UC-NRLF
B 3 135 MD1
STUDENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY
\ND KELLER.
REESE LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA,
EXPERIMENTS
ARRANGED FOR
STUDENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY
EDGAR F. SMITH, AND HARRY F. KELLER,
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, CENTRAL HIGH
PENNSYLVANIA. SCHOOL OF PHILADELPHIA.
THIRD EDITION, ENLARGED, WITH 41 ILLUSTRATIONS.
UNIVERSITY
PHILADELPHIA:
P. BLAKISTON, SON & CO
IOI2 WALNUT STREET.
1895.
COPYRIGHT, 1895, BY P. BLAKISTON, SON & Co.
PRESS OF WM. F. FELL & CO.,
1320-24 SANSOM ST.,
PHILADELPHIA.
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
This little work is designed as a guide for beginners in
chemistry. The authors have found the course of instruction
as arranged in the following pages productive of good ; its
object is not to dispense with the supervision of an instructor,
but rather to assist him.
The present edition differs fron* its predecessors in the fol-
lowing points : many new experiments and new illustrations
have been introduced, while not a few of the experiments
described in former editions have been modified in accord-
ance with the experience obtained in the daily use of the
book with large classes. The text, too, has been subjected to
careful revision.
Although reference is frequently made to Richter's "In-
organic Chemistry," fourth edition, any other text-book on
the subject can be employed in its stead. The experiments
have been collected from various sources, and no claim is
made for originality.
€:V°ERSITY)
CF "x
in
CONTENTS.
NON-METALS.
CHAPTER PAGE
I. APPARATUS, MANIPULATIONS AND OPERATIONS, 9-10
II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES, 11-12
III. HYDROGEN, 13-17
IV. CHLORINE, BROMINE, IODINE, FLUORINE, 17-25
V. OXYGEN, SULPHUR, 25-35
VI. NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS, ARSENIC, ANTIMONY, 36-45
VII. CARBON AND SILICON, BORON, 46-50
METALS.
VIII. POTASSIUM, SODIUM [AMMONIUM], 51-58
IX. CALCIUM, STRONTIUM, BARIUM, 58-60
X. MAGNESIUM, ZINC, 60-63
XI. MERCURY, COPPER, SILVER, GOLD, 63-69
XII. ALUMINIUM, TIN, LEAD, BISMUTH, 69-73
XIII. CHROMIUM, MANGANESE, IRON, NICKEL, COBALT, . . . .74-83
XIV. PLATINUM, 83-84
APPENDIX, 85-86
NON-METALS.
FIG. i.
CHAPTER I.
APPARATUS, MANIPULATIONS AND OPERATIONS.
(1) The Bunsen Burner and the Blowpipe.
i. Make a borax bead. 2. Dissolve a very minute quantity
of manganese dioxide in it. 3. Heat in the oxidizing flame (?).
4. In the reducing flame (?). 5. Heat oxide of lead on
charcoal in the reducing flame. 6. In the oxidizing flame.
(2) Working with Glass Tubing and Rods.
i . Cut various lengths of rods and tubing.
2. Round the sharp edges by softening and
turning the ends in the lamp.
(3) Construct a Wash bottle (Fig. i).
i. Soften a sound cork by rolling it
under your foot on a clean floor. 2. Bore
two parallel holes through it by means of
a cork-borer. These perforations should be
cylindrical and of less diameter than the
glass tubes they are to receive. Use a rat-
tail file in enlarging them. 3. Cut suitable
lengths of glass tubing. 4. Draw the longer one to a fine
point after softening in the flame. 5. Bend the tubes in an
ordinary fish-tail burner, and round the sharp edges. 6. Fit
the different pieces together.
(4) Arrange some other form of apparatus for practice.
(5) The Balance.
9
10 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
i. Weigh an object by placing it on the left-hand pan of
the balance, and a weight judged about equal on the right-
hand pan. Should the latter be found too heavy, replace it
by the next smaller one ; if too light, by the next heavier
one. Then add systematically the smaller weights, until the
needle points to the middle of the scale. The final adjust-
ment is made with the rider. In adding or removing weights,
the supports must always be raised.
(6) Measuring Vessels.
i. Measure off 10 cc. of water (a) in a cylinder, (£) in a
burette, (V) in a pipette. Always read the lower meniscus.
2. Measure off similarly 50, 100 and 200 cc. of water, and
determine their weight. 3. Measure the volume of 50 grams
of oil of vitriol, and of 65 grams of muriatic acid. What are
the specific gravities of these substances ? Note the relation
between weight and volume in the metric system.
(7) Chemical Operations. — Solution, evaporation, crystalli-
zation, precipitation, filtration, washing, and drying.
i. Place into a test-tube pure sodium carbonate, into an-
other cobalt chloride, and add distilled water to each. Stir.
What occurs? 2. To calcium carbonate, add water. Is there
any change? Now add a little hydrochloric acid. What
action has it? 3. Pour five cc. of strong hydrochloric acid
upon powdered manganese dioxide ; observe appearance and
odor. Note, too, in each case, whether heat has any effect.
Distinguish between chemical and mechanical solution. 4.
Heat the cobalt chloride and the calcium carbonate solutions,
each in a separate dish, on an iron plate, until the liquids are
completely driven off (?). 5. Dissolve potassium chlorate in
hot water, and allow to stand and cool (?). 6. To a portion
of the cobalt chloride solution, add a solution of soda ; boil.
7. Allow to settle and filter. 8. Wash the precipitate until
pure water runs through the filter (?). 9. Heat the filter until
perfectly dry.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. II
UNIVERSITY
CHAPTER II":
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
(i) Changes in Matter.
i. Rub a glass rod with a piece of cloth, then touch parti-
cles of paper with it (?). 2. Through an insulated spiral of
stout copper wire pass a current from two Bunsen cells. Place
a piece of wrought iron — a nail will answer — inside the spiral,
and bring iron filings in contact with it. What happens?
Interrupt the current and note the result; repeat. 3. Heat
a platinum wire in the non-luminous flame ; is there any
change ? What is the effect of removing it ?
Are the original properties of the substances in the above
experiments altered, after the action of the forces of electric-
ity, magnetism and heat has been stopped ?
4. Mix intimately four parts, by weight, of finely powdered
sulphifr with seven parts of very finely divided iron (filings).
Pass a magnet over a portion of the mixture. Another portion
treat with carbon disulphide in a test-tube. Then heat the
remaining portion in a tube over a gas-flame.
Note carefully what occurs in each case. Powder F*G.
the mass resulting from the last operation in a dry
mortar. Can you extract from it any iron with a
magnet, or dissolve out any sulphur with carbon
disulphide? What inference do you draw from
the facts observed ? 5. Decompose water in Hof-
mann's apparatus by an electric current. The
water should be acidulated with sulphuric acid to
make it a conductor of electricity. A current from four to
six Bunsen cells is required. To the gas, of which a larger
volume has collected, apply a flame, and to the other a glow-
ing spark at the end of a chip of wood (?) 6. Heat oxide of
12 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
mercury in a tube of hard glass (Fig. 2.)(?) 7. Grind sul-
phur and mercury together in a mortar (?) 8. Heat sugar in
a dry test-tube, at first gently, and then more strongly. Note
color and odor. 9. Mix dry soda and ta.rtaric acid in a mor-
tar. Is there any action ? What occurs when you add water ?
Point out in what respect the changes involved in experiments
1-3 differ essentially from those in 4-9. By what general'
names can you distinguish the two different kinds? With
which does chemistry concern itself? Define chemistry.
Through what agencies have the results been obtained in
experiments 4-9 ? Has any gain or loss of matter occurred
in any of them ?
(2) The products resulting from 5 and 6 cannot be further
simplified, i. e., decomposed into dissimilar substances. They
are elements.* What are water and red oxide of mercury?
i. Dissolve in a little warm nitric acid, the black substance
obtained by heating an intimate mixture of powdered sulphur
and finely divided copper.
Evaporate the solution nearly to drynesy, take
up in water and filter. What remains on the filter ?
Place the filtrate in a beaker, dip the platinum
electrodes of a battery (one or two Bunsen cells)
into it (Fig. 3), and allow the current to act for
10 minutes. What do you observe upon the
platinum foil, forming the negative pole ? What
changes have the copper and the sulphur undergone in this
experiment ?
(Study pp. 18-26, in Richter's Chemistry.)
(3) Metals and Non-metals. — (See Richter, p. 20.)
* The instructor should here develop the idea of element more fully.
FIG.
HYDROGEN.
CHAPTER III.
HYDROGEN.— H.
(1) Put several pieces of granulated zinc into a test-tube
and pour dilute hydrochloric acid upon them. What occurs?
(2) Arrange the apparatus shown
in Fig. 4. The flask should contain
about 15 grams of zinc, and dilute
sulphuric acid is poured through the
funnel tube. When all the air in the
apparatus has been displaced (ask for
precautions ! ) collect six large test-
tubes full of the gas over water.
(3) What are its properties ? Will it burn? Support com-
bustion ? Is it lighter than air ?
Invert a test-tube containing one-third of its volume of
water in a dish of water, and displace the water in the tube
by hydrogen. What happens when the resulting mixture of
air and hydrogen is brought in contact with a flame ?
(4) Connect the stout copper wires of a Bunsen battery
(three or four cells) with a loop of thin platinum wire.
Introduce the incandescent wire into an inverted beaker
containing hydrogen. What takes place ?
(5) Over a small flame of burning hydrogen place a rather
wide glass tube. Slowly lower the tube until a musical sound
is heard. Explain this phenomenon.
(6) i. To learn what becomes of hydrogen when it burns
in air, arrange apparatus as in Fig. 5. The gas is led from
the evolution flask A, into a bottle containing concentrated
sulphuric acid, and then passes through a tube filled with
pieces of calcium chloride. The gas which escapes is free
from moisture. Burn it under a cold glass jar. What do you
14 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
obtain ? 2. Fill a small flask with a mixture of one vol. of
hydrogen and five vols. of air ; cork ; invert the flask several
times to mix the gases ; wrap
a towel around it and bring
its mouth to a flame. Re-
0 ) suit?
(7) Hydrogen is not the
only Product of the action of
Sulphuric Acid upon Zinc.
Pour some of the liquid
remaining in the flask, in
which hydrogen was generated, into a porcelain dish. Evap-
orate to about one-third of the original bulk ; allow to stand
several hours. You will now discover that the solution is
full of colorless crystals. These are zinc sulphate or white
vitriol — a salt, ZnSO4 -|-~7H2O. Write the equation of the
reaction.
(8) Determine the Weight of Hydrogen generated by a given
Weight of Zinc.
A piece of zinc (not more than .02 gram) is accurately
weighed, and placed under a funnel in a beaker
(Fig. 6). The latter is then nearly filled with
water, so that the entire funnel is under the
surface. A test-tube containing dilute sulphuric
acid is lowered over the stem of the funnel.
Hydrogen appears and collects in the tube.
When all the zinc has disappeared,* transfer
the tube containing the hydrogen to a larger
vessel, holding water. Measure the volume of
the gas by marking the tube where the inner and outer levels
of water are even, and then weighing or measuring the
* This may be hastened by bringing a spiral of platinum wire in contact
with the zinc.
\trNJVERSITY
HYDROGEN. 15
quantity of water that it will hold to that mark. Note the
temperature of the water, and the height of the barometer.
The weight of the hydrogen is found by multiplying the
volume by the weight of one cc., i.e., .0000896 gram. Before
this can be done, however, it is necessary to reduce the volume
of the gas to o° C. and 760 mm., as the above value has been
determined under these conditions. If v = volume observed,
t = temperature, and p = pressure, then
= VXP
(I + at) X 760
and W = v0 X .0000896. a = .003665.*
To calculate the quantity of zinc necessary to generate a
unit of hydrogen, we say —
FIG. 7.
Wt of H : Wt of Zn : : i : x.
x here stands for the equivalent weight
of zinc.
The equivalent weights of some other
metals, such as iron, cadmium and mag-
nesium, can be determined in the same
manner. Magnesium gives the most satisfactory results.
(9) Decompose water by electrolysis and test the products.
(10) Wrap a small piece of sodium in paper and place it,
with forceps, under the mouth of a test-tube filled with water,
and inverted in water (Fig. 7) contained in a dish. Repeat
this until the test-tube is filled with the gas. Test it for
hydrogen.
What becomes of the metal ? Write the reaction,
(n) Construct the apparatus shown in Fig. 8.
Water is heated to boiling in the flask A, and the steam
led over iron filings or wire, heated to redness in an iron tube.
* Tension of aqueous vapor is here neglected.
i6
EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Collect the escaping gas over water. Test it for hydrogen
Note its odor (?).
Is the iron changed ? Equation ?
(12) Into a tube of hard glass (six to eight inches in length)
FIG. 8.
place a weighed quantity (one to two grams) of cupric oxide
contained in a boat j connect the tube with a calcium-chloride
tube of known weight (Fig. 9). Pass a current of hydrogen,
dried by passing through concentrated sulphuric acid or cal-
FIG. 9.
cium chloride, over the oxide of copper. When the air is
completely expelled (?) apply a gentle heat to the part of the
tube containing the oxide. Observe the glowing of the
mass. When the change is complete, cool and determine
FIRST NATURAL GROUP OF ELEMENTS — CHLORINE. 17
the loss in weight of the boat, and the gain in the calcium
chloride tube. Explain the reaction.
Problems. — i. How much hydrogen can be obtained from
zinc and 299 grams of sulphuric acid? 2. How much zinc
and sulphuric acid are necessary to furnish 100 grams of hydro-
gen ? 3. Suppose you have found that .015 gram of magnes-
ium yields 15.2 cc. of hydrogen at 20° C. and 750 mm., what
is the equivalent weight of that metal ? 4. How many cc.
of hydrogen can be obtained from two grams of sodium and
water ? 5 . How many grams of water can be decomposed by
5 grams of iron ; by how much is the weight of the latter
increased? 6. 10 grams of cupric oxide will yield how much
copper upon heating in hydrogen ?
Give a brief summary of what you have learned about hydro-
gen?
(Study Richter, pp. 39-47-)
CHAPTER IV.
FIRST NATURAL GROUP OF ELEMENTS— CHLORINE,
BROMINE, IODINE, FLUORINE.
CHLORINE.— Cl.
(1) Into a test-tube put manganese dioxide and concen-
trated hydrochloric acid. Note what happens both before
and after heating.
(2) Use apparatus (shown in Fig. 10) for preparing larger
quantities of chlorine. The manganese dioxide should be in
the form of small lumps (not powder). Heat the mixture gently,
pass the chlorine through a small quantity of water and collect
it either by downward displacement or over warm water.
3
UNT VR-RRTT-V*
i8
EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
FIG. 10.
Write the reaction. How many atoms of chlorine are lib-
erated ? How many molecules ?
(3) i. What is the normal condition of
this element? 2. Is it lighter than air?
3. Is it inflammable? 4. Does it support
combustion ?
To obtain answers to these questions,
fill a number of test-tubes with dry chlo-
rine, and proceed as under hydrogen.
(4) Collect five large test-tubes full of
the dry gas, and cover them with watch
glasses.
Into i throw a little pulverized antimony.
Into 2 carefully introduce a piece of phosphorus.
Into 3 insert tissue paper moistened with oil of turpen-
tine.*
Into 4 introduce colored flowers.
Into 5 pour a little litmus solution.
What are the results?
(5) Fill a test-tube with chlorine, and a second one of the
same size with hydrogen. Bring the tubes together, mouth
to mouth, and mix the gases by repeated inverting. Apply a
flame to the open mouth of each tube (?).
(6) Invert a bottle filled with chlorine over water saturated
with the same gas. What follows in the course of a few hours'
exposure to sunlight? Can you account for results in experi-
ments (4), (5), and (6)? Why should the gas be collected
over warm water ?
(7) Determine the Weight of a Litre of Chlorine. — Arrange
apparatus as shown in Fig. n.
In the evolution- flask place a mixture of equal weights of
* It is well, when the turpentine is old, to gently warm it, and then
saturate the tissue paper.
FIRST NATURAL GROUP OF ELEMENTS — CHLORINE. 19
salt and manganese dioxide. Add sulphuric acid, previously
diluted with its own volume of water
(pour the acid into the water ! ). Heat
gently. Chlorine is evolved, and dried
by passing through concentrated sul-
phuric acid, after which it is led into
the perfectly dry flask £.*' When this is
filled, which you ascertain by the color
of the gas in the neck, slowly withdraw
the tube and cork the flask at once.
Weigh . the flask. Read the barometer and thermometer.
Determine, also, the weights of the flask filled with air and
with water.
Calculation. —
Capacity of flask, c
Temperature, t
Pressure, p
Flask filled with air, w
" " chlorine, w'
Wt. of a litre of air, l-293 grm-
" " chlorine, x
The weight of the air filling the flask is c x p X -OOI293
(i + .00367 t) 760.
The difference between this and w is the weight of the
vacuous flask. Subtract this from w'. The remainder is the
weight of the chlorine (W). Reduce the vol. of the chlorine
to o° C. and 760 mm. (see under hydrogen) ; it is v0 —
axp ,, •i^.rT.L Wx 1000
1. , and the weight of i litre, x = , — -.
(i + .00367 t) 760 v°
How much heavier is one litre of chlorine than a litre of
hydrogen ? .
* To prevent the diffusion of the gas into the air a plug of cotton should
be placed in the neck of c.
20 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Write the reaction involved in the above method for pre-
paring chlorine.
Problems, — i. How many litres of chlorine can be obtained
from one kilo of manganese dioxide and hydrochloric acid ?
2. What weight of salt is required to prepare 100 litres of
chlorine? 3. How many pounds of sodium sulphate and
manganese sulphate will be formed in the preparation of 100
litres of chlorine gas ? 4. Calculate the number of grams of
chlorine that two litres of water will absorb, provided the latter
takes up twice its volume of the gas? Write out your deduc-
tions from the above experiments on chlorine.
(Read Richter, pp. 49-52.)
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE.— HC1.
(1) Repeat the explosion of equal volumes of chlorine and
hydrogen. Quickly cover the mouth of the flask, and im-
merse it under water. Does the latter rise ? Put a drop of
the liquid on the tongue and note the taste. Add some blue
litmus solution. Is there any change ?
(2) The product of the union of hydrogen and chlorine is
a colorless gas. It is called hydrogen chloride. It is usually
prepared by the action of sulphuric acid upon salt, thus : —
2NaCl + H2S04 = 2HC1 + Na2SO4.
or, better, NaCl + H2SO4 = HC1 -f NaHSO4.
The apparatus employed here is the same as that used in
making chlorine (Fig. 10).
(3) Determine the Properties of Hydrogen Chloride as under
Hydrogen and Chlorine.
What new property appears here? Fill a long dry glass
tube with the gas, and quickly bring it into a basin contain-
ing water colored blue with litmus. What happens? What
does hydrogen chloride gas yield on dissolving in water?
(4) In the preparation of hydrogen by the action of sodium
HYDROGEN
21
Cl
upon water, it was observed that the liquid became soapy to
the touch, and acquired the property of turning red litmus
blue. Prepare such a solution. To it add a few drops of
litmus, and then a solution of hydrogen chloride (gradually)
from a burette, until the blue color just begins to turn.
Evaporate the resulting liquid to crystallization. Dissolve
and recrystallize the product. It appears
in cubes, and has the taste of common salt.
It does not affect either red or blue litmus.
We say it is neutral in reaction. The sub-
stance is chloride of sodium or common salt.
What is a salt ? An acid ? A base ? How
can you obtain hydrogen chloride and chlo-
rine from sodium chloride?
(5) Burn Hydrogen in an Atmosphere of
Chlorine, and Chlorine in Hydrogen.
Generate chlorine as already described (p. 17) and collect
it in a large cylinder. Into this introduce a burning jet of
hydrogen (Fig. 12). Does it continue burning?
What is the appearance of the flame ? To show
the combustion of chlorine in hydrogen arrange
apparatus as in Fig. 13.
(6) To determine the weight of a litre of hydro-
chloric acid gas, proceed exactly as under chlorine.
(7) Determine the Composition of Hydrochloric
Acid Gas by Volume.
i. Fill a perfectly dry and graduated tube with
hydrogen chloride. Close the open end with the
thumb, and opening the tube for a moment,
quickly pour in about 10 cc. of sodium amalgam
(see sodium, p. 53). Close the tube at once with
the thumb, slightly moist, and shake well. Invert
the tube in a large beaker of water, and remove the thumb.
The amalgam will drop into the water, and the latter will
™'
H
22 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
rush up into the tube, filling it nearly half full. Immerse the
tube so that the water in it and that in the beaker are on the
same level. This is done to measure the hydrogen under
atmospheric pressure. Read the volume of the residual gas
and measure also the volume of the mercury.
Calculation. —
Capacity of tube, a
Vol. of mercury, . b
Vol. of hydrogen, c
a — b
c =
2
(8) Add hydrochloric acid to solutions of silver nitrate ;
of mercurous nitrate ; and of lead acetate. What do you
observe in each case? Boil the precipitate formed in the
lead solution with water. Cool, and note result.
BROMINE.— Br.
(1) Allow a drop of bromine to fall upon a heated watch
glass; cover it quickly with a beaker. What is the color of
the vapor? Dissolve one drop of bromine in each of the
following solvents contained in test-tubes; water, alcohol,
ether, carbon disulphide, and chloroform. Note the relative
solubilities, and the color of each solution.
(2) i. Pass chlorine through an aqueous solution of potas-
sium bromide. What happens? 2. To a portion of the
product add a few drops of carbon disulphide, and agitate the
mixture; what is the result? 3. To another portion of the
solution, containing free bromine, add a few drops of a starch
emulsion.* Result?
* The starch emulsion for this purpose can be prepared as follows : One
gram of starch is well ground in a mortar, with very little water, to creamy
consistence. It is then poured into 200 cc. of boiling water. Allow to
subside, decant the clear supernatant liquid and use it for the test.
FIG. 14.
FIRST NATURAL GROUP OF ELEMENTS— IODINE. 23
(3) Devise a method for preparing bromine from potassium
bromide.
(4) Prepare Hydrobromic Add. — In a small flask cover five
grams of red phosphorus with 10 cc. of water, and from a
funnel, provided with
a stop-cock, gradually
allow 50 grams of bro-
mine to run in.*
The gas is purified by
conducting it through
a U-tube, containing
moistened pieces of
phosphorus and glass
(Fig. 14), and led into
water to obtain the
aqueous solution. How would you collect the gas?
(5) Add hydrobromic acid to solutions of silver nitrate,
mercurous nitrate and lead nitrate — do the resulting bromide
precipitates differ much from the corresponding chlorides?
IODINE.— I.
(1) i. Place an iodine crystal upon a warm plate, and note
color of vapor. 2. Test the solubility of iodine in the same
solvents as were used with bromine ; what are the colors of the
resulting solutions ?
(2) i. Pass chlorine into a solution of potassium iodide.
Divide the resulting liquid into three parts. To one of these
add about 5 c c. of ether and agitate (?). Shake a second
portion with carbon disulphide or chloroform. To the re-
maining portion add some starch emulsion (?). 2. Repeat
* As it is rather difficult to weigh bromine upon a balance, calculate the
volume corresponding to the weight given and measure out the same in a
cylinder.
rcrNi
r-
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
OF
24 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
this experiment, substituting bromine water for the chlorine.
Avoid excess of chlorine as well as bromine (?).
What conclusion do you draw from these experiments re-
lative to the affinity of the halogens for potassium ?
(3) Pass hydrogen sulphide gas (H2S) into 50 cc. of water,
and add powdered iodine till the brown color no longer dis-
appears. Warm, filter (?) and distil the filtrate. The product
is what ?
How is gaseous hydriodic acid prepared ?
(4) Precipitate solutions of silver nitrate (AgNO3), mer-
curous nitrate (HgNO3), lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2), and mercuric
chloride (HgCl2), with potassium iodide. Note result in each
case. Redissolve the lead iodide in water. What do you
observe on cooling the solution ?
FLUORINE.— Fl.
In what manner has this element been isolated ?
(1) In a lead dish (or platinum crucible) place one gram of
pulverized fluor spar (CaFl2). Add concentrated sulphuric
acid ; cover the dish or crucible with a watch-glass coated with
paraffin, through which characters have been drawn with a fine
point. Heat gently for a few minutes.
What do you observe on removing the paraffin ?
(2) Can you liberate fluorine from a fluoride ?
Problems. — i. How much sodium bromide, sulphuric acid
and manganese dioxide, are necessary to produce one cu.
metre of bromine vapor at 20° C. and 745 mm. ? 2. What per
cent, of hydrogen iodide does a liquid contain, which repre-
sents a solution of 50 litres of the gas in one litre of water?
3. TO grams of fluor spar will give what weight of hydrogen
fluoride? 4. How much salt and sulphuric acid will be re-
quired to prepare six litres of muriatic acid of sp. gr. 1.17?
What volume would the hydrogen chloride in these six litres
occupy at 735 mm. pressure and 22° C.? 5. What is the per-
SECOND NATURAL GROUP OF ELEMENTS — OXYGEN. 25
centage of hydrochloric acid in a solution of which 1 7 cc.
dissolve exactly two grams of metallic magnesium? What is
the volume of hydrogen liberated at 760 mm. and o° ?
CHAPTER V.
SECOND NATURAL GROUP OF ELEMENTS— OXYGEN,
SULPHUR, SELENIUM, TELLURIUM.
OXYGEN.— O.
(1) Preparation. — i. Weigh the hard glass tube a (Fig.
15), and introduce a weighed quantity (about .5 gram) of red
oxide of mercury. Ignite strongly ; collect the liberated gas,
and measure it. Weigh the tube with the residue. What are
the products of the ignition?
(2) Prepare more of the gas, as follows : Mix equal parts
of potassium chlorate and pulverized manganese dioxide ; heat
in a tube of hard glass or small retort. Collect the gas in
bottles over water (Fig. 15).
Into No. i lower a piece of ignited sulphur on an iron
spoon. Note result. Add water after the combustion!?).
Into No. 2 introduce a small piece of burning phosphorus
(care !). Proceed as in No. i.
Into No. 3 introduce ignited charcoal. Treat as before.
Add now a few drops of blue litmus to the contents of each
bottle. Any change ?
Into bottle No. 4 introduce a fine watch spring, previously
heated at one end and dipped into powdered sulphur. Result ?
Is oxygen heavier or lighter than air? Has it color, taste,
or odor ? Will it burn ? Does it support combustion ?
What other methods can be used for preparing oxygen ?
4
26
EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
(3) Determine the Weight of a Litre of Oxygen.
Arrange apparatus shown in Fig. 16 ; a is a tube of hard
glass, whose weight is known ; it contains a weighed amount
of potassium chlorate (about 0.3 gram). The bottle A is filled
with water, b is a clip and da. beaker. The exit tube should
be filled with water at the beginning of the experiment.
Open the clip, heat a to bright redness, and receive the water
displaced by the oxygen in d. When no more gas is evolved,
FIG. 15.
FIG. 16.
cool; allowing the rubber tube to dip under the water in the
beaker. Some of the water will be drawn back into the bot-
tle (?). Measure the volume of the water in d. Note the
temperature of the air, and the height of the barometer.
Weigh a, containing residue of potassium chloride (KC1).
Calculation. —
Weight of the tube, a
Weight of potassium chlorate and tube, b
Weight of potassium chlorate, b — a
Volume of water collected, v
Barometric pressure, p
Temperature, t
Aqueous tension at t, p'
Weight of potassium chloride and tube, c
v X (p — p') (b — c) X looo
(I + .003671) X 76o ~Vo~~
Vo=
j* A v JL.jtts4.-j; * /
SECOND NATURAL GROUP OF ELEMENTS — WATER.
27
Dissolve the residual potassium chloride in water, and to
its solution add nitrate of silver (?). How does potassium
chlorate behave under like conditions ?
(4) Give a summary of your work upon oxygen.
Problems. — i. How much oxygen, by weight and volume,
can be obtained from 54 grams of mercuric oxide? 2. Heat
will expel what volume of 'Oxygen from 2.45 grams of potas-
sium chlorate ? 3. How much mercuric oxide is necessary to
yield one cu. d. m. of oxygen ? 4. How many times is
oxygen heavier than hydrogen ?
OZONE.— 03.
(i) Pour water on clean pieces of phosphorus to half cover
them ; invert a large, clean jar over this and allow to stand
for several hours. Test the air under the jar for ozone. For
this purpose use paper impregnated with a mixture of starch
paste and potassium iodide. What occurs ?
(Read Richter, pp. 85-89.)
COMPOUNDS OF OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN.
WATER.— H2O.
(i) Arrange the distillation apparatus (Fig. 17) and prepare
about 100 cc. of distilled water. Note its taste and odor.
Test it for chlorides with silver nitrate. Does it leave a resi-
due upon evaporation?
What action has it on
litmus?
What is meant by
the hardness of water?
What is the under-
standing of temporary
and permanent hard-
ness?
Determination of Hardness. — Dissolve one gram of pure cal-
FlG-
28 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
cium carbonate in 50 cc. of dilute hydrochloric acid. Evap-
orate this solution to dryness on a water-bath, and take up
the residue in 50 cc. of distilled water. Each cc. of this so-
lution will correspond to o.ooi gram of calcium carbonate.
Next dissolve about 13 grams of castile soap in a mixture of
500 cc. alcohol and 500 cc. of water. Filter if necessary.
Determine the strength of this solution so that one cc. of it will
equal one cc. of the first solution or o.ooi gram CaCOs. To
this end remove 12 cc. of the first solution to a flask and di-
lute with water to 70 cc. Fill a burette with the soap solution
and allow the latter to run into the lime water, one cc. at a time,
shaking after every addition, until a lather is formed which
lasts for about five minutes. Note the volume consumed.
Dilute so that 12 cc. of the water require 13 cc. of the soap
solution. One cc. soap is allowed for the distilled water. We
can now consider the soap solution standardized ; one cc. of it
is equivalent to o.ooi gram of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
In determining the hardness in a natural water use 70 cc.
and introduce the soap solution until a permanent lather is
produced ; deduct one cc. of the volume consumed, and the dif-
ference will represent the hardness of the water in terms of
calcium carbonate. This result gives the total hardness.
How would you ascertain the permanent and temporary hard-
ness? What action has the soap upon the lime water?
Apply all these tests to a natural water (except rain).
(2) i. Heat a little vegetable matter in a dry test-tube.
2. Heat fresh meat in the same manner. 3. Carefully heat
crystals of zinc or copper sulphate in a test-tube. What
happens in these experiments? 4. Expose clear crystals of
sodium phosphate, on a watch crystal, to the air. 5. Do the
same with pieces of calcium chloride. Results ?
(3) Determine the Quantitative Composition of Water.
i. The composition of water by weight follows from the ex-
periment of reducing oxide of copper described under hydro-
gen.
SECOND NATURAL GROUP OF ELEMENTS — WATER.
29
2. The relative volumes with which oxygen and hydrogen
unite to form water, are determined either by analysis or syn-
thesis. The former has been performed in electrolyzing water.
3. Fill a eudiometer (Fig. 18) with water. Through a
rubber tube admit about 50 cc. of oxygen and then a like
volume of hydrogen. (If the eudiometer is not graduated,
mark these with rubber bands.) Close the open end with
your thumb, leaving some air to serve as a cushion beneath it,
and pass the spark. Remove the thumb, and pour in enough
water to make the levels equal in both limbs. What is the
FIG. 18.
FIG. 19.
amount of the contraction ? What is the residual gas ? Test
it.
(4) Determine the Weight of a Litre of Steam. — Use the
apparatus of Victor Meyer shown in Fig. 19. Cisa vessel
containing aniline. A small glass tube is weighed and filled
with water (not more than .02 gram). Heat the aniline to
its boiling point, and continue heating until the temperature
is constant (?). Now drop the tube containing the water
through the side-tube b of the vessel d (the bottom of which
should be protected with a layer of asbestos) and quickly
re-cork. When the fall of water in the graduated tube ceases,
30 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
read the volume of gas, and note the temperature and pres-
sure of the air.
The calculation is analogous to that used under oxygen ?
(5) Perform experiment 2, p. 100 in Richter.
How many "volumes of steam result from the combination
of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen ?
How would you deduce the molecular formula of water
from the preceding experiments ?
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE.— H2O2.
(1) Add moist hydrated barium peroxide to cold dilute
sulphuric acid. Filter. What does the filtrate contain ?
(2) i. Add a solution of potassium iodide, containing
starch, to a portion of this liquid (?). Ferrous sulphate
hastens the reaction. 2. Cautiously add a dilute solution of
potassium permanganate to another portion (?). 3. To a
third portion, add a few cc. of ether and a drop of potassium
dichromate. Shake the mixture and observe the result.
COMPOUNDS OF OXYGEN AND CHLORINE.
(i) Make a dilute solution of caustic potash, and conduct
chlorine into it until the latter is no longer absorbed. Treat
one portion of the product with hydrochloric acid, and
another with sulphuric acid. What re-
FlG. 20.
suits ?
(2) Mix 10 grams of quicklime with
25 cc. of water. After the slaking is
finished, conduct chlorine into the mix-
ture until it is no longer absorbed.
Add hydrochloric acid to one portion
and sulphuric acid to a second portion.
What is set free ? Does it bleach ?
(3) Pass chlorine into a hot concentrated solution of po-
tassium hydroxide till it ceases to be absorbed (Fig. 20).
SECOND NATURAL GROUP OF ELEMENTS — SULPHUR. 3!
What separates upon cooling? Recrystallize the product
from water. Will it give off oxygen upon heating? Try
the action of hydrochloric acid upon a crystal. Allow a
drop of concentrated sulphuric acid to fall upon a small
crystal and warm gently (?). Care !
Observe carefully the behavior of potassium chlorate upon
heating (?).
SULPHUR.— S.
(1) Place a few grams of powdered sulphur in a dry test-
tube, and heat gradually. Observe and describe the changes
which occur.
(2) Dissolve a little sulphur in carbon disulphide and
allow to stand till the liquid has evaporated. What re-
mains ?
(3) Determine the specific gravity of sulphur. Water,
previously boiled, is introduced into a flask provided with a
mark (Fig. 21). It is essential that the neck of the flask
should be narrow. Weigh the flask, then place an additional
lo-gram weight upon the right hand pan of the balance
and small pieces of sulphur upon the left-hand pan,
until the pointer is again in the middle. Now intro-
duce the sulphur into the flask. Carefully remove
water above the mark and re-weigh the flask with its
contents. The loss in weight will represent the weight
of a volume of water equal to that of 10 grams of sulphur.
The latter divided by the former is the specific gravity of the
sulphur.
(4) Prepare the monoclinic modification of sulphur by melt-
ing about 10 grams of the ordinary variety in a covered
Hessian crucible. Cool; and as soon as a solid crust has
formed upon the surface, pierce it and allow the still liquid
portion of the contents to run out. Note the shape of the
crystals upon the sides of the crucible.
(5) To obtain fas. plastic variety, heat 20 grams of sulphur
32 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
in a small, round-bottomed flask until it boils, and pour it in
a thin stream into cold water.
Test the solubility of the product in carbon disulphide.
Preserve a portion of it for several days. Does it change ?
(6) To a strong solution of yellow potassium sulphide, add
hydrochloric acid. What are the properties of the separated
sulphur ?
Give a brief outline of the element sulphur ; compare it
with the previously studied elements.
SULPHUR AND HYDROGEN.
(7) Hydrogen sulphide — (H2S) — is formed with difficulty
from its elements, but is readily obtained by the action of
acids upon sulphides, thus:—
FeS -f H2SO4 = FeSO4 -f H2S or Sb2S3 + 6HC1 = 2SbCl3 + sH2S.
The apparatus to be used is the same as that employed in
preparing hydrogen. The acid used should be dilute.
(8) What are the properties of hydrogen sulphide ? Is it
soluble in water? Does it burn? What are the products of
its combustion ? Hold a porcelain plate in the flame; what
results ?
(9) Expose a portion of the aqueous solution of hydrogen
sulphide to the air. What causes it to become turbid and to
lose its odor ? Pass a current of the gas into strongly acid
solutions of potassium chromate, potassium permanganate, and
ferric chloride. Describe and explain the occurring changes.
(10) What. action has hydrogen sulphide water on litmus?
(n) Pass hydrogen sulphide through solutions of the fol-
lowing salts, viz.: — copper sulphate, antimony chloride, lead
nitrate, arsenious trioxide, and zinc acetate. Note results
carefully.
Can sulphides be prepared in another manner? (See
Chap. II, § i.)
SECOND NATURAL GROUP OF ELEMENTS SULPHUR. 33
(12) Determine the Composition of Hydrogen Sulphide.
Into a bent tube of hard glass, filled with mercury (Fig.
22), introduce dry hydrogen sulphide.* Place a piece of tin
in the bent portion and heat it. Is the
volume of the gas changed after the experi- FlG- 22-
ment, and what becomes of the piece of
tin ? Test the gas remaining in the tube.
Do your results enable you to deduce the
molecular formula of hydrogen sulphide.
(See Richter, 4th ed., p. no.) Trace the
similarity between hydrogen sulphide and water. Write a
summary of your experiments on hydrogen sulphide.
SULPHUR AND CHLORINE.
(13) Sulphur Mono chloride. — i. Prepare this compound by
conducting dry chlorine over molten sulphur.
The product which distils over is collected in a
dry test-tube, kept cold by immersion in ice
water. 2. Redistil the product. Determine
its boiling point in an apparatus similar to that
pictured in Fig. 23. Note the color and odor
of the product. Expose some of it to the air
on a watch-glass,. Add water to another por-
tion contained in a test-tube. Note carefully
what happens. Write the reaction, and exam-
ine for all the products.
SULPHUR AND OXYGEN.
(14) Burn sulphur in the air. Result? Burn pyrite (FeS2)
in the air. What are the properties of the resulting com-
pound ? It is sulphur dioxide — SO2.
(15) Fit a small flask, as indicated in Fig. 24. Place
* The instructor should assist in performing this experiment,
5
34 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
copper turnings in it, then add sulphuric acid (strong)
through the funnel tube. Warm. Is the pro-
duct the same as that obtained in 14? Is it
soluble in water? Has the aqueous solution the
same properties as the gas? 2. Pass some of
the gas into solutions of potassium dichromate
and potassium permanganate acidulated with
sulphuric acid. Repeat these experiments with .
the aqueous solution instead of the gas. What
happens in each case? 3. Test the aqueous
solution of sulphur dioxide with litmus. What
is this solution commonly called ? 4. Fill a dry jar with sul-
phur dioxide gas ; introduce colored flowers. Note the result.
(16) What is the formula of sulphurous acid ? How many
series of salts can it form ? How would you designate the
different sodium salts? Add hydrochloric acid to a solution
of sodium sulphite. What follows ? Evaporate the solution
to dryness and examine the residue. What is it ? Write
the reaction.
SULPHUR TRIOXIDE — SO3. (Read Richter, p. 191.)
(17) Sulphuric Acid — H2SO4. — To prepare sulphuric acid
arrange apparatus as in Fig. 25. The large flask, A, represents
the lead chamber of the commercial method. The cork in
it is provided with several perforations through which glass
tubes pass ; these serve to introduce the various gases. In
flask a place copper turnings and concentrated sulphuric
acid. When this mixture is heated what gas is evolved ?
Flask b contains dilute nitric acid and copper turnings.
What is evolved when heat is applied? Boil water in flask c.
Let air enter through d. e serves for the escape of the
excess of gases (?). First introduce into A the products (?)
from a and b, together with air — observe the frost-like de-
position upon the vessel — what is it ? Blow steam into A ;
what becomes of the crystalline sublimate? When 10 cc. to
UNIVERSITY
/
SECOND NATURAL GROUP OF ELEMENTS — SULPHUR. 35
20 cc. liquid have collected in A, interrupt the experiment,
and study the product carefully, i. Dilute a portion of it
with water ; what happens ? 2. Test a portion of this diluted
solution with litmus (?). 3. Another portion neutralize with
sodium hydroxide and evaporate. What is the residue ?
Does it contain any sulphur ? Prove this. 4. Add barium
chloride to a third portion of the solution. What is the
FIG. 25.
precipitate ? Is it soluble in water or in hydrochloric acid ?
5. What is the action of strong sulphuric acid upon wood or
paper ? Explain the cause of this action.
(18) How many series of salts can sulphuric acid form.
Prepare ammonium sulphate, sodium sulphate, sodium hydro-
gen sulphate and copper sulphate. (Read Richter, pp.
189-200.)
EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
FIG. 26.
FIG. 27.
CHAPTER VI.
NITROGEN GROUP— NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS,
ARSENIC, ANTIMONY AND BISMUTH.
NITROGEN.— N.
(1) Preparation. — i. In a dish swimming on water place
a piece of phosphorus and ignite it ; invert a beaker glass
over it (Fig. 26). What becomes of
the phosphorus ? When the latter has
ceased burning, restore the level of
the water, and note the decrease in
the volume of the air. Test the residual
gas with a burning taper. 2. Heat
gently in a small flask or retort a
mixture of one part potassium nitrite,
one part ammonium chloride, one part
potassium bichromate, and three parts
of water ; collect the gas over water. Fill five bottles with
this gas.
(2) Has it color, taste, odor ? Does it burn or support
combustion ? Is the gas heavier than air ? Does it unite
readily with other elements ?
(3) Determine the Weight of a Litre of Nitrogen. — A round-
bottomed flask is fitted, as shown in Fig. 27. Pour about
30 cc. of water into it, and insert the rubber cork to the mark.
Boil the water, while the clip is open, until all the air has
been expelled from the flask. Steam should be allowed to
escape for about five minutes. Now close the tube with the
clip, and remove the flame. Cool and weigh the flask. Read
the temperature and barometric pressure in the balance-room.
Connect the flask with the tube, b, of the aspirator, con-
taining nitrogen, and arranged as in Fig. 28. The rubber
NITROGEN GROUP — NITROGEN.
37
tube, a, is made to dip under water, and the clip is gradually
opened, allowing nitrogen to enter the flask. Now raise the
vessel containing the water into which the rubber tube dips,
so that the water in it is at a higher level than that in the
aspirator. Close the clip. Disconnect the flask and open the
clip for a moment, to establish atmospheric pressure in the
flask. Weigh. The calculation is identical with that given
for oxygen.
What is the ratio between the weights of equal volumes of
nitrogen and hydrogen ?
(4) Is air a chemical compound ?
How would you determine the weight of a litre of air?
FIG. 29.
FIG. 28.
r1
FIG. 30.
(5) i. Determination of the Oxygen in Air by the Pyrogallate
Method. —
At the atmospheric temperature and pressure measure off
50 cc. of air in the Hempel burette, shown in Fig. 29. Con-
nect this at c writh the capillary of a Hempel's compound
pipette (Fig. 30) containing an alkaline solution of pyrogallate
of potash. Open the stop-cocks and transfer the air to the
pipette by raising the tube, a. When this is accomplished,
and the capillary of the pipette is filled with water from b,
close the stop-cocks again. Disconnect the apparatus. Shake
the pipette for several minutes so as to bring gas and absorbent
FIG. 31.
38 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
in intimate contact. Reconnect pipette and burette, and
force the residual gas into the latter. Restore atmospheric
pressure and read the volume. What does
the loss represent ?
2. Explosion Method. — To 40 cc. of air
contained in the burette add 40 cc. of pure
hydrogen. Pass this mixture into the Hem-
pel explosion pipette shown in Fig. 31.
Close the stop- cock, d, and the clip, c, then
connect the platinum electrodes with an
inductor and pass a spark. What takes place ? Measure the
volume of the gas remaining. How much of the contraction
was due to oxygen ? What is the composition of the gas after
the explosion ?
(Study Richter, pp. 116-125.)
FIG. 32.
NITROGEN AND HYDROGEN.
AMMONIA.
(6) Preparation. — Heat an intimate mixture of finely
powdered ammonium chloride and caustic lime in a flask
(Fig. 32) ; conduct the evolved gas through
a tube filled with small pieces of lime, and
collect it in jars or test-tubes over mercury.
What is the object of the lime in the
tube? Why can you not dry the gas by
passing it through sulphuric acid or calcium
chloride ? Why should it be collected over
mercury ?
(7) Is ammonia gas combustible ? Does
it support combustion? i. Arrange appa-
ratus as shown in Fig. 33. a is a piece of glass tubing four
to five cm. in diameter; its lower end is provided with a
doubly perforated cork, carrying two tubes at right "angles.
NITROGEN GROUP NITROGEN AND HYDROGEN.
39
FIG. 33-
A slow current of ammonia is made to pass through the larger
tube, while oxygen is introduced by means of the smaller tube.
A plug of cotton serves to distribute the
latter gas. Carefully regulate the flow of
the gases and apply a lighted taper to the
escaping ammonia. Note the peculiar ap-
pearance of the flame. 2. Heat concen-
trated ammonia water in a beaker until
there is an abundant disengagement of gas,
then conduct a rapid current of oxygen
through the liquid, and lower a glowing
spiral of platinum into the beaker (as in
Fig. 34). What happens ?
Note the odor of ammonia (caution ?).
Is it lighter than air? Soluble in water ?
(8) Prepare an Aqueous Solution of Ammonia.
What are its properties ?
Add red litmus to some of the solution (?), and then
neutralize carefully with dilute hydrochloric
acid. Evaporate to dryness. Compare the pro-
duct with the ordinary ammonium chloride.
Test it for chlorine (?). Heat a little of it with
sodium hydroxide (?). Heat another portion
on a platinum foil (?).
(9) Determine the Weight of a Litre or
Ammonia.
Fill a dry flask with the gas by upward dis-
placement, and proceed exactly as under chlorine. What is
the density of ammonia ?
To determine the quantitative composition of ammonia,
perform experiments i and 2 on pp. 130 and 131, in Richter.
Write out summary. (Read Richter, pp. 125-131.)
FIG. 34.
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
Of
40 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
NITROGEN AND THE HALOGENS.
(10) Pour a saturated aldoholic solution of iodine into strong
ammonia water. Collect the precipitate on a filter and wash
it with water. Open the moist filter ; tear it into small pieces
and spread these on a board. After they have become dry,
touch them with the end of a rod (?). Ask for instructions!
(Read Richter, pp. 133-134.)
NITROGEN AND OXYGEN.
(n) Nitrous Oxide — N2O. — i. Place about five grams of
ammonium nitrate in a small retort, and heat gently. Collect
the product over warm water. 2. Test it with a glimmering
chip; 3. with burning phosphorus; 4. with burning sulphur.
5. Mix equal volumes of this gas and of hydrogen, and apply
a flame. What other gas does it resemble in its properties?
(Read Richter, pp. 215-216.)
(12) Nitric Oxide — NO. — i. Pour dilute nitric acid (sp.
gr. 1.2) upon copper turnings contained in an evolution flask.
Cool, and allow the red fumes, which form at first, to escape ;
then collect the colorless product over water. 2. What oc-
curs when this gas comes in contact with the air? Is it the
oxygen or the nitrogen of the air that acts upon the gas? 3.
Apply the tests given under (n) to this gas (?). How can ni-
tric oxide be distinguished from oxygen ? 4. Fill a cylinder
with nitric oxide, and add a few drops of carbon dioxide, shake
well and bring a flame to the mouth of the vessel (?). 5.
Pass a current of nitric oxide into a strong solution of ferrous
sulphate. What occurs? After the solution has become sat-
urated with the gas heat it to boiling (?). 6. Pass the gas
into a solution of potassium permanganate (?).
(13) Nitrogen Trioxide — N2O3 — (Read Richter, pp. 208-
209.)
Nitrous Acid—RNQ* (Richter, p. 209.)
NITROGEN GROUP — NITRIC ACID. 41
(14) Nitrogen Tetroxide, N2O4, and Dioxide, NO2.— i. Heat
10 grams of dry lead nitrate in a test-tube ; condense the
escaping vapors in a receiver, surrounded by a freezing mix-
ture. What are the vapors, and what is the condensed liquid ?
Note the color. 2. What is the action of cold water, and of
aqueous solutions of the alkalies upon nitrogen tetroxide?
What do these reactions indicate in respect to the composition
of this compound ? (Richter, pp. 210-211.) 3. What is its
action upon potassium iodide?
(15) Nitrogen Pentoxtde, N2O5. — (Richter, p. 208.)
NITRIC ACID.— HN03.
1. Preparation. — In a retort heat a mixture of sodium
nitrate and sulphuric acid in proportions corresponding to
the equation (?) :
NaN03 + H2S04 == NaHSO4 + HNO3.
Collect the product in a cold receiver.
2. What are the physical properties of nitric acid ? Color ?
Odor? Action on litmus (dilute with water)? 3. What
action has it on indigo ? Upon the skin ? 4. Notice the
effect of the acid upon the following metals : copper, zinc,
iron, lead, tin. Write the reaction for each one. 5. Cover
powdered sulphur with the acid, and warm (?). Dilute with
water, filter, and test the liquid with barium chloride (?). 6.
Add a few drops of nitric acid to a solution of ferrous sul-
phate (?) ; warm the solution (?).
Problems. — i. Required one cu. m. of nitrogen. How
much air is to be deprived of oxygen ; and how much phos-
phorus must be burned, if 62 parts of the latter unite with 80
parts of oxygen ?
2. How much nitric acid, containing 46 per cent, of water,
may be obtained from 1,700 grams of sodium nitrate, and how
much water must be taken ?
6
42 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
3. How many grams of ammonia will be absorbed by five
litres of water, if the latter absorbs 500 times its volume of the
gas ? 4. Ten litres of water having absorbed 700 times their
volume of ammonia, what are the least amounts of ammonium
chloride and caustic lime necessary for producing this solu-
tion?
PHOSPHORUS.— P.
(1) i. Determine the physical properties of the active and
the red varieties. 2. Allow a small piece of the active variety
to ignite in the air. Will the red variety do this ? 3. Throw
a small piece of the yellow variety into a jar of dry chlorine (?).
Repeat with the red variety (?). 4. Bring a small dry piece
of active phosphorus in contact with iodine (?). 5. Heat a
flask containing a small piece of phosphorus and water until
the former is melted, then pass a current of oxygen through a
delivery tube into the melted phosphorus (?). Care! (Study
Richter, pp. 134-137-)
PHOSPHORUS AND HYDROGEN.
(2) Phosphine — PH3. To prepare phosphine arrange appa-
ratus as shown in Fig. 35.
FlG- 35- A strong solution of caustic
soda is placed in the flask, to
which are added a few pieces
of phosphorus. The air in
the flask is now displaced by
passing a current of coal gas
through it. When this has
been done close the clip, a,
and gently heat the contents
of the flask. What becomes of the gas as it escapes into the
air? Write the reaction involved.
(Richter, pp. 137-140.)
Is there any similarity between phosphine and ammonia ?
NITROGEN GROUP — PHOSPHORUS AND OXYGEN. 43
PHOSPHORUS AND THE HALOGENS.
(3) i. Pass a current of dry carbon dioxide gas into a
retort, the bottom of which is covered with dry sand. When
all the air has been expelled, introduce some well-dried pieces
of phosphorus, and replace the carbon dioxide by a stream of
dry chlorine. Connect the neck of the retort with a Liebig's
condenser, and collect the product in a receiver. ' It is phos-
phorus trichloride. What are its properties ? Pour some of
it into water (?).
2. Place a little phosphorus trichloride in a dry test-tube,
and pass a stream of dry chlorine upon its surface. What is
the result ?
PHOSPHORUS AND OXYGEN.
(Richter, pp. 217-222.)
(4) i. Prepare phosphorus pentoxide, P2O5, by burning a
carefully dried piece of phosphorus under a dry bell- jar. 2.
Drop a portion of the product into water (?).
(5) Orthophosphoric Acid, H3PO±; Metaphosphoric Acid,
HPO3; and Pyrophosphoric Acid, H4P2O7. — -How are these
acids obtained ? How many series of salts are derived from
them ? By what names would you distinguish the different salts ?
i. Dissolve some disodium hydrogen phosphate, Na-jHPO^,
in water and test the solution with silver nitrate and ferric
chloride. What do you observe in each case? 2. Dissolve
fused sodium phosphate in water, and perform the same tests
with its solution. 3. Heat salt of phosphorus (NaNH4HPO4)
until it no longer effervesces; cool, crush the residue in a
mortar, and dissolve it in water. How does this solution
behave upon treating with the above reagents? 4. Acidify a
portion of the last-named solution with acetic acid, and add
a solution of albumen to it. Result ?
(6) Phosphorus Trioxide — P2O3, and Phosphorous Acid —
H3P03.
44 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Pour phosphorus trichloride into water. Evaporate the
solution to syrupy consistency (?).
(Study Richter, p. 219.)
(7) Hypophosphorous Acid — H3PO2.
Heat pieces of phosphorus in a porcelain dish with a mod-
erately strong baryta solution (see p. 42). When no more
hydrogen phosphide is formed, cool, filter, and pass carbon
dioxide into the solution until it shows a neutral reaction to
litmus. Toward the end, the solution should be warmed.
Filter and evaporate to suitable concentration. Hypophos-
phite of barium will crystallize.
How may the free acid be obtained from this salt ?
ARSENIC.— As.
(1) Study the physical and chemical properties of this ele-
ment. (Richter, pp. 143 and 144.) Are they analogous to
those of phosphorus ?
i. In a tube of hard glass heat a small piece of arsenic to
redness. Result? 2. Heat arsenic with the oxidizing flame
upon charcoal (?). 3. Dissolve powdered arsenic in strong
nitric acid (?).
ARSENIC AND HYDROGEN.
(2) Perform Marsh' s Jest for Arsenic*
Arrange the appa-
d j ratus shown in Fig.
36. To the mixture
of zinc and dilute sul-
phuric acid contained
in a, add a small por-
tion of the solution to
be tested for arsenic.
The liberated gas con-
tains hydrogen and arsine. It is passed through c, filled with
* Ask for instructions.
NITROGEN GROUP — ANTIMONY. 45
calcium chloride (?), and then through d, a tube of hard
glass, contracted at several places. After all the air has been
expelled from the apparatus, ignite the hydrogen. If arsenic
is present it will burn with a bluish white flame, and white
vapors will be given off. Hold a cold porcelain plate in the
flame (?). Heat the tube d, as shown in the figure (?).
Great care must be exercised in performing this test, as the
arsine gas is extremely poisonous !
ANTIMONY.— Sb.
(i) Study this element in the same manner as you studied
arsenic. Distinguish between stibine and arsine.
i. Treat the metallic mirrors obtained in Marsh's apparatus
with a freshly prepared solution of hypochlorite of sodium :
Arsenic dissolves readily, while antimony is scarcely acted
upon. 2. Heat a piece of the tube in which a mirror -has
formed, in the flame of the Bunsen burner. Dissolve the pro-
duct in dilute, warm hydrochloric acid, and add hydrogen
sulphide water (?). 3. Treat the spot formed upon a cold
porcelain plate with yellow ammonium sulphide, and evapo-
rate the solution at a gentle heat (?).
Problems. — (i) How much phosphorus can be obtained
from 250 grams of bones? (See Richter, p. 135.) (2) 10 grams
of phosphorus will give what volume of phosphine ? (3) What
is the weight of the product remaining, after evaporating a
solution of 10 grams of arsenic in nitric acid.
f OF THE * ^v
(UNIVERSITY)
*v 0p J
46 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
CHAPTER VII.
CARBON GROUP— CARBON AND SILICON.
CARBON.— C.
(1) How many allotropic modifications of this element are
known ? What are their principal properties ? In a rather
wide tube collect dry ammonia gas (50—100 cc.) over mer-
cury. With the aid of a forceps insert a piece of charcoal,
which has just been ignited. What happens? 2. Boil a
dilute litmus solution with powdered animal charcoal ; filter.
Result? 3. Substitute indigo for the litmus in the preceding
experiment (?).
4. Determination of the Composition of Coal.
i. Volatile matter and coke. Weigh out two grams of
powdered coal in a platinum crucible provided with a well-
fitting cover. Heat with a large
flame, until the escaping gases cease
to burn between the lid and the cruci-
ble. A blast lamp flame is applied
for a minute longer. Cool and
weigh. Loss in weight represents the
volatile matter. The residue is called
coke.
2. Ash. A second portion of coal
(one gram) is gently heated over the
Bunsen flame, until the volatile constituents are expelled.
The heat is then raised and the lid of the crucible placed in
the position indicated in Fig. 37. The residue is the ash.
(Read Richter, pp. 151—152).
CARBON AND HYDROGEN.'
(2) Methane (Marsh gas) — CH4.
i. Preparation. — Heat a dried mixture of sodium acetate
CARBON GROUP — CARBON AND OXYGEN. 47
and sodium hydroxide in an iron tube.* Collect the gas
over water. Note its color, odor, and taste. Does it burn ?
2. Mix one volume of it with seven to eight times its volume
of air and explode by applying a flame. (Ask for instruc-
tions ! )
How would you determine the molecular weight of this
compound ?
(3) Make a eudiometric combustion of one volume of
marsh gas with two volumes of oxygen, as described in
Richter, p. 121.
(4) Ethane— C2H6. (Richter, p. 154.)
(5) Acetylene — C2H2. Light a Bunsen burner at the base
and turn it down, so that the flame is small. Acetylene can
be recognized, among the products of combustion, by its
characteristic odor.
(6) CARBON AND THE HALOGENS. (Richter, p. 161.)
CARBON AND OXYGEN.
(7) Carbon Dioxide — CO2.
i. Preparation. — Upon pieces of marble, contained in an
evolution flask, pour dilute hydrochloric acid (i HC1 : 1-2
H2O). Conduct the resulting gas through water and through
concentrated sulphuric acid. It may be collected either by
downward displacement of the air, or over mercury. 2. Note
color, taste and odor of this gas. Is it soluble in water ? How
does its weight compare with that of air ? Does it burn or sup-
port combustion? 3. Conduct a current of carbon dioxide
into a solution of sodium hydroxide, evaporate the liquid,
and test the residue for sodium carbonate (?). 4. To differ-
ent portions of the sodium carbonate solution, add solutions
of magnesium sulphate, barium chloride, lead nitrate and zinc
sulphate.
* A hard glass tube will answer.
48 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
(Study Richter, pp. 230-235.)
(8) Carbon Monoxide— CO.
Preparation. — i. In a tube of hard glass heat zinc dust to
faint redness, while conducting a slow current of carbon
dioxide over it. In what respect does the product differ
from carbon dioxide. 2. Heat crystals of oxalic acid with
concentrated sulphuric acid in a flask, and wash the product
with a sodium hydroxide solution. Write the reaction. Study
the properties of this gas. (Richter, p. 235.)
(9) Carbon Disulphide—C^.
Perform some of the experiments indicated in Richter, p.
237-
(10) CARBON AND NITROGEN.
i. In a dry test-tube heat a nitrogenous carbon compound
with a small piece of potassium. Cool and add water. Po-
tassium cyanide is formed and can be tested with silver nitrate.
2. Convert a portion of the potassium cyanide into potassium
sulphocyanide by evaporating with ammonium sulphide. Test
with ferric chloride. 3. To a solution of ferrous sulphate add
potassium ferrocyanide. What results ? 4. What is the action
of the ferrocyanide upon solutions of ferric salts?
(n) Study the nature of flame. Make the experiments
described in Richter, pp. 156-161.
SILICON.— Si.
(i) Preparation. — Make an intimate mixture of one gram
magnesium powder and four grams of finely powdered quartz-
sand. Heat this to bright redness in a wide tube of hard
glass. It is best to use the blast lamp for this purpose. The
part of the tube containing the mixture should be rotated in
the flame. The residue, after a few minutes' heating, is
allowed to cool, and treated with water containing hydro-
chloric acid. The product consists of amorphous silicon and
undecomposed quartz. 2. Test the action of the following
CARBON GROUP — BORON. 49
reagents upon silicon : sulphuric, nitric and hydrofluoric acids,
potash solution and chlorine. (Read Richter, p. 162.)
SILICON AND OXYGEN.
(2) Silicon Dioxide (Silica, Quartz) — -SiO2.
i. Test its solubility in the various acids and alkalies.
2. Fuse a mixture of one gram of finely powdered quartz with
four grams of sodium carbonate, in a platinum crucible. Dis-
solve the product in water. 3*. To a portion of this solution
add hydrochloric acid, and evaporate to complete dryness.
Take up the residue with water and filter off the insoluble
portion. 4. To another portion of the aqueous solution of
the fusion add ammonium chloride (?). Make a bead of
salt of phosphorus ; bring a fragment of a silicate or of quartz
into it, and heat in the blow-pipe flame for a few minutes (?).
BORON.— B.
(1) Preparation similar to that of silicon. What are its
properties ? Does it unite directly with other elements ? Is
it known in several allotropic modifications ? What is the
valency of this element ?
(Read Richter, pp. 243 and 244.)
BORON AND OXYGEN.
(2) Boric Acid— H3BO3.
i. Dissolve borax* in five parts of boiling water, add hydro-
chloric acid to acid reaction, and allow to cool. What
crystallizes out of the solution ? Dry some of the product
by pressing it between filter paper. Test its solubility in
water and in alcohol. What do you observe on igniting the
alcoholic solution ? Moisten a piece of turmeric paper with
an aqueous solution of boric acid, and dry at a gentle heat.
What happens?
7
50 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Problems. — (i) How much carbon dioxide results from the
combustion of 12 grams of carbon? (2) How much carbon
dioxide will an indefinite quantity of calcium carbonate give,
when acted upon by 4.666 grams of muriatic acid, containing
30 per cent, of pure hydrogen chloride gas ? (3) How many
cubic decimeters of carbon monoxide can be obtained from
90 grams of oxalic acid ? (4) What amount of silica can be
obtained from two grams of wollastonite (CaSiO3)? (5)
What is the theoretical quantity of boric acid obtainable -from
15 grams of borax (Na.2B4O7 -f- ioH2O)?
METALS.
FIG. 38.
CHAPTER VIII.
METALS OF THE ALKALIES— POTASSIUM, SODIUM,
[AMMONIUM].
POTASSIUM.— K.
(1) Preparation. — Arrange apparatus as shown in Fig. 38.
Into a tube of hard glass, introduce a porcelain boat contain-
ing about one gram of a
mixture of 138 parts
(one mol.) of dry (?)
potassium carbonate
and 72 parts (three at.)
of magnesium powder.
Pass a current of dry
hydrogen over it, and
after all the air has been
displaced in the apparatus (?), light the escaping gas ; heat
the part of the tube surrounding the boat to incipient redness.
Observe the brilliant metallic mirror which is formed, and
drive it away from the boat by increasing the temperature : it
is potassium. Note also the green color of the vapor and
the violet coloration it imparts to the burning hydrogen.
What is the residue left in the boat ? Test its reaction with
litmus (?).
Formulate the reaction involved in this method of prepara-
tion.
(2) i. Cut a piece of potassium with a knife, and observe
52 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
the color and lustre of the fresh surface. Care! 2. To as-
certain whether the metal is fusible, heat a small piece of it in
a stream of hydrogen. 3. Is it heavier or lighter than water?
(3) i; Expose a thin slice of potassium to the air. What
takes place? 2. Throw a small piece of it upon water (?).
In this experiment it is advisable to use a tall beaker and to
cover the same with a glass plate. 3. What is the action of
the halogens upon potassium ? Ask for instructions.
POTASSIUM AND OXYGEN.
(4) Preparation of Potassium Hydroxide. — In an iron vessel
dissolve 50 grams of crystallized barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2,
in 1 60 cc. of water. Cautiously add a hot concentrated solu-
tion of 20 grams of potassium sulphate until a sample of the
supernatant liquid is no longer precipitated by either potas-
sium sulphate or barium hydroxide. Filter rapidly through a
plaited filter, and evaporate the solution in an iron or silver
dish over a large flame. Continue heating the residue till it
appears in a state of quiet fusion. During this operation pro-
tect the eyes with a glass plate. Now pour the product upon
a clean iron surface, and while still warm put it into a bottle
provided with a well-fitting stopper. Examine its fracture
and color. Try its solubility in water and in alcohol. What
is the reaction of the aqueous solution with litmus ? What is
an alkali ?
Salts.
(5) Potassium Chlorate.— KC1O3. (See p. 30).
(6) Potassium Nitrate. — KNO3. — To a hot concentrated
solution of 20 grams of sodium nitrate add a solution of 18
grams of potassium chloride. Boil. What separates from the
warm mixture? What crystallizes from the mother liquor on
cooling ? Recrystallize the latter product ? Examine its crys-
talline form. Is it more soluble in hot than in cold water ?
Explain the method of preparation.
METALS OF THE ALKALIES — SODIUM. 53
(7) Into a red-hot platinum crucible throw small portions
of an intimate mixture of 10 grams of potassium nitrate and
i/^z grams of charcoal powder. What takes place? Write
the reaction. What is gunpowder ?
Reactions.
(8) Use potassium nitrate for the following tests: —
i. Place a little of the salt upon the end of a clean platinum,
wire and introduce it into a non-luminous flame. What color
do you observe ? View the flame through a cobalt glass (?).
2. To the aqueous solution of the potassium salt add hydro-
chloric acid and boil. Concentrate by evaporation and add
platinic chloride. What is the composition of the resulting
precipitate ? Try its solubility in hot and in cold water,
also in alcohol. 3. To the concentrated solution of the salt
add a saturated solution of tartaric acid ; either at once, or on
shaking, a white crystalline precipitate appears (?).
SODIUM.— Na.
(1) How is this metal usually prepared ?
(2) Study its physical and chemical properties (Richter, p.
289). Wherein does it differ from potassium ?
(3) Prepare Sodium Amalgam.
To 500 grams of dry mercury, contained in a Wedgwood
mortar, add gradually 5-10 grams of sodium in thin slices.
Perform this operation in a good draught chamber, as the
union of the two metals is attended with the evolution of light
and heat, and poisonous vapors are given off. Stir well with
the pestle, allow to cool, and transfer the product to a well-
stoppered bottle. What is its action on water or dilute sul-
phuric acid ?
SODIUM AND OXYGEN.
(4) Preparation of Sodium Hydroxide Solution.
Add a little water to 10 grams of fresh quicklime contained
54 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
in an iron (or porcelain) vessel. Cover the latter, and in a
second iron pot dissolve 25 grams of soda ash (Na2CO3), using
about 100 cc. of water. Heat the solution to boiling; stir
the quicklime — which should have broken up to a white powi
der — with enough water to form a thin paste (milk of lime),
and add this gradually to the boiling liquid. Stir well with
an iron wire; transfer the mixture to a bottle; cork, and
•allow it to stand. After the supernatant liquid has become
perfectly clear, decant it by means of a glass siphon filled with
water. It should be preserved in a tightly corked bottle (?).
Test a few drops of the solution with barium chloride (?).
What should the solution contain, and of what does the pre-
cipitate, from which it was separated, consist? Write the
equation representing the reaction.
(5) Determine the Amount of Na OH contained in the Solution.
Measure off accurately 20 cc. into a porcelain dish ; add a
drop or two of phenolphthalein solution, and dilute with
water. From a burette carefully add dilute hydrochloric acid
until the red color has just disappeared. Read off the volume
of the acid used ; it is the exact quantity needed to neutralize
the alkali : —
NaOH -f HC1 = NaCl + H2O;
that is, 40 parts (one mol.) of sodium hydroxide require 36.5
parts (one mol.) of hydrochloric acid, and if we know the
weight of the latter contained in the volume of the dilute
acid consumed, a simple proportion will give the weight of
the alkali in 20 cc. of the solution. The strength of the acid
is determined as follows: In a porcelain dish, dissolve 1.06
grams of pure sodium carbonate, previously ignited and accu-
rately weighed ; add a little phenolphthalein, heat to boiling
and introduce acid from the burette until the liquid remains
colorless after continued boiling. The carbonate is then
exactly neutralized : —
Na2C03 + 2HC1 = 2NaCl + CO2 -f H2O.
METALS OF THE ALKALIES — SODIUM. 55
It takes, therefore, 73 parts of hydrochloric acid for 106 parts
of sodium carbonate. Suppose, now, 20 cc. of the acid had
been used to decolorize the indicator, then one cc. would
equal l$f = 0.053 gram of sodium carbonate or 0.0365 gram
of hydrochloric acid. The latter number is the standard or
strength of the dilute acid.
The phenolphthalein takes no part in these reactions \ it
merely indicates by its change of color the complete neutrali-
zation of the alkali. Why is it necessary to boil the solution
when the acid is standardized with a carbonate ?
Softs.
(6) Sodium Chloride— NaCl.
Purify Common Salt. — Grind 50 grams of salt in a mortar
with 150 cc. of water. Filter into a beaker, and conduct
hydrochloric acid gas into the solution, as shown in Fig. 39.
Pure salt separates out. Collect it on
a platinum cone, remove the liquid
with the aid of a filter pump, and dry
the salt by warming it in a porcelain
dish, while stirring it with a glass
rod.
(7) Sodium Carbonate. — Na2CO3.
Recrystallize some of the commer-
cial carbonate. Heat a portion of
the product in a porcelain dish ? What do you observe ?
formation of Sodium Carbonate.
(i) Prepare a finely divided mixture, consisting of six parts
of dehydrated sodium sulphate (Glauber's salt), four parts of
chalk, and one part of carbon. Heat this upon a platinum
foil over a blast lamp until it fuses. After cooling, place the
foil in a porcelain dish, add a little water, and heat to boil-
ing. Filter the solution into a test-tube, and to a portion of
the filtrate add hydrochloric acid. What happens? It indi-
56 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
cates the presence of what ? In a second portion of the filtrate
add hydrochloric acid. In the mouth of the test-tube suspend
a strip of filter paper previously moistened with lead acetate.
What happens? Explain. This experiment maybe said to
illustrate what technical process ?
(2) Make a cold saturated solution of ammonium carbonate
by shaking the finely divided commercial salt repeatedly with
cold water. A saturated sodium chloride solution is prepared
in the same manner. Conduct a current of carbon dioxide
into the ammonium carbonate solution, and occasionally
shake the vessel containing the solution. In the course of
half an hour mix the two liquors, shake the mixture vigor-
ously, run in the carbon dioxide again, and alternate these
operations until a crystalline precipitate separates. What is
it ? Dissolve a portion of it in water, add hydrochloric acid.
Dip a clean platinum wire into the solution and hold it in a
colorless Bunsen flame. What name is given to the technical
process based on this principle ?
Reactions.
(8) Use the purified chloride for the tests, i. What color
do sodium salts give to the flame? 2. Mix a drop of the
aqueous solution with 10 drops of a platinic chloride solution
on a watch-glass. Evaporate very carefully to a small volume.
On cooling, a red-colored salt crystallizes out in long mono-
clinic needles (?). Is it soluble in water? in alcohol? 3. Are
there any salts of sodium which are not soluble in water?
Can compounds of sodium be precipitated by any reagent ?
AMMONIUM.
(i) What is the composition of ammonium? Can it be
obtained in a free state? (See Richter, p. 299.) To a warm
concentrated solution of ammonium chloride, contained in
a large dish, add sodium amalgam (see p. 53). What
METALS OF THE ALKALIES — AMMONIUM. 57
occurs? Hold a piece of reddened litmus paper over the
dish (?).
(2) Dissolve commercial sal ammoniac in a little water,
add ammonia in slight excess, warm, filter if a precipitate is
formed, and evaporate to crystallization ; stir constantly.
Ammonium chloride is thus obtained in the form of a fine
powder.
Reactions.
(3) i. On a piece of platinum foil heat successively small
portions of the chloride, the sulphate, and the nitrate. What
occurs in each case? 2. Mix a little ammonium chloride with
burnt lime in a small mortar. Note the odor of the escaping
gas and its reaction with litmus. 3. Heat a small portion of
ammonium chloride with a caustic soda solution. What is
given off? Explain the action of strong bases upon ammo-
nium salts. 4. Add platinic chloride to a solution of ammo-
nium chloride. Result? 5. To a concentrated solution of
the ammonium salt add tartaric acid and shake the mix-
ture (?). 6. Do compounds of ammonium impart a color to
the flame?
Compare the metals of the alkalies with each other. How
can the compounds of potassium, sodium, and ammonium be
distinguished ?
Problems. — i. How much potassium nitrate is theoretically
obtainable from two kilos of Chili saltpetre of 97 per cent.,
and what amount of sylvite containing 98 per cent, of potas-
sium chloride is required? 2. Suppose that 75 cc. of dilute
nitric acid were required to saturate 50 cc. of a potash lye;
further, that 10 cc. of the acid neutralized 1.06 grams of
sodium carbonate, what amount of caustic potash would the
lye contain? 3. In the valuation of a pearl ash (impure
K2CO3), 29.1 cc. of a sulphuric acid were used to neutralize
five grams of the sample; the acid contained 98 grams of
8
f -,}£ y ^
(XTNIVERSITT
58 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
sulphuric acid per litre ; calculate the percentage of impurities
in the product. 4. Required the minimum amount of marble
that should be burnt to liberate the ammonia from 50 grams
of ammonium nitrate.
CHAPTER IX.
METALS OF THE ALKALINE EARTHS— CALCIUM,
STRONTIUM, BARIUM.
CALCIUM.— Ca.
CALCIUM AND OXYGEN.
(1) i. Ignite two grams of powdered marble in a platinum
crucible to the highest temperature obtainable with the aid
of the blast lamp. Continue this for 15 minutes, occasionally
stirring the mass with a platinum wire ; what is the residue ?
Explain the reaction. 2. Add about five cc. of water to the
product. What do you observe? Test the reaction of the
product with litmus paper.
(2) i. Prepare Lime-Water.— -To the slaked lime obtained
from twenty grams of quicklime (see p. 54) add one litre of
water ; transfer the mixture to a bottle. Cork tightly, shake
and allow to stand. When the solution has become clear,
draw it off by means of a siphon ? What does it contain ?
Of what does the undissolved portion consist ? 2. Place a por-
tion of the lime-water on a watch glass and expose to the air (?).
3. Through a second portion blow air from your lungs (?). 4.
Conduct a stream of carbon dioxide through a third portion
and observe carefully the successive changes. Explain them.
5. What takes place upon boiling the clear solution which is
obtained as the final product in the preceding experiment ?
METALS OF THE ALKALINE EARTHS — STRONTIUM. 59
Salts.
(3) Calcium Chloride. — CaCl2.
i. Evaporate some of the spent acid of a carbon dioxide
generator to dryness. What is the residue? 2. Expose a
little of the salt to the air (?). 3. What use have you made of
calcium chloride previously ? 4. Prepare porous calcium chlo-
ride (CaCl2 -f 2H2O). Dissolve the residue obtained in i in
lime-water, filter, and neutralize exactly with hydrochloric
acid. Evaporate the filtrate to dryness in a porcelain dish,
and heat the residue for some time on the sand-bath. The
solution of the product must show a neutral reaction.
(4) Calcium Hypochlorite. — Ca(ClO)2. (See p. 30.)
(5) Calcium Sulphate.— CaSO*.
i. Carefully heat a few grams of gypsum in a porcelain dish
until the water of crystallization is completely expelled.
Pulverize the residue. What happens when it is made into a
paste with water and allowed to stand ?
Reactions.
Use the pure calcium chloride for the following tests : —
i. Introduce a small portion" of the salt into the Bunsen
flame by means of a platinum wire (?). 2. To the aqueous
solution add ammonium carbonate. Result? 3. To another
portion add dilute sulphuric acid. What is the composition
of the precipitate? Why does it not form in very dilute
solutions ? 4. Add ammonia water and ammonium oxalate
to the filtrate from the calcium sulphate.
STRONTIUM.— Sr.
Reactions.
i. What color is imparted to the Bunsen flame by com-
pounds of this element? 2. Add a gypsum solution to the
solution of a strontium salt (?).
60 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
BARIUM.— Ba.
Reactions.
i. Observe what color barium compounds give to the flame.
Moisten the sample with hydrochloric acid before heating it
(?). 2. To a portion of the aqueous solution of the chloride
add ammonium carbonate. What results? 3. Add dilute
sulphuric acid to a second portion (?).
Point out how the elements of this group may be dis-
tinguished (a) from those of the preceding group ; (£) from
each other.
Problems. — i. How much nitric acid of 20 per cent, will
effect the solution of one gram of Iceland spar (CaCO3) ?
How much carbon dioxide is given off, and what volume
would it occupy at 20° C. under a pressure of 750 mm. ? 2.
Suppose .5 gram of sulphur were dissolved in nitric acid, what
quantity of barium chloride must be added until it ceases to
produce a precipitate? 3. One gram of a mineral consisting
of the carbonates of calcium, strontium, and barium, in the
proportion of their molecular weights, will leave what weight
of the mixed sulphates on treating and evaporating with an
excess of sulphuric acid ?
CHAPTER X.
MAGNESIUM GROUP— MAGNESIUM, ZINC, CADMIUM.
MAGNESIUM.— Mg.
(i) Examine the metal in the forms of ingot, ribbon and
powder. Note its color, lustre and specific gravity. 2. Intro-
duce a piece of the ribbon into the flame with the forceps (?).
MAGNESIUM GROUP — MAGNESIUM. 6 1
What is the product ? 3. Treat a piece of the ribbon with
dilute sulphuric acid. Reaction ?
Salts.
(2) Magnesium Chloride. — MgCl2.
Prepare the ANHYDROUS salt. — Dissolve about 50 grams of
the crystallized (?) chloride and 50 grams of ammonium chlo-
ride in as little water as possible. Evaporate to dryness in a
porcelain dish. Reduce the mass while hot to small pieces in
a mortar, dry it carefully, so as to remove every trace of
moisture. It is best to do this by heating small portions of
the material in a porcelain crucible until it no longer sinters.
A small sample should not give off moisture when heated in a
dry test-tube. Be careful also to prevent re-absorption of
moisture. Quickly transfer the warm powder to a platinum
crucible provided with a well-fitting cover. Heat, at first
gently, to expel the ammonium chloride, then increase the
temperature until the mass is in a state of quiet fusion. It is
the anhydrous salt which, being extremely hygroscopic, should
be preserved in a tightly-stoppered bottle. It should dissolve
in water to a clear liquid.
Why cannot the anhydrous chloride be obtained by evapo-
ration of the aqueous solution ?
(3) Magnesium Sulphate. — Mg SO4 -}- 7H2O.
Recrystallize some of the commercial salt. What is the
form of the crystals ? Taste ?
(4) Reactions.
i. Heat a portion of the sulphate or chloride on a platinum
wire in the Bunsen flame ; moisten with cobalt nitrate solu-
tion and heat again. A pink- colored mass results. 2. Add
some caustic soda to a little of the solution of the chloride (?).
The resulting precipitate dissolves on addition of an ammo-
nium salt (?). 3. Mix a second portion of the chloride solu-
62 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
tion with ammonia water and ammonium chloride, add disod-
ium hydrogen phosphate and agitate the liquid. What is the
composition of the precipitate ? Examine it with the aid of
a lens.
ZINC.— Zn.
(1) How is this metal obtained from its ores?
(2) Study the physical and chemical properties of zinc (see
Richter, p. 320). i. Treat a small piece of pure metal with
dilute sulphuric acid (?). 2. Repeat this experiment, substi-
tuting the impure commercial metal. What difference do
you observe ? What causes it ?
(3) Granulate Commercial Zinc. — Melt 100 grams of the
metal in a well-covered Hessian crucible. The blast lamp
may be used for this purpose, but it is better to perform the
operation in a wind furnace. The crucible is then removed
from the source of heat, and allowed to cool until the molten
metal no longer takes fire when the cover is lifted. Pour the
metal, in a thin stream, into a pail filled with cold water.
Drain the product and dry at a moderate heat.
Salts.
(4) Zinc Sulphate.— -Zn SO4 -f- 7H2O. (See p. 14). i. Pre-
pare some of this salt and recrystallize it carefully from water.
2. Examine the crystals. What other salt have you prepared
that exhibits similar forms? Is there any analogy in the com-
position of the two salts ?
Reactions.
(5) i. Heat a small piece of zinc on charcoal in the oxidiz-
ing flame (?). 2. Moisten the incrustation obtained with a
drop of cobalt nitrate, and heat again. Result? 3. To a
solution of zinc sulphate add ammonium sulphide. What is
the color of the precipitate? Try its solubility in dilute hy-
drochloric acid and in HC2H3O2 (acetic acid). 4. Study the
MERCURY. 63
action of caustic alkalies, e. g. caustic soda, upon the zinc
solution.
How could you distinguish between zinc and magnesium ?
What differences are there between this and the preceding
groups j>
Problems. — i. What is the strength of a sulphuric acid of
which 20 cc. dissolve exactly .048 gram of magnesium? 2.
Suppose it was found that one gram of zinc gave with sul-
phuric acid, 325 cc. of hydrogen at 16° C. and 755 mm.,
and, further, that .369 gram of magnesium produced the same
amount of the gas. Knowing the atomic weight of magne-
sium to be 24, and remembering that the two sulphates are
isomorphous, how is it possible to deduce the atomic weight
of zinc from the data given ?
CHAPTER XI.
MERCURY, COPPER, SILVER, GOLD.
MERCURY.— Hg.
(1) Study the physical and chemical properties of the
metal. Wherein does it differ from the other metals?
MERCURY AND OXYGEN.
(2) Mercuric Oxide. — HgO.
How is this substance prepared ? What is its behavior on
heating?
Mix a little powdered sulphur with dry sodium carbonate
and mercuric oxide. Ignite the mixture in a dry test-tube.
Extract the residue with water, filter, acidify with hydrochloric
acid and add barium chloride. What has become of the
oxide of mercury in this experiment?
64 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Salts.
(3) Mercurous Nitrate. — HgNO3.
An excess of metallic mercury (use 10-15 grams) is treated
in the cold with moderately strong nitric acid until the forma-
tion of crystals is no longer noticeable. Redissolve the crys-
tals by warming, filter, and allow to crystallize.
To prepare a solution of the salt take it up with water acidu-
lated with nitric acid (?).
(4) Mercuric Chloride.— HgCl2.
Dissolve about five grams of metallic mercury in aqua regia.
Evaporate to dryness on a water bath. Place the residue into
a small dry flask, cover the latter with a watch-glass, and heat
cautiously on a sand-bath. What is the sublimate formed in
the upper part of the flask ? Dissolve it in four parts of boil-
ing water and allow to crystallize.
Reactions.
(5) Mercurous Compounds. — Use the solution of the nitrate.
i. Add a few drops of hydrochloric acid to two or three cc.
of the solution. What takes place? Filter, and add ammo-
nia water to the precipitate (?). 2. Add stannous chloride
to another portion of the nitrate solution (?). 3. In a third
portion immerse a strip of copper foil. Examine the stain on
the metal ; is it changed when you hold it in the flame ?
(6) Mercuric Compounds. — The chloride will answer for the
tests.
i. Pass hydrogen sulphide through a dilute solution and
observe the gradation of colors through which the precipitate
passes. What is the final product ? 2. Add stannous chloride,
drop by drop, to the mercury solution. Explain the changes
which occur.
COPPER.— Cu.
i. Preparation. — Ignite the pure oxide in a current of dry
hydrogen (see p. 16). Examine the color and the lustre of
JKIVIIRSITT
COPPER. 65
the product ; test its solubility in hydrochloric acid, sulphuric
acid (both strong and dilute), and nitric acid. Write equa-
tions representing the reactions.
Salts.
(2) Copper Sulphate.— -CuSO, + 5H2O.
To 12 grams of copper in a flask add 45 grams of concen-
trated sulphuric acid, and heat. When the metal has com-
pletely disappeared and the gas (?) ceases to be given off,
allow to cool, place the white crystalline residue (?) into a
porcelain dish, rinse the flask with hot water. Now add a few
drops of nitric acid to the hot water solution, and filter.
From the filtrate the sulphate crystallizes on standing. Re-
crystallize the product.
Does this salt suffer decomposition on exposure to the
atmosphere ? Heat a small quantity in a porcelain crucible,
first moderately, then more strongly (?).
(3) Sulphate of Copper and Potassium. — CuK2(SO4)2 -f-
6H2O.
Prepare solutions of 10 grams of blue vitriol and seven
grams of potassium sulphate, both saturated at 70°. The
latter should also contain a few drops of sulphuric acid. Mix
the solutions : on cooling the double salt separates in whitish-
blue crystals. Examine their form.
Re-actions.
(4) Use either of the salts you have prepared.
i. Mix a little of the salt with sodium carbonate, and heat on
charcoal in the reducing flame (?). 2. Make a borax bead
and dissolve a minute quantity of a copper compound in it.
What color does it give (a) in the oxidizing flame? (^) in
the reducing flame ? (c} when the bead is reduced with a
small piece of tin ? 3. Through a dilute copper solution pass
hydrogen sulphide. Is the resulting precipitate soluble in
9
66 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
hydrochloric acid or in nitric acid? 4. Add ammonia, drop
by drop, to the solution. What changes do you observe? 5.
To a portion of the very dilute solution add potassium ferro-
cyanide (?).
(5) To a solution of copper sulphate in a porcelain dish add
a small piece of zinc. Allow to stand over night. Note the
result. Has the zinc disappeared? Does the solution contain
any of this metal ? In what form ? Where is the copper ?
(6) Repeat the experiment, weighing the copper sulphate
(.1 gram) and the zinc (.5 gram). Add hydrochloric acid in
quantity sufficient to insure the entire solution of the zinc,
collect the copper on a filter, wash with alcohol, dry, heat
gently and weigh it in a porcelain crucible. The filtrate
should be colorless.
Compare the weight of the metallic copper obtained with
that of the zinc employed (?). How does the found copper
accord with the calculated amount of that metal in .5 gram
of CuSO4.5H2O?
Repeat the experiment, using cadmium in place of zinc.
Compare the weights of the metals as before. What deduc-
tion can you make ?
Dissolve one gram of pure copper sulphate in 250 cc. of
water ; to this add one gram of ammonium sulphate and 10 cc.
of ammonia water (specific gravity 0.96). Transfer this solu-
tion to a platinum dish, connect the latter with the cathode
(?) of a battery consisting of from four to six gravity-cells,
and in the solution suspend a flat-spiral of platinum in connec-
tion with the anode (?) of the battery. As the current con-
tinues to act what changes occur? How will you determine
when the reaction is at an end? When this point has been
reached, add sodium acetate to the liquid, interrupt the cur-
rent, pour out the solution and wash the deposit of copper
first with warm water, then with alcohol (?), and after careful
drying, weigh. What is electro-plating?
SILVER. . 67
SILVER.— Ag.
(1) Prepare Pure Silver from a Coin.
Dissolve a 25 -cent piece in nitric acid of specific gravity
1.2. filter (?), and evaporate the blue (?) solution to dryness.
Fuse the residue till it blackens, extract with 250 cc. of water ;
filter. Now add ammonia in large excess, and then, cautiously,
a sodium bisulphite solution (of about 40 per cent.) until on
boiling a small portion of the liquid, it is completely decolor-
ized.
The greater part of the silver separates from the solution on
standing in the cold ; it is well crystallized. The remainder
may be precipitated by warming to 70°. Digest the product
with strong ammonia (?), wash, dry and ignite it.
Examine the metal carefully. What are its physical and
chemical characteristics ?
SILVER AND SULPHUR.
( 2 ) Silver Sulphide. — Ag2S.
Into a dilute solution of silver nitrate (se« next experiment),
containing about two grams of the metal, pass hydrogen sul-
phide. When the liquid smells of the gas, filter off the black
precipitate, wash it with water and dry at 100°.
Salts.
(3) Stiver Nitrate.— AgNO3.
Dissolve the silver obtained in (i) in dilute nitric acid and
evaporate to dryness on the water bath. Dissolve the residue
in 80 cc. of distilled water, and preserve the solution in a dark
bottle (?). What is its reaction. with litmus?
Reactions.
(4) i. Compounds of silver on charcoal before the blow-
pipe give a white metallic globule (?). 2. To a silver solu-
68 . EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
tion — use the nitrate — add hydrochloric acid. Collect the
precipitate on a small filter, wash, dissolve it in ammonia, and
add an excess of nitric acid to the solution (?). Explain
these reactions. 3. Expose a small portion of the chloride to
direct sunlight. Any change ? What practical application is
made of this reaction? (Read Richter, p. 344.)*
(5) Place strips of the metals zinc, iron, tin, lead, and cad-
mium in a solution of silver nitrate. What is the result in
each case ? Explain.
GOLD.— Au.
(1) Prepare pure gold from the commercial metal. Frag-
ments of jewelry or a gold coin may be used. A weighed
quantity of material is placed in a small flask and covered with
concentrated hydrochloric acid. Heat is applied, while small
quantities of nitric acid are continually added from time to
time. The resulting solution is evaporated on the water-bath,
care being taken to exclude dust. Dissolve the residue in
water, filter (?), and add a large excess of a ferrous chloride
solution to the filtrate. Upon heating, metallic gold separates
as a reddish-brown powder. Allow to settle and decant.
Extract repeatedly with dilute, boiling hydrochloric acid, and
collect the gold on a filter. Incinerate the latter in a porce-
lain crucible and weigh the product. How could you distin-
guish the metal gold from mercury, silver, and copper ?
Reactions.
(2) i. .Dissolve a small piece of gold (or of a substance
containing gold) in aqua regia, concentrate the solution at a
gentle heat and pour it into a porcelain dish. Add a solution
of ferric chloride to a stannous chloride solution until the
latter is permanently yellow. After diluting, dip a glass rod
*If practicable, the instructor should here show and explain the prepar-
ation of a photographic negative.
ALUMINIUM. 69
into this and then into the gold solution. A purple streak
(purple of Cassius) is formed. 2. Add ferrous sulphate to
some of the gold chloride solution (?).
In what respects do the members of this group differ from
each other, and how can they be distinguished from the
metals of the preceding groups ?
Problems. — 0.5 gram of mercuric oxide gave on ignition
with carbon 0.463 gram of metallic mercury; the specific
gravity of the vapor of mercuric chloride referred to hydrogen
was found to be 135.5. What is the atomic weight of mer-
cury? 2. The molecule of mercury contains how many
atoms, if the vapor density equals 100? 3. On analysis a
chalcocite was found to contain 20.15 per cent, of sulphur
and 79.85 per cent, of copper. Deduce the molecular formula
of the mineral. 4. What quantities of silver, gold, and mer-
cury can be precipitated from their respective solutions by one
gram of copper ?
CHAPTER XII.
ALUMINIUM, TIN, LEAD, BISMUTH.
ALUMINIUM.— Al.
(1) By what methods is this metal obtained on a large
scale ? What are its properties ? Try the action of the follow-
ing reagents upon aluminium : hydrochloric acid, nitric acid,
and sodium hydroxide solution. Write the reactions.
Salts.
(2) Sulphate of Aluminium and Potassium. — KA1(SO4)2 -f-
i2H,O.
70 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Prepare saturated solutions of aluminium sulphate and
potassium sulphate ; mix these so that the resulting liquid
contains the two sulphates approximately in the proportion of
their molecular weights. The double sulphate crystallizes on
standing. Why ? Recrystallize it from water. What is the
form of the crystals ?
What is an alum ? (See Richter, p. 355.)
Reactions.
(3) Use alum. i. Heat a little of the salt on a platinum
wire in the oxidizing flame, moisten with cobalt nitrate, and
heat again. A blue mass (?) is the product. 2. To an
aqueous solution add ammonia (?). 3. Add ammonium sul-
phide to another portion of the solution. What do you
observe ? 4. To the diluted solution add sodium hydroxide,
drop by drop. Note the successive changes (?).
TIN.— Sn.
(1) Examine a bar of this metal, i. Note the sound it emits
on bending (?). 2. Etch a smooth surface with hydrochloric
acid (?). 3. Try the solution of tin in hot hydrochloric acid.
4. What action have moderately dilute, and concentrated,
nitric acid upon it? Write the reactions.
(2) Determine the Specific Heat of Tin.
A thin glass beaker of about 200 cc. capacity is carefully
covered on the outside with a moderately thin layer of cotton
wool. This may be called the calorimeter. Pour 100 cc. of
distilled water into the beaker. Suspend the thermometer in
the water. Place 25 grams of granulated tin into a test-
tube, close the mouth o'f the latter with a plug of cotton.
Introduce the test-tube with its contents into a beaker glass
containing boiling water. A stout copper wire will serve as a
handle. After 10 or 15 minutes the tin will have acquired the
temperature of the boiling water — 100°. The tube is then
TIN. 71
rapidly removed from the latter and its outer surface freed
from moisture by quickly passing a towel over it. Remove
the cotton from the mouth, and transfer the tin to the calori-
meter. While the metal is being introduced raise the ther-
mometer from the water, and replace it as soon as all the
metal has been added ; stir the liquid well and observe, as
accurately as possible, the highest point reached by the mer-
cury column. Approximate results can be obtained from
these data. Calculate as follows : —
Let y — temperature of water before introducing the
" z = « " " after "
" w = weight of the water.
« v — " of the metal.
" x — sp. heat — then
tin.
x== IPO
25 (ioo-z)
(Study Richter pp. 260-263.) Would' the specific heat
found for tin, when divided into the constant 6.4 give the
same value as that found in experiment (3) for the equivalent
of tin? Explain. How many series of tin compounds are
there ?
(3) Determine the Equivalent Weight of Tin.
Place about two grams of tin in a porcelain crucible that
has been previously weighed. Cover the metal with 5-10 cc.
of concentrated nitric acid. Then carefully apply heat by
means of an iron plate. The tin is dissolved, while fumes of
nitrogen dioxide are set free. When the acid has been
entirely expelled, heat the crucible with the white stannic
oxide over a Bunsen burner; allow to cool and weigh.
Let w = weight of crucible and tin dioxide.
" v = " " " metallic tin.
(« y . « « «
Then w - v = weight of oxygen,
and v - y = " " tin.
w-v
72 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Salts.
(4) Stannous Chloride. — SnCl2.
Dissolve 10 grams of granulated tin in warm concentrated
hydrochloric acid with the addition of a few drops of platinic
chloride (?). Put the solution into a well-stoppered bottle.
Reactions.
(5) Stannous Compounds. — Use the chloride solution.
i. Conduct hydrogen sulphide through a portion of the
diluted liquid. A brown precipitate (?) is thrown down. Is
it soluble in yellow ammonium sulphide? What does hydro-
chloric acid precipitate from the sulphide solution ? 2. What
is the action of mercuric chloride upon Stannous chloride
(see p. 64) ?
(6) Stannic Compounds. — Add a few drops of bromine to a
portion of the Stannous chloride solution, and boil (?). Use
the diluted liquid for the tests.
1. Pass hydrogen sulphide into a portion of the solution.
What is the color of the precipitate? Is it soluble in hydro-
chloric acid ? in ammonium sulphide ?
2. Add copper-turnings, boil, decant the liquid, and add
mercuric chloride. What happens? Explain.
LEAD.— Pb.
(i) How can this metal be obtained from the oxide? By
what physical properties can it be distinguished from other
metals? Is it soluble in the mineral acids? (2) In a solu-
tion of five grams of lead acetate in about 50 cc. of water,
suspend a strip of metallic zinc and let stand for a few days (?).
Salts.
(3) Dissolve five grams of granulated lead (test-lead) by
warming with dilute nitric acid. Concentrate by evaporation
and allow to crystallize.
BISMUTH. 73
Reactions.
(4) i. Before the blowpipe, on charcoal, lead compounds
are reduced to metallic beads, which are sectile with the
knife. ...2. Add hydrochloric acid to a solution of the nitrate.
Boil the precipitate with water (?). What takes place on
cooling? 3. To another portion add dilute sulphuric acid (?).
4. Pass hydrogen sulphide into a third portion (?).
BISMUTH.— Bi.
Reactions.
(i) i. Mix a little of the oxide or nitrate of bismuth with
sodium carbonate and heat in the reducing flame on char-
coal. Does the resulting metallic globule resemble lead ? Is
it sectile? 2. Pass hydrogen sulphide into a solution of the
chloride or nitrate in presence of hydrochloric acid (?). 3.
Add a large volume of water to a bismuth solution. What
occurs? What reactions distinguish aluminium, tin, lead, and
bismuth from each other and from the metals" previously
studied ?
Problems. — i. What is the molecular formula of a mineral
containing
Si02 = 43.08
A1208 = 36-82
CaO = 20.10
2. A compound of tin and chlorine yielded on analysis
29.42 parts of tin and 35.40 parts of chlorine; its vapor
density was ascertained to be 132.85. What is the atomic
weight of tin ? 3. Deduce the formula of Cosalite from the
following analysis: —
S = 15.27
Bi = 41.76
Pb = 40.32
1 00.00
10
74 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
CHAPTER XIII.
CHROMIUM, MANGANESE, IRON, NICKEL, COBALT.
CHROMIUM.— Cr.
CHROMIUM AND OXYGEN.
(1) Chromic Oxide. — Cr2O3.
i. Preparation. — Mix intimately 20 grams of potassium di-
chromate and four grams of sulphur. Heat the mixture in a
porcelain crucible over the blast lamp for about 20 minutes.
Cool, extract the residue with boiling water and dry it at a
gentle heat. What is its color ; is it soluble in dilute hydro-
chloric acid ? 2. Fuse a portion of it with six times its weight
of sodium bisulphate in a platinum crucible. What takes
place ? 3. Repeat this experiment with some finely powdered
chromite. (?)
Salts.
(2) Chromic Chloride.— CrCl3.
Prepare the Anhydrous Salt. — Intimately mix 10 grams of
chromic oxide, prepared as described, and three grams of
powdered charcoal, and convert this into a dough with a little
starch paste. Form the product into balls of the size of a pea ;
dry, and then ignite these (covered with charcoal powder) in
a Hessian crucible, provided with well-fitting lid. Place the
residue into a tube of hard glass, and heat it in a current of
carbon dioxide to expel every trace of moisture. With the aid
of a blast lamp increase the temperature and replace the car-
bon dioxide by a current of chlorine. The excess of chlorine
should be absorbed by conducting it into a bottle filled with
caustic soda. (?) The resulting chromium trichloride sublimes
to the cooler portions of the tube. Describe its appearance.
Is it soluble in water ?
CHROMIUM. 75
What other chlorides are prepared in a similar way ? Write
the equation, expressing the reaction.
(3) Chrome Alum.— Cr2(SO4)3-K2SO4 + 24 H2O.
Dissolve 10 grams of potassium bichromate in a little water ;
acidify with sulphuric acid, pass sulphur dioxide into the
liquid until the latter is saturated with the gas. Allow to
stand ; the double salt crystallizes. What is its crystalline
form? Dissolve some of it in cold water and note the color
of the solution ; now warm it. What takes place (see Richter,
p. 382)?
(4) i. Examine crystals of potassium dichromate. How is
it obtained ? 2. Dissolve 10 grams of this salt in water, and
from a burette carefully add a caustic soda solution until the
color is changed to yellow (?). What crystallizes from the
solution on evaporation ? How can you reconvert the product
into the dichromate?
Reactions.
(5) i. Dissolve a minute quantity of a chromium com-
pound in a borax bead. Heat in the oxidizing and in the
reducing flame. Results? 2. Heat a little of the compound
with potassium nitrate on a platinum foil (?).
(6) Chromic Compounds. — Use chrome alum for the tests.
i. Add caustic soda, drop by drop, to a little of the solution. (?)
Continue the addition of the reagent till the precipitate is
redissolved. What takes place on boiling the solution? 2.
What is the action of ammonia on the solution of the chro-
mium salt? 3. Add an excess of potassium hydrate to the
chromium solution until the precipitate is redissolved. Now
add 5-10 cc. of bromine water and boil. What occurs?
Explain.
(7) Chromates. — Use a solution of potassium chromate.
i. Add lead acetate solution. Note the color of the precipi-
tate. Is it soluble in acetic acid? 2. Substitute barium
chloride for the lead salt in the preceding experiment (?).
76 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
3. Acidify the chromate solution with sulphuric acid and add
hydrogen peroxide to the liquid. What happens? 4. To
some of the chromate solution add a few drops of hydrochloric
acid and about one cc. of alcohol. What occurs when the
mixture is heated to boiling?
MANGANESE.— Mn.
MANGANESE AND OXYGEN.
(1) In what proportions do these two elements unite with
each other? Enumerate the oxides which occur in nature.
What is formed when the oxides of manganese are heated in
hydrogen ? When they are ignited in the air ?
Salts.
(2) Manganous Chloride. — MnCl2 -f- 4H2O.
Evaporate in a porcelain dish the solution obtained in the
preparation of chlorine from manganese dioxide and hydro-
chloric acid. Heat the dry residue over a small flame for
some time. Add much water and boil. Filter, and to y1^ of
the filtrate add a solution of sodium carbonate in excess.
Allow the precipitate (?) to settle, draw off the supernatant
liquid with a siphon, and wash the remaining precipitate
several times with water by decantation. Add the precipitate
then to the principal solution, and digest at a gentle heat
until a small filtered sample mixed with ammonium sulphide
gives a flesh-colored precipitate which is completely dissolved
by dilute acetic acid. Now filter and evaporate to crystalli-
zation.
. (3) Potassium Manganate—}Z..2MnQ^ and Potassium Per-
manganate— K2Mn.2O8.
In a porcelain crucible fuse a mixture of five grams caustic
potash and 2.5 grams potassium chlorate; gradually add five
grams finely powdered manganese dioxide. Maintain a
moderate red heat for 15 minutes. Dissolve the dark-green
IRON. 77
residue in a little water. Observe the color of the solution.
What does it contain? Then dilute with much water and
conduct carbon dioxide into the liquid. Is there any change ?
If so, write the equation expressing it.
Potassium permanganate as well as potassium manganate are
powerful oxidizing agents. Warm a little of the alkaline po-
tassium manganate solution with a few drops of alcohol (?).
To a little of the permanganate solution, acidified with sul-
phuric acid, add sulphurous acid (?). Treat the acidified
solution also with solutions of ferrous sulphate and oxalic
acid (?).
Reactions.
(4) i. What color do manganese compounds impart to a
borax bead in the oxidizing flame ? What is the effect of the
reducing flame ? 2. Heat a little of a manganese compound
with sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate on a platinum
foil. What does the resulting mass contain? 3. To a little
of the solution of the chloride in water add ammonium sul-
phide. What is the color of the precipitate? Test its solu-
bility in acids (including acetic acid). 4. Add caustic soda
to another portion of the chloride solution. Is the precipitate
soluble in an excess of the reagent ? Is its color affected by
exposure to the air? Explain.
IRON.— Fe.
(i) Preparation. — Into a tube of Bohemian glass place a
porcelain boat filled with the finely powdered oxide. Pass a
current of dry hydrogen through the tube, and when all the
air is expelled (how could you test it ?), apply heat to that
part of the tube which contains the boat. What is formed in
the anterior portion of the tube ! After a red heat has been
maintained for 10 minutes allow the boat to cool in hydrogen
and examine its contents. Are they attracted by the magnet ?
Expose the product to the air (?).
7$ EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
How is iron obtained from its ores on a large scale ? What
are its properties ? (see Richter, pp. 396, 400). Distinguish
between cast-iron, steel, and wrought-iron.
(2) Ferrous Sulphate.— FeSO4 -f 7H20-
To 25 grams of iron in the fprm of nails or wire, free from
rust, contained in a flask, add 200 cc. of dilute (i : 4) sul-
phuric acid. When the evolution of the gas (? Note its
odor !) is no longer violent, warm, and finally boil until the
liberation of gas ceases. A sample of the solution poured
into a test tube should, on cooling, give a copious separation
of crystals. Filter into a casserole containing two to three cc.
of cone, sulphuric acid, and let stand for eight hours. Collect
the crystallized product in a funnel the stem of which is
closed with a loose plug of glass wool,* allow the mother
liquor to drain off, wash with very little cold water (?),
and dry between sheets of filter paper. Examine the pro-
duct carefully. Note its color, taste, solubility in water, and
crystal form. What other salts of analogous composition are
isomorphous with it?
What is observed when some of the salt is heated, first
moderately, then strongly, in a tube of hard glass?
Expose the aqueous solution of the salt to the air for several
hours (?).
(3) Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate. — Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2 -f-
6H2O.
In 100 cc. of dilute sulphuric acid dissolve clean iron wire
till no more hydrogen is given off; neutralize a like quantity of
the acid exactly with ammonia water, and add to it a few drops
of dilute sulphuric acid. Filter the iron solution into that of
* It is better to use a perforated platinum cone, and to remove the ad-
hering solution with the aid of a filter pump.
IRON. 79
the ammonium salt. Let the salt crystallize, drain 'it on a
funnel provided with a perforated platinum cone, wash and
dry as described under (2). Preserve in a well-stoppered
bottle. What metals can replace the iron in this salt without
altering its crystalline form ?
(4) Ferric Ammonium Sulphate.— Fe2(SO4)3. (NH4)2SO4 -f
24H20.
Place 20 grams of crystallized ferrous sulphate into a porce-
lain dish together with a few cc. of water and 3.5 grams of oil
of vitriol. Warm on an asbestos plate, adding nitric acid,
drop by drop, until no further change of color (?) is observed.
Evaporate the excess of nitric acid, dissolve the residue in hot
water and add 3.5 grams of ammonium sulphate; filter, and
set the solution aside for crystallization. Separate the crystals
from the mother liquor, and wash and dry jthem as under (2).
To what class of substances does this salt belong ? Why ?
Reactions.
(5) In a borax bead dissolve a small quantity of an iron com-
pound, and treat it successively in the oxidizing and reducing
flames. What changes do you observe ?
(6) Ferrous Compounds. — Use a freshly prepared solution
of ferrous sulphate for the following tests : i. To a few drops
of it, diluted with water, add ammonia. Note the color of the
precipitate, and the changes which occur on exposure to the
air (?). 2. Add ammonium sulphide to another portion (?).
Is the resulting precipitate soluble in hydrochloric acid ?
3. In a porcelain capsule bring together a little of the ferrous
solution and a drop of a potassium ferrocyanide solution.
Result ? 4. In a similar manner test a drop of the iron solu-
tion with ferricyanide of potassium.
(7) Ferric Compounds. — In the presence of free acids,
oxidizing agents convert iron compounds from the ferrous
into the ferric condition, i. Acidify the ferrous sulphate
solution with sulphuric acid, warm, and add concentrated
80 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
nitric acid until it fails to produce a change in color: the
iron is then in the ferric state. 2. Dilute a few drops of the
yellow liquid with several cc. of water and add ammonia (?).
3. Test a drop of the ferric solution with potassium ferrocya-
nide (?). 4. Treat a second drop with ferricyanide of potas-
sium (?). 5. Mix another drop with a solution of potassium
sulphocyanate (?). 6. Conduct hydrogen sulphide into some
of the ferric sulphate solution. What do you observe?
Explain the reaction, and write the equation expressing it.
7. Place a piece of metallic zinc in a test-tube containing a
solution of the ferric salt. What takes place ?
(8) Quantitative Estimation of Iron. — Under manganese it
was observed that the salt potassium permanganate is an oxi-
dizing agent. To show how this salt acts with iron in its
lower form of oxidation, fill a burette with an aqueous solu-
tion of it ; allow it to drop slowly into the solution of a
ferrous salt acidulated with sulphuric acid. The pink color
of the permanganate immediately disappears on stirring with
a glass rod. This continues until the ferrous salt is completely
oxidized to the ferric state. A drop of permanganate added
in excess will then impart a faint pink color to the liquid.
This indicates that the reaction is ended. Write the
FIG. 40.
equation.
This behavior may be utilized for determining
the quantity of iron in a solution. That this may
be done, it is first necessary to standardize the per-
manganate solution. Proceed as follows : Dissolve
about two grams of the permanganate in 1000 cc.
of water. Fill a burette with this solution. Weigh
out .2 gram of clean piano wire. Place this into a small flask
(Fig. 40) provided with a cork and valve.* Cover the iron
wire with dilute sulphuric acid. Warm. When the iron is
*With a sharp knife make a longitudinal incision of about one cm,
length, in a rubber tube, and close one end by means of a glass rod,
COBALT AND NICKEL. 8 1
completely dissolved, remove the cork, add cold water to the
solution, and slowly admit the permanganate until the final
pink coloration appears. Note the volume of permanganate
required to produce this effect. Suppose 30 cc. had been
consumed, then : —
30 cc. K2Mn2O8 = .2000 gram metallic iron.
i « " = .00666 " " "
This is then the standard of the permanganate in iron units.
Next, dissolve one gram of ferrous ammonium sulphate,
in 100 cc. distilled water, add five cc. of sulphuric acid, and
then introduce the permanganate until the final reaction is
observed. Calculate the percentage of iron in this salt and
compare the experimental result with the theoretical value.
How much oxygen will each molecule of permanganate
give up in oxidizing ? How many molecules of ferrous oxide
can be changed to ferric oxide by a molecule of potassium
permanganate.
COBALT.— Co, AND NICKEL.— Ni.
Reactions.
i. Dissolve a minute quantity of a cobalt compound in a
borax bead. Heat first in the oxidizing, then in the reducing
flame (?). 2. What is the behavior of nickel compounds
under like conditions? 3. Add caustic alkali to a solution of
cobalt nitrate, warm the mixture (?). 4. What action have
caustic alkalies on solutions of nickel salts? 5. To the co-
balt solution cautiously add ammonia. After a precipitate (?)
has formed, add more of the reagent. What takes place?
Expose the resulting solution to the air in a shallow dish (?).
6. Treat a nickel solution in an analogous manner (?) 7. To
the solutions of cobalt and nickel each in a separate test-tube,
add ammonium sulphide. Filter and wash the precipitated
sulphides, and test their solubility in acids (?).
82 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Note the colors of cobalt and nickel salts, in the hydrated
as well as in the anhydrous state.
Nickel Carbonyl. — A tube of hard glass is drawn out to a
bayonet at one end, and filled with nickel oxide. A current
of nydrogen is conducted through the tube, while the tempera-
ture is raised to a low red heat. This is maintained until
moisture ceases to condense, when
FIG. 41. , • i j •
the escaping hydrogen impinges
on a cool surface. Cool in an
atmosphere of hydrogen. Carbon
monoxide, washed with caustic
potash and sulphuric acid, is now
passed through the apparatus, and the issuing gas is led
through a tube (Fig. 41) surrounded by a freezing mixture
(care !). What is the colorless mobile liquid which condenses ?
This experiment should be conducted under a hood (?).
Is there any marked difference between cobalt and nickel
in respect to their chemical deportment?
Point out the differences in the reactions of chromium,
manganese, iron, cobalt, and nickel.
How may ferrous compounds be distinguished from ferric?
What conditions are favorable to the conversion of the former
into the latter? The latter into the former?
By what means may chromic salts be changed into com-
pounds of chromic acid ? How may the reverse change be
effected?
Devise a method for separating the elements treated in this
chapter.
Problems. — i. How much potassium bichromate can be
obtained theoretically from 100 kilos of a chromite contain-
ing 58.6 per cent, of chromic oxide? 2. 100 grams of a
PLATINUM.
pyrolusite, which was found to contain four per cent, of im-
purities, will give what volume of oxygen, measured at 20° C.
and 745 mm., when strongly ignited ? What is the weight
of the residue, assuming that one-half of the impurities was
moisture, the other half quartz? 3. How many grams of
nitric acid are required to oxidize 12 grams of crystallized
ferrous sulphate ? 4, What percentage of metallic iron is
contained in a salt, of which .7 gram are exactly oxidized
by 17.8 cc. of permanganate solution (standard : i cc. = .0056
gram Fe) ?
CHAPTER XIV.
Name the metals constituting the platinum group.
PLATINUM.
(1) Examine the metal in the form of foil or wire. Note
its color and lustre. Determine its specific gravity. Is it
fusible in the flame of the Bunsen burner or the blast lamp ?
(2) What are its chemical properties? Place a small piece
of the metal into a test-tube and heat it with concentrated
hydrochloric acid. Any action? Treat another piece with
nitric acid. Result? Combine the contents of both test-
tubes and warm. What takes place?
Platinic Chloride — PtCl4. — Boil platinum scrap with hydro-
chloric acid. Decant the liquid, and dissolve the remaining
metal in nitro-hydrochloric acid. Concentrate the resulting
solution by evaporation on the water bath, and add a strong
solution of ammonium chloride. Filter off the precipitated
platinic ammonium chloride, and after careful drying, ignite
it in a large porcelain crucible. Extract the residue 01
spongy platinum with boiling hydrochloric acid, then djs-
84 EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
solve it in aqua regia, and evaporate to dry ness on the water
bath. Moisten the residue with hydrochloric acid and again
evaporate. Dissolve the product in distilled water.
Reactions.
Use platinic chloride for the tests, i. Add hydrogen sul-
phide water and apply a gentle heat. 2. Add a little grape
sugar and caustic soda to a second portion. Warm. See
under potassium and sodium how solutions of this metal
behave with alkaline chlorides, etc.
APPENDIX.
TABLE OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
MEASURES OF LENGTH.
i metre — 10 decimetres = 100 centimetres = 1000 millimetres,
i metre = 1.09363 yards = 3.2809 feet = 39.3709 inches.
MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
i cubic metre = 1000 litres = 1,000,000 cubic centimetres 1,000,000,000
cubic millimetres.
i litre = 61.02705 cubic inches = .035317 cubic foot = 1.76077
pints = .22097 gallon.
MEASURES OF WEIGHT.
I gram = weight of i cc. of water at 4° C.
i Kilogram = 1000 grams = 100.000 centigrams = 1,000,000 milli-
grams.
I Kilogram = 2.20462 Ibs. = 35.2739 ounces = 15432.35 grains.
TABLE OF ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF ELEMENTS.
Aluminium, . .
. Al
. . 27.0
Chromium, .
. . Cr . .
52.5
Antimony, . .
. Sb
. . 120.0
Cobalt, . .
. . Co . .
59-o
Arsenic, . . .
. As
. . 75.0
Copper, . .
. . Cu . .
63.3
Barium, . . .
. Ba
. v 137.0
Fluorine, . .
. . Fl . .
19.0
Bismuth, ...
. Bi
. . 2080
Gold, . . -.
. . Au . .
197.0
Boron, ....
. B
. . II.O
Hydrogen, .
. . H . .
I.O
Bromine, . . .
. Br
8O.O
Iodine,
I . .
127.0
Cadmium,
. Cd
. . 1 1 2.0
Iron, . . .
. . Fe . .
^/ *w
56.0
Calcium, . . .
.Ca
. . 4O.O
Lead, . . .
. . Pb . .
207.0
Carbon, . . .
. C
. . 12.0
Magnesium,
. . Mg . .
24.0
Chlorine, . . .
. Cl
• • 35-5
Manganese, .
. . Mn . .
550
86
APPENDIX.
TABLE OF ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF ELEMENTS.— Continued.
Mercury, . .
• . Hg . .
2OO.O
Silicon,
. . Si
. . 28.0
Molybdenum,
. . Mo . .
96.0
Silver, . .
• .Ag
. . 108.0
Nickel, . .
. . Ni . .
cq.o
Sodium,
Na
o
Nitrogen, . .
. . N . .
14.0
Strontium,
. . Sr
. . 87.5
Oxygen, . .
. . O . .
16.0
Sulphur,
. . s-
Phosphorus,
. . P
Tin, . . .
. . Sn
118 o
Platinum,
. . Pt . .
195.0
Zinc, . .
. . Zn
. . 65.0
Potassium, .
. . K . .
390
TENSION OF AQUEOUS VAPOR IN MILLIMETRES (Regnault}.
TEMP.
TENSION.
TEMP.
TENSION.
TEMP.
TENSION.
0°
4.6
11°
9.8
21°
18.5
I
4-9
12
10.4
22
19.7
2
5-3
13
II. I
23
20.9
3
5-7
14
II.9
24
22.2
4
6.1
15
12.7
25
23-6
5
6.5
16
'3-5
26
25.0
6
7.0
17
14.4
27
26.5
7
7-5
18
15-4
28
28.1
8
8.0
19
16.3
29
29.8
9
8.5
20
17.4
30
31.6
10
9.1
THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND THE WEIGHT OF A LITRE
OF GASES.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Regnaulf).
AT 0° AND 760 MM.
REFERRED TO
WATER AT 4°.
REFERRED TO AIR
UNDER LIKE TEM-
PERATURE AND
PRESSURE.
ONE LITRE IN ITS
NORMAL CON-
DITION, IN GRAMS.
Air,
0.0012928
I.OOOOO
1.2932
Oxygen
0.0014293 1.10563
1.4300
Nitrogen, ....
0.0012557 0.97137
1.2562
Hydrogen, . f .
0.00008954 0.06926
0.0896
Carbon dioxide, .
0.001977
1.529
1.9663
OF THE
Catalogue No. 4. December, 1895.
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culture, and the Arts. By FRANCIS SUTTON, F.C.S., F.I.C., Public
Analyst for the County of Norfolk. Seventh Edition. Revised and
Improved. 102 Illustrations. In Press.
SYMONDS. Manual of Chemistry, for Medical Students.
By BRANDRETH SYMONDS, A.M., M.D., Ass't Physician Roosevelt
Hospital, Out-Patient Department; Attending Physician North-
western Dispensary, New York. Second Edition. Cloth, $2.00
TRIMBLE. Practical and Analytical Chemistry. Being
a complete course in Chemical Analysis. By HENRY TRIMBLE,
PH.M., Professor of Analytical Chemistry in the Philadelphia College
of Pharmacy. Fourth Edition. Illustrated. 8vo. Cloth, $1.50
WATTS' Inorganic Chemistry. (Being the Fourteenth Edi-
tion of FOWNE'S INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.) By HENRY WATTS, B.A.,
F.R.S. Plate of Spectra and Illustrations. 12010. Cloth, $2.00
Organic Chemistry. Second Edition. By WM. A. TILDEN,
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CHEMISTRY.) Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, $2.00
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BOOKS FOR CHEMISTS AND MANUFACTURERS.
WOODY. Essentials of Chemistry and Urinalysis. By
SAM E. WOODY, A.M., M.D., Professor of Chemistry and Public
Hygiene, and Clinical Lecturer on Diseases of Children, in the
Kentucky School of Medicine. Fourth Edition. Revised with
Tables and Illustrations. 1 2mo. Nearly Ready.
" The fact that Prof. Woody's little book has reached a third edition in such
a short time is sufficient proof of its usefulness for, and demand by, the medical
student. The selection of the material and its plan of presentation resulting from
the author's large experience as a practitioner and teacher of medical chemistry is
well intended to offer to the student that which is really essential for his limited
college course, and, it is to be hoped, a basis for future instruction in the important
branch of medical science." — American Journal of Medical Science.
TOXICOLOGY.
REESE'S Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology. A
Text-book for Medical and Legal Practitioners and Students. By
JOHN J. REESE, M.D., late Professor of the Principles and Practice
of Medical Jurisprudence, including Toxicology, in the University
of Pennsylvania, Medical Department. Fourth Edition. Revised
by HENRY LEFFMANN, M.D., Pathological Chemist, Jefferson Medi-
cal College Hospital, Philadelphia; Hygienist and Food Inspector
Pennsylvania State Board of Agriculture, etc. i2mo. 624 pages.
Cloth, $3.00; Leather, $3.50
" To the student of medical jurisprudence and toxicology it is invaluable, as
it is concise, clear, and thorough in every respect." — The American Journal of
the Medical Sciences.
"The book happily meets the needs of students, and we unqualifiedly com-
mend it." — American Practitioner and News, Louisville.
" The book will be found to be a useful one, and as such we commend it to
students of law and medicine." — Marshall D. Ewell, Dean of the Kent Law
School, Chicago.
TANNER'S Memoranda of Poisons and their Antidotes
and Tests. By THOS. HAWKES TANNER, M.D., F.R.C.P. Seventh
American, from the last London Edition. Revised by JOHN J.
REESE, M.D., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology
in the University of Pennsylvania. 1 2mo. Cloth, . 75
" The fact of any technical work, great or small, reaching its seventh edition
speaks for itself. In the most condensed form are given the history of poisons,
their antidotes, and various mechanical methods for overcoming the tendency toward
death. The principal changes in the new edition have been the substitution of
modern chemical nomenclature and the omission of obsolete portions of the old
text. The toxicology of poisonous food has been presented as fully as the concise
character of the book allows." — Medical Record, New York.
The prices of these books are net. No discount allowed retail purchasers.
TECHNOLOGICAL BOOKS.
GROVES AND THORP. Chemical Technology. The
Application of Chemistry to the Arts and Manufactures. Edited
by CHARLES E. GROVES, F.R.S., and WM. THORP, B.SC., F.I.C. In
about eight octavo volumes, with numerous Illustrations. Each
volume sold separately. See Page 2 of this Catalogue.
Vol. I. Fuel and Its Applications. By Dr. E. J. MILLS,
F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, Anderson College, Glasgow; and
Mr. F. J. ROWAN, C.E., assisted by an American expert. 607
Illustrations and 4 Plates. Cloth, $5.00; Half Morocco, $6.50
"It is without doubt the most useful and comprehensive book in the English
language on fuels, and is a valuable acquisition to our standard books of refer-
ence."— Journal of the Franklin Institute.
" It covers a wide range of knowledge, and should be at the elbow of every
intelligent and progressive manufacturer. " — The Iron Trade Review, Cleveland.
" The book will be very useful for reference, and should be of especial value
to the inventors and experimenters or users of processes or appliances for the com-
bustion of fuels, since in it can be found a record of a large part of the methods
heretofore proposed and adopted. Where critical remarks are made they appear to
be judicious. The illustrations are very numerous and are well selected. An
immense amount of information has been crowded into these closely printed 802
pages." — Engineering and Mining Journal, New York.
"The book is very fully illustrated, as, indeed, the nature of the subject
requires, and includes a large number of tables giving fuel statistics, analyses of
different fuels, and comparative results." — The Railroad and Engineering Journal.
Vol. II. Lighting. By W. Y. DENT, I. MCARTHUR, L. FIELD,
F. A. FIELD, BOVERTON REDWOOD, and D. A. Louis. 358 Illus-
trations. Octavo. Just Ready.
Cloth, $4.00; Half Morocco, $5.50
Vol. III. Lighting — Continued. In Press.
*q* Descriptive Circtilar, List of Illustrations, etc., free upon application.
GARDNER. The Brewer, Distiller, and Wine Manu-
facturer. Giving full Directions for the Manufacture of Beers,
Spirits, Wines, Liquors, etc., etc. A Handbook for all interested
in the manufacture and sale of Alcohol and Its Compounds. Edited
by JOHN GARDNER, F.C.S., Editor of " Cooley's Cyclopedia" and
".Beasley's Druggists' Receipt Book." Illustrated. Cloth, $1.50
" Trustworthy and valuable." — German and American Brezveri Journal.
" A very complete handbook." — Boston Journal of Chemistry.
Bleaching, Dyeing, and Calico Printing. With Formulae ;
a Chapter on Dye Stuffs. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, #1.50
" A serviceable manual." — Inventors'' and Manufacturers' Gazette.
"Worthy the confidence of the large class of workmen for whom it is in-
tended."— Textile Record.
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BOOKS FOR CHEMISTS AND MANUFACTURERS.
CAMERON. Oils and Varnishes. A Practical Handbook,
by JAMES CAMERON, F.I.C. With Illustrations, Formula, Tables,
etc. i2mo. Cloth, $2.25
Soap and Candles. A New Handbook for Manufacturers,
Chemists, Analysts, etc. 54 Illustrations. i2mo. Cloth, $2.00
" The subject is thoroughly treated and the work will be of value to students
and all others interested in this branch of manufactures." — Popular Science News ,
Boston.
"The book shows the results of wide reading and of careful collection of
data. . . . We can recommend it to any one interested in the manufacture of
soap or of candles as a work that will prove most useful to him." — The Journal
of the Franklin Institute.
OVERMAN'S Practical Mineralogy, Assaying, and Min-
ing, with a Description of the Useful Minerals, etc. By FREDERICK
OVERMAN, Mining Engineer. Eleventh Edition. Cloth, $1.00
WATER AND MILK ANALYSES.
LEFFMANN. Examination of Water for Sanitary and
Technical Purposes. Presenting those Processes that are Most Trust-
worthy and Practical. By HENRY LEFFMANN, M.D., Professor of
Chemistry and Metallurgy, Pennsylvania College of Dental Sur-
gery, Hygienist and Food Inspector Pennsylvania State Board of
Agriculture, etc. Third Edition. Revised and Enlarged. Illus-
trated. i2mo. Cloth, $1.25
"This is a well compiled and useful little treatise." — London Lancet.
" An admirable digest of our present knowledge." — Journal of Analytical
Chemistry.
" It gives all the standard methods for determining the constituents of water,
together with a particularly valuable chapter giving, in brief, the biological exami-
nation with determination of colonies of bacteria." — Scientific American.
" Especially valuable is the section on interpretation of results." — Railroad
and Engineering News.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
Analysis of Milk and Milk Products. Arranged to suit
the needs of Analytical Chemists, Dairymen, and Milk Inspectors.
i2mo. Cloth, $1.25
"The book is one which will be useful in the hand of the dairyman, as well
as in the hands of those whose duty it is to see that he deals fairly with his cus-
tomers."— London Sanitary Record.
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MICROSCOPICAL BOOKS.
CARPENTER. The Microscope and Its Revelations. By
W. B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S. Seventh Edition. By Rev. DR.
DALLINGER, F.R.S. Revised and Enlarged, with 800 Illustrations
and 21 Lithographs. Octavo, noo pages. Cloth, $5.50
" The book, therefore, cannot fail to be of value to chemists and others at
iron works intrusted with the microscopical examination of the metals with which
they deal." — The American Manufacturer, Pittsburgh.
" Every one who has a microscope will need also Carpenter's book to get the
most out of his instrument, and every one who has the book will be certain to want
a microscope." — Popular Science Monthly.
"It is without a rival in its particular field, and is beyond question the best
single work on the subject, not only in English but in any other language. . . .
A splendid specimen of the book-maker's art."
" The book is more than ever a standard, unrivaled in its kind, and is a neces-
sity to every one who pretends to any scientific use of the microscope." — New York
Evening Post.
WETHERED. Medical Microscopy. By FRANK J. WETH-
ERED, M.D., M.R.C.P. With ioo Illustrations. i2mo.
Cloth, $2.00
REEVES. Medical Microscopy. Including chapters on
Bacteriology, Neoplasms, Urinary Examination, etc. By JAMES E.
REEVES, M.D., Ex-President American Public Health Association,
etc. Illustrated. 121110. Cloth, $2.50
THE BEST DICTIONARY.
GOULD. Illustrated Dictionary of Medicine and Allied
Sciences, including Chemistry, Biology (Zoology and
Botany), Hygiene, etc. Large, Square Octavo. 1633 pages.
Half Morocco, ) .. ,,,..,, r~, , T
-p J, c, ' v$io.oo. With Thumb Index, $n.oo
Half Russia, Thumb Index, $12.00
*#* There being no special dictionaries devoted to Chemistry and Biology,
it was thought eminently proper to include both these sciences in this book. They
are closely related to medicine, and each is largely dependent upon the others.
Gould's Illustrated Dictionary contains much special information of practical use to
the general scientist. Bacteriology and Parasitology are particularly well pre-
sented, while the numerous tables of Acids, Alcohols, Aldehyds, Carbohydrates,
Electric Units, Ethers, Foods, Hydrocarbons, Laws, Milks, Oils, Pigments, Pto-
mains, Resins, Soaps, Stains, Starches, Sugars, Tests, Theories, Wave Lengths,
Weights and Measures, etc., will be found unique and exceedingly valuable.
Jgjg*' Handsome descriptive circular, with sample pages and illustrations, will
be sent free upon application.
The prices of these books are net. No discount allowed retail purchasers.
HYGIENE AND SANITARY SCIENCE.
COPLIN AND BEVAN. Practical Hygiene. By W.
M. L. COPLIN, M.D., Adjunct Professor of Hygiene, and D. BEVAN,
M.D., Ass't Department of Hygiene, Jefferson Medical College,
Philadelphia; Bacteriologist, St. Agnes' Hospital, with an introduc-
tion by Prof. H. A. HARE, and articles on Plumbing, Ventilation,
etc., by Mr. W. P. Lockington. 138 Illustrations, some of which
are in colors. 8vo. Cloth, $4.00
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Introduction.
Chapter I. Hygiene— Health— Cause and
Prevention of Disease.
II. Individual or Personal Hy-
giene.
III. Clothing.
" IV. Food — Examination of
Meats, Liquors, etc.
" V. Water— Its Sources, Storage,
Distribution, Purification,
VI. Air.
Analysis, etc.
Chapter VII. Climate.
VIII. Soil.
" IX. Habitations.
" X. Sewage— Its Disposal, etc.
" XI. Disposal of the Dead.
" XII. Technic— Methods of Col-
lecting, Preserving, and
Handling Specimens,
Staining, Necessary Ap-
Appendix.
Index.
paratus, etc.
The many special subjects considered in this volume demanded much expert
knowledge ; in order, therefore, that the statements made should be accurate, the
authors have consulted with and received valuable help from various specialists
in Architecture, Food Analysis, Chemistry, Heating, Ventilation, etc.
STEVENSON AND MURPHY. A Treatise on Hy-
giene. Illustrated. Edited by THOMAS STEVENSON, M.D., F.R.C. P.,
Lecturer on Chemistry and on Medical Jurisprudence at Guy's Hos-
pital, Official Analyst to the Home Office; and SHIRLEY F. MUR-
PHY, Medical Officer of Health to the County of London.
Vol. I. 9 Plates. 186 Illustrations. 1013 pages. Cloth, $6.00
Vol. II. 45 Plates. 31 Illustrations. 847 pages. Cloth, $6.00
Vol. III. Sanitary Law. 459 pages. Cloth, $5.00
EACH VOLUME SOLD SEPARATELY.
" The different topics are fully and intelligently treated, especially those
which relate to the subjects of Ventilation, Water, Soil, Food, Physical Education,
the Dwelling, and the Disposal of Refuse. The work is fully illustrated with
plates, diagrams, and wood-cuts, and pains appear to have been taken to bring the
information upon each topic up to date." — The Boston Medical and Surgical
Journal,
" All the topics are treated with a thoroughness of detail leaving nothing to
be desired. The contents are valuable alike to the physician, the municipal health
officer, and the sanitary engineer." — Medical Record, New York.
"The additions which during recent years have been made to our knowledge
of preventive medicines and of the conditions which affect health demand larger
treatment than can be given in a handbook. The suggestion made by the late
Professor de Chaumont, that a treatise should be issued containing essays by vari-
ous authors, was therefore well worthy of adoption, for it is obvious that special
knowledge is required for the discussion^f-rasfeoijtygj^gv^ral^ subjects which come
within the scope of such a work." —
\* For complete list of books on Hygiene, send for our Special Catalogue.
THE PRICES OF THESE BOOKS ARE NET.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
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