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56 Chemistry.

THE ART OF BREWING. 3RSIT7

CHAPTER I.
Introductory.

THE artificial formation of exhilarating
and intoxicating liquors has been prac-
tised in most ages and nations. Wine,
which is prepared from the juice of the
grape, is mentioned in the earliest re-
cords of history. The Tartar tribes,
from time immemorial, manufactured
their kumis from the milk of the mare
and of the cow : the chiaca of the East
Indies is the produce of rice : the Mexi-
cans, before the arrival of the Spaniards,
had different kinds of cheering liquors ;
from the metl, or magnai, a species of
aloe (Agave Mexicana) ; from certain
palms and from maize : arid the Ger-
mans, in the time of Tacitus, brewed
zythum and curmi from barley, in the
mariner in which we make our ALE and
B EER.

All these preparations, and numerous
others which we have not named, have
certain properties in common. They
constitute a genus, under the denomina-
tion of Vinous Liquors, because that of
the vine is pre-eminent. They all ac-
quire their inebriating quality from a
similar fermentation ; and all give out
fluids by distillation, in which that qua-
lity is concentrated in a far less bulk.
These latter fluids are called, generally,
Spirits, or Spirituous Liquors; and
have the specific names, Brandy, Ariki,
Arrack, Whisky, Sec. each differing from
the others in flavour, according to the
material from which it is drawn. They
are all, however, convertible, by subse-
quent distillation, into the same sort of
liquid, which is termed Spirit of Wine,
or Alcohol. There are thus three stages
or three processes: the fermentation
which produces wine, beer, Sec. ; the
distillation of these fermented liquors,
producing spirits; and the distillation of
spirit, producing alcohol.

Although we were able, it is not our
present business to describe the various
processes by which vinous liquors may
be prepared from different substances.
What we here undertake is to treat of
the Vinification of Barley ; and, when
we shall have, occasionally, to speak of
the fermentation of other vegetables, it
will be solely for the purpose of eluci-

dation. The comparison of Ale with
Wine will be frequent ; but for the
particular processes, by which the lat-
ter and its numerous imitations are pro-
duced and preserved, we must refer to
the TREATISE ON WINE-MAKING.

Though Brewing is certainly a che-
mical art, it has hitherto derived little,
if any, advantage from the science of
chemistry. In fact, nothing is to be ex-
pected from that quarter. Of all mate-
rial substances, vegetables are the most
difficult to analyze. Their immediate
materials (as the results are termed)
are often produced, rather than found,
in the laboratory. The acids are con-
nected by an invisible chain. The
fecula, or starch, becomes gum, or su-
gar, by almost imperceptible processes.
The seeds of plants are endowed with a
vegetable life, which is absolutely ne-
cessary to vinous fermentation. A vivi-
fying power shall exist when the grain
is cut to atoms, which an unlucky twist
of the mill might have utterly destroyed.
Our chemists are men of the closet; and
the manufacturer who operates on three
hundred quarters of gram at a time can
hope for little information from gene-
ral theories, although upheld by the
analyses of twenty barleycorns and their
infusions in a quart bottle.

While the art of Brewing has been so
little indebted to the progress of chemi-
cal knowledge, it has been considerably
retarded by a power to which it had a
right to look for assistance, the Legis-
lature of the country. The public
Brewer, from whom only the art could
receive improvement, is completely fet-
tered by the laws of excise. The French
Vigneron may flavour his wines at plea-
sure ; and, by means of extraneous sub-
stances, may prevent or cure their dege-
nerations ; but malt, hops, water, and
isinglass are the only materials of the
British Brewer. Under whatever cir-
cumstances, everything else is inexora-
bly prohibited. There is no distinction
between useful and poisonous ingre-
dients : all are stigmatized as illegal ;
and the penalty is the same for a single
eggshell as for a pound of opium.

In addition to these absurd prohibi-
tions, the public brewer has to struggle
under a direct impost, amounting, in
B

BREWING.

most cases, to 50 per cent, on the first
cost of his materials, and from which
the private brewer is wholly free. The
duties upon ale and beer brewed
for sale, which were first imposed in
1643, have been increased, from time
to time, until they have reached their
present enormous amount. We shall
not stop to trace their progress, but we
may remark that, at a certain period, in
distinguishing between small beer and
strong, all ale or beer, sold at or above
ten shillings per barrel, was reckoned
to be strong, and was, therefore, sub-
jected to a higher duty. The cask which
contained this strong beer was then first
marked with an X, signifying ten ; and
hence the present quack-like denomina-
tions of XX (double X), and XXX (tre-
ble X), which appear, unnecessarily, on
the casks and in the accounts of the
strong- ale brewers. A curious change
of circumstances has rendered this letter
still an appropriate mark in the books
of excise. Ten shillings has no longer
any relation to the selling price, but it is
now the duty per barrel.

But it is not of the amount alone, but
of the proportions in which the duty is
levied, that the brewers, as well as their
customers, have occasion to complain.
Small beer is charged only at the rate
of two shillings the barrel ; and by small
beer is understood all ale or beer that is
sold to the customer at, or under, the
price of twenty-four shillings. All that
is sold above this price is accounted
strong, and is liable to the ten shillings
duty. The strength of the beer, which
ought to be the criterion, is here out of
the question ; for, if any gentleman were
to go to his ale brewer, and say that he
wanted an article better than small beer,
for which he would pay eight or ten
shillings more, the brewer could not
furnish it, because, if he charged more
than twenty-four shillings per barrel, he
would have to pay the ten shillings duty ,
so that he could not give a better article
for thirty-two shillings a barrel than for
twenty-four. A cheap table ale is never-
theless much in demand, and is often
furnished at forty shillings, or less. The
temptation to evade the strong ale duty
is great, and, consequently, as appears
from the numerous convictions, the
mixing of strong beer with small beer is
not uncommon. Were the duty, by some
means, proportioned to the strength,
this would seldom be done. But we
should write a volume were we to detail
all the frauds and inconveniences con-

sequent upon the absurdities of the pre-
sent brewery laws. In small works,
unless the brewer will consent to adopt
the measures of those whose consciences
are not too confined, he will seldom
succeed in his business.

It may be thought that we have dwelt
too long on this subject, but we shall
have frequent occasions to show that
the laws of excise must undergo some
change before the art of brewing can be
much advanced, without involving the
trade in total ruin. It is now preserved
in consequence of the ignorance, or the
indolence, of the servants in private
families. The tax on public brewers is
beyond all ordinary bounds. Were a
penny a quartern loaf levied upon the
bakers, their ovens would soon be cold ;
and yet we consent to pay twopence
upon every pot of porter which we drink.
In proof, the following is a statement of
the expense at which any private gentle-
man, who understands the manipula-
tions, might brew porter of as good a
quality as any that is usually sold in
London :

Shillings.

1 Quarter of Malt, at 65s. perquar.:=: 65

3 Quarters of Barley, at 40s. per quar.= 120

32 Ibs. of Hops, at 112s. per cwt.:= 32

Colouring, either from patent Malt ) *

or burnt Sugar . . j

Cost of Materials

222

To this there is nothing to add but
the labour which, to those who keep
men-servants, costs nothing. The grains
and yeast may be considered as an in-
demnification for the coals. If the
brewing were properly managed, it would
produce fifteen barrels of porter, of the
average London strength, at a price
under fifteen shillings a barrel, or five
farthings a pot. This calculation was
made in 1827, and the value would, of
course, vary with the alteration of prices,
but the sketch here given is sufficient to
prove that, under the present laws, were
the art of brewing generally under-
stood, the trade of a public brewer could
exist only upon the earnings of the poor;
for all who could muster a few pounds
would brew for themselves. We have
supposed raw grain, not so much on
account of the saving of malt-duty as of
its making a better beverage ; but even
were the porter made wholly of malt
the saving would be enormous. Thus :

Shillings.

4 Quarters of Malt, at 65s. per quar. 260

32 Ibs. of Hops, at 112*. per cwt. 32

Colouring . * . . 5

BREWING.

These materials would produce fifteen
barrels of good porter, at less than 20*.
per barrel, which is little more than three-
halfpence the pot.

CHAPTER II.
Of Brewing Utensils.

ALTHOUGH the names and general use
of the principal brewing utensils are al-
most universally known, yet a few re-
marks, upon their construction, may be
of advantage to those who have not had
experience in their erection.

$ 1 . Of Grinding Machines.

Malt is prepared for the mash-tun in
two different ways, by crushing, or by
grinding. In the former case the malt
is made to pass between two cylindric
rollers, close enough to burst the skin
and bruise the kernel. This answers
the purpose very well with regard to
good malt ; but when we have occasion
to make use of raw grain, or of grain
that has not been sufficiently malted,
there is a certain loss of materials which
would be secured by grinding. The
cause of this loss will appear afterwards,
when we treat of the means of producing
a saccharine extract.

Grinding is best performed by mill-
stones cut sharp for the purpose. Pri-
vate families cannot generally afford
the expense of mill-stones, which, be-
sides, are not now erected, like the
querns of our ancestors, so as to be
turned by a man. In the neighbour-
hood of corn-mills, the miller could do
this duty ; but his multure is seldom
determinate. A steel-mill is the best
succedaneum. It may be had of any
size, and, consequently, at various
prices, from three to ten guineas ; and,
we believe, there is no law to prevent a
machine of this kind from serving a
whole neighbourhood, unless it may be
in special cases of thirlage.

By whatever machine the barley, or
malt, is ground, it ought to be cut sharp
and small ; especially the former, which
must on no account be powdered into
dust, but cut into particles like sand or
well-ground oatmeal ; and, for this pur-
pose, if not already hard, it must be
dried on a kiln. Those who use small
quantities may purchase the barley in
that state, but licensed brewers, be it
remembered, must not use it at all.
The malt needs not to be ground so fine.
Neither should it be kept above a day
or two in a ground state, because all

sorts of meal are apt to heat by rea-
son of a fermentation that would ter-
minate in putridity. We have known
it clotted so hard that it required to be
broken by a mallet ; and the flavour, in
consequence, was spoiled.

2. Liquor and Wort Copper s y and

Underback.

Water, in the language of the brew-
house, is termed Liquor; the cut (or
bruised) malt, or grain, is Grist ; when
put into the mash-tun it is called the
Goods ; and the extract made from these
goods, by infusion in hot liquor, is
termed Wort. The liquor- copper, then,
is a boiler chiefly used in heating
water, for the purpose of infusing
the goods in the mash-tun, or for sup-
plying any part of the brewhouse where
hot water is required; and the wort-
copper is that in which the worts are
boiled, along with the hops, for the pur-
pose of giving bitterness, flavour, and
(as is generally believed) a preservative
quality. In small works, and particu-
larly in private families, one boiler is
made to answer the double purpose of
a liquor and a wort copper ; but this
is done always at some loss, and fre-
quently at the risk of destruction to the
whole brewing. When the FIRST MASH
(or infusion) is ready to be drained, it
must be drained into a vessel called an
UNDERBACK, because the copper is not
ready to receive it ; being employed in
heating liquor for the second mash.
The same happens in the third and
fourth mashes, if there are so many ;
and the wort, thus remaining so long in
the underbade, gradually becomes tepid,
generally contracts a disagreeable fla-
vour, and often turns into that peculiar
state of acidity which the brewers de-
signate by the denomination of BLINKED.
This last evil, however, (which admits
of no remedy) is sometimes occasioned
by improper heats in the mash- tun ;
but there the accident is more easily
guarded against, because it never oc-
curs unless the heat of the mashing
liquor has either been too low, or has
been allowed to stand too long upon
the goods. If the last runnings of the
mash be free from any tincture of
acidity, and it' they can then be imme-
diately carried to the copper and sub-
mitted to heat, the mishap of blinking
will always be prevented ; and this, by
the assistance of two coppers, can be
readily accomplished.
The expense of two coppers in place
B 2

BREWING.

of one may be urged as an objection ;
but the expense of one, on the ordinary
construction, is often as much as both
would be, if the coppersmith were pro-
perly directed. Coppers are generally
made of twice or thrice the weight that
is necessary. The sides can scarcely
be too thin, and the bottom, if it will
bear the weight of a man to stand while
cleaning it, is of quite sufficient thick-
ness. It should in all cases be well
hammered and raised inwards, like the
bottom of a wine-bottle ; which not only
strengthens it, but allows the worts to
drain with more rapidity from the hops.
In family coppers, the bottom can be
scoured without any great pressure or
weight.

Beside the saving in price, a thin-
bottomed copper is much more easily
heated, and less liable to wear, than a
thick one. The inner surface of the
bottom can never be hotter than the
fluid which it contains : the outer sur-
face is of course as hot as the flame
which envelopes it. In a liquor copper,
therefore, the inside can never exceed
the heat of boiling water ; and, if we
could imagine a copper-bottom to be
infinitely thin, the heat of the side next
the fire would be absorbed, by passing
through the copper as fast as it were
generated. It is on this principle that
water may be made to boil on a folded
piece of writing-paper. On the other
hand, when the bottom of the boiler is
thick, the outer surface is submitted to
the heat of the fire some time before it
communicates with the liquor within.
The metal becomes oxidated, and comes
off in scales, or, if the scales remain,
they render it more impervious to the
heat, so as in some cases to take double
the time of a thin bottom, before the
liquor can be brought to the requisite
heat. The difference of wear is an
obvious consequence. We have our-
selves made use of a twenty barrel
liquor copper, which (the discharge
cock included) did not weigh three hun-
dred pounds, and we found it quite
sound at the end of fifteen years, with-
out having needed the slightest repair
during all that period. The London
allowance for a copper of that size
would be eight or nine hundred weight.

With respect to the size of brewing-
coppers, the liquor and wort coppers
should be alike, and the contents of
each must be regulated by the sort of
beer to be brewed. If small beer alone,
with three mashes t the first mash would

require from three to four barrels of hot
liquor per quarter of malt, according to
the quality ; and, as it is always con-
venient to have more liquor than is
needed for the mash, so as to get the
second mash liquor ready in time, he
who would brew small beer in this way,
ought to have a copper which would
contain five barrels of liquor for every
quarter of malt that he intends to brew
at a time. Were he to brew strong ale,
with small beer in succession, or porter
alone, a copper containing about three
barrels for every quarter of the mash
would be a sufficient size. We are
aware that many public, as well as
private brewers, contrive to manage
with a single copper, by means of pan-
covers and other clumsy shifts ; but our
business is to teach the most convenient
(which will always be found the most
profitable) method of conducting the
operation.

3. Of the Furnace.

Although the construction of the fire-
place and other building (setting} of the
copper is usually entrusted to the brick-
layer, yet a well-going furnace is of such
importance to the brewer, that we cannot
pass over it in silence. In most manu-
factories, an ill-built fireplace is merely
the cause of additional destruction of
fuel, and unnecessary delay ; but, in the
brewery, the consequence is often more
serious. If, for example, the second
mashing liquor cannot be raised to the
proper heat within a few minutes of a
given time, the whole brewing of the day
is in imminent danger of being lost.
We shall, therefore, describe our method
of setting a copper, the utility of which
we have experienced for many years.
It has the double advantage of being
cheap, and, at the same time, equally
applicable to coppers of any size.

There are a few general remarks which
apply to every plan of setting. The
furnace-bars, or grating on which the
fuel is burnt, should bear a fixed propor-
tion to the lower surface of the copper
on which the heat is expended ; but in
this respect the artists do not materially
differ. The same may be said of the
height between the furnace-bars and the
bottom of the vessel, which can scarcely
be less than twelve, or more than
eighteen, inches. The ash-pit should be
as wide as the furnace-bars, and may
descend as low as we please. Allowing
the furnace-bars to be an inch and a
half wide, and half an inch asunder, the

BREWING.

air will be admitted, to supply the fire,
through an area equal to one-fourth of
the area of the fireplace. This air has
to pass into the chimney, in an expanded
form, accompanied with the smoke and
vapour of the fuel, and in that state will
occupy about double its former bulk.
The chimney ought, therefore, to have
a sectional area equal to half that of
the fireplace ; and, if so, it will only be the
want of height in the chimney that can
prevent a proper draught. These things
being premised,

Let A B E C D (fig. 1 .) be a flat piece
of masonry, or brickwork, level with the
furnace bars G F, and raised from the
floor to the height of the ash-pit, which
is immediately below the bars, and
where only the building is not solid.
Draw the dotted circle G H I K, exactly
equal in size to the bottom of the copper.
Opposite to the middle of the furnace
G F erect the prop I, and at H and K,
two other props, raising all three to the
height at which you mean to fix your
boiler above that of the furnace-bars.

Place the rim of the bottom of the copper
upon these props, which, as proper sup-
ports, must be built of fire-brick or of
fire-stone. If the copper be very large,
intermediate props maybe built (always
in the dotted circle), so as to support it
for a time, were one of them to give way.
Let the surrounding part of the build-
ing a, a, a, &c. be carried upwards,
higher than the bottom of the copper,
by ten, twelve, fifteen, or any number
of inches at pleasure, leaving a vacuity
b, b, b, &c. around the copper to the
height thus fixed upon, when it is to be
covered at top by means of bricks lean-
ing from the wall a, a, a, &c.,' to the

sides of the copper, the aperture not
requiring a greater width at that height
than the length of a brick : nor, indeed,
in any place, need the aperture be more
than from nine to twelve inches wide,
unless the boiler be very large, in which
case it may be covered by an arch. The
prop I, should be continued across this
vacuity, and raised so as the flame,
when it has reached the roof of the
aperture, shall just have sufficient room
to pass easily over on both sides, into
the chimney c, d, e,f, as represented at
fig. 3, in which the prop I is marked
on a section by the same letter I. By
keeping the entry to the chimney at this

BREWING.

height, the whole exposed part of the
copper will be wrapped in flame ; for it
should always be kept in mind that the
flame will rise as high and no higher

than the opening by which it is allowed
to enter the chimney.

Fig. 2 is a vertical section on the
same scale, with the copper in its place.

Fig. 2.

The lower part of this copper, being in
the form of a truncated cone, allows the
bottom (literally so called) to be smaller,
and consequently lighter, than if the
vessel had been cylindrical ; while the
flame, mounting up the sides at a, a,
gives the same heating power, as if the
bottom had been of a diameter equal to
the line b c. After the circular vacuity
is closed at b and c, the building round
the copper (until again closed at the
top) should be kept three or four inches
from the sides, as represented at II ; and
this thin zone of air will prevent the
escape of the radiant heat, more effec-
tually than would be done by two feet
of solid masonry. The sides of the
furnace are sloped to keep the fuel upon
the bars, as in the lines de and fg.
This section is presumed to be made at
the inner end of the furnace, where the
ash-hole h ends. The place of the fur-
nace door (which is cut off in front) is
represented by the dotted rectangle d, f,
i, k. The lighter shade I, seen behind this
rectangle, is the prop I mentioned at
{fig. 1.) The other two props H and K,
are here also shown by the same letters.
Fig. 3 is another section of the
copper and its building, through the line
E F on the plan fig. 1 . F is a section
of the furnace ; I is a central section of
the prop I so often mentioned ; and K

is the prop K of Jig. 1., the other
prop being supposed to be cut away,
the dark shade a is part of the open
space which surrounds the lower part of
the copper ; and b is a portion of the
same open space, the rest being covered
by the prop I, over which prop, and on
both sides of it, the flame ascends to b,
entering the chimney cdef&tc. The
dark narrow spaces II, represent the
same zone which was explained in
Jig. 2.

It will be observed, that the discharge
pipe, mn, has to pass through the
flame ; it must, consequently, be a sim-
ple copper tube, riveted to the boiler,
and joined to the cock, p, by ^flange at n.
This will, however, in a twenty-barrel
copper, save a hundred weight, at least,
of lead, which the coppersmiths usually
pour into a socket, when joining a cock
to a boiler, and which is weighed to the
purchaser as copper. To be sure, were
it not for this base metal, as well as the
excessive weight of the whole, the cop-
persmith would be obliged to charge
more per Ib. for his labour. We do
not mention these things as frauds, but
as absurdities.

It would be out of our way to dwell
long upon the erection of furnaces, and,
therefore, we have left many of the de-
tails unnoticed. For our own part, we

BREWING.
Fig. 3.

have generally found ash-pit doors and
upper dampers more troublesome than
useful especially the latter which are
seldom so tight as to prevent a stream
of cold air from entering the chimney,
and thus disturbing the draught. We
must not, however, neglect to mention
what we have found from experience to
be a great improvement in furnace-doors.
These are often extremely troublesome.
By their warping when thin, and shaking
the building vvhen weighty, they are
perpetual sources of vexation. The im-
provement we allude to is cheap and
simple, and by it we get immediate ac-
cess to the furnace, without having to
shove the coals through a passage two
feet deep, which is made solely to keep
the door steady on its hinges. The iron
frame in front of the furnace is, in this
case which we recommend, like that of
the ordinary door-way, except that it is
quite flat, (without any projection for
latch or hinge,) and has a horizontal

5)late, about three inches broad, on a
evel with the bars, on which the sub-
stitute for a door is to rest. This door
is a square, or rectangular fire-brick,
(what is termed a Welsh tile,) about
two inches thick, and of sufficient size to
cover the opening of the fire-place, and
an inch or two more on each side and
at top, as far as the front-plate will
allow. This tile is surrounded by a well-
fitted hoop of iron, which, by means of
a screw on one side, presses the other
sides together so as to keep the tile
firm. On the middle of the upper side

of the hoop is a staple, bv which it, is
attached to a light iron chain, and the
tile is so balanced, that when suspended
the sides hang perpendicular. The chain
is then passed over a pulley, so as the
tile may drop directly before the fire-
place, upon the plate above mentioned ;
when a weight exactly counterbalancing
the tile is attached to the other end, so
that this door may be raised, or lowered,
at pleasure, with a very slight effort. By
means of two or more pulleys, the coun-
tervailing weight may, like a bell-pull,
be sent to any corner of the brew-
house.*

CHAPTER III.

Of Brewing Utensils (continued).
l._ Of the Mash- Tun.

SIMPLE as it still is, the mash-tun of
former times was yet simpler than now.
It was a tub with a hole in its centre,
which was plugged by means of a round
shaft of wood that stood perpendicularly
through the goods. When the mash
was to be drawn off, this shaft, which
was called the Tap-tree, was loosened
(but not altogether pulled out) from the
hole, which, being conical, allowed the
worts to descend in a small stream into
the underback ; and the filtration was
assisted by a wisp of straw that had
previously been wound about the tap-

* We are indebted for our knowledge of this useful
contrivance to the lute Mr. 1'arkes, who has de-
scribed it in his " Chemical Eways, Vol. II.

BREWING.

tree, close to that part which acted as a
plug to the tun. It is hence that the
brewers still use the phrases of setting-
tap in the sense of beginning to let off
the worts from the goods; and tap-
spending, or tap-spent, to announce that
the goods are draining, or drained. In-
stead of this rude instrument, a false
bottom, pierced with holes, is univer-
sally used ; and the liquor, which was
formerly poured upon the top of the
malt, is now, in most cases, carried
down the inside of the mash-tun, by a
trough, and made to enter between the
two bottoms, whence, rising upwards
through the holes of the false bottom,
it forces its way among the goods, with
which it is then intimately mixed by the
mashing -machine, or with mashing-
oars.

The size of the mash-tun must be
regulated by the quantity of malt and
the quality of the beer for which it is to
be employed. From this may be calcu-
lated the largest space that will require
to be occupied by the goods and liquor
of the mash ; after which, five or six
inches additional depth must be allowed,
to leave room for the agitation when
mashing. The liquor between the bot-
toms is not effective, and should, there-
fore, be as little as possible, consistent
with the prevention of the risk of
choking, with any deposite that might
fall from the goods. An inch between
the bottoms will be quite sufficient ; in
small areas, less. The holes of the false
bottom should be burnt rather than
bored, lest the pores of the wood should
collapse with the hot liquor, which might
put the first brewing in danger. To
prevent this risk, by making wider holes,
would be still worse : the holes should
be conical ; the lower part from a quar-
ter to three-eighths of an inch diameter ;
but at the upper surface they ought not
to exceed an eighth ; the bottom should
fit the sides of the mash-tun, and its
parts should meet so as not to leave a
chink.

We must advertise the private brewer,
that, if he brew with a mixture of
raw grain, it may sometimes happen
that the goods in the first mash will
sink to the lower part of the mash-tun
and leave the wort floating above, with-
out being able to filtrate through the
condensed mass. To prepare for this
contingency, the upper part of the
trough that passes down the inner cir-
cumference of the tun and leads to the
space between the bottoms, should be

pierced with holes in the same manner
as the false bottom. These holes, when
not needed, may be shut by an interior
trough, or by boards ; and, when there
is occasion to let off the worts from the
top of the mash, the interior trough, or
boards, may be pushed downwards, and
the supernatant worts will pass through
the holes, down the trunk, and, commu-
nicating with the space between the bot-
toms, may be drawn off in the same
manner as if they had filtrated through
the goods. With the second mash, this
process will seldom, if ever, be neces-
sary. In these observations we have
supposed the mash-tun trough to be a
close tube, but some give it only three
sides, trusting to the inner surface of
the tun (to which it is applied) for the
fourth.

2. Of Mashing Machines.

Concerning mashing machines, we
have very few observations to make. In
large works they save much of human
labour; but we should imagine that,
until the mash extends to twenty quar-
ters, they produce very little saving, un-
less under peculiar circumstances ;
such as the advantage of a waterfall,
where the power costs nothing. In
small works, and in private families, it
is wholly out of the question. Oars are
there the cheapest and the best mash-
ing instruments.

6 3. Of the Hop-back.

After the wort is sufficiently boiled,
along with the hops, it has to be carried
into the coolers. If an airy situation
can be had for this purpose, below the
level of the discharge-cock of the wort-
copper, the wort may be run off into
the cooling-backs, either by means of a
pipe or an open shoot, and the hops se-
parated by means of a drainer in a cor-
ner of the first cooler, or back as it is
termed by the excise ; but when they
cannot be cooled except at a higher
elevation, the worts must be carried
thither, either by hand, or by means of a
pump. This pump may be placed di-
rectly into the copper ; but, in that case,
if the hops be in a great proportion,
they will need to be inclosed in a net to
prevent any accident from the choking
of the valves. The ordinary way is to
empty the copper into a hop -back, either
round or square, on the upper part of
which is fixed a drainer, (a perforated
smaller vessel,) to keep back the hops.
The pump is placed in the hop-back,

BREWING.

and from thence raises the wort to the
coolers. This wort-pump must differ
from the common suction pump, if we
expect immediate action. The lower
valve must be placed at, or near, the
bottom of the back ; for that of the pis-
ton rod must be immersed in the fluid,
as long as it gives out steam, before the
action of the pump will be free. The
valves, too, should be of metal, to resist
the heat.

4. Of the Coolers.

It is of importance that the worts
when drawn from the copper should be
cooled, as speedily as possible, to that
degree which fits them for the ferment-
ing tun. This is more especially ne-
cessary in summer, and, therefore, the
cooling back should be placed in that
quarter where there is the best succes-
sion of fresh air ; and the worts, if it can
at all be prevented, ought never to lie
above two inches deep in the coolers.
This should regulate their size. The
word Coolers is used in the plural, be-
cause two of these are indispensable
when we make two kinds of beer from
the same brewing ; and even in single
Gyles, if we make a Return. The two
latter terms will be afterwards ex-
plained. One cooler ought to be placed
so as to run into the other ; and this,
when we have occasion to speak of it,
we shall call the first cooler, the other
the second. Sometimes three, or even
four coolers are used, but these are
more for conveniency than necessity.

Various contrivances have been pro-
posed, and some of them adopted, for
expediting the cooling of worts. That
which is most commonly practised is
the fanning machine, which is placed
immediately above the cooler ; and by
the rapid revolution of its horizontal
boards, or arms, produces a whirlpool
of air which assists the ascent and dis-
persion of the steam. Whether or not
this has any effect against the preser-
vative quality of the beer, we are unable
to determine. Reasoning a priori we
should judge it to be unfavourable ; but
we have no support from experience.
The fanners are employed only in the
summer season, when beer for keeping
is never brewed.

Another mode of cooling is to pass
the worts through cold water, by means
of a worm, in the manner of the distil-
lers ; but in that case the water would
need to be plentifully supplied. Be-
sides, it must be taken immediately from
the spring, for that which is exposed

for only a short time to the atmosphere,
acquires its temperature, and gives no
advantage over that of spreading the
wort, in thin sheets, to the open air.
Further and we wish our observation
to be applied to every attempt at im-
provement in his art the public brewer
ought to be very wary of introducing
into his work any manipulation that is
new. We knew a brewer whose situa-
tion was peculiarly adapted for the cool-
ing method of which we speak. He
practised it successfully for years, under
the daily surveillance of the excise. An-
other superior officer at length came
into the round. He found a clause,
in an Act of Parliament, which made
the process, in his view, illegal, although
not fraudulent. The brewer was pro-
secuted in the Court of Exchequer. In-
stead of compromising the fault, he fool-
ishly let it go to trial. He was acquitted,
after his ingenuity had received an eulo-
gium from the judges ; but the Crown
never pays expenses !

The article Brewing, in the " Supple-
ment to the Encyclopaedia Britannica,"
(which was written by Dr. Thomson),
contains the following remarks on the
subject of which we now treat : " When
the brewer is obliged to make ale in
warm summer weather, it is material to
reduce the temperature as low as pos-
sible. In such cases, great advantage
would attend cooling the worts in coolers
without any roof, or covering whatever,
but quite open to the sky ; because, in
clear nights, the wort might be cooled,
in this way, eight or ten degrees lower
than the temperature of the atmosphere.
The reason is obvious. It is owing to
the rays of heat which, in such a case,
radiate from the wort, and are not re-
turned again from the clear sky. Wort
being a good radiator of heat, would be
particularly benefited by this method of
cooling." " A roof, perhaps, might be
contrived, composed of very light mate-
rials, which might be easily slid off, or
which might turn upon a pivot." " We
have little doubt that wort might easily
be cooled down to the freezing point, if
requisite, in our warmest summer wea-
ther."

5. Of the Fermenting Tuns:
When the wort is considered as suffi-
ciently cool, it is carried to the Ferment-
ing Tuns, or the Fermenting Squares ;
some brewers using circular and others
rectangular vessels for that purpose.
The circular are, in our opinion, de-
cidedly the best. Having no corners,

BREWING.

they are more easily kept clean ; and,
in low fermentations, in the winter
months, they are less liable to be chilled.
The fermenting tuns are commonly
termed Gyle-tuns, or Working tuna.

The size of the gyle-tun is regulated
by the quantity of worts that have to
be fermented within it at a time. It must,
however, hold more than that quantity,
to keep room for the head of yeast
which rises during the progress. This
head, if the vessel be cylindrical, is in
proportion to the depth of the worts,
without regard to the diameter of the
tun. In certain modes of fermentation
it may rise to a third, or even half of
that depth. The number of tuns will
depend on the more or less rapid suc-
cession of the brewings, and the time
that they are suffered to remain before
cleansing.

There are differing opinions with re-
spect to using open or shut tuns, in the
process of fermentation. Patents have
been granted for particular applications
of the latter mode, both in France and
in this country, but of this we shall treat
more appropriately when we have to
investigate the nature and result of the
operation in the gyle-tun.

6. Of cleansing Casks, Stillions, and
Store Vats.

When the beer has received its as-
signed portion of fermentation in the
tun, it is cleansed, that is, drawn off
into other vessels. These are usually
barrels, or other casks of a similar shape,
in which the fermentation is finished by
causing the yeast to be discharged from
the bung- holes into tubs, or stillions,
over which the barrels are placed. In
order to keep up this purgation until all
the yeast is wrought off, the casks are
filled up, from time to time, with other
beer. Some brewers take another mode,
and finish the purgation in the tuns, by
skimming off the yeast as it rises, after
the fermentation has become languid.
The comparative advantage of these
modes will come again under our con-
sideration. In porter - breweries, the
beer, when it has ceased working, is
usually turned into large close tuns
termed Store- vats, in which it is mixed
up with different brewings to suit the
taste of the customers. Ale brewers, on
the contrary, seldom rack their ale, but
send it out in the casks where it re-
ceived its final purgation. These prac-
tices, however, are in neither case uni-
versal. The reasons that determine
these and other methods of cellarage,

in the minds of the several brewers, will
afterwards appear.

$ 7 .Of the Arrangement of the Plant.
The general disposition of the fixed
utensils (or plant) of a brewery must
vary so much with the situation and
extent of the building, that we can only
give a general outline of the objects to
be kept in view : leaving it to be filled up
by the judgment of the engineer, or the
ability of the proprietor.

If water cannot be had from a source
sufficiently high, it should be raised to a
liquor-back in quantity equal at least to
one day's consumption, and high enouuh
to command the whole work. Pipes,
from this liquor-back, should be carried
to every part of the brewery where they
may be requisite. The liquor-copper
should be the next in elevation, and from
it, too, pipes should be carried. Imme-
diately under, and as near as possible to
the liquor-copper, we would place the
mash-tun with a roomy stage, and, on
the same floor, or a little higher, the
grinding machine at least that part of
it where the ground malt called grist is
given out. The mash tun should empty
itself directly, by means of a pipe and
cock, into the wort-copper; this again
into the hop-back ; and the hop-back, by
means of a pipe or shoot, into the first
cooler. The first cooler should run, if
required, into the second, and both
should communicate with a horizontal
pipe running in front, and as low as the
bottom of the gyle-tuns, (for these should
be all on a level,) and communicating
with each gyle-tun by stopcocks. From
this horizontal pipe another should be
carried to a contiguous cellar, below
ground, which, by the assistance of
screw-cocks and leather pipes, might
cleanse any of the tuns into the casks.
Howmuchof all this can, in any particular
case, be accomplished, we have here no
means of determining. The plan of
filling the gyle-tuns at the bottom in-
stead of the top is not usual, but the
young brewer will find it very commo-
dious.

We are aware that many of the
remarks and recommendations which we
have hitherto given, will be considered
as impracticable by private gentlemen,
for whose use, as well as that of the
public brewer, these pages are intended ;
but the accurate consideration of every
subject has its use, and without this
previous analysis we could scarcely hope
to render the other parts of our work
intelligible. The private brewer may

BREWING.

have a more scanty store of utensils than
those we have enumerated. They may
even change their identity : his liquor-
copper may become his wort-copper ;
his mash- tun may be metamorphosed
into a gyle-tun ; but he will understand
what we mean, when we mention the
different names, and will recognize the
actors in their changes of character and
dress.

CHAPTER IV.

Of Instruments.

] .-The Thermometer.

BREWING is a philosophical art ; and
has gained advantages from some of
those instruments which philosophy has
invented. Few, if any, of the arts de-
pend so much on the regulation of heat ;
and, notwithstanding, the introduction of
the thermometer into the brewery was,
we believe, not earlier than the middle
of the last century. We are sure that
then it was far from general ; and even
now it is unknown to nine-tenths of the
private brewers. We are not, however,
to judge from this circumstance, that
our ancestors could not make good beer.
They did so, but by no fixed rule. The
guess-work often succeeded ; and when,
as was frequently the case, a brewing
was blinked or otherwise spoiled, the
blame was laid upon thunder, or upon
witchcraft. Yet, even in those times,
there were scientific brewers, who were
able to do to-day what they did yester-
day, though they could not communi-
cate their knowledge. As is said of the
blind, the other senses became more
acute from the want of artificial instru-
ments ; and the taste, touch, hearing,
smell, and sight, were more forcibly put
in requisition. We know a public
brewer, still in business, in a country
town, whose scientific acquirements are
of the lowest rank, who exposes only
the bottom of his copper to the fire,
keeping the sides uncovered and polished ;
and who, nevertheless, fixes the heats
of his mashing liquor, with surprising
exactness, by the sound which his cop-
pergives when beat with his KNUCKLES.
With all this, he has little or no musical
ear.

r lhe thermometer is applicable and
useful in every stage of the brewing
process. It ascertains the heat of the
mashing liquor, and of the worts when
draining from the mash-tun. In the
coolers, it shows when the worts are
ready to let down for fermentation ;

and in the gyle-tun it marks the pro-
gress, as far as it is notified by the
increase or diminution of the heat. For
the latter purpose there are tun-ther-
mometers, from three to three and
a-half feet long, which can be immersed
in the worts, while all that, is necessary
of the scale overtops the froth of the
head. An improved thermometer for
the liquor-copper is still a desideratum.
In high heats the steam covers the tube
and obscures the mercury, so as easily
to produce a mistake. We have often
proposed, that a red glass bead should
be introduced into the tube, which would
swim on the top of the metallic fluid ;
but we have never been able to find an
artist who would undertake to produce
such an instrument, though it would
certainly procure a ready sale. Per-
haps a slight portion of coloured glass-
dust might be inserted, so as to answer
the purpose.

2. The Saccharom.eter.

The principle and construction of the
hydrometer (or areometer) have been
already explained in our " Treatise on
Hydrostatics." The saccharometer is
nothing else but a hydrometer, whose
scale is calculated so as to render it pe-
culiarly fitted for measuring the specific
gravities of worts, as compared with
water. The infusion of malt is sweet,
and without stopping to investigate
whether or not that sweet substance
(which is extracted from the malt and
increases the weight of the water) is
homogeneous with the sugar (Latin
saccharum) of the cane, the infusion is
termed saccharine ; the additional gra-
vity which it exhibits beyond that of
water is said to be caused by the saccha-
rine matter, and is measured by the
saccharometer.

The first instrument under the name
of a saccharometer was constructed, and
sold to the trade in 1784, by Mr. John
Richardson, then a brewer at Hull.
Other saccharometers have since ap-
peared with various claims to superi-
ority ; but the fundamental principle of
all is the same, and though Mr. Rich-
ardson's instrument has been theoreti-
cally, it has never been practically, im-
proved. Extreme nicety is not necessary
to the Brewer. What is wanted is a
cheap instrument, which might -be
bought by private families ; for we
know of none at present that can be had
under three guineas, except certain
rudely-constructed glass ones, which

BREWING.

have no pretensions to accuracy. We
trust that we shall soon be able to sup-
ply this deficiency.

Mr. Richardson's saccharoraeter, if
adapted to the imperial gallon, may be
thus described :

The part A (fig. 4) is a hollow ball of
copper, having a flat brass stem c d,
and a weight a of the same
metal affixed by the foot- stalk
g h. The weight a is regu-
lated so as the instrument
shall sink in distilled water of
62 to the point b of the scale
e b, which is divided into ten
equal parts. A barrel (36
gallons) of pure water at 62
heat, weighs 360 pounds
avoirdupois ; and the instru-
ment is so regulated that, if
put into a liquid weighing 361
pounds per barrel, it would
rise to the mark e. Each of
the divisions between e and
b will then represent tenths
of a pound. There are
weights (having holes in ^^
their centres) marked 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 10, 20 and 30. These, respec-
tively, represent pounds weight, and are
put, as required, on the top of the stem,
resting on the projection d. So, for
example, if when putting on the weight
marked 1 0, the instrument sinks in a
wort to the point b, a barrel of that wort,
at the heat above specified, would weigh
exactly ten pounds more than a barrel
of pure water. If the instrument shall
cut the surface at two of the divisions
below the point b, in that case a barrel
of the liquid would weigh 10.2lb. more
than a barrel of water that is, 370.2
pounds. The length of the instrument
is about eight inches, to which the ball
is proportioned, as in the figure. The
worts are understood to be cooled down
to a certain heat (in our description 62),
and an allowance is made at. other heats,
as directed, by a table which accom-
panies the instrument.

The water used by the Brewer is sel-
dom or never pure, but is often a tenth,
and sometimes a half of a pound
weightier per barrel. This should be
kept in mind in taking the gravities of
the worts, or the instrument may be
regulated to the water by shortening a h
the part g sliding into the socket g- h.

The common hydrometers, instead of
proportioning the specific gravities of
fluids to 360 parts of water, as is here
done, compare them with 1000 parts;
as may be seen in the Table of Specific

Gravities, given in the Treatise on Hy-
drostatics. The principle, nevertheless,
is the same. Sea-water, for example,
in that table, is marked 1028, while dis-
tilled water is 1000: that is, the same
measure of the latter which would weigh
1000 ounces, or pounds, would, if filled
with sea-water, weigh 1028. If we wish
to reduce the saccharometer indications
to the proportion of a thousand, we have
only to multiply them by 2*, because
1000 is 2 times 360. Thus a wort
which shows 9 Ib. by the saccharometer
is equal to 25 parts'of 1000, and in the
table of gravities would be written 1025.
But the Brewer never adds the weight
of the water when speaking of his worts.
A wort, the barrel of which weighs 370
pounds, is merely called a ten pound
wort, and in this way all his calculations
are made.

For the convenience of those who
wish to compare specific gravities gene-
rally, as they appear in philosophical
works, we subjoin the following table.
The figures of the left hand marginal
column are understood to be pounds ;
and those of Ihe upper horizontal line,
tenths of a pound weight, per barrel, as
indicated by the common saccharometer.
The body of the table contains specific
gravities, extending to tenths and cor-
responding with the different weights,
'water being reckoned 1000. An ex-
ample or two will be sufficient to show
the mode of consultation.

Suppose we have a wort of 14 Ib.,
and wish to know its specific gravity.
In the left-hand margin we find 14 ; and
next to that in the adjoining column
marked at top by a cypher, there being
no tenths, we find 1038.9, the specific
gravity required. Again, let the sac-
charometer-weight be 32.4 Ib. Oppo-
site to 32, in the margin, and in the
same horizontal line, in the column
headed .4, we have 1090, for the equi-
valent specific gravity ; and thus that
of any wort under 50 pounds weight
may readily be found.

The reverse of this comparison is
equally easy. Thus, suppose we have
a wort which shows a specific gravity of
1109.5 by the common hydrometer;
and we want to know how many pounds
heavier a barrel of such worts is than
a barrel of water : we seek, in the body
of the table, for the nearest number to
1109.5, which we find to be 1109.4. This
sum is in the column headed .4, in the
horizontal line with the left-hand margin
39 ; and therefore 39.4 is the weight
sought for.

BREWING.

TABLE FOR REDUCING POUNDS AND TENTHS OF ADDITIONAL GRAVITY
PER BARREL INTO PARTS OF 1000.

1000.

1000.3

1000.6

1000.8

1001.1

1001.4

1001.7

1001.9

1002.2

1002.5

1002.8

1003.1

1003.3

1003.6

1003.9

1004.2

1004.4

1004.7

1005.0

1005.3

1005.6

1005.8

1006.1

1006.4

1006.7

1006.9

1007.2

1007.5

1007.8

1008.1

1008.3

1008.6

1008.9

1009.2

1009.4

1009.7

1010.0

1010.3

1010.6

1010.8

1011. 1

1011.4

1011.7

1011.9

1012.2

1012.5

1012.8

1013.1

1013.3

1013.6

1013.9

1014.2

1014.4

1014.7

1015.0

1015.3

1015.6

1015.8

1016.1

1016.4

1016.7

1016.9

1017.2

1017.5

1017.8

1018.1

1018.3

1018.6

1018.9

1019.2

1019.4

1019.7

1020.0

1020.3

1020.6

1020.8

1021.1

1021.4

1021.7

1021 .9

1022 o

1022 5

1 022 . 8

1023 1

1023.3

1023 6

1023 9

1024.2

1024.4

1024.7

1025.0

1025.3

1025.6

1025.8

1026.1

1026.4

1026.7

1026.9

1027.2

1027.5

1027.8

1028.1

1028.3

1028.6

1028.9

1029.2

1029.4

1029.7

1030.0

1030.3

1030.6

1030.8

1031.1

1031.4

1031.7

1031.9

1032.2

1032.5

1032.8

1033.1

1033.3

1033.6

1033.9

1 034 . 2

1034.4

1034.7

1035.0

1035.3

1035.6

1035.8

103(3.1

1036.4

1036.7

1036.9

1037.2

1037.5

1037.8

1038.1

1038.3

1038.6

1038.9

1039.2

1039.4

1039.7

1040.0

1040.3

1040.6

1040.8

1041.1

1041.4

1041.7

1041.9

1042.2

1042.5

1042.8

1043.1

1043.3

1043.6

1043.9

1044.2

1044.4

1044.7

1045.0

1045.3

1045.6

1045.8

1046.1

1046.4

1046.7

1046.9

1047.2

1047.5

1047.8

1048.1

1048.3

1048.6

1048.9

1049.2

1049.4

1049.7

1050.0

1050.3

1050.6

1050.8

1051.1

1051.4

1051.7

1051.9

1052.2

1052.5

1052.8

1053.1

1053.3

1053.6

1053.9

1054.2

1054.4

1054.7

1055.0

1055.3

1055.6

1055.8

1056.1

1056.4

1056.7

1056.9

1057.2

1057.5

105-7.8

1058.1

1058.3

1058.6

1058.9

1059.2

1059.4

1059.7

1060.0

1060.3

1060.6

1060.8

1061.1

1061.4

1061.7

1061.9

1062.2

1062.5

1062.8

1063.1

1063.3

1063.6

1063.9

1064.2

1064.4

1064.7

1065.0

1065.3

1065.6

1065.8

1066.1

1066.4

1065.7

1066.9

1067.2

1067.5

1067.8

1068.1

1068.3

1068.6

1068.9

1069.2

1069.4

1069.7

1070.0

1070.3

1070.6

1070.8

1071.1

1071.4

1071.7

1071.9

1072.2

1072.5

1072.8

1073.1

1073.3

1073.6

1073,9

1074.2

1074.4

1074.7

1075.0

1075.3

1075.6

1075.8

1076.1

1076.4

1076.7

1076.9

1077.2

1077.5

1077.8

1078.1

1078.3

1078.6

1078.9

1079.2

1079.4

1079.7

1080.0

1080.3

1080.6

1080.8

1081.1

1081.4

1081.7

1081.9

1082.2

1082.5

1082.8

1083.1

1083.3

1083.6

1083.9

1084.2

1084.4

1084.7

1085.

1085.3

1085.6

1085.8

1086.1

1086.4

1086.7

1086.9

1087.2

1087.5

1087.8

1088.1

1088.3

1088.6

1088.9

1089.2

1089.4

1089.7

1090.0

1090.3

1090.6

1090.8

1091.1

1091.4

1091.7

1091.9

1092.2

1092,5

1092.8

1093.1

1093.3

1093.6

1093.9

1094.2

1091.4

1094.7

1095.0

1095.3

1095.6

1095.8

1096.1

1096.4

1096.7

1096.9

1097.2

1097.5

1097.8

1098.1

1098.3

1098.6

1098.9

1099.

1099.4

1099.7

1100.0

1100.3

1100.6

1100.8

1101.1

1101.4

1101.7

1101.

1102.2

1102.5

1102.8

1103.1

1103.3

1103.6

1103.9

1104.2

1104.4

1104.

1105.0

1105.3

1105.6

1105.8

1106.1

1106.4

1106.7

1106.9

1107.2

1107.

1107.8

1108.1

1108.3

1108.6

1108.9

1109.2

1109.4

1109.7

1110.

1110.6

1110.8

1111.1

1111.4

mi ./

1111.9

1112.2

1112.5

1112.8

1113.1

1113.3

1113.6

1113.9

1114.2

1114.4

1114.7

1115.0

1115.3

1115.6

1115.8

1116.1

1116.4

-12

1116.7

1116.9

1117.2

1117.5

1117.8

1118.1

1118.3

1118.6

1118.9

1119.2

1119.4

1119.7

1120.0

1120.3

1120.6

1120.8

1121.1

1121.4

121.7

1121.9

1122.2

1122.5

1122.8

1123.1

1123.3

1123.6

1123.9

1124.

1124.4

1124.7

1125.0

1125.3

1125.6

1125.&

1126.1

1126.4

1126.7

1126.

1127.2

1127.5

1127.8

1128.1

1128.3

1128.6

1128.9

1129.2

1129.4

1129.

130.0

1130.3

1130.6

1130.8

1131.1

1131.4

1131 .7

1131.9

1132.2

1132.

132.8

1133.1

1133.3

1133.6

1133.9

1134.2

1134.4

1134.7

1135.0

1135.

135.6

1135.8

1136.1

1136.4

1136.7

1136.9

1137.2

1137.5

1137.8

1138.

1138.3

1138.6

BREWING.

3. Assay Jars.

These are used for the purpose of hold-
ing the worts which are to be weighed by
the saccharometer. Their number is not
limited, and may be only one or half a
dozen, if it be wished to keep samples of
the several worts. They are cylindric
vessels of common tinned iron, about
eight inches long and two and a-half
diameter, which size gives sufficient space
to swim the saccharometer. They have
each a small handle and a lid, as repre-
sented in Jig. 5.

Fig. 5.

4. Refrigerator.

This is a very necessary article; for
though the saccharometers are usually
accompanied with tables of expansion to
show the allowance for the heat above
or below sixty degrees, yet the worts
can never be properly weighed, on ac-
count of the steam, until they are brought
down to 90 at most. This refrigerator
is so well described by Mr. Richardson,
that we cannot do better than give it in
his own words :

" This instrument may be made of
tin, and being intended to contain no
more than the quantity of an assay-jar
full, its dimensions may be nine or ten
inches deep, and its breadth seven inches
one way, and half an inch the other,
forming abroad and flat, or thin vessel,
resembling a tin case, sometimes made
use of for the preservation of deeds or
other writings. (See^g*. 6.) The rea-

son of its being made thus thin is,
that when charged with hot wort, and
plunged into cold water, the effect of
the cold may be almost instantaneous,
which is nearly the case ; for the quan-
tity of wort being less than a pint, and
the surface brought into contact with the
cold water (the intervention of the tin
only excepted), containing about 140
square inches, it may easily be conceived
how rapidly the heat must be dissipated.
" The upper part should have a
lip a for the more conveniently pour-
ing out the wort ; and on the oppo-
site side should be a socket, to which
a handle, b, should be soldered. The
use of the socket is to receive a stick,
of any convenient length, c, which
is to fix in the socket by a pin, in the
same manner as a bayonet is fixed ; by
which means it may be fastened in,
when the refrigerator is to be dipped
Fig. 6.

BREWING.

into the copper, and taken out, as an
incumbrance, when it is charged with
wort. It is to have two lids, or covers,
d and <?, the rims of which are to slip
within the edge of the vessel, as is re-
commended for those of the assay-jars.
One of the covers is to be perforated
full of small holes, in order to admit the
wort, and at the same time to prevent
the hops from entering ; the other is to
be whole, and is intended to supply the
place of the first the moment it is taken
out of the copper.

" The length of the stick inserted in
the socket is entirely to be determined
by circumstances, it being intended only
as the means of holding the refrigerator
in the wort, till it is filled without endan-
gering the hand from the steam.

" It should have a .broad flat bottom,
/, in order to enable it to stand upright,
otherwise there would be a necessity of
supporting it in that position."*

CHAPTER V.
Of Solutions and Mixtures.

\. Of Solutions.

WHEN a solid substance is dissolved
in a liquid, the specific gravity of the
compound is not increased by the whole
weight of the solid dissolved. Part goes
to the increase of bulk, and this increase
differs with the nature of the bodies so
united, in such a manner as not to be 1
included under any general law that has
been hitherto discovered. There is a
marked distinction between mechanical
and chemical union. A substance, for
example, which has the same specific
gravity as water would be suspended in
that fluid, and, if reduced to dust, might
be thoroughly mixed ; but the mixture
would be turbid, and the specific gravity
of the water would remain the same.
The suspended particles would increase
the bulk exactly in proportion to the
added weight. In chemical unions, how-
ever, (although we are pretty ignorant
of their cause,) it is otherwise. In the
mixture of fluids we are uncertain, pre-
vious to experiment, whether their vo-
lume will be increased or diminished.
In certain proportions of alcohol and
water, the diminution of bulk is about
three per cent., and, as might be ex-
pected from theory, heat is produced.
The solution, notwithstanding, remains
transparent, without deposition. The

* " Richardson's Philosophical Principles of the
Science of Brewing." 1793.

alcohol and the water are
neither is decomposed.

The manner in which the hot li
absorbs the substance, termed saccha-
rine, from the malt, has not been suffi-
ciently observed. It would appear, from
a few circumstances which have been
noted, that there exists a condensation
during the absorption, and that caloric
is evolved ; for the heat of the mash is
often considerably above the mean of the
ingredients. This, however, may be
occasioned by the action of Saccharifica-
tion, of which we shall afterwards have
occasion to speak.

However all these things may be, it is
certain that the weight of the dry sub-
stance extracted from the malt is much
greater than that which is communi-
cated to the specific gravity of the worts ;
for, if we were to take a barrel of worts
which weighed 380 pounds, that is,
twenty pounds more than water (as
might be shown either by the saccharo-
meter or by actual weighing) ; and were
we to evaporate the water at a low heat
until nothing remained but a dry resi-
duum, that residuum would probably be
found to weigh about fifty -two pounds :
at least, this is nearly the result of expe-
riments that have been made. The
specific gravity of this residuum is stated
by Dr. Thomson to be 1.532; but, we
believe, he was never able to procure it
in a solid form. At any rate, as we
shall have afterwards to speak of the
nature of malt extracts, we shall take
our illustration of the present subject
from the solution of sugar.

Pure sugar, dry and without vacui-
ties, has a specific gravity of about 1.6,
compared with water as unity ; that is,
a gallon measure of this sugar would
weigh sixteen pounds, while water weighs
only ten. If, then, we put one gallon
measure of this solid sugar into thirty-
five gallons of water, we shall (setting
aside concentration, if there be any) have
thirty-six gallons, or a barrel, of a solu-
tion, which will weigh sixteen pounds
more than the water with which the
sugar was mixed. If, instead of the
gallon of sugar, we had put in another
gallon of water to fill the barrel, we
should then have added only ten pounds
to the weight of the thirty- five gallons ;
so that we have a barrel, of sugar wort,
which weighs six pounds more than a
barrel of water will do ; and these six
pounds are all that are shown by the
saccharometer. In the one case we
have

16 BREWING.

35 gallons of water, at 10 Ibs. per gallon
And 1 gallon of solid sugar, at 16 lb. per gallon

Or 36 gallons of a solution weighing . .
In the other 36 gallons of water, weighing

350 lb.
16

366
360

The difference of weight being 6 Ibs.

A barrel, therefore, of a fluid mixture
of sugar and water, which weighs six
pounds more than a barrel of wa-
ter, contains sixteen pounds of pure
sugar ; and this proportion of six to
sixteen is found to prevail, with little
variation, whatever be the quantity of
sugar dissolved, as long as the fluidity
is preserved. Thus a wort of 14 pounds
would contain nearly 37 pounds of
sugar; because 14 is to 37 in the ratio
of 6 to 16.

"When Mr. Richardson constructed
his saccharometer, he was not aware of
the distinction between the specific gra-
vity of a wort and the quantity of sac-
charum which it contained. He mistook
the one for the other, and uniformly
spoke of a barrel of wort of ten, twenty,
or any other number of pounds, as con-
taining the same number of pounds'
weight of fermentable matter. Further,
however, than this misnomer, his instru-
ment was accurately as well as ingeni-
ously contrived ; and we still consider it
to be as well adapted to the brewery as
any one that has succeeded it. Pounds
and tenths of a pound per barrel are

near enough for the purpose of the
brewer, without having recourse to slid-
ing rules, in the use of which he may
be apt to err. Besides, this propor-
tional specific gravity is accurately true
and obvious to his understanding ;
whereas the real amount of fermentable
matter, the' discovery of which depends
upon experiments that he cannot verify,
is in every case an approximation or
guess-work, rather than a certainty. The
following Table will, at all events, en-
able him, if he wishes it, to turn his
weights into real fermentable matter,
according to the average of the scales of
the more recent saccharometers. The
method of consultation is the same as
in the Table of specific gravities at page
13. The left-hand marginal column
gives the pounds, and the upper hori-
zontal line the tenths of a pound of gra-
vity per barrel; and the body of the
Table, in the squares to which the side
and top figures respectively point, con-
tain the corresponding qualities of dry
saccharine matter, which those gravities
are supposed to indicate, expressed also
in pounds and decimals of a pound.

BREWING.

TABLE OF POUNDS OP FERMENTABLE MATTER CORRESPONDING TO THE
POUNDS PER BARREL OF GRAVITY; AVERAGED FROM THE MODERN
SACCHAROMETERS.

.25

.50

.76

1.01

1.26

1.51

1.76

2.02

2.27

]

2.52

2.77

3.02

3.28

3.53

3.78

4.03

4.28

4.54

4.79

5.04

5.29

5.54

5.80

6.05

6.30

6.55

6.80

7.06

7.31

7.56

7.81

8.06

8.32

8.57

8.84

9.09

9.32

9.58

9.83

10.08

10.33

10.58

10.84

11.09

11.34

11.59

11.84

12.10

12.35

12.60

12.85

13.10

13.36

13.61

13.86

14.11

14.36

14.62

14.87

15.12

15.37

15.62

15.88

16.13

16.38

16.63

16.88

17.14

17.39

17.64

17.89

18.14

18.40

18.65

18.90

19.15

19.40

19.66

19.91

20.16

20.41

20.66

20.92

21.17

21.42

21.67

21.92

22.18

22.43

22.68

22.93

23.18

23.44

23.69

23.94

24.19

24.44

24.70

24.95

25.20

25.45

25.70

25.96

26.21

26.46

26.71

26.96

27.22

27.47

27.72

27.97

28.22

28.48

28.73

28.98

29.23

29.48

29.74

29.99

30.24

30.49

30.74

31.00

31.25

31.50

31.75

32.00

32.26

32.51

32.76

33.01

33.26

33.52

33.77

34.02

34.27

34.52

34.78

35.03

35.28

35.53

35.78

36.04

36.29

36.54

36.79

37.04

37.30

37.55

37.80

38.05

38.30

38.56

38.81

39.06

39.31

39.56

39.82

40.07

40.32

40.57

40.82

41.08

41.33

41.58

41.83

42.08

42.34

42.59

42.84

43.09

43.34

43.60

43.85

44.10

44.35

44.60

44.86

45.11

45.36

45.61

45.86

46.12

46.37

46.62

46.87

47.12

47.38

47.63

47.88

48.13

48.38

48.64

48.89

49.14

49.39

49.64

49.90

50.15

50.40

50.65

50.90

51.16

51.41

51.66

51,91

52.16

52.42

52.67

52.92

53.17

53.42

53.68

53.93

54.18

54.43

54.68

54.94

55.19

55.44

55.69

55.94

56.20

56.45

56.70

56.95

57.20

57.46

57.71

57.96

58.21

58.46

58.72

58.97

59.22

59.47

59.72

59.98

60.23

60.48

60.73

60.98

61.24

61.49

61.74

61.99

62.24

62.50

62.75

63.00

63.25

63.50

63.76

64.01

64.26

64.51

64.76

65.02

65.27

65.52

65.77

66.02

66.28

66.53

66.78

67.03

67.28

67.54

67.79

68.04

68.29

68.54

68.80

69.05

69.30

69.55

69.80

70.06

70.31

70.56

70.81

71.06

71.32

71.57

71.82

72.07

72.32

72.58

72.83

73.08

73.33

73.58

73.84

74.09

74.34

74.59

74.84

75.10

75.35

75.60

75.85

76.10

76.36

76.61

76.86

77.11

77.36

77.62

77.87

78.12

78.37

78.62

78.88

79.13

79.38

79.63

79.88

80.14

80.39

80.64

80.89

81.14

81.40

81.65

81.90

82.15

82.40

82.66

82.91

83.16

83.41

83.66

83.92

84.17

84.42

84.67

84.92

85.18

85.43

85.68

85.93

86.18

86.44

86.69

86.94

87.19

87.44

87.70

87.95

88.20

88.45

88.70

88.96

89.21

89.46

89.71

89.96

90.22

90.47

90.72

90.97

91.22

91.48

91.73

91.98

92.23

92.48

92.74

92.99

93.24

93.49

93.74

94.00

94.25

94.50

94.75

95.00

95.26

95.51

95.76

96.01

96.26

96.52

96.77

97.02

97.27

97.52

97.78

98.03

98.28

98.53

98.78

99.04

99.29

99.54

99.79

100.04

100.30

100.55

00.80

01.05

101.30

101.56

101.81

102.06

102.31

02.56

102.82

103.07

03.32

103.57

103.82

04.08

104.33

04.58

104.83

05.08

105.34

105.59

105.84

106.09

106.34

106.60

106.85

107.10

107.35

07.60

107.86

108.11

08.36

08.61

108.86

109.12

109.37

09.62

109.87

10.12

110.38

110.63

110.88

111.13

111.38

1 1 1 . 64

111.89

112.14

112.39

12.64

112.90

113.15

13.40

113.65

13.90

114.16

114.41

114.66

114.91

15.16

115.42

115.67

15.92

116.17

116.42

116.68

116.93

117.18

17.43

17.68

117.94

118.19

18.44

118.69

18.94

117.20

119.45

119.70

119.95

20.20

120.46

20.71

20.96

21.21

21.46

19.72

121.97

22.22

22.47

22 . 72

122.98

23.23

23.48

23.73

23.98

122.24

24.49

24.74

124.99

25 . 24

125.50

25.75

BREWING.

2. Mixture of Worts.

The different extracts from malt, if
properly taken, seem to be homogene-
ous. Whatever be their gravity they
unite readily with each other, as well as
with water, in all proportions; and the
mixture is invariably a mean between
two extracts with regard to specific
gravity, and equal to both in quantity.
This regularity in their union renders it
an easy task for the brewer to increase,
or diminish the gravity of his worts at
pleasure ; and, as far as strength is
concerned, to fix the value of his beer.
We shall here give a few examples of
the manner of making up strengths ; in
order to save repetitions when we make
our statements of different brewings :
When there is only one kind of beer
made from the same goods (what is
termed Entire Gyles) the mixture of
worts requires no calculation. The
strength is fixed by the union of the
whole ; and if that strength be too small
there is no remedy but to boil longer,
or to be more careful when we mash
for another brewing. If the strength
of the whole be too great, they may be
brought down by letting water into the
wort-copper ; but this practice is clumsy,
and wasteful : for something better might
have been got from the goods by sprink-
ling, if done before the chance of acidity.
It is when two qualities of beer (such
as strong and small) are made from the
same brewing, that the mixing of the
worts requires particular calculation.
It is to be premised, in the outset, that
the brewer must have tables of the con-
tents of his coppers and working tuns
for every inch of their depth, and of the
coolers for every tenth of an inch. In
public breweries these tables are all
drawn up by the excise, in barrels, fir-
kins, and gallons ; but it will be found
more convenient by the brewer, if they
are calculated in barrels and tenths,
which is minute enough for the pur-
pose which we have now in view to
explain.

Suppose Barrels. Ib. gravity.

1st Wort 12 at 35 = 420

2d Wort 14 at 20 = 280

3d Wort 14 at 6 =: 84

40 at 19. 6 av.- 784

Here we have forty barrels of wort,
which, if all mixed, would average
19. Gibs, per barrel. This would be
too weak for ale, and too strong for
small beer. Let the worts, therefore,

be mixed up in other proportions, such
as the following:

Barrels. Ib. gravity.
1st Wort 12 at 35 = 420
2d Wort 7 at 20 = 140

Strong Ale 19 at 29.4 = 560

There now remains of

2d Wort 7 at 20 = 140
3d Wort 14 at 6 = 84

Making 21 at 10.6 = 422

which would be saleable small beer.
Should we wish it, we might improve
the quality of both, in this, or some
similar manner :

Barrels. Ib, gravity.
1st Wort 12 at 35 = 420
2d Wort 2 at 20 = 40

Strong Ale 14 at 32.8 = 460

There remains of

2d Wort 12 at 20 = 240
3d Wort 14 at 6 = 84

Being 26 at 12.4 = 324

which is a good strength for small beer.
Other combinations might be made
according to the sort of article that is
required. Some brewers, for instance,
might divide their worts in the following

way:

Barrels. Ib. gravity.
1st Wort 12 at 35 = 420
2d Wort 14 at 20 = 280

Strong Ale 26 at 26. 9 = 700

and 3d Wort 14 at 6 = 84

for small beer. The strong ale, at
nearly 27 Ibs. gravity per barrel, is of
the usual strength at which the London
brewers make their sixty shillings ale,
but those in the country will probably
be surprised at the mention of 6 Ibs.
small beer. Persons who wonder know
nothing of the metropolis. This strength
would make very fair workhouse beer
fully as good as the price can afford.
The excise duty is two shillings, and
we have, nevertheless, known contracts
for supplying some of those establish-
ments, to which the beer was driven
for miles and delivered at six shillings a
barrel !

3. Of making up Lengths.
The necessity of boiling a wort longer
than is otherwise requisite, for the pur-
pose of raising its gravity, should be
always guarded against, and seldom
happens with experienced brewers.
These can^ regulate their mashes so as

BREWING.

to ensure the intended quantity and
strength ; but cases will occur, from
various unforeseen circumstances, such
as a mistake in the quality of the malt,
where they must have recourse to a
more than ordinary evaporation. In
such cases, the saccharo meter is the
only guide. As an example, we shall
suppose a brewing of porter, which, in
London, is always made of an entire
gyle, and, as nearly as possible, of the
same strength. Let there be ten quar-
ters of malt, from which the brewer ex-
pects 80 Ibs. per quarter : Of the black
(or patent) malt, we take no account.
The gravity of our porter must not be
under 21 Ibs., if we would keep up the
character of the house. We have al-
ready cast the first and second worts,
and the third is in the copper. A mash
stands on the goods for a Return, but
this can be of no service in the case
before us : We have, in the coolers,

Barrels. Ibs. Gravity.
1st Wort 12.5 at 32.5 = 406.2
2d Wort 13 at 20 = 260

Making 25.5 in weight = 666.2

The third mash in the copper (allow-
ing for the heat according to the Tables
of Expansion which accompany the
saccharometer) would, if cast now,
amount to 1 6 barrels at 5 Ibs. per bar-
rel, being 80 Ibs., the whole value of
what remains in the copper. Adding
this to the 666 Ibs. already in the coolers,
we find that the whole of the extract
from the goods amounts only to 74 6 Ibs.
in place of the 800 Ibs. which was ex-
pected. These 746 Ibs. must be divided
into barrels of 21 Ibs. each ; and, there-
fore, dividing by 21, we find that the
quotient (35.5) is the whole quantity
(length the brewers call it) which can
be produced from this gyle. On looking
back, we find that there are already 25
of those barrels in the coolers ; so that
what worts are in the copper must be
boiled down until, when cold, they
shall not measure more than ten.
There are 80 Ibs. weight in the copper,
and when boiled to 10 barrels, the
gravity will be 8 Ibs., for the eva-
poration is wholly aqueous. Suppose
the operation finished, and we shall
have

Barrels. Ibs. gravity.

1st Wort 12.5 at 32.5 = 406.2 ,

2d Wort 13 at 20 = 260

3d Wort 1 at 8 = 80

35.5 at 21

- 746.2

In the preceding statement, we have
mentioned a Return, without explaining
the term. It was because we shall
afterwards have to give directions on
the subject. In the meantime we may
state, generally, that it is a washing of
the goods, which forms no part of the
brewing of that day but is preserved,
with what strength it possesses, to be
used as mashing liquor for the succeed-
ing brewing.

CHAPTER VI.
Of the Materials of Ale and Beer.

AT the present time, ale and beer,
according to the will of the brewer, ap-
proach or recede from one another in
their composition and consequent qua-
lities, and are definable only in their
extremes. We have reason to believe
that our ancestors made a complete dis-
tinction : that, with them, ale was the
pure wine of the malt, and that beer was
that wine mixed with hops, or other
bitter ingredients. In the improved
edition of the " Maison Rustique"
which was published in 1616, under the
care of the industrious Gervase Mark-
ham, there are some useful remarks
under the head of " Brew-house^
Among many other things, he says that
" the generall vse is by no means to
put any hops into ale : making that the
difference betwixt it and beere, that the
one hath hops, the other none: but the
wiser huswiues do find an error in that
opinion, and say the vtter want of hops
is the reason why ale lasteth so little a
time, but either dyeth or soureth, and
therefore they will to euery barrell of
the best ale allow halfe a pound of good
hops."

According to the present law, ale or
beer, made for sale, must be composed
entirely of malt and hops. Water is no
doubt understood ; but the qualities of
the various kinds of those ingredients
are left undetermined. We shall say
something of each.

I. Of Water.

Pure water, although not a simple
substance, is invariably the same ; but
it must be observed that the brewer
never works with water that is pure : it
is very unlikely that it would answer his
purpose. If the saccharometer be made
so as to sink to a certain point marked
zero (a cypher) in distilled water, it will
be found that every other liquor which
C 2

BREWING.

he can employ will show an infusion of
something that marks, on his scale, a
certain weight per barrel. What that
something^ is he may not know ; but as
it appears in certain springs to the ex-
tent of a pound per barrel, it may, for
aught he knows, have a material effect
upon the result of his process. Further,
the prohibitions of the Legislature are
hereby often put at defiance, or thrown
into ridicule ; for, while the Excise-
officer shall be threatening, or prose-
cuting, one brewer for putting a quarter
of an ounce of sulphate of iron (cop-
peras) into a barrel of his porter, another
brewer, under the survey of the same
officer, shall have ten times that quantity
dissolved, naturally, in the water which
supplies his brew-house. It is the same
with carbonate of lime, common salt,
and many other articles, which are
strictly prohibited.

The carbonates of lime, magnesia, and
potash, are powerful correctors of
acidity, that plague of the brewery ; but
these are more frequent in well than in
river water. The latter, especially that
which comes from marshy grounds, is
seldom to be chosen. The month of
October, so famous from time imme-
morial for the manufacture of English
beer, is that in which river water is most
generally unfitted for use. It is then
loaded with vegetable decompositions,
and living animalculae, neither of which
are favourable to the vinous fermenta-
tion. The choice of water, therefore, if
he be fortunate enough to have a choice,
is a matter for serious consideration.
Any solution that would affect the
flavour of the ale will show itself in the
taste of the water, which is then to be
avoided without troubling ourselves with
the analysis ; but if there be nothing
disagreeable either in taste, colour, or
smell, and yet, notwithstanding, its spe-
cific gravity be markedly superior to
that of distilled water, it is well to know
what substance, or substances, it con-
tains.

There have been, in all times, a con-
trariety of opinions among brewers con-
cerning the adoption of hard or of soft
water. Hard water is a term derived
from culinary operations. It is such
water as does not dissolve soap, and
which is also ill-fitted for the extraction
of the virtues of tea. Soft watei\ on the
contrary, has both these qualities.
Hard water is chiefly drawn from pit-
wells. That which is the hardest
contains sulphate of lime, which, by a

double decomposition, separates the ma-
terials of the soap. With regard to its
extractive power, this will probably de-
pend upon the nature of the extract.
In its application to malt, we have not
discovered any deficiency in the quantity
of produce. With regard to its effects
on the beer, the sulphate of lime is not
suspected to be in the slightest degree
deleterious, and otherwise it is believed
to be a preservative.

Another species of hard water is
caused by the admixture of carbonate
of lime, which is held in solution by
means of an extra portion of carbonic
acid. This is, however, less hard
than the former ; for it becomes soft by
long boiling : the overplus carbonic acid
is dissipated by the heat, and the pure
carbonate of lime, being no longer solu-
ble, is precipitated. It forms the incrus-
tations that are so frequently seen on
the insides of tea-kettles and other
boilers. Whether this lime should be
so precipitated before the liquor is used
for mashing, has been much doubted
by those brewers who have thought at
all upon the subject. Lime is a favourite
in the brewhouse. It is openly used,
mixed with water, to preserve their
wooden vessels from acidity, while
they are unemployed in the summer
months ; and it is often put, by stealth,
in the form of marble dust, crabs' claws,
egg shells, Sec., into their spring-brewed
ales, for the purpose of absorbing the
first germs of the acid fermentation.

2._ Of Malt.

The juice of the grape, the sugar-
cane, and many other vegetable sub-
stances, contain a great proportion of a
sweet, or saccharine matter, ready
formed ; but the farinse (or meal) of the
common grains require to undergo some
sort of operation before they become
sweet. The process by which the grain
acquires this taste, and which fits it for
the use of the brewer, is termed malting.
The barley, or other grain, becomes
malt ; that is, it is mellowed, or sweet-
ened, so as to taste something like what
the Latins called mel, and we term
honey.

The ordinary process of malting is
that of vegetation. The grain is first
steeped in water until it has imbibed the
moisture to its centre, and then spread
on a floor, and turned from time to time,
in quantities of various depths, accord-
ing to the state of vegetation, which
immediately commences. At a certain

BREWING.

stage of the 'growth, the grain (which
has been gradually becoming sweet)
has acquired its maximum of sacchari-
jicati-on. This, in barley, ordinarily
occurs in two or three weeks, and is
judged to take place at the moment
when the acrospire, or rudiment of the
future stalk, is ready to burst the shell.
In other grain, the criterion is different;
but we are not now writing a treatise
upon Malting, although such a work is
certainly wanted. The malt having ar-
rived at this stage, is dried on a kiln, at
a low, or a high heat, according as it is
wanted to be pale, amber, or brown.
Pale malt may be, and usually is, dried
upon a hair-cloth, spread over wooden
spars ; but amber-coloured and brown
malt require the floor of the kiln to be
of iron-wire, or of perforated tiles. In
either case, it is dried by means of the
heated air passing through the malt and
carrying the moisture along with it ;
and, therefore, when the empyreumatic
flavour is guarded against, the fuel con-
sists solely of coke, or other charcoal.
In the case of amber, or brown malt,
this care is not wanted, and hence the
fire is made partially, if not wholly, of
wood. The pyroligneous acid would
thus pass through the malt ; and there
was once a time when the flavour so
conveyed was supposed to be necessary
to porter, for which those sorts of malt
were solely manufactured. At the pre-
sent time, porter for ordinary consump-
tion is made wholly from pale malt ;
and a certain portion of Patent Malt
(which is malt roasted like coffee, until it
is black) is added for no other purpose
but to produce the requisite colour.

This conversion of the mealy part of
the grain into a sweet substance, or
saccharum, and which has been called
by some chemists the Saccharine fer-
mentation, may be produced in a much
more rapid manner than by the ordinary
process of malting. If the grain be re-
duced to meal, in the manner stated
under the section " Grinding Ma-
chines" and infused in water in the
mash-tun (mixed up with a relatively
small portion of ground malt) ; and if
this infusion be kept for two or three
hours, according to circumstances, at a
heat of 150, or nearly so, the whole
mash will become saccharine : the fecula
of the grain being as completely mailed
as if it had lain a fortnight on the malt-
ing floor. The proportion of malt is in-
troduced as a nidus to hasten this fer-

mentation, on a similar principle as we
put yeast into the worts which we would
ferment into beer ; or a portion of the
mother water when we would turn the
beer, or ale, into vinegar. The particu-
lars of this manipulation will be given
when we speak of the process of saccha-
rification, or of brewing from unmalted
grain.

3. Of Hops.

The general opinion of brewers, as
well as of the public, is, that hops were
first used in beer for the purpose of pre-
serving it from acidity. This we doubt.
Bitter ingredients, of various kinds,
were used by our forefathers, before
hops were considered proper for the pur-
pose ; and even the time is not very dis-
tant when these were supposed to be
poisonous, and on that account prohi-
bited by the legislator. We believe that,
long ago, ale was made from malt alone ;
and that, when there was any fear for its
preservation, a little honey was mixed
with it, as is done at present in the
South of France. The Herbalists, who
were the leeches of those times, recom-
mended certain plants as proper to be
infused in the malt liquor, which was
then termed herb ale : a denomination
still known in various parts of the
island. These herbs, like the medica-
ments of our own days, were generally
the bitterest and most nauseous that
could be found ; but they cured diseases,
and were, therefore, not only tolerated,
but sought after ; and, in process of
time, some of them became necessary
to certain tastes, and exist in the beer,
or porter, which we now drink. Wine
itself, when prescribed by the physician,
is often medicated, serving as a vehicle
for the introduction of the extracts of
wormwood, quassia, gentian, and other
bitter plants which, before their prohi-
bition, were common in the brewhouse.

The culture of the hop is too well
known to need any particular description
in this place. There is only one species
(humulus lupulus); but it has many
varieties, which are chosen by the cul-
tivators according as they are supposed
to be most suited to the climate and
soil. The plant is dioecious, and it is
the female catkin which is picked and
preserved for the brewer. Hops are
strongly narcotic ; but their bitter prin-
ciple is the ostensible reason for their
infusion in malt liquors.

The finer-flavoured and light-coloured

BREWING.

hops are pressed into sacks of compa-
ratively fine cloth, called pockets, which
weigh about a hundred weight, and a
half each, and are sold chiefly to the
ale-brewer. The strong-flavoured and
high-coloured hops are put into bags of
a very coarse mat-kind of texture, called
bags, and contain, generally, double the
weight of the pockets. These are used
by porter and small-beer brewers.

The bitter principle of hops is pro-
bably the same in all its varieties and
modes of cultivation; but,in conjunction
with this bitter, there is always, in new
hops, a communicable flavour, or rather
aroma, by which their several qualities
are distinguished. Ale-brewers talk
much of this aroma, and speak of its
being concentrated in the essential oil
of the hop, without considering that it
must be, in a great degree, evaporated
during the boiling of the worts. This
aroma, like all others, is extremely
evanescent. One of the best modes of
preserving hops is to bury them among
the dry malt ; but, do what we will, the
fine flavour does not exist a twelve-
month. Beyond that time they become
old hops; and are sold at a cheaper
rate to the porter- brewer. A year or
two longer, and the bitter ^^//"disap-
pears ; and the whole becomes nothing
better than chaff. The same deteriora-
tion takes place when infused in the
beer. The flavour is but of momentary
duration ; and the bitter principle gra-
dually decays. In favour of those who
believe that this bitter prevents acidity,
it has been stated that the bitter is lost
in proportion as the acidity is advanced.
The loss of the one and the accession
of the other are both, generally, the
consequence of age; and it is well known
that nothing is more easy than to mis-
take a concomitant circumstance for a
cause. Thirty years ago, when we were
young in the observance of the brewery,
we formed a theory, that the bitter
principle was a substance sui generis,
which, (while it lasted) by some chemi-
cal affinity, absorbed the acetous acid,
gradually as it was formed. Subse-
quent experience has given us reason
to suspect that this hypothesis is a
dream.

It is the ale-brewer only who seeks
for peculiarity of flavour in his hops.
It is he who discriminates with nicety
on the produce of the several counties ;
but his judgment varies with the taste
of his customer. With respect to taste

there is no criterion. It depends almost
wholly on habit, otherwise we should
find very few that could have a pleasure
in chewing tobacco. The flavours of
the different sorts of ale, however they
are produced, are almost as various as
the species of continental wines. The
Burton, Wiltshire, Scotch, and London
ales have little resemblance to one
another, but each has its admirers. To
be sure those varieties do not altogether
depend upon the quality or quantity of
the hops; but the infusion of this
plant has always its share in the com-
position.

We believe that we cannot better
conclude this section than by an ex-
tract from Mr. Richardson's work, for-
merly mentioned, which, though written
thirty years ago, is not inapplicable to
this present time:

" The difference of soil has certainly
a considerable influence in producing
the real difference in flavour observable
in hops. Those which grow on the
stiff clays of Nottinghamshire, and are
thence termed North-clay hops, have
the pre-eminence in rankness, and ac-
cordingly, with a certain description of
buyers, bear a higher price than Kent,
though that is not so high as the gene-
ral price of Farnham hops. To those
who are not accustomed to the flavour
of North-clay hops, they are undoubtedly
rank, bordering on the nauseous, parti-
cularly whilst the beer brewed from
them is new; and, indeed, that rank-
ness generally remains a very consider-
able time, if not concealed by an abun-
dant extract of malt. Hence they ap-
pear better adapted to strong-keeping
beers, than to any other kind of malt-
liquor.

" Farnham hops, however deserving
the reputation they bear, are by no
means worth the difference in price
generally given for them, to a brewer,
except the vicinity of his residence may,
in some measure, lessen that difference ;
and it is not the intention of these pages
to appreciate their value to the private
consumer, with whom, perhaps, the
idea of their incalculable excellence may
have originated.

" The county of Kent, though justly
claiming pre-eminent distinction in the
produce of its hops, considered as unit-
ing flavour with strength, is far from
being uniform in its general priority, in
this respect ; for different parts produce
different qualities, varying with the soil,

BREWING.

or some other local circumstance, and
all yielding the palm of superiority to
those which grow in the neighbourhood
of Canterbury.

" If, however, the rank austerity of
the North-clay hops excites a nausea
on 1 the palate accustomed to the milder
flavour of the Kentish, these, again, are
as little relished by people who are in
the habit of drinking ale in which Wor-
cester hops only have been used. The
flavour of these has a grateful mildness
in it, not to be met with in any other
hops. Hence the finest growths of
Kent, in Lancashire, Cheshire, and
some other counties, where the use of
Worcester hops prevails, would be re-
jected as unsaleable; and so great is
the objection of some of the inhabitants
of Ihose counties to the flavour of Kent
hops, that I have heard them distinguish
ale bittered with the latter, by the name
of Porter-ale. Indeed, the distinction
has propriety in it, so far as the strength
of a large portion of these may convey to
some palates the idea of porter, and that
the mildness of the former can hardly
be applicable to any liquor but ale."

4. Of Isinglass.

Although isinglass is not properly one
of the materials of beer, being de-
posited as soon as it has performed its
office of fining, yet, from its frequent
employment and being the only ingre-
dient that can be legally introduced
into malt-liquor, we deem it not out of
place in the present chapter.

" Fish-glue, as it is improperly called,
is generally known by the name of Isin-
glass, a word corrupted from the Dutch
Hyzenblas, an air-bladder, compounded
of hyzen, to hoist, and bias, a bladder."
" It is chiefly prepared in the vicinity of
the Caspian and Black Seas, from the
sounds, or swims, of different species of
the acipenser, or sturgeon. These blad-
ders, stript of their outer rind and dried,
constitute the isinglass of commerce.
The skins, tails, &c., of these and other
fishes are used for the inferior sorts of
isinglass, but in no case are the mate-
rials boiled ; for that would invariably
convert them into glue, an article that
has different qualities from those for
which isinglass is required. Much of
the latter, for instance, is used in making
Finings, for the clarification of malt-
liquors ; whereas glue, added to turbid

beer, would increase both its muddiness
and its tenacity."*

In the brewery, isinglass is used solely
as finings, that is, to clarify beer that is
foul and muddy. In ale it is seldom
necessary ; but in porter, as commonly
brewed, it cannot be dispensed with.
Those sorts which are termed long and
short staple (made from the larger and
smaller fish respectively) being com-
posed of single membranes that run
parallel to each other, and are sepa-
rable by infusion in cold water, are less
liable to putrefaction ; but the Book-
isinglass, so called because it is folded
somewhat in the shape of a book, is
often found to be spoilt in its folds, from
imperfect drying, which allows the ge-
nerating of maggots, and consequent
putrefaction. These spoilt parts should
be carefully thrown aside.

The manufacture of isinglass was
long exclusively confined to certain Rus-
sian provinces. In 1763 a patent was
granted to a Mr. Jackson, for the pre-
paration of " British isinglass," which
was to be made from what he called
" British materials" but in reality from
the entrails of sturgeons and other fish,
imported from the American colonies,
or caught on our own coasts. This un-
dertaking was unsuccessful; for, in a
well-written " Essay on British Isin-
glass,'' which Mr. Jackson published in
1765, he complains, that of 25 tons an-
nually consumed in the brewery, he had
only supplied a fourth, on account of
certain prejudices that were raised
against his article. These prejudices,
however, no longer exist ; for many of
the large breweries now make use of
nothing but the dried skins of soles.

Whatever sort of isinglass he em-
ploys, the brewer prepares his finings
in the same manner :

It may be observed, that a pound of
good isinglass will make about 12 gal-
lons of the preparation. It may be used
whole, but, for the sake of expedition,
it is often bruised and pulled in pieces ;
then being put into a tub, with as much
common vinegar as will cover it (or the
same quantity of beer of any kind, which
has acquired a considerable degree of
acidity) the isinglass will swell and dis-
solve. As the whole thickens, there
should be more beer added to it, and
that of inferior acidity, because when
the stronger acid has dissolved the isin-

* Booth's Analytical Dictionary of the English
Language.

BREWING.

glass, almost any beer will serve to dilute
and prepare it. This solution should be
frequently stirred about briskly with an
old stump broom, which separates the
undissolved parts and makes it all of one
consistence, which, finally, should be
that of thin treacle. This is to be
whisked through a hair sieve, or
squeezed through a coarse linen cloth,
into another tub, previous to using it.
The quantity to be used is from a pint
to a quart per barrel, according to the
degree of feculency in the beer. This
should be made quite thin with some of
the beer intended to be purified, whisk-
ing it up till it froths. It is then to be
poured into the cask, and stirred briskly
about in it, bunging it down imme-
diately, and the beer will become pure
in about 24 hours, provided it has been
in a condition proper to receive the
finings.

An eligible mode of discovering whe-
ther beer be in a proper state to yield
to finings or not is the following :

" Draw off a little of the beer into a
pint, or half-pint phial, and add to it
about half a tea-spoonful of the finings.
Shake it up, and then let it remain sta-
tionary. If the finings will have the
desired effect, you will observe, in a few
minutes, the isinglass collecting the fecu-
lencies of the beer into large fleecy
masses, which will begin regularly to
subside to the bottom. ~ If the beer be
not in a proper state, (which is ever the
case as long as the fermentation conti-
nues, or an after fret prevails,) the bulk
of the finings will soon be at the bottom,
leaving the beer neither pure nor foul,
except just at the top, where there will
be a little transparency, perhaps a
quarter of an inch deep, which will
grow deeper in time, but will not rea-
dily extend to the whole."

The mode in which isinglass acts
upon the feculencies of beer has been
variously estimated. The general idea
is, that it spreads over the surface of the
liquor, and then falling by its weight,
carries down the foul parts, allowing
the pure beer to ascend, as if strained
through a sieve. On the contrary, it
seems to us that its effect is owing to
that indescribable cause termed chemi-
cal attraction. The observations of Mr.
Jackson, formerly mentioned, lead di-
rectly to this result. According to him,
isinglass is never perfectly dissolved in
1 he acid liquor, otherwise it would cease
to act $ finings. These, however inti-

mately mixed with any dissolvent, must
always preserve a fibrous form; for
says he, *' Any substance which appears
horny, breaks short, or snaps like glue,
although it dissolves like isinglass, and
puts on the appearance of a rich thick
jelly, the universal characteristic of good
fining, yet will not fine down beer."
The isinglass and the acid beer are then
only mechanically, not chemically united.
If the latter, they would become a species
of glue ; and such, finings will become,
if exposed even to a very moderate de-
gree of heat, perhaps at 90 or 100.
They should, therefore, be kept cool.
" That common finings," says the same
author, " is nothing more than a due
division, or an imperfect solution of
isinglass in subacid liquors, may be
proved, by viewing it through magnify-
ing glasses, or by admixing a few drops
of fining with fair water in a glass, which
being held up to the light, the fibres
may be seen swimming in an infinite
variety of forms and sizes, and, on sub-
siding, arrange themselves according to
their different gravities, the smallest
particles of which, perceptible to the
eye, attract each other, and form an"
appearance of little clouds. If then we
take this mixture, and warm it at the
fire, we shall presently find, that all
these fibres will escape perception, in
being perfectly dissolved, except a few
gross parts. The same phenomena ap-
pear, if we place a little fining near the
fire, or hold a lump a few minutes in
the palm of the hand ; thus the consti-
tuencewill be broken, the fibres dissolved,
and the efficacy destroyed"

The rationale of the action of finings,
according to the author just quoted, is
this : " It is evident that at the very
instant that fining is commixed with
beer to be clarified, the stale beer, in
which the isinglass was dissolved, or
divided, quits the fibres and unites with
the body of the beer; while at the same
time the fibres, now set loose, and every-
where interspersed in the beer, attract
and unite with the loose feculent parti-
cles, which, before this union, being of the
same specific gravity with the beer, could
not possibly subside alone, but by this
reciprocal attraction having obtained an
additional weight, are now rendered pro-
portionably heavier, and precipitate
together of course, in form of the curdly
magma just mentioned. But it some-
times happens, from certain inadver-
tencies in brewing, and mismanage-

BREWING.

ment in the cellar afterwards, that beer
turns out specifically heavier than the
fibres of the isinglass ; in which case
the fining cannot subside, for the rea-
sons aforesaid, but floats at the surface :
at other times, notwithstanding the
union of the fibres and feculencies, the
combined matter becoming exactly of
the same weight as the beer, continues
interspersed everywhere in it, and nei-
ther emerges nor subsides ; in both
instances the beer is nicknamed stub-
born by the coopers."

CHAPTER VII.
Of Illegal Ingredients.
ALTHOUGH water, malt, hops, and
isinglass are the only materials which
can be legally employed in the manu-
facture of malt-liquors, brewed for sale,
yet, as the prohibitory clause is but of
modern date, and many other articles
have been wont, from time immemorial,
to be added to beer, which are not only
innoxious, but occasionally advantage-
ous, and are still left to the discretion of
the private brewer, we have judged it
proper to class them together in the pre-
sent chapter. In doing so, we shall
distribute those which have been most
commonly used into five divisions :

1. Such ingredients as are intended
to increase the quantity of sac-
charine matter, or strength of the
worts ; and, consequently, to save
malt.

2. Such ingredients as are intended
to increase the quantity of the bit-
ter principle ; and, consequently, to
save hops.

3. Such ingredients as are intended
to prevent the introduction of aci-
dity ; or to diminish or destroy that
acidity when it is already formed.

4. Such ingredients as are intended
to add an extraneous flavour to
ale, or beer, so as to accommodate
it to the taste of the inhabitants of
any particular district, who have
been accustomed to that flavour.
And,

5. Such ingredients as are intended
solely for the purpose of increasing
the intoxicating quality of ale, or
beer, and which are, in almost all
cases, of too poisonous a nature to
be introduced with safety.

On the principal articles in each of
these divisions we shall make a few
remarks, and then leave their introduc-

tion, or rejection, to the judgment of the
brewer: premising, in the outset, that
various and very different flavours may
be given, in the process of fermentation,
to ale which is manufactured from malt
and hops alone.

1. Of Ingredients which are intended
to increase the quantity of Saccharine
Matter, or Strength of the Worts.

Of all the substitutes for malt, raw
grain is the principal if, indeed, that
can be called a substitute which is merely
malted in the mash-tun in place of the
floor. The process by which the con-
version of barley, or other grain, into
malt is thus rapidly performed will be
detailed in a subsequent chapter. While
we warn the public brewer of the legal
danger of its adoption, we would strenu-
ously recommend its use in private fami-
lies. Were the practice to become gene-
ral, a deduction of the duties on beer
made for sale would inevitably follow.

Pure sugar and water (it has been
said) will not ferment ; but raw sugar, or
- molasses, will make very good beer
either alone, or mixed with malt-worts.
There is, however, no saving from the
use of these materials, unless when
malt becomes much dearer than in ordi-
nary years : in which case they are occa-
sionally permitted to be used under the
authority of the Lords of the Treasury.
A weak beer from molasses is frequently
made in private families, and drunk in a
half-fermented state ; but it is too lus-
cious for the taste of those who are ac-
customed to the small beer of malt.
Molasses, mixed with a weak malt- wort,
would, when fermented, be much more
palatable.

Our ancestors, as well as other north-
ern nations, were much accustomed to
a vinous liquor from honey, which vied
with the wines of the south : the meihu
of the Greeks, the medu of the Saxons,
the hydromel of the Latins, and the
mead, or metheglin, of more modern
times. The extension of agriculture,
which by diminishing the food of bees
raised the price of honey, conjoined with
the excise-duty imposed, has completely
annihilated the manufacture of mead
for sale, and even in private families it
is now seldom or never to be seen.
Honey, however, is still used in the
private brewing of ale; and in some
districts it is clandestinely introduced
by the public brewer. The design and
effect of this introduction will be after-

BREWING.

wards explained. It is almost unneces-
sary to add that honey is not delete-
rious.

Liquorice root, (Glycyrrhizaglabra,)
both in powder and in the state of ex-
tract (Spanish juice), was formerly an
essential constituent of malt-liquors, and
particularly of porter. We believe, how-
ever, that the saving of malt was less
considered in this article than its fla-
vour. At all events the introduction in
the copper of about half-a-pound per
barrel, and that quantity was seldom
exceeded, must have been perfectly
harmless.

| 2. Of Ingredients which are intended
to increase the quantity of the bitter
principle, and in consequence to save
hops.

That hops prevent ale from becoming
acid is, if true, a comparatively modern
discovery. Mum, (a malt-liquor now
unknown in England,) although directed
to be kept two years before it was tapped,
contained no species of bitter among its
numerous ingredients ; and the beer of
Louvain, so famous throughout France,
is brewed without hops. It is well-
known that bitter infusions themselves,
without any other vegetable matter, will
become sour.

The use of bitters followed the advice
of the physician, who, being anciently a
herbalist, recommended the plants that
grew in his garden. Each plant had its
particular disease which it was able to
combat; and hence the whole science
of medical botany. According to those
gentlemen, the bitter principle was, and
still is, peculiarly efficacious. " It is a
pure tonic, increases the appetite,
promotes digestion, gives vigour to the
system, &c," Unfortunately for this
general eulogium, the bitters are either
different in their essence, or they are
never pure. A few, such as gentian
and quassia, are, comparatively, inac-
tive. Some, like aloes and marsh tre-
foil, are purgative. Hops are astringent
and narcotic ; broom and some others
are diuretics: while many, as opium,
cocculus indicus, ignatia amara, tobacco
and nux vomica, are highly poisonous.
Yet each of those here mentioned, and
others which we have not named, have
been boiled among the worts of beer,
without regard to their effect on parti-
cular constitutions, or to the general
safety of the individuals for whom the
liquor is brewed.

These observations being premised,
our account of the substitutes for hops
may be short. Broom, wormwood, and
several other bitters, are now almost
universally laid aside; for, since the
flavour of the hops has been so gene-
rally recognized, no bitter which is in-
consistent with that flavour would be
relished. Bitters that are perfectly, or
at least nearly, flavourless may, indeed,
be added to hops when the bitter princi-
ple only is required ; and this is the case
with porter, in which flavour is little
studied: for the hops usually employed in
brewing that beverage are either coarse,
or old, and would not be admissible in
fine ales. The cocculus indicus, so fre-
quently introduced into the latter, has a
taste by no means agreeable; but its
intoxicating quality is^all that is wanted
by the brewer, and, could that be pro-
cured (as has been attempted) in an
isolated state, its flavour would be wil-
lingly dispensed with.

The bitter contained in porter is very
great, and if taken wholly from hops,
must require an average quantity of ten
or twelve pounds to the quarter of malt,
or about three pounds per barrel. The
fluctuation in the price of that article is
extreme, as will appear from the fol-
lowing statement, which was printed in
18 19," by order of the House of Com-
mons. The quality here mentioned is
bag hops, which are the cheapest in the
market.

1789 Oct. 6/. 14s. to 71. 2s. per cwt.

1790 Oct. 76s. 84s.

1791 Oct. 51. 5s. bl. 12s. -

1792 Oct. 80s. 84s.

1793 Oct. 9/. 9s. 10/. Os.

1794 Oct. 84s.

1795 Oct. bl. Os. 5/. 12s.

1796 Oct. 80s. 84s.

1797 Mar. 112s. 120s.

1797 Oct. 84s. 90s.

1798 Oct. 9/. 9s. _ 10/. Os.

1799 Nov. 14^. 14s.

1801 Jan. 16A 5s. 181. Os.

1802 Jan. bl. 5s.

1803 July bl. 12s.

1804 July 41. 15s. bl. Os.

1812 Nov. 13/. 13s. 15*. 5s.

1813 Jan. 13/. 13s. 15/. 10s.

1814 Dec. 91. 4s. 9/. 9*.

1815 Feb. 8/. 16s. 9/. 9s.

1816 July 61. 10s. 6^. 17/.

1816 Oct. 14/. 14s.

1817 Jan. 14/. 5s.

1818 Jan. 31/. Os.

It is not to be wondered at, that,
under these circumstances, substitutes

BREWING.

should have been sought for with avidity.
If the substitutes were not more noxious
than the principal, (and some of them
were less so,) the conscience of the
brewer was easily satisfied: especially
seeing that he could procure as much
bitter for sixpence as would otherwise
have cost him a pound.

Marsh trefoil, buchbean, or bogbean
(Menyanthes trifoliata), has been em-
ployed in place of hops, openly on the
continent, and privately, (at one time,)
as has been said, in this country. The
leaves were collected, when mature, and
dried in the shade, to preserve their
colour. They were then well boiled and
scummed to free them from their excess
of roughness ; and the remaining extract
was preserved and put into the ferment-
ing tun in such proportions as the
brewer judged proper, or as his drug-
gist chose to direct. These leaves have
very nearly the flavour of the hop ; and
an ounce of the former is said to be
equivalent to half-a-pound of the latter.
It should be observed, however, for the
guidance of any one who shall dare to
use them, that although they stand re-
commended in the modern pharmaco-
poeias, the quantity of a drachm taken
in powder " purges and vomits."

Aloes (the dried juice of the ALOE
perfoliata) is a well known bitter, being
much used in medicine. When it was
allowed to be sold to brewers, the variety
succotrina was always preferred, as
having the least objectionable smell.
The quantity which could be mixed with
the hops in the copper was limited, in
consequence of its purgative quality,
and seldom exceeded half an ounce to a
barrel of porter.

Quassia is another well-known bitter;
it is the favourite of the physician, and
would be equally so of the porter-brewer,
if he dared to use and acknowledge it.
The smell, if any, is imperceptible, and
the bitter is intense, pure, and lasting.
The quassia amara (a shrub) is the
most biting of the tribe ; but that com-
monly imported into this country, from
the West Indies, is the bark and wood
of the root and trunk of the quassia
excelsa, which is a large tree. When
the porter-brewers made use of quassia,
it was either in small chips or rasped,
and put into the copper (with the hops)
in a quantity of about an ounce to the
barrel. This is, probably, the most
harmless of all the illegal bitters. The
physicians prescribe the decoction to

their patients to the extent of a quarter
of an ounce of the bark a day, as much
as the brewer was accustomed to put
into nine gallons of his porter.

There are other bitter ingredients
worth noticing ; but as they are intended
for purposes different from the saving
of hops, they belong more properly to
the succeeding divisions of this chapter.

3. Of Ingredients which are intended
to prevent the introduction of acidity,
or to diminish or destroy that acidity
when it is already formed.
It would not be difficult to account
for the action of the greater number of
the ingredients of this description, upon
the principles of modern chemistry.
Nevertheless, it is certain that all those
articles were in use, for the same purpose,
centuries before the present theories of
acetification had existence. Practice
always precedes theory. The latter
merely strings together the facts that
have been previously (often accidentally)
discovered. It was known, from time
immemorial, that ale, or beer, when
exposed to the atmosphere, especially
in summer, became rapidly sour ; and
hence the closeness of the casks, and
the coolness of the cellars, were as much
attended to in former as in latter times.
It was also known that certain salts,
(as they were called,) and certain earths,
were preventives if not remedies : in
short, we know little or nothing that is
new upon the subject.

Common salt, so useful in preventing
the putrefaction of animal substances,
was also believed to have a similar effect
in the preservation of vegetables ; and,
accordingly, we find the condemnation
of its use among the earliest restrictive
laws of the brewery. Different opinions
exist with respect to its utility ; but,
however these may be decided, it can
scarcely be suspected to be dangerous.
Publicans have been accused of putting
it in the beer to produce thirst ; and we
have known private gentlemen, who
prided themselves on the quality of their
home-brewed, throw in about a pound
per barrel into the casks with the view
of flavour. Many brewers mix salt with
wheat or bean flour, putting a handful
in each cask before cleansing, to pro-
mote the discharge of the yeast ; and,
occasionally, the same mixture of flour
and salt, or flour and saltpetre, or salt
prunella, is introduced into the tun to
rouse a languid fermentation.

BREWING

That the fermentation should not
linger between a nauseous sweet and a
vinous flavour, is reckoned essential to
the prevention of acidity. The extent to
which it should be carried will be con-
sidered hereafter, but we now speak of
such ingredients as are supposed to
excite the working when it is too lan-
guid. Jalap, to the extent of two, or
even three ounces, to twenty barrels, is
employed by certain brewers in the gyle-
tun, but the rationale of its action is to
us unknown.

The formation of vinegar, like other
fermentations, proceeds more rapidly
when it has a nidus or incipient acidity
from which to begin. In the aerial
theory, that nidus is oxygen; and to
destroy or counteract this oxygen in
the outset is to strangle the demon in
the moment of its birth.

When the fermentation is finished in
a proper manner, it remains with the
brewer to keep the casks, if possible,
hermetically sealed, to prevent the ad-
mission of the external air. Bottles are
still better than casks. When laid on
their sides, so as to keep the corks
swelled, nothing can enter from without;
and the sole danger is, when the liquor
retains so much of undecomposed sac-
charine matter as to cause the bursting
of the vessel from a new fermentation.
It is on this account that beer, when it
is to be bottled, is usually exposed for
a time to the atmosphere, by loosening
the bung, in order iv flatten it ; that is,
to facilitate the escape of the carbonic
acid which it then contains. During
this exposure, while the fixed air escapes,
a portion of the atmospheric air may
enter ; and with the view of preventing
this, it is the practice of some, who
affect the mysteries of the trade, to pour
about two ounces of the spirit of Ma-
ranta into the cask, which is then al-
lowed to stand, without the bung, for
three or four days before bottling. " How
this can exclude one gas and allow
another to escape, we know not, having
never personally made the experiment.
This fiery liquid is a spirituous extract
of the medicinal root Galangal : the
Kcempferia galanga, Alpinia galanga,
Amomum galanga, and Maranta ga-
langa, of different botanists.

The exclusion of the atmospheric air,
by covering the surface of the liquid,
has been managed in different ways.
The small wine, when carried out to
the Italian vintagers, is in weak flasks,

which would not bear the pressure of a
cork. These have long necks, and the
surface of the liquor is covered with a
film of olive oil, which swims on the
fluid, and is easily separated afterwards
by means of a little cotton. The hand-
ful of half-boiled hops, impregnated
with wort, which is usually put into the
bunghole of each cask by the ale-brewer
when stowing it in his cellar, answers
the same purpose : and some, more ri-
gidly attentive, insert (privately) at the
same time, about an ounce of powdered
black rosin, previously mixed with beer,
which swims on the surface, but after a
time is partially absorbed. Of this we
shall have again to speak when we treat
of Burton ale.

Bruised green Copperas, called also
salt of steel, (sulphate of iron) which
has always been put into porter for-
merly by the brewer and now by the pub-
lican is, ostensibly, for the purpose of
giving it a frothy top. It is either used
alone, or mixed with alum, and is tech-
nically called heading. The quantity
used need not exceed as much as would
lie on a half-crown piece for a barrel,
and to that extent there is no danger to
be feared. This practice, we believe,
had been originally intended to keep the
beer alive during the time in which it
remained in the pots. The green sul-
phate of iron is greedy of oxygen, and
is thereby speedily converted into the
brown. We apprehend that it is in con-
sequence of this dissolved salt of iron,
that certain porter- drinkers have uni-
formly asserted that there is a peculiar
flavour when drinking out of a tin pot,
which does not exist when taken from a
glass : if this be true, the effect will na-
turally be referred to galvanic influence.
The brewers, in one quarter of the
island, are in the practice of putting sul-
phate of iron (previously dried to white-
ness) in the liquor of their first mash.
This is probably meant to guard against
that species of acetification termed
blinking ; but its effect must be little,
since the quantity is limited to about
two ounces for twenty barrels of liquor.
Some ingredients are introduced which
lie dormant or deposited in the cask,
for the purpose of catching and neu-
tralizing the acetous acid at the moment
of its formation. The chief of these is
lime under various forms. Quick lime
does not answer this end. It is partly
soluble, and, in so far, communicates
a disagreeable taste. The carbonates,

BREWING.

if pure, are free from this fault ; and
therefore, marble dust and powdered
oyster shells have been generally used.
Before any vinegar exists in the beer,
these carbonates of lime usually lie at
the bottom of the cask inactive ; but on
the least degree of acetification an ace-
tate of lime is formed and the carbonic
acid escapes. The acetate of lime is
soluble, and, in proportion as it is
formed, the flavour of the beer is altered.
It remains, therefore, with the drinker,
whether he prefers this new bitterish
taste to that of the acetous acid which
would otherwise predominate.

We have here supposed that the car-
bonate of lime will remain inactive
until acetous acid shall be formed ;
but it may possibly be otherwise. An
excess of carbonic acid would render it
soluble, but the same effect would fol-
low with respect to its union with the
vinegar. This soluble super-carbonate
of lime, if effected, would not be dis-
cernible by the palate ; for it often ex-
ists plentifully in water without being
thus observed. Besides, this extra ab-
sorption of carbonic acid would tend to
prevent the secondary fermentation,
which is the usual precursor of acidity.

Egg-shells and even whole eggs are
sometimes introduced into beer, in
which they act the same part as the
carbonates of lime. The shells are, in
fact, almost wholly the same substance.
The following recipe, which was first
published in an early number (the 27th)
of the Philosophical Transactions, shows
that the use of eggs for the prevention
of acidity is of no modern date. The
writer (Dr. Stubbs) says that he learned
it from an ale-seller in Deal, and that
he tried it, successfully, in a voyage to
Jamaica. " To every runlet of five
gallons, after it is placed in the ship not
to be stirred any more, put in two new-
laid eggs whole, and let them lie in it ;
in a fortnight, or little more, the whole
egg-shells will be dissolved, and the eggs
become like wind-eggs, inclosed only in
a thin skin ; after this the white is preyed
on, but the yolks are not touched or cor-
rupted, by which means the ale was so
well preserved, that it was found better
at Jamaica than at Deal." It may be
observed, that although this was new to
Dr. Stubbs, he was not the original dis-
coverer. It was probably known in the
trade for centuries.

Sulphate of lime, which is partly so-
luble in water, is put into the cask, after
it has ceased working, for the purpose

of preventing an after-fret. If it effect
this end, it is well ; but at any rate, the
quantity of six ounces to a barrel can-
not possibly do harm.

Hartshorn shavings, to the extent of
six pounds for twenty barrels, were for-
merly boiled in the worts of the best
London ale. These give out ammonia
by distillation, and consist chiefly of
phosphate of lime, with a considerable
quantity of gelatine. These shavings
are probably expected to prevent acidity,
but we are at a loss to know how. The
ammonia is evaporated, and the phos-
phate, even were it to act like the car-
bonate, can scarcely be extracted by
boiling.

According to Pliny, the Gauls were
able to preserve their beer for many
years. We fear that they have lost the
secret ; but we shall just notice some of
the means to which they still have re-
course, and which are not practised in
this country.

The common Avens, or Herb Bennet,
(Geum Urbanum,) is highly extolled all
over the continent, for its medicinal, as
well as other valuable properties. It
was hence, perhaps, that it acquired the
surname of bennet, or benet, contracted
from benedictus, although the origin is
now ascribed to a Saint of that name.
The roots of this plant, particularly
when it grows on a dry, sandy soil, have
a pleasant odour, (similar to that of
cloves,) which it readily imparts to any
spirituous menstruum. On this account
it is highly valued by the brewers ; and
is said to be a prominent ingredient in
the Augsburg Beer, which is "so famous
throughout Germany. The dried roots
are sliced, and inclosed in a thin linen
bag, which is suspended in the store-
vat, or cask ; and it is asserted, with
what truth we know not, that the beey
so managed never becomes acid.

In former times (and the custom is
not yet completely laid aside) the real,
or imaginary preventives of acidity were
inserted into the cask, along with the
Finings ; or rather, the whole mixture
passed generally under the latter deno-
mination. It will be shown, when we
speak of the process of Saccharification,
that the portion of unfermented worts,
which always remains in the beer, is
often more allied to starch than to sugar;
and, in that case, it is frequently the
cause, not only of foulness, but of
subsequent acidity. On examining the
accounts of old processes for the brew-
ing and cellaring of beer, it is curious

BREWING.

to observe their consonance with the
chemical announcements of later times.
We now know that malt-extract is a
mixture of Starch and Saccharum, and
that, the former is capable of being de-
posited by an infusion of Nutgalls. The
following: directions for the manufacture
of beer-finings were published in a highly
respectable French work, nearly a cen-
tury ago ; and then given as an old and
general practice among the brewers in
Paris :

Take three pounds of powdered nut-
galls and four ounces of potash. Boil
these for three hours in such a quantity
of water as, at the end of that time, will
make the weight of the whole mixture
about twelve pounds. To this, when
cool, add two pints of spirit of wine ;
and, after it has settled and become
clear, bottle it up for use. Five ounces
of this decoction will be sufficient to
fine and preserve half a piece of beer.

When the ale or beer becomes really
sour, we know not how to extract its
oxygen. He who shall discover this
will make his fortune. If even the vine-
gar itself could be deposited, the strength
of the remaining beer might be restored ;
but though the acidity can be neu-
tralized by means of the sub-carbonates
of potash and soda, which, with other
similar articles, are hawked about as
nostrums among the publicans, the
acetous salts still remain dissolved, and
contaminate the mass. Attempts are
sometimes made to cover the disagree-
able taste, by the introduction of sugar-
candy, a substance not readily fer-
mentable, but, even setting aside the
trouble and expense, the beer thus said
to be recovered (although not pernicious)
is never pleasing to the drinker.

4. Of Ingredients which are intended
to add an extraneous Flavour to the
Ale or Beer.

The most agreeable, and, at the same
time, the most permanent flavours of
malt liquors are those which are formed
by the particular modes of fermentation.
In addition to these, however, certain
extraneous ingredients have been intro-
duced, by individual brewers, which have
given a character to their ales ; and even
whole districts have adopted peculiari-
ties of taste which would by no means
pass generally in other quarters. When
those ingredients are confined to this
single object, their introduction, though
legally wrong, is not morally vicious ;
and we shall, therefore, mention a few

which have been most usually em-
ployed.

The dried root of the sweet flag
(Acorus calamus), commonly termed
Calamus aromaticus, is warm, slightly
bitter, and has been extolled beyond all
other British plants for its aromatic fla-
vour. This root is usually imported
from the Levant, but does not appear
to be superior to the growth of our own
country.

Coriander seeds (Coriandrum sati-
vum) are imported for the use of the
brewer, as well as for medicinal pur-
poses. The plant is found wild in this
country, but is a doubtful native.

Carraway (the seeds of the Carum
carui) have also been used in brewing,
but not so frequently as the coriander,
which some believe to add strength as
well as flavour. Carraway is also found
wild in England, and, along with the
coriander, it is cultivated, in some coun-
ties, for the use of confectioners and
apothecaries.

The three ingredients last mentioned
have, no doubt, been chosen on account
of their warm aromatic flavours. All
have been boiled together in the copper;
the first sliced, in the proportion of four
pounds to twenty barrels, and the two
latter ground, about two pounds each
to the same quantity of ale.

Various other stimulating roots and
seeds have been made use of : Orange
peel, powdered, is very generally used
by the ale-brewers of this country ; as
also Orange peas, or Cura9oa oranges,
the unripe fruit of the Citrus aurantium.
Vegetables of a spicy and more stimu-
lating taste are likewise in general use.
Of these, we may mention Long pepper
(Piper longum) ; Capsicum, or Guinea
pepper (Capsicum annuum); Grains of
paradise (Amomum granum) ; common
Ginger (Amomum zingiber), &c. One
or all of these foreign seeds and roots
are powdered and boiled among the
worts, in quantities of about three pounds
to twenty barrels: the quantity being
regulated by the degree of pungency
required.

5. Of Ingredients which are intended
solely for the purpose of increasing
the intoxicating power of Beer or
Ale.

Hitherto we have treated of ingredients
which, though illegal, (and, in our opi-
nion, calculated only to gratify an ac-
quired taste,) are at least harmless: but
we have now to speak of articles that

BREWING.

deserve no quarter, of such as are
disgraceful to the brewer, because dan-
gerous to the drinker.

The dried fruit of the Menispermum
cocculus, better known by the names of
India berry and Cocculus Indicus, claims,
on account of its very general use,
the first place in this infernal list. Its
importation into this country (from the
East Indies) is very great, considering
that few know for what other purpose it
is ever used : for, though the Cissam-
pelos pareira (which many botanists
state to be the same plant) has a place
in the pharmacopoeias, its virtues are
generally referred to the root, and that
root is brought from America. That
Cocculus Indicus is a strong narcotic is
doubtless ; for it is on that account
alone that it has preserved its place in
the brewery. In India the berries are
thrown into the water for the purpose of
catching fish, which, by swallowing
them, become intoxicated. They were
once used in England in the same way,
but, we believe, that practice is now
prohibited. Their effects upon the hu-
man frame we know not, neither do we
wish to know.

The extensive use of this ingredient
(and we have good reason to believe
that it is still used extensively) was
proved to a Committee of the House of
Commons in 1818. Those who give
brewing receipts recommend it in quan-
tities of four pounds to twenty barrels,
boiled with the worts : but there seems
to be a mystery on this subject which
requires to be investigated.

The Faba amara, or bitter bean, is the
seed of an East India plant, which,
though poisonous, has a sanctified name.
It is the Ignatia amara, St. Ignatius' s
bean, and is not only botanically, but
naturally allied to the genus Strychnos,
a species of which will come next under
our review. The bitter bean appears in
many of the works that pretend to teach
the art of Brewing. It is a large pear-
shaped berry, with seeds nearly an inch
long, and extremely bitter.

Nux vomica ( Strychnos nux vomica) f
as described by the botanists, " is the
fruit, or rather seed of the fruit, or
berry, of a large tree, growing in Egypt,
Ceylon, &c. of a strong narcotic qua-
lity, so as to be ranked in the number of
poisons." " It is round and flat, about
an inch broad and near a quarter of an
inch thick," " extremely bitter, but
with little or no smell." " Ignatius' s
bean partakes of the same qualities."

We suspect that what was at one
time generally sold to brewers for Coccu-
lus Indicus was really Nux vomica ; and
that the numerous body of quacks who
called themselves brewers' druggists,
and who were almost annihilated by
Exchequer prosecutions about ten or
twelve years ago, passed the Faba amara
and Nux vomica under the name of
Cocculus Indicus, when making their
defence, on the same principle as the
forgers of bank-notes are accustomed
to plead guilty to the lesser indictment.
In the examination of Mr. Carr, the
Solicitor of Excise, before the House of
Commons, in the document formerly
mentioned, we have the following words :
" Is it [Cocculus Indicus] a bulky
commodity, or is it easy to be smug-
gled ? It is of the size of a pretty large
nut ; every piece of it is about the size
of a nut. It bears the poisonous prin-
ciple so strongly in it, that by an analysis
it is very easily separated from the sub-
stance, and is produced in the form of a
crystal. Now, if any druggist would
take the trouble to do that, it would be
possible to take as small a quantity as a
thimblefull, which would poison a great
deal of beer."

Now this description agrees with the
appearance of nux vomica, but by no
means with that of cocculus Indicus,
which is, originally, about the bulk of a
black currant, but being dry when
brought to this country, is of a much
smaller size.

Opium is another ingredient which
was formerly sold, under different dis-
guises, by those gentlemen druggists,
and which, we have reason to believe,
is still in use ; for we have known sei-
zures of that article in the custody of
ale-brewers, within the last two years.
A compound termed multum was (or is)
a mixture of opium and other ingredi-
ents, which sold about ten years ago, at
five or six shillings a pound, when what
was called an extract of cocculus was
charged at a guinea and a-half. Tobacco,
too, has been made use of, but how dis-
guised we have not learned.

It will be said that every article which
we have here stigmatized is medicinal,
and appears in the pharmacopoeias; but
we also know that there is no substance,
however deleterious or disgusting, which
has not, at one time or other, found a
place in the Materia medico. Besides,
the parallel is imperfect. In medicine
the poison is prescribed in measured
doses, (less or more, according to the

BREWING.

prudence or the rashness of the physi-
cian,) and only in such diseases as are
otherwise deemed incurable ; whereas
the brewer, or his drayman, administers
the drugs without discrimination, igno-
rant and careless of the age, sex, or
constitution of his patient.

In the tone of reprehension, which we
have felt it our duty to assume on this
subject, we trust that we shall not be
accused of personality. Let it be re-
membered that we address ourselves to
the most worthless of the trade, to such
as disgrace the name of brewer, by
sporting with the lives of their fellow-
creatures, for the sake of gain.* If

there be any honest man so weak as ts
suppose that we mean to throw suspi-
cion upon the brewery in general, we
wish him to be undeceived. We are
willing to believe that the number of
reckless beings who use deleterious in-
gredients are few ; but that there exist
those few, is too well ascertained, from
the seizures and convictions that have
been so often made, and are still making,
by the Excise. Our denunciations are
directed solely against the guilty ; and
sorry should we be, if they could possi-
bly be conceived to allude to any re-
spectable House, or to any honourable
man.

* See Coroner's Inquest in the Times Newspaper of the 29th of June last.

THE ART OF BREWI

PART II.

PRACTICAL INSTRUC

CHAPTER
Introductory.

THE practical instructions for brewing
ale and beer, as given by different per-
sons, are by no means uniform. The
cause is obvious. The mode of manu-
facture, and consequently the quality,
differ in every age and country; and,
even in the same nation, the ale of one
district has little resemblance to that of
another. The London, Burton, Wilt-
shire, and Scotch ales are each re-
markably distinguishable ; and the in-
structions which are privately given to
young brewers, take their tone from the
quarter where the instructor has been
bred. He who has seen only one of the
modes of brewing, can have no concep-
tion of their number and variety. One
shall mash three or four times, while ano-
ther shall do so but once. A second shall
pitch his tun at 80, when others do so
at 45, the former cleansing in twenty-
four hours, and the latter waiting three
or four weeks for the finishing of the
fermentation. One class of brewers
attend chiefly to the attenuation, are
minute in their heats of fermentation,
weighing the yeast with the utmost care ;
while there are many gentlemen (at the
same time, priding themselves on the
goodness of their ale) who turn the
worts into the barrels boiling hot, bung
them up, and stow them for a year in
their cellars, without any yeast at all.
Each of these modes of brewing may
be considered as producing a different
species of ale ; and each species has its
varieties depending on natural or acci-
dental circumstances, (such as the water,
and the skill of the brewer,) which add
to its preservative qualities, and give
certain adventitious flavours. Porter is
a peculiar species of malt liquor, and
possesses a general uniformity of taste
and strength: but this, too, differs in
its kind; for, although confined in
its manufacture almost exclusively to
ten or twelve houses, an experienced
palate is at no loss to distinguish that
of any one house from all the others.

From what we TTafcef now stated, it is
obvious that we can give no general set
of instructions which shall apply to
brewing as an abstract science. We
shall, therefore, separate our directions
into divisions, suitable to those species
of malt liquors, with the brewing of
which we are best acquainted, but with-
out affecting, in any way, to exhaust the
subject ; for we have found, experimen-
tally, during the course of twenty years,
that there have occurred to us many
things of which our philosophy had not
dreamed.

The press has hitherto furnished very
little information on the subject of brew-
ing. Mr. Richardson's work, formerly
mentioned, contains many useful theore-
tical hints ; but it was not his intention
to publish practical rules. These he
reserved for private communication, by
which he secured a much greater re-
ward than usually falls to the lot of
authors. His pupils were numerous ;
and his method of brewing, in conse-
quence, forms one of the divisions with
which the reader ought to be made ac-
quainted. It varies extremely from that
of the Scotch ; and although he treats
of Burton ale, his method, certainly, is
not the mode by which ale could be
made like the Burton of the present day.
In our opinion, his directions for porter
are unexceptionable, as far as they go ;
but that article is now very different
from what it once was, and what it
might be. At all events, Mr. Richard-
son's instructions, being very minute,
will serve us for general reference, when
we speak of other kinds of malt liquor ;
and, therefore, we shall copy them, with-
out alteration, from a manuscript for
which he was paid a hundred and fifty
guineas, besides receiving a guarantee
of secrecy for twenty years. Previously,
however, it will be necessary to make a
few remarks upon those changes which
vegetables undergo, when they are un-
derstood to be submitted to what have
been termed the Saccharine and the
Vinous fermentations,

BREWING.

CHAPTER II.

Of the SACCHARINE FERMENTATION,
or the Extraction of Worts from Raw
Grain, and other Vegetables.

WHETHER 'or not the saccharum, or
sweet, of vegetables be identically the
same, wherever it is found, has not
been, and perhaps cannot be, ascer-
tained. That of the sugar-cane and the
beet-root is equally cry stalliz able and
imdistinguishable ; but there are many
other saccharine extracts which it has
hitherto been attempted in vain to crys-
tallize. To the brewer, however, they
have all one principle in common. Sac-
charine infusions, from whatever vege-
tables they may be drawn, are capable
of undergoing a fermentation, during
which carbonic acid is evolved ; the
liquid becomes of less specific gravity,
acquires a vinous flavour, and gives out
alcohol by distillation. These are the
essential characteristics of a sweet ex-
tract ; so much so that, instead of sac-,
charine, it is more, generally termed fer-
mentable, matter. Indeed, this is the
more appropriate denomination ; for,
should any vegetable sweet be found
that is incapable of this chemical change,
it would necessarily require to be ar-
ranged in a different division of vege-
table substances.

The saccharine matter of plants is
often found ready formed in their juices,
during certain periods of their growth,
or in their fruits when arrived at matu-
rity. The tasteless seed becomes sweet
when it is developed into a stem ; and
the acid berry of the summer turns sac-
charine in the harvest. These are the
operations of nature, which we some-
times imitate by art. In either case,
the internal action, by which the sweet-
ness is produced, has been termed Sac-
charification, and, by some, the Sac-
charine fermentation. The latter deno-
mination has been objected to ; but
whether or not this change be the con-
sequence of a real fermentation can be
judged only when this term is sufficiently
denned.

That portion of the flour, or farina, of
the cereal grains, and of certain roots,
such as potatoes, arrow-root, &c., which
forms a turbid milk-like liquid, when
mixed with c-old water, and is deposited
in art almost tasteless powder, is called
fecula. In its pure state, it is the starch
of commerce. It is this fecula that is
converted into sweet in the incipient
process of the vegetation of grain, whe-

ther carried on by sowing it in the earth,
or by spreading it, in a moist state, on
the malting-floor. Bulbous roots, too,
become sweet when they begin to spring,
as may be generally observed in pota-
toes, which, in that state, are unfit for
culinary purposes.

For the oldest and best-known mode
of producing the saccharification of bar-
ley, or other grain, we must refer our
readers to the Treatise on Malting:
there are other operations that produce
a similar effect, which will come more
properly under the present head. The
artificial saccharification of fruits be-
longs to the Treatises on the Brewing
of Cyder and Perry, and on Wine-
Making.

The discovery of the rapid saccharifi-
cation of fecula originated with the dis-
tillers. " It is thus," says M. Dubrun-
faut, " that, in the chemical arts, prac-
tice generally precedes theoretical rules ;
and that the manufacturer, distant from
the observations of the learned, is able
to produce a certain effect, during a
long course of years, before the philoso-
pher has suspected the probability of
such a production. In fact, spirituous
liquors were distilled from unmalted
grain and potatoes, long before the
chemical doctrines admitted its possi-
bility.

As soon as the fact attracted their
attention, the continental chemists (who
more than those of this country apply
their science to the arts) endeavoured to
elucidate the subject by their experi-
ments. Kirchoff, of St. Petersburg, first
converted pure fecula into a saccharine
semifluid substance, by means of sul-
phuric acid, with long boiling ; and his
process, with slight improvements, is
still followed by "many of the Parisian
distillers. This, and other means for
effecting the same purpose, are detailed
by the author last quoted ; but the
French distil their materials in a pasty
rather than a fluid form, and in such a
state, however saccharine it may be, it
is unfitted for the brewer. The English
and Scotch distillers make pure worts,
and these are always capable of being
converted into beer. M. Dubrunfaut's
method of distilling and brewing from,
potatoes is worth quoting ; being quite
practicable, and little known in this coun-
try. We shall, however, abridge rather
than copy his memoir :

Having rasped the potatoes as fine

* " Traits de Tori de la Distillation."

BREWING.

as possible, he put 400 kilogrammes
(8S2 pounds) of the pulp into "a brew-
er's mash-tun, having a double bottom ;
and while the workmen were stirring the
mash in all directions, with oars or
rakes, he mixed it with boiling water,
which, the fecula being set at liberty,
turned the whole mass into a jelly, simi-
lar to the starch of the laundress. He
then added 20 kilogrammes (44 pounds)
of malt, ground to a fine powder, and,
at the same time, a small quantity of
wheat-chaff (courte paille de froment)
to assist the draining. The whole, being
well mixed, began immediately to become
fluid, and gradually sweetened, during
the space of two hours, when it was
drained from the mash-tun in the same
manner as is done by the brewer, and
carried to the fermenting-tun. A new
quantity of liquor was added to the
remaining pulp, as a second mash, at
the heat of 50 Reaumur (145 Fahren-
heit). This being stirred and afterwards
drained, the pulp was squeezed in a
cylindrical press, in order to get as much
of the saccharine as possible, before
giving the refuse to the cattle. The
liquid fermented well without any depo-
site that could effect the distillation,
and produced 54 litres (14| wine gal-
lons') of spirits of the specific gravity
.955.

M. Dubrunfaut also applied his dis-
covery to brewing. After having treated
the fecula in the manner above-men-
tioned, he added hops, and carried the
strength to the specific gravity of 1042,
or abuut 15 pounds per barrel. The
wort fermented well, and had a fine
vinous smell. It was bottled a few days
after, when it ripened, and resembled
the beer which is made in Paris. He
also fermented the wort without hops,
replacing them, as is done in certain
provinces, with honey, and obtained a
beer which had the taste and other
qualities of the famous beer of Louvain.

It will readily be supposed that other
farinaceous Drains and roots, that is,
such as yield a portion, more or less,
of starch, may also be converted into
saccharine matter; and, in fact, rye,
rice, maize, chesnuts, and numerous
other mealy fruits, as well as roots,
have been made to produce vinous
liquors. In this country, however, the
chief ingredient, and the cheapest for
the purpose, is barley ; and to this grain
the brewers have, in almost every case,
limited their operations. The distillers
frequently make use of a mixture of

different kinds of grain, and especially
oats, but the barley always predomi-
nates. We have never seen oats used
in the brewery ; although it is well
ascertained that oatmalt formed one of
the ingredients in the multifarious mix-
ture called mum, which was a favourite
vinous liquor among our ancestors.

The extraction of wort from raw grain
was long practised by the Scotch low-
land distillers ; but it was not until the
enormous additions i to the malt duties
(in 1802 and 1803) that unmalted bar-
ley was resorted to by the brewers.
From that period until the year 1811,
when the practice was checked by the
Excise, the more scientific brewers were
enabled to save two-thirds of the malt
duty ; and, consequently, gained an ad-
vantage over their less knowing bre-
thren.

Although, by means of a mixture of
chaff, a wort may be drawn from raw
grain, with the addition of only one-
twentieth part of malt, and, we believe,
without any malt at all, yet such means
have not hitherto been used by the
brewer. During an experience of seven
or eight years, we found the most conve-
nient proportion to be that of two parts
of raw grain to one of malt. The worts,
in that case, run more completely
from the grains after the first mash.
Confined as this usage must now be
to private brewings, the quantities must
be small, and therefore the following
directions are suited to mashes not ex-
ceeding three quarters, and at the same
time (by observing the proportions), will
serve equally well for brewing of half
that quantity :

The malt may be either cut or bruised,
but the grain must be cut into very fine
meal. The cutting must be sharp, for
whatever is powdered into dust is, in a
great degree, lost.

Put the quarter of malt, equally
spread, on the upper bottom of the
mash-tun, and over that the two quar-
ters of cut barley. Introduce into the
goods, through the descending trough
of the tun formerly mentioned, three-
fifths of the liquor intended for your
first mash (suppose 1\ barrels) at the
heat of 155. In large mashes 150 is
sufficient. This liquor rises through
the perforations in the false bottom,
penetrates the malt, and flows up in
fissures through the grain. The goods
are then well mashed with oars for half
an hour at least. In large quantities it
would require, perhaps, twice that time.
D 2

.36

BREWING.

The remaining two-fifths (say five bar-
rels) of the intended mash is next to be
introduced in the same manner, at the
heat of 200, a few degrees more or less,
according to circumstances, and the
mashing is to be continued for half or
three- quarters of an hour more. The
tun is then to be covered and allowed to
settle, which may be in an hour. At
that time it may happen that a part, if
not all, of the worts, will be at the top
of the goods, and must be let off through
the holes, in the upper part of the trunk
at the side of the mash-tun, which we
spoke of when describing that utensil.
What drains through the false bottom
will run off at the same time.

It may be noticed that the reserved
portion of the first mash need not be all
run on at once. The object is to keep
the goods intimately mixed in liquor at
an average heat of 140 to 150 degrees,
(at which heat the saccharification is
more readily obtained,) and for a time
sufficiently long to effect that change in
every portion of the dissolved fecula.
During the whole of the process, the
wort increases in sweetness ; but neither
taste nor time affords any certainty of
the sweetness having reached its maxi-
mum. A quantity of unaltered starch
may be held in solution, which adds its
weight to the liquid, and affects the sac-
charometer. Although not converted
into saccharum, it is nevertheless effec-
tual to the distiller, because it undergoes
the saccharine fermentation, along with
the vinous in the working-tun. It is
not, however, the same to the brewer.
His endeavour is to stop the attenuation
while a portion of the fermentable mat-
ter is still weighable in the worts ; and
it is of some consequence whether that
remaining portion be saccharine, or a
less altered starch.

The best criterion that has been yet
found for ascertaining when the saccha-
rification has reached its last stage, is
iodine. This substance is a very nice
test of the presence of starch, whether
in a state of suspension or of solution,
in liquids ; and, for that purpose, it is
used by the continental distillers. If we
pour a few drops of the tincture of iodine
into a wine glass filled with the worts of
raw grain, when the mashing is just
begun, the mixture will be instantly
coloured of a deep blue. As the sac-
charification advances, the worts, with
the same test, will be lighter and lighter
in the tint; until, at last, the colour,
remaining unchanged, will show that

the transformation of the starch into
saccharum is completed, as far as this
process is effectual for the purpose.

The goods absorb a great proportion,
of the liquor, so that the worts of the
first mash will run very short of what
is drawn from malt. The subsequent
mash or mashes will present little differ-
ence of appearance from those of malted
grain ; and, in the proportions above
stated, will, in most cases, pass freely
through the goods in the ordinary way.
At all events, the second and third
mashes will present no difficulty.

" We should err very much," says Dr.
Thomson,* " were we to suppose that
the whole kernel, or starchy part of the
malt is dissolved by the hot water used
in brewing. At least one half of the
malt stilll remains after the brewing is
over, constituting the grains." " One
hundred pounds of malt, from different
kinds of grain, after being exhausted as
much as usual of the soluble part of the
kernel by hot water, were found to weigh
as follows :

English barley . . 50.63 Ib.
Scotch barley . . 50.78
Scotch big . . . 52.69
" A hundred pounds of raw grain
being converted into malt, and the solu-
ble part of the malt extracted by hot
water, the residue weighed

English barley . . 51.558lb.
Scotch barley . . 50.831
Scotch big . . . 53.500
" In another set of experiments, with
malt of worse qualities, a hundred
pounds of malt left the following resi-
dues:

English barley . . 54 . 9 Ib.
Scotch barley . . 56.9
Scotch big . . . . 56.6
" It is probable," the Doctor adds,
" that an additional portion of the ker-
nel would be dissolved if the malt were
ground finer than it is customary to do.
The reason for grinding only coarsely is
to render it less apt to set. But this ob-
ject might be accomplished equally well
by bruising the malt between rollers,
which would reduce the starchy part to
powder without destroying the husk."

To bruise the malt is certainly a pre-
ferable practice to cutting it in coarse
pieces ; but we have been accustomed
to grind malt, as well as raw grain,
with stones as small as oatmeal, without
ever setting the goods ; and this we con-

* Supplement to th Encyclopaedia Britannica ;
article BRSWINO.

BREWING.

sider as a still better mode than cylin-
ders, even for malt. In the case of im-
malted or badly malted grain the stones
are indispensable.

We are perfectly convinced that, in
the above-mentioned experiments, the
grist must have been either very ill
prepared, or the process must have been
fjadly conducted ; for a hundred pounds
of good malt ought by no means to have
left above thirty pounds weight of dry

Raw grain is generally supposed to
yield a less proportion of extract than
malt ; but this, too, we are assured,
must be the fault of management. We
have before us the results of a number
of experiments, on a very large scale,
of which the following is an abstract,
reduced to a thousand quarters. The
grist was barley, oats and malt ; the
latter in a small proportion perhaps
not more than a twentieth :

grains.

Brewed 8,000 bushels of grain, weighing 387,300 Ibs.

Weight of dry extract, according to Dicas's Saccharometer,

as nearly as could be ascertained 253, 308 Ibs.

Weight supposed remaining in the grains 133, 992 Ibs.

Being doubtful, however, of the accu- had before grinding; and the weight
racy of the indications of dry extract was found equivalent to fourteen pounds
by the instrument, a known proportion per bushel. The whole of the grains were
of the grains was dried, until they had then measured, and thereby gave another
apparently the same dryness as the grain and more accurate comparison. Thus,

Brewed 8,000 bushels of grain, weighing 387,30^ Ibs,-

Sold 8,672

of grains, ditto 121,40*

The difference, being the amount of extract 265,892

Dry extract shown by the instrument 253,308

Apparent error in the instrument, being about 5 per cent. . . 12,58#
Calculating the proportions from these two sets of experiments :

Ibs. grain. Ibs. extract. Ibs.

By the first, 100 gave 65.41, leaving in the grains 34.59

By the second, 100 68.65 31.35

Average . .

67.03

32.97

It still appears that nearly a third of
the kernel remains unextracted ; more
than half of which, we are convinced,
is owing to ignorance of the art. One
improvement, in the case now under
our consideration, seems obvious : oats,
barley, and malt require, each, a differ-
ent heat for the proper solution of their
substance. This might be applied, were
each to have its separate mash-tun, but
not when they are mingled into one.

Many of the remarks, which we have
made in this chapter, may appear to be-
long to the distillery rather than to the
brewery ; but the two trades are inti-
mately connected. The distiller and the
vinegar-maker are necessarily brewers
in the first part of their operations ; and,
from both, the ordinary brewer may
gain instruction. All have this in com-
mon, to extract as much of the kernel
of the malt, or grain, as they possibly can.

CHAPTER III.
OF THE VINOUS FERMENTATION.

IN whatever way the saccharification is
produced, whether on the mailing-

floor or in the mash-tun, the strength
of the worts, that is, their power of pro-
ducing an intoxicating liquid, either in
the form of alcohol, or of a vinous liquor,
is always accurately designated by the
excess of their specific gravity beyond
that of water, multiplied by their quan-
tity. Distinct from flavour, this product
may be considered as the measure of
their comparative value. Thus six bar-
rels of wort, of thirty pounds per barrel,
is equivalent to four barrels at forty-five
pounds : the product in each case being
one hundred and eighty. It has already
been shown, in Chapter V. of the first
Part, that the extra- weight of a barrel of
worts, beyond that of water, is only
about four-tenths of the weight of sac-
charine matter contained in the infusion ;
but, the proportion being always the
same, the weight thus shown by the sac-
charometer answers all the purposes of
the brewer ; and it is, therefore, of this
extra-weight that the expressions " gra-
vity" and "weight of the wort" are ge-
nerally understood.

The saccharine extract (or worts)
being prepared, and boiled with the hops

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where that ingredient is required, is
next made to undergo the vinous fer-
mentation. This chemical process (which
was formerly the only change in vege-
table extracts that had the name of
fermentation) operates by the destruc-
tion of the saccharum, both as to taste
and weight; and, when carried to its
utmost point, produces a liquid of less
specific gravity than water, and of a
taste in which the sweetness is little, if at
all, perceptible : it is vinous, or that of
wine.

The juices of the sugar-cane, of the
grape and of many other fruits, when
kept in certain temperatures, enter spon-
taneously into the vinous fermentation.
In the brewing of malt liquors a very
general practice has been, to add to the
worts a quantity of the yeast, or froth
of the previous fermentations, in order
to hasten the present operation ; and it
was not until some experiments were
made by Mr. Henry, on the effect of
carbonic acid, that "the chemists con-
ceived that the fermentation of malt
liquor could be produced without the
assistance of yeast. Notwithstanding,
the brewing of ale, without a particle of
yeast, has been practised by the farmers
of certain districts, in this country, from
time immemorial. We have, ourselves,
had the experience of worts entering
into a spontaneous fermentation, with-
out acquiring any improper flavour, or
running into acidity ; but they require
time, and time cannot be well spared in
the modern system of manufactures.
What formerly required years to im-
prove must now be brought into the mar-
ket in two or three weeks. The present
mode of porter-brewing is a prominent
instance : the large vats, in which that
article was wont to be stored for eighteen
or twenty-four months, are now compa-
ratively useless.

From the moment that the worts are
mixed with the yeast in the fermenting
tun, their gravity begins to decrease, and
this decrease is termed their attenuation.
A wort, for instance, of forty pounds
per barrel shall, in a few hours, be
reduced to ten, by the extrication of car-
bonic acid, the elements of which must
have previously existed in a very con-
densed state : for, notwithstanding this
immense decrease of weight, the quantity,
or bulk, of the liquid undergoes no per-
ceptible alteration.

All saccharine liquors, after they have
been submitted to the vinous fermenta-
tion, are capable of producing a portion

of alcohol, by the process of distillation ;
and the quantity which may thus be ex-
tracted is found to be exactly propor-
tionate to the degree of attenuation.
Thus a barrel of wort that has lost forty
pounds of its weight will produce twice
the quantity of pure spirit which could
be extracted from a barrel of wort that
had lost only twenty pounds in the
attenuation. This, too, is independent
of the original weight of the wort ; for
the same extent of attenuation (suppose
twenty pounds) will produce the same
quantity of spirits, whether the original
gravity of the worts has been thirty
pounds or fifty.

Seeing that the quantity of spirit is in
proportion to the attenuation, it is obvi-
ously the interest of the distiller to carry
that attenuation as far as possible ; and,
in as far as alcoholic strength is con-
cerned, this would also be the interest of
the brewer. The latter, however, has
an additional object in view, namely, fla-
vour ; and he finds that he cannot please
the taste of his customers unless a weigh-
able portion of the saccharum remains
in the ale. The former, therefore, is
frequently able, by strong fermentations,
to reduce his worts to the weight of wa-
ter, while the latter, after keeping it a
twelvemonth, still expects to find from
three to six pounds of gravity in his
beer. It is for this reason that the
brewer is so careful not to exceed in the
quantity of yeast which he puts into the
gyle-tun ; and that, in strong ale, he
wishes the tumultuary fermentation in
the gyle-tun to close, while eight or ten
pounds of the weight still remains unat-
tenuated, to be afterwards slowly de-
composed in the casks.

It was long a matter of contest
whether alcohol exists ready formed in
fermented liquors, or is produced in the
process of distillation. The chemists
are now generally satisfied that it is
produced by the fermentation alone.
They have extracted the alcohol at heats
far below the boiling point of water, and
by other means than by distillation ; and,
from those experiments, they do not
hesitate to assert that alcohol, properly
so called, exists in wine and beer. It is
not, however, presumed that alcohol is
a simple substance ; and one who is not
a chemist may still suspect that the
atoms of which it is afterwards to be
composed, although contained in the
fluid, may exist in a discordant state,
until united by some process that de-
stroys their other affinities. But what-

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ever may become of those theories, it is
certain that these atoms, whether sepa-
rately in solution or combined into alco-
hol, constitute a whole that is lighter
than water ; for when a wort is fer-
mented so low as to show nothing be-
yond water, by the saccharometer, it
still, according to the experiments of
Dr. Thomson, contains about one-fifth
of its original saccharum unfermented.
Thus a barrel of wort of thirty pounds,
when fermented to the weight of water
and its alcohol distilled,will leave as much
saccharine matter in the still-bottoms,
as, if mixed with water to its original
quantity, would make a barrel of about
six pounds gravity, which might be fer-
mented into beer. This latent weight, or
unattenuated gravity, is counterbalanced
by the alcohol (or its component parts),
which is as much lighter than water as
the saccharum is heavier. "When ale or
beer is attenuated in a great degree, as
it usually is when exported to a warm
climate, it again enters into a sponta-
neous fermentation, at the expense of
this unattenuated, but latent, saccha-
rum. '

The acetous fermentation is the reverse
of the vinous. The moment it takes
place the vinous liquor becomes heavier
by the absorption of oxygen ; and the
alcohol (or its composing principles) is
destroyed, exactly in proportion to the
increase of weight. If a distiller's fer-
menting-tun, for example, shall have
been attenuated from the gravity of
twenty to that of two pounds, he ex-
pects, and would procure, a quantity of
spirit corresponding to eighteen pounds
of attenuation ; but should he, by any
oversight, allow the acid fermentation to
proceed unobserved, until his worts
(wash) should increase in gravity two
pounds, so as to show only sixteen
pounds of attenuation when they had
once shown eighteen, he would find that
he had lost the value of two pounds, or
exactly one-ninth of the quantity of
alcohol which he might have had.

When a distiller's tun has ceased to
attenuate, it runs rapidly into the acetous
fermentation ; and increases in weight
at the expense of the alcohol, if (as it is
said) the alcohol be really formed. Ac-
cording to this theory, when the attenua-
tion is apparently complete, four fifths
of the saccharine matter is converted
into equal quantities of carbonic acid
and spirit. With a mixture of half that
proportion of alcohol, no saccharine
liquor would ever become sour. Does

not this circumstance render it probabl
that the alcohol is not completely
formed ?

It is so generally allowed, that we
have taken it for granted, that the acetous
acid (vinegar) is formed, in vinous
liquors, by the absorption of oxygen. If
this be true, the contact of atmospheric
air must be particularly dangerous to
the ale-brewer. Various plans have
been proposed to prevent its access,
but none of them have been successful.
In attempting to stop the acetous, they
check the vinous fermentation ; and it
is only when the latter has completely
subsided, that the vessels can be closely
bunged up.

Two evils have been stated as the
consequence of fermenting worts in open
tuns : first, the loss of alcohol, which is
supposed to escape in union with the
carbonic acid ; and second, the germ of
acetous acid, which is believed to be
communicated to the beer by the con-
tact of the atmospheric air with the sur-
face of the liquid. Patents have been
granted, both in France and in this
country, for a method of closing the
tuns, so as to exclude the atmospheric
air, and also to condense any alcohol
that may be endeavouring to escape.
The plans proposed are of very ancient
date, although recently announced as a
modern invention of a Mademoiselle
Gervais. Our limits do not permit us
to describe the particulars ; but it is of
the less consequence, as we should do
so only to show its inutility in the brew-
ery. To those who have seen the
pamphlet which circulates the wonderful
announcements of the value of the in-
vention, the following remarks will be
sufficient : those who have not seen it,
may rest satisfied that its perusal would
not render them wiser.

Whilst the worts are fermenting,
carbonic acid is evolved, and fills a por-
tion of the vacuity of the tun, immedi-
ately above the liquor, which excludes
the common air as effectually as the
closest cover. It can only be when this
gas ceases to be generated, that oxygen
can gain admittance ; and, before that
time, every skilful brewer has cleansed
his beer into casks, exposing only a
small bung- hole, which is also closed
the moment the yeast has ceased to
issue. During the whole period of the
tumultuary fermentation, the pressure is
outward not inward; and a lighted
candle, held over the yeasty head, will
shew that not a particle of oxygen can

BREWING.

be admitted. When this evolution of
gas becomes so weak as not to form a
stratum above the liquid, the introduc-
tion of air may begin, especially if
the heat of the tun is high ; and this,
\ve believe, frequently happens with the
distillers, (who carry the attenuation to
the utmost practicable point) especially
when the surface of the tun is large in
proportion to its depth. A cover in
this case is proper, and perhaps it would
be better to have an aperture which
might be contracted, so as ' always to
preserve a certain depth of stratum of
fixed air above the still fermenting
liquor.

With respect to the alcohol which is
said to be carried off with the carbonic
acid, neither can this apply to the brew-
ery, as generally practised. In the heat
of a tun which seldom exceeds 75, the
alcohol (or whatever spirituous sub-
stance it may be) can lose little or no-
thing by evaporation. In the Scotch
practice, the heat is almost always under
65; and we know not by what means
the particles, that would escape at that
temperature, could be condensed. If
there really is a loss, it is certainly so
small as to be unworthy of attention.^

CHAPTER IV.

Practical Instructions by Mr. Richard-
son.

ART. I. FOR MILD ALE IN GENERAL.
1 . Heat of the Liquor.

THIS being an ale which requires early
purity, the first heat of the liquor must
therefore scarcely ever be under, and is
not seldom above, 180, to which 5 are
to be added for the second mash, and
5 more for the third, where three mashes
are made for strong ale; but where
there are two only, the addition may be
10; that is, 180 and 190. If, how-
ever, you find by experience that a lower
heat of the liquor will produce purity,
this will be a preferable practice, as
producing a more mucilaginous wort,
and it is better calculated for making
small beer after it. It is therefore ad-
visable that you begin with the heat of
the liquor just mentioned, and then try
175 for the first mash, varying 5 at a
time in different brewings, for the sake
of practice and experience. Sometimes,
indeed, when I take my first heat at
180, or higher, I only increase 5 for
my second, though I have but two
mashes for strong ale, in order to avoid

that thinness on the palate, which too-
high a heat is sometimes apt to produce.

2. Time of Infusion.

If there be only one mash for strong
ale, as is sometimes the case for ale of
great strength, the time of infusion
should be four hours. If there be two
mashes, allow three hours for the first,,
and two or two and a half hours for the
second ; and if three mashes,', allow two
and a half or three hours for the first,
two for the second, and one and a half
or two hours for the third ; it being in-
tended to allow as much time as is con-
sistent with the proper forming of the
extract, and the necessary expedition of
the process.

$ 3. Quantity of Hops.

To ale made from worts whose average
specific gravity is about thirty pounds
(which answers to about two barrels
from a quarter of malt), not less than
two pounds of hops should be used in
winter, and more as the season advances,
even to four pounds in a great heat of
the atmosphere ; or it is perhaps more
rational to apportion the hops to the
malt used, in which case eight pounds
per quarter are allowed, for the more
certain preservation of the ale. This
being adapted for the climate of Eng-
land, a greater portion ought to be
allowed where the b eat of the air is
greater.

4. Time of Boiling.
This in general, should be only til 1 the
wort breaks pure, in order to extract
only the finer parts of the hops; but in
great heats of the air, a longer time in
boiling, as well as a greater portion of
hops, is necessary for the preservation
of the ale. For this purpose, also,
(having in view a finer flavour in the
ale,) it is advisable to boil the wort for
an hour or more, before the hops are
added, which renders it more preser-
vable, at the same time that it avoids
the rank extract of the hops. If, how-
ever, those produced in Worcestershire
be used, the mildness of their flavour
renders this precaution unnecessary.

What is meant here by breaking pure,
is that state of the Wort when the hops
subside to the bottom, and the mucila-
ginous pails of the malt are coagulated
into large lumps, and float up and down
in it, very rapidly, leaving the interslices
of the wort perfectly pure. This gene-
rally happens (when the wort is boiled

BREWING.

briskly, as it ought always to be) in
about twenty or twenty-five minutes in
the first wort, but is somewhat longer in
the others. The mode of observing it
is, to take a little wort in a bowl or dish,
after having boiled about a quarter of
an hour, and let it stand steady to ob-
serve the effect ; and, by doing so every
five minutes after, for two or three times,
you will note the difference, and soon
become a competent judge. Without
making this observation, you cannot err
much in boiling the first wort about
three-quarters of an hour, and an hour
or an hour and a half the second ; or if
you boil altogether, the whole time may
be allowed. This, however, respects the
extract of the hops rather than the effect
it is to have on the wort ; and ; is in-
tended only for the winter season, and
when the ale is for present use.

5. Method of Fermentation.

As in this part of the process the great-
est effects are produced by the heat of
the fermentation, so the greatest atten-
tion to its progress is necessary. The
first heat (that is, when all the wort is
first in the gyle tun) is to be considered
of no other consequence than as con-
ducing to the last or highest heat to
which the fermentation will arrive ; and
this is found to have a very important
influence on the flavour and other quali-
ties of the ale. At 75 the first flavour
of mild ale commences ; for under that
it is more properly the flavour of ale in-
tended to be improved by long keeping.
At 80 the flavour of ale is more per-
fect ; at 85 it approaches the high
flavour ; at 90 it may be termed high,
but is sometimes carried to 100 and
upwards ; the flavour increasing as the
heat of the fermentation rises. It must
still be remembered that I refer to the
highest heat ; and therefore at whatever
degree you would have the fermentation
finish, you must begin it at such a heat
as experience has taught you will rise at
last to the desired heat, but no higher.
For instance, a wort of thirty pounds
per barrel ought to increase about 15,
so that in order to arrive at 80, you.
must begin at 65 ; but as it is impos-
sible to say how your yeast will ferment
(upon the quality of which the success
of this operation entirely depends), it
were safer in a small gyle, and in a low
heat of the atmosphere, to begin at first
between 65 and 70 ; and if you find it
increase 15 or more, you are to lower
the heat of your, next gyle accordingly ;

that is, so as to bring your highest heat
of fermentation between 75 and 80, or
not much to exceed the latter; for,
though a high heat produces the most
agreeable flavour, the ale will not ulti-
mately be so lively, nor will it be so
soon fine, as from a contrary practice.
It may not, however, be amiss to remark,
that Forlow's celebrated Cambridge ale
was begun at the heat of 90, and has
been sometimes carried as hio;h as near
110, producing that peculiarity of fla-
vour which rendered his and the ale at
one of the colleges by the same man, so
famous, that some of it has been drunk
at the king's table.

The quantity of good solid yeast to
be used, should be proportioned to the
specific gravity of the worts, the pre-
vailing heat of the weather, and the heat
of fermentation. To a wort of thirty
pounds per barrel, if the heat of the air
be low, and the first heat of fermentation
65, or a little more, two pounds per
barrel, or more, may be used. If the
first heat be 70, or not much under,
li or 14 Ibs. maybe sufficient. This,
when the first heat is about 70, may be
all used at first ; when it is lower, two-
thirds may be used at first, and the re-
mainder the next morning. In either
case the quantity first used should be
put into the gyle-tun, and as much wort
let down to it as will cover the bottom,
one and a half or tw T o inches. The heat
of this wort should not be less than 85
or 90, in which state, being well mixed
with the yeast, it puts it into immediate
action, and prepares it for the reception
of the rest of the wort at the required
heat. When an addition of yeast is
made, the whole should be well roused,
to mix them the more readily.

These previous steps being taken,
there is nothing uncertain but the
strength and consequent operation of
the yeast ; and if the heat of the fermen-
tation fall considerably short of the in-
crease before-mentioned, the whole fer-
mentation will be imperfect, the ale will
have a heavy mixed flavour of sweet
and bitter, and the fault is to be attri-
buted to nothing but want of strength
in the yeast. This can only be remedied
by a fresh supply from some other
brewer ; and you must not be disheart-
ened if the first or second change should
not succeed ; for there must be a new
supply procured till some be found
which will answer the desired end.

Even when a perfect fermentation is
procured, the strength of the yeast will

BREWING.

in time degenerate, and render another
change necessary; and particularly so
when the fermentation is carried to its
utmost extent.

It is also to be remembered that I do
not recommend rousing the worts in the
gyle-tun, except as before-mentioned,
because it communicates a rank flavour
of yeast to the ale, though it perhaps
adds to its strerigth : this rule, however,
can only hold good when the yeast is of
sufficient strength ; for, when it is weak,
or suspected of being so, it will be
necessary not only to increase the yeast
considerably, by additions at every three
or four hours during the day after brew-
ing, but to rouse, at every addition, and
even to continue these rousings till
cleansing, in order to carry off the sac-
charine of the malt, and produce, as much
as possible, that uniformity of flavour
which good yeast would have effected in
the first instance.

6. Rules for Cleansing.

It is my practice to look every two
hours into the gyle-tun, during the fer-
mentation, whence I observe its pro-
gress very accurately. My principal
attention is directed to the heat of the
fermentation, which generally increases
very slowly at first, but when the fer-
mentation is in full force, its general
increase is half a degree per hour, which
progress declines in proportion as the
fermentation advances towards a con-
clusion, till at length it stands still, and
sometimes decreases before the vinous
fermentation is entirely complete, espe-
cially where the volume of wort is small.
This, then, is the grand rule for cleans-
ing : whilst the heat is increasing, you
may rest assured that the vinous fer-
mentation is not finished; but so soon
as it is at its height, you are to turn your
attention to the smell of the ale. Whence
you will observe, that in the middle of
the fermentation, the fixed air strikes
into the head so powerfully, on smelling
with the nose lower than the upper edge
of the gyle-tun, that it would, perhaps,
be death to inhale it a second time, with-
out intermission; but this force so much
abates towards the conclusion of the fer-
mentation, that, at the proper period for
cleansing, it no longer stings the nos-
trils, nor strikes violently into the head,
but just feels warm, and being drawn
into the lungs, only occasions strong
efforts to discharge the gas exactly
similar to the effect of a sudden exertion
in running up a hill, vulgarly termed

being out of breath. The ale will then
have lost its saccharine if the fermenta-
tion has been perfect, and will have ac-
quired an uniform vinosity both in its
smell and taste. The head will also then,
have a regular compact appearance of
yeast, provided it be so low a heat of
fermentation as 75 or a little more, but
in proportion as the heat is carried fur-
ther, the head becomes less ; so that a
fermentation of 90 or more will only
exhibit blistery bubbles, and discharge
no yeast till the ale be cleansed into
casks, which, in that case, should not
be larger than barrels, because it re-
quires the heat to be lessened as ex-
peditiously as may be, to facilitate the
discharge of the yeast, and larger casks
would be apt to retain it too long.

It is an advisable practice, when the
fermentation is carried to its utmost
period, to use about seven pounds of
flour from either wheat or beans, to a
gyle of 25 to 30 barrels, at the time of
cleansing, in order to accelerate the dis-
charge of the yeast by the introduction
of an extra portion of gas into the ale
for that purpose. This should be
whisked up in a pail, with some of the
ale, till all the lumps are broken, when
it may be enlarged to any specific quan-
tity, and then having a portion poured
into each cask, agreeably to its size, the
ale is to be cleansed upon it.

Though the above rules for cleansing
are entirely consistent with my system,
I nevertheless have found it convenient
to deviate from them, by cleansing at
an earlier period, even while the heat of
fermentation is yet increasing, and the
fixed air is somewhat strong, in order to
obtain a better produce of yeast, and
thence to have less sediment in the casks,
which sometimes subsides with difficulty
after removal. By early cleansing, too,
the yeast is preserved longer in a state
proper for a perfect fermentation, than
by a contrary practice. At any rate,
however, there must be no saccharine
taste perceptible at the time of deciding
upon cleansing. When the cleansing
is finished, the casks should be filled
quite full, and be filled up out of the
stillions every two or three hours during
the first day, and three or four times the
next. When the ale has nearly done its
fermentation, if that from the stillions
does not run clear, a cask should be
tapped, to fill up with, and that which is
thick should be returned into the next
gyle just before cleansing.

If the ale be racked off from its lees,

BREWING.

about three or four days from cleansing,
and you add to every barrel three pints
or two quarts of hops, after having
boiled in the first wort, and (when the
heat of the air is low) whilst they are
warm, it will contribute much to the
liveliness and purity of the ale, and
render it much less liable to disorder, in
removing from cellar to cellar ; but it
is to be observed, that the hops thus
added give some rankness to the flavour,
and racking is not favourable to the pre-
servation of the ale. In this practice
the casks should be filled quite full, and
bunged down close, venting only if the
cask be in danger. But if the ale be
not racked, the casks should not be
bunged down so long as the head of the
ale can be kept up by repeated fillings ;
for otherwise there would be a circle of
yeast formed round the inside of the
bunghole, which would be in part washed
off' amongst the ale on removal, and
- tend to make it foul.

CHAPTER V.
Richardsorfs Instructions continued.

ART. II. FOR OLD ALE, or such as is
to be long kept.

1 .Heat of the Liquor.

As purity is not immediately required
MI this sort of ale, the first mashing heat
should be as low as practicable ; that is,
so as just to avoid acidity in the wort,
which is apt to be produced by a very
low heat of the liquor. Hence 160 or
165 may be the first heat, and from
10 to 15 may be added for the second,
if there be but two mashes, and 10
each if there be three. Thus if the first
heat be 160, and you find no tendency
to acidity in the last running of the worts,
then these rules may be observed ; but
if there should be a little acidity dis-
cernible, it were advisable to make
the increase 4 or 5 more for the sub-
sequent mashes, and on brewing another
gyle of the same sort, from the same
malt, it were best to begin at 165, and
then observe these rules for the next
mashings.

2. Time of Infusion.

If the heat of the liquor be very low,
the time of infusion should be some-
what less than that allowed for mild ale.
Therefore, two, or two and a half hours
may be allowed for the first mash, and
one hour for each of the rest.

3. Quantity of Hops, and time of .
boiling.

The general rule for hops is one pound
per bushel of malt ; but if it be intended
that the ale should retain its mildness to
a very distant period (which by the bye
is to answer a very useless purpose), a
larger portion of hops must be used,
agreeably to the intention of the brewer.
The boiling is regulated by time, as
the nicety of flavour is not such a re-
quisite in this as in mild ale. In two
worts the boiling may be from an hour
to an hour and a half for the first, and
two or two and a half hours for the
second ; in three worts, the first may
boil one hour, the second an hour and
a half, and the last two or two and a
half hours.

$ 4. Quantity of Yeast, and mode of
Fermentation.

If the first heat of fermentation be not
below 60, and the gravity not much
more than thirty pounds, provided the
air be -temperate, the quantity of yeast
must be from two to two and a half
pounds per barrel, applied in the manner
as directed for mild ale. If the heat be
lower, the specific gravity more, or the
heat of the atmosphere less, the quantity
of yeast must be increased in propor-
tion; in doing of which, no great incon-
venience can arise from applying a few
pounds too much, but it may occasion
an imperfect fermentation if there be a
few pounds too little.

The heat of the fermentation should
not exceed 75 at the highest, but rest
between that and 70, though the nearer
75 the better will be the flavour of the
ale at an early period ; and as a low heat
of mashing is conducive to a great in-
crease in the heat of fermentation, it will
thence be evident that the fermentation
for ale, whose average gravity is thirty-
pounds, must begin at or below 60 ,
and the precautions before recom-
mended respecting the yeast, must be
particularly attended to. The mode of
conducting the fermentation, and the
criterion for cleansing, being the same
with those directed for mild ale, a re-
petition here would be superfluous.

I, however, recommend a more strict
adherence to the rules for cleansing, be-
fore inculcated in this process, than in
that for mild ale, because the first heat
being lower, a greater time is necessary
to bring the fermentation to perfection,
and secure the future good flavour of

BREWING.

the ale. It may be here observed that
this sort will generally require finings.

ART. III. FOR SMALL BEER.

If this be made alone, the same rule is
to be observed in the heat of the mash-
ing as that recommended for keeping
ale ; but the time of infusion is some-
what less. If made after strong ale, as
there cannot with propriety be more
than one mash, the heat may be 160
or under.

It is generally boiled at once about
an hour or an hour and a half, accord-
ing to the season or the time required
to keep it ; and it may be observed here,
that long boiling prevents its fermenting
so freely as it otherwise would do.

The quantity of hops must also de-
pend entirely on the taste of the con-
sumer, and the time required to keep
it. When made after mild strong ale,
there is generally a sufficient quantity
of hops to prevent the necessity of a
fresh application, and after keeping ale,
the quantity is often so large as to
render it necessary to leave some out
of it.

The first heat of fermentation may be
from 60 to 65, and, as there is rarely
any material increase, it may be cleansed
at the end of 12 to 14 hours, when the
fermentation is fairly begun ; for if it
was carried to its utmost period, the
beer would be thinner upon the palate,
and appear not so strong as it would by
the mode of fermentation here recom-
mended.

About a pound of yeast per barrel
will be sufficient.

ART. IV. FOR EARLY HARD ALE, or
a mode of producing premature aci-
dity in Ale.

This is nothing more than the artificial
introduction of an acid flavour into new
ale, to suit particular palates, which
flavour must otherwise have been the
effect of age. Add to a barrel from one
to two gallons of common vinegar, or
rather of ale which has acquired a great
degree of acid flavour, according to the
taste of the consumer whose palate is to
be accommodated.

This should be done at such a time as
the ale to be changed has discharged the
greatest part of the yeast, which may be
about twenty-four hours after cleansing,
where the heat of fermentation has been
low, arid from twenty-four to thirty- six
hours where it has been high. Some-

times hops are used as in racking of ale.
In either case the cask must be filled
nearly full, and stopped down close,
that a violent internal vinous fermenta-
tion may ensue, otherwise the union will
not be perfect, but the distinct flavours
of both will be discernible. If the com-
motion within seems to endanger the
cask by the swelling out of the head,
&c., a little of the ale may be drawn off
occasionally, but it is to have no other
vent.

This fermentation will sometimes con-
tinue for three or four weeks, and when
it is finished, so that the ale will become
pure with finings (which it will require",
it will be fit for use.

ART. V. OF RACKING KEEPING ALE.

Whether the ale be racked from vats
or from one cask to another, it has a
tendency to grow flat. This may be
remedied by adding about two quarts o*
hops to a barrel, as mentioned in rack-
ing mild ale ; but a better mode is by
an addition of a sixth to a fourth part
of new ale taken from the gyle-tun, in a
state proper for cleansing. In either
case the cask is to be filled full, and
stopped down close, with the same pre-
caution as recommended under the
article of Early hard ale. I have also
seen about a quart of good wort (made
perfectly pure by filtrating through a
flannel bag) added to a barrel of mild
ale, which was flat, but also pure, and,
in a very short time, it produced all the
liveliness of bottled ale, without having
in the least injured its purity ; but hav-
ing had little occasion to pursue the
practice, I give it here as a hint well
deserving your attention, should you
ever have occasion to adopt it.

ART. VI. FOR BURTON ALE.

This is made from the palest malt and
hops ; for, if it be not pale as a straw
it will not pass with the connoisseurs in
that article ; and the gravity being so
very high as thirty-six to forty pounds
a barrel, makes it a matter of great
nicety to get malt sufficiently pale.

If "the malt be not very good, only
one mash must be made for this liquor;
but if it be good, two mashes may take
place, adverting still to the great spe-
cific gravity which ought to be pro-
duced.

The heat of the liquor should be
185, or 190, adding 5 P for the second,

BREWING.

if a second mash be made ; and the time
of infusion may be the same as that
mentioned under the article Mild Ale
in general.

If only one wort be made, it may be
boiled an hour and a quarter; if two,
they may be boiled three-quarters of an
hour the first, and an hour, or an hour
and a quarter the second ; remembering
that long boiling is prejudicial to the
colour.

The quantity of hops must be three-
quarters of a pound per bushel of malt,
or more, according to circumstances;
but the more that are used, though an
advantage as a preservative, the higher
will be the colour of the ale.

The heat of fermentation should not
much exceed 75, and as the first
heat would thence probably be about
55, the quantity of yeast, both on ac-
count of this circumstance, and the
great weight of the wort, should not be
less than three pounds per barrel, used
as is before recommended ; and the rule
for cleansing is the same as that before
inculcated.

It is to be racked into clean casks
(without hops) when nearly pure, and
the sizes of them are from 32 to 42 or
43 gallons (called half hogsheads), and
from 70 to 80 gallons (called hogsheads'),
which are generally hooped with an
equal number of iron and wooden hoops ;
the latter are white, flat, or broad bark
hoops ; a bar is put across each head,
and the brewer's initials or name, with
B or BURTON at length, are branded in
front in letters of about an inch and a
quarter high ; and the number of gal-
lons which the cask holds is cut with
a scribe-iron, just above the cork-hole.

The bung-hole is not above an inch
and a quarter diameter, which is stopped
with a wooden shive or bung, and a
piece of triangular tin-plate is afterwards
nailed over it.

CHAPTER VI.

Richardson's Instructions continued.
ART. VII. FOR PORTER.
$ 1. Heat of the Liquor.
The heat of the liquor may begin from
156 to 165, it being intended to go as
low as the avoiding acidity in the wort
will admit of; and, as a large portion of
the malt in this is brown, the heat of the
liquor may thence be, with safety, some-
what lower than in the process of keep-
ing ale.
The subsequent heats of the mashes

are to be increased from 5 to 10 each,
according to circumstances, thousrh the
former is generally sufficient. If, how-
ever, the ranker earthy parts of the malt
be desired, in order to heighten the fla-
vour ; or if the taste of the preceding
wort has been somewhat inclined to
acidity, then 15 may be added, sup-
posing a very low beginning.

2. Time of Infusion.
This, on account of the number of
mashes, need not be more than two
hours at the first, and one hour for
each of the rest ; but as the time of
boiling allows more time between the
two last mashes than usual, the time of
infusion may be proportionately long,
without wasting any.

3. Quantity of Hops, and Time of

Boiling.

It is not, perhaps, so much for the pur-
pose of preservation as for that of fla-
vour, that the general practice is to
use not less than four, and sometimes
four and a half to five pounds per bar-
rel for keeping ; though what is termed
mild or mixing porter, has not more
than three to three and a half pounds ;
but since hops have been so very dear,
these proportions have been so consi-
derably lessened, that I do not even now
use more than three and a half pounds
for keeping.

The hops required here are to be
strong, without regard to colour ; and
for the purposes of extracting all that
strength, and communicating all its
rankness, the whole of the worts are
generally boiled from eight to nine
hours in the aggregate ; which may be
apportioned, in three worts, to one and a
half, two and a half, and four or five
hours. If there are four worts, it may
be one, one and a half, two and a half,
and three or four hours.

4. Mode of Fermentation.
The heat of fermentation to be so low
as not to exceed 70 when at the highest,
so that in general it may begin about
60; and should it be inclined to go
further than 70, provided the saccharine
of the malt be not perfectly gone off, the
event of a degree or two more may be
waited for, in case the heat of the fer-
mentation does not increase more than
half a degree in the hour at that time,
when it is to be cleansed at all events ;
otherwise, it might run up so high as
to induce the flavour of keeping ale
instead of that fulness which porter

BREWING.

ought to have. If, when the heat of
fermentation is at 70, it is increasing
more than is above mentioned, I recom-
mend that the porter be cleansed, lest
the major part of the yeast subside to
the bottom of the casks instead of being-
thrown out, and thence render the por-
ter foul, and hereafter stubborn, if not
cloudy. At this period of the fermen-
tation, though every other rule relative
to cleansing be dispensed with, yet care
should be taken that the sweetness of
the malt be gone off; and to facilitate
that end, a greater portion of yeast is to
be used than is allowable in any other
beer of the same strength. The quantity
required is from three to four pounds
per barrel, used in the usual propor-
tions, and rousing the wort every two
hours in the day time, and even during
cleansing, if practicable, in order to give
every degree of rankness obtainable from
the materials.

In order to heighten the flavour, about
a quarter to half an ounce of socotrine
aloes per barrel may be boiled in the
second wort ; and, for the purpose of
giving a retentive head, as much salt of
steel as will lie on a half-crown piece is
to be added to a barrel, with the finings.
These effects may, indeed, be increased
to any desired degree, by increasing the
quantity ; but it is to be remembered
that, aloes is a powerful purgative, and
much more than half an ounce per bar-
rel might discover itself, nor is the salt
of steel sufficiently wholesome to war-
rant the use of any large quantity. The
former of these 1 now entirely omit, and in
its place use quassia, in the proportion
of a pound to twenty barrels of porter,
or a little less ; and, as a saving, cop-
peras may be substituted in the place of
the latter.

The malt used is generally brown,
amber, and pale, in equal quantities ;
but it is necessary, in that case, to have
the former browner than is always to be
met with ; and the second of a deeper
tinge ; it may be as well to use brown
and pale in equal parts, or in such other
proportions as the colour of the former
shall indicate to be necessary even to
two-thirds or more : and, as it is essen-
tial, both for colour and flavour, to have
a sufficient portion of brown, an error
on that side would be much more safe
than on the other; for the want of
colour, and consequently of flavour, is
often a great obstacle to the reception of
porter, in a country where its produc-
tion is novel, by rendering it more like

ale than is admissible in such a situa-
tion ; where it is generally expected to
find in it qualities which, in the known
produce of London, would not, perhaps,
be demanded.

The malt, both brown and amber, are
dried with wood, either billets or very
stout faggots ; but this being for the
sake of flavour only, where there is a
deficiency of this fuel, the foundation or
body of the heat may be produced and
continued with cinders, adding some
wood.

When the porter is worked off, it
should be started into vats, of any con-
venient size, from 50 to 500 barrels,
and racked thence for sending out ; in
doing which it is preferable to rack the
whole off at once, that there may be no
ullage, which is apt to become vapid
and often sour. It should not be racked
till on the fret.

5. Of the average Specific Gravity
requisite for different Ales and Por-
ter.

For Burton ale, as is before intimated,
the first sort is from forty to forty-two,
or forty-three ; the second from thirty-
five to forty ; and a third sort, made
after the former, is from twenty-eight to
thirty-two, or thirty-three pounds per
barrel.

This latter is the usual gravity for
common mild strong ale, of the first
quality ; but the more prevailing weight
for common ale is from twenty-five to
twenty-seven ; and even since malt be-
came so valuable, from twenty-two to
twenty-four is deemed sufficient ; whilst
in certain situations twenty to twenty-
one is thought to be as much as the
price merits.

For keeping ale which is similar to,
the above, only in being longer kept be-
fore used, the same gravities are re-
quisite.

For porter, about eighteen is sufficient
for the common sort, twenty for what is
sometimes termed double; twenty-two
to twenty-three for the first kind of
brown stout, and twenty-five to twenty-
six pounds for the very best brown stout*
The weight for common small beer is
about six or seven ; and what is deemed
good table beer, is from twelve to four-
teen pounds.

ART. VIII. OF RETURNS for saving
Malt.

After the usual process of brewing is
finished, you are to cause one or two

BREWING.

mashes to be made, according to cir-
cumstances ; viz. if small beer has been
made, only one mash is to take place ;
but where that has not been the case,
there may be two ; for the more the
malt is exhausted, the greater is the
saving, and the greater the number of
mashes, the more fermentable matter is
extracted.

If, therefore, no small beer is intended
to be made, you are to mash for a return
in the same manner as if small beer was
to be made, only using as much more
liquor as is convenient ; taking the heat
at 160 or 165, letting it infuse an hour
or more, and then pumping it up into
the copper, and putting the hops into
it, but it is only to be just made to boil
when it is to be turned into the cooler in
the usual way. During this another
mash for a second return is to be made,
taking the heat at 5 lower than the
first, which return being pumped up into
the copper, and the hops added to it, it
may remain in the copper all night at a
heat nearly boiling, and then be turned
into the cooler as the former.

These two returns are to remain in
the coolers until the evening before the
next brewing, when they are to be let
down into the under back and pumped
into the copper, to serve for the purpose
of mashing, in the place of so much
liquor ; and if there be more than suf-
ficient for Ihe first mash, the remainder
may have as much liquor added to it as
will serve for the second. But as the
return contains a certain portion of
fermentable matter, that portion is to
be previously ascertained, and either an
additional quantity of liquor is to be
used in the brewing, or so much malt
be left out of the grist as the amount of
that fermentable matter may be.

To ascertain this, it may be premised
that the gravity of the wort intended for
small beer is generally from three to five,
more or less, and that the wort drawn
after this (if the quantity be the same
as that of the wort for small beer) will
have half, or rather more than half the
weight of that ; so that supposing the
gravity of the wort for small beer to
have been 3.5, the wort intended for a
return would probably be 2.0; in
which case, if the volume of the wort
amount to twenty barrels, the sum
would be forty pounds, or upwards of
half a quarter of malt. On the con-
trary, if no small beer be made, the

mash which would have been made for
that wort must now be made for a first
return, to which another mash, as above
mentioned, would produce a second,
whence the saving would be nearly
threefold of the one effected after mak-
ing small beer ; for, supposing twenty
barrels of the first return at 3.5, the
aggregate would be seventy pounds, to
which the second return (as above esti-
mated) being added, the total would be
one hundred and ten pounds, or nearly
one quarter and a half of malt, valued
at seventy-five pounds per quarter.

But as this estimate only relates to
the return in the under back, it is to be
remembered that an addition would be
made to the amount, as exhibited in that
state, by that portion of the preceding
worts which is imbibed by the hops, and
which will be extracted and replaced by
the return into which those hops are
put ; but this addition can only be ascer-
tained by actual experiment. Whence
the net aggregate saving is to be esti-
mated from the gravity of the return
taken when cold in the cooler, as includ-
ing the above-mentioned addition from
the hops, and not from the return in the
under back, the aggregate of which will
be found to fall "considerably short of
that of the return in the coolers, par-
ticularly where many hops are used.

There is also some advantage derived
from the hops having their virtue further
extracted by this process ; but as an
estimate of the quantum cannot easily
be made, it is not taken into the account
of the saving effected hereby.

The intervention of a day or two be-
tween the brewings is no bar to the
use of a return. Its very humble specific
gravity is a security against fermenta-
tion. In summer we sometimes have it
lie a week ; and, in very warm weather,,
it will mould a little at the top without
injuring its taste. I do not, however,
use it for strong ale in such cases, but
mash with it for another return, that
the flavour and purity of the former may
not be affected by it ; but for porter I
never hesitate to use it at first, and we
generally contrive to brew a gyle of the
latter after one of the former, with that
intention.

ART. IX. OF THE BREWING BOOK.

The following is the plan of my brew-
ing book : >

Remarks.

Fermentation.

;j H~i MX H* H|?

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J^t^CJOoOOOCOOO

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1 M S 1*

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CM ^

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CO g^

CO ^H

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o
o

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CO O CO f^. C5 <O
CO CM i l> CO

o in CM to co

C5 CM to CS !>.

CO O^ ii CO

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b
M

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CO CO 1* lO t^

CO CM t < CM

ift O O O

8 S3 ' a *

l-H 1^ CO l-H

CM CM" CO CM O

n * SP

^r c!r co

a
n

CM CO i ^- o |-<

TT CM r-l CO O>

Tf r 1 O *-O CD

*!-(* CO ^t 1 CO CD

lif

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O

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CM GO C5 kTJ

CO r i

CM to in Tf

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r-H _< ^H r I CO

CM r-H r-H f-H

co in n to CM

o o o >n

t^% IN. GO ^O

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BREWING.

EXPLANATION.

Suppose the Book lying; open, as in
the two pages * before us, both of which
are to betaken across as continued
lines of the same Table :

Column 1, contains the date and
quality of each brewing as successively
numbered No. 1, No. 2, &c., from the
beginning: of the year, which is here
counted ^from the 1st of October. The
two examples are reductions of two of
my own brewings for twelve quarters.
Herein 12.8 means December 8th;
X and T are strong beer and small ; P
is porter; and the figures 5.0.6| de-
note 5i quarters of brown malt, no
amber, and 6| quarters of pale. Column
2 shows the quarters of malt used, and
col. 3 the pounds; of hops, both of which
are summed up at the bottom of every
page, so as to show the quantity used
at the close of the year. Col. 4 is the
heats of liquor for each mash; and
col. 5 is the barrels of liquor. Col. 6 is
the quantity of worts drawn from each
mash; col. 7 is the gravity per barrel
taken in the underback ; and col. 8 is
the whole weight of fermentable matter,
deducting one and a half per cent, for
heat. Col. 9 gives the hours each wort
is boiled. Col. 10 gives the worts in
the coolers ; col. 1 1 their gravity ; and
col. 12 the sum of the gravities multi-
plied by the quantities. Col. 13 shows
the pounds of yeast. The double co-
lumn 14 gives the first heat of fermen-
tation, and its increase in the gyle-tun ;
and col. 15 shows the hours which it
remains in the tun before cleansing.
Columns 16, 17, and 18 show the quan-
tities of strong ale, porter, and table
beer brewed ; and these, like those of
the malt and hops, are summed up on
each page, and carried forward to the
succeeding one.

The next column contains minutes of
the progress of the > fermentation. Thus,
in the first example, 8 Ev, 7 741 shows
that the yeast was put to the worts, at
74i degrees of heat, on the 8th of De-
cember, at 7 o'clock in the evening. Its
progress through the next day is marked
in the same manner; and on the 10th,
at 8 in the morning, the ale appears to
have been cleansed ; having acquired an
increase of 11^ of heat in the course of
thirty-six hours.

The last column or space is left for
remarks. Those here inserted signify

* On two pages in the Manuscript, but here
printed on one. JDIT.

IT; pound of crange peas, and 2 pounds
of quassia.

The figures in column second, marked
with red ink, [here within parentheses]
(76) and (75) is the produce per quarter,
as shown by the saccharometer. The
same sort of figures in columns 16, 17,
and 1 8 give the weight per barrel of the
different beers.

With respect to the high fermentation
mentioned when speaking of Cambridge
ale, Mr. Richardson has given no exam-
ples ; and our practice, in this kind, has
been so limited, that we can only exhibit
a single brewing, on the results of which
we can depend. This was a brewing of
eight quarters of malt, with forty pounds
of hops. It immediately followed one
from which there was a Return of eigh-
teen barrels, of four pounds specific gra-
vity, which was made use of for the first
mash. It was in the month of February,
and the weather was uncommonly mild.

Barrels. Ibs.

1st Mash 18 gave 11 at34 = 374
2d Mash 10 10-20 =200

3d Mash 10 1.0 - 10.5 = 105

679 '

Return 16 16-3. =48

The three worts when boiled produced
22 barrels at 29 Ibs. per barrel; and
this with the Return (which infused
with the hops showed 15 barrels at41bs.
per barrel) gave a produce ; on the whole,
equal to eighty pounds per quarter.

These 22| barrels were pitched at 78
with four gallons of yeast. In thirty- six
hours the heat rose "to 94, when it was
cleansed at 14 Ib. gravity. In about a
fortnight it was pure, and turned out to
be excellent ale.

CHAPTER VII.

OF THE LONDON BREWERY.
WHILE the character of the London ale
is so low as to be unknown beyond the
precincts of the metropolis, that of the
porter remains unrivalled. Tastes are
acquired by habit, from which cause,
when in continued action, we get inured
to the strangest beverage. The immense
capitals and influence of the ten or
twelve principal houses defy all compe-
tition, and whatever rnalt liquor they
may agree to designate by the name of
porter must, eventually, pass current
with the multitude. This is no random
assertion ; for it is well known that the
liquor now retailed under that denomi-
E

BREWING.

nation has little or no resemblance to
xvhat was so called thirty years ago.
Whether it is better or worse, or whe-
ther there can now be any criterion of
comparison, in that respect, is no part
of the question.

"Before the year 1730, the malt
liquors in general use in London were
ale, beer, and twopenny, and it was
customary for the drinkers of malt
liquor to call for a pint, or tankard, of
half-and-half, that is, a half of ale and
half of beer, a half of ale, and half
of twopenny, or half of beer and half
of twopenny. In course of time it also
became the practice to call for a pint, or
tankard, of three threads, meaning a
third of ale, of beer, and of twopenny ;
and thus the publican had the trouble
to go to three casks, and turn three
cocks, for a pint of liquor. To avoid
this inconvenience and waste, a brewer
of the name of Harwood conceived the
idea of making- a liquor which should
partake of the same united flavours of
ale, beer, and twopenny. He did so,
and succeeded, calling it entire, or
entire-butt ; and, as it was a very hearty
and nourishing liquor, it was very suit-
able for porters and other working peo-
ple : hence it obtained the name of
PORTER."

It is not to be recorded in honour of
the chemical arts, but it is nevertheless
true, that many of the now indispensable
ingredients and manipulations originated
in the wish to deceive. It was early
known that what was then termed the
fiery nature of newly distilled spirits
became softened by long keeping, but it
was found, at the same time, that when,
as was usually the case, they were kept
in oak casks, the liquor acquired a
brown tinge, more or less deep, accord-
ing to the time of maceration ; and
hence, with the unobservant purchaser,
colour was taken for the criterion of
age. This error, however, is now ex-
ploded ; and every one knows that rum
and brandy owe their beauty to artificial
infusions. In a similar manner, all
other things alike, ale and beer assume
a lighter or a deeper dye in proportion
to the quantity of malt-extract which
they contain; because malt, however
carefully dried, always acquires some
degree of colour from the kiln. Colour,
therefore, with the many, was long con-
sidered as indicative of strength.

The manufacture of fine ales (before
they were contaminated with hops) was
intended to imitate the white wines of

the continent ; and, consequently, in
those times, the paler the malt the more
valuable it was, in that respect, to the
ale-brewer. Nevertheless, when the
quantity of malt was great, the worts
were always partially coloured ; and the
produce being termed " strong or
mightie ale," induced the public brewer
to make two beverages from the same
malt of equal strength but of different
colours, until at last paleness was gra-
dually disregarded. In the case of beer,
which contained numerous ingredients,
the quality of the malt was less attended
to. The harvesting of barley was then
more troublesome than now, and much
of it was moulded and stained. To hide
these defects in the malting, it was co-
loured on the kiln, and hence the early
manufacture of brown malts, which
were sold only to make beer. Brown
malt always smells of the fire ; and this
empyreumatic flavour, becoming in re-
quest, was heightened by drying with
wood faggots, chiefly beech, because
that sort of wood was formerly of little
value. Thus did beer acquire a deep
colour ; and when hops were introduced,
and subsequently enforced by legal
enactments, the bitter principle being
all that was sought for, the brownness
of colour and the coarseness of the
flavour formed no objection to their use.

When the saccharometer was applied
to the brewery, it was discovered that
the colouring matter of brown and am-
ber malts was formed at the expense of
the saccharum; and this added to the
knowledge that these sorts of malt were
made from barley which was unfitted for
the paler kinds, rendered it desirable to
find substitutes for flavour and colour
from other substances. The sale of
colouring was at first private, but being
authorized to be made from sugar by
the 51 Geo. III., it became a trade ; and,
under cover of that article, other ingre-
dients were sometimes introduced which
were neither legal nor useful.

In 1816, all ingredients, other than
malt and hops, were forbidden, and con-
sequently the manufacture of sugar-
colouring was discontinued; but in a
short time after, a patent was taken out
for the making of colouring by the roast-
ing of malt : and this colour, being legal,
is made use of by those brewers who pre-
fer it to the old mixture of brown and
amber. When this roasted malt is put
into the mash-tun, all the rest of the
malt is pale ; and the proportion of
black to pale is about one to forty or

BREWING.

fifty, according to the degree of colour
required.'

Whether it is produced from brown,
amber or black malt, from burnt sugar
or burnt molasses, the colouring prin-
ciple is the same. The flavour, how-
ever, may be, and, we believe, is, differ-
ent. In either case the colour is pro-
duced by the roasting of saccharum;
but as the whole of the malt is not sac-
charum, the roasting to blackness mixes
the colouring part with a large propor-
tion, probably a half, of common char-
coal. The charcoal will, no doubt, sub-
side, but its previous effects are un-
known, and, accordingly, some of the
principal brewers have never used black
malt; and none of them, we believe,
brew either their keeping porter or
their brown stout without the admix-
ture of brown or amber malt. Private
families may colour and flavour as they
please ; and we are persuaded that, in
making porter, they will find the charring
of sugar the most convenient. For this
purpose a quantity of brown sugar,
moistened with water, may be put in a
frying-pan, the bottom of which should
be covered to about an inch deep. This
is then to be roasted on a fire, and
stirred for some time, until it inflame
spontaneously. The flame, after it is
judged (from practice) to have burnt
long enough, is then extinguished by a
cover ; and water is added to the pitch-
like residue until the whole has the con-
sistence of treacle, when it is put into
a bottle or can for use. This colouring
is afterwards to be mixed with the worts
in the copper in such quantities as are
required,

Mr. Richardson's instructions for the
brewing of porter, if literally followed,
would produce a clean and full-tasted
liquor ; but they are deficient in some
particulars, with respect to the after-
management, especially in the London
practice. It may be here noticed, by the
way, that the quassia, or aloes, which
he recommends cannot be used with
impunity; and, therefore, the quality
and quantity of the hops are now more
strictly attended to than in former times.
The gravity, too, differs much from his
example ; for we believe that there is
seldom any gyle now made of a less
weight than twenty pounds. We may
add that the heat of the tun is now less
attended to. The criterion for cleansing
is the attenuation ; and when that has
sunk to ten or eleven pounds, (which is
usually in less than forty-eight hours)

the operation is begun. By this time
the heat is generally about 75, being
pitched at 65 ; and a degree of heat, in
a good fermentation, usually accompa-
nies a degree of attenuation.

About five-and-twenty years ago,
when we first attended to the brewing
of London porter, it was the practice to
keep very large stocks of that article for
twelve or eighteen months ; for the pur-
pose, as was then thought, of improv-
ing its quality. The beer was pumped,
immediately after it was cleansed, into
store-vats, holding from five to twenty
gyles (brewings) each. The usual siza
was between four and six thousand
barrels ; but one, the boast of its brew-
house, contained eighteen thousand, and
was said to have cost ten thousand
pounds. The porter, during its long
repose in those vats, became spontane-
ously fine, and, by a silent fermentation,
lost the greater part of its remaining
saccharum. Its bitter, also, grew less
perceptible, and the liquor was trans-
formed into good, hard beer. This was
softened by the publican to the taste of
the customer, by the addition of such as
was mild, that is, newly brewed; but
little of this milder sort was at that time
required. The taste of the metropolis
has since undergone a great change ; so
much so, that more than half of all that
is brewed is drunk before it is six weeks
old. The demand for mild beer is still
increasing ; and we cannot better detail
its progress, and explain the nature of
the mixtures of mild and stale, than by
copying the information given by Mr
Barclay (of the firm of Barclay, Perkins,
and Co.) to the Committee of the House
of Commons, in the year 1818 :

" What quantity of beer do you now
brew annually ? About 300,000 bar-
rels.

" Is sour or stale beer used in your
vats with new beer, to your knowledge ?
To answer the question correctly, I
should state, that every publican has
two sorts of beer sent to him, and he
orders a proportion of each as he wants
them ; the one is called mild beer, which
is beer brewed and sent out exactly as
it is brewed ; the other is called entire,
and that beer consists of some brewed
expressly for the purpose of keeping : it
likewise contains a proportion of returns
from publicans ; likewise the beer which
we receive from public-houses, which
has been brewed by other brewers, and
which have changed into our trade (as
it is our plan alwavs to clear the cellar
E 2

BREWING.

of a publican before he begins to draw
our beer) ; and likewise a portion of the
beer the bottoms of vats ; the beer that
is drawn off from the pipes which con-
vey the beer from one vat to another,
and from one part of the premises to
another ; this beer is collected and put
into vats : it also contains a certain por-
tion of brown stout, which is twenty
shillings a barrel dearer than common
teer: it also contains some bottling
beer, which is ten shillings a barrel dearer.
I should observe, that the beer returned
from the publican is always examined
by a class of clerks called coopers, and,
as far as they can possibly judge, if there
is any admixture of any kind or sort, if
it has been weakened, it is put aside, and
in some instances been thrown away,
and the person not allowed for it ; but,
in general, there is an examination made
of the beer upon being returned. Now
all these beers united are put into vats ;
f.nd it depends upon various circum-
stances how long they may remain in
those vats before they become perfectly
1. right; when it becomes bright it is
f ent out to the publicans for their entire
leer, and there is sometimes a small
.quantity of mild beer mixed with it.

" Do you ever buy sour or stale beer
of any other persons than the publicans
whom you serve ? The Committee will
observe by my preceding answer that
the publicans require a certain quantity
of this stale beer, which they mix with
the mild beer, according to the taste of
their customers, some preferring it new,
i.nd some older ; but I should observe,
that the taste of the town is continually
changing, so that now they use but very
Lttle of this entire beer ; and if the trade
cf a brewer increases very rapidly, he
iray not have sufficient stale beer of his
own to send to his publicans, and that
was the case with our house some years
.back; and I believe since, in two or
three instances. Upon those occasions
we have bought stale beer of other
brewers, but in doing that we have been
extremely careful in selecting only that
of the best quality.

" Is that stale beer sour beer ? That
beer has not got the acetous fermenta-
tion upon it ; if it had it would not be
fit for use. It is what is commonly
called hard beer.

"You have stated that there are a
number of beers mixed together ; have
you any fixed proportion in that mix-
ture ? It is the remnants of everything ;
and I have described to the Committee

what it consists of, and that a part of
those remnants are of a very superior
quality, particularly when they come to
the bottom of the brown stout.

" What proportion of the whole num-
ber of barrels sent out would those rem-
nants form ? About one tenth : we
send out about one tenth of entire, but
that is not consisting of remnants, be-
cause, I believe I stated before, that part
of it is beer brewed and kept for that
purpose.

*' What proportion might the rem-
nants form of the whole 300,000 bar-
rels? Our return is about 10,000 bar-
rels a year, which includes beer brewed
by other brewers, and which have been
taken of publicans who have come into
our trade, a good deal of which is mild
beer.

" Is the beer that is composed of rem-
nants wholesome and good liquor?
Perfectly so.

" Is it absolutely necessary that a
publican should have some of these
remnants to mix it for the taste of his
customers ? I should think so. It has
been the constant practice as long as I
have known the trade ; and in former
years they used to draw more of that
entire than they do now.

" Is not that hard or stale beer mixed
to give the porter the appearance of age
at once, which formerly was allowed to
be matured by time ? It must have the
effect of making the beer taste older ;
but I should think that the beer which
was formerly kept a twelvemonth would
not be drank by the public ; their taste
is for mild beer.

"Does the use of stale beer effect a
quick sale in the trade, and conse-
quently a quicker return? I do not see
how the publican could well please his
customers unless he had the means of
making his beer either stale or mild a3
they wish for it. The Committee will
see that if the brewer had not this vent
for selling his return-beer, the price of
beer must be considerably higher if he is
to throw this beer away, which amounts
altogether to near 20,000 barrels in our
house alone."

CHAPTER VIII.
OF SCOTCH ALE.

THE distinguishing characteristics of
Scotch ale, are paleness of colour, and
mildness of flavour. The taste of the
hop never predominates, neither in its
stead do we discover that of any other

BREWING.

ingredient. It is perhaps more near
to the French pale wines, than any of
the other ales that are brewed in this
country. Like them, too, it is the result
of a lengthened fermentation.

The low heat at which the tun is
pitched, confines the brewing of Scotch
ale to the colder part of the year. Dur-
ing four or five of the summer months,
the work (except perhaps in some houses
for table beer) is completely at a stand,
the utensils are limed down, and the
greater part of the workmen discharged.
No strong ale is either brewed or de-
livered.

The Edinburgh brewer is particularly
nice in the choice of his malt and hops.
The former is generally either English,
or of his own making from English
barley; and the latter Farnham, the
finest East Kent, or a mixture of both.
The yeast (or store, as it is termed) is
carefully preserved, and measured into
the gyle-tun, in the proportion of about
three gallons to twenty barrels of wort.

The Scotch practice is to take only
one mash, and that pretty stiff, for
strong ale, making up the quantity of
wort (length) by eight or ten subsequent
sprinklings of liquor over the goods,
which are termed Sparges. These
sparges trickle successively through the
goods, and wash out as much more of
the saccharine from the mash, as may
suffice for the intended strength of the
ale. In this manner, specific gravities
may be obtained much higher than
could be done by a second mash, which
always requires a certain portion of
liquor before the goods can be made
sufficiently fluid. If we suppose this
necessary portion of liquid in a particu-
lar mash to be fifteen barrels, it would
be found, on trial, that these fifteen
barrels, when drawn from the mash-
tun, would not contain nearly so much
saccharine matter as might have been
extracted by ten successive sparges of
a barrel each. The reason of this will
be obvious, if we recollect that the grains
always remain wetted with wort equi-
valent in strength to that of the wort
last drawn off, and that the quantity
remaining on the goods is about three-
fourths of a barrel to a quarter of malt.
The gravity of this imbibed wort will, in
the one case, be equal to that of the
second mash ; but in the other, will be
reduced to that of the tenth sparge, or
washing. Mr. Richardson, so often
quoted, condemns this practice ; but, in
doing so, we know that he labours

under a mistake. " What power," says
he, " or what time, has a fluid to ex-
tract, which is sprinkled over the sur-
face of the materials, and immediately
trickles out below, without being allowed
a stationary moment for infusion T"
We answer, that in malt (and it is only
of malt brewings that we now speak)
the infusion, if properly conducted, is
finished with the first mash ; and that
nothing more is necessary than to draw
out from the goods, in a pure state, that
saccharine matter which the first in-
fusion has set free. But the question,
with us does not depend on theory. We
have brewed strong' ale for years, with-
out following it either with table beer or
returns, and we have, in all cases, drawn
as much from the malt as we could have,
done by repeated mashings. The only
objection to the sparging system is the
loss of time.

The first part of the process is to
mash with liquor heated tol 80 at least,*
and generally to 190, varying with the
dampness of the malt. According to
Dr. Thomson, the best brewers take the
lower heats, but this is doubtful. After
mashing from twenty minutes to half an
hour, that is, until every particle of the
malt is in contact with the liquor, the
tun is covered, and the whole allowed
to infuse about three hours, when it is.
drained off into the under back, or (what
is far better) into the wort copper.

After the first wort is run off, a
quantity of liquor (generally a barrel),
at the heat of 180, is sprinkled equally
over the surface of the goods. To pre-
vent the liquor from dashing on one
part, it is usually received upon a cir-
cular board, about three feet diameter,
which is swung over the centre of the
mash-tun ; and, being perforated with
small holes, allows the water to descend
in a shower. The board being hung on
cords, is moveable by the hand over
every part of the surface of the tun.
When, as generally happens, the cock
of the liquor-copper is not high enough
to carry the liquor to the board, a
separate cock is inserted in the side for
that use only. Other means may be
adopted to answer this purpose of
sprinkling, the object being to spread
the liquor, equably, in a shower over
the whole surface of the goods, as if
from the rose of a watering-pan.

When the barrel (or other quantity).

* It is liere to be observed that we merely record
the practice ; not our own opinion of its propriety.

BREWING.

of liquor is thus let in upon the goods, the
cock of the mash-tun is opened, so as
to let it off, as in the case of an ordinary
mash. Some brewers, instead of the
common outlet of the mash-tun, have
three or four small cocks inserted in
different parts of the bottom, from the
fear that a single cock might draw the
filtrating liquor to one point, and there-
by create a crack in the goods, instead
of leaving the whole of "the liquor to
descend in one horizontal stratum.

When the first sparge is run off, or
nearly so, which may be in twenty or
five and twenty minutes, another of
equal quantity is put on the goods, in
the same manner, and thus, successively,
until the whole of the sparges, when
mixed with the first mash worts, show
that gravity which is desired. The
strong ale worts are then completed,
and a mash is made to search the goods
either for table beer, or a return, as the
trade requires. This mash, however, is
not necessary as a saving of extract ; for
the whole of the saccharine matter of the
malt may be exhausted, as well as any
required gravity of wort produced, by
means of sparges alone ; but there is an
opinion, probably not ill founded, that
the last weak extracts are less fitted for
fine ale. The making up of strengths
from the coolers formerly explained, is
here anticipated, being regulated by the
saccharometer in the under back, or
wort-copper ; for practice soon teaches
the increase that is produced by the
boiling. It may be here noticed, that
after the first sparge at 180, it is cus-
tomary with some brewers to reduce the
others gradually, so that the last is per-
haps 175 or 170.

All rankness of flavour being care-
fully avoided in this species of ale, the
quantity of hops seldom exceeds four
pounds to the quarter of malt ; and the
bitter thus created being too slight to
cover the taste of ruder ingredients, we
believe tha-t the Edinburgh brewers have
been less the prey of travelling druggists
than their brethren of the south. A
little honey to add to the sweet, and a
few coriander seeds or other aromatics
to assist the flavour, are, as far as we
have learnt, the amount of the sins of
which they have been accused.

The manner of boiling the worts does
not differ from the directions of Mr.
Richardson; but when they arrive at
the gyle-tun, the process of brewing is
no longer the same. The first heat of
fermentation, in the Scotch method, is as

low as possible, consistent with the
action. The favourite heat is 50, a
point at which chemists have generally
asserted that the vinous fermentation
could not exist, but 45 and 46 are by
no means uncommon in the manuscript
brewing-books that now lie before us.
Even in the coldest weather, the lowness
of heat is not to be feared, provided the
brewery be in full work. The fermen-
tation sometimes continues for three
weeks, and a fortnight would be a
pretty fair average. Were the brew-
ings made three times a week, seven
or eight working-tuns would thus be
generally in play ; and these being in
the same room, some of them at 12 or
15 of increased heat, would create an
atmosphere for themselves.

The quantity of yeast formerly men-
tioned is generally sufficient, but, in
some cases, an addition is made a day
or two after, if, in the judgment of the
brewer, it appears necessary. The least
quantity that will carry forward the fer-
mentation to the required point is al-
ways preferred ; and, to assure that
purpose, the tun is roused twice a day
(morning and evening) to prevent its
becoming too languid. This rousing is
continued until the ale is nearly ready
for cleansing.

The rule for cleansing differs from
that given by Mr. Richardson. It is an
application of his saccharometer, of
which he himself was not aware. The
attenuation is attended to daily, and,
towards the close of the operation,
twice a day. While the heat is increas-
ing, the attenuation proceeds ; that is,
the weight of the worts continues to
diminish. After a certain time, the heat
has reached its highest point, and be-
gins to lessen. It is here that we are
directed by Mr. Richardson to trust., to
the smell ; but this smell merely informs
us that carbonic acid continues to be
evolved, and the same circumstance is,
in consequence, indicated by the sac-
charometer : for as long as any such
evolution of gas exists, so long will the
weight of the worts continue to diminish.
When the progress of the attenuation is
so slow as not to exceed half a pound
in twenty-four hours, it is prudent to
cleanse, especially if the attenuation is
already low; for it might otherwise
happen, that the gas being too weak to
buoy up the now close head of the tun,
the yeast might partially or wholly sub-
side, and the ale would become yeast-
bitten : it would receive that disagree-

BREWING.

able taste which the head had acquired
by too long exposure to the atmos-
pheric air.

When the ale is cleansed, the head,
which has not been disturbed for two or
three days, continues to float on the sur-
face, till the whole of the then nearly
pure liquid is drawn off into the casks ;
and this is considered as a preservative
against the admission of the atmospheric
air: for the Scotch do not skim their
tuns as the London ale brewers so gene-
rally do. The ale thus cleansed does
not require to be placed on close stil-
lions. It throws oft' little or no yeast,
and a tub placed so as to catch any
little overflow of the scum that arises
is quite sufficient. The fermentation is
almost finished in the tun ; and it is not
the wish of the brewer that it should
proceed much farther.

The strength of Scotch ale, when it
deserves the name, ranges between
'thirty-two and forty- four pounds weight
to the imperial barrel, that is, of a specific
gravity between 1089 and 1122, accord-
ing to the price at which it is meant to

be sold. The general mode of charge is
by the hogshead (about a barrel and a
half), for which five pounds, six pounds,
seven pounds, or eight pounds are paid,
as the quality may warrant ; the strength
for every additional pound of price being
increased by about four pounds per
barrel of weight.

In a good fermentation, there seldom
remains above a fourth of the original
weight of the wort at the period of cleans-
ing. Between that and a third is the
usual attenuation. If above a third re-
mains, the taste is generally mawkish,
and it is to be feared that the acetous
fermentation will commence, before the
time in which the ale might be expected
to improve. Of the less sensible pro-
cess of attenuation which goes on after-
wards in the casks, we have already
spoken when treating generally of the
" Vinous fermentation." Scotch ale
soon becomes fine, and is seldom racked,
at least for the home market.

We shall now transcribe the notes of
a few actual brewings, in order to illus-
trate the rules above written.

No. 47. MARCH 10th, 18 . MASHED FOR STRONG ALE
13 Bolls (about 10 quarters) of Malt, T. L.* 42 Ibs. Hops, East Kent.

Hour. Min.

Bar.

Heat.

Grav.

7 o'clock Worts in Coolers.

18* Barrels X. Gravity 36 666

Mash

190

6 T 10 60

9 ,

Set tap

10) 726

9 30
10

Sparge
do.

1
1

180
180

35
34.2

Lbs. weight extracted per quarter 72.6

10 20

do.

180

35.2

Fermentation.
Mar. 11. M.S. Pitched at 50. Yeast 3 Gals.

10 45

do.

176

35.6

Heat. Gravity.

11 10

do.

178

Mar. 12 50 36

11 35

do.

178

15 52 33

16 54 30

do.

175

35.7

17 56 26

12 20

do.

175

32.6

18 58 23

12 45

do.

174

27.5

19 60 20

1 10

do.

173

20 62 17

1 40

All in Copper.

21 63 15

22 62 13-i

Mashed for Table Beer.

23 62 11$

160

24 61 10

2 20

Set tap. 8

25 61 10 ;

4 10

Cast Coppe

, Ale.

26 60 9^ cleansed

with salt and flour.

* The initial letters of the Maltster's name.

BREWING.

No. 49. MARCH 16th, 18 . STRONG ALE.
13 Bolls (about 10 quarters) Malt, T. L.~ 44 Ibs. Hops, Farnham and Kent.

Hour Min.

Bar.

Heat.

Grav.

8 o'clock Worts in Coolers.

17 Barrels X. Gravity 40 = 680

Mash

185

7' .T 11 77

Set tap

36.5
qc

10) 757

8 20

Sparge

180

8 50

do.

ISO

36.5

Lbs. weight extracted per quarter 75 . 7

9 10

do.

178

Fermentation.

9 30

do.

175

37.5

Mar. 17. M. 5. Pitched at 46 with 3i gal. yst.
Heat. Gravity.

9 50

do.

175

18 48 36

10 15

do.

173

20 51 32

10 35

do.

173

33.5

22 53 30

do.

172

23 54 23

24 56 26

11 20

do.'

173

-6

25 56 24

11 40

do.

172

26 57i 20

12 15

All in Copper.

27 60 18

Mashed for T.

28 61 16

158

29 62 14i
30 62 13^

12 58

Set tap

31 61 12

3 15

Cast Copper, Ale.

Apr. 1 60 11.7 cleansed.

No. 50. MARCH 23rd, 18. STRONG ALE.
12 Quarters English Malt, E. G. 58 Ibs. East Kent Hops.

Hour. Min.

Bar.

Heat.

Grav.

March 24, morning, 4 Worts in Tun.

20 1 Barrels X Gravity 425 8606

6 10

Mash

180

20 Barrels Return, Grav. 6.1 = 122

Set tap

44i

12) 982.6

9 25
10

Sparge
do.

180
180

Ibs. weight extracted per quarter 81.8

10 35

do.

179

Fermentation.

11 40

do.

180

Mar. 24 M. 4 pitched at 51 Yeast 4 Gals.

11 45

do.

175

Heat. Gravity.
Mar. 25 52 41

12 15

do.

175

28 -. 56 39

12 45

do.

175

30 "" 60 34

1 5

do.

170

121

Apr. 1 62 32

1 20

All in Co

pper.

4 65 29 added 1 Ib. yeast.

5 66 25

Mashed for a
Return.

6 67 23

7 67 20

160

8 66 18

4 25

Cast Copper Ale.

9 66 15

4 40

Return into Copper along

10 64 14.5 cleansed.

with the Hops.

BREWING.

It may be observed, with respect to
the left-hand portion of these tabular
statements, that the gravities are taken
as averages to direct the brewer in the
number of his sparges, and are not
minutely correct. The weights are those
of worts, warm as they issue from the
mash-tun ; and, even in those small
sparges, it would make some difference
if taken from the former or the latter
part of each running. The sparges
themselves, too, may not be made with
extreme nicety with regard to the quan-
tity. The whole of the process, how-
ever, is easily acquired by practice, with-
out which, in the manipulations of the
arts, science is of little avail.

CHAPTER IX.

OF SCOTCH TWOPENNY.

AT and previous to the beginning of the
.eighteenth century, every publican in
Scotland (being every man who chose to
embark in the trade) brewed his own
ale ; and the resort to his house de-
pended on the quality of his liquor;
which, when thunder or witchcraft did
not interfere, was generally excellent.
The strong ale was reserved for holidays
and the tables of the great ; but the two-
penny (so called because it was sold at
twopence the Scotch pint*) was so much
esteemed as a national beverage, that it
was inserted by name, and guarded by
peculiar privileges, in one of the Articles
of the Union. Another Article, how-
ever, in the same Act, secured to the
Scottish brewery an Exchequer Court ;
and this, conjoined with the enormously
increased malt duties, so lessened the
exhilarating qualities of this ancient ale,
that it has now lost its fame. In its
stead, a kind of small drink is brewed ;
but it is destitute of all the qualities
which were so often celebrated in Scot-
tish song, and is scarcely superior to
the trash termed table-beer in the work-
houses of the metropolis.

When the Scotch twopenny was the
boast of the nation, saccharometers were
unknown, and thermometers had not
been heard of by the brewer. He shaped
his course by habit, and with surprising
accuracy, as blind men are often known
to do. When we first knew the article
it had much degenerated ; but even then
it must have weighed from fourteen to

* The old ale pint was nearly two English
quarts.

sixteen pounds per barrel, as far as we
could judge from the lengths which they
drew. The quantity of hops seldom
exceeded two pounds and a-half to the
boll of malt, or about three pounds to a
quarter. This was forty years ago,
and the old tapsters were then ac-
customed to tell tales of how they
managed to brew ale without hops in
their youth.

The boiled worts were usually cast
into what were then called half-barrel
casks, for few had coolers * ; and the
gyle-tun (which was often the mash-tun-
also) was first started, or pitched, at
about blood heat. This was done with
a single half barrel, or less, for the pur-
pose of chipping the worts ; and the tun
was afterwards filled up, by half-barrels
at a time, when they had cooled to the
requisite degree. The heat of the fer-
mentation was regulated by the appear-
ance of the yeasty head, and great care
was taken that it should neither be
scalded nor chilled. When the smell of
the tun became strong, the ale was-
cleansed into half-barrels, and dis-
charged its yeast into tubs. But the-
whole brewing was never so fermented ;
for a great part, often one half, was
preserved (in the casks in which it had
been thrown from the copper) in the
state of worts.

On reading this account of turning the
worts boiling hot into the casks, and
allowing them to remain there for seve-
ral days, the modern brewer will im-
mediately exclaim that the ale must
have beenfoxed,[a. term which he gives
to an incipient stage of putrefaction,
which is supposed to be attended with
a smell like that of the animal whose
name it bears. We can assure him,
however, that this accident was very
rare, although it would probably be an
inevitable consequence of the same
practice in many other breweries. Th.e
great preventive was cleanliness. The
casks were repeatedly washed and
steamed with hot water before every
brewing ; and, in order that not a speck
of dirt should be left, the bungholes were
cut square, and large enough to allow
the brewer to put in his arm, and scour
them completely with a heather rinse.
The large size of the holes, as well as
the highly fermenting state of the liquor,
rendered it inconvenient to use corks ;
and, therefore, when the ale was sent

* They held about sixteen English ale gallons.

BREWING.

out in casks, it was kept in the barrels
by means of covers made of clay. " It
is in allusion to this practice that Shak-
speare speaks of tracing the dust of
Alexander till it be found stopping a
bunsrhole." *

After that part of the ale which was
cleansed had discharged the greater por-
tion of its yeast, a pailfull was drawn
from every cask, into other casks, and
the vacancy in each was replaced by a
pailfull of the reserved wort. The fer-
mentation was thereby renewed, and the
operation was repeated once a day until
all the reserved worts were expended ;
and those were so proportioned as to
keep the fermentation alive until the
succeeding brewing. This operation was
called handling ; and it was in this
slowly fermenting state that the ale was
sent out to the customers, in casks, or
sold in flaggons. We have seen ale
preserved, by this means, for nearly a
fortnight, in summer weather, without
the least perceptible tendency to acidity.
Ale, in Scotland, whether strong or
weak, was always bottled. In the kind
of which we now speak, the cask was
allowed to be undisturbed, before draw-
ing off, for twenty-four hours, or per-
haps twice that period, according to the
length of time which it was to remain
in the bottles before ripening. It was
generally expected to be very brisk in
the course of a week.

With respect to unlawful ingredients,
we have already said that the Scotch
are less to be complained of than their
brethren of the South. The legislature,
however, has, it seems, always thought
otherwise; for, in addition to the caveats
which are addressed to the whole island,
there are some which are peculiarly
directed against the brewers of Scotland.
The following extraordinary prohibition,
for example, is still in the Statute Book,
and is regularly promulgated under the
authority of the Excis-e :

*~ In Scotland. -By the Act Will.,
Parl. 1. Sess. 6. c. 43. no salt shall be
made use of in brewing beer or ale, whe-
ther in washing and seasoning of ves-
sels, or any other way whatever, under
pain of confiscation of looms and vessels,
with the liquor found therein, attour the
loss of his freedom, if the transgressor
be a burgess, and the being incapable to

* Booth's Analytical Dictionary of the English
Language.

use the trade of brewing thereafter. The
looms and vessels shall be given to the
informer, who shall be free from the said
penalty, albeit he have been a servant or
accessory."

To prevent ale or beer from foxing,
we are convinced that no cleansing ma-
terial could be better than salt.

CHAPTER X.

OF BURTON ALE.

WE have formerly given Mr. Richard-
son's instructions for the brewing of this
liquor ; but we acknowledge that we have
never been able to produce the flavour
and permanent sweetness of Burton ale
by following that gentleman's directions.
The indiscriminate prohibitions of the
Excise rise up before us, as they proba-
bly did before Mr. Richardson. They
may have arrested his pen; but they
shall not ours. We write not for the
common brewer, but for the private
gentleman, whose operations are unfet-
tered. We will not say that the plan
which we shall here point out is followed
by the brewers at Burton, but we know
that ale very like to theirs, in all re-
spects, has been the result of this pro-
cess.

Two ounces of salt of steel, dried until
it becomes white, is infused into twenty
barrels of liquor before mashing, that
quantity of liquor being usually allowed
for the first mash of ten quarters of
malt. The use of this small portion of
salt of steel is supposed to assist the
extract ; but we think that it has, more
probably, been introduced to catch any
incipient dose of oxygen which might
favour the production of acidity. Its
value may be questioned ; but this
small proportion, at any rate, is harm-
less.

Twenty barrels of this liquor is then
turned upon the ten quarters of malt,
in the ordinary way, upwards, through
the false bottom. The heat is between
165 and 170, generally nearer the
former. The mashing is continued
about an hour, after which it is al-
lowed to infuse about an hour and a
half longer; the goods being covered
with a sack of dry malt to preserve the
heat.

When the first mash is run off, from
ten to fifteen barrels of liquor (accord-
ing to the proposed strength) is run
over the goods at the heat of 185. This

BREWING.

is allowed to infuse two hours, when it
will have sunk and mixed with the goods,
without having been mashed. This
differs from the Scotch practice by mak-
ing up the length with one, in place of
many sparges. Practice enables the
brewer to fix the quantity of this
second liquor ; but he runs some risk
of error in untried malts, while the
Scotch brewer is always safe by weigh-
ing the wort in separate and successive
portions.

This second liquor being run off, the
strong ale worts are all extracted ; and
table beer, or a return, is made to ex-
haust the goods. It is usual, in the
case of table beer, to cap the goods with
a quantity of dry malt, which is under-
stood to be necessary in order to pro-
cure the requisite strength. We believe
that this practice (of which we do not
approve) originated from a different
cause. There was a time when the Excise
objected to party-gyles, that is, to making
two kinds of beer from the same malt ;
the capping was introduced to make
(formally) a separate brewing, and was
continued from the influence of custom.
The least quantity of capping answered
the purpose, so that it covered the goods,
the strength being regulated by the
quantity of liquor in the table-beer mash.
This mash is generally made at 150 of
heat, and allowed to stand about an
hour : but we return to the strong
ale.

The quantity of hops is usually about
six pounds to the quarter of malt, and
the time of boiling from two to two and
a half hours. From ten to fifteen mi-
nutes before turning off, a quantity of
honey, at least equivalent to a pound
per barrel, is put into the copper The
honey is previously dissolved in scalding-
hot liquor.

With respect to the fermentation, the
tun is pitched at sixty-four or sixty-five
degrees, with a pound of solid yeast per
barrel. The first head is skimmed to
rid the wort of the impurities which
usually float upon the surface. After
this the tun is generally kept covered,
except when it is roused, which it is,
twice or thrice a day. In from forty-
eight to sixty hours it ought to rise to
eighty degrees, or more ; and when the

gravity is about twelve pounds, it is
usual to put half a gallon of bean flour
and four ounces of sal prunella, previ-
ously well roused together in a portion
of the worts, to every twenty barrels.
The whole is then cleansed into barrels,
which are filled up every two hours until
they cease to discharge any yeast.
Should the fermenting tun fall in heat,
some recommend that two ounces and
a half of jalap should be added for every
twenty barrels of the wort.

Immediately after the casks have
ceased working, six ounces of unburnt,
but bruised, sulphate of lime, mixed up
with an ounce of powdered black rosin,
(both previously whisked in a small
quantity of the ale,) are put into each
barrel. Over this a small handful of
half-boiled hops is also inserted ; and
the cask, being then quite full, is closely
bunged up, having a gimlet hole, closed
with a peg, at the side of the bung-hole,
as an occasional vent for the escape of
the carbonic acid which may afterwards
be generated. The rosin and hops pre-
clude the access of atmospheric air; and
the sulphate of lime, which in a short
time disappears, is said to prevent any
secondary fermentation, the usual fore-
runner of acidity. The honey is also
understood to ward off the acid fermen-
tation. Honey and water, especially
when boiled, does not readily complete
its attenuation, and hence it is supposed
to answer all the preservative purposes
of hops in the beer of Lou vain.

The strength of the Burton, like that
of every other species of ale, varies with
the price. The qualities are seldom
more than two ; the one weighing from
30 to 32 pounds per barrel, and the
other somewhere between 35 and 40,
differing in the several brewhouses and
with the demands of their customers.
The latter, however, is accounted a
maximum strength, and exceeded only
in rare instances. Below 28 pounds the
preservative quality, so peculiar to this
sort of ale, is not to be depended on.
The charge is usually by the gallon,
because the sizes of their casks are
various.

The following are notes of a brew-
ing conducted according to the preced-
ing directions :

BREWING.

APRIL 27th, 18 . MASHED FOR BURTON ALE.
Malt 6 quarters. Hops 36/6-s. Honey 2QlbsS. Steel 2oz,.

Bar.

Hour. Min.

Liq.

Heat.

Wort.

Grav.

Mashed.

165

April 28, M. 8. Worts in Tun.

Set tap.

12 Barrels X. Gravity 34.8 = 417.6

Spent.

10 Barrels Return in Copper,
Gravity 6.2 = 62

Run on.

180

12 30

Set tap.

6) 479.6

Spent.

Extract Gravity per Qr. = 79.9

In Copper.

27.7

Fermentation. Yeast 10 Ib.

Mashed for
Return.

165

Heat. Gravity.
April 28 66 34.8

3 30

Mixed
Honey.

Morning 29 70 28
30 7* 30

Cast Copper.
Return

and H

ops in

Coppt

:r.

Evening 10 80 14 cleansed.

In two days the ale had ceased throw-
ing off yeast : and when it had stood two
days more with occasional fillings, it was
bunged up, after receiving a handful of
half- spent hops, &c. as in the directions.
This ale was kept through the summer ;
and, in the following September, it had
become quite pure, and was bottled at a
gravity of six pounds. In a month after-
wards it became pretty ripe, and was well
liked.

CHAPTER XL
OF SMALL BREWINGS.

ALTHOUGH it is our wish that the Art
of Brewing should be understood in
every family of the kingdom, it, never-
theless, in its simplest form, requires
manipulations that cannot be communi-
cated in a few detached sentences, like
the receipts of a cookery book. A cer-
tain degree of practice, however small,
is necessary before general directions
can be of any value ; and, notwithstand-
ing that we have endeavoured to be ex-
tremely plain, we fear that our observa-
tions would scarcely be understood by
one who never saw a mash-tun, nor wit-
nessed the production of a malt extract.
It is, therefore, only to such as have
already been present at private brewings,
however well or ill conducted, that we
are enabled to address ourselves ; and
to those persons we would recommend
the attentive perusal of what we have

already written, before they place their
confidence in the succeeding examples.
For those families whose consump-
tion requires, and whose means enable
them, to brew two or three quarters at
a time, our instructions may be simpli-
fied. Let them take any of the examples
already given (according with the sort
of beer, or ale, which they want) and di-
minish the measure of liquor in the
mash, and the weight of the hops, as
there specified, in proportion to th?3
quantity of the malt which it is intended
to brew. It would be well to keep to the
same time of infusion ; but, in that case,
the heats of the mashing liquor should
be four or five degrees higher ; because,
in small brewings, the mash-tun is apt to
become so cool as to risk acidity in the
worts. A like observation may be given
respecting the fermentation. It must
begin higher by five or six degrees ; and
it will be discovered, that under no cir-
cumstances will the heat of the tun rise
so far above its first pitch as it usually
does in large gyles. The criterion for
cleansing and the previous proper atte-
nuation to be aimed at are the same.
In the case of porter, it will be more
convenient to use pale malt, and give.
the colour (and consequent flavour) by
means of sugar, burnt as directed at
page 51. The aloes or quassia, which
may be here used with impunity, will not
only be a saving, but will be preferable to
giving the whole of the bitter with hops.

BREWING.

In making strong ale, the private
brewer is generally obliged to use more
malt than he otherwise would ; because,
having no means of taking the advan-
tage of a Return, he must make a quan-
tity of small beer, whether it is wanted
or not, for the purpose of searching the
grains. In such a case, either the
Scotch or the Burton system would be
the best. His worts might thereby be
made sufficiently strong without any
loss of extract, and might be divided, as
they passed from the tun, into any re-
quisite strengths; either making the
whole strong ale, or a part of it table
teer, in such proportions as might be
found convenient. The saccharometer
would form the best assistant ; and it
would be extremely advantageous to
quality and flavour, as well as to pre-
servation, that the potency of the ale
should be increased by the addition of
honey. The quantity of this ingredient
is to be regulated solely by taste ; the
mixture forming the link between Malt
Liquor and Mead.

The history of the last-mentioned ar-
ticle is evidence of the baneful effects of
the excise upon manufactures. The
duties upon Mead were increased, from
time to time, until it could no longer be
made for sale. The duties, prohibitions,
and penalties, still remain in the Statute
Book ; but we do not know that there
now exists a single person liable to
their inflictions. It is melancholy to
eee its expiring effort, in the excise ac-
counts for 1808: " The gross actual
receipt in money" for duties on Metheg-
lin, or Mead, during the whole year,
is there stated to have been " one
pound eleven shillings and six-pence."
The quantity, on which this duty was
charged, could not have exceeded twen-
ty-one wine gallons; and the maker
must have paid, besides, two pounds for
a license. It might be supposed that
these prohibitory duties, upon the ma-
nufacturer for sale, must be advanta-
geous to private families who pay-
nothing ; but in the present instance it
is otherwise. Good mead cannot be
brewed, even without duty, at less than
five shillings a gallon, being equivalent
to a shilling the wine bottle. It requires
to be made in quantities of ten gallons
at least, and is seldom fit for bottling in
less time than a twelvemonth. With
this outlay and care it once rivalled the
wines of France, but the rich are con-
tented with the latter, for which they
are able to pay ; while the poorer classes,

who, on occasional merry-makings, or
in sickness, might prefer it to a bottle of
adulterated port, can purchase it no-
where, and are unable to lay in a stock
for themselves. This is one among a
thousand greater instances of the price
which the people pay for the wars they
have been so fond of. Some directions
for making Mead will be found in the
Treatise on Wine-making, to which
subject it more immediately belongs.

The midland counties of England
have generally been famed for their
malt liquors. That of Burton has al-
ready been particularly described; but
those of Nottingham and Birmingham
also find their way into the London
market : indeed, any sort of country ale
is preferred to what is usually manu-
factured, under that name, in the metro-
polis. Private brewing, too, is more
general in the district above-mentioned,
than in other quarters of the island ; and
the following description of the practice
of a private family of our acquaintanca
in Worcestershire may be considered
as generally prevalent in that and the
neighbouring counties. It is obviously
capable of improvement in regard to
the saving of expense : but, in quality,
the ale is by no means objectionable.

1. FOR GOOD COMMON ALE.
The strength of this ale was fixed to
twelve gallons for every bushel of malt,
and two bushels was the quantity usually
brewed at a time ; for which one and
a half to two pounds of hops were al-
lowed, according to their quality and
the season. The Worcester hops were
preferred as being milder in flavour than
the Sussex or Kent. The malt was
ground, rather coarsely, in which case
it was supposed to drain better than
when too fine; and the drainage was
made to pass through a small cap-like
wicker basket, called a Betwel, which
was placed on the bottom of the tun so
as to cover the entrance to the draining
cock, or spiggot, as the case might be.

When every thing was prepared, and
the liquor had begun to boil, the furnace
door of the copper was thrown open,
and the boiling having just ceased, as
much of the hot liquor was run into the
mash-tun as covered the bottom to the
depth of an inch, or an inch and a half.
About half a bushel of the malt was
then put in, and stirred intimately with
the liquor, until it was completely wetted.
Another quantity of the hot water, suf-
ficient to wet a second half bushel of the

BREWING.

malt, was then let on ; and this remainder
of the first bushel was put into the tun,
and the whole stirred together until
every particle of the malt was supposed
to be wet. The same process was carried
on, by half a bushel at. a time, mixed
\vith continually added liquor, until the
whole mash became completely soaked.
A gallon of the liquor (as much as might
have been contained within the draining
basket or betwel) was then drawn off
from the bottom of the tun, and thrown
upon the top of the goods, which, after
being covered with a sprinkling of dry
malt, and marked with a cross, drawn
over the surface with the end of the
mashing oar, were allowed to rest, for
the purpose of infusion.

When the mash had stood three hours,
it was let off slowly into a tub (or under-
back) upon the hops, which had been
previously steeped in hot" water ; and,
after the draining was completed, an
additional quantity of liquor (about the
same heat as before) was laded regu-
larly over the goods until the whole were
as wet as at the first mash. This second
infusion was allowed to stand an hour,
when it was also run off, and trans-
ferred, along with the first worts and
hops, into the copper for the purpose of
being boiled. The quantity of worts re-
quired to produce the twenty-four gal-
lons of ale (which, to allow for waste in
boiling, might be about thirty gallons),
was made up by sprinkling hot water
over the goods, while the mash- tun was
allowed to continue slowly draining.

When the worts had boiled in the
copper for an hour, they were cast into
wide tubs for the purpose of cooling.
These being of different sizes, cooled
unequally ; but care was always taken
not to mix hot worts with cold. A few
quarts of the worts, when about milk
warm, were stirred up with a quart of
good fresh yeast, in the bottom of the
fermenting tun, at which heat they rose
into immediate action ; and the remain-
ing worts (except a small part) were
added as soon as they were considered
to be sufficiently cool.

When the head of the tun got very
strong, and before it had begun to sink,
the ale was cleansed ; but previously to
this being done, the bottom of each cask
was covered about an inch deep, with
the reserved worts above-mentioned ;
we say the bottom, because the casks
were placed upright, and discharged
their superfluous yeast down the sides,
from a wide tap-hole in the upper end.

In two or three days the fermentation
generally subsided, so as to allow them
to be loosely bunged ; and in about a
week more, after inserting a handful of
half boiled hops in each cask, and filling
it up, it was bunged up close, having a
vent-hole and peg to loosen if necessary.
In four months the ale was judged ready
for tapping, and was drunk from the
cask without bottling. This sort of ale
is brewed, of course, at such times, and
in such quantities, as to ensure a regular
succession of four or five months' old,
keeping in view that the spring and
autumn are the best seasons.

2. FOR STRONG ALE.

The quality of the strong ale is calculated
from the length that is drawn from the
bushel. Some gentlemen make it a rule
that a gallon of malt shall produce a
gallon of ale ; while others draw only five
or six gallons from the bushel. The
brewing of which we have now to speak
consisted of twelve bushels, and from
this about seventy gallons of strong ale
were made. For this purpose abcut
eighty gallons of wort were drawn from
the goods, in the same manner as in the
common ale. The hops (twelve pounds)
were boiled with the worts an hour, or
an hour and a quarter ; and about the
middle of that period a lump of salt
(perhaps a pound) was thrown into the
copper. Salt is also put, by some, in
the common ale, in the same manner.

During this time, as much liquor was
infusing with the goods as produced,
when boiled and fermented, eighteen
gallons of very good table beer. The
hops of the strong ale were more than
sufficient for the small, and part was
usually kept out.

The fermentation was begun and con-
ducted in the same way as in the last
article, only with a larger portion of
yeast, on account of the greater strength
of the worts. The time in the ferment-
ing tun was longer, the cleansing being
guided by the appearance of the head,
as it began to thicken. In cleansing,
there was no reserved wort used, as m
the preceding brewing.

In about three weeks after cleansing,
the ale was racked into other casks;
and a quart of ground malt tied in a
clean linen bag was put into each. A
handful of half boiled hops was also put
in, and the bung made firm. Some
persons put horse beans, either bruised
or whole, in place of the malt, and also
a few egg shells and a pound of loaf

BREWING.

sugar to a barrel, with the view of better
preservation.

This ale was kept six months in the
cask before it was tapped. It was then
bottled, and ran no further risk of acidity,
although kept for years. October or
November is accounted the best season
for brewing, because the six winter
months are understood to be most
favourable to the keeping of ale that is
newly brewed. When it has passed
those months, it runs less risk of acidity
during the succeeding summer, in the
case of its continuing in the casks.

On reviewing the preceding directions,
it will be observed that much is left to
the experience of the brewer, which,
from the want of instruments, cannot be
communicated to the reader. The heat
of the mashing liquor was probably
above 190, but this is left to conjec-
ture. It must have varied with the heat
of the atmosphere, but in the worst, di-
rection ; for, in cold weather, the liquor
would be at a lower when it ought to
be at a higher temperature. The heat
of the fermentation must have been
liable to the same accidents. The pro-
per period for cleansing, too, must have
been very difficult to ascertain, there
being no mode of discovering the at-
tenuation ; and in consequence, under
such management, the strong ale might
be ready for bottling two or three months
sooner, or it might be protracted two or
three months later than the period in-
tended.

The mode of mashing (akin to the
Scotch sparging system) is capable of
drawing out the whole strength of the
malt, were it not for two prominent
errors : one of which is the consequence
of the other. The want of a false bot-
tom makes coarse grinding necessary to
enable the worts to work their way to
the basket. Without either fine grind-
ing, or crushing, the malt cannot be suf-
ficiently searched ; and, unless the sparges
are allowed to descend in horizontal
strata, we leave one side of the mash-
tun to be less acted upon than the other.
We are well convinced that, in the fore-
mentioned examples, and especially in
the second, one- third of the extractible
saccharum of the malt was left in the
grains.

In the details of which we now speak,
the reader's attention was particularly
directed to the cross that was drawn oh
the surface of the goods. This sign of
the cross, in those counties, is univer-
sal, although no one knows why. The

Protestants consider it as a remnant of
Popish superstition. There is, how-
ever, no superstition in the case. It is
a useful proof of the perfection of the
process. After the mashing is finished,
and the goods strewed over with dry
malt, the cross can only be fairly drawn
when the whole of the goods are com-
pletely broken. If any knots or lumps
remain, being lighter than the rest, they
rise to the surface ; and meeting the
rod by which the cross is drawn, they
will break the continuity of the line. A
similar practice is observed by the malt-
sters in Scotland, and perhaps in other
places. After a floor has been turned,
the maltman makes a cross on a corner
of the surface with the end of a shovel,
the appearance of which shows whether
the grains of the malt be well separated,
or clotted together. Formerly, every
craft had its mysteries, which were hid
from the uninitiated, for whom some
wonderful tale was invented that might
satisfy their curiosity without adding to
their information. Another of those
mystical symbols will be seen in the
following instructions, which were sent
to a lady by an eminent Scotch brewer :

" Leith, llth November, 1793.
" DEAR MADAM,

* * * I h ave sen |- y OU is Ibs.

of hops. I generally put in 7 Ibs. to the
boll* of my best ale, but I think 6 Ibs.
of these hops should do ; and, as good
store (yeast) is essentially necessary to
the making of strong ale, I have sent
you up as much in a small cask as will
answer your brewing, the produce of
my double ale.

"*****! shall use the free-
dom of mentioning a few directions, at
least, that I follow:!, in the first
place, allow the liquor, or water, in the
copper, to come to a boil for ten mi-
nutes or so. I then run it off into the
mash-tun, and cool it to 190 degrees by
the thermometer : or, if you have not
one, you may stir it for eight or ten
minutes, which brings it near about it.
I then put in the malt, and stir it well
till all is wet. I then throw a little dry
malt, which is left on purpose, on the
top of the mash, with a handful of salt,
to keep the witches from it, and then
cover it up. I allow it then to stand
three hours, and then let go the cock of
the mash-tun, and run off the wort
slowly, to keep it fine, into the wort-

* About 91b. per quarter.

BREWING.

stane*. When the frst is run off, I
sparge it with liquor at ISO decrees;
allowing the cock to run all the time
till I have as much as I want of quan-
tity. I then pump the worts into the
copper, (having put more liquor on the
goods for the following, or small beer,
Sit 1 GO or 165) and allow them to boil
for an hour. Having mashed the hops
with liquor at the time of sparging the
malt, they are put in when putting the
worts into the copper. After they are
boiled the above-mentioned time, I throw
them (the worts) into the coolers, and
allow them to stand till cool. I then
let them into the tun, giving them some
store ; arid, after they are chipped^, I
add more store by degrees ; and, mixing
them frequently with a scoop, or cudyj,
I let them stand still till the fermentation
is very strong ; perhaps three days. I
then tun (cleanse) them into casks, fill-
ing up twice, or thrice, a day till pro-
peily^wrought. *

" I remain, with esteem, &c.

" W. G."

Mr. G.'s directions, though less mi-
nute than those of our Worcestershire
friend, show a little more of science, by
the introduction of the thermometer.
It is surprising, however, considering
the comparatively recent, period at which
he wrote, and his fame as a brewer
(for he was the first of his day), that
he makes no mention of the saccharo-
meter, in default of which, or something
equivalent, no brewing, whether great
or small, can be conducted with advan-
tage. Without it, good ale may be made,
but the expense, in family brewings, is
not calculated : and the proverb is for-

* A stone underback.

J Creamed on the surface.
A Cud!/, or Cuddy, is a small shallow pail,
having one of its staves lengthened and shaped so as
to form a handle.

gotten, that "what is the private gentle-
man's boast would be the public brew-
er's ruin." Further, what with some
is reckoned a matter of more conse-
quence, the quality is always uncertain.
The malt, it may be, contains a less
quantity of fermentable matter, or it
does not give out the extract at the
heat usually employed. In either case,
the same length is drawn ; and the dis-
covery*is made, a year or two afterwards,
in consequence of the obvious weak-
ness, or degeneracy, of the ale. There
was a time when instruments were un-
known in the brewery; but there was
also a time when a jug, of indefinite
dimensions, was taken as a measure ;
and a stone was selected, by guess-work,
from a field, as a representative of
weight. Those days, however, are
gone by ; and, with the degree of know-
ledge which we now possess, the expec-
tation of being able to brew good malt
liquor, without knowing the strength of
the worts, seems almost as absurd as to
attempt the process, without either weigh-
ing the hops or measuring the malt.

Additional information on this sub-
ject will be found in'the pamphlet which
accompanies " The Brewer's Saccharo-
meter" an instrument made and ad-
justed under the direction of the writer
of this treatise.

While closing the present treatise, we
are well aware that we have left it im-
perfect. This is partly owing to the
narrowness of the limits that have been
assigned to it, which has obliged us to
abridge many of the illustrations. The
treatises on Wine-making, and the
Manufacture of Cyder and Perry (which
are, in fact, continuations of Brewing)
will afford opportunities of remedying,
in a great measure, these 'unavoidable
defects.

ERRATA.

Pa^e 16, col. 2, line 4 from the bottom, far qualities rjad quantities.
Page 32, note, dele last and read i>y.

THE BREWER'S SACCHAROMETERo

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DESCRIPTION AND USE OF THE BREWER'S SACGHARO-
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also the quantity of Extract, obtained or obtainable from Malt-or from Raw Grain,
calculated on a new and certain Principle. By the Author of the " Treatise on
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187826

Booth, D,

Art of Brewing.

Call Number:

TP570

8ootV)

187826

3 1175 00178 7699

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