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SUITABLE EQUIPMENT IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN SUCCESS IN ARTIFICAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

1i—Turning and cooling eggs—Scene in incubator room, Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station. 2—Newly
hatched chicks, ready for the brooder. 8—Growing stock on range—Scene at Purdue University. 4—Colony hover
brooder house on United States Government Poultry Experimental Farm. 5—Outdoor lamp-heated brooders—Scene on

Government Poultry Farm.

| ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING |
AND BROODING -

A Complete Guide to the Successful Hatching and
| Rearing of Chicks by Modern
Artificial Methods

: HOMER W. JACKSON, Editor

| FULLY ILLUSTRATED

) . FOURTH EDITION

PRICE, $1.00

Copyright, 1922, by RELIABLE POULTRY JOURNAL PUBLISHING COMPANY

PUBLISHED BY
RELIABLE POULTRY JOURNAL PUBLISHING COMPANY

|
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|
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Copyright, 1919, by RELIABLE POULTRY JOURNAL PUBLISHING COMPANY
)
) DAYTON, OHIO, U.S. A.

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INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER
Selectionvon Breeding Stocks. ig. « «nis ce once ee 9
CHAPTER II
Management of Breeding Stock. ..........eeeee eee eee e cence 15
CHAPTER III
The Hen’s Egg and How It Is Formed....................-00. 22
CHAPTER IV - |
The Chick Embryo and Its Development... .........- +. eee eee eee 28
CHAPTER V
Operation of Incubators. ...... 66.6. eee eee eee eee ene eee ees 34
; CHAPTER VI
Mistakes im Artificial Incubating.. «..:. «a.m pening ee 48
CHAPTER VII
Day-Old Chicks and Custom Hatching. ............ 00sec eee ees 54
CHAPTER VIII
Practical Incubator Houses... 6... sce eee e ecu e scene ee eee este 59
CHAPTER IX
The Selection of Brooding Equipment... 0.0... 6.6... e eee ee eens 65
CHAPTER X
Care and Management of Brooder Chicks. ..........000c0 esse ees 76
CHAPTER XI
Feeding the Brooder Chicks. ...........00 esses seen eens een
CHAPTER XII
Brooder Houses and How To Build Them...........+-.00++0e ees 94
-CHAPTER XIII
Ailments and Diseases of Chicks... yoy fo... cee eee eee eens 103

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INTRODUCTION

RTIFICIAL hatching and brooding of chicks is a
practice almost as old as history, and methods
substantially the same as those that were in gen-
eral use before the dawn of the Christian era still

are followed in Egypt and other Oriental lands. The
secrets of the trade are regularly handed down from
father to son and as jealously guarded, as unchanged ap-
parently, and as unaffected by modern ideas as when they
were first developed more than 2,000 years ago.

Crude as these methods and facilities undoubtedly
are, they are fairly efficient—at least from an Oriental
viewpoint, and in Egypt especially, the community “hatch-
eries” still are the almost exclusive source from which
native villagers and small farmers secure their annual
supply of chicks. They are, in fact, essential to the ex-
istence of the poultry industry, as the fowls kept in that
country are practically all non-sitters.

The method of constructing and operating a typical
Egyptian hatchery is described in a U. S. Consular report
issued by the Government, from which the following ex-
tracts are taken:

“The artificial hatching of eggs has been so long
practiced in Egypt that the hens have completely aban-
doned that part of their work to man. It is a regular
industry and the professors form a very close corpora-
tion, handing down their secrets from father to son. For
three months of the year their time is completely ab-
sorbed by constant attention at the incubatories.

“The population of Egypt is very dense, about 700
per square mile. This agglomeration fosters the use of
large incubatories, each turning out from 300,000 to
600,000 chicks each season. In some villages there are
from three to five of these establishments. They are
generally near some important market place, and each
one apparently in the center of a district of about 50,000
population. That is, each one is the center of a circle
having a radius of five miles. It is this density of the
population that has allowed this system of artificial
hatching to become so very successful.

“The hatchers do not attempt to rear the young
broods. Forty-eight hours after the chicks emerge from
the shell they are scattered over the country; overcrowd-
ing is thus prevented. This distribution is affected in a
very simple manner. As the incubator is near a market
place, word is sent there that on such a day there will
be so many young chicks. This news is quickly dis-
seminated among the villages, and on the appointed day
the women arrive with their cages and purchase the young
chicks, which are generally sold by the hundred for about
$1.50 per hundred. There are also a number of brokers
or dealers who take the young chicks to the more dis-
tant villages.

“Once in the village the chicks become the property
of the women, who take great care of them during the
first week. For two or three days they are kept in cages
in lots of twenty or thirty and fed on broken grains slight-
ly moistened. At night the cages are taken into the
houses and sometimes covered with a bit of cloth. After
these first few days the young birds are strong enough
to forage for a living; they then are allowed to roam
about freely, and at night are kept in a sort of oven
placed in the corner of the courtyard. This oven is
made of unburnt clay and in shape is like the letter U
laid on one side. The top is slightly perforated. The

entrance is closed by a heavy stone to keep off foxes and
other vermin. :

“It is difficult to get any exact figures as to the
number of these incubatories, but judging from those
personally known to me, and their distances apart, J
should estimate the number at 150, with an average pro-
duction of 300,000 chicks per season.- This estimate must
be well within the mark, as the population of Egypt is
nearly 7,000,000 and fowls form a very large part of the
Egyptian diet, so that the production of 45,000,000 table
fowls annually would be a short supply.

“The Egyptian incubatory of today is but a repro-
duction of the one of thousands of years ago. The ordi-
nary form is an oblong, 100 feet in length by 60 feet in
width, the height varying from 12 to 15 feet. The illus-
tration on page 7, though not drawn exactly to scale,
shows the general arrangement. The outer chamber A
is divided into three rooms, the middle one masking the
entrance to the ovens and thus excluding the outer air.
The door leading from A into the central hall is very
small. B represents the ovens of the upper tier. C is
the manhole; the attendant stands in this and manipu-
lates the eggs. DD are spaces in the central hall for
the reception of the young chicks. These spaces are
marked off by ridges of dried mud about 9 inches in
height. Fig. 3 is a door giving access to the interior of
the oven. Around the walls and parallel to it runs a
raised ridge 6 inches in height; between this and the
wall the fires are lighted. In the top of the dome is a
small aperture about two inches square for the exit of
smoke and for regulating the heat.

“The outer wall, 4 feet thick, is generally built of
sun-dried bricks; the mortar is simply mud. The space
contained within the walls is divided as shown in Fig. 1.
The circular ovens are built up and the spaces between
them and the wall filled in with brick and mortar, the
same as the outer wall. Each set of ovens, the upper
and the lower, is perfectly independent and is covered by
a dome having a very small aperture in the crown. Fig. 2
represents the elevation on the line AB of Fig. 1. The
height of the lower oven is 4 feet and that of the upper
one 9 feet. The interior diameter between the ridges
DD is 15 feet. Fig. 3 represents the elevation on the
line CD of Fig. 1, and shows the disposition of the cen-
tral wall and the doors of the ovens. For this particu-
lar incubatory the attendants consist of two men and
a boy.

“Tn the month of January, about the 10th, fires are
lighted in all the ovens and on the floor of the central
hall. The entire building is thoroughly warmed to a
temperature of 110 degrees Fahrenheit. The fires are at
fitst composed of gelleh or dried cow dung, but when
the eggs are placed in the oven, coarse broken straw,
mostly the joints, and sheep or goat dung is used. The
fuel is placed in the trough between the hall and the
ridge, and is lighted at one or more places, according to
the degrees of heat required. This is the only means of
tegulating the heat. Thermometers are not used. The
attendants endeavor to keep the heat a trifle greater than
that of their own skin. While the oven is being warmed,
notice is sent out to the villages that the establishment
will purchase eggs on such a date. The country people
arrive with large crates containing from 1,000 to 2,000.
These are purchased outright by the establishment at
the rate of $4.00 per 1,000.

“The floor of the oven is covered with a coarse mat
made of palm leaves; on this a little bran is sprinkled te

.prevent the eggs from rolling. The attendant changes

the position of the eggs twice a day, taking those from
near the manhole and placing them on the outer edge of
the circle and vice versa. The eggs are tested on the
fourth day and again six days later, the infertile and
dead germs being removed. After the eggs have been
fifteen days in the ovens they are daily examined, and so
delicate is the touch of the attendant that he can at once
distinguish if the egg is alive by the fact that it should
be slightly warmer than his own skin.

“At the expiration of twenty-one days the chicks
commence to emerge from the shells, the attendants con-
stantly aiding them. They are placed in the spaces DD,
illustration 1, and left to dry for nearly forty-eight hours,
but they are not fed. The sale then commences and in
a few hours they are spirited away. The temperature in
the central hall is maintained at 98 F., and that of the
ovens slightly more.”

Development of the Modern Incubator

The modern incubator may be said to date from
about 1875 when the comparatively crude forerunners of
the present type of lamp-heated incubator appeared on
ithe market. To develop the modern incubator, however,
with its automatic and exact regulation of heat, its
adaptability to a wide variety of conditions, its sim-
plicity and its durability, and to do this without making
the cost exorbitant, was by no means a simple or easy
matter.
unquestionably so, and the standard lamp-heated incuba-
tor of the present day is truly remarkable in efficiency,
and low cost, and in ease and accuracy of operation. It
will bear comparison with any of the modern, high-grade
“tools” that have been perfected for the use of those en-
gaged in other lines of agricultural production.

Lamp-heated incubators now are made in various
sizes, from 50 to 400-egg capacity or more, the latter ap-
parently being the practical limit for machines of this
type. For larger capacity (500 to 2,500 eggs) there are
incubators heated with oil or gas stoves; and for still
larger capacity there are mammoth incubators heated
with hot water, supplied from a central coal, oil or gas
burning boiler or heater, and furnished in any desired
capacity up to many thousands of eggs. These huge
machines are in especial demand on extensive poultry
farms and in hatcheries, where large capacity must be
secured along with low operating cost. There also are
several makes of small incubators heated by means. of
electricity, an entirely practical and economical method
where current can be secured at reasonable rates.

Development of Modern Brooding Devices

In the development of brooding devices, as great or
even greater progress has been made. These artificial
mothers are quite simple in construction and operation,
are thoroughly practical and efficient, and are moderate
in cost. The first lamp-heated brooder that could be
said to be really satisfactory was similar to the one illus-
trated on page 67, the method of heating which is still
utilized in many homemade brooders, though the heating
capacity is limited and such brooders are far from safe
as regards fire. Various types of brooders and methods
of providing heat were devised and used to a limited ex-
tent until the introduction of hovers of the Universal and
Adaptable types which may be said to have solved the
problem of thoroughly safe, convenient, and practical
lamp-heated brooders. These hovers are installed in reg-
ular brooder cases ready-made or homemade, or in small
portable houses. They can be operated indoors in mild

6

These problems however, have been solved—_

weather with complete success, without case or other
enclosure.

For indoor use, with or without a case, the type of
lamp-heated hover known as “portable” is especially con-
venient, as it can be placed directly on the floor of the
house and requires no holes-in wall or floor to adapt
the building to its use. Portable hovers have a more
limited range of usefulness, however, owing to their
lower heating power. Small hovers heated by electric
current are quite extensively used where conditions are
favorable.

Hot water pipe brooding systems have been in use for
many years. This method of brooding is rather expen-
sive in first cost, but has no superior where chicks are
to be brooded in extremely cold weather. There has been
no particular change in this type of brooder for many
years, the preference of operators still being divided be-
tween the “open-pipe” and the closed pipe systems, the
latter with either overhead or underneath installation.
For brooding in moderately cold weather, when the great
majority of chicks are brought out, there are various
types of colony hovers heated with coal, oil or gas. These
mammoth hovers brood chicks in flocks of many hun-
dreds and have almost completely displaced lamp-heated
hovers where chicks are to be brooded in large numbers.

A Billion Dollar Industry

While artificial brooding and incubating is, as we
have seen, an ancient art, it has only been in compara-
tively recent years that, chiefly through the genius of
American inventors, the methods have been modernized
and made efficient and practical for poultry growers
everywhere. And it is chiefly because poultry keepers
now have truly automatic, labor-saving equipment for
hatching and raising their fowls that the poultry indus-
try has reached its present great proportions—has be-
come a “billion-dollar industry.” Great as the industry
now is, the possibilities in the way of still further in-
creasing the profitable production of table fowls and
eggs are scarcely realized as yet, and will not be until
poultry growers generally learn fully to avail themselves
of the help that the modern incubator and brooder can
give.

It is freely conceded that chicks can be successfully
hatched and reared with hens, and with laborious, pains-
taking care high averages in eggs hatched and chicks
raised can be secured in this way. It is doubtful, how-
ever, whether any one has ever realized a dollar a day
for the time spent in raising chicks by the natural
method. The number that any one person can hatch and
tend with hens is simply too small to make it possible
to secure anything like adequate returns for the time
spent. Those who follow the natural method must give
up the idea of volume, because that method makes vol-
ume impossible. Two or three or half-a-dozen broody
hens can be handled with comparative ease, but beyond
that it becomes real labor—and a serious waste of time.

If there were any place where the natural method
could be successfully adopted it would be on the farm
where there is unlimited room, most favorable natural
conditions, and where the hens can take care of them-
selves with the least possible attention. Most of those
who have tried it, however, know that even on the farm
it can only be done at the expense of a lot of somebody’s
time, while the broken eggs, deserted nests, lice-infested
fowls, the hens and chicks taken by various enemies, and
the many other sources of loss, lay a heavy tax upon
the farm flock, which is only endured because the ex-
tent of the losses is seldom realized. Without doubt.

the general and intelligent adoption of artificial methods
of raising chicks would, within a very few years, make
it possible to double the annual income now being real-
ized from farm poultry.

There are no grounds for questioning the statement
that incubators and brooders offer extraordinary facili-
ties for increasing the earning capacity of those engaged
in the work. It is not through a mere notion or through
the possession of unlimited funds, that commercial poul-
try keepers the country over have come to depend almost
exclusively on artificial methods. They know that they
cannot realize a profit on their work unless they do so.
In the saving of time alone the artificial method com-
pletely justifies itself. It is common experience that
where chicks can be raised by hundreds with hens, they
can be raised by thousands with incubators
and brooders, and with no more labor. Ona
smaller scale the saving in time is just as
great, proportionately, and just as important
from a practical point of view.

Why Incubators and Brooders Are

Indispensable

The saving in time is the big thing, of
course, but incubators and brooders offer
other advantages as well. The person who
wishes to raise only a comparatively small
number of chicks may not care how much it
costs, in point of time, but everyone certainly
is interested in raising them the easiest, clean-
est, and most pleasant way. To the market-
egg producer the ability to bring off his chicks
at just the right time to insure a supply of
pullets for fall and winter laying, is a most
important asset. The great scarcity of eggs
at this season (November to February) is due,
in large measure, to the limited number of
early-hatched pullets, and this condition will
continue to exist just as long as hen hatching
is generally depended upon to maintain the
laying flocks. This is true because hen hatch-
ing means late hatching, and late-hatched pul-
lets are late layers and hence late sitters, and
that means late hatches again, and so this evil
perpetuates itself, year after year. Those who
have incubators, however, are able to bring off
their chicks at early dates, which practically
assures them of a profitable fall and winter
egg yield.

There is a double advantage to farmers in
being able to have their chicks hatched out
early in the season, as this makes it possible
for them to attend to the work and to carry the chicks
along past the delicate stage of their existence before the
regular spring farm work begins to crowd. A little later
on, plowing, planting, garden making, and an all but im-
possible assortment of other jobs come in a heap, taxing
the strength and endurance of everyone in the household.
But earlier in the season, before it is time to get the
crops in, or before the ground is dry enough to work, is
just the time for getting the chicks out, and the easiest
time, too—if an incubator is used.

Those who wish to raise a definite number of chicks
each year in order to have sufficient pullets to keep the
laying flock up to its usual size without having to carry
over a lot of old hens, find one of the most important
advantages in artificial incubation in the fatt that they

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are able thus to shorten the incubation period and get the
chicks all off in one or two broods. This brings the work
of caring for them within a short period of time, whereas,
when hens are used, the hatching must necessarily string
along from March to June, as the hens are individually
pleased to take over this duty, thus multiplying the trou-
ble of caring for the newly hatched chicks. Most of
these, of course, will be too late for winter layers, too
late for the cockerels to command the best broiler prices,
too late for the most favorable season for raising them—
too late for about everything that the wide-awake poultry
keeper considers worth while. And moreover, with chicks
of various ages and sizes, the later hatches always have
a struggle for their lives and often lose whatever chance
they originally had for amounting to anything, through

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PLAN OF AN EGYPTIAN HATCHERY

Fig. 1—Ground plan: AAA, rooms making entrance to incubatory.
BBB, ovens where eggs are’ hatched.
ants to upper tier.
AAA, upper chamber to ovens.
DD, fire spaces.
as for Fig. II.

CC, manholes admitting attend-
DD, hallway. Fig. II—Sectional view lengthwise.
BBB, lower chambers. CCC, manholes.
Fig. IlI—Section view lengthwise—same lettering

the merciless trampling and crowding that they receive
from the half-grown youngsters of the first hatches.

Probably no practical poultry keeper would under-
take to prove that incubators will hatch more or better
chicks than good sitting hens, if unmolested, but there
is no question about the fact that properly operated ma-
chines will bring off more chicks during the season than
will be secured from an equal number of eggs set under
“clucks.” This is because, when the latter are set in
large numbers, it is impossible to give them the time and
attention necessary to secure maximum results and, as
a consequence, losses are heavy and there is no practical
way of preventing them. Even when special hatching
rooms are provided and the hens have the best of care,
there always will be some deserted nests, some broken

2

eggs, and some lousy hens, which, in the final summing
up, almost invariably give the incubator the lead.

Another point that deserves attention is the general
increase in average egg production which results from
keeping the hens laying right along, as they will do if
promptly broken up as soon as they become broody, in-
stead of allowing them to take two months off for hatch-
ing and brooding a flock of chicks just at the season of
the year when they should be doing their heaviest and
most profitable laying. In spite of the higher prices re-
ceived during the winter, the average hen pays a larger
net profit in the spring and early summer than at any
other time of the year, if steadily productive.

It is not claimed that hens can be kept laying all
summer long simply by breaking them up as fast as they
become broody and putting them back into the laying
pen again. Most of them have to take a rest sometime
during the season, and it is something of an art to de-
termine the right time to let them do this, with the idea
of having them resume laying about the time eggs begin
to advance in price in late summer. But whenever the
time is when they can be given a vacation to best ad-
vantage, it certainly is not in the early spring.

Freedom from lice and mites is another important
advantage possessed by artificially hatched chicks. There
are few persons who realize the annual destruction caused
by the ravages of lice among young chicks. The individ-
ual poultry keeper is entitled to little sympathy in his
losses from these annoying pests if he refuses to adopt
the one method that will give him almost complete im-
munity from them. But the annual loss to the industry
from so unnecessary a cause, certainly is deplorable from
an economic viewpoint—a loss that, each year, repre-
sents a sum almost sufficient to pay for all the necessary
hatching and brooding equipment that would make it a
thing of the past.

Brooders As Important As Incubators

The value of brooders is even less appreciated than is
the case with incubators, for which reason especial em-
phasis should be placed on the great help that they are
able to render in profitable poultry growing. It is worse
than useless to hatch chicks unless proper facilities are
provided for raising them after they are hatched. It is
little more trouble to raise one hundred chicks in a
brooder than ten with a hen; and when they are raised
in still larger numbers by the use of colony hovers which
brood several hundred in a single flock, the labor cost
per chick becomes almost negligible.

Many complaints made by persons who have bought
‘ncubators and have not been satisfied with the results
secured with them, can be traced to the fact that they
did not have sufficient brooding capacity to care for the
chicks after they were hatched. This false economy in
providing brooders is almost universal, even among ex-

perienced poultry keepers who certainly ought to know
better. With good brooders, chicks can be raised at any
season, the losses will be fewer than with hens, chicks
will be practically lice-free, can be protected from ene-
mies, storms, and cold much better than when running
with hens, and can be given about every other advantage
that is required for their best and most profitable growth
and development.

Incubators and Brooders Easy to Operate

Modern incubators and brooders, especially those of
the better sort, are now so well developed and so nearly
automatic in action that they require a surprisingly small
amount of attention, and are so simple that any average
man or women, boy or girl, can operate them successfully,
and with ease. In a general way, the directions that are
supplied by the manufacturers with every incubator or
brooder they sell, contain information sufficient for their
operation under ordinary conditions. These directions
present, in condensed form, not only the general instruc-
tions that are applicable to all incubators alike, but also
the special detailed information that is essential to the
successful operation of their particular type of machine.

“No better advice can be given the beginner than to
say with all possible emphasis: Follow the manufacturer’s
directions; follow them to the letter! If, after one or two
trials, results do not seem to be as good as they should,
write direct to the manufacturer, giving him all the in-
formation needed to enable him to understand the par-
ticular conditions under which the machine is being
operated, and depend upon it, he will be glad to give
whatever additional instructions are required to insure
complete success.

It is not the purpose of this book, therefore, to give
directions that will take the place of the instructions of
the manufacturer. These must, as far as they go, take
precedence over all other advice, written or spoken. The
manufacturer’s instructions however, are necessarily quite
brief and general, and they leave much unsaid that the
thoughtful operator wishes to know, and must know if
he is to make his poultry work the complete success that
it can and should be. It is at this point that this book
takes up the subject, supplementing the manufacturer’s
instructions, but not supplanting them.

In it we have endeavored to give the most reliable,
up-to-date information available on artificial methods of
raising chicks and on the allied subjects that are directly
associated with such work. Recent literature from our
various state experiment stations has been freely drawn
upon for much of the experimental data presented, and
the latest methods of successful, practical poultry grow-
ers have received no less attention. It is hoped that
this book will prove interesting and helpful to all chick
growers, whether they are using but a single incubator
or brooder, or are turning out chicks by the tens of
thousands,

CHAAPOTE RK oI

Selection of Breeding Stock

Success in Hatching and Raising Chicks is Determined to a Great Extent by the Breeding Stock—Importance of Con-
stitutional Vigor and How to Breed for It—How to Select Fowls for the Breeding Pen—How
to Care for Them During the Breeding Season and Afterward.

UCCESS in hatching and brooding chicks, either
by artificial or natural means, is determined to
a great extent before the eggs are placed in the
incubator or under hens. No matter how skillful

the care, no one can hope to raise chicks successfully or
profitably if they lack their normal inheritance of health
and vigor when hatched. And conversely, chicks of the
right sort will stand a surprising amount of mishandling—
will survive many mistakes on the part of the well-mean-
ing but misinformed caretaker, if only they have high
constitutional vigor to begin with. This character they
can secure through inheritance. In order to begin at the
beginning of the subject of
“Artificial Incubating and
Brooding,” therefore, the
fowls from which the hatch-
ing eggs are to be secured
must have first considera-
tion, in order to make cer-
tain that these eggs are pro-
duced from stock that is
suitable for the purpose, and
that is being bred under
favorable conditions.

Choice of Breed |

So far as the problems of
artificial incubating are di-
rectly concerned, it is imma-
terial what breed is chosen.
The average operator prob-
ably gets better hatches from
Leghorn eggs than from
eggs of the larger breeds,
though this is not uniformily
the case. Both in hatching and in brooding the percent-
age of loss is influenced more by the condition of the
breeding fowls than by the particular breed or variety to
which they belong. It is probable, however, that the
greater natural activity of small fowls, such as Leghorns,
results generally in their keeping in better breeding con-
dition. This, no doubt, is the explanation for the better
results usually secured with Leghorn eggs, and is the
basis of the common belief that white-shelled eggs hatch
better than those with brown shells.

Persons who expect to make the sale of eggs for
hatching, day-old chicks, and breeding stock, a more or
less important source of income, will naturally want to
consider the preferences of possible customers in regard
to breed, also whether the breed selected can reasonably
be expected to produce a liberal supply of eggs at the
time when they are most wanted for setting. For exam-
ple, if it is the intention to hatch during extremely cold
weather, it will hardly be advisable to depend on Leg-
horns, as fowls of this breed are apt to lay few eggs un-
de: such conditions. It is true that much can be done to
coitect this by providing comfortable houses for the
fowls but, as a rule, more eggs and better fertility will
be secured at this time with the so-called general-purpose

of breeding stock.

FIG. 1—STRONG, HEALTHY CHICKS ARH HALF RAISED

Sturdy, vigorous chicks like these do not readily suc-
cumb to disease or unfavorable conditions. f 1
in securing such chicks is the selection of the right kind

breeds. Moreover, early-hatched Leghorn chicks are not
paiticularly desirable, as they are not profitable market
fowls, and the pullets usually come into laying too early
and soon go into the “fall molt,” after which they lay
few eggs until the approach of spring.

In all cases, regardless of whether chicks are to be
hatched on a large or a small scale and regardless of
bieed selected, fowls of standard quality should be made
the basis of the breeding flock. It is simply a waste oi
time and opportunity to start in any line of poultry keep-
ing with inferior stock. Not only will the sales from
standard flocks be better and at higher prices, but the
percentages realized in hatch-
ing and brooding operations
will be distinctly better,
owing to greater uniformity
in the eggs set and in the
chicks after they are hatched.
Irregularity in size and shape
of eggs, in color and char-
acter of shell, in vitality of
germs, etc., are all handi-
caps in the successful opera-
tion of incubators and
brooders, and without doubt
uniformity in these respects
can be secured only by the
use of standard-bred stock.
In addition, such fowls, if
from the best strains, will be
found to be larger in size,
higher in vitality, and more
productive than those of in-
ferior breeding.

The first step

Constitutional Vigor

In the selection of individual fowls for the breeding
pen, constitutional vigor is easily first in importance. As
has already been stated, hatching percentages and pro-
portion of chicks raised are largely determined by the
health and vigor of the breeding fowls. Constitutional
vigor is not a mysterious or accidental quality, but is the
result of breeding and careful management. The poultry
grower who eliminates from his pens every fowl that
shows any evidence of low vitality, as determined by
close and constant observation right along from chick-
hood to the breeding season, and who gives his breeders
Froper care, will have no difficulty in producing chicks
full of vigor and vitality.

There are a number of indications of high constitu-
tional vigor and of the lack of it—some readily distin-
guished, and some so deeply hidden that only long ex-
perience or constant observation throughout the growing
period makes it possible to detect them. The poultry-
man who appreciates the importance of having only
strong, vigorous birds in his breeding pens will neglect
ro practical test. In general, breeding fowls should al-
ways be full size for the breed to which they belong, and
up to Standard requirements in shape and general breed

10 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

characters. Of course such familiar and conspicuous evi-
dences of low vitality as poor condition, undersize, flat,
narrow breasts, knock knees, long, narrow heads, crow
bills, dull eyes, low tails, etc., should eliminate the birds
showing them, regardless of any good qualities that they
may have, no matter what these may be. Naturally, the
reverse of these un-
desirable qualities
will indicate the birds
that should be used;
such as. broad, well-
rounded breasts,

y ! broad, full heads (not
y ee thick or beefy),
strong medium-
length beaks, straight

ope, legs carried upright
Hy, under the body and
iY set well apart, an
ne alert carriage, eyes
with “snap,” and a

high degree of activ-
ity generally.

There are other in-
dications of physical
weakness, aside from
outward appearance,
that are fully as im-
portant, if less obvi-
ous. Fowls with cold
eet are undesirable. Those individuals that have frosted
combs where others similarly exposed escape injury,
usually are low in vitality; also males that get out of
breath or show dark combs after chasing or treading
hens. It should hardly be necessary to say that fowls
showing any tendency to diarrhea, having dirty noses
(indicating catarrhal trouble) or overgrown toe nails
(indicating indolence, if not poor health) must not be

bred.

Even after fowls have passed these superficial tests
they should be looked upon merely as likely candidates,
but not to be introduced into the breeding flock until
they have been kept under observation for some time,
their appetites and general conduct watched, and the
droppings under the perches inspected frequently to see
whether there are any signs of weak digestion. Even after
the pen is made up, any birds that develop indications of
physical unfitness should at once be removed. It re-
quires a high degree of moral courage to discard a fowl
that may develop some seemingly minor weaknesses but
which in many other respects is a desirable breeder.
There is, however, no indication of low vitality that can
be ignored with safety. In the case of standard-bred
fowls, the tendency to overlook known deficiences be-
cause the birds happen to be especially strong in “fancy”
points, cannot be too strongly condemned. No excel]-
lence in standard requirements offers any compensation
for a lack of constitutional vigor.

FIG. 2—A HIGH-CLASS BREEDING
FEMALE

There is every appearance of
health and superior breeding value
here, but do not depend upon ap-
pearances alone; apply the tests for
constitutional vigor, as described
in text.

At the beginning of the hatching season is not the
best time for selecting breeders, as they usually are at
the height of their vigor then. Without showing any in-
dications of this fact they may possess weaknesses that
will make their use in the breeding pen a source of seri-
ous loss. This is the reason why the man who raises his
own stock and who closely observes the birds during
the growing period, is able to make his selections with
much greater certainty of getting only desirable
breeders.

Bred-to-Lay Stock

Probably next in practical importance in the selec-
tion of the breeding pen is getting hens with good
trap-nest records the previous year, if possible, or pullets
from such hens. It is believed to be particularly im-
portant to secure males from heavy laying hens, and
the more generations of such ancestry represented in the
strain from which selections are made, the better the
results are apt to be. It is true that there are a good
many things that yet remain to be learned about breed-
ing for increased egg production. Certainly the develop-
ment of a strain that can be depended upon to transmit
heavy-laying ability to succeeding generations can be ac-
complished only by long-continued and careful selection
and is not to be attained as the result of a single season’s
work. However, where breeding from heavy layers is
persistently and intelligently carried out it undoubtedly
will bring results, and it is always wise to purchase breed-
ing fowls and eggs for hatching from breeders who are
known to specialize in such stock.

Caution should be used here, however, as there are
many who have mistakenly come to attach undue im-
portance to the laying record, making it the all-in-all,
and not hesitating to forego standard qualities and even
individual health and vigor in favor of phenomenal egg
production. Such a policy is unwise, and must sooner or
later lead to complete failure. The best possible means
of establishing a strain capable of transmitting heavy
laying ability is through the use of standard-bred fowls
that, along with good to high egg records, will combine
established breed characters and the high constitutional
vigor which make heavy laying ability transmissible, If
choice must be made between fowls with high records,
but of non - standard
breeding, and others
from an established
strain, of high consti-
tutional vigor but
with only good laying
records, it usually will
be found that better
layers will be pro-
duced from the lat-
ter. This is true
probably because
heavy laying is de-
pendent fully as much
upon uniform breed-
ing, good health and
the ability to digest
large quantities of
food as it is on an
inherited tendency to
heavy production.

FIG. 3—A GOOD MALE FOR
THE BREEDING PEN

A sturdy, upstanding male like
this one, should head the breed-
Ing pen. There is no question
regarding the constitutional
vigor of fowls of this type. This
exhibition-quality breeding male
1S owned by W. D. Holterman.

Breeding Related
Fowls

N ot withstanding
the general and deep-
seated prejudice
against inbreeding,
the poultry breeder who selects his fowls carefully, rig-
idly excluding every one that shows any sign of physical
weakness, need have little fear of unfavorable results
from breeding related birds. There is no other method
known to breeders that will so quickly and so certainly
improve quality and establish uniformity in the poultry
flock—provided, of course, that foundation stock of

SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK 11

superior merit is used to start with. It is true that close
inbreeding of fowls having common physical weaknesses
will intensify such characters, causing rapid degenera-
tion. On the other hand, strong constitutional vigor is
just as certainly intensified in the same way, and if this
fact is kept in mind and defective birds regularly dis-
carded, nothing but good results need be expected.

The fact that inbreeding is one of the poultry keep-
er’s greatest helps in establishing his strain should be con-
sidered in connection with the common but mistaken
practice of securing new males each year in order to
avoid the fancied danger of relationship matings. The
most successful poultry breeders will under no considera
tion part with either males or females that have proved
conspicuously good breeders, but will deliberately breed
them back to their offspring in order to fix their good
qualities and the power of transmitting them. There is
reason for believing that inbreeding is the most effec-
tive known means of securing that greatly-

gallant one that is constantly on the lookout for the
members of his flock, are apt to be up to specifications in
all physical requirements. A male whose comb or wat-
tles have been injured by fighting or freezing is none the
worse for breeding purposes on that account, providing
he has fully recovered from the effects of the injury.
However, weak birds are more apt to have frosted combs
than strong ones, and it is advisable to make sure that
such injuries have not resulted from this cause. Scaly
leg is not a serious matter unless it has developed to
such an extent as to make the bird lame, but it should
be treated and thoroughly cured before using the bird
in the breeding pen. The male should be fully up to

standard size for the breed to which he belongs and good
in all breed characters.

Diseases of the male organs, resulting in partial or
complete sterility, are more common than is generally
realized. There is comparatively little danger of the well-

desired quality known as prepotency.
Fertility and “Hatchability”

When fowls are properly mated, practic-
ally all eggs produced by them are fertile, re-
gardless of season or other general condi-
tions; but not all fertile eggs will hatch. What
usually is meant, however, where the term
fertility is used, is “hatchability” (for lack of
a better word), which is by no means the
same thing. The ability to produce hatchable
eggs is not possessed equally by all hens, but
varies widely in different individuals. It is
moreover, a transmissible character, like shape
of comb or color of feathers. That is, hens
that produce eggs characterized by high or
low hatchability will transmit this tendency
to their daughters; and by proper selection it
is believed to be possible to develop strains
regularly distinguished by this quality. This
fact is so clearly established that many care-
ful breeders believe that it pays to utilize
trap-nests in their breeding pens if only for
the purpose of detecting the individuals that
produce eggs of inferior hatching quality.
The losses due to spoiled eggs, wasted incu-
bator space and dissatisfied customers more
than exceed the labor cost of operating the trap-nests.

Selecting the Male

The male is by all odds the most important individ-
ual in the breeding pen, and especial attention must be
given to his selection. So far as standard qualities go,
there is only one general suggestion that need be given
here; get the best male that can be afforded. A high
price may be no proof of high quality, but a low price
is pretty generally proof of inferiority. The buyer, there-
fore, while using due care and business judgment in buy-
ing, must be willing to pay a good price if he hopes to
get a good male. A poor one is dear at any price. In
breeding for increased egg production the male becomes
of still greater importance, owing to the now generally
accepted belief that it is through the sons of heavy-laying
dams rather than through their daughters, that heavy
egg-laying ability is transmitted.

Individually the male should possess every desir-
able quality previously mentioned as indicative of high
constitutional vigor, adding to these the masculine
quality of aggressiveness. The “scrappy” male, and the

FIG. 4—RAPID, PROFITABLE GROWTH IMPOSSIBLE

WITHOUT VIGOR

These two chicks, like the pair shown in Fig. 9, were hatched and
brooded under identical conditions, but the “runt” was of parentage low
in constitutional vigor.

Courtesy of Missouri State Poul. Exp. Station.

developed, “scrappy” male being impotent, but the test
of service is the only certain one. For this reason the
pen should be mated: up sufficiently in advance of the
tegular breeding season so as to have an opportunity to
make a change in males if necessary. In buying males,
or females either for that matter, notice whether there
is any discharge, foul smelling or otherwise, from the
vent, also whether the feathers below it are badly soiled
or matted. Diarrhea, or the tendency to it, is transmis-
sible, and vent gleet apparently is growing rather com-
mon. If a single individual in the flock has this dis-
ease it will quickly spread to all and may prove a source
of serious loss.

Cock or Cockerel

Whether to buy or use cocks or cockerels will de-
pend on circumstances. Cocks can generally be pur-
chased at less cost than cockerels of equal quality and
inay prove much better value for the money. A good
male should be serviceable for four or five years, if
properly cared for and not overworked. To discard him
at the end of his first season is a wasteful practice and is

12 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

uncalled for in any rational system of breeding. Hence
if one or two-year-old males can be bought at a marked
reduction from the price of cockerels they should prove
a good investment, especially if it is possible to secure
a favorable report on their previous performance, and if
they are in good physical condition.

Another advantage in buying cocks is that physical
weaknesses that escape notice in the cockerel are more
readily detected in older birds. Males are often sub-
jected to brutal neglect and mistreatment out of the
breeding season, however, and in buying it is important
to be sure that they have received no injuries from this
cause. For mating with pullets, cocks are considered es-
pecially desirable as they are expected to offset any dis-
advantage growing out of immaturity in the females. It
is generally believed that from a mating of cock and pul-
lets a larger proportion of pullets will be secured than in

che case of a cockerel-and-pullet, or cock-and-hen mating..

If cockerels are to be used, select those that are well-
matured. Much loss annually results from the use of
immature birds in the breeding pen—a frequent cause of
poor hatches and weak chicks, especially toward the end
of the breeding season when young males are apt to
weaken, with a marked falling off in fertility as a direct
consequence. Well-developed young birds may go through
the season without serious loss of vigor if mated in com-
paratively small flocks and non-forcing conditions are
inaintained throughout, but immature ones are almost
certain to fail before the end of the season. In selecting
cockerels avoid those that have plainly been cowed. It
is not a mark of inferiority from a breeding viewpoint for
one cockerel to be whipped by another in a fight. That
test literally applied would eliminate all but one from
any flock. But cockerels that are distinctly cowed and
willing to accept “peace at any price,’ are worthless as
breeders.

Selection of Females

The poultry breeder’s problems would be compara-
tively simple if males and females of equal quality could

FIG. 5—A STANDARD-BRED LEGHORN COCK

This splendid exhibition cock is a good example of
the kind of high-vigor males that should head the breed-

ing pen. It is NOT necessary to sacrifice standard qual-
ities to secure practical values. The cock shown in
above illustration is owned by Geo. B. Ferris.

always be mated to-
gether, in which
case they should
transmit their char-
acters uniformily
and without change.
Unfortunately such
matings are not pos-
sible in practical
breeding, and it is
necessary to try to
strike an average by
matching the re-
spective weaknesses
and good qualities
of the fowls; select-
ing females that are
strong where the
male is weak, or the
other way around.
For example, if the
male is a little un-
dersize for the
breed, hens. are se-
lected for mating with him that are somewhat oversize.
lf the male’s color is not quite what it should be, females
mated with him must be especially strong in that re-
spect. This method of mating, when properly handled,
often produces fowls better in quality—that is, more
closely corresponding to the Standard description—than
either of their parents, but it has distinct limitations and
must not be carried to extremes, as in the mating of vio-
lent contrasts, which practice never gives satisfactory
results.

FIG. 6—EXHIBITION QUALITY HEN
WITH HIGH EGG RECORD

This S. C. White Leghorn hen
made a record of 288 eggs in
twelve months and is of a famous
show strain in which high egg pro-
duction also is demanded. Hens of
inferior quality may be good lay-
ers, but they have no place in the
breeding pen.

One and two-year-old hens are almost always bet-
ter breeders:than pullets, and they should be employed
for this purpose as far as possible. If there is oppor-
tunity to consult trap-nest records made by the hens
during the preceding year, all that have made conspicu-
ously poor records will, of course, be discarded; also all
that lay misshapen eggs or very small or overlarge ones,
and those marked by irregular shape or texture of shell.
In the absence of trap-nest records, apply the various
recognized tests for laying ability, such as the shank
color test, spread of pelvic bones, date of molting, etc.
All of these are of practical value in determining the pre-
vious performance of hens.

Future egg production may be determined with a
fair degree of accuracy by performance in the pullet year.
This is not an infallible test, as there will always be some
that will make high records in the pullet year that will
not “come back” in the second season, while others will
prove better layers in their second year than in the first.
Speaking generally however, the chances for good egg
yields in the second year are always in favor of the hens
that have laid well as pullets.

It has been definitely shown that yellow-skinned
fowls rapidly lose the bright color of shanks and beaks ~
when laying heavily, so that pale shanks and beaks in
late summer usually are characteristics of the best lay-
ers. In applying this test it is necessary to discriminate
between hens that have faded shanks as a result of heavy
laying, and those that are naturally pale in shank color,
or that have become so as the result of ill health or
through the action of the soil, some kinds of which will
bleach out the shanks regardless of whether the hens
have laid well or not. With suitable correction for these
exceptions, however, and considering beaks as well as

SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK 13

shanks, this test will prove to be fairly reliable, especial-
ly if applied about the time the fowls have stopped for
the fall molt. The color comes back into the shanks
gradually after laying ceases, so that after some time has
elapsed the test cannot be applied with any degree of
accuracy. Fowls that are good layers also have quite
pliable pelvic bones, set wide apart, the position being
readily determined by a slight pressure of the fingers on
the fowl’s body, just below the vent. This test should be
applied in connection with the shank-color test.

It has been found that late molting hens are almost
invariably the best layers of the preceding year, while
the hens that molt early and have their new coat of feath-
ers well in advance of cold weather generally are the
poorest layers of the flock. Late molters may be han-
dicapped by the necessity for making the change in cold
weather, and often need special protection to keep them
_ from suffering. They make short work of the molt when
they get at it, however, and almost invariably will lay
more winter eggs, in spite of this, than the hens that
have molted weeks or months before.

Care of Breeding Fowls Out of Season

If in position to do so, it often is desirable to pur-
chase breeding fowls for the next season’s use, in the
summer. They us-
dally. camry apie
bought at moder-
ate prices. then,
and this is the
most favorable
time for selection,
as they are more
likely to show
their defects at the
end of the breed-
ing season, and it
is, of course, just
the right time to

select the best

layers. Moreover,

the value of old

birds as breeders

FIG. 7—A POOR LAYER AND Fie Best eeees

BREEDER will depend a good

This ben gnoltea in late summer deal on the way

and only lai eggs in her pulle

year. Avoid = pole oe the they are handled
breeding pen. oto from Corne -

pita cenit. during the fall

and winter.

The common recommendation to separate males from
females out of the breeding season, is of questionable
value under average conditions. Whether it is true, as
some believe, that this violent change in habits is liable
to result in injury to the sexual organs of the males does
not appear to have been definitely proved by experi-
ments, but there are some good practical reasons for be-
lieving that the average person will get better results by
letting the males run with the flock or, better still, con-
fining them in comfortable, roomy quarters with a small
number of females, unless especially favorable conditions
can be provided for them elsewhere. It is not necessa-
Tily so but, as a rule, males that are penned together or
singly are almost certain to suffer from neglect, and any-
thing that results in their getting out of condition will
prove a distinct disadvantage in the long run.

The practice of perning single males in small coops,
such as exhibition coops, with barely room to turn
around and without any outdoor runs is probably the

worst plan of all, if such imprisonment is continued for
long periods. It often is necessary to do this where the
fowls are of exhibition quality or are kept for sale later
on in the season, in which case it is not wise to risk the
injuries that may result from fighting. It is highly im-
portant, however, that during the off season, the male
shall have every facility for regaining his strength and
vigor, and he can
not do this if
cooped up in close
quarters, under
questionable sani-
tary conditions or
where he is liable

to be neglected
and poorly fed. FIG. 8—ROOSTING CLOSET FOR
Where there are BREEDERS

several strange
males running to-
gether either in
stag flocks or with
hens, there is apt to be some fighting, but if there is
plenty of range or large yards, and the precaution is
taken to trim the toe-nails and the beaks so as to make
them blunt and a little sensitive, the birds will establish
their “spheres of influence” without serious injury to
each other.

The rations of the breeders, males and females alike,
should be non-stimulating during the off season, and may
consist mainly of hard grains scattered broadcast or
buried in the litter to promote exercise. There should
be little meat in the ration and what mash is fed should
be given dry in hoppers. Supply all the green feed the
birds will eat.

Cloth-front houses are ideal tor breeders, and close,
warm houses should never be used. Except in extremely
cold weather the birds should have access to the yards
or range all day long. The more time they spend out-
doors the better it will be for their general health. Warm
houses are debilitating, and experiments have shown that
breeding stock confined to them invariably lose in vital-
ity and in ability to produce good hatching eggs. There
is a wide difference between cuddling and unlimited ex-
posure, however, and the breeder will do well to avoid
either. Be careful to prevent frosted combs, especially
at the opening of winter, but not over-careful. If cold
weather comes on gradually the fowls will become ac-
customed to it and will stand much lower temperatures

In cold climates fowls with large
combs need special protection to pre-
vent frost bites, which may destroy
their breeding value for many weeks.

FIG. J—EFFECT OF CONSTITUTIONAL WEAKNESS

These chicks were hatched in the same incubator
and brooded together under identical conditions, The
difference in growth is directly due to difference in
constitutional vigor. It pays to cull out every breed-
ing fowl that is low in vitality. Also see Fig. 4.

14 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

without injury than is possible when the cold sets in early
in the winter.

Males are more liable to injury from frost bites than
hens, owing to the larger size of their combs and wat-
tles. It often pays to provide a small cloth-covered roost-
ing coop where they can be confined on extremely cold
nights. The small coop often provided for brooding
hens at one end.of the perches, will answer nicely for
this purpose if the sides are curtained. The male will be
safe from injury here while the rest of the flock will
have all the advantage of the hardening that comes from
continued exposure to low temperatures. Remember,
however, that extreme exposure is of no practical ad
vantage; fowls are hardened by cold, even severe cold,
but they are injured and in no way benefitted by expo-
sure to conditions so severe as to cause actual suffering.

After winter sets in the breeders should have sepa-
rate quarters with as much room as possible. It is not
at all desirable to have them do any laying until about
the opening of the breeding season, and they should be
fed accordingly. Do not neglect them at this time, how-
ever, simply because they are not producing eggs. While
the average one and two-year-old hens are at their best
as breeders, if in good physical condition, lack of exer-
cise, unsanitary quarters, and feeding for egg production
previous to the breeding season, will seriously impair
their value. At this time they should be kept in good
flesh, but not fat. Overfed fowls and those that are half
starved are alike undesirable.

A good ration for idle breeders is a mixture of equal
parts of cracked corn and whole oats, with an equal por-
tion of wheat or barley if obtainable. Feed this in
plenty of litter so that the fowls will have an abundance
of exercise in digging it out. The mash may consist of
equal parts, by weight, of bran and middlings, with ten
per cent of meat scrap added, feeding it dry in hoppers.
With a dry mash formula like this there is little danger
of their eating too much, but it should always be kept
before them. Plenty of green food should be supplied,
of course, sprouted oats being by far the most desirable
if they can be provided.

Care of Young Breeding Stock

During the growing season chicks that are intended
for the breeding pen should have all possible range, and

plenty of nourishing but non-forcing food. All through
the growing season they should be under observation,
culling out the ones that develop defects or show any in-
dication of low vigor. It is a good plan to mark all the
chicks that, at any time during their growth, show un-
desirable qualities, doing so by clipping the point of the
toe, punching the web of the foot or otherwise marking
them in some unmistakable manner so that there will
be no chance of their being overlooked and getting into
the breeding pen later on. It often happens that birds
that at some stage of their growth develop unmistakable
signs of weakness, afterward recover and at the breeding
season appear to be as good as any of the rest, but are
inferior in vigor in spite of their appearance. ~

One point that is of great importance in the hand-
ling of young stock is to see to it that none that are in-
tended for the breeding pen are allowed to crowd in
brooders or coops during the growing period. It never
pays to permit crowding, but in the case of next year’s
breeders it is doubly objectionable. Feed a good grow-
ing ration, with plenty of oats and succulent green stuff,
and a reasonable allowance of meat scraps or other ani-
mal food, and give all the liberty possible.

If pullets and cockerels are to be used they should
be selected from those hatched neither too early nor too
late. Pullets hatched quite early, so that they begin lay-
ing in the fall,-are apt to be undesirable as breeders, as
they will be more or less exhausted by heavy laying.
They can often be used to good advantage in the early
part of the season, but should not be depended upon after
the season is well advanced.

It is not wise to attempt to hold back early pullets,
however, and prevent their laying, with the idea that in
this way their strength and vigor will be conserved for
the breeding season. It is much better to let them lay,
if they do so naturally, using them early in the season, if
necessary, but depending upon hens or later-hatched pul-
lets for the major part of the supply of hatching eggs.
Pullets that are not fully grown or are just beginning to
lay must not be used, as chicks hatched from their eggs
will be undersized and weakly, difficult to raise, and not
desirable even when grown. If pullets must be placed in
the breeding pen, therefore, select those that have come
naturally to maturity without any forcing, and that have
laid for a short time only before the season opens.

FIG. 10.—A FINE BREEDING PEN OF WHITE WYANDOTTES
Bred by J. C. Fishel & Sons ;

Cova PEE RIE

Management of Breeding Stock

When to Mate the Breeding Pens—Number of Females to the Male—General Directions for Housing, Feeding, and
Caring for Breeding Fowls so as to Insure High Fertility and Strong Chicks—Some Common
Mistakes That Result in Poor Hatches, and How to Avoid Them. ’

O FAR as the subject of “Artificial Hatching and
Brooding” is concerned, interest in the breeding
pen centers in the production of fertile eggs that

BH =will hatch strong, vigorous chicks, and the man-
agement of the flock is considered here solely from that
viewpoint. In general, the breeding pen should have
about the same housing conditions as are found most
desirable for the laying flock, differ-
ing only in the respect that the
breeders must have more room, both
in and outdoors, and in extreme cli-
mates the house must be warm
enough to afford reasonable protec-
tion. The breeding flock must under
no conditions be coddled, but hard-
ened to the greatest extent possible
without exposing them to conditions
that will cause actual suffering or
injury, which might destroy their
breeding value for weeks to come.

However, there is no wisdom or

practical advantage in exposing fowls

to such an extent that their combs
will be frozen, and it should be pos-

sible to make the house warm
enough to prevent such injuries.
It should be remembered in this

connection, that since breeding fowls
have, or should have, more floor
space per hen than usually is the
case in laying pens, and are kept in
much smaller flocks, they will be less
able to keep each other warm onthe
perches at night, and for this rea-
son need warmer houses than the
layers. As a rule, if the house is well
built with the open front provided
with muslin-covered frames or cur-
tains that can be closed tight in ex-
treme weather, nothing more will be
required, except in the coldest sections, where roosting
closets such as the one shown -in Fig. 8 will prove
desirable.

The size of the house or pen will be determined by
various factors, but it is desirable in all cases to give the
breeders plenty of floor space. Not less than six square
feet per hen should be provided in all cases, and eight
square feet is better for small flocks. For example, if
the breeding pen is to consist of about twelve hens, the
pen or house should be 8x10, 8x12, or even 10x10 feet.
Many poultry plants are equipped with a number of
portable houses of about this size and when such are
available they should by all means be utilized.

Extra small breeding pens can be provided for quite
cheaply by using portable buildings like the one shown
in Fig. 13. There are various inconveniences connected
with caring for fowls in extremely small structures, but
where the breeding pen is small and is to be kept mated
for only a short time, it hardly is practical to provide ex-

fowls
planned,

covered shutters.

pensive permanent houses and yards. The coop and yard
here illustrated can readily be shifted to new ground at
frequent intervals, little cleaning will be required and,
during the growing season, the supply of green food will
be taken care of without trouble. A convenient house,
suitable for a single breeding pen, is shown in Fig. 12.
It is portable and comparatively low in cost and may be

FIG. 11—A PERMANENT BREEDING HOUSE
Where the poultry plant is permanently established and the breeding of

is to be carried on extensively, a permanent breeding house suitably
with yards of ample size, will prove a profitable
house here shown is excellent for mild climates, but for use in the north it
should have smaller openings in the front, protected by tight-fitting muslin-

investment. The

utilized as a colony house for brooder chicks or growing
stock when no longer required for the use of breeding
fowls.

A permanent compartment breeding house is shown
in Fig. 11. Houses of this type are desirable where special
attention is given to systematic breeding, in which case
the fowls must necessarily be kept yarded in separate
flocks. If regular laying houses are to be used for breed-
ing fowls, flock matings usually will be resorted to. A
pen 20x20 feet or 16x25 feet will readily accommodate 50
to 70 females for which number three to five males must
be provided. As a rule it is more practical to follow this
plan than to attempt to divide the space into the neces-
sary small compartments for single flock matings.

Whether small or large flocks are kept, the yards
should be as large as it is practical to make them. The
birds will do better, fertility will be higher, and the chicks
will be better and stronger if the fowls can have plenty
cf room. Open range for the breeders is the ideal con-

15

~ gn, and to do this in the most con-
** venient manner.

16

FIG. 12—SMALL COLONY HOUSE FOR BREEDING PEN

Colony houses of the above type provide ample room
for a medium-sized breeding flock and can be located
wherever convenient for the care of the fowls. When
not needed for the breeding pen they afford excellent
quarters for growing stock. Photo from U. S. Department
of Agriculture.

dition, of course, but this can seldom be provided, and
large yards then become the only practical alternative. A
grass sod should be maintained on the yards, if possible,
so that the birds can secure their green food in the nat-
ural way, and the yards should be located where there is
plenty of natural shade, if choice in the matter is possi-
ble. There is no question that fowls confined in yards
such as are illustrated in Fig. 14 will do better and their
chicks will do better, other things being equal, than would
be the case with fowls confined in small bare yards like
the unfortunates shown in Fig. 16.

Mating the Breeding Pens

The exact date at which the breeding pens should be
mated will depend to a great extent on the plans of the
breeder, also on available houseroom. There are so
many advantages in favor of early mating and so little
practical objection to it that, if regular breeding houses
or laying pens are to be used and are available at this
time, it is advisable to place the
fowls in their permanent quarters
when they are housed for the winter.
This will make it possible to give
them the special feeding and care that
they should receive from this time

It is not meant by
this that the fowls are to be mated
up for the breeding season at that
time; the final adjustments will be
made later. But it is just as well to
sort and pen the birds carefully so
as to have as few changes as possi-
ble to make later on.

Keep the birds under close obser-
vation and make notes regarding final
combinations but do not keep shift-
ing them from pen to pen, as one
or two strange birds in a flock are
apt to be set upon and abused by
the rest. For this reason the shift-
ing should all be done at one time
if possible. If cockerels are to be
used they may be left running to-
gether until the pens are finally

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

mated up and there will be little quarreling among them
if.they are separated from the rest of the flock. Adult
males may be left running with small pens of hens or
confined separately if desirable, provided they are well
cared for (see Chapter I).

Whatever the date at which hatching operations are
to begin, the pens should always be mated up well in
advance of that time. About five weeks may be allowed
from the date when the first eggs are saved until the
hatch comes off, and then it is wise to allow at least
two weeks more to give the birds time to get acquainted,
to detect sterility in the male, if it exists, and to make
any final adjustments among the females, due to par-
tiality on the part of the male or to other causes. After
the hatching season begins delays are always unfortu-
nate and readjustments in the breeding pen then may
cause serious loss.

Even in the northern states it is practical to bring
chicks off as early as the latter part of February, pro-
vided there are proper facilities for caring for them, and
this means that collecting eggs for hatching must begin
about the middle of January. In that case the first of
the year is none too soon for mating the pens. Pullets of
the Asiatic breeds, or Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans,
if hatched by March Ist, should begin laying in October,
while the cockerels will be salable as squab broilers the
latter part of April, or as regular broilers two weeks to
a month later, when they should command the highest
prices of the season.

With some strains and under some conditions as to
care and feeding, there is danger that pullets hatched be-
fore March will begin laying too early in the fall, result-
ing in the objectionable “fall molt” later on, but this
does not often happen with the breeds mentioned. If
Wyandottes or R. I. Reds are to be hatched it will be
better to delay the hatching date until after the middle
of March, unless there is sale for the chicks. With the
same exception it will be found better, as a rule, to de-
lay hatching Leghorns and similar breeds until the first
of April-or later.

Size of Breeding Flock

The size of the breeding flock or the number of fe-

FIG. 13—PORTABLE COOP AND RUN FOR SMALL BREEDING PEN

Close confinement for breeding fowls, while not desirable, is often neces-
sary. For a small flock, or a few specially mated fowls, this combination port-
able outfit can be used to good advantage.
dition if carefully fed and the coop and run frequently moved to new locations.

The fowls will keep in good con-

MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 17

males that may be mated with one male can not be arbi-
trarily fixed, as there are a number of things to be con-
sidered. The age and individuality of the male has much
to do with determining the number of females with
which he should be mated. There are instances on rec-
ord of flocks of 40, 60, and even 80 females mated to one
male, with excellent fertility resulting, but such matings
are too extreme to be considered in practical breeding.
Especially with fowls in confinement, poultry breeders
have found that the breeding pen must be comparatively
small if good results are to be secured throughout the
season. It is possible successfully to mate large numbers
of fowls with a single male for a limited time, especially
if the latter is young, but if long continued the practice
will result in the cockerel’s exhaustion.

If the breeder cares to go to the trouble of stud
mating (that is, keeping the male confined separately and
placing individual hens with him only for service) the
number served by one male can be largely increased, es-
pecially since it is by no means necessary that the hens
he served daily. Many poultry breeders having valuable
males that they are desirous of using in the most effici-
ent way, are following this plan with good results. Com-
paratively few breeders will be in-
terested in this method but will want
to allow the usual free mating, and
where this is done the number of
hens will be found to be limited by
the season of the year, the amount of
liberty the birds have, the age and
vigor of the male, the breed to which
the fowls belong, and the length of
time that the pen is to be mated.

In cold weather the fowls are not
as active and do not mate as readily
as in warmer weather, neither will
yarded fowls or those confined to
house pens mate as readily as on
open range or in large yards. It is
hardly necessary to call attention to
the fact that there is a wide differ-
ence in the mating ability of individ-
ual males, and it is common knowledge that the larger
and heavier fowls do not mate as readily or as freely as
the more active breeds, such as Leghorns. Finally, if
it is the intention to use eggs from the pen for a long
period it will be necessary to conserve the powers of
the male to some extent, by keeping the number of fe-
males well below the extreme limit.

With all these factors in mind, the breeder who is
anxious to secure the best. practical results from his
fowls will mate about as follows: With the larger breeds
such as Plymouth Rocks, Orpingtons, Brahmas, Wyan-
dottes, etc., and in the winter season, the number of fe-
males will be limited to not more than six or eight if a
cock is used, or two or three more if mated with a vig-
orous cockerel. Later in the season, when the fowls
have outside runs, the number may be increased 25 per
cent or more. In the case of Leghorns the minimum
number need not be below ten and may be increased to
as many as 20 to 25, with vigorous young cockerels, and
during mild weather. With fowls on open range, in the
height of the breeding season, the number may be still
further increased. However, since the pens usually are
mated up well in advance of the natural breeding season
and are kept in more or less close confinement, it seldom
is practical to make successive additions to the flock as
here described, and it is advisable to keep within the

general limits of 10 to 20 females to one male, reducing
the minimum number if results demand it, and increasing
the maximum only under most favorable conditions.

What are known as flock matings, in which large
numbers are kept in one flock with males provided in
the proportion of 4 to 6 for each hundred females, are
quite common and are entirely practical where eggs are
to be produced for incubation without regard for indi-
vidual breeding. This practice is especially common with
Leghorns, and on farms generally. Where flock mating
is practiced it is desirable to provide plenty of males in
order that if any prove to be undesirable or defective they
can be removed without the necessity of putting in addi-
tional ones. When males are raised together, or are
penned together for a time so that they can get ac-
quainted before being put with the hens, there should be
little fighting, but if strange males are used or new ones
are introduced into the flock after the season opens,
fighting is about certain to ensue and may cause serious
trouble.

It is well known that males often develop prefer-
ences among the hens in their flock, paying especial at-
tention to some while others are almost entirely neg-

FIG. 14—A WELL-SHADED YARD IS DESIRABLE FOR THE
BREEDING PEN

lected. This is a common cause of low fertility. The
only practical way to correct this in pen matings is to
detect the neglected hens, which may readily be done by
the use of trap nests, and they may then be removed and
placed in other pens, when the fertility of their eggs us-
ually will improve at once. This is one of the chief
reasons why flock matings often produce better fertility

than is secured in single pens. ae

In flock matings there is always considerable inter-
ference among males, especially when the fowls are
more or less closely confined, and it is worth while to
provide a degree of privacy for the mating birds. Short
Partitions extending out about midway into the pen, are
a help, also large yards. Some breeders find it worth
while to provide breeding boards such as the one illus-
trated in Fig. 15.

Rations for Breeding Fowls

The method of feeding the breeding flock out of
season is described in the preceding chapter. As the
hatching season approaches and the fowls are to be put
into good laying condition, the ration should be changed
so that they will get a better laying ration, though forc-
ing must be avoided, especially if the breeding season is
to be a long one. Poultry rations generally are subject
to such modifications as are indicated by market prices

18 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

FIG. 15—A BREEDING BOARD

In flock-mated pens it often is desirable to afford
some privacy for mating fowls, to prevent interference

from other males. A few inexpensive screens like the
one shown above, properly placed, will accomplish this
purpose. Photo from McDonald (Que.) College.

and availability, and it is not always practicable to pro-
vide just what is wanted or would be considered essential
under more favorable conditions. It is only practical to
suggest here what may be called a good all-round ration,
leaving it to each feeder to modify this to meet the con-
ditions existing in his own feed market.

It is desirable at all times to provide reasonable va-
tiety in the ration of the breeding flock, though it also
is possible to get along with comparatively limited range
of choice in foods if the feeding is carefully done. For
the grain part of the ration, equal parts by measure of
cracked corn, feeding wheat, heavy oats, and barley will
make an excellent mixture. Wheat and barley may be
omitted if necessary, making the mixture then about two
parts of cracked corn to one of oats, by measure, if oats
are used also in the mash and as a source of green food,
otherwise use equal parts of corn and oats, provided the
oats are plump and heavy. Any other grains that are
available may be used in reasonable proportion.

For the mash mixture an ideal formula is: Bran,
middlings, corn meal and rolled or crushed oats, in equal
parts by measure; one-half part each of gluten feed and
meat scrap; five to eight per cent of oil meal. This makes
a fairly rich mixture, and does not differ materially from
the formula that probably will be fed to the regular lay-
ing flock. The portion consumed, however, should be
below that recommended for layers. If the mash is fed
dry in hoppers it is not likely that consumption will ex-
ceed the desired proportion and may fall below it. In
this case it will be necessary to give the fowls a feed
of moist mash daily, as they will lay better and their
eggs will hatch better if they get a reasonable amount
of this. If the consumption of dry mash is too low and
there are objections to feeding it daily in moist condition,
the formula may be changed to make it more palatable,
usually by adding more meat scrap and coarse corn meal.
If the fowls eat too much of the dry mash, however, the
proportion of bran should be increased.

The use of dry mash, giving the fowls access to it at
all times during the day, is an important aid to keeping
them in good condition and properly nourished, and
should not be omitted unless there is some extremely
good reason for doing so. If it is not possible to secure
ihe mash ingredients here recommended, the feeder will
have to do the best he can to replace them with locally
available substitutes or to get along with less variety.
Even if it is necessary to limit the mash to bran, white

middlings, and meat scrap, it still is possible to get good
results, though the fowls may refuse to eat a sufficient
amount of it unless fed as a moist mash. Whatever else
is used or omitted from the mash, meat scrap, fish meal,
fresh butcher’s scraps or green. cut bone must be liberally
supplied—not less than 15 to 20 per cent of the total
weight of the mixture. Experiments have shown that ra-
tions deficient in animal food will certainly cause poor
hatches. Reasonably heavy feeding also is essential to
strong fertility and hatches are almost always unsatis-
factory where the fowls are kept on scant rations.

Abundant exercise is of the greatest importance in
the wellbeing of the breeding flock and to a high hatch-
ing percentage in the eggs produced, especially when the
fowls are in confinement. For this reason whole corn
should not be fed, unless on cold nights, and abundant
floor litter must be provided. A variation of 100 per
cent in fertility has been observed in experimental pens
where the only difference in treatment was the method
of feeding, one pen getting its grain in’ two feeds on a
practically bare floor, while the grain ration of the other
was fed four or five times a day, and buried in deep
litter so that the birds had to dig for it and had to spend
practically the entire day hunting for this part of the
ration. This extreme method of feeding may not be prac-
tical for the average poultry breeder, but he can at least
divide the day’s grain ration into three separate feeds,
giving them morning, noon and evening and always bury-
ing the grain in litter, which should be deep enough to
hide it thoroughly.

Where this is done, the evening meal must be given
early enough so that the fowls will be able to secure a
full feed before dark. No harm will be done if some is
left in the litter after the fowls are through feeding for
the night, as this will be an incentive to get down from
the perches next morning as soon as they can see, and
get to work again. Remember that breeding fowls need
reasonable variety in the ration and it is not desirable ta
feed too heavily on any one grain, no matter how conve-
nient it may be to do so, or how cheap in comparison
with other grains. True economy in the feeding of fowls
consists in supplying the ration that they most need and
on which they will give the best returns, even though it
may cost a little more per pound than something else less
desirable or effective.

Much has been said in regard to the necessity for
providing a ration for the breeding stock which shall con-
tain everything required, and in just the right propor-

FIG. 165—ONE CAUSE OF POOR HATCHES

Constant confinement in small, bare yards will br
the vitality of the best of fowls. eak down

MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK i9

FIG. 17—PARTS OF HOME-MADE TRAP NEST

Galvanized iron door, 9x9 inches square. Edges
turned to stiffen. Upper edge has No. 9 fence wire
inserted in fold, this wire extending about % of
an inch at each end beyond sides of the door.
B—wW ooden trigger, %x% of an inch_in width and
thickness, and 2% inches in length. Has notch cut
jn lower end. Upper end has common wire staples
driven in part way, with an extra staple looped
through this one. Is fastened to cross top rail (see
Fig. 19) so that galvanized iron door will just
clear it nicely when raised. C—Top rail % of an
inch x 2x12 inches. Trigger (B) is to be attached
to this rail. D and E—Front and back of nest—

duplicates; 12% inches wide x 10% inches high.
Bottom rail, % of an inch x 3 x 12% inches. Top
rail, % of an inch x 14 x 12% inches. Side rail,

% of an inch x 2 x 6% inches. Strips are % x%
of an inch x 10% inches. Back of nest can be made
solid if desired. F and I—Sides of nest each ¥% of
an inch x 101% x 20% inches. G—Bottom of nest
or floor, % of an inch x 12%x20% inches. H—Strip
% of an inch x 2% x 12 inches. Used mid-way be-
tween front and back of nest to hold nest material
in place. See Figs. 18 and 19, for nest in operation.

tions, for egg formation and the development of the
chick. There is no reason for thinking that the practical
breeder need concern himself about this matter, beyond
observing a few general requirements. While the egg
contains a bewildering variety of constituents, it is not
probable that any of these are deficient in any ration
affording reasonable variety, especially if it carries a
fair proportion of oats, bran, and meat scrap. The de-
sirability of increasing the proportion of phosphorus has

sak. Saale

Pak

FIG. 18—HEN ENTERING TRAP NEST
For key to lettering see footnote under Fig. 17.

been widely discussed, but never clearly proved. However,
since there is some question on this point and since
fowls undoubtedly can and do assimilate both the phos-
phorus and lime in bones, it is recommended that some
cracked bone or bone meal be added to the ration, unless
the meat scrap carries a liberal proportion of bone.

Oyster shell and grit will of course, be supplied in
hoppers and kept before the fowls all the time. Keep
the hoppers clean and free from dirt or litter, as fowls
will not eat as much of this material as they really need
when laying heavily, if it is mixed with trash from the
floor, or if the hopper is clogged with fine particles and
dust. Fowls prefer the larger pieces and they want them
fresh. Many do not realize that shell and grit will get
stale if left standing exposed indefinitely, and in that
condition are not relished by the hens. Oyster shell is
especially important in the breeding ration as it has
been shown that a deficiency in shell-forming material
will result in production of much smaller eggs, as well
as eggs with thin shells.

As regards grit it must be admitted that little is
known concerning its importance in the ration, or the ex-
tent to which the fowls are able to assimilate the in-
organic substances which it contains. We do know,
however, that fowls normally crave grit, and in liberal
quantity, also that they are able to assimilate inorganic
lime. Hence it would appear wise to use some of the
various brands of limestone grit that are on the market,
rather than flinty materials that, so far as is known,
have no value aside from their “grinding” properties—a
function which probably is just as well served by the
softer limestone.

Use whatever is available at least expense for litter,
so long as it answers the purpose. Most persons will find
a mixture of planer shavings and oat or wheat straw best
and cheapest. Spread a 4-inch layer of shavings on the
floor and then cover with 4 to 6 inches of straw. It
costs no more to use plenty of litter, which only need be
changed occasionally, than to use it sparingly and be
compelled to renew it every little while, and it is impos-
sible to provide sufficient exercise for fowls in confine-
ment without its liberal use.

Green food is one of the most important parts of the
ration of the breeding flock. Almost anything green
may be given to advantage, but there is nothing better
than sprouted oats if they are properly sprouted and free
from mold. This can readily be accomplished by sprout-
ing them in a warm room or in one of the special oat-
sprouting cabinets that are on the market. With suffi-
cient warmth oats will grow quickly and be ready to
feed before mold has a chance to form. It helps also to
wash and disinfect all sprouting trays, etc., at frequent
intervals, for which purpose formaldehyde is especially
good, also any good coal-tar disinfecting solution.

FIG. 19—TRAP NEST WITH DOOR CLOSED
For key to lettering see footnote under Fig. 17.

20

Pen Hatching Records and Trap Nesting

Whether the breeder attempts systematic or pedi-
gree breeding cr not, he certainly will: want to keep a
record of the results of his matings, and if possible
should use trap nests and thus be able to trace the per-
formance of individual fowls, not only through the hatch,
but through the growth and development of the chicks.
The advantages of being able to do this are too great to
be overlooked where it is practicable to attend to the
details of the work.

The most elementary form in which it 1s worth
while to keep hatching records is the pen record, where
the egg production, hatch, and percentage of chicks raised
are followed from day to day. This much, at least, every
one who produces eggs for hatching should do. The rec-
ord should be kept on a specially prepared sheet mounted
on stiff backing (pasteboard will answer as well as any-
thing) so that it can be carried at will from pen to incu-
bator room or elsewhere. Blank columns should be pro-
vided under suitable heads, following the general outlines

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

tion of low fertility or hatchability. There are, however,
a number of ways in which the inexperienced breeder
may err in the practical management of his flock, and
which will produce unfavorable conditions in the hatch.
It may prove helpful to call special attention to some
of the more common mistakes of this nature.

Overfat Hens. Hens that are heavily fed and whose
exercise has been neglected, are apt to come to the breed-
ing season too fat and more or less out of condition, so
that they are not able to produce strongly fertile eggs.
It is scarcely possible to place too much emphasis on the
importance of taking the best of care of the breeding
fowls prior to the breeding season, as well as after
hatching operations begin. They should be well-fed but
not overfed, and when confined indoors or in yards,
special provisions must be made for their exercise. The
importance of this may not be so great in the case of
Legherns and other small fowls, as these are naturally
active, but fowls of the larger breeds are disposed to take
life quite leisurely if supplied with an abundance of easily
secured food. The injurious effect of
this is found not so much in their
getting overfat, as in their being un-
derexercised and thus not in good
physical condition for breeding. The
reader is advised to turn back and
read again what is said in this chap-
ter in regard to providing exercise,
no detail of which can safely be neg-
lected in the care of large hens,
either during the breeding season or
in the months leading up to it.

Exhausted Hens and Pullets. Early-
hatched pullets that have been heavi-
ly fed for eggs through the winter,
and in some cases one-year-old hens
also, will not be in condition for the

FIG. 20—U. S. GOVERNMENT TRAP NEST READY FOR USE

For convenience in handling, trap nests may be made in batteries of three
Dimensions and method

or more, as here shown, using light-weight lumber.
of construction are shown in Fig. 21

of the sample hatching sheet shown on page 46, or the
more elaborate one on page 47.

In case the record is to be extended to the individual
hen, trap nests and pedigree trays or their equivalent
will be needed. For a practical trap nest that will give
generally good results with hens of any size and that can
be made quite cheaply, the one illustrated in Fig. 17, and
shown in operation in Figs. 18 and 19, is recommended.
The illustrations and the footnotes that accompany them
will be sufficient to enable any one to make the nest suc-
cessfully. Another type of nest in use at the poultry ex-
periment farm of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, near
Washington, is shown in Figs. 20 and 21. Pedigree egg
trays such as are in use at the Maine Experiment Sta-
tion are shown on page 44, and more inexpensive appli-
ances for pedigree hatching is shown on page 45. Where
pedigree breeding is practiced, record keeping becomes
a rather elaborate matter, and it is useless to attempt
this method at all unless it is done right. Almost any
State Experiment Station will cheerfully furnish specimen
record sheets for use in pedigree breeding, and explain
their use.

Some Reasons for Low Fertility

With the breeding stock selected, fed, and cared for
‘in the manner just described, there should be no ques-

breeding pen in the spring. Eggs for
hatching may be secured from win-
ter layers with fairly satisfactory re-
sults early in the season, but only
then. It is never advisable to depend
on pullets or hens that have laid heavily through the
winter, for a supply of hatching eggs throughout the sea-
son. As far as hens are concerned, it is better to pen
them separately and feed them a good nourishing but
non-forcing ration and make no effort whatever to get
eggs from them until the breeding season has arrived.

Immature Pullets. The use of young pullets is be-
lieved to be a general cause of poor hatches and weak
chicks. It is not probable that there is any disadvantage
in the use of well-matured pullets that have been laying
for a short time so that the eggs are good-sized and
normal in development. But immature pullets that are
laying their first eggs, especially if they have been more
or less forced in their development in order to bring
them into laying, are extremely undesirable.

Males Not in Good Condition. What has been said
in regard to the management of hens, in and out of the

breeding season, also applies to males, although these’

are not apt to become overfat at any time. They un-
doubtedly will be benefitted by compulsory exercise,
however. If very gallant they are more apt to be under-
fed than overfed and should be watched to avoid any
danger of this happening. If necessary, they may have

‘a special supply of grain, provided in a cup or small hop-

per hung high enough to be out of the reach of the hens,

MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK ZL

Immature Cockerels. The chief objection to the use
of cockerels, assuming that they are well developed, is
that they are not able to stand service in the breeding
pen for long periods, especially when mated to too many
females as is almost habitually done. If they must be
used singly in large flocks it is a good plan to provide
some extra ones so that they can be placed in service
alternately, with rest periods between. A better and
more practical plan, where it is possible to practice it,
is simply to keep the number of females down to a point
where the males will not be in danger of being over-
worked and thus can be continued in regular service
throughout the season. Alternating males is a make-
shift practice at best. It is much better that the pen,
when once mated, be continued unchanged to the close
of the season, unless it is found desirable to make a per-
manent change.

Unsuitable Rations. The rations that the breeders
should have are fully outlined in this chapter, and there is
no poorer economy than to neglect the provision of what
is needed in order to save a few cents on the cost of
the ration, if this done at the expense of the nourishment
of the breeding stock and the embryo. There is no nec-
essity for making the feeding a complicated mathematical
or chemical problem, but wholesome food
in reasonable variety and properly sup-
plied, neither too much nor too little, is
imperative.

Too Long Breeding Season. It fre-
quently happens that a breeding pen that
has given good results early in the year fails
to hold up throughout the breeding season,
and fertility and vitality in the chicks drop
to a low point. There is no practical way .
of keeping up the vigor of fowls that are
laying heavily for long periods, and this
must be taken into account in all plans.
Winter-laying pullets may be used in the
breeding pen early in the season, but for
long periods one and two-year-old hens
are better. They should be fed so as to
keep the egg yield at a reasonable percent-
age, but avoid all tendency to forcing
methods. Egg production may be con-
trolled to some extent by making changes
in the rations as suggested in this chapter,
such as by increasing or decreasing the
percentage of meat scrap, or by regulating
the amount of mash. If the fowls are dis- !
posed to lay too heavily they may be,
checked by reducing the proportion of dry
mash consumed, doing so by increasing the
proportion of bran in the mixture. If the
yield falls off too greatly it can be brought
back by reducing the bran and increasing
the meat scrap and, if necessary, by feed-
ing a moist mash daily.

Too Little Animal Food. Experiments

have shown that a lack of animal food will seriously af-
fect the hatchability of eggs, and this part of the ration
should always receive attention. Commercial meat scrap
is available almost everywhere and should invariably be
supplied to breeding fowls in confinement, unless fresh
meat, butcher’s scraps or green cut bone is used instead.
Meat is apt to stimulate the egg organs to too heavy pro-
duction, however, and must not be fed too freely. The
Proportion cannot be exactly stated, as much depends
on the mash fed, and on other conditions, and must
be governed to some extent by the performance of the
hens. So long as they are not laying too heavily it is
safe to assume that the amount is not excessive, if it
conforms in a general way to the percentages suggested
in this chapter.

Too Much Green Food. Where sprouted oats are fed
liberally, also where efforts are made to reduce the cost
of the ration by feeding an abundance of green food,
there is danger that the eggs will be watery and far from
normal in composition. Such eggs cannot be expected
to give good results in the incubator. Green food is im-

a | ST

portant as a means of keeping the fowls in good physical
condition, but there is danger in feeding it too heavily.

Poor Sanitary Conditions. It is assumed that good
sanitary conditions will be maintained in the breeding
pens at all times. Cleanliness, from a poultry-keeping
viewpoint, does not mean the same thing that it sug-
gests to the tidy housekeeper, but it certainly should mean
freedom from dampness, foul odors, and filthy litter. The
condition of the litter is especially important because of
the feeding method recommended, which requires the
fowls to keep digging in it pretty much all day long to
secure their grain feed. It should take no argument to
show the importance of having reasonably clean litter,
for this purpose—litter that is dry and free from drop-
pings and mustiness. With a dry floor and a well-ven-
tilated house, a thick coat of litter will last for some
time, especially where the fowls are no more crowded
than is generally recommended for breeding pens. If
the house is kept dry by adequate ventilation, the litter
renewed frequently enough to keep it bright and fresh,
and the droppings boards cleaned often enough to keep
the house free from offensive odor, the house can be
considered clean and sanitary. Less than this should not
be tolerated. A filthy house will certainly react on the
health and productivity of the fowls.

é

FIG. 22—-OUTLINE DRAWING OF U. S. GOVERNMENT TRAP NEST

This drawing shows method of construction and dimensions of trap
nest in use at the Governmental
Washington, D. C.

Poultry Experimental Farm near

For complete nest see Fig. 20

Eggs Chilled or Overheated. Eggs must be pro-
tected from extreme temperatures while being held for
Ratching. Low temperatures that will chill them, or high
temperatures that will start germ development are alike
injurious. Under ordinary conditions a reasonably dry
cellar is a good place for the eggs, and if there is no
dampness they may safely be laid in baskets or trays,
piled one on top of the other, and covered with a cloth
to prevent evaporation. If the cellar is damp or the tem-
perature is liable to fall much below 50 degrees it will be
better to keep the eggs elsewhere. A closet in the kitchen
or living room frequently offers an excellent place for
them, but in this case it is necessary to guard against
high temperatures during the day and low temperatures
at night. Usually the most practical and convenient way
to store eggs for hatching is to place them in one dozen
cartons, or in regular shipping cases when large numbers
are to be accumulated. These packages provide ideal con-
ditions, as the eggs are protected from sudden changes in
temperature, and from evaporation, also from excess
moisture, and are easily turned if this is considered nec-
essary.

CAM ASP SE IRG stelul
The Hen’s Ege and How It Is Formed

Description of the Egg Organs of the Hen—How Eggs Are Developed—Composition of the Egg and How This May
Be Affected by Feeding—How Size and Shape of Eggs Are Determined—Securing Large, Uni-
formly Shaped Eggs for Hatching—Defective Eggs and How Prevented.

GOOD degree of success in artificial incubation
may be achieved with only the most limited
WME knowledge regarding the formation of the egg,

its composition, and the growth and development
of the chick embryo—that much is readily conceded. The
earnest and ambitious poultry keeper, however, who
wishes to be well informed generally on matters that
directly relate to his work, will want to know at least the
details of this complicated but highly interesting subject.
There is no question about the fact that he will find all
such information helpful to him in practical everyday
work with breeding stock and in hatching operations.
This information we have
attempted to give in this
and the following chapters,
though it evidently is im-
possible to do little more
in the space available, than
to outline the subject and to
furnish such details as will
enable those who are inter-
ested, to follow intelligently
the development of the chick
embryo. It also is impossi-
ble to present such a sub-
ject in words made familiar
by everyday use, though so
far as possible this has been
done.

Considering the egg sim-
ply as the reproductive body
of fowls, it may be described
as consisting of a germ, a
relatively large amount of
food stored up for the nourishment of the developing
embryo, and protective coverings. The egg has its mic-
roscopic beginning in the ovary of the female fowl,
which organ, bearing a slight general resemblance to a
bunch of grapes (see Fig. 24) is located close to the
backbone and in front of the kidneys. The female nor-
mally develops only one ovary—the left one—the right
ovary becoming atrophied at an early stage in the de-
velopment of the embryonic chick,

In mature laying pullets the ovary contains ova in all
stages of development, from full-grown yolks down to
minute bodies (oocytes) so small that they cannot be
detected without the use of a microscope. The number
of these is quite large, as many as 3,600 having been
counted in a single ovary, only those being considered
that were visible to the naked eye (see Fig. 23). How
many more might be revealed by the use of the micro-
scope we do not know. Since few hens ever reach a total
production of 1,000 eggs, it is clear that the number that
any individual may produce is determined by physical
limitations, the exhaustion of the supply of ova being a
practical impossibility.

Thy Oviduct

The oviduct (see Figs. 24 and 27) is a whitish tube,

located in the abdomen and attached by means of tough

FIG. 22—WELL-FORMED,

22

membraneous tissue to the upper part of the body wall.
In the growing pullet or non-laying hen it is compara-
tively small, but as the fowl comes into laying condition
it increases in size until it reaches a length of fully two
feet, with glandular walls of varying thickness and
strongly marked with blood vessels. It may be divided
into the following parts or sections: The funnel, de-
signed to receive the yolk as it leaves the ruptured yolk
sac; the albumen-secreting portion; the isthmus which
secretes the shell membrane; the uterus where the hard
shell is secreted; the vagina where the coloring matter of
the shell and the outer mucilaginous coating are secreted.

Formation of the Egg

The ova or yolks develop
in groups, about fourteen
‘days being sufficient for the
development of a full-sized
yolk from the minute ovum.
The yellow part of the yolk
consists of round cells filled
with fat, which are deposited
daily in successive layers,
each layer being separated
from the rest by an extreme-
ly thin layer of white yolk.
These layers are so distinct
in formation that the yolk
of a fresh hard-boiled egg
can be peeled off in layers,
like an. onion, if carefully
done. The yolk is enclosed
in a membraneous yolk sac,
through which it receives
from the blood the materials of which it is composed.
When the yolk reaches its full development, the sac is
ruptured and the yolk, enclosed in an extremely thin en-
velope known as the vitelline membrane (an essential part
of the yolk structure) enters the upper end of the ovi-
duct. The yolk is not a solid mass, but enclosed in it is
a central cavity filled with white yolk and connected with
the germinal disk on the upper surface of the yolk by a
small canal or tube which also is filled with white yolk.

STANDARD-SIZED EGGS

At the time the yolk escapes from the yolk sac, the
upper end or mouth of the oviduct opens and more or
less envelops it, thus insuring its entrance into the ovi-
duct instead of into the body cavity, which latter fre-
quently happens, however, when the funnel of the ovi-
duct does not function properly. As soon as the yolk
enters the oviduct, the glands begin pouring out their
secretions of albumen or “white” and as the yolk is
gradually pushed along, turning round and round in a
spiral manner under the pressure of the muscular walls
of the oviduct, it accumulates its share of albumen and,
further along, the membranes and the hard shell.

“In the normal egg of the hen there are certainly
three and possibly four different albumen layers which
can easily be distinguished on the basis of physical con-
sistency. These are: (a) the chalaziferous layer. This

THE HEN’S EGG AND HOW IT IS FORMED 23

is a thin layer of dense albuminous
material, which lies immediately out-
side the true yolk membrane. It is
continuous at the poles of the yolk
with the chalazae, and is undoubtedly
formed in connection with those
structures. It is so thin a layer that
it might well be, and often has been
taken for the yolk membrane. (b)
The inner layer of fluid (thin) albu-
men. This layer is extremely thin
and there is some doubt as to its ex-
istence as a separate layer. (c) The
dense albumen. This is the layer
which makes up the bulk of the
“white” of the egg. It is composed of
amass of dense, closely interlaced
albumen fibres with some thin albu-
men between the meshes of the fib-
rous network. The dense albumen, as
a whole, will not flow readily but
hoids itself together in a flattened
mass if poured out upon a plate. (d) The outer layer. of
fluid albumen. This is the principal layer of thin albu-
men, which makes up the fluid part of the “white” ob-
served when an egg is broken.

“Many autopsy records agree in showing that the
egg does not receive the outer layer of thin fluid albumen
(layer d) during its sojourn in the so-called albumen se-
creting portion of the oviduct. A detailed and careful
study of the weights of the several parts of the egg
(yolk, albumen, shell membranes) in eggs taken from
different levels of the oviduct, leads to the following re-
sults. When the egg leaves the albumen portion of the
oviduct it weighs roughly only about half as much as
it does when laid. Nearly all of this difference is in the
albumen. Thus these weighings fully confirm the con-
clusion reached from different examinations of the eggs,
as already described. The evidence shows that the egg
gets all of its thin albumen (layer d), which constitutes

secreted. 3,

FIG. 24—OVARY AND OVIDUCT OF LAYING HEN
1, ovary with yolks (ova) in different stages of development—one just ready
to pass into mouth of oviduct. 2,
the uterus or
this illustration with Fig. 27. Courtesy of Mo. State Poultry Experiment Station.

section of oviduct where the albumen is

shell gland, containing full-sized egg. Compare

nearly 60 per cent by weight of the total albumen, only
after it has left the supposedly only albumen-secreting
portion of the oviduct, and the shell is in process of for-
mation.

“The weighings show that in general the farther
down the oviduct the egg proceeds the more albumen it
gets. Very nearly one-half the total weight of albumen
of the completed egg is added in the uterus, an organ
hitherto supposed to be entirely devoted to shell forma-
tion. Clearly much more albumen is added to the egg
in the uterus than in the isthmus. This, of course, does
not necessarily mean any more rapid rate of secretion in
the uterus, because of the time element involved. The
egg stays much longer in the uterus than in the isthmus.”*

The chalazae, to which reference has been made,
are attached on opposite sides of the yolk, facing the two
ends of the egg, and extend out into the albumen. Their
purpose is to hold the yolk in its proper position, allow-
ing it to turn around freely the
short way of the egg, but preventing
its turning over the long way of the
egg. This in connection with the
peculiar structure of the yolk, which
makes the sides carrying the germi-
nal disk lighter than the other half,
keeps the yolk always on the upper
side of the ege and near the center,
viewing it from end to end, and also
keeps the germ side of the yolk up-
permost and close up to the source
of heat regardless of the position in
which the egg is placed.

The covering of the egg consists of
two membranes, each a network of
fibers, and a hard outer shell. The
separation of the inner and outer
membranes at the large end forms
the air cell with which all incubator
Operators are familiar. The outer
shell is almost pure carbonate of
lime and consists of the gelatinous ’

FIG. 23—PORTION OF OVARY OF HEN

This illustration made from a photograph supplied by Missouri State Poul-
try Experiment Station shows about three-fourths of the ovary of a hen, and
gives some idea (though but a faint one) of the great numbers of ova to be
found in the ovary of any normal hen, there being many hundreds, possibly
thousands more than the hens will ever lay.

coating, which forms the “bloom” of
the egg, an outer porous layer, a mid-
dle and denser portion, and an inner

*Extract from Maine
Station Bulletin No. 216.

Experiment

24 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

or crystalline portion. The shell is quite porous and ad-
mits air readily, and bacteria also when kept under un-
favorable conditions. The outer gelatinous coating seems
to provide some additional protection for the egg, possi-
bly retarding evaporation. If this coating is removed, as
when the shells are washed on account of being badly
soiled, the eggs seldom hatch as well as when unwashed.

The following statement in regard to the develop-
ment of the different parts of the egg and the length of

WY

YY BL

FIG. 25—STRUCTURE OF THE EGG.

S, shell; M, outer shell membrane; M-1, inner
shell membrane; A, air cell; C, outer layer of
albumen; W, middle layer of albumen; D, inner or
chalaziferous layer of albumen; CH, chalazae; V,
vitelline membrane; WY, thin layers of white yolk
—also central cavity and tube filled with white
yolk; YY, layers of yellow yolk; BL, blastoderm or
germinal disk.

time occupied in the process, is taken from Bulletin 216
of the Maine Experiment Station:

1. After entering the infundibulum the yolk re-
mains in the so-called albumen portion of the oviduct
about three hours and in this time acquires only about
40 to 50 per cent by weight of its total albumen, and not
all of it as has hitherto been supposed.

2. During its sojourn in the infundibular and albu-
men portions of the duct the egg acquires its chalazae and
chalaziferous layer, and the “thick” albumen layer.

3. Upon entering the isthmus, in passing through
which portion of the duct something under an hour’s
time is occupied instead of three hours as has been pre-
viously maintained, the egg receives its shell membrane
by a process of discrete deposition.

4. At the same time, and also during the sojourn of
the egg in the uterus, it receives its outer layer of fluid
or “thin” albumen, which is by weight 50 to 60 per cent
of the total albumen.

5. This “thin” albumen is taken in as a dilute fluid
by osmosis through the shell membranes already formed.
The fluid albumen added in this way diffuses into the
dense albumen already present, dissolve some of the

ONE DAY OLD

ONE WEEK OLD

latter and so brings about its dilution in some degree. At
the same time the fluid albumen is made more dense in
this process of diffusion, and comes to have the consist-
ency of the thin albumen layer of the normal fresh laid
ezg. The fluid albumen taken into the egg by osmosis is
a definite secretion of glands of the isthmus and uterus.

6. The addition of albumen to the egg is completed
only after it has been in the uterus from 5 to 7 hours.

7. Before the acquisition of albumen by the egg ig
completed, a fairly considerable amount of shell sub-
stance has been deposited on the shell membrane.

8. For the completion of the shell and the laying of
the egg from 12 to 16, or exceptionally even more, hours
are required.”

Composition of the Hen’s Egg

The composition of eggs and the relative proportions
of the different substances represented in them vary
somewhat in different analyses, but the following aver-
ages of a number of tests made at the Kansas Experi-
ment Station probably quite closely approximate the gen-
cral average:

Weight of

Percentage
Percentage of yolk

Percentage-of shell ... 2 999
Percentage of protein -12.34
Percentage of water in white .. -87.66
Percentage of protein in yolk . -17.58
Percentage of ether extract (f -82.23
Percentage of water in yolk -48.63
Percentage of ash in yolk .... 1.55
Percentage of protein in tot 12.83

Both yolk and albumen are highly complex com-
pounds. While many of the substances contained in
them are present only in the most limited porportions
they are not necessarily unimportant to embryonic de-
velopment on that account. The composition of the yolk
of the average egg approximates the following per-
centages:

Analysis of Yolk.

Wiater wil ok Pose tecebaccace eee ccve cea ceencncege char teewenshecces cet Se eaRE 49.32 per cent.

Solids _.......... -50.66 per cent.
Mats) kis a eto ..21.57 per cent.
Vitellin and other albumens ......... ..15.79 per cent.
Tecithins: csc Sees ee ecco aeence .. 9.58 per cent.
Cholesterin - 1.2 per cent.
Cerebrin ......... -. .80 per cent.
Mineral mete aWudalgeccees sbabucteutpayeee taunts et eee eee 3.33 per cent.
Coloring matter
Boeeae { a el ec .55 per cent.

The mineral salts in the yolk contain sodium, potas-
sium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphoric acid, chlorine
and silicic acid. The phosphoric acid and calcium form
much the greater proportion of the total.

Analysis of Albumen.

MVViSGOTS Ue ccccsccteseecessacuneucannesctossnentrescanseer hagas Rus eencns epee eaaetiee cent
Solids) ii cent
Albumens cent
Glucose ........ cent
Extractives ....... cent
Fats and soap .-
Mineral Salts ...................eeeee cent

Lecithins and cholesterin .....

The mineral salts in the albumen contain sodium,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, chlorine, phosphorus

TWO WEEKS OLD

FIG. 22-—HOW AGE AFFECTS CONSISTENCY OF YOLK AND ALBUMEN
Eggs rapidly lose consistency or firmness with age. Note the firmness of yolk and albumen in the

egg one day old as shown

by the way of yolk stands up and the albumen holds together.

In the

egg one week old both have flattened out noticeably, and in the egg two weeks old the albumen is quite

watery and the yolk flat, thin, and easily broken.

THE HEN’S EGG AND

acid, carbonic acid, sulphuric acid, silicic acid and fluorine.
Of these, sodium, potassium, and chlorine form the great-
er part of the total.

Variations in Composition of Eggs

Comparatively little information is available, show-
ing the extent to which the composition of the egg may
be affected by the rations fed. It is common knowledge
that the color is affected by the food supplied, and there
are readily observed differences in the consistency of yolk
and albumen, which accompany extreme rations such as
those composed mainly of soft food, or which contain
large proportions of milk, cabbage, or green food in any
form, also kitchen scraps. Eggs produced by hens that
have a reasonable proportion of animal food in the ration
are noticeably different from eggs produced on a meat-
less ration, and eggs produced by well-fed hens are per-
ceptibly larger than from underfed fowls, while the
flavor is noticeably affected by the character of the food
provided. The poultry keeper who produces eggs for
hatching will therefore aim to supply a nourishing and
well-balanced ration, and in liberal proportions, so that
the eggs laid will be of full size and normal in their com-
position.

It is doubtful, however, whether there is any neces-
sity for or advantage in trying to provide a ration that
will clesely follow the chemical composition of the egg,
as is often recommended. If there is any advantage in
so doing, certainly the proportions have not been suffi-
ciently investigated to afford any reliable information as
to the amounts required. On the whole, there are good
practical reasons for thinking that better results will be
secured by the feeder who aims simply to supply a nor-
mal ration rather than by one who permits himself to
get hopelessly tangled up in the complexities of egg and
food analyses. As a matter of fact, such investigations
as have been made indicate that the great majority of the
elements which enter into the composition of the egg
are found largely in excess of the fowl’s requirements in
any good, practical ration such as poultry feeders gen-
erally use.

Experiments made at Cornell University, for exam-
ple, indicate that the relative proportions of fat and pro-
tein in the egg vary but little, regardless of the ration
fed; that there seems to be no relation between the pro-
tein and fat content of the egg and its hatching power
or the vitality of the chick; that the phosphorus content
of the egg is only slightly modified by the proportions in
which this element is present in the ration, and this varia-
tion seems to have no bearing on the strength or vitality
of the chick; and that the feeding of inorganic phosphorus
does not influence the proportion of phosphorus in the
egg. If these things are true in regard to phosphorus,
which is generally believed to be the element in which
the average ration is most likely to be deficient, there can
be little reason for anxiety about the other mineral con-
stituents, so long as the ration is well balanced and pro-
vides some variety.

The composition of the egg aside from consistency
and flavor, appears to vary only in a slight degree as a
result of changes in the ration. A conspicuous deficiency
in any essential ingredient is much more apt to cause a
falling off in egg yield than in the production of eggs
showing a noticeable reduction in any of their normal
constituents. For example, a marked deficiency of lime
in the ration does not necessarily result in soft shells,
but usually is followed by reduced productiveness and
smaller-sized eggs.

bdo
on

HOW IT IS FORMED

How the Egg Gets Its Oval Shape

As regards the shaping of the egg, the following ex-
tract from Bulletin 228 of the Maine Experiment Station
gives practically all that is known on this subject:

“The shape of the egg is almost certainly due to the
interaction of the two layers of muscle fibers in the ovi-
duct walls. The inner layer of fibers is circular, that is,
they pass around the duct. The outer layer is longitudi-
nal and somewhat spiral and extends into both the dorsal
and ventral ligaments. Further work on the physiology
of these muscles is necessary to determine the exact way
in which they act. From their position and from ob-
served activities of the duct it seems that the contrac-

FIG. 27—PHOTOGRAPH OF HEN’S OVIDUCT
Oviduct slit open and flattened out, showing the inside

surface. Oviduct was cut in two at “B” in order to get
it on the photographic plate. A is the funnel shaped
mouth; B, B, B, the albumen-secreting section. The
albumen portion stops and the isthmus begins at X.
C, the isthmus where the shell membranes are secreted;
D, the uterus or shell gland; E, the vagina. Photo from
Maine Experiment Station.

tion of the circular fibers contract the duct and move
the egg forward. The contraction of the longitudinal
fibers, which have a somewhat spiral course, expand the
duct, diminishing the resistance to the passage and also
gives the egg a spiral motion. If the resistance is slight,
i. e., if the contractions are so timed that the duct ahead
of the egg is expanded at the time of the contraction of
the circular fibers behind, the egg will be long, narrow
and pointed. On the other hand, if the resistance is
great the egg will be short and broad.

“The individuality of the eggs of a bird in respect

26 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

to shape must be
due to an individ-
uality in the co-
ordination of these
two sets of mus-
cle fibers and sim-
ilarly the variation
must be due to
a variation under
different condi-
tions in the de-
gree of coordina-
tion.”

Size and Shape of
Eggs

Since conspicu-
ous variations from
ideal egg shape
are apt to be due
to abnormal con-
ditions in the ovi-
duct, it should be

FIG. 23—DEFORMED EGGS

“Wind eggs’ (1) usually contain
albumen but no yolk. Crooked eggs
(2) usually result from an inflamed
condition of the oviduct. Ridged or ir-

regularly shaped eggs (3) and double-

yolked eggs (4) also are due to inflam- clear that hens
mation in the oviduct or to weakness that regularly lay
in the muscles of that organ, and most rerarrilil
commonly are produced by overfat hens. such eggs shou

not be used for
the production of hatching eggs. Aside from the fact
that such irregularities may be inherited, there is the
more immediate disadvantage due to low fertility, which
usually is a characteristic of odd-shaped eggs. The shape
of the egg bears no relation to the sex of the chick
hatched from it.

The eggs of individual hens vary to some extent in
size, shape, and color, though conforming more or less
closely to certain general breed characteristics. A good
degree of uniformity in these respects can be secured in
carefully bred strains in any breed. The eggs of any
given individual will be found to resemble each other
closely in shape and exterior appearance, so that it is
possible for the careful observer to identify the hen that
laid the egg by its appearance alone, though in a sea-
son’s production some variation in size, also in color and
shape, will be noted. “Egg weight and albumen are about
equally variable. They are decidedly less variable than
shell weight and yolk weight, and much more variable
than either length or breadth.”*

*Maine Station Bulletin No. 228.

FIG. 29—SELECT NORMAL EGGS FOR THE INCUBATOR

(1) This egg is just about perfect in its proportions.
The length is practically 1% times the diameter, and it
weighs two and one-sixth ounces. (2) Extra long eggs are
not likely to show a high degree of fertility and are much
more apt to have defective shells. (3) Eggs of this type
usually are undersized and should be avoided.

The following list arranges the egg characters in the
order of their variability; egg weight; yolk weight; albu-
men weight; shell weight; length; breadth. Eggs during
the breeding season have larger yolks and a correspond-
ingly smaller percentage of albumen than eggs at other
seasons.

In a general way the size of eggs is greater in the
middle of the clutch than at the beginning or the end,
and in a period of long-continued laying the eggs tend
to average smaller. However, pullets habitually lay
smaller eggs in the first clutch than in successive ones
and their eggs are not apt to reach maximum size until
the second year.

The poultry grower is interested in the variations in
size, shape, and composition of eggs for very practical
reasons. Regardless of whether eggs are sold by weight
or not, size has an important market value. Noticeably
small eggs are subject to discount in almost any dis-
climinating market, while large size is almost imperative
in jecuring premium prices. In incubation it is cohceded
that the largest and best chicks: come from large eggs.
Color of shell is definitely inherited within the breed.
That is, pullets hatched from white-shelled eggs will al-
ways lay white-shelled eggs if they are purebred, and hens
belonging to
breeds that lay
eggs with brown
shells will never
lay white - shelled
eggs, though in
some breeds the
shade of brownin
the eggs may vary
widely except in
strains that have
been carefully
bred for uniform-
ity in color. Some
breeds are much
more apt to show
uniformity of shell
color than others,
but a good degree
of uniformity can
be secured in any
breed or variety
by persistent se-
lection. That the
same rule will apply equally to shape and size is prob-
able, but not so clearly established.

FIG. 30—DEFORMED EGG WITH
SOFT SHELL

Eggs with soft shells,

in various
abnormal shapes, are more or less
common, especially in the spring when
the fowls are laying heavily and when
they often are suffering from long
winter confinement. More exercise and
a less forcing ration are the remedy.

Defective Eggs and How Caused

There are a number of defects that may occur in
eggs, some of them unavoidable, and some the result of
poor methods of feeding or care. The appearance of
serious defects that are known to be the result of im-
proper conditions should be a sufficient warning imme-
diately to change such conditions, while others that are
due to constitutional causes demand the removal of the
defective fowls. The following defects may be noticed
in almost any flock during the heavy laying season, and
while their occurrence now and then is not a serious
matter, an appreciable number means improper condi-
tions somewhere along the line, which must be corrected
if good hatching eggs are to be produced:

Small Eggs. Extremely small eggs, sometimes called
“wind eggs,” are generally supposed to be the last of the
clutch, or the last eggs laid by a hen before becoming

THE HEN’S EGG AND HOW IT IS FORMED ai

broody. In some cases the wind egg is believed to re-
sult from the entrance of the yolk into the oviduct and
its later expulsion into the body cavity where it is reab-
sorbed. The secretion of the albumen having been be-
gun however, the entire process is gone through with,
resulting in the formation of a diminutive egg with a
regular shell, containing varying amounts of albumen
but no yolk. Eggs normal in shell, albumen, and yolk,
but quite small in size, may simply be a pullet’s first
eggs or they may result from rations conspicuously defi-

S5*

cient in something essential to egg production.

Overlarge Eggs. Eggs that are conspicuously over-
size are generally, but not always,
double-yolked eggs, produced by two
yolks escaping into the oviduct at the
same time, or to a reversal of the
muscular action of the oviduct which
may result in stopping a yolk at any
point in the oviduct, even after it has
accumulated most of its albumen, or
after a complete shell has been
formed, and returning it to the upper
part of the oviduct. In the course
of this backward movement it meets
the following yolk and both then pro-
ceed through the oviduct and are
enclosed in one shell. Double-yolked
eggs indicate irregular functioning of
the oviduct and are commonly pro-
duced by hens that are overfat, es-
pecially if kept in comparative idle-
ness. It is probable that the trouble
is not due directly to the hens being
overfat, but to a general weakening
of the muscles of the oviduct and of
the entire abdominal region, as a re-
sult of inactivity. At any rate, the
remedy lies in providing more exer-
cise for the fowls, and a less forcing
ration. As a matter of fact, one of
the. first and most important steps to
be taken in the prevention of defec-
tive eggs of almost any kind is to
see to it that the hens have plenty of
exercise. Normal fowls are highly
active, and scratching for their food
is the natural way to get both food
and exercise. This constant scratch-
ing tends to keep the abdominal mus-
cles strong and active, and this firm-
ness of muscle extends to and is an
important feature in the health and
activity of the oviduct.

Soft Shells. These may be due to
a lack of lime or to improper func-
tioning of the egg organs, resulting
from lack of exercise. In some in-
stances the presence of soft-shelled
eggs is due to forced feeding in
which case the shell glands do not
appear to be able to secrete material
as fast as is required. This may hap-
pen even when there is no lack of
lime in the ration. In some instances
the cause of soft shells will be found
in the inability of the hen to take
up lime from the material supplied,
x? simply to failure to eat enough
OL it:

Watery Eggs. Eggs that are watery when fresh are
generally so as the result of defective rations. Fowls
that are heavily fed on green stuff, soft food, or kitchen
scraps, are apt to lay such eggs, and while they may pass
for table use, they are not desirable for hatching. More
grain in the ration will remedy this.

Pale Color. The color of the yolk is determined by
the presence of a certain coloring matter, which is gen-
erally distributed, but is present in especially liberal pro-
portions in yellow corn, clover, alfalfa, grass, etc. There
are no tests showing that well-colored yolks will hatch
any better than pale-colored ones, but it certainly is wise
to try to keep the eggs as nearly normal in all respects
as possible. For that reason pale yolks should be cor-
rected by providing some of the above-mentioned foods
to supply color.

i tor 3

spectively.

such holding.
10 to 12.

grees Fahrenheit, in an open pasteboard carton.
over the eggs, and each egg illustrated is typical of several eggs that were ex-
amined at each stage; therefore this series represents the normal results of

spectively at a temperature of 40 degrees Fahrenheit.
of age (10), the egg is less evaporated than at four weeks of age when held at
a living-room temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit (5).
two weeks at 40 degrees Fahrenheit without much change.
Bulletin 353, Cornell University.

Rough Shells. Rough shells may be due to lack of
a suitable supply of lime, but more commonly to an in-
flamed condition of the portion of the oviduct where the
shell material is secreted. Hens that regularly lay rough-
shelled eggs should be removed from the breeding flock.
An appreciable number of such indicates something rad-
ically wrong with the ration or the condition under which
the fowls are kept.

Crooked or Ridged Shells. Various irregularities in
the shape of egg shells will be met with from time to
time, and all such should be discarded. It is true that
crooked or ridged eggs sometimes hatch well, but the

FIG. 31—RATE OF EVAPORATION OF HEN’S EGG

Eggs that have been held for one day, one week, two weeks, three
weeks, four weeks, five weeks, six’ weeks, seven weeks, and eight weeks, re-

The eggs were kept at a living-room temperature of about 70 de-

There was no breeze blowing

Eggs held for twelve weeks, one week, and one-half week re-

Even at twelve weeks

Eggs may be held for
Reproduced from

chances are against their doing so, and unless from val-
uable stock it is hardly worth while to waste incubator
space on them. They are usually caused by an inflam-
matory condition in the oviduct, though some hens lay
crooked eggs regularly, apparently as the result of some
slight organic malformation that does no harm and does
not develop into anything serious.

Transparent Spots in Shells. The exact cause of
transparent spots in eggs is not fully understood. It
may be characteristic of an individual hen or possibly
may occur in hens that generally lay normal eggs. If
these eggs can be distinguished either by superficial ex-
amination or through the egg tester they should be dis-
carded. Some of them may hatch but the percentage
generally will be low.

CHAPTER

IV

The Chick Embryo and Its Development

Appearance of Fertile and Infertile Eggs—Stage of Development of Germ When Egg is Laid—How It Is Kept Alive
But Dormant Before Incubation Begins— What Happens During Incubation—Position in Which
to Keep Eggs and Length of Time They May Be Held.

O GET a clear idea of the normal position of the
yolk and the germinal disk which forms the
starting point of the chick embryo, the shell of
a fresh egg may be carefully broken away as

shown in Fig. 32, when the yolk will be seen floating well
up in the albumen, with a thin layer of that substance be-
tween the yolk and inner surface of the shell membrane.
When this insulating layer disappears through the thin-
ning of the albumen as a result of age, or because the
egg has stood too long in one position, the yolk will
come in contact with the inner surface of the shell mem-
brane and will adhere to it. The chalazae will be seen
opposite each end of the egg, suspended well below the
center, sometimes so low as to be almost under the yolk.
While the chalazae normally are attached firmly to op-
posite sides of the yolk, they are subject to rather wide
variations in their development, and one or both will
sometimes be found apparently floating in the albumen
and with no visible attachment to the yolk. Such eggs
are not likely to hatch well. On the upper side of the
yolk will be seen the germinal disk—a small, round,
light-colored spot not much over an eighth of an inch in
diameter. This disk is always uppermost, due to a slight
difference in the weight of the two sides of the yolk
caused by the central cavity and the connecting canal,
the outer opening of which is always immediately under
the germinal disk (see Fig. 25). The disk, properly called
the blastoderm, is close up under the outer envelope of
the yolk, known as the vitelline membrane.

When the yolk leaves the ovary, after developing to
full size, the germinal disk consists of a small circular
spot enclosed in a whitish ring and with the interior pre-
senting a whitish or frothy appearance. The union be-
tween the female and male germ (the spermatazoon)
takes place in the upper end of the oviduct, immediately
after the yolk enters it from the ovary. The spermatazoa
traverse the entire length of the oviduct after copulation,
and at the upper end or mouth of the oviduct they re-
main active for some days, suspended in fluid, and await-
ing an opportunity to effect a union with a female germ.
There is no possibility of such a union until the yolk
has entered the upper end of the oviduct, but as the
spermatazoa may retain their activity for as long as
three weeks in this environment, a single service may
result in fertilizing a number of germs, as the successive
yolks develop and escape into the oviduct. Experimental
tests have shown that hens may continue to lay fertile
eggs for weeks after the male has been removed from
the flock, though as a rule, fertility is low after six to
eight days, and is rare after the fifteenth day.

Appearance of Fertile and Infertile Eggs

It usually is an easy matter to distinguish fertile
from infertile eggs when the shells are broken. In the
latter the germinal disk will be more or less uniformily
opaque, or if closely examined will have a sort of frothy
appearance. In the fertile egg the center is also opaque
but much smaller than in the infertile egg and this cen-
ter is surrounded by a transparent ring and this in turn

28

is enclosed by a whitish one, giving a concentric ringing
that is an unmistakable indication of a fertilized germ.
This concentric ringing is more clearly defined in some
eggs than in others, but is nearly always sufficiently de-
veloped to make it possible to distinguish fertility if it
exists. It is not possible to distinguish between fertile
and infertile eggs by candling, until the egg has been ex-
posed to incubating temperature for at least twenty-four
hours, and generally forty-eight hours are required, even
with white-shelled eggs.

From the time the yolk enters the upper end of the
oviduct and is fertilized until the egg is completely
formed and laid, fully 24 hours must elapse, and under
some conditions the egg may then be carried for a num-
ber of hours or even for a day or more before it is
dropped. Since the bodily temperature of the hen is
around 106-degrees it is clear that the fertilized germ
will be subjected to an incubating temperature for that
time. During this period cell division or growth actually
begins and the germ, therefore, has already reached a
certain stage of development when the egg is laid. The
exact degree of development attained will depend upon
the length of time the egg is retained in the fowl’s body
after fertilization has taken place, which explains the
variation in distinctness of ringing in the germinal disk,
as previously noted. The development is slight under
any condition, however, and stops instantly after the egg
becomes cold, and the germ then remains dormant until
again exposed to incubating temperatures.

In natural incubation the germ receives its heat from
the body of the sitting hen, the actual degree of heat
varying with the fowl’s bodily temperature, the character
of the nest, and the egg’s position in it. The normal tem-
perature of the adult fowl varies with the individual, also
with the manner in which it is taken. With a thermom-
eter thrust into the fowl’s rectum, temperatures as high
as 110 degrees have been noted, though it is probable that
106 represents a fair average. The common belief that
the sitting hen has a “fever” and that her temperature is
higher than under normal conditions probably is an error
growing out of the fact that it is only when broody or
sitting that the hen is subject to much handling and
therefore the only time when her naturally high temper-
ature is apt to be noticed. If the hen’s temperature is
taken with a thermometer in contact with the outside of
the body the temperature will be lower than given above,
running from 103 to 105 on the average.

There is no practical means of recording the actual
temperature of the embryo, but careful observations have
shown that it is around 99 to 100 degrees during early
stages of incubation, gradually increasing until it is in
the neighborhood of 103 or 104 at time of exclusion.

While fairly exact and uniform heat is essential to
successful incubation, the germ will develop to a greater
or less extent under a rather wide range of temperature.
At low temperatures the germ will remain completely in-
active, but cell division will begin at a little above 70
degrees. At this temperature development will be slow
and will continue for only a limited time when, unless

—

THE CHICK EMBRYO AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 29

the heat is decidedly increased, the germ will die. At
higher temperatures cell division or growth proceeds with
increasing rapidity, reaching the normal rate of develop-
ment at a germ temperature around 99 to 100 degrees.

If the temperature is raised above this point, cell
growth will continue with increasing rapidity for a time.
At high temperatures, however, the strain on the deli-
cate walls of the embryonic heart and blood vessels be-
comes severe and it is only a matter of time until the
latter will burst, causing hemorrhages and the death of
the embryo. At just what temperature this point will
be reached depends to some extent upon the development
of the embryo, which is much less able to stand high
temperatures in early stages of growth than when well
on the way to complete development. Also, an embryo
may stand exposure to 110 degrees for a very short time,
but will break down at even.105 if held at that tempera-
ture for some hours.

When the egg is exposed to a suitable temperature,
cell division begins at the point when it stopped when the
egg was laid. The germ will stand comparatively low tem-
peratures while in dormant
condition, the exact degree
of endurance being deter-
mined by the strength ofthe
individual germ just as, later’
on, the endurance of the
chick will be determined by
its individual strength or
constitutional vigor. A tem-
perature of around 50 to 55
degrees is generally regard-
ed as most favorable to the
dormant germ. :

Development of the Chick
Embryo

FIG. 32—APPEARANCE OF CHICK
EMBRYO AFTER TWELVE HOURS
OF INCUBATION

Photo from Kansas Experiment Station.

It is impossible, within the
limits of this chapter, to
give a complete description
of the complex operations :
involved in the development of the chick embryo. There
are some general facts, however—some important steps
4 the process, with which the chick grower should be
familiar in order to have a clear understanding of what is
going on under the sitting hen or in the incubator. Many
of the mistakes which prove common sources of loss to
the beginner would be prevented if he clearly understood
just how the embryo is produced, and the period of incu-
bation at which certain phases of its development take
place. Such details regarding embryonic growth as are
here given are intended to supply that information. It
is earnestly advised, however, that the beginner in artifi-
cial incubation make a practice of breaking a few eggs at
various stages of the hatch in order to compare them
with the descriptions and illustrations here given, so that
he may become thoroughly familiar with the normal rate
of development. Before attempting to describe briefly
the various stages in the development of the embryo a
few special details or definition are necessary, these being
mainly condensed from an elaborate treatment of the sub-
ject in Lillie’s “Development of the Chick.”

The Blastoderm. The position of the blastoderm has
already been described. The embryo arises within the
opaque portion in the center, which becomes pear-shaped
as the embryo forms. The embryonic membranes,
amnion, chorion, and yolk sac, are parts of the blastoderm
but originate outside of the opaque center. The allantois

arises directly from the hindpart of the embryo itself.
During the first four days the blastoderm spreads rap-
idly so that the greater part of the yolk is covered by
the fourth day.

Position of Embryo. The embryo is always in a
definite position with reference to the axis of the egg.
If this is placed with the large end toward the left of the
observer the head of the embryo will always be directed
away from him. There are but few exceptions to this
rule. At a later stage in its development the embryo
turns lengthwise of the egg, so that the head is in the
larger end, unless the air cell happens to be in the small
end in which case the normal position of the head will
be reversed and, as a rule the chick then will not hatch.

The Amnion. This membrane forms a thin sac com-
pletely enclosing the embryo and containing a fluid
which appears to act as a cushion, taking up all shocks
and jars and thus forming an important protection for
the embryo. It also protects the embryo from forming
adhesions with the surrounding membranes or with the
shell. It has various other functions which need not be

FIG. 33—APPEARANCE OF CHICK
EMBRYO AFTER TWENTY-FOUR
HOURS OF INCUBATION

Photo from Kansas Experiment Station.

detailed. The amniotic membrane possesses muscular
fibers the contraction of which rocks the embryo, the pur-
pose of which is believed to be to prevent adhesions.

The Chorion. This membrane is on the outside of
the amnion and encloses it. It is connected with the
amnion, and the allantois also connects with it at an
early stage in the development of the embryo.

The Allantois. This membrane is the respiratory
organ of the embryo, the blood in its vessels being
aerated by air which passes through the porous shell.
The allantois, being double-walled, forms a cavity or sac
extending entirely around the embryo, with the outer
wall coming in contact with the inner shell membrane.
The cavity acts as a reservoir for the excretions of the
embryo. At the end of the fifth day of incubation the
allantois covers more than half of the embryo, and by
the end of the sixth day it is entirely covered. By the
eighth day the yolk sac is half covere? and by the
twelfth day the yolk is entirely enclosed, along with the
remaining albumen which is wrapped in a separate sac
by a special development of the chorion and allantois.

The Yolk Sac. The yolk sac is formed as a mem-
brane enclosing the yolk and is connected with the in-
testine by means of a yolk-stalk. The material in the
yolk is absorbed by the lining of the sac and carried to
the embryo as required for its development. The inner
surface of the sac is provided with numerous folds (septa)

30 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

FIG.
EMBRYO AFTER THIRTY-SIX
HOURS OF INCUBATION
Photo from Kansas Experiment Station.

which project more and more into the yolk substance as
the embryo develops, increasing the absorptive surface.
On the nineteenth day of incubation the yolk sac slips into
the body cavity through the umbilicus which then closes.
The inclusion of the egg is accomplished by the contrac-
tion of the inner walls of the allantois and of the amnion
which definitely presses it into the abdominal cavity.
What is left of the yolk then is rapidly absorbed. Its
aveiage weight is about 5.34 grains at twelve hours after
hatching, and this is reduced to about .05 grains by the
sixth day.

Special Conditions Affecting Eggs in Natural Incubation

The development of the embryo under the hen is af-
fected by a number of conditions, and in learning to oper-
ate the incubator to the best possible advantage it is de-
sirable to have a clear understanding of the practices of
the sitting hen because in many details it is to her that
we must look for correct methods. If allowed to follow
her natural instincts the hen will seek a secluded spot
for her nest and will there lay out her clutch and begin
sitting. Jn the selection of a location for a nest she is
by no means exacting, almost any secluded place may
strike her fancy, from a comparatively exposed location
on the ground to one high up in the barn mow, and she
will bring off equally good hatches, apparently, almost
regardless of location, under normal weather conditions.
In dry locations and in extremely dry weather, eggs do
not hatch so well and in natural incubation sprinkling the
eggs or providing moist earth bottoms for the nests is
believed to be helpful in getting good results. Under
ordinary weather conditions
no such attention is tre-
quired.

The number of eggs that
will be laid by hens before
they begin sitting will vary
widely, owing to the fact that
their normal performance
has been greatly modified by
domestication, breeding, and
heavy feeding for egg pro-
duction, also by the com-
mon practice of removing all
eggs. from the nest each day
so that there is never any
accumulation in the nest.
From 10 to 15 eggs can suc-
cessfully be incubated by
the average hen, the exact

FIG.

34— APPEARANCE OF CHICK FIG. 35—APPEARANCE OF CHICK

EMBRYO AFTER FORTY-EIGHT
HOURS OF INCUBATION
Photo from Kansas Experiment Station.

36 — APPEARANCE OF CHICK
EMBRYO AFTER SIXTY HOURS
OF INCUBATION

Photo from Kansas Experiment Station.

number being determined by
season, location of nests,
size of eggs, etc.

There are wide differences
in the results secured in
hatching with hens. Other
conditions being similar it
would seem that equal num-
bers of fertile eggs, placed
under good sitting hens,
should produce approximate-
ly equal numbers of chicks.
It is common experience,
however, that with hens set
under the same conditions
and with eggs from the same

._ pens, some hens will bring
off many more chicks than
_ others. There may be other
factors involved, but it is probable that the temperature
of the hens is largely responsible for this difference,
some furnishing too little heat from start to finish, to
Produce good hatches, while others appear to start off
at the right bodily temperature, but get out of condition
and fall off as much as two or three degrees during the
hatch. For illustration, in a series of tests made by the
writer, six hens were set at the same time and with all
conditions as to eggs, environment, etc., as nearly iden-
tical as possible. The temperatures of the hens were
carefully taken at the beginning and end of the hatch.
There were twelve eggs in each sitting. The hatches
were as follows:

Sitting Eggs Eggs oO. Temp. at Tem
No. Broken Fertile Chicks Start Gee

1 2 7 i 104 104
2 2 7 3 103 101
5 0 i} 12 10434 1041,
6 1 11 9 104% 103%
7 0 6 3 103 103%
9 2 10 9 103 104%

It will be seen that the hens that hatched practically
every fertile egg (sittings 1, 5 and 9) were high in tem-
perature, except No. 9, which started low, but finished
high. No. 6 did well, though she finished a little low,
while the two distinctly, low-temperature hens made al-
most complete failures. Fertility was determined by the
use of an ordinary egg tester and not by direct examina-
tion of the germ, which probably would have given dif-
ferent percentages of fertility, as a deficiency in heat
that would result in a poor hatch of eggs known to be
fertile would doubtless result in the death of some germs
before they could reach a stage of development that

FIG. 37—APPEARANCE OF CHICK
EMBRYO AFTER SEVENTY - TWO
HOURS OF INCUBATION

Photo from Kansas Experiment Station.

THE CHICK EMBRYO AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 31

would be detected
by the use of an
egg tester. The tem-
peratures in this ex-
periment were se-
cured by placing a
thermometer on top
of the eggs and in
direct contact with
the body of the hen.

How Often Do Sit-
ting Hens Turn

FIG. 38—APPEARANCE OF CHICK Their Eggs
EMYRYO AFTER NINETY - SIX fg

HOURS OF INCUBATION There is reason

for thinking that

sitting hens regularly turn their eggs more frequently

than is generally considered necessary in artificial incu-
bation, but the frequency no doubt varies with the stage
of the hatch and with individuals. There are practical
difficulties in the way of determining exactly how often
the turning is done, as hens are apt to be suspicious when
watched and will make no movement of any sort. Direct
examination of the eggs is of no assistance, as it will
be found that the hen will turn her eggs as often as she
is returned to the nest, if that is.every half hour.

There are several reasons why eggs must be turned
miore or less regularly during incubation, either natural
or artificial. One is that fresh albumen may be brought
in contact with the shell membrane and with the allantois,
thus providing the necessary supply of oxygen for the
blood. Another purpose in turning is to prevent the
embryo from adhering to the shell. It is probable that
turning also helps the embryo to get into proper posi-
tion for normal development. There is also at least one
incidental advantage realized in turning the eggs or at
least shifting their position, which is the equalization of
the temperature in different parts of the nest, thus secur-
ing more uniform conditions for the different eggs. There
is bound to be a rather wide variation in nest tempera-
ture from center to outer edge, but the hen equalizes this
by frequently shifting the eggs from the center to the
outside and allowing the outer ones to roll to the center,
thus giving all an equal chance and maintaining a fairly
uniform rate of development in all.

Natural Cooling of Eggs

While the practice of hens differs widely, most of
them leave the nest every morning with great regularity.
In cold weather they absent themselves only long enough
to secure necessary food and to evacuate the bowels, and
then return at once to their duties. In warmer weather
they will stay off for a longer period, sometimes for an
hour or so. And it is to be noted that the hens that are
most regular in coming off the nest daily are apt to have
the best hatches, though no one has ever successfully
proved that the cooling that results from their doing this
has any direct connection with the better results secured.
As regards artificial incubating, regular turning has some
incidental advantages which are explained in the fol-
lowing chapter.

‘Moisture in Eggs

The egg contains 70 to 76 per cent of water when
first laid, but this percentage is gradually reduced by
evaporation from day to day. This fact is taken advant-
“yee of in one common method of determining the fresh-
ness of eggs by observing the size of the air cell through
a tester or candling device, the air cell increasing in size

as the moisture evaporates. This method is only rela-
tively accurate, as the rate of evaporation is modified
greatly by the conditions under which the eggs are kept.
However, while eggs that are far from fresh may have
small air cells, as in the case of storage eggs, large cells
are never associated with strictly fresh eggs. The re-
quirements of incubation, either artificial or natural, de-
mand that, at the beginning of the hatch, the egg shall
be as nearly normal as possible with respect to percent-
age of moisture contained. Hence, if they are not set
at once it is desirable to keep them where they will not
be unnecessarily dried out.

Loss of Weight During Incubation

Evaporation of moisture from ergs during incubation
is essential to the proper development of the embryo.
If evaporation progresses too rapidly the chick will be
deprived of the amount of moisture needed in its devel-
opment, and the difficulty of its getting out will be great-
ly increased. If on the other hand there is too little
evaporation as a result of high humidity in the air, either
natural or artificially produced, there will be a “water-
logged” chick that will not be normal, even if it suc-
ceeds in escaping from the shell. Generally such chicks
do not hatch at all, but either drown in the excess mois-
ture present at the time they break through into the air
cell and begin breathing through their lungs, or the
space provided by evaporation and represented by the
air cell is so small that there is not room for them to get
into right position for breaking out of the shell after
pipping. :

The chick embryo developing under a hen appears
to be able to accommodate itself to a rather wide range
in percentage of moisture present at hatching time, and
will get out successfully whether evaporation has reached
18 to 20 per cent of the total weight of the eggs, or
goes no higher than 10 per cent, and there appears to be
no noticeably unfavorable effect produced by either ex-
treme. However, chicks that have been dried down ex-
cessively are not apt to be as strong as those that have
their normal percentage of moisture. Excessive drying
down under hens is more or less common in extremely

FIG. 39—CHICK EMBRYO AT 72 HOURS

Egg with embryo at same stage as in Fig. 37,
emptied into a dish to show the vena terminalis—the

“belt line’ for the circulatory system. Photo from

U. S. Department of Agriculture.

32 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

FIG. 40—CHICK EMBRYO AT SEVEN DAYS

At this stage of development, yolk is almost entirely
enclosed in network of blood veins. Embryo at right.
Photo from U. S. Department of Agriculture.

dry weather, but there are few instances in which there is
insufficient drying down under such conditions. Methods
of exact determining and regulating the rate of evapora-
tion in artificial incubation, are given in Chapter V.

Oiling Hatching Eggs

Eggs under sitting hens are always coated with a
thin film of oil as is shown by their appearance and accu-
rately determined by chemical analysis. Whether this
coating of oil, which results from long contact with the
fowl’s body, is an accidental condition with no direct
bearing upon the development of the embryo, or whether
it plays an essential part in incubation, is not known. The
fact that incubators are successfully operated without any
substitute for this natural oiling would seem to indicate
that it is not important. However, there are some known
differences between eggs incubated the natural way and
those artificially incubated, which have never been satis-
factorily explained, and until these are clearly under-
stood there is always the possibility that further refine-
ments in methods may bring about still better results or
greater certainty in securing them. So far as known,

effcrts to reproduce the oil film artificially have not as
yet proved successful.

Warming Eggs Daily While Holding for Hatching

Under normal conditions the hen that steals her nest
and lays out her clutch and then incubates the eggs, is
apt to hatch practically every one, almost regardless of
the length of time that may have elapsed between the
laying of the first and the last one. There is no evi-
dence to show that the oldest eggs are at any disadvant-
age, or are any slower in hatching than those that are
laid first, or that the chicks are any less strong when
hatched. This is altogether different from general ex-
perience in artificial incubation where the oldest eggs are
always several hours later in hatching, and the chicks
from such eggs generally are believed to be less vigorous
than those from eggs that have been kept only a short
time.

Under the conditions of natural incubation as just
described, the first eggs laid are subject to a daily
warming up when the hen returns to lay on successive
days, and it would seem that her well-known tendency to
remain on the nest for a considerable time each day, —
either before or after laying, may be something more than
incidental to the laying operation. It has previously been
explained in this chapter that the germ already has un-
dergone some development before the egg is dropped,
and there is a possibility that the daily warming the first
eggs receive prior to the time the hen begins sitting
may, in a manner, vitalize the germs and thus enable them
better to maintain their existence during the long wait
while the rest of the eggs in the clutch are being laid.

To determine this point the writer conducted a series
of experiments in which eggs, kept for various periods,
were subjected to a daily warming. In all such tests,
without exception, it was found that eggs warmed for
about an hour daily hatched better than eggs kept for the
same period without warming. In tests to establish the
proper length of time for the warming it was found that
one hour gave better results than 30 minutes or two
hours. Eggs up to 18 to 20 days old that have been
warmed for one hour daily appeared to hatch as prompt-
ly as comparatively fresh eggs, and before the egg tester
the germs of these warmed eggs were plainly seen to be
more active than those that had been held for an equal
length of time, without warming. The warmed eggs be-
gan hatching before those not warmed, and the oldest

- were among the first to hatch. There are difficulties in

the way of applying this principle to practical hatching
operations, but it is important at least as giving addi-

FIG. 41—EGGS SHOWING DIFFERENT STAGES IN HATCH

In the egg on the left pipping has just begun.
chick turns itself in the shell,

and breaksS through the shell near the base of the air cell.

The second egg shows the normal progress of pipping as the

In the third egg the

shell is broken away to show the chick in position for pipping with the point of the bill against the inner sur-

face of shell. Photos from Kansas Agricultural College.

tional light on the condition of the germ when the egg
is laid, and its physical requirements during the holding
"period.

How Long May Eggs Be Held for Hatching

The length of time for which eggs may be held with-
out injury to their hatching qualities depends upon a
number of factors, and no general rule can be given ex-
cept the always safe statement that they should be set
as soon as possible after they are laid. The writer has
kept eggs for 26 to 30 days with a 29 per cent hatch of
all eggs set, and at other times has been able to secure
practically no chicks at all after the eggs were 18 days
old. Much depends upon the season of the year, the
temperature at which the eggs are held, and still more,
probably, upon the condition of the breeding stock.
Speaking in averages, there will be a marked falling off
in fertility after about the 14th day, and the percentage
of hatch in eggs over 21 days old usually is too low to

Eggs weighing 20 ounces to the
dozen. Chicks from them will be
undersized and weakly.

ake it worth while to waste eggs or space in the incu-
ator in testing them out.

Position in Which to Keep Eggs
Within the limit of 8 to 12 days it does not appear
matter much what position the eggs are held in, or
hether they are turned or not. Ina series of tests eggs
ere held for varying periods up to 30 days, and in dif-
ferent positions as follows:

Flat, without turning.
Flat and turned daily.
Large end up not turned.
Small end up not turned.
On end and turned daily.

Different tests gave slightly contradictory results, but
general there appeared to be no difference due to
Osition, except that the eggs laid flat, whether turned
or not, generally hatched a trifle better than those on
end. Since the natural position for eggs is flat, that would
eem to be the safest way to place them, though the dif-
erence is so slight that there can hardly be any prac-
ical objection to standing them on end, as in shipping
ases, when it is more convenient to do so. Other tests
ndicated that there is no advantage in turning the eggs

Eggs weighing 24 ounces to the
dozen. Standard-sized eggs and sat-
isfactory for hatching.

THE CHICK EMBRYO AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 33

daily, provided they are not held over 10 to 12 days. If
kept for a longer time than this better results will be
secured by turning.

Washing Eggs

Experiments have shown that washing eggs will af-
fect their hatching, the difference between washed and
unwashed eggs averaging about 7.5 per cent. However,
eggs that have been soiled under hens, also valuable eggs
that have much foreign matter on them, doubtless will
hatch better if washed than would be the case if incu-
bated with the dirt adhering to them. This is especially
true in the case of eggs that have been smeared by break-
age of other eggs in the nest or during shipment. Since
washing definitely reduces the percentage of the hatch,
however, special pains should be taken to prevent the
eggs from becoming soiled, and if they are only slightly
so it is better to let them go without washing.

FIG. 42—SIZE OF CHICKS IS DETERMINED BY SIZE OF EGGS

Eggs weighing 30 ounces to the
dozen. If normally this size, are ex-
tra desirable.

Resting Eggs After Shipment

It is commonly believed that resting shipped eggs for
a period of 24 hours after they are received is advisable
in order to give the yolks time to settle into their normal
position. Some recorded experiments indicate that there
is no advantage in doing. this, but since the loss of time
is slight and the general opinion is that such resting is
beneficial, it is the part of wisdom to follow custom in
this respect until some definite proof is offered one way
or the other.

Size of Eggs to Use

Other things being equal, large eggs will give better
and stronger chicks than small eggs. Whether this is
directly due to the size of the eggs or to the fact that
the best, most mature, and most vigorous hens and the
ones that are best fed usually are the ones that lay the
largest eggs, is not clear. Whatever the exact cause may
be, it is an established fact that the largest eggs, within
the limits of normal size, give the best and strongest
chicks, and for this reason all small, under-sized eggs
should be discarded. Discrimination in favor of large
eggs should not be carried so far as to include double-
yolk eggs or those that, while single-yolked, are con-
spicuously abnormal in size.

CaHrA PTE Roy,

Operation of Incubators

How to Buy Incubators—What Size to Get—How to Set Up the Incubator and Adjust It—Complete Instructions in All
Details of Management Throughout the Hatch—Latest Information on Temperature,
Moisture, Ventilation, and Other Special Problems.

UMEROUS styles and grades of incubators are of-
fered for the use of poultry keepers, and those
NU who are not familiar with their respective merits
sometimes find it a difficult matter to select the
machine that they really need, or that will most nearly
meet their requirements. Naturally many mistakes are
made—mistakes that involve serious disappointment and
loss and that might readily have been avoided with a
clearer understanding of the subject. Anyone who in-
tends to purchase an incubator, large or small, can well
afford to give careful thought to its selection, instead of
“going it blind,’ or making price alone the basis of com-
parison.

Among lamp-heated incubators there are two gen-
eral classes—those that are
heated with hot air, and
those heated with hot water.
While each method of heat-
ing has advantages peculiar
to itself, choice between
them is based mainly on per-
sonal preference. The ad-
vantages claimed for hot-air
machines generally are great-
er durability; more exact
regulation under sudden
changes of outside tempera-
ture; quicker heating up
after cooling down; and as
ventilation generally is associated with the heating sys-
tem, the air circulation is positive and ventilation is ad-
justable over a wider range, and therefore has greater
adaptability. For hot-water incubators it is claimed that
they are less quickly affected by changes in outside tem-
perature, and for this reason may give good results in
reasonably favorable locations even when built with little
insulation, which is impracticable with hot-air machines.
This probably is the chief reason why most cheap incu-
bators are of the hot-water type.

The commonly observed fact that hot-water incuba-
tors are most in demand in some localities while in oth-
ers practically nothing but hot-air machines will be found,
appears to be accidental, in part at least, and due to the
good impression made locally by the first ones to be
successfully used, of whichever type. There is a com-
mon belief that hot-water incubators furnish a moister
heat than hot-air machines which, in connection with their
lower average price appears to explain much of their
special popularity in arid and semi-arid sections. While
the idea that moisture in the egg chamber is directly af-
fected by the nature of the heating medium is erroneous,
hot water incubators probably do have less air circulation
on the average, than the more adjustable hot-air machines.
The practical effect of this is to reduce the evaporation
from the egg in hot-water machines, thus giving the im-
pression that more moisture is present in them.

Where gas is available, practically all lamp-heated in-
cubators may readily be adapted to the use of this con-
venient fuel. Under suitable regulation, gas is entirely

34

FIG. 43—A PROFITABLE HATCH

dependable, it requires little attention, supplies a uniform
heat, and as there are no lamps to fill, the labor of caring
for the machines is greatly reduced.

Electric Incubators

In the last few years electrically heated incubators
have been developed to a good degree of efficiency, and
where current can be obtained at a reasonable rate they
are thoroughly practical and may be used as successfully
as lamp-heated machines and much more conveniently.
The freedom from fire risk and from lamp fumes makes
it practical to operate electrics where lamp-heated ma-
chines would not be considered, and the saving in time
required in caring for them will offset a decided increase
in the cost of the current as
compared with the cost of
oil or gas. A reasonably uni-
form current is desirable.
No harm will be done by
having the current turned off
occasionally, even though it
may be off for several hours, |
but electric incubators are
not recommended where the
current is subject to fre-
quent and long-continued |
interruptions. High-grade |
electrical machines should
give satisfactory service for
many years if properly cared for. They are subject to
rapid deterioration, however, when exposed to dampness,
and for that reason should be thoroughly dried out at the
end of the hatching season, and stored in a dry place.

Mammoth Incubators

Of late years the use of “Mammoth” incubators has |
become general where chicks or ducklings are hatched
in large numbers. There are several styles of mammoths
on the market, but all are more or less alike in their
general outlines. They are heated by means of hot water
pipes supplied from a furnace or boiler which burns hard
coal, as a rule, though gas is used when available. Mam-
moths usually are divided into compartments of varying
sizes and are more or less sectional in construction, so
that the machines when set up resemble a series of lamp-
heated incubators without the lamps. The use of mam-
moth incubators saves labor and operating cost since
there are no lamps to fill, and a single furnace or boiler
will provide heat for a great number of sections; the
cost of fuel also is reduced. They are not adapted to the
requirements of small operators, and small-sized mam-
moths are not generally regarded as economical, unless
bought with the expectation of adding more sections at
an early date. The cost of such a mammoth is equal to
or greater than the cost of the same egg capacity in
lamp-heated machines, and the saving in cost of oper-
ation is hardly noticable. Where several thousand eggs |
are to be incubated at one time, however, mammoths are
regarded as indispensable.

OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 35

The Cost of a Good Incubator

Consideration of price ought not to figure too greatly
in choice of lamp-heated incubators, and the common
tendency to buy the cheapest machine obtainable is the
cause of much disappointment and loss. It would not be
correct to say that there are no good incubators but high-
priced ones, but it should call for no special argument
to convince any one that durable machines of the best de-
sign and construction cannot be built to sell at extremely
low prices. The manufacture of incubators is a plain
business matter like the manufacture of any other kind of
machinery or equipment. Some incubators cost more,
simply for the material and the labor employed in them,
than the retail price of others, and if practical, economical
buyers in great numbers chose the higher-priced makes
in preference to the cheap ones there must be sound busi-
ness reasons for their doing so.

The reasons for the general preference among ex-
perienced operators for standard high-priced machines
will be found in their greater durability on account of
better material and workmanship used in their construc-

tion; greater adaptability to conditions generally because |

of better insulation; more exact regulation and conse-
quently greater uniformity of temperature. The plain
truth of the matter is that the buyer who wants the
most nearly automatic machine—one that will give best
results under a wide range of conditions, that will last in-
definitely without expensive repairs, and that has the
endorsement of expert operators generally, will have to
buy one of the higher-priced makes.

This fact does not, however, eliminate low-cost incu-
bators from practical consideration. If the machine is to
be operated under favorable conditions; if the buyer
wants a hatcher that will give good results for the time
being, without asking too much in the way of durability;
if the machine is to be used only for hatching in the nat-
ural breeding season when vitality in the breeding stock
is at its highest, and when climatic conditions are most
favorable; if only one or two hatches are to be made each
season so that it is not desirable to have much money

eee ARADO IMEEM (( a9 (ES

FIG,

44—HOT AIR INCUBATOR WITH CLOTH
DIAPHRAGM :

In this type of incubator the warmed air is diffused
through cloth diaphragms, one of which is here dropped
below natural position in order to show it. Courtesy
Cyphers Incubator Company.

jocked up in equipment, then the purchase of a low-
priced machine may be not only permissible, but the
most practical thing to do. It is for the individual to
consider carefully his own conditions and plans, and see
that he gets the
machine that will
best meet them,
chosing it neither
because it is
cheap, nor be-
cause it is high- ©
priced, but be-
cause it is what
he needs.

What Size to Get

Large incuba-
tors are cheaper
to buy and to
operate than an
equal capacity in
small machines,
and for that rea-
son it is desirable
to get as large sizes as can be used to good advantage.
There is no serious objection to running a large ma-
chine without a full quota of eggs, but there is no way
of making a small one hold more than its actual capacity.
Therefore, in case of doubt always get the next larger
size. Attention, however, should be called to the fact
that incubators are designed to be operated approximate-
ly at capacity, and when large machines are run with
comparatively few eggs in them there may be complica-
tions with respect to moisture and ventilation that would
not be met with when the machine is operated with full

FIG, 45—POPULAR HOT WATER
INCUBATOR

In this machine heat is, provided
by means of hot water which circu-
lates through coil of pipe in upper
part of the machine. Water is heated
by lamp at end. Courtesy of Buckeye
Ineubator Company.

trays. For this reason, also because it takes more oil
to heat a large machine than a small one, it is unwise to
get incubators that greatly exceed average require-
ments.

The proper size for the incubator is determined

chiefly by the size of the breeding flock or the number
ef eggs produced by it. Eggs should be incubated as
soon as possible after they are laid—within 10 to 14
days at the outside, and it is better to have two or three
small machines that can be filled every 7 to 10 days
tather than to have a large one that cannot be filled
without holding the eggs for a much longer time in
order to get the required number. Where this is done
the percentage of the hatch will be greatly reduced on
account of the low average of the older eggs. Another
indirect disadvantage in the use of unnecessarily large
machines is the tendency to set unsuitable eggs, such as
would be discarded in filling a small machine, but which
are apt to be used in order to make up the full number
in the large one. It seldom is desirable to buy a ma-
chine smaller than 150-egg capacity, and even that size
should not be selected unless the breeding flock is so
small as to make this clearly the proper thing to do.

Where to Place the Incubator

The best place for the incubator usually is in a
well-ventilated cellar. This is true because such a loca-
tion provides a more uniform temperature than an above-
ground house or room; there is more natural humidity
in the air; the ventilating system of the machine works
more certainly, especially in warm weather; and there is
less danger of the hatch being tampered with by med-
dling hands. Of course, a cellar can be a very poor

36 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

place for the incubator if it is not what a cellar ought
to be. To be suitable for hatching purposes it must be
well ventilated, reasonably uniform in temperature, not
wet, or moldy, or otherwise unwholesome.

Incubators are successfully operated in above-
ground rooms of various sorts, but unless especially con-
structed for the purpose, machines in them require more
attention and are less easily regulated. Also, in warm
weather the room temperature is liable to be so nearly
that of the egg chamber that the circulation of air
through the machine is sluggish and will require a great
deal of helping out by frequently opening the door, cool-
ing the eggs for long periods, and other aids to ventila-
tion. Wherever it is placed, be sure it is not in a draft
or a current of air and that it is not exposed to direct
sunlight. For plans for incubator houses and sugges-
tions for adapting to incubator use rooms or buildings
already constructed, see Chapter VIII.

Setting Up the Incubator

Tt is not wise to take even the best incubator too
much for granted, and new ones should be carefully in-
spected and tested in every working part to be sure that
everything is as it should be before entrusting valuable
eggs to them. Examine everything carefully when the
machine is uncrated and test with especial care the reg-
ulator and all its connections. Do not depend upon the
‘machine coming all set up and ready to fill with eggs
as soon as the legs are screwed on and the lamp filled.
Presumably that is the way every manufacturer desires
to have it delivered to the purchaser, but there necessari-
ly is a good deal of handwork about making and assem-
bling an incubator, and errors are bound to occur no mat-
ter how carefully the machine may be inspected at the
factory. Moreover, it is liable to get rough usage in
shipment and may be so badly jarred that its working
parts will be disarranged or broken.

Look the machine over carefully, therefore, in set-
ting it up, and DON’T put the eggs in until it has been
successfully operated for some time while empty. This
injunction will stand almost any amount of emphasis. It
would seem that any one sufficiently in earnest to buy
an incubator, would be practical enough to be sure that
it is in proper working order before filling it with valua-
ble eggs. As a matter of fact, however, one of the most
frequent causes of complaints among beginners is their
practice of putting eggs in the machine when they

FIG. 46—METAL COVERED INCUBATOR
Courtesy of M. M. Johnson Company,

KNOW that it is not properly adjusted. If the operator
cannot maintain a uniform temperature before the eggs
are put into the machine, he can depend upon it that he
cannot do so afterward.

How the Regulator Works

The regulation of the temperature in practically all
jamp-heated incubators is determined by the position of
a damper over the
heater or lamp flue
which determines
the temperature oi
the warmed air or
water entering the
heating system of
the machine. The
position of this
damper is controlled
by a thermostat
which is connected
with the damper in
such a way that,
when the heat in-
creases beyond a
certain point, the
damper will be lift-
ed and the surplus
heat from the lamp
allowed to escape. If the temperature drops too low, the
thermostat releases the damper which then closes down
over the flue, thus directing more heat into the machine.
There are various types of regulators in use (see Fig. 51),
all taking advantage of the fact that metals and liquids
expand when heated and contract when cooled. The
thermostatic bars and wafers are so made as to utilize
this expansion and contraction by operating a regulator
arm, on one end of which the damper is carried, and on
the other a counterweight to balance the damper.

FIG. 47—LAMP-HEATED INCUBA-
TOR WITH ENCLOSED FLUE

Courtesy of Reliable Incubator Co.

The regulator and its correct adjustment are fully
described by each manufacturer in his book of directions,
and this description should be studied until the operator
thoroughly understands its construction and operation.
The regulator is the heart of the incubator and if it is.
not correctly adjusted and kept in proper working order,.
exact temperature control is out of the question. The reg-
ulators used in standard incubators are so sensitive that
the correct temperature can be maintained with great ac-
curacy, and with remarkably little at-
tention from the operator, once the
proper adjustment has been secured. It
is extremely unwise however, to attempt
to operate the machine until the work-
ing of the regulator is understood.

The Incubator Must Stand Level

Incubators are built to stand practic--
ally level, and unless they are placed in
this position there is danger that the
hot air or hot water will not circulate:
properly, especially in the larger-sized
machines. Use a spirit level, if possible,
and test the machine from side to side
and from front to back. Ifa spirit level
is not available, proper adjustment can
be secured by placing on top of the
machine a broad, flat pan or tray witha.
little water in it, and leveling the ma-
chine until the water in the pan stands.

OPERATION OF INCUBATORS o/

at a uniform depth. See that the machine stands firmly
on the floor or on the blocks used in leveling, so that
it will not move or rock when touched.

As a rule, when the machine is level the temperature
in the different parts of the egg chamber will be uni-
form. In some cases, however, especially with hot-air
machines that are longer than they are wide, it may
happen that, after levelling, the end next the lamp will
be warmer or colder than the opposite end. If this proves
to be the case the machine will have to be readjusted to
meet this condition. The right thing to do is first to
level exactly and then test the temperature, using two
or more thermometers of known accuracy, and testing
both ends, also front and back. If any difference is noted
transpose the thermometers to be sure that the varia-
tion is not in them. When certain that there is an actual
and constant difference between the ends, or the front
and back, the cold section may be raised sufficiently to
equalize the temperature. In the case of machines hav-
ing the heat flue enclosed, the difference in temperature
between the two ends sometimes is more than it is wise
to attempt to take care of by this method, the better
plan in such cases being to secure the needed adjustment
by raising the cold tray by means of strips of wood on
the tray supports.

The necessity for adjustments of this sort is especi-
ally marked in cold weather; later in the season when it
grows warm it may be necessary to readjust. the ma-
chine again. It seldom is desirable to throw hot-water
incubators out of level, as this is apt to interfere with
the circulation of the water. If a serious variation is de-
tected in such machines it is better to take care of it
by the use of strips under the tray, as above described.
If the front is colder than the back, look to the fitting of
the door and if necessary tack strips of felt or similar
material around the edges so that it will shut tight.

: Care of the Lamp

Keep the lamp clean, and fill it and trim the wick
strictly according to the directions of the manufacturer.
Some machines are provided with large lamp bowls that
only require filling now and then. Wicks generally need
trimming once a day and when the flame is turned quite
high it may be nécessary to trim twice daily. It is never
safe to leave a heavy char on the wick; to do so is to in-
vite smoky flames, accumulations of soot in the chimney
or heater, and more serious troubles. Do not trim with
shears, however, unless it is found really necessary to do

FIG. 48—INCUBATOR WITH THERMOMETER
IN POSITION

This illustration shows position of

thermometer as usually recommended—bulb about

standing

on level with top of eggs. Courtesy of Des Moines

Incubator Company.

so. The easy way is to brush the char off with a match
and smooth the edge down with the finger. Usually no
other treatment will be needed. If this does not give a
clear, even flame like the one shown in Fig. 74, then use
the shears, but con-
fine the trimming to
the blackened por-
tion of the wick.
When putting in
a new wick, always |)
burn it off instead |
of trying to trim
Tt swathes elds.
Light the dry wick |
with a match and fj)
burn it until it goes }j
out at the wick
tube, which gener- |
ally will give just
the right shape to
the flame. If not,
the corners may be

LAMP-HEATED HOT AIR INCU-
BATOR

trimmed slightly sy This popular peabatomie heated

me ~ by a current of warmed air an

(see Fig. 73). In- ‘has a sand tray under Bee Cel noe

correct trimming SUPPlying moisture. j en _ the

: = hatch is coming off, sand tray is

will produce irregu- removed, and a burlap screen sub-

k fl _ stituted, providing a comfortable

lar, smoky ames nursery compartment for the chicks.

like the one shown Courtesy of Prairie State Incubator
in Fig. 75.

Company.

Keep an old toothbrush handy for brushing off the
burner, especially the gauze screen. If this screen gets
clogged with dirt the lamp will smoke. In placing the
lamp in position under the heater, be sure that it properly
engages the heater collar or chimney, whichever is used.
Failure to do this may cause serious trouble. After light-
ing the lamp leave the flame turned a little low until
the burner gets warmed up, and never leave it for the
day or the night until certain that it is properly adjusted.
Any lamp flame is liable to “creep” up a little after it
has burned for a short time and many complaints of
smoking lamps are due to this cause.

Starting the Hatch

When everything is in proper working order and the
temperature can be exactly controlled, the machine may
safely be set. The best time to do this is in the morn-
ing, when the eggs will have the entire day in which to
warm up, thus making certain that the machine will reach
ithe proper temperature and will stay there, before it is
necessary to leave it for the night. Frequently, after the
niachine has been accurately adjusted to the desired tem-
perature with the trays empty it will be found that, with
the-trays full of eggs, the temperature will go up a little,
necessitating a slight readjustment of the regulator. The
flame also may need a little attention, as there is no
advantage in running it higher than is necessary to pro-
vide the required amount of heat with enough over for
emergencies.

The eggs with which the trays are to be filled should
be carefully selected, discarding every one that has any
serious defect. There is no necessity for filling the trays
exactly full if there are not enough suitable eggs for the
purpose, and it is a wasteful practice to use eggs that
cannot reasonably be expected to hatch. In case the trays -
are not full it is a good plan to have narrow strips of
wood that may be laid across the trays confining the
eggs to one place and preventing their rolling about.

In case there are more eggs than the trays will ac-
commodate in the rebular way, they may be crowded

38 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

somewhat by standing them nearly on end, with the
large end up. Repeated tests have shown that the capac-
ity of the trays may be increased about 20 per cent by
this method, without any unfavorable effect on the hatch.
The eggs may safely be left in this position until the
third day, when they must be tested and the infertile ones
taken out, which will leave sufficient room to lay the
rest in their proper position. As it is not possible to
test brown-shelled eggs with much accuracy until they
have been in the incubator for four or five days, this
method is not practical with them. Under no condition
should the attempt be made to put a double layer of eggs
on the tray. To do so will be to lose all those on top
through overheating unless the temperature is adjusted
to the top layer, in which case the under ones will suffer
on account of too little heat.

Correct Incubator Temperature

As has already been pointed out in Chapter IV, 70
degrees is about the “physiological zero” of the chick
embryo. At temperatures above this point cell division
begins, but proceeds very slowly and never progresses
beyond an extremely limited stage of development unless
normal incubation temperature is approximated. Above
this temperature, growth proceeds at an abnormally rapid
rate as the temperature rises and places a severe strain
upon the embryonic organism that it cannot long endure.
For this reason it is highly important that the tempera-
ture of the egg chamber be maintained within compara-
tively narrow limits, though reasonable variation prob-
ably is in no way objectionable. There is little doubt
that eggs under the sitting hen are subject to marked
variation in temperature—greater in fact, than in any
well-managed incubator.

The exact temperature of the embryo. during incuba-
tion—that is, the temperature at which it will grow at
a normal rate and will reach complete development and
hatch out at the exact time intended by nature, is 99 to
100 degrees at the beginning, gradually increasing to
about 103 at the end of hatch. These temperatures are
the same under all conditions and at all seasons. Incu-
bator thermometers, however, are more or less affected
by outside conditions and in order that the embryo shall
receive the exact degree of heat required it is necessary
to take into consideration the style of machine used, the
position of the thermometer in the machine, the outside
temperature, whether cold or warm, the stage of the
hatch, etc. It is, therefore, impossible to fix on a cer-

FIG. 49—ELECTROBATOR
Courtesy of Cypners Incubator Company.

tain degree of temperature which is to be maintained
at all times.

In a general way the mmanaracenRer prescribes the
temperature at
which his particu-
lar type of ma- ¢
chine should be
operated, and it is
unwise to take |
liberties with his in- }
structions, particu- |
larly in the way of
substituting a dif-
ferent style of ther-
mometer for the
one regularly sent
out, or changing its
position in the ma-
chine. There some-
(ames are special reasons why certain thermometers and
certain temperatures are recommended for particular
machines and no changes should be made in these de-
tails. However, it should be understood that the manu-
facturer’s instructions are necessary more or less gen-
eral, and because these advise to “run at 103 degrees,” it
must not be assumed that this temperature is to be ad-
hered to under any and all conditions. There are a few
general principles that must be kept in mind in operat-
ing any machine, and some discrimination must be used
in meeting unusual conditions.

As has already been stated, the correct embryo tem-
perature in the first days of incubation is 99-100 degrees.
There is no practical way of taking that temperature,
however, and in ordinary incubator operation, the ther-
mometer may be located at any convenient point, if due
allowance is made for the corresponding difference in
temperature. This fact has resulted in the adoption of
various styles of thermometers, two of which are illus-
trated in Figs. 82 and 83. The inovo thermometer (now
tarely used) was designed to give the temperature of the
interior of the eggs, or the exact embryo temperature,
but for various reasons it probably does no more than
approximate that ideal, and is not conyenient in practical
use. Some contact thermometers are mounted so as to
lie on the top of the egg almost exactly over the embryo,
and in that position will show a temperature somewhat
higher than that of the germ itself. A practical objection
to this style of thermometer is that if it is placed in con-
tact with an infertile egg or one containing a dead or
weak germ, after the eighth day of incubation, the tem-
perature indicated will be lower than that of live embryos.
Owing to the fact that this thermometer easily slips out
of position, also because the eggs on which it rests vary
more or less in size, the bulb is not always on the same
level, leading to slight but undesirable inaccuracies in tem-
perature readings.

Standing thermometers give the temperature at or
below the level of the top of the egg, and may or may
not touch it. Some standing thermometers locate the
bulb half an inch or so above the top of the eggs, giving
about the same temperature as would be secured by a.
suspended thermometer. The latter usually is hung from
a wire loop in the top of the machine and is so adjusted
as to keep the bulb about half an inch above the eggs,
so that it will be practically unaffected by animal heat.

So far as the hatch is concerned it matters little what
style of thermometer is used if the temperature is main-
tained at the point necessary to secure the correct embryo

FIG. 50—BLECTRIC INCUBATOR
Courtesy of Reliable Incubator Co.

OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 39

FIG. 51—METAL-BAR REGULATOR FOR INCUBATORS
Courtesy of Cyphers Incubator Company.

temperature. The degree of heat required in incubation
depends to some extent*upon the stage of the hatch. The
following table showing the internal temperature of eggs
incubated under hens, for each day of incubation, is from
Lillie’s Development of the Chick:

Wu sOTeTINCUDATION «....:-------.-ncnecccencese 2 3
Temperature of hen 103.0 103.0
Temperature of eggs . 100.2 100.5
Day of incubation ........ 12 13
Temperature of hen 105.2 104.5
Temperature of egg 102.2 102.0

In a series of tests by the writer with incubators run-
ning at approximately the correct theoretical embryo
temperature, the following results were secured—the fig-
ures given representing the average temperature recorded
by each thermometer, for four 5-day periods:

First Second Third Fourth
Period Period Period Period
Inovo 98.89 99.21 99.79 100.91
Contact 101.56 101.60 101.52 102.42
Suspended 103.90 104.22 103.64 103.06

It will be seen by this that the variation between
thermometers in different positions is not the same at all
stages of the hatch. While the suspended thermometer
maintained approximately the same temperature through-
out, the inovo and contact: thermometers were decidedly
lower at the start but gradually approached that of the
suspended one. There was a difference of nearly five
degrees between the inovo and the suspended thermom-
eter during the last period, with the contact thermometer
about midway between them. The Indiana Experiment
Station definitely recommends a temperature of 101-102-
103 degrees for the first, second, and third weeks respec-
tively, using a standing thermometer on a level with the
top of the egg but not touching them. In the experiments
leading to this conclusion it was found that the standing
thermometer regularly registered one-half a degree lower
than contact thermometer.

This graduation of the temperature for different
periods of the hatch is secured by the occasional adjust-
ment of the regulator, in the case of inovo, contact and
standing thermometers, but with the suspended type with
the incubator temperature maintained at practically the
same point throughout the hatch, the animal heat of the
growing embryo itself providing the desired increase, as
is shown by the experimental data previously quoted.

How Outside Conditions Affect Incubation Temperatures

The recommendation to run at any given tempera-
ture necessary is subject to some modifications, however,
as determined by outside conditions, type of machine,
whether or not the eggs are cooled, color of shells, etc.
The attempt to run throughout the season at a uniform
101-102-103 temperature, for example, will almost certain-
ly lead to dissatisfaction.

Most practical operators allow a difference of nearly
a degree between cold and warm weather hatching tem-
peratures, this being provided to offset the greater cool-
ing down that the eggs receive in a cold room, and pos-
sibly for other reasons. There is a common belief that

high altitudes call for a somewhat higher temperature
than is generally recommended, though there does not
appear to be any actual proof of this. Brown-shelled eggs
are supposed to require more heat than white-shelled
ones. It is not likely that this is due to any difference in
the actual degree of heat registered by brown and white
eggs under exactly the same conditions, as some seem
to suppose, but it is probable that brown-shelled eggs
actualy have a slightly longer incubating period and hence
require a higher temperature to bring them out in the
time required by white-shelled eggs. Whether it is de-
sirable that brown-shelled eggs be given extra time, or
instead should receive additional heat in order to bring
them off earlier, does not seem to have been carefully

4 5 6 7 8 9 10
104.9 103.8 105.0 104.6 104.5 105.0 105.0
100.5 100.4 - 101.0 101.8 102.5 101.6 102.0

14 15 16 17 18 19 20
105.0 105.2 105.0 104.6 104.8 104.5 104.5
102.5 102.0 103.0 102.4 103.0 103.0 103.0

investigated, but in general practice the latter plan usual-
ly is followed. ;

The normal period of incubation for hen eggs is
stated as “21 days,” but the actual time required is some-
what less than that. The incubation period can be short-
ened or increased by several hours without any apparent
ill effects. It is general experience that chicks may come
out on the 20th day and be quite strong and vigorous,
while they may be delayed until the 22nd day without in-
jury. The development of the chick is more or less un-
der the control of the operator who can hasten or retard
progress by the degree of heat supplied, or the lengtli of
the cooling periods.

Effect of Too Much Heat

In considering excess heat it is necessary to distin-
guish between short-time exposure to temperatures high
enough quickly to endanger the life of the embryo, and
longer exposure to temperatures only little above nor-
mal. The effect of high temperatures is to quicken cell

division and stimulate more rapid growth in the embryo,
and if the heat is not too high the embryo will live and
develop, but will hatch prematurely or before it has had
At higher temperatures the heart and

time to “ripen.”
arteries will
be overtaxed
and hemor-
rhages will re-
sult, produc-
ing what is
com monly
known as
“blood rings”
in early stages
of develop-
ment. Any
temperature

above 104 de- FIG. 52—SMALL TRAY, USEFUL IN TURN-
; ING EGGS
grees with a Where eggs are turned by shuffling, a

small tray holding 15 to 18 eggs should be
provided to avoid breakage. Courtesy of
Buckeye Incubator Company.

contact ther-
mometer is

thigh wand th

continued for any length of time will injure or kill the
embryo. .The further the development of the embryo has
progressed the better able it is to stand excessive heat,
so that in late stages of the hatch temperatures as high
as 110 degrees can be endured for a very short time. In
all cases when eggs have been overheated, they should be
temoved from the machine at once and cooled in order
te reduce the blood pressure as quickly as possible. In

40 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

addition to the direct injury to the embryo, overheating
is believed to bring about unfavorable changes in the
yolks, causing one form of “white diarrhea” in the newly
hatched chicks.

Effect of Too Little Heat

It is not probable that moderately low temperatures,
unless too long continued, do any real harm aside from
delaying the hatch, which is harm enough of course, but
not apt to be so disastrous as overheating. Low tem-
peratures during early stages of the hatch can be offset
to some extent by operating at a higher temperature
later on. Up to a certain point it does not appear to
matter whether the heat is maintained at the exact nor-
mal temperature throughout the hatch or is subject to
moderate fluctuation, provided the total number of re-
quired heat units is supplied. From a practical view-
point, however, irregular temperatures greatly increase
the difficulty of operating the machine and bringing the

FIG. 53—A THREE COMPARTMENT MAMMOTH INCUBATOR

Courtesy of Newtown Giant Incubator

hatch off at the right time. It is desirable therefore that
the temperature be kept as uniform as possible, that all
extremes be avoided, and that every departure from cor-
rect temperature be followed by prompt correction. It
should be remembered that too much cooling or cooling
to too low temperatures, and leaving the eggs out for a
long time in warm weather even though they are not
cooled down noticeably, will delay the hatch just as cer-
tainly as low temperatures in the machine.

Every one who runs an incubator should keep a daily
temperature record or chart like the one shown on page
47. A seemingly slight variation, if frequently repeated,
may appreciably affect development of the embryo, but
with a record of temperature variations from day to day,
a tendency to run too low or too high can readily be de-
tected and correction made before harm is done. The
importance of doing this is all the greater from the fact
that the average beginner generally regards whatever
temperature is recommended for his machine, as the max-
imum rather than the average to be maintained. In other
words, if the instruction book says that the temperature
should be kept at 103 degrees he is apt to feel that he

Corporation.

dare not go above that, but that no harm will result if
it drops below, now and then. So, to be on the safe side,
he runs a little low most of the time, and as a result the
hatch is seriously delayed. A daily record should help
to overcome this tendency.

Turning the Eggs

Turning should begin on the morning of the third
day and should be continued thereafter until the chicks
begin to pip. Sometimes directions are given to discon-
tinue turning on the 18th day, régardless of the stage of
development. This is correct only when the chicks come
out on schedule time, in which case they will begin
pipping on the 20th day. In the case of delayed hatches,
however—and there are many such, especially early in the
season—much better results will be secured if the turn-
ing is continued until pipping actually begins, even
though this may not be until the 21st day.

When the trays have flat bottoms and the sides are
of proper height, the eggs may all be turned
at the same time, by placing an extra tray
over the full one and, holding the trays firmly
in the hands, simply flop them over. This

_ cannot be done with trays with sloping bot-
toms, and even where it is practicable many
operators prefer to turn by shuffling, believ-
ing that better results are secured by that
method. In turning this way, 12 to 18 eggs
are removed from one end of the tray and
the rest then are pushed over into the empty
space, using the flat of the hand and shifting
the eggs about more or less at the same time
so as to change their position in the tray,
after which the eggs that have been removed
are returned to the empty end. This method
keeps the eggs shifting about and equalizes
any slight irregularity in temperature that
may exist at different points on the tray,
thus giving all the eggs an equal chance.

Tt is a good plan to provide a small tray
in which to place the eggs that are taken out,
as they are liable to be cracked in laying
them on a hard surface, such as the top of
the work table or the incubator. Make the
tray about 5x15 or 18 inches, with a bottom
of fine wire or duck, and have the sides ex-
tend at least an inch below the bottom so that the latter
will not touch whatever the tray may be resting upon
One or more of these small trays will be found convenient
for a variety of purposes in handling hatching eggs.

Some extra conscientious persons mark the eggs so
that they can be certain that they have been turned com-
pletely over each time, but there is no necessity for doing
this and it consumes a good deal of time. It is import-
ant, however, to see to it that the eggs always lie with
the large end up. The experienced operator places a
little pressure on the eggs in turning and with slight ef-
fort keeps the small end down without paying any special
attention to the matter. In order to be sure that they
are in this position, however, it is advisable for the be-
ginner to look the trays over, carefully turning down any
eggs found with the small end up.

It is not meant by this that the eggs are to stand
on end, but simply that the small end should be lower—
the position they naturally take in the nest. The purpose
of doing this is to fix the air cell in the large end of the
egg, which is essential to the normal development of the
embryo and its successful exclusion. Especially during

OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 41

FIG. 54—APPEARANCE OF FERTILE EGG

BEFORE TESTER AFTER SEVEN DAYS
OF INCUBATION
At this stage of development, the germ
should be plainly seen toward the upper end,
and usually will be*‘in motion, appearing and
disappearing in a regular, pulsating movement.

ing at all, a good hatch under such conditions is purely
a matter of luck, and no one who really wishes to be suc-
cessful will follow this slipshod method. The opportuni-
ties which testing affords for checking up on fertility of
the eggs, and on the temperature, moisture, and ventila-
tion of the machine, are invaluable.

With a good tester the first test for the removal of
infertile eggs may be made as-early as the third day
in the case of white-shelled eggs, while those with brown
shells can be tested on the fourth or fifth day. The be-
ginner, however, will do well to wait for another day or
two, as he will find it much easier to detect fertility then,
and there is no practical advantage in extremely early
tests. While the careful operator will make it a practice
to test a few eggs every day or so after the first few
days, two or three general tests are all that are really
necessary to the proper operation of the machine. If
the rate of evaporation is to checked up by weighing the
eggs (see page 43) it will be found convenient to divide
the hatching into three 6-day periods, weighing on the
sixth, twelfth and eighteenth days, doing the weighing and
testing at the same time.

On the sixth day the germ should be plainly seen,
even in brown-shelled eggs. At this time there will be a

. central opaque spot about a quarter of an inch in diame-

ter with blood vessels reaching out from it on all sides,
the embryo being sufficiently developed to give the yolk
a distinctly different appearance from that of an infertile
egg, though the yolk will not be entirely enclosed by
the net work of blood vessels until about the 8th day.
Embryos that die during the first few days usually
are “blood-ringed,” the germ spot being surrounded by a
more or less clearly defined ring the size of which will
depend on the stage of development at which the germ
died. Sometimes the dead germ will show as a dark

the early stages of incubation, permitting the small end
to remain uppermost will cause many air cells to form
in that end, with serious consequences to the embryo.

Numerous mechanical egg-turning devices have been
introduced from time to time and have enjoyed varying
degrees of popular favor, but many operators feel that
the advantages of hand turning fully compensate them
for the time required in doing it. In all cases, regardless
of how the eggs are turned, the position of the trays in
the machine should be changed from day to day, turning
them end for end, and shifting from side to side if the
machine has more than one tray, in order to equalize in-
equalities in temperature.

The frequency with which eggs should be turned is
largely a practical question. Twice a day is as often as
the average operator feels that he can afford to do it,
though it is probable that the hen turns her eggs much
more frequently. Twice a day appears to be sufficient,
so far as the actual requirements of the embryo are con-
cerned, but under special conditions there is reason to be-
lieve that more frequent turning will prove advantageous.
Especially in warm weather, when the temperatures of
the room and the incubator are so nearly the same that
the ventilation of the machine is sluggish and uncertain,
it is probable that opening the door and taking the eggs
out for an extra turning or two each day will give better
ventilation and may prove directly beneficial to the
embryo.

How to Use the Egg Tester

The object in testing eggs is to remove the infertile
ones, to follow the development of the air cell, and to
watch the growth of the embryo. While some operators
do not remove infertile eggs or do any systematical test-

FIG. 55—APPEARANCE OF FERTILE EGG
BEFORE TESTER AFTER TWO WEEKS
OF INCUBATION

_ At this stage the egg will be almost en-
tirely opaque, showing only a narrow trans-
parent edge along the lower side.

42 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

spot with indistinct outlines and no ring. Since a weak
or undeveloped germ may have the same general appear-
ance, such eggs should be marked and put back for a
few days more when, if dead, their development will be
so far behind that of the living germs that there will be
no danger of confusing them with the latter.

Infertile eggs will be practically as clear at this test
as when they were first placed in the machine. For that
matter, they will remain so throughout the hatch if left
in. It is not desirable to do this however, if for no other
reason than that their presence in the tray adds to the
time required to turn the eggs, while in case a contact
thermometer is used the correct temperature will not be
secured after the first few days, unless the operator is
careful to see that the thermometer always rests on a
fertile egg. The air cell on the seventh day should be
about as shown in Fig. 63. If it is noticeably smaller or
larger, the ventilation or moisture, or both, will need at-
tention. In determining the extent of evaporation by
the size of the air cell, it is important to be sure that a
correct average is taken, since when eggs of different ages
are set together, or those having shells of varying degrees
of porosity, there will be a good deal of irregularity in
the size of the cells.

In testing it is desirable to use as strong a light as
is available for the purpose. The small lamp testers that
generally are sent out with the machine serve fairly well
to determine the presence of the germ and the size of the
air cell, but to do early testing and to follow the develop-
ment of the germs, strong light is necessary. Sunlight is
excellent for testing purposes and there are various ways
of utilizing it. As an emergency measure a roll of stiff
paper can be used, simply holding one end to the eye and
placing egg at other end and directing it toward the sun.

FIG, 56—APPEARANCE OF INFERTILE EGG
BEFORE TESTER
An infertile egg examined before the tester
should be almost clear, the yolk showing but
faintly even after having been in the incubator
for two weeks, aS was the case with egg here
shown.

Different Styles of Testers

For day testing the incubator room may be ar-
ranged so that it can be darkened, and a window facing
the sun provided with a covering having one or two 1%4-
inch holes, in front of which the eggs are held. Sunlight
testing is frequently inconvenient and for cloudy days
and night work artificial light must be used. Electric
light is best, using “Mazda” bulbs. Ordinary incandescent
bulbs give a yellow light which
is not desirable. If electricity
is not available acetylene may
be used, also gas, or kerosene—
with mantles if possible, to
avoid yellow flames. All of
these lights (except electricity)
generate a great deal of heat
which may prove uncomforta-
ble in the small, close quar-
ters in which eggs often are
tested, and the enclosures pro-
vided for the lights must be of
good size and well ventilated to
avoid broken mantles and chim-
neys. There are a number of
high-grade egg testers on. the
market and it generally is bet-
ter and cheaper to buy these
than to experiment with home-
made contrivances.

When the eggs are tested on
the twelfth to fourteenth day, any doubtful ones may be
removed, also any infertiles that may have been over-
looked in the first test. At this time the air cell should
be about the size shown in Fig. 63, and proper changes
should be made in the ventilation or moisture, if the air
cells are not developing normally. The fertile egg wili
appear as in Fig. 55 and the embryo will be more or less
active, regularly rising and falling, or appearing and dis-
appearing, before the tester. The egg generally will be
opaque below the air cell but there may be a bright edge
along the undetside of the egg as shown. This should
be of limited extent however. If there is a large bright
area, the development of the embryo is not progressing
in a normal manner.

Dead germs may be found in various stages of devel-
opment, but they are not easily distinguished unless they
have died during the first few days. It is not usual for
dead germs to decay in the incubator, but they sometimes
do so. In case the odor on opening the machine indicates
the presence of rotten eggs they should be removed at
once. It ysually is not necessary to test all the eggs to
find them, as they can be more quickly discovered by
their outward appearance, or by holding the nose close
to the eggs.

On the eighteenth day the final test will be made. At
this time the embryo should fill the shell with the excep-
tion of the air cell and the eggs before the tester will
have throughout a plain opaque appearance. The chick
may even have broken through the membrane into the air
cell, filling it also, though not unless development has been
little too rapid. This final test enables the operator to
determine whether or not the chicks may be expected to
come out on time and whether ventilation and moisture
have been correct. It affords the last chance of making
adjustments to correct errors in this respect, also in tem-
perature, but such final changes can only be slight.

FIG. 57—EGG WITH
SPIRAL SHELL
When examined be-

fore the tester, eggs
frequently will be found
in which the shell is
marked by dark spiral
rings as indicated above.
Such eggs rarely hatch.

Ventilation and Moisture
The purpose of ventilation is to provide the growing

OPERATION OF INCUBATORS

embryo with a constant supply of fresh air,
and while its requirements in this respect
are limited, they are by no means negligi-
ble. As a rule, ventilation and moisture are
the manufacturer’s problems and he can
safely be assumed to have solved them in
a general way, so far as his machine is con-
cerned, though there is always some oppor-
tunity for the operator to help in final ad-
justment. Incubators that are intended to
meet any and all conditions under which
they may be operated, generally are pro-
vided with comparatively large adjustable
openings so that sufficient ventilation can be
secured to meet all requirements of location
and season. Some machines permit only the slightest ad-
justment in this respect, the
amount of ventilation being
fixed by the manufacturer at
the point where best results
will be secured under aver-
age conditions and during
the natural hatching season:
This plan has the advantage
of simplifying the manage-
ment of the machine and
prevents extreme adjust-
ments either way (a common
mistake among beginners),
but does not afford oppor-
tunity for meeting extreme
or unusual requirements.

As has already been ex-
plained, the egg contains all
the moisture needed for the
development of the embryo
and for successful exclusion,
and a liberal additional al-
lowance to meet the natural
loss from evaporation. It is
essential that the normal rate
of evaporation be main-
tained, and as this depends
upon the circulation of air
in the machine and the degree of moisture which the air
contains, moisture and ventilation are closely associated
together. Evaporation dur-
ing the hatch varies rather
widely with the season, and
there is some disagreement
among investigators in re-
gard to what the normal
loss of moisture should be.
However, a_ reduction of
about 13 per cent in the
weight of the eggs from the
first to the eighteenth day,
may be taken as a safe aver-
age. While the degree of
evaporation may be approx-
imated by observing the de-
velopment of the air cell, as

FIG.

turned.

FIG. 58— APPEARANCE
OF EMBRYO AFTER
SEVEN DAYS OF
INCUBATION

This diagram indicates
the appearance of normal
embryo after seven days,
with outlines of germ cen-
ter and blood vessels dis-
tinctly brought out. Com-
pare with Fig. Repro-
duced from Cornell Uni-
versity Reading Course,
Bulletin No. 80.

61—AIR CELL

This frequently
the eggs have not been properly

43

ON SIDE FIG. 62—EGG WITH AIR CELL

IN SMALL END
When the air cell develops in

the small end, the chick rarely
hatches.

OF EGG
occurs where

regular intervals, for example on the lst, 6th, 12th, and
18th days, will find it an easy matter to control the evap-
oration and keep it just where it should be, either by ad-
justment of ventilation or by supplying moisture. The
evaporation from the eggs proceeds a little more rapidly
as the hatch progresses, and should average about 3%
per cent the first 6 days, 4 to 4% per cent from the 6th
to the 12th day, and 5 per cent from the 12th to the 18th
day. To get the percentage of evaporation, the net
weight of the eggs without the tray should be used, and
care must be taken that at the first weighing the tray
shall be thoroughly dry, otherwise the evaporation from
it will lead to error. The tray should be weighed before
being filled with eggs, and its weight regularly deducted
from each subsequent weighing.

By way of illustration, if 100 eggs weigh 200 ounces
net, when placed in the machine, their weight at the end
of the 6th day should be 192-3 ounces. At this time
the eggs probably will be tested and the infertile ones
removed after which they should be weighed again. If
20 infertiles are taken out this will reduce the net weight
to perhaps 155 ounces. At the end of the 12th day the
eggs should weigh about 6% ounces less, leaving the
total weight about 148% ounces. If no eggs are taken
out there will be a further loss of 5 per cent, by the end
of the 18th day, or 7% ounces, leaving the net weight
about 141 ounces. If a few eggs are broken or removed
for any cause, deduct their average weight to get the
net weight of the remaining eggs, before taking the per-
centage.

How Evaporation May Be

Controlled

If at any stage of the
hatch the evaporation is
found running below the
percentages just given, it
must be increased by pro-
viding more ventilation and,
if necessary, a slightly high-
er temperature in the ma-
chine, also by longer cooling
periods. If the evaporation
is running too high, it may
be checked by reducing the
ventilation or, if that is not

already described, it may be
followed much more accu-
tately by weighing the eggs
at regular intervals.

The beginner who has a
teliable set of scales at hand
and will weigh the eggs at

FIG. 59—DEAD GERM AD-

HERING TO SHELL

Germs that stick fast to
the shell will develop for
a short time but soun die,
presenting an appearance
similar to the above, when
examined through the egg
tester. Cornell University
Reading Course, Bul. 80.

FIG. 60—A “BLOOD RING”

Germs that die during
the first few days of in-
cubation, particularly as
the result of overheating,
show more or less distinct
“blood rings’? when tested.
Cornell University Read-
ing Course. Bul. No. 80.

desirable, by supplying
moisture. The easiest and
simplest way to do this,
when it is possible, is to
sprinkle the floor of the cel-
lar in which the machine is
being operated, or place pans
or tubs of water under the

44

FIG. 63— DEVELOP-
MENT OF AIR
CELL DURING
INCUBATION

The average size of

FIG 64—EMBRYO
READY TO BREAK
THROUGH INTO
AIR CELL

When the embryo

air cell at various nas practically com-
stages of incubation pleted its develop-
is indicated in above ment, or about the

diagram, Line marked
1, indicates average
size in fresh eggs.
Lines marked 6, 12
and 18 represent aver-
age size after a cor-
responding number of
days _ of incubation.
Size of air cell is con-
trolled by ventilation
and moisture.

19th to 20th day, it
breaks through the
membrane, separating
it from the air cell,
and occupies this
space. The irregular
line ' here shown is
characteristic of ap-
pearance of egg be-
fore tester just before
this occurs.

machine, using hot, steaming water if conditions demand
it. Be governed in this by the directions of the manu-
facturer. If he specifies a particular way in which to
supply moisture, be sure that there is a good reason for
it and follow directions exactly. One method of regu-
lating the evaporation of the eggs is by the use of a
hygrometer (see Fig. 77). This instrument is designed
to indicate the relative humidity of the air in the machine.

Ventilation is considered but little in the practical
operation of incubators, aside from its influence on evap-
oration and moisture. When there is sufficient air circu-
lation to dry the eggs down at the normal rate, there is
little danger that there will be any deficiency in meeting
the needs of the developing embryos for oxygen. Recent
investigations at the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station
indicate that while the amount of carbon dioxide (whick
is the usual basis of comparison in determining the purity
of the air) is 3 parts in 10,000 volumes of fresh air, it is
decidedly higher under the sitting hen and increases to
50 to 60 parts toward the end of the hatch.

In commercial incubators the proportion runs well
below that found under hens. Even when the proportion
of carbon dioxide is artificially increased much above
what is regularly found in incubators or under hens, it
does not appear to have any marked influence on the
hatch until it reaches about 150 parts, so that the purity
of air in the incubator need hardly concern the practical
operator. As a matter of fact, the average incubator, in-
stead of being deficient in ventilation, is more likely to
afford too much, which is the chief reason for supplying
moisture, this being done to offset the excessive evapora-
tion that naturally accompanies a too rapid change of air.

As a rule, the danger of excess ventilation in incu-
bators applies only to their operation in cold weather.
In warm weather or in heated rooms the circulation of
air is apt to be quite slow unless the machine is provided
with unusually large ventilating openings.

Cooling An Aid to Ventilation

The necessity for cooling the eggs down each day
during incubation is a much-debated point about which
we have surprisingly little accurate information, consider-

and should continue until the 18th.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

ing how energetically the subject has been discussed. It
is doubtful whether there is any advantage in cooling
early in the season, and the practice generally results in
a low average temperature, thus delaying the hatch. The
general tendency is for early hatches to fall behind the
normal rate of development at any rate, and cooling
simply means further delay.

When the eggs are cooled down until they are cold |
to the touch, which may happen in a very short time in
winter hatching, it will take two or three hours to bring
them back to the right temperature again, and as a re-
sult the embryos will not get the required number of heat
units unless the deficiency is made up by running the
machine at a higher temperature. Merely turning the
eggs probably gives them all the cooling they need under
such conditions.

If cooling is to be practiced because it is the “nat-
ural way,” it must be remembered that when the hen re-
turns to the nest she can warm the eggs up in a very
short time, through the application of contact heat, while
the incubator is much slower, taking from one to three
hours to do what the hen will do in half an hour or less.
For this reason, cooling in artificial incubation must
either be for a decidedly shorter time than under natural
conditions, or the machine must run at a higher tempera-
ture in order to offset the slower heating up after re-
turning the trays to the machine.

In warmer weather or where the machine is operated
in a heated room there probably is a distinct advantage in
regular daily cooling as a means of:improving ventilation.
In this case cooling may begin about the 6th or 7th day
In a cool room the
rule should be to leave the eggs out until they are luke-
warm or neutral to the touch—that is, feeling neither cold
nor warm. This rule will not apply in a warm room,
however, where it might be necessary to leave the eggs
out for an hour or two to bring them down to such a
temperature, which is not at all desirable. In this case,
cool for a few minutes only, at first, gradually increasing
the time until the eggs are out 20 to 30 minutes near the
end of the hatch. It seldom is desirable to leave them
out for a longer time than this unless they have been
overheated or are developing too rapidly as a result of
a general high average temperature. In all cases keep
the door of the incubator closed while the eggs are out,
and do not expose them to drafts or currents of air.
Under no condition should eggs be cooled if they are
known to be underdeveloped for the stage of the hatch.

FIG. 65—PEDIGREE HATCHING BASKBTS
Courtesy of Maine Exp. Station.

OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 45

PEDIGREE

FIG. 66—MOSQUITO NETTING BAGS FOR
HATCHING
Courtesy of Kansas Experiment Station.

On the other hand, if they have been accidentally over-
heated, cool them down at once.

Bringing Out the Hatch

After the eighteenth day there is little that can be
done by way of favorably influencing results. If at this
time it appears that too much ventilation has been given,
moisture may be supplied, and in most machines it is
customary to use moisture regularly from this time un-
til the end, doing this in the exact manner recommended
by the manufacturer. No amount of supplied moisture
can restore what has been taken from the eggs, but with
plenty of humidity in the machine at hatching time, even
chicks that-have been dried down too much during the
earlier stages of the hatch will have a fair chance to get
out. If the eggs have not been dried down sufficiently,
more ventilation can be supplied for a short time, but this
must be done cautiously and promptly reduced to meet
the manufacturer’s instructions when the chicks begin to
come out, otherwise there is danger that the air in the
machine will be lacking in moisture. If the temperature
has been too low, resulting in a delayed hatch, more heat
may be given, and less if there appears to be danger of
the chicks coming off too soon.

These last-minute adjustments however, offer at
best only a choice of evils, and there is strong probability
that more harm than good will be done by them. No mat-
ter how desirable it may appear to have provided more
or less heat, moisture, ventilation, cooling, or whatever
detail may have been improperly adjusted, it now is too
late to do much by way of correcting conditions. Only
slight changes may be made at this time; for the rest,
it is necessary to accept the result, whatever it may be,
and learn the lesson so well that there will be no danger
of making the same mistake again.

The beginner must learn to keep cool in the face of
poor hatches, and not let an obvious error, such as bring-
ing off the chicks too soon, drying down too much, or
any of the mistakes that may be made, lead him to go to
the other extreme in the next hatch. He should remem-
ber that he is working with extremely narrow margins
all along the line, and the result of any hatch is deter-
mined by comparatively slight adjustments or differences
continued throughout the hatch. The common tendency
to extremes in method must be avoided, whether applied
to changes made during a single hatch, or in successive
hatches.

In the case of pedigree hatching or where the chicks
from different pens are to be hatched separately, the
eggs, properly marked, may be mixed indiscriminately in
the tray during incubation, but at the last turning they
should be separated and placed in pedigree egg trays such
as are supplied by the manufacturer of the incubator, or

in small wire baskets such as are shown in Figs. 65 and
67. <A still cheaper way is to use small bags of “mos-
quito bar” like those shown in Fig. 66. With any of these
appliances the eggs must not be crowded, but must have
plenty of room—much more than is necessary in regular
hatchings, or the chicks will not be able to get out prop-
erly or will smother after they are out. If the trays are
full of fertile eggs to be divided into different lots in
this way, it will be necessary to have an empty machine
warmed up and ready to help out at this time. It is use-
less to attempt subdividing eggs in full trays unless this
is done. Where pedigree hatching is practiced it is not
possible to use the nursery of course, and more careful
attention must be given to the chicks, removing and
marking them when they are well dried, and transferring
them to baskets or other warm comfortable quarters.
They must not be kept too long in the close quarters in
which they were hatched.

When the eggs begin to pip or when the chicks are
heard, which may be before pipping is observed, the ma-
chine must be put in order for the hatch and arranged so
that it will not need to be opened again until the hatch
is over, or practically so. If it has a nursery compart-
ment the trays should have the trap side turned to the
front, though the trap is to be left closed until the hatch
is well underway. If the thermometer is of the contact
type or is fastened to a loose stand it should be perma-
nently fastened in place so that it cannot be knocked
over. If the machine is regulated properly there will be
little danger of the temperature getting far out of the
way at this time, but it always is desirable to have the
thermometer in position to refer to. With the chicks
coming cut lively, the temperature may run up to 104 or
105 degrees, but this will do no harm, and the regulator
should not be interfered with unless the temperature
goes above 105 degrees.

In incubators with nursery compartments the chicks
may be allowed to drop down after about one-third of
them are out, but until then they should be kept up on
the trays. Nurseries are always lower in temperature
than the egg trays, and the chicks are liable to get chilled

if they are allowed to drop down before they are dry,
and before there are enough of them out to keep each
other warm. Many epidemics of so-called “white diarrhea”
are caused by the chicks getting chilled in the nursery.
Always keep them up, therefore, until the hatch is at
least one-third over, then open the trap and let them find
their way down gradually.

Avoid Overcrowding in the Nursery

It seldom is necessary or desirable to disturb the
chicks while they are coming off, and opening the door
and fussing with them should be avoided. In case the
hatch is extra good, however, it may be necessary to re-
move some of the first chicks hatched, after they are
thoroughly dry, in order to give the later ones a chance,

FIG. 67—CORN POPPERS USED IN PEDIGREE
HATCHING
Courtesy of American School of Poultry Husbandry.

46 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

also to avoid injury to those that are out. If the machine
is plainly overcrowded and the chicks are panting seri-
ously (a little panting need not cause uneasiness), pro-
vide a warmly lined basket or tray such as is shown in
Fig. 80, and remove enough to relieve the congestion. If
the chicks are carefully covered and placed in a warm
place they will in no way be injured, and the conditions
in the machine will be much better for the chicks that are
left and for those that are not yet out. Where this is
done however, it should be remembered that removing a
large number of chicks is liable to result in lowering the
temperature, and the regulator may need to be readjusted
to keep it up to normal.

In extra-good hatches, if none of the chicks are re-
moved it will be necessary to throw the ventilators wide
open, and possibly wedge the front door slightly open
also, in order to supply sufficient air. It should be re-
membered that the requirements of chicks are greatly
in excess of unhatched embryos. This extra ventilation
will save those that are already hatched, but may make it
increasingly difficult for the later ones to get out, as
it will lower the temperature and dry the air, causing
the chicks to stick in the shell. It is a good deal better
to relieve the situation by taking out some of the strong-

When the incubator can be spared, it is better to
leave the chicks in it for 24 hours, removing the trays as
soon as hatching is over, to give the chicks more room
and better air. At this time it generally is wise to give
all the ventilation that the machine can supply. If the
incubator must be reset at once the chicks can be taken
out as soon as they are thoroughly dry and placed in
baskets, trays, or day-old-chick shipping boxes, where
they should remain for about 24 hours, or they can be
taken directly from the incubator to the brooder if it is
ready, thoroughly warmed, and regulated.

Burn or bury all dead chicks, kill the cripples, if any,
and include them in the burning, also the eggs that did
not hatch. The empty shells, however, may be pounded
up and fed to the laying hens. Clean and disinfect the
machine thoroughly before resetting it. Brush out all
dust and down, scrub the trays and burlap frames, if
any, using a good disinfecting solution, with which also
the entire inner surface of the machine should be sprayed
or scrubbed. Any good coal tar disinfectant may be
used for this purpose, or a home-made preparation if
preferred. The regulator must be reset and the machine
operated long enough to be sure that it is correctly ad-
justed before it can be considered ready for next hatch.

PURDUE UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION

DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY
“INCUBATOR REPORT

Experiment No-ee-—Incubator No.————Date —__—_———Make__ Name of Operator.

FIG. 68—A WELL PLANNED RECORD BLANK. FOR THE INCUBATOR OPERATOR
The temperature record on the sheet is kept by drawing a line from reading to reading, giving a “curve” that

shows in the plainest manner the fluctuations of temperature.
vides for 23 numbers, three lines being allowed to each number.

The sheet—only a part of which is here shown—pro-
After figure 6 are the words “Test eggs first

time,” after 13, “Test eggs second time,’ after 20, “Note hour when first chick hatched,” after 21, “Note hour when
through hatching,” after 23, “Date and hour when chicks were removed from machine.” Below that are blanks for

final report, as follows:
FINAL REPORT

No. eggs put in

No. eggs infertile
No. eggs with dead germs
No. eggs broken. ........------0+---------
No. chicks dead in shell ...
No. crippled chicks
No. vigorous chicks

Remarks:

Per cent fertile eggs to total eggs.............-----------
Per cent dead germs to fertile eggs................------
Per cent dead-in-shell to fertile egg@s.................-
Per cent crippled chicks to fertile eggs.............-
Per cent vigorous chicks to fertile egegs..... S
Per cent vigorous chicks to total eggs...............-
Per cent vigorous chicks to egg in machine

After SCCONG! ‘CESt) <i ceccnctececsstcnececscsvesesvesenqcacceeene

est, doing this as quickly as possible, however, without
keeping the incubator door open long or permitting the
chicks that are removed to get chilled. Those that are
taken out in advance of the rest of the hatch must be
kept covered (not too closely) and in a warm place. As
a rule they will do better if treated in this way than
when placed directly in a brooder, no matter how com-
fortably it may be heated.

Cleaning Up the Hatch

When the hatch is about over the eggs should be ex-
amined, and if any are covered by large sections of
empty shells these should be removed to be sure that
no chicks are thus imprisoned and prevented from get-
ting out. If a few are stuck in the shells, they may be
helped out. Chicks that are not able to get out without
assistance seldom are worth bothering with, but there
are sufficient exceptions to the rule to encourage some
to give the little extra attention which may be suf-
ficient to save them. The best*way to help chicks out of
the shell is first to raise the temperature, which nearly
always drops below normal when the chicks are practical-
ly all out and down in the nursery. Then get the “stick-
ers” together and cover them with a flannel cloth wrung
out of water about as hot as the hands will stand it. Do
not cover the eggs tightly, but lay a single thickness of
cloth over them. If they have stuck on account of a
lack of humidity in the machine this will enable them to
get out. If their failure to hatch is due to actual weak-
ness it is not worth while to do anything more for them,
as they will not live even if they do get out.

Day-to-Day Details of Incubator Operation

By way of putting the everyday details of incubator
management in simple consecutive order, the following
daily schedule is suggested. With such a definite schedule
before him the beginner will be able to plan ahead a lit-
tle and to know what is coming before he reaches it. In
this schedule it is assumed that the hatch will be so
handled as to have it come off on the morning of the
twenty-first day. If for any reason the hatch is earlier
or later than this the details of operation must be modi-
fied accordingly.

First Day—Set the machine in the forenoon, adjusting
the ventilation exactly as directed by the manufacturer.
Always test new thermometers before using them, and
old ones at the beginning of each season. If a suspended
thermometer is used, measure the distance between the
bulb and the bottom of the egg tray, and if this is not
as the manufacturer says it should be, stop right there
until the error is corrected. Do not go to bed the first
night until certain that the temperature is stationary at
the right point. Sometimes the thermometer will regis-
ter accurately for days with the machine running empty,
but when the eggs are put in it may run up a little.

Second Day—Look at the thermometer a few times
and fill and trim the lamp in the evening, doing this, if
possible, about six or. seven o’clock, so that when the
last inspection for the day is made at bedtime the final
adjustment of the flame can be safely made for the night.
If there is reason to believe that the room temperature
will drop much, turn the flame a little higher than would

OPERATION OF INCUBATORS

be necessary to maintain the temperature at time of
adjustment, depending on the regulator to take care of
the surplus heat until it is needed along towards morning.

Third Day—Turn the eggs in the morning, and put
them back into the machine without any unnecessary de-
lay. From this time on turn regularly morning and night
till the chicks begin to pip.

Fourth and Fifth Days—No special attention required
on these days aside from the regular daily care.

Sixth Day—This is the best time for testing when the
machine is filled in the regular way with either white
or brown-shelled eggs, especially if the eggs are to be
weighed to determine the percentage of evaporation.
Eggs with rings around the embryos are dead, the cause
being either weak germs, or too high temperature in the
machine. Take out the infertiles and feed them to young

47

rect mistakes along these lines if not too serious. If the
hatch is progressing as it should, it will do no harm to
begin cooling down once a day, even if the weather is
cool, unless there is reason to believe that the germs are
a little behind in development, in which case do no cool-
ing at all.. Never cool more than once a day under ordi-
nary conditions.

Thirteenth to Seventeenth Days—Nothing but regu-
lar duties for these days, but watch for the temperature
to creep up as animal heat increases and readjust the
regulator accordingly. Test a few eggs every day to
keep in touch with the development of the embryos.

Eighteenth Day—This is about the last chance to
correct any conditions that may need attention. Test
the eggs again, unless the chicks can be heard peeping in
the shell or some of the eggs are pipped. If appearance

INCUBATOR RECORD

INCUBATOR No............. MAKE 0. oeee cs s+ canta ce cese cee eee SIZE Givse ns cine

DAES SEN ewe Rikteateans (ORSERVEI: circuses Ageameawamuclen wd viinesl

TEMPERATURE OF INCUBATOR

INCUBATION 0

MORNING......].....

INES een feta | ecrccta fo ceee Diaadsclntsae Ieewecboee Ara viee.) cidiec

EVENING .....

BIORRING Ec. |p. | --. / bse

SST TRY ww oacece |e) ee Ne ee eens ees)

EVENING |”

TEMPERATURE OF ROOM

HUMIDITY OF INCUBATOR ©

sjelai= Pa sisistesif (sais) (fisteleielel |P weimiwis! lf) wine [Veen ie | cee) |i ireen eens fl cwein fia eiene [inwinnmg

NO. SET INF. - FERT. 9 FERT.- | DEAD DEAD DEAD DEAD CRIPPLED EGGcs STRONG |
ist TEST 2ND TEST 3RD TEST HATCH CHICKS BROKEN CHICKS

HUMIDITY OF ROOM

FERTILITY AND HATCHABILITY

FIG. 69—COMPLETE HATCHING AND BREEDING RECORD AS USED AT OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

=

Incubator operators who keep accurate records as are provided for on this sample blank, will have at the end
of the hatching season information in regard to their hatching and brooding operations that should prove invaluable
to them. Record keeping requires some time and attention, but the operator will be amply repaid for his pains by the
better and more certain results that he will be able to secure.

chicks or adult hens. They are just as good for the
fowls as so much meat scrap.

Seventh Day—In mild weather begin cooling now,
leaving the eggs out until they are lukewarm—that is,
neither warm nor cold to the touch. In warm weather
leave them out about 10 minutes and then return them to
the machine whether they are lukewarm or not.

Eighth and Ninth Days—No special attention aside
from cooling and regular daily care.

Tenth and Eleventh Days—About this time, if the
embryos are developing as they should, look for the tem-
perature to run up a little. This is due to the increasing
animal heat in the egg, and the regulator must be changed
to take care of it. Turning the flame a little lower will
not answer. From this time on it will be necessary to
be on the watch for rising temperature and readjust the
regulator from time to time to take care of it.

Twelfth Day—Weigh the eggs or test them, to de-
termine whether they are drying down as they should;
also note whether the germs are developing properly. If
too much ventilation has been given, begin supplying
moisture according to the book of directions that accom-
panies the machine. If the air cells are too small, give
more ventilation, and if the germs are a little behind in
development, increase the heat. There is time yet to cor-

of the embryos as obsérved through the tester, indicates
that the temperature or ventilation has not been cor-
rect, a little can be done to remedy matters, but not
much. It is unwise to attempt to make any marked
change at this time.

Nineteenth Day—Turn as usual, if there are no chicks
Ppipping, but do no more cooling. Turn the eggs and get
them back into the machine as quickly as possible. If
pipping has begun, do not disturb the eggs at all, but be
sure that the trap in the egg tray is next the door.

Twentieth Day—The chicks should be coming out
briskly about the end of the twentieth day. Keep the
flame up to normal and don’t worry about the tempera-
ture. If the machine has a nursery compartment do not
open the trap to let the chicks down until at least a
third of them are out.

Twenty-First Day—The chicks should be all out and
down in the nursery dry, before the end of the 21st day.
If they are a little late coming out give them more time.
Chicks may be lively and strong even if a day late, though
generally they are not. As soon as the chicks are all
out remove the trays to give them more room. Clean up
the incubator as soon as the chicks are taken out and
thoroughly disinfect it, whether it is to be reset at
once or not.

CHAPTER VIL.

Mistakes in Artificial Incubating

Common Mistakes Made in Buying, Setting Up and Operating Incubators—Mistakes Made in Taking Off the Hatch—
Special Details of Operation That Should Prove Helpful to All Incubator Users
in Preventing Serious Errors end the Losses Occasioned by Them

UCCESSFUL operation of incubators is a com-
paratively simple and easy matter as long as the
beginner confines himself to the general direc-

al «=6tions accompanying his machine, coupling with

these a careful consideration of the detailed information
in Chapter V. of this book, which is designed to meet
special conditions and to make it possible for the operator,
however inexperienced, to have an intelligent under-
standing of the reasons for doing or not doing certain

things, rather than blindly to “follow directions.” As a

rule, trouble is experienced only when the operator com-

mences to experiment, to listen to the suggestions of
local advisers who have had little or no experience with
his particular type of machine, or to indulge in the com-
mon practice of “taking chances” and “cutting corners.”

It is not the purpose of this chapter to try to point
out all the mistakes that the beginner may make, when
he embarks upon this course. That would be an endless
task. It is much simpler and easier to learn the few,
essential details of correct operation than to attempt to
learn the innumerable incorrect practices that must be
avoided. Experience has shown however, that there are
some particular errors into which the beginner is very
apt to fall, even when trying hard to do things right,
and to these it seems that some special attention should
be paid or added emphasis be given regarding their dan-
ger, even though they may already have been mentioned
briefly in the preceding chapter.

Getting the Incubator Too Late in the Season

The best and most profitable chicks, and generally
the easiest ones to raise, are those that are hatched
early. For this reason the incubator should be on hand
well in advance of the time when it will be needed. There
aie almost certain to be delays in getting the incubator
if it is ordered direct from the manufacturer during the
busy season. If bought from an agent he may not have
the right kind or size in stock unless arrangements have
been made well in advance. There may he some missing
or broken parts when the machine is uncrated, or vari-
ous things may happen to interfere with Sore it set
up and properly adjusted.

All of these possible sources of delay should ee con-

FIG. 70—A “FAIR” HATCH

The difference between a fair hatch_and a
first-class one, such as is illustrated in Fig. 71,
is chiefly a matter of careful attention to details
all along the line from the selection of the fowls
in the breeding pen to the management of the
incubator,

$8

sidered, and discounted by ordering in ample time. One
of the commonest causes of disappointment and loss
among beginners is this delay in getting the machine and
the consequent haste to get it started which results in
setting it before it is properly adjusted, or without giving
it a thorough preliminary tryout. Keeping the eggs wait-
ing while the empty machine is being tested and adjusted, —
appears to be too much for the average person’s self-

control. Avoid this danger by getting the machine early.

Failure to Set Up and Adjust Correctly

A surprisingly large number of persons fail to meet
the conditions of success in this obviously important de-
tail. Some do not read the instructions in regard to set-
ting up, and try to “puzzle out” for themselves the use
and location of parts, the assembling of which is fully -
explained in the directions that accompany the machine
and on whose exact adjustments its proper working de-
pends. Many do not read the description of the machine
with sufficient care to know whether it is set up right or
not. And others may even know that it is not correctly
adjusted but blindly hope to operate it successfully
any way.

The various parts of the incubator MUST be con-
nected up properly and adjusted to work exactly as they
should, or trouble is bound to ensue. This is not a thing
that should call for argument or explanation; it is an
imperative requirement. It is not necessary to take
chances or to guess, and there is no excuse for doing so.
The operator can readily know whether his machine is
set up correctly or not, and unless he does know this be-
fore placing eggs in it he has only himself to blame if
results are not satisfactory.

Locating Incubator Where Ventilation is Poor

It is useless to expect good results if the machine is
located where ventilation is deficient and where lamp
fumes cannot be got rid of. A cellar with tightly closed
doors and with the windows banked to keep things from
freezing, also rooms that are small and close, are not
suitable locations for incubators. The actual require-
ments of the embryos for fresh air are quite small, but

the incubator lamp uses a great deal of oxygen in a day’s

FIG. 71—AN EXCELLENT HATCH

There is no mystery and_but little ‘‘luck”
about getting good hatches. The careful, pains-
taking operator with a standard machine and
good eggs can regularly get large hatches, and
his profits will be much greater than with, the
merely “fair” kind such as shown in Fig. 70.

MISTAKES IN ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING 49

time and gives off a large volume of poisonous fumes
which are certain to cause trouble unless ventilation is
free enough to reduce the proportion of lamp fumes to a
harmless percentage. Incubators can be operated in com-
paratively small rooms or where there is only a limited
amount of ventilation if the lamp
fumes are conducted out of the room
by means of suitable pipes.

Operating Without Instructions

This mistake is especially common
among those who purchase used or
second-hand incubators with which
they have had no previous experi-
ence, and attempt to run them with-
out the manufacturer’s book of direc-

FIG. 72. : =
A SIMPLE EGG tions. No matter how successful the
TESTER operator may have been with other

makes he needs the manufacturer’s in-
structions for each type of machine used, and it is sim-
ply inviting trouble to attempt to operate without them.
No one need hesitate to write to the manufacurer for
directions, when these are missing for any reason, and if
a charge is made for supplying them the sum demanded
will be but a small one and should be cheerfully paid.

Irregular Hours for the Work

There should be regular hours for caring for the
machine, morning and evening, and these should be rig-
idly adhered to. The two petiods should divide the day
as evenly as possible without interfering with other
duties. A good time in the evening is just before or
after supper. At this time the eggs should be turned and
the lamp filled and trimmed, giving time for the eggs to
get warmed up before the last visit at bedtime, when the
flame can be finally adjusted for the night. In the morn-
ing there will be nothing to do but turn the eggs, as a
tule, and-if the thermometer is looked at again at noon
there will be little danger of the temperature getting
much out of the way between times.

Lack of Conveniences for the Work

Wherever the machine is located, it pays to fix things
up conveniently for doing the work. The chief function
of the incubator is to save time, either directly or in
directly, and the practical operator will try to save all
he can by installing suitable facilities for tending it. If
the machine is of the type that does ‘not have a clear top

FIG. 73—HOW TO TRIM
LAMP WICKS

The corners of the wick must
be rounded cff as here indi-
eated, to get an ideal flame.
Wicks will burn this way nat-
urally with a little attention.

FIG. 74—IDEAL LAMP FLAME

Flame shaped as
trated will give the
amount of heat and may be
turned quite high without dan-
ger of smoking. Such a flame
is secured by
wick as shown

on which to place the trays, provide a table or large box
of proper height. If the eggs are turned by shuffling, the
small tray illustrated in Fig. 52 will be found a real nec-
essity. Arrange a convenient place for the oil can and
a funnel for filling the lamp, and do this work over a
small box or pan containing planer shavings or other ab- °
sorbent material so that if any oil is spilled it will not
soil anything or saturate the-floor. It is much more
convenient to use an oil can with a faucet in the bottom,
than one from which the oil must be poured.

Using Undesirable Eggs

One of the reasons why the sitting hen often has
more chicks to her credit proportionately than the incu-
bator is that when there are only a few eggs to be set
they are carefully selected and only the ones that are
most suitable for the purpose are used. In filling incu-
bators however, especially when there is room in the
machine for the entire available supply, many eggs are
used that cannot possibly hatch. All eggs that are ab-
normally large or small, or that are rough, thin-shelled
or otherwise defective, such as those having spiral marks
(see Fig. 57), transparent spots, etc., should be discarded,
even if it is necessary to operate the machine with the
trays partially filled. It is better to waste space than eggs.

Flame Too High

When leaving the machine for the night the flame
ordinarily should be ‘urned high enough to provide an
excess of heat that will hold the damper open a little—
usually about one-eighth of an inch, though this will de-
pend somewhat on the style of machine. With this ex-
cess heat the regulator can take care of a sudden drop
in the temperature or if it should get warmer instead,
will still be able to dispose of the extra heat without
trouble. Too much should not be demanded of any reg-
ulator, however. This delicate device as made for prac-
tically all standard machines is remarkably efficient, but

should not be expected to control wide extremes in tem-

perature. When the flame is turned entirely too high
the surplus heat will exceed the regulator’s capacity to
divert or waste it, resulting in the egg chamber becom-
ing overheated, and this may happen with the finest reg-
ulator made. Another objection to an extremely high
flame is that it is a wasteful use of fuel, adding unneces-
sarily to the cost of operating the machine; also, with
a high flame the danger of a smoking or overheated lamp
is greatly increased.

FIG. 75—IMPROPER TRIM-
MING OF WICKS

If the corners of the wicks

are not properly rounded off,

illus-
greatest

here

the flame will be sharp cor-
nered and will smoke and form
dangerous deposits of soot,
Such a flame will supply com-

trimming the
paratively little heat.

in Be 7s.

50 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

Flame Too low

With a low flame there will not be sufficient heat to
keep the temperature up to the desired point if there

should be a marked drop in the room temperature, which
Unless there

is especially apt to occur during the night.
is a certainty of 2 rising
temperature there should al-
ways be some surplus heat.
In a good cellar, and with a
well-insulated machine, it
often is possible to run
through an entire hatch
without any special adjust-
ment of the flame, the reg-
ulator being depended on to
take care of all variations in
temperature that may arise.
In above-ground rooms
where the temperature fluc-
tuates widely from day to
day, and with imperfectly in-
sulated machines, frequent
readjustments of the flame
will be required.

Making Changes in Equip-
ment of Incubator

A good deal of trouble
grows out of the too com-
mon practice of making
changes in the equipment of
the machine, or using non-
standard parts, such as ther-
mometers, lamps, burners,
diaphragms, etc. Sometimes
this is done as a matter of
convenience, the regular
parts not being at hand, and
sometimes merely to save a
few pennies when the stand-
ard parts happen to cost a
trifle more than substitutes.
This practice is usually a most short-sighted kind of
economy, the losses in a single hatch often amounting to
more than the entire cost of every regular part needing
replacement.

It is safe to assume that the manufacturer has chosen
the equipment for his machine with the greatest care, and
after most expensive tests. He often has good reasons
for using certain articles, and it is the part of wisdom

P to take advant-
age of the other
fellow’s experi-
mience. Especially
in the case of
incubators using
diaphragms, it
ought not to be
necessary to
explain that
the manufacturer
uses certain ma-
terials because he
finds it import-
ant to do _ so,
and the substitu-
tion of other
fabric having dif-

on
|

FIG. 717—HYGROMETER

This instrument is used in measur-
ing the degree of humidity in the egg
chamber. Courtesy of Taylor Instru-
ment Companies.

FIG. 74—KEROSENE LAMP AND PASTEBOARD
BOX FOR EGG TESTING

Anyone who has a small handlamp can readily ar-
range a homemade tester in the manner here indicated.
Provide a good-sized opening in the lid (on the back) to
admit air to lamp, and at top to let hot air escape.
produced from Bul. 172 of Oregon Exp, Station.

ferent properties, may result in
Tesults.

highly unsatisfactory

Using Untested Thermometers

The average incubator thermometer is accurate and
reliable, but there are enough of the other sort to make
it important that every one
be tested before being placed
in active service. Once in a
while a defective thermome-
ter may get past the in-
spector; still more frequent-
ly they are damaged in ship-
ment through the breaking
or separating of the mer-
cury column in the tubes,
and any thermometer that
has stood for some months
is apt to change through the
seasoning of the glass. Take
no chances, but be sure that
the thermometer registers
correctly before starting the
hatch.

Thermometer Not in Correct
Position

A great deal depends up-
on having the thermometer
in the position in which it is
designed to be operated, and
as there are several types
with directions necessarily
modified for each, there is
more or less confusion here.
A suspended thermometer is
intended to hang with the
bulb at a certain specified
distance from the bottom of
the egg tray. If the wrong
hanger is used or it is not
hooked properly in place the
bulb may be too low or too
high, the wrong temperature at the egg level being se-
cured in either case. Such thermometers are apt to be
pushed up when the trays are removed or replaced, and
if they do not swing freely may remain in this position
and, of course, will
not then register
correctly. It is im-
material what style
is used, provided
the thermometer
is operated in the
position intended
and the tempera-
ture adjusted ac-

Re-

cordingly.
Contact ther-
mometers can be

placed with the
bulb on top of an
egg, but are more
apt to slip down
so that they rest
between two eggs
and touching both,
with a correspond-
ing difference in

Fic.

78—ELECTRIC LIGHT AND
PASTEBOARD BOX USED AS
AN EGG TESTER

Reproduced from Bul. 172 of Oregon
Experiment Station

MISTAKES IN ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING ill

temperature. There also are three distinct positions for
standing thermometers; between and touching two eggs;
on a level with top of egg but not touching; half an
inch above top of egg. There may be as much as two
degrees difference in the reading of the thermometers in
these different positions—which fact ought to make it
clear that the manufacturer's directions and the partic-
ular style of thermometer for which the directions are
given, should be rigidly adhered to.

Too High Temperature At Start

It is quite important to avoid too high temperatures
at the beginning of the incubation period. The practice
of starting at a relatively low temperature and gradually
increasing as the hatch progresses, has the indorsement
of most practical operators, where contact or low stand-
ing thermometers are used. There is no question about
the fact that the embryo is much more apt to be injured
by high temperatures during the first few days, and if the
incubator cannot be depended upon to maintain exactly
the desired temperature it is better to be on the safe
side by running a trifle low. But do not forget that any
departure from the correct temperature, either high or
low, must be offset by an
equivalent increase or de-
crease later on.

Failure to Average the
Temperature

Attention has been called
in the preceding chapter to
the error that the careful
operator is liable to fall in-
to, of regarding the normal
incubation temperature as
the maximum rather than
the average which he should
secure. This results in many
persons ‘habitually running a
little below the proper tem-
perature, or while they may
hold to the exact tempera-
ture, as a rule (103 degrees for example),.they are slower
about correcting the temperature when it falls below that
point than when it happens to exceed it, and in any case
they fail to offset low temperatures by running corres-
pondingly higher later on. Either way the practical re-
sult is an average temperature just that much below the
correct one, which means a delayed hatch. This is one
of the principal reasons why most hatches made by be-
ginners are slow in coming off, often disastrously so.
There is danger in high temperatures, it is true, but the
cumulative effect of running a trifle below normal for
long periods, may prove to be just as unfavorable in
the final result.

FIG. 79—EGG CARTON
SUTTABLE FOR
KEEPING HATCH-
ING EGGS

Failure to Adjust for Animal Heat

If there were no animal heat generated by the de-
veloping embryo, any good incubator favorably located
and properly adjusted should run through the hatch
without the slightest variation. As the embryo develops
however, it begins to generate heat, and about the tenth
day the thermometer is liable to take a jump upward as
a result of this. This rise is not as sudden as it appears,
but it takes close watching to detect it at first and the
average operator is apt to be conscious of it for the
first time when he finds the thermometer running a de-
gree or so above what it should be. The animal heat will
continue to increase in a normal hatch right up to the

FIG. 80—BOX. FOR MOVING CHICKS FROM
CUBATOR
Photo from Cornell University.

INCU-

end, and must be taken care of by readjusting the regu-
lator as often as necessary.

Failure to Test the Eggs

The beginner may find it difficult to learn much at
first about the development of the embryo, but if he will
persist in using the tester, examining all the eggs at reg-
ular periods as directed in the previous chapter, and mak-
ing almost daily tests with a few. he will find that it is
possible to follow the growth of the embryos with a good
degree of certainty, and the ability to do this will prove
of great value to him if he is going to produce chicks in
large numbers. It is scarcely worth while to go through
the motions of being a chick raiser if such opportunities
for making oneself proficient in the work are to be
ignored or neglected.

Failure to Examine Eggs During the Hatch

The beginner can make no better use of some of the
eggs in his first hatches than to break a few for exam-
ination from time to time during the hatch, after first
having examined them through the tester. Do this not
only with infertile eggs and dead germs, but with some
containing live germs also. It may be possible to get
good hatches without having a clear understanding of
how normal incubation progresses, but the chances of uni-
form success are greatly improved by such knowledge,
and no earnest operator will neglect any reasonable op-
portunity to learn
all that he can.
A few living
embryos sacri-
ficed in this way
will be repaid a
hundred times
over in the bet-—
ter hatches real-
ized later on. It
will prove espec-
ially helpful if,
in doing this, a
careful record is
kept of the ap-
pearance of the
embryos at dif-
ferent stages of
incubation, both
before the tester
and when the
shells are broken.

FIG.

87i—A CASE OF HATCHING
EGGS

Where eggs in large number are to
be held for hatching, about the most
convenient way of handling them is
to put them in regular shipping cases.
So packed they will be protected from
evaporation, mold, etc., and can readily
be curned if necessary.

Neglecting the
Lamp
When the lamp
has been running
along for several

52 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

days without any irregularity, as incubator lamps often
will do, the beginner is apt to feel that he can safely take
some liberties with it, such as letting it run an extra
day without filling, omitting to trim the wick, neglect
ing to wipe the oil off the top of the lamp bowl, etc. It
is just this slacking up in care that makes nine-tenths of
all lamp troubles. The work of caring for the lamp
_should be arranged
in a regular sched-
ule, to be followed
day after day with
unfailing regularity.
With a lamp bowl
of sufficient size it
will not be neces-
sary to fill it every
day, or even every
other day; but there
must be some reg-
ular period for doing so, otherwise it is only a matter of
time until it will be neglected one day too long and a
spoiled hatch may be the result.

I

laylor”

ROCHESTERNY

SEND
FIG. §2—SUSPENDED THERMOM-
ETER

Designed to be suspended by a
wire loop and as a rule is located
with the bulb about one-half inch
above the top of the eggs. Courtesy
of Taylor Instrument Companies.

Importance of Daily Trimming

With practically all oil-burning lamps, the wick must
be trimmed every day, and in cold weather it often is
necessary to trim twice a day. It is never safe to let
the wick get covered with a heavy scale. Especially
where low-grade oil is used, a heavy scale or char will
cover the end of the wick and the air tube in a com-
paratively short time, and an attempt to adjust the flame
with the wick in this condition is liable to result in a
smoking flame. It does not require much attention to
keep the wick clean and the flame burning brightly, and
failure to do this is inexcusable.

Using Defective Burners

The average brass burner is made of pretty thin ma-
terial and is easily bent out of shape. It requires but
a small dent in the top of the burner or in the wick tube,
to make the flame burn unevenly or to have the wick
stick or drag on one side. Do not try to repair burners

¥IG. 883—STANDING INCUBATOR |
THERMOMETER

This thermometer is arranged to
hold the bulb at the level of the top
of the egg. Courtesy of Taylor In- (\
strument Companies.

that are seriously damaged. They are not expensive, and
it is cheaper to buy new ones than to take chances with
an old one that is not working right. In all cases of
smoky lamps the burner should be carefully examined.

Extra Parts Should Be Kept On Hand

One of the most-common and least excusable mis-
takes made by beginners is failure to keep a supply of
extra parts on hand for emergencies. It costs only a
small sum to provide an extra thermometer, a burner, a
lamp bowl, a few wicks, and an extra set of cloth dia-
phragms for machines requiring them. It is a good
plan to have an extra connecting rod for the regulator,

also, and a wafer for the thermostat if the machine uses
that type of regulator. With these extras on hand there
will be no danger of ‘spoiling a hatch while waiting for
a new part to replace one that has been accidentally
broken or otherwise damaged. —

Turning the Eggs Must Not Be Neglected

From the time turning begins until it is discontinued
the eggs should be turned twice daily. Not once, nor
three times, nor now and then, but twice, and at regular
hours. Nothing should be allowed to interfere with this.
More frequent turning will do no harm, it is true, and
in warm weather, when the circulation of air in the
machine is liable to be sluggish it may prove decidedly
helpful. But under all ordinary conditions twice a day
is sufficient, and regularity is about as important as the
turning itself.

Turning Eggs With Oily Fingers

A very little kerosene on the shell will kill the
embryo and fingers that are oily from handling the lamp
will soon supply enough to do this. It usually is most
convenient to turn the eggs in the evening at the time

FIG. 84—INCREASING CAPACITY OF EGG TRAYS

The special tray shown above, which is in regular use on
Hollywood Poultry Farm, Washington, illustrates a practical

method of increasing incubator capacity by keeping the
eggs at an incline of about forty degrees instead of laying
them flat on the tray. By doing this the number of eggs
that can be placed in the tray is increased nearly twenty
per cent. The eggs are kept in this position until the last
turning, when they are transferred to the regular wire-
bottom trays for the hatch. Eggs in these special trays are
quickly turned, simply slanting them in the other direction.
the lamp is filled and trimmed, and to be on the safe side
it is advisable to make it a rule always to turn the eggs

before the lamp is touched.

‘Too Much Cooling of Eggs

Many operators seriously reduce the’ percentage of
their hatch by overcooling the eggs. It does not seem to
matter greatly whether eggs are cooled or not during in-
cubation when the proper temperature is maintained. With-
out doubt however, cooling is an advantage where the eggs
have been exposed to too high temperatures or where the
average temperature is running above normal, thus caus-
ing the embryo to develop too rapidly, Be very .careful
however not to overcool, but return the eggs to the ma-
chine just as soon as they feel lukewarm.

Neglecting to Turn and Shift the Trays

The trays should be turned end for end each day
and if there are two trays in the machine they should be
shifted from side to side daily. There is no machine
made that will not show some variation in temperature
in different parts of the egg chamber, and some of them
show a good deal. If this variation is not too great, and
if the trays are turned and shifted as suggested, the in-
equality will be equalized and the eggs should hatch uni-
formily in all parts of the machine.

Opening the Door After the Chicks Begin to Hatch

Opening the incubator door causes changes in tem-
perature, moisture, etc., in the egg @hamber, and should
be avoided as far as possible. With a little forethought

MISTAKES IN ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING 53

\. 4

Fi 5 ee
Ya a ¥

FIG. 85—STANDARD-BRED PEN OF WHITE
WYANDOTTES j

To secure hatching eggs of uniform character—an im-
portant factor in successful incubation—the fowls that lay
the eggs _ must be uniform in breeding. With high-class
Standard-bred fowls like the pen illustrated above, good
results are practically insured. This pen of White Wyan-
dottes won first prize at Madison Square in 1919, and is the

property of J. S. Martin.

everything that will need to be done from the time the
chicks begin to pip until they are practically all out
can be attended to at the last turning. At this time,
if the machine has a nursery the trays should be placed
with the traps next the door. If moisture is to be sup-
plied during the hatch, the thermometer fastened in posi-
tion so that it cannot be overturned by the chicks, or any
other changes made, now is the time to attend to it. Then
when the chicks begin to pip the door can be shut and
the chicks left alone.

Get the Chicks All Out

As contrasted with the person who is so anxious to
‘help that he does much harm by untimely interference,
there is the other extreme in the operator who leaves
the chicks entirely to themselves, in the belief that any
that cannot get out without help are not worth saving.
This is true when the inability to get out is due to in-
herent weakness, but not when the chick sticks for some
purely accidental reason. It often happens that some fail
to get out for some simple reason, though they would
live and grow as well as any of their fellows if they could
have a little timely assistance. The practical incubator
operator will see to it that if any are stuck in the shell
toward the end of the hatch, they have a chance for their
lives, supplying some added moisture or heat or possibly
helping them to break the shells.

Overcrowding in the Incubator

The average incubator does not have sufficient room
for all the chicks that can be hatched in it if the trays
are practically full of fertile eggs and they nearly all
hatch. A chick requires more room than the egg from
which it comes and when an extra good hatch is secured
they are liable to be overcrowded. It is highly injurious
for chicks to be packed in the incubator to the point
where they become overheated, and half suffocated, and
when there is danger of this condition existing it is nec-
essary to remove some of the first arrivals. It is better

to do this than to try to afford relief by excessive venti-
lation which will dry out the air and make it impossible
for the last chicks to hatch at all.

Taking Chicks Out Too Soon

Removing the chicks from the incubator as soon as
hatched may be necessary for the reasons already sug-
gested, but this step should be regarded as the lesser
of two evils and should be taken with great care. Never
do it unless it is clearly necessary. There is no better
place for chicks the first day after hatching than in the
nursery of the incubator. In any event, never take chicks
from the machine that are not thoroughly dry, and do not
remove too many at one time. As soon as the hatch is
over and the chicks dry the trays should be removed,
which will give the chicks more room and better air, and
then supply all the ventilation possible. If the regular
ventilation of the machine is not sufficient to keep the
chicks from panting, wedge the door open—but be gov-
erned in this by the instructions of the manufacturer.
Some machines are apt to be drafty with the door open.

Letting the Chicks Get Chilled in Moving Them

In removing chicks from the incubator, extreme pre-
cautions must be taken to prevent their getting chilled,
which may happen even in comparatively warm weather.
Directions for taking off the hatch are given in the pre-
ceding chapter and these instructions should be carefully
followed. In cold rooms, only a few should be taken out
at one time, not only for their own sake but for the pro-
tection of those left in the machine, as the temperature
will drop quickly when the door is open. If the brooder
1s not ready, or if it does not have a reliable regulator, it
will be better to leave the chicks in a basket or in day-
cld-chick boxes for a day or so. lf they are kept in a
warm place they will be comfortable and will get hard-
ened a little before they are transferred to the brooder.

Leaving the Machine Without Cleaning

Immediately after the hatch is taken off the machine
should be thoroughly cleaned, whether another hatch is
to be started at once or not. Never store a machine away
at the end of the season until it is cleaned and disinfected.
Empty the lamp bow], throw away the old wick and put
a new one in the burner, and if there are any parts on
top of the machine that are liable to be disturbed, such
as regulator arm, connecting rod, etc., these should be
removed and placed inside the machine. Then it will be
in condition to go over to the next season without suffer-
ing any injury, and be ready for use again on short notice.

The Biggest Mistake of All

Right here, after all serious mistakes of the incuba-
tion period have been successively avoided and a big
hatch of sturdy, vigorous chicks secured, the biggest
mistake of all often is made. This is the failure to pro-
vide suitable brooding facilities for the chicks. By “suit-
able” is meant-a brooder that is well made, that will sup-
ply enough heat to keep the chicks warm under any con-
dition that must be met, that can be regulated with a
good degree of accuracy, and that provides sufficient
capacity to brood the chicks without crowding. It is use-
less to hatch chicks at all unless they can be kept under
reasonably favorable ‘conditions afterwards. Poor brood-
ers, or not enough of them, cause the loss of enormous
numbers of chicks every season. Whatever other mis-
takes are made, at least let somebody else make this onc.

FIG. 86.—_EGGS OF NORMAL SIZE ARE BEST FOR HATCHING

Eges that are of good average size, weighing two ounces each or over, and of idea’ egg shape, will
hatch much better than eggs that are abnormal, either in size or shape.

CHAPTER VII

Day-Old Chicks and Custom Hatching

Origin and Development of This Unique Industry— Who Should Hatch Day-Old Chicks and Who Should Buy Thém

—Hatching With Lamp-Heated Incubators Profitable as Well as With Mammoth Machines—How to Build

/

Up a Profitable Business in Custom Hatching.

RODUCTION of day-old chicks has developed in-
to a great industry within a comparatively short
space of time, and countless “hatcheries” have been

w# ©6established in all parts of the country, ranging in
size from the modest and inexpensive home “plant” of a
few lamp-heated incubators in the house cellar, to cor-
porations operating batteries of huge mammoth incuba-
tors, each with a capacity of many thousands of eggs.

The following historical summary of the development
of this industry was prepared by Herbert H. Knapp,
president of the International Baby Chick Association.
Writing in 1918, he says:

“Tt has been just twenty-six years since Joseph D.
Wilson, of Stockton, N. J., sent 50 baby chicks from
Stockton to Chicago. After he was satisfied that chicks
could be sent successfully on long trips without being fed,
he undertook to advertise this fact and solicited business,
believing he had made a
great discovery, though his
hopes fell somewhat, when
he was visited by a post-
office inspector and accused
of using the mails for fradu-
lent purposes.

“Mr. Wilson, however,
continued his experiments
undaunted. He shipped to
nearby points, gradually
teaching out and extending
his business until no one
could accuse him of adver-
tising a fraud. His cus-
tomers were living witnesses
that the shipping of baby
chicks was a success. They |
bought from him season
after season. They didn’t
want to hatch their own
chicks. Wilson’s chicks grew
even better than the ones they hatched themselves. They
didn’t know why, but the fact remained. Now we know
that it was because they did not get that dose of wet
cornmeal the day they were hatched. While they were
absorbing the food nature had provided for the first two
or three days (the yolk of the egg) they could be car-
ried many miles from the place of birth. In truth, every
hour of the trip they were getting larger and stronger.

“While they were resting comfortably in a well-
ventilated box they could not be pampered and overfed
by an over-solicitious owner during those first two or
three important days of their lives. The hen that steals
her nest, hatches chicks and is not discovered for two or
three days invariably raises more and hardier chicks than
the one carefully attended and whose chicks are promptly
fed as soon as they hatch out.

“Mr. Wilson had the field to himself for practically
ten years. Then a few more took it up. Possibly Howard
Davis, also of New Jersey, was the second man to begin
shipping. Now New Jersey is one of the great centers

54

FIG. 87.—A SHIPMENT OF DAY-OLD CHICKS

of the industry with numerous plants ranging in capacity
from fifty to two hundred and fifty thousand eggs.

“The industry was started in Ohio by Michael Uhl,
of New Washington, 18 years ago. Michael was a young
man of about 25 years at that time who—it is said—re-
fused to become interested in his father’s farming opera-
tions. He would not do anything but ‘fuss with hens.’
His chief delight seemed to be setting the hens and see-
ing how many chickens he could raise on his father’s
supply of grain. This did not suit the elder Uhl, so he
set ‘young Mike’ off on a piece of land by himself, where
he could raise chickens to his heart’s content. He saw
the necessity of getting some revenue before the chicks
grew to marketable age and began to sell baby chicks to
his neighbors, sending them farther away each year, until
he ventured to: put them into wooden boxes and send
by express to neighboring towns, and thus the day-old
chick business in Ohio was
started.

“Both Mr. Wilson and Mr.
Uhl began with very crude.
hatching machines. Mr. Wil-
son used machines in which
the eggs were placed on
sawdust and heated with
pans overhead, filled twice
,daily with hot water. These
were followed by lamp ma-
chines until hundreds were
in use, and every lamp had
to be filled and trimmed
daily. Mr. Wilson at one
time had 135 Cyphers Model
incubators of 360-egg capac-
ity each. Later he began to
build ‘mammoth’ hot water
machines, using Candee coal
burning heaters, continuing
this style of machines to his
Present capacity of one hundred and twenty-five thou-
sand eggs.

“Mr. Uhl built small, lamp machines of 200-egg
capacity until he had 250 in one cellar. He saw the nec-
essity of larger units and about eleven years ago con-
structed his first mammoth machine. His entire plant
is now equipped with this type and has a capacity of
200,000 eggs. Lawrence and George Uhl, who are broth-
ers of Michael, also operate large hatching plants. The
Uhls were closely followed in Ohio by Dr. S. B. Smith,
who has invented several types of machines, his present
hatchery being a novel heated-room system having a
capacity of 665,000 eggs.

“The one feature that has been responsible more
than any other for the development of the day-old chick
industry is the recent great improvement in brooding
systems. The old type of mammoth hot water brooders
was expensive to install and lately has given way to the
coal and oil burning brooders—this style being more
efficient and requiring comparatively small space. Brood-

DAY-OLD CHICKS AND CUSTOM HATCHiNG GR)

ers with rated capacities of 300 to 1200 chicks are being
purchased very generally by farmers, who find it to their
advantage to be able to buy a sufficient number of chicks
to arrive in one shipment to run the brooder at full
capacity.

“We hereby warn amateurs not to place too many
chicks under one hover. Five hundred should be the
limit for the best success. A thousand or more chicks
might get along very nicely for a few days in open
weather, but remember that the chicks should grow, and
they need plenty of room in which to thrive. If you wish
to start a thousand chicks you would better buy two or
three colony brooders. Those who wish to purchase only
twenty-five to one hundred chicks may purchase small
lamp-heated brooders that are easy to operate, thus mak-
ing it practical for all classes of poultrymen to buy their
chicks already hatched—doing away with the bother and
inconvenience of incubating by hens.”

Both Lamp-Heated and Mammoth Incubators Used

This branch of the poultry industry is especially at-
tractive to persons with
limited capital, since it
can be started profit-
ably even on an ex-
tremely small scale.
The large operators
with their huge mam-
moth machines have
important advantages
over the small pro-
ducer with his few
lamp-heated incubators,
but the latter also has
some advantages over
the former and need
have no fear that he is
going to be crowded
out of the business.
The person who hatch-
es chicks by the hun-
dred only can sell his

nomically as “baby” mammoths, changing over to a large
mammoth after sales have reached the point where it is
desirable to do this. It may be necessary to take some
loss in making this change but there is always a demand
for second-hand machines in good condition, so that the
loss is not great, and a good portion of it should fairly
be charged off as rental. In starting with lamp-heated
machines however, it is important to get standard makes.
These are easier operated and require much less atten-
tion than second-class machines and will soon repay their
extra cost in the economy in labor which they will ef-
fect. Moreover, high-grade incubators have a definite re-
placement value or can readily be sold as “used machines,”
while inferior makes are practically worthless after a
few years’ use.

Who Should Buy Day-Old Chicks

Day-old chicks can be secured in almost any desired
grade or quality, with respect to breeding, and nearly
every one engaged in poultry production, from the back-
yard grower to the larger breeder and the commercial

total production local- FIG. 88—TYPE OF MAMMOTH INCUBATOR EXTENSIVELY USED IN DAY-OLD CHICK

ly at good prices and
with little expense for
advertising and
ping. And he has the

satisfaction of knowing that as his reputation grows (and
the man who can uniformily supply first-class, livable
chicks to his customers does not have to wait long for a
“reputation”) he can rapidly build up his plant until he
too may be turning chicks out by the tens of thousands.

It is not necessary, therefore, to have a mammoth
incubator to engage successfully in the production of day-
old chicks. Many persons, both men and women, have
found that with a few lamp-heated machines in the house
cellar they could turn out large numbers of chicks in a
season, in this manner marketing at good prices the eggs
produced by their flocks, and laying the foundation for
increasing trade in following years. Where the hatching
is on a large scale, mammoth incubators are conceded to
be a necessity, as they are more economical in operation
and require much less time in attendance. Each operator
must determine for himself which type he needs.

Mammoth incubators now are made in comparatively
small sizes though, for the average operator, there is lit-
tle advantage in buying these. In starting on a small
scale it usually will be better to buy lamp-heated ma-
chines which can be operated fully as efficiently and eco-

HATCHERIES

While great numbers of chicks are hatched in lamp-heated incubators, mammoths are al-
most invariably installed when large hatching capacity is desired. Their use results in great-
ship- ly decreased labor, and fuel cost is lower. Courtesy of Candee Incubator Company.

egg producer who count their fowls by the thousands,
finds it desirable from time to time to purchase chicks.
The person who wishes to start in poultry keeping in the
spring, doing so on a small scale and at little expense for
equipment, usually finds day-old chicks the cheapest and
most convenient way of securing his stock. Those who
require great numbers of chicks either for starting large
plants or in order to replace their old flocks, find that
by ordering baby chicks from some large hatchery they,
are able to get all they need, of the desired grade and
at just the date when they want them, without providing’
expensive incubating equipment, and without any trouble
or uncertainty about hatching.

The purchase of chicks would seem to offer special
advantages to beginners, or persons who wish to try
things out before investing extensively in any sort of
equipment, also those who are only taking up poultry
keeping in a small way. Speaking generally, the poultry
keeper who is trying to breed up his flock, to improve
the laying qualities of his fowls or their standard value
must, it would -seem, do his own hatching, using eggs
from his own fowls. Even the commercial poultry keeper

50 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

usually will find that he will have better stock-and will
secure it at less expense if he utilizes the pick of his
flock in the production of eggs for hatching.

However, there are numerous exceptions to this gen-
eral rule. Some who would naturally be expected to do
their own hatching may not have sufficient help to operate
a good-sized poultry plant and look after the added work
involved in the production of good hatching eggs and
their incubation. Others on account of limited funds
may find it necessary to purchase chicks instead of pro-
viding their own hatching facilities. The commercial egg
farmer who wishes to raise each year a certain number
of pullets to keep up his flock can place his order with
a responsible hatchery with the certainty that the entire
number of chicks needed will be delivered to him on
the date which will insure the pullets coming into laying
at the right time in the fall. This also greatly simplifies
the work of caring for the chicks since they can be
brooded in large flocks with colony hovers—the saving in
brooding cost possibly covering the extra expense of buy-
ing the chicks instead of hatching them in numerous
small broods at home.

“FIG. §89—CHICK BOXES WiTH WOODEN STRIPS TO
INSURE VENTILATION

Shipping boxes provided with narrow wooden strips
on top and sides cannot be piled together closely enough
to interfere with the air supply of chicks in inside boxes.

Who Should Produce Day-Old Chicks

Almost any person who has a moderate-sized breed-
ing flock and a suitable place for a few incubators, can
embark in this branch of the industry with excellent
prospects of success, almost regardless of location. There
is no fixed limit in equipment required for profitable
operation, or in size of breeding flocks. The thing to
do is to start with whatever good-quality stock is on
hand or may readily be obtained, providing as many
lamp-heated machines as are needed to take care of the
eggs produced, doing this with the assurance that any
yolume of production, no matter how small, may readily
be disposed of at a profit.

While the advantages possessed by large operators
are important, there are distinct limits as to distance or
time required for delivery which make it impossible for
the large concerns to reach out for trade beyond a certain
radius, no matter how low they may make the price with-
jn their natural territory. Moreover, there will always
be many who will prefer to buy near home; who will
want to buy from breeders whom they know and trust;
who will want the better stock that it is reasonable to
expect from the small operators who hatch only the eggs
produced by their own carefully mated breeding pens;
and there is not the slightest doubt that, other things

being equal, the shorter the distance the chicks have te
travel the greater the certainty that they will arrive at
their destination in prime condition. For these and other
equally good reasons there is scarcely a locality in this
country where it is not practicable for a competent
breeder or incubator operator to develop a profitable
trade in baby chicks.

In many instances hatcheries are operated by per-
sons who have little ar no breeding stock, but who de-
pend upon getting their hatching eggs from other breed-
ers or from farmers who have flocks of standard fowls
from which they are willing to sell hatching eggs at only
a slight advance over the market price. This practice is
especially common where large numbers of eggs are re-
quired and where the operation of the hatchery alone de-
mands all the owner’s time and attention. It has proved
entirely practicable to maintain hatcheries in this way,
and the farmers in the surrounding territory, with a lit-
tle encouragement and expert advice, develop well-bred
flocks and come to take a good deal of pride in them. It
is generally conceded that there is no better source of
hatching eggs than a flock of fowls having the range of
a farm, where their health and vigor can be maintained
at a high level by free range and the generally favorable
conditions under which they are kept. Sometimes the
hatchery operator reserves the right to provide the males
for these farm flocks, selling them to the owner usually
at only nominal prices. He can well afford to do this in
view of the improvement in the quality of the chicks that
may thus be secured, and the consequently better prices
that may be realized for them.

Keeping faith with the customer is important in the
day-old chick industry at all times and under all condi-
tions, but it is‘:imperative in the case of the small pro-
ducer with a local market. The opportunity of dealing
more or less personally with customers, of establishing a
positive reputation for competency as a breeder and for
fair dealing, is the small producer’s greatest asset, and
one that the distant, impersonal large concern cannot
take from him. This reputation ought.to cover the breed-
ing of the chicks, their strength and vigor as determined
both by the character of the breeding stock and the skill-
ful management of the incubator, also the delivery of
chicks exactly when promised, and in prime condition.
The wise operator will lose no opportunity to win and
keep a reputation for doing all this. It is betraying no
secret to say that not every one who attempts to fur-
nish day-old chicks is successful in producing strong, vig-
crous stock; and a sickly lot cf chicks is the poorest ad-
vertisement that the seller can have. On the other hand
the person who supplies strong, lively chicks that thrive
and grow, and show that they are of good breeding as
they develop, need Lave no fear of not being able to sell
all that he can produce, and at profitable prices.

What Breeds to Keep

With a comparatively smail plant, chicks of any of
the popular breeds and varieties will find ready sale. lf
larger numbers are to be produced it is wise to consider
the local demand thoroughly before determining what
kind of fowls to keep. It is better to sell people what
they want than to try to influence their choice. By all
means avoid comparatively unknown breeds or varieties.
No matter how desirable a particular breed may appear
to the producer, it is not his. preference but the cus-
tomer’s that is going to determine sales, and the day-
old chick business is largely limited to a few popular
breeds such as White Leghorns, Plymouth Rocks, Wyan-
dottes, R. I. Reds, Orpingtons, etc.

DAY-OLD CHICKS AND CUSTOM HATCHING 57

Leghorn chicks generally are produced more cheaply
than others, owing to the fact that the average operator
is able to get better hatches and better chicks from Leg-
horn eggs than from eggs of the larger breeds. If sales
are to be made mainly to farmers, it usually is necessary
to supply chicks of the general-purpose breeds mentioned
in the preceding paragraph, as there are many agricul-
tural communities where Leghorns are not considered
desirable. The latter, however, usually are demanded by
commercial egg producers. Much that is said in regard
to choice of breeds in Chapter I applies with full force
to selection for the day-old chick trade.

Prices That May Be Realized

It is an unfortunate fact that the day-old chick busi-
ness was started on a scale of too low prices, and the ef-
fect of this is still felt, though much has been done lately
to raise the general average of the chicks sold, and to
educate the public to pay the better prices which must be
realized if well-bred stock is to be furnished. It is.safe
to assume that hatcheries that sell chicks at a price low
enough to enable the 5 and 10 cent stores to retail them
at ten cents apiece, are not losing money, but the buyer
who expects to get anything but “just chickens” at that
price is about certain to be disappointed. The average
hatchery, especially when operating on a large scale, at
minimum cost for both fuel and labor, can make out very
well if it can sell chicks at an advance of $4.00 per hun-
dred over the cost of the eggs. This means that with
chicks selling at 10 cents from the incubator, the eggs
must be bought at around 4 cents apiece, assuming that
the two-thirds of all eggs set will hatch saleable chicks.

This illustration is given for the double purpose of
showing the buyer how unexacting he must be regard-
ing the quality of chicks purchased so cheaply that they
necessarily are hatched from eggs but one degree moved
from ordinary market eggs; also of showing the small
operator that he cannot afford to cater to this low-priced
trade. This is true not only because he is bound to
suffer disproportionately in reputation from the sale of
inferior stock, but because he must, with his small hatch-
ing capacity and correspondingly increased cost of pro-
duction, get a greater margin of profit than would sat-
isfy the large-scale operators—either this, or he must
place a valuation on his own time too low to make the
business really attractive. It is true that educating the
public to pay higher prices is a task that calls for a good
degree of salesmanship. The individual operator must
decide for himself just how far he can afford to go in
meeting the demand for cheap chicks, and how strong a
stand he wishes to take_in holding prices at a point that
_will make it possible to hatch eggs produced by genuinely
good breeding fowls. But there should be an especial ef-
fort to have a clear understanding regarding the stock
that is supplied at the price, whatever that may be.

In making prices on stock of better quality the opera-
tor must learn to figure for himself, but he should learn
to figure accurately. If the eggs are produced by fairly
good breeding stock and are valued as low as $10.00 per
hundred, then in hatching operations that should be con-
sidered the cost price, and the operator cannot afford to
sell chicks from such eggs unless he gets this “cost price,”
plus an additional sum that will cover labor, interest on
the investment, overhead charges, and a reasonable profit.
A price for chicks that does not provide such a margin
simply means that the operator is underselling himself.
And absurd as it may seem, there is reason to believe
that a good many are doing just that thing. In a gen-
eral way most operators charge about double as much

for chicks as they would be willing to accept for the
eggs, though where fertility runs high this margin can be
reduced somewhat, if it is found desirable to do so.

How Day-Old Chicks Are Handled

Owing to the peculiar provision of nature by which
the newly hatched chicks are supplied with a store of food
in the form of unabsorbed yolk which enables them to go
for several days, if necessary, without drawing on any
other source of supply, it is practicable to ship them over
considerable distances. The U. S. Post Office Depart-
ment will accept parcel post shipments of chicks that can
be delivered within 72 hours after they are received at the
postoffice. A great many instances are on record where
chicks have been on the way for a longer time than this,
without suffering any apparent injury.

Chicks generally are shipped as soon as possible after
they are dry, and in order to avoid delay, every detail
of their shipment is attended to in advance of their hatch-
ing. The shipping boxes, which are bought flat or knock-
down, are set up, labels pasted on, and the bottom of the
box covered with suitable litter. The shipping tags also
are made out and the number for each order is marked
on the tags, so that when the chicks are ready to be

FIG. 90—PASTEBOARD CHICK BOXES

Packed in these substantial but light-weight
boxes, chicks may be shipped by express or parcel
post and will travel comfortably and arrive in prac-
tically as good condition as if hatched right at home.

taken from the incubator, there will be no necessity for
referring to the original order, or the correspondence.
The chicks are simply removed from the machine, counted
into boxes, the tops tied on with stout cord or sealed
with a strip of gummed paper, and they are ready for
the express or mail train.

Shipments usually are made in corrugated pasteboard
boxes, which are quite light in weight, and their construc-
tion affords fair insulation so that the chicks’ bodily
warmth keeps them comfortable under all ordinary con-
ditions, and they suffer no ill effects whatever from two
or three days’ confinement if adequate ventilation is pro-
vided. This is done by cutting or punching holes in the
top and sides of the box, the number and location being
left to the judgment of the shipper, who is guided in these
Tespects by his knowledge of the conditions under which
the chicks are to travel, the weather, etc. Shipments in
cold weather, or over routes which involve long, cold
waits at junction points, should have less ventilation than»
those made in warm weather or where they are to go
through without delay and will be kept in heated cars
or offices most of the time.

After careful deliveration the International Baby
Chick Association, in 1918, decided upon a standard style
and sizes for boxes to be used in the shipment of chicks,

’ which boxes are illustrated in Figs. 89 and 90. These

58

boxes are of double-faced, waterproof corrugated board,
and the sizes are as follows:

100 chick box, 22x18 in. x 5% in. deep—4 compartments
50 chick box, 18x11 in. x 5% in. deep—2 compartments
25 chick box, 9x11 in. x 5% in. deep—1 compartment

12schick, bosse 63S. in. exo in. deep—l1 compartment

Extreme delays due to neglect, freight congestion, or
bad connections, and chilling through excess ventilation
cr exposure to severe cold, are the most serious dangers
that have to be considered in day-old chick shipments,
and it is unavoidable that there should be some disappoint-
ments and somc injured, weakened chicks. Every possi-
ble precaution should be taken to prevent these misfor-
tunes or to minimize their effects. There should be the
clearest possible understanding between shipper and pur-
chaser as to when the chicks are to be shipped and how,
so that the latter can be on hand to receive them as soon
as they arrive. The seiler must give safe delivery his

careful attention, as a single lot of dead or weakly chicks
may mark the end of his business relations with the cus-

FIG. 91—A FINE LOT OF SIX-WEEK-OLD CHICKS

The trade in partially grown chicks is increasing rapidly and
At this size, sex can be
determined with a good degree of accuracy. The demand, of course,
is chiefly for pullets, and good prices are paid for them at this age,

seems to be capable of indefinite extension.
when they no longer require brooding.

tomer or the entire community. He can afford to do
everything in reason and a few things out of reason to
insure complete satisfaction.

Whether he should guarantee safe arrival and re-
place damaged shipments free or at a reduced price, must
be determined individually; practice varies in this re-
spect. Guaranteed shipments undoubtedly contributed to
the purchaser’s satisfaction, but complaints are always
much more frequent under guarantees than where chicks
are shipped at customer’s risk. Whatever plan is adopted
in this respect there should be a clear understanding in
regard to it, and both seller and buyer must fairly meet
the terms of the agreement, the obligations of which rest
with equal weight on each. One thing that the buyer
can and should do is to place his order with the nearest
hatchery that can fill it acceptably. The shorter the dis-
tance the chicks have to be transported and the fewer
changes they must make en route, the better chance they
will have to come through in first-class condition.

The provision that the customer makes for the re-
ception and care of the chicks may be no direct concern
of the seller, but it is common knowledge that great
numbers of chicks are lost each year through improper
brooding, and this always reacts more or less seriously
upon the person who supplied them. The average inex-
perienced buyer of chicks often fails at this point, either
through not providing adequate brooding facilities, re-
sulting in overcrowding, or through employing cheap, un-
reliable brooders, particularly the “fireless” kind, the use
of which in cold weather, by persons inexperienced in the
handling of chicks, is almost certain to result in heavy
losses amd epidemics of so-called “white diarrhea.”

The bnyer of day-old chicks must keep in mind that

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

this industry is conducted mainly on the basis of advance
orders, and if he sends in his orders, especially during
the busy season, expecting immediate delivery, he is apt
to be disappointed. The only way to insure delivery of
chicks at a certain time is by getting the order in early
enough to insure one’s “turn” coming on that date. Most
operators will file orders and hold them for delivery on a
specified date if a reasonable deposit is made, the balance
of the purchase price to be forwarded about the time the
chicks are to be shipped. To insure delivery exactly when
wanted however, it usually is necessary to file orders
weeks or even months in advance.

What to Do With Surplus Chicks

After chicks have reached the age where feeding and
watering must begin (2 to 3 days), they cannot then be
safely shipped, but must be held until they no longer re-
quire artificial heat and can be handled in the same man-
ner as adult fowls. Since there often are hatches or
parts of hatches for which there are no advance orders,
every hatchery must be equipped to brood chicks
so that any surplus may be properly cared for
and the chicks raised to a saleable age. Do not
attempt to do this by the use of lampless brood-
ers. It can be done, but the labor cost will be
out of all proportion to the value of the chicks.
For large numbers there is nothing better than
coal, oil or gasoline-heated colony hovers (see
Chapter IX). For small lots the average operator
will find good lamp-heated hovers more satis-
factory, hence brooders of both types should be
provided and held in reserve for emergencies.
The exclusive use of colony hovers is apt to
lead to putting chicks of different ages into the
same flock, which is not practical and will re-
sult in heavy losses.

One feature of the chick business that is de-
veloping rapidly is the sale of ‘six-weeks-old”
chicks, meaning chicks that have been raised to
the point where they no longer need artificial
heat or brooding and where the sex may be de-
termined, the demand of course being almost ex-
clusively for pullets. Just as there are many
persons who do not want to do any hatching,
so there are many others who wish to be spared
the further expense of providing brooding facili-
ties for raising young chicks, or the trouble of
caring for them. They prefer to secure their
stock after all the difficult work has been done,
when few further losses are to be expected, and
when only the slightest skill and experience are
sufficient to insure raising the chicks to adult
size. The day-old chick producer is in position to meet
this demand to good advantage, using all chicks for which
there may not happen to be a market at the time they
come from the machine, and raising them to this age at
comparatively little cost.

Custom Hatching

Custom hatching, by which is meant operating incu-
bators on a rental basis, or hiring space in machines to
persons who furnish the eggs to be incubated, is becom-
ing increasingly popular, especially among those who keep
fowls and who wish to have chicks hatched from their
own stock but do not want to go to the expense or trou-
ble of providing their own hatching facilities. Where
this is done the charge is based either on chicks hatched,
or on a 100-egg rate. :

The satisfaction realized in this branch of the indus-
try depends upon the fertility of the eggs and the skill
of the operator, both of which should be good if com-
plaints are to be avoided. Persons who furnish eggs for
this purpose often have extreme notions as to the num-
ber of chicks that should be delivered to them, and poor
hatches are a source of great dissatisfaction and may
cause much more trouble than the business is worth.
Experienced operators who are uniformily successful in
the work, however, find it quite profitable.

The usual charge made where large hatching capacity
is available, is about 4 cents per chick or $3.00 per hun-
dred eggs. There would appear to be especially good op-
portunities for the development of a profitable business
in custom hatching in agricultural communities where
there are large numbers of good-sized flocks of fowls,
and where the home use of incubators is limited.

CHA Pine Kh Vad

Practical Incubator Houses

Convenience and Economy of Having a Practical, Well-Planned House for Incubators—Building to Save Time and
Labor—Best Location and How to Build—How to Insure Thorough Ventilation—Plans
for Houses Underground and Aboveground. 5

HE poultry keeper who has a good-sized house
cellar in which suitable conditions can be main-
tained, and who does not expect to operate more
than a few machines, may not find it necessary

to provide special quarters for them. There are a num-

ber of practical advantages in having a separate, special-
ly designed house for incubator use, however, and in the
long run it usually pays to provide such where many
chicks are to be hatched. Some insurance companies re-
fuse to permit the operation of incubators in houses in-
sured by them, and this may have a bearing on the deci-
sion regarding special quarters. However, as there are

a number of companies that make no objection to the use

of the better grades of incubators, which are practically

fireproof, there usually is no difficulty about arranging

for the transfer of the insurance to a-company with a

more liberal policy, if that is the only serious obstacle to

be considered.

The usual practical difficulty met in utilizing the
house cellar is that ventilation is nearly always inade-
quate, and special provision must be made for this.
Neither is it desirable to operate incubators in cellars
that smell musty, or that are used for the storage of
vegetables or fruit, either fresh or canned, as a suitable
temperature for the incubator makes the cellar too warm
for such purposes. Extremely cold cellars are not desir-
able and if heated by the house furnace, some means will
have to be provided for overcoming the dryness of the
air which is a regular accompaniment of artificially heated
tooms, either below or aboveground.

Where a number of incubators are operated in a
cellar of ordinary construction, ventilation may be se-
cured by installing flues of the type illustrated in Fig.
95. These, in connection with such windows as usually
are provided should supply ample ventilation. If the ex-
pense of installing flues is considered out of the ques-
tion it may be possible to pipe the fumes directly out of
the room. Some machines are especially constructed to
meet this requirement.

Incubators are used in various aboveground build-
ings and rooms and often with a good degree of success,
though the difficulties in the way of securing satisfac-
tory hatches under such conditions unquestionably are

Louvered ne as
Ventilation /8 x24

FIG. 92—END ELEVATION OF INCUBATOR HOUSE

greater than in houses especially planned for the purpose.
Incubators are capable of remarkably exact regulation
within reasonable limits, but a room in which the tem-
perature fluctuates 20 degrees or more from day to day
adds greatly to the difficulty of operation. To be re-
lieved of the necessity for watching the incubator closely,
it is necessary to have the machines in a room where the
temperature does not vary greatly, a condition which it
is practically impossible to secure in a house or room of
ordinary construction. Where such rooms must be used,
much can be done to reduce temperature variations by
closing with wood-
en shutters all win-
dows facing the
south, and shading
any through which
the sun can shine
directly, also by
looking carefully
after the ventilation.

In severely cold Ke LSE a

Oe Se en es et eS

weather the room
should be heated to
50 to 60 degrees,
the most desirable
temperature in
which to operate in-
cubators. The moist-
ure problem gener-
ally is much more troublesome in such rooms than in
cellars.

FIG. 93—INCUBATOR HOUSE ON
SLOPING GROUND

This probably is the most de-
sirable location for the incubator
house, where the slope of the
ground makes it possible to build
in this way. Reproduced from
Reading Course Bul. No. 80, Cor-
nell University.

Location for Incubator House

With an incubator house properly designed and con-
structed, and with the conveniences and labor-saving
facilities that can there be provided and which it seldom
is practical to supply in other locations, the work of car-
ing for the machines may be greatly reduced and most
desirable conditions as to temperature, moisture, and ven-
tilation can constantly and uniformily be maintained.

The best location for the permanent incubator house
in most sections is partially underground in order to
secure uniformity of temperature, but not so much be-
low the ground level as to interfere with ventilation.
Other reasons for placing incubator houses partially un-
derground are that they usually are more economical to
build than aboveground houses affording similarly favor-
able conditions; they are warmer in winter and cooler in
summer; a more uniform degree of humidity can be
maintained the season through. The house may be built
entirely aboveground where it is necessary to do so, but
such construction usually is more expensive if the build-
ing is planned so as to secure reasonable uniformity in
temperature. :

To meet average requirements the building should
be four or five feet underground, and the rest above,
though something depends upon the slope of the land
where the house is to be located. With sufficient slope
an ideal arrangement is to have all the back part of the
house underground up to the eaves, and the side with the

59

60 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

entrance at or near the ground level, as in Fig. 93. On
level ground the general outlines of the house shown in
Figs. 92, 94, 95, and 96, will be found most desirable. The
length and width should be proportioned to the size of
the incubators to be used, always allowing for a passage-
way of ample width between the machines—seldom less
than four feet. A narrower passage can be used if test-
ing and most other work is to be done in a separate
workroom, but the convenience of the wider passage will
amply repay the slight additional cost. Making the ceil-
ing of the incubator room so low that only comfortable
headroom is afforded is a grave mistake. To secure
proper ventilation it should be fully 8 feet high, and it
will be better still if higher.

The incubator house should have a gable roof with
plenty of space between the ceiling and rafters. The roof
is the point which, after the windows, is apt to cause
most variation in room temperature, and if this is entire-
ly cut off by a tight ceiling and the gable ventilated by
large openings that permit free passage of air, heat from
the roof will make little trouble. Gable ventilation should
be adjustable, or the openings should be more or less
tightly closed in cold weather by covering with muslin
or burlap to conserve heat.

The floor and the underground walls should always
be of concrete. This not only gives greater permanence,
but wood used underground is apt to be quickly covered
with mold on exposed surfaces, which may prove a source
of trouble. If possible, the floor should have a drain so
that the room can be conveniently flushed and scrubbed.
Do not neglect providing a trap in the drain even though
the latter may have an open outlet.

All walls that are above the ground level should be
doubled, with dead air spaces or packed with insulating
material. Ordinarily the walls above ground level should
be boarded on the outside with matched siding, using
ceiling boards or a heavy coat of wall plaster on the
inside walls and ceiling. The best grades of waterproof
plasterboard would seem to be well adapted to this use,
as they afford little chance for the accumulation of dust,
and can be washed down when necessary. Good wooden
shingles make the best roofing, as these do not absorb
heat like ordinary prepared roofing. The latter, how-
ever, is cheaper and for that reason is most generally used.

Every incubator cellar of whatever size should have
a separate vestibule and workroom where the trays are
filled, the eggs tested and weighed, the lamps filled, and
where all desirable conveniences for doing the work can
be provided. A good workbench should be installed at
a convenient height. The oil supply should be kept in
a tank or barrel on the outside of the building and piped
into the workroom. A cupboard or shelves should be
provided for the storage of burners, thermometers and all
extra parts and accessories. If large numbers of lamps
are to be filled it may be well to have a sink under the
oil faucet, to carry off any oil that may be spilled, and

Shingles 0)- Prepared
Blof ng

Burlap Frame

tilator' Pine 3

Foundation

oe
2a,

Enlarged Decail—Door Ventilator Slide Partly Oper.
FIG. 95—CROSS SECTION OF INCUBATOR HOUSE

with a water tap for flushing if possible. For the small
cellar, a more practical plan is to have a box or tray of
suitable size to be kept under the drip and partially filled
with shavings or other absorbent material which can be
emptied from‘ time to time, thus preventing the floor from
becoming saturated with oil. These oil-soaked shavings
make excellent kindling for fires.

If available, running water should be piped into the
workroom. If this cannot be done there should be a
water tank with a faucet, or at least a good-sized bucket,
so that there will always be a supply of water on hand
for various uses. A convenient place for washing hands
is desirable. In one end of the workroom provision may
be made for storing eggs while awaiting their turn in
the incubators.

If the eggs are to be tested in daylight the work-
room should be provided with shutters or tight curtains
so that it can be made dark for the purpose. It often is
possible to arrange for one or two holes in one of the
window shutters or curtains so that the eggs can be
tested by direct sunlight. It is desirable to have electric
light in the workroom if possible; if not, a permanent
light of some other kind should be installed, if only to
discourage the tendency to keep the incubator lamps
burning while they are being filled, which is more or
less dangerous, and fills the room with smoke.

Incubator House for Lamp-Heated Incubators

The house illustrated in Figs. 92, 94, 95 and 96, wiil
accommodate eight good-sized machines, and can readily
be changed to meet larger or smaller requirements, sim-
ply increasing or reducing the length. There seldom is
any necessity for changing the width. The outside dimen-
sions. of the house are 13 feet, 4 inches, by 26 feet, 2
inches, or 12 by 25 feet, inside measurements. The ceil-
ing is 9 feet, 4 inches high.

This house has a 5-foot concrete
wall, extending 3 feet below ground
‘level and windows in the framed wall
as indicated. With these windows so
located and protected by outside
burlap screens, also by wide eaves,
they will admit little direct sunlight,
and all incubators will be equaily well

” SConcreve Steps located as to ventilation, provided
“Ground Live J proper attention is given to the ad-
ah justment of windows, those on the

pewa ne ee een e -- - - eee eee ade ts. side from which the wind comes al-

FIG. 94—SIDE ELEVATION OF INCUBATOR HOUSE

ways being closed, or practically so,

;

—_—-— =”

PRACTICAL INCUBATOR HOUSES

61

Note that burlap frames are to be
provided outside of all windows,

screening the windows from the sun

and preventing direct air currents
when the windows are open. In warm
weather or when the wind is not
blowing, the burlap screens may be
opened outward admitting more air,
but still screening the windows from
direct sunlight which, if unobstruct-
ed, is liable to raise the room tem-
perature several degrees in a short
time, and interfere with the regula-
tion of the machines. A shingle roof

a I 9

is recommended for this building as

uv 26 2s

FIG. 96—FLOOR PLAN OF INCUBATOR HOUSE

except in warm weather. If the house is built with the
door facing in the direction from which severe storms
are to be expected, it will be necessary to protect the
steps with a vestibule, hood, or sloping doors.

As will be seen in Fig. 95, this house is to be pro-
vided with ventilating flues. These may be made of
galvanized iron as indicated in the plan, or heavy sewer
pipe may be used. Many prefer to build the flue into
the concrete wall, which in most cases is the better and
cheaper way. These flues are to be 8 inches in diameter
or must provide an equivalent amount of flue space if
made in some other shape. There should be one flue
for every 100 square feet of floor space and in connec
tion with the windows in the upper part of the wall these
will supply adequate ventilation for the room under
practically any condition. A damper or check must al-
ways be provided so that the air circulation will be un-
der control.

If this system of ventilation is not installed it will
be necessary to provide some means for piping the lamp
fumes out of the room, though it is difficult to do this
with most machines. The circulation of air in such pipes
is a somewhat uncertain factor in windy weather when
back drafts often are set up which return the fumes to
the room unless the outlet pipe is connected with
a flue in which forced air circulation is main-
tained by heat. In general, it is much better and
simpler to provide for the removal of the lamp
fumes and the renewal of the air in the room by
the use of correctly designed ventilation.

In building this house remember that the
forms for a five-foot concrete wall require heavy
bracing. Whatever the thickness of the wall, it
is desirable to have the bottom extended for
footing, as shown in Fig. 95. If soft spots are
found in the ground at this depth, which is not
probable, the excavation at these points must
be carried down to solid ground to prevent crack-
ing and settling of the walls. The side walls at
the steps may be four to six inches thick, and
the steps should be solid.

The frame of this house is to be of 2x6-inch
timbers, with the sills anchored to the founda-
tion wall. The walls above the ground are to be
double-boarded ‘with heavy sheathing paper
nailed to each side of the studs and the boards
laid over this. The ceiling of the room should
also have an insulating covering of sheathing
paper tacked to the lower face of the joists be-
fore the boards are nailed on.

shingles give a more even tempera-
ture than prepared roofing. Both
gables should have louvered ventila-
tors, as shown.

BILL OF MATERIAL FOR INCUBATOR HOUSE

— a

Size Length No. of
Use Inches Feet Pieces Remarks

Sills) siden cas FF 4, 2x6 14 4
Sills, end ...... 2x6 14 2
Plates, side 2x6 14 4
Plates, end . 2x6 14 2
Studs, front & back 2x6 10 7 T pice cuts 2
Studs, ends)... 4s) 2x6 8 12 Cut to fit
Rafters ........ 2x6 10 28

Rots ee peeees Sead oe rare eee 1x6 10 13
Partition studs . 2x4 10 6
Ridge pole .......... eels 14 2
Roof boards .. see, t>‘eal(t) 500 ft. board measure
T&Gysidingy en %x6 325 ft. board measure
Ceiling, partition,

shelves, etc. -......... x4 1000 ft. board measure
Frame for doors

and windows ......... Bx 100 lin ft. Surfaced 4 sides

fi Seaceseaseccheaee aes o7 70 Jin ft. Surfaced 4 sides
Trim lumber .. Ri 150 lin ft. Surfaced 4 sides
Barge boards 100

5M. shingles.

2 doors, 2 feet, 10 inches x 6 feet, 6 inches.

6 sash, 6-light 12x12-inch glass.

6 metal sash adjusters.

36 sq. ft. burlap. 2

bolts %x12-inch with 2-inch washers.

1 pr. 5-inch butt hinges.

12 pr. 2-inch butt hinges for windows and screens.

1 metal ventilator slide 5 inches x 2 feet 3 inches.

1 door lock.

4 8-inch ventilator flues with dampers, cords and pulieys.
Nails, tacks and paint.

MATERIAL FOR FOUNDATION AND FLOOR

70 bags of Portland cement; 162 cu. ft. of sand; 325 cu.
ft. of crushed stone or gravel.

ric) ae *

lin ft. Surfaced 4 sides

fp)

FIG. 97—FLOOR PLAN OF ABOVEGROUND INCUBATOR HOUSE

The principal feature to be secured in an aboveground house
is insulation, to avoid irregular room temperatures.
this is provided by means of a double wall with 2-foot passage-
way between outer and inner walls.
4, Western Washington Experiment Station,

Note how
Reproduced from Bulletin

62 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

FIG.

A Small Incubator House

Where there are practical objections to building the
incubator house partially underground as suggested in
the preceding plan, it may be built entirely aboveground
and, if properly designed, will give excellent service. Such
a house has been built at the Western Washington Ex-
periment Station and has been in successful use there for
several years. It is illustrated in Fig. 97. This house
can be built at comparatively slight cost where cheap
lumber is available, and is large enough to meet the re-
quirements of farmers and small producers generally. It
can be located wherever convenient and requires no ex-
cavation whatever. The following description is con-
densed from Bul. No. 4 of the West. Washington Station:

“The house is 16 feet wide, 20 feet long, and 9 feet
to the eaves, finished with No. 1 rustic, with a one-third
slope, and has a shingled roof. The door is in the north
end. There are two windows in each side. The south
end of the building is built solid, with the exception of
the small ventilator in the end near the peak, as seen in
the north end above the door and just below the peak.
The house was painted red and trimmed in white, giving
it a neat appearance. To construct an incubator house
like the one illustrated above, the following bill of lum-
ber is required:

“The main and outer portion of the
building requires:
3 pieces 4x4-in., 20 ft. long, for sills.
2 pieces 2x4-in., 20 ft. long, plates.
11 pieces 2x4-in., 16 feet long, floor
joists. 4
30 pieces 2x4-in., 9 ft. long, studding.
11 pieces 2x4-in., 16 feet long, ceil-
ing joists.
22 pieces 2x4-in., 12 ft. long, rafters.
750 board feet of matched siding. —
600 board feet of 1x6-inch sheathing
(also used for corner boards and
other finish lumber).
4M cedar shingles.
320 board feet of matched flooring.
320 board feet of matched ceiling.
1 door 2 ft. 8 in. x 6 ft. 8 in.
4 window sash 12x16-in., 4-light.

To construct the inner hatching room
provide:
22 pieces 2x8-in., 9 ft. long.

1200 board feet of matched ceiling.

1 door 2 ft. 8 in. x 6 ft. 8 in.

“The building is constructed on the
ground with a wooden floor and
stands on cedar blocks resting on flat
rocks projecting above the surface of

the ground. The three pieces, 4 inch fanies,

98—A SUCCESSFUL ABOVEGROUND INCUBATOR HOUSE
Photo from Oregon State Agricultural College.

_ Brick houses are desirable, but rather expensive.
lating flues running above the roof, and chimney for stove in the workroom.
It would _be improved by addition of louvered ventilators in front and reai
Is in use at Pennsylvania Experiment Station.

x 4 inch x 20 feet, provided in the
bill of materials, are used as sills,
one on either side and one in the
middle. Eleven pieces, 2 inch x 4inch
x 16 feet, are nailed on their edges
two feet apart to the sills and cov-
ered with I inch x 6 inch tongue-
and-groove flooring. For studding
for the outer walls use 2 inch x 4
inch x 9 feet, set two feet apart, cen-
ter to center. For plates use 2 inch
x 4 inch x 20 feet. For ceiling joist,
use eleven pieces 2 inch x 4 inch x 16
feet, and for rafters 22 pieces 2 inch
x 4 inch x 12 feet. Ceil with 1 inch
x 4 inch tongue-and-groove ceiling.
Enclose the building with 1 inch x
10 inch shiplap. Cover the rafters
with 1 inch x 6 inch sheathing laid
and nailed two inches apart, and shin-
gle. Put in on either side two 3 ft.
x 3 ft. windows, placed five feet above
the floor. Build the frame for the window to admit open-
ing them by sliding. These windows cannot be hungon
hinges, since the inner room would interfere in opening
them. Now draw a line around the entire room two feet
from the wall. On this line at intervals of four feet place
2 inch x 3 inch x 9 feet studding. Ceil both sides of
the studding with 1 inch x 4 inch ceiling, Put in two
ventilator windows 2 feet x 2 feet 5 inch in each side
directly opposite the outer windows and close them with
doors made of matched ceiling. Hang these ventilators
with 4-inch strap hinges at the lower edge. To open
them, tip them back from the top by the means of a cord.

“Tn the floor plan here shown the door in the north
end leads into an air space (A) two feet in width extend-
ing around the inner room (D), which is entered through
the door (F), which is directly opposite the outer door.
The inner room (D) contains six 250-egge incubators
(EEE). CC are the windows in the outer wall and are
directly opposite and at the same height as the ventilator
windows (BBB) in the inner, double wall.

“As originally constructed the house proved to be
too warm when all machines were running but this trou-
ble was eliminated by the installation of a King Ventilat-
ing System and we now regard it as quite satisfactory,
securing as it does an even temperature and pure air,

FIG. 99—BRICK INCUBATOR HOUSE

This house has venti-

PRACTICAL INCUBATOR HOUSES 63

both of which are indispensable in
the hatching of chicks or turkeys by
artificial methods.”

It will be noticed that this house
is described as being 16 feet by 20
feet, though in the floor plan the
width is indicated as 18 feet, which
no doubt is an oversight, as the pro-
portions correspond to the printed
descriptions. In the bill of material
the amount of flooring, ceiling, etc.,
as specified, represents only the sur-
face to be covered, and about one-
fourth should be added to the esti-
mates to cover matching and other
shrinkage.

In considering this plan it should

be remembered that the climate of
Western Washington is comparative-
iy mild and less provision need be made for warmth than
will be found in many other sections of the country. In
warm climates the plan of having the entrance door on
the north side will be found desirable, but where severe
‘winters are the rule it will be better to have it on the
south side. Under such conditions, also, building the
house with a single board floor will not be satisfactory.
lf a board floor is used at all it should be doubled, with
heavy insulating material between the top floor and the
subfloor, and the space between floor and ground should
be tightly enclosed by banking up around the building
with earth. A concrete floor however, will be much
better, particularly for use in cold climates, and prob-
ably will be no more expensive than a properly con-
structed board floor. With these and possibly other
minor changes in detail to meet special conditions, this
house should prove satisfactory almost anywhere.

Other Types of Incubator Houses

Other incubator houses are shown in Figs. 98, 99
and 100, their special features being readily understood

FIG. 100—CONCRETE INCUBATOR CELLAR

For incubator houses built mostly underground,
tion to the square is very satisfactory.

not affect room temperature,

solid concrete construc-
The incubator room should be ceiled to
overhead and gable well ventilated sc that the sun shining on the roof will

FIG. 101—INTERIOR OF INCUBATOR HOUSE AT PENNA. EXP. STATION

with but little detail description. The aboveground in-
cubator house shown in Fig. 98 has been in use for
some years at the Oregon Experiment Station, where it
has given satisfactory results. This is a frame building,
shingled on the outside and ceiled on the inside with
tongue-and-groove boards. It is 20x30 feet, with 6-inch
foundation walls 12 inches in the ground, on a 10-inch
footing, and extending about 8 inches above the top of
the floor. It is provided with a 4-inch concrete floor.
The incubator room is 9 feet high in the clear.

There are three double windows on each side, the
sashes being 30x24 inches, hinged at the bottom to swing
in. All window openings are covered with shutters hav-
ing adjustable wooden slats, and there are 6 metal air-
intakes, which discharge air into the room near the floor
level. As will be noted, the windows are high up on
the sides and the building has wide eaves which shade
the windows and help to prevent the sun from heating
up the interior. A double door is provided in front for
ease in taking incubators in or out, and the gable has
louvered ventilators.

The house shown in Figs. 99 and
101 is in use at the Pennsylvania Ex-
periment Station. It is built of brick,
with a stone foundation and concrete
floor, and is provided with built-in
ventilator flues.in opposite corners of
the room, with openings both at
floor and ceiling. These flues dis-
charge through brick chimneys ex-
tending above the roof as shown.
One corner is cut off for use as a ves-
tibule- and workroom, and the en-
trance to the incubator room is
through this. The large door shown
as one side of the front opens direct-
ly into the incubator room, but is
only used when incubators are to be
removed, or in cleaning and sunning
the room. The entrance door com-
monly used is at the left of the dou-
ble door, being hidden by a tree in
illustration. This door opens into
the workroom which is provided with
a small stove that not only keeps it
at a comfortable temperature but, by
leaving the door open into the incu-
bator room, it will also warm that
some extent—a most desirable

feature for winter use. There are

64 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

windows on all sides of this house
except the south and wooden shut-
ters are provided to prevent fluctua-
tion of temperature due to direct
sunlight. An interior view of this
house is shown in Fig. 101.

The concrete incubator house
shown in Fig. 101 is similar to the
one shown in Figs. 92, 94 and 96,
except that the walls are of concrete
to the square. In place of the side
ventilator flues, a center flue is pro-
vided which opens above the ridge
and extends down to within a foot of the floor. This
flue is sawed off just below the ceiling and hinged so
that it can be hooked up out of the way when desirable.
The photo from which this illustration was made was
taken before the steps and banking up were completed.
The house is 12x12 feet, inside measure, and furnishes
ample room for the average small operator. Where gravel
and sand are readily available and the work can be done
without hired help, the cost of such a building will be
comparatively slight.

Incubator House Floors

The statement on page 60 to the effect that incubator
house floors should always be of concrete, is subject
to modification under some conditions. Many opera-
tors prefer to lay concrete floors only in the passage-
ways, the balance of the floor being left bare to insure
greater humidity. There is no practical objection to do-
ing this where the soil is sandy or gravelly. Even where
the soil is clay, but where the site can be well drained,
it is practical to follow the same plan, excavating the
floor deep enough so that the unfloored sections can be
filled in with four to six inches of sand. This arrange-
ment materially increases the moisture naturally present
in the air in the incubator room and when more is re-
quired the floor can be wet down at intervals. Supplying
needed moisture to the air before it enters the incubator
is the most natural way of doing so. Under ordinary
conditions excellent results are secured by the above
method, though it is much more difficult to keep the floor
clean and sanitary.

Houses for Mammoth Incubators

Plans for mammoth incubator houses generally are
furnished by the manufacturers of the machines pur-

Patent,

This floor plan can be adapted to any style of mammoth.
doubt as to dimensions, always build a little larger than seems necessary.
Crowded quarters in the incubator house are annoying and add to the labor.
Courtesy of Candee Incubator Company. ’

FIG, 103—SINGLE MAMMOTH INCUBATOR CELLAR PLAN

In case of

chased. However, the plans for a house for lamp-heated
machines, shown in Figs. 92, 94, 95 and 96, will prove
helpful in many cases, as they suggest some general de-
tails of practical value in any house, regardless of what
make of incubator is used. Dimensions will depend on
the size of the machine to be accommodated, and on
whether the sections can be set up facing each other or
must be tended from both sides, thus requiring a pa:-
sageway all round the machine. The house illustrated
in Fig. 102 is built after the general plan of the one de-
signed for lamp-heated machines, but as there will be
only one or at most two coal-burning heaters in opera-
tion and no lamp fumes discharged into the room, there
is less need for special ventilators, which some omit en-
tirely, though a few flues certainly will prove desirable.
The windows should be installed as shown in Fig. 95,
and provided with burlap screens in the same way.

The ventilated gables shown in Fig. 102 will answer
very well for houses under 50 feet in length, but if lon-
ger, ridge ventilators should be provided. These may be
of the familiar wooden louvered type spacing them 29
to 30 feet apart, or special galvanized iron ventilators may
be obtained.

The floor plan in Fig. 103 shows the usual method
of installing a single mammoth of the type having doors
on both sides. In all cases, make the room wide enough
to give a roomy passageway—a feature of much import-
ance in the daily care of the machine. A great conveni-
ence in all large incubator rooms is a work-table mounted
on easy-running, rubber-faced castors or small wheels,
so that when machines or sections are to be set or

hatches taken off, the table can readily be wheeled just
where it is needed, and much inconvenience and loss of
time avoided.

FIG. 102—HOUSE FOR MAMMOTH INCUBATOR

CRAP TER bx

The Selection of Brooding Equipment

_ Complete Description of Practical Types of Brooding Equipment—Fireless Brooders and How to Build Them—I amp
Heated Hovers—Portable Hovers—Outdoor Brooders—Colony Hovers—Hot Water Systems, Etc.—
How to Select the Kind Best Suited to Individual Usc. 2

ROODING chicks by the natural method, while
practical with small flocks and as an emergency
measure, is entitled to scant consideration where
large numbers are to be raised, or where it is

desirable to do the work in a thoroughly efficient man-

ner. This is true largely because the labor involved in
hen brooding is out of all proportion to the results se-
cured, though there are other important objections, such
as the impossibility of securing a sufficient number of
broody hens when they are wanted, the inevitable heavy
losses due to enemies and to a variety of accidental
causes, the necessity for keeping up an everlasting fight
with lice, etc. In sharp contrast with this laborious and
unpleasant method is the ease and comparative certainty
of artificial brooding. With proper equipment the chick

Taiser is practically independent of season and weather,

and the number of chicks that he can successfully care

for is increasing indefinitely.

Unquestionably chick raising is the most difficult
part of the poultry keeper’s work. To bring newly
hatched broods through the danger period in good
health and with minimum losses calls for some degree
of skill and experience in meeting their exacting require-
ments. This is true without regard to the method of
brooding followed. It also is true that well-selected
equipment will greatly reduce these difficulties and will
almost entirely eliminate the element of chance. As a
matter of fact, many of the .difficulties experienced in
raising chicks are self-imposed, growing directly out of
failure to provide the right kind of brooders or enough
of them, or to slackness in methods of general care. The

chick raiser now has available for his use practical, re- |

liable, thoroughly tested brooding de-
vices that are exactly adapted to his
requirements, whether he is raising’
chicks on a small or a large scale, in
cold or in warm weather, and so
nearly automatic that even the inex-
perienced can operate them with
practical certainty of good results.
Available brooding equipment in-
cludes the humble “fireless,” which is
only one remove from the natural
method in point of labor, cost, and
uncertainty of results. There are in-
dependent lamp-heated hovers that
may be attached to almost any goods
box, brooder case, or any sort of
suitable building; various complete
lamp-heated brooders for either in-
door or outdoor use. Still more con-
venient are the portable lamp-heated
hovers that can be used anywhere in-
doors without direct connection with
the building where operated. Then
there are electrically heated brood-
ers, and colony hovers brooding hun-
dreds of chicks in single flocks, using
either coal, oil, gas, or gasoline for

fuel. And finally, for those who wish to brood chicks
under most trying winter conditions, up-to-date hot-water
brooding systems are available.

These various devices are manufactured by reliable
concerns and are sold at prices that bring them within
the reach of every one who broods chicks. Not all of
these are equally desirable under given conditions, but
just as in the purchase of incubators, if the buyer will
confine his patronage to reputable concerns, purchasing
standard, high-grade appliances such as he can secure at
reasonable but not extremely low prices, he need have
no difficulty in obtaining thoroughly satisfactory equip-
ment. The only place where he is liable to make a seri-
ous mistake is in choosing from the assortment of avail-
able styles the one best suited to his conditions.

It is quite important that this feature be carefully
considered. Decision as to what to buy should in all
cases be based on the adaptation of the appliance to one’s
particular requirements rather than on its general popu-
larity. For example, colony hovers are in great favor at
present and for the purpose of brooding large flocks of
chicks they are indispensable. Many persons however,
are buying these whose needs would be better served by
an altogether different type of brooder about which per-
haps comparatively little is heard. In this chapter prac-
tically all kinds of standard brooding equipment are de-
scribed, and their respective merits explained in sufficient
detail to enable the inexperienced to select just the kind
and the size required to give him the service best suited
to his conditions.

“Fireless” Brooders

Almost every one with practical experience in raising

FIG. 104—CHICKS LIKE THESE ARE ENTITLED TO A GOOD COMFORT-
ABLE. BROODER

t6

66

chicks has had occasion at some time or other to keep
small broods in baskets or boxes, without any source of
warmth other than that afforded by the chicks them-
selves. If the box is warmly lined, and bedded with
fine absorbent material like short-cut alfalfa, is located
in a warm place, and the chicks covered over with a light
blanket or cloth except when taken out for feeding or
exercise, their bodily warmth is sufficient to keep them
duite comfortable and contented.

Fireless brooders are simply these old familiar boxes
or baskets made a little (and ONLY a little) more con-
venient for use. When they are properly designed, so
that the chicks are kept snug and warm with sufficient
ventilation to meet their rather limited requirements, and
when used in warm weather, or at least in a warm place,
and given the painstaking care and attention which brood-
ing by this method demands, it is possible to raise chicks
quite successfully in them. They represent the extreme
limit in simplicity and low cost in brooding devices, but
have distinct limitations. As cmergency brooders or for
small lots of chicks not regularly provided for, also in
warm weather when the chicks require practically no
brooding during the day, they serve a practical purpose,
and everyone who raises chicks in numbers should keep
a few on hand for such use. It is not wise to employ
them in cold weather however, unless they can be kept
in a heated room, and it is doubtful if they should ever
be employed for anything but emergency service or where
labor cost is a matter of indifference.

There are good fireless brooders on the market, or
they can readily be made at home if desired. A practi-
cal, easily built brooder is shown in Fig. 106. It can be
made any size from 15x15 inches (for about 25 chicks),
to 24x24 inches, the latter size readily accommodating 50
to 60 chicks. The sides of the hover should be about 12
inches high and the entire top is to be covered with mus-
lin as shown. This feature insures good ventilation.. The
hover may be made in various ways as convenient, the
underside, next the chicks, usually being a single thick-
ness of muslin. Over this may be placed pads of cotton
batting, covered with cheese cloth to protect it and keep
it from getting soiled. Use one or more pads as may
be required to keep the chicks warm. A cheaper plan is

FIG. 105—ANOTHER TYPE OF FIRELESS BROODER

This illustration shows the simple, easily made fireless brooder in use

on Poultry Plant at Wisconsin University.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

FIG. 106—A HOMEMADE FIRELESS BROODER

This brooder can be made from any suitable box, if
new lumber is bought get light-weight material. Par-
tition between hover and exercising compartment is of
muslin. Box should be about 12 inches high with top
covered with muslin tacked to movable frame.

to place one to three inches of clover chaff, planer shay-
ings or similar materiat on top of the muslin, as
in illustration.

The hover here is shown raised up, but when in use
it rests upon the hover support, which consists of a strip
of board extending around three sides of the enclosure.
This hover support should be five to six inches wide so
that when the floor is bedded down with two to three
inches of fine litter, the chicks’ backs will be against the
underside of the pad. Pieces of board or wire cloth (not
shown in illustration) should be fitted into the corners to
round them out so as to prevent crowding. After the
first day or two the chicks can be let out into the front
or exercising compartment for feeding and exercise and
after a few days, depending upon the outside temperature,
they may be allowed to run out in a small pen in front
of the brooder.

Chick doors should be about an inch from the floor
(not at floor level as shown in illustration) in order to
retain the litter with which the floor is to be kept cov-
ered at all times. In this brooder no pro-
vision is made for adjusting the height of the
hover, the proper distance between it and the
floor being maintained by varying the thick-
ness of the mat of litter previously mentioned.

room, less and less litter will be used, in this
way increasing the height of the hover
chamber.

readily be made by any person is shown in
Fig. 105.

thickness of felt. The
light wooden frame,

necessary.

How to Use Fireless Brooders

Owing to the danger of chicks crowding
for warmth, which is especially liable to oc-
cur among those that have no source of arti-

As the chicks grow larger and require more

Another type of fireless brooder that can |

In this brooder the sides of the |
hover compartment are heavily padded, ex- |
cept the front which is protected by a double |
hover consists of a
covered with felt to |
which can be added a light covering of cotton |
batting, planer shavings, or other material, if |

ficial heat, it is never advisable to brood them |

|

THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT

FIG. 107—ONE OF THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL LAMP-
HEATED BROODERS

This brooder has a lamp box underneath the brood-
ing compartment, and was for years a popular type of

brooder, until the introduction of
such as shown in Figs. 108 and 109.

independent hovers
in flocks larger than about 50 to 60, and as there must
always be enough to keep each other warm, the flocks
should not number less than about 20. The principal dif-
ficulty in the use of these brooders is to get the chicks
trained to return to the hover for warmth, and this can
only be done by giving them the closest attention for
the first few days, letting them out just long enough
to eat and then pushing them back under the hover and
keeping them there. Later, a few minutes at a time, they
may be allowed to run out in the exercising compartment
if a hover like the one shown in Fig. 106 is used. If the
brooder has only a single compartment, the chicks should
have a run in front of the brooder not over a foot wide
at first, and must be watched and pushed back under the
hover at the slightest sign of discomfort, and at frequent
intervals whether they appear uncomfortable or not.

Since the dark, heatless hover space does not offer
any special attraction to chicks, the difficulty of making
them “hoverwise” is greatly increased. Even after they
appear to have become accustomed to the use of the
hover they never can be entirely trusted, as they are more
or less liable to take to huddling outside at any time,
and hence must receive more or less attention during
practically the entire brooding period.

Owing to the lack of artificial heat, hovers in fireless
brooders quickly get damp and it is important to have
them taken out daily and sunned or dried before a stove
or otherwise. If this is neglected the hover will not
only be unsanitary and unhealthful, but the dampness and
cold will add to the difficulty of training the chicks. The
floor should always be heavily covered with suitable litter
and cleaned often enough to keep it dry and free from
odor. General methods of care and feeding for the chicks
are the same as for those kept in any other style of
brooder, and are given in detail in Chapters X and XI.

Lamp-Heated Hovers

Various styles of lamp-heated brooding devices are
on the market, belonging, as a rule, to one of two gen-
eral types—independent hovers, or complete brooders.

The former consist’ simply of a brooding compartment
having a metal or wooden top (usually round) supported

on legs at a suitable height and with the space under-
neath enclosed by means of a slashed hover curtain of
felt or similar material. To the hover is attached a heat-
ing system, with the lamp enclosed in a separate com-
partment. The whole device is self-contained and more

67

or less independent of the brooder, coop, or house in
which it is to be operated. In “portable” hovers the
brooding compartment and lamp box are built together
and may be moved about at will. These hovers rest
directly on the floor of the house or apartment in which
they are operated. They have no connection with the
enclosure and require no alterations of any kind to fit
the building for their use.

Lamp-heated hovers. of the type designated by such
trade names as “Adaptable,” “Universal,” etc. (see Figs.
108 and 109), are in great favor among successful chick
raisers, especially where chicks are to be brooded in mod-
erate-sized flocks. Hovers of this type have a detach-
able lamp box, the bottom of which is several inches be-
low the floor on which the hover stands. The lamp box
is intended to be located on the outside of the house or
compartment in which the chicks are confined, and re-
quires an opening of suitable size in the brooder case or
house wall to admit the heat pipe. These hovers may be
operated indoors if desired, in which case an elevated
floor must be provided for the hovers, the height being
adjusted to the particular make of hover used.

Hovers of this type may be used in connection with
regular indoor or outdoor brooder cases, ready-made or
homemade, or they may be attached to any suitable coop
or house. They are moderate in cost and afford almost
ideal conditions for brooding chicks in flocks of 100 or
less. Equipped with regulators, a reasonably uniform
temperature can be maintained, and they probably are as
safe from fire as any lamp-heated device can be made.
No matter how small the compartment in which the hover
is confined the chicks are always sure of a constant sup-
ply of fresh air which is drawn from the outside and pass-
es through the heater where it is thoroughly warmed,
afterward being forced gradually down among the chicks

_and finally out through the slits in the hover curtain.

Since the lamp discharges its fumes on the outside,
as the hovers are regularly installed, the air in the brooder
is kept pure at all times. When the lamp box is located
inside the house,- the fumes must be discharged indoors
but this is not a serious matter in a room of good size.
Lamp-heated hovers are used extensively in compartment

WIG. 108—HOVER WITH OUTDOOR LAMP BOX

This hover is designed to be attached to any suitable
brooder case, coop, or house. The lamp box is located
outside the house and the lamp fumes are discharged on
the outside through a specially designed fume pipe which
keeps the lamp flame from blowing out. Courtesy of
Prairie State Incubator Company.

68 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

brooder houses, with or without auxiliary heat. Where
this method is followed each brood has separate pen or
compartment and may be given just the temperature re-
quired for best results, regardless of the others. A long

FIG. 109—HOVER WITH MUSLIN COVERED
ENCLOSURE

With lamp-heated hovers of usual size this en-
closure should be about 3 feet square and 18

inches high. This enclosure confines the chicks
near the hover and prevents floor drafts from
striking them. The muslin-covered top will keep
the chicks warm under the hover even when the
outside temperature drops quite low.

Drooder house equipped with hovers of this type is illus-
trated and described in Chapter XII.

Hover Enclosure for Cold Weather

For cold weather use it frequently is desirable to en-
close these hovers, using the convenient form of enclo-
sure shown in Fig. 109. At the Maine Experiment Station
where more or less cold weather is regularly experienced
at the brooding season, a special type of enclosure has
been developed. This is illustrated in Figs. 111 and 113,
and is described as follows in Bulletin 471 of that in-
stitution:

“In planning this brooder the primary point aimed at
was to make a “fresh air and pure air” brooder. With
this idea in mind it was thought advisable to make the
walls of the brooder in some degree permeable to air.
To meet this requirement the walls and cover of the
brooder are made of cloth. Essentially the brooder is a
cloth box containing a hover, of the type in which the
lamp fumes are conducted outside of the building by an
exhaust pipe.

“These brooders are built as a constituent part of the
house which they occupy. Two brooders are placed in
each colony house, one in each of the back corners of
the building. In this way one end wall and the back
wall of the building form two of the sides of each brooder.
The remaining side and cover are made of cloth tacked
on light wooden frames as shown in the working
drawings.

“The floor of the brooder stands 10 inches above the
floor of the house. From the front of the brooder a
sloping walk extends down to the house floor, reaching
in width clear across the front of the brooder. The cloth
front and side of the brooder are not permanently fixed in
position but are removable panels held together and to
the frame work by hooks and eyes. The cover is hinged
in the middle in such a way that it can either be half
opened, or entirely opened and folded back out of the
way. In consequence of this arrangement it is possible
to regulate with great nicety the amount of air which
shall be admitted to the brooder. Either the front or the
side panel may be tilted out as much as desired at the

base, thus admitting air there. Furthermore, by partly
opening a panel and the cover it is possible to insure that
there shall be a circulation of air through the brooder at
all times.

“The hover used in this brooder is the “Universal,”
modified for present use so that the lamp is inside the
house underneath the brooder rather than in a box out-
side the house, as in the usual arrangement of this hover.
The reason for this modification is that in this climate,
where bad weather is likely to be experienced during the
early part of the hatching season, with heavy winds, snow,
and rain, it is much easier and more satisfactory to take
care of the lamp inside the house than from a small box
outside. Another modification is that in the hovers which
are installed in these brooders an especially heavy insula-
tion is put on top of the drum to reduce the loss of heat
by radiation in extremely cold weather early in the
spring.

“One of the essential points about the brooder is
its compactness in storage, and the fact that all the parts
may be stored in the base of the brooder itself. In this
way the labor expense of carrying parts back and forth
from a storage house each year is avoided. To bring
about this result the size of the base is so calculated that
all parts of the brooder may be enclosed in it. It will be
seen that the end of the brooder base containing door is
removable, being held in place by buttons at the top.
When the end of the brooding season is reached and there
is no further use for the brooder that year, the side and
front end panel of the brooder are removed, the canvas
cover folded back and tacked to the wall of the building
and the hover dismantled. All of the parts are then shoved
under the brooder floor and the end put back in place
again. The floor of the brooder is removable so that it |
and the floor underneath may be cleaned and disinfected. |
By removing its legs the hover may be stored in the |
brooder base along with the other parts, or if one does
not desire to do this the hover may be suspended close |
up to the roof of the building. In that position it will
be impossible for the birds to roost on it. Of course, all i

FIG. 110—LAMP HEATED HOVERS IN COMPART-
MENT BROODER HOUSE
These lamp-heated hovers are the same as the one

shown in Fig. 108, modified to permit placing the
lamp under an elevated hover floor. For plan of com-
partment house equipped with ten hovers, see Chapter
XII. Courtesy of Prairie State Incubator Company.

movable parts should be taken from the hover before it |
is hung up in this way. These parts may be stored in |}
the brooder base.”

Portable Lamp-Heated Hovers

Portable hovers are quite similar to the lamp-heated |i}
hovers previously described, but are so designed that the

THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 69

lamp box rests directly upon the brooder or house floor
and hence can be set up in any kind of house or apart-
ment where it is practicable to brood chicks, and without
the necessity for cutting holes for the heat pipe, provid-
ing raised floors, or making any other alterations. Hovers

FIG. 111I—MAINE STATION INDOOR BROODER

This illustration shows how hovers like the ones
shown in Figs. 108 and 109 may be enclosed, for use
where the chicks are to be brooded in cold weather and
where unprotected hovers would not afford sufficient
Warmth without turning the flame extremely high.
Courtesy of Maine Experiment Station.

of this type are intended strictly for indoor use and give
excellent service under reasonably favorable conditions.
The lamps however, are rather closely confined, and when
the flame is turned high there is danger of the lamp
smoking or becoming overheated. For this reason porta-
ble hovers are not recommended for use in severe weather
unless they are operated in warmed rooms or are pro-
vided with heat-retaining enclosures. A brooder house
with auxiliary heat is a most desirable place in which to
operate them, and if it is the intention to use these ap-
pliances early in the season such a house should by all
means be provided.

In moderately cold weather portable hovers may be
enclosed in muslin-covered cases as
shown in Fig. 124 (illustrated with-
out top in order to show hover in
position). This enclosure consists of
four frames, which should be about
18 inches wide and 36 inches long,
for hovers of average size. Use inch
or inch-and-a-half strips of white
pine, spruce, or similar light-weight
wood that does not
split readily, and
cover with a good
grade of muslin.
The panels thus
formed are hinged
together at three
corners, the fourth
having a hook in-
stead, so that the
frame can be
folded compactly for storage when not in use. A small
door should be provided in the front panel. The top
may be a simple frame covered with muslin, with a hole
for the waste-heat pipe from the hover, or better still
may be made as shown in Fig. 109.

under the hover.

FIG. 112—PORTABLE HOVER WITH ENCLOSED LAMP BOX
This illustration shows a small lamp-heated portable hover with the lamp bcx

Courtesy of Prairie State Incubator Co.

As long as the temperature of the house or room is
60 degrees or over, it will not be necessary to enclose
the hover, but when it goes below that point it is better
to do so, especially for newly hatched broods. Even
though the hover may be able to furnish sufficient heat
to keep the chicks comfortable at. lower temperatures, it
will be necessary to keep a high flame in order to do it,
involving the risk of overheating-the lamps and also
using a great deal more oil than would be required with
the hover suitably enclosed. If it is desired to make this
enclosure ratproof it may be done by covering the panels
on the inside with wire cloth. Placing the wire on the
inside also protects the muslin from the chicks which are
apt to pick holes through it.

While it is practicable to brood chicks successfully
where there are wide extremes between hover and room
temperatures this cannot be considered a favorable con-
dition. It unquestionably increases the attendant’s trou-
bles, and the chicks are apt to be stunted and injured by
the alternate chilling and overheating. They also are
liable to spend more time under the hovers than is good
for them when they cannot go outside without instant
discomfort. In continuous cold weather much better re-
sults will be secured if portable hovers are operated in a
house with some form of auxiliary heat. A. good-sized
room may be warmed to a fairly comfortable tempera-
ture with a coal stove or water boiler, doing so at com-
paratively little expense, and greatly reducing the con-
sumption of oil in brooder lamps. It may not be neces-
sary to provide a hover enclosure under such conditions
and it is much more convenient to care for the chicks
without it. However, it always is desirable to surround
the hover with some sort of guard for the first few days.

It will be clear from the illustrations of portable
hovers here shown, that they regularly discharge their
lamp fumes inside the apartment in which they are
operated. So long as the room or house is of good size
and well ventilated, no harm will be done. When the
hover is installed in a small building however, such as
the average portable colony house, some provision must
be made for conducting the fumes outdoors. A practi-
cal way of doing this is to provide a galvanized iron pipe
about 2 inches in diameter running it straight up or out
through the side wall. The lower end
of the pipe should be funnel-shaped
and must be held securely in place
an inch or two above the waste-pipe
of the hover so that wind will not
affect the lamp, and so that the in-
creased draft caused by the long pipe
will not “draw” the flame. Do not
neglect providing a T on the outer
end as in Fig. 108;
it helps greatly in
keeping the wind
from blowing out
the flame.

The ‘lamp in a
portable hover
should be tended
regularly and kept
scrupulously clean.
The lamp _ bowl
should not be filled more than about two-thirds full and
should never be allowed to burn empty. A lamp either
full or almost empty is more liable to smoke than one
moderately full. If the lamp bowl is of limited capacity
it is desirable to fill it at least once a day, and when the

70 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

flame is turned high it may be necessary to do this twice
daily. The flame usually gets its supply of air through
screen-covered openings and it is highly important that
these be kept clean and free from dust which otherwise
will clog the screen and cause the lamp to smoke. As
to capacity, the rule given on page 80 applies regularly
to all sizes of portable hovers. Those most generally in
use, such as are shown in Figs. 112, 114 and 124, are de-
signed to accommodate about 100 newly hatched chicks
pr 65 to 75 older ones.

Hovers Installed in Colony Houses

' While the cheapest method of providing comforta-
ble brooding accommodations for small or medium-sized
flocks is by the use of hovers installed in homemade
brooder cases, the most satisfactory method for general
use, especially for early hatches, is to install them in
small colony houses, or houses especially designed for
the purpose, such as those illustrated and described in
Chapter XII. Where this is done the chicks will have
plenty of floor space and when they must be confined
indoors for days at a time, as is often necessary early in
the season, they will continue to grow and thrive almost
as well as when able to be outdoors all the time. Such
houses may be built in various sizes to meet the needs
of the individual chick grower, providing for one or more
hovers as preferred.

In a colony house 6x6 feet, which is about as small
as it is practical to build them, it seldom is desirable to
install more than one hover, but two can be used quite
conveniently in houses 6x8 feet or larger. When operated
in compartment brooder houses each hover should havea
space 4 to 5 feet wide and 8 to 10 feet long. In perma-
nent houses the hovers can either be located on a raisec
floor or the floor of the passageway may be sunk 6 to
8 inches below the main floor. With colony houses the
usual plan is to set the house on runners, or block it up

FIG. 113—MAINE STATION BROODER ENCLOSURE
PARTIALLY DISMANTLED

This illustration shows enclosure dismantled. Hover
and parts are in lamp box. Top of enclosure is folded
back against rear wall of house and fastened by
wooden buttons, Courtesy of Maine Experiment Station.

a few inches off the ground so that the hover can Test
directly on the house floor.
Indoor and Outdoor Brooders

Complete brooders, to be operated either indoors or
outdoors, have been in use for many years. Indoor brood-

ers are not now in much demand, as their place is large-
ly filled by the independent hovers already described,
used either with or without enclosures or cases, which,
if required, usually are of homemade construction. Out-
door brooders, however, are used in great numbers, par-
ticularly where colony houses or permanent brooder
houses are not available.

FIG. 114—PORTABLY HOVER WITH OUTSIDE
LAMP BOX

This portable hover is similar to the one shown
in Fig. 112, except that the lamp box is entirely
outside of "the hover. whereas in the other it is

underneath.
Company.

Courtesy of Watson Manufacturing”

One of the first really successful brooders adapted to
outdoor use is illustrated in Fig. 107. In brooders of this
type the lamp was located underneath the brooder. The
floor occupied by the chicks was about ten inches from
the .ground, and reached by means of an incline in front
of the brooder. ° The lamp or brooder stove used to prv-
vide heat had a chimney which came up close to, but did
not touch, the underside of a metal sheet which was thus
made quite hot and in turn warmed a current of air
which was introduced from the outside, passing over the
top surface of the metal and beneath the brooder floor.
After being warmed the air passed up through a flue or
pipe and was discharged under a hover, and forced down
around the chicks afterward passing out through slits in
the hover curtain, substantially as in the present type of
hovers. ;

This style of heater warmed the brooder floor as
well as the air, and when the lamp was turned up strong,
often gave so much bottom heat as to cause leg weak-
ness. The elevated floor was another objectionable feat-
ure, but the chief defect was the danger of overheating
the lamp, especially in brooding chicks in cold weather
when it was necessary to have a high flame. Brooders
made by standard concerns now-a-days are practically
fireproof, but many of the extremely cheap brooders of-
fered for sale leave much to be desired in this respect,
and if used at all should be located where they will not
endanger valuable property. It is better to avoid all such
brooders however, and buy only those that are known
to be safe and reliable. Nowhere is it more true than
in the purchase of brooder equipment, that “it is better to
be safe than sorry.”

Some outdoor brooders have built-in heating systems,
such as the one shown in Fig. 117. Others consist of a
comparatively simple case equipped with an independent
hover as in Fig. 115. A well-built brooder should give
good satisfaction when used under reasonably favorable
conditions, and will last for many years if stored in a dry
place when not in service. It is always better to buy
first-class brooders and take care of them, than to pur-
chase cheap, flimsy ones that may not give good service

THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 71

even when new, and whose limited usefulness at best is
of only short duration.

If necessary to economize in first cost, a practical
plan is to secure a hover and build the case at home,
which can readily be done by any one handy with tools.
As usually built, outdoor brooders are about 3x6 feet,
which makes them large enough for 100 newly hatched
chicks or 75 after they are two or three weeks old. It
is not considered practical to build brooders of larger
size than the dimensions just given, and it is extremely
unwise to attempt to crowd into any brooder more chicks
than it is designed to accommodate. In buying brooders,
or hovers for homemade brooders, be sure to get those
that have sufficient heating capacity to keep the chicks
warm in severe weather. 7

An outdoor brooder should have at least three com-
partments, which give the chicks some opportunity to
choose the temperature best suited to their requirements.
These conditions are best secured by a hover compart-
ment about three feet square, where the temperature un-
der the hover can be kept in the neighborhood of 100
degrees at first, lowering it as the chicks grow older.
Around or in front of the hover, depending upon its
shape, there should be a space large enough to accom-
modate all the chicks without crowding. To this space
they can escape if the hover becomes too warm and in it
they are to be fed for the first few days. Connected with
this should be an exercising compartment, also three feet
square. This will be warmed somewhat from the heating
system in the hover end, but can be opened up as de-
sired to give the chicks air and gradually to harden them
off before turning them outdoors.

If the brooder is to be used outdoors in stormy
weather it is desirable to ‘provide covered runs as shown
in Fig. 115, where the chicks can get out to scratch and
exercise without being exposed to wind, rain, or cold.
This run may be any convenient size, but should seldom
be smaller than 3x6 or 8 feet. Jf a covered run is not
provided there must be some sort of an enclosure to keep
the chicks within bounds at first, to prevent their straying
away and getting lost, and under many conditions this en-
closure is required to protect them from enemies of vari-
ous kinds. Such enclosure may take the form of the one
shown in Fig. 115, which is covered on top as well as
sides, or may be like the one illustrated in Fig. 131.

Location for Outdoor Brooder

The brooder and its covered run or yard should have
as dry a location as possible. There is no better place
for them than a smooth, closely clipped lawn, if such is
available. If the brooder is moved frequently to a new
location the chicks will do no harm to the grass, and this
will provide much of the green feed that is so essential
a part of their ration. An additional advantage in brood-
ing newly hatched chicks on the lawn is that they are
within easy reach and can be kept under observation all
the time, which is highly important during the first few
weeks of their lives. When they are past the danger
point and need no longer be confined to small runs, they
may be moved to some other location where they can
have more room. Fields covered with high grass or
weeds should be avoided but a few clumps of weeds or
bushes to which the chicks can have access for protection
from the hot sun, also from hawks, crows, and other
enemies, are desirable.

Protection for the brooder and the chicks often does
not receive the attention that should be given to this im-
portant detail. Not only is it easier to operate the

brooder when suitably sheltered. but the chicks will do
better. Early in the season the brooder should be
placed in the shelter of a building or other substantial
windbreak and, if necessary, the sides of the run should
be covered with burlap. Still cold will not harm the
chicks seriously after they become hoverwise, but a run
swept by a raw, cold wind will cause great discomfort
and generally results in their staying indoors much ‘of
the time, to their great disadvantage.

It may be worth mentioning in this connection that
outdoor brooders: can be conveniently operated indoors
early in the season, if there is a building or even an open
shed in which they can be placed. In such a location a
small pen or run can be provided for the chicks so that
they can get out for exercise regardless of the weather,
whereas, if the brooder is out in the open, the chicks
may have to be confined to its narrow limits for days at
a time. The added convenience and comfort to the at-
tendant, who will be able to care for the brooder and the
chicks without being exposed to storms, are in them-
selves a sufficient reason: for keeping the brooder in-

FIG. 115—OUTDOOR BROODER AND COVERED RUN
Outdoor brooders are used by many, especially after

settled weather has arrived. Covered runs are highly
desirable for additional protection after the chicks are
old enough to run outdoors. The brooder alone will not
afford sufficient room for them, when confined on ac-
count of sudden cold snaps, rain, etc.

doors at this season, if possible. In summer the brooder
should be placed in the shade, as it is apt to become over-
heated if exposed to the direct rays of the sun.

Who Should Use Lamp-Heated Hovers and Brooders

While the better grades of brooders and hovers such
as have just been described, have been brought to a high
degree of efficiency, and leave scarcely anything to be
desired in the way of practical, convenient, and reason-
ably automatic brooding devices, they all are open to the
important objection that they are capable of brooding
flocks of only moderate size. Where chicks are to be
raised in large numbers it is highly desirable to brood
them in as large flocks as are practicable, in order to
reduce the labor cost. To meet this demand and to keep
as low as possible the cost of equipment and houses, col-
ony hovers, each with a brooding capacity ef many hun-
dreds of chicks, have been introduced and have in a
short time attained a hign degree of popularity. While
these huge brooders have been an unqualified success
and are now regarded as indispensable wherever chicks
are extensively raised, it is not probable that they can
or should entirely displace lamp-heated brooders. Each
has a distinct place to fill in practical and economical
brooding.

VL, ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

No one questions the fact that the person who is
operating on a small scale will find lamp-heated brooders
better adapted to his requirements. As his plant devel-
ops and his flocks grow larger there will come a time
when, in the interest of economy and efficiency, he clear-
ly should change over to colony hovers. Just when that
point is reached will depend upon a number of considera-

tions and is a
matter for indi-
vidual decision.

One of the

most important
advantages pos-
sessed by lamp-
_ heated brooding
_ devices is that
‘chicks in the
comparatively
small flocks made
necessary by this
method of brood-
ing will do much
better, as a rule,
than when they
are herded to-
gether in great numbers. The death tate will be lower
and the chicks will have better individual opportunities
for growth and development. While remarkably good
results often are reported in colony hover brooding, the
general accuracy of the above comparison has never
been seriously questioned. It follows that those who

FIG. 116—NONCROWDING PARTITION
DOOR FOR BROODERS

With these noncrowding doors in
the partition between hover and ex-
ercising--compartments~ there will be
no corners on either side for the
chicks to crowd into.

wish to grow valuable chicks with small loss, and with .

the best opportunities for individual growth and develop-
ment, will continue to use lamp-heated hovers in spite
of the admittedly greater cost of brooding them in this
way.

Similarly those who may be raising comparatively
large numbers of chicks but whose seperate broods are
small, will find lamp-heated hovers well suited to their
use. For illustration, the person who has incubators of
250-egge capacity or less, and who has only a single ma-
chine hatching at a time, will find that he can brood his
chicks to much better advantage in lamp-heated hovers
than with colony hovers. In making a choice of brood-
ing equipment it is worth considering that the best lamp-
heated hovers have been brought to a degree of mechan-
ical perfection which makes it possible to operate them
with the slightest of attention. A further advantage is
that while fuel for colony hovers sometimes is difficult
to secure, kerosene can be obtained in practically every
section of the country.

Colony Hovers

Colony hovers, while of comparatively recent intro-
duction, have been developed to a good degree of effi-
ciency and are in high favor among those who have
large numbers of chicks to brood and who wish to do
this in the cheapest and easiest manner. With these
hovers chicks may be brooding in flocks of many hun-
dreds and without much more labor than would be re-
quired in caring for one small lamp-heated brooder. Sin-
gle flocks of 1,000 chicks or more having been brooded
successfully with colony hovers, though the present ten-
dency is to discount extreme claims as to brooding capac-
ity. Under ordinary conditions 500 chicks are considered
enough even for the largest hovers, and many prefer not
to exceed 300 or 350.

Various types of colony hovers have been developed

and are offered for sale, the chief differences between
them being due to the nature of the fuel employed. They
all provide a warm brooding room, in any part of which
the chicks will be fairly comfortable, and with a circle
or zone near the stove or heater where a uniform brood-
ing temperature is to be maintained by the action of a °
regulator controlling drafts or fuel supply. This brood-
ing zone usually is at a little distance from the heater
and its diameter is determined by the size and elevation
of the canopy or dome. In some instances, as in the case
of the heater shown in Fig. 119, no hover is used, but
only a comparatively small heat deflector, the tempera-
ture about the heater being maintained at a point suffi-
ciently above the brooding temperature so that the chicks
will not collect here, but will gather in a circle outside
the too-warm zone.

During the day the chicks scatter all over the room,
exercising and scratching for food in the litter and read-
ily finding their way back to the vicinity of the heater
when in need of warmth, provided they have been prop-
erly trained. There is, however, the same necessity of
teaching them to find their way to the source of heat as
in the case of lamp-heated hovers—greater in fact, owing
to the much more serious consequences that are apt to
ensue if a flock of several hundred chicks should begin
huddling in some corner instead of spreading out con-
tentedly in an open ring in the comfortable temperature
near the stove or heater.

The colony hover was developed, or at any rate at-
tained its first popularity, on the Pacific Coast, where oil
or distillate-burning heaters have been in general use for
a number of years. These hovers are installed in suitable
tooms with the oil supply on the outside, or at least at
a distance from the burners. With suitable thermostatic
control of fuel they will maintain a fairly uniform tem-
perature in the brooding zone and throughout the pees
and are easily regulated and controlled.

The number of chicks that can be brooded with a
colony hover is determined as much by the size of the
room in which it is operated as by the capacity of the

FIG. 117—HOT AIR OUTDOOR BROODER

This brooder has an enclosed lamp and a “built-
in” heating system, and affords a comfortable home

for outdoor chicks.
tor Co.

Courtesy of Des Moines Incuba-

heater. By regulating fuel consumption and adjusting
height of canopy or hover, the brooding temperature can
be extended far enough beyond the heater to give a cir-
cle sufficiently large to accommodate many hundreds of.
chicks. Regardless of heating capacity however, there
is a practical limit to the number that can be kept in a
room of given size and it is just as objectionable to over-
crowd in a brooding room as to do so under a lamp-
heated hover. It is difficult to give a general rule gov-
erning colony hover capacity, since something depends
upon the type of hover, and more perhaps upon the

THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 73

FIG. 118S—CHOOSE A PROTECTED LOCATION FOR OUTDOOR BROODERS
A southern expose with a windbreak of trees on the west and north is extra

desirable for early season brooding.

weather and whether the chicks have an opportunity to
get outdoors or not, also the care and attention that they
receive. In general, it may be said that a house providing
100 square feet of floor space will afford sufficient room
for a flock of 400 to 500 chicks for the first 10 to 15 days,
after which they should have additional floor space for
exercise, unless the weather is mild and they can spend
most of the day outdoors.

In sections where hard coal is obtainable, colony
hovers with stoves for burning this fuel are quite popu-
lar. Several such hovers installed in a long brooder
house, are shown in Fig. 122. They are low in cost, the
fuel is comparatively inexpensive, and they give excel-
lent service. They are not so easy to operate as the oil
or distillate-burning hovers, nor are they as desirable
as the latter in the south where the extremes between
night and day temperature are wide, and where it is diffi-
cult to check a coal fire sufficiently to keep the room
temperature within the proper limits during the day,
without having it go out. Efforts to operate coal-burning
hovers with soft coal have been made with but limited
success, as their fuel capacity is too small to carry a
good fire through a cold night. If hard coal or coke is
not readily obtainable it usually will be better to pur-
chase kerosene or distillate-burning heaters instead. An-
other type of brooder suitable for large flocks, and one
that has been in successful use for a number of years,
is the Cornell gasoline brooder. This brooder was de-
veloped by the Poultry Department of Cornell University.
Gasoline is far from being popular as fuel but it has
some advantages, and if properly handled is safe.

As poultry keepers have begun to favor colony flocks
of more conservative size, manufact-
urers have made an effort to effect
a compromise between the small
lamp-heated hovers and the require-
ments of colony brooding, retaining
kerosene as fuel. The hover shown
in Fig. 120 is one of this type. If not
operated under too extreme condi-
tions, they give good results.

How to Use Colony Hovers

Colony hovers can be used success-
fully at almost any season, though
if operated in cold weather it is nec-
essary to provide especially warm
quarters. The average coal-burning
hover does not have sufficient fuel

capacity to heat a large house with distance from the heater.

single walls and generally cheap con- ‘lustration.

struction in severe winter weather,
and in the case of oil or gasoline-
heated hovers the fuel cost in such
houses is practically prohibitive. Al-
most invariably it is true economy to
build with double walls so as to re-
tain Jheat and reduce fuel consump-
tion. -

Flocks of 300 to 500 chicks can be
successfully brooded in a house 10x
10 feet or 12x12 feet, provided the
chicks can spend most of the day out-
doors after they are a couple of weeks
old. For use early in the season how-
ever, more floor space should be pro-
vided, doing so either by making the
room larger, say 16x16 feet, or by
providing a two-room house. There are several reasons
why the latter is much better than having the floor space
all in one large room. In the first place if the room is
large enough to provide comfortably for the growing
chicks it will be unnecessarily large for newly hatched
broods, and since these must have a comfortable tem-
perature more or less ‘all over the room, the cost of
heating will be much greater than is necessary. Another
important objection to rooms of large size is the danger
from floor drafts which are almost unavoidable in coia
weather, and as a result of which epidemics of colds and
roup are liable to break out, often causing great losses.

These difficulties are largely overcome by the
use of a two-room house such as is illustrated and de-
scribed in Chapter XII. The brooding room affords com-
fortable quarters for the chicks during the first two
weeks, after which they are allowed access to an ad-
joining room of about the same size, which will be
warmer than outdoors, but decidedly cooler than the
brooding room. This arrangement affords an opportunity
for the chicks to get hardened off before they are turned
out, and provides ample floor space for them if they
must be confined indoors on account of cold or stormy
weather. The hover room is practically free from floor
drafts, and it will cost only about half as much to heat
it as would be the case if the entire space were in one
room. The brooding room should be built with double
walls and windows that can be made tight, but the ex-
ercising room need-only have single walls, and the front
should be arranged so that it can be thrown open when
weather conditions permit, thus giving the chicks prac-
tically outdoor temperature without exposing them to

FIG. 119—O1L BURNING COLONY HOVER

No hover at all is used with this colony brooder, which is readily regulated
so as to maintain a “zone” of correct brooding temperature at a reasonable

This is indicated by the position of the chicks in

Heater burns kerosene or distillate and will successfully brood
several hundred chicks at one time.

74

storms, rain, snow, or high winds, and without cooling
down the brooding room.

Colony hovers usually are located in the center of
the biooding room. They should be fired up and thorough-
ly tested so that the operator can be certain that he will
be able to maintain a fairly uniform temperature before
entrusting chicks to them. When the chicks are first
placed under the hover they should be confined by a strip
of galvanized wire cloth. This should be about 18 inches
wide, and long enough to form a complete circle about
the hover at a distance of at least three feet. This guard
should be drawn up at first, so that the circle does not
extend more than about a foot or so beyond the hover,
but after the chicks become familiar with their sur-
roundings and have learned where to go for warmth the
circle can be enlarged.

When certain that the chicks can be trusted to return
to the hover promptly when uncomfortable, the guard
may be entirely removed, though it is a wise precaution

Rae

FIG. 120—OIL HEATED COLONY HOVER
This brooding device is provided with a hover under which the

chicks gather for warmth.
temperature as the brooder ,shown in Fig. 119, and is,
more economical in the use of fuel,

to continue to draw it up around the hover at night, so
that the chicks cannot stray off into corners and huddle
there as they sometimes do even after they seem to be
thoroughly trained. It is important to give these large
flocks careful attention, and the greatest pains must be
taken never to let the fire go out in cold weather or to
permit the temperature to drop too low at night, either
of which is liable to start the crowding that is so great-
ly to be feared. As a further precaution it is wise to
round out the corners of the brooding room using wire
netting, pieces of prepared roofing, or anything else that
will answer the purpose.

Hot Water Brooding Systems

Where large numbers of chicks are to be brooded in
cold weather many persons prefer to use hot water pipe
systems. These have the disadvantages of exceeding all
others in first cost, and their operating season is com-
paratively short, as it seldom is desirable to brood chicks
by this method in warm weather. Hot water brooding
systems are fairly easy to operate however, when proper-
ly installed, and the advantage of having many hundreds
of chicks in comparatively small flocks under one roof
with one heater or furnace for all, is especially import-
ant in cold weather.

There are two general systems of pipe-heated brood-

It does not heat the room to as high a

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

ers, each with its own advantages. The method most
commonly used in New England is what is known as the
open-pipe system where the pipes are entirely exposed
or covered only with a cloth-covered frame which is laid
over the pipes, this being done in the case of newly
hatched chicks or when it is desirable to raise the tem-
perature for any given pen. No hover cloths are pro-
vided and the temperature is kept fairly high throughout
the room, the chicks getting up close to the pipes for
added warmth at night and as needed during the day. A
full description of such a brooder house is given in
Chapter XII.

The covered-pipe system has various forms, from
overhead pipes with a tight hover over the top, to pipes
placed under the floor and confined in a box in order to
heat air, which then is discharged under a round or square
hover, adjustable in height and provided with hover cloths
to confine the heat, the chicks being warmed by a hot-
air circulating system very much as in lamp-heated hovers.

Both systems give good results when
properly managed, the open system being
the cheaper to install, probably a little
more expensive to operate, and calling for
pretty exact control of room temperature.
It is not practical to install pipe-heated
systems in small houses. Colony hovers or
lamp hovers with auxiliary heat are more
desirable as well as much cheaper.

Electrically Heated Brooders

Electrically heated brooders probably are
the most convenient type of brooding equip-
ment available. Such brooders are easy to
operate and when of correct design and pro-
vided with reliable regulators require prac-
tically no attention. As usually made they
may be attached to an ordinary lamp socket,
and have a regulator which automatically
turns the current on and off as necessary to
maintain the desired temperature. No at-
tention whatever is needed aside from ad-
justing the regulator for more or less heat
as occasion requires. Reliable appliances of
this sort will maintain an almost uniform temperature
under ordinary conditions, and as the current is only on
when the heat falls below the point for which the regu-
lator is set, there is no waste of current. If favorable
rates can be obtained it is possible to brood chicks in
this convenient, labor-saving way as economically as with
oil or gas. Since there are no lamps to fill or clean, no
coal or ashes to handle, no danger from fire, and no
lamp or stove to taint the air, it is possible to operate
electric brooders where it would not be desirable to use
any other kind. A brooder of this type is illustrated
in Fig. 121.

therefore,

Homemade Brooders

There is little demand for plans for homemade brood-
ers nowadays and still less excuse for them. It is pos-
sible for any one who wishes to do so to build a brooder
of the general type as the one shown in Fig. 107, using
a similar heating method, but such brooders are so in--
ferior to those now made by reliable manufacturers, and
so unsafe as regards fire, that there is no good reason for
giving them any consideration.

Most manufacturers furnish complete heating and
brooding systems or independent hovers for installation
in homemade brooder cases, for either indoor or outdoor
use, and it is entirely practical to use them in this way.

THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 75

Local tinsmiths cannot make them as cheaply nor as well
as those regularly manufactured, and the use of a make-
shift heating system is unwise. With no other purpose
in view than to safeguard the interests of the chick
grower, we most
earnestly advise
against wasting time
or money on home-
made brooding out-
fits, other than out-
door or indoor
cases to be equipped
with hovers or
brooder heaters es-
pecially designed for
such use. There is
too much at stake

>

i
j
121—HOVER HEATED BY

FIG, : 3
ELECTRICITY both in the chicks
mnthis hover has a heating plane in that are brooded
e top and is a most convenient .
brooding device where current can 2d in the danger

be obtained at a reasonable rate.
It is equipped with a_ regulator ,
Which automatically euts out the which results from
current when the temperature goes

above the desired point. the use of lamp-

heated brooders of
the usual homemade construction, to warrant any one in
experimenting with such devices.

to valuable property

No Economy in Skimping On Brooder Equipment

It is scarcely possible to overemphasize the import-
ance of providing sufficient brooding capacity for the
chicks that are to be raised. The average chick raiser
almost invariably is short on brooders at the time when
he needs them most, which is false economy in about its
worst form. There is no disputing the fact that millions
of chicks die from exposure every season—chicks that
would have lived and returned to their owners a substan-
tial profit, if only they had been properly brooded. The
incubator often is unjustly blamed for hatching out
weakly chicks that could not be raised when, as a
matter of fact, they were sturdy and vigorous when
hatched but were sacrificed to their owner’s neglect
to provide suitable brooders for them—none at all
in some instances, and in others cheap, inferior
makes with inadequate heating capacity, resulting in
the chicks being exposed to low or irregular tem-
peratures that they could not possibly endure.

In still other cases first-class brooders may be
provided but not in sufficient numbers, so that the
chicks are injuriously crowded, and perhaps are re-
moved from the brooder to make room for younger
lots weeks before they should be deprived of arti-
ficial heat. Overcrowding of brooders is a most
common practice, and while a little slower in action,
is about as serious in its final effect as having no
brooders at all. The wise chick raiser will learn
the actual capacity of his brooders and will then
either limit his hatching to that number, or will
provide the additional equipment needed in good
time, even though to do so may necessitate spend-
ing more money for the purpose than is convenient.
Skimping on brooders is in no sense economical or
practical, though it is extraordinarily difficult to get be-
ginners, and even many experienced growers, to realize
how much they lose and how seriously they imperil their
whole poultry enterprise, by such a pennywise policy.

long house.

used or a laying house divided by means of suitable temporary
partitions,

How to Estimate Brooding Capacity Required

So far as the beginner is concerned, it is possible
that a good deal of this deficiency in brooding equip-
ment is due to the fact that he does not understand just
what his requirements are going to be, nor what is a
reasonable number of chicks to place in a _ brooder.
Speaking generally, hover capacity may be figured on
the basis of floor space following the rules for doing
this which will be found on page 80. The capacity of
the average round hover, measuring 20 to 24 inches in
diameter, is in the neighborhood of 65 to 75 chicks at
three weeks old. With these rules or estimates for gen-
eral guidance, it should be a simple matter for the most
inexperienced to determine the amount of hover space
he will need for a given incubator capacity. Counting
the average hatch at about two-thirds of the egg capacity
of the machine, which is a reasonable basis on which to
figure, a 100-egg incubator will require one good lamp-
heated hover to take care of a hatch. For a 150 to 200-
egg machine two such hovers will be needed, and for a
350 to 400-ege machine three hovers, or one colony hover
will be required, the latter being large enough to take
the entire hatch from two such incubators when neces-
sary. These estimates apply to a single hatch in
each case.

Chicks can seldom be: weaned from artificial heat un-
til they are over four weeks old, and in early spring will
need to be brooded for six weeks or more. Hence, if the
incubators are being run continuously there must be
brooder capacity for two successive hatches, or double
the number required for one hatch. This is where a
great many chick growers make a most serious mistake,
jailing, as they do, to provide brooders for the second
lot. This makes it necessary to put the first chicks into
cold brooders when only about three weeks old—a step
that is practically certain to result in heavy losses, es-

FIG. 122—COLONY HOVERS IN LONG POULTRY HOUSE
Illustration shows several coal-burning hovers installed in a

For this purpose a regular brooder house may be

pecially in the early part of the season. Either provide
the extra brooders or hovers needed, or delay the second
hatch until the first lot of chicks can be removed to cold
brooders without injury.

CHAPTER X

Care and Management of Brooder Chicks

When to Take the Chicks From the Incubator—How to Determine Capacity of Any Brooder—Teaching Chicks to
Use the Hover—How to Make and Use Cold Brooders—Importance of Litter and
What Kind to Use—Labor-Saving Methods.

T IS assumed in this chapter that the chick grower
has selected the brooding equipment best suiced
to his requirements, and that he has looked ahead
and has purchased it well in advance of the time

when it will be needed, so that there will be ample time

in which to set it up and test it out before entrusting
valuable chicks to its care. That is assuming a good deal
too much in many instances, for unpreparedness is the
average poultry keeper’s besetting sin, and he frequent-
ly pays dearly for it. The beginner especially, and all

who are trying out new equipment, should realize the
importance of thorough testing in order to learn just
what results can reasonably be expected, doing this in
ample time so that any adjustments that may be needed
can be made before the brooder or the hover, as the
The too

case may be, must be put into active service.
common plan of placing
chicks in a brooder whose
limitations are not known,
expecting to be able to
meet conditions as they
arise, is responsible for
enormous losses each year
—losses that might readily
be prevented with a little
forethought and timely
preparation. \
In testing out a new
brooder or hover it is not
enough to be sure that it
is in good general working

order, that the lamp burns S(REFOGR TAR? GnGun IROWSE

steadily and evenly, and three-fourth-inch mesh netting cannot be secured it will
; E be safer to use galvanized wire cloth.

that it heats up readily. eye Incubator Company.

All this is. important; but

it is even more important, from a practical point of view,
to learn what the brooder will NOT do. Every brooding
device, of whatever kind, is capable of supplying just so
much heat, and when the outside temperature drops below
a certain limit it is impossible for it to maintain the proper
brooding temperature. Just what that limit is will de-
pend not only upon the capacity of the heating system, but
also upon the conditions under which it is used. This in-
formation each operator must secure himself, and it can
not be too plainly stated that until he has done this he is
not ready to begin brooding chicks. The operator has only
himself to blame for the trouble and losses that he is
about certain to meet if this precaution is neglected.
The importance of learning the limitations of what-
ever brooding devices are used is all the greater because
average expectations regarding them are
high; that is, more is expected and demanded of them
than is reasonable or possible. The conditions that the
brooder must meet, especially early in the season, are
hard enough at best, what with the cold, raw winds, sud-
den and extreme cold snaps, belated snow storms, and
days of continuous rain that then are to be expected in
most sections of the country. Winter fires may have to
be resorted to in dwellings, but still it is expected that a

76

FIG. 123—PORTABLE HOVER WITH WIRE GUARD
Enclosed within a circular wire guard chicks cannot

and get chilled. If one-half or

entirely too.

little, one-inch lamp flame will furnish sufficient heat to
maintain a temperature of approximately 100 degrees un-
der a hover that has only a thin board wall for protec-
tion against storms and perhaps almost zero tempera-
tures. The better class of brooding devices are marvel-
ously efficient in the use of the comparatively small
amount of heat available, but there is always a limit
beyond which they cannot reasonably be expected to go
in supplying warmth, especially in the case of broods of
newly hatched chicks which require much higher tempera-
tures under the hover than those that are several weeks
old.

All brooder tests should be made with a thermome-
ter in the room as well as under the hover, and a written
record should be kept of the temperature in both loca-
tions. If this is done the brooder’s natural limits will
quickly be learned and
' there need be no uncertain-
ty then as to just what
may reasonably be expect-
ed in the future. With the
flame turned as high as it
is desirable to have it, if
the hover heat can be kept
up to 100 only when the
room or outside tempera-
ture is at or above 50,
then that must be accepted
as the brooder’s limit, and
if it is to be operated at
lower temperatures some
means of conserving the
heat must be provided. The
worst thing that can be
done is to risk chicks in
the brooder when it is known that the temperature to
which it is to be exposed will go well below its limit—
“taking a chance” on their coming through alive. The
operator can depend upon it that if his brooder, in a
definite test, fails to maintain sufficient heat when the
outside or room temperature drops below a certain point,
whether that is 40, 30 or 20 degrees, it will always fall
short thereafter at about that point.

What to Do When the Brooder Does Not Heat Up

Most complaints in regard to the brooder’s failing to
heat up are due to unreasonable demands—to expecting
it to maintain brooding temperatures under impossible
conditions. There are, however, various measures that
may be taken to help out in emergencies, and there are
some things that must not be done. The heating system,
whether it is oil, gas, or coal, can never be forced with
safety. If the lamp’ or heater, working at a safe limit,
will not furnish enough heat to meet necessary require-
ments, then there is only one thing to do, and that is to
find some way to save more of the heat. NEVER take
chances on a smoking or overheated lamp by turning the
flame beyond what is known to be the safety point.

The simplest way to handle an outdoor brooder that

Courtesy of Buck-

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROODER CHICKS 77

is not furnishing sufficient heat is to get it indoors where
it will be warmer and where it will be protected from
wind. If that cannot be done it may be possible to put
it in a more sheltered place such as setting it close to a
building or other windbreak, banking up around it with
leaves. straw, planer shavings, or anything that will stop
the circulation of the air around it and conserve heat.
Practically all ventilation in the brooder compartment can
be cut off under such conditions, as there will still be a
sufficient circulation of air to meet all necessary require-
ments. If there are two or more flocks of the same age
to be protected, it may be practical to put them both to-
gether in one brooder so that their bodily heat may rein-
force that from the lamp. If nothing else can be done,
the brooder can at least be covered with blankets, rugs
or pieces of carpet.

Where hovers are used it always is wise to have a
few cloth-covered enclosures such as the one shown in
Fig. 109 in order to be prepared for emergencies, and
these enclosures also can be helped out under extreme
conditions by banking up with planer shavings, etc., as
shown in Fig. 128. In banking up or blanketing any sort

FIG. 124—MUSLIN COVERED HOVER ENCLOSURE

Where there is danger of floor drafts, a hover
enclosure for newly hatched chicks like the above
is better than open wire as shown in Fig. 123.

of brooder or hover there is danger of cutting off the
supply of air needed by the lamp, or reducing the free cir-
culation of air required to keep it cool, and pains should
always be taken to see that this does not occur. Many
smoked and overheated lamps result from this cause.

All such precautions as have been here suggested are
merely makeshifts intended to meet sudden and unex-
pected emergencies, and must not be relied upon regu-
larly. They add greatly to the labor of caring for the
chicks and are only fairly satisfactory at best. If the
brooder is going to require frequent helping out in this
way it will be much more practical to set it aside for
warmer weather and provide some other appliance that
will supply enough heat to meet the requirements.

Under all ordinary conditions the thing to do where
chicks are to be brooded early in the season, is to have
a permanent brooder house, warmly built and equipped
with some source of anxiliary heat if necessary. Regu-
lar hot-water heating systems are best and cheapest in
large houses, but in small ones a coal-burning stove will
give good satisfaction. This will keep the room fairly
comfortable and make it comparatively easy for the hover
or brooder lamp to keep up the brooding temperature,
and will afford much more favorable conditions for the
chicks when out of the hover.

When to Take the Chicks Off

If the incubator can be spared for the purpose and
the chicks are not too much crowded, it is desirable to
leave them in the nursery for about 24 hours aiter they

are all out. If F
it is necessary to 4 /\ /\ 9 AN YN
reset the machine -
2 10
at once they may AN /\ AlN ZAIN
be taken out as $ VAN /\ it VAIN VAN
soon as they are 4 BR
an eee at Nw Als PAN
where this is ? /\ ZN 18 ZAN Js
done, careful at- 6 hs Z\\% 74 \ AS
tention must be y \ AN 15 Ad aS
given to prevent : ‘ AN
their chilling. § An AN (16 AN UntaN
When chicks FIG. 125—METHOD OF MARKING
must be taken CHICKS
A hole punched in the. web of the

from the ma- chick’s foot is a convenient way of
chine at this permanently marking the chick. The
; hole will never grow over, and chicks
time, the best so marked can always be identified.

5 There are 15 different combinations
plan is to put

possible, as shown in this illustration.

them in warmly
lined baskets or boxes and keep them covered up and i in
a warm place for a day or so. If it is not practicable to
do this, especial pains must be taken to have a reliable
brooder or hover ready for them, thoroughly warmed up
and accurately regulated to incubator temperature. If
possible, the brooder should be in a warm
room where the chicks will not be ex-
posed to cold the instant they get outside
the hover.

Whenever they are moved, the chicks
must be carefully protected against chill-
ing. A warmly lined basket or a tray such
as is shown in‘Fig. 80 should be provided.
The top of the box should be covered with
a cloth frame, and two light partitions, put
together in the form of a cross, should be
provided to divide the chicks into four
lots and prevent crowding when the tray
is filled, or to keep them together in one
or two compartments if only a few are to
be handled. Fasten the partitions together
but leave them loose in the box so that
they can readily be taken out for cleaning
and disinfecting, which should be done for
each brood. Do not try to move too many
chicks at a time if the room is cold, but
take out a few and then close the machine
and dispose of these before removing any
more.

Record Marking for Chicks

When the chicks are taken from the
incubator is the time to mark them, if any
sort of breeding or hatching record is to be
kept. One way of doing this is by the use of
leg bands as shown in Fig. 129. As there

: ‘ BROODER
is more or less trouble with leg bands, THERMOM-
however, owing to the necessity for chang- ETER.

ing them as the chicks grow, the system of
marking them by means of a band in the wing is re-
garded as more satisfactory. A leg band is employed
until the chicks are about a month old and then it is
transferred to the wing as shown in Fig. 130.

A simpler way where flock or hatching records only
are to be kept and not individual numbers, is by the

78 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

FIG. 127—A BROODER TEMPERATURE REGULATOR

While regulators are not as essential on brooders as
on incubators, they will be found well worth the extra
cost—particularly during the first few days when the
hover temperature should be fairly uniform. The regu-
lator illustrated above has a wafer thermostat. Courtesy
of Prairie State Incubator Company.

familiar toe-punching method, This is illustrated in Fig.
125. A record is kept of the significance of each com-
bination of punched webs and chicks so marked can read-
ily be identified ever after, as the holes in the web will
never grow over. A more systematic method of identify-
ing by toe-marking is described by Prof. F. C. Hare, of
Clemson College, S. C., as follows:

“In the system that I am using at Clemson College,
the toe punches are always known by number, and not by
inside or outside, left or right, or any location term. Four
valuations are given to the webs between the six toes
thus: The outside web of the left foot is 1; the inside
web of the left foot is 2; the inside web of the right foot
is 4; and the outside web of the right foot is 8. These
marks must be memorized, but if you will say them over
a few times that will readily be accomplished. Just re-
member that the series is 1, 2, 4, 8, with the 1 at the
left or PROPER UNIT place.

“Now, let us see how we will punch that chick from
pen three so that every time we catch him,
or any of his brothers or sisters, we will
know at once that the youngster is a progeny
of pen three. The outside left web is 1, and
inside left is 2. Three (3) is made by punch-
ing both 1 and 2 (both webs on the left foot).
So that we have this rule: Always add the
value of the punched webs and the result is
the number of the chick. For example, 4 is
one punch, the inside right; 5 is 4 plus 1, or
inside right and outside left, and so on up
to 15—8 and 4 and 2 and 1, or every web
punched. When you catch any bird, examine
his feet and add up the value of his punched
webs. You’ve got his number at once. I like
to associate the bird’s number with the pen
from which he was bred, as that saves all the
annoyance and trouble of looking up his
number in a note book.

“We have been using this method here, and
it is so much more satisfactory than the ordi-
nary way that I want others to profit by it.
The students can read the number of a chick
from his feet without error, and tell to which
pen he belongs. They have never heard the
terms “inside left” or “outside right,” and are
not bothered with a complicated system of
identification that is impossible to keep in
mind.”

This

illustration shows measures taken to save 2
weather brooding. The indoor brooder case is placed a few inches from
the house wall and the space between is packed with planer shavings.
Courtesy of Wisconsin Experiment Station.

Teaching the Chicks to Use the Hover

Place the chicks under the hover and keep them
there for at least several hours before feeding or water-
ing. A wire guard such as is illustrated in Fig. 123 is
indispensable at this time, setting it up just far enough
from the hover so that the chicks can get outside the
curtain, which should be pinned up here and there so that
there will be no possible chance for them to lose their
way. If the hover is square or oblong and open on only
one or two sides, make suitable wire-covered frames in-
stead, and set them up in front of the hover, moving them
back as the chicks learn how to use the additional space.
After they are once settled under the hover they should
not be confined to it but should have an opportunity to
run in and out, thus learning the source and location of
heat and how to find their way to it. Keep them under
constant observation at this time and push them back
under the hover at frequent intervals not only to prevent
any possibility of their getting chilled, but to make cer-
tain that they do not form the habit of huddling together
for warmth outside the hover, which habit, once formed,
will be a source of continual trouble during the entire
brooding period.

Gradually give the chicks more liberty, moving the
guard farther back from the hover, but never leaving
them for long at a time until certain that they will volun-
tarily go in when cold or uncomfortable.

Different broods of chicks vary more or less in the
promptness with which they become hoverwise. A single
day may be sufficient in some cases, but usually it takes
at least two or three days, and sometimes longer. Bear
in mind that every increase in liberty, such as removing
the guard, giving the chicks the run of the entire brooder
or house pen, letting them out into yards, and increasing
the size or shape of these, is a danger point. Chicks
readily get confused and lost in unfamiliar surroundings,
and every such change should be made gradually and the
chicks kept under observation until certain that they

FIG. 128—INDOOR BROODER INSULATED WITH PLANER SHAVINGS

neat in cold-

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROODER CHICKS 79

thoroughly know their way back. This trouble is es-
pecially liable to occur during the first week or two,
when the operator is impatient to get rid of guards, etc.,
which are somewhat troublesome, but without which
heavy losses may result. If the chicks have been prop-
erly trained they will be thoroughly familiar with their
surroundings by the time they are two weeks old and
thereafter they may be allowed to go and come at will.

Correct Brooder Temperature

The temperature to be maintained under the hover
will vary with the style of brooder used, the kind and
position of thermometer, the outside temperature, and the
age and development of the chicks. For this reason an
exact schedule of hover temperatures cannot be given,
though it can be approximated. The conduct of the
chicks themselves is a fairly accurate indication as to
whether the heat is right, but is not to be entirely relied
upon, as it is possible to ac-
custom young chicks to a
higher temperature than is
good for them by continual-
ly keeping the brooder a lit-
tle too warm.

Whatever the theoretically
correct temperature may be
at any given time, it is only
correct in practice when the
chicks themselves have put
their O. K. upon it. If they
are restless and dissatisfied
the temper:ture must be
raised sufficiently to make
them comfortable, whatever
the increase may be. How-
ever, any marked variation
from normal requirements is
good ground for suspecting
that something else is wrong.
Possibly the thermometer is
inaccurate—that is a matter
of frequent occurrence with
the low-priced ones common-
ly used in brooders. Some-
times the chicks are weakly,
due to inferior breeding
stock or to injuries received during incubation; and some-
times there is a defect in the brooder itself that needs
correction. Remember that a somewhat higher tempera-
ture than normal is always required in cold or windy
weather.

See Fig. 130.

Because of the various conditions that may modify
temperature requirements and because the chicks them-
selves must be the court of last resort, many operators
discard the thermometer entirely and depend solely on
the chicks and the “feel” when the hand is thrust under
the hover. This method may prove satisfactory for opera-
tors of experience but it would seem unwise to recom-
mend it for general adoption, especially during the first
few weeks of the chicks’ lives when there are other things
besides low temperatures that may cause discomfort and
restlessness among them and when, without a thermom-
eter, the inexperienced operator may be completely mis-
led as to actual conditions under the hover.

Brooding Temperature for First Four Weeks

In general, it is wise to start with the temperature
at 100 when the chicks are all under the hover, reducing

FIG. 129—CHICK WITH LEG BAND

Numbered leg bands must be provided where each
chick is to have a separate number. At the Kansas Ex-
periment Station the newly hatched chicks are banded
on the leg with pigeon bands.
four weeks old the bands are transferred to the wing.

it at the rate of about 5 degrees each week until the
chicks are four weeks old, when the temperature should
be about 80. These temperatures are to be taken with
a thermometer so placed that the bulb will be about on a
level with the chicks’ backs and well inside the hover
curtain but not necessarily in the warmest spot. The
schedule here given represents a_fair average of tempera-
ture requirements at all times during the first four weeks,
but may safely be varied 5 degrees either way as weather
conditions and the conduct of the chicks dictate.

Chicks when settled for the night should not be hud-
dled together in a bunch under the hover—that means
too little heat; neither should they collect outside the
hover curtain—a sure indication that it is too warm. In-
stead, they should all be under the hover but spread out
loosely with a few heads sticking out around the curtain.
As the temperature drops during the night the chicks
will gradually draw back toward the warm center. The
caretaker must see to it that
there is plenty of surplus
heat when the temperature is
liable to drop low during the
night. If the hover has a
regulatot, as it should, this
surplus heat will be allowed
to escape until it is needed.
If not, the chicks will have
to get away from it by keep-
ing close to the hover cur-
tain in the evening. In warm
weather when it sometimes is
almost impossible to supply
any heat at all during the
day without having too much
when the chicks gather un-
der the hover, it is a good
plan to raise part of the-
hover curtain. It is much
better to do this than to let
the lamp go out, in which
case there will be no reserve
heat at all in case of a sud-
den change.

After the chicks are large
enough to run out more or
less during the day, it still is
well to keep up a good temperature under the hover so
that any that get chilled can warm up quickly. In brood-
ers that have square or oblong hovers and in which one
side or end is noticeably warmer than the rest of the
hover space, the temperature must always be high enough
so that the chicks will keep away from the warm end.
If it gets cold enough so that they crowd to the warm
spot there is likely to be trouble.

When they are three or

From the time the chicks are hatched until they no
longer need artificial heat, they must be protected against
getting chilled. It is expensive and unnecessary to have
a great excess of heat, but it is always better to err on
the side of too much rather than too little. The chicks
can get away from too much heat, but they have no re-
course when there is too little. Great losses occur an-
nually on account of brooders being operated at too low
temperatures, either through carelessness or on account
of inadequate heating systems. Many operators persist
year after year in using brooders that are known to be
unequal to the demands that will be placed upon them—
that cannot supply the heat needed or cannot be relied
on to keep it uniform over night, though they well know

80 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

that a single chilling is certain to cause serious trouble
and may result in the loss of the entire flock.

How Many Chicks to the Brooder

One of the most common sources of disease and loss
among brooder chicks is overcrowding in the brooder or
house pen, and it is important that the actual capacity of
the brooder, hover, or pen be clearly understood. There
are no definite standards for estimating brooder capacity,
but as the average egg occupies approximately 3.5 square
inches in the incubator it is clear that the chicks should
each have at least 4 square inches of floor space under
the hover. This means that to accommodate 100 newly
hatched chicks the hover must be not less than 20 inches

square, or about 23 inches in diameter if round. By the

_time the chicks are two or three weeks old they will be
badly crowded if allowed no more space than this, and
the number should be reduced to 65, or 75 at the most.

Since the claims of various manufacturers as to the
capacity of their brooders
are based on different stand-
ards, it will prevent confu-
sion and disappointment if
the following general rule is
applied to all: Learn the
number of square inches en-
closed under the hover and
divide this by 4 to get the
capacity in newly hatched
chicks; divide by 6 to learn
the number of chicks that
can be accommodated when
3 weeks old; and by 8 to get
the capacity in chicks 5
weeks old. If there are any
lamp boxes or heat drums
‘occupying floor space under
the hovers, this must be de-
ducted before making the
division. If the weather is
quite warm so that it does
not matter whether the
chicks can all get under the
hover or not, these limits
may be somewhat exceeded.
‘On the other hand, the reg-
ular estimated capacity
should always be discounted
in cold weather.

Inasmuch as there are few instances where it is prac-
ticable to divide or reapportion broods at the end of the
third week when additional room is imperative if the
brooders have been filled to capacity at first, the most
practical plan is to base all estimates on the number of
three-week-old chicks the brooder can accommodate, and
limit the original flocks to about that number. Where the
maximum capacity of the brooder is required at the
start, the chicks usually are left in it indefinitely, with the
result that they are badly overcrowded as they reach
larger size.

Do not guess at the dimensions of the hover or in
regard to the proper number of chicks to be brooded in
it. Learn just what its capacity is, and never exceed it.
Jf there are more chicks than there is brooder capacity
for, and it is impossible to provide additional space in
any other way, at least make some fireless brooders and
put the surplus in these. It is useless to hatch out good
chicks simply to kill them off in overcrowded brooders

FIG. 130—CHICK WITH WING BAND

Many persons who keep a pedigreed record of their
chicks prefer to remove the leg band after the chick
is a few weeks old and transfer it to the wing. A little
slit is made in the web, using a sharp penknife, and the
band is slipped through and bent into place. It remains
here without further attention during the life of the
chick. Photo from Kansas Experiment Station.

where they do not have sufficient liberty of movement,
are apt to get overheated when the brooder is too warm,
or where they cannot all get under the hover when it is
cold. Even though no direct losses should result, there
will be a general lack of thrift, and the chicks will be
weakened and made increasingly liable to ailments which
they probably would have entirely escaped if they had
had a fair chance in the brooder.

The amount of houseroom that should be provided
for chicks will depend to some extent upon the climate.
Comparatively little room outside the hover will be suf-
ficient for the first week, after which it should be in-
creased as rapidly as is found to be safe. Where the
chicks must be confined indoors most of the time it is
usual to provide a pen about 4x10 feet for the use of a
flock of 100 after they are about three weeks old—an
average of about 2.6 chicks to each square foot of floor
space. Naturally, if the chicks can be outdoors most of
the time during the day less floor space will be needed.

Much less space than this
usually is allowed to colony-
hover chicks, a room 10x10
or 12x12 feet being consid-
ered sufficient for a flock of
300 to 500 chicks. The lat-
ter number however, will be
badly crowded in even a
12x12-foot room, after the
chicks are a few weeks old,
unless the weather is so
mild that they can be out-
doors most of the time. A
portable colony house 8x8
feet is recommended by the
Poultry Department of Cor-
nell University, for a flock
of 250 newly hatched chicks,
which allows one square foot
to four chicks.

Providing Ventilation

Ventilation, so far as the
hover space itself is con-
cerned, generally is taken
care of by the heating sys-
tem which in most brooders
is designed to furnish a sup-
ply of fresh, warmed air un-
der the hover, making any
especial attention to this point unnecessary except in
warm weather when little heat is supplied and the move-
ment of the air is slow and uncertain. If the hover is
one of the indoor type the lamp fumes must either be
piped out of the house or special ventilation provided to
get rid of them. This is not necessary in a large room
which can be freely ventilated, but in small or tightly
closed houses, also where a number of hovers are being
operated in one room, it will pay to provide a direct out-
let for the fumes. After the chicks are far enough along
so that they do not require artificial heat, ventilation be-
comes more important.

As a rule, it is desirable to leave the chicks under
the hover for some time after heat is no longer required,
opening up the curtain sufficiently to provide some cir-
culation of air.

Just how long the chicks should have heat will de-
pend on season and breed, also on the condition of par-
ticular broods. In quite warm weather the chicks may

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROODER CHICKS 81

be able to supply sufficient bodily heat without using the
lamp at all. Usually they need heat for three to four
weeks in mild weather, and for as long as 7 or 8 weeks
in the case of extra-early broods. The conduct of the
chicks themselves should be the guide in deciding this.
As long as they require heat in order to be comfortable
it should be supplied, no matter how long that may be.
Great harm will be done by cutting off the heat too soon.
This practice is of common occurrence where not enough
brooding equipment is provided, making it necessary to
take the brooders for new flocks before the older chicks
are sufficiently developed to get along without them.
There is no economy whatever in doing this. It is
always better to have a little more brooder equipment
than is needed, rather than less. The man who has one
or two hovers that he never has to unpack will raise more
chicks and will raise them more successfully than the
one who must continually push his chicks along into cold
brooders before they are ready for them.

In the changeable weather of early spring it is wise °

to leave the hovers in’ position for some time after the
lamp is permitted to go out, since a sudden
cold snap may necessitate firing up again.
However, as soon as it is reasonably certain
that no more heat will be required, it is ad-
visable to substitute cheap, homemade cold
brooders or hovers. These will answer the
purpose as well as the manufactured ones and
wil! add many years of usefulness to the lat-
ter. Allowing chicks to continue using the
regular hovers after they no longer need
artificial heat results in rapid deterioration
of equipment. \

The Use of Cold Brooders

‘A cold brooder that may be made quite
cheaply, and is easily substituted for heated
hovers, is shown in Figs. 133 and 134. This
cold hover originated at the Poultry Depart-
ment of Wisconsin Experiment Station, and
has been in successful use there for some
years. An open, four-sided wooden frame on
an elevated floor is provided for the circu-
lar lamp-heated hovers that are used as long as the chicks
need artificial heat. Afterwards the “cold frame” is sub-
stituted for the hover, the method of doing this being
thus described in Wisconsin Bulletin 261:

“On a mild night remove the hover from the brooder
box and insert a ‘cold frame.’ A cold frame is made
twenty-seven inches square with eight-inch plain boards
on three sides, the fourth side being open, except for a
slitted curtain of soft, warm cloth of the same color, if
possible, as the curtain around the hover. The top of the
cold frame is made of strips an inch thick and three
inches wide, nailed together at the ends to form a frame
which fits inside of the side pieces and rests on blocks
nailed in each corner. This frame is covered with single-
faced eiderdown or other warm cloth tacked loosely so
that it sags in the center and rests on the chicks’ backs
when they go into the frame to sleep at night or warm
up during the day. The open side is placed against the
south side of the hover box through which the chicks
enter. The chicks are accustomed to go through this
opening in search of warmth and usually take to the
new home without trouble. If they do not go in, put
them in carefully. The corners of the frame must be
well banked with litter (planer shavings) so that center
of frame is the lowest, with a gradual rise to each corner,

FIG. 131—OUTSIDE BROODER WITH ENCLOSED RUN

Outdoor brooders should be provided with some sort of enclosed
Tun to which newly hatched chicks can be confined. If the covered run
shown in Fig. 115 is considered too expensive, at least have one like
this. It will pay for itself in a short time.

“The cold frame boxes are about six inches smaller
than the brooder box. This space is banked full with lit-
ter so that chicks cannot fly on top of the brooder box
and get into this narrow space. This packing of litter
helps to make the cold frame warmer. On cold nights if
the chicks seem inclined to huddle together, cover the
top with two or three burlap sacks for additional protec-
tion. As the chicks get older-and no longer need the
protection of the cold frame, they begin to stay outside
or just inside near the opening. Do not disturb them
and in a few more nights practically all will be inclined
to stay outside. Then the cold frame can be removed,
disinfected, and dried for the next lot. While it is in
use the cloth top should be carefully sunned or dried
each day and the litter should be frequently changed if
est results are to be secured.”

In warmer weather it is sufficient to replace the
round heated hovers with wooden ones a few inches
greater in diameter, enclosed in the usual way with
slashed hover curtains and supported on legs so that
the hover space will be about 8 inches high. It is a sim-

ET IE ETN NT RT I ab

t

ple matter to take out the regular hovers and set these
cheap, simple substitutes in their places, and if this is
done in mild weather the chicks will not notice the
change. Do not make the mistake of doing this right at
the beginning of a cold spell however, nor should the
preparation of these hovers be postponed until the need
for them is pressing. The brooder season on the poultry
farm is the busiest of all the year and there is never
time enough for doing the things that need to be done
then.

Chicks do not readily take to changes, and it will
simplify this part of the work greatly if the lamp-heated
and cold hovers do not differ greatly in appearance. By
all means avoid moving the chicks to new quarters and
changing the hover at the same time. The almost in-
evitable result is to have them crowd together in some
corner, smothering and sweating and laying the founda-
tion for sore eyes, colds, diarrhea, and other ailments.

Transferring chicks from brooders or brooder houses
to colony houses is always a danger period. Eventhough
they may be accustomed to cold brooders or none at all,
when they are moved to strange quarters they are apt
to crowd in some corner, and serious injury may occur.
There should always be some means provided for round-
ing out the corners of the house such as by the use of

82 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

boards, a strip of prepared roofing, a piece of netting,
etc. These can be lightly tacked or hooked in place and
removed when no longer needed.

Cleanliness and Disinfection

Cleanliness, as applied to brooders, means that they
shall be dry and free from unpleasant odors, and that
the litter shall be removed frequently enough to prevent
an undue accumulation of droppings. This does not nec-
essarily mean that there is to be no accumulation at all,
but there must be no dampness or foul smell.

Whether the floor under the hover should be cleaned
every day will depend on the number of chicks and the
thickness of the litter, also on the kind of litter used.
The ideal way perhaps, is to clean out under the hover
once a day, but in practical poultry keeping much time

FIG. 132—GET THE CHICKS OUTDOORS AS SOON AS POSSIBLE

Chicks that can get down on the ground in direct sunlight will do much :
better than when shut indoors. Keep them confined close to the door until they ground, andif for any reason the coy-

can readily find their way back and forth.

and labor may be saved by using plenty of. litter and
cleaning less frequently. A deep bed of litter with a
liberal percentage of dry, odorless droppings mixed in
it may actually be more sanitary—may be “cleaner’—
than a floor laboriously cleaned every day, but so spar-
ingly littered that the brooder is always smelly and the
chicks’ feet continually soiled with fresh droppings.
Whatever may be done elsewhere it will pay to use litter
freely in and about brooders and hovers. Keeping chicks
on practically bare floors cannot be excused on the ground
of economy or any other. The floor of the house pen or
brooder need only be cleaned infrequently if litter is
freely used. For example, where deep litter feeding is
adopted (see Chapter XI) it is not necessary to remove
the litter for weeks at a time. However, if it gets notice-
ably damp from any cause it must be removed at once.

The need for disinfection depends somewhat on con-
ditions. If there is any reason to suspect that there is
disease in the flock, more frequent disinfection will be
called for than would be the case where the chicks are

all healthy. However, the brooder should at least be dis-
infected for each new brood. For this purpose formalde-
hyde or a good coal-tar disinfectant can be used, apply-
ing it with a spray pump or, in case of the hover floor,
with a scrub broom or brush. Always have the brooder
thoroughly dry before using for the next brood of chicks
and if it is to be disinfected during occupancy, let the
work be done on a warm, sunny day, and have the
brooder thoroughly dry before turning the chicks back in.
If they are too young to stay out for the time necessary
to do this, transfer them to another brooder or put them
in clean fireless brooders or the chick trays used in
transferring them from the incubator.

These steps will be about all that will be required
under ordinary conditions but it will be found a wise
precaution to keep some disinfecting solution on hand at
all times. Use it in washing the
water founts and feeding vessels at
frequent intervals, especially if milk
or soft feeds are supplied.

Under the head of cleanliness
‘comes the injunction to see to it that
the litter is kept dry and reasonably
free from droppings. Extremely dusty
litter also is highly objectionable and
it must be renewed frequently
enough to prevent its becoming so.
If feed, especially moist mash, is
scratched into the litter it should
promptly be removed and replaced
with new. Also, when the water
fount is left standing in one place,
the litter frequently becomes water-
soaked and in this condition is a
menace to the health of the flock.
Always remove litter that gets wet
from any cause, and shift the location
of the fount frequently, unless an
elevated platform is provided for it
and the feed hoppers, which is by
far the better plan.

The runs or yards also should re-
ceive regular attention. When out-
door coops or brooders are used they
must be moved frequently to new

ered runs or yards are allowed to

stand in one place until the ground
becomes bare it should be well covered with a coat of
air-slacked lime. As a rule, the yards should not be per-
mitted to get into this condition however, but should
be moved frequently enough to avoid it. If bare yards
must be used they should be kept clean either by scrap-
ing and sweeping them every week or so, or by spading.
The latter method will aerate the soil and the chicks will
derive additional advantage from having loose earth to
scratch in. If the soil is sandy or the yard is filled in
as described in Chapter XII, probably nothing will be
necessary aside from renewing the surface material every
year, but clay soils require extreme cleanliness to keep
them sanitary and free from disease germs.

Litter for the Brooder

Short-eut alfalfa hay is by far the best material gen-
e1ally available for litter. If it cannot be secured or if
the price is too high to make its use practical, there are
other materials that can be employed. Mow chaff or
“shatterings” are good if free from mold, but if from

CARE

FIG. 133—A HEAT SAVING COLD BROODER
The brooder here

brooder. Courtesy of Wisconsin Exveriment Station.

clover hay, examine them carefully for this. Dusty mow
chaff is a frequent source of an epidemic disease affect-
ing brooder chicks. Clover hay or shredded corn fodder
or stover run through a feed cutter and reduced to short
lengths will answer fairly well, also dried lawn clippings
if free from mold. After chicks are two or three weeks
old, coarse sawdust or planer shavings may be used, but
are not recommended for newly hatched chicks. Coarse
bran often is recommended for litter for young chicks,
but shortcut alfalfa is much better and usually is cheaper.

In the absence of anything else, coarse, clean sand
may be used. It will keep the droppings from sticking
to the floor and will absorb moisture, but cannot be re-
garded as litter or even as a substitute for it. The prac-
tice of placing paper on the floor of brooders,
especially under hovers, is objectionable un-
less well-covered with litter. A bare paper
surface is too smooth, does sot afford a foot-
hold for the chicks, and may cause cripples.

Getting the Chicks Outdoors

The age at which chicks should be given
access to outdoor yards depends upon the
season and the method of brooding. Many
chick growers insist on the chicks being out
on the ground by the time they are a week
old, letting them out for at least a few min-
utes daily even though it may be quite cold.
Coddling the chicks will make them weakly
and hard to raise, it is true, but it is doubt-
ful whether there is any advantage in expos-
ing them to severe cold at an extremely early
age. The general practice is to keep chicks
indoors until they are at least two or three
weeks old in cold weather, provided there is
plenty of room for them. With outdoor
brooders, where the floor space is necessarily
quite limited, the chicks must get out about
as soon as they become hoverwise. In per-
manent brooder houses, also in colony houses
of sufficient size, the chicks will suffer no in-

i illustrated serves as an enclosure for lamp-
heated hovers until artificial heat is no longer required, after which
the hover_is removed and the brooder arranged to operate as a cold

hover in place.
the bodily heat of the chicks, but the operator should not depend too
much upon this.
there is need for them. Courtesy of Wisconsin Experiment Station.

AND MANAGEMENT OF BROODER CHICKS 83

jury if kept indoors for two or three weeks,
if properly cared for. If on hard floors how-
ever, with little or no litter to scratch in, a
number of difficulties will quickly develop,
such as toe picking, lez weakness, etc., and in
addition there will be a general lack of
thrift which, while less noticeable, may cause
even more serious loss in the long run.

No matter how comfortably the chicks
may be housed and brooded, there seldom is
any condition that will make it desirable to
keep them indoors longer than three weeks,
and to keep them in for even that time with-
out injury necessitates ample floor space,
plenty of litter, and careful feeding. In mild
weather chicks may be out much sooner—
usually within 10 days. Let them out for
only a short time at first and in the warmest
part of the day, increasing the length of the
period as conditions and the conduct of the
chicks suggest: If the yards or runs are cov-
ered with tall grass, weeds, or growing crops,
do not Iet the chicks out until the dew has
dried off.

In introducing the chicks to their outdoor
tun, they should be confined close to the
brooder or house door at first. A convenient
way of doing this is to use a strip of one-inch mesh net-
ting with wire supports, or panels of netting, both of
which are illustrated and described in Chapter XII. If
the door of the brooder or house is above the ground
level, take pains to see that the approach to it is made
flush with the doorstep or sill, and is not too steep, so
that the chicks will have no trouble in getting into the
house.

After they have become thoroughly familiar with
their small yard, its size can safely be increased to in-
clude whatever space is available. By the time the chicks
are four weeks old they should be spending most of their
time outdoors, and the more room they have thereafter
the better it will be for them. When the chicks are fair-

FIG. 134—COLD BROODER READY FOR USE
This is the brooder shown in Fig. 133, made ready for use with the

This brooder is built to retain as much as possible of

Leave the lamp-heated hovers in place as long as

S+ ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

ly well feathered out, they may be given free range if
available. Chicks can be successfully grown to adult
size in quite limited space if they receive the needed
extra care and attention, but when they can have free
range, that is by all odds the cheapest and best way in
which to raise them.

Teaching Chicks to Use Perches

There is no advantage in, and no necessity for hav-
ing the chicks perch at too early an age. As long as
they are satisfied under the cold hover or on the floor
it is wise to let well enough alone, at least until they
are eight to ten weeks old or thereabouts, after which
no doubt, they will be better off on perches. There sel-
dom is any trouble in getting Leghorn chicks and those
of similar breeds to use perches, most of them doing so
before it is really desirable, but chicks of the larger
breeds often are extremely slow in learning. It is not

FIG. 185—CHICKS BROODED IN COLONY HOUSE
As soon as settled weather arrives chicks can be brooded from the start in

portable colony houses like the above.

United States Department of Agriculture.

difficult to teach them however, when
enough, if they are handled properly.

A week or two before the cold hover is to be taken
away, aperching board should be put inplacein the house
near the hover. This board should not be over a foot
above the floor and should be eight to ten inches wide.
It should be placed back against the wall, moving the
hover forward, if necessary, so that it will not be under
the board. The chicks will take to the perching board
and will enjoy using it in the daytime even though they
may abandon it for the hover in the evening. As they
grow familiar with it however, some will remain on it
at night, the number gradually increasing until all or
nearly all will voluntarily perch there. Until they do
this the cold hover should be left in place. After the
chicks have become accustomed to the board, a perch
may be installed, placing it a little above the board and
in front of it, so the chicks on the board will not be
soiled by the droppings from those on the perch, but
so that they will all be close together, the board serving

they are old

For suggestions in regard to making
portable fence panels such as are shown herewith, see Chapter XII. Photo from

as a sort of step to the perch. The chicks will not be
long in passing over from the one to the other, and when
they do so the board may be removed, and the perch
put back and raised to a height of 18 inches to 2 feet.
The essential point in this as in other advance steps
that the chicks are required to take all along the line
from the incubator to adult size, is to make no abrupt
changes. Let them pass gradually from one thing to the
next, giving them time to become accustomed to each
successive step.

Care of Brooding Equipment When Not in Use

The better makes of brooders and hovers contain so
good materials and are so well made that they are to be
regarded as permanent assets. If they are properly cared
for when not in use, they will last for many years. As
a rule, it is not legitimate use but neglect, rust, and de-
cay that cause these articles to wear out. Just as soon
as they have served their purpose for
the season, they should be removed
from the houses where they have
been in use, or brought in from out-
doors in the case of brooders, and
thoroughly cleaned, disinfected, and
stored in a dry place where they will
be safe from rats. Wooden surfaces
on which the paint is getting dull,
should be repainted, and if the
brooder has been standing on the
ground it should be turned up so that
the bottom will dry out thoroughly,
after which it also should have a good
coat of paint. Metal surfaces that are
liable to rust, should be oiled or
painted, and hover curtains that are
badly soiled should be washed and
then put back in place. Lamp bowls
should be emptied, cleaned, and
dried. Any repairs that may be
needed should also be attended to at
this time, and loose articles of equip-
ment such as thermometers, regu-
lator parts, etc., should be collected
and carefully stored in a convenient
place. These attentions and repairs
take only a little time, but they
will more than double the effective life of the appliances.

The Growing Stock

After the chicks no longer need brooders, either
heated or otherwise, their treatment will be determined
mainly by the future use to be made of them. Surplus
stock to be marketed as squab broilers will be ready for
special fattening almost as soon as they leave the brooder,
or very shortly thereafter. If to be sold as regular broil-

ers or frys, they should have a few weeks on range and

then be penned or put in fattening crates for special feed-
ing. If intended for next season’s breeding pens, they
will receive the general care and management outlined
in Chapter II, Pullets intended for winter. layers should,
as a rule, be separated from the cockerels, placed in col-
ony houses, and given all the liberty possible. The vari-
ous details of care and feeding beyond brooding age do
not properly come within the scope of this book, but will
be found quite fully treated in “The Chick Book”—see
page 112.

CBA REE Ry XI

Feeding the Brooder Chicks

W hen to Begin Feeding Newly Hatched Chicks and the Special Feeds That Should Be Provided—Rations That Secure
Rapid Growth—Practical Methods of Saving Labor—How to Economize in Feed Cost—The Advantages of
Hopper Feeding, and Its Limitations—Formulas for Home-Mixed Rations—

How to Feed After the Chicks Are Out on Range. -

HILE the embryo has drawn upon the yolk for

food practically throughout the developing period,

a large portion of it still is unabsorbed, and it

forms approximately one-sixth of the entire
weight of the chick when hatched. This left-over yolk
is drawn into the abdomen just before hatching. It is
connected with the intestine about midway between the
gizzard and the anus, by means of a “stalk” through
which it is rapidly assimilated. Only a trace of it should
be left on the sixth day.

The chick’s digestive organs are not fully developed
at hatching time and the
overzealous caretaker who
. promptly places food before
them is inviting trouble of
the most serious kind. Care-
ful investigations have shown
that the chick’s stomach is
not fully developed until the
second day after hatching,
while the pancreatic fer-
ments are not normally de-
veloped until the seventh
day. Because of this fact,
when newly hatched chicks
are fed too soon or too
heavily, the food cannot be
digested, but remains undi-
gested in the crop, gizzard
or intestines, where it fer-
ments and causes one of the
commonest forms of so-
called “white diarrhea.”

Too early feeding also in-
terferes with the prompt ab-
sorption of the yolk which
is believed to result in un-
favorable changes in its
composition that further complicate the situation and in-
crease the difficulty of successfully raising the chicks. It
is not necessary nor desirable that the yolk should be en-
tirely absorbed before feeding begins, but it clearly
should form the chick’s sole means of subsistence for the
first two days at least. After that, in gradually decreas-
ing proportions, it serves to reinforce the food obtained
from outside sources and appears to have some influence
in regulating the chick’s bowels at this critical time, start-
ing them to function in the natural way.

Normally developed chicks usually demand some food
by the end of the second day, and while they apparently
are not seriously inconvenienced by going without for a
day or two longer, the general practice is to begin feed-
ing them lightly at this time. Chicks will live for many
days without any supplied food. The United States Post
Office Department accepts parcel post shipments of day-
old chicks that can be delivered within seventy-two hours,
or three days, and there are numerous reports of ship-
ments that have been on the road for five days without
any apparent injury.

side the brooder.

FIG. 136—FEED THE CHICKS OUTSIDE THE
BROODER

As soon as the chicks can find their way back to the
hover readily, all feeding and watering should be out-

Doing this saves work and litter.

When to Begin Feeding

In determining when the first feed should be given,
the beginner sometimes is confused by irregular hatch-
ing which may extend over an entire day or longer, leav-
ing him uncertain as to just when the two-day period
begins or ends. In a general way, it may be said that
the hatch is assumed to have begun when the chicks
commence to come out freely—not when the first few
make their appearance, which may be several hours in
advance of the general movement.

While the two-day period is a convenient approxi-
mate guide in determining
when to begin feeding, the
conduct of the chicks should
also be considered. If they
do not appear particularly
hungry after the two days
are up it will be wise to de-
lay feeding a little longer.
If on the other hand they
clearly are ready for food it
is safe to supply it a little in
advance of the regular time.
However, when the chicks
become dissatisfied and noisy
on the second day the cause
is apt to be thirst rather than
hunger. If they have been
dried down a little too much
in the incubator, or are kept
close under the hover, as
usually is necessary for the
first day or two while they
are learning where to go for
warmth, they will need water
before food, and it is well to
supply it regularly after the
first day, using for the pur-
pose small founts similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 138.

Place these where the chicks can get at them readily,
and provide enough of them so that the thirsty ones
will have room to drink without crowding, and there will
be no danger of their getting wet. If the chicks become
very thirsty however, and must all drink from a single
fount they are apt to pile up about it, dripping and splash-
ing the water over each other until they are thoroughly
soaked and chilled—thus laying the foundation for intes-
tinal disorders and an epidemic of diarrhea.

In order to avoid this danger, also to make it easy
for the chicks to find the water and learn to drink, it is
practical to use ordinary pie pans for water dishes for the
first two or three days, putting just a little water in
each. In this way the chicks can get at the water read-
ily, and there need be no crowding. If the water is
lukewarm, as it should be, getting into it with their feet
will do them no harm, and they will keep drier than
when ordinary founts are used. Some prefer to fill the
pans with coarse gravel so that the chicks can get at
the water without standing in it. In either case the pans

85

86 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

must be emptied and refilled often enough to keep the
water ciean. After the chicks have learned to drink,
founts are entirely satisfactory and more convenient.

As a rule there will be no difficulty in teaching chicks
co drink. ‘The brightest ones will learn quickly when the
opportunity is afforded, and the rest will promptly imi-

FIG. 137—FEEDING TRAY FOR SOFT FEED
_ This tray is made from a smooth board of suitable
size, with strips of lath around the edge. These should
extend about half an inch above the board. Soft feed
epourd never be thrown upon the floor or into the
itter.

tate them. There is no danger of their drinking more
water than is good for them if it is regularly provided
after the first day and they are never allowed to get ex-
tremely thirsty. The water vessels should be placed di-
rectly upon the brooder floor at first, close to the hover,
but after the chicks have become hoverwise it. is advis-
able to put them on boards or slightly raised platforms
so that litter will not be scratched into them. Drinking
vessels filled with litter and dirt are a constant menace
to the health of the flock.

Founts manufactured for this special purpose are best
and cheapest for ordinary use but, in an emergency, a
homemade fount can readily be extemporized from a one-
quart vegetable can and a small dish or pan (see Fig.
139.) Punch one or two holes in the can so that they
will be a little below the top of the dish when in use;
fill can with water, place dish over it and invert. If the
hole is properly located the water will stand a little
below the top of dish and will be renewed from the can
as the chicks drink it. The dish should be only one to
one and one-half inches larger in diameter than the can,
for best results.

Tt is important for the chicks to have some grit from
the start, and many experienced chick raisers place this
before them a few hours in
advance of the first feed. In
order to be certain that they
all get their share of this

ration it should regularly be
mixed with each soft feed
until certain that the chicks
will voluntarily help them-
selves to it from the hopper.
Use a good grade of com-
mercial chick grit if obtain-
able. In the absence of this,
supply clean, sharp sand.

FIG. 18s—DRINKING
FOUNT

There is no better way

Importance of Careful
Feeding

The exact character of the
ration that is fed to chicks is
of less importance than the
way in which it is fed—but still highly important. Strong,
vigorous chicks will do well on rations that are far from
being correct, provided they are carefully fed; but they

of supplying drinking
water for chicks than by
the use of a two-piece
fount similar to this one.

highly important part of the.

will only make their best growth and development when
their rations are properly adapted to their needs. If
some chick raisers realize a measure of success with dis-
tinctly inferior rations, that does not affect the fact that
the more suitable the feed provided, the easier it is to
raise the chicks, and the better they will develop. No
ration however, can be made up that will relieve the
feeder of the necessity for exercising care and judgment
in supplying it. Many a watchful, earnest farmer’s wife
with painstaking skill, and with the added advantage of
farm conditions generally, is able to raise a larger per-
centage of chicks on cornmeal dough (which is about
the worst feed to give them) than other persons who use
the best of “balanced rations,” but who feed them care-
lessly.

It is not meant by the foregoing to imply that there
is any one method of feeding, or any one ration, that is
to be recommended above all others. On the contrary,
the well-informed chick raiser has a rather wide range
of choice in both respects, being able readily to adapt
the ration to available supplies and to modify methods
of feeding to suit personal convenience. The beginner
however, should not presume too much upon this fact. -
Lacking in the exact knowledge required to make such
adjustments successfuily, and quite apt to underestimate
the importance of ;
seemingly minor de-
‘ails, he almost in-
variably finds that
he is more success-
ful when he adopts
a definite ration and
method of feeding,
each of proved value
and then adheres |
strictly to them.
Other methods may
seem simpler or
less laborious; other

FIG, 139—A HOMEMADE DRINK-
ING FOUNT

A one-quart can inverted over a
saucer makes a _ good fount for

emergency use, but the regular

rations may be manufactured ones are more sub-
stantial, less easily upset, and the
cheaper or more _ chicks are not so apt to get wet.

easily provided; but

without personal knowledge and skill, changes are almost
invariably unsatisfactory and often disastrous. It is for
this reason that in the latter part of this chapter some
definite methods of chick feeding are given in detail.
Unless there is a good reason for doing otherwise, the
beginner should adopt one of these and follow it ex-
actly. It will be time enough to simplify or cheapen it,
when there is a substantial foundation of experience up-
on which to base the changes.

Nursery Feeds

During the first few days the food should be quite
limited in quantity and of an easily digested nature.
Cooked feeds are considered extra desirable and many
experienced feeders depend almost exclusively upon
bread crumbs at this time, moistening these with milk
if obtainable, otherwise with water. Some add to the
bread crumbs a limited amount of hard-boiled egg, using
for this purpose infertile eggs tested out of the incu-
bator. These are boiled for half an hour and then crushed
or run through a food chopper, shells and all, and mixed
with bread crumbs in the proportion of about six parts
of the latter to one of the former. In view of the fact
that chicks frequently have difficulty in assimilating the
original unabsorbed yolk, the advisability of adding hard-
boiled eggs to the nursery food appears questionable.

* 2.

FEEDING THE BROODER CHICKS 87

After the chicks are a week old there will be no objec-
tion to using them, but for the first few days the need
for animal feed can be much better supplied in the form
of skim milk, either sweet or sour, or a very limited
amount of finely cut fresh meat.

In place of bread crumbs many use commercial “chick
starters,” or prepared nursery foods, several of which are
excellent for the purpose and much more convenient than
bread crumbs. Johnnycake is another nursery food in
common use. In Farmers’ Bulletin 624, of the United
States Department of Agriculture, directions for making
johnnycake are given as follows: “To one dozen infertile
eggs or one pound of sifted beef scrap add ten pounds
of cornmeal and one tablespoonful of baking.soda, and
mix with enough milk to make a pasty mash.” This mix-
ture can be baked on a griddle or skillet, or in the oven,
as convenient. Whatever feeds are used, no pains should
be spared to insure their being thoroughly wholesome
and untainted. Nothing that has heated or that is moldy
or sour should be fed under any condition. It does not
seem to matter whether the milk given to chicks is sweet
or sour,

It is not possible to give exact directions in regard
to the amount of feed to supply during the first few days,
but the quantity should be limited. The feeder must learn
to be governed by the condition and conduct of his
chicks, following the general rule to “feed often, but keep
them hungry.” The usual plan is to let them have all
the moist mash they will eat in three to five minutes,
after which the surplus is promptly removed. Three
feeds will be sufficient the first day, but thereafter it is
advisable to feed four or five times, at regular intervals.

Great harm is done by leaving soft feed before the
chicks so that, after eating what they need and running
back under the hover to warm up, they can come out
later and stuff themselves with what they do NOT need.
If the chicks are slow about learning, it may be advis-
able to give them a little more time for the first feed
or two, to be certain that all have had a chance, but do
not be overanxious about this. Some chicks will be near-
ly a day younger than others and these will be better
off if they do not eat at all. After the first two days
however, the rule should be “every chick out at feeding
time,” whether they eat much or little.

Probably the best way to give soft feed is to pro-
vide a sufficient number of wooden trays, such as the
one shown in Fig. 137. This consists simply of a smooth
half-inch board (six inches in width by twelve inches in
length is a practical and convenient size for a small
flock) with a strip around the edge about the width of
an ordinary plastering lath, to prevent the contents from
being scratched out. Use nothing but smooth, surfaced
lumber in making them, and provide enough so that all
the chicks can get to the feed at the same time, without
crowding. Keep these trays clean and free from taint
by daily scalding or sunning.

For reasons already given the chicks’ food, during
the first few days of their lives, should be chosen with
care, but thereafter their feeding offers no peculiar prob-
lems. Chicks should be regarded simply as fowls—quite
small, it is true, but fowls just the same. So far as feed-
ing is concerned, their appetites and needs differ from
those of adult fowls only as modified by their smaller
size. The same grains that are good for adult fowls are
good for chicks, and they may be fed in about the same
proportions. If some feeds are provided for the chicks
that ordinarly are not given to adults, that usually is be-
cause they are too expensive to be fed to the latter, but

are required in so small quantities for chicks that the
slight additional cost is unimportant compared with the
desirability of giving them the best possible start.

Whatever the nursery feed may be, the general prac-
tice is to begin the use of a mixture of finely cracked
grains, generally called chick feed, about the third to
the sixth day of feeding, also adding a limited amount
of some good mash mixture to the nursery feed. Grad-
ually increase the proportions of both chick feed and
mash so that by the beginning of the second week, or
shortly thereafter, the nursery feed can be entirely
omitted, and the chicks placed on the ration which they
are to receive regularly for the next three or four weeks.

What to Feed Up to the Fourth Week

Just what this ration shall be will depend a good
deal upon available supplies, and the personal prefer-
ences of the feeder. The simplest and easiest way is to
use the ready-mixed commercial chick feeds and mashes
that are for sale in practically all markets. These special

FIG. 140—CONVENIENT MASH FEEDERS FOR
XOUNG CHICKS

These flat troughs with strips of wire cloth over the
tops are just the thing for providing dry mash for
chicks. The wire cloth should be cut to fit inside the
trough. It rests on the mash and follows it down as the
chicks consume it. So protected the mash is always read-
ily accessible but the chicks cannot scratch it out. Cour-
tesy of Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station,

feeds, if the buyer is careful to secure the best brands,
are wholesome, nutritious, and well balanced, containing
practically everything that the chicks need with the ex-
ception of green feed. Some chick feed mixtures contain
grit and charcoal but, except when buying in quite small
quantities, it is better to purchase these materials sepa-
rately and feed them in hoppers rather than to scatter
them in the litter. If the mash mixture does not con-
tain meat scrap this should be added in proper proportion.

Ready-mixed mashes are available in which pow-
dered milk is used in place of meat scrap and this ma-
terial is believed by many to be especially good for
chicks. Where skim milk or powdered milk is fed, only
a limited amount of meat scrap, if any, need be sup-
plied, though an occasionally feed of fresh meat or finely
ground butcher scraps are always a desirable addition to
the ration. As a rule, the poultryman can buy ready-
mixed feeds cheaper than he can make up good mixtures
at home, unless he is using large quantities. Careful tests
at state experiment stations, and the general experience

88 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

of practical chick raisers, indicate clearly that chicks will
dc better on a ration affording reasonable variety and
consisting of about equal proportions of cracked grains
and mashes.

FIG. 141—FEEDING COOP FOR YOUNG CHICKS

In order to protect the young chicks from being
trampled by the larger ones at feeding time, an enclo-
sure similar to the one shown above will be found very
convenient. It will also protect, the food from rain in wet
weather, if the top is covered with prepared roofing.

‘ Chicks Must Be Kept Busy

Almost any method of feeding that makes the chicks
work for their ration most of the day is a good one. The
problem of keeping them busy is quite simple if the
chicks can run at large, as their natural activity will keep
them on the move practically all the time. If in confine-
ment however, either indoors or in small yards, it is
scarcely possible to maintain them in good thrifty con-
dition without the liberal use of litter on the floor of
the brooder or pen. As has already been pointed out in
Chapter X, the best litter for chicks is short-cut alfalfa
hay. The chicks will eat some of the leaves and finer
particles, and will be the better for doing so. The mater-
ial is just fine enough and light enough to make good
scratching, and if the hay is properly cured it will be
reasonably free from dust. Short-cut alfalfa may seem
tather expensive but, in the long run, it is the cheapest
litter that can be used for the first three weeks, results
considered.

Persons who have clean clover hay, free from mold,
and can have it cut into short lengths at little cost, will
find it desirable and less expensive than alfalfa. In the
absence of either of these, clean oat or wheat straw,
chopped as fine as possible will answer fairly well, but
there is no other material generally available that is so
desirable as alfalfa or clover. By the seventh day the
chicks should be able to handle about two inches of litter
and thereafter the amount should be increased as they
grow, aiming always to have enough so that they will
have to spend a good part of the day digging for the
grain part of their ration.

Chicks need some form of animal matter by the end
of the first week. Finely chopped hard-boiled eggs if
available, may be added to the soft feed, and fresh meat
cut in very small pieces is excellent. As a matter of con-
venience however, most chick raisers use a good grade
of commercial meat scrap, sifting out the coarse parti-
cles until the chicks are large enough to eat it without
waste as it comes from the bag. Start with not over five
per cent in the mash, gradually increasing to fifteen per
cent, beyond which it is not considered advisable to go
until the chicks are out on range.

After the chicks are two or three weeks old it is
practical to feed meat scrap alone in hoppers, provided
the ration as a whole is satisfactory. If the chicks are
dissatisfied with the rest of the ration however, there is
danger that they will eat more meat scrap than is good
for them, and overconsumption of this highly concen-
trated food will result promptly in digestive disorders.

Any danger of its being too freely consumed will be
avoided when added to the mash, and it also will make
the mash more appetizing, which usually is desirable.

Skim milk is especially good for chicks, and may
be supplied with safety in any desired quantity. Use it
for mixing all moist mashes, and supply it for drinking
in water founts. Where it is freely used it is not neces-
sary to provide any form of meat. It may be given
either sweet or sour, though it is not generally believed
to be desirable to give sweet and sour milk alternately.
It is important to observe strict cleanliness in the ves-
sels used in feeding milk, washing and scalding them
thoroughly at frequent intervals.

The chicks need green feed, practically from the
start, and should have it regularly at least once a day.
It should be fed sparingly at first until the chicks be-
come accustomed to it, after which they may be given
all they will clean up. Use any succulent material avail-
able, such as cabbage or lettuce leaves, mangels, pota-
toes, etc. Feed the latter sparingly, however, as they
are apt to cause diarrhea if too freely used. Tough,
stringy green feed such as grass, overgrown oat sprouts,
etc., cannot be safely fed unless chopped into quite small
pieces. The more tender the material provided the bet-
ter it will be for the chicks. If sprouted oats are pro-
vided, sprout them in a warm place so that they will
grow quickly, and feed when the sprouts are not over,
two inches long, to insure their- being tender. At this
stage the chicks will eat both sprouts and roots, and also
will find a good deal of healthful exercise in picking at
the kernels. Be careful never to feed moldy sprouted
oats, however.

The supply of grit must never be neglected. Prob-
ably a good limestone grit is most suitable for the pur-
pose. It should be kept in hoppers where the chicks can
help themselves to it at all times and, in addition, should
also be mixed with the regular mash feeds as already
suggested. Use fine chick grit at first, changing to a
larger or intermediate size after the chicks are a few
weeks old.

Young chicks like charcoal and will eat it greedily.
As it appears to be quite helpful in preventing certain

FIG. 142—DEEP LITTER FEEDING

Several weeks’ supply of cracked grains is
buried in a thick coat of litter as illustrated above,
and the chicks get plenty of exercise digging for
it. There is little leg weakness among deep-litter
fed chicks.

digestive disorders, it should always be supplied. Get
granulated charcoal, with the fine dust sifted out, and
feed it in hoppers.

Careful experiments, particularly those made at the
N. Y. (Geneva) Experiment Station, indicate that it is
desirable for the chick ration to have a larger propor-
tion of mineraf matter ash) than ‘s regularity provided

FEEDING THE BROODER CHICKS 89

by the ordinary feeds used. Meat scrap contains a suf-
ficient amount of bone to meet most requirements, but
the particles usually are entirely too large for small
chicks. Until they are big enough to eat meat scrap as

it comes from the bag, the best way of supplying this’

deficiency in the ration is to add about five per cent of
bone meal to the mash mixture.

Home-Mixed Rations

While ready-mixed chick feeds and mashes are much
more convenient for the average chick raiser than home
mixtures, these may often be employed at a marked
saving in cost, particularly on farms and in grain-grow-
ing sections generally, provided they are used in quanti-
ties sufficient to make it worth while to give proper at-
tention to their preparation. Home mixtures are apt to
be variable in quality or in composition, lacking in vari-
ety, and poorly milled. Grains cracked at local mills

always contain a large proportion of particles either too
coarse or too fine, representing a serious waste in either
case unless screened out.

Home-mixed mashes alsoare
apt to be poorly
balanced unless
the feeder follows
a definite formula.

If home mixing
is practiced, see to
it that the cracked
grains are careful-
ly screened to re-
move meal and
particles too large
to be fed safely.
Provide reason-
able, but not ex-
treme variety, and
follow a formula

of proved value,
which calls for
grains and meals

that are obtainable
in the local mar-
ket, if possible to
do so. While some
grains are gener-
ally regarded as
more desirable
than others, there
are none that are indispensable, and the practical thing
to do in any case is to use the cheapest and most avail-
able feeds, avoiding too great dependence on any one
kind and making sure that the total ration is reasonably
well balanced.

Since corn, wheat and oats are obtainable by most
persons, a practical formula for the cracked grain or chick
feed mixture is:

100 pounds of cracked wheat.
100 pounds of fine cracked corn.
100 pounds of pinhead or steel-cut oats.

FIG. 143—CROSS SECTION OF MASH
AND GRAIN HOPPER

This illustration gives all necessary
dimensions for hopper -illustrated in
Fig. 146. Can be made in any desired
length.

If the latter cannot be obtained, use fifty pounds of rolled
oats instead. It is not advisable to use the latter freely
however, as the particles are large and too easily found.
With a mixture containing these three grains, it does not
matter greatly whether anything else is included, though
cracked kafir corn, milo, hulled barley, etc., may be used
freely, if obtainable at reasonable cost. Such seeds as
hemp, millet, etc., if used at all, should be added only
in limited quantities.

A good mash to be fed either dry or moist in con-

FIG. 144—A SIMPLE SHADE FOR THE WATER
FOUNT

The outdoor water fount should always be protected
from the sun in hot weather. If natural shade is not
available, put the fount in an open box of suitable size,
with the open side turned toward the north or northeast.

nection with the above cracked-grain mixture is made

after the following formula:

100 pounds of cornmeal.

100 pounds of coarse brown middlings.

50 pounds of white middlings or low-grade flour.

50 pounds of rolled oats or oat flour.

15 to 30 lbs. of meat scrap (increase gradually to maximum).
After the chicks are two weeks old, substitute bran

for brown middlings and increase the meat scrap gradual-

ly to forty pounds. The physical condition of the mash

has a good deal to do with its palatability, and since the

meals mentioned vary in degree of fineness, this formula

should be considered as more or less tentative, changing

the proportions a little, if necessary, in order to get a

satisfactory mixture—that is, one that the chicks will eat

readily and that will not be too sticky or gummy when

moistened.

A Successful Feeding Method

The general principles of chick feeding both as to
Tations and methods, have been briefly covered in the
foregoing treatment of the subject. There are many how-
ever, who require a specific method and more detailed in-
structions and for their benefit the following schedule has

FIG. 145—GROWING CHICKS ON RANGE
View on poultry plant at Wisconsin Experiment Sta-

tion. Chicks with good houses, plenty of range, and
plenty of shade in warm weather should grow without
a check, and there should be few losses among them.

90

FIG. 146-—MASH AND GRAIN HOPPER
CHICKS

When the chicks are a couple of months old and can
have practically free range, they may be hopper fed on
both mash and grain, if desired. The two-compartment
hopper here illustrated, will hold several days’ supply. It
is provided With a rainproof top so that it can be placed
outdoors.

FOR GROWING

been prepared. It is by no means the only way in which
chicks can be successfully fed, but that it is a practical
and successful one, the experience of countless chick rais-
ers has abundantly proved.

First Day. Supply neither feed nor water. Allow the
chicks to come out from under the hover, but give them
only a limited amount of room and watch them carefully
to see that at no time during the day do they become
chilled, or even uncomfortable while out, and that the
hover temperature is maintained at about 100 degrees at
the level of the chicks’ back and a short distance inside
the hover curtain.

Second Day. The chicks are to have no feed during
this period, but should be supplied with lukewarm drink-
ing water. If they appear to be dissatisfied, sprinkle chick
grit over a feeding tray and let them have all they want
of this.

Third Day. Assuming that the hatch has begun dur-
ing the night or in the morning, the first feed may be
given on the morning of the third day—not too early
however, if the house is cold. Give a light feed of bread
crumbs moistened with milk, or
water if milk is not available. Moisten
the bread crumbs just enough to
make them soft but not pasty.
Sprinkle fine chick grit or sharp
sand over the bread crumbs to make
certain that the chicks will get the
necessary amount of this highly im-
portant part of their ration. See that
they all come out from under the
hover for this first feed, but if there
are any of the late-hatched ones that
are not hungry or are still a little
weak, let them go back under the
hover at once or return them by
hand. Give the others three to five
minutes at the feeding trays, if they
want that much time, but the instant
their hunger is satisfied, put them
back under the hover, unless they re-
turn voluntarily, and remove the feed-
ing trays. Feed again at noon and
early in the evening. Provide water
in drinking founts and place these

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

where the chicks can get at them whenever they come
out from under the hover, but watch them closely ana
see that none get wet, and that they do not spend much
time about the founts.

Fourth and Fifth Days. Feed moistened bread crumbs
five times, or morning, noon, and evening, and middle of
forenoon and afternoon. Give them about three minutes
in which to satisfy their hunger and then remove the
trays. Whatever feed is left on the trays should be
scraped off and added to the ration given to the larger
fowls. Mix a fresh batch for the chicks each time. Al-
ways sprinkle chick grit or sharp sand over the feed
when putting it before the chicks, and continue to do
this until they are ten days to two weeks old. Chicks ap-
parently cannot be trusted to eat as much grit as they
really need when it is supplied only in hoppers.

Sixth and Seventh Days. Give the chicks five feeds
as on the preceding day, but limit the quantity and, after
removing the surplus, sprinkle a little chick feed on the
litter where the chicks can readily find it. Use only a
small amount and provide an extra fine mixture for the
purpose. The best way to secure this fine-cracked feed
is to run some of the regular chick feed mixture through
a hand mill or coffee grinder. A limited amount of a
good mash mixture may also be mixed with the bread

- crumbs, gradually increasing the proportion of the mash

and decreasing the bread crumbs until the latter can be
entirely omitted early in the second week if it is desir-
able to do so. If bread crumbs are available at low cost
however, they may continue to form a part of the mash
mixture for an indefinite time. Sprinkle a little chick
feed over the litter after each light feeding of moist feed
as on the previous day.

Eighth Day. If the directions for preceding days
have been properly carried out the chicks now will be
ready for the alternate feeds of moist mash and chick
feed which will form their regular ration for the next two
or three weeks. Continue to feed the moist mash morn-
ing, noon, and evening, and feed the cracked grains
lightly in the middle of the forenoon and afternoon. Some
of this should be buried in the litter so that the chicks
will have to dig for it. If they are healthy, vigorous
chicks and only a limited amount of litter is used, they
will soon learn to hunt for it, and will enjoy doing so.

FIG. 147--OUTDOOR FEEDING FRAME

This illustration shows a cheap enclosure for small chicks, where they may
be fed without interference from the larger members of the flock. Photo from
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

FEEDING THE BROODER CHICKS 91

At first it is necessary to use a good deal of care as to
the amount of chick feed that is supplied and the depth
of litter in which it is buried, but the latter may be in-
creased rapidly, and by the end of the second week they
should he able to negotiate several inches of fine, light
material such as
short-cut alfalfa.
Thereafter, until they
can be outdoors most
of the time, they
should be compelled
to spend several
hours daily searching
in the litter for the
cracked-grain portion
of the ration. It is
not advisable to try
to make the chicks
clean up every par-
ticle of the chick feed
in the litter. There
should always be a
little that they can
get by hunting for it,
but do not supply it
so liberally that they

FIG 148—QUICK GROWING ; 5 s
BROILERS can find it without

meee two chicks shown in Bbove effort.

illustration were deep-litter fed,

by the method described in this Second to Fourth

chapter. When 8 weeks old they Week. The method

reached a net weight of 4 lbs.

of feeding as out-
lined for the eighth day may be continued practically
without change until the chicks are about four weeks old,
when they will begin to tire of chick feed and will show
a marked preference for larger grains. The mixture then
should be changed to supply the regular scratch grains
provided for adult fowls, or make up a special mixture to
consist of equal parts by weight of coarse cracked corn,
whole wheat and clipped oats. A double portion of corn
may be used if price makes it an object, and if clipped
oats are not available, whole oats may be fed after soak-
ing them several hours or boiling for one hour.

Never feed dry whole oats to young chicks, as the
sharp points are liable to cause serious trouble. Oats
that have been boiled or soaked may be used with entire
safety however, and if desirable they may form 50 per
cent of the total grain ration after the chicks are several
weeks old. The mash mixture also should be changed
about the same time, using 100 pounds of corn meal, 50
pounds of bran, 50 pounds of white middlings or low-
grade flour, 50 pounds of ground whole oats and 50
pounds of meat scrap. The number of daily feeds may
now be reduced to three, and this modified ration may be
continued without change until the chicks are practically
full grown. Two of these feeds should be cracked grains
in litter or scattered broadcast over the range, with one
feed of moist mash, and a hopper of dry mash always
available. Chicks fed by this method and with the ration
here suggested should make rapid growth and escape
many of the ailments and losses that result from less
suitable rations or improper methods of feeding.

Simplified Feeding Methods

While the method that has just been described, and
others of a similar nature, will produce results that can-
not be equalled by “easy” methods, it must be conceded
that they involve a good deal of labor and almost con-
stant attendance, which many chick raisers are not able
or willing to give. To meet such conditions there are

various modifications that may be introduced, chiefly in
the way of hopper feeding, that will materially reduce the
time and labor required. If these changes are wisely made
and if the caretaker does not pursue labor-saving methods
and “efficiency” to the point where the well-being of his
flock is sacrificed, reasonably good results may be secured.

It should be clearly understood that the exact num-
ber of feeds to be given daily is important only in so far
as it assists in keeping the chicks busy. But the average
chick raiser finds that in proportion as he reduces the
number of feeds the difficulty of maintaining healthful
activity increases. For this reason, it is not advisable
for the beginner to attempt too much in the way of sim-
plified feeding methods. It is much wiser for him to
follow practices that are known to be safe and effective,
rather than to endanger the thrift or the lives of his
chicks merely to avoid a little labor.

In dry-mash feeding, the mash is placed in hoppers,
or feeding troughs similar to the ones shown in Fig. 140,
and the chicks are given access to it at all times. If care
is taken in the preparation of the mash, making it suf-
ficiently palatable so that the chicks will eat enough of
it, and avoiding making it so appetizing that they will
depend mainly upon it instead of scratching in the litter
for grain, it is entirely practical to feed in this way. The
chick feed, also, instead of being given in installments
through the day can be supplied at one time, morning or
evening as convenient, after the chicks are a couple of
weeks old, provided sufficient litter is used.

Deep Litter Feeding Method

A method of feeding that has been adopted by many
with good results, and which represents the practical
minimum in labor required, is known as the deep litter
method, which the chicks, during the first four to six

FIG. 149—A CORN FIELD IS EXTRA GOOD AS A
RANGE FOR GROWING CHICKS IN HOT
WEATHER

92 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

weeks, are fed exclusively on chick feed and meat scrap.
The entire amount of chick feed required for this length
of time is buried in the litter when the chicks are about
one week old, and meat scrap is supplied in hoppers, al-
lowing them to help themselves to it at will.

Assuming that the flock is to consist of 75 to 100
chicks, and will occupy an indoor pen measuring about
5x10 feet, the procedure is as follows: Spread on the
floor of the pen a layer of about two inches of short-cut
alfalfa and sprinkle over it ten to fifteen pounds of chick
feed. Follow with alternate layers of litter and feed
until the material is eight inches deep all over the floor
and 50 pounds of chick feed has been buried. This amount
should last the chicks about four weeks, and nothing else
is fed except meat scrap as noted, also a liberal allow-
ance of green feed daily. Since the chicks must scratch
for practically every bit of feed they get, they will be
found busily digging in the litter most of the time.

A modification of this plan, as adopted by many, con-
sists in supplying a good dry-mash mixture in hoppers,

FIG. 150—PROFITABLE RAPID GROWING CHICKS
When chicks have reached this size the “danger period” is past and with 3 lbs. wheat.

proper feeding and care they should grow rapidly to market size or maturity.

adding to it the proper proportion of meat scrap. As
this plan removes all danger of the chicks eating more
meat scrap than is good for them, it probably is a safer
method for the average feeder than the regular chick
feed and meat scrap ration.

Whatever feeding method may be followed during the
first month or six weeks, after the chicks are well grown
and can be out on free range it is entirely practical to
feed both mash and grain in hoppers, though the chicks
undoubtedly will grow more rapidly if a little hand-feed-
ing is practiced right along up to maturity. Many suc-
cessful chick raisers make a practice of providing hop-
pers containing dry mash and cracked corn for growing
stock on range, but continue to give mixed grains in the
morning when the chicks are turned out, and a good
moist mash in the evening. By doing this they undoubt-
edly secure more rapid growth and earlier maturity then
can be expected where exclusive hopper feeding is
practiced.

Cornell Rations and Methods for Chick Feeding
The approved method of chick feeding at Cornell Uni-
versity, as given in Bulletin 327, is as follows:

For the first five days feed the chicks five times a
day with nursery feed (Mixture No. 1), This is to be

moistened with sour skimmed milk, and shredded green
food, fine grit, and charcoal are to be scattered over the
food. In addition to this moist feed, a shallow tray con-
taining cracked grains (Mixture No. 2) is kept before the
chicks. To this grain mixture is to be added a small
amount of dry mash (Mixture No. 3). After the first
five days feed cracked grains (Mixture No. 2) in light lit-
ter twice a day. The nursery feed (Mixture No. 1) is dis-
continued after five days, and a mash (Mixture No. 3) is
moistened with sour skimmed milk, and fed three times
a day. This mash mixture also is kept before the chicks
in shallow trays.

This feeding is continued to the end of the fourth
week except that after the second week the moist mash is
given only twice a day. From the fourth to the sixth
week, or until the chicks are on range, one feed of moist
mash is given daily, dry mash is always available in hop-
pers or trays, and cracked grains (Mixture No. 4) are
fed in litter twice a day. From the sixth week to ma-
turity, dry mash (Mixture No. 3) and grains (Mixture
No. 5) are hopper fed, with one meal
a day of moist mash if it is desirable
to hasten development.

Cornell Chick-Feeding Mixtures

' Mixture No. 1

lbs. rolled oats.

lbs. bread crumbs or cracker waste.
lbs. sifted beef scrap (best grade.)
lb. bone meal.

hb 00 00

Mixture No. 2
lbs. wheat (cracked.)
lbs. cracked corn (fine.)
lb. bone meal.

rote

Mixture No. 3
lbs. wheat bran.
lbs. corn meal.
lbs. wheat middlings,
lbs. beef scrap (best grade.)
lb. bone meal.

MiCococo ce

Mixture No. 4

lbs. wheat (whole)
lbs. cracked corn.
lb. hulled oats.

Mixture No. 5

Mroce

3 lbs. cracked corn.

Iowa Station Method of Feeding Chicks
(Condensed from Iowa Experiment Station Circular No. 17.)

The chicks generally are taken to the brooder when
24 to 36 hours old. They may be given water with the
chill removed, and limited amounts of bone, charcoal, and
grit. After they are 48 to 60 hours old, they are given
limited amounts of moist mash (Mixture C) and cracked
grains, (Mixture A). No more is given than the chicks
will clean up in 10 or 15 minutes, but they are fed moist
mash five times a day for the first three or four days then
reduced to four feeds, and at the end of the first week
reduced to three feeds a day.

The first feeds of crack grains are fed in shallow lit-
ter. The amount of this feed as well as the depth of the
litter increases as the chicks grow older. At the end of
the first week the litter is two inches deep. A dish of
bran or hopper of dry mash is kept before the chicks,
also bone, grit, and charcoal. By the end of the second
week the number of feeds of moist mash is reduced to
two, and the depth of the litter increased to three or four
inches. As the number of feeds of moist mash decrease
the amount of cracked grain is increased.

During the third week the mash (Mixture D) is
gradually substituted for the mixture C and is fed moist
two times a day until the end of the four weeks. The

FEEDING THE BROODER CHICKS 93

litter is now five or six inches deep. From the fifth to
the eighth week only one feed of moist mash is given
daily and the same mash is kept before them in hoppers.
Grain mixture B now is substituted for mixture A and
is fed in the litter once a day.

Ration II
Grain Ration “A”
Fed First 8 Weeks
Cracked corn 2
Cracked wheat 1
Steel cut oat meal 1

Grain Ration “B”
Fed After the 8th Week
Coarsely cracked corn 2
Wheat 1
Oats 1

Ground Feed

Mash Ration “C” Mash Ration “D”

Fed First Two Weeks Fed After the Second Week
Stale bread 3 Corn meal 3
Oat meal 3 Wheat middlings or high

Eggs (tested from incuba- grade shorts
tor) 4 Wheat bran 1
Bran 1% Beef scrap 1

Corn meal 1%
Ground bone %

Ground oats 1
Ground bone %
Salt 1-10

Ground feed made moist with sour milk, and beef scrap
or meat meal fed in hoppers. All numerals in above rations
refer to proportions by weight.

Method of Feeding Chicks Recommended By U. S.
Department of Agriculture

(Condensed from Farmers’ Bulletin 624.)

Young chicks shouid be fed from three to five times
daily. Undoubtedly chicks can be grown faster by feed-
ing five times, than by feeding three times daily, but it
should be born in mind that more harm can be done by
overfeeding than by underfeeding, and at no time should
they be fed more than enough merely to satisfy their ap-
petites and to keep them exercising, except in the even-
ing when they should be given all they will eat. The
first feed given after the chicks are 36 to 48 hours old
may consist of johnnycake, bread crumbs, or pinhead or
rolled oats. Feed either of these as convenient, giving’
five feeds daily for the first week, then gradually substi-
tute for one or two feeds of the nursery feed, finely
cracked grains, consisting of equal parts by weight of
cracked wheat, finely cracked corn and pinhead oatmeal
or hulled oats, to which about five per cent of cracked
peas or broken rice, and two per cent of charcoal, also
millet or rape seed, may be added. The above ration can
be fed until the chicks are ten days to two weeks old,
when the nursery feed may be discontinued, supplying in
place of it a good growing mash mixture composed of
two pounds of bran, two pounds of middlings, one pound
of corn meal, one pound of low-grade flour or red-dog,
and ten per cent of sifted beef scrap. This may be placed
in hoppers and left before them at all times. If fed wet
use only enough milk or water to make the mash crumbly,
but in no sense sloppy. As soon as the chicks will eat
whole wheat, cracked corn and other grains, the small-
size chick feed can be eliminated. Growing chicks on a
good range may be hopper fed, providing in one hopper
a mixture composed of two pounds by weight of cracked
corn and one pound of wheat, or equal parts of cracked
corn, wheat and oats. For the dry mash hopper the mix-
ture previously described may be used.

Feeding Growing Stock

As the scope of this book only includes the manage-
ment of chicks up to the end of the brooding period, their
subsequent feeding and care has been described but brief-
ly, and in the most general way. Those who are inter-
ested in detailed methods of feeding and care of growing
stock, whether intended for market or for the laying pen,
are referred to “The Chick Book” (see page 112) in which
these subjects receive due attention.

What Not To Do

So long as the chick raiser keeps to a definite ap-
proved method of feeding, there will be no special dan-
ger of his getting into serious difficulties, but where
changes are made in the ration or method, there are vari-
ous mistakes that the beginner is apt to make. There
also are certain errors in feeding into which every one
is liable to fall at times, and in regard to which a special
warning should be given. Among the most common of
these are the following: :

Sloppy Mashes. The moist mash fed to young chicks
should be mixed with sufficient water or milk to make

it crumbly, but never sloppy or pasty. In the latter con-
dition it is positively unwholesome and in a short time
will certainly cause serious digestive disorders.

Sour Mashes. Moist food should never be allowed
to stand for any length of time after mixing, especially
when intended for newly hatched chicks. A fresh batch
should be mixed for each feed. Mashes that have be-
gun to sour are thoroughly unwholesome. In this con-
nection a warning should be given against providing too
large quantities of cooked or baked foods, such as johnny-
cake, which often sours very quickly in warm weather.

Moldy Feeds. Nothing about which there is the
slightest suspicion of mold, should be fed. This includes
grains that have heated, corn meal that has caked, cracked
corn with discolored hearts—anything in short that is
“off” in condition.

Dirty Feed. A good many economical feeders gather
up the surplus after the chicks have been fed and after
they have trampled over it and mixed litter and drop-
pings with it, and keep it for the next feeding. This is
the poorest of economy. it may do no harm to give this
material to larger chicks, or to adult fowls, but it should
never under any conditions be fed to brooder chicks.

Indigestible Feeds. Certain seeds such as hemp and
millet have very hard shells which little chicks are not
able readily to grind, and if used at all should be sup-
plied only in most limited proportions. Along with these
may be included feeds carrying high proportions of hulls
or crude fibre. A comparatively small percentage of
fibre will seriously irritate the intestines even of adult
fowls, and such material should never be forced upon
chicks. For this reason, it is not desirable to load the
mash down with excessive quantities of bran, oat hulls,
corn hulls, or similar material.

Frozen Vegetables. Vegetables in a frozen condition
or that have been frozen and subsequently thawed out,
should never be fed to chicks, as they will quickly cause
intestinal disorders. It is a good deal better to let them
go without green feed rather than to use such material.

Feeding Whole Oats. As oats usually are obtainable
at a lower price per pound than any other grain, many
persons attempt to use them in feeding young chicks and
nearly always with disastrous results. The sharp points
of the hulls may cause direct injury while the excess of
crude fibre will irritate the intestines. There is no ob-
jection to the use of whole oats if they are sprouted,
boiled, or soaked for several hours before feeding. In
this condition the chicks will be able to pick out the ker-
nels and discard the hulls.

Sudden Changes in Rations. Sudden changes in the
rations supplied to chicks frequently cause indigestion,
even though the feeds supplied may be entirely whole-
some. If for any reason it is desirable to make a radical
change in the feeding, give the chicks an opportunity to
become accustomed to the new ration gradually.

Lack of Variety. Where home mixtures are used,
there often is a lack of variety which, while it may cause
no serious trouble, usually results in slower growth and
a noticeable lack of thrift. Numerous experiments have
shown that a reasonable degree of variety is essential to
best results, and it is worth while to go to some little
trouble to provide it, even though it may somewhat in-
crease the cost of the ration.

Ice Cold Water. Cold drinking water for young
chicks is highly objectionable.- It should never be more
than moderately cool for small chicks, and if the water
vessels must be kept in a cold place they should be re-
filled with warm water at frequent intervals.

Insufficient Number of Water Vessels. One of the
commonest sources of trouble, particularly where large
flocks are kept, is failure to provide a sufficient number
of water vessels, so that the chicks when thirsty have to
struggle and crowd around the only available drinking
place, under such conditions often get soaked and chilled.
Supply water vessels enough so that the chicks will never
have any occasion for crowding to get to the water.

Feeding Whole Grains Too Soon. The uS&e of fine-
cracked grains should be continued for three to four
weeks. Then whole wheat and hulled oats can safely be
fed, but do not feed whole corn until the chicks are half
grown. They will eat whole grains at earlier ages than
here recommended, but it is not wise to supply them.

CH ASP PE Raat

Brooder Houses and How to Build Them.

Essential Requirements in Brooder Houses—Where to Locate Such Houses and How to Build Them—Plans and Bills
of Material for Desirable Portable and Permanent Houses for Lamp-Heated Hovers, Colony
Hovers, Etc.—Yards, Fences and Fixtures.

HETHER brooder houses should be of the per-
manent or portable type will depend on the
brooding system. used, the location of the plant,
and the season of the year when chicks are to be
There can be no advantage in building portable

houses for winter

brooding and, for
the most part, per-
manent houses are
not desirable for
warm weather
brooding, except
up to the age of
three or four
weeks. Where ear-
ly chicks are to be
raised however, it
will pay to build

a permanent house

of suitable size. If

lamp -heated hov-

ers or brooders
are to be _ used,
the house should

be provided with
auxiliary heat in
the form of a hot-
water system, or
even a large coal-
burning stove, by
means of which
the room tempera-
ture can be made
comfortable. This
will be much bet-

FIG. 151—PORTABLE WIRE FENCE
FOR CHICKS

For 2-foot netting make the iron
rods 30 to 32 inches long and point
them so_ that they can readily be
pushed in by hand. Rods can be
passed through the meshes to hold
them in place but should be fastened
securely to lower edge of netting so f
it will be held tight against the ter for the chicks,
ground, preventing the chicks from 5
getting out under it. will prevent hav-

. ing to force the
hover lamps, and will save fuel. A permanent house can
be equipped with many conveniences such as oil tank,
work table, feed bins, storage for extra parts or equip-
ment, etc., which would not be possible in a portable
house. If the soil is heavy and inclined to be wet and
cold special provision can be made for drainage, in this
way making the yards much more serviceable and less
liable to become contaminated with disease germs.

Portable houses, as a rule, are more economically
built than permanent houses, and as they may be moved
to any part of the plant or farm where they may be de-
sired, they are especially convenient where the plant is
a large one, or on a farm where there
are outlying fields over which the
chicks can range and from which
they can pick up a good part of their
living after they are large enough to .
be safe from hawks and other ene-
mies. If there is only limited range
available so that the chicks must be
raised practically onthe same ground,
year after year, it is probable that

94

perches on trestles, for use of adult fowls.
platform is to keep droppings out of the litter.

better results will be realized by building permanent
houses, planning them so as to secure every practical con-
venience in carrying on the work.

Location of Brooder Houses

Chicks are especially liable to injury from being
cooped or yarded on wet soil or in damp locations, ana
whether the house is permanent or portable this point
must receive careful consideration. It also is important
that the house should be so located that the chicks will
not be exposed to severe winds when outdoors. For this
reason, advantage should be taken of available natural or
artificial protection such as groves, hedges, or buildings.
If there is no natural protection it must be provided by
erecting windbreaks, etc. In most sections a house
shielded on the north and the west, will be much easier
kept warm and the chicks can be out in the yard at an
earlier age and in colder weather than would otherwise be
permissible.

The size of the house must be governed by the brood-
ing equipment to be used, but the tendency to build small
and cheap should be avoided. Too cheap houses are not
economical in the long run, and as they rarely are as
convenient or as well equipped as first-class houses, they
are harder to care for, take more time for the work, and
require more fuel to keep the chicks warm. In portable
houses there is a-tendency on the part of many to build
too small, making the house difficult to care for, increas-
ing the inconvenience of tending the chicks, and prevent-
ing its utilization for other purposes. If to be used ex-
clusively for brooding, a portable house built on the
plan shown in Fig. 166 will be found to offer some es-
pecial advantages. Such a house encloses less air
space than one with a high roof, and for that rea-
son is warmer. Ventilation is secured without
exposing the chicks to drafts, and the cost is com-
paratively low. Portable houses of this type
usually are built 6x6, 6x8, or 8x8 feet in size—

FECOASS

FIG. 152—BROODER HOUSE REARRANGED FOR LAYING PEN

Brooder houses with raised hover floors can readily be adapted for use as
laying pens if partitions, hover platform, etc., are made movable. This illus-
tration shows platform moved back against the house wall and provided with

Board along the front edge of

BROODER HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 95

rarely larger—and for that reason seldom are employed
for any other purpose, but stand idle when not used for
brooding. A more practical house for general use is
8x10 or 8x12 feet, built with gable or shed roof, which
will provide room for two or three hovers instead of one,
thus reducing the
labor of caring for
the chicks, and giv-
ing a house large
enough for a laying
or breeding flock of
20% to) oO) nensy a

FIG. 1583—LOCKING ENDS OF
PORTABLE FENCE PANELS
This drawing shows manner in

which ends of portable fence good-sized fattening
anels are locked. Also see a
ig. 155. flock, or the many

other uses to which
such houses can be put on the poultry plant more or less
the year around. Whatever style of roof is adopted, the
side walls should be high enough to provide plenty of
headroom. It never is advisable to sacrifice this or any
other practical convenience for a slight saving in cost.
Piano-box brooder houses are quite popular with many,
but are open to the objection just noted, that they usual-

ly are too small for any other use, and too low for
comfort.
Permanent compartment brooder houses usually

FROUND FLOOR
154—CHICK INCLINE FOR BROODER OR
HOUSE ENTRANCE

This three-sided incline, made of ordinary plaster-
ing lath, offers no opportunity for the chicks to get
underneath or to huddle in corners. All sides slope to
the brooder or house entrance.

FIG.

should be designed so that they can be used for other
purposes. The partitions may be made movable so that
the house can be utilized by a winter-laying pen, or for
fattening crates, surplus males, exhibition stock, or in
any other way that may be desirable. If an elevated hover
floor is provided it need not be nailed to the house floor,
but can be loose so that it may be pushed back against
the wall and the entire floor space utilized, simply set-
ting trestles for perches on the platform, with an 8 or
10-inch board along the edge to keep the droppings out
of the litter, as shown in Fig. 152.

Brooder House Construction

The brooder house should be warmly built and usual-
ly it should have double walls, though if not to be used
in winter this may not be necessary. In order to reduce
the enclosed air space and make the house easier to heat,
the roof generally is sloped toward the south which makes
it uncomfortably warm in the summer unless it is ceiled
overhead and provided with gable ventilators.

The floor of the brooder house generally should be
of concrete, if for no other reason than to make it rat-
proof. Throughout the north the most serious enemy the
chick raiser has to contend with is rats, and unless the
house is made proof against them, they may be expected
to take heavy toll from the brooder flocks. The house
should have a solid foundation reaching well down into
the ground and the floor should be 6 to 12 inches above

the ground level
so that it will al-
ways be dry. Ifa
board floor is used
it should be dou-
ble - boarded, with
building paper be-
tween to make it
warmer, and with
one-inch netting to
exclude rats. If
rats are allowed
to harbor under x
the house they will RS C25 52505

O 5

\7
get the chicks x SSS
sooner or later, in /} So sestateteceleratent
spite of all pre- SKS

cautions, for which
reason houses with
board floors should
be high enough so
that cats and dogs
can get under.

Especial atten-
tion must be given
to ventilation so
that the chicks will
not be exposed to
drafts or direct air
currents, but the
windows should
not be too high above the floor. As a rule, it will be
found most satisfactory to hinge the windows at the bot-
tom so that they will swing in at the top. The front eave
should be wide enough to protect the windows when open.
Whether the rest of the house is spouted or not, there
should be a trough along the front so that there will be
no danger of the chicks being caught in the drip from
the eave as they gather in front of the yard doors dur- -
ing a storm.

In compartment brooder houses the passageway
should be wide enough, for convenience—at least three
feet, and four is better, especially if there are lamps in it
as shown in Fig. 164. Young chicks soon develop marked

OEY KK %
S7y YY & 2 2 2h AAA AOL

155—END OF PORTABLE
FENCE PANEL

Portable fence panels are indis-
rensable on all poultry plants. Two
and three feet are the most popular
widths. Make them any convenient
length, usually 10 to 16 feet, with
one upright piece of furring in
middle of panel to strengthen the
rails. If ends are made as shown,
they will lock, and when tied top
and bottom with stout cord, will
stand without posts. Use _ 1-inch
mesh netting and 1x2-inch furring.

FiG.

FIG. 156—CONCRETE INCLINE FOR PERMANENT
BROODER HOUSES
Concrete inclines cannot be trampled down or

washed away by the rain, and will last as long as the
house itself.

96 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

ll

Wises Wee = za

Nis)

FIG. 157—YARD FOR TWO PEN BROODER HOUSE

Where two broods are kept in one house, the.
yards may be conveniently arranged as shown. Use
panels made as in Fig. 155, and provide a few short
jlengths for the ends. Reproduced from Bulletin 261,
Wisconsin Experiment Station.

ability in flying over partitions and it is desirable to have
these reasonably high. A width of four feet will answer
in most cases. The base of the partitions should be of
solid boards to a height of 18 to 24 inches, to prevent
floor drafts, and the wire above should be 1-inch mesh.
Pen doors should be strongly constructed and well braced
or they will be a source of continual trouble. Double-
acting spring hinges are desirable on
such doors.

Auxiliary heat can be supplied in
the form of a hot-water heater and
a coil of pipe, or by means of an or-
dinary stove. Hot water gives amore
uniform temperature and a compara-
tively simple outfit will answer the
purpose, but if this is considered too
expensive, a stove will answer,
though it will be impossible to main-
tain as uniform heat during the night
as with a hot-water system.

Yards for permanent houses should
be built to meet adult requirements
so that there will be no difficulty in
putting the house to other uses when it is desirable to do
so. Where the soil is heavy or not well drained it will
pay to provide special drainage for the runs by filling in
with sand and gravel where this material can be secured
without too great expense. This can readily be done by
setting 12-inch planks around the base of the outside
fence and filling in to a depth of six inches with gravel,
with a few inches of coarse sand on top. A yard filled
in this way will be dry and much warmer than one on
the ground level, and will be practically free from infec-

house door.

FIG. 158—ARTIFICIAL SHADE FOR CHICKS
Where there is no natural shade in fhe yards it must

be provided in some such way as this. The air will cir-
culate more freely underneath if the cover is supported
well up off the ground.

Y ( es ae el
Vom e. | ole St

FIG. 159—ENLARGING YARDS FOR TWO PEN BROODER HOUSE
After the chicks have outgrown the first yards (see Fig. 157) these may be
enlarged in the manner here indicated, without obstructing the entrance to the
Reproduced from Bulletin 261, Wisconsin Experiment Station.

tion with gapes which otherwise are liable to play havoc
with young chicks raised on clay soil. Use durable posts
and planks or better still, provide a concrete wall or lay
up field stones in mortar. Do not provide a loose stone
wall, as the sand will work out and also will push the
wall out of place. In order to protect the chicks from
hard winds, the yard should be surrounded by a tight
board base two feet high, and in exposed locations there
should be board bases for the partition fences also, using
one-inch-mesh netting four feet wide above the boards.

Yards and Fences

Wherever chicks are grown there is need for more
or less portable fencing. A plain strip of netting may
be used, this being held upright by means of heavy wire
rods pushed into the ground—see Fig. 151. A more dur-
able and more generally desirable method is to provide
fence panels such as are shown in Figs. 153 and 155. Al-
most innumerable uses will be found for such panels, if
available, and as they can be cheaply made and will last
many years when properly cared for, there is no economy
in doing without them. For most purposes the panels
should be of 1l-inch netting 2 or 3 feet wide and ten to
16 feet long. The frames should consist of 1x2 or 1x3-
inch furring of some kind of wood that does not split too

IR |

easily. Make these frames about two inches wider than
the netting so that the selvage will not lap over the edge.
This will add a couple of inches to the height without
cost, and the netting will last longer. Stretch the wire
tightly and staple with plenty of double-pointed tacks.
Netting staples are apt to split the frames and should
not be used unless the wood is quite soft. Before put-
ting on the wire, give the frames a double coat of paint.

The panel frames should be made by cutting the end
pieces 2 feet 2 inches long for 2-foot netting or 3 feet
2 inches for 3-foot netting, laying these on top of the
side pieces or rails and nailing with wire nails long
enough to go through and clinch. Provide a middle cross-
piece for long panels. Use box nails if obtainable in order
to lessen the danger of splitting. When the panels are
done they should all be exactly alike, but by turning them
with the wire side out and in alternately the end pieces
will engage each other as in Fig. 153 and if fastened to-
gether with a stout piece of cord or light wire, two or
three panels will stand up without any other support,
when properly connected by end panels. It costs com-
paratively little to make a supply of these panels, but in
a term of years they will be found more economical than
loose wire, which soon gets bent out of shape and is
quickly destroyed. and in point of convenience there is
no comparison between the two.

There are various methods of building inclines from

BROODER HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 97

the house to the ground. With portable houses, inclines
like the one shown in Fig. 154 are convenient, and being
enclosed on the sides the chicks cannot gather under
them. As this incline slopes to the door on all three
sides, it prevents the losses that are apt to result from
the chicks huddling in corners on either side of a straight
runway. This incline is made of ordinary plastering lath
nailed to four 2x2-inch pieces, the ends of which are cut
to fit snugly against the brooder at the top and to rest
securely on the ground or house floor at the bottom.
This incline, properly made, requires no fastenings to
hold it in place. For permanent houses earth may be
banked up close to the door sill as in Fig. 132, or better

still a concrete incline may be provided, as shown in Fig.

156, which cannot be scratched down or washed away
by rain or the drip from the roof, and will last as long
as the house.

Chicks are especially in need of protection from the
sun in the summer. Even if the house is cool, which is
not always the case, the chicks will be the better for out-
door shade, and if this is not provided naturally by trees,
etc., the lack must be made up in some other way. Shade
for yards may be supplied by clumps of corn, sunflowers,
etc., or by quick-growing vines planted outside the yards
and supported by the fences. For cheap, temporary shel-
ters use some such device as is shown in Fig. 158, which
will not only protect the chicks from the sun, but from
rain if they happen to get caught out in a sudden shower,
and will also afford a hiding place from hawks and crows.
Such shelters may be made in any convenient size, and

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

DEFT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY.

COLONY BROODER HOUSE
SeaLe fe+reift

JULY, 1914 eee

Fig. 5

for large flocks are conveniently made with a gable roof
high enough so that the enclosed space may readily be
kept clean.

The preceding comments on house construction,
yards, etc., will be found to apply quite generally to
brooder houses of whatever type, and under practically
all conditions where they are to_be used. In the follow-
ing pages some practical brooder houses are illustrated
and described in detail. These will be found to conform
closely to preceding statements as to what is desirable
in such houses, and they are well adapted to the needs
of chick raisers wherever located, or may be made so
with slight changes. Persons desiring further information
on this subject, are referred to “Poultry Houses and
Fixtures” (see page 112) in which many additional plans.
for both pérmanent and portable brooder houses will be

found. Plans for houses designed expressly for brood-
ing ducklings are given in “Ducks and Geese” (see
page 112).

Colony House for One Hover

The house illustrated in the plans in Fig. 160 is a good
small house, and is designed for a single lamp-heated
hover accommodating 50 to 100 chicks. If the cockerels
are culled out as they reach market size the pullets can
remain here until they are fully grown and are ready to
go to the laying pens. The house is 6x6 feet with a win-
dow and muslin-covered opening on the south side and an
opening for additional ventilation in the rear when needed.
The siding should be of tongue-and-groove boards and it

TNUTEZZIZZ7ZESSSSSS PSS SSSS SZ ISS

Fig. 6

FIG. 160—PLAN FOR COLONY HOUSE FOR BROODER CHICKS

This plan, prepared by Massachusetts Agricultural Coliege, gives complete details for a 6x6-foot portable house suit-
able for one lamp-heated brooder or hover. Will comfortably accommodate a flock of 75 to 100 chicks as long as they

need brooding.

98 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND

is roofed with a good grade of pre-
pared roofing. This house is pro-
vided with a board floor, and no run-
ners are indicated as the object with
this house is to keep it close to the
ground for convenience in teaching
the chicks to run back and forth.
This plan is safe however, only where
there is no danger from rats. If the
house must be blocked up to prevent
tats harboring underneath, it will be
better to provide runners which add
greatly to the convenience of mov-
ing it.
House for Two Brooders

Having two or three hovers in one
house reduces the amount of travel
between the broods when small, and
after the chicks no longer need arti-
ficial heat the hovers and partitions
can be removed and all broods al-
lowed to run together in one flock, which saves time and
trouble all through the growing season. Such a house
is shown in Fig. 162 which illustrates the kind in use
at the Maine Experiment Station. It is described in Maine
Bulletin 471 as follows:

“The houses are built on two 16-foot pieces of 4 by
6-inch timbe1s, which serve as runners. The ends of the
timbers, which project beyond the house, are chamfered
on the underside to facilitate moving. The houses are
12 feet long; some of them are 6 feet and others 7 feet
wide; 7 feet is the better width. They are 6 feet high
in front and 4 feet high at the back. The frame is of
2x3-inch lumber; the floor is double boarded, and the
building is boarded and covered with a good quality of
heavy roofing paper. Formerly shingles were used for
the outside covering, but paper is preferred and is now
used exclusively. This kind of covering for the wall is
not so likely to be injured in moving as shingles. A door
2 feet wide is in the center of the front and a 6-light
window, hinged at the top, is on each side of it. Two
brooders are placed in each of these houses and 50 to 60
chicks are put with each brooder. A low partition sepa-
rates the flocks while they are young. The houses are

Fig. 108.

large enough so that a person can go in and do the work
comfortably, and each one accommodates 100 chicks un-
til the cockerels are large enough to be removed.

FIG. 161—OPEN FRONT BROODER HOUSE
A cheap, simple house like this can be used to excellent advantage on many
It is too open for portable hovers, but enclosed brooders, either
indoor or outdoor, can be operated conveniently here early in the season when it

poultry farms.
would not be practical to have the chicks outdoors,

x

in this illustration) is removed, and the two broods run together.
Maine Experiment Station.

BROODING

FIG. 162—A CONVENIENT TWO-PEN BROODER HOUSE
This house is 7x12 feet and accommodates two brooders of the kind shown in

After the hovers are no longer needed the yard partition (not shown

Photo from

“An improvement has recently been made in these
brooder houses by providing for better ventilation. When
the weather is very hot there is no movement of air with-
in one of these houses, even though the door and win-
dows are open. The air within the house is practically
stagnant and, on account of its relatively small volume,
becomes intensely hot and stifling when the temperature
outside gets high. The effect on the chicks under such
circumstances is bad. They retreat to the houses to get
shade, only to be injured if not killed by the hot, stifling
air of the house. To remedy this difficulty a slot 2 feet
long and 1 foot wide has been cut in the back of each
house high up under the eaves. This slot is closed with a
wooden slide running in grooves which are put on the
outside of the house. The opening is covered on the in-
side with 2-inch mesh chicken wire. On very hot days
the slide is pulled out completely so as to expose the
whole opening of the slot. At night or during a period
of wet, cold weather the size of the opening is regulated
to suit the conditions. It enables one to keep a current
of fresh air through the house in the warmest weather.
The effect on the well-being of the chicks during a period
of hot weather is most marked and satisfactory.”

Yarding is something of a problem where two or
three flocks are kept together, especially where it is de-
sired to make certain: that the two lots do not mix. They
may be yarded as in Fig. 162, using
a middle partition which is not shown
here, or as in Figs. 158 and 159, the
method employed at Wisconsin Sta-
tion. Portable panels such as have
previously been described are most
convenient for making yards, short
length panels being provided to make
the yard narrow. If the short panels
are 3 feet long the yards can be cov-
‘ered by using a regular 3-foot panel.
Later on the yards may be enlarged
as shown in Fig. 160, without ob-
‘structing the door.

At the Wisconsin Station a partic-
ularly good feature in use on colony
houses for growing stock is a snrall
door located about three feet above
the floor, as shown in Fig. 165. This
is left open at night so that the
chicks can get out on the range at

BROODER:- HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

daybreak instead of having to await
the convenience of the caretaker
who may have too many duties to

get round to all houses as _ early
as is desirable. This door should
not be used until the chicks are

pretty well grown, nor should it be
left open in stormy or cold weather.
The illustration shows how the
space below the door is protected
by means of a piece of sheet iron,
making it impossible for rats to climb
up. A small platform is provided on
the inside for the chicks to alight
upon when they fly up, and they are
never long in learning the use of
the door.

Open Front Compartment Brooder
House

For use with indoor brooders, fire-
less brooders, and for sheltering out-
door brooders early in the season, the brooder house
shown in Fig. 161 will be found quite convenient and low
in cost. It is not intended for use in extremely cold
weather, but is designed simply to provide shelter for
brooders and chicks when it is not convenient or desiz-
able to have them out, and it contributes greatly to the
comfort of the attendant in the uncertain, stormy weather
that often is encountered early in the spring. It is not
recommended for the use of lamp-heated hovers unless
these are suitably enclosed, or the front of the pens pro-
vided with a cloth curtain.

The house is of the simplest and most economical con-
struction. The size of the pens can be adapted to the
particular type of brooder used, but should never be less
than 6x6 feet, and 8x8 will be much better. For small
flocks such as usually are placed in lamp-heated brooders,
there is no advantage in making the house more than 10
feet deep. Good-sized doors are provided in the front

oS eo 4-4

Wall

to Support

Partition

Wr} — 4-0"

99

FIG. 163—-CROSS SECTION OF PERMANENT BROODER HOUSE

of each pen, making them large enough so that brooders
can be moved in or out without difficulty, and alternate
partitions should be solid so that there will be no drafts
sweeping through the house in windy weather. The open
front is enclosed with small-mesh netting. Where spar-
rows are liable to be a nuisance, it will pay to use % or
34-inch mesh netting, as they readily pass through 1l-inch
meshes.

No provision was made in the house here illustrated
for protecting the front under any condition, but if
located where rain or snow is apt to beat in, a hood ex-
tending forward three or four feet will assist greatly in
keeping the floor dry. For convenience in caring for the
chicks it is important to leave the front unobstructed by
fences. If the chicks are not to be kept in the pens more
than three weeks no yards at all need be provided, but
as this house furnishes excellent summer quarters and
probably will be in use most of the time, yards should be

Brackets ‘
15'-O"

2'-o"

A TT A A Rg

a

100 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

warm; 60 to 65 degrees is warm enough, as a rule. The
individual hovers can be depended upon to provide the
necessary additional heat without at any time having the
lamps turned dangerously high.

As this house is intended for cold weather brooding
it is ceiled with 54-inch ceiling boards. The additional
cost of doing this will be amply repaid by the smaller
amount of fuel required. Lath and plaster may be used
if preferred, but, under ordinary conditions, ceiling is
much better suited to poultry-house construction. Build-
ing paper should always be tacked to the studs before
siding or ceiling is put in place. A layer of sheathing
paper should also be nailed to the lower side of the ceil-
ing joists or rafter ties before the ceiling is nailed on.
Ventilation openings should be provided in the ceiling, as
shown in Fig. 163. In small houses it is sufficient to
have louvered ventilators in each gable, but in houses 50
feet or more in length it is necessary to provide rovoi
ventilators also. The ground should be graded up to the
front sill so that the chicks will have easy access to the
yards. The siding should be carried up close to the roof
boards, notching the top board carefully for the rafters.
For cold climates, storm doors for all outside doors are
advisable.

The cross section indicates adjustment of windows,
etc., also construction of partitions. These are to be
built up of flooring or any other tongue-and-groove lum- |
ber, to a height of 21 inches above the brooder house
floor, with three-foot wire netting above. Note location
of ceiling ventilator. This is hung flush with the lower

FIG. 165—ELEVATED CHICK DOOR ; face of the ceiling, making the opening wide enough so
After the chicks are a couple of months old they that the door will swing freely. It may be conveniently

should be let out of their houses at daybreak in good 5 mi : : 2

weather. This can be done without inconvenience by swung on a. -inch iron rod, stapling it tightly to the
providing an elevated door for the colony house, which door and letting it turn in staples driven into the ceiling
can be left open all the time. Rats and other enemies P ;

are prevented from gaining access by the strip of sheet on each side. This rod should be stapled to the door

iron or tin nailed over the siding below the door. Cour-

tesy of Wisconsin Experiment Station. just enough off center so that it will swing shut when

built at the back. With the house
facing south this will locate the
yards on the north side where the
chicks will be more comfortable in
warm weather than in south yards.

A Permanent Brooder House

Floor plan and cross section for a
permanent brooder house are shown
in Figs. 164 and 163. As here shown
the house is designed for lamp-heated
hovers and is equipped with an aux-
iliary hot water heating system. If
preferred, either coal. or oil-burning
colony hovers may be installed in-
stead, no change in plans being re-
quired aside from omitting the hover
floor and adapting the partitions to
individual requirements. Equipped
with lamp-heated hovers this house
will accommodate six pens, each with
a capacity of about 100 chicks. The
number of pens may be reduced to
five if preferred, and made five feet
wide, which is a more convenient
width for the caretaker. The heater
is located at the farther end, where
it is out of the way but easily cared

for. A heater with a 12-inch grate FIG. 166—A-SHAPED PORTABLE BROODER HOUSE

; Houses of this type are easier heated than those with higher roofs, since
should provide ample heat for a less space is enclosed. They are not so drafty in windy weather as houses with.
house of this size. Do not make the higher roofs and windows. Are especially well adapted to use with lamp-heated

z 4 ‘ -si B tate College of Agri-
mistake of keeping the house tob poner cor small-sized colony hovers. Photo from Iowa State g

BROODER HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

2 CS Oe COR OO Se Om POE seems wn an a~

= He > -

FIG. 167—FRONT ELEVATION OF SINGLE PEN
COLONY HOVER HOUSE

From blue print furnished by Poultry Division of
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

not fastened open. A couple of small blocks, nailed to
the upper side of the ceiling at either end of the door,
act as stops. The door may be held open by a weight,
or by attaching the cord to stud or partition. These ven-
tilators should be approximately under the highest point
in the roof, providing two in this 30-foot house and spac-
ing them 20 feet apart in long houses. -

Where the brooding pens are five feet wide or more,
it is desirable to have the pen doors hung on double-
acting spring hinges, but this cannot be done with four-
foot pens as in these narrow pens the door cannot swing
in without striking the hover.

BILL OF MATERIALS FOR 16x30 FOOT BROODER HOUSE

Size Length No. of

ee Inches Feet Pieces PEELS
PSJILEESE. [2G yeaa 16 4
Bilis, Nengs) -.-......._. ee 16 2
Joists for hover plat 12 6
Plates 16 &
Studs, 10 9 1 piece cuts 2
Studs, 12 8 1 piece cuts 2
Studs, ends and misce.....2x4 12 12
weuas, partition ...-2.-....: 2x2 12 10 1 piece cuts 2
LS es ei --.2X6 14 16
Reitters. .- 2x6 12 8 1 piece cuts 2
Ties for rafters ....... 2x4 12 15
Braces for rafters . -.- 1X6 15
Sheathing for roof .......... 660 ft. bd. meas. Sfed.
AM ie oe bb tir 625 ft. bd. meas.
Matched flooring for

hover platform, parti-

DTI, wOLC ota tt 260 ft. bd. meas.
5g-inch ceiling boards for

walls and ceiling........ 1250 ft. bd. meas.
%x6-inch boards for

Tidge pole, door and

window frames ............ 125 lin. feet. Surfaced
Trim lumber, ventila-

Bertie; CUCs 2 Aas eed 2 28 Iyx4 430 lin. feet. Surfaced
Door and window sills... 2x8 40 lin. feet. Milled
Strips for inside win-

dow sills, and facing

for front partition

SR ERENES 8s on ac en ene ee x1 75 lin. feet. Surfaced
Strips for window stops

and chick runwavy........ %x1 150 lin. feet. Surfaced
AD ale: NOG, 7 a eS eee ee 30 lin. feet. Surfaced

6 squares prepared roofing.
..12 squares building paper.
266 sq. ft. 1-inch mesh netting for windows and partitions.
11 sashes, 1%-inch, 4-light, 10x12-inch glass.
1 4-panel door. :
1 pr. 4-inch butt hinges.
1 rim lock.
6 pr. 3-inch butt hinges for partition doors.
11 pr. 2-inch butt hinges for windows,
18 2-inch screw hooks and eyes.
14 ft. of sash chain.
6 anchor bolts %x12 in., with 2-in. washers for each end.
2 = rods, %4x20-inch, for swinging ventilator doors in
ceiling.
1 6-inch chimney thimble.
0 bricks for chimney.

101

MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE FLOOR
50 bags of cement.
120 cu. ft. sand.
200 cu. ft. cinders or crushed stone.
160 cu, ft. cinders or stone for filling.

EQUIPMENT FOR AUXILIARY HEAT
Water boiler, 12-inch grate.
5 gal. expansion tank.
6 feet of 2-inch pipe.
100 feet of 1%-inch pipe.
Necessary manifolds, unions, elbows, ete.
4 wall brackets for supporting pipe.
2 joints of 6-inch stove pipe-
2 stove pipe elbows.

Portable Colony Brooder House

Brooding with colony hovers heated by means of oil
or coal-burning stoves is a comparatively new method,

‘but one that has become extremely popular wherever

chicks are raised in large numbers, and that has practic-
ally revolutionized general brooding practice. As a rule,
these hovers are placed in any buildings that happen to
be available, and usually with good results, though speci-
ally designed houses are more convenient. Where a port-
able house for use with colony hover is desired, the plans
shown in Figs. 167 and 168 will be found practical and
economical. These plans’ were prepared by the Poultry
Division of U. S. Department of Agriculture, and houses
so constructed are in use on the Government Experiment
Farm at Beltsville, near Washington, D. C.

The plans provide for a 10x10-foot house, on run-
ners for convenient moving, and its general outlines are
easily understood from the drawings. All dimensions are
indicated. The floor is of tongue-and-groove flooring,
laid on 2x6-inch joists set 2 feet apart. Rafters are 2 feet
apart, and corners and runners are thoroughly braced.

BILL OF MATERIAL FOR PORTABLE COLONY BROODER
HOUSE
125 sq. ft. T & G flooring %x2% in. x 10 ft.
325 sq. ft. T & G flooring %x2% in. x 12 ft.
6 pes. 2x6 inch x 10 ft. for joists.
2 pes. 4x6 inch x 12 ft. for runners.
6 pes. 2x4 inch x 14 ft., for rafters.
16 pes. 2x4 inch x 12 ft., for braces and studs,
150° sq. ft. sheathing %x12 in. x 12 ft., surfaced 1 side.
1% rolls roofing paper.
4 sashes, 2 ft. square.
2 sashes, 18x24 inches.
Nails, screws, hinges and paint.

| a aioe ee ee eee eee i
Ae oe ee |
seca
| Caste Se sae ; |
Q %
| %
Bees 1
OS AR ace a at |
fn Se a saa ee See ed See ee Se Seen AS
| ¢ %
| |
a} fg ER -- -- Ip ----- =~ ERY = hp A
ii
es

' 4

a
FIG. 168—FLOOR PLAN OF SINGLE PEN HOUSE FOR
COLONY HOVER

From blue print furnished by Poultry Division of U.
S. Department of Agriculture.

102

joe
Bez) t

. ee en GEE SSS GE MD ee Eee ee

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING
|

When the chicks are ten days to
two weeks old, or when only a few
= days old in mild weather, they should
be given access to the exercising

—-—_$_$—_$——_.— r rH ee compartment, which is provided with

: a | : ig a muslin shutter for ventilation. In

5 ! . = order to be able to graduate the ven-
% wero LS inet ee are tilation, a double shutter is provided
| T = so that the upper part may be opened

——————— ee 3 without disturbing the lower section,

: Z| We — [ thus affording fresh air without ex-
9 posing the (chicks: to

Hh ee Si ae Ee: i i from the opening, as would be the

| mM LIZZ ly, YEU Yitz Vi, WE case if the entire shutter were to be
hall 3! re opened in severe or stormy weather.

\
COLONY HOVER
Permanent House for Colony Hover

Large brooder flocks necessarily require much greater
floor space than is provided for flocks of 50 to 100, and
larger houses or rooms, combined with the method of
heating employed, frequently develop floor drafts to some
extent. These must be reckoned with, especially in cold-
weather brooding. One of the best ways of preventing
this trouble is to build the house so that it can be divided
into two parts of about equal dimensions, placing the
hover in one section which is built quite warm but well
lighted, the other section being used as an exercising
compartment and generally built with a curtain front.

The house illustrated in Figs. 169 and 170 has been
carefully designed to meet the special requirements of
colony brooding and will be found suitable for the use
of the great majority of those who are raising chicks by
this time and labor-saving method. Fig. 170 shows floor
plan of house, which is 10x24 feet, with a 10-foot hover
section pattitioned off at one end. When the chicks are
first placed under the hover they are to be confined to
this room. It is large enough for several hundred during
the first week or two, but not so large as to invite floor
drafts, and it can be comfortably heated with less fuel
than would be required to maintain the correct tempera-
ture if the entire house were in one room.

The bill of material for this house provides for a
double-boarded floor, the subfloor be-
ing of ordinary 10-inch sheathing, with
a top floor of tongue -and - groove
boards, and waterproofed sheathing
paper between the two. Single board
floors are almost certain to be drafty
and cold. Under average conditions
concrete floors are better for brooder
houses than boards, because warmer,
absolutely ratproof, and practically
indestructible: Concrete floors must
be well drained and insulated against
dampness, and chicks must never be
allowed to run on the bare surface,
a common cause of leg weakness and
rheumatism. Where there is no dan-
ger from rats an ideal plan is to pro-
vide a concrete floor in the brooding
room and a plain dirt floor in the ex-
ercising compartment.

WIndows

Gg 3@= Baa seer,

In mild weather or when the chicks
are older and have become somewhat
hardened, the entire shutter may be
hooked up, thus giving the chicks practically outdoor con-
ditions without exposure.

BILL OF MATERIALS FOR PERMANENT COLONY HOVER

HOUSE
Size Length No. of GI
Ue Inches Feet Pieces Remar

Sills, sides . 4
Sills, ends ... 2
Sills, half width 4 Spike to inside

; face of side sill
JOUSTS)*- ec A ees > 11
Plates) “225 {
Studs, front - 10
Studs, rear .... 6 1 piece cuts 2
Studs, ends . 4 Cut to fit
Rafters) eee 13
Window sills - ees 2
Roof boards ..... as 325 ft. bd. meas. Surf’d.
T & G siding .... SB X 450 ft. bd. meas.
Hiooning pe ue 300 ft. bd. meas.
Subfioor .... eae 265 ft. bd. meas.
Gelling 225 ie et eeeee 350 ft. bd. meas.
Door & window frames..%x6 150 lin. ft. Surfd. 4 sides
TRnin Doand sig eeees ee Iex4 60 lin. ft. Surfd. 4 sides
Frame for shutter .......... Bx3% 25 lin. ft. Surfd. 4 sides
Frame for top shutter....%x2 20 lin. ft. Surfd. 4 sides
Strip under shutter........ Igx2% 6 lin. ft. Surfd. 4 sides

Surfd. 4 sides

Strip under window ........ Rx2%y 10 lin. ft.

31%, squares prepared roofing.
squares sheathing paper for floor
60 square feet wire netting for curtain front
4 4-light sashes, 10 in. x 12 in. glass
2 4-light sashes 9 in. x 12 in. glass (for doors)
3 pair 8-inch T-strap hinges
3 hasps F
4 pair 2-inch butt hinges for windows
1 pair 2%-inch butt hinges for shutters
1 pair 3-inch butt hinges for shutters
4 2-inch screw hooks and eyes
Nails, tacks and paint

E xeho/s/Ng
PPOom

!

MUSLIH CURTAIN WINDOW Ses rere

YARD

u
FIG. 170—FLOOR PLAN FOR TWO-COMPARTMENT COLONY HOVER HOUSE

Ex ee

——— ee

CHAP Tek. 26h EI

Ailments and Diseases of Chicks

Importance of Being Able Promptly to Identify Ailments and Correct Conditions Before Serious Diseases Develop— How to Make
Post-Mortem Examinations—Bacillary White Diarrhea and the Diseases With Which It Often Is Confused—
How to Prevent and Cure All Common Ailments—Parasites and Enemies of Chicks,

HICK troubles are of the poultry keeper’s own
making for the most part—the direct result of
abuse or mismanagement. If there were no care-
lessness or neglect there would be comparatively

little disease and few losses of chicks. The appearance of
any considerable number of sick individuals in a brooder
flock is positive proof that someone has not done his
part. Nature is not a blunderer; chicks are hatched to
live and grow, not to sicken and die.

Do not make the mistake of thinking of young
chicks as weak. They are delicate organisms, it is true,
‘but never weak unless mistreated. A watch is a delicate
piece of machinery, but a good watch
is not weak.. If it is treated as a
watch should be it will keep in good
Tunning order many years, doing
more work and showing greater en-
durance, relatively, than most other
pieces of machinery in common use.
So a chick, if it is a good chick and
treated properly, will live, keep
healthy, and grow to adult size just
in the way that nature intended. lf
it fails to do this, it is because some-
one abused or mistreated it or its
parents. Chick troubles when they
appear, can almost invariably be
traced directly to low vigor in the
breeding flock, weakened vitality due
to improper methods with incuba-
tors or brooders, or to failure to sup-

-

ing of chicks, then, is the ability to recognize unfavorable
conditions before they have a chance to produce serious
results.

Chick’s troubles usually are not diseases—not at first,
anyway. They are simply ailments or slight derange-
ments of the vital organs which, if noticed in time and
their causes understood, can be corrected without seri-
ous loss. As a rule there is little to be gained in doc-
toring sick chicks. When the trouble has reached the

stage where that becomes necessary there is little hope
for them. Even if cured they will almost certainly be
weakened and stunted, and about the worst thing that

ply well-selected and nourishing food.
It is to be expected, of course,
that the beginner, with a new science
to learn, a multitude of details to master, and a living to
make, will find more or less difficulty in providing just
the right conditions for his chicks at all times, and in
avoiding mistakes. Sooner or later, he will have to
reckon with various disorders in his flocks, and it is of
the utmost importance that when disease does appear he
shall be able to recognize it promptly in order to get the
situation in hand at the earliest moment, before derange-
ment becomes chronic—before simple ailments become
incurable diseases.
To an extent that few realize, the difference between
a nominal loss of 5 to 10 per cent and a loss of 50 per
cent is determined by the promptness with which the
caretaker recognizes the first appearance of trouble, and
applies suitable corréctives. One person sees that some-
thing has gone wrong—that his chicks are a little
“dumpy,” and he investigates the matter promptly, cor-
rects the fault, and has no serious consequences to meet.
Another, careless, thoughtless, or inexperienced, sees
nothing wrong until the next day, which often is just one
day too late. Twenty-four hours is a long time to a
delicate young chick and twenty-four hours of neglect,
discomfort, or disease may mean heavy losses that can-
not be prevented by any subsequent care or treatment.
One of the most important factors in the successful rear-

FIG. 172—A HEALTHFUL LOCATION FOR THE GROWING CHICKS

can happen is to have such chicks recover, grow to ma-
turity, and go into the breeding pen to pass on to the
next generation, in increasing proportion, their weakness
and liability to disease.

Methods of Sanitation

More attention should be given to sanitation in chick
raising than is usually the case. Efforts to raise chicks
with the smallest expenditure of time and money often
tesult in providing makeshift coops and buildings, and in
crowding the chicks into such inadequate quarters that
injury inevitably results. While chicks apparently will
do well under quite unfavorable conditions in warm,
sunshiny weather, they lose ground rapidly whenever a
cold, rainy spell occurs. There is no reason why this
should happen if their brooders and coops are what they
should be, and if these are kept clean. Overcrowding,
foul hovers, poor ventilation, damp floors, and accumu-
lated droppings reeking with ammonia fumes are not
conditions under which any chicks can thrive, and it is
only when they are raised during the most favorable sea-
son of the year that they are able to withstand such
mistreatment.

Cleanliness ought not to be neglected at any time,
and is especially important during the danger period—the

103

104

first four weeks of the chicks’ lives. It is not practical to
lay down definite rules for cleaning coops and brooders,
renewal of litter, disinfection, etc., since much depends
upon the season, size of brooder, and number of chicks,
but there are two rules that are of general application,
and these are to renew the litter before it becomes damp
and foul-smelling, and to apply some good disinfectant
every time the coop or brooder is cleaned. When brood
coops and outdoor brooders are used, with or without
chick shelters, they should be moved to fresh ground
every few days. Coops without floors should not be left
standing in one spot until the ground becomes soaked
with filth.

Some of the most serious diseases that affect young
chicks are germ diseases, and the poultryman who is
careless and slovenly in regard to the quarters in which
the chicks are confined, is simply multiplying infection

FIG. 173—IT PAYS TO SPADE BARE RUNS

Spading the bare runs will sweeten the soil, help to keep them free
from disease germs, and the chicks will greatly enjoy digging in the
loose earth. If some oats or other grains are scattered broadcast over

the ground before spading, so aameh the better.
Experiment Station,

and cannot long escape the consequences of his indiffer-
ence. Disinfectants should be used freely about all coops,
brooders and runways where chicks are confined. Air-
slaked lime is good for bare spots and general outdoor
use, but is too caustic to be used where young chicks are
liable to get into it with their feet. It should not be
employed indoors, as the dust arising from it may cause
serious inflammation of nostrils, throat or eyes.
Whitewash is an excellent disinfectant and may be
used freely without any danger of ill effects. Most per-
sons however, find the use of a good commercial disin-
fectant more convenient and more effective. Most of
these are readily prepared for use at any time simply by
adding water to the disinfectant in the proper proportion,
and requiring no heating, straining or other preparation
for use. They may be applied with a brush, whisk broom,
sprinkling can, or spray pump, as convenient. Where
liquid disinfectants are used, the brooders, coops, etc.,
should be dry before the chicks are turned back into them.

Constitutional Vigor

Constitutional vigor is the foundation of all success-
ful chick raising, and it is useless to hope for success if
this fundamental has been neglected. It is not necessary

Courtesy of Wisconsin

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

to repeat here what has already been said regarding this
matter, but the beginner especially is urged to turn again
to Chapter I on Selection of Breeding Stock, and review
what will there be found on this vitally important sub-
ject. There is little that can be done to prevent losses
due to lack of constitutional vigor, after the chicks are
hatched, or to remedy the effects of mistakes in artificial
incubation, though careful brooding: and feeding will help.

First Symptoms of Disease

In many chick disorders the symptoms are similar,
though not so much so but that the caretaker can detect
shades of difference pointing toward specific causes. The
successful chick raiser does not feel easy in regard to
any brood so long as there is one mopy chick in it. It
may be constitutional weakness or some other matter
affecting a single individual (not all chicks will live under
even the most favorable conditions) but if
there is one weakly member of the flock
there is reason to suspect that in another.
hour there may be two; and in a few hours
there may be a dozen.

When chicks are noisy, when they huddle
in corners or in the sunlight, when they stay
under the hover for hours at a time, when
they refuse to go out at mealtime and do not
eat when they are out, there is every reason
to fear serious trouble. Such conduct indi-
cates weakness at least. It may not mean
anything more serious than that, but study
the chicks and review everything that has
been done. Is the temperature of the brooder
what it ought to be? Does the thermometer
Tegister correctly? Has the feeding been prop-
e1ly done? Have the foods been wholesome
and pure? Has provision been made for plenty
of healthful exercise?

Why Chicks Are Noisy

Chicks peep and are noisy because they are
uncomfortable. Whether the cause of this
discomfort is hunger or thirst or the first
stage of disease the poultryman must deter-
mine for himself, and if he is a true poultry-
man he will not leave the chicks until he knows. Often
this indication of uneasiness is the first warning of seri-
ous trouble, and if the caretaker is unable otherwise to
teach a definite conclusion as to the cause he will find
it worth while to take out a few of the weakest individ-
uals and kill them and carefully examine their internal
organs. Many an epidemic could have been arrested at
the start by such a step. After a number have died it
may be too late; by that time the whole flock may be
seriously infected.

If with all conditions as nearly correct as the opera-
tor knows how to make them, the chicks do not promptly
brighten up, it usually is wise to add a little pepper, gin-
ger or mustard to their feed. One of these mild stimu-
lants, especially during the latter part of the first week
when the young chick is completing the absorption of
the yolk and coming to depend entirely upon supplied
foods, may prevent serious derangements. The use of
digestive stimulants is better than resorting to drugs,
but be careful! Use only enough to make the mash
slightly warm to the taste and discontinue it as soon as
it is no longer needed. Chicks that are regularly given
highly seasoned food are apt to be injured, liver dis-
orders being extremely common under such conditions.

AILMENTS AND DISEASES OF CHICKS

Milk Feeding for Young Chicks

In cases of weakness from any cause it will pay to
provide a supply of milk for the chicks to drink if it
can be secured at reasonable cost. It does not seem to
matter much whether the milk is sweet or sour, but it
is not considered desirable to give sweet milk at one
time and sour at another. As it generally is difficult to
keep milk sweet until the chicks have consumed it, usual-
ly the more practical plan is to supply it sour all the time.

Probably the most convenient and sanitary method
of feeding milk is to use one of.the commercial two-piece
drinking founts, or a good homemade substitute may be
made by using a saucer or similar dish with a one-quart
can inverted in it, as illustrated in Fig. 139. Whatever is
used, it should be thoroughly cleaned and scalded at fre-
quent intervals. The milk feeder should be placed where
the chicks cannot scratch litter into it. If the milk should
become foul in any way, throw it away, clean the vessel
thoroughly, and provide a fresh supply. Milk
is a highly favorable medium for the develop-
ment of disease germs of various kinds, there-
fore it must be kept free from contamination.

The Storrs (Connecticut) Experiment Sta-
tion has carefully investigated the value of
milk, both sweet and sour, in the diet of
chicks, particularly those that are infected, or
that are liable to become infected with bacil-
lary white diarrhea. The results secured in
an extensive series of such experiments are
announced in the following conclusions, quoted
from Bulletin 80 of that institution:

“The feeding of milk to young chicks has
a most favorable influence on the growth and
on the lessening of mortality of the chicks. It
tends to prevent mortality from all causes,
and if fed soon enough and for a suffciently
long period, greatly reduces the death-rate
caused by bacillary white diarrhea.

“Sweet and sour milk are apparently of
equal value in their relation to growth and
mortality. Furthermore, different degrees of
souring do not alter the results of milk
feeding.

“The value of milk as a food for chicks
does not depend upon any acids that may be
present, nor upon any particular types of micro-organ-
isms; but upon one or more of the natural constituents
of the milk.

“When milk is supplied freely to chicks, it becomes
all the more important that they have abundant exercise.
This applies more particularly to early hatched chicks
that are brooded wholly or for the most part indoors.

“The feeding of sweet or sour milk to young chicks
has in no instance been found to be in any way injurious
to the chicks employed in our numerous experiments. If
the milk is clean, and not too old, none but the most
favorable results should accompany its use as a food
for chicks. There is no preference in the choice of sweet
or of sour milk, except from the standpoint of conveni-
ence. The use of the one or the other should be deter
mined by the circumstances. However, it seems very de-
sirable that the same kind of milk be supplied throughout
the milk feeding period. If the choice is that of sour
milk, sour milk should be fed to the end.”

General Treatment for Diarrhea in Chicks

The chick’s digestive organs are peculiarly delicate
during the first few weeks of its life and almost any

FIG. 174—INFECTED EGG ORGANS OF HEN
Tllustration made from photograph of ovary and oviduct of hen badly
infected with bacterium pullorum.
showing discoloration.
ed discoloration. As a rule will be found more or less cheesy in texture.
3. Oviduct showing
Storrs Experiment Station.

105

unfavorable influence is liable to result in some affection
of these organs. A chick that has been kept in an insuf-
ficiently ventilated nursery chamber in the incubator, that
has been chilled either in the incubator or in the brooder,
that has been fed too much, deprived of some needed ele-
ment such as grit or green feed, given cold water to
drink, permitted to get wet, crowded in the brooder, kept
confined to the brooder too long, or exposed to any one
of a number of possible resources of bacterial infection,
will almost certainly have digestive disorders, generally
accompanied with some form of diarrhea.

Since diarrheal discharges in chicks usually are
“white,” the tendency on the part of most persons is to
jump to the conclusion that chicks so affected have that
much-dreaded disease known as bacillary white diarrhea.
As a matter of fact, however, cases of bacillary white
diarrhea are few in number as compared with the other
causes producing similar symptoms, and it is much safer

on 1. Ovary with many of the ova
2. Large-size, infected ovum, showing decided-

indications of disease. 4. Clocaca. Photo from

to assume that the trouble is NOT bacillary infection,
until all the more probable causes have been eliminated
by thorough diagnosis.

The careful observer finds that the character of
diarrheal discharges accompanying different forms of ail-
ments or diseases vary more or less. Generally speaking,
a frothy condition of the contents of the bowels indi-
cates intestinal catarrh resulting from chilling in or out
of the brooder, exposure to floor drafts, rain, chilling
winds, etc., though they sometimes indicate inflammation
of the bowels, such as may accompany any form of acute
indigestion. The presence of reddish mucus in the drop-
pings also indicates inflammation. Watery droppings,
when associated with extreme thirst, indicate aspergillosis
—a disease acquired by inhaling mold spores from moldy
grain, clover, etc., or picking them up with food. White,
pasty droppings may indicate bacillary white diarrhea,
but are much more apt to be the result of catarrhal or
digestive disorders.

It hardly needs to be said that for the cure of
diarrhea and the prevention of its spread throughout the
flock, the cause must be discovered and removed. Otten

where this is done and a few simple measures taken to

106

relieve the suffering resulting from diarrhea, the chicks may
be restored to good health without any other treatment.
In the earliest stages of the trouble it may be sufficient to
use something that will act as a tonic and stimulant tothe
digestive organs, such as cayenne pepper, ground ginger,
or mustard, used sparingly. An excellent soothing food
for chicks suffering from bowel trouble in any form is
boiled rice, which should be cooked thoroughly and boiled
as dry as possible, taking up all surplus moisture at feed-
ing time by stirring in sufficient brown wheat middlings,
or wheat bran with all coarse particles sifted out. Let
the chicks have all the boiled milk they will drink.

In order to avoid spread of infection, it is always
desirable to use a disinfectant in the drinking water. For
this purpose potassium permanganate generally is recom-
mended. It loses its virtue quickly in exposed solutions,
but if the supply of water is renewed several times a day,
as should always be done when there are sick chicks in
the flock, it will prove effective, and it is quite cheap,
besides being simple and easy to use. The best way to
provide it is to make a stock solution by dissolving in a
large bottle or jar of water, all the crystals that the
water will take up, and each time the chicks are watered

FIG. 175—CHICKS INFECTED WITH BACILLARY DIARRHEA

These chicks are of the same lot as those shown in Fig. 175, but
have bacillary white diarrhea. They probably inherit the infection from

the hens that laid the eggs from which they were hatched.

pour enough of the solution into the water to give it a
reddish color.

Charcoal is an excellent corrective in intestinal dis-
orders and should be kept before the chicks all the time,
placing it in any convenient, waste-preventing hopper.
They will eat it more readily if supplied in granulated
form with the fine dust screened out. It is taken for
granted that the chicks will always have a supply of grit
crushed to suitable size. Clean, coarse sand will answer
at first, but a good grade of commercial grit is better.

In all digestive troubles with chicks a liberal supply
of green food is important. This should be tender and
succulent however, and if the chicks are not accustomed
to having all they want of it, only a limited quantity
should be fed at first, increasing the amount as the chicks
get used to it and can be trusted not to overeat.

For the treatment of chicks affected with diarrhea in
any form there are good commercial remedies on the
market that are thoroughly reliable and effective, and
they are much more convenient for use than home rem-
edies. One of these should be secured and kept on hand
ready for use at the first appearance of trouble. If none
is immediately available in case of emergency, try
bichloride of mercury. Get this in tablets of 1-1000 of a
grain and dissolve twelve in each quart of drinking water.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

Proper Dosage for Chicks

In administering medicines of any sort, chicks 1 to
5 weeks old should have one-sixth to one-eighth of the
dose given to an adult fowl; chicks 5 to 10 weeks old,
one-fourth to one-fifth the adult dose; chicks 10 to 15
weeks old, one-third the adult dose; chicks 15 to 26 weeks
old, one-half the adult dose. However, where remedies
are added to the drinking water, practically the same
proportions should be used for both adult fowls and
chicks, since the latter will drink proportionately less and
so will get no more than‘the proper dose.

In giving Epsom salts, apply the following rule: For
chicks 1 to 5 weeks old, give 1 level teaspoonful to 8
chicks; 5 to 10 weeks old, 1 level teaspoonful to 5 chicks;
10 to 15 weeks old, 1 level teaspoonful to 3 chicks; 15
to 26 weeks old, 1 level teaspoonful to 2 chicks. Salts
may be given most conveniently when dissolved in water
and mixed with a little wet mash, and the best time to
give the treatment is in the morning before the chicks
have had access to any other food.

Importance of Post-Mortem Examinations

There are few external symptoms that can be relied
upon in distinguishing between different chick
diseases, and careful examination of the in-
ternal organs of dead chicks is the only re-
liable means of doing this in many instances.
The poultryman therefore, must overcome his
dislike for this work and by repeated exami-
nations thoroughly familiarize himself with
the appearance of the organs of both normal
and diseased chicks or he will never be able
to identify diseases with certainty. It -will
prove a good investment for the beginner to
sacrifice a few healthy chicks in order to learn
exactly how their internal organs appear when
in normal condition.

A good way to make the examination is as
follows: Procure a shingle or board of white
pine or other soft wood, into which tacks or
pushpins can be easily pushed. Place the chick
on the board, breast uppermost, and stretch
out the wings and legs, tacking them in this
position. Slit the skin covering breast and abdomen and
peel it back sufficiently to expose the breast and the mus-
cular wall of the abdomen. With shears or a knife make
an incision below each side of the breast bone and re-
move the entire breast. This exposes the internal organs
without disturbing them.

Liver Disorders

After removing the breast bone the liver will be in
plain sight and should be carefully examined. The
healthy liver has a uniform, dark chocolate color and is
firm in texture. If it is abnormally dark in color, or
pale with bright red edges or spots, or if the gall bladder
is enlarged, sometimes discoloring the parts of the liver
lying next to it, suspect congestion or inflammation. A
pale liver with streaks and patches of red is a symptom
in bacillary white diarrhea but is observed frequently
when no trace of bacillary infection can be detected.

Congested livers frequently are due to a lack of
green feed. Serious epidemics of diarrhea have been
checked by correcting the ration in this respect. When
the gall bladder is distended and the adjacent parts are
discolored, the ration probably is lacking in animal mat-
ter. Congestion of the liver may be caused by feeding
overstimulating foods or too much mash, or by the ex-

AILMENTS AND DISEASES OF CHICKS

cessive use of cayenne pepper and ginger. Congestion of
the liver may or may not be accompanied by diarrhea. It
often causes heavy losses and there is no doubt that
many epidemics of so-called “white diarrhea” arise from
this simple, easily prevented cause. If suitable foods are
used and proper methods of feeding are adopted as out-
lined in Chapter XI, it should be comparatively easy to
prevent losses from this source.

Aspergillosis and Congestion of Lungs

After removing the liver, carefully examine the lungs.
These should be light pink in color. If diseased they may
be covered or filled with white cheesy nodules the size
of a pinhead or smaller, or the lungs may be discolored
and dark. If nodules are present the trouble is aspergil-
losis, sometimes called brooder pneumonia. Aspergillosis
is caused by the growth of mold in the lung tissue—jus
the same kind of mold that comes on bread when it is
kept too long in a can or box; the mold that is found
in closets, cellars and damp, dark places generally. This
mold usually forms in small, round nodules, white or
yellow in color, cheesy in texture, and easily recognized
wherever they exist. In another form of
aspergillosis, small yellowish nodules are
found all over the walls of the air sacs and
various abdominal membranes, instead of be-
ing limited to the lung tissue. The kidneys
are often a mass of these nodules. This dis-
ease sometimes occurs without noticeable de-
velopment of nodules, when it closely resem-
bles inflammation or congestion of the lungs.

The most common cause of infection is the
use of moldy hay or straw for brooder litter.
The general use of “shatterings” or chaff from
the stable or haymow is responsible for a
great deal of this trouble. Dusty shatterings
often are quite full of mold spores and the
chicks breathing this dust are rapidly infected.
The disease may also be caused by moldy
food. While it has never been completely
proved, it is probable that infection may take
place through the egg shells which, when
damp, furnish conditions peculiarly favorable to the de
velopment of mold. Since the shells are quite porous it
is possible for infection to penetrate the shell in this way.
To prevent such infection eggs kept for hatching should
be stored where mold will not form, and as an additional
precaution they should be dipped in alcohol before being
placed in the incubator. Since mold forms readily on eggs
where they come in contact with each other, those that
are kept for hatching should not touch, especially where
there is any dampness.

While epidemics of aspergillosis are almost invariably
reported as “white diarrhea,” this disease seldom if ever
produces characteristic “white” discharges. As a rule,
they are quite watery, probably due to the fact that
chicks affected with this disorder are feverish and drink
excessive quantities of water. There is no known cure
for aspergillosis. If its presence is promptly discovered
much may be done to prevent serious losses by at once
removing the source of infection. Use nothing but mold-
free litter and feed, disinfect the brooder every time a
new lot of chicks is placed in it, and be sure that it is
absolutely free from mold. If these simple precautions
are taken the disease will seldom be a source of seri-
ous loss.

When the lungs, instead of being full of nodules, are
discolored and dark, and appear to be filled with frothy

107

mucus when cut open, the trouble is congestion or inflam-
mation. This disease sometimes is called brooder pneu-
monia, and frequently occurs in epidemic form. It is
caused by improper brooding, impure air, also by allow-
ing the chicks to become wet, chilled, or overheated.
Many heavy losses from this cause are reported by per-
sons brooding chicks in fireless brooders, especially in
cold or changeable spring weather. Inflammation of the
lungs is practically incurable but readily prevented. Use
a brooder that provides an abundance of heat with a
forced circulation of pure, warm air, prevent chilling or
overheating, and losses from this source will be few
in number.

Sour Crop and Gastritis

The crop, gizzard, and intestines should next be ex-
amined. Chicks often suffer from sour crop and gastritis
or inflammation of the stomach. These aiiments fre-
quently occur together and both result from improper
feeding or the use of unsuitable foods. The chief symp-

tom is an accumulation of gas and liquid in the crop,
causing distension and sometimes vomiting and gasping
for breath, the latter symptom occasionally being mis-

FIG. 176-—HEALTHY NONINFECTED CHICKS

These ten-day old White Leghorn chicks are free from infection
with bacillary white diarrhea, and present a strong contrast with in-
fected chicks of the same age on opposite page.

taken for gapes. These ailments may be almost wholly
prevented by using due care in feeding, and by keeping
the chicks liberally supplied with charcoal. When the
symptoms are first noted give Epsom salts and change
the ration. It is a good plan also to give bicarbonate of
soda (common baking soda) in the drinking water, mak-
ing the solution as strong as the chicks will drink it
readily.

Coccidiosis

The intestines of healthy chicks are pinkish white.
In some forms of bacillary infection they probably will
be a dirty or blackish white. Their contents should be of
a creamy consistency and light in color unless charcoal
is fed. If hard, frothy or badly discolored, suspect in-
digestion, due to the feed or the method of feeding.

Near the lower end of the intestines are the ceca or
blind guts. Carefully examine these. They should be
about the size and color of the intestines, with walls of
about the same thickness. The contents should be some-
what firmer. If solid and lumpy it is an indication of in-
flammation which probably originated in the intestines.
If the ceca are enlarged, the walls thick, and the contents
cheesy or resembling mucus, the trouble probably is
coccidiosis, a bacterial disease. Chicks affected with this
disorder usually die between the second and fifth week.

108

The symptoms are dullness and weakness accompanied by
a white, pasty discharge. The presence of the disease is
teadily detected by examining the ceca, which will show
symptoms as above described. There is little use in at-
tempting to treat chicks that have coccidiosis, and pre-
ventive measures must be depended upon for protection.

Careful disinfection of the incubator, dipping the eggs
in alcohol before placing them in the machines, disinfect-
AS the brooder, and keeping the chicks on clean ground,
all are advised where serious infec-
tion exists. This organism is widely
disseminated however, being found in
practically all members of the bird
family and in other arimals as well,
and it is doubtful whether it causes
serious trouble where strong, vigor-
ous breeding stock is used and where

Bacillary White Diarrhea

Bacillary white diarrhea is one of
the most difficult chick diseases to
combat successfully, though fortu
nately it is by no means as common
as it generally is believed to be. Of
the reported cases of white diarrhea,
apparently only a comparatively small
percentage is correctly identified. The
general failure properly to diagnose
the varjous affections that are con-
fused with bacillary white diarrhea is
unfortunate, as it leaves the real
cause undetected and thus permits
the spread of the disease and increases the losses. In
all cases where the chicks have diarrhea, the first ones
to die should be carefully examined, applying the tests
already described, and if it is impossible to locate the
trouble elsewhere, then (and not until then) bacillary in-
fection may be considered probable.

In chicks that have died from this disease the intes-
tines are pale, showing a dirty white color and usually
are empty, but may contain a small amount of gray or
brown matter. Unabsorbed yolk generally is present
and has a stale odor but is not necessarily putrid. In
bad cases of infection the first deaths may occur before
the chicks are taken from the incubator. Affected chicks
are chilly, listless, and with little or no appetite and are
“Short backed.”

The heaviest death rate is from the fifth to the twen-
tieth day, but infection is believed to occur within the
first few days after hatching if it does not exist when
the chick is hatched. If infection does not occur before

FIG. 177—PAIR OF
GAPE WORMS
A—Male.
B—Female.

the chick is a week old it is likely to escape altogether..

Infection has been clearly traced to the hens that lay the
eggs from which the affected chicks are hatched, and it
has been found possible practically to eliminate the dis-
ease from certain flocks by testing the hens and remov-
ing all infected ones from the breeding pens. However,
many chicks that are not infected when hatched become
so through picking at the droppings from diseased chicks
and for this reason it often is recommended that glass
doors in incubators be covered at the time the chicks are
coming out, to make the interior dark and discourage any
tendency to pick at the droppings.

In all cases where there is reason to believe that the
chicks are suffering from bacillary white diarrhea, ar-

the chicks’ general heelth has not:
been weakened or injured by mis-
management.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

rangements should be made with the state experiment
station to have some of the affected individuals examined.
It is not desirable to forward dead chicks without pre-
vious arrangement, however, as the person who is to
make the examination may wish to give some special
ditections regarding their shipment so that they may
arrive in good condition.

There is no cure for bacillary white diarrhea so far
as is now known. The only thing that can be done is to
try to hatch chicks free from infection and then start
them under the most favorable conditions, so that they
will be strong enough to throw off infection if it occurs.
Feeding milk—all the chicks will drink, is especially de-
sirable, and the incubator and brooder should be thorough-
ly disinfected for each hatch or brood. Fine absorbent
litter that will take up all moist discharges so that the
chicks cannot pick at them so readily, is recommended.

Catarrhal Disorders

Chicks exposed to unfavorable conditions in or out
of the brooders, such as chilling, overheating, impure air,
etc., are more liable to develop catarrh of the bowels than
the various forms of nasal catarrh. Under some condi-
tions however, they may develop nasal discharges and
“sore eyes”—forms of catarrhal inflammation. Keep the
brooders clean and dry and at the proper temperature,
and do not expose the chicks unduly to cold winds or

rain. Whenever either symptom appears give potassium
permanganate in the drinking water as previously
directed.

Gapes

Gapes is due to the presence of gapeworms in the
windpipe of the chick. The characteristic gasping for
breath is caused in part by the presence of gapeworms
and in part by mucus secreted as a result of irritation of
the lining of the windpipe, to which the worms attach
themselves. The
adult worms are
small, seldom
over three-
fourths of an
inch long, and are
found in pairs in
the windpipe. |
This disease is
comparatively
unknown on
sandy soils, but
is so common on
clay or limestone
land” that) at is
scarcely possible
to escape it un-
less special pre-
cautions are
taken. Earth-
worms are known
to be instru-
mental in the
spread of infection, though they do not, of course, give
gapes to chicks unless the worms are from infected soil.

FIG. 178—CHICK WITH GAPES

Treatment of chicks affected with
gapes is difficult and only practially
successful, at best. The most practi-
eal plan is to prevent infection.

In the case of gapes as in most other diseases, pre-
vention is better and easier than cure and when there is
sufficient room to do so, a good plan is to raise all chicks
on land that has not been occupied by poultry for at
least a year, and thus is free from infection. If it is
possible to provide two nursery plots on which the chicks
may be raised on alternate years, there will be practic-

AILMENTS AND DISEASES OF CHICKS

ally no trouble from this cause. The following extracts
from Circular 30 of West Virginia Experiment Station.
by Horace Atwood and Dr. C. A. Lueder, give a sum-
mary of the results of some recent investigations on this
subject at that institution, and are of unusual interest:

“During her lifetime no eggs are laid by the female,
but these eggs develop in the ovary and accumulate in
her body by the thousands. When the worm becomes
fully mature and dies and is expelled from the windpipe
the eggs which have accumulated in large numbers may
be scattered about in various ways and thus perpetuate
the disease.

“At room temperature, gape eggs freshly removed
from a mature female and kept moist, hatched in four-
teen days, and about the same length of time was re-
quired for the worms to mature after becoming attached
to the upper part of the windpipe. Eggs buried in the
ground between two watch glasses, in a cool, shady loca-
tion, retained their vitality and hatched the following
spring, but this period seems to be about the limit of
their endurance, as they were found dead and disin-
tegrated the second spring.

“Tt is probable that under natural conditions, such as
prevail in spring and early summer, the eggs will hatch
in from two to four weeks, depending on the tempera-
ture. The young gape worms when placed on a vertical
surface covered with moisture always tend to travel up-
ward. In this way they ascend grass blades, and the
chickens, picking off the dew drops and tender blades,
take the young worms into their mouths. From the mouth
the worms make their way to the sinuses of the head,
and their movement causes an irritation which brings
about a discharge and makes the chicken sneeze. After
being taken into the mouth of the chicken the worms are
soon paired and attached to the upper portion of the
windpipe.

“In 1900 the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment
Station purchased a farm for general experimental work,
on which gapes were present. The practice was adopted
of burning all chickens that died of disease and of keep-
ing the young chickens shut up until after the dew had
dried off in the morning. This
practice, without further proce-
dure of any sort, thoroughly erad-
icated the disease from the prem-
ises in two or three years. Since
that time chickens have been
raised on this farm by thousands
and not a single case of gapes has
been present there for the past
twelve or fifteen years.

“While studying recently
hatched gape worms, the junior
author observed that they were
extremely susceptible to a very
dilute solution of creolin or car-
bolic acid. A solution of three
drops of creolin in a pint of water
killed the newly hatched worms in from 30 to 60 seconds,
and it was found that c1eolin added to the drinking water
was an effective remedy, this medicated water flushing
the surfaces to which the worms had just become at-
tached and so killing them. Creolin should be added to
the drinking water furnished the chickens, at the rate of
three drops to each pint of water.”

Leg Weakness

Leg weakness frequently occurs among chicks that
are from one to four months of age. There are various

FIG. 179—COMMON
HEN LOUSE

109

causes for the trouble, such as lack of vigor in the breed-
ing stock, bottom heat in brooders, overheating and
crowding in brooders, poor ventilation, special feeding for
rapid growth, lack of bone-forming material in the feed,
etc. Constant confinement on board or concrete floors
frequently causes leg weakness. Common symptoms are
unsteadiness of gait, lack of activity due to inability to
stand up, lameness, lying with legs stretched out behind
or at side, etc.

The common practice of confining chicks indoors for
long periods before they are allowed to run out, with
little litter on the brooder or house floor and indiffer-
ence to providing exer-
cise, is the cause of three-
fourths of all cases of leg
weakness. Medical treat-
ment is useless. Correct
the conditions that cause
the trouble and the chicks
will soon recover. The
weakest, however, should
be removed and be given
a separate brooder where
they will not be trampled
and abused by the healthy
members of the flock.

Limberneck and Vertigo

Young chicks frequent-
ly suffer from limberneck,
caused by eating decayed animal matter, or the mag-
gots that grow in such material. Do not confuse the
symptoms of limberneck with those of vertigo. In vertigo
(congestion of the brain), the chick’s neck is drawn back
over the shoulder or twisted to ome side and the neck
may be turned so that the chiek looks directly upward.
Affected birds will stagger, run backward, and make other
peculiar motions, or may lie on one side. Congestion is
caused by digestive disorders, sometimes by worms, and
occasionally by injury. In well-developed cases of lim-
berneck, the muscles of the neck are relaxed allowing
the chick’s head to droop until it often touches the
ground, though in early stages the symptoms may resem-
ble those associated with congestion. In either disease
give the chicks a dose of Epsom salts and see to it that
the cause is promptly removed.

FIG. 180—RED OR “SPIDER”
MITE

Overgrown Wings

Young chicks, particularly Leghorns, frequently are
found trailing their wings which appear to be out of all
proportion to the size of the chick. This trouble oc-
curs, occasionally, as a result of too high brooder tem-
perature, but, as a rule, it indicates a lack of strength
which may iesult from a number of causes. In many
instances the wings really are not overgrown but are
normal in length and only appear overlarge because of
the relaxed position. When chicks are so affected it is a
good plan to clip the wings, and relieve them of the
extra weight. Then restore the chick’s health by proper
feeding and brooding, and there will be no further trouble.

Lack of Feathers

In many flocks there are found partially grown
chicks that have failed to feather out properly, sometimes
having no feathers at all except a few on the wings. This
condition may be due to a lack of constitutional vigor or
improper feeding, but more frequently to crowding in
the brooder at night. Generally it is found that if these
chicks are removed from the regular flock, warmly

110

brooded in small numbers and well fed, they will prompt-:

ly feather out and make fair growth. Such chicks how-
ever, should be sold as soon as they reach market size
and should never be retained in the flock either as lay-
ers or breeders.

Stunted Growth

This condition generally is the result of weak consti-
tutions, insufficient heat in brooders, or crowding and
poor ventilation in brooders or coops. The general ten-
dency to discontinue supplying artificial heat before the
chicks are properly feathered out is responsible for much
lack of thrift. With hen-brooded chicks it usually is
the result of overcrowding. Coops that appear to be
amply large when the broods are first placed in them,
become badly crowded as the chicks increase in size.
Confining growing chicks at night to hot, stuffy quarters
in which they scarcely have standing room—a condition
altogether too common in late summer and early fall, can
have no other effect than to stunt their growth and im-
pair their health.

Toe Picking and Cannibalism

Young chicks, especially Leghorns, are quite liable
to form the habit of picking at each other when kept in
close confinement, the toes being the usual point of at-
tack. This sometimes goes so far as to result in the loss
of a number of the weaker chicks that are literally torn
to pieces by the stronger members of the brood. As
a rule this vicious practice is the result of idleness,
though a lack of suitable animal food sometimes appears
to be partially responsible for it.

There is little danger of chicks forming bad habits
if they are kept busy all day long, and for this reason
there are few instances of toe picking reported by those
who give especial attention to providing exercise. Where
there is a special tendency to this trouble it often is a
help to supply a little fresh meat, hanging it a few
inches above the floor so that the chicks will have to
work to get it, thus not only satisfying their craving,
but at the same time inducing more exercise. It is stated
that dipping the injured toes in pine tar will afford pro-
tection, provided this is done at once, before the chicks
have become too familiar with the taste of blood.

Lice and Mites

Lice and mites cause heavy losses among chicks, es-
pecially when hen-hatched and brooded. Frequently their
presence is not suspected and the chicks are believed to
be dying from various diseases, when as a matter of
fact, they are infested with lice and their coops and brood-
ers are overrun with mites. Chicks that are hatched in
incubators and raised in brooders will rarely have lice,
unless they are kept in infested houses or where the
parasites may be acquired from adult fowls. Chicks that
are hatched under hens almost invariably are affected
with head lice when taken from the nest, and should re-
ceive prompt treatment. Lice are readily killed by
grease in any form, and a simple method of eradicating
them is to grease the chicks’ heads with a little unsalted
lard, vaseline, olive oil, or something of a similar na-
ture. If the chicks are badly infested it will be neces-
sary to apply a little grease under the wings and below
the vent as well as on the head. There are several prepa-
trations on the market which serve a similar purpose, and
as they are more convenient and often much more ef-
fective, the use of home remedies is only to be recom-
mended in case of emergency.

Red mites feed upon the chicks at night but remain
hidden about the perches, brooders or elsewhere during
the day. They rarely are found upon either chicks or
fowls in the daytime, unless the sleeping quarters are
completely overrun with them. Artificially raised chicks
that are kept in clean brooders or colony houses, should
never be infested with these pests, but if the mites are
present on the premises, as they usually are to some
extent in all houses occupied by adult fowls, there is
always danger that they will be carried to the quarters

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING

occupied by the chicks. For this reason, coops, brooders,
and colony houses should be sprayed with a good disin-
fecting solution and this, if frequently and thoroughly
done, will prevent all trouble of this sort.

Enemies of Chicks

_ Chicks have a number of natural enemies, and to
raise them without serious loss from this cause often is
a matter of great difficulty. The provision of proper
equipment for brooding chicks however, would prevent a
large proportion of such depredations. On thousands
of farms, enough chicks are lost each year from the de-
predations of minks, foxes, hawks, etc., to pay for all
the permanent equipment that would be needed to pro-
tect them.

Cats. Cats can be trained to let chicks alone, and
with proper attention there will be few losses from this
source. In many cases they learn to take chicks by eat-
ing dead ones that have been left lying around instead
of being picked up promptly as should always be done.
Then they get to taking mopy ones that are not yet dead,
and from this it is only a step to catching them as they
run at large. As a rule, cats that have once learned to
take chicks cannot be broken of the habit and should
be shot at sight. Where losses occur from this source,
covered runs are especially serviceable. Chicks can be
kept in them for the first three or four weeks of their
lives and will do well if the shelters are moved to fresh
ground frequently. Portable fence panels also are used
in making small enclosures within which the chicks are
confined until they are large enough to take care of
themselves.

Rats. Rats are extremely cunning, and where they
are numerous it is almost impossible to protect chicks
from them except by providing thoroughly ratproof
coops and houses. Coops should have floors of inch
boards, and all openings should be covered with one-
inch wire netting. They should be raised off the ground
and be moved frequently enough to prevent rats harbor-
ing under them. Chicks should not be brooded near build-
ings or rubbish piles where rats may hide, no tall grass
or weeds should be permitted to grow near the coops or
brooders, and if colony houses are used they should al-
ways be blocked up off the ground so that rats .will not
burrow under them. Permanent poultry houses with
board floors should always be raised at least a foot off
the ground for the same reason. When all grain and
poultry feeds are kept in ratproof houses or bins, it is
not a difficult matter to keep rats from becoming estab-
lished on the premises. When they appear, a relentless
war should be waged against them.

Minks, Skunks, Foxes, and Wolves. In some sec-
tions these animals cause heavy losses. Minks are es-
pecially dangerous as one mink may kill several dozens
of chickens in a night. If the coops and houses are prop-
erly constructed, all openings covered with one-inch mesh
netting and the doors regularly closed+ at night, there
will be few losses. Where the chickens are liable to be
attacked during the day, there often is no practical way
to protect them when small, except by providing large
yards enclosed with wire netting and keeping them con-
fined thereto.

Hawks and Crows. These enemies are especially
hard to combat, and when they get started on a flock
will take many chicks. Crows are afraid of firearms,
and shooting a few sometimes affords complete protec-
tion, especially if the dead birds are hung on poles located
near the brooders. The plan of keeping brood hens con-
fined to small coops or covered runs, which proves so
satisfactory under ordinary conditions, is frequently im-
practicable where crows and hawks are numerous, as
the chicks are thus deprived of the hen’s protection.
When these enemies are numerous it is advisable to con-
fine the broods to a plot of suitable size, within which
both hens and chicks may be given full liberty. This will
enable the hens to warn the chicks of approaching dan-
ger and give battle when they are attacked.

.

Air Cell, Development of the........... . 42
Albumen, Analysis (of) oi cic csceile wceviea vie 24
Albumen, Formation of ..............00% 24
7JAWETONED, GINO) Gatane 7.3). GUC ege Beeooe 29
PWN, ANAC! Ss Scioto ob ECO RORIOe DECOOeOD 29
Animal Heat, Failure to Readjust for..... 51
ING VSP S NTE) SonGe Gade 66 DOR Ee OCC OSE ROORC 107
a StGd Orme oye svapaicintsraic c/a eile cle vajetaiaiainie 29
Bacillary White Diarrhea ............00008 108
PR eeC CN OICE TOLie clu dkca iis cre seit) siclefor ieee 9
RESCH ID OO EO ALC fala die) os) a1e 4) © s,arerolSsaralointe, svoteays 18
MIGCKS IM SIZE OL ccc cc acs ae seins tide 16
PCRS CG ALEOL, co civ eis ties s/s w wide e wit sealers 13
Toi Ky LO GETS Ge eRID CORCRDOOROT 17
PEN MEKEKGISE TON” fc caieisis vis eietassoniiera aelale 18
[Ret s we etan ey tHe © cite se sinisisic/e) wsiielaye arate 16
DLGCKECaTe OL WOU Aaie% «)wsielslsine wines 14
BEG-fO-Liay) SSROEK i ni otercicialavasatave (drains alavocatetel o 10
Brooder, Cleanliness in ...2..ececsccccces 82
Does Not Heat, What to Do When.... 76
Melee Exit ace erarelateis artis winvaie ar ovedearatereinveroyelare 74
Equipment, Skimping On .............. 75
How Many Chicks to the ............6. 80
PRITRE DMG RO II Ee rereicis aye, erat aXovacd ales ale einai 82
Becation for Outdoor 1.6... 0c. eens 71
Providing Ventilation in .............. 80
We Aer RO WIS) sain Atte civ ctels wines sleraierars 10
MLeTUPeLALULe i COMRECE) fe: =,c10-0) oieicjs cialecei ccoxeie 79
MU GewOrM OIG! Tri te celate ayers Navajo nies) cc aveiere(e 81
Brooder House, A-Shaped Portable........ 100
RUCRISEGH CHO NOL) coyata aciatsyayere «one = fale a/a (a'avels 95
PEGG ATIOL OL rte/a swiss icletsiwisis ain/s) al evra cueteleere 94
Pernranenti GOlony, ys. cava «sre eas 6 0 <0 eee tee 102
Portanle Colony,” <cecinccse as cane Suis stace 101
PAPQUUCES A UBITEIESS) oc close cniae'e we avieteseie 65
HE GniGTEG Do aseg cerns ED Cone On ODS 0 don 74
Hdcoreand (Ontdaor <2... sc ccic ne cee 70
Brooding Capacity Required,

Rte wasto wsstnate: cq :s,./<eyesisaieiaisies ra 75
Maorpuents Care Of <..-c<-c-eee alt sivieislo.0 sie 84
PSVSLCMME NOG WWALEN deca cc, dleataneaidnye 74

RA EAETNAUMAE SOLE ETS) che cia)or< ia sje oe sie's hope wie s 108
ME APA Com eMIE © fait avn ays iar as) westtulee le bs s)e/eid 23
Chicks All Out, Getting the .............. 53
Must Bel Kept Busy! 222.564 08 fc seee 88
@Ontdoors, "Getting the (2. atewc cs. . 32.20 83
Record ‘Masking ..2(cighojcr<isj02 Sesjisis eins 77
selling: Six-Week-Old <2. 05,220.00 cer 58
Whenatanlaket@it sy. ten... --cide one wer 77
TOTO EO area iat cicteaahets ara o oto Uae; sjaketos 29
REI CCIOIOSISH aha) Arcia lars ei (orate ania Ante ees \ela ve 107
Colony Hover, Permanent House for..... 102
Colony Hover, Portable House for....... 101
MEDION YAPELDVELS | veiarel onpe wise emetic ceyaiele cea ei 72
Colony Hovers, How to Use ............. 73
GCornpgestionwof Tings) of. oc eleiciiciesine es 107
GonshinhGtale WAPOG | cise cis eines ove clnwisie 9
Cooling an Aid to Ventilation............ 44
Cristom). Hatching ae css ioe oxic 3 <, erste vial « 58
Day-Old Chick Industry, History of...... 54
Day-Old Chicks,

Incubators Used in Hatching...... 55
Prices Realized for <2) ticassseisces cons 57
Sipe “BOXES FOr stewie larcccdenetsieloteniel ce 57
What :- vo With Surplus ............. 58
Who Shovwld Bigs ens intr ai etainrs pirates 55
Who Should Produce) si 2i.55% osc ayeclore 56

Diarrhea sn Chicks: oe vc Saree aie coon sine 105
Disease, First Symptoms of .............. 104
Door, Wievated. Chicky sas «clerisiss 6 seis ieee 100
Dosage for Chicks, Proper............... 106
Egg, Composition of Hen’s .............. 24
IRormatign, Of tHe ve clsciepieryeinine s’rkn Abels 22
Structures ote the ai. aus» aeitte teoton ae aad 24
Eggs After Shipment, Resting ............ 33
peice of Fertile and Infertile..... 28
MERUSISSIG,. Yas csi phartate mat aA halo alata Tp eal ate 31, 44
Defective and How Caused ............ 26
ANA IKEtOs LCSE oecs-s\ <5 xk a.0 3, 5's amin ateietsy ae 51
for Hatching, Undesirable ............. 49

Eggs: Held:for. Batching: o6..cas ensue 32
Brow Gon gto nto lyre marmicisis alti dmaisns a teteld 33
How Often Do Hens Turn ........... 31
Loss of Weight During Incubation..... 31
I OISHERE! eect a aicttcer seraleleteNe (afo'« w aietesteisharere 31
Position in Which to Keep ...........- 33
SHAD Gs Ok. 2 ayceieicksleterste aatateis a) siehatala eas) oe:e%e 25
SIZES OL, iayar< ara creavereielcale Wietas alelarelcxaialin.s 0' 26
WHZEL TO) USE" cranrstaratarcravermaretaraliie aria een 33
PAPESELN Ba cease leutbnrerars Wie Ona a Mone ST IRTNY of alnce: ai, 51
Aner ACRE nc cea Ue ond seanrod 40, 52
Variation in Composition of........... 25
Washinton re-cincrsjaxeiecrateiereealecieniertaess 33
Witten: J ertrlized| ors usicmysvmatdots staaeireniene 28

Embryo, Development of Chick .......... 29

Embryo; Position: of < ccs cc once si nereitle 29

Binemies (of) Chrely: jc! ous sic e tease sisielnel 110

Epsom) Salts for" @hicks: «<1 < <ceis cn ciee =e 106

Evaporation, Gontrol Of oc cs... we cecleene 43

Evaporation, Percentage of .............. 43

Weathers, AUACkin Ol. iuieyess sya syoeis eae winiene operate 109

IEGal AelepyISIS K ookapqabonosradrosdoodyce 91

Reed,’ Umwholesome: .....)../60. 00 eweicives sacle 93°

Feeding Chicks,
Cornell Rations and Methods for... 92

Importance of Careiul! .).icict. o1c-cjelecis nies ace 86
Gir GE STOCKS Sey oasaieveslacerstevaie lar atoiwaiaiere 93
Kowal otatiOr vet nod) Of 2... <i «nro cere 92
Method; Ay Successful) ss. ses.0s-ssyectere ore 89
Method, Deep» Litter . 2... 0.000 ences 91
Method Recommended by U. S. D. A.. 93
Wethods;) Simplified’ ieee 5.06.6 s000.00 sa aievele 91
UES lmed oxairarelorerarseberetistera) aneieneseicyoonis ee waieye ra chs 105
STRAY. Sie koh ojetelealeh ove Cleetonseaicre RAG sis iavs, svcheyeisiesede 87
WihatiW Not tomo) imei ars cicicraielecisle’s «1es/are 93
Wihten'-f£o) SB eg inure srctstete erst lalate oe ssia oie elt 85
Beeding: \Coopy ctavcnie vais. sieyersieielnfe is s'siais. 2,508 88
Reedss -Niirsenyaracctalajeterclaisselsiarele.cunvefanstevaye che 86
Females for Breeding, Selection of....... 12
Hertility -andElatchabulity <0. .... 0202s 11
Fertility, Reasons for Low ....:.......+6. 20
locks }Matingsuretcercys <jerciesceia,srelers)steveiaiereretate 17
Bloor ‘Space ‘per Bowl! 2... «-in6 ci eae < 15
Gaipesy .iaarcvetmptareterene <avesie'e <(elafeia|epe crs varere\srcrians 108
Germinal Disc, Location of .............. 28
Growing Stocks sates ae. c/aieroushetavectese ats eieue 84
Growth, Stunted ..... gririe ev eaeceseesciens 110
Hatch, ringing Omtetihen 1-7) eeniere 45
Cleaning: Up aber aren srayein cores syayeicin «oie alates ele 46
Starting, ‘thie Wie eciet eres ava cie ale nievavaweties S¥/
Hatching Records) siya ne svce)«ie\eveeiei 20, 46, 47
Hen, Bodily Temperature of .......... 28, 39
House, A Permanent Brooder ........... 100
for Breeding Pen, Small Portable....... 15
for Colony Hover, Permanent.......... 102
for One Hover, Colony........ tC SOCKET 97
for "Single Breeding: Pent) .11sjeresistelrsatetele 15
for. Ewo Brooders, G0) A. /sictsisvecieievaist cree: , 98
Open Front Compartment Brooder...... 99
Permanente Oreeding? (ci. s/sjcleleeieaetersisietete 15
Hover, Cloth-Covered Enclosure for....68, 77
Installed in Colony House ............. 70
Teaching Chicks to Use the ........... 78
Hovers and Brooders,
Who Should Use Lamp-Heated..... 71
Fovers®0(Golony) (shige elas emrneenio cas 72
ampstleated) vapteaaisroleire mlm aisle eraieiete 67
Portable Lanip-Heated) 2.355. ieeins 68
EASY PX OMELET ON 5) e\e1 oo) staletate'a) «\s]oaiatolofeisvers otetterstars 50
Bre edinh < Zroieisicis spMeselcaeuat ana e weitere 10
Inclines for Brooders and Houses........ 97
Incubation, Loss of Weight During.....: 31
Incubator, Changes in Equipment of...... 50
VINE LOO) ALC wraie «0'o alos lero ata mietayaunrel aie 48
(OAR TT Brno AnBDOnD OnE UOOnOONdoE 53
Correct Temperature for .............. 38
Details) of Operation 2 .scsi.c o<sisyaetaleiainve 46
RO CAMMOTE OS fertare nie cieie cial mntarorerer s/miat om 35, 48
Operating Without Instructions......... 49
Overcrowding in the ..........ecseeees 53

WOW ALO) RE RIMAEOL s/e's/<ic/a.n violetalalnle n/alesacls 36
Shui (UP MDE CH Ain goneenco co aanonc one 36, 48
PUMLOM GONG OL ey GOOG ve stareinielertietatelsutinisie sei 35
Wihate Size tonGee et eve jen s.c ari tisicteladtete’si are 35

Incubator House, A Small Aboveground.. 62
at Oregon Experiment Station.......... 63
at” Pennsylvania Experiment S‘ation.... 63
CONOMELEM geil cotaisis teins cleichere eauiierealerteriete 64
Details of Construction of ............ 60
PLGONES, ps alsfatntetarsnatatn tie ialthy ce ote ols ur toiatelsiatoretareys 64
for Lamp-Heated Incubators ........... 60
for Mammoth; Incubators .............. 64
TsOCapIOM LOT espera siete er cfersvaters-s\ptelecsfecofarvisterste 59

Maybe, IDAs Lonegodeauyduavodden 34
ETO tipeAtierctete vere ckerchefeyaicveterstataisvart estar raceleasteiere 34
LOE MAWWAHGK.” 's couture cheicin.otays shalcvalaln ete oreraloiattts 34
UVleirra tr OIA c) sia reYoyatay'ese| ovoYerate af staptetstal obeyateher reve 34

Lamp Burners, Using Defective ........ 52

eariyes CATE VOMp CHEN eyesore sivis isles vicieeeiaieteinnelels 37
Pikrag, GCE) oGnoohnpmsauDaocooULboOGUT 49
(ANTE MG OWEN CTs ie)o.s.c:0,s a1e.0.8) ols eialieteVale/asace ~ 49
UATE MC OMIEO WAN cl etslere lacs x ceseualeiatalermielaye 50
IWemlectim ete) iv sieYelereves)s (00.0.4 » slain eina <a 51
Fritr mii ole pH eum svelofaietessic\sieys) says sievernvtie arciore 52

Wayers sn Selectineubien cyetatnytia sic areisvadiereie vain 12

We mRWieakies site creetaters'e ei ncovele role, elets 011 a)ave: oie 109

icemamd s Mites rata slepataietela «| «levols'sisielaicistel te 110

Limberneck and Vertigo ................ 109

TEV ISOLGEUS! |: jatete) «/cleledais miata sietsiclet'eleh sieve 106

Males, Selecting the Breeding ............ 11

Marking Chicks, Methods of.............. 77

Milk Feeding for Chicks ................ 105

Moisture and Ventilation ................ 42

Nursery, Overcrowding in ............... 45

Olay 7s Ode TMC M a rarcratstnvescfarnteterevo stele. sisi vietarsteree 22

Ovyidsucthiof Hem) ve.-spyeieisteriat-lor aisle oilers 22

Pedigree! Watchirip weet teveletclsils )e)si+/olnlelelelscets 45

Perches, Teaching Chicks to Use.......... 84

Post-Mortem Examinations .............. 106

Rations for Breeding Fowls ............. 17
iomie-m iced! Fe ateveietsay ois (aleve rete <) 1s ateyaiere oles 89
Siiddeni Changes. <jaleieteita1<1< lest elena 93

Records ye atchane a vee cecilia 20, 46, 47
in Use At Purdue University.......... 46
In Use at Ohio State University........ 47

Regulator on Tnembator eee siyeelele 1-1-0 1-12 /ie 36

Roosting Closet for Breeders............. 13

Saritationy VWethod sma tatercaialstciaiet=iatet-/<iatelet ses 103

Shadev form Chirclkesseretetetelerstatettststeiaraia cierereeare 97

Sour (Crop and \Gastatis ss <ittaels <i a1e/6 107

Temperature, Correct Incubator ......... 38
AGS Veh 6 Ganon oc cam@ugad copedagodo0S 51
Correctaincrbator eres i=i-00l = sacle alert 38
Failure to Average the ............... 51

Memperature Of Pees rec... <class «ole 39
with Contact Thermometer ............ 39
with Inovo Thermometer ............-.. 39
with Suspended Thermometer .......... 39

Temperature of Sitting Hens ......... Ate GH)

Mester tows to, (Wise! they fos )crmiaaleraleloieo'nls 41

ANAS oe WER Oy LO Beg abenpoacioc ASCCincaas 52

Testers, Different Styles of .............. 42

Thermometer Not in Correct Position.... 50

Thermometers, Incubator ............+++- 38

Thermometers, Using Untested ......... 50

Toe Picking and Cannibalism ........... 110

Trap-Nesting ........ coorksambocaodducroc 20

HEN E, Putas Pie Gone oondeao ce Gepeedce 52

inggbere” 1752) sco calico So De SD RG eOnE Ho 52

Ventilation and Moisture ...........++00+ 42

Vertigo, Limberneck and ................ 109

VWehioe EIN UTE AAS ACO GUCIMODIIOC. CIAUER ED 86

Wiater) Weasel si arenretelecioie epridie’ole\e(a\e:a\siele/ornmnls 93

White Diarrhea, Bacillary ............... 108

‘Wires, Overgrown rates, os(e\a)= s\0/s]e(u)afolarnlw) clasts 109

Vardsy atid eRencedir dacs o<cn.05 coum Alain 96

Walk CATALWAIR RON n.clec alain ccateielernie mame ealerseys 24

Wolly Sacgp Wit o,o:nievis/alaieaiale ls ssp widlelsiu(elp als 29

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ia Complete and authentic information, Fully illustrated. Color
plates,

THE ASIATICS—Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans. Complete informa-
tion on mating, breeding, exhibiting, etc. Beautiful illustrations. Color
plates.

THE CAMPINES—Silver and Golden. The largest and most profusely
illustrated work on this breed. Leading breeders ete contributors. Color

lates,
NEW POULTRY BOOK CATALOGUE

Write for our new illustrated poultry book catalogue for prices
and full descriptions of these books. It also lists practically every
worth-while poultry book issued by other publishers, It is an ENCY-
CLOPEDIA OF POULTRY LITERATURE and a valuable book of
reference. Sent free to any address on request,

Reliable Poultry Journal Publishing Co.
DAYTON, OHIO, U.S. A.

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

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