylor also placed the Kizilbash Kurds of the Dersim at
110,000. Relying on more recent reports, I place them at 50,000.
Statistical and Political 417
To express these results in general language, we may say that
the seat of the Turkish population is the country on the north
of Erzerum, while the Kurds inhabit the more southerly districts
of the tableland, extending to the southern peripheral mountains.
But what is the meaning of the name Turkish which has been
used to distinguish the one from the other element ? We must
certainly guard ourselves from the danger of attributing to a
convenient political designation an ethnological sense. We are
justified in declaring that the Mussulman inhabitants of the
northern districts of the Government of Erzerum are not of
Kurdish origin ; on the other hand, the ground is less tenable if
we suppose that they belong to the Turkish race. How large
an admixture of Turkish blood may flow within their veins, is a
question which it is impossible to determine ; it was rather the
fertile country on the west of the Euphrates that presented the
most attractive settling ground to the invading hordes of Turks.
I am given to believe that a considerable number derive from
the widely spread Georgian family ; but that family has here
mixed with other race elements, of which the Turkish is one. In
what pertains to national solidarity, in the possession of common
interests and common sentiments, these Mussulman inhabitants
of the northern districts may justly be classed as Turks. But
even this statement is subject to exception and cannot be
universally applied. Just as in the northern zone of peripheral
mountains there still exist whole districts of which the inhabitants
have adopted the Mohammedan religion, but retain their essential
affinity to the Greek race to which they belong, so within the
statistical area of the tableland among the ranks of the Mussul-
mans may be found considerable aggregates of people who,
although of Armenian origin, profess the dominant creed. In
the northern province an important instance of this change in
religion rather than in nationality is found in the district of
Tortum between Erzerum and the town of Olti ; the Mussulman
inhabitants of that district are said to be the descendants of the
ancient Armenian families who are known to have lived there
within historical times.
While the Turkish inhabitants are engaged in agriculture
and in those pursuits of urban life which attach to the service of
Government or of individuals, or to the less ambitious among the
requirements of industry and commerce, the Kurdish population,
on the other hand, present a variety of social development which
VOL, II 2 E
41 8 Armenia
includes both the sedentary and the nomadic state, the organisa-
tion of the commune and that of the tribe. A people who were
known to a remote antiquity and whose character is already
sufficiently familiar in Europe, the Kurds who inhabit the table-
land are not only distinguished from one another according to
the plane of social life to which they have attained, but are
divided by essential differences of language and of creed. From
the neighbourhood of the town of Sivas in Asia Minor to beyond
Malatia on the south, and between the two branches of the
Euphrates to the vicinity of Mush, the Kurds, although classed
in the official lists as Mussulmans, neither practise the orthodox
religion nor speak the same dialect as their neighbours of
presumably kindred race. Branded throughout the Nearer East
under the opprobrious name of Kizilbash, they harbour a sullen
hatred of the Turkish Government, whose attempts to convert
them to orthodoxy they resent ; while towards the Christians they
are drawn by the impulse of a common antagonism to the
existing order, and by the respect in which they hold the
Christian religion, in the person of whose Founder they recognise
an incarnation of God. Their religion, so far as we know it,
bears the impress of the Aryan mind, which seeks for ,a human
embodiment of the Deity ; they invest with divine attributes
Moses and Jesus, Mohammed and Ali. Their language, although
a branch of the Kurdish, contains an admixture both of Persian
and Armenian words, and is said to differ so greatly from the
prevailing dialect of the Kurdish tongue that those who are
familiar with the one are unable to understand the other. While
they practise the rite of circumcision and have adopted certain of
the observances of Islam, the contempt in which their religion is
held by their Mussulman neighbours of the Sunni sect disposes
them against the dominant creed, which they regard as a danger-
ous enemy of their own peculiar faith. In brief, they constitute
a separate element in the Kurdish population of the tableland,
and the numerical value of this element may be placed at about
a third of the total figure which I have given for the Kurds in
the Turkish provinces. Their geographical position between and
about the two branches of the Euphrates invests them with some
contemporary importance from a military point of view ; and
they hold the wild and mountainous country on the south of the
headquarters of the Turkish Army Corps at the town of Erzinjan.
In this district, which is known under the name of the Dersim,
Statistical and Political 4 1 9
they have long resisted and continue to resist the imposition of
the Turkish yoke. They are here in the tribal and pastoral
state ; but they have been obliged by the rigour of the climate
to dwell in houses, and they cultivate small strips of land. In the
country on the west and east of the Dersim the Kizilbashes are
peaceful and industrious peasants, of whom most travellers have
spoken with respect.
If we draw on the map an imaginary line from ]\Iush through
Erzerum towards the sea, the Mussulman population of the
Turkish provinces are distributed in the following manner over
the area of the tableland. On the north of Erzerum and on
either side of this line the Turkish population extend from the
Russian border on the east along the banks of the ' Western
Euphrates to its junction with the eastern branch. The country
south of Erzerum and on the west of the line is the seat of the
Kizilbash Kurds ; while on the east are situated the Kurds who
profess the orthodox religion and speak the prevailing dialect of
Kurdistan. The territorial extension of the Kurdish people
varies according as the forces of order are strengthened or decline,
but their original home and natural habitation are the mountains
which contain the sources of the Tigris. From the Euphrates
on the west to the Persian Gulf upon the south the zone of
buttress ranges which support the tablelands of Armenia and
Persia, and which we know at first under the name of Taurus
and then under that of Zagros, is inhabited by tribes of Aryan
origin — the Kurds and further south the Lurs — who are dis-
tinguished by considerable variations in dialect and in religion,
but who present the common characteristic of an inveterate
aversion to settled life and to the imposition of the yoke of law.
Their manner of living is directly determined by their geographical
position and pastoral pursuits. As spring develops into summer
and the yellow drought creeps higher and higher up the slopes of
the mountain-sides, they ascend from one to another step, from a
lower to a higher chain, and arrive, perhaps at the approach of
autumn, on the fringe of the tableland. When at length the
season is verging upon winter the migration southwards begins.
A continuous throng of sheep and goats and horses and weather-
worn people of either sex and every age flows slowly down the
blighted country, filing by tortuous tracks between the boulders
or pausing about the noonday hour by the bed of a shaded
stream. At the foot of the range, on the verge of the vast
4 20 Armenia
alluvial plains through which the Tigris winds, is placed their
winter encampment ; their tents are sufficient shelter against the
climate of the low country, which even through the colder months
is temperate and mild. These yearly migrations of the Kurdish
tribes are not conducted without great suffering on the part of
the settled population ; their granaries are plundered by the
shepherd army, and the land which they might have cultivated
is occupied by the nomads during winter as pasture for their
flocks. But this is a problem which belongs to the southern
peripheral region and to the lowlands, rather than to the
tableland. The Kurds of the tableland — with the possible
exception of the Kizilbashes — are an alien element of the
population. The great distance of their pastures from the plains
of the Tigris makes it difficult for them, if not impossible, to
pursue their instinctive migration ; the rigorous winter obliges
them to discard their tents and inhabit villages — in a word, to
take the first step towards a more settled order, of which the
further development is viewed by some of them with just alarm,
as incompatible with their tribal organisation and independent
life.
We may place at the kernel of the Armenian Question in
Turkey the difficulties which arise from the presence of this
Kurdish population upon the Armenian plateau. It is true that
a considerable number among them have become industrious
cultivators and subsist on the fruits of their own toil. According
as the period which separates them from their former life is long
or short, or the name of their more lawless kinsmen is despised or
respected, these peasants will answer the traveller who inquires to
what people they belong either by replying that they are Osmanli
or by owning to their being Kurds. In the first case they rank
themselves with the settled Turkish population ; in the second
they acknowledge the bond which attaches them to the free life
of the tribe. But the weight of this agricultural element lies in
the scale of peace ; it is otherwise with those Kurds who retain to
the full their tribal organisation and who pasture their flocks on
the lofty highlands which extend to the plain of Erzerum. It is
possible that from a remote period the nomads of Kurdistan
proper may have advanced the limit of their summer journey
beyond the plain of Mush, to return at the approach of winter to
the neighbourhood of Diarbckr. How far their migration should
be extended would be determined by the distance which separated
Statistical and Political 421
them from their winter quarters on the lowlands, and by the
degree of resistance which the settled peoples might be able to
offer to their unwelcome approach. The fall of the feudal system
in Turkey and the decline of the power of the Turkish beys may
no doubt have contributed in a sensible manner to open breaches
to the Kurds ; but it appears that a powerful colony of this people
were brought to their present seats in Armenia through a definite
act of public policy on the part of the Turkish Power. After the
defeat of the Persians in the plain of Chaldiran in i 5 1 4 it became
necessary to arrive at a permanent settlement of the Kurdish
provinces ; and it formed part of the plan pursued by Edrisi, the
distinguished Minister of Selim the First, and himself a Kurd ot
Bitlis, to remove a portion of this turbulent people from the
country of their home and to settle them along the new frontier
of Turkey in the districts bordering upon Persia and Georgia
which had been acquired from the Shah. It is said that they
were granted a perpetual immunity from taxation on the condition
that they would act as a permanent militia upon the border which
had been given them to guard.^ Neither the evidence of subse-
quent history nor the contemporary political situation upon the
tableland can be taken to have established the wisdom of a policy
which appears to have overrated the capacity of the Kurds whether
for benefit or for harm. On the one hand, by adding to the area
inhabited by them, the Turkish Government seems rather to have
increased the difficulties which have always beset their efforts to
hold this people in check ; and, on the other, their experience of
the value of this militia can scarcely be so pleasant a memory as
their persistent continuance in a worn-out ideal might lead us to
expect. During the two campaigns against Russia of 1829 and
1854 the Kurdish chiefs played off one Power against another,
and are even said to have assisted the invading armies by affording
a passage through their adopted country and by providing them
with supplies. In the campaign of 1877 the Kurds were the
most dangerous element in the Turkish army, and are described
by an eye-witness of the several actions in Asia as a grotesque
corps of irregular cavalry breaking into groups when resisted
and altogether unfitted for the serious operations of war. Their
1 Consul Taylor, in alluding to the Kurds of the tableland, has written to the
following effect : " The Kurds inhabiting the Erzerum districts, with the exception of the
Hakkiari, were originally immigrants from the vicinity of Diarbekr ; and there is only
one tribe, the Mamakanlu — said to be descended from the Armenian Mamikoneans —
who are natives of the soil. "
42 2 Armenia
atrocious cruelty towards the wounded and their mutilation of the
dead was visited upon the heads of their afflicted protectors in a
general execration of the Turkish name. Yet even the bitterness
of this disappointment and the scarcely doubtful lesson of several
minor wars, which within the course of the past century they have
been obliged to conduct against the Kurds, seem not to have
convinced the Turkish Government of the folly of endeavouring
to humour a people who will never be of any assistance to
Government until they shall have lost for ever the power of
resistance and ranged themselves on the side of law. The reign-
ing Sultan in his dealings with the Kurds has inclined to the old
policy ; he has sought at once to civilise them and to render them
more efficient from a military point of view. In the wild and
seldom-visited country between the plain of Alashkert and the
lake of Van I was able to gain a practical acquaintance with the
methods that are being pursued. In the village of Patnotz,
the principal seat of the notorious tribe of Haideranli, a solid
stone structure, which has been built by order of Government to
serve the several purposes of a mosque, a school, and a residence
for the chief, stands out from the usual cluster of mud hovels —
a palace among ant-hills. In every larger Kurdish village I
found a petty officer of the Turkish army bewailing the sad fate
which had brought him to this exile, and his own impotence to
control the slippery people and constrain them to attend his drills.
A new name, that of Hamidiyeh, has been given to this irregular
cavalry, and they have been liberally supplied with uniforms from
the Turkish magazines. The headquarters of the corps are at
Melazkert on the Eastern Euphrates or Murad Su, and over
thirty regiments have already been registered over the area of the
tableland. Each regiment has a nominal strength of about 600
men. But they have never yet manoeuvred together, and when
in 1892 a detachment from each regiment paraded at Erzerum, I
am informed that the whole number did not amount to 2000, and
that the sorry spectacle was presented to the Turkish general of
a motley company of aged men and half-grown youths, mounted
on horses which wanted muscle and had perhaps never tasted
corn. It is pleasant to acknowledge the good intentions of the
Sultan in endeavouring to educate the Kurds and to organise
them in a more efficient manner for the purposes of serious war ;
the ideal which has no doubt been present to the mind of his
military advisers is the example of the Russian corps of Cossacks.
Statistical ami Political 423
But the mild measures at present in favour will never attain this
result ; it is not under such a policy that the Kurds will be
subjected to the regular discipline of a camp. Either the young
men must be taken from their native or adopted provinces and
trained in the armies of the Empire at a distance from their homes,
or the entire people must be made to bend to the yoke of an equal
civil law, of which they at present evade the provisions and defy
the ministers.
While the Turkish Government have little reason to be
satisfied with the results of their experiments with the Kurds,
the effects which derive from their presence on the tableland are
disastrous in the extreme. Yet it is not the Mussulmans so
much as the Armenians who are afflicted by this scourge. Let
us pursue a little further our original analysis. Transplanted
from their natural camping-grounds, and obliged through the long
months of an arctic winter to provide themselves and their animals
with shelter and with food, this pastoral people were quartered
on the Armenian villages, but were required by Government to
pay an annual tax in return for the accommodation which during
winter they received.^ But an arrangement which was based
on the just principle of ensuring to the Armenian a fair remunera-
tion for the lodging which he furnished and the fodder which
he supplied, was put into practice by the local authorities in a
characteristic manner : the proceeds of the tax were committed
to their own coffers. In 1842, after the promulgation of the
celebrated charter of reforms which is known under the name
of the Hatti-Sherif of Gulkhaneh, a beginning was made towards
the abolition of the system ; the Kurds in the neighbourhood
of Mush were allotted certain villages which had been vacated by
the Armenian emigrants, and the Armenians of the district were
relieved of the heavy burden which they had previously been
obliged to bear. At the present day the pastoral Kurds of the
plateau have all their own villages, and the old system, except
in isolated instances, may be said to have disappeared. Yet even
now the Kurds justify their raids upon the Armenians on the
ingenious plea of the ancient right of quarter which they consider
they are entitled to enforce. Policy also dictates a procedure
which their tender conscience has approved. The Armenians
are at once the most immediate and the least redoubtable among
their neighbours. The courageous Kurd equips himself for the
1 This tax is known in the country under the name of kishlak, or winter quarters.
424 Armenia
foray with a rifle of modern Russian pattern and belts bristling
with cartridges ; his victims, by a cruel and cynical provision,
have been deprived by Government of all arms. Should the
Kurd be caught red-handed and arraigned before the civil
authority, he will scornfully defy the civil jurisdiction and
claim to be tried by his military superiors as a trooper in the
Hamidiyeh Corps. When the civil branch has been successfully
thwarted, the military authorities are cajoled, while the injured
party is rewarded by the visitation of a fresh injury, which he
endures without complaint. I can understand that in Kurdistan
proper with the lowlands about the course of the Tigris the
shepherd problem presents some difficulty ; it must always be
a task of some magnitude to control a people whose migrations
extend over so wide an area and whose country conceals within
its countless recesses such inaccessible retreats. On the tableland
the case is quite elementary : the pastoral Kurd belongs to a
village, and that village is situated in the neighbourhood of the
pastures from which he is driven by the winter snows. It cannot
be a matter of great difficulty to follow up the robbers to their
homes. It is well within the capacity of the existing authorities
to enforce against them the necessary measures of police. But
the tribal chiefs are well aware of the consequences which would
flow from such a change in Turkish policy towards them, and
they exert all the means at their disposal to avert it. Upon
the tableland they enjoy a parasitical prosperity. Once pre-
vented from levying their supplies of grain and fodder upon the
Armenians, and restricted to the legitimate operations of barter
with the peasantry or reciprocal trade, their tribes would gradually
melt away, and, while a large number would join the ranks of
the agricultural population, a remnant only would remain to
continue in Armenia the shepherd calling and the tribal life.
The Armenians arc distributed in the following manner over
the statistical area of the Turkish provinces. Compared with
the number of the Mussulman inhabitants, they are in greater
strength in the Government of Van than in any other Govern-
ment. Taking that Government as a whole, but of course
excluding the Hakkiari, they exceed by about one-third the
total of the Mussulman population. In the town of Van the
proportion of Armenians to Mussulmans is about as two to
one. In the Government of Bitlis they are in a majority in the
neighbourhood of Mush, and in the fertile district of Bulanik,
Statistical and Political 425
north-west of the lake of Van. On the other hand, they are
outnumbered by the Mussulmans in the populous sanjak of
Kharput, and in the caza or Governmental sub-division of Palu.
In the Government of Erzerum there is scarcely a district in
which they are not less numerous than their Mussulman neigh-
bours. Yet, when estimating the relative strength of the
Armenian element, we deceive ourselves if we dwell with com-
placent insistence on the fact of its numerical inferiority. Several
factors essential to such an analysis deserve and require attention.
In the first place, the most fertile portion of the country is held
by the Armenians. The beautiful region about Lake Van,
the vast plains of Bulanik, of Mush, and of Kharput are the
principal seats of the Armenian peasantry — a peasantry as
sturdy as the Mussulman settlers and far more industrious and
progressive than they. Another advantage possessed by the
Armenians is their favourable geographical situation in relation
to the Turks and the Kurds. The Armenian population compose
a mass of varying compactness which extends across the table-
land from east to west, and may be said in a general manner to
divide as with a wedge the two branches of the Mussulman
inhabitants. Or the Armenian may be compared to the middle
bedfellow of three. Again, the solidarity of the Armenian element,
both from a political and a social point of view, is a fact which
must not be ignored. Nowhere in a more conspicuous manner
than upon the tableland has the Gregorian Church resisted the
advances of Rome. According to the statistics supplied by the
Catholic patriarch to Mr. Goschen, the number of the Catholics
within the limits of our statistical area cannot amount to 20,000
souls. Of these, the great majority inhabit the northern districts
of the Government of Erzerum, while in the country of Van and
Mush, which is essentially Armenian, there are scarcely any
adherents of Rome. It is true that the Protestant community
is growing ; if we include the Mission of Mardin lying outside our
area, they are over 16,000 strong. But the paramount object
which is present to the Protestant missionaries is not to subvert
the national Church or to attach it to their own denomination,
but rather to raise the standard of the national religion and to
improve the social condition of the people among whom they
have come to live. Finally, we must not overlook the high place
which the Armenians already occupy in the economical order of
the country, and the fact that the Armenian population is capable
426 Armenia
of very rapid expansion under kinder circumstances. I have
already had occasion to speak in praise of the Armenian peasantry ;
yet, while agriculture suffers from the disappearance of the
Armenian from the soil, the place which he occupies in the less
rudimentary grades of civilised life can never be supplied. The
worn and crippled machine of industry functions through him
alone. His advancement means the progress of the country ; his
removal is the cause of its decay. Yet the stream of emigration
continues, and is gathering fresh volume every year. The general
exodus of the Armenian population which ensued upon the
retirement into Russian territory of General Paskevich in 1839
has been followed by a gradual process of depletion, which varies
in intensity according as harvests are good or disastrous and the
Kurds are encouraged or restrained. During my stay in the
country the Armenian peasantry of considerable districts were
exerting themselves to pay off their debts, and to obtain permission
to leave. Many were flying to the Russian frontier to seek an
asylum from the Kurds. A change in policy is alone needed to
transform a country which is rapidly becoming a desert into a
prosperous and progressive province. Behind the Armenian
population of the tableland stand their kinsmen who inhabit the
less distracted districts of Asia Minor. At the first approach of
a better era many of these would seek with eagerness the ancient
home of their race. Many of the emigrants into Russia would
return to their old seats. The tide now setting to America,
whence the Armenians, like the Irish, transmit large sums of
money to their less prosperous relations at home, would slacken
if it did not cease. A country which even in its wildest regions
still retains the traditions of Armenian civilisation, and is adorned
with the remains of Armenian architecture, would resume the old
order in a spirit essentially new.
Have I wearied my reader with this long and almost
exhaustive analysis, at which I can scarcely myself suppress a
yawn ? At least we may console ourselves with the virtuous
reflection that we have been disentangling a difficult subject of
which we shall all hear more as the years go by. Most of us —
for we are all rulers, and our voices reach far — will some day be
expected to pronounce our opinion upon it ; I have therefore
endeavoured to present the facts in an uncoloured narrative.
But it may be asked : why has so little been heard of the
Armenians still residing in their native seats ? Are they not a
Statistical and Political 427
handful among the numbers of their countrymen dispersed over
the Ottoman Empire, and inhabiting the capital or the great
towns of Asia Minor? Sasun, where the massacres commenced
in 1894, is surely a district which lies outside the proper limits
of Armenia ; while Sivas and Trebizond, Diarbekr, Marash and
Aintab — cities of which the names are engraved in red upon our
memories — are situated at great distances from the Armenian
centres. Such reasoning is in a great measure true ; it is the
Berlin difficulty.
In the absence of reliable statistics I shall refrain from any
attempt to trace the distribution of the Armenians over the
whole extent of the Ottoman Empire. The total number of
Armenians in Turkey was given by the delegates to the Berlin
Congress as amounting to 3,000,000 souls. This figure is
certainly too high. An Armenian clerical writer, who appears
not to err on the side of exaggeration, has placed the entire
Gregorian population, that is the great bulk of his countrymen
in Turkey, at 1,263,900 souls.^ It is reasonable to suppose that
the Armenian subjects of the Sultan number upwards of one
and a half millions, of whom some half million may be taken to
inhabit the statistical area with which we have been dealing, after
considerable additions have been made to supply the deficiencies
in the lists. The remainder are spread over the Empire, forming
fairly compact communities in the more populous towns. Previous
to the massacres of 1895, the Armenians of Constantinople were
estimated at 180,000 souls, of whom some 80,000 might be
reckoned as immigrants for a certain period from such Armenian
centres as Van and Arabkir, and the remainder were permanently
established. Other considerable aggregates are forthcoming in
Northern Syria and Cilicia, where, besides the towns, the
mountainous district of Zeitun is inhabited by a vigorous and
brave Armenian peasantry. The towns on the highlands of Asia
Minor from the Euphrates to Brusa and Smyrna number large
bodies of Armenians among their citizens. The same may be
said of those on the lowlands from the Persian Gulf to Diarbekr.
Trebizond contains a populous and flourishing settlement, as do
most of the rising towns along the coast of the Black Sea.
Indeed the Armenian is ubiquitous in the Nearer Asia, from
' Vahan Vardapet, in an Armenian newspaper published in Constantinople, the
Djeridei Shai-kieh, under date the — December 1886.
15
428 Armenia
the northern province of Persia to the Mediterranean and the
Indian Ocean. Yet this people as a whole can scarcely amount
to more than 3,000,000 souls, a round figure of which the
principal components are as follows : —
The Armenian tableland (Russian and Turkish provinces) 906,984
Caucasus and remainder of Russian Transcaucasia . 450,000
Astrakan and Bessarabia .....
Remainder of Asiatic Turkey ....
Turkey in Europe ......
Azerbaijan province of Persia ^ .
Colony of Julfa (Ispahan) and remainder of Persia ^
Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia
Rumania .......
Austria ........
75,600
751,500
186,000
28,890
14,1 10
5,010
8,070
1,230
2,427,394
Two sets of causes are responsible for the recent outbreaks
of Armenian sentiment in regions where this people are an
insignificant minority, separated from the natural and historical
seats of their race. There is in the first place the political and
social inequality between the Christians and the Mohammedans.
Just as beside some stagnant pool among the recesses of the
rocks the returning tide awakens the folded life of plant and
shell, so our Western civilisation, recoiling upon Asia, arouses
the hopes which have slept for centuries in the breasts of the
Christians of the East. It is not that they are denied religious
freedom, as some of their partisans are bold enough to assert.
The tolerance of the reigning Sultan is active throughout his
empire. The traveller marvels at the liberty, almost amounting
to license, which is allowed to the votaries of the several creeds.
Take the capital : there are the Greeks with their noisy carnivals,
so repugnant to Mussulman austerity. Or the Moslem wayfarer
is hustled from the street by some funeral procession with its
bevy of priests, conducting an open coffin where the lineaments
of the deceased are exposed to a curious and respectful crowd.
What invisible force controls all this fermenting human
material ? . . . Nor will the favourable impression be diminished
by the wider experience of a provincial tour. In the country the
sound of Christian bells falls upon the landscape from some
cloister nestling in the lap of the hills. In the towns the
observance of Sunday effects a change in urban life which is
' .See Curzon's Persia, vol. i. p. 548. -' Ibid. vol. ii. p. 493.
Statistical and Political 429
almost as marked as in a Christian state. Trades are suspended,
shops are closed, chimes ring from the churches.
What is denied to the Christians is political equality. They
are tolerated and they are taxed ; but they remain the unbelievers,
the victims of a prejudice stronger than any law. In the case
of the Armenians they are rigorously prohibited from possessing
firearms, and they do not serve in the army. They are excluded
from the highest administrative posts. Their share in the pro-
vincial government is almost as nothing. The edicts which have
pronounced in favour of equality have been inoperative and are in
abeyance. At the same time the voice of the West is heard louder
and nearer ; and the rebellious spirits appeal to the example
of Eastern Europe, freed for ever from a Mussulman yoke.
But why did the movement fasten upon these scattered com-
munities— hostages, as it would seem, to the Mussulman power ?
I think the reason is not very far to seek. Because of the severity
with which the outbreaks in Armenia were quelled during 1890
and the preceding years. It was evident to the revolutionary
party that the spirit of their countrymen had become cowed in
the land where they are native. However real their wrongs —
and I think I have testified to their reality — they had learnt by
recent experience to endure them in silence without attempting
to obtain redress. The movement, suppressed in its place of
origin, broke out on new ground.
Sasun, a mountainous region belonging to the southern
peripheral zone on the outer margin of the Armenian tableland,
was the scene of the first events in the latest recrudescence of
the old malady, smothered but not cured. The district extends
from the southern slopes of the mountains overlooking the plain
and town of Mush, situated upon their northern verge, to the
neighbourhood of the town of Hazo. It formed a canton of
the old Armenian province of Aghdznik, which is sometimes
joined by Armenian writers with that of Korduk, the modern
Kurdistan. The name of the canton, Sasun, is said to be derived
from Sanasar, one of the two sons of the Assyrian monarch
Sennacherib, who, after slaying their father, fled into Armenia.^
His descendants appear to have been known as the Sanasuns or
Sasuns ^ ; they were princes of Aghdznik, and occupied the very
highest rank at the court of the Armenian Arsakid king.^ Their
1 2 Kings xix. 37 ; Moses of Khorene, i. 23.
^ Saint Martin, Mdvioires siir V Arminie, i. 163. ^ Faustus of Byzantium, iii. 9.
430 A^nnenia
territories were no doubt occupied by an Armenian population ;
and the memories of that distant period still linger among the
peasantry who are scattered over the wild but in places fertile
land/ But the vicinity of the region to the towns of the lowlands
must have rendered wellnigh impossible the maintenance by
its inhabitants of their Christian religion during the period of
Mussulman expansion. We know from history that its Armenian
ruler at the close of the ninth century had adopted a Mussulman
name and outwardly professed the Mohammedan religion.^ At
the present day some handfuls of Armenian Christians preserve
with obstinacy the habits of their race and the practice of their
religion among remote fastnesses. The bulk of the population
have adopted Islam, are classed as Kurds, and can with difficulty
be distinguished from the Kurdish people.
Strange indeed are the anomalies which are presented in these
little -known districts of Turkish Kurdistan. On the southern
fringe of Sasun live a tribe called the Baliki or Beleke, speaking
a mixed language of Arabic, Kurdish and Armenian. Their
religion cannot be classed either as Christian or Mohammedan,
nor even as that professed by the Kizilbashes. When they
make oath it is in the name of a church or monastery. But
they possess neither churches nor mosques. Marriage is a rite
which they ignore. Their women go about in perfect freedom
and unveiled, wearing white trousers like the Yezidis or so-
called devil -worshippers. Wives are bought or exchanged —
a woman of forty for one of twenty, the owner of the latter
being compensated by a few silver pieces. A girl may be
purchased from them by a stranger, provided always that you
take her away. These Baliki are probably a particular remnant
of the old inhabitants, with whom the Armenians, dispersed
among them as traders, would scarcely recognise any racial link.
Serfdom is an institution which is not unknown in the country,
though its existence is softened over by the Turkish authorities,
who shrink from dispensing a purely nominal sovereignty. The
serfs, who are Armenians, are known as zer kurri, signifying
bought with gold. In fact they are bought and sold in much
' l'"()r instance the Kurdish Beys of y.ok\\ believe themselves to be descended from
the dynasty of Sanasar. Again an Armenian convent, called Norshen, is held in rever-
ence by both the Armenian and Kurdish inhabitants ; and the name of that convent is
believed to be a corruption of Nor-Shirakaii or New Shirak — a name applied to the
country by the earliest Armenian writers, Agathangelus (ch. cxxvi.) and Faustus (v. 9).
- John Katholikos, ch. xxviii.
Statistical and Political 43 \
the same manner as sheep and cattle by the Kurdish beys and
aghas. The only difference is that they cannot be disposed of
individually ; they are transferred with the lands which they
cultivate. The chief appropriates as much as he wishes from
their yearly earnings, capital or goods; and in return he provides
them with protection against other Kurdish tribes. Many stories
are told to illustrate the nature of the relation. A serf was shot
by the servant of a Kurdish agha who possessed lands in the
neighbourhood. The owner of the serf did not trouble to avenge
his death on the person of the murderer, still less upon that of the
agha, his neighbour. He rode over to the agha's lands, and put
bullets through two of his serfs, the first that he happened to
meet. . . . The serf of a chieftain residing a few hours' distance
from the town of Hazo had settled in Hazo, where he had become
treasurer to the Turkish Government. One night his house was
attacked by another Kurdish chief, his money carried off and he
and his cousin murdered. In this case the owner was not so
easily propitiated. He gathered his people together, bearded his
fellow-brigand in his lair, killed him, burnt down his house, and
put to death every living thing. Both these incidents occurred
during the lifetime of people who are still living ; the one is
related by no less an authority than a British Consul, and the
other by an individual in a responsible position, whose sympathies
are on the side of the Turkish Government.
On the tableland of Armenia such relations between the Kurds
and the Armenians are altogether unknown. Their existence in
one form or another among the inaccessible retreats of Kurdistan
provided material for the revolutionary propaganda of the agitator,
Damadean, whose early doings in the Sasun region I have
chronicled in my chapter on Bitlis, and who presents a striking
and almost legendary figure even in the sober narrative of the
Blue-books.^ This man and his successor Boyajean knew full
well that there in Sasun they were breaking virgin ground. They
were further encouraged by the fact that the Armenian peasantry
of that region were in possession of arms and knew how to use
them. The result of their efforts and of the ill-advised action of
the local authorities was the Sasun massacre of 1894. It was
followed by the massacres of 1895, which devastated the country
districts and most of the great towns of the Armenian tableland,
but of which the principal and new feature was the occurrence of
^ See especially Turkey, No. I. 1895, parts i. and ii.
432
Armenia
such tragedies among the Armenian communities spread over the
face of the Ottoman Empire.
I have not been able to learn that the condition of these
scattered communities presents any special cause for disaffection ;
and I do not believe that the revolutionary movement, in which
they all participated in some degree, wets either spontaneous in its
nature or indigenous in its growth. Few if any of them are
engaged in a struggle for life and death with hordes of Kurds, -let
loose on territory which is not Kurdish and which is far from being
suited to that race of lawless shepherds. Most of them are fairly
prosperous citizens in the towns ; and whatever grievances they
may possess are shared in a greater or a lesser degree by all the
Christian subjects of the Sultan. The Armenian cause, as a cause
with a justifiable and reasonable aim, is not founded upon any
such grievances. For all practical and constructive purposes it is
simply a question of the proper government of the provinces of
Armenia which are inhabited by Mussulmans as vv^ell as by
Armenians, but which are raided and drained of their resources
by tribal Kurds.
One other aspect of this part of the subject remains to be
considered. The massacres of 1895 were certainly not the out-
come of a spontaneous rising of the Mussulmans against the
Christians. All or nearly all were organised from without. I
well remember how, while taking coffee with an official high in the
Turkish service in the neighbourhood of a great provincial centre,
my host, pointing to the road which we overlooked from the open
windows, said : " I can never look upon that road without re-
membering the occasion when I sat in this very room and saw
strange people passing along it — immigrants, so they seemed, from
the mountains in the north. Our massacre followed at no long
interval." The Mussulmans of the Armenian provinces are
perfectly well aware that their own turn will closely follow upon
the disappearance of the Armenians. They will not, indeed, be
butchered by imported bands of ruffians ; but they will be
swallowed by the Kurds. Some of their villages have already
been raided by this people, who are less to blame for such natural
exercise of their appetites than those who have transplanted or
enticed them from their native seats. ... I must now pass
without any preamble to the larger bearings of the Armenian
Question : does it offer any scope for a practical and special
solution which need not embrace the reform and rejuvenescence
Statistical and Political 43
00
of the Ottoman Empire as a whole ? And what arc the interests
of the progressive states of Europe, and of Great Britain in
particular, in the settlement and disposal of the Question ?
I. I must repeat with tedious persistency that what is most
required is a knowledge and appreciation of the geographical
conditions. These I have endeavoured in a lengthy analysis
to elucidate. Collective Notes and schemes of reform* are of
very little value, if it be attempted to apply their provisions
indifferently to regions presenting features so distinct and
dissimilar as the tableland of Armenia and the mountains
of Kurdistan. No solution of the Armenian Question in
Turkey would be calculated to contain the elements of per-
manence which should not be concerned in the first instance
with delimitation, and with redistribution of the existing
Governmental areas.
The principles upon which such redistribution should proceed
are the common-sense principles of grouping together districts
which naturally belong together, and of rendering the Govern-
ments as far as possible homogeneous. I think it would be
found that obedience to these principles would at the same time
assist a practical solution of the Kurdish Question. They
would point to the formation of three great Governments. One
would be constituted by the mountainous districts between the
tableland of Armenia and the Black Sea, and might be called
the Black Sea Government. It would coincide to some extent
with the existing area of the vilayet of Trebizond ; but it might
seem advisable to include within it regions at present belonging
to the vilayet of Erzerum, such as Tortum and the districts on
the side of Olti. The second Government would embrace the
tableland itself, and its demarcation should be conducted as far
as possible in consonance with the natural frontiers, such as they
have been determined in the present work. The third Govern-
ment would be the Government of Kurdistan. It would
comprehend a considerable area, from Kirkuk and Sulimanieh
on the south-east to Diarbekr and. the confines of Kharput on
the north-west. Mosul, Jezireh and Diarbekr would be the bases
of the administration, these cities on the lowlands being situated
in convenient positions to serve as centres from which to control
the necessary winter migrations of the Kurdish tribes from their
mountains to the agricultural regions bordering on the left or
eastern bank of the Tigris. Strong military posts might be
VOL. II 2 F
434 Arineiiia
established within the mountainous area in the principal towns
of Kurdistan.
Of these three Governments that of the tableland should
be administered from a suitable centre, which centre would be
neither Erzerum nor Van. Akhlat, Melazkert or Khinis would
seem to be naturally designated to fulfil the requirements of the
case. None of these towns are very far removed from the
frontier line of the Kurdish mountains, on which side alone would
the new Government be exposed to incursions of the lawless
Kurdish element. All of them are favourably placed for inter-
communication with the principal Armenian districts. Passage
of the tribes from Kurdistan proper into the Governmental area
should be rigorously interdicted. It could be prevented by no
more formidable measures than the enrolment of a corps of
o-endarmerie. Such a corps would also suffice to police the dis-
tricts on the tableland at present inhabited by tribal Kurds.
Reforms or changes of this nature are well within the capacity
of the Government at Constantinople. They would not, I think,
prejudice their general military administration ; it might even
be found that they would be in harmony with purely military
interests. But the Turks should never forget that they are much
more likely to succumb as an empire owing to defects in the
civil rather than in the military arm. Europe, with all her want
of squeamishness, cannot permanently tolerate civil misgovernment
on so great a scale. One after another the friends or allies of
the Ottoman Empire in Europe will be compelled to stand aside.
Sooner or later the young German Empire will be forced by cir-
cumstances to adopt the same attitude as her elder sister of Great
Britain. Meanwhile there is growing up with alarming rapidity a
situation in the provinces immediately adjoining Russian territory
which already invites and may soon require Russian intervention.
Russian statesmen are only awaiting the favourable moment in
the world movements of the time. Russian troops are already
placed within striking distance of the fortress of Erzerum,
immediately commanding the roads to the interior of Asia Minor
and to the capital. It does not require a long memory to recall
the pretexts — nay, the causes — upon which Russia justified her
previous aggressions upon Turkish territory. Who shall assert
that the present situation on the tableland of Armenia is less
aggravated than that which prevailed in the European provinces
when the Russian armies crossed the Truth in 1877 ?
Statistical and Political 435
Administrative changes of the nature I have indicated are,
of course, only feasible as a whole through spontaneous action on
the part of the Government at Constantinople. Their professed
friends but real enemies may try to play upon their suspicions ;
and will, no doubt, urge that they are being offered in a thinly
veiled form the substance of an independent Armenia. But such
a consummation, were it even possible in a remote future, need
not alarm the well-known solicitude of Oriental rulers for the
interests of posterity. If the millions of Mussulmans attached by
religion and common interests to the rule of the Sultans were
ever insufficient to keep within bounds Armenian ambitions, the
presence of such a strong nation upon the high road of the
Russian advance would surely be a blessing in disguise. It can
scarcely be doubted that in that case the weight of Armenian
sympathies would be on the side of the weak Ottoman Empire.
But this talk about a revival of the Armenian kingdom is windy
and frivolous in the extreme. The Armenians have neither
leaders nor a class of leaders ; and how long would it take to
develop such a class? In the ninth century, when they broke
loose from the expiring body of the caliphate, they had their
princes and nobles of greater and lesser degree. These families
have disappeared without leaving a trace. And is it certain or
even probable that, if the old ideal could be again realised, the
Armenians in the twentieth century would be prepared to revive
a polity which would narrow their activities from the whole wide
area of an empire to the confined stage of a petty state ?
The example of Bulgaria, sometimes quoted with a shiver of
fear in this connection, is not an example in point. There the
Christians composed the bulk of the population ; and they had
no links, such as are present in the case of the Armenians, with
the rest of the Ottoman Empire. But, even if the apprehensions
of the most nervous could be justified by solid arguments, what
is the alternative which they are able to suggest? If they settle
the Kurdish Question they are in so far assisting the Armenians ;
while, if they allow it to settle itself, they are face to face with
the ruin of these provinces, which Russia, in the interests of the
security of her own frontier, will be constrained and will be
invited by Europe to occupy.
But the regulation of Turkish Armenia is not a matter which
alone concerns the rulers on the Bosphorus. Europe has always
recognised her intimate interest in the affairs of Turkey, and she
436 Armenia
is specially pledged to secure good government for the Armenians.
But her intervention, should it be necessary, would, I hope, be
based on the broadest grounds, not in favour of the Armenians
alone, but also of the Mussulmans. The constitution of a single
new province on the tableland would not be tantamount to
controlling the administration of Asiatic Turkey ; it is a measure
which can be reasonably demanded and readily executed. More-
over, if Europe were again to take up the question, she would be
well advised not to recognise any limitations in respect of the
qualifications of the new Governor-General. He would, of course,
not be an Armenian, and he might very well be a Mussulman
and a subject of the Sultan. Or a European might be appointed
to the post. In a financial and administrative sense the province
would be dissevered from the Central Government ; and, in the
present state of the country, a loan to the provincial treasury
would be necessary to supply the funds for the organisation of
the gendarmerie. The new Governor would rule over a some-
what heterogeneous Mussulman majority and a compact Armenian
minority, very much their inferior in numbers. But his efforts
would be assisted by the homogeneous nature of the provincial
area ; and his jurisdiction would embrace, not a tract of difficult
mountain country, but some of the finest agricultural districts in
the wcTrld.
The needs of the Armenians living in the capital and in the •
towns of Asiatic Turkey could be met by the revival of the
so-called constitution granted to their nation by Sultan Abd-
al-Aziz in 1863. I have thought it worth while to include a
translation of this lengthy document, and it will be found in my
first appendix. It has the nature of a regulating statute, like the
Polojenye in Russia, rather than of what we should understand by
a constitution. But, unlike the Polojenye, it is mainly addressed
to the development among the Armenians of systematic manage-
ment of the affairs of their communities. Those communities
have always enjoyed the privilege of administering their own
institutions, such as monasteries, churches, hospitals and schools.
The statute of 1863 provides a complete and democratic
machinery for the better organisation and control of such institu-
tions. It wisely avoids, except in the last resort, any interference
by Government in these purely internal affairs. I cannot
conceive any better training for the Armenian people than that
which they would receive by the application of their great
Statistical and Political 437
intelligence to such practical and concrete ideals. The pitfall
which they should avoid, were the statute ever revived, is the
attempt to convert it into a political weapon.
II. Europe as a whole is concerned with the future of these
Asiatic provinces on the score of her great and growing trade.
The particular Powers are also interested on political grounds
— to preserve the balance of power. The territory of Turkish
Armenia is of first-rate importance whether from the one or
the other point of view. As regards trade, it is not only the
trade with Armenia that is at stake, but that with the whole of
Northern Persia. The great highway of commerce between the
ports on the Black Sea and the interior of Persia passes along
the avenue of the Armenian plains. The possession of Erzerum
by a protectionist Power would effectually stifle this important
trade-route, and would cut off Persia from the Black Sea.
Not less far-reaching would be the results in a political sense
of such an occupation. The strategical value of the country is
difficult to overrate. Turkish Armenia is the sign-post of the
Nearer Asia, commanding the roads west, south and east. These
issue upon the one side at the Mediterranean seaboards, and, on
the other, at the Persian Gulf. The contemporary littleness of
the land has served in no small measure to blind our eyes to
these facts.
Europe may elect to keep herself blind to such considerations,
whether of a commercial or political nature. The question then
arises, what are the interests of Great Britain, and upon what
lines should her policy be shaped ?
In the discussion of all such questions it is a principle of no
small value to ascertain not the opinions of statesmen and
diplomatists, but those of the proverbial ina)i in tJie street. Of
the former, few, indeed, are at the present day possessed even
of an elementary knowledge of such-like Asiatic problems.
Layard and Rawlinson have both been long removed from the
stage of politics ; and these eminent men and stately figures
with their Western culture and Eastern sympathies have both
already passed from our midst. We can none of us be specialists
on each and every question ; and it is with a feeling of deep
respect that those among us who have, perhaps, acquired some
small knowledge of a particular problem, should endeavour to
select among their friends those possessed of the divine average,
and use them as foolovieters — the gauge of common sentiment.
438 Armenia
Several different kinds of opinion will be registered. " It is
very sad, those poor Armenians ; but we are not knight-errants,
and there are hard blows going about." ..." Why can't we
leave the Turks alone — they are in possession. Turkey belongs
to the Turks and China to the Chinese." . . . "So we are to
hark back to the miserable policy of bolstering up the Turks !
Let them go bag and baggage to the quickest possible perdition ;
and, if Russia will do the work and remove the nuisance, so much
the better for us and the whole world." ..." We can't expect
to have a finger in everybody's pie. We have already more than
we can manage on our hands." The one conclusion which you
may draw from these conflicting utterances is that the balance of
common sentiment is, perhaps, in favour of standing aside.
In England the actions of Governments are based on common
sentiment. There is no Government in the sense of an en-
lightened administration, with a reasoned foreign policy and what
the French would call a politique de longue vue et de longue
haleine. Even our great Indian Empire is ruled on principles
which, so far as they relate to external affairs, are little better
than the proverbial methods of the ostrich. What Indian Foreign
Secretary is even conversant with the affairs of Persia, his next-
door neighbour, as one might say? The Indian Government
are at the present day sensible of great constriction in their
finances, and what are the methods which they pursue? In
every direction they draw in their horns, saving a few pounds
here and a few there, and pointing with pride to the forcible
retirement of a pair or two of distinguished teachers in a great
educational establishment. What vigilance and strict economy !
But business, at least in the City, is not as a rule conducted by
the clerks. There our suspicions are excited by such pettifogging
manoeuvres, and we keep our eyes open in expectation of the
inevitable failure, not less certain than in the case of inflation
and extravagance.
At home widespread prosperity, a long start in the industrial
race and the complexity of our world-wide transactions have
grown like weeds and flowers around the margin of a salubrious
well, screening the view and almost the sound of the life-giving
waters. We forget the commercial basis of all our wealth and
power ; and few among us are sensible of a thrill if some vast
province of the Chinese Empire be walled round against our
trade. Yet foreign commerce is the most delicate of national
Statistical and Political 439
activities, slow, shy, easily disturbed and swiftly killed. The
essential peacefulness of its methods, and the fact that few of the
homes it helps to support are even aware of the destination of
the goods they contribute to produce — such characteristics are
little calculated to compete with the clamour of other interests,
such as gold-mines, colonies, pan-Germandom or pan-Saxondom,
or any other of the popular cries of the day.
The spirit of adventure lying at the foundation of the British
character has been enlisted into African enterprise. One cannot
help admiring the undoubted ability with which the organisers
of the movement towards South Africa have at once appealed
to the imagination of the British people, and won over to their
side by careful preparation both the elements in the body politic
capable of exercising quiet pressure and the recognised mouth-
pieces of public opinion. The prettiest women, the most ancient
titles have all their share in the movement ; and a Press, which
cannot be bought, has been successfully persuaded of the excel-
lence of the cause which in full chorus they uphold and applaud.
On the Continent similar methods have been pursued by our
Boer adversaries ; and the result has been a war in print and
a war in feeling with our neighbours in Europe of far greater
moment than the African battles we have won or lost. For
such outbursts, produced by a clever imitation of South African
methods, or, perhaps, by spontaneous appreciation on the part
of the Boers of the new-born forces of advertisement on a huge
scale, the organisers in England can scarcely be held responsible.
They have done their work well, however we may judge its effect
on character ; and we cannot blame them if, absorbed in their
own particular problem, they have at the same time thrown cold
water on all questions concerning Asia. The prudence of our
people, once committed to an important struggle, has also been
a factor on their side.
But Africa, this Syracuse of modern Europe, will not always,
let us hope, be at our doors. The moment our hands are free
I trust they may be directed to the disentangling of some Asiatic
knots. Now the interests of Great Britain, under which we may
include those of British India, are, I think there can be no doubt,
most intimately bound up with the Asiatic provinces of the Otto-
man Empire. Starting from the base of the Persian Gulf we
have built up by laborious methods, extending over a period of
getting on for a century, a commercial system which reaches far
440 Armenia
into the interior of Mesopotamia and embraces the whole of
Southern Persia. At the same time we have erected that northern
trade-route of which I have spoken, giving access to our goods
from the coast of the Black Sea to the markets of Northern
Persia.
What a long and patient struggle in face of almost over-
whelming difficulties has been successfully conducted and inch
by inch pursued by these various enterprises ! With them are
associated the names of Brant in the north and of Chesney and
Lynch in the south. The correspondence of Consul Brant v/ith
his distinguished chief, Stratford Canning, will, I trust, be some
day given to the world.^ It displays on its face a union of ideas
with the much rarer capacity of translating them into practice by
unwearying attention to the minutest details, which, whether the
quality may have been inspired by the ambassador or his able
subordinate, reflects lustre upon both names. It serves to remind
us that the Russian policy of building walls round their possessions
is not a policy of recent date. We may regard with legitimate
pride the readiness of our ancestors to take advantage of the
throwing open of the Black Sea and of the facilities offered by the
introduction of steam power ; the old land-routes through Asia
Minor were rapidly superseded, and a new commercial avenue
between Trebizond and the interior of Persia was gradually
opened up by a series of patient efforts which would have done
credit to the Genoese.
In the south the expeditions of Chesney (1835-37)" and
of Lynch (1837 and following years) were directed to the survey
of the rivers Euphrates and Tigris and of the countries through
which they flow. The former took his vessels in pieces from the
coast of Syria to the Euphrates, while those of the latter — the
Nitocris, Assyria and Nimrod — were conveyed by sea to the
estuary of the Shat-el-Arab. The labours of these pioneers were
thrown away by the British Government, and the project of an
overland route from the Mediterranean to India somewhat suffered
from the undertaking of the Suez Canal (i860 and following
years). It is certain to be revived. On the purely commercial
side something was saved by individuals ; and, starting from the
knowledge acquired by the two eminent explorers, a trade with
• It may be found among the archives of the British Consulate at Erzerum.
^ Chesney, Expedition for the sun'ey of the 7-ivers Euphrates and "figris carried on
by order of the British Government, London, 1850, 2 vols, folio with maps ; Narrative
of the Euphrates Expedition, London, 1868, 8vo.
Statistical and Political 44 1
an annual value at the present day of about a million sterling
has little by little been built up. It is carried by river steamers,
which also convey the British mails, from the Persian Gulf to
Baghdad. These steamers have to contend with a variety of
disabilities imposed by the Turkish Government. Their voyages
are confined to the Tigris ; the Euphrates is kept closed, and
they are not suffered to proceed a mile above Baghdad. But
the magnificent country through which they pass is growing
in wealth through the facilities they provide ; and the force of
circumstances will sooner or later open wide the doors.
Of even earlier date are our trade-routes from the Gulf sea-
board to the tableland of Persia. Indeed it may be said without
exaggeration that from Kirmanshah on the north to Beluchistan
upon the south the zone of mountains which support that tableland
are threaded by a number of arteries, diffusing over the vast body
of the Iranian highlands the life"- blood of reciprocal commerce.
Such facts have not escaped the notice and solicitude of competent
observers ; but it seems to me that their logical bearing upon the
problems of the Nearer Asia has not been examined with sufficient
thoroughness. There can be little doubt that the acquisition by
Russia of a port on the Persian Gulf would not be tolerated by
any British Government.^ Apart from all considerations of a
commercial nature, it would imply the necessity of maintaining a
powerful fleet in the Gulf, with additional strain on the finances
of India. But what if the northern Power were to occupy Turkish
Armenia ? Would it merely entail the loss of our northern trade-
route ? I should like to examine in a temperate spirit the
possibilities of such a hypothesis, not fearing to look them in the
face, but endeavouring to divest my remarks of any alarmist or
sensational character.
My reader who may have mastered the facts of the geography
will call to mind the intimate connection of the system of table-
lands with one another from the borders of India to the Mediter-
^ " The preservation, so far as it is still possible, of the integrity of Persia must be
registered as a cardinal principle of our Imperial creed." " I should regard the concession
of a port upon the Persian Gulf to Russia by any power as a deliberate insult to Great
Britain, as a wanton rupture of the status quo, and as an intentional provocation to war ;
and I should impeach the British Minister, who was guilty of acquiescing in such a
surrender, as a traitor to his country." " It {i.e. the aggression of Russia upon South
Persia and the Persian Gulf) can only be prosecuted in the teeth of international morality,
in defiance of civilised opinion, and with the ultimate certainty of a war with this
country that would ring from pole to pole." — Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question,
London, 1892, vol. ii. pp. 603, 605, 465. May I, as a traveller, take the present oppor-
tunity of contributing my mile of gratitude to Lord Curzon for this considerable work ?
442 Armenia
ranean. The capital of Persia and her greatest cities are situated
upon the tableland ; and I cannot conceive that the empire of
the Shahs could long maintain its independence after Russia had
become possessed of Turkish Armenia. Not less certain would
be the fate of Asia Minor, west of the Euphrates ; and, indeed, in
the contingency which we are discussing, the German Empire
might be well advised to bargain away the important railways
which she has recently constructed in that country in return for
substantial advantages elsewhere. As regards England, I cannot
admit, after careful consideration, that the loss to her trade of
Turkish Armenia and the presence of Russia on the tableland of
Persia would necessarily endanger India. Such a consummation
— regrettable as it must be, and avoidable as I believe it is —
would deal a hard blow at her trade in the south. But one has
to face that common sentiment of which I have spoken, and the
corresponding lukewarmness of our rulers in the domain of Asiatic
affairs.
It would be a very different thing if we were to suffer any
encroachment on the part of Russia upon the zone of mountains
supporting on the south the tablelands of Armenia and Persia,
and drawn like a long succession of chevaux de /rise around the
lowlands of Mesopotamia. Her occupation of any part of that
zone of mountains would necessarily entail sooner or later the
occupation of the whole. The lowlands themselves, the field of
our trade, and appointed by Nature as a granary for India with
her teeming millions and uncertain harvests, would be at her
mercy without striking a blow. Distance is a factor of little
importance on the lowlands ; they are flat as the sea, and
traversed from one end to the other by two magnificent navigable
rivers. A Power stationed at Diarbekr is already stationed on
the Persian Gulf, with a country of immense potential wealth at
her back. For these reasons it would be well that we should
recognise as soon as possible that the bedrock of British policy
in the Nearer Asia should be the preservation of the integrity of
the lowlands with their frame of mountains from Syria to the
borders of India.
The conclusion at which I arrive is that the possession by
Russia of Turkish Armenia would be attended by consequences
which have scarcely been appreciated at all by the majority of
my countrymen. I would fain hope that, if this event be indeed
inevitable, it may not take us by surprise. Our own path is
Statistical and Political 443
clearly indicated by the finger of Nature ; and the Russian
Empire, established in Armenia, would be quite as accessible to
attack from the lowlands as our Indian Empire to hostile
approach on the side of Asiatic Russia. But in order to safe-
guard our interests and provide for future contingencies we must
accustom ourselves to think a little ahead. It will not be
sufficient to beat time, and endeavour to entice Germany into
our own particular domain. As a natural commercial ally in
her own field of Asia Minor, that Power may render assistance
to the common cause. As a competitor in our sphere she
would be very much more likely to make her own terms with
the northern Empire. Finally — for after all it is as much a
question of men as of measures — I should like to contribute my
vote as a traveller — ^whatever it may be worth — in favour of a
proposal recently made by a well-informed writer. And the
only amendment which one might desire to the proposition he
has well expressed is that it should be accompanied by a
recognition of what our Foreign Office has already accomplished
with the imperfect system which it at present dispenses : — " The
machinery of the F"oreign Office is not adjusted to perform the
new and strange duties which belong to Oriental diplomacy.
The ministers and secretaries who are competent officials in
Vienna or Rome are lost among the tortuous political pathways
of Bangkok, Teheran and Pekin. Never shall we hold our
own in Asia until an Asiatic Department is formed, under the
charge of an experienced minister of Cabinet rank, with an
independent diplomatic staff, trained in the methods, and speaking
fluently the languages of the East." ^
1 " The Amir of Afghanistan," Quarterly Review, January 1901, p. 167.
APPENDIX I
NATIONAL CONSTITUTION OF THE ARMENIANS IN
THE TURKISH EMPIRE
PRELIMINARIES
The Sublime Porte,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
No. 191.
To THE Prudent Representative of the Patriarch
{LoaoH tenens)
Prudent and dear Sir — The Imperial Firman concerning reforms
requires that each community shall take into consideration within a given
time the privileges and prerogatives which it enjoys, and, after due counsel,
shall decide upon the reforms which are in accordance with the circum-
stances, the civilisation and the learning of the present time. It shall
present a list of such reforms to the Sublime Porte in order that the
authority and rights granted to the spiritual heads of each community may
be placed in harmony with the position and new conditions secured to
each community. In accordance with these behests, the outlines of a
Constitution for the Armenian nation have been prepared by a Committee
composed of certain honourable persons. But at the same time it has
been considered appropriate that the ecclesiastical members of the General
Assembly and the delegates of the different Quarters should select by a
majority of votes a Committee of seven, to whose consideration the above-
mentioned project should be submitted. We therefore beg you to despatch
within a few days the summons to hold the election of that Committee,
and to direct that the Committee shall meet at the Sublime Porte the
Committee and functionary appointed specially for this purpose. We beg
you also to send us the names of the seven persons thus elected.
(Signature)
1862, Feb. 14 (Old style). All
446 Armenia
Document presented to the Sublime Porte ev the National
Committee and the Coinimittee of the Government
To the Sublime Porte,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
The Imperial Government has from ancient times granted to the
different nations under its righteous protection privileges and prerogatives
for their religious liberty and the special administration of their internal
affairs.
These prerogatives are in their principles uniform for all nations, but
they are at the same time adapted to the particular religious regulations
and customs of each nationality. And each nationality has used and
enjoyed them according to its peculiar manners and customs.
The Armenian nation, like other nations, has had to this day a
Patriarch, who has been acknowledged by the Government as the
President of the Patriarchal Administration, the representative of the
nation, and the medium of the execution of Imperial Orders, and who
from ancient times has been elected from the ecclesiastical body by a
General Assembly, composed of individuals representing the different
classes of the nation.
The Patriarch in his office, which is to preside over the nation and to
watch over its interests, has never been exempt from the influence and
supervision of the nation, exerted over him through the General Assembly.
The proof of this is that the Patriarch has always invited and convoked
the General Assembly, and has applied to that Assembly for a decision
when a question has been raised by orders of the Sublime Porte.
The Armenian nation about two years ago begged of the Imperial
Government to have two Assemblies established in the Patriarchate under
the presidency of the Patriarch, one religious, the other political, that
they might be participators in and auxiliaries of the office of the Patriarch,
and that any deviation on the part of the nation from its ancient regula-
tions and customs, both religious and political, might be prevented.
When these assemblies were established it became necessary to
organise other Councils for the administration of the minor affairs of the
nation.
But as the authority and duties of each national officer were not
definitely defined, it was evident that these efforts to improve the state of
affairs in the nation would be the occasion of continual misunderstanding
in the different branches of the National Administration, as well as between
that administration and the nation. This naturally would be the cause
of many irregularities in the execution of justice for all concerned, and of
confusion and disputes in the National Administration.
With the object of doing away with the causes of such confusion and
dissension, and with the nuisance of the undue claims of different parties,
the Imperial Government, with its paternal solicitude for all its subjects,
deems it necessary to organise a National Mixed Committee in order to
prepare a Constitution in accordance with the peculiar religious and
political customs and long-established manners.
Appendix I 447
Now that Mixed Committee considers it proper according to the
Gudine of the Constitution presented for confirmation to the Sublime
Porte,
I. That the office of the Patriarch as the medium between the nation
and the SubHme Porte should remain as it was in the old system,
II. That the organisation of the General Assembly should be reformed.
The national delegates, instead of being elected by the Esnafs (Artisans)
— since the condition of the Esnafs is no longer what it used to be —
should be elected by the Committees of churches, that is, by different
quarters, in a way that perhaps will be more regular and lawful than the
one adopted by the Greeks.
And as Armenians living in the interior of the country rightly complain
that they are altogether deprived of participation in the deliberations and
decisions of the Patriarchate, a number of the delegates should be elected
by the provinces to be added to the number of the delegates of the
quarters or sections of Constantinople. The ecclesiastical members,
twenty of them, should be elected by the clergy in Constantinople, so
that the total number of the members of the General Assembly be 140 ;
their term of office should last ten years, and once in every two years the
tenth part should be changed, and new elections take place.
The General Assembly should nominate both the Patriarch and the
members of the two Assemblies working under his presidency and should
have the supervision of their acts,
III. The administration of religious affairs should belong to the
Religious Assembly, the administration of Political affairs to the Political
Assembly, and that of mixed affairs to the Mixed Assembly, which shall
consist of the other two Assemblies together,
IV. The Religious and Political Assemblies should manage through
the Sectional and other Councils all national affairs of the church com-
munities (that is to say, the people of different sections or quarters) under
their jurisdiction, and the affairs of the churches, schools, hospitals,
monasteries, and other similar national institutions,
V. The centre of the administration should be the National
Patriarchate. The Patriarch, as the Official Head of the Patriarchate,
should preside both over the General Assembly and over the two National
AssembUes, and he should under the inspection of the General Assembly
manage all the affairs concerning the nation directly or indirectly,
VI. The administration of provincial communities should be connected
with the Central Administration. The Metropolitans should preside over
local assemblies which should be organised in the same way as those
in Constantinople, and they should be the managers of those local
assemblies,
VII. The Provincial Assemblies should be responsible to the Central
Administration. Each one of the Councils of this Central Administra-
tion should be responsible to the Assembly to which it belongs. The
National x\ssemblies should be responsible to the General Assemblies,
the Patriarch responsible on the one hand to the Imperial Government
and on the other to the nation (through the General Assembly),
448 Armenia
VIII. And, inasmuch as the Imperial Government considers the
Patriarch as the natural medium of the execution of the orders given by
it to the nation, and at the same time considers him as the head of the
National Administration, and it is to him that it addresses its question,
if the Government should command the Patriarch to give his opinion on
the question asked, the Patriarch should act according to the decision of
the Assemblies under his presidency ; but, if he be ordered to communicate
to the Government the opinion of the nation, then he should convoke the
General Assembly and communicate to the Government the final decision
of that Assembly,
IX. The National Administration has three kinds of obligations.
First towards the Imperial Government, that is to preserve the nation in
perfectly loyal subjection and to secure to the nation in general and to
individuals in particular the preservation of their rights and privileges on
the part of the Government. The second obligation is to the nation, to
treat it in true compassion and in a paternal way. The third is to the
see of Edgmiatsin, to act in accordance with the religious regulations and
laws of the Armenian Church.
These are the features in the Constitution which the Mixed Committee
considers desirable. These features are approved by the other Committee
which was organised according to the orders of your Excellency, in order
to present to the Sublime Porte on behalf of the nation their observations
on the Constitution.
Constantinople, 1862.
Signatures of the members of the Committee of the Sublime Porte —
Stephanos, Archbishop of Nicomedia, Representative of the Patriarch
Elect of Constantinople, three Armenian ecclesiastics, and eight notables.
Signatures of the members of the National Committee, seven notables.
Ordinance of the Sublime Porte
To the Prudent Representative of the
Patriarch Elect of Constantinople.
The Constitution drawn up by the Committee formed at the Sublime
Porte for the reforms of the condition and administration of the Armenian
Patriarchate, after having undergone certain modifications concerning
secular affairs only, was presented to His Imperial Majesty, and, having
been approved by His Imperial Majesty, the Imperial Decree, making a
law of the features contained in it, was issued to be handed to your
Beatitude.
In enclosing to you the above-mentioned Constitution, we commission
you to superintend the perfect execution of those features according to
the high will of the August Emperor.
1863, March i 7.
INTRODUCTION
The privileges granted by the Ottoman Empire to its non-Mohammedan
subjects are in their principles equal for all, but the mode of their execution
Appendix I 449
varies according to the requirements of tlie particular customs of each
nationahty.
The Armenian Patriarch is the head of his nation, and in particular
circumstances the mediuui of the execution of the orders of the Govern-
ment. There is, however, in the Patriarchate a Religious Assembly for
religious affairs and a Political Assembly for political affairs. In case of
necessity these two Assemblies unite and form the Mixed Assembly. Both
the Patriarch and the members of these Assemblies are elected in a General
Assembly composed of honourable men of the nation.
As the office and duties of the above Assemblies and the mode of
their formation are not defined by sufficient rules, and for this reason
different inconveniences and special difficulties in the formation of the
General Assembly have been noticed.
As each community is bound according to the new Imperial Edict
(Hatti Humayun, 6/18 Feb. 1856) to examine within a given time its
rights and privileges, and after due deliberation to present to the Sublime
Porte the reforms required by the present state of things and the progress
of civilisation of our times.
As it is necessary to harmonise the authority and power granted to
the religious chief of each nationality with the new condition and system
secured to each community,
A Committee of some honourable persons of the nation was organised,
which Committee prepared for the nation the following Constitution.
ARMENIAN NATIONAL CONSTITUTION
Fundamental Principles
1. Each individual has obligations towards the nation. The nation, in
its turn, has obligations towards each individual. Again, each individual
and the nation have their respective rights over one another.
Hence the nation and its constituents are bound together by mutual
duties, so that the duty of the one is the right of the other.
2. It is the duty of each member of the nation to share according to
his means in the expenses of the nation, willingly to accept any services
asked of him by the nation, and to submit to its decision.
These duties of the individual are the rights of the nation.
3. The duties of the nation are to care for the moral, intellectual, and
material wants of its members, to preserve intact the creed and traditions
of the Armenian Church, to diffuse equally the knowledge necessary to
all men among the children of both sexes and of all classes, to watch over
the prosperity of national institutions, to increase the national income in
any possible lawful way and wisely to administer the national expenses, to
improve the condition of those who have devoted themselves for life to
the service of the nation and to secure their future, to provide for the
needy, peaceably to adjust the disputes that may arise among the members
of the nation — in a word, to labour with self-denial for the progress of the
nation.
VOL. II 2 G
450 Armenia
These obligations on the part of the nation are the rights of its
members.
4. The authority which is appointed to represent the nation and to
supervise and administer the regular performance of these mutual obliga-
tions is called the National Administration. To this body is committed,
by especial permission of the Ottoman Government and by virtue of the
Constitution, the care of the internal affairs of the Armenians of Turkey.
5. In order that the Administration may be national it should be
representative.
6. The foundation of this Representative Administration is the principle
of rights and duties, which is the principle of justice. Its strength is to be
found in the plurality of voices, which is the principle of legality.
Chapter I
The Central National Administration
I. The Patriarch of Constantinople
His Election and Resig)iation
Article i. — The Patriarch of Constantinople is the President of all
the National AssembUes and the representative of their executive authority,
and in particular circumstances he is the medium of the execution of the
orders of the Ottoman Government.
Hence the person to be elected as Patriarch should be a man worthy
of the confidence and respect of the whole nation, and he should possess
all the qualifications and dignity required by his position. He should
belong to that class of bishops who have always been considered as
candidates for the office. At the same time he should be worthy of the
perfect confidence of the Government, an Ottoman subject beginning at
least with his father and above thirty-five years of age.
Article 2. — In case of vacancy of the Patriarchal Throne, in conse-
quence of the death or resignation of the Patriarch, or from any other
cause, the Political and Religious Assemblies meet and elect a Repre-
sentative {locum feiiens), and request the Sublime Porte to confirm their
choice.
The General Assembly elects the Patriarch, but the Religious and
Pohtical Assemblies have the right by a list of candidates to express their
opinion in regard to the merits of the candidates.
The election of the Patriarch will take place in the following manner : —
In the first place the Representative {locum tenens) prepares a list of
all the bishops within Ottoman territory, indicating opposite each name
their qualifications in the sense of the first article, and presents it to the
Religious Assembly.
The Religious Assembly convokes a general meeting of ecclesiastics
and prepares a list of candidates by secret ballot — that is, each member
present writes on a slip of paper the names of all the bishops that he
Appendix I 451
does not consider unfit from a religious point of view. A list of these
names is prepared in the order of the number of votes received by each.
The Representative presents this list to the Political Assembly. This
Assembly, after an investigation into the political merits of the persons
indicated, elects by a majority of votes five candidates and presents this
list to the General Assembly.
At the same time the first list prepared by the General Religious
Assembly should be hung in the hall of the (General Assembly. The
General Assembly, after learning from these two lists the opinions of the
competent Assemblies concerning the religious and political qualifications
of the candidates, elects the Patriarch by secret ballot and by a majority
of the votes.
The General Assembly may give its votes to a person outside the list
presented by the Political Assembly, but the name of that person must
have been indicated in the list prepared by the General Assembly of the
ecclesiastics. No one can be elected whose name is not on that list.
If no majority of votes be obtained on the first ballot, the names of
those two who have received the largest number of votes are announced
by the Representative to the General Assembly, and the second ballot
should be on those two names. For this second ballot those of the
national deputies who cannot be present may forward their votes in a
sealed and signed letter addressed to the Assembly, or to the Representa-
tive, or to the Chairman of the General Assembly.
The counting of votes is done by the officers of the General Assembly
in the presence of four ecclesiastical and four lay members of the
Assembly who act as inspectors.
In case after a second ballot the two candidates receive the same
number of votes, then one of them is elected by lot.
Article 3. — After the election a report is prepared, signed by all those
present, and it is presented to the Sublime Porte by the Representative,
and the election of the Patriarch is confirmed according to the ancient
custom by an Imperial edict.
Article 4. — The General Assembly sends a written invitation to the
person elected as Patriarch if he be present in the capital, or a special
delegate if he be out of Constantinople. On receiving this invitation the
newly-elected Patriarch comes to the Patriarchate, and in the Cathedral,
in the presence of the General Assembly, takes a solemn oath in the
following words: "Before God and in the presence of this National
Assembly I publicly vow to remain faithful to the Government and to
my nation, and faithfully to see to the maintenance of the National
Constitution." Herewith the office of the Representative comes to an
end. Upon the invitation of the Sublime Porte the new Patriarch is
admitted to the presence of His Majesty the Sultan, his office is formally
confirmed, and he visits the Sublime Porte to announce it.
Article 5. — Should the Patriarch act contrary to the rules of the
Constitution he is liable to impeachment.
Article 6. — Only the General Assembly and the Political and Religious
Assemblies have the ri!j;ht to bring a charge against the Patriarch.
452 Ann cilia
The accusing or protesting Assembly, with the permission of the
Sublime Porte, asks the Patriarch to convoke the General Assembly.
Should the Patriarch refuse to do so, this fact again is reported to the
Sublime Porte, which then issues a permit for the General Assembly to
hold a sitting under the Presidency of the oldest bishop in Constantinople.
The General Assembly chooses five of its ecclesiastical and five lay
members to constitute a Committee of ten, among whom, however, there
shall be none of those who have accused or protested. This Committee,
after investigating the charges, gives a report to the General Assembly
which decides the question by a secret vote. The documents containing
this decision should be signed by all who have voted in favour of this
decision. If the resignation of the Patriarch be thus decided upon, the
two Chairmen of the two Assemblies, accompanied by the presiding bishop,
wait upon the Patriarch and present to him this document. The
Patriarch on learning the v/ill of the nation is bound to resign. If,
however, he do not agree to resign, the matter is reported to the Sublime
Porte, which deposes the Patriarch.
Article 7. — The ex-Patriarch after his al)dication becomes like one
of the diocesan bishops, and the necessary steps will be taken for him by
the Mixed Assembly.
Office and Obligations
Article 8. — The duties of the Patriarch are to act according to the
principles of the Constitution and to watch diligently over the exact
execution of all its points.
The Patriarch refers all business that comes before him to the
Assembly to which it belongs for investigation and decision. The takrirs
and other official papers of the Patriarch cannot be valid and admissible
if they be not also sealed and signed by the Assembly that has given the
decision. If there be any urgent business for the consideration of which
it might be impossible to await the day of the meeting of the Assembly,
or even to convoke an extraordinary meeting, the Patriarch may do what
is necessary, taking the responsibility upon himself. But he is bound to
make a due record of what he may have done, and to present it for
confirmation in its next meeting to the Assembly under the jurisdiction
of which the case may come.
Article 9. — The Patriarch before signing any papers containing the
decisions of the General Assembly taken in his absence may make his
observations concerning them and submit the case to a second considera-
tion, but after this revision he is bound to sign those papers if he does
not find there anything contrary to the requirements of the Constitution.
Article 10. — The Patriarch may propose to the competent Assembly
or Council the dismissal of any ecclesiastic, teacher, agent of a church,
monastery, school, or hospital who has not acted in accordance with the
principles of the Constitution.
jlrticle II. — The Patriarch himself has no right to dissolve and change
the Religious and Pohtical Assemblies and the Councils belonging to
them, but, if he notice in any of them conduct contrary to the Constitu-
Appendix I 453
tion, first he demands an explanation of the Chairman of the Assembly or
the Council. The second time he. warns him, but the third time he
applies to the General Assembly if the accused be one of the National
Assemblies, or to the Political Assembly if he be one of the Councils,
and, giving his reasons, he proposes the dissolution of the accused Council
or Assembly.
Article 12. — The Patriarch having a salary appointed to him from
the National Treasury provides himself for the internal expenses of the
Patriarchate.
II. The Bureau of the Patriarchate
Article 13. — There will be a Bureau at the Patriarchate for all
necessary national documents. This bureau will be divided into three
departments : —
I. The department of correspondence, for the documents sent by the
Patriarchate and for those received there.
II. The department of registration, to arrange the papers belonging
to the National Assemblies and Councils.
III. The department of census, to record births, marriages, and
deaths. From the last department are issued the papers needed
for travelling or other personal transactions ; also certificates
for births, marriages, and deaths.
Article 14. — The Patriarchal Bureau will have a chief who is
responsible for all its transactions. The Political Assembly elects him
and the Patriarch nominates him. This chief is also the Secretary of the
General Assembly.
It is his duty to see that every year he be supplied with copies of the
records of births and deaths both in Constantinople and in the provinces,
which records he shall have inscribed in the books of the general census
of the Patriarchal Bureau. He should be well versed in the Armenian
language, and practised in the French and Turkish languages.
Article 15. — ^This Bureau will have a sufficient number of Secretaries.
These Secretaries also must be well acquainted with the Armenian language,
and every one must possess all the necessary qualifications for his position.
Each Secretary is responsible in his department to the Assembly or Council
to which he belongs. All of them are responsible to the Chief of the
Bureau.
Article 16. — All papers issued at the office of the census must be
confirmed by the Patriarchal seal and by the signature of the Chief of the
Bureau.
III. The Patriarch of Jerusalem
Article 17. — The Patriarch of Jerusalem occupies for life the Chair
of St. James. He is at the same time the manager of all the holy places
belonging to the Armenians in Jerusalem, and the President of the brother-
hood of the Monastery of St. James.
It is his duty to act in accordance with the regulations of the Monastery
of Jerusalem, and to watch over the faithful execution of those regulations.
454 Armenia
Article i8. — In case the Patriarch of Jerusalem act contrary to the
regulations of his Monastery he will be liable to have a charge brought
against him.
Article 19. — A charge can be brought against the Patriarch either
by the brotherhood of the Monastery, or by the Religious and Political
Assemblies of Constantinople.
In such a case the General Assembly is convoked, and, if after an
investigation the charge should appear well founded, the General Assembly,
in accordance with the sixth article concerning the Patriarch of Constanti-
nople, will act as the case requires either by sending an admonition to the
Patriarch, or by compelling him to abandon his office, when his office
will be given over to a Representative whom the General Assembly shall
elect from amongst the brotherhood by a secret vote.
Article 20. — In case of the death of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, the
brotherhood elects one of its members as Representative, and he is
confirmed by the National Assemblies.
Article 21. — The Patriarch of Jerusalem is elected by the National
Assemblies of Constantinople, but the brotherhood has the right to express
its opinion in regard to the merits of candidates. Immediately after the
death of the Patriarch, the Representative convokes a general meeting of
the brotherhood. This meeting prepares a list of names, just as this is
done by the General Religious Assembly of Constantinople for the election
of the Patriarch of Constantinople, but the list prepared by the brother-
hood should contain at least seven names. This list is signed by the
brotherhood and sent to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
Article 22. — The person to be elected as Patriarch of Jerusalem should
be at least thirty-five years of age, born an Ottoman subject, and a bishop
or doctor (vardapet) belonging to the brotherhood, and not separated from
it. Persons who, by the consent of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, have been
employed by the Assemblies of Constantinople in some national office are
not to be considered as having been separated from the brotherhood.
Article 23. — The Mixed Assembly, composed of the Religious and
Political Assemblies, examines the merits of the persons indicated in the
above-mentioned list, and, choosing three candidates, presents their names
to the General Assembly. The list sent by the brotherhood should be
kept hung in the hall of the General Assembly.
Taking into consideration the opinions expressed both by the brother-
hood and by the two National Assemblies, the General Assembly elects
by secret vote, and by the majority of votes, the one whom it regards as
the worthiest in respect of learning as well as of good character.
In the General Assembly no votes should be given for any person
whose name is not indicated in the list presented by the brotherhood.
IV. National Religious Assembly
Article 24. — The Religious Assembly consists of fourteen worthy ecclesi-
astics, who should be at least thirty years old and ordained at least five
years ago.
Appendix 1 455
Article 25. — The General Religious Assembly by a secret vote elects
three times the number of the members of the National Assembly, and
signs this list and presents it to the National General Assembly.
The General Assembly by a secret vote elects out of this list the
members of the Religious Assembly. The report is presented by the
Patriarch to the Sublime Porte, and the members of the Religious
Assembly thus elected are confirmed by Imperial edict.
Article 26. — The Religious Assembly is dissolved in a body once
in two years, at the end of April, and is re-elected in the beginning
of May. The members of this Assembly cannot be re-elected immediately,
but only after the lapse of two years.
Article 2 7. — When there are as many as three members of this Assembly
wanting, either in consequence of resignation or from some other cause,
others are elected by the General i\ssembly to take their places, but
until this election shall have taken place, the majority of the whole
number is to rule.
Article 28. — The Religious Assembly undertakes the general inspection
of all the religious affairs of the nation. Its duties are to develop in the
nation the religious sentiment, to preserve intact the profession and tradi-
tions of the Armenian Church, to promote the good order of churches and
ecclesiastics, and to try to improve the present condition of ecclesiastics,
and to secure the welfare of their future. It should visit from time to time
the national schools and supervise the teaching of the Christian doctrines,
in order to educate worthy and active doctors (vardapets) and priests, and
when investigating any religious disputes that may arise in the nation, it
should decide them according to the laws of the Church.
Article 29. — When the ReUgious Assembly cannot itself decide a
purely religious question, it convokes all the bishops in Constantinople,
the preachers of all the churches, the head priests, and if necessary the
Metropolitans of the dioceses in the vicinity, to a General Religious
Assembly. Should this Cieneral Assembly consider the question beyond
its jurisdiction, then the question is referred to the Oecumenical Katholikos
(at Edgmiatsin).
Article 30. — All kinds of reports of the Religious Assembly should
always be signed by the majority of its members.
Article 31. — The authorisation for ordaining vardapets, whether in
Constantinople or in the provinces, is given by the National Religious
Assembly. The authorisation for ordaining priests in Constantinople is
also given by the same Religious Assembly, and in the provinces by the
local Religious Assemblies.
Article 32. — No authorisation for ordaining a new priest is granted
until the priests of the church and the Council of the quarter send a
written application urging the necessity of such authorisation.
Article ZZ- — The Religious Assembly elects the preachers (vardapets)
for the churches in Constantinople as well as their head priests, and the
Patriarch nominates them.
Article 34. — All elections in the Religious Assembly are by secret
ballot.
456 ArDicnia
Artic/e 35. — The Religious Assembly should prepare a set of rules
with the object of improving the present condition of ecclesiastics, and of
securing their future welfare, so that they may perform gratuitously their
spiritual affairs.
\. The Political Assembly
Article 36. — The Political Assembly consists of twenty laymen well
acquainted with the national affairs and with the laws of the Government.
Article 37. — The members of the Political Assembly are elected by
the General Assembly by secret ballot and by a majority of votes, and,
the report having been presented to the Sublime Porte by the Patriarch,
they are confirmed in their office by an Imperial edict.
Article 38. — The Political Assembly is dissolved once in two years,
at the end of April, and the re-election takes place in the beginning of
May. The members of this Assembly may be re-elected after the lapse
of two years, and, though for tlie first two years they cannot be candidates
for the Political Assembly, still they may be employed in any other
national office.
Article 39. — If any member of the Political Assembly shall have been
absent from the sittings three times successively without sending a written
explanation, a letter is sent to him by the Chairman of the Assembly
asking for an explanation of his absence. If no answer be received he is
notified by a second letter that in case of his absence at the next sitting
he will be considered as having resigned.
Article ^o. — When there are as many as three members wanting in
the Political Assembly either in consequence of resignation or from some
other cause, others are elected by the General Assembly to take their
places, but until this election shall have taken place the majority of the
whole number is to rule.
Article 41. — The Political Assembly undertakes the general superin-
tendence of the political affairs of the nation. Its duties are to promote
the good order and progress of tlie nation, to examine carefully any useful
projects presented to its consideration by the Councils under its inspection
and to facilitate their execution.
Article 42. — The Political Assembly refers the questions presented for
its consideration to the Councils to which they belong, and it is only after
having heard the opinion of those Councils that it can take action. And
though it has the right to refuse for good reasons the decision taken by
any of these Councils, yet it cannot by itself make a diff'erent arrangement
in regard to the case in question, but it should once more refer it to the
same Council. Neither can the Political Assembly change or dissolve
any of the National Councils so long as they do not act contrary to the
fundamental principles of the Constitution. But in case of a default of
this kind the Assembly demands in the first instance an explanation from
the Chairman of the Council in question. The second time it sends a
written warning, and on the third occasion it may change the members
of the Council, provided always that it shall explain in its biennial report
to the General Assembly its reasons for so doing.
Appendix I 457
Article 43. — Should the Political Assembly consider the solution of
any question presented to its consideration beyond its jurisdiction, it
refers such question to the General Assembly.
VI. Councils and Committees organised by the
Political Assembly
Article 44. — The Political Assembly should organise four Councils for
educational, economical, and judicial affairs, and for the inspection of
monasteries, and three Committees for financial administration. The
term of office of the members of these Councils and Committees is two
years, but half of their numbers must be changed at the end of each year.
The President of the Judicial Council is the vicar of the Patriarch of
Constantinople.
I. The Educational Coitftcil
Article 45. — The Educational Council consists of seven well-educated
laymen. Its object is the general inspection of the education of the
nation. Its duties are to promote good order in the national schools,
to help the Societies that have for their object the promotion of the
education of both sexes, to improve the condition of teachers and to care
for their future, to raise well-qualified teachers and to encourage the
preparation of good text-books.
The Educational Council gives certificates to those students who have
finished their course in a national school.
It selects the text-books and holds annual examinations.
But the supervision of the religious instruction belongs to the
Religious Assembly, which Assembly selects the text-books for religious
learning and the teachers, holds examinations and distributes certificates.
2. 77/1? Ecoiwmical Couticil
Article 46. — This Council is to consist of seven well-qualified laymen
whom the Political Assembly elects by a plurality of votes.
It is to this Council that belongs the general inspection of the
financial administration of all national institutions in Constantinople and
their properties. It is its duty to watch over the interests of these
institutions.
It is its duty to see that each national estate is provided with the
proper title-deed. Copies of the title-deeds of all national real estates in
the provinces should be kept in the Bureau of the Patriarchate.
No selling or buying of national property is allowed without the
knowledge of this Council and without the consent of the Political
Assembly and the confirmation of such consent by the seal of the
Patriarch.
In Constantinople and in its vicinity no national building can be con-
structed or repaired without the knowledge of this Council and without
the consent of the Political Assembly.
It is also the duty of this Council to inspect the financial administration
458 Armenia
of the Committees on finances, on wills, and on the Hospital, and to
examine at certain times the books of the Councils of different quarters,
and present a report to the Political Assembly.
Two months before the beginning of a new year it should ascertain
from the Committee on finances the incomes and expenses for the coming
year, prepare a budget, and present it to the Political Assembly.
3. The Judicial Council
Article 47. — The Judicial Council is composed of eight persons versed
in law, married, and at least forty years of age, four of whom should be
ecclesiastics, and the other four laymen.
The vicar of the Patriarch is the President of the Judicial Council,
and all the members are elected by the Mixed Assembly by the plurality
of votes. The function of this Council is to settle family disputes, and
to examine and decide any questions referred to it for solution by the
Sublime Porte.
In case the Judicial Council should consider any question beyond its
capacity, then, according to the nature of the question, it recommends
that it should be referred to the Political or to the Mixed Assembly.
Should any person protest against the decision taken by this Council, the
question is examined again by one of the above-mentioned Assemblies as
the case may require.
4. Council for Alonasteries
Article 48. — The monasteries are the property of the nation. Hence
the supervision and control of their administration and the management
of their finance belong to the nation.
Inasmuch as it is necessary for each monastery to have its own particular
regulations, the Mixed Assembly, consisting of the Political and Religious
Assemblies of the Central Administration, with due consideration of the
opinions of the brotherhood of each monastery, and of the opinions of the
Council for Monasteries, prepares a set of rules and presents it to the
General Assembly for confirmation. The fundamental principles for such
rules are : —
I. The special management of each monastery belongs to its brother-
hood, but the right of the general superintendence of them all belongs to
the Central Administration, of which the Council for Monasteries is the
executive body.
II. The Abbot of each monastery is elected by its brotherhood, and
is confirmed by the Patriarch with the consent of the Mixed iVssembly of
the Central Administration. The person to be elected Abbot should be
over thirty years of age, a vardapet (doctor), and a subject of the Ottoman
Empire.
III. All monasteries are obliged to promote the moral improvement
of the nation. Hence each one, according to its capacity, should have a
seminary, a library, a printing office, a hospital, and other similar useful
establishments.
Appendix I 459
The Council for Monasteries is composed of seven persons elected by
the Political Assembly by plurality of votes.
Its functions and duties are to superintend the execution of the rules
of each monastery, to ascertain the revenues and the expenditure, and to
arrange and regulate it all.
This Council elects from the brotherhood of each monastery the
managers of the affairs of the monastery. These should perform their duties
under the presidency of the Abbot and in accordance with the rules of the
monastery, and at stated times should give an account of their doings to the
Council for Monasteries.
5. The Committee 011 Finance
Article 49. — The Committee on finance consists of seven persons
versed in financial affairs, who are elected by the Political Assembly by
plurality of votes. Its function is the administration of the National
Central Treasury.
The revenues of this Treasury are the general national taxes, the
incomes of the Bureau of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and the
donations or wills to the nation without the specification of a place.
Its expenditure consists of the usual expenses of the Patriarchate and
its Bureau, the pecuniary aids granted to the national institutions under
the immediate care of the Central Administration, and to needy quarters,
and other casual expenses. The Committee collects the revenues and
dispenses the expenditure with the knowledge of the Council for the
general administration of finance and wath the consent of the Political
Assembly.
It is its duty to keep the accounts of the Treasury according to the
strictest rules of book-keeping, and periodically to present the budget to
the Council of the general administration of finance, which Council, after
the necessary examination of it, communicates such budget to the Political
Assembly.
6. The Committee oti IViils
Article 50. — The Committee on wills consists of seven persons — three
ecclesiastics and four laymen — elected by the Mixed Assembly by plurality
of votes.
Its function is the management of wills in favour of the nation. Its
duties are to superintend the execution of the wills in strict accordance
with the object and intention of the makers of the wills.
Special rules for the guidance of this Committee should be prepared
by the Mixed Assembly with the aid of this same Committee and the
General Committee for finance, and they are to be confirmed by the
General Assembly.
This Committee on wills should periodically present its accounts to
the General Council of Finance, which Council, after the necessary
examination, should communicate its report to the Political Assembly.
460 AriJiciiia
7. The Trustees of the Hospital
Article 51. — The Trustees of the Hospital shall be nine persons elected
by the Political Assembly by plurality of votes. Two of these persons
should be physicians furnished with diplomas. The duties of these
trustees are to manage the National Hospital, its estates and revenues,
and to administer it with these incomes and with the aids received from
the Central Treasury.
This establishment should contain four departments, one for the care
of the sick who are poor, the second lor helpless old men, the third for
the insane, the fourth for the education of orphans.
The arrangements and administration of this establishment should
always be managed according to medical and hygienic laws.
These trustees are responsible to the General Council of Finances
for the financial management of this establishment, and to the Educational
Council for the educational department of it, and they should furnish
periodically an account to these Councils.
Vn. Councils of Quarters
Article 52. — These Councils consist of five to twelve members accord-
ing to the locality. Their duties are the management of the affairs of
their quarter, the care of the church and schools, the care of the poor
and the investigation and settlement of disputes that may rise among
their people.
Article 53. — Each quarter should have a treasury under the manage-
ment of its Council. The income of this treasury is derived from the tax
paid by the people of the quarter, the revenues of the church and the
school, gifts or wills. Its expenses are the expenses of the school and aid
given to the poor.
These Councils should keep a regular register of all births, marriages,
and deaths in their respective quarters.
Article 54. — These Councils are directly responsible to the different
Central Councils for their different departments. For the management
of schools they are responsible to the Educational Council, for financial
affairs to the Council of Finances, for judiciary affairs to the Judiciary
Council. They should furnish periodically an account to each one of
these Councils.
Article 55. — These Councils are elected by the people of the quarters,
and whosoever shall not be deprived (according to the 67th Article of the
Constitution) of the right of voting can take part in their election.
Article 56. — The rules to guide these Councils are to be prepared by
the Political and Religious Assemblies.
The office of these Councils lasts four years. They are changed in the
beginning of the fifth year, and their members may be immediately candi-
dates for re-election.
Appendix I 461
VIII. The National General Assembly — Its Organisation
AND ITS Duties
Article 57. — The National General Assembly is composed of 140
deputies, of whom
I. One-seventh; that is twenty, are ecclesiastical deputies elected
by the ecclesiastics in Constantinople.
II. Two-sevenths, that is forty, are deputies from the provinces.
III. Four-sevenths, that is eighty, are deputies elected by the different
quarters in Constantinople.
Article 58. — The members of the Religious and Political Assemblies
attend the sittings of the General Assembly, but if they are not elected
deputies they have no vote in the General Assembly.
Article 59. — The General Assembly can have no sitting if the majority
of its members, that is at least seventy-one persons, be not present.
Article 60. — The functions of the General Assembly are to elect the
Patriarchs, to participate in the election of the Katholikos, to elect
the chief functionaries of the nation and the members of the Religious
and Political Assemblies ; to oversee the administration of the National
Councils, to settle questions which belong to these Councils but are con-
sidered beyond their capacity, and to preserve the National Constitution
intact.
Article 61. — The General Assembly will have a sitting
I. Once in two years, according to the old custom, in the latter part
of the month of April, to hear the biennial report of the National
Administration, to examine the general account of revenues and
expenditures managed by financial functionaries, to elect new members
for the Religious and Political Assemblies, to settle the national taxation .
for the next two years.
These biennial sittings should close within two months.
The members of the National Administrative Assemblies who are at
the same time deputies in the General Assembly can take part in the
discussions in these sittings, but cannot vote in any question except those
of taxation and election,
II. To participate in the election of the Katholikos,
III. To elect the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the Patriarch of
Jerusalem,
IV. To settle any discord between the Patriarch and the Political or
Religious Assemblies. In such cases the parties in discord may take part
in the discussions in the General Assembly, but can give no votes,
V. To revise the national Constitution,
Finally, for any question the decision of which belongs to the General
Assembly.
But in case of such extraordinary sittings notice is given to the
Sublime Porte and its consent is previously obtained.
Article 62. — The Patriarch convokes the General Assembly with the
consent of the Political or of the Religious Assembly, or even at the
462 Armenia
request of the majority of the members of the General Assembly. But
before convoking such an extraordinary sitting the reasons for it should be
explained to the Sublime Porte and its consent obtained.
The Election of Ecclesiastical Deputies
Article 63. — All the ecclesiastics in Constantinople, at the invitation
of the Patriarch, come together in a certain place, and by secret voting
and by the majority of votes elect the ecclesiastical members of the
National General Assembly from bishops, vardapets, and priests : but
the candidates should not be holding any office in the provinces. They
should be at least thirty years of age, ordained at least five years ago and
under no accusation.
Article 64. — The office of the ecclesiastical deputies lasts ten years,
and once in two years the fifth part of them is changed. This fifth part
is changed by lot during the first eight years. All those who have ceased
to be members either by lot or at the end of the ten years may be
re-elected immediately.
The Election of Lay Deputies — Qualifications for
Candidates and Election
Article 65. — The national tax and personal merits are considered the
basis of the right of being electors.
In order to have the right of an elector a person should pay annually
at least seventy-five piasters as national tax.
Those whose personal merits entitle them to be electors are persons
employed in Government bureaux and in other Government offices,
physicians with diplomas, authors of useful books, school teachers, persons
who have rendered some valuable service to the nation.
Article 66. — Persons who are twenty-five years of age are entitled to
be electors, provided they be Ottoman subjects.
Article 67. — The following are deprived of their right : —
I. Those convicted of a crime, who, according to the penal laws of
the country, are considered as morally dead.
II. Persons who have been condemned by some National Council
for fraud in the administration of national affairs and who have
been deprived by a decision of one of these Councils of their
right to hold any national office.
III. Those who are undergoing a corrective punishment by the
Courts of the Government and whose term is not yet finished.
I\'. The insane whose complete recovery is not legally confirmed.
Article 68. — Candidates are all those members of the nation who
have attained their thirtieth year, are Ottoman subjects acquainted with
the laws of the country and with national affairs, and wlio are not deprived
of their right according to the 67 th Article of the Constitution.
But at least seven of the eighty deputies to be elected by the different
quarters in Constantinople should be persons holding a certain rank.
Appendix I 463
The Manner of Election
Article 69. — The National Political and Religious Assemblies, with
the Chairmen of different Councils, hold a sitting once every two years, in
the first part of the month of February, to prepare the list of the deputies
to be elected by the quarters of Constantinople and by the provinces, and
with the aid of the general census kept in the Bureau of the Patriarchate
they decide the number of deputies to be elected by each quarter or by
each province, taking as their basis for the quarters in Constantinople the
number of the electors, and for the provinces the number of the inhabitants.
The number of deputies thus decided upon should be communicated by
the Patriarch to each quarter or province.
The office of the deputies lasts ten years, and once in two years the
fifth part of the deputies elected by the quarters of Constantinople and by
the provinces is changed ; the election of this fifth part should take place
once in two years by the quarters or by the provinces alternately.
The turn of this alternation should be decided by lot during the first
eight years, on condition that in case the number of electors in a quarter
or the number of the population in a province is diminished or increased,
the number of the deputies to be elected by the quarter or the province
in question should be diminished or increased proportionately.
Those who are to take the places of the deputies deceased or resigned
should be elected every year two months before the beginning of a
new year.
The deputies of the quarters should be elected by the inhabitants of
Constantinople. But the deputies of the provinces should be elected by
the General Assembly of each province.
Article 70. — The deputies of the quarters or of the provinces need not
necessarily be the inhabitants of the same quarter or of the same province,
provided they live in Constantinople, are well acquainted with the national
affairs of the quarter or of the province they represent, and have, by their
love for their nation, by their honesty and justice, deserved the esteem and
confidence of their electors.
The national deputies are not regarded in the General Assembly as the
deputies of any particular locality, but as the deputies of the nation, all
enjoying the same equal rights.
Article 71. — The Patriarch sends a communication to every quarter
in Constantinople, in the month of February, in regard to the one-fifth of
the deputies to be elected by them every two years, giving notice of the
number of the deputies to be elected by each one, and reminding them of
the qualifications of electors and candidates.
On receiving this communication, the Councils in the quarters under-
take the election of the deputies, but during the process of the election
the preacher of the quarter, or in his absence the head of the priests, will
preside, and from three to six honourable inhabitants of the place are
added to the number of the Council.
The Electoral Council thus formed ascertains the number of those who
have the right of election in their quarter, prepares in alphabetical order a
464 Anne Ilia
list of electors, and causes it to be hung for eight days in the Council hall,
which is to be kept open during all this time.
The Electoral Council, in order to facilitate the decision of electors,
prepares a list of candidates in three times the number required, and causes
this list also to be hung in the Council hall ; the electors, however, are in
no way bound to follow this list.
In the provinces the members of the Provincial General Assemblies
are elected in the same way.
The Voting
Article 7 2. — A week after the list of electors has been exposed, on a
Sunday morning after service the voting is begun in the Council hall in
the following manner.
The President of the Council of the quarter, the list of electors in hand,
calls upon the electors in turn, who, after having signed their names in the
list of electors, write on a piece of paper as many names as there are
deputies required, one under the other, indicating before every name the
surname, residence, and profession, fold the paper, and drop it in the box
that is prepared especially for this purpose. But if the electors for some
reason or other cannot personally come to the Council hall, they send their
votes enclosed in a letter, which they should sign.
Article 73. — Voting is secret, so the voters should write their papers
alone, so that no one else can see the names they write.
Article 74, — The voting should close the same day that it begins. No
elector who does not present his vote that day has any right to protest
afterwards.
Article 75. — No one can vote in two quarters at the same time.
Article ']6. — If the quarters and dioceses that are united for election
are near each other, then the electors come together for voting. But if
they are far from each other each quarter or diocese holds its own voting,
and then the results of the votes of the two parties are united.
Article 77. — After the voting is over, the same day and in the same
sitting, in the presence of the Council of the quarter the box is opened,
and the votes are counted by officers specially appointed for this purpose
and sufficient in number for the number of voters.
Should any discrepancy be discovered, and should the Council of the
quarter have any suspicion of fraud, a second ballot is appointed to be held
on some other day before the next Sunday.
In the same way, if the required number of deputies be not obtained
the first time, a second ballot is held for the rest some other day.
Article 78. — If it so happen that one of the voters has written on his
paper more names than are required, the superfluous names are to be
rejected. In the same way are to be rejected all. papers where the names
are not written one under the other.
Article 79. — Those are elected as deputies who have received the largest
number of votes exceeding half the number of the voters, and if two
persons have received the same number of votes the older one is to be
elected.
Appendix I 465
Article 80. — If no majority be obtained on the first ballot, the Council
of the quarter announces the names of the two persons who have obtained
the largest number of votes, and the second ballot should be on those two
names.
Article 81. — The Council of each quarter presents to the Patriarch the
names of those who have been elected deputies in its quarter in an especial
report, in which should be exactly indicated the names of those elected,
their surnames, residence, profession, and all the circumstances of the
election.
The Patriarch presents this report to the Political i\ssembly, which
examines it and verifies the qualifications of those elected.
After that the Patriarch announces officially to every one of the
deputies his legal election, and invites them to hold a silting of the
General Assembly on a certain day.
Article 82. — The General Assembly in its first sitting hears the reports
examined by the Political Assembly, and confirms the elections and
declares the General Assembly legally organised.
The General Assembly can begin its meetings when the majority of
the deputies of Constantinople are elected without awaiting the end of the
provincial elections, the results of which will be meanwhile communicated
to Constantinople.
Article 83. — If a deputy be elected by several quarters or provinces
he himself decides which of the elections he shall accept, and, in case he
decline to decide, the General Assembly decides by lot.
Article 84. — The list of the deputies should be hung in the hall of the
General Assembly made out in alphabetical order, and before each name
should be indicated resignation, death, and anything else that may happen.
This list should be revised once in two years.
Chapter II
General Laws for Assemblies and Councils
Article 85. — Every Assembly and Council will have its officers, that
is a Chairman, a Secretary, and sometimes also a second Chairman and
a second Secretary. All these, of course, should be elected from the
members of the Assembly. These officers are elected only for one year,
but they may be re-elected.
Article 86. — No meeting can be held without the presence of the
majority.
Article 87. — A question should be put to vote only after it has been
thoroughly examined and discussed, and all decisions should be taken by
plurality of voices. In case of a tie, should the President be present the
decision will depend upon his vote, and, if absent, it will depend upon
the vote of the Chairman.
Article 88. — In order to arrive at a decision in regard to a question
discussed in the Mixed Assembly, each of the two Assemblies should vote
separately. If the majority of both have arrived at the same decision,
VOL. II 2 II
466 Armenia
then the question is settled. But if the decisions be different, it is
considered as difference of opinion, and consequently the final settlement
of the question is referred to the General Assembly.
In order that the Mixed Assembly may have a legal meeting the
majority of both Assemblies should be present.
Article 89. — Invitations should be sent to the members from the
Patriarchate at least six days before the day of the meeting.
Chapter III
National Taxation
Article 90. — Every member of the nation who is of age and capable
of earning money is bound to participate in the national expenditure by
paying a tax. This tax is annual, and the basis of its distribution is the
capacity of the individual.
Article 91. — There are two kinds of national taxes — one general, for
general expenses and collected by the Patriarchate for the National
Central Treasury, the other special, for the special expenses of each quarter,
and collected by the Councils of the quarters for their private treasuries.
Article 92. — The distribution and manner of collection of the general
taxes for Constantinople are settled by the Political Assembly and
confirmed by the General Assembly. But the special taxes are arranged
by the Council of each quarter. In the same way are managed the
provincial general taxes and the special taxes for each locality.
Article 93. — The General Assembly will decide and the Sublime
Porte will confirm the manner of distribution and collection of the tax
which the provinces have thus far been paying to the Treasury of the
Patriarchate.
Chapter IV
National Provincial Administration
Article 94. — The Metropolitan is the president of Provincial Assemblies
and has their executive power under his control.
His duty is to see that the Constitution is preserved in the provinces.
Article 95. — The Metropolitan cannot reside in monasteries and thus
be far from the place of his office, but he will live in the official residence
of the Metropolitan, where the Provincial Assemblies also hold their
meetings.
When a Metropolitan is at the same time an abbot he can carry on
the two offices simultaneously if the monastery be only one day's journey
from the metropolis, paying occasional visits to the monastery, but if the
distance be more than one day's journey, he should appoint a repre-
sentative in the monastery, and he himself should reside in the city. In
case of need, however, he can visit any part of his diocese.
Article 96. — Every quarter in the provinces should have in the same
way as those in Constantinople its Council, its treasury, and its officers.
Appendix I 467
In the metropolis there should be Political and Religious Assemblies,
and under the direction of the Political Assembly there should be a
provincial Treasury ; there should be also a provincial Bureau, where
should be kept all the census books of all the people of the diocese.
Article 97. — The election of the Metropolitan is carried on in the
Provincial General Assembly in the same way as tiie Patriarchs, and the
report of the election is sent to the Patriarch by the Mixed Assembly.
'J'he Patriarch, with the consent of the Mixed Assembly of the National
Central Administration, confirms the election and gives due notice of it
to the Sublime Porte in order to obtain ofiicial authorisation.
Article 98. — The Provincial Assemblies are to be organised on the
same plan as those of the Central Administration and have the same
functions and duties. But the number of the members of the Provincial
Assemblies will be fixed once for all according to the proportion of the
inhabitants of each province.
Until the national taxation be fixed in the provinces, the electors of
the Provincial General Assembly should be only those who belong to the
first, second, and third classes of tax-payers to the Government. And the
manner of the organisation of these Assemblies will be decided according
to the population of each diocese by the Central Administration after due
consultation with Metropolitans.
Chapter V
Revision of the Constitution
Article 99. — The fundamental principles of the National Constitution
are unchangeable. But if experience should make it desirable to modify
certain points the General Assembly will, five years after the forming of
the Constitution, organise a Committee of Revision. This Committee shall
consist of twenty members — three from the Political Assembly, three from
the Religious Assembly, two from each of the four Councils, and besides
these six from the General Assembly or outsiders. This Committee shall
report the necessary changes, which, after being ratified by the General
Assembly, shall be presented to the Sublime Porte and put in force
according to the Imperial edict. ^
^ The General Assembly of the Annenian nation met regularly in Constantinople
until 1892. Some of the Provincial Assemblies still continue their meetings. But the
Constitution is practically in abeyance owing to the strained relations at present existing
between the Palace and the Armenians.
APPENDIX II
CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF SOME ARMENIAN LAKES
Samples of water from Lakes Van, Nazik, Bulama (Gop), and from two
lakes in the Nimrud crater were collected by us, carefully sealed, and
submitted as soon as possible to the late Mr. William Thorp, B.Sc,
for analysis. Unfortunately the samples were not large enough to permit
of more than a single analysis in each case, estimating the various
constituents in succession. Hence it was not possible to examine for
ammonia or organic matter, or for certain compounds of which slight
traces may have been present.
With regard to Lake Van, three previous analyses of its water have
been made at various times, and the following tables have been prepared
in order to facilitate comparison.
LAKE VAN.
Quantities of solids in solution estimated in parts per 100,000
parts of water.
Chancourtois.l
Abich.2
Serda.a
Thorp.
Chlorine
566.679
488. 1S2
579-114
568.9
Carbonates .
329-057
249.448
328.637
320.565
Sulphates
212.773
188.476
198.467
203.4
Phosphates .
0.146
0.05
Nitrates
Soda .
1206.370
862.848
1040.864
III5.916
Potash
29.742
29.238
52.809
39-919
Magnesia
26.21 I
21.250
27.311
not determined
Lime
5.240
Strontia
0.063
Iron oxide .
0.303
Manganese oxide
0.223
Ammonia
0.573
Silica
Alumina
> 18.000
trace
3-58
7.284
0.347
7-53
1. 01
Total solids in solution .
2260.000
1734.21
2110.979
2248.9
Suspended matter
A little organic
matter
0.39
1 Comptes-rendtts, Acad, des Sciences, Paris, 1 847, x.xi. p. 1 1 1 1 .
2 Vergl. chein. Untcrsiich. d. IVcisser d. casp. Meeres, Urmia 11. Van-Sees, JShhit.
Acad. Sc. St. Pt'tershourg, 1859, Series 6, math, et phys. vol. vii.
^ Miiller-Simonis, P., Du Caiicase an Golfe Persique, Paris, 1892, p. 25S.
Appendix II
Calculated composition in parts per 100,000.
469
Sodium chloride .
Chancourlois.
Abich.
Serda.
Thorp.
938.000
810.67
953-835
938.837
,, carbonate
861.000
543-84
714.426
773-110
,, sulphate .
333-000
258.68
266.527
369.095
Potassium sulphate
55.000
54.06
97-655
73-819
Magnesium carbonate
55.000
40.71
57-308
not determined'
, , sulphate
22.67
,, 1
Calcium carbonate
4.692
1
,, sulphate .
•5.928
,, phosphate
...
0.319
Strontium sulphate
0. I II
Iron carbonate
0.488
Manganese carbonate .
...
0.360
Ammonium chloride
1
1.699
Silica ....
\ 18.000
3-58
7.284
7-53
Alumina
J
0-347
1. 01
Nitrates
0.05
Percentage of solids in
22.6%
17-34%
21. 10°;
22.48%
solution .
The specific gravity of the water was determined by Chancourtois as
1.0188, and by Abich as 1.0189, both at 19° C. As Abich points out,
the water of Lake Van is nearly identical in composition with that of some
of the soda-lakes at the south-eastern foot of iVrarat, in the Araxes plain.
In some of these the chloride, in others the carbonate, and in others
again the sulphate of sodium is the predominating constituent. Probably
the composition of the waters of Lake Van vary somewhat in different
parts of the lake ; Abich's sample was certainly less saline than those of
the other analysts.
The following analyses of the extraordinarily saline waters of Lake
Urmi are appended for contrast rather than for comparison with those of
Lake Van.
LAKE URML
Quantities of solids in solution estimated in parts per 100,000
parts of water.
Chlorine .....
Abich. 1
Guniher and Manley.2
12,686.8
8,536
Sulphates .....
929.03
631.2
Soda ......
10,106.4
6,814
Potash
140.2
Magnesia .....
1,099.3
626.6
Lime ......
37-7
70.6
Traces of bromides
Traces of barium.
No traces either of brom-
ine or iodine.
1 Loc. cit.
2 Proc. Roy. Soc. L\v. p. 312, London, 1899.
470
Armenia
In this case Abich's sample was a stronger solution than Giinther's,
the percentage of solid salts being 22.28 and 14.89 respectively. Yet
the relative proportion of the various salts is very similar, as shown by the
following comparison of percentages : —
Sodium chloride
Magnesium chloride .
,, sulphate .
Calcium chloride
,, sulphate
Potassium sulphate
Abich.
Giinther and Manley.
86.37
6.94
6.08
0.27
0.34
86.203
6.S16
4.150
1-151
I. 741
100.00
100.061
The specific gravity in the two cases were determined as 1.175 and
I.I 13 respectively.
The remaining four analyses by Mr. Thorp were made from our small
samples of water taken from fresh-water lakes.
Quantities estimated in parts per 100,000.
Chlorine
Lake Bulama.
Lake Nazik.
Niinrud Crater,
Large Lake.
Nimrud Crater,
Warm Lake.
0-35
1.50
2.15
4-25
Sulphates
Nitrates
0.05
0.05
0.08
0.05
Sodium and pot
issumi
carbonates
S.80
91-13
Magnesia
1.29
Lime .
2.71
3-32
5.82
Iron oxide .
0.60
0.0 1
0.08
Silica .
3-5
13-8
Alumina
. 1 1. 71
0.24
0.68
Total solids in sol
Lition . 25.86
18.74
39-41
I 14-43
Suspended matter
21.33
0.36
1.88
2.18
The water of Lake Bulama is slightly ferruginous and yet slightly
alkaline. The unpleasant odour from the lake doubtless arose from the
fermentation of much vegetable matter in suspension and solution ; it
could not be due to sulphur compounds, since there is an absence of
sulphates, and the low proportion of chlorine indicates freedom from
animal contamination.
Lake Nazik. — A soft water, with very little contamination.
Nimrud crater. — An accident to the sample of water from the large
lake caused the loss of the iron, alumina, lime, and magnesia estimations.
Some vegetable matter occurred in suspension.
The water of the warm lake is slightly alkaline, but the ratio of the
potassium to the sodium could not be determined. It was rather turbid
owing to fine fragments of vegetable matter. It is scarcely conceivable
that it can possess healing properties.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
In the following Bibliography ^ an attempt has been made to make the
sections relating to Travel and Topography as complete as possible.
The other sections are not exhaustive ; but they perhaps include the
more important and most recent sources of information. Works written
in Armenian and Russian have, with certain exceptions, been excluded, as
well as those dealing with the Armenian mediaeval kingdom of Cilicia.
I. TRAVEL AND TOPOGRAPHY
General Authorities.
Bitter (K. ) Die Erdkunde von Asien , Berlin ,
1832-59, 2nd edit., 18 vols. 8° and index.
Saint Martin (J.) Mdmoires sur I'Armenie,
Pans, 1818, 2 vols. 8".
(In Armenian) Alishan (L.) (Mekhitarist),
Province of Shirak, Venice, 1881; Province
of Ararat, Venice, 1890; Province of
Sisacan, Venice, 1893.
Eaki.y Travel.
Rubruck (William of) (Guillaume de
Ruysbroeck or Rubruquis ; Flemish monk
(Franciscan); envoy to Khan of Tartary
from Pope Innocent \'I. and Louis IX. ;
travelled across Armenia in 1254.) New
translation from Latin by W. Rockhill.
Haklnvt Soc. ser. 2, iv. Loud. 1900, 8°.
Marco Polo (Venetian merchant ; travelled
in Tartary, India, Persia, and across
1 List of Sources. — British Museum Library catalogues ; Royal Geographical Society, catalogues and
publications ; Poole's Index to Periodicals, 1848-96 ; Review of Reviews, Annual Inde.v, 1890-gg ; Cata-
logue of York (iate geographical library, Land. 1886; Academic des Sciences de St. P^tersbourg,
Tableau general des publications (langues ^trangeres), St. Pet. 1872. List of books in library of Tiflis
Museum, kindly compiled for the author hy Dr. Radde. Petern'.ann's Mittheilungen, Gotha, 1855-1900 ;
Bibliotheque Asiat. et Afric. (Ternau.x-Compans H.), Pafis, 1841 ; Bibliotheca Cleographica (1750-1856)
(Engelmann, W.), Leipz. 1858 ; Bibliotheca Orientalis (Zenker, J. T.), vol. ii. Leifiz. 1861 ; Catalogue de
la Section des Russicae, St. Pet. 1873 ; Bibliographia Caucasica et Transcaucasica (Miansarov, M.), Si.
Pet. 1874-76 ; Bibliographies Gt^og. spiciales (Jackson, J.) Paris, 1881 ; Orientalische Bibliographie
(MiiUer, A.), 1887-96, Berlin, 1897; Bibliotheca Geographica (Baschin, O.), 1891-97, Berlin, 1899;
Catalogue des livres de Timprimerie arm^nienne de Saint-Lazare, I'enice, 1894.
Encyclopaedias: Zedler, Leipz. 1732; Ersch. u. Gruber, Leipz. 1820; M'Clintock and Strong, Neiv
York, 1867 ; Ency. Britannica, Land. 1875-89 ; Brockhaus, Leipz. 1882 ; Meyer, Leipz. 1885 ; Diction-
naire de Gtog. Paris, 1879-95 ; La Grande Encyclop^die, Paris, 1887 seq. ; Real-Ency. f. protestantische
Theologie (article Armenien by Gelzer), Leipz. 1S97.
Special bibliographies : Dubois de Montpireux, Voyage autour du Caucase, Paris, 1839-43 ; Saint-Martin
(V. de), Hist, des D^couv. Geog. Paris, 1846 ; Miiller-Simonis, Du Caucase au Golfe Persique, Paris,
1892 ; Bibliographie analytique des ouvrages de M. F. Brusset (1824-79), ^(- Pet. 18S7.
Authorities quoted by Ritter, Die Erdkunde von Asien, Berlin, 1832-59 ; Reclus, Nouv. G6og.
Universelle, Paris, 1876-94 ; Lanier, L'Asie, Paris, 1889.
Armenia to Trebizond, 1271-95.) First
ed. in Italian, Venice, 1496. Eng. trans,
with notes by Col. H. Yule, Land. 1871,
2 vols. 8°. Many other editions.
Odericus of Pordenone (Italian Franciscan;
travelled across .\rmenia c. 1318 ; a few
lines only. ) Italian in Ramusio, vol. ii.
Venice, 1583, fol. Latin and English in
Hakluyt's Voyages, Land. 1809-12.
Jordauus (Dominican missionary c. 1330;
travelled in Armenia, short account. )
Mirabilia Descripta : The Wonders of the
East. Trans, from Latin by H. Yule,
Haklnyt Soc. vol. xxxi. Lond. 1863, 8°.
Clavijo (Ruy Gonzalez de) (Castilian am-
bassador to Khan of Tartary, 1403-6.)
Historia del gran Tamerlnn, e itinerario,
ec. , Seville, 1582, fol. Eng. trans, by
Clements Markham, Haklnyt Soc. vol.
xxvi. Lond. 1859, 8°.
4/2
Armenia
Zeno (Caterino) (\'enetian envoy to Persia,
1471-73.) Ramusio, vol. ii. Venice, 1583,
fol. Eng. trans, by C. Grey, Hakluyt
Soc. vol. xli.\'. Loud. 1873, 8°.
Barbaro (Josafa) (Venetian envoy to
Persia, 1471-87. ) Venice, 1543 ; and in
Ramusio, vol. ii. Venice, 1583, fol. Eng.
trans, by W. Thomas, Hakluyt Soc. vol.
xlix. Lond. 1873, 8°
Contarini (Ambrosio) (Venetian envoy to
Persia, 1473-77.) Venice, 1524; and in
Ramusio, vol. ii. Venice, 1583, fol. Eng.
trans, by W. Thomas, Hakluyt Soc. vol.
xlix. Loud. 1873, 8°.
Anonymous Venetian Merchant (Tra-
velled from Aleppo to Persia via Bitlis and
Lake Van, 1507-20.) Ramusio, vol. ii.
Venice, 1583. Eng. trans, by C. Grey,.
Hiikluvt Soc. vol. xlix. Lond. 1873, 8°.
Newberie (John) (English merchant; tra-
velled from Tabriz to Erzinjan by Erivan
and Erzerum, 1580-82.) Purchas's Pil-
o'rims, pt. ii. bk. ix. ch. iii. Lond. 1625, fol.
Cartwright (John) ("The Preacher," Eng-
lish ; travelled from Aleppo to Ispahan
via Bitlis and Lake \'an about 1600?)
Lond. 161 1 ; Purchas's Pilgrims, pt. i.
vol. ii. bk. ix. Lond. 1625, fol. ; and
Churchill's Collection of Voyages, vol. vii.
Loud. 1707-47-
Rhodes (Alessandro de) (Jesuit mission-
ary, 1618-53.) Relazione de' felici success!
della Sante Fede Predicata da Padri della
Comp. di Giesu nel Regno di Tunchino,
Milan, 1651, 8° ; Voy. et Miss, du Pere
A. de Rhodes, S.J., en la Chine et autres
Royaumes de 1' Europe avec son retour
par la Perse et I'Arm^nie, Lille, 1884.
Poser (H. von) Reyse von Constantinopel
aus, durch die Bulgarey, Armenian, Persien
und Indien (1621), Jena, 1675, 4°-
Tavernier (J. B. ) \'oyages en Turquie, en
Perse et aiix Indes (1631-64), Paris, 1676,
3 vols. 4'. English translations, Lond.
1678 and 1684. (Many other editions.)
Philippi (F. ) (Carmelite monk.) Itinera-
rium orientale . . . (1640), Lyons, 1649,
8'.
Evliya. Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa
in the 17th century. (Trans, from the
Turkish by Ritter, Joseph von Hammer),
Lond. 1840, 4°.
Boullaye le Gouz. Les \'oyages et Obser-
\ations dn Sieur de la Boullaye le Gouz
gentilhomme Angevin (1647), Paris,
1653. 4°-
Poullet. Nouvelles relations du Levant
(deuxieme partie) (1658), Paris, 1668,
12"'".
Melton (E.) Eduward Meltons, Engelsch
l'',dL-lmans, Zeldzaame en gedenkwaardige
Zee-en-Land-Reizen door Egypten, \\'est-
Indicn, Perzien, Turkyen, Oost- Indien,
etc. (1660-77), Amsterdam, 1681, 4°.
Chardin (Jean) Voyages en Perse et
autres lieux de I'Orient (1666-77), L.ond.
1686 (ist vol.); Amsterdam, 1711, 10
vols. 12'"° ; Nouv. 6d. par Langles, Paris,
iSii, 10 vols. 8^ Eng. trans. Lond.
1720, 2 vols. 8*^.
Jesuit Missions (Erivan, Erzerum, Bitlis,
1682 seq.)
\'illotte (Pere) Voy. d'un Miss, de la
Comp. de J^sus en Turquie, en Perse,
en Arm^nie, en Arable, et en Barbaric,
Paris, 1730, 12"'°.
Fleurian (T. C. ) Estat present de I'Ar-
m^nie, Paris, 1694, 8^.
Lettre du Pere Monier . ^
M^moire de la Mission j Lettres Edi-
d'Erzeron . . | Jiantes, vols.
M(?moire de la Mission \ iii. and iv.
d'Erivan . _ . . | Paris, 1780,
Journ. du voy. d'Erzeron | 12'"".
a Tr^bizonde . . J
Monier (Pere) Relation de I'Armenie in
Bernard's Recueil de Voyages an Xord,
vol. vi. pp. 1-116, Amsterdam, XT2.<^, 12™°.
Chinon (G. ) (Capuchin missionary.) Rela-
tion nouvelle du Levant . . . religion,
gouvernement et coutumes des Perses, des
Arm^niens et des Gaures, Lyons, 1671, 8°.
Careri (G. F. Gemelli) Giro del Mondo
(1693) (Trebizond , Erzerum, Kars, Erivan,
Nakhichevan), Naples, 1699, 7 vols. 8"".
Eng. trans, in Churchill's Voyages, vol. iv.
Lond. 1774, etc.
DeBeze(Pere) (Jesuit.) Astronomical obser-
vations at Trebizond and Erzerum (1698),
published by P. Gouye in Hist, de I' Acad,
de Sciences, pp. 85-6, Paris, 1699.
Schillinger (F. C. ) Persianische und ost-
indianische Reise, \'om Jahr 1699 bis
1702, i\'ureni/'c?g, 1707, 8^
Tournefort (J. Pitton de) Relation d'un
voyage du Levant (1701-2), Paris, 1717,
2 vols. 4"^. Eng. trans. Ozell (J.), Lond.
1 74 1, 3 vols. 8".
Lucas (Paul) Voyage au Le^'ant (Palu-
Erzerum, 1700), The Hague, 1705, 2 vols.
8°.
Ferri^res-Sauveboeuf (Comte de) \'oyages
... en Turquie, en Perse et en Arabic
(1782-89), Pd'-is, 1790, 2 vols. 8".
Travei. in the Nineteenth Century.
Abbott (K. E. ) Notes of a tour in Armenia
in 1837, Jour. R. Geog. Soc. xii. pp. 207-
20, Lond. 1842.
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Aus kaukasischen Landern : Reisebriefe
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1896, 2 vols. 8°.
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(1843), Dorpat, ^ pavt.
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Voyage au Mont Ararat, Paris, 1892, 8°'.
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Markoff (E.) Expedition scientitic|ue au
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Eine Besteigung des Grossen Ararat, Das
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La temperature minima au sommet du Grand
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Spassky - Avtonomov (K. ) Ueber eine
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Stuart (R.) Ascent of Ararat (1856),
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See also supra Gordon ( C. G. ) , Letters from
the Crimea, etc. ; Tournefort (J. P. de),
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The Russian-speaking reader may he referred to
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la G6og. 1865-83 ; MiansarofF, Kibl. Cauca.sica,
St. Pet. 1874-76, 8^ ; and to the following periodi-
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indicates sources of information).
Imp. Russ. Geog. Soc. Cauc. ."ice. — Iz^iesiiya,
Khodzko, iv. 1875; vii. 1882-83; Zapiski —
Khodzko, vi. 1864 ; Weidenbaum, xiii. 1884 ;
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2 I
482
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Almanac 0/ the Caucasus, 1882, Biog. of J.
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Ti_flis Gazette, No. 39, 1829, Parrot.
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Journal des Mines, St. Pet. 1841-43, Wagner.
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Remarques topographiques sur quelques
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Fonton (F. P.) La Russia dans I'Asie
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Monteith (W. ) Kars and Erzeroum ;
campaigns of Prince Paskiewitch in
1828-29, Lond. 1856, 8°.
Notes on Georgia and the New Russian
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Neumann (C. F. ) Die Operations- Linie
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Steinle ( N. ) Die russisch-tiukischen Kriege
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Uschakoff. Geschichte der Feldziige des
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Sandwith (H. ) Narrative of the siege of
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Anon. Visit to Kars while in the hands of
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Duncan (C. ) A campaign with the Turks
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Anon. La guerre d'Orient en 1877-78,
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Etude Critique des Operations en Turquie
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Forbes (A.) and others. Daily Neius
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Greene (F. V.) The Russian army and its
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Norman ( C. B. ) Armenia and the campaign
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Ryan (C. S.) and Sandes (J.) Under the
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Williams (C. ) The Armenian Campaign
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Dottain (E. ) La Turquie d'Asie d'apres le
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Kiepert (H. ) Die neue russisch-tiirkische
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Staritzky. Die katastral Vermessung
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Tschirikow (E. I.) Ueber die Arbeiten der
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Ital. — Tommaseo (N. ) Storia di Agath-
angelo, Venice, 1843, 8°.
French, with Greek te.xt, in Langlois'
Collection. See supra.
Gutschmid (A. von) Agathangelos, Kleine
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] 'en ice, 1845.
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French — Prudhomme (E. ) Nev. de
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41-59) 158-84, 268-86, 289-318 ; xvii.
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Chamchean (Michael) i8th century.
History of Armenia from K. c. 2247 to
A.U. 1780, Venice, 1784-86, 3 vols. 4°.
Translation .-
F.nglish (abridged) — Avdall (].), Cal-
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David Anyaght (the Philosopher) 5th
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Eghishe or Elisceus. 5th century. History
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Cojistantinople, 1764.
Translations :
Fnglish — Neumann (C. F. ), Lond. 1830,
4°-
Italian — Cappelletti(C.), Venice, 1840, 8°.
French — Karabaghy ( G. ) Soulevement
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French — Le Vaillant de Florival (P. E. ),
Paris, 1853, 8°, and in Langlois'
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German — (Book I\^) Neumann (C. F. )
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Dulaurier (E.) Cosmogonie des Perses d'apres
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Wickering (A. de) Eznik de Gog'ph et son
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Translations :
French — In Langlois' Collection.
German — Lauer(M. ), Cologne, 1879.
Latin — Fragments in Procopius, De Belle
Persico.
MeneviSChean(P. G.) F'austusvon ByzanzundDr.
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Bore (E.) De Taction du Christianisme sur la
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Kirakos of Gandzak. 13th century. His-
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Translations :
French — Brosset, Deux historiens Ar-
meniens, St. Pet. 1870-71, 2 vols. 4° ;
Dulaurier (extracts) in Recueil, and in
Jour. Asiat. xi. s6r. 5, Paris, 1858.
See Brosset, Additions a I'histoire de la Gtorgie,
Hist, ancicnne, pp. 412-37, St. Pet. 1851.
Koriun. 5th century. Life of St. Mesrop,
Venice, 1833.
Translations :
German — Welte, Tubingen, 1841.
French — In Langlois' Collection.
Lazar of Pharpi. 5th century. History
of Armenia, A.u. 388-485, Venice, 1783.
Translation :
French — In Langlois' Collection.
Karabagliy(G.) AbriSgi de la vie . . . du Prince
Vahan le Mamigonien, Paris, 1S43, 8'.
Maghakia Abegha. 13th century (?). His-
tory of the nation of archers (Invasion
of the Mongols to A.D. 1272), St. Pet.
1870.
Translation :
French — Brosset, Additions a I'liistoire de
la G^orgie, Hist, ancienne, pp. 438-67,
St. Pet. 1851, 4 .
Mattheos of Edessa. 12th century.
Chronicle from A.D. 952-1136, continued
by Gregory the Priest to 1162, Jerusalem,
1869.
Translation :
French — Dulaurier, Paris, 1858, 8°.
Ctaahan de Cirbled. Notice de deux manuscrits
armeniens contenant I'histoire de Matthieu Eretz,
Paris, 1812, 4^.
Dulaurier. Recueil, pp. I-2CI.
Neve. L'Arminie chretienne, pp. 341-70.
Mkhithar of Asrrivank. 13th centur\.
Chronological history to -X.i). 1289,
Moscoiv, i860.
Translation :
French — Brosset, Mem. Acad. Sc. xiii.
s^r. 7, pp. i-iio, St. Pet. 1869.
Brosset. Etudes sur I'historien Armenien Mkhitar
d'.Airavank, Biitt. Acad. Sc. viii. pp. 391-416,
.S7. Pet. 1S65.
Moses of Khorene. Date uncertain.
History of Armenia, Amsterdam, 1695 ;
Venice, 1843.
Translations :
Latin (with Armenian text) — W'histon
(G. and G. ), Lond. 172^, 4".
Italian — Cappelletti (G.), Venice, 1841,
8'. Tommaseo (N. ), fVwzVf, 1849-50,
8°.
German — Lauer (M. ), Regensburg, 1869.
French (with Armenian text) — Le Vaillant
de Florival (P. E. ), Paris, 1841, 2 vols.
8' ; and in Langlois' Collection, vol. ii.
See also, for his sources, ibid. vol. i.
translations of Mar Apas Catina,
Bardesanes, The Pseudo - Bardesanes,
Lerubna of Edessa, The Pseudo-Agath-
angelos, and list of lost fragments of
Greek historians preserved in the writ-
ings of Armenian authors.
Baumgartner (A.) Dr. M. Lauer und das zweite
Kuch de- iSIoses Chorenazi, Leipz. 1885.
Burckhardt ( — ) Review of Carriere's Ligende
d'Abgar (sources of Moses of Khorene), Byzan-
iinisclte Zeitscliri/t, pp. 426-435, Leipz. 1807.
Carriere (A.) Moise de Khoren et les genealogies
patriarcales, Paris, i£qi, 8°. Nouvelles sources
de Moise de Khoren, Vienna, 1893, 8°, and Sup-
plement, 1894. La legende d'Abgar dans I'his-
toire d'Armenie de Moise de Khoren, Paris, 1895,
8°.
Gildemeister (J.) Pseudokallisthenes bei Moses
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88-91, Leipz. 1S86.
GutSChmid (A. von) Moses von Khoren, Klein-
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ten, iii. pp. 282-331, Lcipz. 1892.
Khalathianz (G.) Zur Erklaruiig der armenischen
(leschichtc ties Moses von CMox^n^, Zeits. f. d.
A iindc dcs Morgcnlandt's, vii. pp. 21-28, I'/enfuz,
1S93.
LanglOiS(V.) Etude sur les sources de I'histoire
d'Armiinie de Moise de Khorene, BuU. Acad.
Sc. iii. pp. 531-83, SV. Pet. 1861.
Petermann (— ) Die schriftlichen Quellen des
Moses Chorenensis, Berichte Verhand. Akad.
U'/is. pp. 87-104, Berlin, 1852.
Saint Martin (J.) Notice sur la vie et les terits
de Moise de Khoren, Joitr. Asiat. ii. sir. i,
pp. 322-44, Paris, 1823.
Vetter (P.) Das .Sibyllen-Zitat bei Moses von
Choren, Theol.Qitartalsclirift,-pT^. 465-74, Tnltin-
gen, 1892. Das Buch des Mar Abas von Nisi-
bis (sources of Moses ol" Khorene), Stuttgart,
Geography, Marseilles, 1683 ; Land. 1736,
4", with Latin trans. ; Paris, 1819, 8°,
with French trans. ; Venice, 1881, 8°,
with French trans.
Translations :
Latin — Whiston (G. and G. ), Lond.
1736, 4°-
French — Saint Martin (J.) in Mdtnoires
sur r Armilnie, vol. ii., Paris, 1819, 8° ;
Soukrean (A.), Venice, i88r, 8°.
Treatise on Rhetoric, Venice, 1796, 1843.
Batimgartner (A.) Ueber das Buch " Die Chrie,"
Zeits. dents. Morg. Gesell. xl. pp. 457-515,
Leipz. 1886.
Nerses Clayetzi (of Romkla) or Snorhali
(the Gracious), Katholikos. 1066-1 173.
Elegy on the fall of Edessa, Madras, 1810 ;
Calcutta, 1832 ; Paris, 1828.
Poems, Venice, 1830.
Pastoral letter with Latin translation, Venice,
1830.
Synodal Address and Letters, Venice, 1848.
Prayer (translated into thirty-six languages),
Venice, 1810, 1862, 1882.
Translations :
Latin — Cappelletti (J.) Opera omnia,
Venice, 1833.
French — (Synodal address) Dulanrier (E. )
Hjstoire, rites, dogmes et liturgie de
I'Eglise arm^nienne ; (Elegy on the fall
of Edessa) extracts in Dulaurier's Recueil,
pp. 223-268, Paris, 1855.
Avdall (J.) Memoir of life and writings of St.
Nierses Clajensis, surnamed the Graceful, Pon-
tiff of Armenia, Jour. Asiat. Hoc. Bengal, v. pp.
129-57, Calctttta, 1836.
Monike (D. G. v.) Nierses Klaietsi . . . und
dessen (lebete, Zeits. f. hist. Theol. i. pt. ii. pp.
67-104, Leipz. 1832.
N6ve (F.) Le patriarche Nerses IV. dit Schnorhali,
L' .-Xrini-nie chretienne, pp. 269-86.
Nerses of Lambron. 12th century.
.Synodal .\ddress to Council of Romkla,
Venice, 1787.
Treatise on the; institutions of the Church,
Venice, 1847.
Letters, etc. (with letters of Gregory Tegha)
(Katholikos, 1173-80), I'enice, 1838.
Translations :
Italian — (Synodal .Address) Aucherian
(P.) (with Armenian text), Venice, 1812.
dermati — (Synodal Address) Neumann
(C. F.), Leipz. 1834.
French — In Dulaurier's Recueil : Reflec-
tions sur les institutions de I'Eglise
(extraits) ; Lettre adress^e au roi
Eton II.
Orbelean Stephanos. 13th centtiry.
History of .Siunia, Paris, 1859 ; Moscow,
1861.
Translations :
French — Brosset, St. Pet. 1864-66, 2
vols. 4°.
Brosset. Projet d'une collection d'historiens
armiiniens inedits. Butt, scient. Acad. Sc. viii.
pp. 177-89 and i,\-. pp. 253-68, St. Pet. 1841-42.
Traduction de I'histoire d'Etienne Orbilian, Bull.
Acad. Sc. vi. pp. 500-1, ^S"^. Pet. 1863.
Histoire des princes Orbilians, idid. viii. p. 177,
1865.
See also Saint Martin, Afem. sur t Annenie,
Paris. 1819, vol. ii. pp. 1-300, for French trans.
of a work attributed to Stephanos Orbelean,
published in Madras, 1775, about which see
Sukias Somal, Quadro della storia letteraria di
Aimenia, pp. 119-20, Venice, 1829, 8".
Samuel of Ani. 12th century. History to
A. U. 1 179 (continued by unknown author
toA.D. 1337), Vagharshapaf, 1893.
Translations :
Latin — Zohrab, Milan, 1818 ; and in
Migne's Patrologice cursus completus,
ser. Grceca, xix. pp. 599-742, Paris,
1844-64.
French — In Brosset's Collection.
Brosset. Samuel d'Ani, revue gdnirale de sa
chronologie. Bull. Acad. Sc. xviii. pp. 402-42,
St. Pet. 1873.
Dulaurier. Recueil, pp. 445-68; and see his
Recherches sur la chronologie arminienne.
Sebeos. 7th century. History of Heraklius,
Constantinople, 1851 ; St. Pet. 1879.
Translations :
Russia?! — Patkanean (K.), St. Pet. 1862.
German — (part) Hiibschmann (H. ) Zur
Geschichte Armeniens und der ersten
Kriege der Araber, Leipz. 1875, 8°.
Prudhomme (E.) Essai d'une histoire de la
dynastie des Sassanides, etc., Jotir. Asiat. s6r.
6, vii. pp. 101-238, Paris, 1866.
Sembat (the Constable) 13th century.
Chronicle, Moscow, 1856 ; Paris, 1859.
Translation .•
French — Dulaurier, Recueil, pp. 605-80 ;
Langlois (part), A/i'm. Acad. Sc. s^r. 7,
iv. St. Pet. 1862.
Thomas Artsruni. 9th and loth centuries.
Armenian history with an account of the
Artsruni family (continued by later writers).
Con sta n tinople , 1852.
Translation :
French — In Brosset's Collection.
Brosset. Notice sur I'historien arminien Thomas
.'\rd/rouni, Bull. Acad. .^c. v. pp. 538-54, St.
Pet. 1863.
Bibliography
491
Sur I'histoire coniposte en arnienien par Thomas
Ardzroiini, ibid. xiv. pp. 428-32, 1870.
Neve. Histoire de la Maison des Ardzrounis,
Muscon, vi. pp. ZTi'lli Louvain, 1887.
Thomas Metsobatzi. 15th century.
History of Tiniur, Paris, i860; TijUs,
1892.
N6ve. Etudes sur Thomas de Medzoph et sur son
histoire de I'Arm^nie au xv^ siecle, Paris,
1855, 8°.
E.\pos6 des guerres de Tamerlan et de Schah-Rokh
dans I'Asie occidentale d'apres la chronique
arm^nienne inedite de Thomas de Medzoph,
Brussels, i860, 8°.
Quelques Episodes de la persecution du Christi-
anisme en Arm^nie au xv-e siecle, Louvain,
1861, 8°. _
Sources arm^niennes pour rhistoire des Mongols,
L' Arinniic chrciienne, pp. 371-S2.
Ukhtanes of Edessa. loth century.
History of the religious separation of the
Armenians and Georgians, Vagharshapat ,
1871.
Translaiion :
French — Brosset (M. F. ) Deux historians
arm^niens, St. Pet. 1870-71 (2 vols.)
Brosset (M. F,) Etudes sur I'historien armdnien
Ouktanes, Bull. Acad. Sciences, xiii. pp. 401-54,
.S7. Pet. 1869.
Vardan the Great. 13th century. History,
edited by Emin, with Russian translation,
Moscinu, 1861 ; Venice, 1862.
Dulaurier. Les Mongols d'apres les historiens
arm^niens (extrait de I'histoire universelle de
Vartan), Jour. Asiat. six. s, xvi. pp. 273-323,
Paris, i860.
Reiiieil, pp. 431-43.
Brosset. Analyse critique de I'histoire de Vardan,
Mem. Acad. Sc. s6r. 7, iv. pp. 1-30, St. Pet.
1S62.
Geography (attributed to Vardan), Constan-
tinople, 1728.
Translation :
French (with Armenian text) — Saint
Martin, in Mhn. sur V Arminie, vol. ii.
Paris, 18 19.
Fables (attributed to \'ardan), St. Pet. 1899
(N. Marr).
Translation :
French — Saint Martin, Jour. Asiat.
s^r. i. Paris, 1825.
See Sukias Somal's Quadro, p. iii.
Conybeare (F. C.) Review of "The Fables of
Wardan," by N. Marr, Folk Lore, pp. 462-75,
Land. 1899.
Zenob of Glak. 4th century. History of
Taron, attributed to Zenob of Glak, and
continued by John Mamikonean, 7th
century, Constantinople, 1719 ; Venice,
1843.
Translations :
French — Prudhomme (E. ) Jour. Asiat.
s^r. 6, ii. pp. 401-75, Paris, 1863.
And in Langlois' Collection.
English — Avdall (J. ) Memoirs of a
Hindoo colony in Ancient Armenia,
Jour. Asiat. Soc. of Bengal, Calcutta,
1836.
Stackelberg. Review of "Zenob of Glak" (Fzt'«?;a,
1893) by Khalatheantz (Chalatiantz) in modern
Armenian, Byzantinische Zeitschri/t, pp. 368-70,
Leipz. 1895.
Brosset's Collection, vol. ii. , also contains
translations of certain writers of the 17th
and 1 8th centuries. See also his His-
toire de la Gdorgie {St. Pet. 185 1),
Voyage Arch^ologique, and Ruines d'Ani
{supra. Travel in Nineteenth
Century) for translated extracts from
Armenian writers.
History
Artemi of Vagharshapat. Memoirs of his
life (trans, fioni Armenian). English,
Lond. 1822, 8 ; German by Busse, Halle,
1823, 8°.
Brosset (M. F.) Inscriptions arm^niennes
de Bolghari, Bull. Scient. Acad. Sc. iii.
pp. 18-21, St. Pet. 1838.
Notice historique sur les couvents arm^niens
de Haghbat et de Sanahin, Bull. Scient.
Acad. Sc. X. pp. 303-36, St. Pet. 1842.
Inscriptions armeniennes, Bull. Acad. Sc. i.
pp. 399-413, St. Pet. i860.
Listes chronologiques des princes et m^tro-
polites de la Siounie, jusqu'a la fin du
-xiiie siecle, Bull. Acad. Sc. iv. pp. 497-
562, St. Pet. 1862.
Description of the Armenian convents of
Haghbat and Sanahin by the vardapet
John of the Crimea. In Armenian and
Russian with Appendix in French, A/t'm.
Acad. Sc. vi., St. Pet. 1863.
Chahan de Cirbied (J.) Histoire ar-
menienne (details sur les changements poli-
tiques en G^orgie et en Arm6nie dans les
premieres annfes du xix™^ siecle), Paris,
1818, 8°.
Chahnazarian ( — ) Esquisse de I'histoire
de I'Armenie, coup d'oeil sur I'Arm^nie
ancienne et sur son ^-tat actuel, Paris,
1856, 8°.
Daghbaschean (H.) Griindung des Bagra-
tidenreiches durch Aschot Bagratuni,
Berlin, 1893.
Defremery ( — ) Fragments de g6ographes
et d' historiens arabes et persans in^dits,
relatifs aux anciens peuples du Caucase et
de la Russie m^ridionale, Jour. Asiat.
s^r. 4, xiv. pp. 447-513 : ^'^'i- PP- S°-75'
153-201 ; xvii. pp. 105-162, Paris, 1849-
50-SI'
Dulaurier (E.) Etude sur 1' organisation
politique, religieuse et administrative du
royaume de la Petite Arminie (valuable
for its bearings on Armenia Proper), Jour.
Asiat. s^r. 5, xvii. pp. 377-437 ; •^'^■i"-
pp. 289-357, Paris, 1861.
Kazem-Beg (M. A.) Derbend - Nameh
(conciuest of Armenia by the Arabs in 8th
century), Eng. trans, from the Turkish,
492
Armenia
Mim. Acad. Sc. pp. 435-711, ^7. Pet.
1851.
Klaproth (J. von) Al^moire de Jean Ouosk-
'lierdjan, i)retre armenien (events in Ar-
menia in 1 8th century ; monastery of
Haghbat ; inscriptions at Marmashen,
Ani, Haghbat, etc.), in Mim. relatifs
a I'Asie, vol. i. pp. 224-309, Paris, 1824.
Extrait du Derbend-Xameh ou de I'Histoire
de Derbend (trans, from the Turkish),
Jour..Asiat. s^r. 2, iii. pp. 439-67, Paris,
1829.
Aper9u des entreprises des Mongols en
G^orgie et en Arm^nie dans le xiii™"
siecle, Paris, 1833, 8°.
Langlois (V.) Place de I'Arm^nie dans
I'histoire du monde, Rev. de l' Orient,
ser. 3, iv. pp. 321-331, Paj-is, 1856.
Lettre sur I'histoire politique, religieuse et
civile des Arm^niens a I'^poque des croi-
sades, Bull. Acad. Sc. iii. pp. 241-248,
St. Pet. 1861.
Neumann (C. F. ) Geschichte der Ueber-
siedlung von 40,000 Armeniern, welche
ini Jahre 1828 aus der persischen Provinz
Aderbaidschan nach Russland anwanderten
/from the Russian of S. Glinka), Leipz.
1834, 8\
Petermann (H. ) Beitritge zu der Geschichte
der Kreuzztige aus armenischen Quellen,
Abh. K. Akad. Wiss. pp. 81-186, Berlin,
i860.
Petermann (J. H. ) De Ostikanis, .Arabicis
Armenia; Gubernatoribus, Berlin, 1840, 4°.
See also Brosset, Hist, de la G^orgie, Hist.
Ancienne, Additions, etc., pp. 249 seq.
Saint Martin (J.) Histoire des revolutions
de rArmi^nie sous le regne d'Arsace II.,
pendant le iv^ siecle. Jour. Asiat. ser.
2, iv. pp. 402-52 ; v. pp. 161-207, 336-
74, Paris, 1829-30.
Serpos (G. de) Compendio storico di
memorie cronologiche concernenti la re-
ligione e la morale della nazione armenia,
suddita dell' impero ottomano, Venice
1786, 3 vols. 12°.
IV. VANNIC INSCRIPTIONS
Sayce (A. H. ) The Cuneiform Inscriptions
of Van, Jour. R. Asiat. Soc. xiv. pp. 377-
732 ; XX. pp. 1-48 ; XXV. pp. 1-37 ; xxvi.
pp. 691-732, Loud. 1882-88-93-94.
Belck (W.) and Lehmann (C. F.) Pending
the publication of a comprehensive account
of the travels and researches of these, the
most recent workers in this field of dis-
' covery, references are here given to various
periodicals in which they have recorded
their work up to the present time : —
Verhand. der Berliner Gesell. fiir Anthrop.
etc. 1892, pp. 477-88 ; 1893, pp. 61-82,
217-24, 389-400; 1894, pp. 213-41,479-
87; 1895, PP- 57S"92. 592-601, 601-16;
1896, pp. 309-21, 321-27, 586-89; 1897,
pp. 302-8; 1898, pp. 522-27, 568-92;
1899, pp. 193-94, 4-11-20.
Zeits. fiir Ethnologie [Berl. Gesell. fiir
Anthrop. etc.), 1892, pp. 122-52; 1899,
pp. 99-132.
Zeits. fiir Assyriologie [Berlin, etc.), 1892,
pp. 255-67; 1894, pp. 82-99, 339-60;
1897, pp. 113-24, 197-206; 1899, pp.
307-22.
Sitzungsb. der k. preuss. Akad. der 1 Viss.
[Berlin], 1899, pp. 116-20,745-49; igoo,
PR- 619-33-
Nackricliten der k. Gesell. der Wiss. zu
Gottingen, phi I. -hist. Classe, 1899, p;). 80
seq.
Recueil de travaux relatifs ii la philologic et
a r archdologie dgyptienne et assyrienne
[Paris), 1896, pp. 209-17.
Mittheilungen der geog. Gesell. [Hatnbuig],
1898, pp. 1-23, 189-221; 1899, PP- ^6-70.
Globus [Brunswick), 1893, PP- 153-5^-
Deutsche Rundschau [Berlin), 1894, pp.
402-18.
Hyvernat (H. ) L'histoire ancienne de
r.Vrmenie et les inscriptions cun^iformes du
bassin de Van (in Miiller-Simonis's Du
Caucase au Golfe Persique), Paris, 1892,
4°-
Basmadjian (K. J.) Note on the Van Inscriptions,
Jour. R. Asiat. Soc. xxi. ser. 3, pp. 579-83, Land.
1897.
Brosset (M. F.) Notice sur deux inscriptions
cun^iformes (Armavir), Biill. AcaJ. Sc. v. pp.
428-35, St. Pet. 1863.
Rapport sur diver.ses inscriptions (.\rmavir), Bitil.
Acad. Sc. vii. pp. 275-77, St. Pet. 1864.
.Sur I'histoire ancienne de I'Arm^nie, Bull. Acad.
Sc. -wi. pp. 332-40, St. Pet. 1871.
De Saulcy. Recherches sur I'^criture cun^iforme
assyrienne ; inscriptions de Van, Paris, 1848, 8°.
Ducreux (C.) L'Armi^nie primitive. Rev. Ency-
clopcdiquc, pp. 336-37, Paris, 1897.
Grotefend. (Inscription of Lsoglu, discovered by
jMiihlbach), Original Papers 0/ Syro-Egyptian
Soc, Loiui. 1840.
Guyard (S.) Les inscriptions de Van, Jour.
Asiat. XV. s^r. 7, pp. 540-43, Paris, 1880.
Etude sur les inscriptions de Van (Melanges
d'Assyriologie), Paris, 1883, 8°.
I. Notes sur quelques particularites des inscription.s
de Van. 2. Inscriptions de Van ; les estampages
de M. Deyrolle, /o?/?-. Asiat. i. .sir. 8, pp. 261,
517, Paris, 1883.
Note sur quelques passages des inscriptions de Van,
Jour. Asiat. ii. sir. 8, p. 306, Paris, 1883.
Etudes Vanniques, /(7?<>-. Asiat. iii. ser. 8, pp. 499-
517, Paris, 1884.
HinckS (E.) On the Inscriptions at Van, Jour. R.
Asia/. Soc. ix. ser. i, pp. 387-449, Loud. 1848.
Jensen (P.) Die Sitze der Urarto-Chalder zur Zeit
Tiglathpileser's I., Zeits. Assyriologie, xi. pp.
306-g, Berlin, 1897.
Kastner. See Brosset, supra, Notice sur deux
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Presidential Address to the Philological Society
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berichte K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. pp. 321-44,
Berlin, 1P90.
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environs (1827-28), Jour. Asiat. ix. s6r. 3, pp.
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nach den babylonisch-assyrischen Keilinschriften,
Zeits. Assyr. xiii. pp. 57-110; xiv. pp. 103-72,
Berlin, 1898.
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Mai's Scriptorum veterum Jiova collectio,
vol. x. pp. 269-316, Rome, 1838, 4°.
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with I'Airopean musical notation, in Ar-
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\'c7iice, 1876, 4".
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contenant I'estat present des nations et
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liturgie de I'Eglise Arm^nienne, Paris,
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(history, calendar of festivals, translation
of Liturgy, notes on rites and ceremonies,
account of position of patriarchates and
relations with the Turkish Government
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der armenischen Kirche, Zeits. f. Wiss.
Theologie, xxxvi. pp. 163 - 71, Berlin,
1893-
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Berichte \'erh. Sachs. Gesell. Wiss. Phil.
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\'e7iice, 1872-76, 16°.
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Armenia
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1899.
Malan (S. C.) Life and times of St. Gregory
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Mesrop and Sahak. Rituel arm^nien,
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toutes les c^r^monies sacramentales de
I'eglise arm6nienne ; compos^e d'abord par
les SS. PP. Mesroob et Sahac et augment^
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Venice, 1831-40, 8°.
Neale (J. M.) History of the Holy Eastern
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VI. POLITICAL
Engelhardt (E. ) La Turquie et le Tanzi-
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Ottoman depuis 1826), Paris, 1884, 2
vols. 8'\
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[This Constitution appears to have been drawn up
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It is much the .same as that printed in the Ap-
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496
Armenia
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See also the newspaper L' Ariiienie (French and
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from Nov. 1889 onwards ; and the Bull, de
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British Parliamentary Papers
Despatch from the Marquis of Salisbury enclosing
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and 1S92, No. i ; 1889, No. i ; 1895, No. i,
Part I. (Events at .Sassoon and commission of
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Nos. 3, 5, and 6.
Correspondence respecting the Kurdish invasion of
Persia, Ttirkey, 1881, No. 5.
Correspondence respecting the introduction of
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INDEX
Abagha Plain, ii. 401
Abaran (Kasagh) river, i. 136, 242, 316
Abas, king of the Bagratid dynasty, i. 352, 390, 407
Abastuman, Russian watering place, i. 48, 53-55,
432
Abazbek, posting station, i. 84
jVbbas, Shah of Persia, transports a colony of
Armenians to Ispahan and carries off slabs from
Kdgmiatsin, i. 262, 264 note 5. Comes into pos-
session of Van, ii. 78. Reputed to have taken
Kars, i. 396
Abdul ]Miseh, grave of a supposed king of this
name, ii. 133
Abdurrahman Gazi, valley and pass into Tekman
from Krzerum, ii. 202
Abgar, king of Edessa, who is said to have corre-
sponded with Christ, i. 278, is claimed by the
Armenians as one of their own royal line, ibid.
Receives St. Thaddeus and with his people
embraces the Christian faith, ibid, and 277 note
2. Under his successors his people lapse into
polytheism, 278. The authenticity of the story
of Abgar is examined by Professor Carriere, who
shows that Moses of Khorene used an Armenian
version of this legend which began to form about
A.D. 250, ibid, note 2
Abich, Herrmann, i. 78, 79, 166, 177, 182, 1S7, 188,
191, 192, 193, 195, 199, 388, 394, 437, 445. ii. 376,
383, 3S6; I. 93, 174, 340, 374, 375, 381, 383, 385,
386, 416, 434, 435, 442, n. 43, 46, 47, 76, 229, 363,
385, 401, notes
Abkhasia, i. 42 ; its Bagratid king, i. 356
Abul, Mt., i. 92-95, 104, 105, 119, 441
Abul, village of, i. 92, 93
Abul-Samsar volcanic system, i. 95, 441
Abulsevar (Chawir, Aplesphares), chief of the Beni-
Cheddad family, q.'o. ; styled by Byzantine annal-
ists and Armenian writers prince of Dvin, i. 365 ;
362, 363, 365 note I
Abulsevar, prince of Ani, i. 365
Abu-Said, Mongol king of Persia, his edict at Ani,
i- 377
Achote, Monseigneur, Superior of the Monastery
of Mugni, i. 141
Adamanli, a division of the Hasananli Kurds, ii.
21, 26
Adeljivas (Lake Van), town of, ii. 326-330, 403.
Mileage to Akhlat, ii. 325 note. Earthquake
there, 47 note i ; 341. Rise in the level of Lake
Van there, 52. Cuneiform inscriptions there, 75
Adrianople, treaty of, i. 36, 125 ; 397. ii. 204.
Exodus of Armenian population from Erzerum
province as a result of, ii. 206
Afrikean, M. Karapet, improvement in wine accom-
plished by, i. 226
Afshin, Arab Governor of Azerbaijan, i. 341-343,
352
Agathangelus Treatise, our earliest authority for
the reign of Tiridates and the events connected
with the conversion of the Armenians as a nation
to Christianity, i. 291 note. Von Gutschmid has
VOL. II
succeeded in discriminating between the various
sources from which the treatise has been built
up, ibid., 295 note i
Aghdznik, ancient Armenian province, ii. 429 ; i. 309
note I
Aghri Dagh, name given by the Mussulman peoples
to Ararat as well as to the Ararat system, i. 148,
197, 409. 414 (Fig. loi), 415, 419 (Fig. 106), 420
(Fig. 107), 423, 435, 436. ii. 10 (Fig. 112), 384 .ttv/.
Frontier between the Russian and Turkish
empires, i. 435. ii. 384. And see Shatin Dagh
Aghzi Achik, pass over the heights south of
Erzerum, ii. 202
Agriculture finds in Armenia extremely favourable
conditions, due to the climate and the nature of
the soil — a mixture of lavas and lacustrine de-
posits, i. 87, 105, 442. ii. 255, 345, 404, 405-406.
Character of and seasons in various districts, i.
5^1 57i 73i 75? 94i i°5i 106 ; among the Dukho-
bortsy, 107 ; 118, 121, 123 ; on the plain of Alexan-
dropol, 131 ; 133 ; in the valley of the Araxes,
142, 202, 203, 229, 316, 318, 444; 321, 326, 410,
411 ; 443; in Alashkert and basin of Upper Murad,
ii. 3, 15, 19, 277 ; in basin of Lake Van, 82, 315,;
in plain of Mush, 167, 172, 318 ; in plain of Khinis,
18S, 256, 258 ; in Bulanik, 344-345 ; among the
Circassians, 331, 353; 359; in plain of Kharput,
391. Backwardness in Russian Armenia, i. 56,
139, and causes, i. 225, 461 ; in Turkish Armenia,
ii. 21, 164, 218, 219, 259, and causes, ch. xxiv.
fiassiiii. Estimate of the levels at which cereals
will flourish in Armenia, i. 107 note
Agrikar Dagh, peak of the Gori Mokri in Northern
Armenia, i. 87, 434
Ahmed, Arab Emir, cherishes pretensions to the
district of Taron (Mush), i. 343, and defeats
Sembat L, ibid.
Aiana, Greek Monastery of, ii. 238
Aiger Gol, on the southern slopes of Sipan, ii. 339
Ainalu Dagh, Kars district, i. 394
Ainsworth, Mr. W. F., ii. 162, 176 note
Aintab, Mesopotamia, massacre there, ii. 427
Ajara, Mts. and district of, i. 41, 42, 62, 437, 442
Ajars, The, i. 42, 432
Akantz, town on N.E. coast of Lake Van, ii. 26.
Pop., ibid. Mileage from Karakilisa, 12
Akhalkalaki, town in Northern Armenia (Govt, of
Tiflis), visited and described, i. 86 scg.., 66 note,
72, 85, 438, 455. Pop., 86. Brave defence of by
the Turks against the Russians in 1828, 8g ;
schools in, see under Education
Akhalkalaki, plain of, i. 87 and note. Character of
the soil, 442
Akhalkalaki (Toporovan) river, i. 76, 78, 87, 88, 92
Akhaltsykh, town in Northern Armenia, visited and
described, i. 58-61 and 64-71. History, i. 66-67 ;
was captured and partly razed by the Russians
in 1828, 67 ; the Mussulman pop. emigrated into
Turkey and the town received large bodies of
Armenian immigrants, ibid.; reasons given by
inhabitants for the decline in prosperity, 68 ; pop.
2 K
498
Armenia
ill 1S33, 67 ; ill 18S6 and 1891, 65 and note 2 ;
description of the modern town, 68 ; of the old
town, 69 ; of the Jewish quarter, 70 ; schools in,
see under Education. INIileage to Akhalkalaki,
Akhaltsykh river, 1. 57, 73
Akhaltsykh-Inieritian Mts., i. 430, 431, 433, 434,
438. 44'
Akhashen, valley of, i. 74
Akhashen, village of, i. 75
Akhavank (Iskele), residence on the mainland of the
Katholikos of Akhtamar, ii. 126
Akhbaba Dagh, peak of the northern border heights
of Erzerum, ii. 203, 227
Akhbaba Dagh, Lake Chaldir, i. 43S
Akh Bulakh Dagh, peak of Aghri Dagh, i. 420
Akh Dagh (Tekman Dagh, Kozli Dagh), name ap-
plied to the northern border heights of the plain
of Khinis, ii. iSg. View of from the south, iS6
(Fig. 159) ; from the Palandoken Pass, 249 ; from
village of Demian, 277 ; from summit of Khamur,
351 ; from Bingol Dagh, 372. Appearance of
from Tekman, 249, from the plain of Khinis,
256-258, from the Kartevin Dagh, 269. Structure
and composition of, 389, 402
Akh Dagh, Akhmangan region, i. 445
Akh Deve (White Camel Hill), Kars-Kagyzman
district, i. 412
.'\kher Gol Su (plain of Khinis), source of the, ii.
257
Akhja Kala, Tartar village on southern slopes of
Alagoz, i. 320
Akhlat, is the name of a district on the north-
western shore of Lake Van, which includes : ist,
the ancient city of Akhlat, now known as Kharaba
or Takht-i-Suleyman, situated in a ravine some
distance from the shore ; 2nd, the Ottoman fortress
of Akhlat (Kala) on the shore ; 3rd, the modern
township in the quarter of Erkizan, ii. 284. Pop.
of entire district, ihid. Characteristics of the
site, ilnd. Erkizan described, 2S5 ; the Kala
described, 287-289; the ancient city described,
291-292. The ma'usolea or kumbcts described and
their dates ascertained, 285-293. The ancient
cemetery, 290. History of Akhlat, 294-297; i.
355i 360, 366. Mileage to Adeljivas, ii. 325 note.
Plan, ii. 296
Akhtamar, Lake Van, island and monastery of,
described, ii. 129-135 ; architecture of the church,
132, and date, 131
Akhtamar, Katholikos of, hisjurisdiction and status,
ii. 135, and cp. i. 276 ; visited at Akhavank, ii.
127-129, 135-136
Akhurean river, see Arpa Chai
Akhury (Arguri, Acorhi, Akuri, Agguri, Arkuri),
ancient Armenian settlement on Ararat, destroyed
by the catastrophe of 1840, i. 183 scq. ; is said by
the Armenians to have been built on the site of
Noah's vineyard, 183 ; their attempt to connect
it with the Armenian for '"he has planted the
vine " has probably led to a corruption of the
name, ilnd. note 4. May it not be the Adduri
of the Assyrian inscription of Shalmaneser IL?
iliid. A willow tree there was said to have
sprung from a plank of the Ark, 183, and the
church to have been built on the site of Noah's
altar, erected on his departure from the Ark,
ibid. The date of the church, 184. Pop. accord-
ing to Dubois and Wagner, 183, 184 note i.
There was also at A. a square fortress built of
clay, 184 ; and a summer palace for the Persian
Sirdars of Erivan, ibid. Account of the cata-
strophe of 1840, 185-187; investigations undertaken
by the Russian Govt., 187. Divergent conclu-
sions of Wagner and Abich as to character of
convulsion, 188. What remains of the ancient
settlement at the present time, 192, 193. The
old cemetery with the graves of seven brothers
said to have been killed uy a single snake, 193
Akhury, chasm of, Ararat. Entrance to the chasm,
i. 184 ; Kurdish village at the mouth of the
chasm, 192 ; excursion up the ravine, 193 ; the
peculiar formation of a side valley, ibid. ; which
probably owes its distinctive features to the action
of ice, 194 ; arrival at St. Jacob's Well and the
sacred rose bush, ibid., elevation of the site, 195.
The boulders covering the bottom of the ravme
are worn by the action of ice and water, 195.
According to Abich the long ridges which appear
in his illustration were composed of dirty glacier
ice, covered with stone and debris, 195 ; but we
did not see any ice in the trough of the chasm,
196, though we admired a lake of glacier water,
ibid.
Akhury, New, settlement of Tartars on Ararat, i.
193 ; pop., ibid.
Akhviran Pass into the Khinis Plain, ii. 249, 252,
373.
Akhviran, village of, ii. 278
Ak Kripri, crag of near Van, ii. in, 112 note i
Ak Kopri, river, ii. 112
Ak-kul ((Jubudgokh) Mt., west of Akhtamar, ii.
137
Akrag, Armenian village on the Murad near Shakh-
berat, ii. 351
Akstafa river, tributary to the Kur, ii. 39, 40, 437
Akstafa station, i. 39, 226
Ala Dagh Mts. (Nepat, Niphates), ii. 10, 12, 22,
401. Seen from Lake Van, 31, 121 ; from Karte-
vin Dagh, 269. Strabo says that the Tigris rises
in these mountains, ii. 41. Viewed from Tutakh,
265. A seat of the Thonraki (Thonraketzi), i. 285
Ala Dagh, Chaldiran district, i. 413 note
Ala Gol, i. 434
Alagoz, e.xtinct volcano and natural barrier between
Northern Armenia and the valley of the Araxes
about Erivan, i. iig, 124, 147, 438, 444; 135,
148, 149, 152, 205, 228, 325, 326, 330, 331, 367,
419, 442. .Seen from summit of Abul, i. 95 ; from
plain of Alexandropol, 122 (Fig. 23), 127, 134 ;
from the east, 136 (Fig. 28) ; from Erivan, 208
(Fig. 41) ; from Ararat, 138 ; from the plains on
the west, 327 (Fig. 68). Journey along the
southern slopes, i. 316 seq.
Alagoz, hamlet of near Gumgum, ii. 358
Alaja (Tsaghkotz) river at Ani, i. 368, 369
Alaja Dagh, i. 330, 368, 399
Ala-Kilisa, village of Armenian - speaking Greeks,
i. 122
Alander, Col., Governor of Akhaltsykh, i. 60, 61,
64, 65, 66
Alarodians, name by which the inhabitants of
Urardhu were known to Herodotus, ii. 67 and
note 4; were joined with the Matienians, etc.,
in 1 8th satrapy of the Persian empire, 68
Alashkert, plain of, i. 148, ii. 2 seq. and Fig. 108,
384, 389, 400, 401, 404. Elevation of, ii. 3
Alexander I., Einperor of Russia, extends great
privileges to the Protestant emigrants from Wiir-
temberg on their arrival in Georgia, i. 97. En-
courages Protestant missionary enterprise, 99.
His humane and liberal policy towards the
Dukhobortsy, 103
Alexander Severus, Roman Emperor, i. 287
Alexandropol (Giimri), Russian fortress town on
the Arpa Chai visited and described, i. 124-132,
330, 443, 445, 453, 455, 462, 467- "• 46. note.
Visited by Emperor Nicholas L in 1836, 1. 125.
History and description of city, 124-125, 127-129 ;
pop., 124 and note i ; is almost exclusively in-
habited by Armenians, 124 ; who have inherited
the love of building of their forefathers, 127 ; but
their churches and other buildings are pretentious
and commonplace, 128. Greek chapel of St.
George with Byzantine picture of St. George and
the Dragon, 129. Schools in, see under Education
Alexandropol, plain of, i. 122, 131, 133, 134, 442.
ii. 404
Ali Bey, chief of Karapapakhs at Karakilisa (Alash-
kert), ii. 6, 255
Ali Bey, chief of Sipkanli Kurds, ii. 267, 268
Ali Gedik, village near Charbahur on the Murad,
V' 352
Ali-Kuchak, village on Alagoz, i. 137
Index
499
Ali Mur, hamlet of Kizilbash Kurds, district of
Shushar, ii. 252
Alkhes, village of the district of Klmali Dere, ii.
262, 263, 399
Allah Akbar Dagh, Soghanlu range, i. 441
Allen, Mr., American missionary at Van, ii. 92
Allen, T. G.,_and Sachtleben, \V. L. Their ascent
of Ararat, i. 199
Alp Arslan, Seljuk sultan, captures Tiflis, i. 337,
and Ani, 353, J63, and Melazkert, ii. 275
Altai Mts., their connection with the structural
system of A.sia, i. 424, 425
Altun, plain of, Upper Araxes, ii. 379, 398
Alur, village, Van district, ii. 122
Amasia, Turkish settlement on the Arpa Chai,
i. 122
Amat, Armenian village, district of Alashkert, ii. 2
American Missions, see Missions
Amisus, ruins of (near Samsun), i. 4
Anak, Parthian of the blood royal, murderer of the
Parthian King of Armenia, Chosroes, and father
of St. Gregory, i. 288. View of Von Gutschmid,
ibid, note 2
Anania of Shirak, i. 312, note i
Anastasius, Roman Emperor, ii. 222
Anguil Su (Enghil Su) or Khoshab, river flowing
into Lake Van, ii. 122
Anguil, village, ii. 123
Ani, Armenian mediasval town and fortress on the
Arpa Chai (Akhurean), now in ruins and unin-
habited, visited and described, i. 329, 334, 354-
392, 268, 269 ; history of, 354-366 ; 345, 350.
Description of the various buildings and fortifica-
tions, 369-390 ; distinctive features of the archi-
tecture of the Ani buildings, 390 ; appeal to the
Russian Government for their preservation, 391 ;
date of the Cathedral, 354, 355. Mr. Marr's
excavations at Ani, 377-378. Plan, 309
Ani, the modern Kemakh, ancient Armenian
fortress on the W. Euphrates, i. 294 ; fane of
Aramazd at this place destroyed by St. Gregory
and King Tiridates, ibid.
Anti-Taurus Mts., their connection with the struc-
tural system of Asia, i. 424 ; probable representa-
tives of the A-T. elevation in Armenia, ii. 386
Aplesphares, ie.e. Abuhevar
Aplgharib, Pahlavuni family at Ani, i. 382, 383
Apughamir, Pahlavuni family, son of Vahram, i.
382, 383 note 3, 385
Arabion Castellum on the Gt. Zab, i. 277 note 2, 279
Arabkir, massacre at, ii. 412
Arakelotz Vank, plain of Mush, ii. 166
Arakh Su, Mush plain, ii. 166
Aralykh, Russian military post at the foot of
Ararat, i. 154-155 ; climate of, 202
Aramzalu, village of, district of Erivan, i. 154
Ararat, Mt. (Masis of the Armenians, Aghri Dagh
of the Tartars), first view of from the southern
slopes of Alagoz, i. 137. It does not appear that
there was an independent local tradition of the
Flood, 197 ; but the identification of Ararat with
the mountain upon which the Ark rested may
have been made by Jewish prisoners of war, ibid.
The Ararat of Scripture is the Assyrian Urardhn,
ibid, and ii. 57 — a geographical designation which
appears to have travelled north during the course
of time ; the historical Urardhu or Ararat is
the province around Mt. Ararat, well known
as Ararat to Agathangelus and other early Ar-
menian writers, i. 197. Supposed vestiges of the
Flood, 157. The district has been covered
within comparatively recent geological times by
a lake, 317, ii. 404
The fabric of Ararat is built up by Great and
Little Ararat, i. 197 ; though due to eruptive
volcanic action, no eruption is known to have
occurred during historical period, 197, 188. View
of from the plains about Erivan, 149, 198. Oro-
graphy, 148-153, 156, 197. Vegetation abundant
on parts of the mountain, 160 ; also partridges,
ibid. ; but the fabric is entirely devoid of trees, the
, only wood being a covert of low birch, 161.
Ascent of, 167-178 ; start made from the en-
campment at Sardar Bulakh, 167. Three struc-
tural divisions to be distinguished in that part of
the mountain between Aralykh and the summit,
170. The great snowfield has a minimum depth
of 2000 feet, 171. The south-eastern summit
attained, 176. Temperature of the air a few feet
below the summit, 177 note. Descent to encamp-
ment of Sardar Bulakh, 179. Best season and
starting point for the ascent, 37, 199. List of
successful ascents, ibid. View of Ararat from
the summit of Sipan, ii. 336, 337
Ararat, Chasm of Akhury, see under Akhury
Ararat, Monastery of St. Jacob, i. 184
Ararat, Little, i. 149, 150, 160-168 and Fig. 33,
197, 199, 436
Araxes river (Aras, Egri Chai), sources of on the
Bingol Dagh, ii. 374 and Fig. 194 ; its course
through Armenia, ii. 379, 251, 190, 192 seg., i.
138, 146, 154, 201, 317 seq., 416, 436, 444, ii. 406,
and see Bingol Su
Araxes, plain of the (district of Ararat), i. 130, 137,
138, 146, 154, 701, 206, 317 seq. 444. Elevation,
146. Tradition that it was the seat of Paradise,
318
Archelaus, Bishop of Karkhar, author of a disputa-
tion with Mani, was probably bishop of a see not
far from Van, i. 279 and note 3. Adoptionist
theory, 281
Ardabil, town in Persia, i. 366, 387, 435 note
Ardahan, town and district in Northern Armenia, i.
443 ; 66 note i, 430, 431, 432, 437, 438, 439
Ardahan river, see Kur
Ardasa. town of, ii. 243
.•\rdashir, first Sasanian King of Persia, i. 286 ; the
supporter of the fire-worshippers, 287 ; is harassed
by Chosroes, Arsakid King of Armenia, 288,
whose death he encompasses, ibid.
Ardavan, Arsakid King of Persia, i. 286
Ardos, Mt. , Lake Van, ii. 123, 126, 135, 137, 279
Arenjik, Kurdish village on the slope of Kolibaba,
ii. 348
Arghana, town in Mesopotamia, ii. 388, 396
Argistis I., Vannic King, ii. 61, 73
Argistis IL, Vannic King, ii. 75. Inscription of, at
Hargin, ii. 29
.•\rjish, ruins of (Lake Van) some miles south-west
of Akantz, ii. 26 seq. The site to be distinguished
frorn an earlier Arjish, 27 seq. and 71. Deserted
by its inhabitants owing to rise in level of the
lake, 30. Was known to Marco Polo as one of
the greatest cities of Armenia, 29
Armavir, ruins of, i. 318, 319, ii. 61, 71, 73-74, 76
Armenak, son or grandson of Hay!:, progenitor of
the Armenians, i. 318
Armenia, natural boundaries of, i. 428-35, ii. 231
note I, 235-236, 244, 386-390, 394. Its connection
with the system of the great Asiatic tablelands,
i. 421-428. Geology of, i. 428, ii. 402-404, and
passim in the narrative of the journeys. Charac-
teristics of, i. 52, 86, 428, 429, 436-439, 449, ii.
235-236, .244, 382, 400, 405-407. It is naturally
divided into two parts by the Ararat system — a
north-easterly and a south-westerly, i. 409, 43=;-
436, ii. 384. Limits and characteristics of north-
easterly or Russian Armenia, i. 436-445 ; area,
445; pop. 451. Do. of south-westerly or Turkish
or Taunc Armenia, ii. 386-394, 397-406 ; area, 407 ;
pop. 412-414. Communications with Armenia,
i- 7> 39. 431, 432, 433 note, 437, ii. 89, 148, 203,
205, 225, 239,240 note, 382, 388, 390, 396. Routes
and communications in Armenia passitn in the
narrative of the journeys and i. 146, ii. 393
Armenia, history of, seems to fall naturally into four
periods, (I.) the pre-Armenian period, with an
obscure interval preceding the rise of the Arsakid
dynasty, i. 285-286, ii. 70 and 53-76; (II.) the
Arsakid period, with an interval preceding the
evolution of the petty Armenian dynasties of the
Middle Ages, i. 286-312; (III.) the Armenian
Kingdom of the Middle Ages, i. 335-364, 391, and
(IV.) a long sleep, dating from the overthrow of
500
Armenia
that kingdom by hordes of Seljuk Turks towards
thfe close of the nth century to the advent of
the modern epoch, i. 364-367. Impressive part
played in the history of these countries by the
Roman Empire of the East, i. 34. Scanty
knowledge of Armenia displayed by Greek and
Roman writers, ii. 40
Local Mussulman dynasties have flourished in
most of the great Armenian centres, notably
Akhlat, q.v. and i. 366. Mussulman art is well
represented by the ruins of the Ulu Jami at Van,
ii. 106, and by the mausolea at Akhlat, q.z'.
Modern history of, i. 446, 458 ; 66, 67, 89, 96
scq., 124, 125, 210, 232 seq., 393, 396-399; ii. 78,
14S, 149, 204, 205, 223, and see Armenian Moz'e-
inent
Armenian alphabet, i. 312 note
Armenian Church, history of, i. 276-314, and cj>.
264. Ripsimian legend, 256-261. Differences
with the Greek and with the Roman Churches,
313-314 and note i, 352, 363. Contemporary
importance of the A.C., 231
Hierarchy and Government of the Church :
The katholikos at Edgmiatsin the supreme
head, i. 231, 276 (and see 298-300). Elective
character of his office, 231, 233 note 2. The
synod at Edgmiatsin, its antiquity and func-
tions, 234, 235, 218, 220 ; revived by the
Russian Govt, and provided with a Russian
procurator, 234. The Tsar appoints its mem-
bers, 235. Fetters placed upon the katholi-
kos by the Russian Govt., 235. The Regu-
lating Statute or Polojenye, 233 - 236. The
twelve bishops at Edgmiatsin, 253. The
bishops, monks (^<ardapets) and parish priests,
274, 275, and 233 note 2. The A.C. represents
a compromise between opposite principles in
the organisation of Christianity, 276 and 307.
Power of the laity, 276 ; ii. 213. The patriarch
of Constantinople, ii. Appendi.x I. ; his relations
to the katholikos, i. 276. Regulation of the
Armenian Church in Turkey, ii. Appendi.\ I.
Need of reforms in the A.C, i. 469, ii. 93.
Reforming spirit of the present regime at
Edgmiatsin, i. 274
Armenian architecture, i. 63, 131,262-272, 323, 369-
390, 407, ii. 34, 101-102 (thelog churches of Van),
106, 107, 114, 115, 131-133, 15s, 179, 188, 233, 271.
Love of building among the Armenians at all
periods, i. 127, 265, 344. Their architecture
exhibits capacities of the first order, i. 391.
Characteristics of the style, i. 390. The conical
dome, i. 63. Function of the niche, i. 269. Pos-
sible traces of Assyrian influences, ii. 65, 132.
Their churches exhibit the coupled pier, wand-
like pillar and pointed arch at least as early as
the commencement of the nth century, i.
372. Influence upon them of Mussulman art, i.
391 ; their influence upon Mussulman art, ii. 294.
Instance of conveying stone from a great distance,
ii. 131 note 2
Armenian language, its harshness to the ear, i. 450,
ii- 33, 236
Armenian music, i. 250, 254, 255
Armenian Movement, i. 239-242 ; ii. 83-87, 157-159,
408, 420-423, 428-429, 432. Thetalkaboutamodern
Armenian Kingdom examined, i. 468, ii. 435
Armenian Constitution (in Turkey), ii. 436, and
Appendix I.
Armenian law, i. 367
Armenians, The, their capacities and character, i.
255, 314, 391, 465-468. Fidelity of Armenian
women under trying circumstances, ii. 92. The
assistance the A. 's have rendered to the Russian
advance, i. 233. Their disillusionment, //'/(/.
Will they ultimately enter the Russian Orthodox
Church? i. 463. Their position in Turkey, see
under Armenian liloveineni references to vol. ii.
Ethnology of the .\rmcnians, ii. 67, 390. They
have probably received at various epochs an
admixture of Semitic blood, ii. 70, i. 237, 299,
305, ii. 77, 99
.Vrniutli, village near the Araxes, i. 440, 443
Aron-Magistros, General of the Empress Zoe, i. 373
Arpa Chai (Akhurean), i. 119, 121, 442; 122, 131,
327, 328, 363, .367. 368, 376, 377, 381, 386, 389, 453 ;
confluence with the Araxes, 319
Arpa Gcil, i. 439
Arshak, King of the Arsakid dynasty, i. 304, 305,
30?) 309
Arshakavan, a city of refuge founded by Arshak,
i. 308
Arsissa, Areesa, name by which Lake Van was
known to Ptolemy, ii. 27, 42. See also I'an,
Lake
Artaxata, ancient Armenian city in the district of
Ararat, i. 201 ; 258, 259, 271, 287 note 3, 288,
293> 294, 304. 305
Artemid (Atramit, Artamit), a village on Lake Van,
ii. 119-121 ; 36, 42, 135. Researches at made by
Schidz, ii. 120 note i
Arter, Islet of. Lake Van, ii. 135
Artsruni, The, ancient Armenian family of princely
rank claiming descent from a king of Assyria, i.
336, ii. 429. Their vast possessions in Vaspura-
kan (Van) during the decline of the caliphate,
i. 336. Their territory overrun and their prince
captured by the Arab armies, 338. Their atti-
tude towards the Bagratuni family, raised to
royal rank under Ashot, i. 342, 343, 345, 346.
Their prince, Gagik, obtains a royal crown from
the Arab governor of Azerbaijan, 345, and allies
himself with the Mussulmans against the Bagra-
tids, 346. But the alliance is broken, 348, and
better relations with the Bagratids ensue, 349.
Gagik is crowned by order of the caliph, ibicf.
Divergence of policy towards him on the part of
the governor of Azerbaijan and of the caliph, 349.
His territories overrun by the former, 350.
Visited by John Katholikos, ibiJ. The Artsruni
furnish one of the three kinglets of .\rmenia under
Ashot III., 354. Their country e.xperiences the
first shocks of the Seljuk invasions, 356, 357, 359,
and their king, Senekerim, bargains away his
kingdom to the Byzantine emperor, Basil II.,
in return for a retreat in the Greek Empire, 357.
Extent of the ceded dominions, ibiii. Significance
of the event, 359, ii. 77-78
Artsruni, Thomas, historian, i. 340 note i ; ii. 131
note 2
Artsruni, his ascent of Little Ararat, i. 199
Artvin, town and valley of, i. 430, 443
Artze (Artsn, Arzen, Erzen), unfortified town in the
vicinity of Erzerum, ii. 223 ; may have been
called Artze of Rum to distinguish it from an
Artze in Southern Kurdistan, iluci. note 6. Sacked
by the Seljuks in 1049, '• 35^
Arzanene (.Arrhene), a country comprised in the
present vilayet of Diarbekr, ii. 41
Arzasku, site unknown, capital of Arame, king of
Urardhu, ii. 59
Arzen, see Artze
Arzian Dagh, Northern Armenia, i. 441
Asbeleff, M., i. 54
Ashakh Dagh, Ararat system, ii. 384
Ashkala, Mohammedan village on the banks of the
Euphrates, ii. 226, 228
Ashkala Plain, special features of, ii. 228-229
Ashkhen, queen of Armenia, i. 261
Ashot I., king of the Bagratid dynasty, i. 339 seq.
Ashot II., king of the Bagratid dynasty, i. 347 seq.
Ashot III., king of the Bagratid dynasty, i. 353
seq. ; his tomb at Khosha Vank, 389, 390
Ashot IV., king of the Bagratid dynasty, i. 355 seq.
Ashtarak, a township near Erivan, i. 139, 140, 141,
142
Asia, structural features of, i. ch. xxi. and map
Asoghik, Armenian historian, i. 382, 390
Aspinja, Mohammedan village on the Upper Kur,
i- 74i 75 \ discontent of the inhabitants, ibid. ; 66
note I
Astishat (District of Mush), place famous for its
temples in pagan times, i. 295. The temples
destroyed by St. Gregory, ibid., who erects the
Index
;oi
first Christian church in Armenia upon the site,
296. Site of Astishat identified witli that of the
present cloister of Surb Karapet, 296 note 2
Astrakhan, diocese of the Armenian Church, i. 233
note 2 ; emigration of Armenians to, 367
Astvatsadur, katholikos, i. 262, 264 note 5, 268
Atabegs, governors of Upper Georgia, i. 62 ; they
became independent kings of Georgia, and were
suppressed at a late date by the Ottoman Turks,
ibid.
Atanon village, near Lake Van, ii. 123
Aternerseh, Bagratid prince of Georgia, i. 341, 343,
344> 345 . , ,
Athenogenes, Christian Saint, whose bones were
obtained as holy relics by St. Gregory, i. 295 and
note 3
Athenogenes, son of Yusik and father of Nerses the
Great, i. 303, 306
Aurelian, Roman Emperor, i. 281, 289 note 2
Avdi, village between Karakilisa and Tutakh, ii. 13
Avrin Dagh, Persian frontier, ii. 386
Ayubids, dynasty of Kurdish extraction in Meso-
potamia, descendants of Saladin, ii. 211, 295
Azat, village in district of Kars, i. 409
Azerbaijan, frontier province of Persia on the side
of Armenia. Nature of the frontier, i. 428,440.
Geology of, ii. 389. Governed by semi-inde-
pendent Arab governors during the decline of
the caliphate, whose relations with the kinglets
of Armenia occupy a prominent place in Ar-
menian medijeval history, i. 341 scq. See A /shin,
Yusuf. Exodus of the Armenian inhabitants
upon its evacuation by the Russian armies in
1828, ii. 206. Its Armenian pop. at the present
day, ii. 428. A diocese of the Armenian Church,
i. 233 note 2
Baba, Cape, Black Sea, i. 2
Bafra, port on the Black Sea, i. 4
Bagaran, in the province of Ararat, i. 296, 324 ; the
capital of Ashot I., 340, 350
Bagdad, village, Kutais district, i. 48, 49
Baghdasareantz, Sembat, member of the Society of
Evangelical preachers in Shusha, i. 98, 102, 104
Baghmesheh, Hay of. Lake Van, ii. 138
Bagrat-Magistros, governor-general of the eastern
provinces, i. 373
Bagratuni or Bagratids, ancient Armenian family
of princely rank giving kings to Armenia as well
as to Georgia during the Middle Ages, i. 337.
See Armenia, History of, III. Their Jewish
origin, 337. Their hereditary seats, ibid.
Baiburt, town in the valley of the Chorokh, i. 432,
ii. 233, 244, 382 _
Baiburt, plain of, ii. 402
Baiiidir, Karapapakh settlement on the Murad near
Tutakh, ii. 267
Baker, G. P., his ascent of Ararat, i. 199
Baku, on the Caspian, i. 226, 449 ; Govt, of, i. 447,
449
Balakhor v alley, u. 234
Baliki or Beleke, tribe in Kurdistan, ii. 430
Baliik, Lake, district of Ararat, ii. 7, 384, 385, 386
Baralet, village, district of Shubaret, i. 86
Bartholomew, Saint, i. 277, 279
Bash Abaran, Armenian village, Alagoz district,
i- 137
Bashit Dagh, Taurus range, ii. 388
Basil IL, Byzantine emperor, intervenes in Ar-
menian affairs, i. 360 and makes an armed pere-
grination of the country, ibid. Again marches
into the territories of the Armenian kinglets,
//'/(/. and 361. Inherits the principality of
Akhaltsykh, 360, and is named heir to the
dominions of the king of Armenia,_ 361. _ Takes
over the dominions of the Artsruni family, 357.
His forward policy in Armenia, 361. Dies before
its completion, ibid.
Basil, Saint, of Csesarea, i. 307, 310 ; 275
Bashkala, Jews at, ii- 80 note
Bashkent, village of, ii. 185
Bashkent, plain of, ii. 1S5 and note
Baskan, village, I'ingul district, ii. 182, 360
Basle, Evangelical Mission, see JMissions
Bastok, Kurdish village, Bingiil district, ii. 379
Batum, i. 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 226, 2j6, 4^0, 432, 455
Bayaz Tuzla, village, Bingol district, ii. 260
Bayazid, town near Ararat, i. 37, 160, 321, 435 ;
Kurds and Karapapakhs in the district, ii. 11,
14 note, 416. Pop. of tlie sanjak, 413
Bayindar Bey, tomb at Akhlat, ii. 293, 294 ; prob-
ably a chieftain of the Turkoman horde of the
White Sheep, 296
Behagel, von, companion of Parrot, i. 184, 185,
321, notes
Bejano (Kestano), village on plain of Akhalkalaki,
i. 87 note I
Bejeshkean, Father Minas. i. 32 note i, 33, 367
note I
Beka, atabeg, i. 63
Bekant, village of, i. 437
Belck, Dr., i. 197-272, ii. 28, 44, 51, ^6 seq. ; i. 183,
ii. 47, 121, 122, notes
Bendimahi Chai, Lake Van, ii. 38, 44, 50
Beni-Cheddad, Mussulman family belonging to the
Kurdish clan of Rewadi, establish a dynasty in
Karabagh during the decline of the caliphate,
i. 362, 364, 365 note I, 382. Become possessed
of the Armenian capital, Ani, in a.d. 1072, i. 365.
Lords of Ani until towards the close of the 12th
century, ibid., and 366, 371 note i. See Abul-
se^'ar, Fathliin, M anuchar
Berkri, town near Lake Van, i. 358, ii. 29 note 4
Berlin, Congress and Treaty of, i. 238, 241, ii. 205,
409 note, 410-411
Besh Parmak Mts., Lake Van, ii. 23
Bessarabia, a diocese of the Armenian Church,
i. 233 note 2
Bessarion, Cardinal, his account of Trebizond,
■■19
Beth Lapat, Synod of, at which the old Christian
church of Persia adopted the Nestorian confes-
sion, i. 313
Biaina, territory of which Dhuspas (Van) was the
capital, ii. 57
Bilejan Dagh, ii. 257, 258, 2^9, 309, 311, 333, 343,
347, 351, 372. 397, 401
Bingol Dagh (mountain of the thousand tarns) or
Bingol Koch (caldron of the thousand tarns),
parent mountain of the Araxes and of the prin-
cipal tributaries of the Euphrates, ii. 182 ; seen
from the highlands above the village of Kulli,
190 ; from the PalandOken Pass, 247 ; from
Tekman, 247, 251, 252, 253 ; from Khinis,^ 254,
255, 257 ; from Kartevin Dagh, 269 ; from Sipan,
333, 337 ; from Nimrud, 311 ; from Khamur,
351. Description of the mountain, 363-377, 389.
Ascent of, 363 ; altitude, 364, 366, 367 ; names
given to the three principal elevations, 3? 4, 365,
that of Demir-Kala being slightly the highest,
182. View from the summit, 372-374. Traces of
ice action on the Bingol Dagh, 369, 370. Flora,
361, 362, 369. Our discovery of a cuneiform in-
scription, 373. Inspiring surroundings, 361.
Plans, 366, 378
Bingol Plateau, ii. 122, 182, 185, 188, 189, 374, 348,
399. The stupendous cliffs by which it breaks
away on the south, ii. 182, 358, 359, 360 (Fig.
192), 361, 371
Bingol Su, name given to several rivers in Central
Armenia, notably i. the Upper Araxes, ii. 190,
191, 2. a considerable tributary of the Murad or
Eastern Euphrates flowing through the plain of
Khinis and effecting the confluence in Bulanik,
ii. 253, 257 ; the confluence visited, 346 ; 373,
and 3. a second tributary to the Murad, coming
in near Charbahur, ii. 182, 183, 354, 358, 360, 362
Birmalek, Tartar settlement, Alagoz district, i. 325,
326
Bitanu or Bitani in the Assyrian inscriptions may
be Biaina, ii. 57, and ibid, note 4
Bitlis, town on the borders of Armenia and Kur-
distan, visited and described, ii. i45;i57 '> 5i-
Elevation above sea level, 147. Solidity of the
502
Armenia
buildings, ibid. Importance of the situation,
148. History, 148-151. Greek coins found in
the vicinity, 150. Pop., 151, 413. Industries,
151. The tunnel of Semiramis in the neighbour-
hood, 156 and Fig. 148. Political unrest at
Bitlis, 85, 157-159, 318, 431. Plan, 147. View
of, 145 . , ,
Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus, Euxine) and southern
seaboard, i. 1-36, 37, 38, 41-43, 432, ii. 225, 236,
237-240, 382. Closed to European commerce by
the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century, i. 36.
Its free navigation secured by the Treaty of
Adrianople in 1829, ibid. Commencement of
steam navigation in 1836, ibid.
Blagodarnoe, Molokan village, district of Kars,
i. 403
Bogdanovka, a Russian settlement on the plani
of Akhalkalaki, i. 105; 86, 115, 118
Bohtan Su, tributary of the Tigris, ii. 395 ; 57
note 4
Bor, Armenian village near Bitlis, ii. 143
Bor, Pass of, ii. 143
Borchala, Valley of the, i. 40 note
Borchali, Ouezde, i. 430, 453
Bore, Eugene, i. 348, ii. 153 ; i. 281, 367 notes
Borjom, Gorge of, i. 39, 430, 443
Boyajean, Armenian revolutionary, ii. 431
Boyajean, Consul, ii. 413
Boz Tepe (Mt. Mithros), i. 9, 12, 13, 32, ii. 238
Brant, Consul James, ii. 44, 79, 151, 173, 182, 206,
440 ; i. 406, ii. 121, 165, 187, 190, 195, 197, 283,
287, 313, 339, notes
Brosset, M. F., i. 63, 64, 65, 71, 370-380, 382-385,
387-390, 407 ; 75, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 132, 183, 266,
270, 271, 272, 338, 354, 366, notes
Bryce, Rt. Hon. J., his ascent of Mt. Ararat, i. 166,
197, 199. His description of the valley of the
Araxes, 146
Biiga Tepe (Kars district), i. 394
Bugutu, Crag of, Alagoz, i. 321, 325
Bulama, Lake, see Gop, Lake
Bulanik, district of, ii. 344, 394, 404, 345, 351, 401,
424, 425
Burnu Bulakh, Kurdish village near Koshk, ii. 18
Butyka, Dr., ii. 49
Buwayhids, Turkish dynasty, i. 353
Buyuk Chai (Erishat), Lake Van, ii. 24
Caffa, port on the Black Sea, i. 36
Canning, Stratford, British ambassador, his corre-
spondence with Consul Brant, ii. 440
Canterbury, Archbishop of, i. 102 ; his Mission to
the Assyrian Christians, ibid.
Carriere, Prof., i. 278 note
Caucasus Mts. , connection of the range with the
structural system of Asia, i. 425. Joined by the
Meschic Mts. to the Armenian border chain, 42s,
433 ; 40, 70. Viewed from the Zikar Pass, 52 ;
from the summit of Abul, 95 ; from Ararat, 198.
Height of the snow-line on, ig8 note 2
Chabakchur, plain of, ii. 387, 392
Chaghelik, Kurdish hamlet, Bingol district, ii. 360
Chakhar Dagh, i. 436
Chalcedon, Council of, i. 312, 313, 348
Chalda;ans, name inider which the Chaldians, or
remnant of the subjects of the old Vannic kings
inhabiting the northern peripheral mountains of
Armenia, are sometimes alluded to by classical
authors, ii. 68, 69
Chaldaeans, name sometimes given to the Assyrian
Christians inhabiting the recesses of Kurdistan,
ii. 69, 70. Their supposed origin, z/'/V. Relations
of the English Church with them, i. 102. Their
incidence in Armenia, 451. ii. So note
Chaldees, ii. 70 and note i
Chaldia, see Klialdians
Chaldians, see Khaldians
Chaldir Mts. (Northern .\rmenia), i 105, iig, 121,
I23,.438> 441
Chaldir, Lake of, i. 439, 443. How formed, li. 404
Chaldiran, district in central Armenia, i. 435, ii.
421
Chamar Dagh, i. 431
Chambers, Rev. W. N. and Mrs., American mission-
aries in Erzerum, ii. 217, 256
Chamchean, Father M. (Chamich), i. 339 note
Changalli, name sometimes given to the cloister of
Surb Karapet (Mush district), q.v.
Changly, village, i. 416 note
Chantre, M. and Mme., i. 167, 195 note i, 199, 434
note
Charbahur, Circassian village near the slopes of the
Khamur heights, ii. 353
Charbahur Tepe, Circassian village, ii. 354
Chardaklu Dagh, Tauric Armenia, ii. 386
Chardin, J., i. 209, 211, 256 note, 262, 267
Charshembeh, town in the delta of the Iris, i. 4
Chat, Kurdish village, Alashkert district, ii. i
Chaurma village, Tekman district, ii. 249
Chavarchan (Ardaz), ancient canton, i. 277 note 2
Chawir, see Abuhevar
Chembek Dagh, Taurus Range, ii. 389
Cheremetieff, General, his reclamations in the valley
of the Araxes, i. 226
Chermaly, Armenian village and posting station
(Kars-Kagyzman), i. 412
Chernomorsk, Govt, of, i. 447
Chesney, F. R., expeditions of, ii. 440
Chevelik, village, ii. 392
Chevermeh, Armenian village, Khinis district, ii.
256
Chibukh-Naryn-Bashi Dagh, i. 441
Chonchal, lake, i. 105, 106
Chonchal, river, i. 105
Chorzene, name by which district of Kars was
known to Strabo, i. 395
Chorokh river, i. 41, 62, 337, 358, 430, 431, 436,
437, 442, 453, ii. 68 note 3, 203, 232, 386-387, 402,
406
Chorsa, see Kars
Chosroes, Arsakid king of Armenia, i. 286-288
Chosroes the Little, Arsakid king of Armenia, i.
301 note, 302
Chunak, pseudo-katholikos, i. 309, 310
Cilicia, mountainous district of Asia Minor. After
the Seljuk conquest of Armenia some Armenian
emigrants founded a kingdom in these mountains,
i. 367, which endured for almost 300 years, ibid.
These colonists resisted the spirltu.al guidance of
the Roman popes, ibid. ; but as friends of the
Crusaders they were at length overwhelmed by
the Turks, ibid. Their descendants still maintain
themselves in the district, ibid., and ii. 427. Status
of the katholikos of Sis, i. 276
Circassians, immigrants into Turkish Armenia, ii.
340, 341. List of their villages, 340. Character-
istics, ii. 331, 332, 353, 354, 356, 357, 359
Clayton, Major, British Consul at Van, ii. 62, 313,
Cole, Mr. R. M., American missionary at Bitlis,
"■ '54.
Comneni, distinguished Greek family, perhaps of
Italian origin, i. 35 ; called to the throne of the
Byzantine Empire, ibid. ; their tragic overthrow,
ibid. ; furnish a line of emperors of the Black Sea
coasts, ibid. See Grand-C oiiincni
Constantine the Great, Byzantine Emperor, i. 293
note I, 300
Constantine V., Byzantine Emperor, ii. 222
Constantine VII., Porphj-rogenitus, Byzantine
Emperor, i. 336 note, 352, ii. 223
Constantine X., Monomachus, Byzantine Emperor,
i- 353> 362, 363
Constantine XL, Dukas, Byzantine Emperor, i.
373 .
Constantinople, Council of, i. 312 note
Constantinople, Armenian Patriarchate of, ii. 450
seq.
Conybeare, Mr. F. C, i. 280, 281, 283, 407 ; 277,
279, 284, 285, 301, 312 notes
Cossacks, i. 158 seq., 401-403
Crimea, emigration of Armenians to, i. 367
Cuinet, Vital, ii. 25 ; 26, 79, 139, 152, notes
Cuneiform inscriptions, their widespread occurrence
Index
503
in Armenia, ii. 53, 56, 61. Difficulties attending
their decipherment, 54-56. The ancient civilisa-
tion which they disclose, 56-76. The inscriptions
on the rock of Van, 108-110. Inscription of
Choban or Meher Kapusi near Van, 112 and Fig.
134. Inscription at Akhtamar, 133; do. at
Melazkert, 275 note 2 ; on the Bingol Dagh, 373,
73 ; at Palu, 3^2
Cyprus Convention, ii. 409
Dadian Dagh, ii. 386
Daghestan, i. 447
Dalmatian, Armenian equivalent for Latin, i. 300
note 2
Daly Dagh, peak of the Gori Mokri, i. 434
Damadean, notorious Armenian revolutionarj-, ii.
157-159; 172; 431
Daniel, Syrian philosopher, i. 312 note i
Daniel the Syrian, katholikos, i. 299 note i
Daniel, monk of Tigranocerta, i. 388
Daniel Vardapet, of Varag, ii. 113
Darachichak, summer resort near Erivan, i. 139,
143. 445 .
David II., king of Georgia, i. 365
David, Prince of Akhaltsykh country, i. 355, 360
David, Prince of Van, i. 356
Dedeveren, Kurd village, Khinis plain, ii. 256
Deir, town in valley of the Great Zab, i. 277 note 2
Deirmen Dere, valley of the ancient Pyxitis river
in the Pontic region near Trebizond, ii. 238 ; i.
8'. 9. 22
Delijan, posting station, Northern Armenia, 1. 40
Demian, Pass of, ii. 277
Demian, village of Hasananli Kurds above the
plain of Melazkert, ii. 277, 342. Mileage to
Melazkert and Akhlat, 277 note
Demir Kala, see Bingol Dagh
Dersim, The, country and administrative division
belonging to western Armenia, ii. 388, 389, 390,
393. Pop. 413, 416. Its Kizilbash inhabitants,
418
Deveh Boyun, Camel's Neck, volcanic ridge divid-
ing the plains of Pasin and Erzerum, ii. 194, 196,
227. Strategical importance to Erzerum, 201,
245 ; fortifications on the ridge, ibid.
Dhuspas, ancient name for city of Van, q.v.
Diadin, town on the Upper Murad, i. 272, 297 note,
ii. 406
Diarbekr, city on the lowlands of Mesopotamia, i.
359 et passim ; device of double-headed eagle
there, ii. 211 note 3 ; communications with
Kharput and Erzerum, 388, 396 ; with Bitlis, 148
Dignuk, village on the Murad near Melazkert, ii.
276, 265
Dimitri, king of Georgia and lord of Ani, i. 365
Diocletian, Roman Emperor, i. 256, 293, 295 note
3, 300
Dittrich, Protestant missionary, i. 98, 99
Diyadin, Armenian village, Bingol district, ii. 182
Dochus Punar, radial volcanic mountain system in
Northern Armenia, i. 73, 94, 438, 440, 441, 443
Dodan, Armenian village, Bingol district, ii. 182,
358, 360 ; 180 note 2
Dodan Chai, see Bingol Sit
Dombat, village of Kizilbash Kurds on Upper
Murad, ii. 10, 12
Dosp, see Van
Dubois de Montp^reux, i. 62, 64, 71, 75-84, 183,
185, 203, 216-218, 264, 267, 269, 318, 319, 327 ; 66,
67, 201, 230, 261, notes
Dukhobortsy or Dukhoborians, Russian sectaries
settled in Armenia, i. 96, 102-104. Their settle-
ments visited, i. 105 -in. Character of their
religion, 103, 111-112. Feud arises among their
communities, 112- 113. A considerable party
resolve to defy the Government, 113, 114.
Govt, retaliates with savage cruelty, 114 -116.
Large numbers emigrate to British territory', first
to Cyprus and then to Canada, 116. Reflec-
tions, 116, 117, 120. .See also 456, 457
Diimlii Dagh, source of the Western Euphrates, i.
431, ii. 209 and note 2, 406
Duzjurt, Kurdish village, Tekman district, ii. 249,
Dvin (fovin), ancient Armenian city in Ararat
district, i. 201 note i ; the seat of the katholikos
transferred to, i. 264 note 5, 265 ; its importance
in the Middle Ages, 338, 342, 346, 364, 365, 382
Dvin, Council of, i. 284, 301 note i
" Eagle of Vaspurakan," newspaper founded by the
Katholikos Mekertich Khrimean, i. 240
Ebeling, Herr, his ascent of Little Ararat, i. 199
Edessa (Urfa), town in Mesopotamia, i. 277 note 2,
279, 306
Edgmiatsin (Vagharshapat, g.v.), Armenian mona;-
tery and town in the district of Ararat, visited and
described, i. 228-276, 453. Sometimes called by
Armenian writers Nor - Kaghak ; origin of this
name, 287 note 3. Known as Uch Kilisa in
Mussulman times, 256. Tradition that the
cathedrals and chapels occupy a site of great
sanctity in pagan times, il'id. note 2. Ripsimian
legend attributes the origin of the cathedral to
a direct mandate of Jesus Christ, 256-261. The
legend examined, 311. Academy, see under
Education. Plan, 244.
Education, (I.) Russian provinces. The Russian
State schools and the Armenian Church schools :
their status and regulation, i. 218-220, 273, ii. 97.
The two systems contrasted, i. 220-222. The
Armenian system culminates in the Academy at
Edgmiatsin, 272-274. Several Russian State
schools visited and described : at Akhaltsykh, i.
68 ; at Akhalkalaki, i. 90 ; at Alexandropol, i.
129; at Erivan, i. 221-224; atKars, i. 408; in villages,
i. 203, 316, 332. The Russian solution of the
religious difficulty, 223-224. A rntenian schools :
at Akhaltsykh, i. 68 ; at Akhalkalaki, i. 90 ; at
Alexandropol, i. 129 ; at Erivan, 221 ; at Kars, i.
408 ; in villages, i. 140, 203, 325. The teachers
are as a rule laymen.
(II.) Turkish provinces. The Turkish State
schools and the Armenian Church schools : their
status and regulation, ii. 96, 97, 99, 100, 215.
Much greater latitude allowed in Turkey to the
Armenian schools, 97 ; but Russian methods are
creeping in, ibid, and 100. The two systems con-
trasted, loi. The Armenian teachers are laymen
and belong as a rule to a high class in society, 97.
Turkish State schools visited and described : at
Van, ii. loo-ioi ; at Bitlis, ii. 152 and note i ; at
Mush the school is in abeyance, ii. 170 ; at
Khinis, ii. 186; at Erzerum, ii. 217. Armenian
schools: at Van, ii. 96-99, and private schools,
il'id.; at Bitlis, ii. 152 ; at Mush the schools are
closed; at Erzerum, 216-217, and Sanasarean
School, 213-216, 97. In villages they are for the
most part closed, c/>. ii. 165. Rigorous Turkish
censorship over foreign literature, ii. 95, 180.
American Mission schools, culminate in Armenia
College at Kharput, ii. 391. Visited in various
centres, ii. 94-95, 154, 217, 256. Armenian
Catholic schools, ii. 153, 217
Efremovka, Russian settlement and posting -station
in northern Armenia, i. 118, 119
Egin, town on W. Euphrates, i. 449, ii. 386, 390
Eleazar, katholikos, i. 262, 263, 270
Elizabetpol (Gandzak), i. 364, 365
Elizabetpol, Govt, of, i. 447, 449 ; 97, 103 note, 113,
114, 115, 447, 449, 455
Elliot, Capt. , British Consul at Van, ii. 304, 314
Elmali Dere or Vale of Apple Trees, district between
Khinis and Tutakh, ii. 263, 399
Elmali Dere, Lake Van, ii. 142
f2mlekli Dagh, Gori Mokri, i. 434
Enghil Su, Lake Van, see Anguil Su
Enzakh, Armenian hamlet. Lake Van, ii. 137
Ephesus, Council of, i. 312 note, 314 note
Ephraim, katholikos, i. 264 note 5
Erazgavors, town in Shirak, residence of Sembat I.,
i; 341- 345 . .
Erimenas, Vannic king, known only from an inscrip-
tion on a shield found at Toprak Kala, ii. 66, 75
504
Armenia
Erishat River (Irshat), Lake Van, ii. 24, 44
Erivan, the town of gardens, visited and described,
i. 142, 143-146, 153, 206-227, 229, 427, ii. 404.
Derivation of the name and history, i. 209-210,
446. Industries, 226. Material prosperity of the
Armenian inhabitants, 225, 467 ; yet there does
not exist a single bookseller's shop, 225. Pop. of
the town, 209 ; of the province, 447, 451. Schools,
see under Education. View of from the north.
Fig. 42, p. 208
Erkizan, quarter of Akhlat, ii. 45, 284
Erovant, Armenian Arsakid king, ist cent., i. 209
Ertev, village, Pasin district, ii. 193
Ervandakert, ancient Armenian fortress on the
Arpa Chai, i. 319, 324
Ervandashat, ancient Armenian city on the Arpa
Chai, i. 319, 324
Erzen, see Artze
Erzerum (Karin, Karnoy Kaghak, Theodosiopolis),
fortress and capital in Turkish Armenia, visited
and described, ii. 198-224, 244, 245. Derivation of
the name, 223. History, 221-224, 204-205. Climate,
20S and cp. i. 107 note, 427. Trade, ii. 205-207,
i. 32 ; pop. of the town, ii. 206-207, ^'''d cp. i. 67,
128 ; of the province, ii. 413. Schools, see under
Eeincaiion. View of from the south, Fig. 164,
p. 207, from the north, Fig. 165, p. 208. Mileage
to Khinis, 174 note ; to Trebizond, 225, 240.
Route to Rizeh, 382, i. 431, and to Olti, ibid.
Suggestions for railway comminiication, ii. 206, 382
Erzerum, plain of, area and elevation, ii. 209.
Connection with other Armenian plains, i. 146,
ii. 401
Erzinjan, ancient Armenian town and Turkish
military station on the Western Euphrates, i. 348
note, 431, 432, ii. 204, 227, 228, 234, 386, 390,
404, 413, 418. Statue of the goddess Anahid at
E. destroyed by St. Gregory, i. 294
Eugenius, Saint, of Trebizond, i. 36
Euphrates, Western (Kara Su, P'rat), its sources in
the Diimlii Dagh, i. 431, ii. 209, 401 ; fed by the
Central Tableland, ii. 398 ; its course through
Armenia, i. 146, ii. 201, 203, 222, 227, 228 and
note, 230, 404, 406 ; its valley apportioned to the
Roman Empire, i. 306
Euphrates, Eastern (Murad), its sources and prin-
cipal affluents, ii. 406 ; 373, 398 ; course through
Armenia, i. 420, ii. 2, 9, 10, 12-15, 264-273, 277,
342, 343, 346-355 ; _ 183, 175, i77_; the ancient
Arsanias, ii. 41. Tiridates and his people bap-
tized on the banks of, i. 296
Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia, i. 300
Eyerli Dagh, Erzerum, ii. 202, 245, 381, 398
Eyub Pasha, Kurd Hamidiyeh, ii. 5
Eznik, i. 301 note i
Ezra, katholikos, i. 270
Faddeff, General, Governor of Kars, i. 399, 400,
4°3. 417 . . , . .
Fallmerayer, J. P., historian of Trebizond, 1. 33,
34. 19 . . .
Fars (Shiraz, Persepolis), 1. 286, 287, 340 note 5
Fath Ali, Shah of Persia, i. 217
Fathlun I., Beni-Cheddad, i. 365
Fathlun II., i. 365
Faustus of Byzantium, i. 291 note i, 303, 311
Feodoroff, companion of Parrot, i. 198 note i
Fergiisson, J., History of Architecture, i. 263, 368,
372 note
Fethulla Bey, chieftain bf Hasananli Kurds, ii. 276
Finlay, G., History of Trebizond, i. 33, 34
Flora and fauna. The flora in Armenia is as a
rule composed of the species familiar to the
traveller in Europe, ii. 246, 248 ; 208, 253, 256,
265, 268, 269, 303. It is perhaps most remarkable
on the sandy slopes of Ararat, i. igo, 191, as also
on the higher seam.?, i. 181. The great mountain
masses appear to have their distinctive flowers,
ii. 362, and see Bingol, Niinrud, Sipan. Wealth
and variety of the flora in the regions bordering
Armenia on the side of the Black Sea, i. 18, 51,
432, ii. 236, 239, 241, 242, 382
Of big game there is little, ii. 302, 304, 339 ;
but partridges are -found in abundance on the
mountains, i. 161, 181 ; and the plain of Alash-
kert is a nursery of wild fowl, ii. 3, 9. Wild
geese are frequent on the rivers, ii. 346, and
pelicans on some of the lakes, 323, 344. The
Nimrud crater is a nursery for all kinds of butter-
flies, ii. 303. Remarkable about Lake Van are
the rollers {coracias garrulus), ii. 280. Lizards
dart among the rocks, i. 74
Forests, scarcity of in Armenia and causes, ii. 405
Fraser, Miss, member of the American Mission in
Van, ii. 92
Frat river, see Eup/iTafes, Western
Frese, General, Governor of Erivan, i. 143, 226,
246, 248, 253
Freshfield. Mr. D. W., i. 198 note
Gagik, Kinglet of Van (Artsruni) and ri\al of King
Sembat I., Bagratid dynasty, i. 345, 346, 348,
349, 350. Builds the church at Akhtamar, ii. 131
note 2.
Gagik I., Shahanshah, King of the Bagratid
dynasty, i. 354-355. 360, 373.. 382, 383
Gagik II., King of the Bagratid dynasty, i. 362
Galerius, Roman Emperor, i. 300
Galicia, emigration of Armenians to, i. 367
Gandzak, see EUzahctpol
Ganibuk, village, Khamur district, ii. 348
Garchigan, district and caza. Lake Van, ii. 138, 139
Gargalik, village of Sipkanli Kurds on the Murad,
ii. 267
Garni, ruined town, village and river, district of
Ararat, i. 201, 264
Garni Chai, Mush, ii. 166, 170, 175
Garuts, see Kars
Garzik village. Lake Van, ii. 141
Garzoni, Maurizio, Roman Catholic missionary in
Kurdistan in the 18th century, ii. 149
Gegham, Lake, see Sevati Lake
Gelarash Dagh, spur of the Ala Dagh, ii. 16
Gelat, Monasterj' of, district of Kutais, i. 45, 46, 47
Gelzer, Prof. H., i. 277, 292, 295, 299, 300, 309, 310,
notes
Genj, District of, ii. 392
George I. of Georgia, i. 360
George III. of Georgia, i. 365, 366
George IV., katholikos, i. 236, 254, 263, 267, 273
Georgia, i. 429, 432, 433; 37, 39-51 ; 448. Glance
at the Georgian kingdom during the Middle
Ages, i. 337 seg. passim. It abdicates in favour
of the Tsars, 446
Georgians, overlap into Armenia, i. 55-85, 86, 443.
Numbers in Armenia, 451, 455 (often classed as
Turks, iltid. and ii. 417). Their Church accepts
the Council of Chalcedon, i. 313. Unites with
the Russian Orthodo.x Church, 463. Their
curious method of catching fish, i. 76. Their
language, ii. 68 note 3
German colonists, their origin in Transcaucasia,
i. 96-99 ; met with in Armenia, 410
Gez, village near Erzerum, ii. 227
Ghubanoff, Michael Vasilievich (Dukhobortsy),
brother of Lukeria Vasilievna, i. loS
Giaour Dagh, northern border of Armenia, i. 430,
ii. 243
Ginal Dagh, i. 434
Girdim Dagh, Turkish Armenia, ii. 386, 392
Glak Vaiik (Changalli), ii. 180 note i
Gobet, Mussulman village, Akhaltsykh district,
_ i. 74
Godorebi, Mt. of the Abul-Samsar volcanic system,
i. 95
Gukcheh Lake, see Scran Lake
Giil Bashi, hamlet on Mush plain, ii. 319
Gol Bashi, Pool of, a source of the Kara Su, ii. 319
GiJleh, district in northern Armenia, i. 430, 431,
, 437. 439. 443 .
(>olgat, Armenian village, Alagiiz district, i. 133
Gi'ili, Armenian hamlet. Lake Van, ii. 138
Giiljik, Lake, ii. 3S7 ; indications of a rise in tlie
level, 53 note
Index
505
Gop, Lake (Bulama, Lake of Shailu), near Bilejaii
Dagh, ii. 337, 343, 344. Analysis of its water,
Appendix II.
Gop, large Armenian village, district of Bulanik,
ii. 344, 345. Mileage to Charbahur, 353 note
Gopal, Armenian village, Akh Dagh district, ii.
, 258, 259
Gopal Su, tributary of the Hingijl Su (Khinis),
ii. 260
Gorelovka, see Diikhohortsy
Gori Mokri Mts., Northern Armenia, i. 87, 433
Goschen, Rt. Hon. G. J., ambassador to Turkey,
ii. 410
Goshkar Baba (shoem.aker to the Prophet), grave
near Bingol Dagh, ii. 372
Gotimeria Dagh, Northern .Armenia, i. 430, 431
Gotni, Kurdish village, Mush plain, ii. 163
Gotok, village of settled Kurds, vilayet of Bitlis,
ii. 142
Gozme Gedik Pass, Mush plain, ii. 396
Grand-Comneni, line of Greek emperors at Tre-
bizond, i. 35-36
Graves, Mr. R. W., British Consul at Erzerum,
ii. 8, 199, 413 note 2
Greeks in Armenia, i. 122, 129, 331, 332, 451, 455;
in the northern peripheral region, i. 432, 4s5, ii.
236, 237-244
Greene, Mr. F. D., American missionary' at Van,
ii. 92, 95
Gregory, Saint (Lusavorich or The Illuminator), i.
259-261 ; 2S8-301 ; 200, 201, 204, 254, 262, 264
note 5, 265, 269, 271, 283, 284, 306, 311, 348, ii.
178 and note 2
Gregory Magistros, persecutes the Thonraki, i. 285
Grigor, grandson of .St. Gregory, i. 267
Grigor (Pahlavid), father of Vahram, i. 381, 382,
383 note 3
Grigor, son of Vahram, i. 385
Gudubgokh (Surb Vakob), Chapel near Lake Van,
ii- 137
Gugoghlan, Kurdish village, Shushar district, ii.
^ 375 .
Gujaretis, Valley of the, i. 433
Gumbet Dagh, i. 430, 431
Gumgum, village and capital of the caza of Varto,
ii. 183, 356, 371
Gumgum Su, affluent of the Bingcjl Su (Charbahur),
ii. 358, 367, 368.
Gumri, see Alc.xajidropol
Gumiishkhaneh, town in vilayet of Trebizond and
capital of Greek diocese of Chaldia, ii. 69, 240,
243, 382 ; famous for its silver mines, 243. Com-
mimications, i. 432
Gundemir, ancient Armenian village, Bingol dis-
trict, ii. 182, 358, 359
Gunduz, Armenian hamlet, plain of Khinis, ii. 257
Gunek Su, affluent of Eastern Euphrates, ii. 389,
392, 406
Giinther, Mr. R. T., ii. 43 note, 48 and Appendi.x II.
Gurgi Boghaz (Georgian Gates), Erzerum-Olti, ii.
203, 227, 245
Gurgur, name given to the passage of the Murad
out of Mush plain, ii. 177. Ruins of a fortress
there, ibid.
Guria, Province of, i. 42, 43
Gutschmid, Alfred von, i. 278, 287, 288, 289, 291,
292, 295, 300, 301, notes
Guyard, M. Stanislas, ii. 56
Giizel Dere, Beauteous Valley, Bitlis district, ii.
45, 143, 402
Giizul Dere, village on Alagoz, i. 135
Gypsies, in Garchigan, ii. 139 note, .^t Gopal,
260. Are they the remnant of a Hindu colony?
Hadrian, Roman Emperor, i. 12, ii. 40
Haidar Bey, village near Lake Van, ii. 28
Haini, town of, ii. 388, 396
Haji Khalil, village, Alagoz district, i. 135
Hakkiari, district of, ii. 88, 421 note, 424
H.alys River, i. 4 ; its delta is celebrated for tobacco,
il'iii.
Hamdun, Arab emir, i. 353
Hamidiyeh, irregular cavalry recruited by the
Turkish Govt, among the Kurds and Karapa-
pakhs, ii. 5, 6, 13, 14, 17, 26, 88, 172, 184, 187,
195, 219, 255, 260, 266, 276, 283, 314, 344, 356,
357, 421, 422, 423
Hamilton, W. J., i. 33 ; 32, 367 notes
Hamsi Keui, Upper and Lower, villages, Machka
Dere, ii. 241, 236 note
Hargin, village on Lake Van, ii. 27, 29
Hasan Kala, ancient town in Pasin, ii. 61, 174, 193,
219
Hasan Keif, primeval village on the Tigris, ii. 395
Hasuna, village of Hasananli Kurds at the foot of
Kartevin Dagh, ii. 268, 275
Ha.\thausen, A. von, i. 235 ; 66, 90, 234, 273, notes
Hayk, city of, result of excavations at, ii. 71
Hayk, son of Togarmah, grandson of Japhet, re-
puted progenitor of the Armenians, i. 318, ii. 70,
78, 274
Haykaberd, ruins of an Armenian fortress near the
passage of the Murad from Mush Plain, ii. 177
Hayotz-dzor, district of, Lake Van, ii. 71, 394
Hazo, town of, ii. 429, 431
Heraclius, Roman emperor, i. 314, ii. 222
Heraklea, Black Sea, 1. 2
Hieron Oros, see Icros
Hincks, Dr., ii. 56 note i
Hindu refugees, their temples at Surb Karapet de-
stroyed by St. Ciregory, ii. 178 ; the gjpsies in
Armenia are said to be their descendants, ibid.^
and their language is known as Sanskrit among the
Armenians, ibid.
Hindu Kush Mts., i. 423, 424, 425, 435
Hipsinek, Armenian village, Akantz district, ii. 23
Hittites, The, ii. 61
Hiznavuz (Kiznaus), Armenian village near Edg-
miatsin, i. 316
Honentz, family of, i. 375
Hoseyn Ali Khan, Sirdar of Erivan, i. 214, 217
Hoseyn Pasha, chief of the Haideranli and ruler of
territory of Patnotz, ii. 17, 20, 21
Hrazdan or Zanga River, see Zanga
Huns, The, i. 287, 303
Iberians, The, i. 395, ii. 68 note 3
Ibn-Alathir, Arab historian, ii. 29 and note 2
Ibrahim Pasha, adjutant of Kurd Hamidiyeh, ii
344 ^ ,
Ibrahim Sheikh, unknown ruler at Vostan, Lake
Van, ii. 125-126
leros (Hieron Oros), cape near Trebizond, i. 8, 13,
33
Igmal, village on Lake Van, ii. 27
Iki Kube, quarter of Akhlat, ii. 284-287
Ilantash or Karatash, plateau of, near Akantz, ii.
28 _
Ildigiz, Atabeg governor of Azerbaijan, i. 366
Ilija, village in Erzerum district, ii. 227
Imeritia, i. 42, 45, 47, 430
Ineboli, ancient town on the Black Sea, i. 3, 4, 6, 35
Innaknean Vank (Changalli), ii. i3o note i
Inuspuas, Vannic king, ii. 72, no note
Iris, river flowing into Black Sea, i. 4 ; its delta is
celebrated for its Indian corn, ibid.
Isa, Arab governor, i. 340
Isaac the Great, katholikos, i. 312
Iskandar Pasha, ii. 289
Iskele, harbour of Van city and name of a gate, ii.
36, 49, 108 note
Ismail I., Shah, i. 210, ii. 78
Ispahan, i. 264 note 5, 440
Ispir, town on the Chorokh, i. 431, ii. 68 and note 3
Ispuinis, Vannic king, ii. 60 and note 3, 72. In-
scription of, no note, 112
Issaverdens, i. 277 note 2, ii. 222
Jacob, Saint, Bishop of Nisibis, his attempt to
ascend Ararat, i. 184, 185 ; 269
Jacob (James IV.), katholikos, i. 262, 268 note
Jagluya Mts., near Kagj-zman, famous for their
rich pastures, i. 419
5o6
Armenia
Jaila, Armenian hamlet, Alexandropol district, i.
"9 . .
Jala, Armenian village, Shuragel district, i. 330
Javresh Dagh, Kighi district, ii. 389
Jejen Dagh, ii. 203, 227, 230, 245, 382, 400, 403
Jejen Dagh, Pass of (Khoshabpunar), ii. 382 and
240 note
Jelal-ud-Din, Sultan of Kharizme, ii. 295, 296
Jellap, Armenian village and posting station, Alex-
andropol district, i. 122
Jelu Dagh, Kurdistan, ii. 388, 395
Jenghiz Khan, Ani sacked by, i. 366, 377
Jerusalem, Armenian patriarchate of, ii. 453
Jesuits, see Missions
Jevizlik, town of, Dei'rmen Dere, ii. 238 ; mileage
to Trebizond and Baiburt, 225 note, 240 note
Jezireh, town in Kurdistan, ii. 433
Jezirok, village on Lake Nazik, ii. 323
Jil Gol, Lake of Rushes, Sipan district, ii. 331 ;
outlet of the waters, 341 ; increase in the level,
ibid., and 47 note i
John Katholikos, Armenian historian, i. 335, 341,
344. 345. 346. 347. 348. 350, 352
John the Baptist, Saint (Surb Karapet), cult of in
Armenia, i. 283-284, 295
John the Philosopher, katholikos, i. 284
John Sembat, Bagratid dynasty, i. 355 seq., 373,
John Zimiskes, Byzantine emperor of Armenian
descent, i. 353, 354
Jude, Saint, the apostle, i. 277 note 2
Julfa, village on the Araxes, i. 434, 435, 444
Julfa, New, i. 233 note 2, 264 note 5
Justinian, Roman Emperor, i. 27, ii. 222
Kabak-Tepe or Kizilkaya, Kars district, i. 394
Kagdarich, village on the Western Euphrates, ii.
228
Kagyzman, town near the Araxes, i. 148, 413-417,
419. 459- Pop- of, 417 ; account of town and
castle by Evliya, 416 note
Ka!a-i-Zerin, see Zcrnak
Kalaji, Kurdish village, Shushar district, ii. 251
Kalajik, village of, Lake Van, ii. 38, 112
Kalajik, castled crag of, near the Vavuk Pass, ii.
.243
Kala Su, Pasin district, ii. 193
Kamarlu, village of Armenians and Tartars, Ararat
district, i. 154, 201, 203
Kanjean, village in the Elmali Dere, ii. 399
Kanlija, near Alexandropol, cuneiform inscriptions
found at, ii. 61, 73
Kanly Dagh, Northern Armenia, i. 437
Kara Ali, Circassian village, plain of Melazkert, ii.
,277
Karabagh, country forming an Armenia in miniature
on the side of the Caspian, i. 434 ; 254, 423, 445,
^449. 453. 454- Kurds in, 455 and cp. 364
Karachanta, Mussulman village, Alexandropol dis-
trict, i. 122
Karachoban, Armenian village on Bingol Su, ii. 257
Karadagh, northern Azerbaijan, i. 434, 435
Karaghun, Kurdish hamlet, Sipan district, ii. 342
Kara Hasan Su, affluent to the Western Euphrates,
ii. 228
Karaja Dagh, Mesopotamia, ii. 388
Karakach Dagh (Gori Mokri, Northern Armenia),
i. 87, 434, 438, 441
Karakala, ruins on the Araxes, i. 318, 319, 321
Karahisar; town of (Shabin Karahisar), i. 431,
ii. 204
Kara Kala, see Bingd'l Dagh
Karakaya Dagh, Tauric Armenia, ii. 386
Karakilisa, Alashkert, ii. 2-10, 266. Kaimakam of,
,.7-8. 255
Karakilisa, village near Lake Van, ii. 23
Kara Mehemet, Armenian village on plain of
Ale-vandropol, i. 122
Karaogli, village on Murad, ii. 346, 347
Karapapakhs or Black Caps, ii'. 6, 14, 266 ; i. 455,
456, ii. 5, 267
Karass, Scotch mission at, i. 99
Kara Su, Ararat, i. 156, 183, 187, 201
Kara Su, Mush plain, ii. 162 note, 176, 317, 319
Kara Su, Western Euphrates, ii. 209, 228, 406
Karatash, see Ilantash
Kara Vank, Armenian village on Aghri Dagh,
i. 418
Karchkhal Mts., Pontic region, i. 430
Karembe, Cape (Black Sea), i. 3
Kargabazar Heights (Pasin), ii. 193, 203, 227, See
also i. 431, 432
Karin, see Erzertun
Karkar Dagh (Lake Van), ii. 388
Karke, Mt. (in Taron), site of heathen temples,
i. 295, 296. .Site identified, 296 note 2
Karlik Tepe, Trebizond, i. 34
Karmuch, Armenian village near Akhlat, ii. 45, 299
Karniarch, mountain and landmark near Alaguz,
i. 138, 140, 317
Karnirash, hamlet of Kurds, foot of Nimrud, ii. 319
Karri Chai, tributary to the Kur, i. 443
Kars (Karutz), ancient fortified city and modern
fortress in Northern Armenia, visited and de-
scribed, i. 393-408 ; 39, 61, 330, 331, 332, 333,
442, 459. History, 395:399. 352, 353, 354, 356,
358, 360, 364. Elevation, 439. Pop. of the
town, 405, 406. Do. of the province, 451. View
of, 406. Plan, 395. Railway from Tiflis recently
completed, 40 note
Kars, river of, curiosities attending its course,
i. 442, 394, 413 __
Kartevin Dagh, ii. 16, 263, 265, 268, 277, 333, 337,
397, 401.
Kasagh River (Abaran Su), i. 242, 245, 316
Kastamuni, town in Asia Minor, i. 3, 6, 35
Katranideh, Queen of Armenia, wife of Gagik,
}■ .373
Kazikly Dagh, northern border, ii. 240, 382
Keban-Maden, Euphrates, ii. 390
Kegham, Lake, see Sevan La/ce
Kekeli, Armenian village, Bilejan district, ii. 343
Kelkid-Chiftlik, town on the Lycus, ii. 234
Kelkid .Su (Lycus), i. 431, ii. 406
Kemakh (Ani), the burial-place of Armenian Arsakid
kings, ii. 390. Fane of Aramazd destroyed by
St. Gregory, i. 294
Kemurly, Upper and Lower, Kagyzman district,
.'• 413, 414. 416
Kerasun, Black Sea, i. 6, 18, 431
Keremitlu r)agh, fortified hill near Erzerum, ii. 203
Kerim, notorious brigand in the Caucasus, i. 153
Kerkiir Dagh, volcanic pile on the flank of Nimrud,
ii. 50, 160-161, 312, 316, 317
Ker Porter, Sir R., i. 201 note, 319, 323, 324, 367,
Kersik or Kersuk .Su, Elmali Dere district, ii. 263 ;
confluence with the Murad, 265
Kerwanserai, Kurdish settlement, slopes of Alaguz,
J- '35 . . . ..
Keser Su, tributary of the Tigris, li. 148
Keshish Gol, on the slopes of Mt. Varag, ii. 64 ;
stele near with inscription of Rusas L, itiiii.
Kestano (Bejano), Plain of Akhalkalaki, i. 87 note
Ketivan, Mohammedan village near Hasan Kala,
-"• '93
Kety Dagh, Karabagh border, i. 434
Keupek Dagh, Terjan district, ii. 386
Khach Dagh, Terjan district, ii. 386, 393
Khachkar Mts., i. 430
Khadrak station, valley of Balakhor, ii. 234
Khaldians, subjects of the old Vannic kings, their
history, language and art, ii. 56-65. Character
of their civilisation, 53, 65, 71, 76, iii, 116. Was
there any racial or cultural link between them
and the Chaldees? 70. Approximate date of
their overthrow, 65, 66. The remnant known to
Greek writers as Chaldians and the mountainous
country to which they were driven as Chaldia — a
name which survives to the present day, 68, 69
Khaldis, supreme god of the old Vannic kings and
their people, ii. 57
Khalias Dagh or Mergemir, ii. 263, 269, 337, 389
Kluuna Dagh, ii. 384
Index
507
Khamur Dagh, seen from Koshk, ii. 13, from
Tutakh, 14 ; from Bashkent Ova, 185 ; from the
Palandoken Pass, 247 ; from Khinis plain, 257 ;
from the village of Demian, 277. Ascent of the
principal ridge, 348-351. Geological composition
ofj 257, 349, 371. Monument on the summit,
350 ; view of the surrounding country, 351. Con-
nection with Bingol, 350, 371. Photograph, 252,
Fig. 177
Khancharli, village of, Northern Armenia, i. 119
Khanik, Circassian village, Sipan district, ii. 278
Khanikoff, N. V., his ascent of Ararat, i. 199
Khan Mahmud, Kurdish chieftain, ii. 78
Kharaba, ruins of village on the site of Ali Mur,
district of Khinis, ii. 252
Kharaba, quarter of Akhlat q.v., ii. 284
Kharput, ancient Armenian town on a hill near the
banks of the Murad, ii. 390 ; pop. 391 ; do. of
the province, 413, 425. Large number of villages
in the vicinity, 391 ; products of the neighbour-
hood, ibid. The Americans have a flourishing
Mission and a well-equipped College, ibid.; 388,
396. Plain of, 390
Kharshut River, ii. 234, 236, 242
Khashkeui, Armenian village on Plain of Mush, ii.
165
Khashlu, village, Bilejan district, ii. 345
Khedonun, village of Jibranli Kurds, ii. 250
Kherbesor, village, Shushar district, ii. 252, 373
Kherbesor cliffs, Bingol plateau, ii. 373, 398
Khertvis, town at the junction of Kur and river of
Akhallcalaki, i. 76 ; 66 note, 74, 85
Khindris Plain, ii. 389, 392
Khinis, town of, visited and described, ii. 186-188,
253, 254-255. Pop. 187. Emigration of Armen-
ians from the district, 219. Mileage to Mush and
Erzerum, 174 note. Do. to Tutakh, 255 note
Khinis, plain of, ii. 186, 188, 256-258, 351, 401. A
seat of the Thonraki, i. 285
Khinis, river of, a component of the Bingol Su, ii.
186, 188, 253
Khizan, region south of Lake Van, ii. 397
Khodzko, J., his ascent of Ararat, i. 199
Khojabek, Armenian village, Akhalkalaki district,
i. 105
Khorasan, village at the narrows of the Ara.xes, i.
146, ii. 194
Khorasan, Province and Mts. of northern Persia,
i. 423, 426
Khoren Stephaneh, monk at Edgmiatsin, i. 248
Khor Virap, Monastery near the Ara.xes, visited,
i. 200, 203, 204. Erected on the site of St.
Gregory's dungeon, ibid.
Khoshab River (Enghil Su) Lake Van, ii. 44, 50,
122, 394. The waters of the Khoshab basin are
taken to the suburbs of Van by the Shamiram Su,
60
Khosha Vank (Kizil Kilisa), Armenian village on
the Arpa Chai, i. 328
Khosha Vank, Monastery of (Horomos), visited
and described, i. 387-390 ; 328
Khoshkhosh, Queen, her tomb at Varag, ii. 115
Khosrov Pasha, donor of a pulpit to the mosque at
Vostan, ii. 125
Khosrovidukht, sister of King Tiridates, i. 259,
261, 264
Khozapin, Lake, Northern Armenia, i. 87 note
Khram, Valley of the, i. 89
Khram Mts., i. 433
Khrimean, Katholikos Mekertich, i. 236, 242, 246-
248, 249, 250, 251-256, ii. 86, 96, 103, 115, 408
Khvandzeh, wife of Shahanshah, i. 375
Kiaya, the head man of a Christian village, ii. 176
note 2
Kiepert, Prof. H., ii. 383 note, 408
Kighi Su or Peri Su, ii. 389, 392, 406
Kighi Kasaba, town of, ii. 390, 393
Kighi, district of, view of the from the hill of
Gugoghlan, ii. 376. Eastern limits, 380. Charac-
teristics, 393, 405
Kilich Gedik Mts., ii. 2, 12, 13, 262, 263, 264, 266,
337
Kilisa Deresi, Armenian Church on the Plain of
Khinis, ii. 188, 253
Kimball, Dr. Grace, of the American Mission at
Van, ii. 92
Kindirantz, capital of the caza of Garchigan, ii. 138-
140
Kindirantz, plain of, natural phenomenon which is
repeated every year, ii. 139
Kinneir, Macdonald, ii. 151, 231 note
Kip (ji)l, crater lake on Ararat, i. 199
Kirakos, katholikos, i. 264 note 5
Kirk Bulakh River (Forty Springs), Erivan, i. 209
Kirk Deirmen, pass near Erzerum, ii. 202
Kirklar, a quarter of Akhlat, ii. 284
Kirklar Gol, pool on summit of Sipan, ii. 334
Kisir Dagh, Chaldir, i. 394, 438, 441
Kitowa Dagh Pass, ii. 240, 242, 382
Kizilbash, people usually classed as Kurds but
professing a distinctive form of religion, ii. 418,
419 ; numbers in Armenia, 414, 416 note ; 12, 185,
187, 252, 390 _
Kizii-Goch River, tributary to the Arpa Chai, i. 119
Kizilkaya, see Kabak Tepe
Kizilkilisa, village on the Arpa Chai, i. 328
Kiziltash, cuneiform slab near Artemid, ii. 120, 121
Kizvag, village on Lake Van, ii. 315 ; menaced by
increase in le\'el of water, 52
Klupfi"ell, IVL de, i. 38
Knapp, Messrs. G. C. and George, American
missionaries, ii. 154
Koblian Chai, tributary of the Kur, i. 57
Kobulety, station, i. 42
Koch, K. , i. 107, 436, 437, 443, ii. 176, 210, 2ir
Kohanam Dagh (Sepuh), i. 348 note
Kolchis, i. 7, 18, 42, 432, ii. 239; glances at the
history of, i. 62, 343, 344, 345, 349
Kolibaba Mt. , Khamur, ii. 333, 348, 350, 372
Komitas, katholikos, i. 263, 264 note 5, 265, 270,
291 note
Koms, quarter of Bitlis, ii. 154
Kop Dagh, ii. 203, 227, 230, 245, 386, 403
Kop Dagh Pass, elevation, ii. 230
Korakhbur, village near Efremovka, i. n8
Kordikran, village in Garchigan, ii. 139
Korduk (Kurdistan), i. 309 note i, ii. 429
Koriun, i. 291 note, 301 note i
Kor Ogly Dagh, Abul Samsar, volcanic group, i. 95
Kor Su, tributary of the Murad, district of Bulanik,
ii. 346
Kor Su, tributary of Murad, Karakilisa, ii. 9
Koshk, Kurdish village, district of Tutakh, ii. 13-17
Koshmiir Dagh, Kighi district, ii. 389
Kotur River, Azerbaijan, ii. 386
Kovaleffsky, his ascent of Little Ararat, i. 199
Kozli, Armenian village on slopes of Akh Dagh, ii.
256 . _
Krasnovodsk Mts., Caspian seaboard, their con-
nection with the structural system of Asia, i. 425
Krimizi Tuzla, village, Khamur district, ii. 260
Ktutz, island and monasterj- in Lake Van, ii. 32, 33
Kuarkuareh, atabeg, i. 64
Kiichik Keui, village near Kars, i. 397
Kuenlun Mts., their connection with the structural
system of Asia, i. 424, 425
Kukurt Dagh, Artvin, i. 430
Kulaxis, quarter of Akhlat, ii. 284
KuUi, Kurdish village, Tekman district, ii. 190 ;
Brant's accoimt of in 1838, ibid, note i ; 398
Kulp, district of, ii. 396
Kulpi, salt mines of, Ararat district, i. 319, ii. 385
Klip Keran, Armenian village, near Karakilisa, ii. 9
Kur River or river of Ardahan, i. 73 seq. ; 56, 63,
94, 118, 394. Sources and course through Ar-
menia, 443
Kurdistan or Kurd-land, situation, ii. 395 ; 145, i.
424, 429. Characteristics, ii. 145, 148, 394.
Divided into five considerable principalities dur-
ing the i8th century, 149. Condition of the
Armenian inhabitants, ii. 429-431. Suggestions for
the proper government of, ii. 433, 434
Kurds, their antiquity, ii. 69. Their picturesque-
ness, ii. 396 and cp. 250. Portraits of, ii. 5, 16,
5o8
Arvienia
17, 163. Characteristics, i. 427, ii. 419. In
Armenia the tribal Kurds are quite out of place,
the conditions of their life there being unnatural,
ii. I and fassiiii in the narrative of the journeys ;
420-424. How they came to their present seats
there, 421. Their numbers in Armenia, i. 451, ii.
414. Various Kurdish tribes in Armenia visited :
Zilanli, ii. 6 ; Hasananli, 21, igi, 259, 260, 267,
268, 276, 322-323; Haideranli (Patnotz, etc.), 16,
20. 26, 422, 187 ; Adamanli, 21, 26 ; Sipkanli, 16,
267, 26S ; Jibranli, 184, 187, 250, 357, 371, 372 ;
Zirkanli, 187, 190 ; Zireki, 250, 380. See also
Kizilhash
Kuseh Dagh, Ararat system, i. 436 ; ii. 10 and Fig.
112, 193, 267, 277, 312, 336; altitude, 384
Kuseh Dagh, northern border of Armenia, i. 430
Kutais, capital of Imeritia, visited and described,
i. 45-48 ; vineyards there, 55. Govt, of, 447, 449
Kutlerusky, General, takes Akhalkalaki, i. 89
Kzia, River and Plain of, i. 433
Lakes in Armenia, notices of Strabo, Pliny and
Ptolemy, ii. 40-43. The great lakes described
(Van, Urmi, Gukcheh), 39, 43-46 ; analyses of
their waters, 468-470. Fluctuations in their level,
46-53. See also 402-404
Lanchkuty, village of. Black Sea coast, i. 43
Layard, Sir A. H., ii. 55, 133 ; 69, 79, 115, 233, 283,
296, 324, 344, notes
Lazar Pharpetzi, i. 291 note i, 302 note i
Lazis or inhabitants of Lazistan, i. 42, 427, 432
Lehmann, Prof. C. F. , ii. 56 seq. and see Biblio-
graj>hy, i,^-2
Lemberg, Armenian colony at, i. 367
Leo VI., Byzantine emperor, i. 341, 346, ii. 223, 295
Leontius, archbishop of Caesarea, i. 295 note i
Leter, village of, district of Bulanik, ii. 342
Lichig, village of, Kighi district, ii. 392
Liz, town of, Bulanik district, ii. 345, 351
Loftus, \V. K., ii. 30, 47, 50, 51 ; 30, 47, 385 notes
Longworth, Mr., British Consul at Trebizond, i. 11
Lori, town in Georgia, i. 353, 356, 465
Lukas, katholikos, i. 264 note 5
Lukeria Vasilievna, see Dukhobortsy
Lurs, The, i. 427. ii. 419
Lutipris, Vannic dynasty, ii. 71 note 3
Lycus River, see Kelkid
Lynch, Commodore H. B. , ii. 440
Macdonald, Sir John, British ambassador to Persia,
tomb at Edgmiatsin, i. 266.
Madatapa, Lake, district of Akhalkalaki, i. 87, 118
Madatapa ridge, i. 430
Madavantz, Armenian semi-troglodyte village near
Akhlat, ii. 293 ; the Church is said to have been
built by St. Thaddeus, ibid.
Maden Khan, settlement near Baiburt, ii. 232,
225 note, 240 note
Maden, hamlet near the Zigana Pass, ii. 242
Madrak, Kurdish village, Tekman district, ii. 248,
249 ; 373- 375. 380, 381
Magaspert, Arpa Chai, i. 442
Mahmud Bey, Kurdish chieftain, Bingol district,
Mahmudia, territory of, ii. 122
Makar, katholikos, i. 220, 236, 264 note 5
Malatia, town in Asia Minor, sacked by the Seljuk
Turks, i. 358
Malek .Shah, his relations with Ani, i. 365
Mamakanlu, Kurdish tribe said to be descended
from the Mamikonean family, ii. 421 note
Mamakhatiin, town in the district of Terjan, ii. 231
Mamlun, Arab governor of Azerbaijan, i. 355
Mangasar, village of, Alashkert, ii. 7
Manna, collected by the peasants, Bitlis district,
ii. 151
Manuchar, atabeg, i. 64
Manuchar, Beni-Cheddad family, i. 365, 370, 377
Manzara, village, plain of Akalkalaki, i. 105
Marco Polo, ii. 29
Margistan, village of, near Vardzia, i. 79
Markoff, Dr. K., his ascent of Ararat, i. 176. 199
Marmashen, ruins of the monastery of near Alex-
andropol, visited and described, i. 131, 132 ; 355
Marmed Chai, Lake Van, ii. 44
Marr, Mr. N., his exxavations at Ani, i. 377, 381
Mastikan Dagh, Taurus system, ii. 389
Matthew of Edessa, i. 352-366 /rti.f/w
Maunsell, Major F. R., ii. 45
Maximin II., Roman emperor, his relations with
Armenia, i. 300
Maximoff, M., Russian Consul at Erzerum, ii. 199
Mechinkert, tipper and Lower villages on the
Enghil Su, Lake Van, ii. 122
Meiriman, Valley of, Pontic regior^ii. 239-240, 382
Mekhitarists, Order of the, i. 291 note i, 314 note
Mejitli, Kurdish hamlet on the Upper Araxes, ii. 191
Melazkert (Manazkert), ancient town and fortress
on the Murad, visited and described, ii. 268-274,
275 note 2 ; and cp. i. 378. History, ii. 274-275,
58, 71 ; i. 34, 355, 358, 360, 364. Commimica-
tions, ii. 11, 8g, 264, 266, 277. Hamidiyeh there,
ii. 191, 276, 422. Its central position, ii. 434.
Its plain, ii. 268, 276, 277, 337, 401 ; elevation,
265 note. Plan, 271
Melikoff, Loris, Russian general of Armenian origin,
i. 126, 233, 399, 465
Menaskut, district of, Tauric Armenia, ii. 392
Menuas, Vannic king, ii. 60, 72-73, 392; no, 112,
120, 274, 27s, notes
Mergemir Dagh, see Khalias
Merghuk Su, head waters of the Kighi Su, ii. 375,
393
Merjan-Muzur Dagh, Tauric Armenia, 11. 386-388,
390. 392, 402 . .
Merujan, an Armenian bishop of 3rd century, i. 279
Merwanids, Kurdish dynasty, their rule at Akhlat,
ii. 295
Meschic or Moschic Mts., i. 40, 41, 47, 425, 433
Mesgeldek, village. Lake Van, ii. 123
Mesrop, inventor of the Armenian alphabet, i. 312
Messalianism, Armenian heresy, i. 284
Mezik, village of, near Lake Nazik, ii. 321
Michael IV., Paphlago, Byzantine emperor, his
claims on Ani, i. 361, 362
Midyat, hill ranges of, Mesopotamia, ii. 395
Migry, village, valley of Araxes, i. 434
Milan, Kurdish village, Tutakh district, ii. 15
Mingrelia, Georgian province, i. 42
Minni, The, ii. 61, 72, 74
Mirabet, village of, Lake Van, ii. 136
Missions, (i) The earliest missionary enterprise in
."Vrmenia appears to have been that of the Do-
minicans, ii. 485. (2) Jesuit Missions were estab-
lished in the 17th century, ii. 153, 472, and the
Roman Catholic Church is still active in Turkish
Armenia, 153, 170, 217, though it does not make
as much progress among the Armenians of the
tableland as among their countrymen elsewhere,
ii. 425. (3) Protestant Missions : — the Basle Mis-
sion, i. 98-102. The American Mission (Congre-
gational Church of America) has been established
in Asiatic Turkey from an early date in the 19th
century, ii. 93 ; its activities in Armenia are
practically confined to the Armenians (Gregorian
Christians), ibid. ; schools, hospitals and orphan-
ages have been opened, 94, 95, and the standard
of living has been raised both in the material and
the moral spheres, ibid. The Mission at Van,
ii. 93-95 ; at Bitlis, 153, 154 ; at Erzerum, 217 ;
at Kharput, 391. Activity of the missionaries in
the plain of Khinis, 256. They are viewed with
suspicion by the Russian Govt, and experience
difficulty in crossing Russian Armenia, i. 102
Mithros, Mount of (Boz Tepe), i. 9, 10, 17
Mohammed II., Ottoman sultan, takes Trebizond
and closes the Black .Sea to Europe and com-
merce, i. 22, 36 ; takes Erzerum, ii. 223
Mokri Gori (Wet Mountains), Northern Armenia,
i. 87 . .
Moldavia, emigration of Armenians to, 1. 367
Molokans, Russian sectaries settled in Northern
Armenia, their villages visited, i. 410-412 ; 456,457.
Molokans at Erivan, 209
Index
509
Monahan, Mr., Kritish Consul at Bitlis, ii. 304
Monteith, W., i. 66 note, 90, 232
Morier, J., i. 218, 232, 269 ; 210, 216, notes
Morkh, village of and stream, ii. 162
Moses of Khorene, national historian of the Ar-
menians, i. 278, 302, ii. 54, 222 ; i. 291 note
Moses, katholikos, i. 212, 264 note 5
Mosul, town on the Tigris, ii. 148, 396, 433
Mugni, monastery of near Ashtarak, i. 140, 141
Mukus, district of, ii. 135, 397
Miiller, Prof. D. H., ii. 56 note
Mi'iller-Simonis, Mr. P., ii. 80; 28, no, 121, 293,
notes
Murad, river, see Euphrates, Eastern
Murad, Mr. Serapion, i. 247
Murad Khan, station near Tekke, ii. 243
Muravieff, Russian general, i. 397
Murian, village on the banks of the Gopal Su, ii. 260
Mushegh, Bagratid king of Kars, i. 353, 395
Mush, town of, visited and described, ii. 166-173.
Pop. of the town, 172-173, of the sanjak, 413.
Hamidiyeh there, 173. Communications, 12,
160, 174, 396
Mush, plain of, ii. 161-167, 175-177, 181, 317-319,
355 ; length of the plain, 181 note ; the Armenian
inhabitants are in a large majority, 173, 424 ; 50,
19s note 2, 200, 308, 311, 393, 394, 401, 404
Muzur Su, affluent of Eastern Euphrates, ii. 390, 406
Nadir Shah, i. 211, 214, 267, 396
Nahapet, katholikos, i. 271
Nairi, ii. 58, 60
Nakhichevan, town on the Araxes, i. 342, 345,
346,. 357-
Nakhichevan, New, town of, i. 233 note 2
Nazik, village of, ii. 321-323
Nazik, Lake, visited and described, ii. 321-324 ;
45, 46, 284, 309, 333, 337 ; elevation, 323 ; an-
alysis of waters, 470
Nepat, Mt. , identified with the modern Ala Dagh
(Niphates), ii. 41. Tiridates and the Armenian
people receive baptism in its vicinity, i. 296
Nepiszkaro Dagh, i. 430
Nerses I., katholikos, surnamed The Great, i. 307-
309 ; 264 note 5, 275, 295 note i, 299, 305, 311
Nerses III., katholikos, surnamed The Builder, i.
264 note 5, 265, 265 note i, 272, 284
Nerses IV., katholikos, i. 26S
Nerses v., katholikos, i. 235, 245, 266, 273
Nerses of Lambron, i. 314 note
Nerses, patriarch of Constantinople, i. 241, ii. 410
note
Nestorianism, adopted by the Christian Church of
Persia, i. 313
Nestorians, name sometimes given to the Christians
inhabiting the recesses of Kurdistan. See dial-
dceans
Nice, Council of, i. 281, 282, 301, 312
Nicholas I. Emperor of Russia, i. 103 ; 125, 233
Nikephorus Phokas, Byzantine emperor, i. 353
Nikephorus, Byzantine governor of Vaspurakan, i.
360 note
Nimrud, gigantic extinct volcanic crater at the
south-westerly extremities of Lake Van, visited
and described, ii. 298-313 ; views of. Fig. 145, p.
142, and Figs. 185, 186, pp. 298, 302. Plans, 305,
312 ; 32, 45, 50, 51, 118, 122, 141, 181, 269, 337,
362, 388, 397, 4oi_
Norashen, Armenian village on the slopes of
Alagoz, i. 134
Norkeui, village on Lake Van, ii. 136
Norshen, Kurdish village on the plain of Mush, ii.
162, 318
Norshen, Pool of, ii. 45, 162, 163, 317, 31S
Norshunjik, village on the slopes of Sipan, ii. 330
Novo-Bayazet, town of, i. 453
Novo-Michaelovka, Molokan village, i. 411
Nurduz district, ii. 397
Of, village of, Lazistan district, i. 11
Okhan, village of, near Tutakh, ii. 13
Okhtchapert, grottoes of, Erivan district, i. 201 note
Olti, town of, i. 431, 432, 437, 453. ii. 203
Ordubad, town on the Araxes, i. 434, 453
Orlovka, Russian village and small lake, district of
Akhalkalaki, i. 106, 115
Ortukids, Turkish dynasty which adopted the
douWe-headed eagle as their emblem, ii. 211 and
note 3
Oswald, Herr A., his ascent of Ararat, i. 199 note
Ovajik, upland district north of Erzerum plain, ii. 406
Ozurgeti, capital of Guria, i. 43
Pahlavuni, family of, i. 381, 385
Pakharij, ancient township, province of Terjan,
i. 294
Palandoken (Saddle Shifter), peak of volcanic origin,
north of Erzerum, ii. 202 ; a.scent of, and elevation
ascertained, 381 ; a landmark, 337, 351, 372, 373,
^398
Palandoken Pass, ii. 202-203, 244-247
Palandoken-Eyerli Dagh volcanic system, ii. 38 1-
382 ; connection of the line of heights upon which
it is built up with the structural system of Asia,
386 ; the underlying limestones, 403
Palgrave, W. G. , ii. 370
Palu, town on the Murad, ii. 391. Rock chambers
and cuneiform inscription there, 392. Pop. , 391 ;
of the caza, 413, 416, 425
Palu Dagh, ii. 387
Pambak Mts., Northern Armenia, i. 434
Pambukh Dagh, Ararat system, ii. 385
Pap, Arsakid king of Armenia, i. 306-310
Pap, son of Yusik and great-grandson of .St.
Gregory, i. 303, 29^ note i, 306
Papken, katholikos, 1. 301, note i
Paris, Treaty of, ii. 204
Parkhal Mts., i. 430
Paropamisus Mts., their connection with the struc-
tural system of Asia, i. 423, 425
Parrot, F. , his ascent of Ararat, i. 199; 149, 157,
183 note, 184, 185, 198, 318 note
Pasin, Plain of, ii. 193-196; i. 146, 148, 414. ii. n,
200, 201, 387, 394, 398, 400, 401, 404. Connection
with some historical events, i. 358, 360, ii. 223
Paskevich, Marshal, i. 66, 89, 90, 100, 125, 129, 210,
233. 323-. 332, 395, 396, 397i 405> >'• 204, 250, 426
Patnotz, village and plain of, Sipan district, ii. 18,
20, 268, 269, 337, 422
Paul, Bishop of Samosata, i. 281, 282, 285
Paulicians, i. 282, 284. ii. 222
Pazu, hamlet near Surb Karapet, ii. i8o
Peri Su, Tauric Armenia, ii. 389
Perli Dagh, Ararat System, ii. 384, 385
Petander, General, vice-Governor of Kars, i. 400
Petros II., katholikos, i. 268
Petrovka, German settlement, Kars district, i. 410
Pharen, pseudo-katholikos, i. 299 note i
Phasis, river, see Rio7i
Philippos, katholikos, i. 262, 264 note 5, 269
Piran, village near Lake Gop, ii. 345
Pirnakapan, village near Ashkala, ii. 229
Pir Reshid Dagh, Lake Van, ii. 401
Platana, town on the Black Sea coast, i. 8
Poghos, Bishop of Lim, ii. 87
Poland, emigration of Armenians to, i. 367
Pontic Range, i. 423, 430, 431, 433
Poskhov Chai, tributary of the Kur, i. 57
Postukhoff, M., his ascent of Ararat, i. 175, 199
Pribil, iM. i. 24S, 249, 253, 255
Piiliimer, township of, Tauric Armenia, ii. 393
Pyxitis, river, see Deirjiten Dere
Radde, Dr. G. , i. no ; 56, 87, 89, 107, 135, 434, notes
Randuli, village of, Bingol district, ii. 182
Raouf Pasha, Vali of Erzerum, ii. 220
Raphalovich, his ascent of Ararat, i. 199
Rassam, Mr. Hormuzd, ii. 62, 63
Rava plateau, Nimrud district, ii. 316 note 2
Rawlinson, Sir H. C. , ii. 437 ; 67, 68, 70, notes
Reshid Pasha, Turkish general, ii. 149
Rewadi, see Beni-Chcddad
Reynolds, Dr., American missionary at Van, ii. 92
Rhiitor^, Pere, of Van, ii. 153
5IO
Armenia
Rion, river (Phasis), i. 2, 40-47, 433
Rion, Plain of the, i. 44, 48, 52, 448
Ritter, K., i. 33, 190, 264, 324, ii. 78; i. 187, 188,
318, 340. ii. 130, 149, 173, 178, 193, 231, 283, notes
Riza Bey, Kurdish chief at Melazkert, ii. 276, 278
Rizeh, port on the Black Sea, ii. 225, 382
Romanus, Byzantine emperor, i. 34, 361, 364
Romkia, in Cilicia, Council of, i. 314 note
Ross, Prof. E. Denison, ii. 286
Rovvanduz, town in Kurdistan, ii. 58
Rupenian dynasty (Cilicia), i. :;67 ; 268
Rusas I., Vannic king, ii. 60, 74
,, II., Vannic king, ii. 64, 75
,, III., Vannic king, ii. 64, 76
Rustav, posting station, i. 74
Rzewuski, Col., i. 400
Sach, village in the Giizel Dere near Bitlis, ii.
143 ; spring near, 45
Sachtleben, W. L., .see .-J/Zt-w, r. C. _
Safar, monastery of, Akhaltsykh district, visited
and described, i. 61-64, 73
Saffarids, The, petty Mussulman dynasty in Fars
and Seistan, i. 340
Safi, Shah, of Persia, takes Erivan, i. 211
Sahak the Great, see Isaac the Great
St. Jacob's Well, Mt. Ararat, i. 194, 19s
St. Jacob's monastery, i. 184
Saint Martin, J. A., ii. 54, 55 . .
Sajids, Mussulman family ruling in Azerbaijan
during the decline of the Caliphate, i. 352, see
A/shin, Yusuf
Sakulaperdi Dagh, Northern Armenia, i. 431, 432,
438, 441
Salt deposits, in Armenia, Persia and Turkey, i. 428
Salvarty Dagh, Karabagh border, i. 434
Samsar Dagh, Northern Armenia, i. 95, 434, see
Abul-Saiiisar
Samsar River, tributary ofToporovan River, i. 87
Samsun, town and bay of, i. 3, 4
Samuel of Ani, Armenian historian, i. 352-366, 370
note, 373, 3S2, 407 note
Sanatruic, son of Abgar, king of Edessa, i. 277 note
2, 278
Sanasar, son of Sennacherib, ii. 429, 430 note i
Sanasarean, Mr., ii. 96, 214
Sanislo Mts. , Northern Armenia, i. 433, 438, 443
San Stefano, Treaty of, ii. 205
Sapor Su, stream. Lake Van, ii. 45 note, 142
Sapunji, Kurdish hamlet, Alagoz district, i. 326
Sardarabad, town in the valley of the Araxes, i. 444
Sardar Bulakh, well and valley, Mt. Ararat, i. 160-
167, 180-182 ; 158, 19P
Sarduris I., Vannic king, ii. 59-60, 71 note 3, 72,
108
Sarduris II., Vannic king, ii. 61, 71 note 3, 73-74,
no note
Sarduris III., Vannic king, ii. 28, 76
Sargis, Armenian noble who supported the Emperor
Michael's claim to the Armenian kingdom of Ani,
i. 361, 362
Sarichichek Dagh, Asia Minor, ii. 386
Sarik, Kurdish hamlet. Lake Van, ii. 137
Sarikamish, Russian frontier station, Kars-Erzerum,
i. 401, 411, ii. 73, 199
Sasanian dynasty, their rise, i. 286-288 ; interven-
tion in Armenian affairs, 289, 293, 303-306 ; 302
note 2, 311, ii. 77
Sasun, district of, south of Mush, ii. 157, 158, 429-
432 ; massacre in, 157, 237, 431 ; a seat of the
Thonraki, i. 285
Sayce, Prof A. H., i. 197, ii. 56 note 4
Schulz, Y. E. ii. 55; 28, 108, 120 note
Sebeos, Armenian historian, i. 264 note 5
Seda, inscriptions at Ani, i. 382
Seghurt or Teghurt, village on Nimrud, ii. 299
Seidlitz, M. de, i. 448
Seif-ed-Daula, Hamdanid, i. 353
Selim I., Ottoman Sultan, his policy towards the
Kurds, ii. 421
Selim II., Ottoman Sultan, restorations at Akhlat,
ii. 288
Seljuk Turks, their early incursions and subsequent
supremacy in Armenia, i. 356-365 ; 34, 395, 454,
ii. 77, 223, 275, 295; 285
Sembat, Bagratid family, sparapet, i. 338, 339
Sembat I., Bagratid dynasty, i. 341-347
Sembat II., Bagratid dynasty, i. 354, 364, 370, 373 ;
323 note
Sembat, John, Bagratid dynasty. See John Sembat
Sembat, reputed founder of the Thonraki sect, i. 285
Sembat, Mamikonean, ii. 179
Semenoff, , his ascent of Ararat, i. 199
Semo-Karthli, Georgian province of, i. 62-64
Senekerim, King of Van, i. 257, 359, ii. 77-78; i.
356 note 4. His tomb in the monastery of Yedi
Kilisa (Van) desecrated, ii. 115, i. 237. See also
Artsrzini, The
Sepuh Mt. (Kohanam Dagh), i. 348 note
Serchemeh Chai, constituent of W. Euphrates, i.
431 ; confluence with the Kara Su, ii. 228
Serdica in Illyria, i. 300
Sert, town of, ii. 148, 396
Sevan, Lake (Lake of Gegham or Geghark ;
Lychnitis ; Gokcheh Deniz), ii. 43-44; 42; i.
445 ; 40, 147, 148, 152, 163, 181, 174, 196, 203,
205, 208, 248, 350, 449, 453, 462. Fluctuations in
level, ii. 48-51. Cuneiform inscriptions, 73, 74
Sevan, Island and monastery of, ii. 49, i. 350
Seymour, H. D. , his ascent of Ararat, i. 199
Shabin Karahisar, see Katahisar
Shagriar, village of, valley of the Ara.\es, i. 321
Shahapivan, Council of, i. 284
Shahanshah, title, i. 336 note, and proper name,
.^75, 376
Shahbagh, village, near Van, ii. 112
Shah Dagh, Lake Sevan, i. 433, 434
Shaitan Dagh, Kighi, ii. 389, 392
Shakhberat, village on the Slurad, ii. 346, 348 ;
mileage to Charbahur, 353 note
Shamiram Su or river of Semiramis (Van), ii. 60
and note 4. 73, 120 note, 122 and note 2
Shamyl, leader of the resistance to Russia on the
part of the mountaineers of Caucasus, ii. 6
Shapur I., Sasanian king of Persia, i. 289
Shapur II., i. 302 note 2, 305, 309, ii. 77
Sharian Su, tributary to the Murad, ii. 12
Shatakh, district of, ii. 61, 135, 397
Shatin Dagh, name given to the more westerly
portion of the Ararat system. See Aghri Dagh
Shebu, village of, Sipan district, ii. 342
Sheikh Alan, village of, Mush plain, ii. 175
Sheikhjik Dagh, Shushar-Kighi district, ii. 251,
374> 375
Sheikhjik Dagh, northern border heights^ of
Erzerum, ii. 203, 227, 245
Sheikh Ora, broken-down crater on the southern
shore of Lake Van, ii. 48, 52, 301
Sheikh Yakub, village near Gop, ii. 343, 344
Shekan, hamlet on the Aras, ii. 379
Shemakha, town of, i. 449
Shemzinar, district of, ii. 89
Sherefeddin Su, afiluent to the Bingol Su (Charlia-
hur), ii. 360
Sherif Bey, last native ruling prince at Bitlis, ii.
149 ; taken prisoner by Reshid Pasha, ibid.
Shiel, J., ii. 121, 151, 404, notes
Shirak, district of, i. 124 note 2, 337, 341, 343, 345,
356, 360, 361, 442 note I, 459
Shirvan, district of, i. 233 note 2
Shishmanean, Mgr., Bishop of Erzerum, ii. 213
Shishtapa, elevation of, i. 430, 434
Shishtapas, The. Turkish and Armenian villages on
the Arpa Chai, i. 1 18-122, 439
Shuragel, i. 124 and note 2
.Shusha, capital of Karabagh, i. 449. The Basle
Mission there, 98-101
Shushan, mother of Vahram Pahlavuni, i. 382
Shushantz, village and monastery. Lake Van, ii. 113
Shushar, district of, ii. 252, 380, 398
Sieger, Dr. R. , ii. 47 note, 48
Sikava, village on the plain of Mush, ii. 183, 353
Simon, Saint, the apostle, i. 277
Sipan Dagh, extinct volcano on the northern shore
Index
511
of Lake Van ; ascent of, ii. 330-339 '. elevation
ascertained, 336, 339. View of the mountain
from tlie plain on the north, ii. 18, 19 (Fig. 116) ;
from the neighbourhood of Van, 53 (Fig. 123);
from Artemid, ii.. Frontispiece. A landmark, i.
420, ii. 13, i5i 3i> 181, 252, 269, 300, 321, 351, 372.
Limited extension of lava flows, 278, 403 ; 38.
Possible connection with the other great vol-
canoes, 388. Plan of summit region, 336
Sipikor Dagh, ii. 386
Sir-er-syrchaly Dagh, i. 434
Sis, capital of Cilicia, i. 264 note 5 ; 240, 276
Siunik, ancient province of, i. 279, 373 note 2 ; 342
Sivoloboflf, , his ascent of Ararat, i. 199
Smith, Eli, i. 70, 98, loi, 434, ii. 206, notes
Soghanlu Dagh, volcanic system, i. 394, 431, 432,
438, 441, 442. Forest there, i. 125, ii. 405
Somkethian Mts., i. 95, 433
Spasky-AvtonomoflF, K., his ascent of Ararat, 1. 199
Strzj-gowski, J., i. 33, 250, 254, 266, notes
Stuart, R., his ascent of Ararat,_ i. 199
Subotan, village of, near Kars, i. 331
Suflis, town on the Akhaltsykh Chai, i. 57
Suleyman L, Ottoman Sultan, ii. 78; founder of
the kala of Akhlat, 288, 296
Suleyman Pasha, ii. 353, 356, 357
Siiliik Lake, Vardzia district, i. 79
Sumelas, Greek monastery near Jevizlik, ii._ 239 ;
i. 30 ; mileage and intermediate stages to Baiburt,
ii. 240 and note
Suram, Pass of, i. 40, 42
Surb, \'illage and bay, on Lake Van, ii. _i4i_, 279, 301
Surb Astvatsatsin, monastery near Bitlis, ii. 154
Surb Daniel, monastery near Lake Bulania, ii. 345
Surb Geghard, monastery, Erivan district, i. 201,
388
Surb Karapet (Glak Vank, Lmaknean Vank, Chan-
galli), monastery above Mush plain, visited and
described, ii. 176-180; i. 241, 358, ii. 12. Dis-
tances from Mush and Erzerum, ii. 174. Com-
munications with Palu, 392
Surb Karapet, monastery on the Upper Murad near
Diadin, i. 296 note 2 ; 272
Surb Khach, monastery near Van, ii. 113
Surb Lusavorich, monastery, Erzinjan district, i.
348 note
Surb Takob (Gubudgokh), monastery above Lake
Van, ii. 137
Surmeneh, village, Lazistan district, i. 1 1.
Tabizkhuro, Lake, i. 87 note, 95
Tabriz, capital of Azerbaijan, a diocese of the Ar-
menian Church, i. 233 note 2, 231. Tabriz-Trebi-
zond trade route, i. 32, ii. 8, 205, 440. Marble of
Tabriz, i. 262. Elevation, i. 440
Tadvan, village of, Lake Van, ii. 314-316 ; 142, 160,
402
Taginaura Dagh, Northern Armenia, 1. 430
Tahirids, The, petty dynasty in Khorasan, i. 340
Takht-i-Suleyman (Solomon's throne), quarter of
Akhlat, q.v., ii. 284
Takjaltu Dagh, Ararat system, i. 317, 319, 327, 415,
"■ 385
Takjaltu, hill forming part of the Ararat fabric, i.
151, 158, 159, 161
Talin, village on the slopes of Alagoz, 1. 322-325.
Ruins in the vicinity, 324. Site of Bagaran?
ibid.
Talori or Talvorik, village in Sasun, ii. 158
Talysh, Armenian village, Alagoz district, i. 320,
324
Tana, river, tributary of the Kur, i. 269
Tandurek Dagh, see Tendurck Dagh
TapaDolak, village in plain of Alexandropol, i. 133
Tarasoff, Col., Governor of Akhalkalaki, i. 90, 96,
106
Tarnaieff, leader of a storming party before Erzerum
(1877), i. 465 . . . „ . ,
Taron, ancient Armenian province in 1 auric Ar-
menia embracing the territory of the modern
Mush, i. 295, 306, 338, 343, 348, ii. 173 ; i. 241
Tartars, The, i. 448, 454, 455 ; their numbers in
Armenia, 451. Visited, i. 57, 193, 202, 203, 316,
319, 325, 326; at Erivan, 209, 211, 213, 214, 222-
225. Sack of Ani by the Tartars under Jenghiz
Khan, i. 366
Taurus Mts., their connection with the structural
system of Asia, i. 423, 424, ii. 419, 387-407
Tashkesen, village of, Tekman, ii. 249
Tavernier, J. B., i. 211, 256, 262, 367, ii. 149, notes
Tawkoteli Dagh, Abul-Samsar .system, i. 433, 438,
441 ... ...
Taylor, Consul J. G., i. 459, ii. i4> 79; i- 40<^i "•
390, 416, 421, notes
Tazaken, village of. Northern Armenia, i. 119
Teghtap Su, tributary of Bingiil Su (Khini.s), ii. 256
Teghurt or Seghurt, village on Nimrud, ii. 299
Tekke, village near Gumiishkhaneh, ii. 243
Tekman, district of, ii. 247-251 ; 190-193, 200, 202, 398
Tekman Dagh, see Akh Dagh
Telfer, Commander J. B. , i. 107, 201, 264, 268, 388,
notes
Temran, village of, ii. 392
Tendurek Dagh, solfatara, Bayazid district, ii. 401 ;
385, 388
TergukasoflT, General, 1. 465 and note
Terjan, district of, ii. 376, 386, 416; i. 294, 348
Ter-Mikelean, Dr. A., i. 256, 271, 273; 277, 291,
301, 313, 314, notes
Ter-Mosesean, Dr. Mesrop, librarian at Edgmiatsin,
i. 249, 250
Texier, C. , i. 23, 33, ii. 210 ; i. 368, 390, ii. 212, notes
Thaddeus, Saint, said to have been sent by Christ
to King Abgar of Edessa, and intimately associ-
ated with the earliest Christianity in Armenia,
i. 277-299 ; 239, ii. 293. His relics preserved at
Edgmiatsin, i. 269
Thamar, queen of Georgia, i. 338, 366 ; 55, 80, 83
Thekla, Saint, i. 264
Theodosius L, Roman emperor, i. 293
Theodosius IL, Roman emperor, ii. 221
Thonraki (Thonraketzi), Armenian heretics, i. 285
Tian-shan Mts., Central Asia, their connection with
the structural system of Asia, i. 424, 426
Tiflis, capital of Georgia, Armenian convent there,
i. 253. Pop., 449. Glances at the history of, 337,
343, 365. Communications with Armenia, 39-40,
73 (Borjom gorge), 89, 133, 226, 433, 437
Tiflis, Govt, of, its pop., i. 447, 449, 451. German
colonies there, 97 and cp. 410
Tigranes, Arsakid king of Armenia introduces
Jews into Armenia, i. 299 note 3, 305, ii. 77
Tigranocerta, disputed site of, 319 note 2
Tigris River, accounts of by Strabo and Plinj;, ii.
40-42. Course between Diarbekr and Jezireh-
ibn-Omar, 395, 396
Tikma, Little, village of German colonists, Kars
district, i. 409, 410
Til, statue of Nanea at, destroyed by St. Gregory,
i. 294
Timur, or Tamerlan, reputed to have captured
Kars, i. 396, and Van, ii. 76, 78. His wassail on
the Bingiil Dagh, ii. 365. His method of warfare
against the Georgians, i. 81
Tiran, Arsakid king of Armenia, i. 303-304
Tirdat, Armenian architect, restores S. Sophia at
Constantinople, i. 373 note 4
Tiridates, Arsakid king of Armenia, restored by the
Romans, founder of Christianity in Armenia as
a State religion, i. 2S9-301 ; 264
Tirkavank, village of, Mush plain, ii. 166
Titgir, village of, F^rzerum district, ii. 209 note i
Toghrul, Seljuk sultan, i. 357, 358, 363
Toghrul Ben Kilijarslan, ii. 223
Top Dagh, fortified hill near Erzerum, ii. 201
Toporovan, Lake, Northern Armenia, i, 87, 95
Toporovan River. See Akhalkalaki River
Toprak Kala, low limestone hills north of Van, ii.
62 ; excavations there in 1879 and 1880, and again
in 1898, 63. Site of the City of Rusas or New
Van, 64. The site visited, 113 ; 80
Tortan, Erzinjan district, temple at destroyed by
St. Gregory, i. 294 ; 348 note
Tortum, Lake and district of, i. 456, ii. 417, 433
51
Armenia
Tournefort, P. de, i. 33, 182, 185 ; 183, 256, 31S, ii.
205, notes
Tozer, Rev. H. F., i. 33; ii. 283, 327, 392, notes
Trebizond (Trapezius), ancient Greek city and
flourishing town on the Black Sea, visited and
described, i. 7-36. Glance at the history of the
Grand-Comneni or emperors of Trebizond, 34-36.
Pop., 32 note. Trade, 32, and cp. under Tabriz.
Tabriz-Trebizond trade route, 361, 378, 431, ii.
236, 272-273. Armenian inhabitants, 427. Plans,
i3> 30
Trialethian ISIts., i. 87, 89, 433, 434, 438, 442, 443
Tripoli, town on Black Sea coast, i. 18
Troitskoy, Russian village on Lake IMadatapa, i. iiS
Tsaghkotz (Alaja Chai), Ani, i. 368, 377, 379 note
Tsaghkotzadzor, Valley of the Flower-garden, Ani,
i. 368, 381, 382 ; 355
Tsinis, village of, near Akhaltsykh, i. 73
Tuman, Lake, i. 87
Tunus, quarter of Akhlat, ii. 284
Turkomanchai, Treaty of, i. 125. Exodus of
Armenian population from the frontier districts of
Persia as a result of, i. 454, ii. 206 ; i. 233
Tutakh, town on the Murad, ii. 14, 266. Mileage
to Melazkert, 264 note. Do. to Karakilisa and
Akantz, 12
Uch Kilisa, see Edgiiiiatsin and Surb Karapct
(Diadin)
Uran Gazi, Circassian settlement on the slopes of
Sipan, ii. 330-331, 340-341. Mileage to Gop, 341
note
Urardhu or Urarthu, name by which the country
of the Vannic kings was known to their Assyrian
contemporaries, ii. 57. Tendency of the term to
travel north, i. 197. The Ararat of Scripture,
ibid. Urardhians = Alarodians of Herodotus, ii.
67
Uravel River, tributary to the Kur, 1. 73
Urmi Lake, Azerbaijan, ii. 40, 42-43 ; fluctuations
in level, 48, 49, 52 ; analysis of water, 469. How
known in the Assyrian inscriptions, 58. Elevation
and area, 43
Urut, village of, Northern Armenia, i. 443
Ussher, J., i. 405, ii. 121, 134, notes
Vagharshapat, afterwards Edgmiatsin, royal resi-
dence during Arsakid period, i. 257-262 ; 286-314.
Sacked by Shapur, 305, 264 note 5, 266, 272, 382.
Site near the present monastery, 242
Vagharshapat River, see Kasag/i River
Vagharshapat, Synod of, i. 313 and note
Vahan Mamikonean, i. 264 note 5, 265
Vahan Kamsarakan, tomb at Surb Karapet, ii. 179
Vahan the Wolf, tomb at Surb Karapet, ii. 179
Vahram, Pahlavuni, i. 361, 362, 382. Builds
monastery of Marmashen, 132, 355. Builds at
Ani, 382
Van (Dhuspas, Turuspa, Buana, Iban), fortress and
town of gardens on the eastern shore of Lake
Van, visited and described, ii. 36, 37, 38, 39, 53,
76-113. Pop., 79; of the Govt, excluding
Hakkiari, 412, 424. History, 54-76, 77, 78, 116,
117, and see I'aspurakan. Communications, 11,
89, 397 note I. Education, see under Education.
Plan, 81, view of, 53
Van, Lake (Thospitis, Arsene, Arethusa, Areesa or
Arsissa), ii. 39-53. Fluctuations in level, 47-53.
Analyses of water, 46S. How known in the
Assyrian inscriptions, 58. Elevation, 43, 354.
Area, 39. Character of the scenery about its
.shores, 31-36, 116, 279, 281, 282, 300, 323, 327, 338
Vanand, Province (Kars), i. 396
Vanik Cape, Lake Van, ii. 141
Varag, Mt., ii. 36, 38, 39, 64, iii, 113 (Fig. 135),
282, 401. Cloister on, .see \'edi Kiiisa
Vardzia, troglodyte city of remote antiquity, i. 80,
believed to have been the favourite residence of
Queen Thamar of Georgia, visited and described,
i. 80-84
Varzahan, ancient Armenian village in the plain of
the Chorokh, ii. 233, with ruins of three fine
buildings, ibid.
Vaspurakan, ancient Armenian province of which
Van was the capital. The seat of the Artsruni
dynasty during the Middle Ages, i. 337-364, ii.
117 note I
Vavuk INIt. and Pass, i. 430, ii. 234, 235, 240, 243, 402
Verthanes, katholikos, eldest son of St. Gregory,
i. 303
Vladikars, colony of Russian sectaries, Molokans,
near Kars, i. 410
Vostan, district of gardens about the spurs of Mt.
Ardos, Lake Van, ii. 123-126 ; i. 357
Wagner, Dr. M., i. 184, 187, ii)8, 193; ii. 44, 121,
203, 209, notes
Wilbraham, R., i. 210, 235, 367, 406, notes
Williams, General F. , of Kars, i. 393, 397-399
Wiinsch, Prof., ii. 53 note
Xenophon, opposed by a body of ChaldEean
( = Khaldian) mercenaries at the passage of the
Bohtan branch of the Tigris, ii. 69. His interest-
ing account in the Cyropeedeia of the contem-
porary relations of the Armenians with the rem-
nant of the Khaldians, 6S-70. Site of his camp
near Trebizond, i. 31. Extent of his feat, 285
Xer.xes, trilingual tablet of at Van, ii. 66, 106 ; 55
Varalmish, Circassian village near Melazkert, ii. 277
Vedi Kilisa (Varag), monastery on the slopes of
Mt. Varag, ii. 113-115 ; i. 237, 240, 359
Yeni Keui, village of, plain of Khinis, ii. 256
Yezdegerd IL of Persia, persecutes the Armenians,
_i-.3i2
Vezidis, so-called devil-worshippers, ii. 187, 430
Yungali, village of, Bulanik, ii. 346
Yusik, grandson of St. Gregory and katholikos in
the reign of Tiran, i. 303, 304
Yusuf, governor of Azerbaijan, i. 343-352
Vusuf Bey, chief of the Sipkanli at Koshk, Ii. 16, 17
Yusuf Pasha, chief of all Sipkanli Kurds, ii. 268
Zab the Great (Stranga), i. 277 note 2, 279 note 3,
ii. 69, 148, 388, 395, 397
Zado, hamlet near Tutakh, ii. 12
Zagros Range, i. 423, ii. 385, 397 note 2, 419
Zakare or Zakarea, name of certain Georgian rulers
of Ani, i. 370 note 3, 375, 376, 377, 388
Zalka Plateau, Northern Armenia, i. 433
Zanga River (Hrazdan), tributary to the Araxes, i.
208, 211, 212, 215, 216, 229, 357, ii. 44, 49
Zaremba, missionary from Basle, i. 98-100
Zaza, language of the Kizilbashes, ii. 393
Zeda Tmogvi, ruined fortress near Vardzia, i. 80
Zeidikan, Alashkert, village and pass of, ii. 266
Zeitun, moimtainous district in Asia Minor in-
habited by Armenians, ii. 427_
Zemzem Dagh, hills near Van, ii. in
Zenobius of Glak, Armenian writer, ii. 178
Zernak (Kala-i-Zerin, Zernishan), Ruins of an
ancient city near Akantz, ii. 25 and note 2
Ziaret, village of. Mush plain, ii. 176
Zigag, village and Promontory, Lake Van, ii. 279,
.284
Zigana Dagh, 11. 241
Zigana Pass, ii. 236, 242
Zigana, villages, ii. 242
Zikar Pass {Zikarski Pcrival),]. 51, 55, 430, 437
Zirket, village of. Mush plain, ii. 164
Zirnek Dagh, Khamur heights, ii. 258, 347, 403
Zoe, Byzantine empress, i. 373
Zokhj town in Kurdistan, ii. 396, 430 note i
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