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THE ART OF MUSIC

The Art of Music

A Comprehensive Library of Information
for Music Lovers and Musicians

Editor-in-Chief

DANIEL GREGORY MASON

Columbia Uniyenity //^

Associate Editors
EDWARD B. HILL LELAND HALL

Hairard UniTtraity Put Profeuor. Unir. of ^nieonda

Managing Editor
CfeSAR SAERCHINGER

Modem Miuic Society of New York

In Fourteen Volumes

Profusely Illustrated

NEW YORK . ^

THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MtJSlC

FACULTY OF MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

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THE ART OF MUSICt VOLUME EIGHT

THE ORCHESTRA AND
ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

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THE NATI

'A Gewandhaus Concert'
After a painting by Robert Sterl

THE ART OF MUSIC: VOLUME EIGHT

THE ORCHESTRA AND
ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Department Editor:

BENJAMIN LAMBORD

P»it Fellow in Muiic, Columbia Uniyertity
L«te Conductor, Modern Music Societj, Etc.

Introduction by

DR. RICHARD STRAUSS

NEW YORK
THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MUSIC

THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MUSIC, Inc.

(All Righta ReterTed]

THE ORCHESTRA AND
ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

INTRODUCTION *

The development of the orchestra up to the time of
Berlioz's entrance into the history of music is suf-
ficiently well known to preclude the necessity of my
dwelling upon it at length. I refer the reader to the
splendid expositions in Richard Wagner's writings, in
particular to those contained in Oper and Drama.
Then, too, this is not the place in which to attempt
to dismiss a great chapter in the history of music with
a few lines, a chapter in which the finely articulated,
organic development of thousands of germinal ideas,
stimulating impulses, mistakes and successes should be
observed with the utmost care. Here there is only in
question a concise, comprehensive and condensed sur-
vey, which I essay with the premise that the intelligent
reader will remember that I am not attempting any
presentation in accordance with the rules of an aesthetic
system, filing its conclusions in neatly labelled draw-
ers; but rather that I desire loosely to develop a few
specially important viewpoints, allowing the intelli-
gent reader to supply the many subordinate details
out of his own knowledge and sympathy as may please
him best. Within these limitations I wish to trace two
main roads which the orchestra has followed in its de-
velopment from Handel, Gluck and Haydn up to Wag-
ner. I shall take the liberty of calling these two roads,

* Translated and printed by arrangement with C. F. Peters, Leipzig.

vii

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

offhand, the symphonic (polyphonic) and the dramatic
(homophonic) respectively.

The origin of the symphonic orchestra is to be
found (aside from Bach's organ fugues) principally in
Haydn's and Mozart's string quartets. The whole sym-
phonic expression of these two masters in style, themes,
development of melodic line and figuration bears so de-
cidedly the stamp of all the polyphonic possibilities
of the string quartet that (always, of course, cum grano
salis) they may also be termed string quartets with
obligato wood-wind, plus noise-making instruments
(horns, trumpets, kettledrums) for emphasizing the
tutti sections.

The more extensive employment of wind instruments
in Beethoven's Fifth and Ninth Symphonies should not
deceive us into believing that this master's symphonies
reject the style of chamber music. More decidedly
than in the case of Haydn or Mozart, the pianistic spirit
gives voice to its characteristic inflections in the works
of Beethoven, — the same pianistic spirit which later so
completely dominated the orchestral compositions of a
Schumann or a Brahms, unfortunately not always to
its own advantage or to that of the listener. Only in
the tonal instinct of Franz Liszt did the spirit of the
piano awaken to new poetic life. In the beautiful lead-
ing of the four independent melodic voices of the clas-
sic string quartet which in the ten last Beethoven
quartets developed with a freedom equal to that of
Bach's choral polyphony — a freedom which none of
the nine symphonies can show — Richard Wagner dis-
covered the style which he applied to his orchestra in
Tristan and Die Meister singer. To these he is in-
debted for the unrivalled tonal beauty of his polyphonic
string quintet.

Of course, we must not overlook the fact that the
development of the lyric element from Haydn to Bee-
thoven, in itself increased the technical demands made

viii

INTRODUCTION

on the orchestra and liberated coloristic forces which
tended farther and farther away from the chamber-
music style, and encountered the second circle of de-
velopment, which I have already called the dramatic.

Handel and Haydn, as well as Gluck in his operas,
writing for the most part in a homophonic style (which
the dear, phlegmatic concert audience prefers to the
polyphonic to this day) consciously emphasized the
coloristic elements in an effort to animate the text and
the stage picture with the atmospheric means of ex-
pression afforded by the orchestra. This automatically
brought about the development of instrumental choirs
into expressive groups, and finally into *speaking* in-
dividuals.

The romantic school, Weber in particular, were im-
pelled by their choice of material (Freischutz, Oberon,
Euryanthe) continually to make new discoveries in
this direction. Yet it was reserved for the genius of
Richard Wagner, in the final analysis, to synthesize the
two tendencies: to the structural and orchestral tech-
nique of the symphonic or polyphonic school that mas-
ter added the rich expressional means of the dramatic
or homophonic school.

Hector Berlioz may have yearned to attain a similar
goal. Except for the danger of being misunderstood,
one might say that his dramatic gifts were not suf-
ficient for the stage and his symphonic talent not ade-
quate for the concert hall. Nevertheless, it is to his
efforts toward a union of the scenic stage and the con-
cert hall that the history of music is indebted for the
discovery of novel, rich and altogether special means
of orchestral expression. Berlioz's introduction of dra-
matic effects of orchestration into symphonic works
was not justified by a correspondingly dramatic con-
ception of their meaning (this being inconceivable with-
out luxuriant polyphony), for Berlioz's creative vein
was invariably lyric and epic. But he was the first to

is.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

conceive his works through the spirit of his orchestral
instruments, and, by virtue of an imagination for-
tunate in hitting upon effective combinations, he posi-
tively discovered a number of coloristic possibilities
and delicate sound distinctions which before him were
unknown.

It must be concluded that this daring innovator, this
talented colorist, the real creator of the modem or-
chestra, was totally devoid of the polyphonic sense.
Whether or not he was acquainted with the many-
voiced mysteries of Johann Sebastian Bach's wonder-
ful scores, it is certain that his purely musical, yet
somewhat primitive 'melodic' perception did not grasp
this highest fruition of musical genius — which in
Bach's cantatas, Beethoven's last quartets, and in the
poetic unfolding of the third act of Tristan, we vener-
ate as the loftiest development of continuous melody.
And genuine polyphony, rich in meaning, alone dis-
closes the greatest tonal miracles of the orchestra. An
orchestral movement which betrays an awkward, or let
us say indifferent, leading of the inner and lower voices,
is seldom devoid of a certain harshness, and never
yields that richness of sonority which glows in a score
in whose development the second horns, second vio-
lins, violas, 'cellos and basses share spiritually in the
animation of beautifully wrought melodic lines. This
is the secret of the marvellous tonal poetry of the
scores of Tristan and Die Meistersinger, no less than
of the Siegfried Idyll for 'small orchestra.' Per contra,
even in Berlioz's orchestral dramas, built up with so
keen a sense of tonal effect, and in the scores of Weber
and Liszt (each of these masters, in his own way, a
great instrumental poet and colorist), a noticeable
hardness of color reveals plainly that the composer
has not considered the choir of accompanying and sup-
porting voices deserving of melodic independence.
And hence the conductor cannot bring to them that

INTRODUCTION

spiritual participation which is absolutely essential to
the equal vitalization of all parts of the orchestra.

It is usually maintained that the superiority of Rich-
ard Wagner, the completer of the modem orchestra,
over Hector Rerlioz, its creator, resides exclusively in
the more profound content of the former's poetical
and musical ideas. Yet there are (always, of course,
with reasonable reservations) three essential technical
points to which attention deserves to be called, since
they are responsible for the perfection of the Wag-
nerian idea in the orchestra of to-day.

These points are : First, the employment of a prodi-
gal polyphonic style; second, the rich consummation of
this style made possible by the discovery and intro-
duction of the valve-horn; third, the extension to all
the orchestral instruments of a virtuoso technique
previously only ventured upon in solo performance —
an innovation which Beethoven, it should be said, had
already demanded in his last string quartets, though
not in his sjrmphonies.

If, then, the Alpha and Omega of my remarks are
in the nature of things summed up in the scores of
Richard Wagner — which stand for the only notable
progress in the art of orchestration since Berlioz — it
seems all the more necessary urgently to advise the
student to take up their study with the utmost caution.
Generally speaking, the score of Lohengrin should serve
the advanced student as a compendious model which
should be thoroughly mastered before proceeding to
the polyphony of Tristan and Die Meistersinger, and
to the fairy realm of the Nibelungen cycle. The treat-
ment of the wind instruments in Lohengrin represents,
from the aesthetic point of view, an acme of absolute
perfection never before attained. The so-called 'thirds'
added to the wood choir (the English horn and the
bass clarinet) are already used here in multiform com-
bination; the second, third and fourth horn, trumpet

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

and trombone parts are already developed in polypho-
nic independence; the strong duplication of all the
melodic voices, characteristically Wagnerian, is already
employed with assured consciousness of tonal effect,
and worked out with a sense for tonal beauty which
still excites unqualified admiration. In this respect I
recommend for special study the scene at the begin-
ning of the second act (Ortrud and Telramund); the
glorious passage for wind instruments at Elsa*s ap-
pearance on the balcony; Elsa*s bridal procession to
the Miinster; and the conclusion of the second act,
where the organ tones which Wagner contrived to coax
from the orchestra in so brilliant a manner surpass
those of the 'King of Instruments' itself.

Above all, the beginner in composition and instru-
mental technique in his first timid attempts to breast
the billows of the orchestral ocean, is most earnestly
warned against degrading to the level of a bungler's
trick or a child's toy the mighty sound-phenomena
which the genius of a Hector Berlioz and a Richard
Wagner evoked from the orchestra in order to waken
to tonal life astonishingly new and great poetic
thoughts, sensations and images of nature. Would it
were possible to compel every one who thinks of writ-
ing for the orchestra to begin his career with the com-
position of several string quartets. These string quar-
tets he should submit to the tender mercies of two
violinists, a viola player and a 'cellist. Should these
four good instrumentalists thereupon declare his work
practicable for their instruments, 'well rhymed and
singable,' then let the son of the Muse attempt the or-
chestra, the small orchestra first, by preference. Other-
wise let him 'change his career.'

And, finally, when the longing to write for full or-
chestra may no longer be restrained, let the well-in-
tentioned young master compare the eleven Wagner
scores, one with the other. Let him observe how each

xii

INTRODUCTION

of these works has its own orchestral grouping, its owit
orchestral style, how each shows the utmost simplicity
of presentation, how in each and every one a noble
balance is observed in the employment of every re-
source. On the other hand let him take warning by
the procedure of a certain composer still living, who
once showed me the score of a comedy overture in
which the four tubas of the Nibelungen danced along
with the rest of the brass (as mere reenforcement of
the tutti), in the most animated rhythms. When, hor-
rified, I asked the author, otherwise an admirable and
highly cultivated musician, what these tubas (which
Wagner with such superior wisdom and accurate in-
tuition literally 'discovered' in order to picture the
gloomy world of the Nibelungen) were doing in his
merry comedy overture, he replied quite unconcern-
edly : *But I beg of you, there are tubas in every large
orchestra to-day, so why should I not make use of
them here?* Whereupon I said no more, but thought
to myself: Tor this man there is indeed no help.'

Richard Strauss.

zui

CONTENTS OF VOLUME EIGHT

Introduction by Dr. Richard Strauss vii

Part I. The Orchestra

CHAPTEB PAOB

I. The Modern Orchestra and Its Constituents . 1

The orchestra, its instrumental constituents and their
arrangement — General acoustic laws in their application
to orchestral instruments — The string instruments of the
orchestra — The wind instruments, acoustic phenomena pecu-
liar to them; the wood-wind — The brass — Instruments of
percussion; rarely used instruments; the orchestral score.

II. History of the Orchestra 52

The origins of instrumental music; instrumental prac-
tices of the earlier civilizations — Instrumental music in the
Middle Ages; the troubadours and other minstrels; origin
of the bowed string instruments; town bands — Instrumen-
tal practices of the sixteenth century ; the lute and its music ;
the violin perfected, its early makers; wind instruments of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries — ^The earliest scores:
Gabrieli and Monteverdi; the orchestra of the early French
and Italian opera — Lully, Campra, Rameau and Scarlatti —
The orchestra of Bach, Handel and Gluck — The beginning of
the classic symphony and symphonic orchestra; Stamitz
and the Mannheim orchestra; Gossec.

in. The Perfection of the Orchestra and the Art

Development of the Orchestration .... 93

Establishment of the 'classic' orchestra; Haydn and
Mozart — The orchestra of Beethoven and his contemporaries
— The early romantic symphonists: Schubert, Mendelssohn,
Schumann; the beginning of modem color effects; Weber
and Meyerbeer; invention and improvement of instruments
in the early nineteenth century: Boehm, Sax, and other
instrument makers — The modem orchestra: Berlioz, Liszt,
and Wagner — The orchestra of to-day and contemporary
symphonists; Strauss and post-Wagnerism; Debussy and
impressionism.

Part II. Orchestral Music of the Classic Period
rV. Symphonic Genesis 117

Early instrumental music and instrumental practices —
Instrumental compositions before the formation of the
orchestra — Gabrieli and the first orchestral music — The or-
chestral music of Bach and Handel; the 'Brandenburg'

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

CHAPTER PAOB

concertos and the orchestral suites of Bach; the *Water
Music' and 'Fire Music' of Handel — Other orchestral suites
of the eighteenth century; the rise of the 'concert sym-
phony'; the Viennese and the North German schools; the
symphonies of Emanuel Bach.

V. The Symphony Before Beethoven .... 141

Symphonic metamorphosis; the Mannheim School:
Stamltz, Cannabich and other Mannheim symphonists —
Haydn and his symphonies — The symphonies of Mozart —
Minor contemporaries: Ditters von Dittersdorf, Gossec,
M^hul, Michael Haydn, Boccherini.

VI. Beethoven 169

General aspect of Beethoven's orchestral works; sym-
phonies of the first period : the first and second symphonies
— Symphonies of the early second period: the 'Eroica,' the
fourth and fifth symphonies — Symphonies of the later sec-
ond period : the 'Pastoral,' seventh and eighth symphonies —
The last period and its crowning achievement: the ninth
symphony — ^The overtures and other miscellaneous orches-
tral works — Contemporaries of Beethoven.

Part III. Orchestral Music of the Romantic Period
VII. The Classic Romanticists 208

Schubert, the link between the classic and the roman-
tic; his early symphonies; the C major and the 'Unfinished*
symphonies — Mendelssohn, his symphonies and overtures —
The followers of Mendelssohn and other early romanticists:
Spohr; Weber; Wagner's C major symphony; the sym-
phonies and overtures of Gade; Glinka and the beginnings
of Russian orchestral music.

VIII. The Romantic School 235

Schumann, the representative romanticist; his four
symphonies; overtures — Followers of Schumann: Bargiel,
Reinecke and Volkmann; Rubinstein as a symphonist; other
late romantic symphonists; Draeseke, Goetz, Gemsheim,
Bruch and Rheinberger.

IX. The Modern Romanticists 252

Johannes Brahms as symphonist; his early orchestral
works; the four symphonies; the 'Academic' and 'Tragic'
overtures — Anton Bruckner and the Wagner influence; his
nine symphonies.

X. The Rise of Program Music 283

The beginnings and evolution of program music; Ber-
lioz, the pioneer of modem descriptive music; his early
works; the 'Fantastic Symphony'; 'Harold in Italy'; 'Romeo
and Juliet'; 'Carneval Roman Overture,' the Symphonic
funibre and the lesser works — Liszt as the successor of
xvi

CONTENTS OF VOLUME EIGHT

FAoa

Berlioz; his two symphonies. 'Faust* and 'Dante': Liszt's
twelve symphonic poems — Followers of Berlioz and Liszt in
program music; Wagner's 'Faust' overture; Raff as sym-
pbonist; his 'Leonore' and Jm Walde symphonies; Ueinrlcll
Hofmann; Carl Goldmark.

Part IV. Modern Orchestral Music

XI. Nationalistic Movements in Nineteenth-Century

Orchestral Music 322

The German musical soil and its nationalistic offshoots
— ^The nationalistic romanticists of France: Saint-Saens and
others — The transition to the modern idiom: C^sar Franck;
his D minor symphony and his symphonic poems — ^The
symphonic suite in France: Bizet, Massenet, Godard, etc. —
Nationalism in Scandinavia: Grieg, Svendsen and Sinding
— ^Transition nationalism in Russia: Tschaikowsky, his
symphonies and overtures — Modem Bohemia; Smetana and
Dvof&k.

XII. Orchestral Music of Modern Germany . . . 382

Richard Strauss; his early works: the F minor sym-
phony, Aus Itallen, etc.; the symphonic poems: 'Macbeth,*
'Don Juan,' 'Death and Transfiguration,' 'Thus Spake Iatvl-
thustra,' 'Don Quixote,' Till Eulenspiegel,' 'A Hero's Life,*
and the Symphonta Domestica — Gustav Mahler and his
nine symphonies — Other orchestral composers: Weingartner,
Schillings, von Hausegger, Nicod^, etc. ; minor German com-
posers— The modems: Reger, Schdnberg, etc.

XIII. Modern French and Italian Orchestral Music . 426

Emmanuel Chabrier, Charpentier and Chausson — ^Vin-
cent d'Indy: the 'Wallenstein Trilogy,' 'Istar,' and the B-flat
symphony — Claude Debussy: La Mer, L'Apris midi d'un
fanne, Rondea de Printemps, etc. — Paul Dukas and L'Ap-
prentt Sorcier — Guy Ropartz, Maurice Ravel and Albert
Roussel — Italian symphonic composers: Sgambatl, Alfano,
Zandonai, etc.

XrV. The Modern Russian, Scandinavian and English

Composers 449

Balakireff and his 'Thamar'; Glazounoff and his sym-
phonies; Alexander Borodine — Rimsky-Korsakoff: his sym-
phonies and symphonic poems — Moussorgsky and C^sar Cui
— ^The 'Moscow school': Liadoff, Gliire, Raclimaninoff, etc. —
Stravinsky and Scriabine; 'color music' — The Scandinavian
composers; Sibelius and his symphonic poems — The Eng-
lish moderns: Elgar, Bantock and Delius.

Literature 479

Index 485

xvii

ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME EIGHT

*A Gewandhaus Concert' (Portrait of Arthur Nikisch)

Frontispiece

PAOB

Seating Plan of the Orchestra (Line-cut in Text) ... 2
Instruments of the Modern Orchestra (Line-cuts in Text) :

Violin, front and side view 8

Violoncello 20

Harp 23

Flute 26

Oboe 28

English Horn 30

Bassoon 32

Double-bassoon 33

Clarinet 34

Bass Clarinet 37

Valve Horn 40

Valve Trumpet 42

Cornet-^-pistons 43

Trombone; Tuba 45

Saxophone 45

Ophicleide 49

Percussion Instruments of the Modern Orchestra . Facing 46
Precursors of Modern String Instruments (Line-cuts in
Text) :

Mediaeval Harp and Psaltery 57

Crwth 59

Viol and Gigae (Rebec) 60

Tnunpet Marine and Organistrum 61

Lute 66

Theorbo 68

Fiddele (Violin) 69

Contrabassgeig (Bass Viol) 72

Mediaeval Trumpeter 62

Medixval String Band 63

Mediaeval Pipers 64

Facsimile Page from Praetorius' Syntagma musicum . . 66

xix

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

VAOB

Early Wind Instruments (Line-cuts in Text) :

Flute-i-bec 74

Querflote (Flute traversiire) 75

Krummhorn; Schalmey 76

Zinke (Cornetto) 78

Fagotten 77

Serpent 78

Mediaeval Trombones; Jagcrhorn 79

Musical Instrument Maker and Tools; 18th Century Print 82
Facsimile Manuscript Page from Debussy's Rondes de

Printemps 114

Pioneers of the Symphony: Dittersdorf; Gossec; Cheru-

bini; Mehul 166

Beethoven in His Old Age . 198

Minor Romantic Symphonists: Raff; Volkmann; Reinecke;

Lachner 250

Wagner and Bruckner in Bayreuth (Silhouette) . . . 270

Hans von Biilow 310

Peter Ilyitch Tschaikowsky 358

Gustav Mahler Conducting (Caricature) 404

Famous Conductors of the Nineteenth Century: Richter;

Mottl; Levi; Schuch 444

Famous Contemporary Conductors: Weingartner; Muck;

Wood; Lamoreux 488

THE ORCHESTRA AND
ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

CHAPTER I

THE MODERN ORCHESTRA AND ITS CONSTITUENTS

The orchestra. Its Instrumental constituents and their arrangement —
General acoustic laws in their application to orchestral instruments — The
stringed instruments of the orchestra — The wind instruments, acoustic
phenomena peculiar to them; the wood-wind — the brass — Instruments of
percussion; rarely used instruments; the orchestral score.

The spread of orchestral music has given rise to a
considerable demand for knowledge of things orches-
tral on the part of the general public. This demand
has been met in a large number of books upon the
subject, varying in size and scope — ranging from the
ponderous tome in which the subject is treated with a
maze of technical detail, bewildering the general
reader, to the superficial booklet which is too often a
mere primer of instrumentation, offering meagre tech-
nical instruction in the art This last, falling between
two stools, is equally useless to the artist and to the lay-
man. In making this opening chapter descriptive of the
modern orchestra and its functions it will be our aim
to give such a description as shall be entirely compre-
hensible to the lay mind and which at the same time
shall stimulate the imagination to some appreciation of
the color and the aesthetic values of the orchestra's
varied tones, thereby enhancing the enjoyment of the
hearing of orchestral music.

Such a presentation will involve some slight excur-
sions into the fields of acoustical science and into that
of musical theory, but an attempt will be made to ap-

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

proach these subjects in a non-technical way that will
guarantee their perspicuity to the lay mind. An aesthet-
ic appreciation is necessarily possible only to the more
musical natures, and to those who are familiar with the
tones of the instruments, for, as Ebenezer Prout says,
*Nobody who has never heard an oboe or a clarinet
could, like the German philosopher, evolve the idea of
their tone out of his own moral consciousness; they
must be heard before they can be identified.'

The first step in making the acquaintance of the or-
chestra is to familiarize oneself with the seating ar-
rangement of the players and with the positions of the
various groups of instruments. The following diagram,
taken from Henderson's *The Orchestra and Orchestral
Music,' shows the plan of the Boston Symphony Orches-
tra. The arrangement may be said to be almost uni-
formly that of all symphonic orchestras, although the
position of the brass is often a matter of arbitrary opin-
ion on the part of the conductor. The arrangement of
the orchestra in opera houses is necessarily somewhat
different, owing to the shape of the orchestral pit.

°m

A — Conductor.
B— First Violins.
C — Second Violins.
D— Violas.
E — ^Violoncellos.
F— Flutes.

G — Oboes and English horn.
H — Clarinets.

I — Bassoons.

J — Horns.
K — Trumpets.
L — Trombones.

M— Tuba.

N — Tympani.

O — Double Basses.

P— Triangle.

Q — Bass Drum.

R — Bells, etc.

ARRANGEMENT OF ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS

With the orchestra before us and such a plan in our
mind, we may now easily recognize the arrangement
of the groups and, if sufficiently near, we may discern
the shapes of the individual instruments. The orches-
tra employed in symphonic concerts and in opera to-
day numbers anywhere from forty to one hundred and
twenty players. Larger orchestras are sometimes as-
sembled for special occasions, but the organized bodies
which we regularly hear have a membership of from
sixty-odd to one hundred.

It will be seen immediately that the 'strings,* as the
stringed instruments are usually called, form a large
proportion of the orchestra's numbers. The family of
instruments comprising this body are sometimes spoken
of as the *quartet,* implying the four-part harmony
which they ordinarily played in the older classic orches-
tral music, when the double bass and the *cello usually
played the same part and thus counted as one instru-
ment In more modern music the strings play ordi-
narily in five parts and frequently are divided into a
much greater number of parts. The stringed instru-
ments of the orchestra are, then, of four varieties: the
violin, viola, the violoncello, and the double bass. Spe-
cific description of each of these instruments and of its
functions will be given in a later part of this chapter;
for the moment we will merely note the proportions of
the orchestra and its position on the stage. In the larg-
est orchestras of to-day the following number of
stringed instruments are employed : sixteen first violins,
sixteen second violins, twelve violas, twelve violoncelli,
and eight double basses. The violins are seated at the
front of the stage, the first at the conductor's left (with
the concert-master at their outer comer nearest the
conductor), the seconds at the conductor's right; the
violas and the 'celli form the next tier, the former on
the right and the latter on the left, often in the centre;
the basses are situated at the back of the orchestra in

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

a position where all face directly the conductor or
sometimes in a position extending in a curved line
around the back of the left-hand side, leaving the back
centre of the stage to the drums and other percussion
instruments. The so-called 'wood-wind' group, which
is not so conspicuous to either eye or ear as the
larger brass instruments, is quite as important and
is in more constant use than the latter. The wood-
wind group comprises several distinct families which
we shall designate later, contenting ourselves for the
present with an enumeration of all of the instruments
of the group and showing their positions. Its members
are as follows : the flute, the oboe, the clarinet, the bas-
soon, the English horn, the bass clarinet, and the double
bassoon. The first four of these instruments have de-
scended from the era of the classic orchestra, where
they were used in pairs; the smaller orchestra of to-day
possesses two of each, but one of the tendencies of
present-day instrumentation is to increase the number
of wood-wind instruments, and, as a large number of
modern scores call for three or four flutes, clarinets,
and bassoons, the full modern orchestra is usually
equipped with this complement. The last three instru-
ments named in the wood-wind group, the English
horn, bass clarinet, and double bassoon, are among the
later additions to the orchestral forces, though their
introduction cannot be said to have been recent (see
Chapter III). While not called into service by the
classic repertory, their employment in most modem
scores makes them essential members of the contempo-
rary orchestra. Ordinarily but one of each is used.
Here it may be said that the term *wood-wind,' as ap-
plied to the entire group, is not literally correct, for the
group includes some instruments which are of metal,
such as the flute, now often made of silver or gold, and
certain other rarely used instruments, to be mentioned
later, which, though made of metal, are, by their tone

ARRANGEMENT OF ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS

quality and their place in the score, naturally affiliated
with the wood-wind group.

The wood-wind instruments are customarily grouped
together in a square directly in front of the conductor;
the higher pitched instruments, such as the flutes, oboes,
clarinets, are placed in the foreground, while the lower
instruments, bassoons, bass clarinets, etc., are placed in
the rear.

The brass instruments include the horns, popularly
called French horns, trumpets, trombones and bass
tuba. The two horns of the classic orchestra have been
increased to the four now in general use, and this
number is often increased to six or eight, as required
by modem scores. The remaining brass instruments
include two or three trumpets and a quartet of lower
pitched brass, comprising three trombones and one
bass tuba ; the latter are indispensable for the perform-
ance of nearly all large orchestral scores. As has been
said before, there is a greater variety of practice in the
seating of the brass than in that of the other groups;
the horns are usually placed in the direct rear of the
orchestra facing the conductor, the remaining brass
being placed in a group at the extreme right of the
orchestra. Some conductors, however, try to obtain a
more even disposition of brass tone by separating their
forces and placing the trombones and tuba at the oppo-
site side.

We now come to the percussion instruments and to
the other single instruments which stand by themselves,
unrelated to a family group. The percussion instru-
ments, known collectively as 'the battery,' have as their
most important representatives the kettle drums or
tympani. There are anywhere from two to four of
these, according to the requirements of the score. They
are placed at the back of the stage, either in the centre
or in the corner at the conductor's right. The other
instruments of the percussion group are placed near

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

them; among these are the large drmn, popularly known
as the bass drmn, the military or snare drum, the cym-
bals, the triangle, the tambourine, the glockenspiel (a
set of small bells arranged and played like the xylo-
phone), a set of larger bells, the 'tam-tam' or large
gong, the castanets, and the celesta. This array of in-
struments is rarely used in its entirety in the perform-
ance of one composition, but there is not infrequently
so much of the paraphernalia in simultaneous use as to
require the services of two, three, or even more per-
formers.

The more rarely used instruments of the orchestra
we shall note at the end of this chapter. Their mention
here is unimportant; when employed they are simply
placed in the group to which they belong.

There remains but the harp to be noted. This instru-
ment is found in nearly all present-day orchestras.
Though a stringed instrument, the harp is not generally
included under that designation, which is usually ap-
plied to instruments played with a bow. The harp is
easily discerned by both eye and ear; it is usually
placed at either the extreme right or left side, rather
near the front of the stage, from which position its tone
may be easily heard above the full orchestra. Larger
orchestras are equipped with two harps and many
scores call for the employment of two harps, but it is
quite common to reduce such parts into a part which
may be performed by one harp.

Before describing the individual instruments of the
orchestra, it will be necessary to consider briefly some
of the acoustic laws underlying the principles involved
in their construction.

We know that sound is obtained by setting air in mo-

ACOUSTIC LAWS APPLIED TO INSTRUMENTS

tion, and that musical tone is the even vibration ob-
tained when the air is moved by a vibrating body, such
as the string of a violin, or by the vibration of an air col-
umn contained within the tube of a wind instrument.
One of the first phenomena which we note in acoustics is
that of a string or an air column vibrating in fractional
parts as well as in its whole length, thereby obtaining
tones other than that known as the 'fundamental' or
saliently audible tone. These tones, as we know, have
the same mathematical relation to the fundamental
tone as the vibrating fractions of the string to the whole
string, and are called upper-partials or harmonics.
These upper-partials vary in strength according to the
conditions under which the vibration is made. Some-
times they are quite discernible even against the stronger
fundamental, at other times they are inaudible to the
casual listener. It is upon these upper-partial tones
that the timbre or tone quality of any musical tone de-
pends. The relative strength of these harmonics and
their blending are the sole causes for the different
quality or color of the musical tones which different
instruments produce. Hence the various shapes and
mechanisms which represent to us the instruments of
the orchestra, the violin, oboe, horn, trumpet, etc., are
devices invented with a view to governing the respective
vibrations which are set up by their manipulation in
such a way as to obtain and blend these upper partial
tones to the production of the desired timbre. It is a
peculiar fact, and one that is bound to surprise the lay-
man when first brought to his attention, that the tone
quality is determined by the shape of instruments
and not the materials from which they are constructed.
While there are some who still believe that the material
used in construction affects the quality, if not the actual
nature of the tone, it has been quite conclusively proved
by the famous instrument makers. Sax, of Paris, and
Mahillon, of Brussels, that identically shaped instru-

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

ments made of different material produce tones identi-
cal in their timbre. Their experiments are cited by
Lavoix * and Lavignac.f The latter gives an account
of similar experiments in connection with the building
of an organ at Milan, the pipes of which were of paste-
board.

Lack of space prohibits at this point any further ex-
position of general acoustical laws. The reader may
find them clearly set forth in a thousand and one text-
books and primers, both scientific and musical. The
application of these laws to the instruments of the or-
chestra we shall observe more closely as we proceed
to examine specifically the mechanism and functions of
the individual instruments.

The violin is unques-
tionably the most perfect
of musical instruments;
more art and science have
been expended upon its
making than upon that of
any other instrument. So
rare, indeed, is the art
which the old Italian mas-
ters brought to its con-
struction, that their meth-
ods remain to us to-day a
sort of sacred mystery and
the examples of their han-
diwork priceless works of
art, the rarest creations of
genius itself.

Small and simple in de-
viouN sign and construction as ^^^^

Hiatoire de V instrumentation. t 'Music and Musicians.'

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS OF ORCHESTRA

the violin may seem, we realize in looking at a list of its
parts that it is in reality a rather complicated instru-
ment composed of many parts joined together with the
subtlest art. These parts are seventy in number, fifty-
seven of which are pieces that go into the making of the
body of the instrument, while the thirteen remaining
parts are movable. The back and belly of the violin
are usually in two pieces; those of the former are
made of maple, the latter of pine; the ribs (six in num-
ber) are of maple; the purfling, comprising twenty-four
pieces, are of ebony and maple. The six inside blocks,
which hold the main parts together, are of pine, as are
the linings and the small sound post which runs from
the belly to the back under the bridge. The handle
or neck is of maple, while the finger-board glued upon
it is of ebony. The movable parts of the violin are the
strings, the bridge over which they run (the latter of
maple), the tail piece, the button and the screws (all of
which are of ebony).

Familiar to all is the perfect total formed by these
parts united. The four strings of the violin are tuned

to the following notes : 3 j ^""1 . The strings take their

names from these notes, being called the G, D, A, and
E strings, and are known as well by the numbers,
1, 2, 3, and 4, reckoned downward, the top or E
string being the first. Equally familiar to most people
is the manner in which its tones are produced. Held
under the chin and in the left hand, the fingers of which
are used to 'stop' the strings; the right hand oper-
ates the bow, which, drawn across the strings, causes
their vibration. The vibrations of the strings are
conveyed by the bridge over which the strings pass
to the belly and then by means of the sound post to
the other parts of the instrument. Cecil Forsyth *

* 'Orchestnitloii.* London, 1914.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

observes that, as compared with the acoustic proc-
esses of the wind instruments, those of the stringed
instruments are more complex, that the general acous-
tics of these instruments have never been explained,
and that undoubtedly much of their tone quality is due
to the material from which their strings are made —
sheep gut — and the wealth of harmonics which they
produce.

The 'stopping' of the strings just mentioned is the
process whereby different notes are obtained from the
same string. The finger presses the string firmly
against the finger-board, thus shortening and lengthen-
ing at will the vibrating portion of the string. The hand
is moved along the neck in the direction of the bridge
as it becomes necessary to stop the strings for the
higher notes. The progressive points at which the hand
is placed in playing these notes are known as 'posi-
tions,' each position representing a tone higher than its
preceding one; thus in 'stoppings* in the first position

the first finger obtains these notes gi o ° J* jl from the

fourth, third, second, and first strings respectively.
In the same position the second, third, and fourth
fingers obtain the next notes in the scale. In the
second position the hand moves slightly up so that

the 'stoppings' of the first finger now produce £ .."t .

(The intervening chromatic semi-tones are obtained
through the slighter alteration of the finger's po-
sition on the string; we are now explaining the
method of producing the diatonic scale through the
positions.) These positions are usually reckoned as
being seven in number, that is to a point where

the highest note obtainable of the first string is

but higher positions are often required on the first

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS OF ORCHESTRA
string, as the violin part is frequently carried up to

which Strauss * gives as the upper

limit of the instrument's range.

We shall not pursue further the question of violin
technique, but will proceed to describe some of the
effects of which the instrument is capable and the
method of their production.

It is quite common to find writers attempting to at-
tach to orchestral instruments the color designation
which their tone suggests; thus Lavignac gives the color
impressions made upon him by the tones of different
instruments — the blue of the flute, the green of the oboe,
etc. There is much of truth in these analogies, and
every person of sensitive ear must feel keenly the
color quality in music. It is, however, impossible to de-
scribe the tone of the violin by the name of any one
color, for the nature of its tone varies greatly accprding
to the register employed or to the manner of playing.
So great are the differences in the timbre of each of
the different strings that composers often designate
which string is to be used, thereby insuring the produc-
tion of the desired color. Speaking generally, the
lower tones may be said to partake of the nature of
the warmer colors, while the upper notes, with their
natural brilliancy, have the effect of the cooler shades.
Lavignac again speaks with great truth when he de-
clares the violin to possess 'the whole gamut of musical
colors* and justly compares the tones of its various
registers to the tones of other orchestral instruments.

It is this richness of color possibility, added to its
immense range of pitch and its flexibility of expression,
that renders the violin the king of orchestral instru-
ments. The prominence of its voice in the orchestral
weave is apparent to even the most casual of listeners,

* Berlioz-Strauss: InstrumentationsUhre, Leipzig, 1905,

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

and, though it is sometimes subdued into an accom-
panying part for other instruments, its voice is silent
for comparatively few moments in the performance of
most scores, and the greater part of the more eloquent
melodies are usually sung by it. The violin possesses
not only a wide range of color, but by means of its
varied technique and the limitless figure and phrasing
possibilities, it covers a tremendous scope of expression.
The broad cantilena and surging melody are equally ef-
fective in all its registers. One need but recall the rich,
flowing melody of the first broad theme in the Tannhdu-

( auf dem O)

ser March or the second theme of the Marche Funebre

movement of Beethoven's Eroica Symphony to feel the
rich streaming warmth which comes from the body of
the violins as they sing such melodies. While the lower
register of the violin offers perhaps the most impressive
medium of lyric beauty, the upper registers have a dis-
tinctively expressive quality of their own. As an exam-
ple of the beautiful effect of a melody sung in the upper
middle register of the instrument, let the reader recall
to his mental ear the singing by the violin of the prize
song motive in the Meistersinger Prelude at the point
where the other motives combine with it in the famous
three-theme combination, so often cited.* Sustained
melodic passages in the violin's upper register are more
common in modem music than in classic orchestral
music. Weber was one of the first to use the upper
positions of the violin in melodic writing and Wagner
used its extreme upper notes in a variety of wonder-

* See Vol. IX, illustration facing page 296.

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS OF ORCHESTRA

fully effective passages. The ethereal and mysterious
sounding of the Grail motive in the high tones of the
violin at the beginning of Parsifal is a good example
of this effectiveness.

The effect of these passages, as well as of every pas-
sage for strings, depends entirely upon the method of
'bowing* employed in their performance. To speak
very generally, there are two kinds of 'bowing,' the
slurred or legato, and the detached. Recalling the men-
tal picture of the violinist as he plays, we see that the
bow is being drawn over the strings with definite
down and up strokes which are, in fact, termed 'down'
and *up' bows. All music written for the violin or any
other bowed instrument is distinctly marked to show
which notes are to be played *down' and which *up';

notes covered by a slur 'ft JT7^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ played

with one bow, the bow reversing its motion imme-
diately after the end of the slur. Notes having no
slur are played with a bow to each note, which results
in what we have already called detached bowing, an ex-
pression more or less descriptive of the musical effect
thus obtained. It will be readily appreciated by anybody
with the slightest musical experience or imagination
that the effect of these two kinds of bowing is quite
different and that the cantilena passages we have just
cited owe much of their effect to the considerable use
of the slurred or legato bowing; their flowing melodi-
ousness would be gone were they played with the de-
tached bowing. But the detached bowing has an effect
of its own and one that is as valuable in giving rhyth-
mic life and dynamic force to the music for the strings
as is the legato for their more lyric moments. In the
older forms and idioms of string writing detached bow-
ing is employed to a far greater extent than in modem
music, where dramatic sweep and glowing color masses
have replaced the more regular rhythms of the dance-

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

derived classic forms. The scores of the Beethoven
symphonies give us many examples of the effects fur-
nished by violin figures in detached phrasing; the first
theme of the first symphony.

the principal theme of the fifth (see p. 186), and
the scherzo of the ninth ,""j£ I J^J | r p T I f ^ I* 1 1* T f^

will remind those to whom these works are familiar
of the mysterious and excited whisperings or the
stormy restlessness which Beethoven portrays in the
orchestra. Among more modem examples we may
cite the beginning of Mendelssohn's overture to *A Mid-
summer Night's Dream,' with its elfin voices, or to the
more rugged effects of the insistent forging motive in

and the familiar *beat-

Siegfried:

ing' theme in the second act of Die Meistersinger.

These citations give only the most general idea of
the two effects furnished by legato and detached bow-
ing. We need hardly add that the number and variety
of these effects is infinite and that they cover in their
scope the entire range of musical expression and de-
lineation, while combined legato and detached phras-
ings which are applied to a large part of violin music
offer a limitless variety of rhythmical design and
figuration.

There are a few special effects which are commonly
used in violin playing, both in solo performance and in
orchestral ensemble. One of these is known as con
sordino, or *with the mute.' The mute is a small piece
of metal or shell split and pronged so as to fit over the
bridge of the violin, where it acts as a damper to the
vibration of the instrument. This damping gives to the
instrument's tone the beautifully veiled quality which

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS OF ORCHESTRA

must be familiar to all who know the orchestra's effects.
The effects of a mass of strings playing thus muted is
very beautiful and is much used in modern scoring.
Weber, in his magic world of romanticism, often used
the muted strings, as in the accompanying violin pas-
F»M« wEBKB'B 'obkron' gggg q^ jhg begiuuing of thc

ill. M^^ «- I ff^^ — II ^^^^^^ overture, while in the
\ ffl (*■" ^Ijtp^ T-^ I — I Euryanthe overture there is the
\^ )'^\ ^^ ^T^J II famous passage where eight solo
" "f f3T '*"r J^ violins play those wonderful har-
monies of haunting mystery. Wagner uses the muted
strings, as he uses all orchestral effects, with a genius
for painting and description which is his alone. Noth-
ing of more moving beauty exists in music than when,
in the end of Act II of Die Meistersinger, after the con-
fusion of the riot scene, the deserted street is floode'd
with silver moonlight and the strings, all muted, play
the exquisite theme of the summer night:

Moderato molto

A-

Another effect much used in the orchestra is that of
the so-called tremolo, which, as the name implies, is an
effect obtained by a quick trembling motion of the bow.
Its origin dates from that of the orchestra itself (see
Chapter II, page 82), and has been ever since one of
the important mediums of dramatic portrayal. There
are several kinds of tremolo; sometimes the notes of
a melody are made to have greater force and brilliancy
by being played as a tremolo, that is, rapidly reiter-
ated by short strokes of the
bow. Such passages are no-
tated as is the accompanying
from the Freischiitz overture, where the ascending ar-
peggio is given an excited rush by this doubling of its

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

notes. This form of tremolo may be also employed to add
intensity to the emotional stress of a melody, as in the
following first-violin part from the Tristan *Liehestod :

A much used effect is that of
the entire string body of the
orchestra playing together in
tremolo. This eifect, which has restless mystery in
softer passages and stormy passion in the louder, has
been an important feature of dramatic music since the
days of Gluck, who was the first to sense its possibil-
ities. An example often quoted as illustrative of the
stormy dramatic tremolo is the passage in Act I of Die
Walkiire, where Siegmund addresses the sword before
attempting to wrench it from the tree, and where, at the
words 'Wdlse! Wdlse!' the orchestra roars with the
sonority of the chord which the strings play in fortis-
simo tremolo. Still another form of tremolo is that
consisting of the rapid and alternate sounding of two
different notes. These are often played with legato
bowing and give a shimmering or undulating play of
harmony unlike that obtained by any other process.
The 'Waldweben' in Siegfried is a fine example of this
effect.

Equally important as the tremolo is the pizzicato or
plucked string, an effect which also dates from the
earliest days of the violin. The pizzicato is valuable in
orchestral music as a marker of rhythm, and also in
the obtaining of certain color effects. In giving rhyth-
mic emphasis its effectiveness is due to the incisive
quality of even its softest tones, which may be easily
heard above the orchestra, thereby enabling it to define
sharply any rhythmical formula which it may be out-
lining. As a color effect it lends piquancy, and it is
often used in imitation of the more legitimate plucked
string instruments; thus Mozart in the Don Giovanni
serenade imitates the mandohn with the pizzicato of
the strings. Sometimes the entire string body plays a

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS OF ORCHESTRA

passage in pizzicato and in Tschaikowsky's fourth sym-
phony there is a scherzo in which all the strings play
pizzicato throughout the entire movement.

Less commonly used as a general orchestral effect,
but nevertheless an important phase of violin technique,
is the production of the harmonic tones, commonly
called 'harmonics.' These notes are obtained by plac-
ing the finger lightly upon the string instead of pressing
it firmly down. This causes the string to vibrate, not
in its whole length, but only in segments. There are
thus obtained certain clear, whistling or flute-like tones,
which, as we have said, are called harmonics, or flage-
olet tones. By a system of firmly stopping the strings at
certain points with the first finger and lightly placing
the fourth finger on other points of the string there
are obtained higher overtones, known as artificial har-
monics. While modern composers are somewhat more
intrepid in the use of harmonics than were earlier com-
posers (these notes are not under the complete control
of all players at all times), they are not as commonly
used as are the tremolo and pizzicato. One of the best
known examples of the harmonic in orchestral music
is found in the opening chords of the Lohengrin prel-
ude, where the high notes of the violins are played in
harmonics.

It is possible to play chords on the violin either with
the notes sounding together, or as nearly together as
the bow sweeping over adjacent strings can make them,
or in arpeggio form, that is, in the form of broken
chords. The former of these methods involves the
use of what is known as 'double-stopping,' and, except
to the experienced ear, it does not constitute a discern-
ible orchestral eff'ect, as it would be difficult for the
untrained ear to tell whether a chord of three notes
had been played by all the violins playing all three
notes or by their divided forces, each taking one of the
notes. The double stop, however, is much used in all

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the stringed instruments, and its use lends sonority to
the tone of the strings. The arpeggio form of the chord
is an important and telling effect in modern orchestra-
tion. By its employment an undulating motion is given
to the string parts which is very effective. Wagner uses
such passages frequently, and they have an important
place in the *tone painting' of modem orchestration.
For an example of their use the reader may recall
the arpeggios of the violins in the Feuerzauber of Die
Walkiire.

We have treated the violin and its effects at some
length because its principles are applied to the entire
string body — ^by far the most expressive and important
section of the orchestra.

The viola, which is the third member of the string
quartet and the tenor of the four-part harmony as
played by strings, may be generally described as a vio-
lin model, one-fifth larger than the violin proper. This,
technically speaking, is not correct, for there are dif-
ferences in the construction of the violin and the viola
which differentiate their color quality. There is also
lacking a uniformity in the size of violas which makes
it impossible to compare their size with that of the
violin with any mathematical accuracy. Apart from
these differences, the viola answers to the description
of the violin given in the foregoing pages. The four
strings of the viola are tuned to a perfect fifth lower
than those of the violin; the open strings sounding the

following notes: IIK ii | . All that was said of the

technique of the violin applies to that of the viola,
and the effects for the former, which we have de-
scribed, are all obtainable on the viola, the differences
being those of pitch and color. The viola, because of
its lower pitch, naturally lacks the brilliancy of tone
which the higher register of the violin possesses; there
is, moreover, a marked sombreness of tone peculiar to

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS OF ORCHESTRA

the viola which lends it an individual color, and which
gives it a place of its own among the orchestral tints.
This individuality of tone is not felt in passages employ-
ing all the strings in equally balanced ensemble, where
the violas blend perfectly with the higher pitched violin
and the lower tone of the 'celli. It is, however, in scor-
ing where the violas are made to stand out in melodic
relief, that their peculiar timbre becomes apparent.
A much used effect in scoring is that obtained by omit-
ting the violins entirely and allowing the violas to
sound the melody of the string parts, whose sombre-
ness is thus unilluminated by the more brilliant tone
of the violin. Strauss * quotes, as an example of such
an effect, the introduction to Wolfram's song, Blick' ich
umher, in the second act of Tannhduser, where the
violas, playing in three parts, sound the upper part
of the string harmonies, the lower voices being taken
by the 'celli. Another excellent example which Strauss
cites as showing a characteristic effect of violas, is the
forging motive in Siegfried,

which the violas sound in 'cowardly merriment,' the de-
scription admirably portraying the somewhat sinister
tone which the violas carry in this passage. Other
dramatic efifects of the viola are frequently found
throughout Wagner's works, ranging in feeling from
the familiar upward swirl at the beginning of the Tann-
hduser Bacchanale:

to the mocking sputterings of the strings that accom-
pany Beckmesser's discomfort in Act III of Meister-
singer.

The violoncello, the bass of the string quartet proper,

* Berlloz-Strauss : Instrumentationalehre.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

usually had as its function in the classic orchestra the
playing of the bass part, in which it was seconded by
the double basses, the parts for the two instruments
being often written on one line of the score. Modem
orchestration, however, has emancipated the 'cello from
this inconspicuous though important role, and its treat-
ment in modem art gives to it a variety and scope
second only to that of the violin.

The 'cello belongs to the violin family, and, speaking
generally, may be said to be built upon the same lines,
though, as in the case of the viola, there are many de-
tails of its model which are peculiarljr its own. The
four strings of the 'cello are tuned to one octave
below those of the viola, as follows : jy ^ o^ ,
The difiference in size between the ^

'cello and the violin being consider-
ably greater than that between the
viola and violin, the 'cello is in a class
by itself as regards the technical fea-
tures of its manipulation. It may be
readily realized that an instrument of
the size of the 'cello cannot be han-
dled with the same ease as the violin.
It naturally follows that in very rapid
passages or in rapid transitions of
position the 'cello is at a disadvan-
tage; parts employing such figures
are not its most effective utterances.
The 'cello is perhaps heard to its best
advantage in the smoothly flowing
cantilena, and it is probably in such
passages that the average listener
most readily recognizes the eloquent
and sensuous richness of its sustained
tone. So common are these 'cello
melodies in orchestral music and so easily recog-
nizable that it seems needless to quote examples; but,

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS OF ORCHESTRA

that the less erudite may recall to their imagination
some of these passages, we may mention the beauti-
ful second theme of Schubert's unfinished sjrmphony

1^1 I f " IM r J ' IM r j I ^ r r 1 1 £=^ measures of the
famous 5/4 allegretto of Tschaikowsky's Sixth Sym-
phony.

The upper register of the 'cello is very telling in
quality and of the most poignant expressiveness. The
opening phrase of *Tristan and Isolde,' which, as For-
syth says, 'foretells a drama,' exemplifies well this regis-
ter of the 'cello. Again these upper notes may, in
louder passages, fill the orches-
tra with an exciting shriek, as
in the passage from Strauss's
Feuersnot, depicting the burst-
ing forth of flames. The lower
register of the 'cello is equally
effective in its rich sonority, the
resonant dronings of open fifths
on its lower strings being
a familiar color in the orches-
tra. The special violin ef-
fects, pizzicato, con sordini,
etc., which have been described,
are also applicable to the 'cello
with the modifications which
the instrument's technique de-
mands. The pizzicato in the
'cello is most effective and is
very telling through all the reg-
isters of the instrument Be-
sides being employed frequent-
ly in the rhythmical markings
of a pizzicato beat in the bass,
it is often used in playing the
arpeggio figures of an accom-

DOUBLB-BAaa

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

panying voice with an effect which gives great life and
piquancy to a passage thus scored. Divided 'celli are
a common feature of modem scoring and they often
play in three, four, or more parts. No more beautiful
example exists than the following passage from Act I
of Siegfried:

Hoderato

The double bass is the lowest pitched instrument of
the string orchestra and the largest in size. There are
few probably to whom its form is not familiar, for the
row of large 'fiddles' which stand behind the orchestra
is one of its most conspicuous features. If we examine
the model of the double bass we shall discover that it is
different from that of the other members of the stringed
group; it is, in fact, the last survivor of the older viol
group (see Chapter II, page 59f) and still retains the
characteristically shaped shoulders of the older instru-
ments. The double bass in general use to-day has
four strings, tuned to the following notes: •J^ y.; |
(These notes are those notated for the instru- "*
ment in writing for it; in sound they are an octave
lower.)

Restricted even more than the 'cello by its unwieldy
size and by the heaviness of its tone, the double bass
has a limited gamut of expression. It can hardly be
said to be a melodic instrument in the sense in which
the other stringed instruments are melodic, that is,
an instrument which can lend vocal sense to cantilena
passages. Its place as the supporter of the orchestra
gives it, however, much of melodic line to follow, and
wherever it has a sweeping line of melody its solemn
voice is hardly less eloquent than the more lyric tones

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS OF ORCHESTRA

of its smaller relatives. The double bass is not an im-
portant factor in color; its presence solidifies the or-
chestral tone and gives it foundation rather than in any
way changing its color. The double bass is rarely em-
ployed as a solo instrument in the orchestra; in its
melodic use it is usually accompanied by the 'celli, as
in the last movement of the Ninth Symphony.

The harp is a plucked string instrument of forty-
seven strings, possessing a very wide range : *^^i
Its strings are not chromatically tuned
(that is, in semi-tones), but to the diatonic _
notes of the C-flat scale. By means of a k^
set of seven pedals a mechanism is operated which stops
the strings at various points, thereby altering their pitch
and thus changing the key of the entire scale of the in-
strument. This method involves a rather subtle and
complicated technique, and the
harp is considerably restricted
in its possibilities of modulation.
Many composers with little or
no knowledge of the instru-
ment's technique write difficult
and often impossible passages
for it

The tone of the harp is dis-
tinctly beautiful and one which
carries through the entire or-
chestral body of sound by
reason of its bell-like clarity and
resonance. The most usual and
the most effective use of the
harp is in arpeggio passages
very much like the conventional
arpeggios of the piano; these are
sometimes in the form of broken
chords played up and down

through the harmonies, as in the final scene of Tristan

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

and Isolde,*
times in the
long, sweep-
through-

and some-
f o r m of
ing chords
out a wide

range of the instrument's compass. Another very effec-
tive use of the harp, and one very commonly used in
modem scores, is in the playing of glissando passages,
that is, the rapid running of the fingers over the strings,
producing a rushing scale of great brilliancy. The
glissando is used with rare pictorial and dramatic ef-
fect in the second act of Parsifal, when it accompanies
the flight of the spear which Klingsor hurls at Parsifal.
The harp is also capable of harmonic tones of great
beauty, and occasionally it is used as a melodic instru-
ment, in which employment it usually sets off the edge
of a melody played by some other instrument.

We have stated before that the cause of musical tone
obtained by wind instruments is the vibration of the air
column contained within their tubes, these columns
being molded in shape and consequent blending of
overtones by the various shapes and mechanisms of
the different instruments. Something of the laws which
control these processes must be understood before the
processes themselves may be comprehended as prac-
ticalities. One of the most fundamental of these laws
is that governing the action of air vibrations in the
two principal classes of pipe, namely, open pipes and
stopped pipes. The difference in the vibration proc-
esses in these two kinds of pipes is concisely and clearly
described by William H. Stone in the following para-
graph: *

* Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians: Vol. V (Art 'Vibrations
of Air in Pipes').

THE WOOD-WIND INSTRUMENTS

'When both ends of the tube (pipe) are open, a pulse
travelling backwards and forwards within it is com-
pletely restored to its original state after traversing
twice the length of the tube, suffering in the process
two reflections; but when one end is closed a double
passage is not sufficient to complete the cycle of
changes. The original state cannot be recovered until
two reflections have occurred from the open end, and
the pulse has travelled over four times the length of the
pipe. To make the unstopped tube yield the same note
as the stopped, it would be necessary to give it double
the length.'

From these processes there results the familiar phe-
nomenon, namely, that the stopped pipe sounds one
octave lower than an open pipe. This law, as we shall
later see, has an important bearing on the shapes and
mechanisms of orchestral instruments. Another phe-
nomenon of acoustics is this: that a column, when the
pressure of air is increased or 'overblown,' divides it-
self into smaller vibrating sections and thus yields cer-
tain of the 'upper partial' tones. In this respect the
open and stopped pipes again differ; the fractional di-
vision taking place in their air columns under in-
creased pressure is not the same, the open pipe yield-
ing all of the notes of the harmonic series, while the
stopped pipe gives only the odd numbers of the series.
These relations are generally known as the laws of Ber-
noulli, after Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1781), who is
credited with their discovery.

In applying these laws to the wind instruments of the
orchestra and their construction, we are confronted
with a bewildering maze of phenomena. Briefly put,
we may say that these instruments follow the laws of
stopped and open pipes according to the shape of their
bore, whether it be cylindrical or vertical. From a
plain pipe without mechanism of key or ventil, the
notes of the harmonic series may be obtained by in-

[THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

creasing the pressure of the breath. The equipment
of brass and wood-wind instruments with their com-
plicated paraphernaha of keys and ventils is for the
purpose of altering the length of the fundamental vi-
brating column, thus allowing the production, by 'over-
blowing,* of a new series of overtones, and so giving
us on most of these modem instruments a complete
chromatic scale throughout their registers.

With a comprehension of these acoustic principles,
we are now in a position to inquire into the mechanism
and functions of the individual instruments of the wind
orchestra. We will consider these in the order in which
they are placed in the score (beginning at the top), with
certain deviation for the sake of convenience.

The flute is classified among the wood-wind instru-
ments, although, as before stated, modern flutes are
generally made of metal, silver or gold. Wooden
flutes are made from cocus wood or ebonite.
The tube of the flute has a bore of 19 millimetres
and is composed of three parts : the head, com-
prising about one4hird of the instrument's
length and containing the embouchure (mouth
hole) ; the body, which is the main length of the
instrument, comprising the holes and keys; and
the foot or tail joint. At the head end of the
flute there is a plug so that the flute is nominally
a stopped pipe, but it has, owing to the nature of
its embouchure, the properties of an open pipe.
The flute is without reed and tone is produced
by the player's breath passing over the sharp
edge of the embouchure. The present-day flute,
as we shall see (Chapter HI), is the outcome of
much experimentation and experience, resulting
in a system of holes and keys which give to it a
comparatively even series of registers and a con-
siderably greater degree of flexibility than
that of any of the other wind instruments. The flute

THE WOOD-WIND INSTRUMENTS

has three distinct registers, the lowest-pitched of
which is bounded by the following notes :

, and

which possesses a peculiar reediness and a not alto-
gether pleasing breathy quality. The middle and
upper registers, obtained by the process of 'overblow-
ing' described before, are much purer in quality, the
higher notes in their penetrating but velvety quality
having been well described as being 'lark-like.'

The flute has an important place on the orchestral
palette; its lower register is capable of lending a new
touch of color in both solo passages and softer com-
binations, while its upper register is constantly em-
ployed to put a brilliant edge on the harmonies of either
string or wind choirs. We need but add a few quota-
tions to recall to the reader some of the more striking
examples of its use in some standard scores. Its qual-
ity as a solo instrument is well exemplified in the slow
movement of Tschaikowsky's B-flat minor piano con-
certo, where against the pizzicato strings the flute sings
the following theme:

a passage which has something of the elegiac quality
which Berlioz attributed to the instrument, 'an accent
of desolation but at the same time of humility and resig-
nation.' A more brilliant phrase and a fine example of
the streaming velvety quality of the flute in legato pas-
sages is the 'ardor' motif in the second act of 'Tristan
and Isolde.'

The flute in its higher register is used in brilliant full
orchestra passages as a high light, where with trills,
rapid running passages or arpeggios, it lends great bril-

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

liancy to the color. Without making quotations we may
mention the arpeggios of the 'magic fire' music in Die
Walkiire and the trills and runs of the ride of the Val-
kyries in the same opera.

The piccolo is a small instrument of the flute family.
It is much smaller than the flute, being less than half
as long, and it is much more limited in its tonal possi-
bilities. Its pitch is an octave higher than the flute
and its principal service in the orchestra is that of
doubling the flute in brilliant passages when it adds a
still higher degree of brilliancy. In fortissimo it may
be made to utter a fiendish shriek. The piccolo is
not, however, limited to this effect; in its lower notes
and in pianissimo passages it is capable of imparting
a delicacy more sharp and piquant than the flute can
give. A well-known and striking example of the pic-
colo in solo passages is that from Act I of Carmen,
where the two piccolos play the impish march in the
chorus of street gamins :

The oboe is the most important of the so-called reed
instruments of the orchestra. With the English horn
and bassoon it forms a family of what are known as
double reed instruments, that is, instruments whose
mouthpiece consists of two flexible reeds or slits of cane
bound together so that there remains but the slightest
aperture between them. These reeds are placed be-
tween the player's lips and are made to vibrate by the
pressure of his lips and breath. The tube is of cocus,
ebonite or rosewood, conically bored and having at its
lower end a 'bell' (a widening of the tube) . The mech-
anism for altering the length of its tube is like that of
the flute, a series of holes which are opened and stopped
by the fingers or by stoppers manipulated by a series
of keys, trackers and collars more complicated than

THE WOOD-WIND INSTRUMENTS

those of the flute but calculated after the principles of

ithe great improvements applied to that instru-
ment by Boehm. The fundamental scale of the
oboe is obtained by the manipulation of these
keys, while the notes of the upper octaves are
the result of the 'overblowing' process which we
have described on page 23. The
oboe has the following range : ____

The tone of the oboe in its rich "^ ^
nasal reediness would be impossible to describe
to one who had not heard the instrument; to one
familiar with its tone it is one of the most easily
distinguished colors of the orchestra. In its lower
register it is full and rich, and if not well played,
somewhat strident; its middle register has much
the same quality, somewhat less full, while the
upper notes are sharp and thin, and less reedy.
The range of expression which the oboe possesses
is very great, and its sensitive tone is capable of
being molded to a wide variety of moods. Its
plaintive note has ever filled the imagination of tone
painters — that 'spirit-like and mournful note of the
oboe' which smote the soul and heart of the dying mu-
sician in Wagner's pathetic short story.*

Many of the most expressive melodies of the orches-
tral repertoire are allotted to the oboe. So numerous
are these, and so many of them are well known,
that it seems all but needless to make quotations of any
special one; but for the sake of completeness and for
those not yet thoroughly familiar with the oboe's tone,
let us point to the recitando in the first movement of
Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, where the oboe speaks
with a dramatic intensity which before Beethoven's
day was unknown to it :

* Etn Bnde tn Paris.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Again, it chants with overpowering solemnity the theme
of the funeral march in the Eroica Symphony, while
in Tannhduser (Act II) it sings the sweet sadness of
Elizabeth's reminiscences — all indicative of the peculiar
poignancy of this instrument.

From the days of Lully down through all the orches-
tral ages, the oboe has been the 'shepherd's pipe' of
the pastoral scene, and, although in latter days the cor
anglais usurps its place in Arcady, it still has in its
voice the implication of pastoral delights. Added to
these capabilities of the oboe is that of expressing the
gay, the humorous, or the mocking. No better exam-
ple of this feeling could be given than the caricatured
Meistersinger motif as the oboe pipes it in the prelude.

mo/To stcueato

The passage near the end of Strauss's Till Eulenspiegel
depicting the death of the rollicking hero, shows a more

grim humor:

/^ -

V2.

The cor anglais or English horn is not, as its name
would seem to imply, related to the horn family, but is
a wood-wind instrument of the reed family, forming
an alto of the group which embraces the oboe and
bassoon, its pitch being lower than the oboe. In the
English horn we find the first of what are known as
'transposing' instruments, that is, instruments which do
not sound the actual notes written for them, or, speak-
ing more exactly from a practical standpoint, instru-
ments whose parts are not written at the pitch at which
they are to sound. This rather inconvenient feature of
orchestral notation had its rise in the fact that the vari-
ous wind instruments are tuned to various keys and
that middle C represents a certain note on their mechan-

THE WOOD-WIND INSTRUMENTS

ism rather than a fixed sound. It therefore becomes

necessary to suggest to them the mechanism necessary

to produce that conditional C, if it is wished to

sound it, and that is often represented by another

note of the scale. These systems are sometimes

the result of an arbitrarily evolved convention

and in other cases they are adapted to the most

convenient notation as regards key signature.*

The construction of the English horn is very

■^ similar to that of the oboe, but it is somewhat

*"' larger and instead of the usual bell end of the

oboe and clarinet it has a bulbous 'bell.* The

reed of the English horn is like that of the oboe,

but is larger and thicker. The key mechanism

and acoustic principles of the English horn

are similar to those of the oboe and

the range of the instrument is this :

The tone of the English horn re-
sembles in a degree that of the oboe, but it is
somewhat more veiled and sadder in quality, it
■NQLiBB might almost be said to have the quality of a
muted oboe. In the orchestra its voice lends a
rich tone of warm color when used in combination
and as a solo instrument it has a poignantly expressive
quality. A much-quoted example of the instrument's
use, and one which shows best its peculiarly penetrating
sadness, is that of its solo part in the largo from
Dvorak's 'New World Symphony':

Largo

^I'Lit fyrvii I J 1 1 1 ,1 1 1 1 1 fTj I ;^j I

We have spoken before of the English horn as the
portrayer of the pastoral. One of the first and un-
doubtedly most familiar passages of this nature is the

* The transposing instruments of the usual orchestra are the English
horn, the clarinet, the bass clarinet, the double bassoon, the horn and
trumpet. The other instruments are known as 'non-transposing.'

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

following passage in the overture to Rossini's 'William
TelF:

4'}\ rjffl] I fjT]F] I ij^

a passage which finds its modem echo in the passage at
the end of Strauss's Bin Heldenlehen, in which the Eng-
lish horn chants the peaceful retirement of the hero to
the joys of a rustic retreat

The most famous example of solo writing for the
English horn is the long unaccompanied passage at
the beginning of the third act of Tristan and Isolde,'
in which the pastoral quality is blended with a strange
and haunting loneliness that sets the color of the scene
with a convincing touch :

Later in the same act, as the vessel bearing Isolde is
sighted, the instrument plays a jubilant sort of fan-
fare,* which illustrates another effective use:

The bassoon or fagott is the bass of the family of
double reed instruments. The reed of the bassoon is
like that of the oboe and cor anglais, but in shape and
mechanism the instrument differs considerably. The
bassoon is a pipe of conical bore doubled upon itself
so that its length is about four feet. The reed does not
proceed directly from the instrument as in the oboe,
but communicates with the smaller and shorter end by

* A note in the score instructs that this passage should be so performed
that 'it have the effect of a very powerful natural instrument, such as the
alpen-horn'; it is therefore suggested that It be either performed upon that
instrument or that the English horn be reenforced by the employment of
oboes and clarinets. Ordinarily, however, the English horn performs the
passage alone. In certain European opera houses there is employed for
this purpose an instrument known as the taragoto or holztrompete, a small
simple wooden instrument, conical in shape and having a clarinet reed.

THE WOOD-WIND INSTRUMENTS

a small curved metal tube known as the crook.
The mouth of the instrument terminates in a
bell. The modus operandi of the bassoon is
in principle like that of the other reed instru-
ments; the upper notes are produced by the
usual overblowing process and an elaborate
equipment of keys gives the instrument a
complete chromatic scale through its entire
compass, which is as follows:

The tone of the bassoon is one
that invites colorful adjectives to its descrip-
tion. The instrument is capable of a very
effective staccato which emphasizes somewhat
its hollow grotesqueness and which has made
the instrument in turn the vehicle of much
of the humorous or the spectral in orchestral
music. But, important as is this character of
the bassoon, it is only one of its qualities. It
is capable of lyric expression as well, and in
°"°°^" the smooth, even, and not too highly colored
middle register it is a valuable element in blending com-
binations of wood-wind. It is also used with the horns.
Forsyth * calls attention to the fact that this middle
register of the bassoon is the one part of the wood-
wind's tone that has in it the suggestion of the baritone
voice. No better example can be shown of the effective-
ness of the bassoon in expressive legato than the short
solo which it has in the andante of Beethoven's Fifth
Symphony :

The opening measures of Tschaikowsky's Sixth Sym-
phony employ the bassoon and show the instrument's
lower register in its solemn sadness. As illustrations of
the aforementioned humorous qualities of the bassoon,
a volume of quotations might be printed; to all who

'Orchestration.'

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

know the instrument at all two examples must immedi-
ately suggest themselves, namely, the solo at the end of
the first act of Die Meistersinger, which
portrays Sachs' amused disgust at the
stupidity of the pedantic masters, and the
first allegro theme in L'apprenti-sorcier of
Dukas.

The double bassoon (contra-fagott) is
to the wood-wind group somewhat as is
the double bass to the strings, but it is not
in as common use in the orchestra as is
its string counterpart, and it is only in
more recent times that the instrument has
been among the regularly employed or-
chestral forces. The double bassoon is a
conical pipe of sixteen feet in length,
doubled back upon itself four times and
terminating at its lower end in a metal bell
pointing downward. It has a complete
chromatic scale throughout its
whole compass and the per-
fected modem instrument is ^
capable of considerable flexibility and delicacy of tone.
The double bassoon is not used as a solo instrument,
its chief function being that of furnishing a pro-
found double bass tone in fully scored passages or of
furnishing a sepulchral bass in combinations where
such color is called for. An excellent and telling exam-
ple of this effect is in the opening measures of Strauss's
Tod und Verkldrung, where, after the hesitating pulses
of the strings, the wood-wind enter on a C minor chord
with the double bassoon sounding a low C that seems
to come from a bottomless pit.

The clarinet belongs to another sub-division of the
wood-wind family than do the instruments already
treated; it is the principal member of the group known
as *single reed* instruments. In these instruments the

DOUBLB bASSOON

THE WOOD-WIND INSTRUMENTS

mouthpiece is so constructed that a single piece of reed,
spatula-shaped and much larger than the oboe reed, is
placed against an aperture known as the 'table,' against
which it beats when set in motion by the play-
er's breath. The tube of the clarinet is cylin-
drical and is therefore subject to the laws
whereby cylindrical pipes have the qualities of
a stopped pipe; hence its fundamental note
lies an octave lower than would that of a
conical pipe of the same length. It also over-
blows a twelfth and is by these two character-
istics radically different in technique from the
oboe. The modem Boehm system clarinet has
twenty-one keys. There are several differently
pitched clarinets in use. Some of these differ
considerably in tone quality, others only slight-
ly, the choice of certain ones being a matter of
technical convenience. The most generally
used clarinets are those known respectively as
the A and the B-flat clarinets; while there is
slight difference of tone in these two instru-
ments, the determining factor in choosing
either of them is the key of the composition
to be written, the choice usually falling on that whose
key signature would involve the use of the smallest
number of sharps or flats. In the case of the other and
more rarely used clarinets, those in D, and in E-flat,
the question becomes one of tonal effect, these two in-
struments being much more brilliant and penetrating
in tone. The clarinet in E-flat is used in the military
band to lend the necessary brilliancy. Strauss em-
ployed both the D and the E-flat clarinets for special
effects in Till Eulenspiegel and Ein Heldenleben.

The clarinet possesses the following range:

and three distinctive tonal qualities in its three reg-

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

isters. The lowest register, known as the chalumeau,
is of deep and full reediness, rich in color; the middle
register has the same quality modified considerably;
while the upper register is very brilliant and extremely
penetrating when it is played loudly.

The clarinet is the most flexible of the reed instru-
ments. It is capable of performing rapidly the most
intricate passages with great fluency and accuracy of
pitch, while the varied quality of its tone gives it in-
finite scope of characteristic expression. Berlioz in his
treatise on instrumentation quotes the beautiful clarinet
solo in the Freischiitz overture:

Con molto passion*

which represents the appealing cry of Agathe, and
speaks of the power of the clarinet in thus portraying
*pure maidenly loveliness.* Strauss, in his enlarged
edition of the same work, points out that the same
instrument, in the same register, is employed in Parsifal
to depict the seductive tones of the temptress Kundry!
The clarinet is the virtuoso of the wood-wind, and
the majority of all brilliant and cadenza-like figures fall
to its part, whether made prominent in solo passage or
to give motion and life to a passage fully scored. One
of its most serviceable offices in the latter case is the
playing of ornamental arpeggio figures in which its
combined liquid smoothness and color render it most
eff'ective. We shall quote only a few examples of the
use of the clarinet — those which best typify its most
salient features. The following passage from the sec-
ond act of Die Meistersinger has been quoted by Cecil
Forsyth and is, as he says, *a happy example of the sud-
den and unexpected prominence of a clarinet passage' :

■assig

THE WOOD- WIND INSTRUMENTS

The opening theme of Tschaikowsky's Fifth Symphony,
as announced in the lower register of the clarinet, must
be well remembered by all who have ever heard it:

The impish quality of the clarinet is exemplified in the
rollicking theme of Till Eulenspiegel:

The bass clarinet, as its name implies, is the bass of
the clarinet family, and, unlike many of the other bass
wind instruments, it preserves much of the character
of its higher-voiced relative, its tone being throughout
its registers very much like that of the clarinet's chalu-
meau. The bass clarinet is in structure an enlarged
clarinet Originally identical in model
with the smaller instrument, there have
been some modifications in the instru-
ment of to-day, which has been made
shorter and less cumbersome by having
its two ends curved, the mouthpiece
being connected with the main tube by a
curved tube and the bell at the lower end
being curved upwards and outwards.
This bell is not of wood, as in the small
clarinet, but of metal. There were orig-
inally two pitches of bass clarinet cor-
responding to the clarinets in A and B-
flat; to-day, however, only the bass clar-
inet in B-flat is used.

Wagner has made the most extensive
use of the bass clarinet, and one or two
of the passages which he has given to it
will best prove suitable quotations to
show its most characteristic use. In

BASS CUOUNBT

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Lohengrin (Act H) the bass clarinet sounds the sinis-
ter motive of Vaming,* *){ » jfl^\ f^j v| while in an-
nouncing the *Wotan's anger' motive in Die Walkiire

the instrument takes

on the tone of 'solemn resignation' which Strauss'
attributes to it and as examples of which he mentions
Elizabeth's Prayer and King Mark's long scene in the
end of the second act of 'Tristan and Isolde.'

The brass instruments of the orchestra present a sys-
tem of technique quite different from that of the wood-
wind; their mechanism is simple, but their technique is
correspondingly more difficult, physical skill being re-
quired to perform many of the functions which are
mechanically operated in the wood-wind instruments.
To appreciate the principles of brass technique we must
first realize that the functions of the reed in the reed
instruments are performed in the brass by the player's
lips stretched across the mouthpiece of the instrument.
By altering the position of the lips and the pressure of
the breath the player is enabled to cause the vibrating
body of air in the tube of the instrument to divide into
its natural fractions and so to obtain the upper partials
of the fundamental note. This natural mechanism of
lip and breath is known as the embouchure, and upon
this the technique of all the brass instruments is largely
dependent. From what has been said of the laws gov-
erning the harmonic series, it will be readily seen that
by this process, applied to one length of tube, only cer-
tain notes may be obtained, that is, the notes of the
harmonic series. Like the wood-wind instruments,
the brass instruments are fitted with appliances to alter

THE BRASS INSTRUMENTS

the length of tube, thereby enabling the player to pro-
duce the upper partial note of a new fundamental tone
and thus furnishing these instruments with a complete
scale. In the horn, trumpet and tuba, this mechanism
consists of a series of valves which, in being operated
either singly or in combination, throw open various
lengths of tube, thereby altering the length of the
vibrating air column. In the trombone the mechanism
is radically different. The trombone is built on what
we may call a telescopic plan, the tubes of the instru-
ment being telescoped and capable of being worked
in a slide mechanism, whereby, as may be readily
seen, the alteration of the instrument's length and con-
sequent pitch may be easily effected. There exists
also a valve trombone, but the instrument in general
use in the orchestra is that employing the slide mech-
anism.

An important feature of the brass instruments and
one affecting their tone quality considerably is the
shape of the mouthpiece. This is of three varieties:
in the horns it is funnel-shaped and long, in the trum-
pet it is cup-shaped and hollow, from which we may de-
duce the fact that shallowness tends to increase the
brilliancy of the tone. The trombone has a cup-shaped
mouthpiece, as has the tuba, while certain other less
used brass, such as the bugle, have a mouthpiece in
which the two shapes are combined.

The horn, often called the French horn because of
its close relationship with one of the early forms of
the instrument, the French cor de chasse, is the most
important of the brass instruments. Not only is it one
of the most beautiful of the voices of the orchestra,
being a solo instrument of rare expressiveness, but it
occupies an important place in the orchestral ensem-
ble. To the horn body of four or more players is
entrusted a vital part of the musical structure of most
orchestral compositions. The horn is a coiled brass

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

tube seven feet and four inches long, its bore is coni-
cal and it has at its lower end a large bell about one
foot in diameter. It is fitted with three valves, the
functions of which have been above described and
which give it a complete chromatic scale throughout its

range. This is approximately as follows :

dependent upon the key of the horn used. All of
these notes are not easily obtained; the higher and
the lower are difficult to produce in a pure even
tone and there are many notes in its scale which are
not strictly in tune, the deviation from pitch being over-
come by various artifices on the part of the player. The
horn is a transposing instrument, its key being altered
by the application of its various crooks. As a rule, the
horn player of to-day employs the horn in F and trans-
poses music written for any other horn. Almost all of
the horn parts in modem scores are written for the
F horn.

The tone of the horn is capable of a variety of nuance
and color, dependent largely upon dynamic effects. Its

soft notes are of a mysterious
poetic quality; in its middle
strength it has a rich, warm
resonance capable of singing a
melodic phrase with all the
glowing color of the 'cello or of
the human voice. In its for-
tissimo it becomes a puissant
voice of brass, stirring or stri-
dent. The tone of the horn
must be one of the most famil-
iar to all those who listen at-
tentively at orchestral concerts.
There is a strong tempta-
tion in one's enthusiasm for
40

VALTB BOBM

THE BRASS INSTRUMENTS

this instrument to conjure up its golden tones in
quoting innumerable examples of its use. Lack of
space, however, forbids, and we give merely a brief
example of each of the above-mentioned qualities. The
horn's mysterious pianissimo is heard in the opening of

^ Solo /f\ ., - . f, •

the Oberon Overture £ j J-.J^ » ^^ lync quahty is

beautifully portrayed in the last movement of Brahms'
first sjrmphony, where against a tremolo in the strings
it plays this melody:

^?: ^> *^*

while the familiar horn call of Siegfried in Wagner's
opera shows us the horn in its more peculiarly vigorous
role: *

The scope and technique of the horn have been much
enlarged by modem composers, who treat the instru-
ment with the same freedom as they would a string
instrument, giving it sweeping melodic phrases of
great range in rapid tempi and requiring of it other
feats of technique, which in a previous age would have
been called impossible. Richard Strauss has under-
stood the instrument as has no other composer, and
in his works has revealed a new world of horn tech-

* Richard Strauss in bis edition of Berlioz's treatise on Instrumenta-
tion (page 279) speaks with enthusiasm of the protean qualities of the horn
and gives an excellent catalogue of examples showing Its varied powers of
expression.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

nique and expression. The opening theme of Till Eu-
lenspiegel

j:ihjikmT[i.j.jLi^j^j7jijr^jp|JJ]rtj','v7ij;h

shows the modem horn cutting some merry pranks
unknown to and unsuspected by its forefathers, while
the opening theme of Ein Heldenlehen shows a more
dignified and noble but equally bold flight:

One of the special effects of which the horn is capable
and which is much used is that obtained by the use of
stopped notes, of which there are several kinds. Cer-
tain notes are stopped by placing the hand in the bell,
thereby altering the pitch and producing a muffled tone,
and other notes are actually muted with a mute, a pear-
shaped piece of metal, which is inserted in the bell.
The effect of this mute is to reduce the tone to a whis-
pering echo in softer passages, but if the tone be in-
creased by a sforzando blowing there is obtained that
savage, snarling note of menace which is so familiar
a sound in modem color effects. Perhaps the best
known example of this effect is found in the last move-
ment of Tschaikowsky's Sixth Symphony:

#^^Tn=^

Fi*

1 n -^

to^

Striiw and Wood-wiod

Ban*

*yi|) ^ "tt** 8^

-M a—^

-i-

The trumpet is in reality the high voice of the brass
group, although its range is such that it has within its

THE BRASS INSTRUMENTS

capabilities low notes of great effec-
tiveness. It is a smaller instrument
than the horn, its tube being about
half the length of that of the horn.
It also is fitted with crooks to alter its
general pitch and the valve mech-
anism is employed in obtaining the
notes of its scale. Its
range is approximately this
However, the most extreme
notes are very difficult to play, and
hence rarely used. The trumpet is one
of the high colors of the orchestra and
as such it is more sparingly employed
than the horn or even the trombone.
One of its principal uses is to sound
the higher parts of the full brass chord
either in brass tutti or in combinations
with trombones or horns. The trum-
pets are often used by themselves in
fanfares and other similar effects. Modem orchestra-
tion employs the trumpet more frequently as a melodic
instrument and its tone is peculiarly adapted to the
type of melody represented by the 'Eucharist' motive
given to it in Parsifal:

VALTB TBCMPBT

I I I' I I ii' rr fi'r M'r i^f i

The muted trumpet is also frequently employed, and,
while it is also capable of tragic effect, it is in its re-
semblance to the toy trumpet more adapted to carica-
ture and to humorous characterization. For example,
it fits exactly the mood and color of the scene as it
plays the tune which ushers in the tailors in the last act
of Die Meistersinger.

(Ma Kwmfkt tmf4 t^kr wImrttfMmtm)

/ aura

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The comet or cornet-a-pistons is a brass instrument
of the trumpet family, but far inferior in tone, its
tube being shorter. It performs
much the same function as the
trumpet in the orchestral ensem-
ble, and it often replaces the trum-
pet when that instrument is un-
available. Certain scores, more-
over, particularly those of French
composers, have parts designated
especially for this instrument.

The trombone has been already
generally described (page 39).
There are several sizes of the in-
strument, varying in pitch. The
varieties in common use, those
which are found in the present-day orchestra, are the
tenor and the bass trombone. Of the former of these
the usual orchestra has two, of the latter it has one.

COBNET-l-PISTONS

their ranges being

and

respec-

tively.

In addition to these there exists a double bass trom-
bone, which is sometimes used to furnish the founda-
tion usually provided by the tuba.

The tone of the trombone is one of richness and no-
bility when played softly, and one of stirring stridency
in louder passages. It is essentially a harmonic instru-
ment, and the group usually play together or with the
tuba, which, with the trombones, furnish the harmonic
filling of the orchestra's lower registers. Its use as a
melodic instrument usually takes the form of announc-
ing a broad or ponderous theme in unison or in octaves.
The following example from Lohengrin will recall to

THE BRASS INSTRUMENTS

the reader's mind the martial pomp of the trombones
in the finale of Act I:

The trombone choir in its pianissimo tones will be re-
membered in the following passage by those to whom
Tschaikowsky's Sixth Symphony is familiar:

Andaota

tPPfP

The unisoned trombones in glaring melody are found
in many a page of modem score. The following phrase
from Das Rheingold is a familiar use in this sense.

Maestoso

The bass tuba is to the brass — in fact to the entire
wind forces of the orchestra — what the double bass is
to the strings. It serves as the foundational and solid
bass to the orchestra's fullest tone, unobtrusive yet sup-
porting in piano passages, richly resonant and solid in
its full tone. The instrument itself differs in structure

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

from the other brass instruments, but it may be classi-
fied as belonging to the valve brass. One of two sizes

^^=^

TBOUBOira

is used in the orchestra, either the one commonly
called Bombardon, with the following range :

or the contrabass tuba or bombardon in B-flat (pitched
a fourth lower), which Wagner used in the Ring des
Nihelungen.

The tuba is perhaps more effective as a solo instru-
ment than the trombone. Strauss mentions its fitness
to play dark and gloomy melodies, quoting as examples
the beginning of the Wagner 'Faust Overture' (see
page 317) and the 'Fafner' motive in Siegfried,

-r

Percussion lustruinenls of Ibt* Motlerii Oroheslra:

Krttlcdruni (Tympaiilt Triangle

Bass drum TonibourJiu-

Side drum (ilockeiiiipiel uix^tMli, or Xylo-

Cyinhnls phone (wood)

i Homb vith the foil

i/i)?.fjd'nO nT''fif»M-,jjff( >i» /tffjfttrJTf ■

( boo-

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

brass instruments, most of which are variously pitched
trumpets, trombones and tuba. Of the last-named,
however, there is an important variation in the tenor
tuba, a higher pitched tuba frequently called Wagner's
tenor tuba and used by him in the *Ring.' Strauss has
also employed it in his later works.

There are, however, several distinct families of brass
instruments, which, while not yet regularly incorpo-
rated into the orchestral body, are often used (particu-
larly in France) as orchestral instru-
ments; these are the saxhorns, the saxo-
phones, and the sarrusophones. It should
be noted that all of these instruments are
made in complete families, there being
four pitches of saxhorns, five of saxo-
A \^JI phones, and six of the sarrusophones.
^^ [ ^ The two last-named of these instruments,
though their tube is of brass, belong partly
to the wood-wind group inasmuch as they
are played by means of reeds (the saxo-
phones a single and the sarrusophones a
double reed), and as their tone is more
allied to that of the wood-winds than to
the brass. They are much used in mili-
tary bands and, although championed by
several decades of French composers,
their use in the orchestra is little more
than an experimental one.
The ophicleide, which played a conspic-
uous part in the orchestra of Meyerbeer and Berlioz, is
to-day quite obsolete as an orchestral instrument. It
was invented in 1806 by Prospero Guivier. The ophi-
cleide was made in various sizes and tunings, compris-
ing a bass-ophicleide in C, B and A-flat (compass three
octaves, with G, A and B below the bass staff as the low-
est notes respectively), an alto ophicleide in F and E-
flat (with E and D below the bass staff as the lowest

OFHICLEIDB

THE ORCHESTRAL SCORE

notes), and a contrabass ophicleide in F and E-flat
(compass two and one-half octaves, reaching one octave
below the alto ophicleide). Only the first named of the
instruments was, however, in general use. The bass-
horn, or Russian bassoon, which is sometimes con-
founded with the ophicleide, was, according to Fetis,
invented by Frichot, who published in 1800 a descrip-
tion and method of playing it But Regibo, a musician
of Lille, had already in 1780 improved the serpent (cf.
p. 79) by adding several keys and modifying the bore,
so that, according to some writers, he may be consid-
ered the inventor 'even of the so-called Russian bas-
soon.' The bass-horn was in use only during the early
years of the nineteenth century.

We now come to speak of the orchestral instruments
as used in combination, a subject so vast that only vol-
umes would suffice to give it any but the most super-
ficial treatment. It becomes an easy matter for the
person of average musical instincts to familiarize him-
self with the individual voices of the orchestra and to
recognize them as they stand out in solo relief against
the accompanying body, but to recognize their voices
in the midst of a full ensemble, to realize which are
present and to hear the hidden subtleties of the tints
which give rich color to the modern orchestral can-
was — these are the results of a lifetime of study. To
achieve them is granted only to richly endowed musical
natures.

It is true that the classic sjrmphony presents a less
formidable puzzle to the ear; the instruments enter in
groups and we can soon train ourselves to hear the
more or less conventionally combined wood-wind
against the strings and the occasional reenforcing brass.
But with the return of polyphony and its application to

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the orchestra, the idiom has become so complex that its
component parts are audible only to the highly prac-
ticed ear. Consequently this aspect of the subject may
be best left untouched in a chapter intended for the
laity. Among such, however, there are doubtless those
who have ambition to fathom the mystery of the or-
chestra's 'demoniac forces.' The assiduous study of
scores, the constant hearing of the orchestra and the
training of their mental ear by concentrated listen-
ing, must be their pursuance — not only the perusal of
literature concerning these subjects.

A word, however, must be said concerning the mar-
vellous system of notation comprised in a modem or-
chestral score. Ry the word score, or, as it is often
called, *full score,' is meant that version of the composi-
tion in which are set down the parts as played by all the
instruments and so arranged as to be capable of simulta-
neous perception by the eye, mind, and mental ear of
the practiced reader. From this score the conductor
reads and guides the orchestra according to its contents
and direction. The arrangement of the score is by fam-
ily groups in the following order (reading downward) :
The wood-wind instruments at the top: piccolo, flute,
oboe, clarinet, bass clarinet, bassoon, contra-bassoon;
then the brass: horns, trumpets, trombones, and tuba;
then the harp and instruments of percussion; and at
the bottom the strings : violins, violas, 'celli, and basses.
Generally speaking, in the wind instrument parts a pair
of instruments is placed upon one staff, although when
the parts are more elaborate a single staff is given to
each. Skillful score reading and playing from score
is the result of a long and specialized study, and many
a virtuoso who can read with startling brilliancy the
intricacies of a modern piano composition is absolutely
helpless before the simplest page of a classic symphonic
score.

CHAPTER II

HISTORY OF THE ORCHESTRA

The origins of instrumental music; instrumental practices of the earlier
dvilixations — Instrumental music in the Middle Ages; the troubadours and
other minstrels: origin of the bowed string instruments; town bands — In-
strumental practices of the sixteenth century; the lute and its music; the
▼iolin perfected; its early makers; wind instruments of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries — ^The earliest scores; Gabrieli and Monteverdi; the
orchestra of the early French and Italian opera: Lully, Campra, Rameau
and Scarlatti — The orchestra of Bach, Handel and Gluck — The beginning
of the classic symphony and symphonic orchestra; Stamitz and the Mann-
heim orchestra; Gossec.

To one who listens to the intricacies of a modem or-
chestral composition or who glances at the expansive
sheet of notation that the modern score presents, there
comes at first the impression of a vast and complex
mechanism peculiarly suggestive of the contempora-
neous trend of art development. But a moment's re-
flection or a cursory classification of the instrumental
units of the orchestra under their family heads will
show us that our present-day orchestra is the direct
outgrowth of a small group of primitive instruments,
its development having been the result partly of empiri-
cal practice, partly of scientific experiment. It is the
purpose of this chapter to trace the history of this de-
velopment.

The orchestra, defined as a body of players, each
playing upon a particular instrument its own pre-
scribed part, cannot be said to have existed earlier than
the latter part of the sixteenth century. Previous to
that the use of musical instruments in combination fol-

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

lowed no system, the grouping of instruments and their
performances being entirely extemporaneous in char-
acter, practices which precluded any possibility of a
specifically conceived or notated music for instrumen-
tal combinations. The first phases of instrumental his-
tory are thus reduced to an account of the individual
instruments, their origin and development. The scope
of this chapter in its bearing on the general subject
in hand — the orchestra — will necessitate that such a
survey be confined to such instruments as find a place
in the modern orchestra, and their progenitors.

In an earlier volume of this work it was said that
music began to be an art only when man's reflective
faculties brought law and order into the incoherent
sounds that had served the expression of his savage
state. But we have seen as well that in its most rudi-
mentary forms the music of the savage contains the
germs from which has evolved our civilized art. Sim-
ilarly the instrumental inventions of prehistoric man
may be said to represent the embryonic forms of the
modern orchestra. The clue to the habits and customs
of primitive man as furnished to us by those savage
tribes still extant is hardly infallible, as it is difficult
to determine how far the influence of civilization may
have extended. There is, consequently, a vast deal of
speculation and no small amount of disagreement
among ethnologists as to the order in which the sev-
eral classes of instruments were invented and as to the
locality of their origin.

We have traced in Volume I (Chap. I) some of the
varieties of instrumental devices in use by savage
tribes in various parts of the world. While stress was
there laid upon the wind and percussion instruments,
sufficient justification can be found for the statement
that man's earliest ingenuity devised the three principal
classes of musical instruments : stringed, wind, and per-
cussion. The only form of stringed instrument which.

EARLY INSTRUMENTAL PRACTICES

the earliest disclosures reveal to us is the plucked string
instrument, as exemplified by the harp and lyre, and it
is only at a comparatively late date that the appearance
of the bowed string instrument is noted. It is on this
hypothesis that is founded a somewhat general belief
that the instruments of this latter class are the distinct
product of a later civilization. As opposed to this
theory, however, it is interesting to note that of Walla-
schek,* who, from his observations of savage peoples,
remarks that the rubbing or stroking motion as dis-
tinguished from the hitting motion is an elementary
prompting, and, together with the existence of the mili-
tary bow, led at an early age to the invention of bowed
instruments. In further support of this theory he cites
the early use of primitive instruments of this class
among the Damaras, the Hottentots, and the An'balunda
negroes.

As we turn from the conjectural study of primitive
races and scan history for certain evidences of art de-
velopment, we look naturally to those earlier civiliza-
tions of the East and to those of Egypt, of Greece and
of Rome. Of the earliest of these ages from which no
literature descends to give us convincing proof, we
have as a clue to their customs only the bare sugges-
tions which their sculpture and graphic arts furnish us.
There is a tendency on the part of all historians and
ethnologists to draw upon their imaginations and to
produce for us pictures of communal life with much
vividness and with a wealth of detail which, in sight
of the paucity of known facts, is entirely unwarranted.
Thus we have a historian who has devoted several pages
to the description of what he would have us believe
was the Egyptian orchestra, and he has even gone so
far as to draw analogies between its tonal balance and
that of the orchestra of to-day.

The instrumental history of the Eastern civilizations

* 'Primitive Music,' London, 1893.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

stands less directly in line with European development
than does that of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Although
it is easy to trace the relationship of Oriental instru-
ments to their Occidental successors, and though in sev-
eral instances there is sufficient evidence to show that
the former are real prototypes of the latter, most of
the Eastern instruments have always had the exotic
shapes which they retain to-day and which seem to re-
move them to a more distant relationship than that
which the Egyptian or Hellenic instruments bear to our
own.

It is, then, in the traces of Egyptian civilization that
we find the real beginnings of our musical history and
it will be remembered that two instruments which are
depicted most in the monuments of that nation are
the harp and the so-called flute. Notable among dis-
coveries in Egypt are the traces which have been found
of each of these classes of instruments. The story of
the discovery (by Robert Rruce) of the painting upon
the walls of the temple at Thebes, representing a large
harp of thirteen strings,* is as well known to readers
of musical history as is that of the discovery by Flin-
ders Petrie of the two ancient flutes f in the tomb of
the Lady Maket. These later instruments date from
1450 B.C. and have been called *the oldest evidence of
the world's earliest music' t

The instrumental equipment of the Greeks was sim-
ilar to that of the Egyptians and was, in fact, inherited
from them. The harp and its varieties, the lyre and
kithara, the aulos, syrinx, and the trumpet, were its
chief representatives. §

What the Greeks had obtained from Egypt they
passed on to Rome, and the history of music during the
greater part of the Imperial Roman era is largely the

* See Charles Bumey's 'History of Music,' Vol, I and Plate VHI.

t For tunings of these Instruments see p. 67.

t H. Macauley Fitzgibbon : 'Flute,' London and New York, 1914.

§ For an account of these instruments and their use, see Vol. I, p. 123 ff.

EARLY INSTRUMENTAL PRACTICES

story of the transplanting of Greek music and its decay
effected by the empty practice of a virtuosity which the
voluptuousness of the age demanded.* There is, how-
ever, an interesting note to be added in relation to the
history of instrumental music of this period. Com-
barieu f recounts the very significant fact that in 187
B.C. there was a strong influx of Asiatic instruments
and performers into Roman musical practices. This is
also to be attributed to the decadent craving for sen-
sational novelty, and it is probable that its influences
were lasting, many of the motley array of instruments
of the age of the troubadours having first reached Eu-
rope at that time. It must, moreover, be added that
there were in use by the Romans several new and
distinctive forms of brass instruments of martial type.
Some of these were the *cornu,' the lituus, the buccina,
and the *tuba.'

We have seen that from the decline of the Roman
Empire to the beginning of the sixteenth century instru-
ments played but a small part in the development of mu-
sic, though during these centuries the scientific basis of
the art was laid. The establishment of notation and the
mathematical division of rhythm we have seen as dat-
ing from the later Middle Ages, while polyphony flour-
ished and harmony reached its incipient stages. The
medium whereby all this advancement received its im-
petus and in which it found expression was the human
voice, for, during the dark ages, music, together with
the other vestiges of civilization, took refuge within the
church and in the sequestration of the monastery, which
put its ban upon the profanities of instrumental mu-
sic. Thus vocal art attained its supremacy. The or-

* Cf. Vol. I, Chap. V.

t Histoire de la musique, Paris, 1913.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

gan alone was the object of ecclesiastical sanction and
advancement. Following the first crude *hydraulic' or-
gans of the Greeks there had been a steady develop-
ment of the instrument so that the eleventh century pos-
sessed instruments of considerable size and mechanical
perfection.*

In the meantime popular music was advancing only
by desultory steps, until the crusades and the conse-

UBOtSVAL HARP

quent establishment of relations with the East gave to
it the Impulse which led to the flowering of minstrelsy
— of the troubadour of Southern France, the trouvere
of Northern France, the minnesinger and mastersinger
of Germany.f

Of the instruments of this epoch a wealth of record
is preserved to us, but such is the confusion that exists

* For a detailed history of the organ, see Vol. VI, pp. 397 ff.
t Cf. Vol. I, Chap. Vn.

INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN MIDDLE AGES

in nomenclature (which denotes an instrument by sev-
eral names, or names instruments of different class or
variety alike) that it is impossible to be exact in cata-
loguing or describing them.

Of stringed instruments we find the older forms of
harp, lyre, and kithara as they descended from the
classic age, together with several varieties of the fam-
ily not heretofore met with, such as the smaller triangu-
lar shaped harp which had its origin among the Anglo-
Saxons of Great Britain, and the psaltery, which has
been described as a dulcimer played with the fingers
or a plectrum instead of by hammers. It has been
called the prototype of the spinet and harpsichord (cf.
VII. 4ff). Other instruments of this family were the
rote, a harp of many strings, being square instead of
triangular, and the nabelli, sometimes in triangular
shape and again in the shape of a half moon. More
worthy of attention is the introduction into Euro-
pean music at this time of the instruments of the
lute family, and of greater importance still the simul-
taneous general appearance of the bowed string
instrument. It was in the lute and its related instru-
ments that men first applied the ^stopping' principle,*
that is to say, the production of different tones upon
the same string by means of expressly shortening and
lengthening the vibrating portion of the string in press-
ing it against the finger-board. In the instruments of the
lyre family as used by the Greeks and Romans, differ-
ent tones were obtainable only upon different strings.
The lute, which was destined to enjoy a later popu-
larity, which only the ascendency of the violin termi-
nated, was found in a number of forms during this
age. Besides the instrument bearing the family name
there was the zittem, a sort of guitar with cat-gut
strings and several other unimportant variations.

* The principle may be said to have its real origin in the so-called
monochord of Pythagoras (Cf. Vol. I. p. 107).

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The origin of the bowed instrument, as has been sug-
gested before, is a question still unsettled and much dis-
cussed; the two theories which
divide historians being one
which places its birth in the
East and names the Arabian
rehab or the Hindoo ravanas-
trom as its eariiest form, and
the other which attributes its
origin to the crwth of the
ancient Welsh bards. The
weight of opinion, however,
seems to favor the latter the-
ory, and even though the ori-
ental instruments of this class
may have antedated it, there
can be no doubt that the
crwth is the earliest form
of the instrument to appear in
Europe. The tuning of its six
strings as given by Vidal * is

as follows:

THK CBWTH

A very comprehensible classification of early bowed
instruments is that made by Laurent Grilletf After
calling attention to the fact that these instruments in
their variety of models represented a group rather than
a family, he proceeds to catalogue the bowed instru-
ments as follows: the vielle {viel, viele), to which no
better name can be given in English than the generic
term viol; the rote (the name of the older plucked in-
strument was then given to a large viol), which was sus-
pended from the neck or placed between the legs as is
the modern 'cello; the rebec, somewhat larger than the
viol; and the gigue, the smallest of the group. The lat-

• Les Instruments d Archet, Vol. I, Paris, 1876.

t Les Ancitres du violon et du violoncelle, Paris, 1901.

ORIGIN OF BOWED STRING INSTRUMENTS

THS VIOL

ter was the Geige of Germany and may be called in
English the fiddle. These instruments are divided by
Grillet into two distinct groups as regards the shapes
of their bodies. The first of these groups comprised
the viol and the rote, the bodies of
which, whether round, oval, or
square, were always flat. The belly
and the back were connected by
ribs, and the neck was a separate
part from the body. This group
descended, without doubt, from
the crwth, the detachment of the
neck being the only actual change
of principle. Like the crwth, also,
these instruments were furnished
with a considerable number of
strings, including often the so-
called 'bourdons' or lower strings,
which stood apart from the other strings on the neck
and did not pass over the nut. In the second group are
placed the rebec and the gigue, the descendants of the
lira, the necks of which were not completely detached
from the body of the instrument, but ap-
peared to be a continuation of it. The body
of these instruments was bulging at the
lower end and was without ribs; it had, in
fact, something of the shape of the man-
dolin. The instruments of this class rarely
had more than two or three strings.

Prominent among mediaeval stringed in-
struments is that known as the 'trumpet-
marine,' which, altogether belying its name,
was a monochordal stringed instrument
necessitating the standing of the player, as does the
double bass. The term 'marine' in this connection
has had many explanations, the most plausible of
which is that which attributes it to the likeness of its

TB> oiona (bxbxc)

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

ISmPBT-UABINK

shape to that of the large
speaking trumpet sometimes
used on shipboard. The trum-
pet-marine was known in Ger-
many as the Trumscheit and
in England as the *nun*s fid-
dle/

A stringed instrument which
must be classed by itself was
the organistrum, which, to
judge from the frequency of
its mention in writings and its
portrayal in sculpture and
picture, must have filled an
important place in mediaeval
musical life. The form of the
instrument was that of the
lute, but it possessed a mech-
anism which was, in a way, the substitute for a bow. A
wheel at the end of the body was turned
by a handle; this, lightly touching the
strings, caused them to vibrate, and, by
means of keys like those of an organ, the
strings were touched at various points
while vibrating, thus producing the tone.
This instrument, which we may recognize
as an early form of the hurdy-gurdy, was
often played by two people, one employed
in turning the wheel and the other in the
manipulation of the keys. (See illustra-
tion in Vol. I, opp. page 202.

Among the wind instruments of this
time we find, as among the strings, the
relics of past civilizations in the older
instrumental shapes. The *pipe' of me-
diaeval days was presumably the double
reed or oboe which had been the Greek

OBQAMISTBUM

WIND INSTRUMENTS OF MIDDLE AGES

aulos and the Roman calamus. It was sometimes
known as the *shalem* or the *wait.' The syrinx or
frestelle was a species of flageolet which had a bowl-
shaped lower end. The great-horn, the origin of
which Rowbotham * attributes to the Anglo-Saxons,
was a trumpet of great length, the holding of which
so fatigued the arm that a stand was often provided
for its support. The bag-
pipe occupied a prominent
place among mediaeval in-
struments, and the author
cited above describes the
instrument of that time as
having a bag made of the
sewn up skin of a pig or
some other animal, which,
when inflated, assumed a
life-like appearance and
added a grotesque interest
to the performance. Before
leaving the subject of wind
instruments it is important
to note that the cross or
traverse flute dropped entirely from sight during the
Middle Ages. The percussion instruments which
seemed to have been in common use were the tabor or
drum, the tambourine, and the cymbalum and the tin-
tinnabulum, the two latter instiiiments consisting of
bells hung upon frames.

This list would seem to comprise the larger part of
the instruments which were of any importance, but,
as before stated, there is much that is vague in the
designation of these instruments by contemporary
writers. The most complete catalogue which the litera-
ture of the day furnishes us is in those lists of instru-
ments in the playing of which certain troubadours

• 'History of Music,* Vol. 3.

MEDIiBVAL TRUUPirrKB

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

boasted their skill. These lists include many names
which cannot be classified, but it is not unlikely that
they are other names for the instruments just described
or names of slightly varying forms of the same types of
instruments.

Having thus before us a more or less vivid picture
of these instruments of the Middle Ages, and by the aid
of this picture being enabled in some degree to con-
jure up in our imaginative
ear an approximate sense of
the tonal effect of some of
them, we may ask ourselves
what was played upon this
elaborate paraphernalia
and what place did it oc-
cupy in the musical prac-
tices of the day. On this
point we are left without
exact knowledge. It is nat-
urally assumed that the
chief instrumental function
was accompaniment, the
form of which can only be
conjectured. In the earlier
days of minstrelsy these accompaniments undoubtedly
consisted of the merest extemporaneous strumming
of a rhythm or piping of the melody, but there is
every reason to believe that, in course of time,
the sophistication of esoteric art brought to popular
music some of its ideas of harmonic experiment. One
feature of mediaeval instrumental development which
bears strong witness to the effect which the culture of
vocal music had upon the popular instrumental usages
— a feature which, moreover, marked an important step
in the establishment of principles on which were to be
built the future orchestra — was the making of the vari-
ous classes of instruments in 'families,' or groups graded

MEDLfiVAL BTRINQ BAND

WIND INSTRUMENTS OF MIDDLE AGES

in size. The pitch of these instruments corresponded to
the several vocal compasses and the plan was patently
suggested by the prevailing practice of concerted vocal
music and by the desire to introduce into instrumental
music the harmonic fabric which the early masters had
begun to weave. It is doubtful if at this time indepen-
dent instrumental music was practised in any degree,
though it is easy to believe that the songs had their
preludes and interludes,
which may have been at
times so elaborate as to af-
ford opportunity for some
display of virtuosity on the
part of the jongleur.

We may assume that the
use of instruments in com-
bination was not infre-
quent. The ecclesiastical
sculptures dating from this
age form an interesting
chronicle of such practices,
and, while we cannot place
too implicit a confidence in
the literalness of decorative
art, their portrayals must be accepted as suggestive of a
general practice.* Interesting as it may be to speculate
upon the effect of concerted performances upon this
instrumental assembly, the crudities of their extempora-
neous nature render them unimportant as bearing upon
the development of the future orchestra and the science
of instrumentation to which it gave rise.

An important phase of musical life in the Middle
Ages, and one which followed upon the practices of the

MEDIEVAL 'pipers'

* The most interesting of these sculptures include the bas-relief which
formerly ornamented the Abbey of St. Georges de Boscherville, showing
twelve players, and similar groups from the Church of Santiago da Com-
postello in Spain (twelfth century) and the 'nilnstrels' gallery' of Exeter
Cathedral (fourteenth century).

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

minstrel bands, was the forming of the 'pipers* guilds*
and of the *town bands.* The roving bands of min-
strels in every part of Europe were often forced or
persuaded to settle in some community and to there
pursue the practices of their art. Kretzschmar * points
outthat utilitarian services, such as sounding fire alarms
or other public signals, was the first step which contrib-
uted to give the town piper a social standing higher than
that which had been his as a minstrel. However this
may be, we find the *town band' and the *pipers' guild' a
very prominent feature of the musical life of the Middle
Ages, and in them lay the germ of the future town
orchestra. The church also began to claim the services
of the instrumental musician, and Germany in par-
ticular saw the establishment of those practices that
were to color the writings of the future Bach. The im-
petus thus given to musical life was great, and from
the thirteenth to the fourteenth century there sprang
up a considerable number of new instruments, which
we shall consider as we survey the instrumental forces
from which were to be drawn the first orchestras at
the close of the sixteenth century.

Just as in any other general historical survey, it is
not possible to maintain a strictly chronological order
in this department. There is hardly an instrument
in the entire assembly whose appearance can be placed
at a definite date, or, in many cases, into a definite
epoch. We can only note the point at which the vari-
ous instruments came into general notice or into gen-
eral use. Valuable to the student or reader who in-
terests himself seriously in such research are the direct
sources of information which are to be found in some
of the contemporaneous writings on music. Among
these may be mentioned Musica getuscht und ausgezo-
gen by Sebastian Virdung, published at Basle in 1511;

* Hermann Kretzschmar: FHhrer durch den Konzertaaal, Leipzig, 1913.

7. Q(|)if(T<

Facsimile of Table IF fro.n Mj.hatI Pract.)riiis' Svn»aff.M;, ,uu>u un
(published l«iN) * '

Shoa}ing different km, 1.1 o, irin.i nislrumenls then in use

the 'town t

-I ol 1

:j in 801U. -.„

ue the practices of their art.

uted to give, the town piper a social sta
that wtiich had betn his as a ininslreL
may be, we find the *town band* and the Vm'-
very prominent feature of the musical life of ' Ic

A^cs, and in Ibem lay the germ of the future town
orchestra. The church also began lo** ^ ■"• Mie services
of the instrumental musician, and v in par-

ficular saw the establishment of those i s thai,

~ to color the writings of the future h^iv .. i Ue im-
T thus given to musical life was great, and from
the thirteenth to the fourteenth cenluty there sprang

from which were to be drawn the 1
• of the sixteenth <

< 'H any o^^ir-r .*.
to mfi

pomt at which th-

1 • : _ . : „

teres ts liimself seriously in such research
• mayl)e n. d Musi

*• Bas-pommcr ^ BalTct obcr Tenor pomrtitr. 3. Aitpotoroa,
7. ecfcapcrPftiff- 8. JDdmmrfcljfn. 9. 5)u6t9.

WIND INSTRUMENTS OF MIDDLE AGES

Musica instrumentatis deudsch by Martin Agricola, pub-
lished in 1529 in Wittenberg; Musurgia sen praxis mu-
sica; by Othmar Nachtigal, published in Strassburg in
1536; the Syntagma Musicum of Michael Praetorius, pub-
lished in 1614 in Wittenberg; and the Harmonic Univer-
selle of Marin Mersenne, published in Paris in 1637.
Of these the most remarkable is that of Praetorius,
which is in three volumes and has as an appendix a
valuable collection of illustrative plates.

At the beginning of the sixteenth century, as instru-
mental music began to assume a more esoteric posi-
tion, the heterogeneous mass of instruments that had
served the uses of popular mediaeval music became re-
duced to a few easily defined groups. Since from these
groups were derived later in the century the instru-
ments constituting the first prescribed body that can
be called an orchestra, it becomes necessary to submit
some of them to a somewhat closer scrutiny.

The large variety of plucked string in-
struments which we have seen as belong-
ing to the Middle Ages were forgotten
during the sixteenth century, or obscured
by the importance which attached itself
to one member of this group — the lute.
This instrument was the popular instru-
ment of the age and its place in art and
in society may be best described as being
analogous to that of the piano in our day.
The lute has a form very like our man-
dolin, with the addition of a long neck.
The finger-board is fretted and the in-
strument had originally eight strings which were tuned
in unisoned pairs. The number of strings was increased
during the sixteenth century, the lute sometimes having

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

eleven strings, five unisoned pairs and the highest
string, called the chanterelle, separate. The lute, in com-
mon with other instruments at this period, was made in
several sizes and the family group consisted of the fol-
lowing members : the treble lute was the smallest, the bass
lute the largest, the theorbo (an invention of the sixteenth
century) was a double-necked lute made in several sizes,
the largest of which was the arch-lute, while another
type, the chitarrone, possessed an especially long neck.

The construction of lutes soon became a fine art.
The most famous and skilled makers were Germans,
and some of the existing models from their hands are
marvels of beautiful workmanship.

The following are some of the tunings of the lute as
given by diif erent authorities :

a. General tuning of the lute :

b. At the beginning of the fifteenth century :

A r ^ •,'*'* _\ (This system was maintained in Ger-
many and France until the middle of the sixteenth
century, when a seventh string was added.)

c. About 1620: "^ _ ^ - '1

d. Tuning of the arch-lute :

^ ^ ^

The system of notation known as 'tablature' was gen-
erally employed for the lute as well as for certain
members of the viol family. So directly does this sys-
tem bear on the instrument and its mechanism that a
brief explanation of its principles, as set forth by La-
voix,* may not be out of place here.

Acquainted, first, with the fingering and tuning of the
instrument, the writer traces a stave consisting of as
many lines as there are strings, and against the lines of
this stave are placed letters corresponding to the frets.

* Histoire de I'instrumentation.

THE LUTE AND ITS MUSIC

A designated the open string, B the first fret, and so on
as far as K. The frets of the lute marked whole tones,
while those of the guitar were a semi-tone apart. Each
letter, therefore, as may be readily seen, marked a note.
There was also a time-signature and over each note
was written the value of its rhythmical duration.
Where the same time sign covered several letters or
groups of letters, the notes thus included
were to be given an equal value until a
new sign indicated a change. As the tabla-
ture most largely used had seven lines, it
was necessary, in writing for the theorbo
and other varieties of the lute having more
than seven strings, to affix marks over the
letter A, showing which string was in-
tended. Most of these strings thus desig-
nated were strings en bourdon, or standing
apart from the others, and were always
played as *open' strings. A large number
of nuance marks were employed and a let-
ter crossed by a turn signified the use of an
ornamentation such as the tremblement, thsorbo
the martellement, verre casses, or batte-
ments. The letter P indicated (in France) the employ-
ment of the thumb (pouce), and dots were frequently
used for designating certain fingerings.

Other plectrum instruments in general use during
this epoch were the mandolin with the tuning of our
violin, G, D, A, E, and plucked by means of a quill, the
guitar which differed more than the mandolin from the
lute family in having a flat back, the similar 'bandora,*
and the 6-stringed cither (cittern, gittern), an earlier
type of which was probably the lute's ancestor.

The harp of these times differed little from its prede-
cessors of earlier ages. The instrument was large and
its scale consisted of a series of open strings. Cerone *

* Domenico Cerone :

El Melopeo, 1613.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

describes it as having fifteen strings notated on a tabla-
ture of an equal number of lines, while Praetorius
enumerates three varieties of harp, the first being a

harp of 24 strings with the following range : y ' ^ |
the second the large double harp having two com-
plete sets of strings ranging as follows: left side

^in right sideg=ur=j£=J, and, thirdly, the *Irish
harp,' of 43 strings, possessing, as he says, a Very agree-
able sonority.'

The bowed instruments as we find them in the six-
teenth century comprise the large family of viols, in-
struments which were next in line of descent from the
first class of viols as described by Grillet (see page 60).
The class at that period reduced itself to the consistent
following of one model. The older
form of the gigue was disappearing,
and the few traces of it that could
be found during the sixteenth cen-
tury existed only as remonstrances
of a conservatism which contested
the encroachment of the newer
form.

The viol assumed a variety of sizes
and modifications, but its adherence
to the type was consistent and the
entire family is formed after a defi-
nite model. Its most striking fea-
"""^ ^'coBi^S '*°^^ tures are the flat sounding box, the
back to back crescent sounding holes, and the shape
of the top of the instrument where it joined the neck.
The modern double-bass is the sole member of the
family extant. The employment of 'corner blocks' in
the construction of these instruments marked an im-
portant step in the development of bowed instruments.
These blocks, triangular in shape, support the protrud-
ing comers of the instruments; to them are glued the

THE VIOLIN PERFECTED

ribs, back and belly, and their presence is productive of
a greater resonance.

The viola da braccio or viol proper was constructed
after the proportions of the older viol and had six
strings. The viola da gamba derived its name from
the manner of holding the instrument between the legs,
and appeared in a large number of varieties, all low-
toned instruments of five or six strings, the immediate
precursors of the violoncello. The alto of the viol fam-
ily matched in size the earlier rebec, and the highest
pitched viol was the successor of the gigue.

We meet with considerable confusion in the accounts
given of the pitch and the tuning methods of these
instruments. Praetorius says, *We must not attach any
great importance to the ways in which the viols and
violins are tuned. It is more important that one plays
well and in tune.' It may, however, be generally stated
that the viols were tuned in fourths, though often the
two middle strings stood a third
apart The tunings here given are
those cited by E. J. Payne * as hav-
ing been established in 1542.

The number of strings was apparently reduced in
the latter part of the sixteenth century, and Lavoix
gives us the following table as the established system of

tuning at that time : S> * - _ A^ " * ^ JT^ * " - ,^

Besides this general classification of viols in pitch
groupings, further enumeration must be made of some
of the modifications specifically named. Among these
the most important were the viola d'amore and the
viola di lira, both possessing sympathetic strings of wire
placed under the finger-board. The former usually had
a large number of strings, sometimes as many as fifteen.
The tone of this class of instruments was peculiarly
rich, a fact that has resulted in the employment of

* In Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. V. Art 'Violin.*

diSCAItl

Icnor
-fl «-

. bate

■6— — ■

£=i=Mh=^=Mf=^

^-w

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*=»=I

'"'- ■ L

rl — S — M-

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the viola d'amore in some modem scores (see chapter
I). Another famihar type of this age was the so-
called pochette or small pocket viol; boat-shaped at
this stage of its development and employed largely
by dancing masters, its diminutive size making it con-
veniently portable. A later form of the pochette was
modelled exactly on the violin model, and Stradivarius
himself is said to have been the maker of violins in
that size. Its popularity as an instrument for dance
music ceased only with the rise of the piano. (For illus-
trations of these instruments, see Vol. VII, opp. p. 372.)

We are now brought to the most important step in
the evolution of string instruments : that by which was
laid the foundation of what constitutes the noblest ele-
ment of our present-day orchestra — the perfecting of
the violin. After what has been said in description
of the viol family, we need not dwell at any length upon
the technical differences of construction which exist
between them and their successors. The violin model
as we know it to-day was established at a comparatively
early stage of the instrument's history, and we have only
to compare its svelte lines with those of the clumsier
viol to sense immediately its aristocratic superiority.

Some historians have recognized the claims of Cas-
par Duiffoprugcar (Tieffenbriicker) * to the title of
maker of the first violin model, but the proofs that pre-
sent themselves in support of this claim are slight, the
honor being generally attributed to Gaspard da Salo,
who was born in 1550 and who worked in Rrescia.
The fact that of his instruments which are left to us
the *tenors,' or viola size, are more common and of
better quality, has led to the belief that this member
of the violin family was the first to be made. Other
writers have asserted that the double-basses were the
first products of the violin maker's art. If this be so,
it has but little bearing on the real history of the violin,

* Settled in Lyons about 1552 and died there in 1571.

EARLY VIOLIN MAKERS

because, as will be remembered, the double-bass re-
tained the older model of the viols and remains to-day
the only member of our string orchestra not belonging
to the violin family. The violins of da Salo were, in
spite of their irregularities and primitive model, instru-
ments of considerable beauty and size of tone; Ole Bull
was the proud possessor of one
which was highly ornamented, re-
port having it that the maker was
assisted in its decoration by no less
a person than Benvenuto Cellini.

The next steps toward the per-
fecting of the violin were those
made by a pupil of da Salo, Giov.
Paolo Maggini, who lived at Brescia
from 1590 to 1643, and by Andrea
Amati, the first of the celebrated
family and the founder of the *Cre-
mona School.' Although Amati
was a contemporary of da
Salo, his fame as a violin maker
dates from a later period, as it was
only in later life and after years of
experience in the making of lutes
and rebecs that he began to make
violins. By these pioneers the art
of violin making was established,
and each succeeding generation
had its masters of violin construe- ""^^ dodble bass)
tion who added the results of their own experiments
and inspirations until the violin reached the perfec-
tion of form given to it by Stradivarius. Of these
intervening workers the greatest were the remaining
members of the Amati family, Antonio and Giro-
lamo, who always worked together, and Nicola, the
greatest of the name; Andrea Guenarius and Jacob
Steiner (or Stainer), both pupils of Amati; and the

GROSA CONTRABASSanO (lOD]

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

crowning glory of the Guenarius family, Giuseppe An-
tonio.

Antonio Stradivarius was born at Cremona in 1649.
Between the years 1670 and 1690 he followed, in his
creations, the model set by his master, Amati. After
that date he began to make individual experiments, and
he constructed a model that was more graceful, the
body being flatter and the F holes more elegant in
their lines. From this period date the instruments
that are known as 'Long Strads.* Stradivarius's great-
est epoch was following 1700; the instruments of that
culminative period are still more flat, the wood being
cut on the quarter and considerably thicker in the cen-
tre of the belly under the bridge. Stradivarius applied
his model to the other sizes of the family and was
the creator of violas and violoncellos of wonderful
beauty of line and of tone.

The violin, in common with the other great appari-
tions in art, was neglected and abused during the first
years of its service. It was found to be too brilliant
in tone when compared to the more negative tone of
the viols and lutes. The composers of the early seven-
teenth century, however, were not slow to appreciate
its tonal beauty nor to foresee its possibilities, and its
usurpation of the place held by the viols was a rapid
process.

A word must here be said as to the *bow,' the com-
plete history of which by itself would form a long
chapter. The original bows had doubtless the form of
those used as weapons, and for many ages the musical
bow retained the approximate shape of such. Its evo-
lution has been slow, and it was not until the end of
the eighteenth century that Tourte * gave to it the
graceful lines that we know to-day.

* Francis Tourte (sometimes called 'the Stradivarius of the bow*), the
inventor of the modem violin bow. He was bom in Paris in 1747 and died
there in 1835.

WIND INSTRUMENTS OF 16TH-17TH CENTURIES

There remains to be mentioned one class of string
instrument which, although not forming an essential
part of our modern orchestra, was an important factor
in the earliest orchestras. This class comprises those
instruments that are played by means of a keyboard,
the invention of which dates from a very early epoch,
but which only came into general use during the six-
teenth century, when the harpsichord assumed an im-
portant place and became the immediate precursor of
the pianoforte.* The earlier forms of this
mechanism may be conveniently gathered
under the general designation of 'clavi-
chord,' the principles of which had their
foundation in the monochord. In the six-
teenth century it appeared in several
forms, all of which employed the same
mechanism, that of a wire string, plucked
by a quill, which was in turn operated by
a pressed key. As has been said, the
general term for these instruments was
clavichord (Fr. clavecin, Ger. clavier).
Specific names were given to certain
shapes, such as the smaller virginal and
spinet and the larger harpsichord. The
last-named instrument was one of the
later developments of the family, its in-
creased tone having been one of its re-
quirements for the important place it had
to fill in the orchestra. (Cf. Vol. VII, pp.
4 et seq.)

In surveying the wind instruments of the age which
we are now considering we will bear in mind their rela-
tion to our present-day classifications as fixed by the
modern orchestra, and regard these forerunners in the
order which their descendants take in the modern score.

rLUTC-A-BBC

(rccordbr)

ter I.

For detailed history of the piano and its ancestors, see Vol. YO., chap-

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

We have already noted how the cross flute disap-
peared during the Middle Ages. Rs general reappear-
ance was as late as the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury. In the meantime the flutes employed were for
the greater part of that class known as flutes a bee, the
English 'recorder,' a form which survives to-day only
in our inferior flageolet. These instruments were made
in many sizes and their list constitutes in pitch and
compass a complete family. Agricola * gives the fol-
lowing table:

1. The small flute, an octave lower than the cornet.

2. The discant flute, a fourth lower than the small flute.

3. The discant flute, a fifth lower than the small flute.

4. The alto flute, an octave lower than the small flute.

5. The tenor flute, a fifth lower than the alto flute.

6. The barytone flute, a fifth lower than the tenor flute.

7. The bass flute, a fifth lower than the barytone flute.

8. The contrabass flute, an octave lower than the barytone
flute.

To these Agricola adds the names of four
cross flutes which he terms Schweizerflote, in-
struments of different sizes and one of the
first forms of the cross flute to appear in
Europe.

The instruments of the oboe family in ex-
istence during the latter part of the sixteenth
century divided themselves into two classes.
In the first of these the tube was cylindrical
and the reed, enclosed by a cap, did not come
into direct contact with the player's lips. To
this class belonged the family of krummhorns

cBosarLUTM or 'crooked horns,' the members of which had

the following pitch and range:

* Martin Agricola, one of the most Important writers on music in the
sixteenth century. B. at Sorau, 1486; d. Magdeburg, 1556.

WIND INSTRUMENTS OF 16TH-17TH CENTURIES

The second class comprised those instruments having
a conical tube. It is from these instruments that our
present-day oboe and bassoon are directly descended

and from which later evolved
the clarinet. The last-named
instrument has no
closely related ancestor ^
among the instruments
of the age which we
now treat, and its dis-
tinctive feature, the sin-
gle reed, does not ap-
pear until the late sev-
enteenth century. The
class which thus com-
prised the ancestors of
the oboe family consist-
ed of the Schalmeys or
'schawms' and the Pom-
/ner* or 'bombards.' We
give the pitch and compass of these instruments as re-
corded by Sachs,* who remarks that most of these in-
struments had but a short existence and that in 1636
there remained but three :

SCHAUOT

KRUMlfBORNS

Snull
Sclulmcy

Dlxanl
Sclulmcy

▼

Kicole

Batsrl

«-

■^

Alio

fDiiuntr

B.1SS

tiigt Bm»

Paomur

Pommcr

Pommtr

The tone of the entire oboe family was, until the
changes wrought in its construction at the beginning
of the eighteenth century, much more strident than
that of to-day. That of the bass instruments was par-
ticularly so, and these instruments were, moreover,
exceedingly difficult to play, and were inaccurate in
pitch. As many historians have it, it was to over-

* Reat-Lextkon der Mualk-inslrumente.

THE ORCHESTRA AND- ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

come these obstacles that Afranio, a canon of Fer-
rara, was prompted to the invention of what may be
exactly called the bassoon. The story of this invention
is left to us by his son-in-law, Thesee. Afranio, taking
two bass oboes, bound them together and connected
their lower ends with a tube of skin. The appearance
of this instrument won for it its title *fagot,* which it
bears in Italian to this day.* The instrument had origi-
nally three holes and four large keys. It
was thirty years after Afranio's first ex-
periments that the bassoon was perfected
by Sigismund Scheltzer. Other instru-
ments of the double reed type in use at
this time were the bagpipe and the sim-
ilar musette, which latter was to become
a prominent feature of popular music
in France during the seventeenth cen-
tury.

Next in order are the instruments
played by an embouchure, such as is em-
ployed exclusively in the brass instru-
ments of to-day. The most important of
these, according to all authorities, was
the 'cornet.' This name was originally
given to a family of reed instruments,
but the term as we find it employed in
the writings and scores of the earlier ages is applied to
the instrument of the trumpet family which is perhaps
best known by its German name Zink. This instru-
ment was usually of wood and was often covered with
leather. It had seven holes and a mouthpiece of wood
or of ivory. In the sixteenth century we find noted two

FAOOTTBN (EARLT

bassoons)

* Cecil Forsyth In his book 'Orchestration' (1914) flouts this theory in
an appendix devoted especially to this purpose. He claims that the 'phago-
tus' of Afranio was in no way related to the bassoon; that its bore, its
reed, and its entire mechanism had no relationship to the bassoon, that it
was, in fact, a species of organ and that the two instruments were his-
torically Identified only by a confusion of names.

WIND INSTRUMENTS OF 16TH-17TH CENTURIES

kinds of cornets, straight and crooked, some-
times called *white' comets and *black' cor-
nets. The former were made of wood and
ivory and were very sweet in tone. The
curved comet had a non-detachable mouth-
piece. The 'cornet' during the sixteenth cen-
tury stood high in popular favor and the
writers of that day are unanimous in attesting
this fact

The bass instruments of the comet family
were not true in pitch, hence the sackbut and
trombone were made to fill their office. In
1590 Guillaume, a canon of Auxerre, seeking
to improve the serviceability of the comet, in-
vented what later became the 'serpent.* In its
original form it had six holes and was with-
out keys. At the time of its invention it was
much praised as a valuable aid in the render-
ing of the Gregorian service. The remaining
embouchure instruments were the trumpet ^^"^ <°^>

and the trombone; the horn ex-
isted only in its primitive form
as a hunting instrument and did
not figure in the orchestra until
the eighteenth century. The
trumpet was not unlike the nat-
ural trumpet of to-day. The sev-
eral varieties of trumpets which
we find recorded were probably
those differentiated by their size
and pitch, the distinction which
later became that of clarini and
principale of Handel's time.

Of greater importance in the
earliest scores were the trom-
bones (which, according to La-
voix, were, in the sixteenth cen-
79

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

tury, considered the most supple and most perfect of

instruments aside from the
violins). The tones of the
trombones were most eas-
ily blended with the voices
and such was their use, as
may be seen in examining
many of the early scores.
The slide trombone, in a
form approximating that
of to-day, existed at a very
early date, and some of
the oldest illustrations and
paintings show such an in-
strument, several often
being represented as being

TBOMBONES

played together.

It was from this large and varied complement of in-
strumental forces that the composers of the late six-
teenth century were free to make their selection as they
began to create a distinctive instrumental music. Con-
certed music existed, to be sure, at a far earlier
date; during the entire sixteenth century there was a
wide employment of instrumental music, functioning
as an adjunct to public festivals and courtly entertain-
ments, to the service of the church and to the humbler
diversions of the common folk. The history of this
epoch is replete with allusions to instrumental music,
and many are the different combinations recorded in
these annals. With few exceptions, however, the na-

THE EARLIEST SCORES

ture of all these performances was extemporaneous.
In the church service and on other occasions where in-
struments were made to join with voices, the prac-
tice was to imitate in the instrumental parts the leadings
of the voices, a practice which led to the employment
of the instrumental choirs in such a manner as that
which became the basis of the early system of scoring.
In the large or the small assemblies of instruments,
however, no thought of balance or of tonal variety ob-
tained. Practices which in any sense of fitness could
be called the art of scoring began at a considerably
later date.

The beginnings of such an art, however, appeared
as early as the close of the sixteenth century, and in
the works of Giovanni Gabrieli * exist the first orches-
tral scores. In the instrumental accompaniments which
Gabrieli wrote for his madrigals and for his church
compositions we find the first promptings towards an
articulate and significant orchestral idiom; a specific
treatment of the instrumental portions as distinguished
from the voice parts. In certain of Gabrieli's scores
there is an ambiguity of notation which leaves us in
doubt as to what instruments are intended, in others
we are even at a loss to know whether the parts are
for instruments or voices; in other works, however,
there is a definite scoring designated and a distinctive
instrumental style as noted above. Such a work is the
*Symphony' published in 1597. The upper parts were
played by two violins, the middle parts by two cornets
and the bass parts by two trombones. There is also
a *sacred symphony' with chorus parts for alto, tenor,
and bass, the orchestral parts comprising two violins,
two comets, and four trombones. In the sonata piano
e forte Gabrieli experimented with the effect of con-

* See VoL I, Chap. XL

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

trasting antiphonal orchestras, one consisting of two
alto trombones, one tenor trombone, and one comet,
while the other comprised a violin, two tenor trom-
bones, and a bass trombone.

Not the least interesting feature of these scores to
the student of orchestral development is the strong
witness they bear to the greater esteem in which the
violin was beginning to be held and to the increasing
appreciation and understanding of its powers on the
part of the composers. Gabrieli uses the upper scale
of the violin as far as the third position, and it is
curious to note that he neglects entirely the lower string,
so conclusively did he consider the instrument as a high
voice.

Interesting and significant as these scores of Ga-
brieli are, they represent but the first streaks of the
real dawn of orchestral music which signalized the
musical renaissance in Italy. Of more far-reaching
influence, especially upon the side of instrumentation,
were the developments which were effected by the
sacred representations of Cavalieri and by Peri and by
Monteverdi in connection with the advent of opera.

Throughout the entire history of orchestral music
it will be remarked that many of the greatest advances
are the result of the dramatic impulse and the search-
ing for a more vivid and dramatic characterization in
orchestral treatment. Thus the age of the Renaissance
gave to its music traits which the dramatic genius of
the day prompted, and the invention of the recitative
and other features of dramatic portrayal wielded a
strong influence not only upon musical form but upon
instrumentation and orchestral treatment as well. The
establishment of that formula of musical structure
known as the basso continuo set the orchestral struc-
ture into a more or less exact mold which it followed
for many years and from which it was entirely freed
only with the establishment of the classic symphony

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THE EARLIEST SCORES

and its resultant formulae. One of the most striking
features of the early orchestra was the important place
occupied by the harpsichord, around which, so to speak,
the orchestra was built, and at which the conductor
sat, filling in the harmonies from the figured bass and
marking the rhythm. The harpsichord was, in fact,
as Lavoix says, for many years the real conductor of
the orchestra.

The tendency of the day in instrumental practices
was towards volume and variety of tone. The truly vast
orchestra which Monteverdi employed in Orfeo (see
Vol. I, Chap. XI) places him as first in the line of
daring and sensational composers, whose instrumental
imaginations demand the gigantic effects of the entire
instrumental array of their day. The large and varied
orchestra of Monteverdi's day was, however, only a
passing phase, and development of ItaUan opera and
the increasing stress laid upon the elaborate vocal parts
caused the orchestra to diminish constantly in size and
variety until it finally became what was practically a
chamber music combination of strings to which was
allotted the most meagre thread of accompaniment or
instrumental support for the voices.

Before passing to the next era of orchestral growth
we must note for a moment one of Monteverdi's dra-
matic inspirations which has been already mentioned
(Vol. I, page 325) and which bequeathed to orchestral
writing effects to be found to-day in every score. In
// Comhattimente di Tancredi Monteverdi introduced
the tremolo in the string instruments, which, it will be
remembered, was so amazingly novel a method of
sound-production that the orchestra refused to play
the passages thus marked. Monteverdi was equally
bold in enlarging the scope of the violin's effects by
extending its range as high as the fifth position.

As opera in Italy emphasized more and more the

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

vocal side, it was left to France to maintain the impor-
tance of its instrumental aspect, and this it did in the
operas of Lully and his forerunner, Cambert. It was
the latter who in his opera Pomone (1659) introduced
into the orchestra the oboe and the bassoon.

The scores of Lully cannot claim the affection of
the modern listener by reason of their aesthetic charm,
but they represent, nevertheless, an important era in
the orchestra's history. LuUy's greatest service was,
perhaps, in his extensive use of the violins and the
importance which he attached to them. For the greater
part of the time he employed them in five distinct parts
and the continuous presence of all of the parts lent
to these scores a heaviness and monotony that would
be far from pleasing to modern ears, but which had an
important bearing on future methods of writing for
strings. The wind parts which supplemented this mass
of string tone were slight and were borne largely
by flutes and trumpets, groups of which often played
antiphonally with the strings in a primitive attempt at
color contrast. Lully's employment of the flute re-
veals him as the first to appreciate the elegiac quality
of its tone, and his use of it in solo passages was nearly
always in that sense. The horn, although not taking
a permanent place in the orchestra until a somewhat
later date, is generally supposed to have been used first
by Lully in his ballets. It is probable that its role was
one more or less of providing realistic color and that
its part was restricted to the sounding of hunting calls.
Its first appearance in the orchestra proper is chroni-
cled as having been on the occasion of the performance
of an opera by Andre Campra (1660-1744) . The bridge
between this distinctively archaic structure of Lully
and what we may term the early classic orchestra of
Bach and Handel was formed by the works of Rameau
and Alessandro Scarlatti, to the genius of each of whom
the art is indebted for some of its important steps.

THE ORCHESTRA OF BACH AND HANDEL

Rameau's orchestra superseded the ponderous *tuttr
of Lully with a more graceful distribution of parts in
which the wind instruments are given independent
voices employed with a finer sense for tone-painting.
In a ballet, Acante et Cephise, there are parts for horns
and clarinets. The clarinet, in fact, here makes one
of its earliest recorded appearances. Its invention is
attributed to Johann Christoph Denner of Nuremberg
and the date of its invention is put 1690. The earliest
type of the instrument was crude and meagre in its
resources. It was capable of being played only in two
keys and its intonation was faulty. We shall note later
in this chapter the further use of the instrument by
Stamitz, the first composer to bring it into any promi-
nence before its general introduction by Mozart.

Scarlatti effected a redistribution and arrangement
of the voices of the orchestra that determined in a
large measure the practice of succeeding generations.
In dividing the violins into distinct firsts and seconds
and in writing an independent and important viola
part, he molded the string choir into something like its
modern shape. In the wind choirs Scarlatti employed
the instruments in pairs as they are found in the classic
orchestra. Scarlatti's writings for the strings presented
advanced points of technique and were doubtless the
outcome of his study of the methods of Corelli, whose
violin sonatas are the summit of the achievement of
the early masters of the violin.

In viewing the art of Bach and Handel from its or-
chestral side, we realize at once how recent a develop-
ment the orchestra is — in a form at all approximating
that of to-day. The intrinsic musical content of the
works of these two masters stands as a starting point

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

of much of modern musical structure and represents
an impulse still vitally felt in our expression to-day.
In their orchestral aspect, however, these works are
in a great measure archaic, useless as a model to the
student of orchestration and, if performed in their origi-
nal versions, unpleasant to the modern ear. In a word,
the orchestra as employed by both Bach and Handel
represents a body of tone that is still without balance
in the modern sense, and where, in fact, there could be
but little regard for balance, owing to the considerable
elements of extemporization which still entered into
all performances. In looking over the recorded lists
of certain orchestras of that time, we immediately real-
ize, for instance, what a preponderance of wind tone
there must have been, for, as we shall see, the practice
in Handel's time tended to the employment of oboes
and other wind instruments in such excessive numbers
as to overbalance the strings.

It was, nevertheless, at this period that several im-
portant steps in the evolution of the orchestra were
consummated. Notable among these were the super-
session of the viola da gamba by the violoncello and
that of the old flute a bee by the flute traversiere. The
old and the new varieties of each group are found in
the scores of both Bach and Handel, but the viola da
gamba and the flute a bee disappear with the passing
of the epoch marked by their earlier works.

The orchestra of Handel differed from that of Bach
both in its instrumental constituency and in the manner
of its employment. The former in both these regards
represents a far simpler medium than does the latter.
Its forces were as follows: violins, which divided into
firsts and seconds (occasionally a third violin part is to
be found), violas, viole da gamba, violoncellos, contra-
bassi, lutes, theorbos, arch lutes, harps, trumpets, horns,
oboes, cornets, flutes, fife, piccolo, bass flute (d bee),
bassoons, contra-bassoons, organ, harpsichord, and

THE ORCHESTRA OF BACH AND HANDEL

drums. We find in Handel's scores every conceivable
combination of these instruments and a wide diversity
of treatment following the many phases of his art.

In Handel's scores we notice that the parts are often
designated as concertante and ripieno — the distinction
being derived from the old concerto form in which one
group of instruments, the concertante, played an elab-
orate solo part, while the accompanying instruments
constituted the ripieno. The violas appear as *violette,'
and in *Sosarme and Orlando' there are solos for the
violetta marina, which was a soprano of the viola
d'amore family, invented by the Italian composer Cas-
trucci, who for a considerable time was Handel's con-
cert master. The lute and its varieties find only an oc-
casional place in Handel's scores, and its service there
and in the scores of Bach marks its last appearance in
the orchestra.

The salient feature of the wood-wind parts of Han-
del's orchestra is the strong preponderance of reed
tone as implied by the inordinately large number of
oboes employed. Some historians have claimed that
the oboe of those days was less penetrating in tone than
that of our day. That the opposite was the case is
more likely; Lavoix says that the oboe until the end
of the eighteenth century was strident in tone and more
nearly approached the trumpet in power. It was quite
common in the time of Bach and Handel to soften
the tone of the oboe by stuffing the bell of the instru-
ment with cotton wadding. If we stop to realize what
must have been the eff'ect of a large number of these
strong reeds playing, as they often did, the melody in
unison with the violins, we may well imagine the in-
supportable power' which Quantz in his memoirs at-
tributes to Handel's orchestra.

Handel's employment of the brass had few distinc-
tive qualities. The trumpet parts were, as in Bach's
scores, the most important, and they were equally diffi-

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

cult. Of this diflBculty we shall speak presently. Han-
del uses at times as many as four trumpets (Rinaldo),
but in the majority of the scores there are three trum-
pets, the third part being usually allotted to the *prin-
cipal.' This was by some believed to have been a spe-
cially designed trumpet of larger bore, resembling in
its bold tone the instrument of to-day, while the upper
trumpets, often designated as clarini, were of smaller
calibre. Others, however, believe that in common prac-
tice all these parts were played upon the same sized
instrument and that 'principal' became only a name for
a low-lying third part. Handel's writing for trombones
was not distinctive, but in his later works we find im-
portant parts for the horns, of which he uses, at times,
four.

Bach's orchestra, as well as his treatment of it, dif-
fered considerably from that of Handel. While more
intricate and varied in itself, there is a more consistent
usage than that which the various phases of Handel's
art suggested. It formed itself around the organ and
was divided into groups which preserved their in-
tegrity to a greater degree than did those in the more
flexible body of Handel's orchestra.

Among the instruments peculiar to Bach's orchestra
there is but one in the string family, the viola pomposa.
This instrument was the invention of Bach himself. It
was a high violoncello of five strings, tuned as follows :
.jt mj^ Lavoix asserts that after a thorough search

y • ' =^ of Bach's scores he could find no instance
of its use by him. This may be attributed to the fact
that Bach called it the violoncello piccolo. The sixth of
his solo 'cello suites is written for it and there are parts
for it also in the scores of certain of his church
cantatas.

Important among the wind instruments used by Bach
are the oboe d'amore and the oboe da caccia. The
former made its appearance shortly before 1722. Its

ORCHESTRA OF BACH. HANDEL. GLUCK

construction was that of the ordinary oboe and its
compass was the same, a minor third lower, the instru-
ment being in the key of A.* It had, instead of the
conical bell, one of globular shape, which gave it the
sad, veiled tone characteristic of our English horn.
The oboe da caccia was not so much as its name would
imply a variety of oboe, but of the bassoon. Its con-
struction, scale, and compass was that of a miniature
bassoon and it was played with a bassoon reed. In
pitch it stood higher than the bassoon, the two varieties
standing in F and E-flat, respectively. The oboe da cac-
cia was identical with the fagottino or the quint fagott,
and Bach often lists it as the 'fagott in E-flat.' Like Han-
del, Bach used both flutes d bee and flutes traversieres,
but never the two varieties in the same score.

Individual treatment of brass instruments by Bach
was that wherein the trombone and cornet choirs either
together or separately were used alone in the support-
ing of voices. This was following the direct influence
of the early uses in Germany of the trombone quartet
as the *feierliche* instrumental combination, an acces-
sory of all solemn or festive occasions.

The high trumpet parts of Bach, as well as those of
Handel, have been the subject of much speculation and
discussion. To the most skilled players of our day
they represent in their exceedingly high range and fre-
quent rapid tempi many unconquerable difficulties, and
even many passages that are possible are ineffective
in their stridency. The following, as put forward by
J. A. Fuller-Maitland,t offers one explanation: *The
trumpet passages in Bach were considered unplayable
upon the trumpets usually employed in modern music,
and it was only by a happy accident that a German
trumpeter, Herr Koslick, discovered in a curiosity shop

* At the Instigation of Gevaert, the famous instrument maker Mahlllon
of Brussels constructed about 1875 an oboe d'amore for use in the perform-
ance of Bach's works.

t The Oxford History of Music," Vol. IV, Chapter Vn.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

in Berlin the remains of an old trumpet which enabled
him to restore the instrument for which Bach wrote
these parts. When this rediscovered trumpet was first
heard in England at the Bach Choir Festival of 1885 at
the Albert Hall, its eifect was overpowering in the
beauty and sweetness of its tone. In its upper notes,
which reach to the high D of the soprano voice, it is of a
quality almost more like a very powerful flute.'

The same authority may be quoted for a very happy
summarizing of the effect of the orchestra of the period
which we have just been considering. *If we consider
how few were the mellowing influences in the old or-
chestra, the total lack of clarinet tone, the comparative
weakness and insignificance of the violas and the en-
tirely subordinate position occupied by the flutes, we
shall be able to form some idea of the effect of an
eighteenth-century band. The treble and bass parts
would stand out with raucous insistence, varied only
by the occasional withdrawal of the oboe tone for a
brief space, or the occasional addition of the trumpets;
and the fact that the central harmonies were filled up
on the harpsichord or organ would do but little to weld
the instruments into a homogeneous whole capable of
serving as a background to individualized instruments.
It speaks eloquently for the powers of the great mas-
ters of the eighteenth century, that, even in days when
our ears are accustomed to the luscious glow of the
modem masters of orchestration, the inspired works of
the older men should still convey to so many minds,
as they undoubtedly do, their full message of emotional
intensity or sublime beauty.'

Before leaving our discussion of this period of or-
chestral history mention must be made of the skillful
modernization of certain of Bach's and Handel's scores
at the hands of later masters. Mozart, Mendelssohn,
and Franz are the most successful of these editors, and
they have with reverence and unerring touch done

STAMITZ AND THE MANNHEIM ORCHESTRA

much to re-vitalize for our ears these masterpieces of
an earlier day.*

The later operas of Gluck, although contemporaneous
with the beginnings of the classic symphony, represent
in their scoring a style which, as has been pointed out
by Gevaert,t antedates them. The instrumentation of
Gluck is in most respects that of Haydn, Mozart, and
Beethoven, but there are in his scores a few points of
especial interest to be observed.

The chalumeau which appears in the score of Orfeo
has been subjected to a considerable discussion, and
much doubt seems to exist as to just what instrument
is intended by this designation. Gevaert regards it as
an individual instrument of French origin, having a
cylindrical column and nine holes. Others believe it
to have been an earlier form of the clarinet, while still
others think the English horn is implied. The clarinet
was used definitely by Gluck only after his going to
France, where it had already become a permanent
member of the orchestra. As the first symphonists ban-
ished from the concert orchestra the harpsichord, so
was Gluck's operatic orchestra the first to be inde-
pendent of this monitor of the orchestra. Its use there-
after was fitful, and the year 1775 saw its final appear-
ance in the orchestra that performed Mozart's Mitridate.
Other instruments to disappear from the orchestra at
this period were the flute a bee, which did its final
service in Gluck's last opera. Echo et Narcisse (1779),
and the zink, which was used for the last time in
Orfeo (1762).

The fame of the Mannheim orchestra and the conse-
quent formation of the so-called Mannheim school of

* For further details on this subject, see article 'Additional Accompani-
ments' in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. L
t Court Methodtque d'orchestration.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

composers and conductors inaugurated the era of or-
chestral history which led directly to the development
of our own day.* In a previous volume of this work
(Volume II, Chapter II) the importance of the Mann-
heim school has been emphasized and the symphonies
of its most representative composer, Johann Stamitz,
cited as being the first works of that class in any mod-
ern sense, works which establish Stamitz's claim as
the founder of the symphony and the forerunner of
Haydn. We have seen, too, how the Mannheim orches-
tra as a performing body reached a high point of ex-
cellence, its members each possessing a remarkable
virtuosity on their respective instruments, and how in
the ensemble they employed dynamic contrasts and
shadings, these methods of expression being here ap-
plied to orchestral playing for the first time in history.

The Mannheim orchestra in 1756 had the following
list of instruments : ten first violins, ten second violins,
four violas, four 'cellos, two basses, two flutes, two
oboes, two bassoons, four horns, twelve trumpets, organ,
and drums. Excepting the large number of trumpets
and the absence of clarinets, this body, it will be seen,
comprised the classic orchestra that was to serve as
the medium of Haydn and Mozart. It is likely that the
twelve trumpets given in the list were extra instru-
ments reserved for the sounding of fanfares or for other
special eff'ects. The clarinet was undoubtedly added
to the orchestra at a subsequent date, for we know that
the instrument was known to Stamitz and employed
by him. It has been shown f that in 1754 Stamitz, who
had been called to Paris to direct the famous concerts
of La Poupliniere, conducted there a symphony of his
own which included clarinets.

Moreover, we remember that it was in Mannheim

* For account of conditions which contributed to place Mannheim
as a centre of musical and literary culture, see Otto Jahn: 'The Life of
Mozart' (Eng. trans.). Vol. I, Chapter 17.

t Michel Brenet In Le Guide Musical, Paris, 1899. page 984.

STAMITZ AND THE MANNHEIM ORCHESTRA

that Mozart first became acquainted with the clarinet
as an orchestral instrument. Writing from Mannheim
in December, 1778, Mozart said, 'Oh! if we only had
clarinets; you cannot think what a splendid effect a
symphony makes with flutes, oboes, and clarinets.'

Credit has been given to Gossec for having been
the author of many innovations which were in reality
effected by Stamitz. It has been frequently claimed
that Gossec was the first to employ the horn as a per-
manent factor of the symphony orchestra in France,
but recent inquiries prove conclusively that this and
other advances in the orchestra of La Poupliniere were
made at the instigation of Stamitz and thus came to the
knowledge of Gossec, the latter, upon coming to Paris,
having served as first violin in the orchestra under
Stamitz's direction.*

At any rate, the excellence of the Mannheim orches-
tra under Stamitz and subsequent conductors, Franz
Xaver Richter, Anton Filtz, Carl Cannabich,t was the
greatest incentive to the creation and to the perform-
ance of truly orchestral music, and to its influence
may be justly attributed the commencement of the glo-
rious age of symphonic music that found expression in
the works of Haydn and Mozart and reached its apothe-
osis in those of Beethoven.

* For further and Interesting facts concerning this remarkable orches-
tra and its patron, see La Poupliniere et la musique de ehambre au XVIH
sUcle, by Georges Cucuel, Paris, 1913.

t Cannabich was the conductor at the time of Mozart's visit to Mannheim
in 1778, and it was in the Cannabich family that Mozart found himself most
at home.

CHAPTER III

THE PERFECTION OF THE ORCHESTRA AND THE DEVELOPMENT
OF THE ART OF ORCHESTRATION

Establishment of the 'classic' orchestra ; Haydn and Mozart — The orches-
tra of Beethoven and his contemporaries — The early romantic symphonists:
Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann; the beginning of modern color effects:
Weber and Meyerbeer; invention and improvement of Instruments in the
early nineteenth century: Boehm, Sax, and other instrument makers — The
modem orchestra: Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner — The orchestra of to-day and
contemporary symphonists; Strauss and post-Wagnerism ; Debussy and im-
pressionism.

The middle of the eighteenth century found the or-
chestra rapidly assuming the fixed lines and propor- r
lions that were to represent the classic vehicle of
Haydn and Mozart, and, with few enlargements, that
of Beethoven, which remains the actual basis of the
present-day orchestra. The changes which followed
this period were largely those of improvement in the
instruments or the addition of new instruments as they
became accepted by composers. The greater part of
all the older instruments of what might be called the
orchestra's ancien regime had done their last service
and had gone their way to be seen no more. v

There are, however, certain exceptions to this last
statement, and they are of sufficient interest to note
at this point Haydn, we find, still employed in some
of his concerted music (though it seems not to have
been included in his orchestra) the barytone or viola >
da gamba with an extra set of sympathetically sounding
wire strings. This instrument was a great favorite with

THE CLASSIC ORCHESTRA: HAYDN; MOZART

Haydn's patron Esterhazy, and it is said that Haydn
attempted to become a performer upon it. Mozart re-
vived the use of the zink after that instrument had
been banished for twenty years from the orchestra.

These, of course, were very exceptional cases, and the
orchestra which served Haydn and Mozart in their sym-
phonies was in instrumental membership identical with
that part of our modem orchestra which performs their
works to-day. There is, however, a considerable dif-
ference in the mechanism of the instruments, for the
imperfect construction in the older wind instruments
caused a faultiness of intonation unknown to us to-day.

The constituency of some of the actual orchestras of
that day shows us that the uniformity of instrumentation
was quite established. In 1776 the orchestra of Prince x
Esterhazy (which Haydn conducted and for which he
wrote his first symphony) consisted of six violins, one
viola, one 'cello, one double bass, one flute, two oboes,
two bassoons, and two horns; there were subsequently
added to these instruments kettledrums and clarinets.
This, of course, was a small orchestra, being privately
maintained. The capital cities supported much larger
orchestras both in their concert halls and opera houses.

Haydn himself was to be at the head of a much
larger orchestra twenty years later in London, where
the orchestra provided for him by Salomon consisted
of sixteen violins, four violas, three 'cellos, four basses,
a pair each of flutes, oboes, bassoons, trumpets, and
drums. Thus, coming in touch with fuller combina-
tions, Haydn's imagination was constantly stimulated
to a larger orchestral conception, and the chronological
array of his scores shows steady increase in his em-
ployment of orchestral resource; the first symphony
of 1759 having parts for but two violins, a viola, double
bass, two oboes, and two horns, while in *The Creation'
and *The Seasons,' written later in his life, he employs
besides the full string and wood-wind parts of the

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

classic orchestra the double bassoon, four horns and
trombone. Haydn's skill in the use of these instru-
ments, while it never reached the marvellous and al-
most clairvoyant powers of Mozart, constantly in-
creased. In a letter to Kalkbrenner, written but
shortly before his death, he said, 'I have only just
learned in my old age how to use the wind instruments,
and, now that I do understand them, I must leave the
world.'

Mozart's opportunities for hearing larger orchestras
were greater than those of Haydn, for in his travels the
young genius visited all of the musical centres, and so
at an early age had heard nearly all of the orchestras
of Europe, a fact which naturally had great influence
upon his imagination and ambitions in symphonic com-
position.

We have already spoken of Mozart's acquaintance
^ with the Mannheim orchestra and of his enthusiasm
for it — particularly for the clarinets. The clarinet was,
indeed, Mozart's instrumental love and favorite, and,
while an instrument of such individuality and beauty of
tone was bound to become a standard as soon as it
should have become perfected, it was doubtless due in
a measure to Mozart's affection for it that it found its
place so quickly. While Haydn is said to have used the
clarinet in a mass as early as 1751, it was from Mozart
that he really learned to appreciate its worth.

Mozart's strangely intermittent use of this instrument
)- in his symphonies is explained by the fact that in his
day orchestras rarely had both oboes and clarinets.
Usually he considered the latter an alternate for the
former and hence wrote no separate parts for it. We
find him using one in his third symphony in 1764,
then not again until 1778, when he had reached his
thirty-first symphony. Then there are other lapses of
several years, and then, strangest of all, we find that
the last and greatest of his symphonies, the G minor,

THE ORCHESTRA OF BEETHOVEN

was originally written without clarinets, parts for them
being added later. The clarinets were, however,
used by Mozart constantly in his opera scores. An-
other remarkable fact in connection with the early em-
ployment of the clarinet is that neither Mozart nor
Haydn employed the instrument in its chalumeau or
lower register. This is explained by the limited range
of the oboe, which had to serve as an alternate for the
clarinet.

Mozart, however, substituted for the clarinets in the
lowest register the new basset-horn, which was in real-
ity an alto clarinet. It was invented in 1770 by a Ger-
man named Horn, and the attachment of whose name to
the instrument has given rise to some confusion con-
cerning its nature. Mozart seems to have had a fond-
ness for this instrument also, for he has written more
for it than has any other composer. In his Requiem
he has used it in place of the clarinet, there are parts
for it in several of the opera scores, and in his cham-
ber music he employs two and sometimes three. The
basset-horn was greatly improved by Lotz in 1782. That
Mozart neglected the flute was doubtless due to his dis-
satisfaction with its imperfect tone and mechanism,
which caused him once to remark that a revolution in
its method of construction was necessary.

Mozart's thoroughly musical nature and his sensitive-
ness to tonal eff'ects naturally prompted him to a more
extended use of orchestral forces. This advancement
took the form of individualizing the instruments and
giving them more independently melodious parts — not
of radical changes in the ensemble or in the general
color scheme of the orchestra as treated by Haydn. It
was rather a difference in methods of composition than
in actual orchestration.

/-A

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The interval between Mozart and Beethoven shows
no marked advance in the development of the orchestra
and but slight discoveries in its treatment at the hands
of the composers. Thus the orchestra which Beethoven
inherited from the past was virtually that which we

Y have just noted as having been that of Haydn and Mo-
zart. And, as is so often true in culminating art phases,
Beethoven, the most colossal figure of musical history,
worked within these comparatively narrow boundaries,
instituting no startling revolutions, but, by the sheer

V force of his genius, he so wrung from every instrument
its every possibility of expression and so humanized and
dramatized the orchestra's voices as to become for all
time at once the apotheosis of classicism, the beginning
of romanticism, and the foundation of dramatic expres-
sion.

The only mechanical advantages which the orchestra
of Beethoven's time possessed over those of preceding

is days were slight improvements in certain wind instru-
ments— the merest forebodings of the startling revolu-
tions which the middle of the nineteenth century was
to see and whereby the modern orchestra sprang into
existence. The most important of these mechanical

K changes was the addition of crooks to the horn. In 1754
Hempel of Dresden discovered the 'hand notes' and
also brought out a horn with crooks — two steps which,
though far from making the horn the flexible and ex-
pressive instrument it now is, did much to widen its
scope. Beethoven was alive to the new possibilities of
the horn, and he made effective use of the crooks in
changing the key of his horn in the middle of a com-

>^ position so that it could follow the freer lines of his
modulation. Forsyth is responsible for the statement
that the crooks for trumpets and horns used in Bee-
thoven's day numbered fifteen.

THE ORCHESTRA OF BEETHOVEN

The instruments of the wood-wind family were also
undergoing slight improvements; the long F key of the
flute was added by Tromlitz in 1786 and in 1789 the
clarinet was greatly improved at the hands of the
brothers Stadler in Vienna.

We have mentioned the conventionality of Bee-
thoven's orchestra ; the nine symphonies are almost uni-V
form in their instrumentation. Besides the strings we
find a pair each of flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons,
and trumpets; the piccolo is used only in the Ninth;
two horns are employed in all but the Third Symphony,
which has three, and the Ninth, which has four. The
trombones have parts in only the Fifth and Ninth,
where there are three. A pair of tympani is used
throughout the nine and to this is added in the Ninth
a pair of cymbals, a triangle, and a bass drum. The
other orchestral works of Beethoven share this uni-
formity with the symphonies; what few innovations
there are have no eff'ect on the general scheme of the
instrumentation. As we have said, the power of Bee-
thoven's work lies in his bold and imaginatively dra-
matic treatment of the individual instruments. Each
voice of the orchestra found new expression at his
hands; he increased the range of the strings, carrying
the violins up into those heaven-storming heights where
they sing in ethereal whispers or shriek in wildest
frenzy. The violas and 'cellos both come to their own as
melodic instruments and even the double bass becomes
an articulate and independent actor in the drama.

Beethoven's treatment of the wood-wind showed an
advance of the methods inaugurated by Mozart — an ad-i(.
vance consisting in the more dramatic exploitation of
the instruments. Flute, clarinet, oboe, and bassoon find
new voices in melodies which seem part of their being.
So suitable are these that while in combination they
take on a new color — singing with the voice of unearthly
mystery as they answer the string chords in the first

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

movement of the Fifth Symphony, or, again, in a lighter
mood, indulging in what has been termed the 'wood-
wind chatter' of Beethoven.

With Beethoven, then, was made the first step toward
that method of orchestration which Sir C. Hubert H.
Parry has described as consisting of 'making every
member of the orchestra contribute to the complex of
polyphony by playing actual and apt musical passages.'
(See Introduction to Vol. I.) In spite of this the ensem-
ble of Beethoven's orchestra is not radically different in
color from that of the earlier symphonists. Strauss has
observed (see Introduction) that, although somewhat
increased in its proportions, its treatment at Beethoven's
hands was still such as to identify it with the older
chamber music style, that is, the style in which the
wood-wind still consisted more or less of non-obbligato
parts, and the brass (still restricted by its imperfect
mechanisms) was generally used only to reenforce the
'tutti.'

There was, however, the new and individual feel-
ing in Beethoven's orchestration which Strauss astutely
attributes to the spirit of the pianoforte, a spirit which
was to play an important part in the works of the later
romanticists. Beethoven, the first to exploit the sonor-
ity of the more modem piano and to bring to it large
and dramatic utterance, found much of his inspiration
while at the keys of his instrument. It was but natural
that he should seek to transmit to the orchestra some of
^the marvellous and original idioms that he found there.
This he did, but with a full appreciation of the powers
of both mediums which render the adaptation a stroke
of the rarest genius. The new feeling which these in-
novations brought into the tone of the orchestra, then,
were not so much changes in its actual physical aspect,
such as later developments were to bring; they were
felt more in the detailed treatment of the individual
instruments and in the creation of sharper contrasts

100

SCHUBERT AND SCHUMANN

of color and dynamics which Beethoven's dramatic in-
stinct prompted.

Beethoven's contemporaries and immediate follow-
ers did little towards a marked development of the or-
chestra, although every genius who brought his imag-
ination to bear upon it necessarily molded it to the
needs of his individual style, and the result in every
case was some added resource of expression. Cheru-
bini and the French opera composers of the day had
some share in advancing its scope. Cherubini success-
fully experimented with sordini (muted) effects in
divided strings, experiments which were the beginning y
of a practice that is of great value in modern orchestral
color. Mehul, Lesueur, and Herold infused lightness
and grace into their opera scores, and so brought into
the orchestra a certain piquancy that also has its place
in the scheme of development

Important as their place in the orchestral repertory
is, Schubert's symphonic works do not mark any con-
siderable advance in orchestral style. Schubert's lyri-'^
cism pervaded many moments of these works, and he
extracted from all the instruments their full power of
lyric expression, employing even the trombones as a %<■
purely melodic instrument, a procedure which may
perhaps be said to be his one important orchestral in-
novation.

The same is more or less true of Schubert's followers
in the path of formal romanticism, Schumann and
Mendelssohn. While the fabric of their composition is
woven with the more highly colored threads of roman-
tic harmony, their treatment of the orchestra belongs "
to the classic style rather than to the modem. Mendels-
sohn's more thorough technical equipment and larger
experience gave him a far greater skill and imagina-

101

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

tion for a real orchestral style than Schumann had, the
latter seeming to have had too firmly in his mind the
idiom of the piano, and to have, in a manner, tran-
scribed his works for orchestra regardless of the subtle-
ties of orchestral color.

We have referred before to the continual impetus
given to symphonic development through the opera and
its dramatic necessities. From Monteverdi to Strauss
many of the really epoch-making revolutions in or-
chestral art have been wrought through the music of
the stage. And so in the period which we now scan
the new voice of the orchestra found itself in depicting
the delicate mysteries and fanciful romance of Weber*s
operas and the brilliant and massive sonority of those
of Meyerbeer.

Weber, in increasing the orchestra's eloquence, fol-
lowed the promptings of a real dramatic genius. The
orchestra at his hands became the glowing and pulsing
medium that sings in ecstatic sweep of melody, that
whispers in haunting mystery or shudders in sinister
foreboding. Weber's orchestra was that of Beethoven
in its amplest form: strings, a pair of wood-wind of
each kind, four horns and trombones. With these
means, which, in the face of our present-day orchestra
seem meagre enough, Weber, like Beethoven, by the
might and clairvoyancy of his genius, sensed the color
possibilities that became the basis of modem orchestra-
tion. It was, as we have said, Weber's dramatic and
poetic imagination that inspired his style. Lavoix
speaks of this style as a 'quality more easily named than
defined; it is the imitation of nature and the feelings of
poetry in him who listens to its mysterious voices.'
We may, indeed, cite passages from his scores, such as
the horns singing in tender four-part sonority in the
beginning of the Freischiitz overture, the tragic pizzi-
cato A's iti the basses against the tremolo of the strings
and the wail of the 'cello, the tender clarinet melody

102

WEBER AND MEYERBEER

of appeal that caused Berlioz to exclaim in the midst of
a technical exposition of the instrument, 'Oh, Weber!,*
the elfin voices of the wood-wind in Oberon, or the
mystery of the divided violins in Euryanthe, and yet
we have named no really startling piece of iconoclasm,
and we realize that the color of these things is as in-
tangible and as mysterious as genius itself.

The power and the originality of Meyerbeer's orches-
tra was manifested in other features. Meyerbeer in- \
creased the size of the orchestra and incorporated into
it the entire array of the instrumental forces known to
his day. Besides the usual strings, wood-wind, and
brass, Meyerbeer employed the ophicleide, the bass
clarinet, the English horn, the cornet a pistons; at
times he increased his brass choir to six horns and
other double brass, besides using a large complement
of percussion instruments. These instruments Meyer-
beer treated with great skill and, if not with the spir-
itual inspiration of Weber, certainly with a keen appre-
ciation of their powers and a full sense of their values.
Meyerbeer's appreciation of the bass clarinet and his
constant use of it placed that instrument as one of the
standard features of the modern orchestra. Meyer-
beer used it as a medium of dramatic portrayal, and in y
this, as well as many other traits of instrumental art, he a
was the forerunner of Wagner. As a matter of fact,
the large dimensions of Meyerbeer's orchestra, though
often brought to the service of what Berlioz called
*noisy' instrumentation, established the precedent for
the orchestra of colossal magnitude which was em-
ployed by Berlioz and Wagner.

It must bie realized that the advances in the art of
orchestration which we have just recounted must have N
become possible only by virtue of a considerable im-
provement in the scope of the earlier instruments which
we have noted, and the invention of new types and
varieties. This was indeed so, and the first half of the

103

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

nineteenth century was productive of a new order of
things whereby the entire array of orchestral instru-
ments was brought to a certain degree of perfection.
The two most far-reaching of these inventions and dis-
coveries were, first, those made by Theobald Bohm in
the course of his experiments, whereby the flute was
w perfected and a system established which later was to
revolutionize the technique of the entire wood-wind
A family; and, second, the addition of valves to the horn
and other brass instruments, thus rendering them ca-
pable of sharing in the chromaticism that was rapidly
becoming such an important element in musical struc-
ture. In these two advances two prophecies were ful-

^ filled: that of Mozart concerning the flute, mentioned
earlier in this chapter, and one of Mendelssohn, who
once declared that the valve horn would become per-
fected and be used generally.

'( Bohm,* after many years of experimenting, produced
in 1832 a flute which, besides possessing certain features
of the improved Gordon flute, had also a new system
of ring keys which gave it great superiority over former
models. In 1847 he again produced a new model with
the parabolic head joint, an invention which greatly
improved the tone of the flute and increased its carry-
ing power. This model has remained the basis of the
many subsequent improvements. The Bohm system
was applied to the clarinet in 1842 and was much im-
/ proved by Mollenhauer in 1867. In 1855, the Bohm
principles were applied to the bassoon.

In 1813 Stolzl t invented the valve, after having made
experiments in which he added some of the trombone's
'compass extension' principles to the horn, and in 1830
the valve horn was introduced. The appearance of the
valve horn was the signal for a long controversy be-

* Theobald Bohm, bom at Munich in 1794, and died there in 1881.
t Heinrlch Stdlzl, waldhom player in the Royal Kapelle in Berlin, b.
Pless (Silesia), 1780; d. Berlin, 1844.

104

MECHANICAL IMPROVEMENTS: SAX, ETC.

tween the champions of the new invention on one side
and those others who believed the old natural horn to
possess a purer tone quality. It is interesting to note
in this relation that Berlioz after having heard both
instruments declared himself to be unable to detect any
difference between their tones.

The discoveries and inventions of Charles J. Sax *
and those of his son, Adolphe (Antoine), were of the
greatest importance in the development of instrument-
making. Through the labors of these two men many
improvements in both brass and wind instruments were /
consummated, and to the younger Sax belongs the
credit of having been the inventor of the saxophone
(see page 50). Sax gave great attention to the bass
clarinet (the first bass clarinet is said to have been
made by Loti in Paris in 1772), and in 1836 the instru-
ment was perfected.

In addition to these may be mentioned an invention
made at a subsequent date and one of great importance,
that of the bass tuba by Wieprecht in 1835. Wieprecht
was conductor of the Prussian army bands at Berlin. >
The valuable instrument which is the result of his in-
vention superseded the ophicleide and its substitutes as
an effective bass for the brass choir, and it was gener-
ally adopted by orchestras in 1855.

These are but the most important of the innumer-
able improvements which the nineteenth century
brought to orchestral instruments. Many more have
since been made, and in our own day there is incessant
effort toward the perfecting of the instruments, the en-
larging of their scope, and the simplifying of their
technique.

While it has been previously stated that Weber and
Meyerbeer were the pioneers of the modern art of or-

*Boni at Dinant (Belgium). 1791; died in Paris. 1865.

105

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

chestration, that is true in only a general sense, inas-
much as their works form the groundwork on which the
modem system rests. In point of detailed idiom and
actual example it is, as Strauss remarks. Hector Berlioz
who is the real founder of the modem orchestra, the
V one composer besides Wagner who specialized in that
' massive medium and who is the most idiomatic of all
symphonic writers.

The orchestra which Berlioz employed was composed
of the same factors as those we enumerated as having
been used by Meyerbeer. One of the strange prompt-
ings of Berlioz's genius, however, was an inordinate
desire for orchestras of colossal size, and in many of his
works he demands a formidable number of each in-
stmment of the orchestra. We have seen (Vol. II, page
241) the bewildering array of instruments which he
required for his Requiem, and on every possible occa-
sion it seemed to be his delight to gather these mam-
moth bodies of players.

The chief characteristic of Berlioz's orchestration is
its purely orchestral quality. He stands as a reaction-
ary against the encroachment of the piano idiom upon
the orchestral style. This was a matter of training and
of taste; Berlioz did not play the piano, had but little
sympathy with it, and early in his 'Memoirs' we find
him, while regretting his inability to play the piano,
congratulating himself that he is free from its bondage
and influence.

Berlioz's style, measured by present-day standards, is
somewhat classic. There is much of Beethoven in the
substance of his music, and consequently in his orches-
tration. Richard Strauss * again with acumen says of
Berlioz's scoring that its absence of dramatic force is
due to its being so barren of polyphonic interest, but he
immediately adds his tribute to Berlioz as the first to
appreciate many modem color possibilities and avers

* See Introduction.

106

THE MODERN ORCHESTRA: BERLIOZ, LISZT

•
that he employed them with masterly effect. Saint-

Saens' epigrammatical criticism of Berlioz's scoring, in
which he said that Berlioz obtained from all the instru-
ments a charming tone, even when arranged *as though \/
they ought not to go well together,' may here be recalled.

Berlioz in his writings has given some very inter-
esting accounts of the orchestras of his day. In narrat-
ing his travels in Germany, in the second volume of
his 'Memoirs,' he speaks at some length on the state
of the various orchestras which he conducted or heard.
He gives the personnel of the orchestra in Frankfort
and remarks that, with only slight difference, the same
calibre of orchestra might be found in any of the sec-
ond-rate German cities. The list of the Frankfort or-
chestra given by him is as follows: eight first violins,
eight second violins, four violas, five violoncellos, four
double basses, two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two
bassoons, four horns, two trumpets, three trombones,
and one tympanist. One of the irregularities of the .
German orchestras that Berlioz notes was in the usage'
of the ophicleide, which he found replaced by a fourth
trombone, by a 'Russian bassoon,'* and, on still another
occasion, by the then new 'tuba.'

Berlioz complains often of lack of attention to de-
tails, such as the employment of one kind of drum-stick
for all effects, and occasionally he speaks of the play- /
ers as unskillful or careless. But on the whole he seems '^
to have been impressed with the number of excellent
orchestras which he found, and the idea to be gained
is that the Germany of his time was supporting its or-
chestral music generously.

Franz Liszt as an orchestral composer stands in some
respects as the opposite of Berlioz. More than any
other it was he who brought the piano idiom to the \
orchestra, where, however, he treated it with such skill
and subtle imagination that orchestral expression

* An instmment of the ophicleide family. Cf. p. 50.

107

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

thereby became greatly enriched, and that the fusion
of these two idioms revealed possibilities to be further
exploited by Wagner and Strauss. The traits of this
V piano idiom lie in the form of the figures, the prepon-
/ derance of arpeggio passages in both wood-wind and
strings, the use of the chromatic scale as a feature of
brilliancy, and the solid block chord formation of
much of the harmonic structure. By these seemingly
unidiomatic methods Liszt contrived to give to the or-
chestra a glowing color that was at once new and
dramatically eloquent. Liszt employed all the orches-
tral resources of his day. His scores include, besides
strings, two and sometimes three flutes : a piccolo ; a pair
each of oboes and clarinets; the bass clarinet (in almost
every score) ; the English horn; two, sometimes three,
bassoons; four horns; three trumpets; three trombones
and tuba; harp, and the entire paraphernalia of per-
cussion instruments.

In Richard Wagner the orchestra had its supreme
master; he above all others exhausted every possibility
of expression that the great instrument has. He was
the apotheosis of the romantic age, the reviver of
classic symphonism, and the veritable founder of every
distinctively modern phase of musical art.

In order to sense fully Wagner's power of orchestral
expression it is necessary to appreciate the import of
the musical content which is expressed through the
instrumental medium. The strength and marvel of
Wagner's art lies in his polyphonic style — a style di-
rectly descended from Bach, to which Wagner added
the restless, impassioned and highly colored sense of
his own age interpreted by his colossal genius. It is
this polyphonic nature which has made Wagner's style
the most richly idiomatic orchestral music of all ages.
In voicing the subtle and ever-changing forms of his
expression, the orchestra becomes a closely woven fab-
ric of richest colors, an undulating mass of marvel-

108

THE MODERN ORCHESTRA: RICHARD WAGNER

lously blended tone. The same genius that was Weber*s
found itself intensified in Wagner — the rare imagination
for pictorial and dramatic painting, the color sense
that enriched every moment of a score. Wagner, how-
ever, living in an age that gave him a more efficient
mechanical medium, by virtue of his more virile genius
developed the orchestra's powers to their furthest
point.

By those familiar with Wagner's life and the devel-
opment of his genius it will be remembered that in the
impressionable days of his first musical enthusiasm
he came under the full sway of many and varied in- /
fluences. Mozart, Weber, and, above all, Beethoven, (
possessed his senses and made an indelible impression
upon his musical nature. Then, during his first expe-
riences as an operatic conductor, he came into touch
with the lighter German operas, and the French scores J^
of Auber, Herold, Meyerbeer, and others; influences
that momentarily vitiated his taste, but which had their
part in initiating him into further secrets of orchestral xi
technique and scoring. In Paris Wagner became ac-
quainted with the works of Berlioz and his imagination
for a larger orchestral scheme became aroused. From
that point on Wagner's muse sought things ever larger,
and his works increased continually in size and com-
plexity, finally culminating in the monumental scores
of Gotterdammerung and Parsifal. Wagner adopted
early in his writings the large orchestra of Meyerbeer,
and this he increased continually in order to obtain
the colors, combinations and balance which his works
demanded. Three, instead of the usual wood-wind
pairs, became the rule in Wagner's scores, and these
are sometimes increased to four, giving a complete
four-part chord in one timbre. More radical still are
the changes in the brass choir: the four horns are in-
creased to six and sometimes eight, three trumpets are
always required, while to the usual quartet of trom-

109

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

bones and tuba he adds in the operas of the Ring an
additional bass trumpet, four tenor tubas, and a contra-
bass trombone. Wagner sometimes exceeds these re-
quirements in seeking special effects, as in the parts
for six harps in Das Rheingold, but such examples are
very much the exception, and only very rarely do per-
formances conform with the composer's directions in
employing these additional instruments.

Wagner's orchestration, at first following more or
less the conventional lines of an earlier epoch, soon
began to show traces of a revolutionary advance. Al-
ready the score of Lohengrin contains the germs of all
the rich idiomatic traits that go to make his later scores
the wonder of a new age of orchestral color. There we
find the beginnings of that volatile treatment of the
strings which gives to all of Wagner's scores their ka-
leidoscopic beauty and subtle mobility. This treatment
includes subdivision into many parts, the extension of
the range into regions still higher than those ventured
by Beethoven and Weber, and a more intensely dra-
matic use of the tremolo, an effect handed down from
Gluck through Weber. The same is true, in a measure,
of Wagner's treatment of the other instrumental choirs
in Lohengrin. In the second act (the scene between
Ortrud and Telramund) the wood-winds are treated
with the freedom of strings and are given the sinuous
chromatic lines that form so essential a feature of the
polyphonic web of Tristan and Die Meistersinger.

\ The brass instruments are handled with no less skill and
originality. The horn becomes at Wagner's hands the
flexible melodic instrument that plays so important a
part in modern tone-painting, while the other brasses
are treated with a rare sense of their tonal values and

f possibilities. The trumpet has in Wagner's scores per-
haps for the first time what we may call an essential
melodic voice; the trombones and tuba are no
longer mere reenforcing parts for the full orchestra,

110

THE ORCHESTRA AND SYMPHONISTS OF TODAY

but furnish in their rich softer tones a background of
warm color.

These points constitute but a superficial summary
of Wagner's orchestral methods. To give any adequate
conception of the variety and richness of his orchestral
idiom would require volumes. Suffice it to say that
Wagner's treatment of the orchestra has been the
greatest influence in modem musical art, and there can,
indeed, be no dispute with Richard Strauss when he
calls Wagner's methods the 'Alpha and Omega' of mod-
ern orchestration.

Wagner's critical writings and commentaries, no less
than those of Berlioz, furnish us with much interesting
information concerning the orchestras of his day, of his
experience with them and his theories concerning them.
His autobiography * is replete with anecdotes and
reminiscences of his early conductorship, of the famous
Paris Conservatoire Orchestra, the Dresden Orchestra,
and of many conductors and their ways. Besides this
we have in Wagner's collected writings several articles
which bear directly upon the orchestra, such as the
'Information concerning the performance of the Ninth
Symphony of Beethoven in 1846,' f the article *0n Con-
ducting,' t and many others, while in the reports sub-
mitted to the management of the Dresden Opera in
1846 § we find an intensely interesting and detailed
exposition of Wagner's practical ideas upon orchestral
organization and routine.

The orchestral music of the present day presents two
fairly well defined general aspects. One of these may
be designated as post-Wagnerism, the other as impres-

• Eng. trans. 'My Life,' 2 vols.. New York, 1911.

t 'Wagner's Collected Writings,' Vol. U.

t Ibid., Vol. VIII.

i Published in Der Junge Wagner, Berlin, 1910.

Ill

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

sionism, the one naturally the product of the German
genius, the other being essentially French in its char-
acter. These two phases, it must be said again, are
the general aspects of modern orchestral art; there
exists besides the examples which fall decidedly into
one or the other of these categories, a great deal of
representative art that is the outcome of nationalistic
impulses more local in feeling and less far-reaching in
influence. There is also much that is the outcome of a
mingling of these influences, while still another part
is the result of the reactionary trend which exists in
every epoch.

Two names immediately suggest themselves as the
heads of the two representative divisions of orchestral
style, Richard Strauss, who has carried the Wagner
idiom to its culminative phase, and Claude Debussy,
the real founder of the impressionistic school. The
works of these two men have been the most potent in-
fluence in modern orchestral development, and a survey
of their methods of orchestration will give a compre-
hensive idea of the present trend of the art.

We have named Richard Strauss as the direct heir
of Richard Wagner. Though Wagner is the large influ-
ence in Strauss's style, there is at least one other musical
antecedent from whom Strauss has unmistakably
inherited much of his orchestral manner, namely,
Franz Liszt. It is in the blending of these two idioms
that Strauss first found the potent style which he has
since developed with such startling originality and be-
wildering brilliancy. Strauss's art follows Wagner's in
its adherence to polyphonic ideals, and it is Strauss's
supreme mastery of the polyphonic style that renders
his orchestral works so richly idiomatic.

The beginnings of Strauss's art present the usual in-
dications of a style absorbent of several conflicting
influences. In his earliest orchestral works there is a
somewhat austere adherence to the classic ideal, into

112

STRAUSS AND POST-WAGNERISM

which creeps the romantic element, a style in which a
more or less conventional orchestral medium is em-
ployed in a manner which, though at times original, is
also within the safe boundaries of conventionality.
Strauss*s conversion to a distinctive modernity was,
however, as sudden as it was thorough, and in the four
tone poems, *Don Juan,' 'Death and Transfiguration,'
Till Eulenspiegel, and *Thus Spake Zarathustra,' he
emerges as a radical if not iconoclastically 'ultra' mod-
ern, demanding for his increasingly realistic style the
largest and most elaborate orchestral mechanism.

While the first two of these works employs only a
comparatively conservative orchestra, while the orches-
tra of 7*/// Eulenspiegel is heightened in color, with but
the addition of the two brilliant high-toned clarinets
and a bit of realistic noise in the form of a rattle, and,
while the Zarathustra score is increased by only a
fourth trumpet, organ, extra clarinet, and two harps,
the advance in the treatment of the instruments in these
works is greater than that made by any composer since
Berlioz. These advances are, generally speaking, in the
same direction as those of Wagner, though with Strauss
we find somewhat more of Berlioz's tendency to exploit
possibilities of an instrument from a sheer instrumental
imagination. On the other hand, much of the daring
displayed in the handling of the instruments is the
result of an intrinsically musical imagination, for
the broad lines of Strauss's melody with their wide
leaps sound bold when played upon the piano. This
sweeping line of melody Strauss puts into all of his
instruments, a process which gives to his orchestra
much of its characteristic brilliance. Besides this there
is an extraordinarily keen sense of instrumental values
and a profound knowledge of the capabilities of their
various registers, coupled with a rare skill in writing
for divided strings that lends to his combinations a
unique depth and richness of color.

113

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The *quasi-realistic' touches of these scores are bits
of instrumental inspiration. In 'Don Juan' a descend-
ing tremolo of violins depicts the death of Don Juan;
in Tod und Verkldrung a similar description is made
by quite different means, namely, the rapid ascending
in chromatic thirds of all the wood-wind and strings;
this, with a sudden diminuendo, gives us an impressive
suggestion of a final breath and a more convincing
picture of death than the violence of brass and tym-
pani could convey.

In the symphonic works which follow these, *Don
Quixote,' 'A Hero's Life,' and the 'Domestic Symphony,'
Strauss presses on to conquer new worlds of sonority,
polyphonic excitement, and pictorial realism. The
orchestra of 'Don Quixote' is increased by the addition
of two horns and a tenor tuba, and a wind machine is
added to the forces of realism. 'A Hero's Life,' one of
Strauss's largest scores, contains parts for eight horns,
five trumpets, and tenor tuba; and the 'Domestic Sym-
phony' reenlists to the orchestra's service the old oboe
d'amore, other new features being parts for four bas-
soons and four saxophones, an orchestra exceeded in
dimensions only by that which Strauss employed later
in his stage works, where he has added such instru-
ments as the heckelphone and celesta.

Strauss's handling of this colossal mechanism is a
consistent furtherance of those methods already cited;
an ever-increasing freedom of polyphonic independ-
ence to a point where it has been frequently described
as 'cacophony,' the dividing of the voices of the or-
chestra through a depth of harmony that seems fathom-
less.

The modern French school, as represented by De-
bussy and the impressionists, stands diametrically op-
posed to the polyphonic and sonorous tone poem of the
post- Wagner composers. It seeks the delicate, the elu-
sive, the poignant, and the bizarre. Its harmonies are

114

Facsimile of Debussy's Manuscript: a Page from the Score of
'Rondes de Printeinps'

iME ORCHRSTRA AND OT

in 1 T-omolo of violins depicts tl

in Tod ur ' '' '

by quite i.

in chromatic thirds of all the wood-wi;

thi- -•'' a suddt '' '

su^ . of a .

picture of death tiian the violence of bras

pani could v.

In the aic works which follow these. 'Don

Quixote,* *A Hero's Life.* and the 'Domestic S>Tnpht)
Strauss pi' conquer n-

polyphom at, and p;

orchestra of 'Don Quixote' is increased by the a
of two horns and a tenor iuha, and

added to the forces of realism. 'A 1^ ,

Strauss's largest scores, contains parts for eight horns,
five trump ' -1 tenor ' '

phony' rev o the ore .

d'amore, other new features bein^ i

•OOnS :: '

rthnrn^

L Ttn:M<rn is a
_ consistent fur of tho v cited;

an ov(T-ii

once to a ] ... .__, , , i;

as 'cacophony/ the <: of the voices of the or-

• che^ra through a depUi of hi^rmony that seems fathom*

less.
ITie modem French schooL as repr« >,

bussy . ' "

nosed ' _ . .

o poigiiauU aud the uizaj^r^,.^,
114

DEBUSSY AND IMPRESSIONISM

often as extreme, its polyphony is sometimes as auda-
ciously free, as those of the post-Wagnerians, but these
are bathed in another atmosphere, which, if far less
robust, is a newer voice in music.

The orchestral forces employed by the modem
French composer diflfer in no important regard from
those we have described as the conventional modem
orchestra; indeed, in looking over at random a few
scores of modern French works, one notices at first
glance the consistent uniformity of the orchestra's for-
mation. In almost all cases it consists of three flutes,
two oboes, two or three clarinets, a bass clarinet, three
bassoons, a double bassoon, four horns, three trumpets,
one or two harps, the usual strings, and an unusually
complete outfit of the percussion group, in which the
celesta is almost always present. What deviations there
are from this orchestration are usually in the additions
of saxophones or sarrusophones (see Chap. I, page 48),
a double-bass sarrusophone sometimes replacing the
double bassoon, as in L'Apprenti-sorcier of Dukas.

The characteristic idiom of French impressionistic
music has given rise to an orchestral style quite its own
and one which finds its prototype in the scores of De-
bussy.* Melodic line here gives place to harmonic at-
mosphere and the instrumental processes employed in
creating this atmosphere form a new technique. The
treatment of the strings is the most unique feature of
this scoring. Cantilena singing has no place here and,
when there is a melodic phrase, it is usually but a frag-
ment, a mere glimpse of line that immediately merges
into the orchestral maze. The 'effects* of the violin
described in Chapter I (pp. 14 ff) are in constant use
in impressionistic orchestral painting. Muted strings,
tremolos in every form, pizzicati, harmonics, and glis-
sandos are continually employed.

* The facsimile MS. of a page of Debussy score (facing page 114) may
be compared with the page from Strauss' 'Salome' in Vol. IX. (facing page
436).

115

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The wood-wind, as is to be expected from their na-
ture, speak a somewhat more articulate language, but
they too often add only formless, or rather lineless,
spots of color in playing repeated notes in subtle
rhythms. The horns of the modern French orchestra
have as important a place as they do in the German
scheme, and if they are treated with a greater delicacy
they are no less freely and skillfully employed. The
larger brass — trombones and tuba — have but a small
part in these scores. The ruder voices of their forte
tones seldom intrude themselves into the foreground;
their use is usually that of enriching the background
with sustained harmonies of chords softly played. The
harp is well understood and skillfully used by the
modern French composer. While, as in the case of
other instruments, its special effects, the glissando and
the playing in harmonics, are somewhat over-exploited,
one need but glance through any of the scores of De-
bussy or Ravel to find a wealth of novel, ingenious, and
effective harp formulae.

The foregoing exposition of French impressionism
must not be misunderstood as a summary dismissal
of the entire movement as the merest sounding of
recherche effects. There are undoubtedly among the
lesser followers of this school writers who answer to
the description given by Parry when he speaks of 'the
oversensitized hedonist with his delicate subtleties;
mainly in transparent pearl-grays.'* But whether or
not this accusation may be brought to the doors of the
French school or any of its individual followers, it is
quite certain that the entire school is free from that
other accusation voiced by Mr. Parry in speaking of
'the bombastic vulgarian posing as a man of great feel-
ing with his roars of blatant brass.' The statements
here made are but the merest generalities put forward
in the effort to lend some idea of the general aspect of

* Introduction to Vol. I.

116

DEBUSSY AND IMPRESSIONISM

the impressionistic school. While delicacy of tint and
subtlety of line are its most salient features, there are
many representative pages of French impressionism
that are of a broad virility, and, all in all, it cannot be
denied that the nationalistic movement in France is
a most important influence in contemporaneous art.

117

CHAPTER IV

SYMPHONIC GENESIS

Early instrumental music and instrumental practices — Instrumental
compositions before tlie formation of ttie orchestra — Gabrieli and tlie first
orcliestral music — The orchestral music of Bach and Handel; the 'Branden-
burg' concertos and the orchestral suites of Bach; the "Water Music' and
'Fire-works Music' of Handel — Other orchestral suites of the eighteenth cen-
tury; the rise of the 'concert symphony'; the Viennese and the North Ger-
man schools; the symphonies of Emanuel Bach.

Modern symphonic music is the result of two lines
of development, that of instrumental practices and
that of instrumental forms. These two departments
are naturally interdependent and the influences which
they have exerted upon each other are so continuous
and so vital as to render the two developments at
many of their points of contact identical and merged
into one movement.

We have seen that the inception of a definite and
vital instrumental music began at the end of the six-
teenth century and was a reaction against the vocal
polyphonic style which had so long held sway. This
reaction consisted principally of the expression of a
rhythmical quality which had been entirely lacking in
the polyphonic age, the search for a simple and more
direct idiom, a better defined harmonic structure, and
a general demand for a more humanized and emotional
utterance.

While vocal music was re-molded in a manner to

118

INSTRUMENTAL PRACTICES, 16TH-17TH CENT.

conform with these new feelings, the strong urge to
rhythmical vitality brought all instrumental music sud-
denly into prominence. We cannot here retrace all
the labyrinthian paths through which the instrumental
forms led in their development. Many of these forftis
we have already examined closely in noting their place
and bearing in general musical history (see Vol. I,
chap. XII-XIII, and Vol. VII, chap. II), and our en-
deavor will now be to review this development in out-
line to show its direct bearing upon the first veritable
orchestral compositions.

Some of the new instrumental forms to appear were
the direct outgrowth of the older vocal forms, the
earliest canzoni being, for example, instrumental ver-
sions of the madrigals, while others of the first instru-
mental works were new and originally conceived idi-
oms of purely instrumental character, such as the
toccata. The first mentioned of these forms, the can-
zone, occupies an important place in the development
of orchestral forms. In its varying shapes it was the
vehicle of a large number of early instrumental ex-
periments and from it was developed the more ex-
tended sonata da chiesa. Then followed the infusion
of the dance forms and the growth of the sonata da
camera or suite, an important step towards the cyclic
form which was to reach its full development in the
symphony.

The inception of opera was also a large factor in in-
strumental development. Not only did it offer a field
of wider instrumental practice, but it was also the
abstract through which instrumental forms absorbed
some of the dramatic significance that proved to
be a vitalizing influence. It was again in the purely
instrumental sections of operatic music that the
earliest set forms of instrumental music were first
exploited. And here it may be remarked that one
of the first uses of the word symphony was In de-

119

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

scription of the operatic prelude or in certain incidental
bits of instrumental music. There is such a 'sinfonia*
in Peri's opera Euridice. In time the word symphony
became attached to any of the non-vocal parts of a
composition, such as introductions to arias, and this
practice was maintained until quite a late period.
Other of the earlier operatic preludes were labelled
*toccata,' as for instance the introduction to Monte-
verdi's Orfeo. It was only with the creation of the
French overture by Lully that the operatic prelude as-
sumed intrinsic worth and significance as an orchestral
form and began to exercise an influence upon the forms
of pure orchestral music.

The instrumental evolution effected by (and in time
affecting) these developments in form has quite as
many and varied phases. These phases all have their
bearing upon orchestral development, but many of
them in themselves belong to the department of cham-
ber music.

The earliest instrumental combinations as we have
pointed out in a previous chapter were, in degree, for-
tuitous and their performance extemporaneous. From
these practices, however, there remained many traits
which marked the later functions of a designed or-
chestral music. The first definite and permanent in-
strumental group that grew out of these heterogeneous
masses were those that were gathered to perform oc-
casional music. Important among these were the *pi-
pers' ' and 'trumpeters' ' guilds that occupied so
prominent a place in German mediaeval musical life.
Kretzschmar * lays great stress upon these bodies as
the earliest form of a town music that was one day to
become the municipal symphony concert, and gives
much interesting information concerning their prac-
tices. The trumpeters seem to have had the honored
place in civic music and their services were extended

* FAhrer durch den Konzertaaal, new ed., 1913.

120

PRE-ORCHESTRAL COMPOSITIONS

only to the patrician class. The services of all players
were much required by the church, a fact which was
important in future developments.

It was with the advent of an independent instru-
mental music that the musical practices of the two
chief musical nations, Italy and Germany, began to
differ. The divergent trend of their development which
found its fundamental cause in the characters of the
two races, was immediately aflFected by the rise of
opera in Italy and the consequent reaction in favor of
a monodic style, while in Germany the religious spiri!
of the older vocal polyphony still persisted in many
of the new instrumental forms and prepared the way
for the real instrumental polyphony of Bach. The
organ was in earliest times an important instrument
in both countries, and though in Italy it was utilized
in the earliest instrumental forms, with the increasing
emphasis put upon operatic music, it became neglected,
whereas in Germany it maintained its important place
and continued to be the keystone of the instrumental
arch down through the days of Bach.

The tendency of the seventeenth century in regard
to instrumentation was distinctly to lessen the volume
of the tone, to refine and specialize tonal effects. Here
again was felt the general aim towards a reducing of
means. The large numbers of players that find men-
tion in earlier times are not employed in the earlier
set combinations. In a word, instrumental music up
to that time had been an accessory of noise to add
glamour to ceremonial occasions or solemnity to the
church service; it was now rapidly becoming an art
with the subtler capabilities of expressing the deeper
and inner emotions.

It was this new sense that hastened the development
of stringed instruments and gave them the continually
increasing prominence in instrumental combinations.
This change was, however, more rapidly effected in

121

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Italy than in Germany, for the popularity of the opera
was its chief promoting influence. In Germany the
organ remained the truly national instrument and all
that was decidedly Teutonic in character was asso-
ciated with the instrument. By degrees, however, the
other instruments came into general use in Germany
and the church began to feel the influence of the instru-
mental reaction that the Italians had instigated. In
many places the chief town piper was the organist, who
became in turn also a skilled lutenist or cembalist, and,
since he kept in touch with both sacred and profane
music, it was but natural that the musical activities
both religious and secular should share in common
these new impulses.

Although it was at the end of the sixteenth century
that there first appeared an instrumental composition
of such character and dimensions as to be worthy of
the designation orchestral, many of the earlier works
have an important place in the development of the in-
strumental style and are consequently worthy of
notice.

We have a recorded instrumental music which dates
from the period of the minnesingers, but it is not for
instruments in combination. The first recorded music
in two parts for orchestral instruments is that which
Kretzschmar notes as dating from the end of the thir-
teenth century and which he identifies as English only
by the character of the handwriting. Other and spe-
cific examples given by this authority are the twenty-six
fugues for comet or zink (see page 77) published by
Luther's friend Johann Walther in 1542 and the nine
pieces for two comets, by Thomas Morley published
in 1595. Following these there are notable examples
of three-part instrumental works, those of Heinrich

122

GABRIELI; FIRST ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Isaac * being the most distinguished in character, and
containing the germs of a genuinely instrumental
polyphony.

We then come to the first canzonas (canzoni da
sonar) y among the earliest and most famous of which
were those of Florentio Maschera, an organist of Bres-
cia, published at Brescia in 1584. These were quickly
imitated by a score of writers,t and, the form being set,
there appeared any number of canzoni and ricercari.
These forms, with their outgrowths, the sonata da
chiesa, and the fantasie, have been described in Vol. I,
chap. XII (see also Vol. VII, chap. II).

These works, as has been said, were scored for any-
where from four to sixteen instruments. The scoring,
however, was without system and without distinction.
The effects of vocal polyphony still lingered in the im-
aginations of the composers and their first efforts at
instrumental independence exhibit a cramped timidity
in their limited conceptions of instrumental effects.

With the advent of Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1612),
however, there began what Kretzschmar has called the
'golden time of a distinctive, solemn, exalted and noble
orchestral music' 'His compositions,' he continues,
'are imbued with that spirit in which were opened the
great church, state, civic and corporation ceremonies
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In a spe-
cial sense they have the qualities of Venetian art, the
brilliancy, the splendor, the earnestness and loftiness
which the masterpieces of Montagna, Paul Veronese
and Titian possess.' Both Giovanni and his uncle,
Andrea Gabrieli (1510-86), are credited with applying

* Heinrlch Isaac (Isaak, Ysac, etc.). also designated as Arrigo Tedesco
and Ugonis de Flandria, was a contemporary of Josquln des Pr^s; prob-
ably bom before 1450. He was organist to Lorenzo the Magnificent from
1480, then in the service of Maximilian I in Innsbruck and from 1497 impe-
rial court composer in Vienna. From 1514 to his death in 1517 he was
again in Florence. He was one of the most eminent contrapuntists of his
century.

t Marini, Fontana, Merula, Neri, Bassani, and others.

123

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the organ principle of doubling in octaves to the in-
strumental choir, and thus inventing the essential prin-
ciple of orchestral apportionment. The Gabrieli man-
ner of writing for many parts, according to Riemann,
marks a turning point in the history of composition.

The principal works of Giovanni Gabrieli are con-
tained in the collection known as Sacrae Sinfonise, and
consist of fourteen canzonas and two sonatas. These
works are not large in size, they are all contained
within the modest limits of seventy or eighty measures;
their strength lies in the direct and forceful idiom of
their structure and the inspired spiritual significance
of their contents. The antiphonally answering orches-
tras and choruses for which they are written has sug-
gested the forms of several of these works. A theme
announced in one section is answered by another to be
sounded a third time by the combined choirs and or-
chestra in solemn fullness. Canonic imitation forms
the principal design of the contrapuntal working and
there is a continuity of phrase previously unknown.

We have spoken in Chapter H of the scoring of these
works; the orchestra used consisted of violins, cornets
and trombones. The violin, though treated by Gabrieli
with a slightly advanced sense of freedom, still held a
more or less insignificant place, and the wind instru-
ments had the predominating interest. The influence of
Gabrieli was strongly felt and much that follows in
the larger models of orchestral writing may be at-
tributed to it.

It was but eleven years after the appearance of the
sacred symphonies of Gabrieli that Monteverdi's Orfeo
was produced. The purely instrumental aspect of this
is considerably greater in the number and variety of
the instruments employed, but because of the experi-
mentally extemporaneous nature of their performance
it does not occupy an important place in the develop-
ment of symphonic forms.

124

GABRIELI; FIRST ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

In the meantime formal music was making steady
advances. The popularizing of concerted music and
the infusion of dance rhythms into the cyclic forms had
given rise to the suite, a form in which a large pro-
portion of all musical composition of the seventeenth
century were cast. These collections of dance move-
ments were infinitely varied in their sequential ar-
rangement. All the known forms of dance were in-
corporated in them. In England and in Germany the
suite was especially cultivated. In the former country
such composers as Morley, Bull, and Byrd had worked
in the field, while in Germany the Phalesius collection
(1571) must be noted. These suites were as varied
in their instrumentation as they were in their
composition. Many were for solo instruments, while
others utilized all combinations of the then available
instruments.

The German orchestral suite held an important place
in the seventeenth century and many were the com-
posers who worked in the form. Among these were
Melchior Franck (1573-1639), Johann Schein (1586-
1630), Johann RosenmuUer (1620-84); Johann Petzold,
the seventeenth century town-piper of Bautzen and
Leipzig; Jan Reinken (1623-1722), composer of the
Hortus musicus, and others. These suites may be clas-
sified in two distinct divisions. The older ones were
performed largely out of doors and were often inciden-
tal music to public and private ceremonies, while the
later orchestral suite was distinctly chamber music,
performed indoors in concert form. These two classes
were in Germany sometimes designated as Blasende
Musik and Abendmusik and their instrumentation was
suited to the requirements of their use, the one being
scored largely for comets (Zinken) and trombones,
while the other was written for strings and keyed
instruments.

We are already familiar with the place in the march

125

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

of instrumental development that is held by the so-
called 'French overture' of Lully, the 'Italian overture*
of Scarlatti, and the sonatas and concerti of Corelli.
These as we have learned are three vitally important
phases in the evolution of musical forms, and while
thus playing an essential part in influencing a later era
of orchestral music, in themselves they belong to the
realm of opera and chamber music respectively. We
should, however, briefly recall the character of these
three forms, as they are of prime importance in the
history of instrumental music. The opera overture,
which in the early part of the seventeenth century was
no more than a brief prelude — a 'flourish of the instru-
ments' before the raising of the curtain — ^became under
Lully a set form with a structural formula which grad-
ually became solidified into a cohesive musical archi-
tecture. This 'French overture,' which was first used
by Lully, usually consisted of three movements — a brief
introduction of a slow and pathetic character, usually
repeated; a fast movement, usually in the form of a
free fugue and sometimes showing considerable struc-
tural plan; and a final repetition of the opening slow
movement. About the same time, Alessandro Scar-
latti in Italy was setting the form of the 'Italian over-
ture.' This consisted of two fast movements sfeparated
by a slow movement. The differences between the two
types of overture, once much stressed by theorists,
amount to little more than this alternation of the or-
der of fast and slow movements. The so-called 'clas-
sical overture' is quite a different matter. It grew out
of the clavichord suites and 'sonatas' of the seventeenth
and early eighteenth centuries. It is, in fact, nothing
but a strict sonata 'first movement,' preceded by a slow
introduction. It was simply an adaptation of the so-
nata form to the uses of the opera overture. It was
first used in the time of Gluck, if not first used actually
by Gluck himself. At all events, Gluck's overture to

126

ORCHESTRAL MUSIC OF BACH AND HANDEL

Iphigenia in Aulis' is one of the earliest, and certainly
one of the finest, examples of the *classical overture' in
all music. This form was early adopted by Mozart
for his overtures, and was used increasingly by com-
posers thereafter. Generally the sonata form of the
first movement is quite as strict as in a classical sym-
phony. Beethoven's 'Leonore Number 3' is the classic
example of this type of overture, and Wagner's Tann-
hduser overture is perhaps the most familiar modem
example. (Its form, however, is somewhat free.) The
old French and Italian overtures gradually went out
of fashion, though the free grouping of alternating fast
and slow movements, without strict formal arrange-
ment, continued late into the nineteenth century — as
in Rossini's 'William Tell.' In general, though the
opera overture did not actually contribute much in a
final sense to musical form, it served as a laboratory
for experiments in orchestral form throughout the
eighteenth century, and as the 'classical overture*
(though this form was, as we have seen, reflex and not
dynamic) it had a considerable influence on the orches-
tral music of the period.

The survivals of the early eighteenth century are so
entirely filled by those two colossal figures. Bach and
Handel, that no better name for the epoch which they
represent can be found than that which joins their
names in the label which the Oxford History (Vol.
IV) has placed upon it: 'The Age of Bach and Handel.'
The epoch marks in the popular mind the beginnings
of orchestral music, for from it date the works which
are most venerable in the lists of the standard orches-
tral repertory.

The value and importance which attach themselves
to these works are due to their intrinsic musical con-

127

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

tents rather than to their purely instrumental aspect
as orchestral compositions. The orchestra of that day,
as we know, was still the indeterminate and varying
body of the preceding era. The so-called orchestral
works of that time are written, some seemingly for
combinations chosen at random, others in accordance
with the facilities offered by the special occasion of
their performances. Thus it was natural that there
should as yet be no established sense of proportion
and balance, and but the merest awakenings of an im-
aginative color sense in the minds of composers. As
a general rule the individual instruments from which
the orchestra was constituted represented to the com-
poser merely so many voices in the polyphonic struc-
ture capable of taking any melody within their
compass. The sense of especial fitness of certain in-
struments for the expression of characteristic types of
figure or phrase was one to which the composer was
hardly awake. As a specific instance of the absolute
lack of color in certain scores we may note the accom-
paniment of Bach's cantata, Gottes Zeit, which Parry *
has cited as being peculiarly flat in the inapt and re-
stricted use of the instruments, the flutes being em-
ployed only in their dull lower registers and the in-
ferior tone of the viole da gamba adding to the gloom
of the color. 'No other score for such a group of in-
struments exists,' says Parry. But against these im-
pediments the age can boast an art which, if appraised
in its actual musical worth, is far superior to anything
that preceded, and on which rests our modern expres-
sion. Certain of the forms towards which composers
had long been blindly groping became crystallized, and
the rapidly growing plant of a vitally emotional and
untrammelled musical expression came to full flower in
the genius of Johann Sebastian Bach.

In the age of which we now speak the line of demar-

* C. Hubert H. Parry : 'Johann Sebastian Bach.' London, 1915.

128

BACH'S BRANDENBURG CONCERTOS

cation between chamber music and orchestral music
was not so sharply defined as now. The distinction
is almost entirely one of quantity, so that in certain
instances some of the ampler chamber music combina-
tions of that time have come to be considered by us
as strictly orchestral works. Such is the case with what
are to-day the best known of Bach's *orchestrar works,
the six 'Brandenburg' concertos. These, with the four
overtures or suites, constitute all that is left to us of
Bach's works for orchestra alone.

The term concerto, it will be remembered, had at
that time a meaning considerably different from that
which it has to-day. It was not, as now, a composition
in which one solo instrument had a part designed \o
exploit its resources and the skill of the performer.
The term, however, did imply the exploitation of groups
of instruments in carefully written ensemble passages,
which were more detailed and exacting than the *tutti'
which were interspersed throughout the compositions
by way of contrasting relief.

The Brandenburg concertos were written at the
instigation of the Margrave of Brandenburg, an enthu-
siastic amateur, who invited Bach to add to the col-
lection of contemporary concertos which he was mak-
ing, and which he had performed by his own orchestra.
It may be noted in passing that the works were
probably never performed in Bach's lifetime and, by
the strange neglect that has been the fate of many of
the world's great things, they were unmentioned in the
catalogue of the collection when it was sold at the time
of the Margrave's death. The concertos were completed
in March, 1721, and belong to what is known as Bach's
Cothen period, a time productive of most of his purely
instrumental works.

Bach in these works enlarged the scope of the con-
certo by using all the instruments for solo parts, besides
the customary strings that had monopolized the solos

129

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

up to that time. The works are each scored for a
unique combination of three or four solo instru-
ments with the 'tutti' of strings and supporting harpsi-
chord. The number of independent voice parts which
these means offered afforded Bach a richer medium for
his polyphonic inspiration than that of any of his other
instrumental works. No such scope was offered him
by the organ, clavier or smaller instrumental combina-
tions which he elsewhere employed. The orchestra
only could meet the requirements of a structure that
was to be the instrumental counterpart of the con-
trapuntal wonders of his choral works.

The first of these concertos is in F major and is
scored for strings, including a harpsichord and *violino
piccolo,' three oboes, two horns and a bassoon. The first
movement, which Parry describes as *a merry banter
between the solo instruments and the tutti in short pas-
sages' has the following theme:

JJTi-ljJ-i'Vfrffrr ^^- The second movement has a
duet for oboe and the violino piccolo. The theme as
at first announced in the oboe is as follows:

Adagio

The third movement is an allegro.

Adagio

with a short intervening adagio,

The concerto terminates in a

series of charming and light-hearted dance move-

with trio.

ments. A minuet.

yb ^^^^ ^ -9 — *

*v . r r lb r P f

which prefigures many of
the charming similar move-
ments of the classic period,
130

BACH'S ORCHESTRAL SUITES

is scored for two oboes and bassoon. A polacca for

strings only, ^'A^^TJ^^^^ ends the concerto.

The second concerto, also in F, has solo parts for
violin, flute oboe, and trumpet The themes of the
three movements are as follows :

Andante

The trum-
pet part in this concerto is one of great prominence and
extremely diflicult to play because of its high range.
There has, however, been recently made in Germany
an F trumpet of special design which greatly facilitates
the playing of these parts.

Number three of the group, for strings alone, is
generally conceded to be the finest of the set in its
structure and power of expression. The instruments
are divided into the following groups: three violins,
three violas and three 'celli. These groups are han-
dled with amazing skill and richest musical effect. The
concerto has but two numbers, both of them allegro
with the following themes :

In the fourth concerto the solo instruments are the
violin and two flutes, all of which have very elaborate
parts and are supported by a somewhat more meagre
tutti than is usual. There are three movements with
the following themes:

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Prost»

The salient characteristic of the fifth concerto is its
elaborate clavier part. In this Bach has written for
the instrument as only a virtuoso could, and has pro-
vided it with a part that exhausts the possibilities of
the old harpsichord as thoroughly as the later con-
certos of Liszt exhaust those of the piano. The three
movements of the concerto are an allegro.

Allegro

an *affectuoso,'
allegro

and a closing

Parry has called the sixth and last of the group *a
kind of mysterious counterpart to the third concerto.*
The instrumentation is again for strings alone, the
groups being those of two violas, two viole da gamba,
a violoncello and harpsichord. The 'mysterious' qual-
ity is the result of the viola da gamba tone. There is

an intervening

an allegro,

adagio,

no part, and a closing allegro of great animation:

in which the gamba has

We have spoken briefly of the general formulae of
the scoring employed in these concertos. With the
exception of the solo clavier part in number five, there
is no part which is peculiarly idiomatic to the instru-
ment allotted to it. Nor is there any appreciable at-
tempt at a contrast of instrumental timbre, the con-
trasting of groups seeming to be the sole conception of
opposing effects. Despite these archaisms these works,

132

BACH'S ORCHESTRAL SUITES

in common with the whole output of Bach's genius, are
to us of to-day a vital and emotional expression. Their
appearance on the orchestral programs is frequent and
there have been earnest efforts to give them perform-
ances that shall be faithful to the designs and inten-
tions of Bach. Schweitzer * observes that a too large
orchestra, as is sometimes employed, destroys the bal-
ance necessary in reproducing the effect of the original
intention. The scores of the concertos as well as those
of the overtures are carefully marked by Bach with
the instructions for the expression. More than in any
other works does he annotate his scores with dynamic
marks, a procedure strongly indicative of the affection
bestowed on these works by their creator.

The four orchestral suites of Bach were called by
him *overtures,' that being a common designation of
the suite of that day, and their constituency is identical
with that of the other suites and 'partitas' among Bach's
works. They consist in each case of an overture fol-
lowed by a series of dances to the number of three
or four. Among these dance forms are the courante,
gavotte, forlane, bourree, passepied, sarabande, polo-
naise, minuet and gigue. The overture which prefaces
these dances is the most important section of the suite.
It was Bach's initial experiment with the form known
as the Trench overture,' a form previously utilized by
Muffat, the establishment of which is generally accred-
ited to Lully. This form, as we have said, consisted of
a slow introduction followed by a rapid fugal move-
ment. Bach modified this form considerably, and by a
richness of idea and a unity of treatment gave it a
greater coherence and strength.

The first of these suites is in C major and has, besides
the introductory overture, a courante, a gavotte in two
parts, a forlane, a minuet and a bourree in two parts,
and two passepieds. The forlane is a Venetian dance

* /. S. Bach, translated by Ernest Newman, London, 1911.

133

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

of quite stately rhythm in a moderate tempo. That
which appears in this suite has the following theme:

This suite has been said

to be more generally characteristic of its time than it
is of Bach's art. It is scored for strings, two oboes and
bassoon.

The second of the suites is in B minor and consists
of a sarabande, bouree, polonaise, minuet, besides the
introductory overture, and a closing movement entitled
'Badinerie.' The dance movements are conceived and
developed with much grace and quaintness, affording a
vivid picture of the courtly scenes of the time.

The two other orchestral suites, both in D major,
were written in Leipzig for the Telemann Musikverein
which Bach conducted from 1729 to 1736, and whose
concerts were forerunners of the Gewandhaus con-
certs of our day. They belong to the class known as
'trumpet' suites, that is, suites for full orchestra.

The first of these suites, that which figures as
number three in the entire collection of suites, is the
most popular and the most played of the Bach orches-
tral works. Its movements are as follows: overture,

JJL» — 1 mn I - - J _ . I r TfiT -~- ■ - I , 1 gavotte,

It was the suite that Mendelssohn re-
vived in 1838, conducting it at a Gewandhaus concert,
and thereby restoring Bach to a world that had long
ignored him. The gavotte will be recognized as the
popular and much transcribed movement that has be-
come one of the best beloved of Bach's dances. But the
suite contains an even more popular melody, that of the

134

HANDEL: *WATER MUSIC,' TIRE-WORKS MUSIC

Air which in its arrangement by Wilhelmj is known
to-day almost exclusively as the *Air for the G string.'
The fourth suite is much less known than its famous
companion; a fact unwarranted by its musical worth
and interest. Its movements include, apart from the
usual overture and a closing movement termed *Re-
jouissance,' a bourree, a gavotte, and a minuet in two
parts. Kretzschmar notes the fact that the fugue of

the overture, which has this theme:

fp^lp I was used by Bach
in the Christmas cantata Unser Mund sei voll Lachen,
where it is transcribed as a chorus and where the instru-
mentation of the fugue, as it appears in this suite, is left
untouched to serve as the accompaniment for the voice
parts.

The orchestral treatment of the suites presents no
aspects radically different from that of the concert!.
The dissimilarity of physiognomy of the two sets of
pieces is naturally reflected in the instrumental setting,
but the methods of the two groups remain identical.

By the side of the Bach suites the orchestral works
of Handel seem to have become archaisms. They
are, nevertheless, the only other largely representa-
tive works of the age, and they have, moreover, certain
distinctive qualities of their own which make them
worthy of a brief scrutiny.

As was before stated, there exists some confusion as
to the term orchestral music as applied to a great deal
of the instrumental music of the eighteenth century
and it is difficult to determine just which of Handel's
works may be classified as orchestral compositions.
Kretzschmar has given, as the representative orchestral

135

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

works of Handel, the two sets of occasional pieces that
are commonly known as the *Water Music' and the
Tire Music' To these might be suitably added the
Twelve Grand Concertos for strings and harpsichord
written in 1739 and the oboe concertos. The two first-
named compositions remain, however, Handel's two
representative works, and the 'Water Music,' although'
unfamiliar in itself, is famous in its association and
important in its significance.

The occasion of the 'Water Music' pieces is a familiar
incident of musical history. Handel wrote them in
1715 as a peace offering necessary to the conciliation
of George I, having incurred that sovereign's displeas-
ure by too long a leave of absence from his post at
Hanover. Their performance, planned as a surprise
to the king, took place during a fete on the Thames
given by the king. The orchestra, placed on a boat
which followed that of the monarch, performed the
pieces much to the king's delight, the compliment gain-
ing for Handel his pardon and a substantial annuity.

The 'Water Music' is a series of twenty pieces. There
are, besides the customary overture in the Lully style,
such dance forms as the bourree, minuet and 'horn-
pipe.* Several contrasting slower movements, as arias,
are interspersed and the suite concludes with a *coro*
These constitute a suite of light and lively music, with-
out deep significance, but of pleasing quality. Many
of the movements are short and fragmentary and the
absence of a coherent unity contributes to its ineffec-
tiveness in the concert room. The scoring of these
pieces matches their musical content in its variety of
combinations; the overture has parts for solo oboe, vio-
lin and viola, while the continuo is sounded by the
'cellos and bassoons. To this combination are added,
in certain movements, horn and trumpet parts, and in
others the 'traversa' (flute) and the piccolo are desig-
nated.

136

HANDEL'S ORCHESTRAL WORKS

The *Fire-works Music' was written in 1749, the year
of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapclle; its performance
formed part of a huge public demonstration in London
which celebrated that event. Bearing the title 'con-
certo,' this work is also in the form of a suite. It is
somewhat shorter than the 'Water Music,' there being
besides the overture a bourrjee, a minuet, an air labelled
with its time marking, lentement, two pieces with sig-
nificant titles. La Rejouissance and La Paix, a piece
a. la Siciliano, rhythm beloved of Handel. These pieces
are of similar calibre to those of the 'Water Music' —
bright sparkling music of a decidedly popular nature.

The scoring of the 'Fire Music' is unique in its em-
ployment of what is almost exclusively an orchestra of
wind instruments. Although there are parts for strings
in several of the movements, they are far outbalanced
by the great number of wind instruments. Of the latter
the score calls for nine horns, nine trumpets, twenty-
four oboes, and twelve bassoons. The original score
contained also a part for the serpent, but it was later
eliminated. It is in this score that Handel has adopted
the method of signifying the balance of parts intended
by placing in his score the exact number of players
required. Thus we find, against the horn staves, the
directions *corno I for three persons,' and there are
similar instructions for the other parts.

We have spoken in an earlier chapter (see pp. 85f)
of the general characteristics of Handel's scoring. His
methods of instrumentation were considerably different
from those of Bach in several important points, dif-
ferences which the dissimilarities of their musical style
made inevitable. The more squarely cut design of
Handel's melodic line and the solid blocks of his har-
monic structure created a style peculiarly adapted to
the antiphonal sounding of contrasted instrument
groups which he so constantly practised in his orches-
tral writing.

137

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The ensuing history of the orchestral suite traces
its merging into the symphony proper. We are in-
debted to Kretzschmar for a very comprehensive sur-
vey of the period which witnessed this evolution, and
we shall rely upon his authority for the brief review
to be here made of that epoch.

Prominent among the contemporaries of Bach men-
tioned by our authority is Telemann, who was one of
the most prolific writers of his time. He is believed to
have written no less than six hundred suites, and in
certain of these, which bore the title Musique de table,
are to be found the germs of an orchestral program
music. The suites of Job. Joseph Fux (1660-1741), the
celebrated author of the theoretical work, Gradus ad
Parnassum, show many new features of orchestral pro-
cedure. Under the title Concentus musico-instrumen-
talis he published, in 1701, suites which possessed sev-
eral advanced features, among others a freer sense of
tonality in the departure from the main key, and in
the further exploitation of the bassoon as a solo instru-
ment.

Then there follow the names of Pantaleon,* in whose
works the form of the French overture was forsaken
and the fugue replaced by a simple and happy allegro,
Friedrich Fasch (1688-1758), whose overtures followed
both the French and Italian styles, and Johann Pfeif-
fer, whose four-movement suites consisting of overture,
an andante, an allegrezza and an allegro e vivace ap-
proximate in form the Haydn symphony, the allegrezza
having only to be substituted by the minuet to effect
the change.

Towards the middle of the eighteenth century the

•Pantaleon Hebenstreit (1669-1750) constructed one of the earliest ham-
mer-clavier instruments which much impressed Louis XIV of France, who
named the instrument the 'Pantaleon,' or 'Pantalon.'

138

THE 'CONCERT SYMPHONY'; EMANUEL BACH

form of the suite underwent changes by which a new
type was virtually created, namely, one which blended
the elements of folk-music with the more sophisticated
forms in which the pieces were conceived. It is also
observed that the methods of instrumentation em-
ployed in them follow certain new lines which bear
witness to the strong influence that the string quartet
and the chamber music style were beginning to wield.
These later suites were known by new names such as
serenade, cassation, or divertimento, titles which speak
familiarly of Mozart's day.

There remains but a short step to the symphony,
the chief orchestral medium of the next era. Some
of the earlier applications of the name have already
been noted by us (pp. 118f). We will now briefly ex-
amine the nature of the earliest type of the concert
symphony, the culminative outgrowth of the Gabrieli
orchestral sonata and the suite.

It was the middle of the eighteenth century that
saw the symphony take its place as an independent
instrumental form free from the vocal forms to whicl)
it had until that time been the merest appurtenance.
The earliest symphonies of that time divide themselves
into three schools which have been designated as the
Vienna, the North German, and the Mannheim schools.
To the first belonged Antonio Cardara, Matteo Schloger,
Georg Reutter, Christoph Wagenseil, and Georg Monn.
In the works of these men the old and the new meet;
there is some adherence to the old types of the French
or the Italian overtures, while on the other hand there
are constant glimpses of the new day of symphonic
music that was about to dawn. The minuet finds place
frequently as an organic part of the 'cyclic' form
(group of pieces or movements), and the instrumenta-
tion begins to assume the fixed and well balanced pro-
portions of the classic symphony.

The North German school of symphonists comprised

139

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

largely the circle of musicians gathered about the court
of Frederick the Great. Among these were Heinrich
Graun (1701-59), Franz Benda (1709-86), Georg Neruda
(1707-80), and many others. But looming far above
these stands the name of Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach,
famous son of the great Sebastian. The part which
the 'Hamburg Bach' played in the development of
musical forms and style has been already observed in
the Narrative History (Vol. H, pp. 58-60) and the Piano-
forte section (Vol. VH, Chap. HI). His part in sym-
phonic development, while not as momentous as that
which he took in the forwarding of piano music, is,
nevertheless, one of considerable importance. A mu-
sical lexicon of the day credits Emanuel Bach with
twenty symphonies. Ten only of these seem ever to
have been published and a still smaller number have
lived to see modem editions. Of the three symphonies
which find a place in the catalogues of to-day only one
remains in the orchestral repertory; this, the one in D
major, takes the ground work of its form from Scar-
latti.

The instrumentation of this and the other published
symphonies of Emanuel Bach includes strings, two
flutes, two oboes, two horns, two bassoons and harpsi-
chord. In their employment Bach exhibits the fas-
tidious and graceful fluency which marks his handling
of the other instrumental forms. The instruments are
all treated vdth a keen appreciation of their capabili-
ties, and each has its interesting and independent part
in the thematic development.

This brief survey may suffice for the *Vienna' and
*Berlin' schools. The third division, known as the
Mannheim school, occupies, as we know, a preeminent
place in the history of symphonic development, due to
the new idioms which were brought to the form by the
most important of the Mannheim composers, Johann
Stamitz. So closely do these works bear on the suc-

140

EARLY SYMPHONIC SCHOOLS

ceeding era of symphonic music, so significant are they
in containing the vital elements of the classic sym-
phonic form, that it becomes necessary to treat them
in a chapter devoted exclusively to that period.

141

CHAPTER V

THE SYMPHONY BEFORE BEETHOVEN

Symphonic metamorphosis; the Mannheim School: Stamitz, Cannabich;
other Mannheim symphonists — Haydn and his symphonies — The symphonies
of Mozart — Minor contemporaries, Ditters von Dittersdorf, Gossec, M^hul,
Michael Haydn. Boccherini.

The most superficial reading of musical history is
sufficient to demonstrate the inherent fallacy of all
statements which attribute to the works of any one man
the complete authorship of any of the larger phases of
art development. The outline given in the preceding
chapter reveals only the most conspicuous of the in-
finite ramifications which we uncover the moment we
begin to trace definite origins. How misleading, there-
fore, becomes the well worn epithet, 'father of the sym-
phony,' by which Haydn's place in musical history has
been so often indicated. Nevertheless, the phrase, in-
accurate as it may be, has a certain suggestion of truth,
inasmuch as it places Haydn first in the line of mas-
ters who worked within the limits of the established
mold of the classic symphony.

But this mold had been set, in almost all its details,
in the preceding age and awaited only the vital utter-
ance of supreme genius to fill it. We have seen that
the orchestral works of this epoch represented three
distinct aspects given to them by the composers of
three different localities, resulting in the formation
of the schools known as the Viennese, the North Grer-

142

THE MANNHEIM SYMPHONISTS: STAMITZ

man and the Mannheim. Each of these schools made
valuable contributions toward symphonic advance-
ment; but it is in the representative works of the
Mannheim school that we find the most important of
these influences and those which bear most directly on
the output of the succeeding age.

The rise of the Mannheim school had, as its incentive,
the existence of the most celebrated orchestra of that
day (see chap. H, pp. 90f) and it was the perfection of
its performance that awakened the imaginations of
the Mannheim composers to new experiments in form,
in orchestral color, and in technique. The works of the
Mannheim composers fall exactly within the last half
of the century, and the school presents two phases of
development in the works of the two generations which
that period represents. Foremost among the first gen-
eration, the founder of the school and one of the most
original and forceful of creative spirits in his age,
stands Johann Stamitz (Cf. Vol. II, pp. 64-65).

The recorded list of Stamitz's works * credits him
with about nine collections of symphonic pieces ag-
gregating ten orchestral trios and forty-five sym-
phonies. The earliest of these works took the form of
the usual trio-sonatas, which constituted so large a pro-
portion of the output of the preceding period of mus-
ical composition. The peculiarity of these particular
trio-sonatas, or orchestral trios, lies in the fact that
the bass part, instead of indicating merely the har-
monic groundwork to be supplied by the harpsichord
player, is an obbligato part, of equal importance with
the other two and might therefore be played by or-
chestral instruments proper. The direction for the
optional use of all the instruments of the orchestra
(toute[I] Vorchestre) together with their definite sonata
form makes these works the first symphonies in the

* Published In the Denkm&Ur der Tonkunst in Bagern, HI, 1, and
VII, 2.

143

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

classical sense. These compositions are followed by
symphonies of larger scope in their instrumentation,
and among them we find works scored for flutes, oboes,
clarinets, horns and strings. The only novelty of in-
strumentation which presents itself in these sym-
phonies is that embodied in the use of the clarinets,
whose employment in the orchestra, as we have al-
ready noted in Chapter H, had up to that time been
but fitful and experimental.

But in the harmonic and melodic structure of these
works lies their chief claim to our attention as crea-
tions of original and full expression, and as prototypes
of the great classic symphonies. A new sense is here
brought into the orchestral idiom, fraught with the
traits that are recognizable as being distinctly respon-
sible for basic qualities in the style of both Haydn
and Mozart.

The melodic line of these symphonies is replete with
the happy lilt that we usually associate with Haydn's
spirit or with the graceful curve which we think pe-
culiar only to Mozart. The themes of the first move-
ment of the symphony in D, listed by Riemann as opus
3, No. 2, embody some of these traits. The first theme.

has a combined feeling of Haydnesque directness
and of Mozartian sparkle, while the second theme,

pure Mozart in the tender line of melody with its ap-
poggiaturas. Kretzschmar observes that the tripping
figure which begins at the ninth bar of the first theme,
and which is three times repeated, constitutes one of
Stamitz's characteristic expressions. The two themes
taken thus in juxtaposition serve also to illustrate one

144

CONTEMPORARIES OF STAMITZ

of the most salient features of Stamitz's style, one in
which he was a pioneer. This is the idea of contrast
before referred to (Vol. II, p. 63). By this principle it
finally became the rule to contrast the two themes of the
sonata not only in key but also in feeling, the usual
practice being that of giving the first theme a sprightly
or robust character, and to the second theme one of
tender or subdued spirit

A celebrated feature of the performances of the
Mannheim orchestra was their use of dynamic expres-
sion, a procedure then new to orchestral playing. This
practice was reflected in the notation of the Mannheim
symphonists, their works being marked with a detailed
care that no earlier works had known. Pianos and
fortes, together with the crescendos and diminuendos
which linked them, were all noted in faithful precision;
it was the first time that music was written with defi-
nite instructions as to its manner of performance. It
is a fact worth noting that this prearranged dynamic
contrast had an important influence upon the develop-
ment of form, for it suggested the contrasted moods
that, as just stated, differentiate the various themes of
the classical sonata.

Contemporaries of Stamitz among the Mannheim
symphonists were Franz Xaver Richter (1709-89), An-
ton Filtz (1730-60), Joseph Toeschi (1724-88), Franz
Beck (1730-1809), and Ernst Eichner (1704-77). Of
these only two have left works which occupy an im-
portant place for us, namely, Richter and Filtz.

The symphonies of Richter are considerably more
elaborate in detail than are those of Stamitz. They are
more remarkable for the skill which is exhibited in the
development of their themes than for any great degree
of expansiveness in the themes themselves. They
represent, nevertheless, the work of a highly poetic
and imaginative nature and contain many effects of
beauty in their orchestral contrasts. The following

145

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

passage taken from Richter's symphony in B-flat shows
a trend towards chromatic treatment that was to be
epiphasized in harmony of the later Mannheim writers :

The works of Filtz are less interesting than those
of Richter. Harmonically more arid and without
the fluent and expressive melodic line of his con-
temporaries, his works are remarked by Kretzsch-
mar to be a harking back to the emptiness of the
Neapolitan symphony. In this it was opposed to the
feeling of the other Mannheim symphonies which were
decidedly and exclusively German in character.

The second generation of the Mannheim symphonists
found their leading spirit and chief representative In
Christian Cannabich. It was his privilege to bring
to full fruition some of the designs of Stamitz and
the earlier school. Conspicuous among the advances
made in the later Mannheim symphonies is the in-
creased tendency to a chromatic idiom of highly
colored and rich effectiveness. The following
phrases from one of Cannabich's symphonies are in
a vein that Mozart evidently heard and emulated:

Among the new
methods of
p bras eology
which had their

(jfrv^v- ^t»-E

=P=f=f^

U ^^1

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ir ■ p[J

*M.I, » 1

1 ' r r

"m^-

- > > < -

-J-

' *0'

ijtJ

mcipiency m
the symphonies of the later Mannheim school one is to
be specially noted, namely, that of sounding the theme
in the bass. This is remarkable not only as the first
example of an effect which added a new and valuable

146

HAYDN AND HIS SYMPHONIES

formula to the means of expression, but as evincing the
entire disappearance of the old regime of the basso
continuo. The following shows such a theme as it
appears in the beginning of Cannabich's symphony in
C taken first by the 'cellos and basses, then with the
bassoons added:

w — ''^'—f-'-t-

f t

-,i^. —

^^^

rrn n fi-

- [=; =

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■^ -^

^J^^^^

9 9
cto.

y ^ f\' 1

rrr fT

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-«

Jhe Mannheim symphonists exerted a wide and po-
tent influence. Their works set the example for the
orchestral music not only of Germany but of all
Europe. We know of Stamitz's success in Paris and
of the effect of his works on Gossec and the French
composers. The other continental countries and Eng-
land came under the same sway, so that the music of
Haydn and Mozart, couched in terms which were the
outgrowth of these expressions, found general accept-
ance all over Europe as a language universally familiar.

It is Haydn who begins to speak to us in the terms
of to-day. Not only do his symphonies remain a stable
feature of the standard repertory but their place in the
public affection is large and their appeal is more gen-
eral than that of the music of his predecessors.

This finds explanation in the fact that, while Haydn,
as we have said, was not the *father' of the symphony,
he was the first exponent of an instrumental music
that found itself entirely freed from all the shackles
which had restricted its utterances in the past. The
church and its traditions, together with the inherent
self-consciousness of a pedantry that was inevitabfy a
part of the effort towards a perfected form, were both
forgotten in a new age that was to voice the free and

147

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

untrammelled emotions of life itself in the beginnings of
a subjective art expression. This element was first voiced
in the strong infusion of the songs of the people into art
music. Haydn's peculiar fitness to be the mediator be-
tween the people and the sophisticated art in this fusion
of feeling, is well described by Daniel Gregory Mason,*
who says: *It was at this auspicious moment that
Haydn, equipped, as we have seen, with an affection-
ate and sympathetic heart, beating in unison with that
of common humanity; and with a lucid, practical, pe-
destrian mind, well-fitted to disentangle and arrange in
order the factors of a complex problem, appeared in the
arena. The adjustment between his nature and his cir-
cumstances was thus peculiarly complete. He found in
the folk-music of his native place, to begin with, a type
of emotional expression with which he was, both as re-
gards qualities and limitations, in complete sympathy.*

But this was only one of the two great services for
which music is indebted to Haydn. The other was to
perfect and to crystallize the form toward which pre-
ceding ages had been working, and which, as we have
seen, had reached an approximate coherency in the di-
rect progenitors of Haydn. The consummation of the
sonata f and its apparition as an art form of perfect
proportion and deepest significance are, however, the
results of Haydn's genius.

The circumstances of Haydn's life were strangely
propitious to the shaping of this genius. His earliest
influences were those of his home and its naive music,
together with the spontaneous music of the native Cro-
atian folk. Following upon these, the world of art
was revealed to him through his study of the sonatas
of Emanuel Bach, than which no better models could
have reached him. With these resources he was left
to develop his own genius in the isolation of his life

* 'Beethoven and His Forerunners.' New York, 1911.
t See Vol. II, pp. 53-57.

148

HAYDN AND HIS SYMPHONIES

at Eisenstadt. Here he was sequestered from all dis-
tracting influences, but had recourse to that one which
was of the utmost importance, the opportunity con-
tinually to test his experiments in orchestral writing
by having them performed by the Esterhazy orchestra
as soon as they were written. Then, having fairly es-
tablished his individual style, he was privileged in his
later life to look abroad and to absorb from his con-
temporaries that which he found good in them, and
which, while not robbing his own style of any of its
characteristic worth, broadened and brought it to that
point where it served as the model for his follower,
Beethoven.

The exact number of Haydn's symphonies is not
known, but is said to approximate one hundred and
twenty-five.* While the writings of Haydn do not fall
into development periods of as distinct traits as those
of many other writers, we may conveniently classify
these symphonies according to three characteristic
periods. The first embraces the years which reach
from the date of his first symphony, 1759, to the time
of his so-called Paris symphonies, 1780. These sym-
phonies represent the somewhat timid beginnings of a
style that maintained, for the greater part, a safe con-
ventionality, but into the spirit and form of which were
creeping the individualities of his later style. The
form began to assume the plastic lines of the real sym-
phony, the folk-song found a natural place in its fusion
with the sophisticated art forms and the orchestration
showed a constantly increasing skill and imagination
in the added resource of instrimiental technique and
of color combinations.

As we look over the list of these earlier symphonies
of Haydn we are immediately struck with the fact that

* One of the most complete lists is that furnished by the catalogue of
Breitkopf and Ufirtel, which shows a thematic Index of one hundred and
four.

149

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

many of them bear descriptive titles. We find the
*Moming,' *Noon,' 'Evening' and 'Christmas' sympho-
nies and many others whose names imply 'programs.*
This is true also of many of the later symphonies, and
from those in the Breitkopf and Hartel list no less than
twenty-six are given descriptive sub-titles. In some
cases these names were attached by Haydn himself,
and in other cases they became associated with the
works through traits which the public found in them,
or for other reasons more or less relevant. But in
any case the significant fact remains that Haydn's nat-
ural bent was towards program music and that the
opportunities it afforded for a pictorial use of the or-
chestra were alluring to him.

One of the best known of the early symphonies is one
in which the 'program' plays an important part; this is
the so-called 'Farewell' symphony, composed in 1772.
The significance of this work has often been misinter-
preted; the true version of its import is as follows:
Prince Esterhazy had decided to extend his summer's
stay at Eisenstadt two months beyond its usual dura-
tion. This represented a hardship to the members of
the orchestra inasmuch as their sojourn at the castle
meant separation from their families. Haydn voiced
their remonstrance in the 'Farewell' symphony, the last
movement offering to the prince a touching appeal for
dismissal. As the movement progresses the parts for
the players are one by one omitted from the score.
In the original performance before the prince, each of
the players closed his music as soon as his part ended,
blew out his candle silently, and left. Thus they left
one after the other, until there remained but the two
violinists who bring the movement to a sad close. The
story concludes with the prince's appreciation of the
hint and his granting of immediate leave to his impa-
tient orchestra.

150

HAYDN AND HIS SYMPHONIES

Other program symphonies of the earlier period are
the 'Schoolmaster' and the *Maria Theresa,' the latter
having been written on the occasion of a visit to Ester-
hazy made by the empress in 1773.

The form of these first symphonies early fixed itself
into the cycle of four movements which became the
conventional frame of the classic sjmiphony. The first
movement assumes the strict sonata form with themes
not always of greatest contrast, but nevertheless well
defined. The slower movements present always a con-
trast of feeling, the minuet takes its place as a firmly
established factor of the form and the last movement
is usually cast in that happy vein which characterizes
so much of Haydn's music. There is a strong tendency
on the part of critics, however, to over-emphasize this
buoyant side of Haydn and to overlook the moments of
intense earnestness with which his works are replete.
Taine has said that *in a great artist as in a perfect in-
strument there is no string missing,' and we have not
to look far in Haydn's symphonies to find moments of
the deepest emotional stress, as well as those subtle
tinges of melancholy, often veiling a passage which to
the less sensitive hearer is one of careless gaiety in its
rhythmical vivacity. The haunting sadness of such mo-
ments is often lent to them by the pathetic strain per-
vading so much of folk-song, and especially that of the
Slav.

Haydn's second period of development may be said
to be marked by the six celebrated works that have
become known as the Paris symphonies. First is the one

Allegro espressiro

in G minor, ;"A''» P f | I f Ff |fi^^ known as La

Poule. Then follows that in C major,

familiar as UOurs, that in B-flat,
151

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Adagio

called La Reine, that in D,
La Chasse, that in G,
designated the *Oxford

symphony,' and a sixth in G, which has no individual
tide,

The descriptive titles are in
no case those given by Haydn.

These symphonies show the fuller and richer devel-
opment of Haydn's genius. There is a greater flexi-
bility of theme, and increased skill in the facture, com-
bined with a more intense subjectivity which gave
them moments of greater earnestness and power.
The first of these symphonies. La Poule, is marked by
a strong degree of this earnestness; it pervades all of
its movements, including even the minuet. In the de-
velopment or working-out sections of this symphony
Haydn shows an effort towards effects which were
then new and experimental with him.

The second of the series is in more buoyant vein; the
slow movement is entirely in the folk-song mood, while
the last movement is a bold and rollicking pastoral in
sonata form, with a bag-pipe accompaniment of insis-
tent fifths and appoggiaturas. In La Reine there is a
slow introduction to the first movement. In this
Kretzschmar detects 'the spirit and fantasy, the roman-
tic hesitation in which the master of Salzburg likes
to indulge when it is time to play.' The second move-
ment of this symphony is an allegretto with variations,
and the last movement a sonata form of easy flow. The
fourth of the Paris symphonies, *The Chase,' is a work
in which there is a conflict of feeling and a strong vein
of emotional intensity, and it is one of Haydn's finest
works.

152

HAYDN AND HIS SYMPHONIES

The Oxford symphony is perhaps the best known
of the Paris symphonies. It shares with La Chasse
the strong note of subjectivity. It is the highest
point in Haydn's second period, and as such has been
with justice called 'Haydn's Eroica.* A slow introduc-
tion leads into the flowing theme of the first allegro,

which has an in-
cisive steadiness relieved by the lightness of its sec-
ond theme.

. The working-out is strong in its free modu-

lations. The second movement is an adagio of sim-

Cantabile

pie loveliness,

, while the minuet.

has a blending of grace

and strength, and the finale a bristling presto which
foreshadows Beethoven's 'chatter.'

The remaining symphony of the Paris group has a
masterly set of variations as a second movement, and
a finale of jovial boldness.

The culminative phase of Haydn's art is represented
by the twelve symphonies comprising what are known
as the 'Salomon' set, since they were written for the
concerts which Johann Peter Salomon conducted in
London and for which he engaged Haydn to visit the
English metropolis. The success which Haydn's sym-
phonies achieved in Paris had served rapidly to spread
his fame throughout Europe. Haydn's two visits to
London were made in 1790 and in 1794, and in each
of these seasons he produced six of the symphonies
which comprise the most famous portion of his work.

153

THE ORCHESTOA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

In the first set there is the symphony in E-flat, often
identified as the Paukenwirbel because of the unaccom-
panied roll of the drums in the introduction : .efrff. ^

Adagio

the symphony in D major with this opening theme,

Allegro _

^ J that in G major,

well known as the 'Surprise'
(Symphonie mit dem Paukenschlag) , a name given to it
by reason of the sudden fortissimo chord which breaks
into the gentle measures of the andante; the so-called

whose

*Military' symphony,
second movement, built on a French song and colored
with percussion effects, has given the work the charac-
teristics which the name implies; and the symphony in

B-flat,

In the second division of the

Salomon set we find the symphony in E-flat with the
following first theme, ih pyWpv'T iTt ^Y^l^^g

follows the clock symphony in D minor,

with the *tick-tock' of bassoons and

strings as they accompany the folk-song melody of the
andante; the two symphonies in D, that with the

opening allegro beginning <^ H i iJ-bif— ^^ I ^-ji J"' I
I, and that with the following allegro sub-

Allegro

Then there

154

HAYDN AND HIS SYMPHONIES
is the very well known one in C minor (B. & H. No. 9) ,

J£^H■ H 1 r Tff r - I ■ V i^rgl J ^p and the set is completed
by the one in B-flat (B. & H. No. 8), ^^''fi fflj

and that in C major (B. & H. No. 7),

Virmo*

It is not as a whole that these Salomon symphonies
present Haydn's art at its highest point. Certain of
the symphonies, such as the last three mentioned, have
some of the characteristics of the earlier works, while
the first of the second group (in E-flat) is one of the
weaker of the Haydn symphonies. It is the perfect
proportions and the sustained musical interest of such
works as the first of the first group or of the *Surprise*
symphony that we recognize as exemplary of the best
in these works.

In formal design the entire collection of the Salomon
symphonies presents a considerable uniformity of treat-
ment. The cyclical order of movements has the cus-
tomary allegro, with the second slow movement an-
dante, adagio or largo, followed by the minuet and
concluding with a fast movement (which is in any de-
gree of rapidity from allegro to presto). The last is
often a rondo, Haydn being the first to make any regu-
lar use of that form as a component of the sonata cycle.
The introductory slow section to the first movement
is present in nearly all of the symphonies, a notable
exception being that of the C minor symphony of the
last group, in which it is omitted, the movement open-
ing directly with the allegro theme. Kretzschmar notes,
however, the double nature of this opening theme. Its
first five notes are in a bold, declamatory manner,

155

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

while the pensive phrase which follows is so contrasted
with it as to lend to the opening of this symphony the
aspect of a free fantasia, unlike the usual direct and
concise theme statements of the other works. In connec-
tion with the slow opening section it may be also noted
here that a departure from his customary practice is
made by Haydn in the first symphony of the entire set
(in E-flat), when the adagio introduction is reintro-
duced towards the end of the movement, as a sort of
pause before sixteen measures of the first allegro con-
clude the movement in a sort of coda effect. For the
rest these symphonies evince, in every measure, the
constant care and effort Haydn devoted to rounding
and polishing the sonata form, not only in the broader
aspects of the movements but in the minute details of
balance and contrast in the smaller sections.

The folk-tune element persists in these works; indeed,
together with the evidences of the Mozart influence, it
is the conspicuous feature of its aesthetic significance.
The naively touching melodies of these folk-songs ap-
pear most often as the themes of the slower movements.
Their treatment is often in variation form, where their
contour remains unaltered and easily recognizable
through the graceful ornamentation that is woven about
them. Prominent examples of these themes will be re-
membered in the andante of the *Surprise' symphony
and in the andante of the D major symphony, the sec-
ond of the first group.

The Mozart influence which so softened the lines and
heightened the color of Haydn's later periods is
strongly felt in many places throughout the Salomon
symphonies. Mr. Mason has tersely said: 'Haydn
showed Mozart how to do things, and in return Mozart
showed Haydn how to do them better.' That Haydn
was not reluctant in his receptiveness of this influence
is a matter of musical history. The later works of

156

THE SYMPHONIES OF MOZART

Haydn are the product of this confluence of spirit and
style. The further curve of Hne with its added grace
and elegance, the enrichment of the harmonic structure
through chromatic ornament and passing note, and the
appreciation of a new sense of orchestral color are part
of Haydn's debt to Mozart recorded in these works.*

Apart from this, however, there are great advances
in style that were distinctly original with Haydn. There
is in the spirit of much of these symphonies a fund of
ruggedness that was unknown to Mozart and which
served as the foundation and inspiration of much of
Beethoven. There is also a harmonic audacity of a
kind unlike that of Mozart, whose innovations in har-
mony were more subtle than abrupt. Strongly flavored
as they are by the Mozartian grace and tenderness which
continually cast their spell over Haydn, these sympho-
nies occupy a large individual place in musical history,
and remain unquestionably the real prototype of the
modem symphony.

Otto Jahn, in his *Life of Mozart,' states that *noth-
ing whatever is known of Mozart's models in his in-
strumental music,' adding *we may take it for granted
that he knew Haydn's symphonies.' It would seem
hardly necessary to take for granted this or any other
fact concerning the influences which entered into the
development of Mozart's genius. The external inci-
dents of his life, with the unfailing testimony of his
works, bear certain witness to the channels through
which his genius ran and to the streams of art tradi-
tion that fed the current of his thought and feeling.

That the detailed record of these influences is not
left to us as in the case of so many other composers

* Kretzschmar says of the D major symphony (No. 2) : 'He begins his
first movement with "Don Juan" and ends It with "The Marriage of Figaro." »

157

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

is due to the abnormal qualities of Mozart's genius and
the spontaneity of its impulses. With his almost super-
natural endowments and sensibilities Mozart absorbed
and assimilated all that came to him seemingly with-
out intellectual effort. His musical perceptions and
conceptions were apparently continually subconscious.
Reflection, comment or analysis were superfluous; there
was, in fact, no time for them in the incessant flow
of his musical productiveness.

We have observed in a previous chapter the advan-
tages which Mozart enjoyed in the earliest days of his
career. When travelling over Europe he had the op-
portunity of hearing all of the large orchestras, thereby
gaining a broad and comprehensive view of the art
of his day. Of the impressions received on these jour-
neys one stands out as having had a vital influence
in the shaping of Mozart's development, namely, that
made on him by the Mannheim orchestra and its per-
formances. Mozart's first and long visit to Mannheim
was in 1777-78. At that time the school of Mannheim
symphonists had at its head Cannabich, who was also
the conductor of the orchestra. As we know, Mozart
established a warm friendship with Cannabich and his
family, and his stay in Mannheim remained one of
the treasured memories of his early life. In the ac-
counts of this period the mention of musical incidents
concern largely performers and performances. Mo-
zart played a great deal and in his enthusiasm for the
skill and taste of many of the players of the orchestra
wrote several concertos for them. But there is no word
of comment or criticism on the symphonic works which
he must have continually heard. Their sway over him
was one of which he was unconscious, but which is
evinced in the style of his later symphonies; and it
had, as we have seen, in its turn, a large part in the
formation of Haydn's later style.

158

THE SYMPHONIES OF MOZART

The list of Mozart's orchestral works includes forty-
one symphonies and thirty-one compositions for smal-
ler orchestra. The latter include the cassations, sere-
nades and divertimenti which are scored for various
combinations of instruments, but which represent some
of Mozart's finest workmanship and instrumental in-
spiration.

The first symphony in E-flat major (No. 16 in Kochel's
catalogue) was written in 1764 by the then eight-year-
old boy who was astonishing England. It is a tentative
work of small dimensions, scored for violins, violas,
basses, two oboes and two horns. This was rapidly
followed by other symphonies, and when Mozart at the
age of twenty-one (1778) produced his Paris symphony
he was the composer of thirty of these youthful works.
The Paris symphony marks the beginning of Mozart's
mature style; it is the first of those known as Mozart's
adult symphonies, the last eleven of the list. Follow-
ing it are the eight which mark the development
towards the ultimate point and crowning glory of Mo-
zart's career, the three last symphonies written in 1787.

It is these eleven adult symphonies that constitute
Mozart's valuable contribution to symphonic literature.
In them we find the gamut of his expression and the
substance of his style. This style, as we have per-
ceived, is in many of its features indissolubly linked
with that of Haydn; the formal aspect of the works of
both Haydn and Mozart having many points of identity.
In spirit, however, each breathes its own individual
feeling. Mozart's music draws its distinctive quality
from its rich fund of melodic invention, though inven-
tion seems an inappropriate description of a process
that is so emotionally spontaneous.* It is the applica-
tion of this melodic sense to the orchestra that consti-

• For a further exposition of Mozart'a style see Vol. O, pp. 109ff.

159

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

tutes the originality of Mozart's orchestral style. With
him was inaugurated the pure orchestral cantdbile, an
idiom which was somewhat derided in his day as being
*uninstrumental,' but to which orchestral music is in-
debted as the foundation of a new expression. If
Mozart, at times to emphasize the melodic features of
a work, clarifies its harmonic structure to its simplest
terms, at other times he weaves these melodic strands
with a polyphonic sense far richer than had yet been
felt in the new harmonic-monodic age. In his treat-
ment of the orchestra Mozart was in no manner icono-
clastic. His originality lay largely in his constant use
of the cantabile throughout the entire orchestra. Ref-
erence has been made (Vol. II, pp. 117-118) to what Dr.
Hugo Riemann has called the *filigree work' whereby
the individual instruments of the orchestra jointly
weave the melodic web in such a way that at no time
they assume the prominence of solo parts. The device
which Dr. Riemann points out as an essential element
of this style, namely, that of dividing the phrases of a
melody between contrasted instruments, is Mozart's dis-
covery, and is an important step towards the modem
polyphony of our own day.

The symphony in D major, known as the Paris sym-
phony, was so written by Mozart as to comply with the
ideas of the French public as to the essential merits of
a symphonic work.* It included the premier coup
d'archet, the contrasted piano and forte and other
stereotyped effects, all of which Mozart simulated with
a success that met with great popular favor, far dif-
ferent from the result which met Wagner's attempt
to adapt his genius to the whims of a fickle public.
But it was no mere piece d^ occasion that Mozart wrote.
The Paris symphony has an important significance in
being the first symphonic work to be written after his

• Cf. Vol. n. p. 105.

160

THE SYMPHONIES OF MOZART

stay at Mannheim and the first to show the resulting
influences of that period. The theme of the opening

All«gro

allegro is as follows:

The much vaunted *first at-

tack' of the Paris orchestra consisted merely of playing
the opening notes of the movement in precise ensemble
and with loud eclat. Among other effects learned from
the Mannheim orchestra Mozart employed in this sym-
phony the long and effective crescendo on a single held
chord.

The G major symphony which Mozart next composed
is in overture form, as is also the following D major
symphony. The first of these two works had parts for
four horns and two trumpets, which are used in effects
that, as Jahn opines, *must have startled the Salzburg-

AHegro assal

The symphony in B-flat

ers.

has a strongly Haydnesque feeling but also forecasts

some of the harmonic and melodic effects of the *Magic

Flute.* ^**6"

The C major symphony, which follows,

is a work of

a larger conception, in which Jahn says *a constant
propensity to fall into the minor key blends strength
and decision with an expression not so much of melan-
choly as of consolation.' The second theme of the first
movement is a cantabile of great beauty, the andante

r^V M' 1 a piece of the purest Mozar-

tian charm, and the finale a movement of rhythmical
energy.
The D major symphony, which has the following bold-

161

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

ly leaping theme in its opening allegro :

again follows the lines of the

suite, having as its first movement a march which is
followed by two minuets. When, later, it was per-
formed under Mozart's direction in Vienna, the march
and one minuet were omitted. This symphony is often
identified as the *HaJBfner Serenade,' having been com-
missioned by the family of that name at Salzburg.

The symphony in C which follows this was written in
1783 for the Musikverein of Linz, though Jahn raises
the question of its identity owing to the disagreement
of several catalogues. The best authorities, however,
point to this work as the right one, and it is generally
known as the Linz symphony. The themes of its four

^ Allegro splttt080_

movements are as follows:

AndantA

In no work of Mozart is the Haydn influence more
marked than in this symphony. In its spirit and form,
the thematic material and development, it follows very
closely the lines of Haydn's style.

Three years* intervened between the writing of
this symphony and the composition of the next,
during which time Mozart wrote The Marriage of
Figaro.' It was in the winter of 1786 that Mozart
wrote the D major symphony for the Vienna 'Win-
ter Concerts.' The work is in three movements (the
minuetto is omitted), having the following themes:

Allegro

THE SYMPHONIES OF MOZART

Aadanti

PrMto

This symphony together with the last three mark
the summit of Mozart's achievement The move-
ments of the symphony are related in a unity of idea
and spirit, a notable phase of the ultimate style of
Mozart and an important influence on future sym-
phonic art The instrumentation also shows a marked
advance and the instruments are handled with a con-
siderably greater degree of independence. Jahn sums
up the aesthetic significance of the work in saying *the
essence of the work is ethic rather than pathetic; char-
acter, decision, stability find expression there, rather
than passion or fleeting excitement.'

The three last symphonies of Mozart are all works
of the rarest perfection, the second, the famous G
minor, being most justly called *the greatest orchestral
work of the eighteenth century.' It seems incredible
that these works should have been written within the
narrow limits of six weeks' time, but such is the fact.
The first bears the date June 26th, the second July 25th,
and the third August 10th, 1788.

The first of the group is the one in E-flat which has,
for some inexplicable reason, been called the *Swan
Song.' It has four movements, the first opening with
a stately introduction in the Haydn vein, at the close
of which a few sustained measures of what Kretzsch-
mar calls a 'Don Juan melancholy' lead into the buoy-

^ , Allegro

ant allegro.

which assumes a greater virility in its repetition
^M'it JjJ Jh J wl it suggestive of Beethoven's *Eroica.'

The second is a graceful flowing cantabile of violins an-

163

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

swered with wood-wind phrases:

After a very short development period

of simple structure there is a recapitulation of regular
form. The second movement is an andante in which the

Andante ^ .^^

following theme.^4^4^ITOij-,vJTlirrrfrriry,v.i

alternates with the more spirited episode m F minor:

Allegretto

The minuet

is of the more rugged type which melts to ten-

Clar

derness in the trio

movement

The last

presents a kaleidoscopic play of humor in its full and
freely modulating harmony, as its theme is tossed about
in playful imitations. Kretzschmar likens the spirit of
the movement to the animated scenes of a market place
as painted by an artist of the Netherlands school.

The G minor symphony is of different import; its
tone is one of sadness, ranging from the plaintive mur-
mur of its opening measures to a more impassioned
tone as the movement proceeds. The allegro is with-
out introduction, and has the following theme :

Allegro moderato

A subtle modulation of the utmost naturalness leads
this theme upon its repetition into a bolder one :

164

THE SYMPHONIES OF MOZART
which serves as a bridge to the sad suavity of the second
subject,

where the strings and wood-wind, antiphon-

ally dividing the motives, serve as an illustration par
excellence of the new treatment of thematic material in
the orchestra mentioned earlier in this chapter (p. 159).
The working-out employs largely the motive embodied
in the two opening notes of the principal theme. These
are used in answering voices of the different choirs,
and also as counter-figures against sustained melodies
or against other motives of the first theme in aug-
mentation.

The second movement, andante, is in E-flat major,
in a tone of sad resignation. The opening theme

t. » I ,,,,11 I I I I I r

in its variations is elaborately ornamented with the
fleeting shimmer of the figures in thirty-second notes,

ftHf yfeJ » prp» J?» ^ » w^ which continually flicker

about it. Strife again returns in the conflicting dis-

Allegro

sonances of the minuet

|, to be momentarily relieved in
the naive tranquillity of the trio;

The arpeggio of the closing allegro foreshadows in
its aspiring ascent many a movement of Beethoven:

Allegro assai

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The second theme in the relative major

gives

moment's repose before the unrest of the working-out,
in which the arpeggio of the opening theme struggles
upwards against the opposing forces of a dissonant
counterpoint, maintaining the 'sinister merriment* of
the movement.

The last of the Mozart symphonies is that in C
major known as the 'Jupiter' symphony. This work
has not the intimate subjectiveness that is the mys-
teriously moving quality of the G minor. It is
more aloof in its classic purity and grandeur. The
opening allegro is without introduction; its theme

is, however, of a solemn dignity, the massive unfolding
of which leads to a somewhat plaintive second theme

The andante in
F is a movement of deep feeling and dramatic
strength. The principal theme yf=^J- R\ jsv-p^g
is answered by the following sub-

The minuet

is in a mood of sober happiness 'which transports the
hearer into a purer element, where he seems to exist
without effort, like the Homeric gods.' The finale, al-
legro molto, is a masterly polyphonic weave. The

principal subject ^\-h "T" I ° K' M * ' ^|l^ f^fri

comprises in its first four notes a

166

I'ioiioers of the Syniph(Ui.\ :

(Uirl Dittrn vuii Oittrrsilort'
Luigi Clierubiiii

h'ruiifoift Joseph (iuvvc
£ticiiiK* N'iculu^ M(-hu.

s repost' ijelufe the ui
.....U tin* arpecff'" - '" *^^^

c (>uiu r})oint, maintaining the 'sinister men
the inovenient

The last of th<* Mozart symphonies is that
major known i. iter* s3rmphony. This wor^

' - ■ ss that i& the m\s

i - ., - -^ -, -., : -•^ G ininor Tf ^

more aloof in its classic purity and gr

thout introduction; i

is» however, of a solemn dignity, the massive
f vl.uh leads to a somewhat plf?

I moveii

si diary one: H ^ Ti

-t

is in a mood of .,^,-.,. ...,.^,j,,,,.l, .-.^
hearer into a purer element, whei

rt, like the
t -1 ' > )iLu, is a mat;

VON DITTERSDORF, GOSSEC, M^HUL

motive which became with Mozart a sort of idSe fixe
and which he employed in motto-like manner in a
number of different compositions. It is used in this
movement somewhat as a cantus firmus against vary-
ing counterpoints and is finally inverted to serve as the
subject for the brilliant fugue which concludes the
movement

The supernal qualities of their art give to Haydn
and Mozart a place so prominent that to us it fills the
horizon of their age. There were, however, other
forces which contributed their share toward the de-
velopment of orchestral music and which, though they
now be largely matters of a merely historical interest,
cannot be ignored in a comprehensive view of the
era.

In the historical review that has been made of this
period (Vol. II, pp. 67-71) three composers are men-
tioned as being the intermediaries between the early
Mannheim writers and the flower of the school as
represented by Haydn and Mozart: Johann Schobert,
Luigi Boccherini and Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf
(1739-99). The first of these composers, as we have
learned, occupied himself largely with piano music,
and the second with chamber music, but the third
occupies a prominent place in the history of orchestral
music by reason of his prolific output of symphonic
works which, though they pale before the splendor of
those of his friend Haydn, or that of Mozart, are not
without intrinsic worth. Ditters' orchestral works di-
vide themselves into two classes, that consisting of
absolute music, or the symphonies without descriptive
titles, and that which includes his twelve symphonies
on Ovid's 'Metamorphoses,' one of the most interesting
of the early experiments in program music. As a char-

167

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

acteristic specimen of the former class Kretzschmar
names a symphony in G major published in 1787 and
reprinted by Breitkopf and Hartel, which remains the
sole representative of Ditters' orchestral work in their
catalogue. This symphony is in the usual four move-
ments of Haydn's works, an allegro, larghetto, a minuet
and a prestissimo finale. It is scored for the custom-
ary strings, two oboes, two bassoons, two horns, two
trumpets, drums and a clavichord, the latter, however,
not having a prominent part Kretzschmar finds in
this work a blending of style in which may be traced
the influence of the old Italian symphony, but in which
there preponderates the contemporaneous sway of
Haydn and Mozart. The second theme of the first
movement possesses the Mozartian cantabile quality,
while the variations of the second movement are in the
manner of the earlier Haydn methods.

Of the twelve program symphonies written on Ovid's
'Metamorphoses' not all are extant. Brenet * cites cer-
tain numbers found by him which, bearing the titles
of 'The Four Ages' and 'Actaeon,' were in the con-
ventional form of the four-movement symphony.
Kretzschmar questions the authenticity of this disclos-
ure and mentions in turn a copy of number ten of the
series which is to be found in the Munich Court Li-
brary and which has the title Combattimento delVti-
mane passioni. This composition is a suite of seven
pieces; the individual parts are called il Superbo, il
MattOt il Contento, il Melancolico, il Vivace. Kretzsch-
mar describes these pieces as adequately expressive
of the more assertive qualities of joy, unrest and anger,
but to be lacking in conviction when couched in the
more dignified terms which bespeak a real pride and
distinction.

We have seen that the Mannheim reform spread

* Michel Bnnet: Histoire de la Symphonie, Paris, 1882.

168

CONTEMPORARIES OF HAYDN AND MOZART

rapidly to France even in its earliest days and that the
wide popularity of Stamitz and his symphonies in
Paris established a French orchestral practice which
was a distinct outgrowth of the Mannheim school.
The French school found its head in Gossec, who was
in many ways the French counterpart of Ditters. To
Gossec must be credited the founding of the orchestral
symphony in France. His work in its earlier period
partook of the Italian manner but was later remolded
by the Mannheim influences. His twenty-six sympho-
nies enjoyed a popularity in Paris which abated only
upon the advent of Haydn. The follower of Gossec
in the annals of French symphonic music is fitienne
Mehul, who, though making ingenious experiments in
orchestral coloring, was in his four symphonies totally
dominated by the spirit of Haydn.

Of the fifty-two symphonies of Michael Haydn (1737-
1806), brother of Joseph, only three were published,
and their interest is to-day largely historical. The pre-
vailing mood of these works is a Mozartian one. It
must, however, be said that while the elder Haydn
learned much from Mozart, he in turn anticipated Mo-
zart in several traits of expression and in the contra-
puntal workings of the last movement of the Jupiter
symphony; also that certain eff"ects in works of Ditters
had their prototype in similar passages originated by
Michael Haydn.

Though Luigi Boccherini's (1743-1805) great service
to art was in the field of chamber music, his contribu-
tions to orchestral literature may not pass unnoticed.
He is accredited with twenty symphonies, works which
also fell under the Haydn influence, though some of
them follow the older lines of the concerto as practised
by the preceding generation. Among these is a sym-
phony in C employing two solo violins and one solo
violoncello, the andante of which is of notable beauty.

169

CHAPTER VI

BEETHOVEN

General aspect of Beethoven's orchestral works; the symphonies of
the first period: the first and second symphonies — The symphonies of the
early second period: the 'Eroica,' the fourth and fifth symphonies — Sympho-
nies of the later second period: the 'Pastoral,' seventh and eighth sympho-
nies— The last period and its crowning achievement: the ninth symphony —
The overtures and other miscellaneous orchestral works — Contemporaries
of Beethoven.

*In 1760 Haydn wrote his first symphony and in
1823, sixty-three years later, the transformation of a
gay pastime into a sublime tragedy had already taken
place; the choral symphony had been born.' Thus does
Weingartner * describe that part of the symphony's
evolution which was wrought by the genius of Bee-
thoven.

We may not here rehearse the chapter of history
which deals with this transformation, nor is there
any need to remind the reader of the radical changes
in the entire spirit of musical art which were accom-
plished in this period. We are concerned for the mo-
ment with examining the wonders of Beethoven's art
as applied to the symphony, and in the closer scrutiny
of the nine immortal specimens of that form which
stand as the crowning glory of his achievement.

We shall see that, attendant upon the spiritual revo-
lution and aesthetic reform of which they are the mani-
festations, there is inaugurated a new idiom of both
the purely musical expression and the orchestral set-
ting. The increased breadth of dramatic utterance and

* Felix Weingartner: 'The Symphony Writers Since Beethoven.*

170

BEETHOVEN'S SYMPHONIES

the subtle nuances of a deeper spiritual sense which
the music breathes give birth to an orchestral style that
is more boldly broad and resonant, and which is at
the same time far more intricate in detailed effect.

It must, however, be here restated that the advance
in orchestral methods which the Beethoven sympho-
nies evince is not commensurate with the originality of
their purely musical contents. The reason of this, as
we have before said, is partly due to the very serious
handicap afforded by the natural limitations of the
orchestra, imposed by the imperfection .of many of its
instrumental units. It must, moreover, be said that
none of Beethoven's orchestral works are distinctly
representative of his ultimate style. It is true that the
ninth symphony is generally accepted as belonging
to the *third period' of Beethoven's development, but
it must be conceded that in musical structure it does
not correspond with the advanced period of the later
piano sonatas and the string quartets. It has the
dramatic sense and untrammelled freedom of design,
but it lacks the increased polyphonic richness which
is that of the sonatas and quartets, and which, if ap-
plied to the orchestra, would have so changed its
physiognomy as to give it a feeling common to that
of our own day. Beethoven's orchestra remained, then,
in spite of marvellously bold and beautiful details, the
strictly classic orchestra, and his idiom, to borrow
again Strauss's phrase, 'still adhered to that of the
chamber music style.' We have seen that Beethoven
approached the orchestra with the true reverence
which its mysterious powers inspire in the heart of
the artist. The orchestra is the medium for his loftiest
expression and his finished design; his experimental
works are placed in other settings. With this in mind
we may easily believe that Beethoven would have
eventually brought to the orchestra the poljrphonic

171

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

style which represents his latest phase. It remained,
however, a vision of the future, an art of which he per-
ceived the beginnings only at the end of his life, a
prophecy to be fulfilled by Richard Wagner.

The lines which divide the three development pe-
riods of Beethoven's creative activities are, as we know,
sharply defined. The orchestral works which fall in
the first or formative period are the first and second
symphonies. In the second period, the time of his
richest productiveness, and to which belongs the bulk
of his mature work, we find the next six symphonies
and most of the overtures. The ninth symphony alone
falls into the third and last period.

While we thus consign these works to definite peri-
ods according to the creative phase which they gener-
ally represent, we must not overlook the fact that Bee-
thoven is among the highly reflective creators whose
finished production is the result of long and earnest
thought, of discriminating and fastidious selection.
Beethoven's notebooks reveal to us how extended and
how thorough was this process of crystallization to
which his themes were subjected.* Thus we know that
each of the S3nmphonies was a labor of months and, in
some cases, years; the first sketches of the ninth sym-
phony, for instance, appear in his notebooks a decade
before the completed work was produced.

We have mentioned Beethoven's reticence in ap-
proaching the orchestra. Like Brahms in a later gen-
eration, he carefully prepared himself by experiment-
ing in smaller instrumental combinations, so that his
first essay in the larger form should be worthy of its
setting. Previous to the composition of the first sym-
phony he wrote trios for strings alone, and with piano ;
for piano, flute and bassoon; quartets for strings and
piano; and two series of dances for orchestra. The

* Cf. Gustav Nottebohn: Zwei Skizzenb&cher Beethoven*. Leipzig,
1862, 1880.

172

BEETHOVEN'S SYMPHONIES

latter were written in 1795, at which time sketches for
the first sjrmphony had been made.

Having thus attained a skill which he deemed suffi-
cient to warrant his use of the orchestral medium, and
of following in the footsteps of Haydn and Mozart, we
find him at the age of twenty-nine producing his first
symphony. But in this work he narrowly follows the
safe lines of accepted practice and conventional form.
Only an occasional glimpse do we get of dormant
power, the faintest suggestion of the rebellious spirit
of freedom that was later to break forth.

The second symphony, produced three years later,
also adheres to the more formal lines of the classic
symphony, but with the appearance of the Eroica in
the following year a new Beethoven is revealed to us.
Here he feels the strength that is his and, though he
preserves the plasticity of classic line, the work is
charged with a dramatic intensity and eloquent lyri-
cism that were new to musical art.

In the fourth symphony, written two years later,
there is a return to the more serene style of the early
works, and Schumann aptly spoke of it as standing be-
tween its two companions 'like a slender Greek maiden
between two Norse giants.' They are, however, giants
of different mien.* Berlioz attributes to the third sym-
phony a feeling of classic strength and power, and
finds its heroic qualities to be Homeric in their epic
grandeur. *The fifth,' he says, *on the contrary, ap-
pears to emanate directly from the genius of Bee-
thoven himself. It is the unfolding of his intimate
thought, his secret sufferings, his accumulated wrath,
his visions so filled with crushing sadness, the haunt-
ings of his nights, and his accesses of enthusiasm.'
*The forms of the melody,' he adds, 'the harmony, the

* A travera chants (Chap.: Dea Symphonies de Beethoven).

173

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

rhythm and the instrumentation are as essentially in-
dividual and novel as they are powerful and noble.*

In the sixth symphony Beethoven makes a tentative
excursion into the realm of program music, a program
music which did not, however, rely upon the extraneous
interest of a detailed story nor exploit a realism incom-
patible with the pure symphonic form. The seventh
and eighth symphonies both appeared in a single year
(1816), works which in their general lines exhibit no
radical departures from those laid down in their fore-
runners, but which contain many details of new expres-
siveness and which evince a further mastery of formal
development.

The ninth symphony, as has been observed, was the
result of many years' reflection and inspiration. We
have accounts to show that, as early as 1793, Schiller's
poem, the *Ode to Joy,' had fired his imagination; and
we find him at the zenith of his powers in 1826 making
it the keystone of the colossal arch which he erected
in the last symphony. Here for the first time did lofty
poetry receive an adequate musical setting — a joining
of the sister-arts in the effort of universal expression.

The first symphony in C major has four movements,
as follows: allegro con brio (introduced by an adagio
molto) ; andante cantabile con moto; menuetto, allegro
molto e vivace; allegro molto e vivace (introduced by
an adagio). These movements, it will be seen, con-
form closely to the sonata form as established by
Haydn and applied to the symphony by him and by
Mozart. Beethoven not only follows these masters in
formal design, but much of the spirit of this work is
theirs. There are, nevertheless, a few details of orig-

174

.BEETHOVEN'S SYMPHONIES: FIRST PERIOD

inal thought and treatment. One of these is seen in
the very opening chord of the symphony, which has
become celebrated in history as a significant departure
from accepted practice on the part of Beethoven. The
chord mentioned is a minor-seventh chord built on C,
thus constituting a dominant seventh chord in the key
of F. The movement in question being in the key of
C, the introduction of an element thus foreign to the
key as the opening chord was disconcerting in the ex-
treme to bigoted ears and raised a storm of critical
protest. The introduction proceeds in a regular reso-
lution of this chord to its tonic F; and the two harmo-
nies are then repeated in C, and then again in G; after
which eight bars of sustained unfolding of harmony
in the home key lead us into the entirely _Mozar-

tian first theme of the allegro:

■ I I [ I J J I I I I J .1 p I p J I- After emphasized repeti-
tion of this an intermediary theme of resolute charac-
ter ^" r K' mj' r I* ''' LTTj 'I ' *^^^

slowly to the flowing cantabile of the second theme:

^1-.

WSn j-fTTi <h

This all follows closely in the lines of Mozart, but
there is a section of this exposition that is peculiarly
Beethoven-like in its air of suspense and haunting
mystery. Twenty-five measures after the entrance
of the second theme the section ends in a fortissimo
cadence in G major; then there comes a sudden
change to minor, pianissimo, and the *cellos and basses
continue with the figure of the second theme, accom-
panied by the remaining strings, while a solo oboe en-
ters with a short phrase of glaintive counter-melody.
The development section of the movement comprises

175

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

a conventional working-out of several of the short mo-
tives, mostly those of the first theme. A recapitulation
in regular form terminates the movement.
The andante has the quietly happy theme.

which is announced in the second violins and is
answered in fugal imitation by the other voices of
the orchestra. An answering phrase of Mozartian
grace follows, and the section ends in the happy trip-
lets of the violins, accompanied by the insistent beat
of the drums in a distant pianissimo. There follows a
short motive development as the first notes of the open-
ing theme are taken by answering instruments. The
first theme is then brought back with an accompanying
counterpoint and the fugato of the opening section is
repeated with fuller instrumentation.

The third movement of this symphony is a minuet only
in name, for the formal, stately and somewhat compla-
cent f eehng of the old dance here gives way to the more
vigorous abandon of the scherzo. Its theme, as follows.

Allegro molto e virac*

is carried through a shifting series of modulations and
a rhythmic design of exciting pulse. The trio is built
on the lines used by Mozart, repeated wood-wind chords
answered by waving figures of string legatos.

The introduction to the last movement consists of
the ascending notes of the minuet hesitatingly repeated
in the violins, each repetition carrying the phrase up
to the next highest interval of the suggested dominant
harmony, until at the last time a complete scale leads

into the merry theme of the final allegro,

p
This subject is de-

176

BEETHOVEN'S SYMPHONIES: FIRST PERIOD

veloped in a rondo with the following principal epi-

sode:

I.The

movement is the least individual one of the symphony
but it has an irresistible fund of humor in its
Haydnesque brilliancy.

The second symphony, in D major, was completed
in 1802. It was published in 1804 and first performed
at a concert given at Vienna by Beethoven in 1813. It
bears the opus number thirty-six. Its movements are
as follows: an introductory adagio molto leading up
to the allegro con brio; larghetto; scherzo; allegro, al-
legro molto.

The slow introduction in this work is of considerably
greater extent and import than in the first symphony;
after an impressive unison in the entire orchestra a
tranquil theme is announced in the four-part harmony
of the oboes and bassoons. This leads through modu-
latory phrases to a section in which streaming scale
passages between answering strings and wood-wind
develop with considerable dramatic force and culmi-
nate in a climax consisting of the descending D minor
arpeggio played in resounding octaves by the whole
orchestra, a phrase strongly suggestive of the ninth
symphony. A short bridge then leads to the opening
theme of the allegro sounded in violas and 'cellos

against the repeated D's of the violins,

of,

The motives of this sub-
ject are repeated, then sounded by the entire orches-
tra, and then worked out in brilliant tutti leading to the
triumphal chant of the second theme, which appears,
first in the wood-wind, and then in the full orchestra.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

As the movement proceeds, the violins, supported by
flute and oboe, sing an eloquent duet with the 'cellos
and violas strongly reminiscent of the first movement
of the Jupiter symphony, but terminating in full chords
between alternating string and wind, an effect as gen-
uinely Beethovenian as are the whispering repetitions
of the opening theme which follow in the strings. The
working-out is built on the motives of the first and
second themes, not used in combined figures, but by
exhausting the possibilities of one before the other is
sounded. The recapitulation is formally regular.

The larghetto is a movement of the loveliest
lyricism, in which the sadness of the first theme.

is contrasted with the gracefully jocose second theme •

The next movement marks the introduction of the scher-
zo into the symphonic form. Although, as we have noted,
the minuet of the first symphony partook'of the nature of
the scherzo, it is in this third movement of the second
symphony that Beethoven brings into it its characteristic
exuberance. The theme of the first section is as follows :

AUogro

Against it is contrasted the lilt of the following trio

The light mood of the scherzo is maintained in the
last movement of this symphony. A brief prepara-
tion phrase with a brilliant trill in all the strings and
wood-wind introduces the principal theme:

P" i^uIjjLij' nigi'LifiLifr^iM^'iu^l I

178

BEETHOVEN'S SECOND PERIOD; 'EROICA*

An episodical section leads to the second theme sung
first by clarinet and bassoon and answered by oboe.

Oboe

while the strings furnish a rhythmical accompaniment
with an unobtrusively recurring figure in the first
violins. There are some interesting effects in delicate
rhythm during the development section as well as some
admirable passages of contrasted scoring.

The third symphony, known as the Eroica, was first
performed in 1805 at Vienna. It was published in 1806.
The title given to this symphony has aroused much
discussion; many and varied have been the meanings
read into it by its interpreters and commentators. The
original score, as is known, was dedicated to Napoleon,
but the page bearing the inscription was removed by
Beethoven when he learned that the consul had become
emperor. The work then became dedicated *to the
memory of a hero.' The division of opinion as to the
sense in which the work should be taken lies between
the supporters of a more or less realistic program
who see in the work the literal translation into music
of the annals of a hero's life, similar to that presented
to us in the Eroica of our own day, Strauss's Helden-
lehen, and those who, on the other hand, accept the
title in a more general sense and apply it as a motto
indicative of the spirit of the work. The latter theory
is more fitting in its applicability to the nature of
Beethoven's art. We are on dangerous ground when

179

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

we begin to determine the extent of a realistic sense
in an art so subtle and elusive as music; and to meas-
ure its place in the formal and calculated lines of
the classic symphony is futile. Beethoven himself has
given us warning against a too literal acceptance of his
program-hints in his cautious direction Mehr Ausdruck
der Empfindung ah Malerei (*More the expression of
feeling than painting'), and this will remain forever
the exact definition of all music, no matter how realis-
tic its tendency.

The Eroica symphony has four movements, an al-
legro con brio, followed by a marcia funebre (adagio
assai), a scherzo (allegro vivace), and a finale (allegro
molto.) The second movement, it will be seen, is defi-
nite in its significance and whether it be for us the
means of summoning to our minds the vivid picture of
a cortege or of inducing an elegiac trend of thought,
its title is superfluous. The scherzo and its meaning
have had a wide diversity of interpretation. To Ber-
lioz it portrayed scenes such as the ceremonies that
the warriors of the Iliad enacted at the tombs of their
chiefs; to Weingartner it speaks of a prosaic world
blind to the nobility of the hero; Wagner found in
it the expression of a joy and serenity as contrasted
against the pathos of the preceding movement. The
finale is a clear picture of triumphant elation.

After two introductory chords, the first theme of

the opening movement iJ^'i.''i. i{ [• f I [' J I f f T 1 p p liiiJ- I

and a short development of its motives lead to a broad
statement of the theme in the full orchestra. An epi-

sodical introduction of this gentle melody

Vto.

brings a momentary tranquillity
180

BEETHOVEN'S SECOND PERIOD; 'EROICA*

soon dispelled by the rhjrthmical vivacity of the trip-

ping figure

The second theme

then appears in the wood-wind answered by strings

Wbod.wIM Strlnp ^ ^

f * r r

There is a harmonic flavor in this passage that is dis-
tinctly of the new age and the melting appeal of the
ninth-chord in the seventh measure is a forecasting
of Wagnerian color. The chromatic tenderness soon
gives way to the diatonic directness of the first motive
and the exposition ends in a triumphant climax in
B-flat. The development section of this movement
is a monument to the audacious genius of Beethoven,
who here voices an art that is surprisingly modem in
spirit and expressed in an idiom entirely new to his
day. In its formal structure this section defies all
precedent by the introduction of a new theme "that had
not appeared in the exposition. This is the E minor

theme

which

first enters at the 132nd measure after the double bar.
This and the themes of the exposition are utilized in a
weave of thematic development bewildering in variety
of design and of great harmonic boldness.

There occurs at the end of this section, shortly be-
fore the recapitulation, a passage which has been the
enigma of several generations. The orchestra, in
hushed expectancy, is reduced to the tremolo of the
first and second violins sounding the notes B-flat and
A-flat at the distance of a second, implying the domi-
nant seventh chord in the tonic key, E-flat. The sec-

181

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

ond horn then softly enters with the principal theme

in its original tonality,
of tonic and dominant
may be explained as
suspension. It is re-^
first rehearsal of the

VUltn

rM f 1

r-*- .

^n L:

W- ■ if

Horn

-ir—

i'^^i>'^ r n

=^^=i=

a combination
harmony that
an unprepared
lated that at a
symphony Ries,

who was conducting, stopped the orchestra at this
point, reprimanding the horn player for a premature
entrance, whereupon he was indignantly corrected by
Beethoven, who explained that the seeming incongruity
of harmony was intentional. In spite of the authority
of this story, the passage was long a mooted point,
certain published editions containing a 'corrected' ver-
sion of this place. Berlioz himself failed to see the
harmonic implication of the passage and in comment-
ing on it declared it to be an *absurd caprice.' The
recapitulation also exhibits a considerable departure
from previous practices. The general lines are in the
main preserved but there is a remolding of the sections
and a restatement of motives which gives constant
variety and relieves the section from the perfunctory
sense that is so frequently noted in a too literal recapitu-
lation.

The familiar funeral march which is the sec-
ond movement of the Eroica is one of Beethoven's
most impressive statements. The opening theme

Adagio «ss*i

lotto voet

in the rich lower

register of the violins is echoed by the sad plaint of the
oboe against an accompaniment of tremblingly re-
peated chords in the strings suggestive of distant drum-
beats. There follows in the violins an impassioned
motive in E-flat of the most poignant expressiveness

which after a

BEETHOVEN'S 'EROICA'

short episode is repeated, as was the first motive, by
the oboe against the imitative drum-rolls of the
strings. The middle section in the major is a mel-
odic ray of hope. The oboe in the following melody

is answered by the flute, after

which there is a tutti of triumphant dominant har-
mony. After a few further measures of hopeful and
confident major tonality the section fades again into
the shadows of the funeral march.

It had been Beethoven's intention to write for the
third movement of the Eroica a simple minuet. The
original ideas of that movement, however, developed
into the extended scherzo which finally became in-
corporated into the work. The movement opens with
an animated whispering of strings in the following

, which

insistent rhythm

PF 0 t$»€t

pervades the entire section. There grows suddenly
out of this accompaniment a fragmentary melody.

the color of which is brightened by a blithe oboe.
Glimpses of this melody at different intervals are
caught as it appears in various voices, and it is finally
shouted by the entire orchestra. The trio is composed

of a horn motive.

(the cadences punctuated by strings).

and a secondary phrase,

which bridges a return to the scherzo's

first section.
The finale comprises a cycle of variations built upon

183

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

this theme

•J J J 11 \^f which enters in the strings after a

brilliant introduction of scale passages and chords.
In the third variation is developed the melody

doUt ente f

which serves as the second theme of the movement.
A fugal section with the subject

if P I r flp f I f I is developed with great efifective-

ness and the movement ends in a brilliant meMe of the
second theme in variations, a newly introduced motive

ttnipr* f "^

and the fugal theme.

The fourth symphony, in B-flat (opus 60), while it
is of slighter dimensions and import, has a distinction
of its own. There is in it a spontaneity and a roman-
ticism which are unique. It was completed in 1806
and was first performed in the following year. Its
movements are as foUows: adagio — allegro vivace;
adagio; allegro vivace (trio, un poco meno allegro);
allegro ma non troppo. The slow introduction to the
first movement is simple in form and harmony. It
develops naturally to the equally naive but brilliant

opening theme

whose con-
trasted sections are played by strings followed by wood
wind after the Mozartian model. The second theme

the bassoon

appears m

and shortly after is charmingly developed in canon
form between bassoon and clarinet The further de-

184

BEETHOVEN'S FOURTH SYMPHONY

velopment of the theme throughout the movement is of
great simplicity of means and directness of expression,
resulting in an exhilarating freshness of spirit

No less clear of line is the beautiful adagio, which
follows, with its flowing theme of pure cantabile

Adagio

in which we hear the more intimate Beethoven of the
piano sonatas. The movement, in its string writing with
arpeggio and other figurations, shows Beethoven's per-
sistent advance to a more highly elaborated style.
The third movement is built largely on its principal

theme

and

IS given

great rhythmical interest through the conflicting
accent of the phrasing and the measure. The trio of

the movement has this theme :

and

here Beethoven follows again the Mozart model of
sustained wind phrases with punctuating string inter-
ruptions. The finale is also strongly Mozartian in its
sparkling gayety. Its opening theme is as follows:

There is a

short intermediary theme which leads to a development
period of the simplest harmonic design. A new orches-
tral tint is obtained at the entrance of the second theme

by an arpeggiated ac-
companiment of triplets in the clarinet, the strings hav-
ing a sustained background. The balance of the move-

186

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

ment is of classic design and conventional idiom but
charged with brilliancy and humor.

The fifth symphony was completed in 1807 and was
produced together with the sixth symphony at a con-
cert given at Vienna in 1808. It is numbered as opus
67. The movements are as follows: allegro con brio;
andante con moto; allegro (scherzo); allegro. The
last movement is scored for three trombones and a
piccolo in addition to the orchestra customary to
Beethoven up to that time.

The fifth symphony has, from the time of its first
production to the present day, been Beethoven's most
popular work, and, by general consent justly, also the
greatest. If, however, we seek to determine by analyti-
cal research wherein lies this greatness, we very read-
ily realize that, while it shows with several of the other,
symphonies a plasticity of line and balance of parts,
its real superiority is in the intangible element of its
spiritual power. The salient feature of its formal
structure is the surprising economy of the means which
serve as material for an expression so richly varied
and original. In all of its movements the thematic
material is simple and clearly defined. The first move-
ment, as we shall see, is composed almost entirely of
phrases built on the four notes of the opening theme.
In melodic and harmonic design there is an equal di-
rectness, combined with great richness of expression
in spontaneous melody and glowing color. The or-
chestral score, upon being casually read, presents no
features that are obviously novel, but a hearing or a
closer observation brings to one's notice a wealth of
subtle strokes of masterly skill and surprising inven-
tion, which result in a score fraught with moments of
startling originality and amazing effectiveness.

The opening theme ft n^ 1 > J' J J I J II arrests the

attention and grips the emotional being as does per-

186

BEETHOVEN'S FIFTH SYMPHONY

haps no other theme in all music. It is indeed Tate
knocking at the door* — a knocking that all must heed.
It runs through the voices of the strings in alternating
tonic and dominant, reaching a dominant cadence, and
is then thundered forth a tone higher in the full orches-
tra. It then resumes its course in agitated echoings,
gaining in assertiveness until the shrieking climax of a
diminished seventh is reached. The horns next pro-
claim it in the relative major, and the second theme

ltr\i jr P ?ir r li r I p'f I steals upon us in the vio-

P dole*

lins, only the double basses muttering an ominous beat-
ing of the troubled rhythm. A motive of the second
theme repeats ever higher in intensified appeal until the
momentary triumphant entry of the full orchestra and
joyful dancing of the violins in downward figures.

and the section ends in a determined cadence of the
relative major. The development section voices
what has been aptly called *the terrible fury of
Othello.'* With an almost incessant sounding of the
first theme rhythm Beethoven has built up a tonal
scene that is unequalled in dramatic intensity. The
motive appears often in its original form, at other
times it assumes new melodic lines as in the follow-
ing variations:

At other moments the rhythm is applied to the repeti-
tions of a single harmony played by the full orchestra,
when, as Berlioz describes it, *the orchestra seems to
raise itself animated by a flaring fury * * * a style
impassioned beyond that of any instrumental music
that preceding ages had produced.' In the middle of
the movement there is a lull in which there occurs

* H. Berlioz: A trauert chants, p. 33.

187

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Vfint

String*

that dialogue between string and wind groups in an-
tiphonal and sustained chords which speak mysteri-
ously with the voices of other worlds. The con-
trasted choirs of string and wind sound again in an-
swering strains but in other mood as they have a reso-
lute phrase built from a motive of the second theme:

Another of the quiet-
er but none the less
eloquent effects of this
movement is embodied in the short oboe recitative
which occurs in the beginning of the recapitulation.
This is a revival of the free and loosely-knit idiom of
the older style, but with the added dramatic power
which it here gains in contrast to its setting.

The opening theme of the andante is one which
reached perfection only after much remodelling, as
is shown by Beethoven's notebooks. In its final
form, as it stands to-day in the symphony, it is so
perfect in line as to seem the spontaneous product of
nature itself, unsusceptible of different treatment.

The end of the phrase is echoed in answering voices of

the wood-wind: ^j^irh) iJ | ' | ^ I \^ T | T (LM |^

There then appears a second theme in the wood-wind
of more resolute character

, whose last phrase is repeated in whispers

of a hauntingly mysterious
beauty.

188

^^F\

^')h}^

-T P

T—

■^ i> V

'lJ

^M=

BEETHOVEN'S FIFTH SYMPHONY

This passage becomes still more mysterious in its
subsequent repetitions when the bass E-natural of the
'cellos is sounded in shivering thirty-second and six-
teenth-notes as follows: •jii\\',^ s ^wmr=^^^^ Kretz-

schmar notes how similar the feeling of this pas-
sage is to that of the one in Freischiitz which depicts
the terror of Samiel inspired by the ghostly visions
{Cf. Vol. IX, p. 196) . If we note again the strong simi-
larity between the feeling established by these search-
ing chords which follow this passage in the symphony
and that of the divided violin passage in Euryanthe
cited elsewhere, we realize Beethoven's great part in
the establishment of the romantic idiom. The sec-
tion terminates with a triumphant burst of full orches-
tra sounding the second theme in C. The movement
is carried out by two repetitions of this section, the
themes each time being varied by further elaboration,
and a closing section. This last begins with a highly
colored passage in which the wood-wind plays the
opening theme in the minor key against a string ac-
companiment with violins in arpeggio figures, and ter-
minates with a broad statement of the theme in its orig-
inal version in the upper octave of the violins, support-
ed by wood-wind. The movement closes with eloquent
repetitions of the detached motives of the theme as they
first appeared in the wood-wind choir. In its final en-
trance the second part of the phrase
is intensified by the doubling of the melody at the in-

terval of the third above

producing an

effect than which none more poignant exists in music.

The scherzo is built on the following three themes:

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the first two serving as the material of the main sec-
tion and the last as that of the trio. The spirit of this
is one in which are mingled troubled questioning and
resolute joy, a joy which, however, never fully yields
to the happy abandon of the other Beethoven
scherzos, for a feeling of deep earnestness pervades
the entire movement. The first section comprises
the alternating first and second themes in a har-
monic scheme of great strength and beauty. The trio
is composed of a fugato treatment of the theme fol-
lowed by detached motives sounded by the basses and
'cellos alone in a recitative manner which suggests the
later ejffects of the ninth symphony. The coda of the
movement consists of a long held chord of A-flat with
the drums softly beating an insistent rhythm. The
violins then enter with the first theme, the harmony
makes a quick transition to C minor, and over a long
dominant pedal the violins play a sequence com-
posed of factors of the first theme which, unfolding
into the major, reaches higher and higher and finally
achieves a long held dominant seventh, resolving on
the first chord of the last movement. The first theme

is in the vein of jubi-
lant exaltation which is that of the entire movement.
The movement passes on in ecstatic joy to a second

which appears in the wind,

and whose motives are developed by the violins in the
passages which follow to still another thematic figure

full of joyful exhilaration:

The second theme proper

theme

BEETHOVEN'S FIFTH SYMPHONY

is almost identical with the second theme of the Eroica
slow movement, but the animation of the rhythm and
the resolution with which it is here stated give it quite
another sense. The development of these themes is
simple in structure and direct in expression. There is
a utilization of all the thematic material in formulae of
a conventional regularity. There is, however, one de-
parture from the usual practice: the introduction of
material from an earlier movement* The passage thus
borrowed comprises fifty-four measures of restatement
of the second scherzo theme in a slightly altered version.

The sixth symphony, in F, commonly called the Pas-
toral, first produced at the same concert as the fifth,
was published in 1809 and has the opus number 68.
Its four movements, besides bearing the customary in-
dication of tempi (allegro ma non troppo, andante
molto mosso, allegro, allegro allegretto), are labelled
with titles indicative of their descriptive content These
titles are as follows: *A wakening of joyful feelings
on arrival in the country,' *By the brook,' 'Village fes-
tival,' *Thunder, storm,' 'Shepherd's song; thanksgiving
of the peasants after the storm.'

We have before alluded to the extent of realistic
portrayal which is attempted in the specifically pre-
scribed descriptive works of Beethoven. The pastoral
symphony may be taken more literally as program
music than the Eroica, for it contains several passages
of absolute realism, that is to say more or less exact
imitations of the actual sounds of nature. There are,
besides, some attempts in the scherzo to imitate the
character of popular music, but the bulk of the work

* Haydn, In a symphony in B major, had before introduced part of an
earlier movement into a later section of the work.

191

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

remains within the limits indicated by *more the ex-
pression of feeling than painting.' Kretzschmar has
discovered in the thematic material of the pastoral
symphony and in the resultant general color scheme
of the work a strong Slavic tone, to which, he claims,
may be traced an important early impulse in the build-
ing up of the Slavic schools.

The opening theme of the first movement is a
quiet theme of idyllic lyricism sung by the violins,

SJb^ viTpflpv:/] [j^jpPlJ I the motives of which fur-
nish a rich mine of thematic development A pas-
sage in the following section, which would seem
to be episodical in character, may be said to assume

the place of second subject:

It has, however, no place in the development, which
employs almost exclusively the units of the first theme,
particularly that of the second measure. The second
movement is a somewhat long and diffusive andante,
the themes of which melt into one another with
melodic continuity; it breathes the very serenity of
nature itself. The principal lines of melody are em-

bodied in the first theme of the violins : At the end of
the movement imitative calls of the nightingale, the
quail and cuckoo are heard in the following passage:

BEETHOVEN'S TASTORAL' SYMPHONY

played by the flute, oboe, and clarinet. The movement
entitled Village dance' is a country dance whose rustic
measures form a scherzo in close keeping with the
spirit of this work. Tlie principal theme is as follows :

and there is a grotesque humor in the passages
that later portray a still more bucolic uncouthness:

Mutterings of the approaching storm are heard in the
first notes of the next movement, a low tremolo of the
'cellos and basses. This is followed by a pianissimo pas-
sage of preparative anxiety, and after two repetitions of
the thunderous murmurings the storm bursts in a tutti
fortissimo with rolling figures of basses and a penetrat-
ing tremolo of strings from which emerges the theme :

There is a flash of lightning in the upward rush of
violin arpeggios, and after a momentary lull the tem-
pest breaks with renewed fury in a downward sweep
of rushing arpeggios and chromaticisms in the vio-
lins and shrieking sforzandi of wood-wind chords.
Having spent itself, it dies away in the diminishing
tremolo of the strings and the departing grumblings
are heard in the trill of the basses. The finale opens
with a pastoral melody for clarinet that has been the
model for all subsequent melodies of similar color.

which, answered by the horns, emerges into this

193

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

principal theme :

The trio themes constitute the ma-
terial from which is conventionally developed the flow-
ing happiness of the movement.

The seventh symphony, in A minor (opus 76), ap-
peared in 1816. Its movements are as follows: Intro-
duction poco sostenuto — vivace; allegretto; presto;
allegro con brio. The introductory poco sostenuto is
of such dimensions as to constitute a separate move-
ment, being sixty-two measures in length. Wagner's
characterization of this symphony as the *apotheosis
of the dance' is not literally descriptive, for its rhythms
are not more specifically in the dance forms than are
those of the other symphonies. The appellation must
be taken more as a reference to the defined, regular,
and persistently marked rhythm which pervades the
entire work. The introduction opens with a sustained

oboe melody

which is freely

imitated in clarinet, horn and bassoon, and followed by
ascending staccato scale passages in the strings support-
ed by sustaining wind. These constitute a modulatory
episode which leads to a second theme in C major,
sounded in the wood-wind and repeated by the strings :

The scale passages again appear leading to a rehearsal
of the second theme in the key of F. After its repeti-
tion in strings there is a return to the key of A and after
four measures of preparatory rhythm the main theme
of the presto delicately appears in the wood-wind,

JE'ii c r f p i^f^ J^ I J Jip.pjiip^^ shortly to be re-
peated by the full orchestra. Beethoven's insistent use of

194

BEETHOVEN'S SEVENTH SYMPHONY

this theme ahnost equals the exhaustive exploitation of
the first theme in the fifth symphony; from it is derived
almost all of the rhythmic and melodic line of the
entire first movement.

The second movement is the famous allegretto
that has taken its place among the more popular
numbers of the orchestral repertoire. The sad

resignation of its main subject

in the low-pitched
strings becomes the harmonic background for a
variation treatment in which a counter melody

is placed against it in several different distributions
of the string group. A second theme in the major

introduces a feeling of happier lyricism, while the
bass continues with a reminiscent marking of the first
rhythm. The first theme is then treated to an elaborate
variation in which its harmonies are dissolved in ar-
peggiated string chords against an extraneous counter
theme of wood-wind, and then accompanied by a run-
ning counterpoint of sixteenth notes, leading to the an-
nouncement of the first theme in the full strings and
bass against the figurations of the wood-wind. After
the reappearance of the major theme there is a return
to the minor and the theme appears softly in the an-
swering voices of the different choirs.

The scherzo (presto) is a movement of efferves-
cent spirit The principal theme is as follows:

P i>

195

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

and that of the trio : ^1 f [J I r J M f [j* I T M I

! r r i I r I I r i the latter being the theme of an

Austrian folk-song. The structure and substance of
this scherzo are conventional in tone and are developed
with a classic simplicity of means.

There is much evidence brought to show the
presence of the strong Celtic flavor of the the-
matic material in the seventh symphony and par-
ticularly in that of the last movement. Sir George
Grove * writes that the first theme of this movement

appears in Beethoven's accompaniment to the Irish
song *Nora Creina' and Sir Charles Villiers Stan-
ford, in a recent article,! has called attention to the
marked Irish character of the entire symphony, attrib-
uting it to the fact that it was written at a period
shortly following Beethoven's work upon the Irish
songs and showing their strong influence upon him.
Of this same opening theme of the last movement he
says, *It is a reel, pure and simple, though gigantic
in structure. The first theme is a 2-4 version of the
final phrase of "Kitty Coleramie."' This tune was
arranged by Beethoven, who in the last 'symphony* of
the song took this part of the theme and treated it

thus:

The

identity of the two themes is apparent and the hy-
pothesis seems well founded. A subsidiary theme

[plays a very important
part in the development of the movement, which is, in

* 'Beethoven and His Nine Symphonies.* London, 1896.

t 'Some Thought Concerning Folk-song and Nationality,' in The Musical

Quarterly,' April, 1915.

196

BEETHOVEN'S EIGHTH SYMPHONY

the main, accurately described as a 'reel of gigantic
size.*

The eighth symphony is associated with the seventh
as is the sixth with the fifth, the trio having been the
product of the same episode and having appeared at
approximately the same time. Its key is that of num-
ber six, F major, and its movements consist of an al-
legro vivace e con brio, an allegretto scherzando, a
tempo di menuetto and an allegro vivace. The third
movement, it will be noted, here is a minuet, as in
the earlier classic symphonies. The eighth symphony
is a work of smaller dimensions than the other later
symphonies. It is, nevertheless, a work of expressive
beauty and presents many points of interest in struc-
ture and workmanship. The first movement opens

with a theme of Haydn-like naivete,

which announces the pre-
vailing mood of the first movement and to which

the second theme, 4 ^ ^ ^i c''^^ ^1 rjiP ^J

also subscribes. In the second move-
ment Beethoven essays experiment in new orchestral
idioms, employing the wood-wind and horns in rap-
idly repeated staccato chords, pianissimo, while the
violins, answered by the 'cellos and basses, engage in a
charming dialogue of graceful and capricious figures:

The passage is well described by Berlioz as *lovely, in-
genious, and of a graceful indolence like the song of
two children who, on a fair spring morning, are gather-
ing flowers in the field.' The minuet is cast somewhat
in the mold of Haydn and Mozart but is conceived with
a subtlety of line and color unknown to them. Its theme

197

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

is as follows:

The finale is a rondo of modified form

and is one of the longest movements of the Beethoven
symphonies. Its spirit suggests Haydn, though there
are many details of originality in both musical content
and in the orchestration. Among the latter may be
noted a droll solo passage for bassoons and kettle-
drums which occurs just before the last entrance of
the principal theme. The thematic material of the
movement is comprised in the following phrases:

The ninth symphony, also known as the Choral
Symphony, in D minor, was completed in 1823. It
was first performed at a concert in Vienna, May 7,
1824, and was published two years later bearing the
opus number 125. Its movements are as follows: al-
legro ma non troppo, un poco maestoso; molto vivace;
adagio molto e cantabile, andante moderato, adagio;
presto, allegro ma non troppo, vivace, adagio canta-
bile, allegro assai, presto, allegro assai, allegro assai
vivace, andante maestoso, adagio ma non troppo, al-
legro energetico, allegro ma non tanto, poco adagio,
poco allegro, prestissimo, maestoso, prestissimo — the
last seventeen composing the last movement proper.

198

Beethoven in bi$ Old Age

Tollow.s

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are many details of •

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drunis which occurs

ty In b^

iailcr

.V,. .....,..w^iia and «.■

•fore the last cMranr

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•Jia Don troppo. on poco ni;

BEETHOVEN'S LAST PERIOD: NINTH SYMPHONY

The term symphony assumes a new sense when ap-
plied to a work of such proportions as those of Bee-
thoven's 'ninth.' We have, in a previous chapter, noted
the meanings which the word has had in the several
eras of musical history. We have defined it in the
sense of its varied applications from the fragmentary
incidental orchestral parts of the earliest operas to
the perfected form of the classic symphony of Haydn,
Mozart and Beethoven. It now becomes the label
of a work which might be technically described as a
combined symphony and oratorio or cantata. But
how inadequate either of the latter two terms is to con-
vey to the mind the power of that concluding section
of the work which the title modestly calls 'Closing
Chorus upon Schiller's "Ode to Joy!'" There is but
one word to fitly describe a work of such intensive
purport, namely, 'drama'; we must look forward and
borrow a phrase from the following age and label this
work a *music drama' with symphonic introduction.
Such was Wagner's estimate of this monumental work.
It was inevitable, he argues, that Beethoven should
reach that point where instrumental forms would
prove too feeble an utterance for his colossal concep-
tions and the universal and human appeal of song
would have to be added to the more subtly intangible
voices of the orchestra.* The premise is in the main
a correct one, but it is a mistake to attribute the origi-
nal inception of these ideas solely to the genius of Bee-
thoven. The association of instrumental and vocal
music was as old as the art itself. Since the vocal
medium had been employed in almost all the other
forms of music, it was but natural that attempts would
be made to join its offices with those of the symphony.
Kretzschmar has recorded some of the pre-Beethoven

* Wagner, in his novelette, Elne Pilgerfahrt za Beethoven (Collected
Writings, Vol. I), lias made Beethoven the eloquent expounder of these
▼lews.

199

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

attempts to create such a blended art form. He men-
tions a Schlachtsinfonie of P. von Winter, produced
in 1814, and a symphony by Ma§ek entitled The Bat-
tle of Leipzig,' produced in the same year, both of
which employed choruses at the end and thus com-
bined the symphony and cantata. It remained, how-
ever, for the supreme genius of Beethoven to suc-«
cessfuUy effect such a union and create a work that
should preserve the unities of a single conception and
be dramatically convincing. The ability to do so was,
as we have seen, the fruit of a life's experience and
reflection. While the ninth symphony does, in some
ways, present itself in the twofold character of sym-
phony with attached chorus, capable of separation in
performance or in critical analysis, we shall see as we
examine the parts more closely that knowledge of the
work as a whole places the first movement of the work
so strongly in the light of a spiritual preparation for
the apotheosis of the choral section that to separate
them is to disfigure one of the most consummate expres-
sions of genius known to art.

The preparatory feeling of an introduction is em-
bodied in the opening measures of the first move-
ment. The violins play mysteriously hinting motives
of the first theme over the dominant harmony sug-
gested in open fifths, played tremolo in 'cellos and
second violins. At the end of the sixteenth measure
the first theme is boldly announced in a unisoned tutti :

After a short exposition of this theme the second theme
appears, preceded by an episodical preparatory theme.

200

BEETHOVEN'S LAST PERIOD: NINTH SYMPHONY

which gives rise to a section of ingratiating melodic
beauty. A return to the opening theme is followed by
a new and important motive appearing in the wood-

wind.

after

which there is a free development of all the themes in
a marvellously conceived and constructed working-out
of melodic and harmonic directness and clarity of
scoring.

The scherzo is introduced by eight bars in which the
opening measure of its theme is sounded twice in the
strings, once in the drums alone and a third time by
the full orchestra. The movement then commences
in the pianissimo of the strings marked at the begin-
ning of the measures by light chords in the wind. Its

theme is as follows: ^^V T' J^J |f p flf f f I ^^
Against the bounding rhythm of this opening figure in
the strings there now appears a dance-like motive in

the wind:

A middle section brings a change of mode

and rhythm, and this figure

is introduced in the strings,

after the development of which there is a return to the
first section.

The adagio, one of Beethoven's most beautiful slow
movements, opens with the following sustained theme

in tlie strings:

m*MMO ¥oe4

second section (andante moderato) has the following
theme of the rarest melodic beauty and rhythmical flow.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

which is episodical, the development being largely ap-
plied to the first theme.

The last section of the symphony, which develops
into the vocal setting of Schiller's 'Ode to Joy,' con-
sists of a series of movements of different lengths
which have a program of eloquent significance. The
import of the section is the striving towards a su-
preme expression which is attained after long
search. The movement opens with a stormy fan-
fare in rapid tempo. The basses and 'cellos then
speak in a recitative of noble and yearning aspiration.

/ ' dim'. 9

The fanfare breaks upon this in clamorous inter-
ruption and the instrumental *voice' becomes more
urgent in its appeal. The response is a rehearsal of
the first eight measures of the opening movement. The
Voice* of the recitative continues in its appeal for more
adequate expression. The scherzo is ventured, but the
recitando speaks in a tone of somewhat sharper, deter-
mined rejection. The same scene is enacted by the
theme of the adagio and the adjudging voices of the
'cellos and basses. Then there enters softly and al-
most timidly in the voices of the wood-wind a hint of
the choral theme. This is joyfully acclaimed by the
reciting basses; seizing upon its motives, they softly
chant in its complete form that marvellous theme of
utter simplicity but of profound emotional power:

The development of this motive immediately com-
mences; a bass is set against it first, then a counterpoint
is woven about it by the strings, and finally it is trium-
phantly chanted by the full choir of the wood-wind

202

BEETHOVEN'S OVERTURES

with a marking of the rhythm in the chords of the
strings. A brilliant coda then brings the section to a
close. The succeeding section (presto) again com-
mences with the fanfare heard before but with more
strident harmony. Attention may be here called to the
opening chord of this section, which for many years
has been one of the harmonic curiosities of music, inas-
much as it contains every one of the seven notes of the
diatonic scale. The recitative which follows is now
heard in the human voice, as the baritone solo intones

'O friends, not in these tones but in more grateful and joyful
notes let us our voices raise.'

The chorus responds with

*Joy, joy I'

as the orchestra again chants in solemn exultation the
choral melody. This is now taken up by the full chorus
in harmony and brought to an impressive climax.
The following allegro is a march section which intro-
duces the theme in a new rhythmical disguise and
against which the chorus sings an elaborate counter-
point. The orchestra continues the development in
ecstatic joy, building up a climax at the height of which
the voices again enter in solid harmony with the theme
to the words

*Joy, beauteous, godly lustre, daughter of Elysium.*

The chorus continues to the end through variations
which rise ever higher to an apotheosis of triumphant
joy.

A work which has place in the Beethoven catalogue
by the side of the symphonies, but is unrelated

203

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

to them in musical importance or aesthetic signifi-
cance, is the so-called 'Wellington' symphony or 'Battle
of Vittoria,* written to celebrate this event. The per-
petration of this work was a suggestion of Malzel,*
for whose 'Panharmonium,' a mechanical contrivance
similar to the so-called orchestrion, Beethoven origi-
nally designed it. The work is a sensational piece of
descriptive writing which Sir George Grove, not un-
justly, accuses of 'as vulgar a plan as the "Battle of
Prague," ' and unworthy of the genius of Beethoven.
The score calls for two distinct choirs of wind instru-
ments representing the English and French camps in
their opposing trumpet calls, and the tunes of 'Rule
Britannia' and 'Marlborough' are introduced in the first
movement. The second section of the work comprises
a 'symphony of victory' which certainly is sufficiently
noisy.

Beethoven's remaining orchestral works are com-
prised largely in the list of eight overtures, the com-
position of which all fell within his second period, the
first overture, that to 'Prometheus,' having been writ-
ten in 1800, the last one, Weihe des Hauses, in 1822.
The full list of these works includes, besides the four
overtures written for the opera Fidelio, the overtures
which were written as parts of the incidental music
for several plays given in Vienna. In some instances
the subjects were such as to appeal to Beethoven and
to draw from him works of inspired and dramatic feel-
ing, while in certain other instances the pieces show
the perfunctory spirit of occasional compositions lack-
ing in depth of feeling.

The first of these overtures, speaking chrono-
logically, was that which was written for an al-
legorical ballet entitled Die Geschopfe des Pro-
metheus, based on the classical fable. The work is

* Johann Nepomuk Mfllzel (1772-1838), the inventor of the metronome.

204

BEETHOVEN'S OVERTURES

in strict form and is simple in structure and con-
tents. Its two main themes, which are as follows:

strongly

suggestive of the first symphony, as is indeed the entire
overture, a circumstance easily accounted for by the
fact that the two works were written at the same period,
the symphony in 1799 and the overture in 1801.

The Coriolanus overture was written to the play of
Heinrich Josef Collin which dealt with the historical
story of the banishment and death of the Roman hero.
The accepted interpretation of its significance is that
conceived by Wagner, who sees in its contents the por-
trayal of but one part of the drama, that of the scene
on the battlefield between the hero, his wife and his
mother, and which terminates with the tragedy of
Coriolanus* death. The overture is one of Beethoven's
best Its two themes, one of fiery strength and no-

bility.

the other of passionate import

and lyric appeal,

are de-

veloped in rigidly classical design, but with an intense
and dramatic forcefulness.

Beethoven wrote, at different times, four overtures
for his opera Fidelio, Only one of these is known as
the Fidelio overture (opus 72) ; it was the last to ap-
pear, being written for a revival of the opera in
1814. The other three are called Leonore and are
known by their numbers. No. 1 was never publicly
performed during Beethoven's lifetime. According to
Schindler, it was rejected by Beethoven upon the advice
of his friends and the *Leonore No. 2' was submitted for

205

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the first performance of the opera in 1805. With the
remodelling and shortening of the opera in the follow-
ing year Reethoven wrote another new overture, the
one known as No. 3 (also opus 72). The three
Leonore overtures have a family relationship, inas-
much as they are built on thematic material from the
opera which is common to all of them. Of the three
works the last is the finest. The overture numbered
one was posthumously published and is decidedly in-
ferior to the others of the set, being of a markedly light
character.

The Leonore Overture No. 3 begins with an impressive
introduction (adagio) . The main body of the movement
is built upon the incisive syncopation of the first theme.

and the profoundly moving cantabile of the following
second theme (Florestan's Aria, cf. Vol. IX, p. 129) :

Important among Reethoven's overtures is that to
Goethe's drama Egmont (opus 84), one of nine num-
bers which form the incidental music written for that
play by Reethoven. The overture aptly reflects the
general tone of gloom that pervades the drama, and
is one of Reethoven's best. The overture is in regular
classical form and the introductory sostenuto is in
sarabande rhythm.

Other overtures are the *King Stephen' (opus 117),
written with other numbers for a drama by Kotzebue;
Die Weihe des Houses ('Dedication of the House')
(opus 124), also known as the overture in Handel's
style; *The Ruins of Athens* (opus 113) and Namens-
feier (opus 115). These works date from Reethoven's
later period and the presence of the ninth symphony
in the creator's mind makes itself plainly felt in both

206

CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN

the Namensfeier and 'King Stephen' overtures. Die
Weihe des Hauses is frankly imitative of the classic
style of Handel. That to 'The Ruins of Athens' is slight
in substance and is patently a piece d' occasion.

The remaining orchestral works of Beethoven are
compositions of no great importance. They include,
besides the dances of the earliest period before re-
ferred to, several other series of dances and marches,
and the sketches of incompleted works of larger scope.

The end of Beethoven's life ran well into the Ro-
mantic Period. That he had a share in the creation
of the 'romantic' idiom is in a measure true, and it is
hard to lose sight of Beethoven's influence throughout
the entire epoch of romanticism. On the other hand,
however, Beethoven, with his lofty classicism and epic
grandeur, stands as the last of his line, and the di-
viding boundary between him and his followers is,
in many ways, sharply marked. This fact becomes
apparent as we look along the lists for names that
stand out as Beethoven's contemporaries in musical
art Those of importance, on the one side, are the
early classicists, Haydn and Mozart, on the other side
the next prominent figures are those of the veritable
romanticists, Schubert, Weber and Spohr, decidedly
posterior to Beethoven. Among the actual contempo-
raries of Beethoven there is none whose name we may
couple with his as we have associated Bach and Han-
del, Haydn and Mozart. He stands alone, and those
of his age who worked after his models become merely
servile imitators.

Kretzschmar notes how slow the Viennese sympho-
nists were to come under Beethoven's influence, men-

207

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

tioning J. W. Wilms (1772-1848) and Anton Eberl
(1766-1807) as being among the first to manifest any
signs of such influence. Of the latter it is recorded
that a symphony of his composition was played in a
program together with Beethoven's Eroica, and the re-
view of the performance in a journal of the day {All-
gemeine Zeitung) contrasts the two symphonies to the
disadvantage of the Eroica*

Of larger renown are the names of Carl Czemy
(1791-1857) and Ferdinand Ries (1784-1838). As di-
rect pupils of Beethoven it is but natural that his influ-
ence should have borne immediately upon them. But
their orchestral works, interesting as they may be as
evidences of this influence, have little else to commend
them. Kretzschmar mentions a C minor symphony of
Czerny in which there is a reminiscence of Schubert's
*Erl King,' showing that Czerny was not slow to absorb
all the good that came to him. Of Ries, the same critic
remarks that 'he copies the characteristics of the mas-
ter's style, particularly those of surprise effects, which
he mixes with Rossinian playfulness.'

* Cf. 'Grove's Dictionary,* Vol. I, article on Beethoven.

208

CHAPTER VII

THE CLASSIC ROMANTICISTS

Schubert, the link between the classic and the romantic; his early
symphonies; the C major and the 'unfinished* symphonies — Mendelssohn,
his symphonies and overtures — ^The followers of Mendelssohn and other
early romanticists: Spohr; Weber; Wagner's C major symphony; the sym-
phonies and overtures of Gade; Glinka and the beginnings of Russian
orchestral music

During the era of romanticism there was wrought in
the orchestra and in orchestral music that complete
change which constitutes the transition into modernity
and the age of color. Apart from the impulses which
the trend of romanticism gave to a more highly char-
acterized orchestral idiom there was, as we have before
remarked, the vast advance in the mechanical resources
which made possible a style of writing that undoubt-
edly, in a measure, would have been that of Beethoven
could he have availed himself of their advantages. In
reviewing the orchestral works which stand as repre-
sentative of this epoch, we shall, in a large measure,
presuppose a familiarity on the part of the reader with
the social and aesthetic significance of the Romantic
Movement (see Vol. II, chap. VI) and we shall confine
ourselves largely to a glance at the structure of some
of the representative romantic symphonies and an ob-
servation of some of their orchestral features.

We have remarked that, distinct as is the contrast
between the so-called classic and the romantic periods,
the transition from one to the other was subtle and
gradual, and that, specific as we may be in our definition

209

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

of romanticism, when we search for its germs we are
far back in the paths of musical history. The orches-
tral aspect of this transition may be well presented
in the terms of the graphic arts. The orchestral works
of the older classicism can hardly be said to have pos-
sessed 'color* in the sense in which we use the word to-
day. Their virtue lies in the lines of their structure.
They are analogous to designs made in a medium of
black and white, where strength and grace of line
claim our whole attention unbeguiled by the more
sensuous charm of color. The processes whereby color
was brought into the scheme may be likened to a
'touching up' of these same designs with colors, which,
beginning with the merest tints, gradually deepened
into warmer tones or ascended into the higher, more
vivid colors. It was a natural step to the obliteration
of line, and modern music, much like modern painting,
has reached the point where not only definite line, but
design itself has given way, and satisfaction to the
senses of eye or ear is sought in mere planes of color.
It has been found convenient to label, as far as the
confusion of growth will permit, not only the principal
epochs of history, but the further subdivisions of these
epochs. Thus the term 'classic romanticists,' as dis-
tinguished from romanticists, is serviceable to us in
making certain distinctions between the orchestral
works of different degrees of romanticism. The one
is applied to those composers who immediately fol-
lowed Beethoven — in a sense it may be most fittingly
applied to Beethoven himself, whose works, while
preserving the classic ideals, were not free from the
tinge of romanticism. The other describes the
more radical writers who were in some degree icono-
clastic in their romanticism, and whose works mark
the following step forward towards the modernity that
is of our day. While these two schools, the classic
romantic, and the pure romantic, are far apart when

210

SCHUBERT'S EARLY SYMPHONIES

measured by the distance which lies between their
outer borders, some of their phases enjoyed a parallel
progress.

The first large figure of the romantic period is Franz
Schubert. That the lyricism of Schubert could have
been made to fill the dimensions of the larger forms is
one of the phenomena of musical history, and one
which conclusively attests the strength of his genius.
For we know that Schubert possessed neither the intel-
lectual attributes nor the technical equipment which
are supposed to be indispensable to the creators of epic
works. And yet, excepting his supreme importance as
the greatest of song-writers, Schubert's name is best
remembered as that of the composer of the C major
and the Unfinished symphonies. R is not in design
that these works excel, but in the spirit which they
breathe, the beauty of their lyricism and the emotional
force that reaches dramatic intensity. Herein Schubert
is a pure romanticist. But these works are representa-
tive of Schubert's later years and are approached
through a long series of compositions which show a
close adherence to the classic idiom.

Schubert's orchestral works comprise ten symphonies,
only eight of which are represented in the lists that
have come down to our day. Of these eight, two stand
out as immortal masterpieces and have a prominent
place among the cherished pieces of the standard rep-
ertory, that in C major and that in B minor (known
as the Unfinished).

The first six of the Schubert symphonies belong to a
decidedly earlier period than the two just named. Dur-
ing this earlier time he exhibits Haydn and Mozart as
his models. It is well known that Schubert did not,
in his earliest days, understand or appreciate the genius
of Beethoven, a fact further witnessed by the absence
in the earlier symphonies of a spirit that was to lay
strong hold on him in later years. The first three of the

211

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

symphonies were written in the three years from 1813
to 1815. They are in the keys of D major, B-flat major,
and D major respectively. They are uniformly after
the classic model: four movements, the first with slow

Adagio

Largo

introduction,
and the third
in form of
minuet and
trio though

not so labelled. We
have quoted the
themes of their intro-
ductions and first
movements herewith.
The spirit which they voice is the happy and cheerful
one of Mozart and Haydn. In workmanship they are
simple, the working-out being accomplished through
repetition rather than by means of the subtle devices of
motive development TTie orchestra employed is the or-
thodox classic one, without Schubert's favorite trom-
bones, which do not, in fact, appear in his orchestra un-
til the last two symphonies.

The fourth symphony, in C minor, is that known as
the *Tragic Symphony,'

Adagio molto

a work in which the alleged influence of Beethoven's
*Coriolanus' and *Egmont' overtures may be conceded

212

SCHUBERTS C MAJOR SYMPHONY

with some reservations. The emotional content of these
works may have reacted upon Schubert while conceiv-
ing this symphony, which is of more sombre color than
the preceding works. There is, however, no marked in-
fusion of the Beethoven style and, excepting the intro-
duction of certain traits that are more decidedly char-
acteristic of Schubert, the work is in the strongly Mo-
zartian vein of the earlier symphonies.

This is also true of the following symphony in B-flat,
which dates from the same year as the *Tragic* (1816).
Daniel Gregory Mason,* in speaking of the resemblance
of the style of this work to that of Mozart, says: *The
imitation is at times fairly disconcerting,' and cites the
last four measures of the third movement (a *minuet*
so called) as sounding *like a rejected sketch for the
minuet of the "Jupiter Symphony." ' The first move-
ment, which is without introduction, has the following

theme :

Into the sixth symphony, in G major, there enters a
new spirit which seems to voice more clearly the new
romanticism. Its buoyancy is more that of Weber
than of Haydn or Mozart and the Beethoven feeling
is in places marked. The third movement is called a
scherzo.

The seventh symphony f is the famous one in G ma-
jor, the one of the *heavenly lengths* of Schumann's de-
scription. Its composition dates from 1828, and, sad to
relate, it was never played during Schubert's lifetime.
Mendelssohn first produced it at Leipzig eleven years
after its composer's death, after it was revised from
the manuscript score.

This monumental work, while it takes its place

* The Romantic Composers.' New York, 1906.
t This is the one listed by Grove as the tenth.

213

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

among the first large manifestations of the romantic
age, and belongs to it because of its certain qualities
of color and treatment, is, in its lofty grandeur and epic
strength, the last real utterance of the classic period.
Its themes are large, its form of solid structure, though
not always concise; the harmony combines subtlety
and directness, while the orchestration presents a con-
siderable advance over the earlier works in the skill-
ful production of variety and sensuous beauty of tone
color. The first theme of the introductory section

f- r rri '|-i r'ri'i' rri^i irTi ir'ri=f

is intoned by the horns, a prototype of opening theme
that finds an echo in many a subsequent work. The
increased richness of the instrumental processes pre-
sented in this work is apparent from the beginning.
The first theme is now repeated in the wood-wind with
an accompaniment of pizzicato strings. A short bridge
passage of strings divisi and pizzicato leads to the state-
ment of the opening theme in a unison of the full or-
chestra, which in phrases of increased emphasis leads
through the key of A-flat to a further repetition of the
theme in wood-wind, against which triplet figures in
the strings furnish a feeling of increasing excitement
leading to a dominant climax. This passes into the
opening theme of the allegro with the following simple

theme: '4'^ J hi j^*i hi J''* J^' The exposition of

this subject, given to the strings, is a passage of
great rhythmic vigor rising to a noble exultation, the
wood-wind playing a harmonic background of tonic
and dominant in triplet chords. The second theme

with its tinge

of melancholy then appears in the oboe and bas-
soon accompanied by strings in light arpeggio fig-

214

SCHUBERT'S C MAJOR SYMPHONY

ures. The theme and accompanying figures of these are
employed in an episodical development of Beethoven-
like structures, but with a harmonic scheme that is
thoroughly Schubertian. The development section
commences with alternating statements of first and
second themes between antiphonal strings and wood-
wind. After a climax the orchestra becomes quieter
and there follows a section analogous to that first real
glimpse of himself which Beethoven revealed in the
first symphony. Here we have the same feeling of
suspense and mystery as the violins play the charac-
teristically Schubertian seconds in resolving sequence
against the recurring motive of the theme in the bass
and the fragmentary counter-melody of plaintively
answering wood-winds. This leads shortly to a reca-
pitulation of formal regularity and the movement is
concluded by a coda of simple directness.

In the second movement (andante con moto)
there is a return to lyricism of the utmost tender-
ness. The melodic spontaneity of the first theme

is most enchanting, and the following subsidiary theme
in the major no less so: ^ if i"> ltl[^[ij:'l i- yTlir^
LUTLlir |££| There is strong contrast in the spirit

of the second theme,

though its figures and rhythms are borrowed from
the first theme. After some slight development of
these materials there is a modulation to F and an
episodical section of a sustained and devotional
beauty is introduced. Its theme is as follows:

The final section of the movement comprises a repeti-

215

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

tion of both these sections but in a freely amplified
version.

The following movement is a scherzo (allegro vi-
vace) of great rhythmic vitality, of harmonic variety
and a grasp of structure unusual in Schubert. The first

theme is as follows

the second a Viennese dance melody:

while another

subsidiary theme in the wood-wind employs still an-
other dance-rhythm in its fragmentary waltz melody.

^\ M ' ' ' I T T^r |T ri The trio consists of a theme
in the manner of a folk-song and strongly Viennese in
flavor, which is played by the wind instruments, after
which there is a da capo return to the scherzo.

The finale (allegro vivace) is a movement of sparkling

vivacity. After the opening, ,

which Kretzschmar describes as a 'humorous alarm
signal,' the triplet figures of the violin set the
rhythm with which they decorate the main theme:

The second theme has a strong folk-flavor:

SCHUBERT'S ^UNFINISHED SYMPHONY*

The working-out section consists mainly of the plain
and unadorned restatements of those themes with very
little attempt at rhythmic variety of treatment. The re-
capitulation enlarges the thematic structure in free style.

The 'Unfinished Symphony* in B minor was com-
posed in 1822 and, as in the case of the G major, it was
many years later that it came to see the light of pub-
licity. The finished portions of the work comprise only
the first and second movements, allegro moderato, and
andante con moto. The manuscript showed nine
measures of a proposed scherzo — a tragic reminder of
the premature interruption of that precious life.

The B minor symphony is a reflection of different
feelings than those which inspired the great C major.
It is more intimately subjective, and the universal
breadth of the later work is here replaced by the note
of personal expression that is characteristic of pure
romanticism.

The symphony opens with the following melody in

the 'cellos and basses:
'; I I I J I J I j_ |— an impressivc foreshadowing
oif the yearning theme which the clarinet and oboe
then announce

with a whispering flow of string ac-

companiment strongly reminiscent of the song Gretchen
am Spinnrad. After an episode of appealing modula-
tory phrases, there is a full close in B minor followed
by three transitional sustained chords in bassoon and
horns which melt into G major as the 'cellos sing one
of the most beautifully lyric themes ever conceived:

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Its repetition by the violins is interrupted by a chord
of portentous warning. There is then a reminiscent
repetition of the motives of the second theme in the
bass. After the more vigorous harmony of full orches-
tra chords, canonical treatment of the second theme in
beautifully melting chords in wood-wind close the sec-
tion.

The development period opens with a passage that
has few equals for profound expressiveness and thrill-
ing mysticism. After a recurrence of the introductory
measures of the movement in 'cellos and basses the
harmony moves to a C major chord and the same
theme is repeated in canonical form between the vio-
lins, bassoons and violas, the 'cellos and basses furnish-
ing a background of ominous tremolo. The melody
then rises higher and higher over harmonies of pas-
sionate appeal and a climax is reached in the despair-
ing cry of the violins over a minor ninth harmony.
The passage in its musical content and orchestral color
is profoundly moving and on hearing it we may well
join in Beethoven's dictum that 'truly Schubert had
tlie divine spark.' The remaining measures of the
short working-out consist of dramatic outbursts of
full harmony in the orchestra punctuated with frag-
ments of thematic statement in simple form. The re-
capitulation is normal in its regularity and is con-
cluded by a short coda built on the introduction theme
and here charged with a feeling of inexorable fatality.

A tone of sad resignation pervades the first part of

the andante. A naive phrase in the strings

appears gfte$ the introductory chords

in the bassoon and horns. A second time announced,
it has a cadence the material of which becomes
an important factor of the movement's development:

218

MENDELSSOHN'S SYMPHONIES

Ikh "fn^rtr^*^' "*^ ^ second theme is then sung
by all the wind instruments with a strongly marked
counter-point in unison by the strings staccato:

' i-if irTrir \T ififTfir i

/
The confident but restrained joy of this phrase is in

marked contrast to the preceding section. It ends

with the same tender cadence just quoted and a

middle section of the movement commences with

the following melody in the clarinet:

with a syncopated string accompaniment This is re-
peated in the oboe and terminates the second time in
a phrase of the most graceful line answered between

the oboe and flute

. Then

there follows a tutti of resolute feeling after which
motives of the last theme are slightly developed. The
movement ends with a recapitulation of all the sections
in their original order and form.

To no other composer is the title of classic romanti-
cist so fittingly applied as to Mendelssohn. Although
he lived and labored in the very hey-day of romanti-
cism, the only note of it which he sounded was a cer-
tain picturesque quality, a pictorial charm that is his
work's best inspiration. For the rest there is the self-
consciousness of the perfect workman, which is re-
flected in the satisfying perfection of his forms

219

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

and workmanship, and which places his works among
the more dispassionate utterances of his age. The
term classical as applied to them is at once laudatory
of their structural worth and apologetic for their spir-
itual aloofness.

The list of Mendelssohn's orchestral works is not
long; it comprises five symphonies and ten overtures,
including those which form parts of longer works. Of
the five symphonies one is a youthful work, another,
the *Hymn of Praise,' is combined with choral features
in a symphony cantata, the three remaining ones, the
A minor, known as the 'Scotch Symphony,' that in A
major known as the 'Italian Symphony,' and the last
symphony in D minor called the 'Reformation,' are
those that live in the orchestral repertoire of to-day,
though it must be confessed their appearance upon pro-
grams is constantly becoming more infrequent.

The first symphony of Mendelssohn (in C minor) is
his opus 11 and was written two years before the
'Midsummer Night's Dream' music, when Mendelssohn
was but fifteen years of age. It is interesting as a record
of the influences that were working upon the young
genius and also as demonstrating to us what a mastery
of the materials of musical composition and of the
technique of orchestration were his. The influences
which we find are largely those of Beethoven: here
are echoed the manner of his symphonies and over-
tures, but ever refined in the melodic suavity and
harmonic monotony of the too facile expression. The
symphony is in the customary four movements with a
minuet as third movement and is scored for the classic
orchestra, including two horns and two trumpets.

The 'Scotch Symphony' (op. 56) belongs to Mendels-
sohn's ripest maturity, having been completed in 1842.
Mendelssohn has justified the use of the title Scotch in
explaining that certain of its themes were brought

220

MENDELSSOHN'S SYMPHONIES

to his mind by the impressions of a visit to Scot-
land. The title, however, has but little further signifi-
cance as applied to the contents of the work, for there
is no distinctly characteristic national flavor to be de-
tected. If certain of the themes are intended as par-
taking of such character they are well modified in the
fluencies of Mendelssohn's conventionality. The work,
however, is not without great charm and poetic feeling
and the scoring displays a consummate skill and dis«
criminating taste in balance and contrast of instru-
mental values.

There is an introduction (andante con moto) with
the following theme in wood-wind and divided violas :

Aadante

The motives of this theme are then heard in de-
tached phrases ' which form the harmonic back-
ground of a fantasia-like elaboration of strings in
figures which show Mendelssohn's adherence to the
principles of Bach. The introduction leads shortly
to the first movement proper (allegro, un poco agi-
tato). In the principal theme of this movement

there may be detected a tinge of Celtic feeling, but
the strain is not deep and is quickly lost in the idioms
of Teutonic tradition and Mendelssohnian spirit- A
second section of the movement (assai animato) con-
tains a subsidiary melody leading to the second theme,

i ' ^^plr7J.l^~LCfNJ'ilf'?^Tm?f^'IJWlJl

in which there is a reversion to the sadness of the in-
troduction and which is developed at some length dur-
ing the remainder of the exposition. The development
section is built almost entirely upon the first theme, the
recapitulation is regular and a short coda of materials

221

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

from the development section and introduction closes
the movement

The second movement (vivace ma non troppo) is
a scherzo of more decided Scottish character. Its
opening theme

obviously em-
ploys the Scotch 'snap.' This, with a second theme,

oped in a movement of conventional design and color
but of rhythmic sparkle and animation.

In the third movement (adagio) we have the roman-
tic Mendelssohn of the *Songs Without Words,' the
creator of the polished and exquisitely rounded mel-
ody. The first subject,

consists of such a melody sung

by the violins to a simple arpeggio accompaniment
of strings and illuminated in places by the wood-
wind. It might well be one of Mendelssohn's smaller
piano forms transcribed for orchestra. There is a
contrasting second theme of more robust nature:

"'"""J'LLJLL^'LiJ';^'L^[I777'

The last movement is built on, amplified lines and con-
sists of two sections, an allegro vivacissimo in A minor
followed by a coda-like addition in A major (allegro
maestoso assai) which, however, is founded on a new
thematic basis.

Mendelssohn in the first section of this work is
lavish in his employment of themes. Both the first
and the second themes may be said to consist of
two parts, the former as follows :

222

MENDELSSOHN'S SYMPHONIES

The last section has

a theme again slightly suggestive of the Scotch element

The details of the

movement call for no special comment, being of a con-
ventionality in keeping with the foregoing movements.

The 'Italian Symphony' (op. 80) in parts answers
the description of its title in an even less degree than
does the 'Scotch.' In the first three movements of this
symphony there is no apparent attempt at local color,
but merely the reflected impressions of a lonely Italian
journey made by Mendelssohn in 1830. The last move-
ment, however, does contain a local reference in the
form and color of its structure. Here Mendelssohn has
introduced the furious rhythm of the Neapolitan Sal-
tarello and with an adaptable model he has simulated
a style which is of more faithful color than any of
the locally colored movements of the Scotch Symphony.

The first movement of the work is an allegro vivace
without introduction; the melody of the first theme

has an impetuous sweep which is maintained until the
entrance of the second theme, in a more quiet veinf

The working-out of these themes, with its Bach-like po-

223

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

lyphony, is in Mendelssohn's most classic vein. The fol-
lowing movement is in two divisions, the first of these
having a melancholy theme of strong folk-tune flavor

with a slightly contrasted theme of lighter vein in the
major. Both themes are rather naively treated, a simple
counterpoint serving as the only embellishment. The
second division of the movement is a waltz of linear
simplicity. Kretzschmar has correctly observed that
the tone of the first section is strongly Northern, that
of the second unmistakably German.
The following movement is the Saltarello, the theme

of which follows

herewith :

This is developed at

some length through an ebullition of swirling figures
but has by way of contrasting section a subsequent
figure of somewhat incongruously classic lines.

The *Reformation Symphony' is a work of larger de-
sign and spirit than either the Scotch or Italian sym-
phonies. Kretzschmar declares the work to be inter-
esting as a Mendelssohnian contribution to program
music, but it is hardly any more to be classed as such
than are the two aforementioned works. Its intent is
the portrayal of the spirit of an age in the same general
manner as the spirit of a country was implied in the
two earlier works. The only tangible characterization
in the Scotch and Italian symphonies was the slight
employment of folk-song. In the Reformation sym-
phony the same methods are applied in utilizing two
themes which carry with them the color of the age
and setting of the Reformation; these are the Dresden
Amen, which Wagner later used to instil the devotional

224

MENDELSSOHN'S OVERTURES

spirit into Parsifal and the chorale Ein' feste Burg ist
unser Gott.

There is an introduction (andante) of sustained and
devotional harmonies; it is the very spirit of religion —
the Hinterwelt of Strauss's Also sprach Zarathustra.
This section closes with the Dresden Amen which leads
directly to the allegro con brio with these themes:

p • — if

These subjects are developed in a movement of consid-
erable strength depicting *the earnest religious side
of the reformation, its warlike nature, its joy in battle,
its firmness in faith and trust in God.*

The second movement is a scherzo (allegro vivace)
which pictures the folk-spirit of the time. It is a move-
ment of harmonic simplicity and rhythmical naivete.
The short andante which follows is one whose some-
what sentimental tone is out of keeping with the bal-
ance of the work.

The last movement is introduced with a slow section
which presents the motive of the chorale Ein' feste Burg,
first in the softer wood-winds and gradually increased
to the full wood and brass choirs. In the following al-
legro vivace the chorale theme is several times an-
nounced against an undulating accompaniment of string
arpeggios. Hereupon appears an independent theme

which bespeaks the exulting triumph of the reformation
and which is echoed in a second theme : AH J.. J'Jj I

^"ff^\f"9( r r-f f=f=l . There is a development of real

nobility and strength and the sustained measures of the

225

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

chorale in the full orchestra bring the movement to a
close of solemn triumph. The work is scored for an
orchestra of increased proportions, three trombones
being added to the smaller classic orchestra which
Mendelssohn employed in his other symphonies.

Of Mendelssohn's ten overtures, there are five which
are distinctly symphonic works designed for the con-
cert stage, the remaining ones being associated with
some stage work or forming part of a more extended
musical work of varied aspect. It may be reiterated
here that the so-called 'concert overture' is Mendels-
sohn's own contribution to the forms of musical art,
though the original impulse was due to Beethoven's
*Leonore' and other overtures. {Cf. Vol. II, pp. 347-
350).

The five Mendelssohn concert overtures are those
known as the 'Hebrides' or 'Fingal's Cave' (op. 26),
the *Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage' (op. 27), *The
Lovely Melusine' (op. 32), 'Ruy Bias' (op. 95), and the
'Trumpet' overture (op. 19). The first four of these
are Mendelssohn's real contributions to program music.
They are the works in which he has given freest play
to his charming pictorial sense and in which he has
used the orchestra with a fine appreciation. In a
word, they are the works of Mendelssohn the pure
romanticist, as against the classic Mendelssohn of the
symphonies. The rare sense of musical portrayal
which Mendelssohn possessed showed itself in another
one of these overtures, a youthful work and perhaps
his best one, the overture of the 'Midsummer Night's
Dream' music. In this work we find him using the or-
chestra in a skillful and original manner to picture the
magic scenes of Shakespeare's imagination. The di-
vided violins in shimmering gossamer depict the elfin
world of Puck and Titania; the donkey's bray, and
clownish dance, the horns of Theseus, are put into

226

MENDELSSOHN'S OVERTURES

the orchestra with a rare imaginative power and charm
— and a mastery of orchestral resource.

The overture to Tingal's Cave' was inspired, as was
the Scotch symphony, by a visit to the scene which it
describes. The overture is built on formal lines with
two principal themes which paint in their turn the
sombre and more pleasant aspects of the subject:
A

The work is an expressively beautiful painting of this
picture of cave, sea and wind.

The overture to *Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage'
is written in illustration of two short poems of Goethe.
Here again we have a picture of the sea, but in another
setting. The work is without detailed program, an
adagio of sustained harmonies describing the *calm
sea,' while the 'prosperous voyage' is painted in allegro
vivace of rhythmical excitement. The work is without
decided melodic line and depends for its effects upon
its figural structure and orchestral color.

The overture to *Melusine' was suggested to Mendels-
sohn by Kreutzer's opera of the same name. The story
is the one of romantic tragedy in which the fair Me-
lusine, deprived of human form, is doomed to spir-
itual wanderings. Her husband, Raymond, discovers
her unhappy fate and there is the tragic ending in
death. The overture is built upon two themes, the one
of the opening section descriptive of the fair Melusine,

while the second theme portrays the tragic unfolding
of the story:

The *Ruy Bias' overture is said to have been

227

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

written in comparatively few hours for a play
which made no appeal to Mendelssohn. In spite of
these facts, the work is one of his best There is an
introductory section on solemn chords in the brass
(three trombones and four horns are employed in
this score) alternating with fragmentary statements
of the first theme. There then follows a movement
of formal design in which the two following themes:

are built into a movement of considerable dramatic

power.

The 'Trumpet' overture is a work of conventional
design in C major, simple in design, of straightforward
but brilliant orchestration. The remaining works of
this class include one designed as a prelude to an
early operatic attempt, 'The Marriage of Camacho*
(op. 10), and another for a Singspiel in one act en-
titled 'Son and Stranger' (op. 89). It was the writing
of the first of these two which launched Mendelssohn
upon the career of a composer. The work is for a sur-
prisingly large orchestra, including four horns and
trombones and, though simple in construction, it is a
remarkable score to come from the hands of a youth.
The Singspiel overture is a short work for small or-
chestra in lighter vein — somewhat of an attempt at
Mozartian grace.

The symphonies of Ludwig Spohr have disappeared
entirely from the modem repertoire. Their claim upon
our attention to-day is mainly based upon their his-

228

LUDWIG SPOHR

torical interest as excellent types of the early ro-
mantic symphony in its youthful ingenuousness. Spohr
did not leave the indelible stamp of a great genius upon
the symphony, but he had a considerable part in intro-
ducing into its classic mold the newer strain of roman-
ticism which characterized his time. His works are
merely the well-wrought and artistically sincere prod-
uct of a richly musical nature, limited in emotional or
intellectual power.

Spohr's symphonies are nine in number. The first
two may be dismissed as experimental works of youth.
In the third symphony in E-flat (op. 78) he had already
achieved a mature style, and this work may be ranked
among the best of his symphonies. Unlike the earlier
Schubert symphonies, this work is scored for the larger
orchestra embracing the three trombones and four
horns. The one marked element of an advanced style
in Spohr*s work was a tendency to richer chromaticism,
a bent which probably explains his understanding and
early championship of Wagner's operas. This chro-
maticism is perhaps the best feature of this work.
The larghetto presents what Kretzschmar claims as an
effect in orchestration hitherto untried, namely, the
doubling of violin cantabile by the combined unisons
of the 'cellos and violas.

The fourth symphony is that known as *The Conse-
cration of Sound,' after a poem by Carl Pfeiffer. The
meaning of the movements is thus explained in the
score; first movement (largo) 'the rigid silence of na-
ture before the creation of tone,' (allegro) 'active life
follows sounds of the tumult of Nature's elements';
second movement (andantino) *cradle song,' 'dance,'
'serenade'; third movement (tempo di marcia) 'the
music of war,' 'the departure for battle,' 'the feelings of
those who remain behind,' 'the return of the victor,'
*the prayer of thanksgiving'; fourth movement (lar-

229

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

ghetto) 'funeral march,' *solace in tears.* This remark-
able application of the symphony to the interpretation
of a definite literary program marks a period which,
in the words of a commentator, 'was contingent upon
the inception of the romantic spirit in literature.'

The introductory largo presents the same mysterious
groping suspense which Haydn depicted in the 'Chaos'
of the 'Creation.' This is followed by a gently flowing
theme in 9/8 which has been found characteristic of
Spohr:

The stormier moments of conflicting elements which
comprise the following section are depicted in some-
what the manner of the thunderstorm in Beethoven's
Pastorale (see page 190f). There is then a return to the
first theme and a restatement of regular order.

The cradle song of the following movement is a
clarinet melody of tender simplicity, the dance a scher-
zando of staccato strings, the serenade a curious struc-
ture of mixed rhythms and combined themes. The
war-like measure of the following movement is un-
mistakable. The trombones here make their first
appearance in this symphony and the inevitable ac-
cessories of noise, the military and bass drums and
cymbals, are introduced. In the prayer of thanksgiv-
ing a chorale-like melody in the wind labelled 'Am-
brosian song of praise' serves as cantus firmus for an
elaborate polyphony of strings. The last movement,
after the solemnity of the opening section, concludes
in tranquil melodiousness. The fifth symphony of
Spohr, also in C minor (op. 102) has been spoken of
as being pathetic in character and falling strongly under
the Beethoven influence. His first movement is a
borrowed work, having served under an earlier opus
number as a fantasia for orchestra on the subject of
Raupach's Tochter der Luft. .^

230

LUDWIG SPOHR; C. M. VON WEBER

The sixth symphony is the famous 'Historical Sym-
phony,* in which Spohr essayed the style of his artistic
ancestors. The first movement was written in the style
of the Bach and Handel period, the second (adagio) in
that of Haydn and Mozart, the third (scherzo) assumed
the manner of Beethoven, while in the last Spohr placed
himself on record as the progressive writer of his day.
Here he wrote what he claimed to be representative
of the latest phase of the art; indeed, he presents some
bits of very startling harmonic freedom and ingenuity.
Of the success of the imitative movements the opinion
of Schumann is perhaps justified.* He says, *Napoleon
once went to a masked ball, but before he had been
in the room a few minutes he folded his arms in his
well known attitude. "The Emperor! The Emperor!"
at once rang through the place. Just so, through the
disguises of the symphony, one kept hearing "Spohr,
Spohr" in every comer of the room.'

With Weber the symphonic form was only an experi-
ment In common with all operatic composers once
in touch with the medium of the stage and its dramatic
promptings a return to the more formal lines of abso-
lute music seemed impossible. In 1806-7, during his
term of service as music intendant to the Duke of
Wiirttemburg, Weber wrote, among a great deal of
other music, two symphonies. The first is the more
distinguished of these two works and kept its place
in the concert repertoire for a number of years. Its
principal interest to-day attaches to the marked traces
to be found in it of the materials from which the
Freischiitz was later to be built. The slow movement
in its poetic qualities contains both the elements of
melodic loveliness and the spirit of tragic mysticism
that are the component parts of that work. The first
movement is in a more rigidly classic vein and the

* 'Collected Writings,' Vol. FV (English translation as found In 'Grove's
Dictionary of Music and Muslciaos').

231

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

idiom employed is that of the contrapuntal North Ger-
man school.

A composition of similar significance is Richard
Wagner's symphony in C, a very early work written
at a time when Wagner was completely under the sway
of Beethoven. Wagner himself furnishes us with a
good description of this work in his autobiography,
where he says, *After this I tried my hand at a big
symphony (in C major) ; in this work I showed what
I had learned by using the influence of my study of
Beethoven and Mozart towards the achievement of a
really pleasant and intelligible work, in which the
fugue was again present at the end, while the themes
of the various movements were so constructed that
they could be played consecutively. Nevertheless, the
passionate and bold element of the Sinfonia Eroica
was distinctly discernible especially in the first move-
ment. The slow movement, on the contrary, contained
reminiscences of my former musical mysticism. A
kind of repeated interrogative exclamation of the mi-
nor third merging into the fifth connected in my mind
this work (which I had finished with the utmost effort
at clearness) with my very earliest period of boyish
sentimentality.*

Kretzschmar dwells at some length on this symphony,
pointing out the various points of resemblance between
it and its models as found in the works of Beethoven.
An interesting fact in the history of this work is a
private performance of it in Venice under Wagner's
direction during the last year of his life. Wagner is
credited with having said of the work at that time : *The
themes do very well for counterpoint, but express
little.'

Other symphonists of the classic-romantic period
were Andreas and Bemhard Romberg (both bom in
1767), Friedrich Schneider (1786-1853), and Johann
Wenzeslaus Kalliwoda (1800-1866), all of whom, be-

232

ONSLOW; BENNETT; GADE

longing to the North German school, adhered rather
closely to the older lines, but were nevertheless drawn
at moments into the freer idioms of romanticism.

Before the appearance of Berlioz and the neo-ro-
mantic movement, symphonic music in France was
completely overshadowed by the opera. As represen-
tative of an early romanticism, there can be mentioned,
however, Georges Onslow (1784-1852), who, while best
known for his chamber music, wrote a number of sym-
phonies. In England W. Sterndale Bennett (1816-75)
followed closely in the steps of Mendelssohn. Of his or-
chestral works a symphony in G minor (op. 43) is the
most important.

A far more commanding figure, however, is that of
Niels W. Gade (1817-90), whose symphonies, overtures
and suites were among the best products of the early
romantic school, and which constituted a strong influ-
ence in the impulse toward the development of a char-
acteristic Scandinavian art.

Of Gade's eight symphonies two may be taken as rep-
resentative, the first in C minor (op. 5), as a work
of early tendencies, and the fourth in B-flat (op. 20),
as the largest. The first symphony is scored for large
orchestra, including trombones and bass tuba (one of
its first appearances in symphonic music) or double
bassoon. While voiced in the language of Spohr and
Mendelssohn, this work has much of the poetry of the
North in its spirit. There is a moderato introduc-
tion which has the following theme:

The allegro, beginning thus:

is a movement of heroic strength. The second move-
ment is a scherzo with a reminiscence of Mendelssohn.

233

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The andante is of combined earnestness and lightheart-
edness in its contrasted themes, while the finale (molto
allegro ma con fuoco) is again of strength and rhyth-
mical incision.

The fourth symphony is for the smaller classic or-
chestra. There is a short introduction to the allegro
which has the following themes :

and which has a working-out

of considerably more intricacy than is that pf any part
of the first symphony. The andante is a romantically
melodious movement of Mendelssohnian tinge. The
scherzo is also of a Spohr and Mendelssohn suavity
in the refinement of its allegro tranquillamente.

The finale (alle-

gro molto vivace) is a very brilliant movement of
fine orchestral color and of marked Schumannesque
qualities.

Of Gade's shorter works the first and the most popu-
lar are his overtures, Nachkldnge von Ossian (op. 1)
and 'In the Highlands' (op. 7) . (There are three others,
the C major, 'Hamlet' and 'Michelangelo'.) There are
four 'Novellettes' for string orchestra (op. 56), written
shortly before his death, and two suites, one 'A Sum-
mer Day in the Country' (op. 55) and the other, *Hol-
bergiana' (op. 61). In the latter work Gade (as Grieg
did later under the same title) portrayed the spirit of
Holberg's time in a reversion to the classic style.

Russian orchestral music had its birth at the time of
the early romanticists. While Glinka in the founding
of a Russian national school worked largely in the
field of opera, it is true that the scores of his operatic

234

GLINKA AND THE EARLY RUSSIAN SCHOOL

works contain also the real foundations of Russian
orchestral music. There are, moreover, several shorter
detached works for orchestra, including two overtures.
La Jota Aragonesa and *A Night in Madrid,* both
strangely enough on Spanish themes, and a symphonic
fantasia, Kamarinskaia, based on two Russian themes.
These works are classic in form, built on a strict model
and strongly influenced by Beethoven. There is, how-
ever, in Glinka*s writings considerable color and at-
mosphere, besides a skillful use of the orchestral me-
dium, a trait which seemed to be inherent in Russian
composers from the first. Glinka*s orchestra was a
large one and included four horns, trombones, ophi-
cleide and harp.

235

CHAPTER Vin

THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL

Schumann, the representative romanticist; his four symphonies, OTer>
tures — Followers of Schumann: Bargiel, Reinec'ke and Volkmann; Rubin-
stein as a symphonist; other late romantic symphonists; Draeseke, Goett,
Gernsheim, Bruch and Rheinberger. i

We have noted elsewhere that the age of pure ro-
manticism, as manifested in the genius of Robert Schu-
mann, did not produce an orchestral music entirely
typical of the age. In the earlier romanticism we have
remarked the persistence of the classic which offered
an impediment to the untrammelled newer expression,
while in the neo-romantic writers we find the more
perplexing voices of a modern life which impelled
composers to dramatic music on the one hand and to
program music on the other. It is natural to feel that
had Schumann possessed a greater genius for orches-
tral expression his would have been the mission to
create an orchestral music as uniquely romantic as are
his piano compositions and his songs.

But Schumann, as we know, was peculiarly deficient
in the ability to furnish his orchestral works with the
idiomatic setting so necessary to their vitality; in his
strange insensibility to orchestral color and his conse-
quent unskillful and unsympathetic handling of the
orchestral medium he failed to clothe his ideas in
terms of either charm or conviction. We shall exam-
ine some of the specific discrepancies in this particular
as we analyze the individual work*

236

THE SCHUMANN SYMPHONIES

An estimate of Schumann's place as a symphonist
cannot, however, be dismissed with this glance at his
works in their purely orchestral aspect, important as
it may be. It is true that the lack of an orchestral
imagination from which arose this ineptitude for instru-
mentation also manifested itself in a style of writing
which was not at all in the orchestral idiom but in that
of the piano. This constitutes also a serious defect in
these works as symphonies. But realizing these two
defects and the consequent detraction from the im-
portance of Schumann's symphonies as such, it must
be noted that in aesthetic quality and in certain traits
of form in the broader sense these works possess new
and striking features of intrinsic worth, having an im-
portant bearing on future symphonic development.

In aesthetic significance there is a freedom from the
classic restraint that marks the era of the new roman-
ticism, the spirit of 'Young Europe' and the untram-
melled emotionalism of youth. This is particularly
true of the first symphony, which remains, perhaps,
the most representative and without doubt the most
popular of the Schumann symphonies. In the matter
of form these works are somewhat more conventional.
There is an adherence to the chief lines of the classi-
cal sonata form, but at the same time the feeling of im-
provisation in these works frequently disturbs the
structure of the purer symphonic form. It was given
to Schumann, however, to inaugurate a practice that
did much to unify the sonata form. This was the weld-
ing of the several contrasted movements of the cyclic
form by the use of thematic material common to all
of them, a feature of formal development to be car-
ried to its ultimate phase in the idee fixe of Berlioz.
In melodic and harmonic design Schumann's orches-
tral works, as we shall see, share the characteristics
of his expression in other mediums.

Schumann's first symphony was written in 1841, at

237

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

a time when he may well be said to have been at the
zenith of his powers, for it was but a short time after
that the composer's physical decline began, a tragedy
which reflects itself in nearly every measure of music
written during its enactment. The first symphony in
B-flat (opus 38), known generally as the 'Spring' sjrm-
phony, although there is not more authentic sanction
for the use of the title than a few hints dropped by
Schumann as to the sources of his inspiration and
their significance in the work. The four movements of
the symphony are the customary ones, an introductory
andante un poco maestoso, which leads to an allegro
molto vivace; a larghetto; a scherzo (molto vivace),
and a finale, allegro animato e grazioso. The work is
scored for the usual strings and a pair each of wood-
winds, four horns, two trumpets and three trombones.
The introduction begins with the stately announce-
ment in the trumpets and horns of the theme of the

Andante un pooo maestoso

opening allegro: ^t> » ""^i «'- ^'«' 'i i J J J t The his-

tory of this passage is often cited as witness to the
fact that Schumann's practical knowledge of the or-
chestra was at that time nil. Originally it stood a
third lower, the notes being B-flat, G, A and B-flat, but
when played upon the horn the necessity of playing the
G and A as stopped notes rendered the passage so un-
even in strength that it became entirely ineffective and
Schumann immediately altered it In other points we
can see that there is a decided effort on Schumann's
part to handle the instruments with a view to their
special qualities, a care which leads, however, to a
fussiness of detail rather than a satisfactory general
effect. Following the announcement of the first theme
the mood of the introduction changes to one of sad-
ness as the wood-wind plays :^

238

THE SCHUMANN SYMPHONIES

This sadness soon emerges into the joyousness of
the allegro in which the theme assumes this form:

The second theme.

J> Vft><e«

slight in character, is followed by a graceful, if pianis-
tic, figure between first and second violins. The de-
velopment section begins with a sounding of the first
theme in those sequential repetitions that constitute a
serious defect in Schumann's style. There is, however,
an eifort to relieve their monotony by the introduc-
tion of a counter melody in the form of a new and

episodical melody: {^^'' J I J^J I fTTT-f-^fM^ \
r ' I r r f "f I r i » ^^^ *his reappears several times

in relief to the almost incessant repetitions of the
first theme. The development reaches, nevertheless,
a fine climax in a full modulatory phrase to D
minor borrowed from the introduction. In the recap-
itulation there enters a new element in the coda theme

which appears in the full harmony of divided strings
and is repeated by fuller orchestra.

The larghetto is a Mendelssohn-like movement of
melodic charm but rather tedious in its absence of

^ , Con ftrette

contrast. A single melody

is sounded first in the violins,

and with an intervening episode of no thematic signifi-

239

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

cance in the wood-wind it is repeated by the 'cello.
The accompaniment and ornamentation of this melody
are elaborate in design but ineffective owing to the
pianistic idiom in which they are conceived and the ab-
sence of any polyphonic interest. At the end of the
larghetto we find introduced one of Schumann's devices
for creating a further unity of design between the move-
ments. This takes the form of sounding, coda-like, in
mysterious and sustained harmonies the theme that is
about to spring forth in the vivace of the scherzo.
The theme as it appears in the larghetto has the fol-

lowing form:

which in the scherzo assumes the following version:

Holto vivace

A second sentence embodies the following graceful idea

There are two trios, one of which consists merely of
antiphonal chords between wind and strings, following
the Beethoven plan, but without thematic line. The
other, which occurs after a repetition of the first section,
has a conventional working out of the following theme :

JP 'erese. 9 fertse.

The finale is of a light-hearted gayety and has
a charming grace. Its introductory measures,

being more adaptable to
symphonic treatment than is the first theme.

Allegro animato

furnish an important element in the development of

240

THE SCHUMANN SYMPHONIES

both sections. The working-out, which is short, may
be cited as an example of Schumann's monotony and
heaviness in scoring. The theme of the introduction
is worked out in a canonical imitation between the
higher and lower strings, the whole body of which is
played in tremolo. Against this the wind has long sus-
tained single notes and harmonies. At the end of this
section there is a short cadenza of a trifling nature,
comprising a horn call, echoed and answered by a
florid flute figure which has been justly described as
being 'dangerously near to a pas seuV *

The next orchestral work to be written by Schumann
was what is now known as the fourth symphony in
D minor. Originally bearing the title of 'Symphonic
Fantasy,' it was later rewritten. The work which ap-
pears as second in the list of Schumann's symphonies
is that in C major, opus 61. This symphony, written
in 1845-46, is accepted by many as the finest of Schu-
mann's orchestral works. That it surpasses the B-flat
symphony in many respects is indisputable. There
is a greater unity of design and feeling, a larger and
more profound feeling, while the orchestration, though
not wholly admirable, contains many points of color
and eifectiveness.

The symphony has four movements in the following
order: introduction (sostenuto assai), allegro ma non
troppo, scherzo (allegro vivace), adagio espressivo, al-
legro molto vivace. It is scored for the same orchestra
as the symphony in B-flat The introduction presents

Sostenuto assai

the theme 'ft 2 f f rf | ' V~\ f" j-j*^ | f"~ ^ ^ ^ which is
the spirit and thematic germ of the entire work. Against
this, upon its first appearance, is heard a sustained
counter-melody in the strings strongly reminiscent of
Mendelssohn. This is a premonition of the: first allegro

••Oxford History of Music.' Vol. "VL

241

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

theme used to rhythmically enliven the introduction.
The principal themes of the first movement follow:

lUIegro

^ tfj-j^^ \r^f^^rT ^^l In the development of

these themes Schumann has created a movement of
more organic strength and unity, and one which, in the
greater economy of orchestral resources, is clearer in
line and color.
The second movement is a fiery scherzo, which has

Allegro nmc9

trios like that of the first symphony. It is related
that this movement was scored originally for strings
and that the wind instruments were later intro-
duced by Schumann at the suggestion of Mendelssohn.

Adagio ^-~.

The adagio, of
which we quote
the theme, is
generally con-
ceded to be one _
of Schumann's best Kretzschmar has traced the source
of its form and feeling to the trio in Bach's Musikal-
isches Offer. In describing its melody, he says : The
wonderful melody seems to depict the sorrowing Peri,
who, searching the joys of Paradise, finds the doors
open.' Not only in musical content does this movement
present striking beauties but also, as an exception to the
rule, in its fine orchestral color. Weingartner, who
is particularly severe in his arraignment of Schu-
mann as an orchestral painter, becomes enthusiastic
over this movement. The color obtained at the end
of the movement, where long held trills support
the delicate arpeggio of wood-wind, is indeed beauti-

242

THE SCHUMANN SYMPHONIES
ful. The last movement has this principal theme,

/Ulegro molto

ment of which are used materials from the other move-
ments modelled into new shapes and combined with
rare power and a synthetical process unusual in Schu-
mann.

The third in the list of Schumann's symphonies, but
the last to be written is that in E-flat (opus 97) called
the 'Rhenish.* The title is that given to it because of
the composer's authentic description of the work as
being the record of impressions made upon him dur-
ing a trip to Cologne. It is in five movements, as fol-
lows : Lebhaft; scherzo (sehr mdssig) ; nicht schnell;
feirlich; lebhaft. (Here it may be noted that we have
reached the period when Schumann began to employ
the vernacular for musical direction.) The symphony
is scored for the orchestra usually employed by Schu-
mann; the trombones, however, do not enter the
scheme until the fourth movement The work belongs
to that period of Schumann's career when the buoy-
ancy and blitheness which is continually present in
his earlier works gives place to a deep earnestness that
is at times of a religious cast and again of a somewhat
morbid sadness. It is the spirit of the former that
pervades much of the Rhenish symphony, and the
work, though lacking, in a measure, the spontaneity
of the earlier works is perhaps the strongest example
of the latest phase which Schumann's art assumed.

The first movement shows a modification of the
orthodox form in that the da capo repeat is omit-
ted, and the second theme appears after a rehear-
sal of the first theme section, — a condensing of sub-
stance which effects a satisfying conciseness. The
themes of the first movement are as follows:

243

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Lebhafl ^ — ^

I Ji'M^J^i T| I rir I'fTipTi I II

The second movement is neither the playful nor the im-
petuous scherzo of many other works, but a movement
of folk-song naivete in moderate tempo. The first theme

is, as Kretzschmar points out, strongly reminiscent of
the Kinderscenen, Schumann's charming contribution

to juvenile piano literature, while the trio

has many points of identity with
the last movement of the A minor violin sonata. Fol-
lowing an andante of romantic tenderness and sim-
plicity is the movement in E-flat minor, which Schu-
mann signified as portraying the feelings experienced
by him at sight of Cologne Cathedral and upon wit-
nessing a solemn religious ceremony within its walls.
The finale is of a fresh vitality in which 'the old
Schumann' may well be said to live again. Its lines are
simple and the development of its principal themes
is straightforward.

Lebhaft

The symphony in D minor (opus 120) was, as has
been observed, the second that Schumann wrote.
Written in the same year as the first symphony, it

244

THE SCHUMANN SYMPHONIES

was re-orchestrated and published ten years later
(1851) as the fourth symphony. It is in four move-
ments, the first lebhaft (introduced by a movement
ziemlich langsam), the third a scherzo (lebhaft) and,
after an intervening langsam, the finale {lebhaft).

The original title of this work, *symphonic fantasia,*
is a clew to some of the novelties of form that it pre-
sents, which in becoming part of the stricter cyclical
symphony mark an important step in its evolution. In
the symphony version the continuity of its original
form is preserved and the movements follow one an-
other without intervening pause. Further consistency
of design and spirit is afforded by the interchange
of thematic material between the several move-
ments; thus the accompanying flow of the introduction
is heard again in the romanza, the brilliant figures of
the first allegro appear in slower time in the introduc-
tion to the last movement, and there is an added unity
of feeling in the similarity of the smaller divisions of
phrase and motive. The introductory theme and those
of the first allegro are as follows ;

Zlemlieh langsam

r deitt

It is to be noted that the second theme does not ap-
pear until after the first section repeat. These are
developed into a movement of considerable brilliancy,
which has, as Kretzschmar contends, much more of the
spirit of Jean Paul than have the Tlorestan' and

245

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

*Eusebius' in the famous Davidshiindler Dances (see
Vol. VII, pp. 229f).
The expressive theme of the Romanze, sadly sung

Ansdruoksyon ^ ^ ^ ^ Jj y the

melancholy
oboe, can-
not be dis-
so elated

from its imitation in Brahms' D minor symphony. A
simple statement of the theme is followed by a reminis-
cent phrase of the introduction, which leads in turn to
a section in D major. The scherzo, an animated move-

Lebhaft

ment in D minor, '§H ^\ ] \\ ^ IIMIW ] }\ y ^

a contrasted flowing trio in B-flat and is fol-
lowed immediately by a slow version of the
opening allegro, the figures of which persist in
the bass against the stirring theme of the final

allegro, jp^'ltr

^1 The principal

r~rT

second subject p J Tl ^j |,> I f f'tJl^/I'llJiTS
and a subsequent secondary theme

are all of such nature

as to contribute to the youthful exuberance which is the
spirit of the entire movement.

A work that may be suitably listed with Schumann's
symphonies is that entitled 'Overture, Scherzo and Fi-
nale' (opus 52), which dates from the year of the first
symphony. This work, which may be regarded as a
suite or a small symphony without slow movement, is
one of the most popular of Schumann's works and has

246

SCHUMANN'S OVERTURES

often been taken as a model by those who have fol-
lowed in Schumann's footsteps. There is a slow intro-
duction with the following theme :

, the motives of which reappear in the en-

suing allegro. The themes of the allegro are as follows :

Allegro

In the characteristic scherzo with trio we hear the fan-
tastic Schumann of the Faschingsschwank aus Wien
and other piano works. The finale is a movement of
direct brilliancy, Mendelssohnian in vein, and of a
somewhat tedious monotony of rhythm.

Schumann can hardly be said to have contributed
anything toward the development of program music.
Although, in several instances, his overtures faithfully
embody the spirit of the subject they treat, there is
even less of detailed portrayal than is to be found in
the Mendelssohn overtures. The depth of dramatic
power that Schumann possessed is nowhere more
manifest than in that which remains his best known
overture, 'Manfred' (opus 115).

This overture is part of the incidental music to By-
ron's 'Manfred,' a stage performance of which was ar-
ranged by Schumann himself and given under Liszt's di-
rection in Weimar in 1852. The composition voices the
tragic introspection of the poem, and although its idi-
oms are of a formal classicism, the work is fraught with
a profoundly emotional force that is convincingly dra-
matic. A slow introduction leads to a feverishly agitat-
ed allegro

in the syncopated rhythm by which Schumann ob-

247

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC
tains throughout this work the feeling of restless
torment. A second theme

has the same searching question-
ing as has the first part of Wagner's Taust Over-
ture,' while there dwells in the following theme

^^ a Ansdrucksvoll _^^^

£« J J J I.J_Jj«*l[Jj J I a feeling of tenderer res-
ignation.

The overture to Taust' which also is but a part of
an incidental music written to Goethe's play, is a much
shorter work and one far less strong in its musical con-
tent. Of the overtures to Schumann's two operas,
*Genoveva' and *The Bride of Messina,' the latter is
much the finer work and may justly be given a place
second to the 'Manfred' in musical worth.

A word only need be added concerning Schumann's
other overtures. They are all the product of his later
years and bear the traces of that fateful attrition of
his creative forces. These works comprise the over-
ture to 'Julius Caesar' (opus 128), that to 'Hermann
and Dorothea' (opus 136), and a Fest-Ouverture with
a chorus on the Rhenish drinking-song Bekranzt mit
Laub for men's voices, the last-named being an 'oc-
casional' piece of unimportant brilliancy.

A classification of the post-Schumann era is ren-
dered difficult by the confusion of influences and im-
pulses that make themselves felt during this period.
One fact is, however, borne clearly home to us as we
make a survey of such works, namely, that the rise of
program music and the waning of the classic spirit
eff"ected a serious decline in the realm of the sym-
phony proper. The majority of works of this descrip-

248

MINOR ROMANTICISTS

tion dating from this period are, it must be confessed,
of a uniform mediocrity and it is only the appearance
of Brahms' first symphony that marks a renaissance.

In the meantime there is, as has just been stated,
a bewildering confusion of styles and influences. Men-
delssohn and Schumann, as we know, both exerted
a strong influence over their respective followers, in
other writers there was a more marked persistence
of the older classicism, while still other writers found
an allure in the newer voices of the programmists.
Furthermore, it must be noted that while the history
of symphonic development had, until this time, its
course almost exclusively in Germany, the horizon now
became extended to the other European countries and
there appeared the first glimpses of the various na-
tional schools.

Of those who may be counted as the disciples of
Schumann and in whose works may be seen his direct
influence are Woldemar Bargiel (1828-97), Carl
Reinecke (1820-1910), and Friedrich Robert Volkmann
(1815-83). The last-named is by far the largest figure
of the group. His two symphonies in D minor were
among the most famous of his day, and in their classic
purity and melodious simplicity, are far from being
mere Kapelltneistermusik. There are besides these
two symphonies three suites of Volkmann which have
enjoyed a wide popularity.

Bargiel is the composer of a symphony in C, two
overtures and a suite in the older dance forms, while
Reinecke has a list of three symphonies and several
overtures. Lesser symphonists of this epoch are Wil-
helm Taubert (1811-91), more important as a song-
writer, Julius Rietz (1812-77), Ferdinand Hiller (1811-
85), Karl Gottlieb Reissiger (1798-1859), and Franz
Lachner (1803-90). The last-named composer of this
group wrote eight symphonies and a number of or-
chestral works which had distinction and were popu-

249

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

lar. Lachner was the pioneer of a movement which,
if it is characteristic of the Romantic Movement and its
striving for looser structure and its fancy for miniature
forms, was to bear more significant fruit in the future :
the revival of the classic suite and its adaptation to the
orchestral idiom of the romantic period. The suite,
though all too rigid in its classic form, and too monot-
onous with its uniform tonality, is a most convenient
pattern for a combination of small pieces, and obvi-
ously its original shortcomings from the modern point
of view can be eliminated through the modification of
some details. This Lachner did with some success, and
he produced, besides his eight symphonies (of which
those in D minor, C minor and D major are note-
worthy) seven symphonic suites, which have, however,
not maintained themselves in the repertoire. His exam-
ple was followed by Raff, Bargiel, Ries and, with better
success, by others to be noted in subsequent chapters.

The symphonies of Rubinstein are usually described
as the product of a distinctly post-Mendelssohnian ex-
pression. This is hardly a complete description of
these works, and it is indeed difficult to classify, with
any narrow accuracy, their place in the orchestral cata-
logue. Chronologically of a later period, they are, in
their reactionary classicism, far from representative of
their day. This, added to the fact that they share with
Rubinstein's other works the loosely knit improvisatory
qualities and are written in an idiom too pianistic, are
sufficient explanation of the desuetude into which they
have fallen.

Rubinstein's orchestral works include six sympho-
nies, besides a number of overtures and other shorter
works. Of these works the most important are the
second symphony (op. 42), known as the 'Ocean' sym-
phony and the fourth (op. 95), called Symphonie Dra-
matique.

The *Ocean' symphony follows no detailed program;

250

1* » »'.

r«

^TTi:

MiiKM i< <iiiti( .S\ iii|»l)wiu.s(s :

Joachim RaOf .~ I'ricdrirti iU»lirrt Vulkniaiui
Carl Htfinccke Fran/ Lachiicr

^ for looser

I „ i.

ijvi idiom of the romantic i

.,;,! :„ -.1..

pattern lor a co»! n of small pieces, and ol)vj-

ously its f-" "- ' :--- r ^x. : ... .;

uf vic-v. < ,. .

some detaj cr did >^'ith soi

, are notr-

wo-rtiiy) seven symphomc suites, which have, howe. ,

succ(*s^, by others to be noted in su
The '

!•. n - .1- : -

as the

pr This is h

iiu • I J.

vsorks works

LATE ROMANTIC SYMPHONISTS

it is merely a tonal picture of general impressions,
framed in the conventional four-movement symphonic
form. Three of its movements may be taken as tonal
seascapes, while the scherzo may well answer to the
description given it by Kretzschmar, who calls it *a
jolly sailor scene.*

The Symphonie Dramatique is of a greater emo-
tional power and is painted in tones of a somewhat
warmer color.

The fifth symphony of Rubinstein has been called
the 'Russian* symphony because of its employment of
Russian folk-songs. The affinity with the Russian
spirit ends with these themes, however, and their de-
velopment lacks even the slightest preservation of na-
tional characteristics or atmosphere. Speaking on this
subject, Cesar Cui * says : 'Rubinstein is a German
composer, a direct successor of Mendelssohn. He
treats the Russian melodies in a German fashion, a
procedure resulting in an aesthetic hybridism. He has
seized upon the mere externals of the Russian themes
that exist in certain cadences and melodic lines and
he has utilized only two types of popular melody, the
melancholy song and the more excited measure of the
dance known as the "Trepetchok.** To the poetry, the
depth, and the tranquil beauty of our national song he
has remained a stranger. It is for this reason that his
Russian music is monotonous and tedious. Perhaps
the single exception to this is the agreeable pictorial
symphony "Ivan the Terrible," in which the Russian
national flavor is conspicuously present and is pre-
sented in ideas of independent musical worth. The
orchestral fantasy "Don Quixote** is replete with verve
and feeling, and is one of the most successful of Ru-
binstein's works, and while it deals with a Spanish
subject, it belongs, without question, to the Russian
school by reason of its form and humorous quality.*

* La muatque en Russie. Paris. 1880.

251

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Among minor symphonists belonging to the period
between the late romantic and modem schools there
may be noted Albert Dietrich (1829-1908), whose sym-
phony in D minor reflects a strong Schumann flavor,
Friedrich Gernsheim (born 1839), the composer of
four symphonies of considerable skill and strength;
Draeseke (born 1835), the third of whose symphonies,
called Sinfonia Tragica, is analyzed at length by
Kretzschmar, who calls it one of the *most important
examples of modern German symphonic art* and traces
in it the influences of Beethoven, Brahms and Volk-
mann; Hermann Goetz (1840-76), the composer of the
successful opera Der Widerspdnstigen Zdhmung, who
in his F major symphony shows slight marks of a Wag-
nerian influence.

Other followers of Schumann and the later roman-
ticists include several, who, though living in a day when
the modern idiom had begun to lay firm hold on the
musical expression of the more vital element in musi-
cal art, persisted in a reactionary classicism which
render them anterior to their age and not representa-
tive of its real significance. Such composers are Max
Bruch (born 1838) and Joseph Rheinberger (1839-1901).
The former is best known by his violin concertos and
works in the freer lines of dramatic music. His three
symphonies are not, however, without sterling merit
and are important among his works. Rheinberger's
largest orchestral work is the *Wallenstein' symphony,
designated in its title as a 'symphonic tone poem,* in
the various movements of which are pictured the char-
acters and scenes of Schiller's trilogy.

252

CHAPTER IX

THE MODERN ROMANTICISTS

Johannes Brahms as symphonist, his early orchestral works; the four
symphonies; the 'Academic' and 'Tragic' overtures — Anton Bruckner and the
Wagner Influence; his nine symphonies.

Two great and momentous impulses mark the in-
auguration of contemporaneous musical art, the re-
turn to the purity of classic form which Brahms ef-
fected and the revival of the polyphonic ideal which
was largely the achievement of Richard Wagner. The
romantic and the classic thus became merged in an
expression that was broader, stronger and more elo-
quent than that of any preceding period. This ad-
vance, in its bearing upon orchestral music, was of the
utmost importance; indeed such an evolution had be-
come necessary to the vitalizing of symphonic form
and to the furtherance of instrumental expression.

But we have very inadequately described the part
taken by Brahms in this classic revival if we attribute
to him merely the restoration of more rigidly formal
lines. The romantic era, as we have noted, did not
discard these formal features and we have seen that
the principal outlines of the symphony remained as
they had been established by Haydn. But the inner
details of structure had become loosened, and since the
emphasis was placed upon the purely expressive melo-
dic line or harmonic sequence, there was no longer
the sense of unified strength and balance that is the
ultimate aim of a formal art

253

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Brahms, after the first outpourings of a spontaneous
romanticism, came to the realization of the nature of
the mission that awaited him. His aspiration was
large, and he subjected himself to the discipline of
study and reflective intellectual effort that gave him
the necessary strength for the task. The list of
Brahms' works constitute a record of the practical ap-
plication of principles thus evolved from study. We
can see distinctly the desire to experiment in all the
forms, with a persistent return to the sonata form.
This he continually readjusted and perfected, bring-
ing to it the rich and varied idiom which his genius
evolved. In thus rehabilitating the symphony to its
classic strength Brahms became the legitimate suc-
cessor of Beethoven in that he further enlarged its
scope of expression and made it to speak again with
the voice of sublimity and universal grandeur.

Much has been said of the ineifectiveness of the in-
strumentation of Brahms. It is true that there is, at
times, the disregard for the merely sensuous effects of
tone color which result in passages of a dull monotony,
and there is in his orchestral writing, as in his piano
works, a tendency to thicken unduly the lower sec-
tions of the harmony in a manner productive of what
is often described as muddiness. But this is rather an
idiosyncrasy of style and cannot be attributed to any
miscalculation of effect or non-appreciation of color
and balance. Brahms' orchestral scores are replete
with pages of glowing color which, though they may
not be as high in key as are those obtained by the more
specialized orchestral genius of Wagner, are of quite
as deep a richness. Moreover, the musical structure
of Brahms' works contains that only thoroughly suit-
able scaffolding upon which the modem orchestral
structure may be raised, namely, polyphonic interest.
This polyphony, while it is vastly different from Wag-
ner's in its diatonic purity and its more extended melo-

254

JOHANNES BRAHMS AS SYMPHONIST

die line, is none the less adaptable to the orchestral
medium.

Brahms* first orchestral works were two serenades,
one in D major (opus 11), the other in A major (opus
16), both dating from 1860. These works appear
largely in the light of experimental writings, the sec-
ond one being in fact mentioned by Joachim in a letter
to Clara Schumann as having served Brahms as an ex-
ercise in scoring. Both works are strongly imbued with
the undisguised manner of Haydn and Beethoven. The
first serenade has six movements. Its first move-
ment of an idyllic character has the following theme:

Allegro molto

A scherzo, adagio and two minuets follow this, and the
serenade ends with a rondo. The second serenade
is more intimate in character. As Kretzschmar says,
its relation to the first is that of sister to brother. The
Haydn-like theme of its first movement is as follows:

There is, as in the first, a scherzo, the trio of which
has the characteristic sixths of many of Brahms*

themes: jn*' j N J J I J j^^'M j J^P* An adagio and

a minuet follow, and the work again concludes with a
rondo. Both works are scored for small orchestra
without trombones.

In 1874 Brahms produced a larger work for orches-
tra, the 'Variations on a Theme by Haydn* (opus 56a),
which had been originally composed as a duet for

two pianos. The theme,

J^Trrirripf Ip'/f plf*^^ known sometimes as the 'Chorale

of SL Antoine,* is taken from a Haydn divertimento for

255

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

brass instruments. There are eight variations and a
finale. In these Brahms displays the same ingenuity and
wealth of imagination that he shows in his variations
for piano. Within the limited tonality of one key and its
minor he creates an impression of kaleidoscopic shift-
ings of color by a clever manipulation of the devices of
composition and orchestration. Many of the sections
are of the Mozart-like suavity which is so often the
mood of Brahms, and there is a cumulative brilliancy in
the several last variations leading to a powerful climax.
Three years after the Haydn variations there ap-
peared the first symphony, in C minor (opus 68), a
work upon which Brahms is said to have labored ten
years. This monumental work, the finest of Brahms'
symphonies, was hailed by von Biilow as 'the tenth,'
implying its worthiness to a place by the side of Bee-
thoven's nine. The description is just, for like them
it has stood the test of time, its power is undiminished
and standing in serene grandeur through the years it
speaks in spite of changing fashion with the voice of
convincing eloquence which alone is that of true great-
ness. The symphony has four movements, an allegro
(introduced by a slower movement 'un poco sos-
tenuto') ; an adagio sostenuto, an allegretto grazioso,
and, at the last, an allegro non troppo ma con brio,
prefaced by a somewhat longer slow introduction
(adagio) than that preceding the first movement.

The first introduction contains the motives of the
opening movement and in the solemn and impres-
sive chromatic unfolding of its opening measures

•m J there is embodied
>nJ J^iJ- J^^ \^ r an idea that con-
stantly reappears
in varying forms
throughout the
length of the work, and serves as a unifying ele-
ment in its feeling of haunting fatality. This passes

256

BRAHMS' FIRST SYMPHONY

into the undulating sweep of the violins, introducing
the figure on which is built the principal theme

of the allegro.

Another motive of the opening allegro *

immediately follows in sustained wood-

wind and pizzicato strings, and after slight develop-
ment there is a repetition of the opening section in G
minor. A languorous recitative in the oboe dies away
in the imitating 'cellos and leads directly to the allegro.
Its first chords are those of the chromatic introduction.
Following these the violins announce the theme in rap-
turous sweep. After a short development of this theme
in phrases of rugged strength and incisive rhythmical
force, the mood becomes quieter and the second theme

is heard in the oboe. Its questioning cadence is
answered by the clarinet and then by the horn, the
dialogue being interrupted by a return of the agitated
rhythms of the first theme. The exposUion section
then repeats from the allegro.

The development is very free and varied in its
employment of new forms and displays the rarest
ingenuity in thematic dissection and synthetical
construction. The first theme appears in a number
of guises, an episodical theme is then heard like a
triumphant hymn, and is played by answering
string and wind in harmonies of organ-like solidity.

Eirins*

Strines

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

There is then a sequence of the chromatic harmonies
of the introduction over a long dominant pedal, fol-
lowed by detached motives of the opening theme,
which build up into a powerful climax and lead into
the recapitulation. After a comparatively regular
restatement of the exposition there follows a coda of
intense beauty and profound eloquence, in which the
haunting chromatics again appear, this time in a mood
of exalted resignation.

The andante opens with a Beethovenian theme of

Andante cantabile

direct simplicity:

The following phrase brings a return of the chromatic
idee fixe, which leads to a passage of eloquent and ten-
der sadness for strings alone. The mood continues as

the oboe plays a solo :

In the ensuing section we find

phrases of such originality of idiom and richness
of color that they are in themselves a refutation
of the assertion that Brahms' orchestra is without
effective color. The passage in question has a long
and rapturous melody for the first violins as follows:

Accompanying the first measures of this the second vio-
lins and violas play the following figure :

9 a combination which is

productive of a strangely beautiful effect. As the
phrase reaches its climax the first violins, together
with the second violins and the violas, play a passage

258

BRAHMS' FIRST SYMPHONY

(Vlobt.doubl* an ociave i»we()

that for impassioned polyphonic excitement and glow-
ing color is unsurpassed in modern music. An oboe
melody of improvisational figures then leads to a sec-
tion of lighter mood and greater animation but rich in
chromatic color and brilliantly orchestrated. In the
recapitulation the first section is elaborated by the most
skillful variations, which enhance its beauty and ex-
pressiveness. In the coda fragments of all the themes
are woven together in a feeling of reminiscent finality.
In the third movement Brahms follows a plan which,
as we have seen, was adopted by Schumann in the
Rhenish symphony, that of substituting for the scherzo
the more quiet humor of an allegretto. In the light-
hearted naivete of this movement Brahms reflects the
manner of Schubert. The first section comprises two

themes, the first, sounded by the clarinet.

» doUt

passing im-

mediately to the second,

V dole*

against whose lilting measure

the strings play broken rhythms of considerable in-
tricacy. These two themes appear with the addition
of varying figures until the appearance of a new theme

in the clarinet,

after which the first theme reappears

with further elaboration. The second section of the
movement is in B major and has the following theme:

259

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

After a climax built upon this second main theme there
is a return to the first section and the movement finishes
with an abrupt return of the second theme by way of
coda.

The adagio introduction of the slow movement be-
gins with the chromatic harmonies of the motto theme
against a melody which foreshadows the principal
theme of the final allegro. A passage of stormy agi-
tation follows in which a glimpse of another theme is
heard in the wood-wind against runs in the strings.
After a strident climax the harmony merges into the
serene clarity of the major key and, accompanied by a
brilliant shimmering of tremolo strings, the horn and
flute play a melody of confident joy between the phrases
of which the brass and bassoons chant a solemn
chorale.

The hymn-like theme of the last movement (allegro)

strongly suggests the choral theme of Beethoven's
ninth symphony. After an episode of increased rhyth-

Animato ^

mical brilliancy the second theme ^ j rTjiJIJ^I^^'^Tpi

i^'i^ Tii^iri I TTni-.B^iB enters in the strings

alone. An answering section of the theme is given

out by the oboe | i f^^n^ ^'^ |'T *'' ^^' f ["ffi^

and is excitedly repeated in the tremolo of the strings.
Then there appears, in triumphant sweep of the strings,

260

BRAHMS' SECOND SYMPHONY
the theme, at which the introductory section had hinted.

Its final motive is
soon repeated in the following rhythmical design,

which is then carried out at some

length. The first theme then reappears; after repe-
tition in several keys and interspersed with other
material from the introduction it is repeated at
length with its pendant sections. A development
of classic ruggedness follows, in which motives of the
first theme sound against a newly established figure

and a climax is reached

in a burst of the full orchestra upon the horn theme of
the introduction. There is then a recapitulation of the
main division of the movement beginning with the sec-
ond theme and a brilliant coda is developed from mo-

tives of the first theme.

ten mnrenle

which reaches a final climax

of supreme triumph.

Brahms* second symphony, in D major (opus 73),
dates from the same period as the first. Its four move-
ments are as follows: allegro non troppo, adagio non
troppo, allegretto grazioso (quasi andantino), allegro
con brio. There is a marked contrast of feeling be-
tween this work and the first symphony. The profound
and the intense here give way, for the greater part, to
tranquil contentment and happy abandon, for which
reason the symphony has been designated as Brahms'
Tastoral.'

As in the first symphony, a motto theme persists
through the movements of this work. The manner of

261

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

its employment is, however, somewhat different here;
in the first, as we have just noted, the chromatic har-
monies which constituted such a motto usually ap-
peared in a more or less literal version easily recog-
nizable in this distinctive color. In the second sym-
phony the motto consists of the simplest melodic

phrase of three notes v-i^ p -I r^- This motive becomes

the germ from which is developed an infinite variety
of melodic phrase and theme. This motto sounded
by 'cellos and basses alone form the initial measure
of the first movement. There then follows in the
horns and wood-wind the first principal theme of

the "^

movement,

After a slight development of the elements con-
tained in these phrases a secondary theme, whose
notes are those of the motto, appears in the violins.

^'it f^^rlrirrTlTr'^ \^^~^\^n\ foUowed. after a

short episodical development, by the second theme,

Cantando

sung by the violins and 'cellos. The flowing motives of
this theme are interrupted in their development by a

f quoit rtltnailt)

more vigorous secondary theme,

f ^ ttH mttrctitm

the rhythms of which are worked

to a climax. A reappearance of the second theme with
an ornamental filigree of triplets brings the exposition
to a close.

The working-out section begins with a tranquil re-
hearsal of the opening theme and is followed by its
motives, developed in classical serenity. After a brief

262

BRAHMS' SECOND SYMPHONY

episodical treatment of the secondary theme, the re-
capitulation commences, the first theme in oboes and
horns having an elaborated background of strings.
The running figures of this elaboration follow through-
out the recapitulation, which is of a comparatively
regular form but- varied in ornamental figure and or-
chestration. The coda presents a gradually dissolving
view of the first theme.

The second movement voices a more serious
mood. Its theme appears in an extended melody full
of sadness and complaint, played by the 'cellos, and

pof f npresi

set in an elaborate surrounding of accompanying
harmony and figure. After a repeated version of this
in altered scoring a second section presents the follow-
ing phrase in a happier vein:

r 4oic»

The syncopated figures of this

phrase afford a development of considerable intricacy
which leads to a third section with the following

melody :

poeo f

After this there is a free reiteration of the first section
with the ornamentation characteristic of Brahms' va-
riations.

The allegretto, in its quaint dance rhythm, repre-
sents a return to the forms and manner of the
classical suite, but tinged with a color that is modem in
its charm and novelty. The gracefully tripping theme

is taken by wood-wind with accompanying arpeggios

263

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC
by the 'cellos pizzicato. A second section presents the

y>u Presto

theme in a more energetic variation.

the original version there is a second variation — a
rushing presto,

after which the movement is closed with the reappear-
ance of the first form. The finale is of Haydn-like anima-
tion and cheerfulness. The theme opens with the three

notes of the motto motive.

P sotto voct

The second subject, having
a strong folk-song flavor, is built on similar lines,

Largamente

The entire movement is of classic construction and
direct expression, its mood partaking of the buoyancy
which these two themes bespeak.

As the Brahms symphonies, in their colossal dimen-
sions, invite comparison with only those of Beethoven,
we are tempted to seek in the works of these two men
analogous meanings and to employ similar descrip-
tive titles for them. Thus, if we have called the sec-
ond of Brahms' symphonies the Tastorale,* the third
inevitably takes its place as the *Eroica' of that
master, a title that well befits its tone of noble
strength and impassioned strife. In this symphony
Brahms again employs a *motto* phrase. It is com-
prised in the chords which open the first movement

These chords are used
in literal repetition as
in the first symphony,
and they also are used

BRAHMS' THIRD SYMPHONY

as the harmonic basis for an infinitude of unmistakably
derivative phrases. Their spirit pervades the entire
first movement, and there are but few measures which
do not contain the germs of this motto in some
form.

The theme of the first movement follows immedi-
ately after the sounding of the motto harmonies. It is
a melody of heroic sweep and wide curve, sung by the
violins as follows:

Allegro eon brio i —

An episode reminiscent of Beethoven's Eroica leads to
the key of A major and the appearance of the second
theme, a romantic duet between clarinet and bassoon,

Oraxioso

This is then repeated in amplified instrumentation
and followed by an unfolding of the motto har-
monies in full passages of resonant string chords and
against arpeggio passages in the wood-wind. The
development section begins with similar passages built
on the harmonic motto without a definite melodic line.
From these passages there emerges first in *cellos and
bassoons a minor version of the second theme. Re-
peated in the violins it becomes dissected and its mo-
tives are tossed about between strings and wood-wind.
A succeeding section introduces the upward reach of
the first three chords in long sustained horn tones
with a background of simple chords in syncopated
strings. After this a short sounding of figures from
the first theme in anticipation leads to the recapitula-

265

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

tion. In the latter is a literal repetition of thematic
material until a coda section presents the first theme in
intensified harmonies which gradually subside and dis-
appear in tranquil finality.

The second movement is interpreted by Kretzsch-
mar as being descriptive of the peaceful hours of the
hero in which he dreams of his childhood and of a
*better life above the stars.' The movement is built
almost entirely on the simple theme which the wood-

A.ndanta

wind announces in the opening phrase.

The shadows

earnest phases appear with the following allegretto.
The plaintive subject

is heard in the 'cellos, and

around it the other strings weave a delicate web of
accompanying arpeggios. This is repeated in the vio-
lins, then in the wood-wind with increased ornamen-
tation. After a brief contrasting section of Schumann-

esque qualities

the main theme reappears.

The last movement pictures again the scene of con-
flict. The sotto voce of the strings in the first theme

^ , , Allegro . — -— -

J> « sotto voe*

tense excitement. It is repeated in the wood-wind,
and presently there appears a second theme of chant-

"•' I I 1 I I I I. 1^1 r I I ^ lii^e solemnity. This

is soon followed by
an agitated passage

of leaping figures, at the conclusion of which the 'cello

266

BRAHMS' FOURTH SYMPHONY
sings a melody of victorious joy.

The conflict then wages more fiercely in phrases of
dramatic force. The violins climb ever higher and
reach a shrieking climax in the highest registers, the
brass punctuating with full and strident chords. The
orchestra again becomes hushed, as fragments of the
first melody are heard in the various choirs, and the
entire theme then appears in the wood-wind.

Great variety is introduced in the recapitulation.
Contractions and extensions of rhythmical design by
augmentation and diminution, simultaneous sound-
ings of the various thematic elements and a piling
up of the orchestral forces contribute to picture a
melee of powerful effect The coda is a glorious apo-
theosis in the major key. The first theme in an aug-
mented version, and over harmonies of eloquent power
sings of a serene triumph ; from the impressive tremolo
of the strings the horn sends forth the solemnly ex-
ultant melody of the motto theme; the wood- wind and
horns play the sustained chant theme and the move-
ment closes as the strings sound the motto harmonies
in the afterglow of wondrous splendor.

The fourth symphony in E minor (opus 98) was
written in 1885. It is in four movements: adagio non
troppo; andante moderato; allegro giocoso; allegro
energico e passionato. The score is without trombones.
This work stands apart from Brahms' other sympho-
nies in the classic restraint exhibited in its structure
and its expression. Its atmosphere is one of sombre
tone, often likened to a feeling of autumnal sadness.
This is varied by an idiom of sober line and color which
lend to it that air of being *a song of the passing of
life.'

267

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The first movement opens immediately with the
statement of the first theme:

Allegro non troppo ^^^^

After a short development of its figures a com-
municating theme of sharper rhythm leads to the
second theme in the cantilena of the 'cellos:

Repeated in the violins, it is followed by the episodical
theme and a further exposition of the combined mo-
tives which extends without a da capo into the de-
velopment section. The recapitulation is of normal
regularity. The andante is a romantic movement of
simple design. The principal theme is first heard
in the horn, which plays it in old modal tonality.

It then enters

with graceful naivete in strings pizzicato and wood-
section has the theme in flowing rhythmical varia-
tions, a touch of brilliancy being added by a figure
of dancing triplets in wood-wind and strings which
later appears in the full orchestra. The middle sec-
tion has a further variation of the main theme in a
sustained passage commencing in the strings alone:

268

BRUCKNER'S NINE SYMPHONIES

The third movement is the only one of Brahms' sym-
phonic movements that partakes of the nature of the
real scherzo as conceived by Beethoven. This move-
ment has the vigorous vitality and rugged dance na-
ture which Beethoven has indissolubly linked to the
class of movements so named by him. The move-
ment has two themes, one of a strong impetuosity,

the other of a

no less rhythmical vivacity but more graceful in line.

grattos*

The fourth movement is an innovation in symphonic
form. Brahms here utilizes, for the jBrst time in his-
tory, the chaconne as a symphonic movement. The form
afforded him an imposing structure on the lines of his
favorite formula, the variation; and the movement,
built as it is upon a single melody or cantus firmus,
presents in its masterly adaptation of theme and unity
of feeling one of the marvels of symphonic construc-
tion. The theme upon which the movement is built
is introduced as a solemn chorale of wind instnunents
at the commencement of the movement Its melody

JKegro tniTgte* • P anftnaU

is as follows: j!'al (" I f I f | T | 'T | f | j,. |f |,

The harmonic outline of the measure is strictly pre-
served in the following development figures which
steadily increase in rhythmical animation and intricacy.
A second section commences with an elaborate and
subtly dissected figure in the flute with a light accom-
paniment of syncopated strings, passing into the major
key and leading to a full statement of the theme as at
the beginning. The elaborations which follow are of
still greater brilliancy, and after a short episode of

269

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

contrasting tranquillity the movement ends in a tutti of
rhythmical vigor.

The list of Brahms' orchestral works is completed
by the two overtures : the 'Academic Festival' (opus 80)
and the *Tragic' (opus 81). These two works take their
place between the second and third symphonies, the
one having been written in 1881, the other in 1884.

The Academic Overture was written in acknowl-
edgment of the degree of Dr. phil. conferred upon its
author by the University of Breslau. It is 'academic'
only in the sense that it is infused with the rollicking
spirit of student life through the introduction of the
student songs that serve it as themes. The songs thus
employed are: Wir hatten gebauet ein stattliches Haus;
Hort, ich sing; Was kommt dort von der Hoh? and the
universally popular Gaudeamus igitur. Scored for
large orchestra the work is one of Brahms' most bril-
liant and popular compositions.

The Tragic Overture takes its place by the side of
Brahms' symphonic movements as a work of classic
design and formal development. Its title is fulfilled
in a feeling of deep earnestness rather than in the mor-
bid or hysterical tragedy beloved of the more dramatic
composers.

We seem not yet to have been able to view in a
proper perspective the art of Anton Bruckner, a fact
which is probably due, in a large measure, to the gen-
eral unfamiliarity with his works, resulting from a
lack of performances. An excuse for such neglect is
often found in the excessive length of these works;
but if we seek a true cause we are forced to admit that
it lies in the uneven quality of the inspiration and art
which manifest themselves in Bruckner's nine colossal
works in the symphonic form. In this respect Bruck-
ner has often, and with great truth, been compared to

270

mi>

Wagner and Brufknor in Bayreuth
SUhouelle by Dr. Otto Bfihler

one having bi JJ81, the other

ttKir by the
;« t as theme ion{^ thus

mus igitur. Scored J
Tragic Overture takes its pi:

▼)r

BRUCKNER'S NINE SYMPHONIES

Franz Schubert. We find in Bruckner, as in Schubert,
the lack of fastidiousness which is that of the prodigal
genius. Both were content to put down the thought
of the moment. Thus it comes that in the excessive
length of their movements, inspiration and dullness,
careful design and careless sketch succeed each other
in rapid flow.

In spiritual quality, however, there is not the same
analogy to be drawn between the works of Bruckner
and Schubert. The most ardent admirer of the former
could hardly claim for him a genius of such exuberant
and spontaneous lyricism as was Schubert's. Bruck-
ner's spiritual affinity is nearer to Brahms in its pro-
foundly religious and, at times, austere intellectuality.
There exists, to be sure, in his early works, a quality
of folk-like naivete that finds expression in certain
of his scherzi. These movements, as is observed by
Max Graf,* are akin to those of Haydn and Beethoven
in their true folk-dance flavor and in their unre-
strained and not over-refined humor. This mood, as
we shall see, disappears in his later works, where it is
replaced by a more subtle and delicate sense.

Bruckner has been often described as the *sympho-
nic Wagnerite'; his name is indeed coupled with that
of Wagner so often that to the popular mind he is
often supposed to be a servile imitator of Wagner's
style, a man who without original force or idea did
little but adapt Wagnerian moods and means to the
dimensions and forms of the symphony. The most su-
perficial study of Bruckner's music, however, will show
us how far from the truth this supposition is. It must
be readily admitted that Bruckner is indebted to Wag-
ner for much of his inspiration and for many of his
idiomatic traits; but taken as a whole, the bulk of
Bruckner's work cannot in any measure be said to be
infused with either the spirit or the manner of Wagner.

* Anton Bmekner In Kunstwart, 1899.

271

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

In the two earliest symphonies it is entirely lacking;
Bruckner had not then met Wagner nor even heard
his music. In the third symphony the Wagnerian in-
fluence begins to show itself, and it is the seventh sym-
phony that is most strongly imbued with the Wag-
nerian feeling. The most important bearing which
this influence has upon symphonic development lies
in the new lines of form which it brought into the sym-
phony. We find that the leading characteristic of
Bruckner's form lies in the markedly divided and con-
trasted sections and thematic groups. This feature is
analogous to the motif development of a Wagnerian
score. In melodic line and harmonic color there are
indeed many moments of a close Wagnerian resem-
blance, which, at times, stand forth in the most star-
tling reminiscence. But these appear in isolated
phrases; the persistently sensuous and glowing rich-
ness which is the salient characteristic of Wagnerism
is not present in the Bruckner symphony.

In the matter of orchestration there is an adherence
to Wagner's manner perhaps in about the same degree
as there is in musical content. The orchestral appara-
tus used by Bruckner was the one of the Wagner mu-
sic drama — the enlarged groups of three wood-wind
instruments and an augmented brass choir employ-
ing at times six or eight horns and tenor tubas. Bruck-
ner's scoring is that of the real master of the orches-
tra. It is idiomatic, the instruments are always treated
with a discriminating regard for their peculiar effec-
tiveness, and the combinations are managed with a
sure hand and an instinctive sense of color and con-
trast. Bruckner, in his orchestration, also often ap-
proximates the Wagner manner, but only at moments,
and there is quite as frequently a Brahms-like treat-
ment of ornamentation and elaboration.*

* For further details upon the style of Bruckner, see Mr. Newman's
remarks in Vol. Ill, pp. 219fr.

272

BRUCKNER'S EARLY SYMPHONIES

Bruckner's nine symphonies are all works of monu-
mental proportions, of intellectual strength and of
individual expression. In their entirety they pre-
sent many degrees of musical effectiveness and
inspiration. Bruckner was over forty years old when
the first symphony was composed and began the last
at the age of sixty-seven. It will thus be at once seen
that the nine symphonies may, as a whole, be taken
as Bruckner's matured expression. While there must
inevitably be continual development, and while we can
trace the signs of contributory influences, there is no
occasion in the case of Bruckner (as there is in nearly
every other composer) to make a classification accord-
ing to the dividing lines of development periods.'

The first two symphonies, both in C minor, were
written in 1865 and 1871 respectively. They remain
among the rarely heard and comparatively unknown
of Bruckner's works. The first, written at a time when
its composer remained entirely unacquainted with
Wagner's music, exhibits traces of blended classical
influences put into terms of the somewhat inflexible
and austere idiom that then marked Bruckner's style.
The second symphony is of more yielding line and
contains in certain figurations the slightest suggestions
of a Wagnerian influence.

The third symphony is a work of warmer impulses
and more general appeal. The mood is of less uncom-
promising sternness and there are many moments of
sensuous beauty in the glow of a richly colored or-
chestral treatment.

The work is dedicated to Richard Wagner and it is
told that Wagner made earnest efforts to secure for
it a production. Whatever may have been the direct
results of this interest, the fact remains that the sym-
phony was the first one of Bruckner's to be published
and there is little doubt that to its publication and

273

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

performance were due the first spread of his fame to
a larger world than had heretofore been his.

The dedication to Wagner and Wagner's champion-
ship of the work lead us immediately to a search for
the Wagner influence in this symphony. It is not
wanting and there are many places in which the mani-
festation of this influence is revealed in phrases which
are Wagner's own. At the close of the first section of
the slow movement (adagio) immediately preceding
the change of tempo we find the upward inflections of
the Tristan opening measures echoed between strings
and wood-wind in an exact copy of the Wagner score.
There are many other points in which Bruckner has
either consciously imitated or has unwittingly come
under the thrall of Wagner's manner. In spite of this,
however, the work viewed as a whole would hardly
come under the category of *Wagnerian' works. Its
pervading tone is far diff'erent and the Wagner influ-
ence is but one of many that meet here to form an
individual expression.

The opening pages of the allegro suggest in the sus-
tained open fifths of a D minor triad the ninth sym-
phony of Beethoven. The main theme, first heard

softly in the trumpet, is as follows: £\,g ° | .J. J [■

Growing out of

this there soon appears in the full orchestra another
version which plays a larger part in the development:

'Hi . ._ .

The second theme

has an ardent melodic sweep, and is developed in a
section of glowing warmth and color. It first appears

in the violins.

supported

by the rich texture of the remaining strings, divided.

274

BRUCKNER'S FOURTH SYMPHONY

The adagio is a movement of romantic tender-
ness which develops into a climax of passionate
strength. The principal themes are as follows:

The scherzo returns to the more diatonic naivete and
the more angular line of a folk-dance with a trio of
contrasted lightness. The final allegro is a move-
ment of noble and imposing strength in which the
theme is sounded in a solid chorus of brass against
the rhythmical agitation of an insistent string figure:

The fourth symphony, in E-flat, was named by
Bruckner the 'Romantic' It is, in its homophonic clar-
ity and melodic spontaneity, one of the most inspired
of the symphonies. Its romanticism is of the sort sug'
gested by nature; it suggests the wonders of the forest.
It belongs, as Walter Niemann * says, to the same
world as Beethoven's Pastorale, Weber's Freischiitz,
Heller*s 7m Walde, Wagner's Siegfried and Humper-
dinck's Hansel und Gretel.

The first movement opens in true romantic atmos-
phere, with a horn call over soft tremolo of strings.

AHi» °1j... f\ ^ I " I ''^' IJ.^1. J>F^^ Repeated in the

wood-wind against a mysterious harmonic back-
ground, it paints a scene of idyllic beauty. There

* Analysis of the Fourth Symphony in MeUterftUirer, No. 4 (Bruckner).

275

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

follows an episode of more rugged character, lead-
ing to the graceful second theme, a melody in the vio-
lins pizzicato with a counter theme in viola and horn.

A slight development of these motives is followed by
stormier episodical matter, and after that begins the
working-out. Sinuous lines of tremolo strings in chro-
matic leadings emerge into solid chords of brass, which
again melt into mysterious glidings of strings in chro-
matic sequences of diminished seventh chords over a
pianissimo roll of drums. A further development of
these motives is treated in the orchestra with rare
economy of effect and contrast of color and the balance
of the movement comprises a recapitulation of the usual
order.

In the second movement (andante quasi allegretto)
there is a feeling of sad restraint and religious sol-
emnity. The muted strings begin wdth the marked
figure of a march which becomes the accompaniment

of the theme, sung by the 'cello.

The strings then chant

a solemn chorale, in ecclesiastical mode, and the 'cello
continues with an extension of its cantilena theme. A
succeeding section begins in the key of A-flat and,
maintaining the steady rhythm of the march, builds up
a climax in which the main theme in the wind instru-
ments is elaborately ornamented with string variations.
The scherzo is unmistakably a hunting scene. A
long preamble of conventional horn calls, in itself
one of the principal themes, leads to a string theme

276

BRUCKNER'S FIFTH SYMPHONY
$ . *

reminiscent of

the *Freia' motive of Rheingold. The movement is
built up of alternating appearances of these two
themes and has in its middle section a trio of simple
folk character. The last movement is one of Bruck-
ner's weakest. There is no firmness of structure, but
in its place an improvisational mood which is not
wholly satisfactory in large orchestral works. Vari-
ous meanings have been attributed to the movement.
One writer asserts that in an autograph copy of the
symphony this movement was labelled Volksfest.
Niemann's interpretation, however, is nearer to the
spirit of the movement. He says : 'Here is depicted the
forest in its sinister aspect, shaken with the fury of the
storm.' Beginning with a foreboding rustle of leaves,

the storm

soon breaks forth in the orchestra's full powers.

Then follow the conventional passages of string chro-
matics, of stormy agitation leading to a furious climax.
There is a middle section of quiet contrast for strings

alone with this subject:

fol-

lowed by several other sections of stormier content
whose ideas are not bound by any unity of treatment.
Bruckner's fifth symphony has been suitably called
the *church symphony.' The work is pervaded by that
spirit of devotional earnestness with which its author
was so thoroughly imbued, and which here, as else-
where, is often expressed in the terms of chorale-like
themes and phrases. The symphony opens with an
introductory adagio in which such a passage is
sounded in sustained violins, violas, and bassoons over

277

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

a pizzicato bass. These harmonies gather strength and
culminate in a climax of the full orchestra.

The opening allegro has the following resolute theme,

.V'l," r ' Cj I [' f lY f"*^!' announced by cellos, violas

and clarinets. After a short passage of harmonic de-
velopment it is repeated in the full orchestra. The
development section of this movement is not built upon
the conventional lines of the sonata form, but has the
freer following of the fantasia in the alternated repe-
titions of the thematic sections. The movement is
brought to a final climax in a major version of the
main theme in a fortissimo of the full orchestra.

The slow movement is similarly constructed — the suc-
cessive statement of several contrasted themes, the de-
velopment comprising the merest ornamental variation
of an added counter-melody. The scherzo is an out-
growth of the slow movement; the same accompanying
figure that served as a background of the adagio theme
here appears molto vivace and its new counter-melody
becomes the theme of the scherzo. A second theme and
a trio section in similar vein contribute to the preser-
vation of the mood, which is one of fantastic lightness
rather than the more elemental vigor which many of
Bruckner's scherzi present.

The finale is preceded by a short introduction in which
is adopted the device employed by Beethoven in the
ninth symphony — of rehearsing fragments of the earlier
movements before sounding the theme of the impend-
ing movement. After a short resume of this order the
first theme of the finale is heard in the basses, 'cellos

s. ^ ^

The figures of this theme are worked up in a pulsing
and Schumann-like march. Following this there is a
second section of lyrical warmth and polyphonic inter-

278

BRUCKNER'S SEVENTH SYMPHONY

est The main theme then returns in augmented
rhythms and subsides in a broadly sustained chorale
theme of majestic solemnity. This chorale becomes the
harmonic basis of a development which, though elabo-
rate in design, is of classic solidity in its harmonic
structure. There is a gradual reversion to the rhythms
of the first section and the movement ends in mag-
nificent strength, with imposing full harmonies over a
long pedal.

The sixth symphony may be briefly dismissed. It is
one of Bruckner's least successful, being inferior to
the others in thematic material and in workmanship.

The third symphony is, because of its dedication to
Wagner, erroneously thought by many to be the work
in which Bruckner has shown his strongest Wagnerian
tendencies. Such is not the case; it is in the seventh
symphony in E major that we find the most prominent
manifestations of Bruckner's leanings towards Wag-
nerism. In this work there is more than a passing
suggestion of Wagner's methods in a short phrase and
there are extended passages in which the entire struc-
ture and mood are consistently Wagnerian. Because
of this the seventh symphony represents, with the *Ro-
mantic,' the best of Bruckner's works. Its musical
qualities are spontaneous and it has a warmer glow of
romantic color and feeling.

The first movement has as its principal theme a
long 'cello melody of heroic character which begins

as follows

After a repetition in the violins and the

Rnliig

wood-wind the second theme

appears in the oboe and

279

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

In the scherzo, which in this symphony follows the
first movement, we find one of Bruckner's esoterically
lighter moods. This movement has none of the folk-
dance feeling, but instead presents a fantastic play of
lights and shadows. The following adagio opens with
an extended melody of pathetic accent which passes to
a second melody in the 'cellos and is later developed
in a section of intricate brilliancy.

The finale opens with sharply cut repeated unisons in
strings, against which the brass play an introductory
theme of majestic dignity. The following section
brings contrast in a theme of sustained chorale-like na-

^ f-f>-5M' k

ture, lightly scored. A short episode leads to a rhyth-
mical figure in the unisoned strings surmounted
by a sustained melody borrowed from the chorale
theme. A sustained passage of rare beauty and inten-
sive fervor then leads to a tutti in which brass and
drums join in a fanfare-like acclamation. The balance
of the movement consists of a succession of distinctly
separate sections in which these various elements ap-
pear in contrasting alternations and with many elabo-
rations and developments.

The ninth and last of Bruckner's symphonies is in
D minor. It has but three movements, and it is gen-
erally supposed that it was the composer's intention
to add a fourth movement. In performance, the Te
Deum in C major often takes the place of the missing
last movement. The clew to the sense of the opening
movement is found in the expression mark that stands
at its head, misterioso. The mood thus implied is es-
tablished in the opening measures, where the horn has

282

BRUCKNER'S NINTH SYMPHONY

this theme:

\f i t f 1^^ accompanied by an impressive tremolo of

unisoned strings. The second section, in A major, has a
more lyrical flow. The movement proceeds along the
lines of Bruckner's usual treatment, a series of differen-
tiated thematic groups presenting contrast and variety.
The scherzo in this symphony, as in the preceding,
follows the opening movement. Like the scherzo of
the eighth, this movement also is one of subtle lines
and elusive spirit. An annotator * speaks of it as *a
dance song in the Nietzschian sense, free from the
spirit of heaviness, and indeed full of the esprit which
the philosopher deemed befitting of such a movement.'
The adagio, beginning with a broad violin melody.

is fraught with deep pathos and religious earnestness.

* Earl Gruniky: MeiMterfUbrer, No. 4 (Bruckner).

283

CHAPTER X

THE RISE OF PROGRAM MUSIC

The beginnings and evolution of program music — Berlioz, the pioneer of
modem descriptive music; his early works; the 'Fantastic Symphony';
•Harold in Italy'; 'Romeo and Juliet'; Carnaval Romain Overture; the Sym-
phonic; the 'Symphony Funibre' and the lesser works — Liszt as the suc-
cessor of Berlioz; his two symphonies, 'Faust' and 'Dante'; Liszt's twelve
symphonic poems — Followers of Berlioz and Liszt in program music; Wag-
ner's 'Faust' overture; Raff as symphonist; his 'Leonore' and Im Walde
symphonies; Heinrich Hofmann; Carl Goldmark.

The foregoing chapters have traced with some de-
gree of continuity the development of the formal sym-
phony to a point of comparative modernity. It now
becomes necessary to retrace our steps and follow that
other path which is the course taken by the freer forms
and which leads us into the domain of the so-called
program music and brings upon our horizon the sym-
phonic poem and its related forms.

We have several times had occasion to remark upon
the tendency of every age to turn its musical speech
into definite expression of specific ideas, in other
words, to write *program music' We have seen that
a search for the incipiency of such practice would
carry us back to the very earliest periods of the clas-
sic age. Ernest Newman * has made an interesting
assembly of examples chosen from the earliest works
showing the common instinct towards a definitely de-
scriptive music. The composers mentioned include
Fitzwilliam, Jannequin, Buxtehude, Frescobaldi, Fro-

* 'Musical studies.' 1905.

284

BEGINNINGS OF PROGRAM MUSIC

berger, Kuhnau, Couperin, Rameau and many others.
The subjects which these composers employed for mu-
sical portrayal are as varied as life itself. The aspects
of nature serve as the most usual of inspirations, but
besides these we find delineated the scenes and stories
of classic mythology, biblical and historical events, as
well as the subtler and more subjective moods of per-
sonal experience. An unusually interesting and sig-
nificant example of early 'program' is noted by Michel
Brenet,* which presents to us the classic composer as
the purveyor of a morbidity equalling in grewsome-
ness any which the detractors of modern realism claim
to be the particular delight of the ultra-modern com-
poser. The composition, long antedating Berlioz, is
a description of a surgical operation, and the analy-
sis of this work (which Brenet draws from Marais)
tells how its several movements follow the incidents
of such a scene with a fearsome realism — as indicated
by the following annotations affixed by the various
sections: 'the appearance of the utensils,' 'the trem-
bling upon viewing them,' 'the summoning of courage,'
'the incision.' The composition concludes with the
happy ending of recovery.

We have furthermore seen that the promptings to
write program music were present throughout the clas-
sic period. Bach, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven have
all left us pages of a realistic intent. It remained,
however, for the personal note of Romanticism to turn
the tide strongly towards program music. Moreover,
as romanticism began to find its truest medium in the
smaller forms, with the consequent neglect and decline
of the symphony proper, orchestral composers sought
other molds for their ideas. We know that Beethoven's
ninth symphony opened the door of a new world and
inaugurated an instrumental music that was charged
with dramatic feeling. This new sense, coupled with

* Let Concerts en Frtuice Mout Vanclen rtglme. Paris, 1900.

285

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the romantic dramaticism of Weber's operas and the
impatient breaking away from the traditional lines of
the formal symphony were the impulses that gave birth
to the new orchestral music, the descriptive and dra-
matic symphony, the symphonic poem and the tone-
poem. While, we reiterate, the germs of such an ex-
pression lie in all that preceded the age and while all of
the romantic composers may be counted as sharing in
these relations, the real pioneers of the movement are
Hector Berlioz (1803-69) and Franz Liszt (1811-86). It
was left for Richard Wagner to draw all the ends
together and with his unparalleled genius to present
this art in its culminative phase and to vitalize its every
feature.

We cannot overestimate the service done by Berlios
in this revolution of musical expression. His genius
was the first to open up the paths of the new and vast
orchestral world in which to place the characters of
these unstaged dramas. 'It is,' says Weingartner,*
'without doubt to Hector Berlioz that the glory of the
discovery of that which I have called the psychologico-
dramatic variation belongs — a variation which has had
great positive effects, but also, as we have seen, many
shabby and negative ones. He has therefore full right
to be called the precursor of Wagner.'

But after all the greatest value of the works of Ber-
lioz lies in their orchestral virtues. While their large
gesture and epic grandeur reechoes the greatness of
Beethoven, the more universal qualities of Wagner's
art have in great measure dimmed their glory. Few
will agree with Romain RoUand when he says of
Berlioz that 'he was not musician, he was music itself.' f
Thus we might truly speak of Mozart, of Chopin, and
Wagner, whose musical utterance was ever spontane-

* 'The Symphony Writers Since Beethoven.*
•fMuaiciens d'aujourd'hui. Paris, 1914.

286

BERLIOZ'S TANTASTIC SYMPHONY*

ous and rarely flagged. The strange genius of Berlioz
seems, at times, to have mistaken its voice in music.
He is too often cerebral, his passion is too often more
hysterical than real, and only at rare moments does
he fulfill Heine's description as *a colossal nightingale,
a lark of the eagle's magnitude.' It is as an orchestral
genius that Berlioz appears in his supreme strength.
Already in his earliest works we shall find the bold
originality and the rich imaginativeness for instru-
mental effect that never failed.

The first of Berlioz's orchestral works were two
overtures, the first, 'Waverley,' inspired by a reading
of Scott's novel, the second was that to Les Franc-juges,
a projected opera which was never completed. Both
works are in the form of the classical overture, an
allegro preceded by a slow introduction. In view of
the fact that, according to Berlioz's own account, he
was at the time of writing these compositions entirely
unacquainted with Weber's works, it is startling to find
them replete with phrases whose melodic and harmo-
nic lines are unmistakably those of Weber. While
there is besides this a strong infusion of the spirit and
manner of Beethoven, the works are not without a
strongly individual note which prophesies the future
independent and brilliant *Victor Hugo of French mu-
sic' That Berlioz's mastery of orchestration was in-
tuitive is proved by the scores written at the time when
often, after his own confession, he was ignorant of
much of the mechanical technique of instrumentation.
These scores exhibit the rare orchestral imagination
and inventiveness which contributed so largely to the
forming of a new orchestral idiom.

Berlioz's next orchestral composition was the *Fan-
tar.tic Symphony,' * a work which marks his first excur-
sions into the realm of realistic tone-painting and

* See also Vol. O. pp. 354-357.

287

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

which remains one of the most impressive monuments
of his genius. A sub-title describes the work as *an
episode in the life of an artist,' and its meaning is
thus explained in an introductory note: *A young
musician of morbid sensibility and liveliest imagina-
tion in a moment of love-sick desperation poisons
himself with opium. The dose, too slight to bring
death, plunges him into a profound slumber in which
he is visited by strange visions and during which his
sensations, his thoughts and recollections are translated
by his diseased mind into musical thoughts and pictures.
The beloved one herself becomes to him a melody,
an idee fixe, which is constantly reheard by him.* The
five movements of the work are descriptive of the vari-
ous scenes of these haunting visions. In the first move-
ment, entitled 'Reveries, Passions,' we have the vague
subjectivity portraying the troubled spirit brooding
over his passions and the changing moods which it
brings to him.

While this program has allowed Berlioz to give full
rein to his imaginative freedom and dramatic im-
pulse, he has with infallible artistic acumen created
a work of satisfying proportion and design whose
lines approximate that of the classic symphonic move-
ment There is a slow introduction of a Beethoven-like
pathos, in which the violins have an extended figure,

ooa sordino ^ ..x^

trtse. =~" IIP

and which, after an interposed phrase of more
animated spirit, reappears in larger form with an
elaborate ornamentation. The allegro introduces
immediately the idee fixe in the following form:

£ ■ )*M .JJi fill MlllllTl I I 1| llijlj

288

BERLIOZ'S 'FANTASTIC SYMPHONT

rf p — = jsr-
There is a second theme of unimportant character.
The working-out commences with sequential phrases
of a somewhat formal nature built upon the main
theme. An extended passage of conjunct chromatic
harmonies follows. These serve as the background for
despairing sighs of the wood-wind and horns. The
principal theme then reappears in the key of G and
there follows a compact and clear development of
classic regularity, culminating in a conventional tutti
climax. There is no extended recapitulation. The
first theme reappears in a fragmentary form to die
away in softly sustained chords of the full orchestra.
In the second movement the scene becomes that
of a ball, the brilliancy and gaiety of which is
described in a waltz of graceful line. After a short
introductory section the theme appears in the violins:

After several subsidiary phrases and a repetition of
the principal theme the idee fixe appears in the
wood-wind. In a rhythm which conforms to the meas-
ure of the waltz it here assumes the feeling of light-
hearted gaiety. Its accompaniment is composed of de-

289

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

tached phrases in alternating string groups built upon
the ideas of the main section. The principal theme is
then sounded in the second violins, violas and 'celli,
and repeated by the combined wood-wind. After a
slight development the idee fixe reappears in a solo
clarinet recitando and, after a vigorous tutti, all of the
strings seize upon the waltz melody and close the move-
ment in a riotous swirl.

The next movement, entitled *Scenes in the Coun-
try,' is a pastorale. Unlike the serene slow movement
of Beethoven's sixth symphony this movement has a
dramatic background in its atmosphere of melancholy
solitude and foreboding gloom. The movement opens
with a dialogue of answering shepherd's calls:

A lonesome
shudder of
tremolo
strings por-
trays the trees softly stirred by the wind, and the move-
ment passes into the more tranquil mood of a pastoral
meditation. There is a reappearance of the haunting
vision which leads the movement to a dramatic climax,
after which it subsides in gloomy loneliness with the
unanswered call of the English horn and the distant
mutterings of thunder.

In the movement which follows Berlioz established a
practice that has been often adopted in the modem
sjrmphony, namely, the introduction of a fantastic
march as the third movement. In this work it is en-
titled 'March to the Gallows.' It pictures the hallu-
cinated one as imagining his own march to the death
punishment as the murderer of his beloved. It is, how-
ever, fantastic in import rather than manner. Its feeling
of sombre gloom is of somewhat classic severity, though
there is a gruesome touch of color in the bassoon solo

290

r 0—f^ '-^-^

A
1T ^ =".-

(

i^Z-. . '■: —

— = —

V f P » '

P»r r

Vr "

J. Knglisfc Horn -J.

(

tf » ^ J J^»r 1

l-^n J 1

BERLIOZ'S *HAROLD IN ITALY

with which the march begins :

y f 1 1^. There is but a momentary

glimpse of the idee fixe at the close of the movement,
where it appears as 'a last thought of love interrupted
by the fatal stroke.'

The last movement, *Dreams of a Witch's Sabbath,'
reveals Berlioz to us in the full strength of his frenzied
imagination. Here is uncovered a new world of dia-
bolical horror and turmoil. The Wolfschlucht of the
Freischiitz quite loses its terror before this vivid paint-
ing of the spectral. A short introduction contains a
shimmering of unearthly lights in the rapid tremolo
of divided strings. A clarinet then plays a version of
the idee fixe, which in its rhythm and the sharp ap-
pogiaturas that preface each of its notes has a cruelly
jBendish sense. This is developed into a frenzied dance
which is interrupted by mock solemnity of the Dies
irae in a burlesque version. The dance then recom-
mences in the form of a sinister fugue against the cli-
max of which the Dies irae motive reappears.

In Berlioz's next large work we find reflected some
of the experiences of his sojourn in Italy as the winner
of the prix de Rome. The work has an interesting his-
tory. After his return to Paris Berlioz came to the at-
tention of Paganini, who urged him to write for him
a viola concerto. Berlioz made an attempt at com-
pliance, with the *Harold Symphony' as the result.
In this work there is an obbligato part for solo viola
throughout. This solo part, however, was not continu-
ous enough nor did it present sufficient opportunity
for the display of technical skill to meet with Paga-
nini's requirements. Nevertheless, at its performance
that artist found himself carried away by the original-
ity and force of the work, and it was as a result of this

291

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

enthusiasm that he made Berlioz the unsolicited gift
of 20,000 francs.

The solo viola part in the *Harold Symphony' has a
continuously recurring theme that portrays the hero —
a character borrowed from the Childe Harold of Byron.
In describing his use of this theme Berlioz says:* *As
in the Fantastic Symphony, a leading theme (that of
the viola's first melody) is heard throughout the work.
There is, however, this difference in the employment
of these themes : in the "Fantastic Symphony" the idee
fixe thrusts itself persistently into the midst of divers
and irrelevant scenes, while in 'Harold' the theme is
added to the melodies of the orchestra, against which
it is contrasted in movement and character, yet in no
way interrupts the development.' The first move-
ment of the symphony bears the title 'Harold in
the mountains, scenes of sadness, of happiness and
of joy.' A long adagio introduction begins with a
fugato development upon the following figure;

to which the wood-wind add free melodic counter
figures of a melancholy tinge. At the close of this
episode the solo viola enters with the Harold theme,

Adagio

accompanied by only the harp, violas and clarinet
Then shortly follows a repetition of this theme in the
horn and wood-wind in close canonical imitation with
a string accompaniment.

The succeeding allegro is a movement in sonata
form. Its two themes are conceived in an exultant

4SpTtSS

* Mimoires, Vol. I, pp. 302-303.

292

BERLIOZ'S *HAROLD IN ITALY'

mood. Both of these

themes first appear in the solo instrument. There is
the customary da capo of the classic symphony, after
which we have a development of formal structure, in
which the solo viola has an important part. Motives of
the two themes receive treatment in a measure closely
allied to that of Beethoven. Then there follows a con-
densed recapitulation and a tutti ending.

The second movement is entitled 'March of the Pil-
grims singing their Evening Prayer' and constitutes a
picture of rare beauty and idyllic realism. After mys-
terious introductory chords in the horns the strings
play the simple march that comprises the main theme :

SVP

The regular divisions of this march are interrupted by
phrases in which we hear the oft repeated litanies:

The march dies

away and against the sustained harmonies of a religious
chant the solo viola in soft arpeggios depicts Harold's
sadness as he meditates upon the scene. The march
enters again and against its even measure there is now
heard a regularly recurring B in the flute and harp
which suggests the vesper bell as night descends.

The third movement again brings a joyous mood as
is implied by its title *Serenade of a Mountaineer of the
Abbruzzes to his Mistress.' This is a scherzo built
upon the naive Italian folk-song melody which serves

as its introductory theme r

The accompaniment with
293

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

its droning fifths in clarinet, bassoon and viola lend a
realistic touch by their imitation of bag-pipes. The

^ Allegretto

principal subject, as follows:

is taken up by the English horn. The solo

instrument enters with the Harold theme against this as
a sort of cantus firmus and later joins in the rhythm of
the dance. A cadence introduces a combination of the
rhythms of both sections.

In the finale, *Orgy of the Brigands,' Berlioz
abandons himself, as he does in the Fantastic Sym-
phony, to the most extravagant fancies. Harold re-
views the scenes of the past in reminiscent snatches
of themes from earlier movements, a procedure
which Berlioz plainly learned from the Ninth Sym-
phony. As these bring only sorrow, Harold seeks
self-forgetfulness in the wild dance of the bandits:

The solo viola takes no part in this riotous scene. As it
subsides the distant strains of the pilgrim's song is
heard in three solo string instruments. At the sound
of these the solo viola enters. In broken phrases it
plays fragments of the Harold theme, and in a final
flutter it depicts Harold's death. The orchestra then
bursts forth in a closing fury of the orgy.

Berlioz reached the zenith of his powers in *Romeo
and Juliet,' a symphony of immense proportions with
vocal parts for solo voices and chorus, which Romain
Rolland * has justly acclaimed as the 'unequalled
model of the dramatic symphony.' It would seem to
have been inevitable that Berlioz should have created
a work drawing its inspiration from Shakespeare, for

* Uusieient d'aujourd'hui. Paris, 1914.

294

BERLIOZ'S *ROMEO AND JULIET

from his earliest days and all through his life we have
seen that his spirit fed upon the genius of Shakespeare,
and through the dramas of the great bard he was al-
ways fired to self-expression.

In its musical form the work traces back to the Ninth
Symphony for its model. It consists of eight numbers,
which are as follows: Introduction, Prologue, Ball
scene. Garden scene, Queen Mab, Juliet's burial.
Grave scene. Finale. The instrumental introduction
is here used by Berlioz to 'set the stage and scene'
for the drama in much the same sense as Shake-
speare has done in the opening scene of his tragedy.
In it we are thrown into the tumult of the factional
fight of Montague and Capulet which finds expres-
sion in a fugal strife upon the following subject:

AllegreUo fngato

There follows upon its development a section of sus-
tained nobility which portrays the Duke of Verona
as he addresses the warring houses. The themes
then appear in combination and there ensues a devel-
opment and closing section of convincing strength and
poetic eloquence.

In the prologue Berlioz has aimed to give a brief
musical synopsis of the drama's course. To this end
he has employed a solo voice and a three-part chorus
in conjunction with the orchestra. To the chorus is
given the greater part of the narrative. The entire
story to be later detailed is here forecasted in dramatic
and thematic outline. In the first section of the pro-
logue the chorus, largely in unison, sings of the scenes
just before described by the instrumental introduction.
The following section tells of the banquet in Capulet's
house; Romeo's appearance is described in an unac-
companied alto solo and we hear the themes that are

295

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

to appear in the subsequent ball scene. Following this
we hear narrated the garden and balcony scenes and
have a foretaste of the love music of the fourth move-
ment. The part of the prologue devoted to Queen
Mab is one of the finest moments and, unlike the other
divisions, it is treated in greater detail and at greater
length. Chorus, tenor solo and orchestra combine inr
a marvellously expressive portrayal of the fantastic
recitation. The prologue thus closes with a brief
prophecy of the tragedy's ending.

The third movement of the symphony begins
with an andante melancolio which speaks of Ro-
meo's sadness. The principal theme of the first
section is embodied in the following melody:

The next section introduces a hinting of the coming
ball scene and describes Romeo's first sight of Juliet.
Then follows the principal division of the movement, an
allegro dance movement in F with the following themes :

AUegro

A ,f,i -^ffif ^rrrrin rTinT^i giTnTi

This scene passes into

another which speaks again of strife and at the end we
once more hear the melancholy Romeo in the sad
theme of the introduction.

The fourth movement, the *Garden scene,' is thus an-
notated in the score: 'Night's serenity — the garden of
Capulet, silent and deserted — the young Capulets com-
ing from the ball sing, in passing, the recollections of
the dance music' The movement opens with long held
chords in the violin which convey the atmosphere of
the deserted garden. The horn then intrudes with the
sense of entering characters. Others follow and we

296

BERLIOZ'S *ROMEO AND JULIET

soon hear the motives reminiscent of the ball. The en-
suing section is the love scene, which takes the form of
an extended adagio of rich color and eloquent emo-
tional warmth. The curve of its melodic line is sug-
gested in the following fragment: jEx f||rTr'^^|

P ttprtu-

The scherzo of the

symphony is the well-known movement which is en-
titled 'Queen Mab, or the Dream Fairy.* The move-
ment follows the lines of Shakespeare's fantastic con-
ceit with considerable fidelity, albeit with some ad-
herence to the lines of the formal scherzo. The themes
of the main section and of the trio are as follows:

^^^^^^''^^frnrfririniM Ti

Allegro

The sixth movement describes the funeral of Juliet.
Contrary to what might here be expected, the move-
ment does not take the form of the usual funeral
march, but a f ugal movement on the following theme :

to which the chorus

parts add a mournful monotone.

The clue to the contents of the succeeding 'Grave
scene' is thus given by Berlioz: 'Romeo at the tomb
of the Capulets; Invocation, the revival of Juliet, de-
lirious joy, despair, last anguish and death of the
lovers.' It will be perceived that Berlioz has chosen
to give a melodramatic touch to Shakespeare's scene

297

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

in thus allowing Juliet to awaken for a final adieu to
her lover. Several themes have their part in the
painting of this scene. The movement opens with a

hurried and breathless phrase

descriptive of Romeo

y^.. „ -K-. , "/

as he hastens to Juliet's tomb. The sustained measures
of a largo express his invocation and at its end we hear
pathetic recollections of the *Garden scene.' As Juliet
awakes the orchestra leaps forth in a joyous burst of
exultant melody blended with the passionate tones of
the love scene. As a too great joy that cannot endure it
soon passes; we hear the disturbing voices of harsh dis-
sonances, and a distorted version of Romeo's recitative
from the garden scene as he dies. The movement ends
with the solitary melody of a mournful oboe.

The finale has the following program: *The crowd
hastens to the graveyard, conflict of Montague and
Capulet; recitative and air of Father Lawrence, vows
of reconciliation.' Agitated phrases again picture hur-
rying figures followed by the solemnity of Father Law-
rence's sermon, and the fugue subject of the introduc-
tion delineates the reconciled houses.

The list of Berlioz's larger symphonic works is
completed by the Grande Symphonie Funebre et
Triomphale, written for military band, orchestra
and chorus. R was this work that led Wagner to
be convinced of the 'greatness and enterprise of
this incomparable artist.' The most popular of Ber-
lioz's works in the repertoire of to-day is the 'Over-
ture to the Roman Carnival,' the materials of which
Berlioz borrowed from his opera Benvenuto Cellini.
In this work Berlioz has adhered to the three-themes
form which he adopted in an earlier overture, *The
Corsair.' After a short and brilliant introduction on

298

BERLIOZ'S OVERTURES

the main allegro theme there is an andante sostenuto
with the following melody in the English horn:

Andante sostenuto

The allegro has this subject:
CPpT \t \\ pf p [^. There is an interesting develop-
ment of skillful orchestral coloring and a brilliant coda.
Little need be said of the remaining Berlioz
overtures. That to 'King Lear,* an early work, is
of classical tone and form. The overture is not a
portrayal of the scenes of Shakespeare's play, but
its aim is to convey a general sense of the tragedy
of its contents, the grief and the proud rage of Lear.
This is implied in the opening unison of the strings.

Andante nontroppo lento, in» nuMStoso

a theme which figures again in the following allegro.

The second theme

presents the picture of the com-
forting Cordelia.

The overture to *The Corsair' is one of the earliest of
Berlioz's works. It was written during his stay in Italy.
The work, together with the aforementioned overtures,
*King Lear' and *The Roman Carnival,' have been
named as 'the most unimpeachable productions of Ber-
lioz in this direction.' * The form of this overture is

* Arthur Smollan in the Introductory note to the Eulenburg miniature
edition of the score.

299

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

that already noted as belonging to the other works of
Berlioz's early period. A short introductory allegro
leads to an extended adagio (in this instance shorter
than that of the other overture) and is followed by a
main section in sonata form and of rapid tempo.

In turning from Berlioz to Liszt there is bound to
come to us the feeling that in many senses we here pass
the actual line that marks the inception of contempo-
raneous art. We have seen that, despite the original-
ity of the Berlioz works and the iconoclastic innova-
tions in their \;rm and intent, the classic feeling per-
sisted in them. The spirit of Beethoven hovers about
many of their pages. Liszt, on the contrary, seems
to have set his face resolutely to the front, and the
traditions of art were to him only instincts of which
he was never conscious. As an orchestral composer he
has been swayed by two strong influences. The first of
these was the music of Richard Wagner, which he in-
stinctively absorbed as the natural medium for the
blended sensuousness and dramatic instinct that was
the basis of his artistic nature. The second influence
was one that worked upon the technical aspect of his
orchestral writing, namely, his own piano virtuosity.
It was through this that he, above all the modem ro-
manticists, was able to bring to the orchestra a new
gleam of brilliancy and a deeper richness of color.

Liszt's orchestral works divide themselves into two
groups, the first comprising his two dramatic sympho-
nies, the 'Dante' and the 'Faust' symphonies, the other
includes his twelve symphonic poems. We will re-
hearse briefly what has before been stated * as to the
significance of these two classes of works and the place

* Vol. n, pp. 359-371.

300

LISZTS TAUSr SYMPHONY

which they assume in the development of orchestral
forms. In the dramatic symphony Liszt was the direct
follower of Berlioz, having, as far as the limited pow-
ers of his workmanship permitted, cast his ideas within
the mold of the symphonic form. In the *symphonic
poem,* which was wholly the creation of Liszt, he
broke completely with the formal tradition and *car-
ried Berlioz's program ideas to their logical conclusion,
inventing a type of composition in which the form de-
pended wholly and solely on the subject matter.' In
making this step he became the immediate precursor
of Richard Strauss, and his works the prototypes of
the tone-poems of our own day.

In the 'Faust Symphony* Liszt has worked on the
lines adopted by Berlioz in his *Romeo and Juliet,* and
has attempted to create a musical work that should
contain the spirit of the drama which served as its
inspiration. There is, however, this difference in the
presentation of this spirit (a difference which has its
prompting in the different nature of the two dramas) :
Berlioz has drawn various scenes and incidents of the
drama, while Liszt presents the subtler psychological
aspect in presenting to us the basic pictures of their
movements, the three principal characters of Goethe's
drama, Faust, Gretchen and Mephistopheles.

The first movement employs four themes in de-
picting the various moods of Faust. In the introduc-
tory section (lento assai) the first of these themes

OcUi mnd VIoIm.

Jf oon sordino

puts before us the questioning Faust in melancholy
solitude. A short introductory section composed of
this theme, alternating with echoing wood-winds, passes
to an allegro impetuoso in which there is a more ener-
getically passionate version of the same thematic line.
In the development which follows, the theme in its first

301

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

form is solemnly intoned in the brasses against the
excited cry of the violins and trilling wood-winds. This
subsides into a pensive recitative in a solo bassoon
and there immediately ensues an allegro section built

Allegro agitato

upon fresh thematic material.

picturing Faust as pos-
sessing the 'joy of living' and developed in sequences
of passionate aspiration. A short section, in which a
visionary glimpse of the past is implied, brings a re-
turn of the earlier motives. The following section
voices the tender longing of love in a theme of simple

Affettuoso ^ol»

which is

beauty.

Wood-wind an4 Bona,

soon interrupted by the return to the unrest of the pre-
vious mood, and the movement proceeds with the final
section, grandioso, which brings a new theme descrip-
tive of the proud and energetic Faust :

The movement then proceeds to

its main development, which is in Liszt's improvisatory
manner, and exhibits his weakness as a worker in ex-
tended forms. The several sections follow each other
in almost literal sequence; there is a monotonous repe-
tition of rhetorical phrase, and with the exception of a
few momentary attempts at thematic combination there
is little recourse to the well-tried formulae of symphonic
structure.

The second movement of the Faust symphony pos-
sesses the general outlines of the symphonic move-
ment— exposition, development and recapitulation.
There is, however, a considerable degree of originality
displayed in the detailed filling in of these outlines.
In the first section we have two themes, but not of con-

302

LISZT'S TAUSr SYMPHONY

trasted nature, both being descriptive of Gretchen.
The first of these themes is of a folk-like simplicity:

It appears in the oboe, accompanied by a solo viola.
It is answered by various instruments and broken by
phrases of a pensive hesitancy which have been de-
scribed at Gretchen*s turning to thoughts of Faust and
her questioning of the flower : *He loves me T *He loves

me not?* The second theme

then appears in the strings. The development section
consists largely of reminiscences of the first movement.
All of the Faust themes here appear in versions to
which the orchestration lends a visionary sense. The
recapitulation brings a literal review of the first theme
groups in altered instrumental coloring.

The third may be said to combine the offices of a
scherzo and finale. The first is comprised in the Meph-
istopheles description of the movement's main sec-
tion and the latter in the finale (poco andante) with
men's chorus and solo tenor which bring the work to
a solemn apotheosis with the words :

Alles Vergdngliche ist nur ein Gleichniss,
das Unzuldngliche, hier ivird's Ereigniss,
das Unbeschreibliche, hier wird es getan,
das eivig Weibliche zieht uns hinan.

In the *Mephistopheles' movement Liszt has outdone
Berlioz in his painting of the infernal. There is per-
haps less terror and more of diabolical humor and
piquancy, but in its orchestral brilliancy it is in a higher
color than Berlioz's paintings. There is little melodic
line in the movement. The piece is built upon figures
of a sharp rhythmical incisiveness such as the foUow-

Allegro

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

making up a whole texture of scintillating diablerie.
There is a fugal development in the middle of the
movement and the final section (allegro non troppo)
presents the love motive of the first movement in a
shrieking rush of exultant diabolical glee. As the orgy
subsides the sustained wood-wind and strings enter
with harmonies of ecclesiastical tone. The organ and
voices then enter in the serene solemnity of a C major
triad. The concluding section is not without grandeur
though also not without a touch of the saccharine qual-
ity that is so apt to mar the sustained moments of his
writings.

In the 'Dante Symphony' Liszt has drawn some
scenes inspired by the 'Divine Comedy.' There are but
two movements, Inferno and Purgatorio, 'names whose
significance lead us into domains of imagination
that music, through its association with the church,
has sought from earliest times. * * * The free adapta-
tion that Liszt has made of Dante's description of hell
and purging fires in the "Divine Comedy," may be read-
ily perceived if we note a single feature of the first
movements, namely, that devoted to the portrayal of
those classic lovers, Francesca and Paolo. Liszt at-
tempts in no way to embrace in a musical version the
entire scope of the poem or to follow the poet into his
every flight. Rather does he limit himself, as he does,
in fact, in all his program music, to the selection of the
few that best lend themselves to musical delineation.' *

The first section of the first movement is devoted to
the depicting of eternal torment. The opening theme,
sounded by the unisoned strings and brasses with a
tragic punctuation of rolling drums, is one of fateful

solemnity: .V » ■ iHiJ^ p I f rfr ' ^ I ^ I' - Three times re-
peated with an added emphasis, its significance is de-

* Eetzschmar: FOhrer durch den Konzertsaal. Leipzig, 1913.

304

USZTS 'DANTE* SYMPHONY

fined in the lines of the poem which annotate it in the
score ;

Per me si va nella citta dolente:
Per me si va nelV eterno dolore:
Per me si va tra la perduta gente
Lasciate ogni speranza voi ch'entrate!

The introduction proceeds with the portrayal of
moaning despair and frenzied fear conveyed by a
too melodramatic texture of chromatic scale and
diminished seventh chord. The same feeling is
maintained by similar processes in the long sketches
and monotonous sequence of the following allegro
frenetico whose principal theme is as follows:

The succeeding section, in which the Francesca and
Paolo scenes are described, must be ranked among the
highest of Liszt's inspirations. The tortured strains of
the first movement die away in the halting beat of a
drum and with a rich sensuousness of color the new
scene is ushered in with muted strings in an undulating
haze and the glissando of a harp on the diminished
seventh. There is a recitative in the bass clarinet fol-
lowed by a tentative utterance of the theme in the
wood-wind. After a repetition of these groups the
theme is announced in the warm cantilena of the 'celli :

An answering theme

of passionate beauty « *,/,» c», >«>^ w.«-;s/a

is heard immediately in the violin. The movement
then proceeds with a development that consists of little
else than a repetition of this second phrase, but which

305

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

escapes monotony in the canonical treatment between
'cellos and violin, and in the ardent glow of the or-
chestral color with which it is painted. The movement
concludes with a cadenza of harp arpeggios and there
is a return to the scene of torment, a long stretch of
preparatory murmurings and mutterings leading to the
despairing cries of the first section.

The second movement, Purgatorio, opens with an
idyllic atmosphere in which against a gentle stirring of
waving strings the wood-winds answer each other in the

motto tsprrss.

following pastoral melody :

A second section follows with sustained

harmonies of a religious solemnity introductory to a
fugue of resigned sadness with the following subject:

Lamentoso

This builds up to a climax of majestic strength. After
a return to the tranquillity of the first section women's
voices enter in a Magnificat of authentic ecclesiastical

/^il g dote* p - __^_

^eeUng, f ftjl (it) .i: T j. | ^ , p. | ji^p ^ ^ | p- J,| con-

nag- • ai-Il-oat a- - al na- me- a

eluding the symphony in harmonies of staid solemnity.
The first of Liszt's twelve sjmiphonic poems is that
which bears the title of the Victor Hugo poem that was
its inspiration, Ce qa'on entend sur la montagne. It is
sometimes called the 'Mountain Symphony,' and its
poetic content may be found in those lines of the poem
which epitomize its general sense:

Frires! de ces deux voix itrcunges, inouies.
Sans cesse renaissant, sans cesse evanouies,
Qu'icoute I'^ternel durant ViterniU,
L'une disait: NATURE! et I'autre: HUMANIT^l
306

nSZTS TASSO, LAMENT AND TRIUMPH'

The poem commences with the murmurings of nature
conveyed in a passage analogous to the Siegfried 'Wald-
weben.' The wood-wind foretells the theme, which as

a soaring violin figure

inaugurates the allegro. The

ensuing sections tell of human energy and unrest
in a lengthy development of characteristic Lisztian
improvisation. Tranquillity is again reached in a
*prayer' motive, the theme for which is not found
in the Hugo poem. This theme, which is at first

Andante religioso

given out in the brasses is repeated in the strings. The
over-long and free development and recapitulation
which follows finds material in the preceding thematic
groups interspersed with tedious recitando passages.

Liszt's second poem, *Tasso,' is a work of far greater
worth and importance. It is a tribute to the genius of
Tasso which found its impulse in the works of Goethe
and Byron. The full title of the work, Tasso, Lamento
e Trionfo, is thus explained by Liszt in a prefatory note
to the score: 'Lamento e Trionfo, these are the two
opposing factors in the destiny of poets, of whom it
has been truly said that, though misfortune, at times,
crush heavily upon their lives, a benediction always
awaits them at the tomb. In order to give to this idea
not only the authority but the vividness of reality it has
been our desire to borrow from the actual world its
forms, and thus have we chosen as the theme of our
musical poem a melody upon which we have heard the

307

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The second movement, Purgatorio, opens with an
idyllic atmosphere in which against a gentle stirring of
waving strings the wood-winds answer each other in the

motto fsprtss.

following pastoral melody ;

A second section follows with sustained

harmonies of a religious solemnity introductory to a
fugue of resigned sadness with the following subject:

Lamentoso

This builds up to a climax of majestic strength. After
a return to the tranquillity of the first section women's
voices enter in a Magnificat of authentic ecclesiastical

feeling, jjfUiiil Ul) j J ^ | ^ .^^\f'ff^^^i con-

nag • . al • ll-oat a- -Bla&.me.a

eluding the symphony in harmonies of staid solemnity.
The first of Liszt's twelve symphonic poems is that
which bears the title of the Victor Hugo poem that was
its inspiration, Ce qu'on entend sur la montagne. It is
sometimes called the 'Mountain Symphony,' and its
poetic content may be found in those lines of the poem
which epitomize its general sense :

Frkresl de ces deux voix Mranges, inouies.
Sans cesse renaissant, sans cesse evanouies,
Qu'icoute I'Eternel durant I'eterniti,
L'une disait: NATURE! et I'autre: HUMANIT^!
306

nszrs TAsso, lament and triumph'

The poem commences with the murmurings of nature
conveyed in a passage analogous to the Siegfried 'Wald-
weben.' The wood-wind foretells the theme, which as

a soaring violin figure

inaugurates the allegro. The

Andante religioso

Liszt's second poem, 'Tasso,' is a work of far greater
worth and importance. It is a tribute to the genius of
Tasso which found its impulse in the works of Goethe
and Byron. The full title of the work, Tasso, Lamento
e Trionfo, is thus explained by Liszt in a prefatory note
to the score: 'Lamento e Trionfo, these are the two
opposing factors in the destiny of poets, of whom it
has been truly said that, though misfortune, at times,
crush heavily upon their lives, a benediction always
awaits them at the tomb. In order to give to this idea
not only the authority but the vividness of reality it has
been our desire to borrow from the actual world its
forms, and thus have we chosen as the theme of our
musical poem a melody upon which we have heard the

307

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Venetian gondoliers on the lagoons sing the strophes
of Tasso, thus re-uttered three centuries after his life :

"Canto I'armi pietoso e'l Capitano.
Che'l gran Sepolcro libera di Cristo." '

Liszt's poem thus becomes, in a way, a variation upon
this theme expressing in its several main sections the
aspects of Tasso's life as reviewed by Liszt in an earlier
sentence of his preface: 'Tasso loved and suffered at
Ferrara; at Rome he was avenged; his glory still lives
in the popular songs of Venice.*

The form of the work is thus similar to that of the
better known Les Preludes, and both works show Liszt
at his best as a workman in the skillful rhythmical
variation of motive and theme which he employs in the
creation of the contrasting sections. In the opening
of *Tasso' the theme is announced in a broad sweep

of strings,

once proud and passionate. On this is built a short in-
troductory section which leads to an allegro strepitoso
portraying the loving and suffering Tasso, and contain-
ing an important variation of the thematic germ in the

melody here quoted. In the following movement, an
allegretto (quasi menuetto), the theme assumes pop-
ular form in the simplicity of a folk-like dance

as it describes Tasso at the festivals in Ferrara.
The section terminates in a return to the energetic
pulse of the first part. The concluding section shows us
the proud and avenging Tasso in the resolute strength

308

LlSZrS 'LES PRELUDES'; 'ORPHEUS'
and impetuosity of the theme in its final form: *

Allepro oon molto brio

The third of the Liszt poems, Les Preludes, is un-
doubtedly the most popular of his orchestral works. It
was prompted by an excerpt from Lamartine's Midi'
tations poetiques, beginning 'What is one's life but a
series of preludes to that unknown song of which death
shall intone the first solemn note?' As we have said,
the form of the work is similar to that of *Tasso,' a vari-
ation of a single theme in the freest sense. An intro-
ductory passage of string arpeggios and wood-wind hint
at the opening notes of this theme. There is further
suggestion of it in emphatic bass phrases of trombones,
'cellos, basses and bassoons, and it then appears in the

P canUnUlo

suave cantilena of violin and 'cello;

After several repetitions it

evolves into the following rhythmical variation which
is warmly sung in horns, divided violas and 'celli:

b) rfo/«#

The strings ornament the figures of this rhythm
when it is repeated, and there ensues a dramatic
development reaching a stirring climax and sub-
siding in a tender and haunting repetition of the un-
adorned theme. The next section is an allegretto pas-
torale, constituting the musical implication of the lines,
*and where is the soul who, cruelly wounded in emerg-
ing from these tempests, does not seek refreshing mem-
ories in the sweet calm of a pastoral life?' The theme,

c) Allegretto pastorale

in its new aspect.

* See alto Vol. n. pp. 383-365.

309

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

now appears in the horn and is imitated in the wood-
wind. It is slightly developed and followed by a version
of the b theme in the divided violins with the figure of
the pastoral melody as a counter subject in the violas
and 'cellos. This exceedingly effective combination
scheme is enlarged upon and developed in a section of
entrancing rhythmical charm and fascinating color.
This section evolves into the stirring phrases of an al-
legro marziale, and 'as the trumpet sounds the signal
of alarm' the brass plays the theme in its original
rhythm, a, against which violins add excitedly running
scale passages in a rapid fortissimo. As the second

phrase of the march we have this:

A coda comprises the an-
dante bass phrases of the introduction in a climax of
great sonority.

In 'Orpheus' Liszt employs the classic figure of myth-
ology merely to personify the aspirations and idealism
which he expresses in the following terms: *If we
were to state our utter thought, we should express the
desire to produce in their serenely civilizing powers
the melodies that illumine every work of art; their
suave energy, their august empire; their sonorities,
nobly voluptuous to the soul; their soft undulations,
like the breezes of Elysium, their gradual ascension
like clouds of incense; their diaphanous ether and
azure enveloping the world and the entire universe
in an atmosphere like that of a transparent garment of
ineff'able and mysterious harmony.'

The poem, the shortest of Liszt's symphonic works,
is described by Weingartner as 'one great crescendo
and diminuendo. Orpheus touches the strings of his
lute, worshipful, all nature listens to his marvellous
sounds. With a noble step the singer passes near to
us, entrancing all by the glory of his person and his

310

flans von Billow

\(lfr the itorlntil hu Lenbaeh

mil unuimoii

the pastoral melody as
and 'cellos. This (
scheme is enlMr{»ecl <

ucing T m and i;

1115 section evwivt-s ji-m- uie stirring pmar^va
itgro marziale, and *h« the trumpet sounds t
' f alarm* the 1 the theme ic

v\:

. ! l_ .--

- ' '-;

;

mnrr'

■''r

gival sononty.

In 'OrjiJieu^ Liszt
ulo^ merely *'

f rk r\i.T-

1;-. 1.1 . -.^;

, A coda V
introduct''^

=5 the ar

like clouds

ar-
ir

LISZrS *ORPHEUS'

melodious voice. The tones of his lyre become more
and more feeble, as we see the celestial form fading
away in the distance until finally it disappears entirely
from our sight.* Weingartner in a footnote calls atten-
tion to the fact that in its form the 'Orpheus* poem is
not unlike the prelude to Lohengrin. The material em-
ployed in this picture is contained within the meagre
scope of the two following fragmentary themes.

m poto fi th

otio tiprtsi

There is an equal simplicity and directness of utter-
ance in the treatment of these themes and the work
fulfills its aim as an expression of the purely melodic.
In his next symphonic poem, 'Prometheus,* Liszt
again seeks to draw inspiration from the sources of
classical myth. In this the sufferings of the un-
happy god are portrayed in pages of alternating
rage and pathos. The introduction is one of Liszt's
most virile inspirations, with the sharp, dissonant clang
of its opening harmonies. After an andante reci-

Allegro molto nppassionnto

tative the main subject,

^ agttnio lUiiii

expressive of tortured un-
rest, is taken by violins and violas. A succeeding
theme, one whose intervals have already been foretold
in the introduction, is followed by further utterance
of the motives of the principal subject. The main

second theme, of pathetic appeal,

then appears in the

*cellos and horn. There follows a development section
commencing with a fugato passage upon a version of

311

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the first theme. The further development is of some-
what classic severity; the fugue appears in an aug-
mented form against other motives of the fugal sec-
tion, and reverting to the rushing figures of the first
allegro a climax is reached in the incisive phrases of
the introductory motive. A short recitando then leads
to a recapitulation of free form which finds its climax
in an appealing cry of all the violins as they play the
second theme. The movement then passes to a close
in a vigorous coda of the melodic line which is fur-
nished by the brass in the augmented notes of the de-
scending fugue subject

Next in the series of Liszt poems is the *Mazeppa,*
after Victor Hugo's poem, which, as W. S. Rockstro
remarks,* in its more melodramatic description af-
fords Liszt more suitable background for his mu-
sical picture than the better known poem of Byron
on the same subject. The poem opens with a de-
scription of Mazeppa's wild ride, as he is carried
bound upon the back of the untrained steed. After a
sharp and shrieking chord in all the wind the strings
establish the galloping figure that paints this scene:

Allegro agitato

Against these figures are heard only the upward pas-
sages in the wood-wind which without melodic im-
portance add a touch of sinister color. There is an
accumulated fury after the climax of which the theme

of Mazeppa

sounds in the trombones and basses. This

theme is enlarged upon as a climax of intense dramatic
force is developed. There is then a resumption of the
galloping rhythms, offset by detached phrases of the

* 'Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians,' article on Liszt

312

LISZT'S SYMPHONIC POEMS

Mazcppa theme and intensified by the high lights of
trilling wood-wind and shrieking piccolo.

After a very extended treatment of this order there
comes a momentary lull, the tranquillity of an andante
descriptive of Mazeppa*s rest within the Cossack camp.
This section is short and slight in structure and is
interrupted by the trumpet call that summons Ma-
zeppa to head the Cossack tribe. A Cossack march

^ J Allegro niMtiale ^^ h -, J 'i r i ^ .

local flavor terminates the work.

The three succeeding poems, Festkldnge, Heroide
funebre, and Hungaria, are works of lesser importance.
The first named of these presents a generic festival
piece of conventional lines and of no great inspira-
tion. The Heroide funebre is a fragment of a projected
but incompleted symphony. The movement thus pre-
served to us is, as its name implies, a funeral march.
Impressively scored and of a rhythmical variety, the
work constitutes a real symphonic movement and not
the conventional funeral march that its name might
imply. In 'Hungaria' Liszt has employed the na-
tional idiom so popularly identified with his piano
rhapsodies. The national song and dance rhythms
are here woven in a form similar to that of the
rhapsodies, namely, alternating sections of the proud,
martial and withal somewhat sad themes, with
those of the fiery dances. The two principal themes
which thus appear in contrast are as follows:

In the final section Liszt has employed the same na-

313

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

tional dance tune that he has embodied in the end of
the eighth Hungarian Rhapsody.

The poem 'Hamlet' is one of Liszt's rarely played
works. He himself heard it but once in the orchestra
a few weeks before his death. It is devoted solely to
a picturing of Hamlet's melancholy and tragic moods.
Liszt, contrary to his usual practice, has refrained
from including an extended love scene, and the only
reference to Ophelia in the work is that given in a short
passage in the middle of the work, one which is ex-
plained in the scene as a 'shadow picture' of Ophelia
in the mind of Hamlet. The form of the work is that
of a free overture. After a slow introduction, there is
a main allegro section with the following themes:

'J?^ll - 1 . Ll ■■■■J I- . ff K ^ ^ 1 ^ coda section

describes Hamlet's
death and burial.
Liszt's Hunnen-
schlacht ('The BatUe of the Huns') is described by
Weingartner as 'a fantastic piece of elementary, dis-
mal power.' The work was inspired by Kaulbach's
painting in the Berlin Treppenhaus. The under-
lying idea of the work is that of the conflict of bar-
barity and civilization, the battle of Paganism and
Christianity. The greater part of the work is a picture
of wild and furious struggle painted in rugged disso-
nances and vigorous rhythms. Opening with agitated
passages in the strings and wood-wind the horns soon

^ Feroce

break in with a strident war cry :

The commotion increases, and as it

resolves into vehement lashings of a single string figure,
the trombones solemnly chant the ancient Crux fideles:

n^ maroalt

314

LISZrS DIE IDEALE

It is then repeated a fifth higher with trumpets
added and the fray becomes fiercer. Battle cries of
brass emerge from the shrieking tumult of string and
wood-wind, and after a climax the fury subsides into
the softly sustained tones of the full brass choir in
a harmonized repetition of the chorale. This is fol-
lowed by a triumphal burst of the full orchestra which
dies away in the echoing tones of the chorale in the
organ. Repeated, it is followed by devotional develop-
ment of the choral motives and leads to a final section
in C major in which these motives are built into a poem
of triumphant strength.

The last of Liszt's poems, Die Ideate, after Schil-
ler's poem, was written in 1857 upon the occasion of
the dedication of the Goethe-Schiller monument in
Weimar. The several movements of the work are pref-
aced with the excerpts from the poem which serve as
the key to their meaning. In an opening andante the
passing of youth's idealism is mourned in questioning
recitando of horn and clarinet with intervening harmo-
nies of pathetic regret. This leads directly to an alle-
gro under the title Aufschwung ('Aspiration'), the es-
sence of which lies in the following lines of its motto:

'So sprang, von kiihnem Muth befliigelt,
begliickt in seines Traumes Wahn,
von keiner Sorge noch geztigelt,
der Jiingling in des Lebens Bahn.'

It is built largely

MlegTO splritoao

upon the following theme:
The succeeding sec-

tion is one of idyllic tenderness that sings of Na-
ture's beauties. Divided strings in a shimmering Weben
give background to a dreamy figure in wood-wind

Questo e sostennto Msai_

and violas:

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The horn then enters with its melody of the open-
ing section, bespeaking the regret of passing ideals.
The following sections treat of love's desires in
passionately surging sequences of the next theme,

dotee motto itpress. ^ ,

building up

a climax marked by the reappearance of the Auf-
schwung theme. The succeeding portion of the work
portrays the mingled experiences of joy, love, glory, in
phrases of glowing animation and ardor. The follow-
ing section is entitled 'Disillusionment.* After a repeti-
tion of the opening figures of the first movement there is

an andante of plaintive regret

and a succeeding section of eloquent resignation.

Liszt's cravings for brilliant endings here finds vent
in a finale dedicated to the portrayal of hopeful pursuit
of life's work (Beschdftigung) . The quiet, sad theme of
the preceding section is now transformed into one of im-

Allegretto tnosso

pulsive and insistent energy, >£Vit/j v »• j^J«n|» »'J^J IJ|

and the movement leads to an *Apotheosis' of earlier
themes. In a footnote in the score Liszt says, 'To prove
our unquestionable loyalty to our ideals by an adher-
ence to them is our life's highest aim. It is with this
meaning in view that I have permitted myself to sup-
plement the sense of Schiller's poem with this closing
apotheosis in which the themes of the first movement
are restated in jubilant strength.*

The influence of Berlioz and Liszt upon their con-
temporaries and immediate followers was not an over-
whelming one, and it is only in the work of a later

316

WAGNER'S *A FAUST OVERTURE*

age, in fact that of our own day, that we can seek the
further development of their ideas. In the music of
their direct disciples we find the essential timidity of
lesser calibres to adopt the newer idiom without com-
promise. There exists, then, a certain group of inter-
mediate symphonic writers who, while they exhibit
traces of a programmistic tendency in the spirit of their
work, adhere in the letter to much that marks the
more classic character of an earlier romanticism.* Of
contemporary composers one only seems to have seized
readily upon the newer utterance and to have made the
new idiom his starting point in his course to a new goal.
We need hardly speak his name, for as we say Berlioz
and Liszt, Wagner follows as inevitably as a succeed-
ing letter of the alphabet. Wagner's genius, however,
led him from the purely symphonic and we have but
one work that records for us the important influences
exerted upon him by the early programmists and which
reveals the extent to which his later style is indebted
to this influence. This work is Eine Faust Ouverture,
written during his first stay in Paris in 1840.

The 'Faust Overture,' like Liszt's symphony of the
same designation, aims to suggest in a few characteri-
zations the spirit of Goethe's drama. Contained within
the smaller limits of a short single movement it fulfills
this aim with as great conviction as does Liszt's larger
work. Here we have a dramatic genius that need not
resort to melodramatic methods and whose conception
equals Goethe's own in the profundity of its powers.
If there is less of glowing sensuousness, there is at the
same time a greater classic strength.

The overture opens with a brooding phrase of tuba

Sfchrnehalten

and basses, .""/m * f [j* ' *^" ^Jgu ^ followed by
imitative string figures of dramatic questioning, which

* The more stolidly classic composers among the lesser romanticists
bave been mentioned in a previous chapter (see pp. 248ff).

317

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC
emerge in the long appeal of the violin figure

that is the opening of the en-

suing allegro. The first section of this movement,
which is clearly a picture of the troubled Faust, is of a
Reethoven-like classicism and strength. The principal
figure is that of the opening string passages. The sec-
ond theme is that of Gretchen. Here Wagner first

I ' ■ «r«*«. 9 4im.—

J> UgtU9

speaks with a voice peculiarly his own ; and this melody
is the first of the many in which he has painted the 'Eter-
nal Feminine' of his dramatic world. After an episode
in the strings there is a second division of the theme

in the wood-wind. The development following this has
a further reiteration of the first motive, and a recapitu-
lation of the first and second sections leads to a short
coda with a final statement of the long searching mel-
ody of octave skips and an ending of sustained haiv
monies.

One of the closest followers of the Liszt traditions
in symphonic music is Joachim Raff. Of Raff's eleven
symphonies several are in a form that closely approxi-
mate that of the program symphony. What has been
said as to the traces of the more innocuous romanticism
to be found among Liszt's followers may be accurately
applied to Raff, whose style displays a very broad
eclecticism.

318

JOACHIM RAFF; CARL GOLDMARK

The two representative works among RafTs sympho-
nies are the third, Im Walde (opus 153), and the fifth,
Leonore (opus 177).

Although the movements of the third symphony bear
titles of a general descriptiveness their contents suggest
merely the feeling to which they are thus ascribed and
at no moment is there a definite following of a program.
The first movement, called *In daytime, impressions and
expressions' is a movement of suave regularity and flu-
ent platitudinousness. The second is called *In the twi-
light, dreams,* and is of a quiet romanticism. There is
a touch of heightened color in the string writing of the
middle section. In the *Dance of the Dryads' which
constitutes the scherzo, the idiom is of a Mendelssohn-
ian regularity of phrase and the harmonic scheme of
a bare simplicity. The last movement is labelled *Night,
quiet murmur of the forest at night, entrance of the
wild hunters with "Frau Holle" and "Wotan"— Break
of day,' this program offers but slight stimulus to Raff's
color sense, though the movement possesses a rhythmi-
cal vigor and contrast of phrase not found in the earlier
part of the work.

The *Leonore,* after Burger's ballad, is a work of
far greater worth. There is in it a more virile note,
which reflects, to some extent, the fiery passion of Liszt
and the melodious polyphony of Wagner, the stamp of
whose influence is very distinctly impressed upon this
work. The first movement, of 'Love's Happiness,' has
two well-contrasted themes, one of jubilant gladness:

Allegro

and the other of poignant tenderness :

. The following slow move-
319

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

ment is of lyric simplicity, though over its middle sec-
tion passes a slight shadow of dramatic earnestness,
indicative of *Leonore's cares.' * The following move-
ment is the widely popular march that has long been

part of the popular repertory:

The meaning of this

movement is explained by its title, 'Separation.* Wil-
helm, leaving for the war, must part from Leonore.
The parting is depicted in a middle section after which
the march repeats. The finale entitled 'Reunited in
Death,' is a fantastic picture in which are resounded
the second theme of the march and the theme of the
love scene together with a quotation from Wagner's
Tlying Dutchman' ('When all the dead arise').

Among the remaining symphonies of Raff we find
others of descriptive intent. The seventh symphony
is entitled 'In the Alps,' the first symphony is called
*To the Fatherland' and the last four of his symphonies
are devoted to a portrayal of the four seasons. The
complete list of Raff's orchestral works includes also
several overtures and suites.

In the same category as RafTs symphonies, though of
a warmer and more poetic content, belongs Carl Gold-
mark's 'Rustic Wedding' symphony. Here again we
have titled movements of a generic descriptiveness but
without an attempt at a detailed program. In its form
the 'Rustic Wedding' follows the freer lines of the
suite. Its first movement, called 'Wedding March,' is
a series of twelve variations on the following theme:

Moderato molto

The second movement, 'Bridal Song,' is of a Schu-

* Kretzschmar, op. eit.

320

HEINRICH HOFMANN

bert-like lyricism and simplicity. The scherzo is re-
placed by a 'Serenade* of graceful charm and
color. The following movement, 'In the Garden,'
is a melodic andante of atmospheric color. The
finale is a rustic dance on the following theme.

Allegro modento

fumifrt

the exposition of which is set in fugato form. The
theme of the preceding andante is interpolated in the
middle of the movement after which a brilliant stretto
brings the movement to a close.

Besides this work, the most popular of Goldmark's
compositions, there is a second symphony in E-fiat
of classic form and content. Of Goldmark's two over-
tures, Tenthesilea' and *Sakuntala,' the latter is the
more popular and one of his best works. This over-
ture, inspired by the drama of Kalidasa, is couched
in terms of pseudo-orientalism towards which Gold-
mark had strong leanings.

One of the most gifted of the lesser program sym-
phonists was Heinrich Hofmann (1842-1902), whose
two symphonies, Trithjof (opus 22), and suite, Im
Schlosshof (opus 78), are compositions of sterling
merit. In the former the composer has chosen for his
theme the erotic portions of Tegner's poem of the same
name. In the first, second and fourth movements the
story of the parting and the reuniting of Frithjof and
Ingeborg are told in an idiom which Kretzschmar
justly characterizes as *the language of the modem
opera.' The third movement pictures a scene in which
figure Lichtelfen und Reifriesen ('Light Elves and
Dew Giants'). That there is a strong tinge of Wag-
ner in Hofmann's veins may be observed from the

321

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC
following leading themes of the first movements:
A

Hofmann's suite, Im Schlosshof, is a work of a con-
siderably lighter calibre, but of spontaneous melodious-
ness and color. Besides these works the composer has
written a *Hungarian Suite,' a Zwiegesprdche und Kar-
nevalscene, and a 'Serenade' for string orchestra.

322

CHAPTER XI

NATIONALISTIC TENDENCIES IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY
ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The German musical soil and its nationalistic offshoots — The national-
istic romanticists of France: Saint-Saens and others — The transition to
the modem idiom: C6sar Franck, his D minor symphony and his sym-
phonic poems — The symphonic suite in France: Bizet, Massenet, Godard,
etc. — Nationalism in Scandinavia: Grieg, Svendsen, and Sinding — Transi-
tion nationalism in Russia: Tschaikowsky, his symphonies and overtures^
Modem Bohemia; Smetana and Dvol^4k.

A DISCUSSION of modem music in any of its branches
cannot ignore, as a basis of classification, the strong
national impulses that have so sharply divided the
various contemporaneous schools. Let us lay aside,
for the present, the fundamental questions which are
involved in the consideration of the relative aesthetic
or purely musical values of these schools, and turn
immediately to the specific point of our present in-
terest, the cultural advancement which these develop-
ments signify and which find their highest expression
in orchestral music.

The supremacy of German symphonic art through-
out the classic and romantic periods must remain un-
disputed. In Germany alone was there an extensive
practice of pure orchestral music, a condition that
was a natural stimulus to the creative forces. It thus
happened that the sporadic manifestations of instru-
mental development in other localities in most cases
owed their impulse to Germany and were directly influ-
enced by Teutonic ideas, inasmuch as the composers

323

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

who inaugurated these beginnings of nationalism had,
for the greater part, their training in Germany and
were largely imbued with the traditions and methods of
its schools. That German music was, in its turn, in-
debted to many of these men for the influences ex-
erted upon it by their genius is a fact not to be over-
looked. We have, for example, only to recall the names
of Lully, Rameau, Gossec and Rerlioz to remind our-
selves of the vital part played by France in symphonic
development.

It is this mingling of national feeling and the influ-
ence of Germany in musical matters that has delayed
the appearance of another European art of an equally
individual and potent style. The process, however,
has been a natural one; the long-established and well-
tested traditions of deeply founded culture have served
as the alembic by which have been distilled national
arts of an enduring vitality.

It is our own day that sees these national schools in
their full strength, each possessing a distinctive flavor
hitherto unreached, and yet, paradoxical as it may
seem, all reciprocally contributing towards a new art
that bids fair to be more universal than any of the
past.

A discussion of these later phases is reserved for a
future chapter. For the present we shall proceed to
an examination of some of the works that represent
the intermediate aspects of this development. We shall
find that these movements did not evolve in all locali-
ties with a uniformity of progress that enables us to
mark their stages by simultaneous steps. For example,
we have in France a long stretch of eclecticism that
marks one of the most important periods of productiv-
ity and which proceeded side by side with the begin-
nings of a more distinctive expression through the
school headed by Cesar Franck. The service of the lat-
ter has been well defined in a previous reference which

324

FRENCH NATIONALISTIC ROMANTICISTS

we may here again place before the reader: *In place
of a vivacious, piquant but often artificial and uncon-
ventionalized emotion of a recognizably Gallic type
Franck brought to music a serenely mystical Flemish
(or to be more exact, Walloon) temperament, a nature
naively pure and lofty, a character of placid aspiration
and consummate trust.' * Much of this new sense
which Franck brought into French music has remained
as the basis of its ultimate phase as evinced in impres-
sionism.

We shall then observe that the Slavic and the Scan-
dinavian schools in their more remote positions, iso-
lated from earlier cultural centres and possessing folk-
music of a stronger and more characteristic vein, de-
veloped at an earlier date a strongly tinged national
music the accents of which insinuated themselves into
the works of even their most eclectic writers.

In the works of Camille Saint-Saens we have the best
example of these processes of assimilation of which we
have just been speaking. Brought up entirely in the
traditions of German music, his methods have been
very largely those of their teaching, but despite this
there is in very much of his music a subtle quality
which we recognize at once as racial. In his eclecti-
cism and in his frankly imitative processes he has re-
mained distinctively French. Saint-Saens' service to
French symphonic music has been great. Resisting the
strong tide of prevailing operatic tendencies he occu-
pied himself with absolute music — and that of the pur-
est classic type. Later, coming strongly under the in-
fluence of Liszt, he was one of the first to champion
and imitate Liszt's form of the symphonic poem, and

'Vol. m. chapter V.

325

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

thus brought back to France in its new form the pro-
gram music that Berlioz, neglected at home, had car-
ried abroad with such far-reaching consequences.*

The list of Saint-Saens' orchestral works in the
larger forms includes the three symphonies f and the
four symphonic poems, Le Rouet d' Omphale, Phaeton,
Danse Macabre and La jeunesse d'Hercule. There are
besides these several smaller works including the pop-
ular Suite Algerienne and IJne nuit a Lisbonne. Other
works for orchestra are the Rhapsodie Bretonne
(opus 7), the Marche Heroique (opus 34), Suite (opus
49), La jota Aragonesa (opus 64), Sarabande et Rigau-
don (opus 93), and Overture de Fete (opus 133).

Saint-Saens* first symphony, in E major (opus 2), has,
in common with many other early works, little inter-
est for us outside of its biographical significance. It
is a work of slight importance and little originality cast
in a severely classic mold.

The second symphony, in A minor (opus 55), al-
though bearing a late opus number, also belongs to an
early period, having been written in 1859 and thus
antedating all of the symphonic poems.

In this second essay in the symphonic form Saint-
Saens has achieved a work of considerably greater
distinction and has infused into forms that are still
of classic severity some of his individuality and origi-
nal conceptions. The opening movement (allegro ap-
passionata) is introduced by a section in the impro-
visatory manner so often adopted by Saint-Saens in
his introductions. The first movement is of a strong
and virile classicism in which the two following themes

* In his book. Portraits et Souvenirs, Saint-Saens unequivocally ac-
knowledges his entire indebtedness to Liszt's symphonic poems as the
model for his own work in that form.

■f Octave S€r6, in his list of Saint-Saens' compositions (,Musieiena fran-
fais d'aujourd'hui) mentions two unpublished symphonies.

326

SAINT-SAfiNS* SYMPHONIES

I receive formal treatment.

The adagio is a short movement of romantic sim-
plicity, followed by a scherzo in a Beethoven-like
mood containing reminiscent motives from the first
movement and divided by a trio in the major. The
finale is a rondo with the following simple main theme,

Prestisstano

which is treated with a rich variety of design and is
relieved with episodical themes of contrasting line.

Saint-Saens* third symphony remains his largest and
most representative orchestral work. It stands quite
apart from the earlier works in the modernity of its
scope and form. Built upon much larger lines and
scored for the larger orchestra of the modem sym-
phony, including the English horn, double bassoon,
three trumpets, piano (which participates only in
the two last movements), and organ, it represents a dis-
tinctly later age than Saint-Saens* earlier symphonies.
In form it also represents an advance in its modifica-
tions of the more rigid conventions of the sonata form,
in the prodigality of thematic material and in the
unity of idea in the common use of themes throughout
the several movements. Saint-Saens has, in this work,
carried out a plan adopted by him in his earlier cham-
ber music and in one of the piano concertos, namely, of
joining the opening allegro to the following adagio
and of passing immediately from the scherzo to the
final movement so that the four movements of the
symphony become two larger divisions. Despite these
freer and amplified forms of the modem symphony,
Saint-Saens' melodic, harmonic and figurative methods
still savor of the classicism of the past, although stated
in terms of an always masterly and fastidious art

The opening allegro is preceded by an adagio intro-
duction of but a few measures' length that contains a

327

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

hinting of the main theme, and which contains, more-
over, a melodic trait composed of their descending
semitones that becomes a marked feature of much of
the thematic material in a sort of fragmentary id^e
fixe. The allegro opens with the establishment of an
accompanying figure in whispering melody of repeated
violin notes, a feeling strongly reminiscent of the Schu-
bert B minor symphony. Against this the wood-wind

presently plays the main theme :

This melody then passes through
a transformation and the second theme is heard:

themes are then subjected to a treatment which,
though of conventional formality, is ingenious and
masterly in its orchestral setting. After a recapitula-
tion of regular form there is a short bridge and the
adagio commences with a broad theme in the violins
supported with the sustained harmonies of the organ:

Poco agdato

This melody is then repeated in clarinet and horn and
is given a rich background of divided strings. The
development of the theme is comprised in arpeggiated
versions of the harmonies in the strings. A triplet figure,
thus established, becomes the accompaniment in a final
version of the melody which is now heard in the upper
register of the violins with the 'cello doubling at two
octaves lower. The movement then ends in a short
coda of harmonic finality.

The second movement of the work opens with a
brilliant scherzo, the principal theme of which

328

saint-sa£ns* symphonic poems

.^ , Allegro ipodermlo

aWi 0 1 J J 11 l-f^y^j vjm ^^ is melodically derived

from the second theme of the first movement. After
an episodical section (G major), in which the piano
enters, there appears the following second theme:

Then follows a working out of both groups and a re-
capitulation of both main sections.

The scherzo passes immediately to the last move-
ment, which is introduced by a section in G major
in which the subject is announced as follows:

Repeated at

/••

first in the harmonies of divided strings and then
by the organ, it is succeeded by another theme, which

^T < JJJ jjll l^liJ JjlJ JJJ JjlJJJJ'J I ^orms the

principal idea of the main section (allegro). A sec-
ondary theme of ascending arpeggio figures enters
somewhat into the scheme of the development, which,
however, is mostly built upon the first theme in various
transformations. The movement is developed to a
climax of sonorous grandeur that is not without a feel-
ing of heavy banality foreign to Saint-Saens.

Of purer inspiration are the four symphonic poems
by which Saint-Saens is best known to the concert
stage. In the first of these, Le Rouet d'Omphale (opus
57), the Greek fable serves the composer as a back-
ground of allegorical illustration. Saint-Saens* intro-
ductory note to the score explains the poem's mean-
ing in the following words: 'The subject of this sym-
phonic poem is feminine seduction, the triumphant
struggle of weakness over strength. The spinning
wheel is but a pretext chosen solely because of the
rhythmical suggestions that it offers to the lines of the
composition. To those who may be interested in seek-

329

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

ing the details of expression, we may point out (at
letter J) the groaning of Hercules beneath the bonds
which he cannot break, and (at letter L) Omphale
railing at the vain efforts of the hero.' These pas-
sages we shall note in the brief analysis now to be
made.

The poem commences with the whirring of the spin-
ning wheel in gradually accelerating arpeggios of al-
ternate violins and flutes. The rhythm is finally set

in the violin figures of an allegro : ^^

ZdViolui

To the accompaniment of these figures there is soon
added in the flutes and first violins the following

theme of feminine seductiveness:

, This theme is car-
ried out with charming rhythmical variety, and as the
motion and shimmer of the rhythm is continued in
tremolo of violins the plaint of Hercules is portrayed
in the following melody of basses, 'celli and bassoons :

^. This

figure is repeated in ever rising protest to die away
finally in a long drawn groan of despair. We then
hear the laughter of Omphale in the ripple of the

Meno mosso^ ^^^_— ^— — ^—

following flute melody:

I'ranfnilto

There is then a brief resumption of

the spinning figure, and after a short coda the rhythm
dies away in the violins.

The second of the symphonic poems. Phaeton, has as
its program the following: 'Phaeton has been granted

330

SAINT-SAENS' SYMPHONIC POEMS

permission to conduct through the heavens the chariot
of his father, the Sun. But his unskilled hand fright-
ens the coursers. The flaming chariot thrown from its
course approaches the terrestrial regions. The entire
universe is in danger of a fiery end, when Jupiter
strikes the impudent Phaeton with a thunderbolt.* *

The musical delineation of this story, like that of the
preceding poem, is one of rhythmical suggestion.
There is little of detail to be analyzed in the develop-
ment of this idea. The principal figure of this rhythm
is that which the strings have in the opening measures ;

j ^jJ.nJJ]jn]|UJ-Jj;]J^^ This rhythm is pre-
p
served throughout the first part of the work and
passes in the second part to the more excited
speed of the following figure:

Against these figures and their variations are heard a
number of counterpoints which are handled in such a
way as to convey the impression of cumulative speed
and fury. One of the principal subjects, descriptive

of Phaeton, as follows,
J ))J J J I I J L' I J j I gives melodic contour to the de-
velopment At the end a crashing of wood, brass and
percussion portrays the thunderbolt and the poem then
ends in sustained and solemn harmonies implying
Phaeton's death as his theme is heard in a final plaint
of the wood-wind.

In his third poem, Danse Macabre, Saint-Saens
achieved his most notable success in descriptive sym-

* Prefatory note to the score.

331

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

phonic music. The work is a musical picture drawn
from the following lines of Cazalis* poem:

Zig et Zig et Zig, la Mori en cadence
Frappant une tombe avec son talon;
La mort a minuit joue un air de danse,
Zig et Zig et Zag, sur son violin.

Le vent d'hiver souffle, et la nuit est sombre;
Des gemissements sortent des tilleuls;
Les squelettes blancs vont a travers I'ombre,
Courant et sautant sous leurs grands linceuls.

Zig et Zig et Zig, chacun se tremousse.
On entend claquer les os des danseurs.

Mais psiti tout d coup on quitte la ronde.
On se pousse, on fuit, le coq a chanti.

The Danse Macabre is a work in which there is
greater detail of description and further attempt at
realistic coloring. The poem opens with the horn of
midnight softly striking in the single tones of a
harp. The feeling of hushed mystery is conveyed
in an accompanying long held horn note and di-
vided violins. The ghastly figure appears as the
'cello plays a tentative marking of rhythm; a solo
violin then plays hollow fifths as the spectre tunes
his fiddle. Then begins the fantastically gruesome
dance with the flute playing the following melody:

Repeated in the violins, it is followed by a second
theme in the solo violin:

332

SAINT-SAfiNS' SYMPHONIC POEMS

The first theme then repeats and after a more vehement
scraping of the open fifths the entire body of first violins
play the first theme. It then passes to the wood-wind
and is followed by the second theme in the broad surg-
ing rhythm of all the strings. From these two themes
is developed a dance of constantly increasing anima-
tion that reaches a furious orgy. The orchestration is
a marvel of economically handled color effects. An
original stroke of genius is the employment of the
xylophone to picture the rattling of the bones. The
final frenzy of the dance is interrupted by the cock's
crow in the oboe and the scene is dissipated, leaving
a few shadows of reminiscent snatches of melody which
finally fade into nothingness.

The last of Saint-Saens' symphonic poems. La jeU'
nesse d'Hercule (opus 50), is prefaced by the following
note explanatory of its poetic import: *Legend: A
fable relates that Hercules upon setting out in life saw
opening before him two paths — that of pleasure and
that of virtue. Insensible to the seductions of the
njrmphs and bacchantes the hero pursued that path
whose way was beset with strife and struggle but at
the end of which he caught a glimpse of the flaming
pyre that promised the recompense of immortality.*
There is an almost literal following of these sugges-
tions in the musical content which is in form and
color somewhat more conventional than the other
poems. The movement commences with a state-
ment of the two contrasted themes, the first an inde-
terminate and languorous phrase of muted violins,

AmUmte so>t«inito

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the second
resolution :

somewhat banal phrase of sober

Allegro moderato

P eantatiU _

The mood of the latter is also the per-

vading one of the ensuing short development. The

theme of enticement

then appears in the oboe with accompanying flute,
clarinet and harp. Passing to the strings it has a back-
ground of shimmering tremolos and harp arpeggios
which afford a color of sensuous warmth. A conclud-
ing phrase of this section is transformed into a figure

comes the principal theme of the following section
and which represents the struggles of the hero. This
rhythm is succeeded by other figures of constantly in-
creasing vigor and activity that terminate in a climax
of heroic gesture. The theme of quiet resolution is then
repeated and there is commenced a new development of
still greater stress. A coda implies the vision of eternal
fame in sonorities of vibrato triads in strings with
flickering wood-winds and flaring harp, against which
the brass sounds a fanfare of solemn triumph.

An important figure among French symphonists is
Edouard Lalo, who, though principally known to the
concert room through his Symphonie Espagnole for
violin and orchestra, is the author of several extensive
symphonic works including a symphony in C minor,
and Allegro Symphonique, a Rhapsodic Norvegienne
and a Scherzo. Of Lalo as a symphonist Sere * says :
*To the restricting frame of the symphony he has
brought qualities of grace, finesse and abandon to

'Octave S^r^: Musiciena francais d'aujourd'hui.

334

ClfiSAR FRANCK AS SYMPHONIST

which are allied a stirring rhythmical sense and a bril-
liant sonority, which, despite developments sometimes
over-involved, lends to his style a distinctive savor.*

Lalo, in his symphony, has unified the several move-
ments by the use of a common thematic scheme. The
most important of these themes have been given the
following dramatic designations by Ropartz:* theme
of 'fatality,' theme of 'revolt,' and theme of 'tender-
ness.' These, in numberless transformations, serve as
the groundwork for the four movements of the com-
position all of which approximate in their larger out-
lines the conventional symphony.

Of lesser symphonists among the French eclectics
Charles-Marie Widor has written two symphonies, the
first in F minor (op. 16), the second in A major (op.
54), both works of a classic conventionality; and Theo-
dore Dubois has produced orchestral works of both
classic formality and of programmistic tendencies.

Ill

We now come to speak of one of the commanding
figures of modem music, Cesar Franck. The course of
Franck's education was such as to engender within
him a catholicity of taste and an eclecticism of prac-
tice as broad as any of his fellow artists possessed.
Vincent d'lndyf has told us of the wide range of
Franck's musical affections and enthusiasms. The se-
cluded isolation of Franck's life, his depth of sincerity
— in short his genius — led him, as we know, to a style
which was peculiarly his own and which may be justly
considered the main foundation of the modern French
school.

This style went back to Bach and Beethoven more

* J. Guy Ropartz: Notations artistiques (A propos de qnelquet »gm-
phonies modernea). Paris. 1891.

fC^sar Franck: Paris, 1912 (pp. 68-73).

335

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

than did that of any of his French antecedents.
It had the same regard for cogency of form and for
richness of polyphony that was held by the classic
masters. On the other hand, it took a turn toward
harmonic freedom which anticipated Debussy and
Ravel. It began, for France, the thorough exploration
of chromatic progression. In the later works, such as
the great D minor symphony, the chromatic style is
extraordinarily far-reaching. In the hands of another
man it might have become a mannerism. But Franck
was so thoroughly grounded in the classics that he was
above mannerisms. He was one of the master contra-
puntists of his time. He shunned the sensational and
the facile. As truly as Bach he did his work 'for the
glory of God and a pleasant recreation.' Furthermore,
he worked in a deliberate and detached manner. He
was compelled to note themes as they came to him in
the intervals of his many lessons, to develop them
slowly and persistently in his mind, and to commit
them to paper in snatches as he found an hour or two
to spare. The result was a remarkable finish in all his
later writing, as though each measure had been once
felt with the soul of a poet and then considered a hun-
dred times with the brain of a thinker.

His master-work is beyond all doubt the great D
minor symphony, probably the finest 'absolute' sym-
phonic work of modern France. The student who
knows this symphony thoroughly knows the full meas-
ure of Franck's greatness, and has at his finger's ends a
unique and extremely important document in the tran-
sition from the music of the romantic period to the mu-
sic of modern times. The symphony is in three large
movements, and displays the 'cyclic' use of motives
which is one of the trade-marks of his school. The
three movements are very picturesque and are suffused
with an exalted emotional quality — so much so that
they seem constantly to invite the listener to make up

336

CfeSAR FRANCK'S D MINOR SYMPHONY

a 'program' out of his imagination to fit the music.
The first movement opens with a broad passage, lento,
which leads presently into the main allegro movement.

^ Allegro

The subject of this,

Qj -P*^ which is the same as that of the lento,

suggests the chromatic quality which is to dom-
inate the work. After a short statement of the
main theme the progress of the allegro is inter-
rupted by a return of the original lento, and when the
fast movement is resumed it is in the key of F minor.
The second or contrasting theme of the movement

f lF7rlr1 i|TTnri°iJ.-^|il.iJ li'^fli^l I

seems at first glance to imply a conventional diatonic
treatment But it is precisely in working out the chro-
matic implications of such a theme that Franck as-
sumes his great importance as a musician of the
transition. The second half of this motive, it should
also be noted, is of a purely chromatic character.
The third theme, which is one of the *cyclic' motives
appearing in the last movement, is one of those mel-
odies which, when once heard, are never forgotten:

The 'working-out' section of the first movement is more
than usually interesting. Never for a moment is Franck
the pedant or logician. There are detached phrases
from the third theme alternating with questioning bits
of the first, leading in dramatic fashion to a short re-
turn of the original lento. The 'restatement' is fairly
strict, though the keys bear no relation whatever to
the key-scheme of the conventional symphonic form.
Finally there is a coda, distinguished by the close inter-
weaving of its freely treated voices, which leads to a
final repetition of the lento.

337

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The second movement is a stately allegretto which
might have been the symphonic accompaniment to
the religious rites of some majestic Pagan tem-
ple. Its opening measures comprise a passage for
harp which contains a suggestion of sensuous melody.
Then follows the main theme of the movement

intoned successively by the English horn and the clar-
inet, with the harp passage as an accompaniment. The
development of these materials is long and free, but
continually preserves their sensuous melodic char-
acter. The contrasting theme (fit- f'j»p-j»p- [• |V"|p^^=|
yJ- ]J> ]J'T iV'fr seems to be a swaying dance. It is

sung by the clarinet over an accompaniment of wind
and strings. A short coda follows the return to the first
theme. The third movement, allegro non troppo, is
filled with the sense of powerful physical movement,
as though some huge dynamo within were continually
in operation. After a long D held by the strings the

first subject

appears in the bass instruments. Then follows pres-
ently the contrasting theme, ■<£ ft J J I iJ- J'.J 1 ,1 JJ^J J J J^
■"J J lli^ [•' jl Ih-J r I* ' I r 'y "r''r ] which is very characteristic
of Franck both in its outline (note especially the
implied change of key in the seventh and eighth
measures) and in the superb development which it
later receives. In the working-out section the first
theme of the second movement appears, leading to a
tutti climax on the second theme. These two themes,
apparently very difficult of combination, form the chief
material for the working-out. The main theme from

338

CfeSAR FRANCK'S SYMPHONIC POEMS

the second movement is used in place of the 'contrast-
ing theme' in the recapitulation, being broadly intoned
with elaborate violin ornamentation. For the *third
theme' of this recapitulation we find the third theme
of the first movement, and for the coda the opening
theme provides the chief material. It is not often that
the last movement of a symphony is of equal inspira-
tion and nobility with the first, but in the present case
Franck has maintained the elevated quality of his
work to the last, partly by means of his extremely ef-
fective use of the *cyclic' device, and partly, of course,
by the lofty quality of his musical ideas.

One might not expect Franck, the religious mystic,
to attempt the symphonic poem, the most sensational
of all modern non-operatic forms. But he wrote, with
great zest, three which have held their place on con-
cert programs. In particular one would expect that
his style, with its steady measured progress, would
prove unsuitable to so free a form. Yet we should be
unwilling to miss these stray examples of his genius,
which do so much to complete our view of this re-
markable man. Doubtless these works are far from
the best of their kind. In them we feel rather too much
of the formal and 'absolute' musician. But we are
startled to discover what free and picturesque imagi-
nation he has managed to infuse into his tonal stories.
Le Chasseur maudit ('The Accursed Huntsman') is
founded upon a mediaeval legend used by Burger in one
of his ballads. On the fly-leaf of the score the story is
thus told: 'It is Sunday morning. From the distance
sound the joyous reverberations of the bells and
the religious songs of the people. — Sacrilege ! — The mad
Count of the Rhine has sounded his hunting horn. . . .
Hallo — Hallo! The chase sets forth through wheat
fields, through plains, through prairies. — Stop, Count!
I beg of you, listen to the pious songs! — No! Hallo —

339

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Hallo! — Stop, Count, I beg of you! Be warned. — ^No,
the hunt rushes forward like a tornado.

'Suddenly the Count is alone; his horse will no longer
go forward. He blows into his horn; the horn gives
forth no sound. A lugubrious, implacable voice curses
him. — Sacrilege! it cries. Be pursued eternally by the
powers of hell.

'The flames dart forth from all sides. The Count,
stricken with terror, flees, ever, ever faster, pursued by
a horde of demons — during the day, across the abysses;
at midnight, through the air.'

The poem opens with a fanfare for horns — the call
to the chase. Then comes the religious chant, which is
given an added emotional significance by the rising
chromatic support of the wood-winds. Now comes
the motive of the hunt, a theme in 9/8 time, which
dominates throughout the movement. This is given a
long and noisy development, but at last comes to a
sudden stop, with the strings tremolo. The gurgle of
the stopped horn represents the Count's fruitless effort
to sound the fanfare of the chase. A series of un-
earthly chords suggest the approaching curse. In the
following section, the fires that surround the impious
nobleman are represented by the tremolo of the strings,
and the music builds up to a powerful climax, double
fortissimo. The coda is a breathless movement in 2/4
time, dying away to pianissimo and finally brought to
a close with a single crashing chord.

Les bolides, fancifully picturing the 'daughters of
iEolus,' which are the four winds of Heaven, is a
charming genre piece, short and of great delicacy.
From the technical standpoint it is remarkable for the
variety obtained from the steady development of a
single theme, which endlessly generates related mate-
rial. This theme, played allegretto vivo, is as follows :

■^^f il V r'/ l^rr " I r-j'-fJijtf-JQ-^-l . In it will be noticed

340

BIZET: L'ARLl^SIENNE SUITES

once again Franck s love of chromatic material, a
predilection which is given free and charming play in
the present work.

Les Djinns, picturing the grotesque but highly serv-
iceable creatures of the Arabian Nights, might be called
a fantasy for piano with orchestral accompaniment.
The piano is, in fact, used as an important orchestral
instrument, but it is treated with such independence
that it frequently assumes the role of a solo instrument.
The structure of the piece is quite free, and reveals
endless device in the obtaining of contrast and variety.
The main movement is in 2/4 time, allegro molto, but
the middle section in 3/4 time is smooth and insinuat-
ing in character. To give a notion of the work it will
be necessary only to note two of the typical themes,

one of them characteristically chromatic:

Simultaneously with the advance of program music
and the emancipation of the symphony from the rigid
lines of its earlier forms, we witness the increasing
adoption of the symphonic suite. We have seen that
in Uie first freedom of romanticism the suite offered
to the composer the medium of a cyclic form of freer
scope. We have, it will be remembered, mentioned
some of the more typical examples of the romantic
suites, notably those of Lachner. With the advent of
a more modern feeling the suite offered new possibili-
ties in lending itself to the presentation of several asso-
ciated pictures with a common local color — or, in other
words, in the presentation of a purely pictorial pro-
gram music when several scenes of an associated color
required for their special subjects the division of sepa-

341

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

rate movements. The French were the first to employ
the suite in this sense.

Foremost among suite writers must be named
Georges Bizet, whose two orchestral suites, arranged
from his incidental music to Daudet's U Arlesienne*
are without question the most popular suites in the
orchestral repertory to-day. The few pages of these
incomparable scores are of such genuine and sustained
inspiration that their value outweighs a thousand times
their length in much of the seemingly more impressive
symphonic music of his contemporaries. Moreover, the
U Arlesienne suites must be recognized in their impor-
tance as French music of a strongly tinged national-
ism. Bizet has employed the folk-song of his people,
particularly that of the Midi, so that his music may
preserve and strengthen the local impressions of the
drama. Thus it comes that these suites, together with
much of the rest of Bizet's music, is of a strong and
highly vitalized national feeling.

The first suite consists of four movements : The first
is a Prelude in which the theme of an old Proven9al Noel

Alleg7« deciso, Tempo di Marcia

is treated in a series of effective variations. A middle
section presents a contrasted mood of lyricism in
introducing the melodic theme which describes Uln-
nocent in the drama. The second movement is a
minuetto which in the original score serves as an
entr'acte. The animated and piquant first section

Alle^ giocosd

has the following subject:

UTT

The trio is a marvellously

beautiful bit of polyphony and orchestral color in

* The first of these suites was compiled by Bizet himself, and twice re-
orchestrated by him; the second suite was arranged by Ernest Gulraud.

342

BIZET'S L'ARL^SIENNE SUITES

which the cantilena melody of strings is oma'
mented with the wood-wind figure above as follows:

The following movement is an adagietto which com-
prises the touching scene between Balthazar and Mere
Henaud in the third act. Its opening measure is as

follows

The finale of the first suite is entitled Le Carillon.
The first part preludes the fourth act in the play
and its sections are used as accompanying pas-
sages to part of the dialogue of that act. It is a mood
of pastoral joyousness in which the horns represent
charming bells in an ostinato figure against which
the orchestra plays a folk-like melody of animation:

The quieter pastoral of 'Mother RenaudV entrance

Aadantlno

^ Vi |i f^l^f f f I f^'f ^^ff i~ff. I r^r^ serves as a mid-
dle section.

The second suite has as its opening number the Pas-
torale which introduces the second act. The first part

has a fine sweepihg cantilena of strings

and is followed

343

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

by a section transcribed from the ensuing chorus
of the original score with its captivating melody:

The second movement of the second suite is an inter-
mezzo which appears in the original setting as an
entr'acte in the second act. A broad unison theme

i^'^'<^ I Jill u Jjl.l JJI J IJ. Jw* I preludes the
sentimental passage which begins thus: ^jPt.'i. j i=^
'{' r ** *■* /"J-l^^^l^ ^^^ which has been subsequently
much paraphrased. The minuetto of the second
suite is an interpolated movement whose Mozartian
measures do not appear in the original score. The

theme begins as follows :

i>P doieg

The finale of the second suite is the Farandole which
appears as an incidental coloring of the last act. This
is a sort of jig which is built upon a Proven9al melody.

^ Allegro assai e deciso

^h i. yn^riJ \rrjj irrr^O^'^ in the suite it

alternates with the Noel theme of the first prelude.

In addition to these larger suites there is a Petite
suite d'orchestre which comprises an orchestration of
four short pieces chosen from a collection of piano
duets known as Jeux d'enfants (opus 22). Bizet's list
of orchestral works is completed by a dramatic over-
ture Patrie and a Marche Funebre,

Saint-Saens has successfully essayed the symphonic
suite, his list of works in that form including the Suite
algerienne (opus 50), Une nuit a. Lisbonne (opus 63)
and the more classically formed Suite d'orchestre (opus
49) and the Sarabande e rigaudon (opus 93) . The most
important of these is the Suite algerienne, from whose
title it may be inferred that it is a work strongly infused

344

SCANDINAVIAN NATIONALISM; GRIEG

with local color through the medium of a pseudo-orien-
tal style. Tliis is more particularly emphasized in
the second movement, a 'Moorish Rhapsody' having

^legretto nan troppo

the following themes:

Other movements of the suite include a Reverie du soir
and a Marche militaire frangaise.

The larger part of Massenet's contributions to pure
orchestral music have been in the form of the suite.
The first of these suites written by him. Premiere
suite d'orchestre (opus 13), follows the older lines in
consisting of movements of classic formality. Subse-
quent works, however, as may be seen from their
titles, convey the impressions of local color. Among
these suites are Scenes Hongroises, Scenes pittoresques.
Scenes napolitaines, and Scenes alsaciennes. There is,
besides these works, a Scenes de Feerie and a suite of
transcriptions from Esclarmonde. The best known
and perhaps the most important of these works is the
Scenes pittoresques. This suite has four movements,
the first of which, a march, has the following theme:

Allegro oxMlerato , ^

r /^- /=-

and is followed by a Ballet of brilliant color. The third
movement is an Angelus of an intense and devout emo-
tional beauty; the finale brings again a brilliant dance
rhythm under the title Fete boheme.

Other suites which may be mentioned here are the
Suite d'orchestre of Guiraud; the Impressions de Cam-
pagne au Printemps and Jocelyn of Godard, and La
Farandole of Dubois. The first is one of the few large

345

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

works of its author, who, though little known outside
of France, holds the high esteem of his confreres and
followers. Guiraud's suite is in four movements of
classic form and content. The two Godard suites share
with other works of this composer a facile quality of
giving momentary pleasure. The first is a short
work of three movements of an idyllic description
scored for small orchestra. Answering the description
of a suite, but of larger calibre, is Godard's Symphonie
orientale (opus 84). This work in five movements pic-
tures the five eastern countries, Arabia, China, Greece,
Persia and India. The scoring shows eloquently what
an extremely minor talent Godard's was; for the whole
method of handling the melody, the accompaniment
and the inner voices betrays that the various numbers
are, in form and content, merely piano pieces tran-
scribed for orchestra.

The Scandinavian school of the late nineteenth cen-
tury, like its French contemporary, did its most char-
acteristic work for orchestra in the suite form. This
school, centring about Grieg and Sinding, assiduously
cultivated the national and pictorial. Less remote and
intense in its nationalism than the Russian school, it
was even more successful in conveying local color,
drawn from natural environment, in tone. The minor
talents, who were dry and pedantic in symphonies and
large orchestral pieces, showed charming flashes of
genius when picturing some peculiarity of Scandina-
vian life or scenery.

Of this school Grieg is by far the best known. There
was a time, not long before the writing of these pages,
when the first 'Peer Gynt' suite might have ranked as
the most popular orchestral composition in the world.

346

SCANDINAVIAN NATIONALISM; GRIEG

A decade or two have proved that the charm of Grieg's
music, while real, did not have the qualities of perma-
nence. It was predominantly lyrical and the purely
lyrical treatment of the orchestra has never produced
the works of lasting greatness. But in his chosen field
of genre painter and colorist Grieg has rarely been
surpassed. The two *Peer Gynt' suites are taken from
the music which he wrote to accompany the stage per-
formance of Ibsen's masterly dramatic satire. Unfor-
tunately Anglo-Saxon audiences were hardly familiar
with the Ibsen work and hence perhaps took Grieg's
music a bit too seriously, missing the satiric element
as well as the Norwegian color of certain parts. For
the first suite, much the better known of the two, the
composer chose the *sunrise' music preludial to the
second act; the music accompanying the death of Peer
Gynt's mother; that of the dance of the Bedouin's
daughter in the Moroccan scene; and that accom-
panying the revels of the trolls in the hall of the
Mountain King. The first movement, known as 'Morn-

Aflegretto I^storale

ing,' opens with the following motive =^=*^

r ^r f p ^^ I I r I I I" I M I* ^g intoned by the flute and

oboe in varying harmony, suggestive of the answering
melodies of shepherds' pipes on neighboring mountains.
The harmony begins to glow and the orchestral reso-
nance to deepen, and the theme is presently taken up by
the horn with a rich string accompaniment in arpeggios.
The color intensity varies as the sun disappears and re-
appears behind the clouds. Finally it settles down to a
calm yellow light, as the trilling of the wood-winds al-
ternates with the calm singing of the main theme by the
first violins. In the second movement, known as *Ase's
Death,' we have an impressive funeral march in two sec-
tions, the first complaining with deepening intensity, and

347

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC
the second moaning in helpless despair. The first theme

Andante doloroso

is as follows :

and the second

is a sort of inversion of it. The two sections are
nicely contrasted, the one forming a steady crescendo
and the other an equally steady decrescendo, thus:
rcc::;;;;!^ JZI!II^^^= • Ii^ the second theme, let the listener
notice the wailing harmony, which is as impressive as
it is simple. Such a stroke is highly typical of Grieg's
genius, which was great in the kernel rather than in
the full blown fruit. The third movement, called
'Anitra's Dance,* is a lively mazurka, by no means de-
void of passion, suggesting the whirling of the Bedouin
girl as she fascinates the foolish Peer. The main theme

|, given out by

the violins is later repeated in the major, and an

alluring melody in thirds <£ ^' P P/ ^ f P f.M P' IT:

is used to afford contrast. The movement dies away
in a quaint vein of playfulness. The fourth movement,
*In the Hall of the Mountain King,' must be set down
as a stroke of genius. It is built upon a single motive

Alia marcia molto marcato

given out first by the basses, and repeated thereafter in
one set of instruments after another, while the accom-
paniment thickens and the tempo increases. The end-
ing, taken at breathless speed, is accompanied by the
deafening crash of the brass. The movement, which
lasts but a moment, because of its great speed, is nothing
but a series of repetitions. 'Structure' it has none. But,
as Kretzschmar observes, Grieg, with admirable tact,
knew just when to stop.

The second Peer Gynt suite is more dramatic and

348

GRIEG'S ORCHESTRAL SUITES

'programmistic' than the first. It begins with the nar-
ration of the hero's abduction of the beautiful Ingrid
from her wedding feast. The music shows us first the
terror and anger of the wedding guests as they notice
that Ingrid has disappeared. They call after her, but
only the hollow tones of the horns, suggesting the un-
sympathetic response of Nature, reply. With an an-
dante dolorosa we come into the presence of the stolen
bride, who sings her lament. This song has an un-
usually pathetic and individual ring. The second
movement is an *Arabian Dance,' again in the tent
of the Bedouin chieftain. This time it is a bevy of
beautiful young girls who dance for Peer and attempt
to win him with their coquetry. The first theme

Allegretto TtT»ee

has a marked exotic color. The gentle sounds become
more and more disturbing. With the middle section,
which is played entirely by the string band, a lovely
girl steps forth from the circle and lures the hero with
her gentleness and humor. The third movement is
entitled *Peer Gynt's Homecoming,' but the understand-
ing of it depends upon a knowledge of the play. Peer
Gynt, after his wanderings, is shipwrecked on his native
shore, and is received with no graciousness by his fel-
low-townsmen. The movement opens with the storm

Allegro B^toto

at sea, the theme of which

recalls the parallel theme in the overture to Wagner's
*Flying Dutchman.' The rolling and pitching of the
ocean is represented by the following theme in the bass

instruments :

noisy chromatic figure, which rages throughout the
orchestra from the piccolo to the double basses, re-
calls the howling and growling of the storm. A few

349

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

short chords, fff, represent the breaking and sink-
ing of the ship. The sound of the storm then be-
comes weaker, and the ensuing calm and loneliness
of the shipwrecked wanderer are set forth by the
brass instruments. The movement as a whole is an
admirable bit of impressionistic realism. The final
movement of the suite is an orchestral setting of the
song of Solvejg, the Norse maiden to whom Peer,
after his wanderings, returns. The melody has gained
wide popularity as a solo song. Here the theme

^ Moderato __^ ^_^

nates with a lovely and caressing episode in A major.
The whole movement, however, has a serious quality,
which may be taken as foreshadowing the tragic char-
acter of the play's ending.

The suite drawn from the music to Bjomson's play,
'Sigurd Jorsalfar,' is also extremely effective. The first
movement, named 'Prelude,* has a festal character,
which bears out its sub-title, 'In the King's Hall.* The
inner section of the piece consists of a dialogue, first
between the flute and the oboe, then between the clari-
net and the bassoon, all in an elegiac and sensuous
vein. The second movement, an 'Intermezzo,' is an
andante 'brooding over serious matters,' as Kretzsch-
mar puts it, followed by an allegro indicative of terror,
which glides again into an altered form of the original
andante. The third movement is a 'March of Hom-
age,* whose main theme, first intoned by a quartet of

JUlegretto marxi&Ie

'cellos, is as follows: |l'- <^ ^ft^^UC^ j^irrrrjl'liyfe

The development of the piece is

full of surprises, and the fine finale, in which the main
theme appears in augmentation, is particularly effec-
tive.
Two other suites of Grieg's, the 'Lyric Suite' and

350

NATIONALISM IN SCANDINAVIA: SVENDSEN

that known as the 'Holberg Suite,' are less familiar to
concert goers. The latter, though a work of great
beauty, shows few traces of the nationalism which
particularly interests us in the present chapter. It is
an imitation of the style of the eighteenth century, but
fills its circumscribed forms to overflowing with poetic
suggestiveness.

One of the most interesting of the earlier Scandi-
navian contributions to program music is C. Nielsen's
*The Four Temperaments.' The four movements are
arranged on the conventional symphonic plan, the first
— the 'choleric' temperament — being an allegro; the
second — the *phlegmatic' — a lazy allegretto; the third
— the ^melancholic' — a slow movement; and the last —
the 'sanguine' — a lively finale. The first and second
movements show admirable descriptive powers, but
the third and fourth are less interesting. The Danish
romanticism, as represented by Nielsen, has in more
recent years fulfilled some of its early promise, but it
is, as we know, quite overshadowed by the brilliant
achievement of the Swedish and especially of the Nor-
wegian composers. J. S. Svendsen was one of the most
earnest workers in the cause of Norwegian national-
ism, and has the credit of having written the first Nor-
wegian symphony — that in D major, opus 4. The work
shows scholarship and no little lyric talent, but has
little distinction beyond that of chronology. The open-

Molto iJltgra

ing theme of the first movement'

suggests the simple and honest charac-
ter of the work. The second symphony, in B-flat major,
is more serious in tone and more capable in workman-
ship, but shows too often the influence of other compos-
ers, such as Schumann, Schubert and Brahms. But
there is evidence of national feeling in it, for the third
movement (named 'Intermezzo') glides into the child-

351

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

like pastoral tone which distinguishes so many of the
minor compositions of Grieg. In the first movement,
too, the national feeling is evident. But Svendsen is
at his best in the three 'Norwegian Rhapsodies.' These
are obviously inspired by the Liszt Hungarian Rhap-
sodies, and imitate their loose structure and their un-
willingness to subject the borrowed folk-themes to
elaborate transformation. The tang of such work is
to be found in the means chosen to emphasize the in-
ner spirit of the melodies — and these means are chiefly
those to be derived from the orchestration. In addi-
tion to what the orchestra can provide in the way of
tone color and rhythmic accentuation, there is little
demanded beyond a certain taste in the repetition and
contrasting of subjects. Within these narrow limits,
which call for slight originality, Svendsen has worked
well, making the best of the charming folk-melodies he
has chosen and handling his orchestra with effective-
ness if not with virtuosity. The first rhapsody, opus
17, opens with an andantino in 3/4 time, leading into a
sprightly 2/4 movement, whose theme is a folk-dance
universally known among the Norwegian peasantry:

AUegro

This subject is treated with some freedom, especially
as regards harmony. An andante movement in the
pastoral vein follows, and the rhapsody closes with a
return of the 2/4 movement. The second of the
rhapsodies, opus 19, begins with a rapid 2/4 move-
ment, which leads into an andantino of great beauty

AndAntino

which is developed as a four-part song for strings.
This is followed by an allegro in 3/4 time, and

352

SCANDINAVIAN NATIONALISM; OLSEN, SINDING

another allegro, very rapid, in 2/4 time. The third
Rhapsody, which is dedicated to Grieg, follows the
same structural plan as the early ones. The or-
chestration throughout these works is conventional
but clear. The ^Norwegian Artists* Carnival,* opus 14,
is a rhapsody too, but of closer texture. It is vigor-
ous and inspiriting. The gentle contrasting theme

I'll* i r^i'i |>ri| I J iY>r'T»rriV viijtf r'n'riii n'^^ryrriV

shows Svendsen's melody at its best. The chief theme,
alia polacca, is rhythmically very brilliant. Svendsen's
*fantasy,' 'Romeo and Juliet,' opus 18, is an unfortunate
attempt at dramatic program music by a man who had
very little of the dramatic in his make-up, but the
symphonic poem, *Zorahayda,' based on Washington
Irving's 'Legend of the Rose of the Alhambra,' is well
worth a hearing. The 'argument' tells of the beautiful
Jacinta, who sat one day in the great hall of the Alham-
bra, mourning her lost love. She saw a vision of Zora-
hayda, of long ago, who had been engaged to a Chris-
tian, rejected him, and was condemned to wander
about as a ghost until she was baptized. Jacinta
baptized her and became happy, as Zorahayda faded
away, content now that her wanderings were over.
The Svendsen work is little more than illustrative mel-
ody, more or less appropriate to the subject matter,
supported by accompaniment that is more or less
polyphonic. The themes, however, show true poetic
imagination. The best is that of the apparition:

l^^^ifi^'^frl

-S» Vr r

\f c.rj'iri

F^^

^ ^r Tf

r^^f

• r
r •rf* r

m » J 1 -

[— V - ■

1 T 1 — \-

l^Tf

Ole Olsen was a sincere and talented composer whose
works far outweigh those of many of the more learned
of his followers. Few of the Scandinavian composers
can show such a pure poetic sense as he, for most of

353

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

them were too preoccupied in learning the technique
of their craft from foreign lands. Olsen's Suite for
String Orchestra well illustrates his charming talent.
It is in seven movements, all short, and each illustra-
tive of some feature of Norwegian scenery or life.
The movements are extremely short, and are little
more than simple songs, except that the composer has
treated his inner voice with some freedom and with
unfailing poetic effectiveness, as befits the string or-
chestra. The first number of the suite is a simple song,
very national in character, in 4/4 time. The second
pictures the 'Northern lights on the ice field,' with a
heavy groaning theme in the bass strings playing be-
neath the shimmering violins in empty fifths. The
third number, 'Spring,' is a pastoral movement in 6/8
time, and the fourth, a 'Dream,' is a sentimental piece,
molto adagio, in 3/4 time, showing some local color.
The fifth of the series, named 'Among the Gypsies,' is
a captivating 2/4 movement; the sixth, 'Dwarfs and
Giants,' a slow waltz of a humorous character; and
the last, 'Sunset,' a peaceful andante con moto. All
the numbers aim to set a definite atmosphere in
a few bars, and succeed admirably. Two illustra-
tions— one from the first movement, and the motive
of the ice-fields from the second — will suffice to show
the direct characteristic quality of Olsen's melody:

The work of Christian Sinding seems made to sup-
plement that of Grieg. While Grieg was at his best
in the short piano piece and the song, Sinding shows
his strongest qualities in his large orchestral works.
In these he invariably reveals a strong Wagnerian in-
fluence, in his melody and especially in his harmony
and orchestration, but his symphonic structure is his

354

SCANDINAVIAN NATIONALISM; SINDING

own, achieving Hold and striking outlines without sac-
rificing those nicer elements of workmanship which
make great works so inspiring in the study. Of these
noble orchestral works of Sinding, one of the most pop-
ular, both in Scandinavia and elsewhere, is the first
symphony, opus 21, in D minor. Kretzschmar finds an
implied program in it. 'The basic idea,' he says, 'is to
show in tone how a healthy, self-conscious nature fights
and wins in the battle of life.' Some such general
program as this is never out of place in Sinding's sym-
phonic music, for by its dramatic character it invites
heroic leaps of the imagination and offers magnificent
outlines for which the hearer must draw the specific
detail. The first movement, says Kretzschmar, repre-
sents the individual in his life-struggle. But the strug-
gle is the happy one of a strong man against odds
which he knows he can conquer. The chief theme

Allegro moderato

defiance. The subsidiary theme following this

J"3JiLl-jJj'j:jJJ 'j V^'j^iTJ^N-JJj. IS isp^er-

fuUy intoned by the strings in unison. The second

theme of the movement ^^ j J J -* I ^~JJ- 3 J *.J' ' *^^

the tale of victory foreseen. The spirit of exultation
increases to the end of the exposition section. In
the development section the themes are brought into
active combat. The recapitulation is introduced by the
unison of all instruments on the note F. The move-
ment ends with the consciousness of inner power and
self-confidence. The theme of the second movement,
in 3/4 time, a lyrical introduction, is already familiar
from the first movement The development is full

Andante

fpMu

355

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

of surprising and imaginative passages, such as that
in which the theme is intoned by the tuba pianissimo
to the accompaniment of the basses and kettledrums.
The coda is a 2/4 passage indicative of impetuous joy,
and the movement ends with a distant singing of the
opening bars of the movement. The vivace move-
ment is a thing of many episodes. The chief theme

seems to indicate a youthful joy in mere muscu-
lar exercise. Soon we hear a reminiscence of the
main theme of the first movement, and presently
thereafter the following fine bit of careless defiance,

which soon settles down

into the following song sung by the horns :

This theme is used

in varied wise, suggesting contrasting pictures. The
trio of the movement

nu raoaerato

>■ > > >■ >

has the character of a folk-song, except

for its buoyant syncopation. After this the opening sec-
tion is repeated, as in the classical scherzos, but with
free treatment of the subject matter. The last move-
ment has a tone of majesty and joy. The opening theme

iModerato

seems to Kretzschmar to represent the feelings of the
soul about to make a momentous decision. The sec-

ond theme

. offers

an admirable contrast in spirit and form. In the elab-
orate development and recapitulation, the material of
the movement assumes many different forms, and new

356

TSCHAIKOWSKY'S SYMPHONIES AND OVERTURES

material, recalling that of previous movements, is freely
introduced. The symphony ends in the tone of over-
whelmhig jubilation.

The second symphony (in D major) lacks the epic
character of the first, and hardly ventures out of the
moods of calm happiness. It leads the imagination
into the fields and the social life of the people, and
back to the perfumed experiences of youth. The most
important movement is the first, which is rich in se-
ductive passages of varied beauty. The nationalistic
element is present, but shows itself only modestly.
One of Sinding's most popular works is his 'Perpetuum
Mobile,* an orchestral scherzo of superabundant en-
ergy and captivating beauty. Even better known are
the Episodes Chevaleresques, opus 35. These are thor-
oughly Wagnerian in character, and are perhaps too
little original in their subject matter. Rut they are
carried out with such a happy sense of form, such clear
and rich instrumentation, such expressiveness of
theme, that they are irresistible at first hearing. The
first movement is a stately march in which contrasting
themes are ably interwoven. The second is a Marche
funebre, one of the most impressive, though by no
means the most original, in all modern music. Par-
ticularly notable is the passage in which the consoling
major theme is treated canonically. The third move-
ment is an allegretto in 3/4 time, which might be some
stately mediaeval dance on a broad cloth of gold. The
fourth movement, musically the best of the suite, de-
velops with naive happiness out of the simplest of ma-
terials.

The position held by Tschaikowsky in Russia is
somewhat analogous to that held by Saint-Saens, Mas-
senet, and Lalo in France. He represented, for a time,
at least, nationalism coming to consciousness, popu-

357

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

larized a diluted national music among foreign audi-
ences, and prepared the way for the purer and greater
schools that were to follow. For a time, as we know,
Tschaikowsky represented all of Russian nationalism
in the eyes of the outside world. But in point of fact
he made comparatively slight use of national ma-
terials. Though he was for a time under the influence
of the nationalists, it was rarely the national subjects
that chiefly caught his imagination. He was distinctly
bored while writing the '1812 Overture*; he used native
folk-songs in his symphonies only when they caught
his fancy, and with no discoverable larger purpose;
and with the single exception of his opera 'Eugene
Onyegin,' he found his keenest enthusiasm kindled by
such foreign subjects as Joan of Arc, and Francesca
da Rimini. And so, in the music which we are about
to describe, we shall find national and foreign ma-
terial mingled without apparent purpose. And when
the national element appears, however charming it may
be, we shall find it usually lacking in the sincerity
which creates schools and movements.

The six symphonies which bear Tschaikowsky's
name show a steady advance in power and originality.
They culminate in the famous Pathetique, assuredly
one of the greatest modem works for the orchestra.
The First Symphony, regarded by its composer as a
symphonic poem and endowed with the title 'Winter
Day Dreams,' was written in 1866, before Tschaikow-
sky had found himself. In spite of much charming
material it is weak, so weak that Rubinstein consid-
ered it unworthy of performance. The first movement,
allegro tranquillo, is entitled 'Dreams on the High Road
in Winter.' The second, adagio cantabile, bears the
title 'Dreary Land, Land of Mists.' The third is an
allegro scherzando giocoso, and the finale is an andante
Inguhre. Symphony number 2, in C minor, is the most
distinctly national of all Tschaikowsky's works. Be-

358

Peter Ilyitch Ischaikowsky
\fler u iH>r trail from liff

nal music am

, .v,.c.w. tiie way for the

)ols that werp to follow. For a i

i all of Ru

.' - " world. Bui li

he made coin slight use of

terials. Tb was for a time under the hil

of the nati( •'• •- '- '»

that chiefly

bored while wn - i8i2 Overture'; lie used nati

folk-songs i" ' •

his fancv.

puon of h

da ianiiui. And so, in the music wh
i<> describe, we shall find ' '
terial mingled without ap:
the national element appears, how
be. we shall f - ' - " • •

whirh rvt'Ht-es

■ ' '3 • .. before T-

^^'^ ,>itc of

'■ thai Ru .. ,.

ered it unworthy of performance. The first n)
allegro tranquil I • - -

in Winter.' Tl.
itle *Dreary Land, Land of :

Jiistmctiy natioi.

TSCHAIKOWSKY'S FOURTH SYMPHONY

cause of its use of Malo-Russia themes in the first and
last movements it is called the 'Little Russian Sym-
phony.' The first movement is introduced by a short
passage of elegiac character. The first subject of the
allegro is a variant of a well known folk-song, 'Down
by Mother Volga.' The second movement has a sub-
ject borrowed from one of Tschaikowsky's early op-
eras, 'Undine,' the score of which he destroyed. The
finale, the best movement of the four, shows two re-
markable themes treated in variation form. The first
of these themes is from the folk-song, 'The Crane'; the
second is original. The symphony is full of movement
and lively humor. The Third Symphony, in D, mis-
called the 'Polish,' is totally western in character, and
shows the brilliancy of orchestration which Tschai-
kowsky later developed to such an astounding degree.
The first movement opens with a magnificent funeral
march, which leads to an allegro of festal character.
The second movement opens with a graceful waltz,
alia tedesca, which is followed by an andante elegiaco.
In this movement Tschaikowsky reveals the best of
which his genius was capable. The finale is a riot of
dazzling sunshine.

The Fourth and Fifth Symphonies are still extremely
popular on concert programs, though they will doubt-
less not retain their hold like the Pathetique. Both
contain many passages of flawless beauty; both show
lack of self-criticism and vulgar over-emphasis of
banal material. But, particularly in the Fifth, the first
impression is overwhelming. Both are in the 'cyclic'
form and seem to have hidden programs to tease the
listener's imagination.

The Fourth Symphony opens with its cyclic theme,
an inspiring call as to battle, intoned by the horns:

Andante sosunuto

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

After a short development this leads to the main
theme of the movement, moderato con anima:

\^oUn8 and Cello ^^^

oping this theme Tschaikowsky shows his familiar
characteristics — a loose structure, tending to verbos-
ity but made attractive (sometimes all too cheaply)
by means of brilliant contrasts, daring instrumen-
tation, and overpowering use of the tutti. The con-
trasting theme is a plaintive song of great beauty

CUrinet Solo

'^^' ^!rn^\^r{^^^JxnAi:^^^*^o. m the devel-
opment of which a major figure drawn from the
main theme is used as an obbligato accompaniment.
The exposition ends with the introductory horn calL
The working out is based on the main theme, and is
more than usually unsatisfactory. In the recapitula-
tion this theme is much shortened. Again the horn call
is repeated, followed by a noisy coda, built on unfa-
miliar material which hardly adds credit to its com-
poser's name. The best movements in the symphony
are the second and third, which Tschaikowsky has
hardly surpassed in the whole range of his works.
The second, an andantino 'in the manner of a song,*

has the following main theme: ft '» l^^ 3f v [fr I ijp? e Pr rTr I
J^jj^rJJjJiiJI^r'^XD'liijP^jl^'^*. This alternates with a

broad and vigorous passage for the strings, and is
treated with much variety in its frequent repetitions,
both before the quaint trio. The movement closes
with a final statement of the main theme by the
bassoon. The scherzo is a masterpiece of wit and
delicate playfulness. The three main groups of in-
struments are kept quite distinct, each one having
its typical theme and retaining its identity when it
plays with the others. The strings, throughout the
whole movement, are played pizzicato. The movement

360

TSCHAIKOWSKY'S FIFTH SYMPHONY

opens with a very rapid elf-like theme for the strings
alone. Next comes a passage which, it has been said,
is meant to suggest a toy brass band. First a wood-
wind passage with the oboes and flutes doing a saucy
little melody; then the brass alone — horns, trumpets,
trombones and kettledrums — playing pianissimo with
weird effect (the thick, heavy chords are played short
and might be marked 'pizzicato'). This is next com-
bined and alternated with the typical passages of the
wood-wind section. Finally all three choirs, with their
typical passages, play together or in close alternation.
It all comes to a pianissimo close which leaves the
spectator breathless with astonishment at the com-
poser's virtuosity, taste and restraint. The final
movement, allegro con fuoco, is noisy and cheap; it
merits no comment, beyond a quotation of its second
theme, which is drawn from a Russian folk-song:

The Fifth Symphony tempts one irresistibly to an
elaborate program of epic nature. We seem to see
whole nations in revolt, mourning, rejoicing, conquer-
ing. The exaltation which it produces, as it builds up
its cumulative emotions, is almost more than human
nerves can stand. And yet it is not a work which
'wears' well. And its most striking parts are unex-
pectedly disappointing in the study. Its subjects are
in several cases rather banal, and the composer's be-
setting sins, verbosity and over-emphasis, are in cer-
tain places painfully evident. Yet taking it all in all,
the work does not fall far short of being a masterpiece.
Two of its movements (the second and third) are well
nigh perfect, and the remaining ones are so irresis-
tible in their color and emotional potency that the
hearer is swept away into an uncritical heaven of in-

361

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

tense experience. The first movement opens with an
andante prelude, the theme of which is the binding
motive of all the movements. One would like to think
that this theme stands for the Russian people in their
struggle for political freedom. Here it is, as it is
intoned at the opening of the symphony in the low-

est register of the clarinet:

Andante

pin /one

After a song-like develop-
ment it subsides and the accompanying instruments
pause expectantly for the opening of the allegro. The
chief theme of this, with the agitated effect of its syn-
copation, suggests the surging of a great mass of peo-
ple— perhaps our Russian nation at work and at play,
vital and free-souled, but submerged and unhappy:

Allegro con anima

free development of this theme leads us through bois-
terous passages in which the color is somewhat
muddy, the polyphony obscure and the rhythm vio-
lent in the extreme. The second principal theme
forms a strong contrast to the first; perhaps it
shows our people in their idealistic, aspiring mood:

In the whole of the exposition Tschaikowsky takes his
liberties with the sonata form, developing certain sec-
tions out of all classical proportions. The success of
this free fantasia treatment must be left to the indi-
vidual taste for judgment, but doubtless it would con-
vince more listeners if the absolute value of the various
parts were more even. The working-out section has
many elements of surprise and excitement, using all
the previous material with great polyphonic freedom.
One of its most striking sections is its ending, a long
diminuendo leading into the beginning of the recapitu-

362

TSCHAIKOWSKY'S FIFTH SYMPHONY

lation. When the chief theme of the movement then
returns, it is sung by the bassoons. The recapitulation
varies from its 'statement' as freely as the latter varied
from its classic model. The movement comes to rest
after a long diminuendo.

The second movement, one of the most popular
compositions Tschaikowsky ever wrote, is a pas-
sionate and sensuous andante. It is thrown to-
gether in the impassioned impromptu manner which
the composer so often affected, and it yields little
to formal analysis. Its chief themes are as follows:

Aneuune cantaoiie

^ ' trtsetndd

It will be seen that these motives have little contrast or
relief to offer one another. And to many this is the
great fault of the movement; it plays so relentlessly
upon the nervous emotions that it tends to become
either unendurably poignant or colorlessly banal. Yet
to those whose ears are not too sensitive and whose
attention is nevertheless sufficiently sustained, it is a
movement of exalted beauty. Some slight contrast is
introduced by a third theme which serves as a sort

Mojerato con anima

trio:

Shortly before the movement's end the cyclic theme of
the sjmiphony appears once more, a sort of rumble of
cannon amid the pathos of a people's suffering.

The third movement, superscribed 'Waltz,' is a won-
derfully beautiful piece of delicate tracery. One would
say it is the aristocracy of the people, dancing in its
ballroom, oblivious of the groaning of the workers

Allegro modento

outside. The chief theme

brings us into a vein in

363

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

which Tschaikowsky worked with a superlative sure-
ness of touch. A middle section of the waltz is made
up of the most delicate tracery of sixteenth notes in the
strings. The chief theme, returning, dies away, as the
guests leave the ballroom and the morning light ap-
proaches. But before the last sounds have departed we
hear in the bass the threatening of the cyclic motive. It
is as though the guests heard the first mutterings of the
mob in the streets below, as on that famous occasion
when Louis XVI learned that the uprising of the people
was 'not a revolt but a revolution.'

The fourth movement has its introduction and coda,
but of such sort as to lift the hearer to the most de-
lirious enthusiasm. These are no other than the cyclic
motive placed in the major, and sung in broad and tri-
umphant measure by the whole orchestra. The theme
begins softly, as though the consecrated armies of the
people were approaching for battle, and rises to a full-
voiced fortissimo. Then the noble measure breaks off;
there is a pause, and the allegro vivace begins with

^ ^ Allegro vivace

the following theme:

We may call it the apotheosis of victorious struggle,

and the repose of the second theme

\'t». is only the ear-
nest of the future triumph. The movement, musically
considered, is not remarkable, either melodically or
structurally, but it is brief and clear and serves admir-
ably in its magnificent setting. After a fortissimo crash
of the orchestra there is an expectant pause. Then the
bass instruments, with great deliberation, begin play-
ing the following figure: V'Vll ^ ^ J J ^j J ^■^ J J J J **•
and after two measures the cyclic theme, still in the
major, enters in its most majestic form, over the triplet
accompaniment. The passage is commonly taken at a

364

TSCHAIKOWSKY'S 'PATHETIC SYMPHONY

very deliberate tempo, and when so taken can be sus-
tained only by an extraordinary legato in the orchestral
instruments. In its effect on the hearer this passage is
one of the most remarkable depictions in all music of
that peculiar sensation known as mob-emotion. Here
it inevitably means the triumph of a great popular
cause. The armies of liberty have fought and won. The
movement closes with a violent allegro, and the chief
theme of the first movement appears for a moment just
before the end.

Tschaikowsky's sixth and last symphony, the Pa-
thdtique, is unquestionably his finest orchestral work.
In it all the banality and cheap over-emphasis that
defaced his earlier symphonies is gone. The emotion
is intense and sincere throughout, and the workman-
ship invariably masterly. In it Tschaikowsky has for
once exorcised all his besetting sins. The work has
been called the only symphony of the latter half of the
nineteenth century which can rank beside Beethoven's
best. Beyond a shadow of a doubt it is one of the
greatest symphonies of modem times. The name Pa-
thetique was given it by the composer, but not until
the work had been completed. It would seem to be
program music, even more than the Fifth Symphony,
but with a program so subjective that each hearer
must supply it for himself. It abounds in those daring
strokes of orchestration by which Tschaikowsky so
astonished the world — especially in the development of
the melodic powers of the low bass instruments. The
form is so free and spontaneous that a purist would be
obliged to deny the work its title of 'symphony' and
call it a 'symphonic fantasia.' Yet the form is well
nigh beyond criticism; it flows so inevitably from the
subject matter that any attempt to make it fit the classi-
cal mold would be an absurdity.

The first movement is introduced by a short adagio
passage of despairing sorrow, with the following theme:

365

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

A<lagk>

fined almost solely to the bass instruments. This
motif shows its affinity with the principal theme
of the first movement proper, allegro non troppo:

Allegro non troppo

The development of this theme, which continually spins
out new related phrases, shows an astonishing virility
of creation. The mood throughout is one of desperate
and hopeless struggle. The second principal theme
of the movement, a melody of infinite sweetness and
pathos, is well nigh as famous as that other ethereal
second theme from Schubert's B minor symphony.

Andnnto

The fact that the contrasting material differs utterly
from the first in tempo as well as in mood, shows how
far Tschaikowsky has come from the classical concep-
tion of formal symphonic unity. The whole contrasting
section develops with the loveliest tone contrasts, end-
ing with the melody just whispered by the clarinet —
*ppppp' as the composer has designated it. There is a
long pause. Then the orchestra plunges into an allegro
with a heavy dissonant chord. The development sec-
tion has begun. This passage is extremely rich in in-
tense emotional episodes, showing poetic feeling and
technical skill in equal degree. It ends on a mood of
hopeless resignation. The recapitulation follows the
statement closely except that it omits the more com-
plicated development passages. The movement ends
with a consolatory coda of infinite tenderness, based on

this phrase :

AwtUltA IDOSSO^

II II L

366

TSCHAIKOWSKY'S 'PATHETIC SYMPHONY

Among the liberties which Tschaikowsky in this
work has taken with the symphonic form is that of
interchanging the customary tempos of the second and
fourth movements. For his purpose the last move-
ment must be an adagio lament. Accordingly, he
places the second in an allegro tempo, though preserv-
ing to it something of the allegretto character which
we find in many of the 'slow' movements of the classi-
cal symphonies. It has become famous not alone
through its superlative beauty, but also through its
use of the 5/4 rhythm, ordinarily supposed to be caviare
to the general. In this case, however, Tschaikowsky
has so perfectly solved his problem that the present
movement ranks with the andante of the Fifth
Symphony as one of his most popular orchestral
works. It maintains a mood of delicate pathos be-
neath its surface gaiety, and an infinite grace of rhythm
and movement. Its chief theme is the following.

whose development consists chiefly in repetition with
varied instrumentation and adornment. A middle sec-
tion with the following theme
f'~P ^ r I r P "L-"^ brings a more solemn note into the

movement, but this is dissipated with the return of the
first theme, which dies away in gentlest pianissimo
strains.

The third movement, allegro molto vivace, stands
as the ordinary scherzo of the symphony. But it is a
strange beast, not to be named with any name, or to be
measured with any rule. As a part of a 'pathetic*
symphony it is a puzzle. Yet in its elfin and grotesque
characteristics it may suggest the nightmares of the

367

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

sorrow-haunted man. However difficult we may find
it to explain or *place' this movement in words, there
is something in our poetic souls which tells us that it is
right, that the musical literature of imagination would
be poorer without this movement in this place. It begins
with a whirring figure for the strings, taken softly, and
developing complexly. Presently we become aware of
a foreign element in the whirring music — a rigorously

rhythmic figure as follows :

This develops into a lively and ghostly staccato march,
with a wealth of instrumental fancy. Then it becomes
heavier and more insistent. Fancy becomes grotes-
querie, and the march, shifting into the major, goes

on with the following theme:

It is as though hundreds

of horned devils were tramping within some great en-
closed space. The fairy-like motif returns towards the
end, but soon gives place to the march, which ends in
a burst of fury.

The final movement is an adagio lamentoso in 3/4
time, one of the most intense expressions of pessimism
and despair in all music. It opens with a moaning
motive in the strings, in the playing of which the
first and second violins intertwine, so that the mel-
odic note is played alternately by the one group and
the other. The melodic result is the following theme:

Adagio lamentoso

ft " 'J ^ r? rj I \~^^- 'I'^^ pessimism of this brief and

free movement is nothing short of terrible. Doubtless
it had a very personal meaning to the composer, though
what this was we have at present no means of knowing.
But color is lent to the theory of the personal interpre-
tation of the work by the fact that the composer's death
(or suicide) occurred such a short time after its com-

368

TSCHAIKOWSKY'S 'MANFRED'

pletion. Perhaps Tschaikowsky's private papers, which
are only to be opened many years hence, will throw
some light on the question, or even supply the com-
poser's own intimate program.

Allied to these six symphonies is Tschaikowsky's
'program symphony' 'Manfred,' familiar to German
concert halls but little known in America. The four
freely handled movements depict episodes in Byron's
poem (masterfully treated as a dramatic cantata by
Schumann), which tells of the hapless love of Manfred
for his sister, and how he sought through the earth
and among the demons of hell for absolution and sal-
vation. The work is very unequal. The first move-
ment is masterly in its varied and vivid depiction of
emotion, though by no means superior to Schumann's
wonderful overture painting the dark recesses of
Manfred's soul. In the complex interweavings of
this first movement which relates the psychological
struggle of the hero, we need only quote the
two chief motives — that of Manfred, which opens
the work, and that of his beloved sister, Astarte:

Lento hignbre

The second movement, which depicts Manfred hold-
ing converse with an Alpine spirit beneath a water-
fall, is inferior to the first, being little more than a deli-
cate genre picture of nature. The third movement is
superscribed : 'Pastorale. Simple, free and joyous life of
the Mountaineers'; and has the following chief theme:

Andante coa moto

369

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Here, amid general merrymaking, Manfred dreams of
happiness. In the final movement Tschaikowsky paints
the death of Manfred in the infernal palace of Ariman,
where he loses himself in the devilish bacchanale, and
meets for the last time the spirit of his beloved Astarte.
He dies, and a solemn religious episode, supported by
the organ, tells of his being received in heaven, absolved
from the sin against which he had heroically but vainly
striven.

The *overture-fantasy' *Romeo and Juliet' was one
of Tschaikowsky's earlier works, written when he was
under the influence of the *neo-Russian' group of com-
posers, and dedicated to their master, Balakireff. In
a measure it was an attempt to carry out Balakireff''s
ideals. It keeps to the main course of the Shakespear-
ean story, except that it conventionalizes the material to
fit the overture form. The work opens with the solemn,
semi-modal melody representing Friar Lawrence:

This is first given out in the wood-wind, but the orches-
tration gradually deepens and broadens, and the theme
is fitted out with a running bass in the lower strings.
A crescendo and stringendo lead to the main theme.

««fc allegro giusto, in
instruments. This

the

wood-wind and stringed instruments. This is the
theme of strife, the street brawls of the Montagues and
Capulets, against which as a background the love story
is painted. This motif is developed in Tschaikow-
sky's accustomed manner, with much variety and in-
cisiveness. The tumult subsides, and we hear the mo-
tive of love, sung by the English horn and violas:

After a brief development of this the *statement' closes.
The working-out uses the motif of strife as its chief

370

TSCHAIKOWSKY'S FRANCESCA DA RIMINI'

material, but works in the Friar Lawrence motif with
great skill. In the recapitulation the form is fairly
exact, except that the love theme is more highly de-
veloped. The beautiful coda takes more thought for
the dramatic story. It begins with the motif of strife
noisier than ever, but the Friar Lawrence theme, in a
transformed shape, gains the dominance, and the mu-
sic comes to a moderato assai, in which the theme of
love, now given a pathetic and tragic character, is
dominant. Some sharp chords, recalling the strife
motif, close the work. The piece has its great beauties,
and is an excellent instance of program music. But
the composer seems to have made a fundamental mis-
take in adhering so closely to the overture form, thus
negating the dramatic and narrative elements of the
story. Experience has proven that once we enter the
field of program music it is almost always essential to
let the form grow out of the subject and materials.

This fault Tschaikowsky avoided in the Francesca
da Rimini, which he called a 'fantasy after Dante.'
Here, though the overture form may be vaguely dis-
cerned, there is no attempt to make the material fit the
mold. The work is a vividly pictured episode which
fits very closely with the narrative of the 'Inferno.'
It opens with an andante lugubre, perhaps expres-
sive of the mood of Dante as Virgil led him through
the region of lost souls. The theme is as follows:

Presently,
against triplets in the wood-wind and strings, comes a

f, w Horn HI f

theme ft ^ n-l J I JP '^' '^^^^ which may be taken as
depicting the tortures of the damned. This and related
material develops at length with constant triplet fig-
ures through a piii mosso section to a brief return of
the opening material. Then follows the main alle-

371

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Horns tn t

gro with its chromatic theme : ^H f -r j. J-_[.'j|J J J «' i;-! 1 .

Here we are certainly experiencing the tortures that
meet the wicked. This receives a very long develop-
ment, very typical of Tschaikowsky's style and endowed
wdth all the Tschaikowsky mannerisms of thundering
brass, screeching wood-wind, squealing strings and an-
swering and interweaving chromatic voices. One strik-
ing passage is that in which this hub-bub continues for
twenty-nine measures over the unvarying bass figure:
y-' i J ji J ;i I J J) J ^ played by the bass viols and

bassoons. All this is rather theatrical but undeni-
ably effective. The introduction to the slow move-
ment, in which the thunder subsides in descending
passages for the strings, is highly typical of its
composer. It is when Dante approaches the fa-
mous lovers, we may imagine, that the clarinet
unaccompanied gives forth the following melody:

p mn tnarcaio

Then comes Francesca's narrative of her love for her
brother-in-law Paolo, and of the magnificent sin for
which they were cast into the Inferno. It is as follows.

Clarinet

>».. sung by the

clarinet with an accompaniment by the strings. This
is developed at great length and with great variety, to-
gether with the preceding 6/8 melody, which assumes
much structural importance. Finally, the chief theme
of the allegro returns, and the work closes with a brief
picture of the infernal torments, as Virgil and Dante
move on to other scenes. In the work there are many
beauties, especially the Francesca episode, which is
marvellously expressive. But it is rather long and aim-

372

TSCHAIKOWSKrS MINOR WORKS

less, and shows too many of Tschaikowsky's manner-
isms and weaknesses to be ranked among his great
works.

Among the other orchestral works of Tschaikowsky
the overture to Shakespeare's 'The Tempest' should be
mentioned. It is similar to the 'Romeo' in design and
execution, but it is an earlier work and is weaker in
musical interest. Further we should make mention of
the various suites and pieces for small orchestra, and
of the inimitable 'Nutcracker' suite, filled with humor
and with orchestral beauties beyond number. Finally
let us recall the '1812 Overture,' which with all its
blatancy is one of the most spirited pieces of program
music we possess. Tschaikowsky wrote this on com-
mission from the government for performance in the
public square, with real bells and cannon. He hated
the work, and this indifference to his music shows
plainly enough in many passages, which are of routine
quality. But the solemn and terrible hymn, founded
on an old Byzantine ecclesiastical tune, which opens
the overture and returns with overpowering effect to-
ward the close, furnishes a few moments of experience
too vivid and inspiring to be dismissed with a pedantic
sneer. The description of the battle reminds one much
of the strife scenes of 'Romeo and Juliet,' but the folk-
tune which represents the Russian people offers the
composer an opportunity for color which Tschaikowsky
has seized to the full. The introduction of the Russian
National Anthem at the end, besides being an an-
achronism as applied to the Napoleonic- invasion of
1812, is almost a musical failure, since it does not fuse
well with the chief materials of the overture. Of the
bells and cannon we need only say that they seem no
less legitimate than the drums of many a better piece
of music.

373

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

VII

The Bohemians, who were once the teachers of all
Europe in the fine arts, did not begin to produce a vig-
orous creative school of music until well along in the
nineteenth century. As with Finland, the Bohemian
national renaissance in art was but a reflex of the na-
tional renaissance in politics — that is, of the struggle
for freedom from Austrian domination. Such a strug-
gle could not safely be carried on in the open, so art
was called into the service of the nationalists, to keep
patriotic sentiments alive and to bear tidings to men
that their compatriots were with them in the struggle.
In more than one instance the composer has been this
underground spokesman of a great cause. In the case
of Bohemia, whose struggle up to the present time
has been hopeless, the great patriotic composer was
Friedrich Smetana, most widely known in foreign coun-
tries as the composer of the national folk-opera, 'The
Bartered Bride.' After his success in the opera houses,
and after deafness had forced him to give up the con-
ductor's baton, he devoted the best of his energies to
the composition of a cycle of symphonic poems on
patriotic themes. This cycle is entitled Ma Vlasi, or
*My Country.'

Smetana was preceded in his nationalism by W. J.
Tomaschek, who is best known by his E-flat major
symphony, and by Tomaschek's pupil. Job. Friedrich
Kittl, whose best work is his 'Hunt Symphony.' But
neither of these talented men succeeded in catching the
character of native folk-song and the note of divine
frenzy as Smetana succeeded. Ma Vlasi, ambitious as
it was in plan, succeeded admirably. Of the six sym-
phonic poems that make up the series, five are alto-
gether exceptional and admirable, and most of them
are well known in foreign lands. The whole cycle is

374

MODERN BOHEMIA; SMETANA

often played — most frequently, of course, in the com-
poser's native land.

The first of the series is entitled Vysehrad. It bears
a program narrating how the poet, standing near the
spot where once the ancient castle of Vysehrad stood,
heard the sound of the harp of the bard Lumir, and
then saw in his mind's eye the former glory of the na-
tional fortress. Then he saw the battles it had felt
and the sieges it had withstood, and its festivals as
the warriors returned victorious; finally the over-
powering of the fortress by its enemies, and the pic-
ture of the bare and forsaken castle. From its ruins
sounded the echo of the harping of Lumir, now mute.
The tone-poem opens with the Vysehrad motif.

Lento

(£n. j J j ■> r I J j j I J j ^'1 J which occurs in three

numbers of the series and thus forms a sort of cyclic
theme for the whole work, just as the castle of Vyse-
hrad is a symbol of the past greatness of Bohemia.
The motive is given out by the harp, which leads us
back to the days of the bards. We cannot here enu-
merate the many charming episodes in this tone-poem,
and the others of the series. It must be enough to
point out the subject matter, the chief themes, and
the general method of development. After a brief de-
velopment of the Vysehrad motif comes the section
of struggle, which has a chief theme closely related to
the main theme. For a moment there is victory, but
the enemies are too powerful and disaster comes. A
following section paints the desolation of a ruined
Vysehrad (and a subjugated Bohemia). As a sort of
moral of it all we hear an idealization of the Vysehrad
theme in broad majestic rhythm. And finally there
come once more the strains of the harp, as though en-
framing the picture of past days.
The second number of the series is entitled Vltava,

375

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

or *The Moldau.' The Moldau is the beautiful river
which runs through the city of Prague, and it here
serves as a symbol of the growth and greatness of the
Bohemian nation. In the program appended the com-
poser tells how two springs, one warm and one cold,
arise in the depths of the Bohemian forest and join to
make the brook which in time becomes the river Mol-
dau. First it flows through the forest where the hunt
is in progress; then through the plains where the peas-
ants are celebrating a wedding festival; then through
the woods in the moonlight, while the fairies and
water-nymphs sport upon its banks; then over the
rapids of St. John in which it makes a way for
itself among the rocks to reach the fertile plain
below. And finally it flows towards Prague and is
welcomed by old Vysehrad. The work is in a free
rondo form, the theme of the Moldau returning af-
ter the various episodes. This theme is as follows:

Allegro oommodo noa a^tato

it will be seen that the two original streams are
represented by two sections of the melodies played
respectively by the two flutes. The theme of the Moldau
in its first phase is the following lovely folk-melody:

The various phases of the work are all of the utmost
charm, but a quotation must be made, especially from
that of the wedding festival, which is in Smetana's most

genuine mood:

After the turbulent episode of the rapids of St. John the

work closes with the Vysehrad motif in broad rhythm.

The third of the tone-poems, Sarka, is the least of

the six, and need not be referred to here except to say

376

SMETANA'S *MY COUNTRY*

that the theme is from the apocryphal history of Bo-
hemia, telling of the revolt of the women against the
men in past ages. The fourth of the series, Aus Boh-
mens Hain und Flur ('From Bohemia's Woods and
Plains') is possibly the most charming of all. We have
here a sort of personally conducted tour through Bo-
hemian scenery. The piece is an idyl of landscape
description in tone. The utmost simpUcity of method
is observed through the various episodes, and the work
is never far from the spirit of the folk-song.

Tabor, perhaps the most inspiring of the whole cycle,
is a tone-picture from the days of the Hussite wars,
when the earliest Protestants of Europe battled for
their faith. Its chief motif is the old Bohemian hymn
associated with the national Protestant faith, as the
Lutheran hymn, Ein feste Burg, is associated with Ger-
man Protestantism. Here is the chorale motif, as it

^ Lento

appears symbolical of battle:

j:f"lr<- -U^ri' rlJftf ^^^. And this phrase resounds
throughout the poem as the battle-call :

Another section of the chorale

J J J J k1 I symbolizes the feminine factor in the

struggle, its gentleness, faith and prayer. The episode
descriptive of battle is thrilling in the extreme, with
fragments of the chorale resounding through it as a
call to faith. The work ends with a magnificent re-
statement of the chorale as a prayer of thanksgiving
and a paean of victory.

Blanick, the subject of the last of the cycle, is a fa-
mous mountain in Bohemia, in which the defeated
warriors of the Hussite conflict are supposed to wait
through the centuries for the time when they may
come forth and rescue their country from bondage.

377

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

It is thus the counterpart of the mountain in Germany
where Friedrich Barbarossa has awaited the time when
he should come forth to battle for German unity. The
tone-poem is a reminiscence of past national great-
ness, and also a prophecy and a summons for the fu-
ture. In this final number of the cycle we see how
consciously Smetana was a spokesman for the political
movement of his countrymen. His music is frankly a
call to arms. The movement opens with the Tabor
motive of the preceding number, in a calm and modi-
fied form. The heroes are now waiting and at rest
Then comes a picture of the mountain upon which the
shepherds loll with their flocks. Then a brief episode
of the national sorrow and despair, out of which
emerges the promise of victory, a bit of the chorale,
developing into a solemn and stirring march. And
finally, there comes a repetition and majestic restate-
ment of the Vysehrad motif of the first tone-poem.

The symphonies of Antonin Dvorak were once hailed
as the best symphonic achievement of the late nine-
teenth century after Brahms. This was partly due to
the fact that Brahms 'announced' Dvorak as his suc-
cessor, even as Schumann, in earlier days, had 'an-
nounced' Brahms. Dvorak's work seemed to many the
sanest fusion of the new romantic elements in music
with the classical principles on which, they believed,
all music must rest. And none wish to deny the charm
of these orchestral works, so full of color, of seductive
melody, of clear musical thinking. But with the trend
of recent years Dvorak has tended towards obscurity
(except, of course, in his native land). Of his five
symphonies (two posthumous symphonies are little
known) only the last is often heard in America, and in
European lands the others are passing out of sight in
the face of the more powerful and timely works of the
twentieth century. And the vogue of the Fi^th in
America is largely due to the fact of its supposed

378

MODERN BOHEMIA; DVOSAk

American content and import. It bears the title, 'From
the New World,' and is confessedly the result of
Dvorak's long visit in New York and of the impressions
he gained of the American temperament. To some
extent, indeed, it is based upon the music of the Ameri-
can negro. At one time it was claimed that this sym-
phony was offered to America by the composer as an
example of American national music, a model of how
American composers might create a patriotic musical
art out of native materials. But beyond the fact that a
native composer cannot tread the same ground as a
foreigner brought up in the German tradition, the
critics of the symphony have successfully made their
point that the themes, with one or two possible excep-
tions, are not negro at all, and that the national or
*local color' element in it is at best very attenuated.
Yet, apart from these controversial features, the work
deservedly holds its place on American concert pro-
grams by its great intrinsic beauty.

Dvorak was not a nationalist in the strenuous spirit
of Smetana. He hardly thought of himself as a
trumpet call to patriotism. Yet he is thoroughly a na-
tionalist in the hearts of his countrymen, and used
folk-themes with great gusto. Beyond this, he is, by
his deeper cultural foundations and greater talent, the
most important national composer of Bohemia. None
of the five symphoqies has a specific national import
(excepting, of course, the last), but each of them has a
goodly element of the national in its subject-matter.

The first, in D major, richly reveals the natural tal-
ent of the composer. Its national element resides
chiefly in the scherzo, and in the last movement, which

• Allegro oon spirito

has the following folk-like subject;

The second reveals Dvofdk's

learning and ability. This work is serious to the

379

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

verge of pessimism; even the final movement is bit-
ter and determined, rather than heroic and gay, as
in the classical symphony. The third, says Kretzsch-
mar, 'tells the tale of youth, of ideals, of sentimental
experiences, of goodly strife, and of success.* The
chief motive of the first movement will serve to il-
lustrate the buoyant tone of the work, as well as the
romantic color which was so personal to Dvorak:

AUegroma non trop£o

The Fourth S3miphony has remained less popular than
the others, partly because of its free form (it is so far
from the strict symphonic form that it is little more
than a series of genre pictures) and partly because its
subject-matter is so national in character that it is ap-
preciated to the full only by a native audience. In all
these works, even the last named, the classic element
is strong. Brahms and Schubert, and especially Bee-
thoven, influenced Dvorak deeply.

Nor is this influence missing in the romantic and
colorful 'New World' symphony. The work is an ad-
mirable romantic example of the classic form in com-
pact and clear development. The first movement begins
mysteriously with an adagio in 4/8 time, in which syn-
copation is dominant. Tlie introduction gradually works
up to the allegro molto, which has the following theme :

Allegro molto

It should be noted here that a prominent feature of the
theme is its sharp syncopation, or rather the 'snap,' of
the second and fourth measures, which is a feature of
all negro music, from the old 'spirituals' to modem
ragtime. This theme is developed clearly, with much

380

DVORAK'S *NEW WORLD' SYMPHONY

colorful tossing about from instrument to instrument,
until it returns in its purity fortissimo. Presently, in a
more moderate tempo, comes the following theme,
which, while far enough removed from true negro
music, carries a certain suggestion of 'local color':

FhttekodObo* ^ ^ ^

i i {^ ^rr ^^Pr^ ^P^'^^i H- The ground tone,

torn ' Js ' •- ' ji '

D, carried by the horns, gives it an added exotic charm.
This motive is used in its full value, and the statement
closes with the second theme, perhaps the most memor-
able of the whole work :

The working-out section is brief and

compact, and the recapitulation strict. The charming
coda is built on the first and third themes, and the free
use of the brass gives it a festal tone.

The famous Largo is a brief movement of the highest

Largo

beauty, based on the following theme : 3

It is not necessary to an-
alyze the use of the theme here; it is sufficient to say
that nowhere has Dvorak allowed his fancy to wander
with more enchanting result It should be said, how-
ever, that of the whole symphony this second move-
ment has the least relation to negro life and music. In
the scherzo the composer makes free with the tradi-
tional form, yet strictly in the spirit of his master Bee-
thoven. The chief theme of the opening is as follows:

Molto TlTace

The snappy rhythm

of this vigorous motif is used to give an impression
of overwhelming physical vigor. The theme of the trio

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC
shows relationship with the chief motif of the largo.

^ MoKo vlvacfr

After the trio comes a charming motive S,'i p I p' p P» I

p
which later assumes

the chief place in the movement. In the course of the
movement we have also a quotation of the main theme
of the opening allegro movement, which also serves in
the coda. In the final movement there is little which
demands mention, except the magnificent main theme,

Allei^ oon Mooa

^ Uorna u>d TKnipet*

and the quotation of the chief themes of the first and
second movements in the working-out section. It is
needless to add that in this work Dvorak continually
shows his mastery over the romantic colors of the mod-
em orchestra.

The abundance of the material treated in this chap-
ter forbids us to continue further with the analysis of
the many beautiful orchestral works which deserve
high respect and praise. Smetana and Dvorak by no
means represent the whole of the worthy orchestral
output of modern Bohemia. A more detailed survey
would treat of the works of Zdenko Fibich, whose sec-
ond symphony, in E-flat, is a lovely poem in praise of
nature; of Joseph Suk, whose five-part symphony
*Asraer is a deeper and more serious work showing
modem chromatic tendencies; of O. Nedbal, with his
Suite mignonne, and of Viteslav Novak, with his sym-
phonic poems. Of these younger men we have doubt-
less yet much to hear. TTiey seem likely to contribute
richly to the modem art of orchestration, as they have
been contributing to modern harmony.

382

CHAPTER XII

ORCHESTRAL MUSIC OF MODERN GERMANY

Richard Strauss; his early works: the F minor symphony, Aus Italien,
etc.; the symphonic poems: 'Macbeth,' 'Don Juan,' 'Death and Transfigura-
tion,' 'Thus Spake Zarathustra,' 'Don Quixote,' 'Till Eulenspiegel,' 'A Hero's
Life,' and the Symphonia Domesttca — Gustav Mahler and his nine sym-
phonies— Other orchestral composers: Weingartner, Schillings, von Hau-
segger, Nicod^, etc.; minor German composers — The modems: Reger, Sch6n-
berg. etc.

In treating of modem German orchestral writing we
must give the first place to Richard Strauss. There are
many critics, particularly in England, who would deny
him this place — who would, in fact, deny him any place
except that of master trickster and sensationalist of the
age. Let us here keep clear of the controversial fea-
tures of the matter. Let us mention merely his obvious
and uncontested distinctions. They are many. First,
he is beyond a doubt the most popular of the great
modem composers. (We say this with full realization
that the verdict of one generation is very often contra-
dicted by the next.) Next, he has continued in full and
increasing brilliancy the great line of symphonic poems
that commenced with Liszt. He has, more than any
other composer, been able to present great ideas and
pictures with overwhelming beauty and power. He
is endowed with the richest vein of German lyricism,
in direct succession from Haydn and Mozart. He is one
of the greatest masters of instrumentation living to-day,
and has extended the tonal and expressive range of the

383

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

orchestra to a remarkable degree (though not, per-
haps, in a new direction or a revolutionary manner).*
And finally, he has brought the art of polyphony to
a freer and more eloquent estate, rescuing modem or-
chestral music from the *pianistic' tendencies of Liszt
and Schumann, which had threatened modem music
with a degree of degeneration. Strauss's critics com-
plain of the banality of his themes, and of what they
term the cheap effects with which he tricks out his
works in order to gain the suffrage of the crowd. The
charge of banality rests partly upon his loyalty to the
old German lyric strain, which is somehow the founda-
tion of all his writing; beyond this, it may be admitted
that he has used banal themes (few composers, indeed,
have not), but it must be added that he almost invari-
ably uses them in masterly fashion. The charge that
he is anxious to gain the applause of the crowd is a
purely relative one. The attempt is perfectly legitimate
if the means are not debased. Whether Strauss fre-
quently makes use of debased means we must not at-
tempt to decide here. Rut the beauty and technical
mastery of the greater number of his works cannot be
disputed.

The basis of Strauss's fame as an orchestral writer
resides (apart from the masterly instrumentation of
his operas) in his eight symphonic poems, including the
Symphonia Domestica, which can hardly be classified
as a symphony. In addition to these, there are two
large works dating from an earlier period — the Sym-
phony in F minor, and the large symphonic suite Aus
Italien. Both of these works contain passages of the
highest beauty, and frequently find place on concert

* We should here make mention of his revised edition of Berlioz's
classic work on instrumentation, in which he has noted all the technical
instrumental improvements made since Berlioz's day, together with the
new instrumental resources which modem composers have discovered;
and has added liberal illustrations from the works of Wagner and other
modem instrumental masters.

384

STRAUSS'S *AUS ITALIEN/ ETC.

programs. But they are, in the light of the composer's
later development, of an immature period and inferior
inspiration.

The Symphony is in fairly strict form, but shows in
the themes and in certain peculiarities of the develop-
ment, the later composer of symphonic poems trying
his hand for a decision in the musical world. The first
movement is an allegro non troppo, un poco maestoso.

The romantic principal theme

•«» is developed chiefly in the

strings, indicating Strauss's conservatism (or deliberate
caution) at this stage of his development. With a strin-
gendo in the foreward movement we get a subsidiary
theme, one which tells us of the Strauss of Also Sprach

Zarathustra.

This is later used freely

in the development of the movement. The chief sec-
ond theme

con-

trasts, in its rough energy, with the elegiac quality
of the first. The rest of the thematic material is not
distinguished, but the strictly classical structure shows
how truly Strauss had absorbed the best features of the
German symphonic tradition. The scherzo is a sprightly
movement, thoroughly conventional in conception, and
not particularly attractive. The cantabile movement is
the least important of the four. In the finale — allegro
assai molto appassionato — we find the most definite
evidence of the composer's growing independence.
The movement, with the following main theme,

•j'|,i>|> [• r I r r 1 1 ^--^-^ ^, develops strictly enough, but

is by no means lacking in the element of surprise. The
tranquillo section, in particular, is admirable and char-
acteristic. The statement ends with a chorale-like

385

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

theme of much beauty, which becomes important in the
later development of the movement Following the
close of the recapitulation comes a long passage in
which the orchestra subsides from its magnificent chor-
ale, and with the long held notes in the strings and
wood-winds, and the following pizzicati of the violins,
we are introduced to the most original section of the
symphony — the coda. Here Strauss passes in review
the chief themes of all the movements, somewhat as
Beethoven did in the Ninth Symphony. The movement
ends with the chorale theme played in a majestic tuttU
followed by a lively allegro assai. In this section we
see the composer striving toward dramatic and emo-
tional expression. The work has many beauties, in
spite of its uneven inspiration. The composer pays
much attention to the free polyphony which dis-
tinguishes so many of his later works, and uses it vig-
orously though in no wise unusually. The symphony
shows the close study of Beethoven and a thorough
absorption of Beethoven's methods and spirit. It does
not represent genius, but it does represent creative imi-
tation of a high order.

Mention should here be made of Strauss's *Serenade'
for wind instruments, an andante which at its first per-
formance in Munich was offered as an unknown work
by Mozart The greatest work of Strauss's early period
is Aus lialien, a symphonic suite, called by its composer
a *symphonic fantasy.' It is an ambitious attempt at
the picturing of nature. But the composer's natural
clinging to traditional means (not to say forms) is
evidenced by his retention of the outline of the sonata
form for three of his movements, and of the scherzo
form with trio for the remaining movement In this
work his thematic material becomes still richer, and his
bent towards free polyphony, in certain passages, still
more marked. The first movement bears the title, *Cam-

386

STRAUSS'S *AUS ITALIEN*

pagna.* It is a varied picture, compounded of mysteri-
ous, sensuous feeling, and calm beauty. Mystery speaks
in the very opening, which has the following theme:

Andaoto

-„^____^_-_ — __ In the following

yp r

passage we feel a mingling of curiosity and longing:

The next impression might be one of the past great-
ness of these hills and valleys, for the chief theme

the

_ in

heroic vein. Again, it is the calm beauty of the
landscape that is hymned in the following phrase;

__^____ Thus Strauss paints the

mood or the picture for us with telling bits of melody
drawn from the purest treasure-house of Germanic in-
spiration. The working-out and recapitulation sections
are carried through in fairly strict manner. In this
movement, also, Strauss takes an opportunity to give
us one of those passages of complex and free polyphony
which count for so much in his later works. The coda
is full of color and surprise. The long second move-
ment is perhaps the least successful of the suite. The
title is *In the Ruins of Rome,' and beneath this stands
a subtitle: 'Fantastic pictures of vanished glory, feel-
ings of longing and pain in the midst of sunlit surround-
ings.' The general structure of the movement is like
that of the preceding, but the number and variety of the
themes are greater than would be permissible in a sym-
phony. A few of these may well be quoted. This one

387

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

~, I « • I I

isned glory' of the eternal city. A second

suggests the Van-

undoubtedly pictures the

*sunlit surroundings,' while a third

mirrors forth the vanity of all this

pomp. Yet another ft H^ i ^^^t^f^^!' ^nt:^ T f

seems to be a lament over past greatness. The work-
ing-out and recapitulation are again reasonably strict.
The coda is based upon the theme of sunlight.

In the third picture, entitled 'On the Shore of Sor-
rento,' we have a vision of dazzling color and light,
inducing a sort of sensuous delirium in the onlooker.
The 'trio' of the movement, which seems to aim at
a national impression, has the following theme:

^ M^ moUo espress ^*— ^ ' — ~

ing section is a free working over of the material of
the opening. The movement as a whole leaves the
impression of hot sunlight and sensuous laziness. The
finale, entitled, 'Life of the Neapolitan People,' is an
allegro molto in 2/4 time. Its main theme is the pop-
ular Neapolitan song, 'Funicula' — one which is indeed
of very recent origin, but may nevertheless properly
be treated as a folk-song, as Strauss has here treated

Alle^o molto

it His version of it runs thus :

ijTjJ' J 1 J J ^■JT-J'T^T^ • Th^ tenderer aspect of Italian
life is suggested in the following phrase : -jjir^-b&f-l ^"^ ' I

and the Latin love

388

STRAUSS'S SYMPHONIC POEMS: 'MACBETH'

for the dance is mirrored forth in the Tarantella

of the third theme.

It is entirely in the popular spirit, if not actually
imitated from a folk-song. In the recapitulation sev-
eral of the motives of the first movement are introduced.
Of the eight symphonic poems we may consider 'Mac-
beth* the earliest. It was published after 'Don Juan/
but was completed earlier, and only withheld from
publication for the sake of some changes in the ending.
In every way it shows its antecedency. It is generally
the weakest and least mature of the eight, and has re-
mained the least popular — much less popular than it
deserves. In character it* is predominantly Wagnerian,
yet it has many elements of individuality, and clearly
looks forward to the later works. Its chief fault is
structural; it is composed of a number of distinct sec-
tions, which fail to fuse into an architectural whole. It
follows the story of the Shakespearean play, but rather
the psychological events than the external action. It
may be regarded as a tonal picture of the degeneration
of a human soul. It opens pianissimo with the theme of

ambition ;

There is a pause.

and then the Macbeth motif enters sung by the horns:

^^L I J J J I J T.'^^ ' This begins a march movement, un

*f morcnio

poco maestoso, which makes use of the two themes men-
tioned, and a third, which presently appears, represent-
ing the degenerating influence acting upon the hero, ex-
ternalized in the Shakespearean drama by the Witches:

fmoUonpr

This is developed in a straightforward manner over the
tremolo of the strings. The march movement ends on

389

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

a pianissimo. Then enters the theme of Lady Macbeth
(so marked in the score) given out by three flutes:

_^ beside this comes

fp nfipoiiionato motto mtato

a theme in thirds which recalls the *Erda' motif of the
Gotterddmmerung and probably stands for Lady Mac-
beth's evil influence and intrigue. One of the most
striking and admirable features of the work is the
manner in which the theme of Lady Macbeth under-
goes dramatic changes of emphasis; now it is appassio^
nato, again calmato, yet again dolce, belebend, wild,
f arioso, etc., suggesting the various sides of the woman's

character. Yet another theme

paints her tenderer and feminine side. Through all
the following section the three themes last quoted
are important, though that representing Lady Mac-
beth is dominant Even the theme of Lady Mac-
beth's femininity becomes masculine and insistent.
Finally, out of the hubbub there emerges the motif of
ambition, fff — fruit of Lady Macbeth's influence — and
the soul-drama begins. It dominates the following sec-
tion, continually striving upward, while Lady Macbeth
plays a sort of obbligato role. Then a section in the
original tempo paints the changes that have taken
place in Macbeth's character, and the first three
themes of the work furnish the subject matter, with
the Witches finally gaining the upper hand. In the
following section many influences play havoc with
Macbeth's soul, the degeneration of which is represent

ed by the following theme:

which is allied to the theme of the Witches. This is
then brought into conflict more and more violently with
Macbeth's motif. Then, as though the hero's character

390

STRAUSS'S SYMPHONIC POEMS: *DON JUAN'

were able to withstand the frontal attack, the struggle
takes on a subtle turn in a fine tranquillo section, and
thence emerges in a broad march episode based upon
Macbeth's own motif. The hero has turned villain and
has become triumphant in sin. But the spiritual dis-
integration is complete. A section molto tranquillo
paints it, with the theme of degeneration coiling sin-
uously in the wood-wind. Over the spiritual debacle
are heard fantastic echoes of Lady Macbeth's motifs,
and with a grewsome irony; it is the theme of her
femininity that brings the work to a close.

It will be seen from this analysis how closely Strauss
has followed the various episodes of his story, even
though he denied himself the painting of physical ac-
tion. In this and *Don Juan* the composer was evi-
dently experimenting with the problem of form, seek-
ing to strike a structural formula more perfect than the
simple one on which Liszt worked. Where *Macbeth'
is episodic and 'scrappy,' *Don Juan' is almost sym-
phonically architectural. Strauss certainly felt the
weakness of the structural scheme he chose for his
first tone-poem. It seemed worth while to experiment
with a very different formula. *Don Juan' is by no
means a strict sonata movement, but it attains its feel-
ing of unity by a discernible division into statement,
working-out and recapitulation. It paints, we need
hardly say, not the actual amours of the faithless hero,
but rather the state of soul that impelled him to his
variegated career. It is based on a fragment of a poem
by Lenau, in which the hero sets forth how he is im-
pelled from one woman to another by his passion for
experience; how each separate affair is a unique and
complete experience; and how at the end he sinks down
exhausted and incapable of enjoyment, having ex-
pended all his energy in his fruitless quest after su-
preme experience. The work opens allegro molto con

391

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC
brio, with this theme :

which stands for the Lusttreib, impulse for passionate
experience. It becomes the theme of a brilliant march
movement. Then there appears this gentler theme:

which represents the fem-

meito itpj/aaiunato

inine allurement, and which is presently developed
heavily with rich orchestration. What we here, for con-
venience, call the *statement,* now comes to an end, and
the *working-out' section begins, with a new theme, poco

sostenuto.

in-

dicative of the sinister aspect of Don Juan's love. But
now another charming lady appears, to offset the at-
traction of her of the second theme. She is perhaps
of most placid and stately character, as is indicated

in her own theme :

The two themes last quoted are now developed an-
tiphonally, as one might say, and in discreet and
*open' instrumentation. (Here we should note how this
delicate, almost Italianate, style of scoring forms the
foundation for the rich and thick scoring of the later
works, particularly the Heldenleben. If we find the
later Strauss scores turgid and opaque, as many do,
we should also notice that its heaviness is based upon a
delicate feeling for the instruments chosen, a feeling
developed in these earlier works.) Presently, with a
stringendo passage, we are led to the main Don Juan

J, Horns .< ^ '"^.^ ^i , . .,^1 — _.

subject: I J I hi I .f? I ■) 1 ,1 J jTrTTTTr .

This is developed with much strength and with deft
interweaving of the other themes until a passage

392

STRAUSS'S SYMPHONIC POEMS

marked vivo, which is very significant as foreshadow-
ing Strauss's later heavy polyphonic treatment. Then
comes a passage molto tranqaillo, in which various
ladies, we may imagine, sigh with a wearied spirit.
After this a 'tempo primo' brings us to the 'recapitula-
tion.* But instead of the regular second theme, we have
the Don Juan motif developed with utmost boldness
and magnificence. This works up to a stringendo and
fortissimo on a diminished seventh chord. Then a long
pause. Juan has reached his Umit. The brief closing
episode, poco a poco piii lento, with a few long-held
chords of the wood-wind over the tremolo strings,
paints his exhaustion. The work ends with the pizzi-
cato strings on E.

In each of these two early works we find the form
somewhat unsatisfactory. In the first it is modelled too
strictly on the specific episodes of the story and be-
comes disconnected when heard as music apart from
its program; in the second, it is modelled too obviously
on the abstract classical form, and is lacking in the
steady forward movement and development, when
heard as a tone-poem of interpretive significance. The
problem was to find a form which answers to all the
dramatic and expressive demands of the program,
and yet shows unity and coherence when listened to
merely as beautiful music And it is one of the proofs
of Strauss's genius that he solved this problem without
adopting any set formula: each of his later tone-
poems has a distinct structural scheme. *Death and
Transfiguration' has an episodic development bound
into a whole by the frequent interpolation of the chief
theme. Till Eulenspiegel and *Don Quixote' are free
variations of one or more set themes. 'Thus Spake
Zarathustra' is a magnificent series of pictures, discon-
nected, yet all of them developed from common
thematic material. The 'Hero's Life' is a free fan-
tasia of a multitude of themes, and the Symphonia Do-

393

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

mestica a free fusion of the various movements of the
established symphony. A good half of the problem was
that of selecting subjects which would lend themselves
to some formally satisfactory treatment. And the fact
that Strauss accomplished this with such success indi-
cates the extent of his general culture — a thing which
is becoming more and more a requisite for a composer.
Finally, we must credit Strauss with the maturity of
genius which enabled him to treat each of these sub-
jects with appropriateness and distinction, giving each
work an individuality almost as distinct as the indi-
viduality of each of the Wagner operas.

Tod and Verkldrung is still the most popular of
the Strauss tone-poems, and is generally regarded as
the most satisfactory from the structural and emotional
viewpoint. It tells of the last hours of a man in the
pangs of death, of his struggles with approaching death,
of his dreams of his past life, of his final gasp, and of
his transfiguration in Heaven. It is at once one of the
most realistic and yet at the same time one of the most
idealistic works in modem music. It opens lento, with
hesitant minor thirds in the strings, and ghostly tones in
the wood-wind and horns, all rendered more tremu-
lous by the taps on the kettle-
drum. Then we see the dying
man eloquently portrayed in
this theme, a mere motif:
The harp enters with arpeggios, and the first flute
gives out a wonderfully pathetic theme as follows:

This, alternating with the

first theme, establishes the mood of the opening. Then
the first oboe announces the theme of memory:

gp uAr tart

With the ac-

394

STRAUSS'S 'DEATH AND TRANSFIGURATION*

companiment of the harp these three themes are
developed in the full orchestra. The taps of the drum,
and the repetition of the first theme bring us back
to the man's physical agony. He is in his first strug-
gle with death. The passage, allegro molto agi-
tato, has this for its melody: .V%h. " "^ j ,J^ I J ^-

These pages, which sound a little too much like a mili-
tary march, are the least successful of the work. The
section, which contains some of the free polyphony
which we have noticed in each one of the Strauss works
thus far, comes to a tutti climax with the strings tre-
molo. Then the chief theme, that of Transfiguration,

'1*^1/1 I J J I |> I r j is announced once in the horns,

trombones, trumpets and strings — a premonition, in the
man's delirium of pain, of his approaching death and
glory. The orchestral exaltation now gives place to the
dreams of youth, represented by the theme of memory,
accompanied by triplet figures in the strings. This is
developed along with the pathetic second theme, and
the orchestra gradually thickens as we approach the
episode of manhood. First it is virile and triumphant,
then it becomes a passionate struggle. In the long and
agitated passage that follows, frequent mutterings and
tappings of the trombones and kettle-drums recall to
our minds that the dreams are but the ravings of a sick
man. The music becomes more delirious, and with a
violent stringendo we are brought to the second state-
ment of the Transfiguration theme in the harps, strings
and lower brass. Then for a moment we are again in
the death agony. Yet again the vision of Transfigura-
tion, played with the same scoring but a semi-tone
higher. Another struggle, and another statement of
the Transfiguration theme, still higher in key and richer
in instrumentation. The ecstatic vision lasts a mo-
ment, then the strength of the dying man breaks and

395

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the tremolo strings show his exhaustion. A last violent
struggle, molto agitato, and we suddenly find ourselves,
as though by magic, in a new world, opening our eyes
slowly to a glory which is beyond our comprehension.
Above the long pianissimo roll of the kettle-drums we
hear sustained notes of the lowest bass instruments.
The horns, in their lower register, begin to intone the
Transfiguration motif. Other instruments join and the
theme mounts higher and higher in the orchestra, with
an accompaniment in the strings derived from the
theme of youth. The roll of the kettle-drums continues
throughout this long passage until the tranquillo when
the Transfiguration theme has been taken up by all the
wood-wind and brass, together with the harps, in full

and triumphant C major har-
mony, in a form, which for
sonority, breadth and nobil-
ity, has few equals in music:

What follows is not to be described on paper. It is a
long sustained and increasingly rich development of
the Transfiguration theme in stately measure, rising to
a splendid climax. Thence it becomes quieter, and with
the poco a poco piii calando sin al fine we seem to feel
the eternal benediction descending upon the tired soul.
The work ends on a full C major chord played pianis-
simo by the whole orchestra. In its supreme inspira-
tion and beauty this final episode of Transfiguration has
hardly a parallel in all modem music.

The most magnificent of all the Strauss symphonic
poems is Also Sprach Zarathustra, which comes chron-
ologically immediately after Tod and Verkldrung. It
is in some sense an epitome in music of the philosophy
of Friedrich Nietzsche, whose prose-poem. Also Sprach
Zarathustra, enunciated in its clearest form the doc-
trine that the mission of the race is to produce the
strong and free Superman. In the intensity of his feel-

396

STRAUSS'S *ALSO SPRACH ZARATHUSTRA'

ing and the primitive dignity of his language Nietzsche
is one of the great figures of German literature, and
this, his greatest work, well deserved musical celebra-
tion by the greatest German musician of the time. And
it is doubtful whether in all his work Strauss ever
scaled greater heights, expressed loftier feelings, or ex-
hibited a more transcendent technique, than in this
magnificent work. In outward form, it is built up in
sections which refer to designated episodes from
Nietzsche's book. These episodes are so selected as to
epitomize the growth of man toward the Superman in
the Nietzschean philosophy. In Nietzsche's view, mod-
em man begins his upward course bound by the
shackles of formal religion, which he must shake off.
His innate desire for something unknown leads him to
plunge into the joys and sorrows of life, and to seek in
struggle the supreme goal. But in outward struggle
man is only pitting illusion against illusion. He de-
scends into the valley of the shadow of death, for pas-
sion is only the dream of the thirsty man who sees in
his fevered sleep a clear rippling stream of water. In
learning he seeks to solve the riddle of the universe,
but this only carries him farther away from the es-
sence of life into illusion. And then he turns from the
sorrow which religion counsels, and from the renun-
ciation which wisdom counsels, into the immediate
presence of life itself. And the life which experiences,
the life which creates, is, in Nietzsche's view, the life of
joy. And joy, to him, is symbolized in the dance. Here
man turns completely from thought, which is only the
illusion of life, to experience, which is the essence of
life itself. To lose one's self in the dance is to find
one's self swept along in endless current of creative
life.

From the formal point of viesw Strauss's chief glory
in this work is his fusing of the whole in spite of its

397

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Tilock' structure. This he does by means of his germi-
nal development of themes. When he needs a new
theme, he does not invent it, but develops it from a
previous one, by means of some fitting transformation.
The grandiose introduction which consists of fortis-
simo chords supported at the end by the full organ,
brings forward immediately the chief theme of the

work ip J j I ['= , which perhaps stands for the

upward striving of man. This is followed by a sec-
tion of the greatest beauty — a solemn chorale pas-
sage led by the organ and supported chiefly by the
strings! This passage is entitled Von den Hinterwelt-
lern ('Concerning the dwellers in the world behind').
They are the men shackled in religion, from whom the
superman must emerge by slow steps. Tliis is followed
by the section superscribed Von der grossen Sehnsucht
(*0f the Great Longing'), a short feverish section based
chiefly upon the main theme already quoted and the
theme of the religious scene. Then comes 'Of joys
and sorrows' — a long passage in E-flat marked be-
wegt The Grablied, which develops out of previous
material, is sombre and intense, not a conventional
funeral march, but a passionate picturing of man in
despair. Then comes an astonishing passage entitled
Von der Wissenschaft ('Concerning wisdom') in
which the composer's technical mastership is shown
at its culminating point. The theme of this section

•" j,.i'' ii.Jj lu -I I 'J ^ ^1^ ^J I II " "''""

ously developed from the chief theme of the work,
but manages to include each note in the chromatic
scale. Upon this Strauss builds a formal fugue with
superlative skill. The theme, with its chromatic
character and its irregular triplets, presents every

398

STRAUSS'S 'ALSO SPRACH ZARATHDSTRA'

possible difficulty for formal polyphonic development
Strauss presents this passage as a bitter satire on the
emptiness of dry science. After the fugue comes a pas-
sage, sehr feurig, passionate and very beautiful, show-
ing the hero's struggle and escape from the toils of
learning, even as he had previously escaped from the
toils of religion. In the following passage, Der Gene-
sende (The Convalescent'), the composer uses the mo-
tif of learning in conflict with the straightforward main
theme, and this gradually leads into the culminating
passage of the work, the dance scene. The rhythm is
that of a slow waltz, sensuous and luxurious, but
filled with an infinite passionate longing. After
much preluding on the figure of the chief theme,
the solo violin presently ^emerges with the following:

This winds in
and out of the
delirious trills
and scales
. - ,, _ »/«« tHrnek/uauHd' " ■ " ' ' which follow,

fin A€li>lttU9 '

while the main theme of the work serves as an ever
upward-striving accompaniment. There are two other
main melodies in this waltz, one derived from the
fiery introduction and the other from the religious
scene. The whole man is comprised in the dance.
The section culminates in its opening theme given
out antiphonally by the treble and bass instruments.
This dance scene is one of the supreme points of
modem music; neither the genius of Strauss nor that
of any other modem composer has ever surpassed it.
After the dance dies down we have a short closing
passage, entitled Das Nachtwanderlied ('The Song of
the Night- Wanderer'), which refers to Nietzsche's great
Mitternacht song in the 'Zarathustra.' The closing
words of this give the clue to Strauss's work, and per-
haps to the whole of Nietzsche's philosophy:

399

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

'Die Wehe sagt, "V erg eh' "
Doch alle Lust will Ewigkeit,
Will tiefe. tiefe EivigkeiL' *

The luscious melody in the strings gives place to the
pianissimo chords which end the work. This ending was
at the time of the work's first performance the subject
of hot controversy, inasmuch as the chords are in B
natural, and the pizzicato bass notes which follow them
are in C. This implied discord in the ending perhaps
symbolized, in the composer's intention, the vista into
eternity.

*Don Quixote,' which followed Also Sprach Zara-
thustra, is a set of free 'variations on a theme of
knightly character,' illustrating episodes from Cer-
vantes' immortal satire. The controversy which raged
around this work at the time of its appearance cen-
tred chiefly about Strauss's literal realism in attempt-
ing to represent in music the turning of windmills, the
bleating of sheep, and clouds of dust. These features
were perhaps offered as musical jokes, and are doubt-
less permissible in a work of such buoyant character.
They certainly do not dim the purely musical beauty of
Strauss's tone-poem. As for the program, the com-
poser steadily refused to give out any — a performance
which he repeated with each of his new works. (In
this he was accused of seeking to whet musical curiosity
by means of mystification. The charge is eloquent of
the change that came over the popular mind in the
period after Liszt. Once a composer was obliged to
whet the public's curiosity by supplying a detailed pro-
gram; now he is obliged to whet curiosity by withhold-
ing it.) But in each case German program annotators
puzzled out some program that seemed satisfactory,
and this usually received the silent approval of the

* I do not offer a translation of these lines here. I do not believe they
are capable of an English translation. Let the student who has been wise
enough to possess himself of the German language read them in their
purity, or else be content without them. — [The Author.]

400

STRAUSS'S *DON QUIXOTE*

composer. So in this case, as in the others, we can
be fairly sure of Strauss's programmistic intention.
The *theme of knightly character* is as follows:

TIoUb and Cello Solk

This represents Don Quixote. A subsidiary theme

stands for Don Quixote's faith-

ful retainer, Sancho Panza. In the introduction is a
statement of the knightly theme in the form of a
canon between viola and 'cello. Then follows a pic-
ture of Don Quixote's approaching madness, symbol-
ized by the blurred sounds of the muted instruments.
(Even the tuba is here muted, for the first time in
musical history.) Then in the section which formally
answers to the *statement,' we see Don Quixote and
Sancho Panza setting forth in quest of adventure.
In the first variation Don Quixote sees the beautiful
Dulcinea in distress, and attacks the windmills, whose
wheels knock him ingloriously off his horse. The sec-
ond variation pictures the victorious battle of Don
Quixote against the Host of the Great Emperor Alifan-
faron (a flock of sheep who run at the knight's ap-
proach). In the third variation the knight and his
squire discourse about honor, and in the fourth the
hero attacks a band of ^robbers' (in reality a group of
peaceful pilgrims) who administer to him a sound
thrashing. In the fifth variation Don Quixote passes a
night of vigil and sees in a vision his lady Dulcinea,
and in the sixth meets the lady — in reality a vulgar
country wench who is symbolized by the wood-wind
and tambourine. In the seventh variation knight and
squire ride through the air on a hobby horse, and in
the eighth take a journey on an enchanted bark, being
tipped over in mid-stream. In the ninth variation Don
Quixote attacks and routs two *magicians' (unoffending

401

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

monks), and in the tenth, being defeated by the knight
of the White Moon, promises to go home and lead a
pastoral life. The finale illustrates the peaceful death
of the brain-cracked hero, surrounded by his pitying
family.

Till Eulenspiegel is regarded as one of the humorous
masterpieces of modern music. It is based on the old
tales of that epic cut-up Till, whose tales were current
and were published about the time of the Faust legend.
Till is the typical personification of bumptious and
stupid high spirits. In his tone poem Strauss presum-
ably illustrates various of Till's adventures, such as his
riding into the market place, overturning the merchan-
dise and casting terror among the old women of the
market Or perhaps Till is being tried for his life
and making faces at his judge; or perhaps he is blas-
pheming while the very noose is about his neck;
or perhaps, finally, Till's spirit is leaving his dead
body and floating about among the people to be-
come a deathless legend. All this is pure specu-
lation, for Strauss has supplied no program; the
listener may make out of it what he will. Musically
the work is in the form of a series of free varia-

tions on these themes : ^V \ ^Tr ^"7 "f I ^' Tf I "^^^^

Its delicate and sensitive technique is equal to any that
Strauss has revealed. Till is, by not a few musicians,
regarded as Strauss's most musicianly work.

The Heldenleben, in which Strauss's technique is
shown at its most complex, illustrates 'a hero's life' —
none other, say the commentators, than that of the
Vain' Strauss himself. The hero's theme is as follows:

GUSTAV MAHLER'S NINE SYMPHONIES

In the first section he is set forth in all his heroism;
in the second his enemies are shown in shrill and
snarling caricature; in the third he is shown in love
and home life, the lady developing under his spell
from a coquette into a beautiful and loving wife; in the
fourth section the hero struggles against adversaries,
and wins victory in a grandiose fortissimo passage;
in the fifth section the hero is shown in his works of
peace, and Strauss here permits himself quotations
from some of his earlier works, among them 'Don
Juan,' Also Sprach Zarathustra, *Guntram,' 'Macbeth,'
and the song, Traum durch die Ddmmerung. In all,
twenty-three of these quotations have been noted. The
sixth and closing section is a passage of reminiscence,
and closes with the hero's death in peace, majestic and
benign.

The Symphonia Domestica, which appeared in 1904,
was offered as a picture of *a day of family life.' It
has the usual movements of the symphony, only merged
together, in free form. In the introduction the chief
themes are developed: that of the husband, easy-going,
dreamy, and fiery by turns; that of the wife, lively and
gracious; and that of the child, tranquil. The scherzo
paints the happiness of the evening, the child's play,
and his cradle song, and the clock strikes seven. The
adagio is a love-scene of much beauty, with pictures of
the dreams of husband and wife interrupted by the
clock striking seven in the morning. In the finale,
which includes a double fugue, we meet a new theme,
telling of the 'awakening and merry dispute.' Husband
and wife are discussing their son's future. The con-
clusion is in joyous vein.

The nine symphonies of Gustav Mahler constitute
one of the most gigantic and impressive contributions

403

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

to modern music. Basing himself on Wagner and
Bruckner, Mahler, with unlimited wealth of fancy and
noble ideas, with virtuoso control over the resources
of the modem orchestra, with astonishing genius for
free structure, poured forth these works which may
well astonish even a world accustomed to all manner
of startling and novel things. He had in particular two
qualities which make him distinct from his generation :
First, a power of envisaging a certain heroic sublimity
which seems to contain no element of the mundane.
The heroic quality of Strauss or Bruckner, for instance,
is that of men become divine; but that of Mahler is the
pure exaltation of the gods themselves. Next, and more
important, Mahler had a vein of peasant humor as dif-
ferent from the refined humor of Strauss and Reger
as it is different from the joviality of Haydn; it is folk-
humor as no other modern artist has given it to us —
rich and human, smelling of sun-baked fields and smoky
kitchens, and yet as infinitely tender and many-tinted
as the personality of Man himself. Mahler has em-
ployed the voice to a greater extent than any other
modern symphonist, and of course has employed great
freedom in the constructing of his works — following
the model of the first great choral symphonist, Bee-
thoven. In this free structure he revealed his great
power of securing cogency of form without adherence
to formal models. In counterpoint Mahler was mas-
terly, and in his harmony he greatly extended the field
of dissonance. His chief fault was his inability always
to sustain the magnificent tone which he had in his
mind's ear. And for this the quality of his themes was
usually to blame; many of them are little short of
banal, and lack the pregnancy necessary to fulfill their
ambitious task.

The first symphony, in D major, contains a move-
ment which was entitled 'The Huntsman's Funeral,'
when performed at Weimar in 1894. The tone of the

404

".attire

> ■ . ;^#an^

TRA A

rier, Mahler, v

•H r ■ witli v;
ru ore!'
iwic. structure^ \
well ;r ' "- ^•

of sta , • , ( 1

qualities

1 i rst, 'if in ii "' ^ 'o

v.hit ;i -i 't of the r

The h er, for

.d a veio at peasant humor a^

■ •' • -imor of '^'^ and 1'

viality ■ ii; it is

r a» no other modern artist has given it to- us —

J j_ _ 11 ■_ , i- 1 1. -) /; ,1 ,1 , .1 . I. -

as tlie- personality of Man

pi. ' ••

n ■

freed he constmctin'

tl. ...

If'

pbwer of jrm without adherence

to fonno^

terly, ant: •■ , ,

of di^onancc. His chief fauH was his inability a1

K ... : . ........

n\ -.----

usually to blame; many of them are little short ol
1 * ck the pregnancy necessary to fulfill their

ai . -,„:;k.

The first svm phony, in D major, cout;t
!)onl wl entitled ''"

..V. .r. or. .w Weimj*; .-

404

GUSTAV MAHLER'S EARLY SYMPHONIES

chase runs through the whole work — sometimes in the
extensive use of traditional hunting fanfares, some-
times in the use of themes which are associated with
the hunting melodies of German folk-song. In this early
work Mahler already shows several of his personal
qualities — particularly the mingling of satire and seri-
ousness, and the dependence on easy-going folk-like
themes for a good share of the thematic burden. In
structure it follows the established symphonic form.
It is a work of large proportions, and the product of a
musical mind already mature. The second symphony
shows to the full Mahler's disturbing creative vitality.
It is in seven movements, and employs the voice in two.
The first movement has an air of satire and grotes-
querie, *as though one were striving to believe a hor-
rible piece of news.' Its form follows the sym-
phonic model with reasonable faithfulness, but the
second theme enters with unexpected quickness.
The second movement is an andante con moto, in
a vein as personal to Mahler as the boisterous scherzo
was to Beethoven. It has the following theme,

femiieAJie/k

direction gemachlich — a favorite word with Mahler
and one exactly expressing the spirit of this char-
acteristic movement Nearly every one of his sym-
phonies contains one such movement, even down to
the gigantic and formless ninth. However Mahler
may struggle and search in his grandiose movements,
he never falters once he has written his beloved
word gemachlich. A Mahler gemachlich movement
could instantly be picked out from among a hundred
other closely similar ones, for upon it he has put the
very stamp of his heart. It is difficult to describe, but
we may suggest its character by saying that it is a
smoothly flowing movement, whose surface calm covers

405

• THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

a good deal of rhythmic energy; that it is always in the
spirit of the folk-song, and that it seems to contain
some subtle humorous content which never quite
reaches the surface. In the present movement we
should note the delightful obbligato melodies which
Mahler evolves in the course of the development. The
third movement, a quiet one in 3/4 time, is peculiarly
rich in musical caricature. It leads directly into the
fourth movement, which is an alto solo to words en-
titled Urlicht, taken from Des Knaben Wunderhorn.
This is a work of impressive solemnity and beauty.
The fifth movement is a delirious mixture of the satiric,
the terrible, the humorous and the sublime. There are
chorales, there is an impressive passage entitled The
Voice Crying in the Wilderness,' there is a march, there
is a fiery 3/8 passage, and any number of memorable
details besides. The final movement is entitled *The
Great Summons,' and is taken as symbolizing the
resurrection of Nature in Springtime. It opens with a
long passage played by the horns and trumpets off-
stage answered by the solo flute and drums. The body
of the movement comprises a chorale sung to the words
'Auferstehen, ja aiiferstehen!' This movement reaches
dizzy heights of poetry, and puts the stamp of authority
on a work which has hardly been surpassed in original-
ity in all modem music.

The third symphony likewise comprises six move-
ments, of which the last five are closely bound to-
gether. The first movement, which sings of phys-
ical power, opens with the following chief motive.

which is highly personal. The second movement, a
slow minuet, is not altogether successful. The third,

406

GUSTAV MAHLER'S FOURTH SYMPHONY

with this theme . <£ t^li 3r LT ^ ^ I rj'^t^ •» is filled with

humor, which just misses the tang of the musio-hall.
At the end comes a lovely idyllic episode, played by
two post-homs. The fourth movement — misterioso,
sehr langsam — employs an alto solo voice to words by
Nietzsche, but in such wise that the hearer hardly
knows whether to take it in jest or in earnest. In the
fifth movement Mahler uses a choir of boys' voices,
singing a little dialogue between Peter and Jesus drawn
from Des Knaben Wunderhorn. The tone is unde-
niably satiric, and to some may seem sacrilegious. But
the poem was probably not in the least sacrilegious to
the mediaeval poet who composed it, for the mediaeval
peasant stood in a friendly and cozy relation to the
Almighty which is hardly to be understood by the
Anglo-Saxon nurtured on a Puritan tradition. The last
movement, beginning in a tone of peace, reaches, after
passages of passionate excitement, a mood of confident
power with the introduction of themes from the first
movement

The Fourth Symphony is characterized by Kretzsch-
mar as a caricature of the cultured Philistine. (We
should remember that all such readings of Mahler
are purely personal, as the composer never supplied
any programs for his works.) The first move-
ment, though very long, is inexhaustible in its bub-
bling humor. Humor is pregnant in this main theme:

, though it does not

rp "

quite come to the surface. In the second theme

we have pure phys-

C«U1

ical joy, which does not need a joke to break out
into laughter. It is in the working-out of these
themes that the fun becomes almost boisterous. And
this is what happens in the development section:

407

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

^ = «»• . The effect is startling in

the extreme. In the second movement we have pure
satire. The first theme is announced by a solo violin
which the composer directs is to be out of tune. In
the third movement we have a beautiful elegiac even-
ing song, broken up and laughed at from a score of
different angles. The final movement is a delightful
setting of a famous poem out of Des Knaben Wunder-
horn describing in intimate manner the household
life in Heaven. It is sung by a soprano voice. The
opening of the song will indicate its bubbling spirits:

Wkg^riissendle hlmm-

. U-edien FreudeD/bimtini'wirdBia Ir - <U«clMiuMaa

Of the Fifth Symphony, regarded by many as Mahler's
greatest, it is difficult to speak so as to enUghten the
reader. It is one of the longest symphonies in all mu-
sic, lasting considerably over an hour in performance.
In conception and execution it is gigantic. Its form,
though fairly pure, is nevertheless so overwhelmed with
detail that it is difficult for the hearer to find any point
of orientation. To some minds, the work will seem to
fall to pieces from the sheer weight of its parts. It is
to be questioned, too, whether the thematic material is
not wholly inadequate to the grandiose purpose. But
these criticisms are hardly present to the hearer dur-
ing audition. His mind is overwhelmed and stunned
by the immensity of the mass of tone which he is
hearing. Formal analysis will thus help us little.
Nor will poetic interpretation by any one hearer
be very satisfactory to another. Let us merely
point out the chief characteristics of the work.
The first movement is in the tempo and mood of a
funeral march, opening with the following theme:

MAHLER'S LATER SYMPHONIES

which

In this unbelievably long move-
ment we have a mass of thematic material ranging
from the passionately miserable to the placidly hope-
ful. In the second we see painted the soul of rebellion.
The third is a scherzo, with the following theme:

This ranges

from the mood of the practical joke to that of bitter
blasphemy. The fourth movement is an 'adagietto,' and
a lovely bit of sentimental reminiscence. The fifth, in
which the composer seems more at home than in any
other part of the whole work, is an allegro. It is not ex-
actly joyous in tone, but is filled with energy, quiet or
boisterous, and corresponds in spirit to the second
movement of the Second Symphony, though it looks
very different at first sight The following thematic

fragment is characteristic: ■>£'« » J j 1^ J J ffH-^.

The sixth of Mahler's symphonies is one of the less
popular ones. It is not greatly unlike the fifth in char-
acter, being serious and energetic. Most notable is the
last movement, which is extremely complex, and on
tliis account, as well as because of its almost continuous
use of dissonance, presents a difficult problem to the
listener. The seventh symphony is distinguished by
the energy and rough humor of the first movement,

which has the following main theme :

but

more espe-

cially by the three middle movements which consist of
two pieces of 'Night Music' s^arated by a scherzo that
sounds like a skeleton dance. These pieces of 'Night

409

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Music' are regarded by some as satiric in character.
Certainly it is hard otherwise to explain their disjointed
form and the triviality of much of their material. The
first, for instance, begins and ends with a delirious out-
burst of trills such as are traditionally associated with
'nature music'; and the second develops into a not too
distinguished march.

But if we have seemed to make reservations in re-
gard to the symphonies already reviewed, we can
make none in regard to the magnificent eighth, the so-
called 'Symphony of the Thousand.' This work shows
Mahler's inspiration at its highest point. Greater sub-
limity has hardly been reached by any modern com-
poser. Yet the idiom is intentionally popular. Even
the extraordinary proportions seem intended for pop-
ular appeal. Here the genius reveals himself to the
multitude.

The work is in two movements, in both of which a
huge chorus is called upon to carry the chief develop-
ment. The words of the first movement are drawn
from the mediaeval Latin hymn, Veni, Creator Spiritus.
The words of the second are taken from the final
scene of Goethe's 'Faust.' The first movement main-
tains the mood of praise and exaltation unmixed with
earthly passion. In its supernal magnificence it must
rank among the finest religious compositions of mod-
ern times. The second movement takes us into the
epic heart of humanity, and racks us with a depth of
passion which is endurable only because it is glorified
in its greatness. Mahler seems to have immei-sed his
soul in the mediaeval richness of Goethe's pictorial imag-
ination. The form, of course, has no relation whatever
to the symphonic model. The theme which, for the
sake of convenience, we may call the principal one, is
set to the famous final words of Goethe's play, as fol-

AU • ee VBr-^ui(r-Ueh-e istnurela Oleleb-nlsa

410

FELIX WEINGARTNER

The Ninth Symphony is posthumous. It was in ob-
viously unfinished state at the time of the composer's
death, and was specially edited for the few perform-
ances given it. It proved turgid and incoherent in its
length and terrifying complexity. In justice to Mahler's
memory we should consider the work as having been
far from finished. What we have of the ninth sym-
phony is hardly more than its first draft. Had the
composer lived he would doubtless have brought order
out of chaos. But the work contains at least one move-
ment which even in its present form is charming — the
allegretto, a gemdchlich movement in the happy peas-
ant spirit which Mahler so loved.

Felix Weingartner, the great conductor, has sought
to add to his reputation by means of composition, and
has put forth a number of works showing scholarship
and deep understanding of the modem orchestra.
None of these works, however, can be regarded as
standing in the front rank of modem orchestral com-
positions. Inspiration in them is too often lacking, and
there is no great distinction or coherence of style.
Weingartner's models are for the most part the classi-
cal German ones — Beethoven and Wagner, with Bruck-
ner and Strauss as strong immediate influences. But
there is also a marked strain of the Viennese in him,
as well as a noticeable love of Italian melody. His chief
orchestral works are three symphonies, a symphonic
poem, 'The Fields of the Blessed,' and a *King Lear.*
The first symphony shows high spirits and humor,
especially in the third and fourth movements, together
with episodes of pastoral or elegiac quality. It is, how-
ever, uneven and uncertain in execution. The second
symphony is more serious — an attempt at what the Ger-
mans call a Weltanschauung. The introduction shows

411

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the search after strange and indefinite tonality which
the composer has apparently picked up from his •ultra-
modem* contemporaries. The chief themes, however.

Allegro mosso

are in the good

old German manner. The second movement, allegro
giocoso, strives for humor and "grotesquerie, and the
second, which makes use of two themes in a free vari-
ation form, recalls dimly the slow movement of Bee-
thoven's ninth symphony. In the last movement the
composer manages to marshall in review all the
themes of the preceding movements. The third sym-
phony is more ambitious than the other two and rather
less successful. The first movement is more radical
than that of the second symphony in point of har-
mony. The second movement has charm and orig-
inality, and the third is a fine essay in rich and lovely
melody. The last movement lacks authority because
of its composer's willfulness and unsuccessful striving
after effects of humor and originality. The chief theme.

Double Basses

which gives every promise of solid and workman-
like music, gives place to a slow Viennese waltz and
to the following melody reminiscent of comic opera:

(|6 ^"^'^ i P *» L/ P "^ TlJ I P » "^ »^N . Th^ composition fails
of its full effect either in dignity or in humor.

Weingartner shows an evident unwillingness to pre-
serve the purity of the symphonic form. And one ex-
pects, and justly, that he will do better with the sym-
phonic poem. 'The Fields of the Blessed,' which at-
tempts to paint the delight of the Heaven of the Pagans,
is in many ways a charming and admirable work. It
fails, we must confess, to win our love, for its themes

412

SIEGMUND VON HAUSEGGER

are all loo dry, unexpressive, but it commands our
respect for its contrapuntal dexterity, and our admira-
tion for its mastery of instrumentation. In point of
form it seems to have been ratlier thought than felt;
when the composer parades three successive melodies,
none very interesting, and then proceeds to combine
them, we feel a little as though we had been tricked
into listening to an advanced school-room exercise. It
is in the sensuous variety of the complex instrumenta-
tion (which, however, does not escape Strauss's fault
of heaviness) that we find the most to praise.

The work of Max Schillings (chiefly in opera and for
orchestra) has gathered in modern Germany a large
following of those who fear the pictorial and sensuous
as a degenerative influence in music. Schillings is a
learned musician, an able contrapuntist, a cogent for-
malist. If his music were as beautiful as it is *good,*
he would doubtless be generally acknowledged one of
the foremost modern German composers. But Schil-
lings seems lacking in all the genial qualities. His
themes are stodgy and unattractive; his instrumenta-
tion, with all the thickness and heaviness of the modem
Germans, has little of their fire and brilliancy. In his
bracketed symphonic pieces, Meeresgruss and Seemor-
gen, he quite fails to give charm of any sort to his sub-
ject-matter, and is content to fill out long passages with
meaningless musical rhetoric This is the worse side of
Schillings. At his best he is a conscientious, capable
and rather thick-handed musician writing for an age
which is being attuned to nuance and finesse. This he
is in his prelude to Sophocles' (Edipus Rex. Since the
piece represents him at his best it may be worth while
to analyze it briefly in this place. It symbolizes, pre-
sumably, the Sophoclean story — that is, the struggle
of the strong man with the stronger destiny — but there
is no attempt to picture definite action. The work
opens with a slow movement, with the following theme

413

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

in the double-basses and bassoons :

:' T LT I r (• ^ m r I" JVj- ^ l l. This is answered by

a chorale theme in the wood-winds. These two themes,
antiphonally treated, lead to a grand pause, then this
theme (probably symbolical of CEdipus himself)

' motto tsprtsst

appears in the wood-winds and middle strings. This
predominates for a time, the polyphony and instrumen-
tation becoming heavier, and finally the movement
develops into a rapid passage (*ma solemne') with
the following motif (doubtless that of struggle) :

1^1 J J I J. JiJ I in the brass over a bass figuration in

f(ma deeiso)

the strings. This receives a cogent development, with
a complex and thick interweaving of voices — all none
too interesting. Again a grand pause, then the chorale
passage of the opening, and a return of the first and
second themes. The work ends largo and pianissimo,
with pizzicati of the strings.

A composer who errs on just the opposite side is
Siegmund von Hausegger, who is one of the most faith-
ful Wagnerians in the field of the symphonic poem.
His orchestral works are not many, but the two most
important ones — the *Barbarossa' and the 'Nature Sym-
phony'— are extremely ambitious. The former (a much
earlier work) is based on the German legend of the
great Emperor Friedrich of the house of Hohenstauf-
fen (called the *Redbeard* or 'Barbarossa') , who was
drowned in Palestine on one of the Crusades, and is
reputed to be waiting in a cavern in the depths of a
mountain, seated before a stone table through which
his beard has ^own, and surrounded by his retinue,
whence he will come forth on the day of his Father-
land's supreme need, to battle for United Germany.

414

SIEGMUND VON HAUSEGGER

Hauseggcr's work is in three movements. The first
paints the 'Need of the People' — now vigorously, now
elegiacally, now in harsh tone and now in gentle.
The people are calling to their emperor. Their
call is this theme, which opens the first movement
and returns in the gorgeous apotheosis of the last:

This is an admirable example of Hausegger's the-
matic creativeness, which is thoroughly Wagnerian,
but, without seeming imitative, can evolve themes of
great beauty and distinction. The second movement is
a picture of the mountain within which the Emperor
sits: first the outside, surrounded by whirling mists,
through which fly the ravens which are one day to
bring the news to their master; then within, encircling
the glory of silent majesty. Tlie final movement, 'The
Awakening,' paints a picture of the forthcoming of the
Emperor, his struggle and final victory, and the tri-
umph of a united people. The work is regarded by
critics as 'unripe,' but it is inspiring in the extreme,
and has the best of faults — the faults of youth.

The 'Nature Symphony,' in three movements, is a
more recent work of huge proportions, demanding in
its last movement full orchestra chorus and organ —
as these demands are understood in modem times. The
picturing of nature is imaginative and colorful, the
pathetic and contemplative moods especially being
well expressed. But the glory of the work is the last
movement with its chorus singing Goethe's words:
7/n Namen dessert, der sich selbst erschuf* The theme,
adequate to the majesty of the words, is as follows:

ImNa»«n dea - sen, der slch selbst er - scbaf

mitted that Hausegger, in this work as in others, shows
a regrettable lack of economy; all the forces of the
modem orchestra are sometimes piled on at once, blur-

415

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

ring all the complex polyphony and deafening the ears
to any more nuanced effect. This is a fault, but it is
not utilized, as so often among other modem compos-
ers, to hide poverty of musical invention beneath.
Hausegger must be accounted one of the most prom-
ising of the younger German composers for orchestra.

One of the most remarkable of the modem German
orchestral composers is Jean Louis Nicode. He is re-
markable for having achieved a fusion which has been
regarded as next to impossible — a fusion of the most
rigid classic style with the utmost romanticism of con-
tent. By all external tests Nicode's technique might be
that of Mendelssohn; but if we penetrate into the spirit
of his work, we find ourselves closely allied with Men-
delssohn's polar opposite, Liszt Hardly any modern
composer, not even Bruckner or Strauss, has surpassed
Nicode's Das Meer in largeness of idea and exalted
inspiration of execution. Yet this is accomplished al-
most solely with means that were old when Strauss
wrote his F minor symphony. This 'symphonic fan-
tasia' is Nicode's master-work. Of the composer's
earlier works we may mention the 'Maria Stuart,' an
essay in character painting which is brilliant in its re-
sults; the 'Symphonic Variations,' a masterly work;
'The Pursuit of Happiness,' a bravura piece which es-
capes the commonplace; and the more recent 'Gloria,*
which has been described as a 'symphonic opera with-
out voices' — scored for a very large orchestra, and filled
with leit-motifs, some quoted from Beethoven and
Wagner. But the great work remains Das Meer. In it
Nicode has lavished his power of combination, which
puts him in the front rank of modem composers.
Whether viewed from the poetic or the technical side,
this work is supreme.

It is in seven movements, calls for a very large
orchestra, and employs voices liberally. The intro-
duction opens with the superb theme of the sea

416

MINOR CONTEMPORARY GERMAN COMPOSERS

\f. given out in

the double basses and developed as a fugue *sehr
ruhig* This theme we may take to symbolize the
great ground swell of the ocean. The second theme

(ft j J~j~.J J J |.||J. jJ'Jf if=^M. is then announced

in the wood-wind. This seems to represent the large
waves. It develops gradually, broadening and becom-
ing enriched with wonderful polyphony. The organ
plays the opening theme as a chorale. Then enters a
new theme in rapid triplets, suggesting the splash
and spray of the ocean — the third of the trio of rhyth-
mic movements of a great body of water. A part of
this theme, which spins out at length, is as follows:

It receives a complex development Then the first
theme enters and is carried along with it, and pres-
ently the second theme also joins in. The combination
of the three themes, each in its complete develop-
ment and yielding no whit to the other, but preserv-
ing its place in the remarkable symphony, is one of the
most astonishing passages, from the technical point of
view, in all modem music. Nor is it, in poetic inspira-
tion, a whit below its technical greatness. The whole
passage works up to a magnificent tutti, in which the
chorale previously played on the organ is given forth
by all the wind instruments (the organ included) the
strings furnishing a complex running accompaniment.
The second movement, which transfers us from the
objective wonder of the sea to its emotional eff'ect on
the beholder, is a chorale, sung a cappclla, to the words
beginning 'Das ist das Meer' (written by Karl Woer-
mann). It is an impressive piece of work, as pure in
style as a chorale by Bach, yet vibrating with romantic
intensity. The third movement is entitled Wellenjagd,

417

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

and the chase of the waves is set worth in a fine motif
given to the violins, which serves as an accompaniment
throughout the movement. The song here given to the
chorus might have been written note for note by Schu-
mann, yet if we allow for a possible over-emphasis and
undue length we must adjudge the movement masterly.
The fourth movement is entitled Thosphorescent
Lights.' The chorale, *Das ist das Meer,' is played by
a brass choir off stage in a room with doors shut,
while a brilliant orchestral accompaniment is main-
tained suggesting the strange lights that make the
sea glow beneath the surface at night. The fifth
movement is a beautiful tenor solo, entitled Tata
Morgana,' with the following recurring refrain:

ji tt*« f" p «f' I f -1 H f "l^ JN i " ^^^^ • ^^ ^^ marked

Fa - ta mor - ga - na Fa - ta mor - ga na

Liehlich bewegt, dock nicht schnelL

The last two movements are subtitled Ehhe und Flat
and Sturm and Stille, respectively. The former is to be
played Very seriously, and slowly majestic' An invisi-
ble chorus speaks the words Ebbe, ebbe, while the large
chorus on the stage sings its impressive song. The
last movement opens with a stormy passage for the
strings in triplet figures. The organ interrupts. Then
the chorus sings its apostrophe to the sea: *Raset,
blaset,' developing majestically and gliding into an
organ chorale founded on the opening theme of the
first movement, and taken up by the chorus with in-
spired beauty. The movement ends with a broad choral
march movement, full of energy and nobility.

We cannot here analyze the multitude of works ema-
nating from modem Germany and Austro-Hungary, dis-
tinguished by their beauty or technical ability. A brief

418

MINOR CONTEMPORARY GERMAN COMPOSERS

mention of some of the most eminent names is all that
space will permit Georg Schumann has shown fresh
romantic qualities: his Serenade in F is a complex
and technically able work, filled with delicate humor
which sometimes verges on the boisterous. Of the
works of Ferruccio Busoni, better known as a concert
pianist, we may mention the Geharnischte Suite in C-
sharp minor, with its four movements telKng of war
and battle, and the Turandot Suite,' filled with the
vigorous exoticism of the far east. Of greater impor-
tance is the Hungarian Dohnanyi. His symphony in
D minor has many remarkable features, especially the
final variation-movement The adagio is an unusual
idealization of gypsy music, with its spirit of never-
ending instrumental improvisation. The suite in F-
sharp minor has a first movement in variation form,
almost equally remarkable with that of the S5rmphony.
Dohnanyi's preeminent qualities are his clearness of
construction and development and his sparing use of
orchestral color. Paul Juon is a composer with many
of the same qualities. He is more Russian than Ger-
man in blood, but has devoted himself wholly to the
more conservative German tradition of composition.
He is devoted especially to the employment of folk-
song, in a straightforward, conservative way, as is
shown in his charming orchestral fantasy on Danish
tunes which he calls Wdchterweise. His symphony in
F major opens with a memorable movement in varia-
tion form, in which highly contrasting moods are
brought into close proximity. The final movement is
full of power and energy, and stands, in point of in-
spiration, in the front rank.

The work of Heinrich von Herzogenberg is most fre-
quently compared to that of Brahms, and the compari-
son is worthy. The first movement of the Herzogenberg
C minor symphony bears a close relation with the first
movement of Brahms' symphony in the same key. In

419

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

the scherzo the composer gives us a novelty — the de-
velopment of the main section and the trio, side by side,
clause for clause. The second symphony, in B-flat ma-
jor, is superior to its predecessor in the originality of
its coloring, in freedom and contrapuntal smoothness,
and in individuality of expression. The Swiss com-
poser, Hans Huber, has written a number of sympho-
nies of a more or less programmistic character. The
*Tell Symphony,' in D minor (opus 63) , relates in clear
and simple form of the freeing of the Swiss people from
the yoke of the Austrians, but, neglecting altogether the
actual events of the story, manages to preserve admir-
ably the symphonic form. The 'Bocklin Symphony* in
E minor (opus 115) is a more significant work. The last
movement bears the superscription: 'Metamorphoses,
stimulated by pictures of Bocklin.' It is a series of va-
riations, each corresponding to some picture by the
famous artist. The 'Heroic Sjrmphony' (opus 118) is
also distinguished by a remarkable variation move-
ment, conceived as a 'Dance of Death,' in the me-
diaeval sense, in which all the ages of man pass
in review before the skull and bones. Nor should
we omit Gottlieb Noren, with his fine 'Kaleido-
scope Variations,' and his 'Vita Symphony.' There is
also the Austrian boy, Erich Komgold, whose fame has
gone around the world because of his remarkable vir-
tuosity of technique at an age when most composers
are writing canons for the school room. His Sinfonietta
shows a remarkable handling of motives in the modem
manner, vsdth complex counterpoint and radical har-
mony. The Schauspiel Ouverture, one of his most re-
cent works, is filled with a youthful exuberance which
partly compensates for the lack of inspiration adequate
to its grandiose pretensions.

420

MAX REGER AND OTHERS

Max Reger, one of the most masterful of all modern
composers, wrote very litUe for the orchestra until he
was approaching his hundredth opus number. We may
fairly say that at the time of his recent death he was just
beginning his 'orchestral period.' A student of his ear-
lier works might have said that he had no feeling for
the tone colors which the orchestra affords, nor for the
largeness of idea which the orchestra invites. But it was
certain that a man of Reger's immense ability and un-
questioned talent should add something of note to
orchestral literature. And his work for orchestra has
grown in scope, depth and imaginative richness. The
Sinfonietta (opus 90) is characterized by Kretzschmar
as a mere jumble of music. The 'Serenade* (opus 95),
however, shows full mastery of the problem under-
taken, and an almost constant level of inspiration.
The first movement, which is the best of the four,
begins in a tone of quiet happiness, goes through a
period of uncertainty and doubt, and finally comes
out on the following cheerful second theme:

(£ * H ff irirriP ril*'*!*! ^= . in the develop-
ment there is much that is quaint and original. The
third movement, a simple and songful andante, is next
to the first in quality. Needless to say, the work pos-
sesses the familiar qualities of Reger's writing — the
fine tracery of the inner voices, the eloquent yet sen-
sitive counterpoint, the firm control which never falls
into coldness but is rather on the verge of bubbling
into humor. Passing over the delightful 'Ballet
Suite' and the impressive 'Symphonic Prologue to a
Tragedy,' we may mention the recently published series
of 'Bocklin Pictures' which show an advance on the
earlier works in idiomatic orchestral quality and ro-

421

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

mantic coloring. They are officially known as Vier
Tondichtungen nach Bocklin and are numbered opus
128. The first is entitled Der Geigende Eremit. It is a
molto sostenuto movement throughout, with constant
and free changes of time, as though the whole were
being played rubato. As in the suite above mentioned,
the strings are divided into two sections, each com-
plete, one muted and one without mutes. The main

theme is as follows ; _^^, ..

cff C_j. This is worked up with a free polyphonic ac-
companiment, as though setting a quaint ecclesiastical
background for the hermit's playing. The fiddling of
this worthy gentleman is a thing to remember, and the
movement is remarkable in preserving the sensuous
beauty of the background along with the grotesquerie
of the obvious humor. The second movement — Im
Spiel der Wellen — is a sprightly vivace in 3/4 time, the
style of which is familiar to all students of Reger. The
third movement is Reger's tribute to the famous picture,
*The Island of the Dead.' It is a molto sostenuto, very
beautiful, sometimes of extreme complexity, yet not
overscored. It is generally chromatic in character. The
whole is so fused and molten that it is difficult to isolate'
themes or describe the development It is the work of
*a scholar and a gentleman.' The following theme

Flnta Solo

^'PiifTf iT" rr \^r OrT^p win illustrate the char-
acter of the material. The spirit of the piece is despair-
ing or passively mournful, but the beautiful ending in
D-flat is consolatory. The last movement is a Bacchan-
ale, vivace, in 4/4 time. The movement is a spinning
out of related material from a central germ theme — all
unbelievably rich in device and fresh in spirit. It is
impossible to trace the course of its development or to
show its thematic groundwork. But it is needless to

422

E. N. VON REZNICEK

say that it shows the quality familiar to all students of
Reger — the richness of smoothly flowing inner voices,
as cogent as those of Bach and as subtly eloquent as
those of Franz.

The qualities of E. N. von Reznicek's chiselled and
aristocratic art contrast strikingly with the most of the
works which modem composers have written for the
orchestra. This musician is by no means an objective
and unimpassioned writer. He can work well on a large
scale, and can even storm the heights with Richard
Strauss. But his peculiar genius is for clearness of
statement and construction; whatever task he under-
takes he is able to execute with an authority which
adds eloquence to his message. This message, it is true,
is not highly original; von Reznicek does only what
has been done before and perhaps done better. But a
workman like him is extremely valuable to an age like
the present, so liable to lose clearness of statement in
its rush of ideas.

His musical individuality at its best is well represent-
ed by the Lustspiel Ouvertiire, which bears the date of
1896. This is written in the vein of sprightly high com-
edy. Though it employs a large modern orchestra, it is
as delicately modelled as a precious stone. In every bar
it holds closely to the spirit of its genre. Its high spirits
seem to come from Haydn and its simplicity of statement
almost from Mozart. It has a short and quiet introduc-
tion, and then plunges into its main theme, as follows:

which is taken very quickly and with the utmost deli-
cacy of bowing. This is developed briefly and the

second theme ^ 'p Jl I Jl ^ I C. T C-l" H^l* T T H*^ enters
quickly. In the working out, the composer shows a
keen sense of the germinal possibilities of these themes,
and develops them thoroughly but without pedantry.

423

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

The piece abounds with delicate rhythmic devices, yet
its variety seems unstudied. The work is in strict and
clear sonata form.

Von Reznicek's larger and more serious works — in-
cluding the 'Tragic Symphony' and the 'Ironic Sym-
phony,' show tlie same mature grasp of the subtleties of
form. As an example we may take the 'Symphonic
Suite' in E minor; for this has all the seriousness of
purpose and thoroughness of execution of a large
symphony. The first movement, which is in sonata
form, seems to symbolize the conflict of passion
and resignation in the human soul. The two prin-

cipal themes are as follows : A ^"^

^ , The contrast be-

p' con maito eiyrdiiione '. ~

tween these two motives is admirably handled. The
working-out section is brief. The second move-
ment, sehr ruhig, has the following first subject.

but soon falls into a 9/8 passage of very diff'erent qual-
ity. In this movement dissonance and chromatic pro-
gression are freely used. The third movement is a
Scherzo finale, in the tone of what the Germans call
Galgenhumor. It has the following principal motive:

StAr raseA unit trrtg

In the further development the composer makes use of
eloquent contrapuntal voices.

A more recent work of von Reznicek shows him com-
peting with Richard Strauss in the tone-poem of the
largest proportion. Schlehmil, in fact, seems like a
*bid for popularity' on the part of a man who has hith-
erto held aloof from the fashionable means to the popu-

424

ARNOLD SCH5NBERG

lar heart. It purports to symbolize the life of man, and
in its various episodes narrates the critical periods of
life — such as youth, marriage, work in the outside
worid, failure — and of course death. The thematic ma-
terial is excellent though obvious, and the scoring and
harmonization are so rich as to superinduce instant ap-
plause. Nevertheless, the work disappoints in that it
lacks those qualities which set von Reznicek apart
from his contemporaries.

It would be presumptuous to attempt here to give a
final judgment on the orchestral work of Arnold Schon-
berg. His method is so utterly different from all we
have known in the past that our bases of musical aes-
thetics must be completely changed before we can truly
appreciate what there is of beauty in it. His chief or-
chestral works, up to the present time, are the Kammer-
symphonie and the *Five Orchestral Pieces.' The for-
mer is an energetic work, in which the movements are
continuous. The polyphony is strong, and the themes,
without possessing charm in the conventional sense,
are pregnant and vigorous. Undoubtedly there is an
abundance of technical skill shown in the construction
of this work, which is the product of a fertile, indus-
trious and altogether sincere musical brain. The 'Five
Orchestral Pieces' are of a later musical stage. The
score is a marvellous and wonderful thing; it would
look quite as natural up-side down as right side up; in
fact, when held twelve inches from the eye it looks more
like a fly-specked piece of paper than anything else.
This is partly because of Schonberg's method of 'spot-
ting' his musical canvas, instead of coloring his orches-
tra according to the melodic contour. All division of
the score into melody and harmony, or into distinct
contrapuntal voices, all treatment of the orchestral in-
struments in 'groups,' are here abandoned utterly. As
for the result of these methods, it is for each hearer to
like or dislike it as he chooses. Only it behooves each

425

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

listener to endeavor to discover what the composer was
trying to say, rather than what he would like to hear.

The 'Five Orchestral Pieces' are scored for a large
orchestra, including (for the first piece) four flutes,
three oboes, three clarinets, with bass clarinet and con-
trabass clarinet; three bassoons and a contrabassoon;
four horns, three trumpets, four trombones and tuba;
together with xylophone, celesta, harp and percussion
instruments, and the usual strings. The first move-
ment, marked sehr rasch, is tremendously difficult for
the performers, involving a great amount of conflict
of rhythms — 3/8 time against 4/8, etc. — and contains no
trace whatever of 'harmony.' The second movement
is mdssig. The third, which bears the same mark, has
appended the following characteristic composer's note :
*It is not the business of the director to bring to the
foreground in this piece the individual voices that seem
to him important, or to modify apparently unhappy
chord- or tone-combinations. Where a voice should
be more evident than the others it is correspondingly
scored, and the effect should not be toned down. On
the other hand it is the business of the director to see
to it that each instrument shall play with the loudness
which is allotted to it; exactly (in the subjective sense)
answering to the instrument and not (in the objective
sense) modified to suit the effect of the whole.' To
the uninitiated hearer, we may add, any emendations
on the part of the conductor would go unappreciated, as
no 'interpretation' could make these pieces sound other
than queer and ugly according to old standards.

426

CHAPTER XIII

MODERN FRENCH AND ITALIAN ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Emmanuel Cbabrier, Cbarpentler and Chausson — Vincent d'Indy: the
Wallenstein Trilogy, Is tar, and the B-flat symphony — Claude Debussy:
La Mer, L'Apris-midl d'un faune, Rondes de Prlntemps, etc. — Paul Dukas:
L'Apprenti Sorcier — Guy Ropartz, Maurice Ravel and Albert Roussel—
Italian sympbonic composers: Sgambatl. Alfano, Zandonal, etc

The course which modem French music has taken m
its development has been traced elsewhere in this
work.* We are here concerned only with certain works
which typify its achievements at their best. The task is
by no means so difficult as in the case of modem Ger-
man music, for the great French musicians stand out
more obviously from among their imitating contempo-
raries. Besides, the modem French school is in a stage
of youth, which can hardly be said of the German, and
its direction is more marked and its offshoots fewer.
We shall find ourselves concerned with each of the
great figures who have determined the history of recent
French music, yet not with many of their works, for
their works for orchestra have, for the most part, been
well considered and limited in number.

Modem French music begins to emerge with the work
of Emmanuel Cbabrier. He proved a stimulus no less
in the art of orchestration than in the development of
modem harmony. And the work which shows his scor-
ing beyond any of his others is the Rhapsody 'Espana.*
This astonished and delighted even those musicians who
looked on it as no more than glorified dance-hall music

* See Volume m. Chapter 317ff.

427

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Its brilliance has not dimmed to this day. The appear-
ance of the work was truly a dating point in the history
of French music. 'Espana' was the result of Chabrier's
sojourn in Spain, during which he collected a number
of Spanish folk-songs and popular dance-tunes. On
his return to Paris he was moved to develop these into
an orchestral composition. Probably it was no more
than a jeu (fesprit with him. Certainly, the respect in
which musicians hold the work is not \he result of any
ambitious aim on the part of the composer. It is noth-
ing but a fast waltz, freely developed, without a trace of
pedantry or the parade of any of those devices which
prove a composer the possessor of an extensive tech-
nique. It seems to be written purely from the heart
But as such it is a work of pure inspiration, for its
rhythms are as sharp and its colors as flashing now as
when it was first produced. Yet these living virtues in
the piece escape the most acute technical analysis.
There is little polyphony or *development' The few
simple themes are merely repeated or alternated, with
varying instrumentation. The work, which is marked
allegro con fuoco, commences with a long introduction
in the waltz rhythm, which is without a trace of set
melody. It is merely the composer's 'strumming' on
his mighty instrument. When this has gone on for
many bars, as though the serenader were trying his
guitar before beginning his serenade, we suddenly
hear the following tune in the trumpets and horns:

This is repeated again and again with different instru-
mentations, all most brilliantly colored. Then comes

more *strunMning' and a new theme :

This is presently followed by another

428

CHABRIER, CHARPENTIER, CHAUSSON

and yet another. And so it goes, one tune after another,
in strictest time, with flashing tints and colors, as though
all nature were joining in the exuberant waltz. The
glory of the orchestral color is obtained not by any
subtlety in the use of instruments, but by the boldness
and straightforwardness — even youthfulness — in the
obtaining of the effects dictated by the composer's
instinct. The brass, in particular, is used with unprece-
dented boldness.

Gustave Charpentier, composer of the opera *Louise,'
has to his credit one large orchestral work which car-
ried his fame throughout Europe. This is his suite,
'Impressions of Italy,' which he wrote while enjoying
the sojourn at the Villa Medici enjoined with the Prix de
Rome. The work is executed in Charpentier's master-
fully simple manner; so well does it reflect the spirit
and feeling of the Italians that it might be supposed to
be written by an Italian, except for the polished Gallic
manner of its execution. In this suite Charpentier im-
mersed himself in his subject matter as much as he did
later when writing 'Louise.' The fancy and originality
displayed in the five movements are astonishing. The
first movement is entitled 'Serenade.' In this he uses
the portamento, long and short, the grace-note, the in-
sistent repeated or held note, the ambiguous tonality —
all with such dexterity that the piece bears the stamp
of the Italian folk-song. The chief theme of the move-
ment is as follows : ^ ,

Throughout its simple development

one feels oneself a member of the ever-singing race
beyond the Alps. The second movement, 'At the
Fountain,' is, according to one critic, an admirable
example of the French genius for making something

IntnfHUlo

out of nothing. The chief theme

429

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

seems to have no individuality, but out of it Charpen-
tier, by means of modulation, fragmentation, modifica-
tion of tempo, etc., gains such an effect that it seems
to be a melody of the first quality. The gentle dropping
of the water is heard in the middle section, but the
fountain of this movement is the clear pool of water
in which one can study reflections for hours on a hot
summer afternoon.

The third movement is superscribed A Mules. It is
a subtly humorous movement instilled with indescrib-
able verve. The cracking of the whips is heard, and
the bustling laziness of Italian life. Now and then we
seem to be catching a snatch of an opera air sung by
one of the mule-drivers. The piece is a model of clear
and ever-interesting development. The fourth move-
ment, Sur les Cimes ('On the Mountain Top'), seems the
distillation of luscious, sensuous sunlight. The last
movement, entitled Napoli, much more complicated
than the previous ones, is composed of numerous
rhythms and motives. Much of it, of course, is dancing,
but we have also a picture of the lazy and sentimental
side of life. Later the composer pits a 6/8 rhythm
against a 2/4 with excellent result. The whole move-
ment abounds in life and freshness.

Ernest Chausson, one of the most talented of that
distinguished group of pupils who gathered around
Cesar Franck in his later years, died before he had
given the world of his best. But his B-flat major sym-
phony, in its extensive use of the cyclic method), but
ulating work, and altogether the most representative
thing of its composer. The musical radicalism that was
sweeping over France at the time did not afi'ect him as
it affected others, though he was thoroughly wide-
awake to it. The present work shows the radical in-
fluence (it betrays its model, the Franck D minor sym-
phony, in its extensive use of the cyclic method), but

430

MODERN FRANCE: VINCENT D'INDY

it has none of the tossing and striving of the works of
Chausson's confreres. It is simple, direct and noble,
to a remarkable degree a work of inspiration rather
than thought. An example of the almost Beethovenish
spirit of grandeur that pervades it is furnished by
the theme of the opening adagio, which is as follows:

^^ J J J 1^ J J U 11 I J H II' The majestic prelude

develops with generous use of full, organ-like chords,
and leads into the movement proper, marked vivo,

which has the following subject: '"i" j J j \\^ I tTi^
r r I r TTf l r^f]. The development is clear and trans-
parent. Toward the end of the movement we hear
again the theme of the introduction — still more impres-
sive and noble. The second movement — marked ires
lent — is moody and veiled, as it were, in mist. With the
section marked un peu plus vite, we have an example of
early French impressionism in the process of discover-
ing itself. The third and last movement is marked
animS. It is a solid finale in 4/4 time, clear-cut and
closely hinged. The themes from the preceding move-
ments arc marshalled in review, some of them in en-
nobled form — one more example of the cyclic form,
which was much cultivated by the Cesar Franck circle.

Vincent dTndy's art is unique among the music of
all lands. Though related to French impressionism,
his style has a vigor and a personal flavor that places
it outside of any exact classification. His themes seem
hewn out of solid rock and his architecture is that of
great blocks bound together by iron. Where the 'im-
pressionists' use the transparent tints of the musical
palette, d'Indy uses the thick and pregnant tones. Over

431

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

all his works we can feel his intellectual intensity — a
certain quality of thought that seems almost tangible.

The 'Wallenstein Trilogy' (opus 12) dates from
d'lndy's early maturity. As such it shows peculiarly
the influence of Wagner, who was the chief force in
the works of the more progressive French composers
until the arrival of impressionism, which is largely of
French origin. Yet it is not in the least an imitation
or reapplication of the Wagnerian method. DTndy's
individuality speaks in it in every bar. It has all the
qualities that distinguish his later works — the pregnant,
deeply considered thematic material, and the cogent
structure, the free and harsh harmony, the intense and
energetic tone-coloring. Its choice of Schiller's dra-
matic trilogy as a literary foundation is typical of the
tendency of the progressive French composers of the
time, who sought in German culture and art-works
relief from the sickly tradition into which French music
had fallen. It is in three parts, each of symphonic
breadth of design, though without any close relation to
the standard symphonic forms. The first movement is
entitled 'Wallenstein's Camp.' It is a musical picture
of uninterrupted gaiety, with dancing and burlesquing
and games. It opens with the following theme.

Allegro gnisto

^ l|J ' I . = simple and happy. The

development of this is irregular and full of surprises,
with wild trills and free and frequent modulation.

Now a more tranquil theme

"'■ mirrors the quieter life of the

camp. But this does not last long. We are soon
in a passage that might be a lively folk-dance.
This suddenly comes to a stop and from the distance
we hear the noise and tumult with which the

432

D'INDY'S 'WALLENSTEIN TRILOGY*

movement began. We are in the repetition of the
principal subject (for this is a free scherzo movement)
but the composer carries through his repetition
with great freedom. The quiet second theme, for in-
stance, receives a fuller development. Then, after a
loud passage and a general pause, another theme, which
we may regard as the trio, enters in the bassoon and is
taken up by other bassoons in the form of a fugue:

It seems to tell of the sermon by the Capucine, which is
received with general laughter and derision. This is set

forth in the following motif.

while the tuba with the theme of the sermon in vain
endeavors to still it. But suddenly the uproar ceases,
and we hear in the horns, trumpets and trom-
bones the majestic theme representing Wallenstein.

Largo • maestoso 'Tv . ■

*H|I fJ'|l.l r *r lip r * ** ^^~1 Th^ trio is at an end
and the main section is now repeated, with interesting
changes, for example, a piquant episode for three flutes
in the waltz section. The Wallenstein theme closes the
movement.

The second movement of the work is entitled *Max
and Tekla' and is concerned with the love-story of the
Schiller drama. But it is a serious love-story, beset
with many trials. Frequently in the course of it the

kettle-drums with the following motif JB-T] J -
suggests the danger and menace of the surroundings.

J Andante^

The opening theme, as follows.

horns and clarinets.

is given out by the

It is taken up in variation form
433

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

and attains a joyous end. Then a new tempo, an al-
legro risoluto, which perhaps suggests the strife of fac-
tion which complicates the problem of the lovers even
as the struggles of the Montagues and the Capulets
complicated that of Romeo and Juliet. Next we
have a dialogue passage and a second theme, a//egfro,

which speaks strongly of the

Wagnerian influence. An andante tranquillo now
brings us to the love-music proper, with the following

subject:

Later this

theme is combined with that which opened the move-
ment. Then the Wallenstein theme enters once more,
but ends in dissonance, giving place to the allegro riso-
luto and finally to the love theme, adagio and half sup-
pressed.

The third movement, entitled *Wallenstein's Death,'
opens with a beautiful largo introduction, which in-
cludes the Wallenstein theme. The chief theme (ob-
viously drawn from that of Wallenstein) enters allegro

Allegro

and is later combined with the music that opened
the first movement. This latter plays a most im-
portant part in the movement. The section answer-
ing to the recapitulation of the symphony is followed
by a maestoso passage with the following theme.

Maestoso

which in turn is followed by the love music of the seo
ond movement. Again a maestoso section, which an-
swers to the actual death of Wallenstein, and the work
ends with a largo which is based upon the introduction.
The symphonic Variations entitled 'Istar' (opus 42)
are a brilliant symphonic achievement. The work is in

434

D'INDTS 'ISTAR' VARIATIONS

reality a symphonic poem, and is based upon an eastern
legend which tells of the beautiful Istar who entered
the Distant Land in search of the Son of Life. To enter
she was obliged to pass through seven gates, and at
each gate the keeper removed some item of her clothing
or adornments. At the first gate she was obliged to
part with the tiara upon her head; at the second, with
the earrings on her ears; at the third, with the precious
stones upon her neck; at the fourth, with the jewels that
ornamented her breasts; at the fifth, with the girdle
about her waist; at the sixth, with the rings on her
hands and feet; and at the seventh, with the last veil
that covered her body. Thereafter, the story relates,
Istar entered the Distant Land, received the waters of
life, presented them, and thus before all, delivered the
Son of Life, her young lover. The peculiarity of
d'lndy's work, from the structural point of view, is
that though this is a set of variations, the theme of
theme is given out last of all. Istar is only at the last
shown in her nakedness. This theme is as follows,

'f ' J ug 'jj.i^ jj^J.jjj.y. Ui I ij ui^ J .iij.

and is played by the orchestra in unison, after which
follows a brief section descriptive of the redemp-
tion of the Son of Life. The variations are complex
and brilliant in the extreme, a masterpiece of orches-
tral and polyphonic virtuosity.

The third of the great works which between them
summarize d'lndy's greatness, is the symphony in B-
flat, which dates from 1903. This has the following

principal theme

m. for the first movement, which is ex-
tremely eff'ective after the slow introduction based on
this motif : 'ij' jt J ^" rJ^J 'if^' "'"pil^^ , It receives a

435

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

clear and vigorous development. The second theme
is of an elegiac character and is in 3/2 time. In the
working-out section the introduction theme enters
largely. The musical style in this movement is strong
almost to brutality, and the form is powerful and rock-
like. The scoring is more vigorous and solid than
one would find in the orchestral work of any other
French composer of the time. In the second move-
ment, which is moderement lent, we should mention
the striking section in which the following melody

is taken by the harps. The movement as a whole is
lyrical, but complex and even heavy. The characteris-
tic third movement is marked modere, and might be a
series of sacred dances from the far east. The fourth
movement opens with a review of the previous motives
of the work (d'Indy has developed the cyclical method
beyond any other composer of modern times) and is
in fact largely composed of the symphony's previous
material. It ends with a grand chorale-like section
followed by a vigorous vif.

Ill

The most important symphonic work of Claude De-
bussy is La Mer (dating from 1905), which the composer
calls 'three symphonic sketches.' It is a masterly
achievement in Debussy's most mature style, showing
a more vigorous creative thinker than one would
learn to know from the popular piano pieces which
bear his name. The first movement, 'From Sun-
rise to Noon,' opens very slowly, with long held
tones in the bass strings, rhythmic notes in the
harps, and a swaying figure in the wood-winds. Then

436

DEBUSSY'S *LA MER»

the main theme enters in the horns and trumpets:

fp txjiniiij »l $ohI*hh

piHJjp

Next, with the spreading sunlight, we have a livelier
section followed by a modere with a new theme which
continually strives towards the upper registers of the
orchestra — all above much tremolo and triplet figura-
tion in the strings. The second main theme, which
seems to show the sunlight glowing over the water.

is given out by the horns. This is dominant in the
following development, which is very rich in colorful
accompanying device. This section culminates in a
series of sforzando chords and a passage marked
retenu, and is followed by a section un peu plus
mouvemente, with new thematic material which is
more energetic. This finally subsides to a passage, plus
retenu, in which the first theme is dominant. Then
comes yet another distinct section, tres modere, with a
slow 6/8 melody in the horns, and cellos, and a final
section. Ires lent, in 4/4 lime, with a majestic sweep,
utilizing the second theme of the movement and cul-
minating fortissimo. This analysis will give some sug-
gestion of the fluid structure of Debussy's orchestral
music, as different from that of d'Indy as could well
be imagined. The orchestral coloring is masterly, and
the harmonic device, which enriches the musical web
with infinite surprise and exquisite delicacy, is in the
manner which has brought the honor of supreme origi-
nality to the modern French school.

The second movement is entitled Jeux des Vagues,
and is for the most part an allegro 'dans un rhythme
tres souple.' It is more pianistic in style than the other
two movements, and reminds one of the piano Preludes.
Its harmony is largely chromatic and contains an abun-

437

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

dance of thick honey color. The third and last move-
ment, called 'Dialogue of the Winds and the Waves,' is
marked anime et tumultueux. The themes of waves and

winds respectively are as follows :

The first theme of the first movement soon enters and
continues to play an important part in the present
movement. New material appears freely, particularly

the following moaning theme:

•xprtssif tt sauttHH

The combination of themes in this part of

the work (the theme of the waves is the basis of the
accompaniment throughout) is sometimes highly skill-
ful. One of the most striking passages is that in which
the first theme of the first movement is accompanied
by the strings in wide arpeggio sweeps. The excite-
ment now gives place to a lovely passage, tres soutenu,
in D-flat major. Here the moaning theme enters again,
above a rich chromatic accompaniment; it undergoes
various transformations in the following animating
passage, which rises to a fortissimo. The movement
now slides into the previous tempo, much broadened.
The moaning theme dominates nearly to the end. We
have in this work of Debussy's one of the finest prod-
ucts of modem France — a synthesis and summary
of the achievements of musical impressionism. Such a
brief analysis as this can give no idea of the happiness
of the scoring, which flows directly from the composer's
highly personal harmonic method, and would be al-
most a study for a separate volume, were space ade-
quate. We may only say that La Mer is as admirable
as a technical lesson in modem music as it is beautiful
as a poem.

438

DEBUSSY'S 'L'APRfeS-MIDI D'UN FAUNE,' ETC.

Not so much can be said for the orchestral Prelude,
UApres-midi (Tun faune (after an 'Eclogue* by Mal-
larme), which is an even more brilliant achievement
in its way. If the style here is purer and more perfect
than in La Mer, the technical and expressive range is
not nearly so wide. The Apres-midi might be the
work of an accomplished minor poet, while La Mer
could be none other than the work of a musician
of first rank. Yet the present Prelude is peculiarly
valuable in that it offers a summary, easily grasped,
of what is most personal to Debussy — that narrow
range of moods and sensations which we call 'at-
mospheric' In it we see strikingly illustrated how
far the impressionistic school has strayed from the
old German symphonic tradition. The opening theme

symbolizes the chromatic quality of modem music, as
opposed to the diatonic quality which formed the basis
of all the classics, and which may be symbolized by the
opening themes of Beethoven's E-flat or Schubert's G
major sjrmphonies. The Debussy piece maintains this
misty chromatic quality with great consistency through-
out his piece, spinning out a harmony which seems the
very flowering of the theme. There is also extensive
use of the whole-tone scale, which Debussy helped to
popularize, and also many special orchestral devices,
such as the glissando of the harps. The work ends ppp
with the chief theme in the oboe and then in the muted
horns.

The more recent Images (three pieces) show the same
technical virtuosity which we have met in the earlier
works, but less inspiration. In it we may find ground
for the theory that Debussy has been repeating himself
since the time of his world-wide fame drawn from the
success of Pelleas et Melisande. At the same time,

439

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

this later Debussy has shown increasing evidence of his
charming vein of delicate humor. The three pieces are
entitled Gigues, Iberia and Rondes de Printemps. They
have become generally known in reverse order, the first
remaining unpublished till 1913. The second, Iberia, is
a brilliantly scored piece of impressionistic tone paint-
ing descriptive of Spain in a rather more subtle sense
than Chabrier's Espana,' {€f. Vol. HI, p. 330.) The
light humor of the composer is delicately expressed
in the third of the Rondes — which bears the inscription,
'Vive le Mai.' It opens slowly, and with much impres-
sive mystery and magic, and works up to a lively Di-
onysian movement in 9/8 time, from which emerges

the following theme :

^^ J-

This is admirably manipulated, and furnishes a good
example of what Debussy can accomplish with a vulgar
theme. The whole work glows with life and is filled
with the clever details which are a feature of the com-
poser's style.

A composer who works in Debussy's style, but with
more objective intent, is Paul Dukas. The orchestral
scherzo, U Apprenti Sorcier, by Dukas, is known to
concert goers the world over. It is, in fact, as brilliant a
feat of orchestral story-telling as recent years have
shown. The story which furnishes its 'program' is taken
from a famous ballad by Goethe. This narrates how
the sorcerer's apprentice, not yet an adept at his art,
sought to experiment with magic one day during the
absence of his master. He commanded water to flow
from a broom, and was duly delighted when the humble
implement obeyed his command. But he became wor-
ried as he saw the water flooding the room. He sought
to stop the flow of water, and was dismayed when he
realized that he did not know the formula for stopping
it. Terrified at the thought that the master might dis-

440

GUY ROPARTZ

cover his misdemeanor, he tried all sorts of variations
on the original formula, but in vain. The water began
to run over the door sills into the street, and the whole
house threatened to be swept away. Finally, in terror,
he summoned the master, who took in the situation,
pronounced the correct formula (a mere reversal of
the original one) and brought all to rights — administer-
ing a sound thrashing to his mischievous apprentice to
settle the account. Dukas' scherzo commences assez
lent, with mysterious chords for the muted violins, with
harp harmonies. Here the apprentice is toying with
magic. The motion of running water is suggested in
the wood-winds, as the lad gets the idea of his mischief.
There are three lively bars of 9/16 rhythm, then the
running water theme is repeated in the muted trumpets,
then in the flute and then in the horns. Next we hear
the magic formula in the horns and trumpets, culminat-
ing in loud shivering tremolos of the strings. The
apprentice has given the command, and the broom has
attempted to obey his behest. A moment's silence!
Then begins the main scherzo movement, as the water
commences to flow. The theme of running water en-
ters tentatively once or twice, interrupted by short
chords in the wind instruments. Then the bassoons
give out the theme of running water confidently:

Tramfet (ranted}

The water has begun to flow steadily and freely.
From here on the whole movement is a sort of series
of variations, with the main theme and two allied
motifs undergoing all sorts of transformations, and
the orchestra tricked out with all sorts of devices
and surprises. At first the apprentice is delighted
with his mischief. Then he becomes slightly wor-
ried, then fearful. He tries to give the formula for

441

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

stopping, but -gets it wrong — giving, that is, the original
magic command, which only makes the broom flow
faster. He seeks to quell the broom by physical force,
but it runs away from him (triplets fortissimo molto
staccato in thirds). The orchestra becomes more tu-
multuous, though always in the steady unrelenting
rhythm. The apprentice quivers in terror (quivering
of strings and wood-winds) . He calls for help (stopped
horns, comet and viola in a whining theme). His mas-
ter appears and with authority gives the formula for
stopping (the original magic formula reversed). The
work now resumes its opening slow movement — the
surrounding atmosphere of magic — and ends with a
single crashing chord, as the master lays the stick to
his apprentice's back. In all modern program music
there is no more perfect masterpiece of humor and
vivid orchestration. Unfortunately Dukas' output has
been exceedingly slight, and he has not produced a
fellow for this work.

One of the most able of d'lndy's pupils is Guy
Ropartz, w'ho has written much for orchestra and
has recently come to the fore as one of the
most powerful composers of modem France. He
can hardly be called an impressionist, though
all the progressive composers of modem France
have to some extent absorbed the Debussyan tech-
nique. He rather cultivates the angular and cere-
bral style of his master, which he develops to an even
more astounding degree of complexity. His themes
are dry in the extreme, being chosen not at all for their
inherent beauty, but merely for their pregnancy and
adaptability to abstract development. The Symphony
in E major, dated 1906, may be taken as an example
of this style. It opens tres lent with an introductory

442

MAURICE RAVEL, ALBERT ROUSSEL

chorale by mixed chorus (the words are the composer's
own), which tells of sunrise over the sea, plain and
forest. There is extensive use of the whole-tone scale.
On the word 'joie' begins the main movement, which is
in 5/4 time, assez anim^, and has the following theme :

This may stand as a type of the Ropartz themes,
studied, austere, and utterly unloveable. But the sheer
technical control which Ropartz brings to their develop-
ment makes the student gape with open mouth. In it
we have great harmonic freedom, necessitated by the
integrity and independence of the many separate voices.
The result is grandiose and awe-inspiring, but utterly
brain-spun. The second movement shows Nature in
her calm and indifferent moods. The third is an ad-
dress to poor men, urging them to love in order to
improve their spiritual estate. The music is solemn and
pseudo-religious, with a certain insinuating sensuous
beauty. The fourth and last movement is an ecstatic
praise of brotherly love, in which the theme of the
opening movement returns. The choral parts are com-
plex and difTicult. The words, which are long and bom-
bastic, are a blot on the work. They are most ordinary
prose, and a cynic might say that the music is likewise.
Maurice Ravel, who is, with Debussy, the most in-
spired of the French impressionists, has written little
for orchestra alone. His most typical work has been
shown in such pieces as the ballet, *Daphnis and Chloe,*
a brilliant performance, with a wide expressive range
and a physical vigor of movement which impressionism
had not previously attained. For the present purpose
we may give a brief analysis of his charming toy suite
for orchestra, 'Mother Goose,' which shows his mastery
of the miniature form and spirit. The little suite pic-
tures five beloved incidents from Mother Goose, and

443

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

though it shows in subtlest guise Ravel's super-refined
art it proves its genuineness in that it is perfectly in-
telligible and delightful to children. The first move-
ment is a very brief Tavane of the Beauty in the Sleep-
ing Forest.' R is little more than a few measures of
duet, but it reminds one of Ravel's other Pavane — that
unapproachable Pavane pour une infante defunte. In
this movement we may note the muted basses, a fan-
tastic notion characteristic of Ravel. The second move-
ment— tres modere — tells the adventures of Petit Pou-
cet, who strewed breadcrumbs to mark his path, and
was lost on the return because the birds had eaten them.
The simple melody is enriched by much device in the
accompaniment — for example, the glissando harmonics
in the strings. The third movement is entitled 'Laider-
onette. Empress of the Pagodas.' Its chief theme is as

follows :

This is de-

veloped with a dazzling shimmering accompaniment of
tremolos and scattered melodic fragments in the
strings — all of the utmost delicacy. There is much bur-
lesque orientalism in the scale of the toy-shop, and
further on even considerable noise and pomp. A mid-
dle section gives us a slowly swaying sensuous melody
in the flute, over long held chords of the muted strings.
The fourth movement, 'The Conversation of Beauty
and the Beast,' is a piece of inimitable humor. The
theme of Beauty is intoned by the clarinet in waltz form

as follows : ^^

** y)> tspresstf.

Then from the contra-bassoon, we hear the theme of

the Beast :

The two now

hold converse, and the Beast attempts his clumsy
compliments as follows:

444

Famous Conductors of the- Niiu'tceiith Ccnlury

Hans Uichtrr Felix MottI

Herniaiin Levi Ernst von Schucli

>how8 ii
*t it proves its genu

iri'i l\)rC'St.' It is litl.

-■' •^,■^

this movement wr

basses

cel» who stre>

his pt)

lit

on.,.., ....ij..

follows :

veloped >vith a da^^TiTi'^ .iV)*;nnt» ?
fn rnolos and sr

harmoni

. This is de-

•iiriH.'Mninv.^nl of

ion of

■Hion from it\
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ALBERT ROUSSEL

At his first expressions of adoration the shudders of
Beauty are expressed by fierce tremolos of the violins.
But soon both themes join in a waltz as best they can.
Beauty has accepted him as Beast. But then, after a
fortissimo, he comes to her (in ethereal harmonics of
the solo violin) as a Prince. The movement, after this
lovely fairy-like transformation, comes to a close very
softly. The last movement, entitled The Fairy Garden,'
is a stately waltz ending in the fire-works of harp
glissandos.

Among the more conservative of modem French com-
posers Albert Roussel holds a high place. An ardent
admirer of Cesar Franck, and by nature a slow and
careful workman, he has developed by degrees from a
talented student of classical models to a poet of in-
spiring imagination and exhaustive technique. His
incidental music for the ballet, Le Festin de I'araignie,
is a masteipiece of delicate delineation. But his great-
est work hitherto is his orchestral and choral suite.
Evocations. This, inspired by a trip to the Far East,
shows at its best the manner in which Roussel has
synthesized the impressionism of a Debussy and a
Ravel with the pictorial imagination of the earlier ro-
manticists and the ideals of classic workmanship em-
bodied in Cesar Franck. The work shows the magnifi-
cence of Strauss combined with the delicacy of Ravel.
Each of the three movements of the suite pictures
forth a mood 'evoked' during the composer's sojourn
in the Far East several years ago. The first theme,
entitled 'The Gods in the Darkness of the Caverns,*
is a mysterious, ever-shifting picture of wonders.

This is the principal theme,

one of many. As the trembling mortal peers deeper
into the darkness he sees painted upon the rocks of
the cave pictures of the great gods, as follows:

445

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

. The whole movement

has the Gothic magnificence of German imagination
(c/. E. T. A. Hoffmann) expressed with the delicately
sensuous and subjective quality which is Gallic. The
second movement, 'The Red City,* is a wonderful
scherzo of endless spirit and variety. It seems to be
a festal procession of some eastern potentate, and the

main theme

seems to tell of gorgeously trapped elephants and of
the whiteness of glistening ivory. The third and
final movement — 'On the Banks of the Sacred River^

— ^introduces the chorus ;

It is a magnificent work in a religious spirit foreign to
western civilization — deeply sensual and yet calmly
exalted. The baritone, in a hushed and half melodic
recitative, murmurs his prayer by the sacred stream,
and various parties of pilgrims and worshippers pass
by in the night. Finally the chorus chants a gorgeous
hymn to the rising sun, with which the work closes.

In Italy there has been a veritable renaissance of
symphonic music. Not only are there now many tal-
ented composers devoting their best efforts to the ab-
stract forms, but even some of the successful operatic
composers do not disdain to exert their efforts to mak-
ing a name for themselves in the concert programs of
Europe. The pioneer in this movement is probably G.
Sgambati, pupil of Liszt, who was for many years
Italy's most eminent symphonist. Since his time there
have been distinguished musicians, such as Alfano,

446

ITALIAN SYMPHONIC COMPOSERS

Franchetti and Zandonai, whose orchestral works have
proved to be of the highest quality in inspiration and
workmanship. This is the more favored because mod-
em Italy has evolved a harmonic technique quite her
own, a technique of free poljrphony, based upon the old
harmony but carried far into the domain of expressive
dissonance, a web of independent and highly expressive
voices constantly modulating according to the chro-
matic principle. This technique has been successfully
applied to opera — notably by Zandonai — but seems to
be before all else a symphonic idiom. It is distin-
guished by intense thought and endless physical en-
ergy. With this mature style the Italian composers
have contributed to the evolution of the symphonic mu-
sic of the world. In short, modem Italy is beginning
to rival France and Russia in the *pure* and abstract
forms of music.

As an example of Italian symphonic music in the
early stage of its present development, we may take
Sgambati's sjrmphony in B, opus 16. It is a work in-
spired by classical ideals, showing admirable reserve
and proportion and yet betraying generously the ro-
mantic influence of Liszt. Especially fine is the first
movement, in which Italian energy and beauty are
moulded into a coherent whole by a just observance
of the principles of symphonic form. The second

subject of the first movement

[<*» suggests how the
Italian symphonists can invent song-like melodies which
are still amenable to symphonic treatment Espe-
cially in the second movement,

with its sensuous harp ac-
companiment, do we feel the old Italian tradition of

447

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

succulent melody. As a parallel work in the domain of
pure romantic music, we may mention Sinigaglia's
lovely *Piedmontese Suite' — a thing dominated by other
ideals (chiefly those of Grieg), but distinguished by the
same regard for form and for the a priori conditions of
non-operatic music.

Yet these works seem almost to have come from the
kindergarten when we examine ambitious pieces like
Alfano's Symphony in E minor, or Zandonai's sjrm-
phonic poem, Vere Nuovo. The Alfano work is in all
respects a masterly composition. Here the old operatic
method (melody and accompaniment) is rejected com-
pletely. Not only have all the voices equal importance
and independence, as in the Rach Fugues, or in cer-
tain passages in the Wagner music-dramas, but the
themes themselves are chosen without regard to what
the average music-lover calls *beauty.* Their beauty,
in short, resides not in their sensuous appeal or their
emotional expressiveness, but solely in their adapta-
bility to symphonic development. In other words, the
method has become utterly and wholly symphonic.
This swinging of the pendulum in modem Italy is one
of the most remarkable manifestations of modern mu-
sic. No contrast could be more complete than that
between Verdi and Alfano. There are few works in
modem music more utterly unrelated to picture or
specific emotion than this symphony of Alfano's. The
character of the themes may be seen from this frag-
ment of the chief themes of the first movement:

The development of these melodies is fairly regular
and tireless in its inner energy. The treatment of
the inner voices is the work of a master craftsman.
Even in the slow movement, where we might expect
poetry and *beauty,' we find hardly any relaxation in
technical austerity, as will be seen in the following

448

ITALIAN SYMPHONIC COMPOSERS

theme:

This is decidedly a

work for the technical musician, who will find it a mine
of resourcefulness and of beauty in the detailed articu-
lation of the parts. So perfectly is this achieved that
we have no feeling of sectional construction; the whole
movement seems to flow like liquid, with the voices en-
tering and merging like brooks joining their river. The
scoring is not — cannot be — distinguished in the nine-
teenth-century sense of giving each voice a peculiar
romantic color. It is a scoring suited to the polyphonic
style of the music, in which the instruments seem to be
chosen for their mechanical adaptation to the voice
sung.

In the more romantic side of modem Italian music,
we find Zandonai's Vere Nuovo instructive. It is pri-
marily romantic music, filled witli poetry and sensuous
appeal. Yet it seems hardly less complex and austere
than the Alfano symphony. In the bewildering inter-
weaving of the voices we find scarcely a passage in
which attention can be relaxed. It is like the dizzy
mingling of creative forces which one feels in early
spring, where a thousand kinds of life join in a vast
symphony of growth. The harmonic style is that of
constant chromatic modulation. Here are two of the
themes, selected almost haphazard, showing the chro-
matic quality of the whole :

The words, taken from d'Annunzio, are sung by a
baritone voice.

449

CHAPTER XIV

THE MODERN RUSSIAN, SCANDINAVIAN AND ENGLISH
COMPOSERS

Balakireff and his 'Thamar' ; Glazounoff and his symphonies ; Alexander
Borodine — Rimsky- Korsakoff : his symplionics and symphonic poems — Mous-
sorgsky and Cisar Cui — The 'Moscow school': LiadoJf, (Jli^re, Rach-
maninoff, etc. — Stravinsky and Scriabine: color music — The Scandinavian
composers; Sibelius and his symphonic poems — The English modems:
Elgar, Bantock and Delius.

In previous chapters we have told of the orchestral
work of the Russian orchestral composers of the early
and middle periods (considered in an evolutionary
rather than a chronological sense) — especially Glinka,
Rubinstein and Tschaikowsky. And in Volume III we
have seen the general character of the recent Russian
nationalist composers. Here, then, we have only to
illustrate the characteristics of the most important of
these composers in their chief orchestral works. In
general they group themselves into two classes — those
'neo-Russians' who gathered around the banner of Bala-
kireff, and the more recent composers influenced by
cosmopolitan ideas, chiefly French. In addition, there
are of course border composers, contemporaneous with
the above, representing neither in full measure.

Balakireff, though a genius of remarkable powers,
did comparatively little composing, being too much oc-
cupied in teaching and directing his beloved enterprise,
the Free School of Music. From his short list of opus
numbers we may select his symphonic poem, *Thamar,*
which is beyond a doubt his most representative work.
This work, borrowing a 'program* from the great Rus-

450

BALAKIREFF; GLAZOUNOFF

sian story-teller, Lermontoff, tells of the Georgian Prin-
cess, Thamar, who lived in a castle among the moun-
tains and held high court with her attendants. Her
sole pleasure in life was to waylay travellers and in-
duce them to join in the revels, after which they would
be made to minister to her pleasures. In the morning
each man thus honored would be put ruthlessly to
death, while the Princess seated herself at the window,
watching for her next victim. The Balakireff music
opens andante maestoso with much weaving and sway-
ing of the strings — setting the voluptuous atmosphere
of the Princess's castle. Then come uncertain snatches
of melody, suggesting the half formed impulses of the
Princess, while the weaving of the accompaniment con-
tinues from one instrument to another. All this works
up to the main allegro — moderato, ma agitato — in 12/8
time. This movement pictures the revels in the castle.
The traveller has entered and is being entertained.
But soon we come to a meno mosso and an allegretto,

and the love-song commences :

M\ P I J^-^ Later the Bacchanalian movement resumes

sway, and is carried to an overpowering climax. The
slow and luscious passages near the end are especially
beautiful. The work ends softly, with the weaving fig-
ures of the opening re-setting the atmosphere in which
the Princess lies in wait for her victim.

The fertile Moszkowski, a Pole, who might be
classified as a German, wrote little which has had
the vitality necessary for continued life. Two orches-
tral suites barely carry his fame as an orchestral com-
poser into the twentieth century. But Alexander
Glazounoff, who was much like him in temperament, is
still a force in the symphony concerts of the world. Of
his many symphonies we need speak in detail of only
two — the fourth and the fifth— together with the bril-

451

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

liant symphonic suite, *The Middle Ages.' His earlier
works for orchestra betrayed his leanings toward pro-
gram music, partly the result of his early association
with Balakireff and Stassoff. The orchestral fantasias,
*The Forest,' and 'The Sea,' the symphonic tableau, *The
Kremlin,' the symphonic sketch, *A Slavonic Festival,*
and the 'Oriental Rhapsody,' all show the pictorial and
romantic bent of his early years. But more and more
he became attracted to 'pure music,' as his many sym-
phonies show. 'The Middle Ages' is the only example
of program music from his mature period. And in this
work the picturesque element is not specific. The
fourth and fifth symphonies have gained much popu-
larity outside of Russia, being simply and melodically
written, and demanding no knowledge of or feeling for
the Russian idiom to make them intelligible. They are,
moreover, light and merry works, and this fact prob-
ably increases the hospitality of their reception.

Though Glazounoff frequently made use of Russian
material in his earlier symphonies, there is hardly a
trace of it in his fourth. This work begins with an
andante which has the following theme, given out by the

Andante

English horn :

This leads leisurely to the principal theme,
is given out thus:

Allegro moderato

Obo«

• , The second theme is a major ver-
sion of the opening andante. The development is irreg-
ular, having the peculiarity that the composer dispenses
altogether with the 'working-out' section and amplifies
the material in the 'recapitulation' at will. The move-
ment ends happily with the opening theme of the alle-
gro. The second movement has the character of a lively

452

GLAZOUNOFFS SYMPHONIES

folk-dance, and rests chiefly on the following material:

The trio has this motif,

tmni'ii/lo

•*»• which in Kretzschmar*s

opinion suggests the music of the iEolian harp. The
slow movement (andante) , without being profound,
contains much variety of mood and passages of vigor
and power. It leads directly into the finale, which is of
simple material and is clad in gay orchestral colors.

The fifth symphony has the same glad and energetic
outlook on life, but is pitched more in the heroic vein.
There is little national influence in either form or con-
tent. The first movement opens with the following

Moderato maestoso

fine theme.

which

leads, with firm and stately measure, to the allegro.
This has a theme drawn from that of the maestoso:

Allegro /i~ ^ — ^-^

^i^'ji-ijjiJrniriiinniii"^i^i niiiii

The second theme shows how little Glazounoff" feels the
need of going afield for his material. The two themes
would be insufficient in contrast, except that the plan
and intent of the movement is modest. The scherzo
is a charming movement, which seems to tell some

Moderato

quaint fairy-tale. The opening theme

certainly pictures

dancing of elves, while the one which shortly follows it

carries our imagination to

goblins or perhaps to giants. The third movement
is a charming picture of gentle sentiment shown in

453

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Andante

the principal material,

over chords of moody and cloudy

import. The calm ruminations are interrupted by a
threatening theme intoned by the brass. The finale
seems to be the glorification of happy successful combat

The chief theme

has a military character, and the

structure of the movement shows nothing unusual. In
these works Glazounofif shows his native faciUty in
pleasing invention, his virtuoso mastery of orchestral
color, and his sure and extensive musical technique.

One of the greatest symphonists of modem Russia
was Alexander Borodine. That this man, so involved
with his scientific work, could master the symphonic
form at all, showed talent of the highest degree. That
he could achieve one symphony which ranks among the
most beautiful of modem times stamps him with pure
genius. The word 'genius' must indeed be applied to
Borodine's second symphony, which has been praised
in superlative terms by many judges. It is full of the
purest essence of Russian folk-music, but is developed
with a compelling intellectual power over the sym-
phonic form. It is at once a work of the highest beauty
and of the highest intellectuality. More popular, how-
ever, because easier of comprehension, is the symphonic
work entitled 'Sketches of the Central Asian Steppes,*
which with its long-drawn violin tones paints the secret
and mysterious character of the great Siberian plains.

Borodine's first symphony is also a work of much
beauty and power, though not so consistently national
as the second. The chief theme of the introduction is

Adagio

announced by the basses thus :

Suddenly we come upon the allegro,
454

ALEXANDER BORODINE AS SYMPHONIST

which, after many measures of seeming experimenta-
tion, opens with the adagio theme in the major:

^ ^ Allegro molto

^^1* ^rr pip J^J iJ^pfPir ""■ . The composer is

content to do without any semblance of a genuine sec-
ond theme. The comparative monotony which this gives
to the movement comports well with the even, steady
flow of its strength. What variety there is comes from

such 'side-themes' as this :

The movement ends with a very beautiful andantino.
The scherzo contains much Russian national color, and
the third (andante) is Russian through and through.
The last movement is disappointing, being conventional
in form and subject matter, and thoroughly German in
its feeling.

The second symphony, which was posthumous and
was edited by Rimsky-Korsakoff" and Glazounoff, is,
in the minds of patriotic Russian music-lovers, the
greatest symphony the nation possesses. Its first
movement has the following heroic opening theme:

. But soon this pas-

mf">^

sage enters, speaking of the life of the common people :

Anlmato assal

f4=. The second subject has

Poco neno mosso

the following lovely melody :

In the working-out section we have
the following magnificent motif, which has appeared

Anlmato assal

earlier in the movement:

The development of all these

themes in free fantasia is very fine. The recapitu-

455

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

lation is shortened, and the heroic theme of the
opening closes the movement, broadened and reen-
forced in power. The second movement is a scherzo
— a work of grotesque humor, and playful terrible-
ness. Here is its opening, with the chief theme:

Prestissimo

n'J I" I" I ' i

i=^

'TTT TTTT TTTT
jjJJ JJJJ JJJJ JJJJ JJ

Tfrrr

The trio, with the following subject.

AUogretto

has a mysterious pic-

torial quality that seems to come from the Orient.
The third movement (andante) is a thing which
has rarely been surpassed in point of intense and
truthful national expression. Its chief theme

Andante

j^''ihi^r'Piijni^f|irrfi I in Vi^ |f f |

J* espr cantabiU -

is developed and varied with dramatic power and em-
phasis. The final movement (allegro 3/4) which is
joined on to the andante, overflows with abundance of
joyous animal spirits, as is Auegro.

shown in its chief theme:

The orchestral work of Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakoff
shows instrumental brilliancy raised to a pitch which
has rarely been surpassed. But among the composer's

456

NICOLAI RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF

other glories is the chronological one of having com-
posed the first Russian sjrmphony. That it was not a
revolutionary one may be inferred from the foUow-

ing themes :

more individual

work was the *Sadko' composed a year or two after-
wards. (This happens also to have been the first nar-
rative symphonic poem composed by a Russian) . This
tells the tale of a merchant-minstrel whose impassioned
performance on the *guslee' during a stay in the king-
dom of the ocean causes shipwrecks and storms.
(Rimsky-Korsakoff later wrote one of his best operas
on this legend.) Even this early work revealed its com-
poser's instinct for brilliant orchestration and tonal
color, and his lively sense of humor.

Rimsky-KorsakofTs next important orchestral work
was his symphonic poem or suite *Antar,' which he
called his 'Second Symphony.' *The subject,' wrote
Cesar Cui, *is taken from an oriental tale. Antar, weary
of human ingratitude, retires into the desert. Sud-
denly there appears a gazeUe fleeing from a gigantic
bird. Antar kills the monster, saves the gazelle, falls
asleep and is transported in his dreams to a magnificent
palace where he is captivated by charming songs and
dances; the fairy who dwells in the palace promises
him the three greatest joys of life. Awakening from
his dream he finds himself back in the desert This
is the program of the first part. It is an admirable
specimen of descriptive music. The sombre chords de-
picting the desert, the graceful gazelle's race for life,
the cumbrous flight of the winged monster, expressed
by sinister harmonies, finally the dances full of volup-
tuous abandon, all give evidence of abundant inspira-
tion. Only in the dances, the subject is too short for
their length and is thus repeated too often. The second

457

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

part, the joy of vengeance, is full of barbaric energy,
of blood-thirsty violence which characterizes alike the
music and its orchestration. The third part, the joy of
power, consists of a glittering oriental march orna-
mented with arabesques both novel and charming. The
last part, the joy of love, is the culminating point of the
work. The poetry of passion is wonderfully rendered
in terms of music. Two more observations in refer-
ence to "Antar." In order to enhance the appeal of local
color Korsakoff makes use of three Arab themes and
the symphony is invested with a considerable cohesion
by the circumstance that despite the dissimilarity in
character of the four sections the "Antar" theme has
been introduced into each.* The Gazelle, we may add,
to make the story complete, was none other than the
good fairy who gave Antar his three wishes, and she
was none other than Gul-Nazar, one-time queen of
Palmyra. The theme of the lazy grumbling Antar is

this:

and that of Gul-Nazar this :

The motif

of revenge, on which the second movement is based.

Allegro

runs as follows; '3

This finds its culmination in this fine

transformation of Gul-Nazar*s theme;

jr. . Haras

theme takes on a form

And Antar's own

which

speaks of Rimsky-Korsakoff in every note. In the third
movement, showing the possession of power, it is not

458

RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF: CAPRICCIO ESPAGNOL

the glory of being powerful, but the joy and comfort
which it affords the lazy Antar, which Rimsky-Korsakoff
brings to the foreground. In the fourth movement we
have pictured the love of Antar and Gul-Nazar. Here
is one of the Arab themes which Cui mentions:

Andante

Cngb>h Horn

This final movement ends with the killing of Antar by
the queen (he had begun to tire of love and she there-
fore thought it high time for him to die), which is set
forth by means of a tap on the tamtam and a glissando
of the harp. This is followed by a brief and pious
funeral song.

After his first successful experiment with opera
Rimsky-KorsakofT returned to symphonic writing with
increased maturity. We have to note two more sym-
phonies (from the earlier period), the 'Sinfonietta on
Russian themes,' the Capriccio Espagnol, the sym-
phonic suite 'Scheherazade,' and the 'Easter Overture,'
based on Russian church themes. The Capriccio Es-
pagnol was called by Tschaikowsky a *colossal piece
of instrumentation,' and is truly one of the most bril-
liant orchestral feats of modem music It is nominally
in five movements, each complete, but they are played
consecutively and are really inseparable. The first is
entitled 'Alborado,' and is marked vivo e strepitoso —
an energetic 2/4 movement. The second is a series of

variations on the following theme:

entitled 'Alborado,' and uses the material of the
first The fourth, entitled Scena e canto gitano, is the
memorable section of the work. Taking a luscious

Andalusian

waltz

for his subject, Rimsky-Korsakoff lays on nis or-

459

lays

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

chestral color with no concern except for the utmost
brilliancy of effect. A good part of the movement com-
prises the free improvisation which is typical of gypsy
music. The section opens, for instance, with a long
improvisation by the horns. Again and again the im-
provisation interrupts, but always the piece resumes
its sensuous and powerful melody. The final move-
ment, entitled Fandango asturiano, is a dizzy dance in
3/4 time, and the *Alborado' material is used in the
coda.

But Rimsky-Korsakoflf's greatest orchestral work is
his *Scheherazade.' This must rank as one of the finest
examples of musical story-telling we possess. Not that
it illumines a definite series of events; on the contrary
it is rather vague from the objective point of view.
But it seems inevitably to present a highly colored
series of pictures — pictures of vigorous action or lux-
urious idleness — let the listener tell the story as he will.
The four movements have reference to four selected
stories from the 'Arabian Nights,' and are assigned,
respectively, to Sinbad the Sailor, the Prince Kalender,
the young Prince and the young Princess, and the Festi-
val at Bagdad with the sinking of the ship. The themes
are in every case masterpieces of sharp pictorial sug-
gestiveness. The first movement opens largo e maestoso.

Largo • maestoso ^

with the following subject "

OP- a. :>

Then comes a long solo violin cadenza :

I Harp

This, we take it, is the theme of story-telling; it seems
to invite us to settle down and prepare for a tale of
high romance. Then follows the main section of the
movement, an allegro with the opening theme of the

460

RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF: 'SCHEHERAZADE*

work as its chief motif. In the course of the movement
the story-telling theme interrupts once or twice, as it
does frequently in the later movements. The second
movement is built on the following theme of burlesque :

but contains
a more vig-
orous move-
ment, vivace
scherzando,
which isbased

Near the end comes

on this :

a horn solo of magic beauty. In the third movement we
have an idyl of aristocratic life in a garden. There are
two themes, one for the Prince and one for the Princess,
very nearly alike, for the characters of the story are as
alike as two China cows. The themes are as follows:

Ajidantino qnasi allegretto

A;"

The final movement has the following festal theme:

vivo

but the nar-

ration of the shipwreck involves to a large extent the
opening theme of the suite — which with its long rolling
movement is probably meant to typify the sea. The
story-telling motif returns once more, and the move-
ment ends with soft dreamy chords which seem to say,
*They lived happily ever afterward.'

The best of Modest Moussorgsky's genius went to his
operas and songs, but he has left at least one orchestral
piece of the highest beauty. This is *The Night on the
Bald Mountain' — a work which is in every way char-
acteristic and worthy of its great composer. It was
posthumous and Moussorgsky had worked on it over

461

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

a long period of time, but essentially it is from an eariy
period. In conception and structure it is as simple as
it is original. It narrates the events of a certain witches'
mountain — the Russian Brocken — where the demons
and the damned of the human race hold their revels to
the Devil. It is, in fact, the 'Black Sabbath' revels of
the Middle Ages. In the program appended to the score
Moussorgsky explains the course of the action. First
there are 'subterranean rumblings.' The demons ap-
proach from all sides, followed at last by the great
Black God, Tchernobog:

Now commences the celebration of the Black Sab-
bath. The demons dance to the following tune,

but eventually all hands join

in with this one : t

But as the frenzy approaches its

climax they hear the ringing of the bell of a small
church in the neighboring village. It disperses the
spirits of darkness, who are terrified, and day appears
over the Bald Mountain.

Cesar Cui, likewise, has written little orchestral mu-
sic. We may mention, however, the 'Solemn March,'
opus 18, and the Suite Miniature. This latter has had
widespread popularity throughout Europe. But we
may well imagine that it tells little of Russia. Cui,
whose father was French, is in all his taste and feeling
a Gallic ariist. The viriues of the Suite Miniature are
those of the best French suite music — tender fantasy
and fine modelling. The work is in six short move-
ments, consisting of delicately modelled song- or dance-
forms.

462

THE 'MOSCOW SCHOOL*

Opposed to the Russian Nationalists, represented by
Rimsky-KorsakoflF and Moussorgsky, we find a 'Moscow
School' of Russian composers who have been more
cosmopolitan, working for the most part in the more
abstract and conservative forms, and seeking univer-
sality rather than intensity of expression. They freely
use the Russian folk-song, it is true, but rather as in-
terpolation, or as a frankly borrowed theme, than as
the web and tissue of their music. We recognize
Tschaikowsky as loosely connected with this school,
and its more recent members have stood in outspoken
opposition to the national school, which centred in
St. Petersburg. In this list we may place Reinhold
Gliere, Anatol Liadoff, and Serge Rachmaninoff.

Among Liadoflf's best works for orchestra we may
mention the charming and poetic 'legend,' called 'The
Enchanted Lake,' and the scherzo, 'Baba Yaga.' This
is a musical characterization of a personage who
figures conspicuously in Russian children's fairy
tales — a fearsome old witch who steals children when
they aren't good. The work is extremely vivid,
and preserves the tone of sly humor beneath its sur-
face fearfulness. Its main theme is as follows.

which suggests a kinship with Dukas' L'Apprenti
Sorcier (probably more than half conscious in the com-
poser's mind), though the work falls much below the
masterly French scherzo in quality. LiadofTs style is
scholarly and conservative; the national element is but
slightly present in his work, and his genius seems most
akin to that of Mendelssohn and Schumann. Gliere
is in every way a larger figure. Beginning as a con-
servative and 'eclectic,' he has grown constantly, with-

463

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

out doing violence to his temperamentally conservative
mode of expression, and is now one of the four or five
most important figures in Russian music Neither in
his message nor in his method is he highly original, but
his conceptions are so large, his sincerity so great, his
technique so capable, and his natural gifts so abundant,
that his work compels the highest admiration. In the
symphonic poem 'The Sirens,' he shows a romanticism
of Lisztian line and color, but tinged with the sombre-
ness which is Russian. The great symphony, 'Ilia
Mourometz,* is a far more important work, a four-part
symphonic poem on a gigantic scale, carried out with a
wealth of melodic inspiration and technical resource.
In its harmony it may fairly be called 'radical,' though
it is firmly based on the eclectic and conservative train-
ing of the Moscow school. The story is one from Rus-
sian tradition, narrating the adventures of a famous
hero who sat for thirty years as a stone statue until
called to a life of glory.*

Rachmaninoff is a brilliant composer for orchestra,
whose natural genius, after his first success, has carried
him more and more toward the classical and abstract.
His works for orchestra include a fantasia after Ler-
montoff, entitled 'The Rock,' a Bohemian Caprice, a
symphonic poem, 'The Island of the Dead' (after Bock-
lin's famous painting) and several symphonies. In all
these works he shows a virtuoso technique, a harmonic
style of the greatest breadth and vigor, and a creative
faculty very near the highest order. 'The Island of the
Dead' is a tremendous musical canvas, with an intensity
of expression rarely equalled in modem Russia. Its
style is extremely polyphonic and dissonant, and its
themes are pregnant with possibilities of development.
These Rachmaninoff handles with the freedom and
boldness of a master. It is to be questioned, however,
whether the counterpoint is not too complex and the

* The story is given in Volume m, p. 151.

464

RACHMANINOFF'S SECOND SYMPHONY

scoring too heavy. The effect is rather that of a mass
of sound than a symphony of eloquent voices. By this
token Rachmaninoff would have done well to have
studied the native Russian masters (especially Rimsky-
Korsakoff and Moussorgsky) rather than his modem
German idols — Bruckner, Mahler and Strauss.

But the work by which Rachmaninoff is best known
is the second symphony, in E minor, which has a world-
wide reputation. With its gigantic block-structure and
its sombre registration it seems to be a nation's epic.
It commences with a long and impressive slow intro-
duction, as though the poet were communing with his
memories before beginning his tale. It becomes quieter
and yet more quiet, until a certain excitement begins to
seize the orchestra, and with a few strong chords the
poet seems to have made up his mind to begin. The fast
section, allegro moderato, commences with an accom-
panjring figure in the bass, after which the chief sub-
ject enters as follows : ^Ni U" f \l!\U\'( IT r fTtfT F I
f J J J I '^ r f I r f 1^ •*• • This is several times repeated,

with broadened and enriched setting. The second
theme is in the mood of soft and gentle reverie. It is
hardly more than referred to here, receiving its full
development in the recapitulation. The working-out
section remains half repressed in its conflict for some
time, only breaking out fully in the latter half. The
scherzo movement, allegro molto, has this main theme,

Q Allegro , ^ .^ ,

A* ^ J J J I .]. J I J. j I ) J I ^ I with a second theme of

pious religious tone, and a trio that is wild and fantas-
tic. The third movement, adagio, begins with this theme

MXtkg\0

and continues for the most part in this mood of undis-

465

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

turbed reverie, rising only once to dramatic and out-
spoken emotion. The first movement, allegro vivace,
opens, like the first, with a slow introduction, then
breaks out with the following theme in wildest rejoicing:

After this we hear a bit of a military march, in barbaric
tone, and then the second theme: iV» » jjjiJ J |f P T {

i" f f I'f *r jy^^ 1^ . Shortly before the working-out we

hear the beginning of the adagio, and in the recapitula-
tion the theme of the second movement. This finale is
not throughout of equal inspiration, and in its great
length sometimes becomes tiresome to the hearer.

Among the later symphonies of the modem Russian
eclectics there are several works which should be men-
tioned. The G minor symphony of Vassily Kalinnikotf
has become one of the most popular of all Russian sym-
phonies, and shows much national individuality. His
second symphony, in A major, has the peculiarity thai
all four of its movements are built upon a theme of one
of the composer's songs, and contains much of a veiled
humor which reminds the hearer of Glinka. The F-
sharp minor symphony of B. Zolotareff is written in the
careful and well considered style that is natural to the
Russian 'classicists,* and is distinguished by its clear-
ness and simplicity. The F major symphony of E.
Mlynarski is, on the contrary, peculiar in its abundance
of inorganic episodes, and conscious striving after
nuance of effect (not altogether successfully) ; and Sig-
ismund Stojowski's D minor symphony shows a per-
sonal and moving talent working with material dic-
tated by the heart. Stojowski is of Polish origin and
has for some time resided in New York.

466

STRAVINSKY AND SCRIABINE

Among the most important of recent Russian masters
of the orchestra we must name Igor Stravinsky. But
since nearly all of his astonishing work has been done
for the ballet form, he cannot properly be treated in
this place. Suffice it here to say that his barbaric di-
rectness of manner is carried out in his scoring, which
is colored largely in ^primaries,' reminding one of the
'fauve' school of painters. A composer who in recent
years has gained almost equal distinction or notoriety,
Alexander Scriabine, has a very different ideal — one of
extreme refinement and atmospheric impressionism.
If Stravinsky is the 'fauve' of modem music, Scriabine
is its *post-impressionist.' But his individual impor-
tance came to light only a few years before his death
in 1915. All his early work is modelled on the romantic
masters — Chopin in his piano works, and Schumann
and Brahms in his symphonic pieces. The second sym-
phony in C major has had the most popularity. This
is in fact a transition piece, in which Scriabine, seek-
ing to outdo Wagner, was developing an impression-
ism of the nerves developed from the *Tristan* music^
The following theme from the second movement

will illustrate the uncertain tonality which the com-
poser cultivated. The nerve-drugged feeling persists
through the greater part of the symphony, only in the
last movement giving way to a more objective and
heroic mood, as illustrated by the following chief

subject : j^^ii|l IJ I [lie- Ju /PlP^ j_;t pit ri - .

The symphony is nominally in five movements, but
since the first connects with the second, and the fourth
with the fifth, it consists of but three sections. The

467

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

third symphony is called by the composer *The Divine
Poem/ and its three movements are entitled, respec-
tively, 'Conflict,' 'Voluptuous Joys,' and 'Divine Activ-
ity.' It is taken as symbolizing the three great phases
of the artist's soul, seeking Truth first in objective
struggle, then in subjective experience, and finally in
the clear impersonal creative vision that transcends
self. The movements, which are played consecutively,
and are highly impressionistic in technique, are of
great significance in modem music as blazing the way
for a more intense subjective expression than we have
hitherto known.

This most ambitious task Scriabine carried out more
boldly and successfully in his last great orchestral
works — the 'goemjj^Ecataajt' and 'Prometheus.' 'The
Poem of F.r.staRv' which has a long and intensely sub-
jective poem, is an attempt to work upon the nepres of
the hearer by means of pure sound. There is ]\\i^f ^is-^
tinguishing of motives, little of the 'block-development'
or 'line-development' which was the basis of all classi-
cal and romantic musical form. It is much more in the
spirit of the post-impressionist painters, who seek to
produce their effect by a 'svmphoi^y ftf rnlnr' upon their
canvas, in which color shall work upon the eye and
soul directly and of itself, without the aid either of
objective representation or of linear design and propor-
tion. As such, the 'Poem of Ecstasy' is a most impres-
sive piece of work; whether or not ft is worth while to
make people's nerves tingle without meaning or object,
Srpahinp hns done it in a fp^st^^ylv wav. But mere
subjective experience could not remain Scriabine's aim.
He moved on to a mystical philosophy, which, with
great boldness, he sought to embody in music. Only
with the help of the philosophical groundwork can we
understand his last great work, 'Prometheus.' This,
which is a symphonic poem in one movement, has
gained great notoriety because of the 'color-machine*

468

SCANDINAVIAN COMPOSERS: SIBELIUS

which was added as one of the orchestral instruments
and was given a *part' to perform in the performance.
The constantly shifting color combinations were in-
tended to convey a visual impression paralleling and
reenforcing the auditory impression. The technical
basis of this has been explained elsewhere.* Its ar-
tistic success is as yet in the highest degree doubtful.
But that the experiment is not a priori absurd all rea-
sonable minds must admit. The work as a whole was
intended by Scriabine to symbolize the coming of the
creative instinct to man (symbolized by fire), and the
various sections of the work paint man in his beastly,
material state, the approach of the divine spark, its
struggle with the baser elements of human nature, and
the final triumph of pure spiritual activity.

In spite of Scriabine*s reputation for 'advanced' har-
mony, he has been left far behind by other radicals,
notably Arnold Schonberg. His harmony, at least in his
symphonic compositions, is merely a logical develop-
ment of the marvellous chromatic style which was
placed on the musical map by Wagner's *Tristan.' It
cannot even be called in any marked degree original.
But it is thoroughly well handled, and in its own sphere
thoroughly successful. Scriabine's untimely death per-
haps robbed the world of works which would have
proved the value of the tendency. As it is it remains
hardly more than an interesting by-path, for the course
of the other 'advanced' musicians is all in the direction
of the 'fauves.'

The orchestral music of modern Scandinavia has
been extensive and distinguished. The Scandinavian
nations proper have in the present generation produced
works of the most ambitious proportions, in reaction,
perhaps, against the dominance of the genre influence

* See Volume UI, pp. 158f.

469

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

established by Grieg. Though there is abundant ma-
terial to praise in such works as the symphonies of
Alfven, Carl and Ludolf Nielsen, Asgar Hamerik, and
many others, few of these works have as yet pene-
trated much beyond their native borders. They are,
for the most part, extremely *abstract' and unemotional
in their character, being conceived in an enthusiasm
for technical thoroughness which has distinguished the
most recent generation of Scandinavian composers.
The style is in general based upon the German sym-
phonic tradition — Brahms above all others — and shows
a thorough absorption of the lore of the models. The
form is usually solid and well proportioned and the
workmanship for the most part thorough, though there
are occasional lapses into imitative facility. It is in
natural inspiration that these works are chiefly lack-
ing. They are far too much thought, and not enough
felt, for any general popular success. But they perhaps
indicate a rebirth of the romanticism of the north on a
more solid technical basis. As opposed to the abstract
symphonic works of Scandinavia, we have numerous
romantic pieces in the larger forms based upon the ex-
ample of Grieg and Sinding. Such is Hamerik's series
of 'Northern Suites,' though these, too, are more Ger-
man than Scandinavian in their workmanship. The
quality of these compositions may be inferred from the

following typical theme :

A juster example of the inspiration of

the north is to be found in Stenhammar's Midvinter.
Here we find local color and national expression car-
ried to a high degree (as we do not often find them in
modem Scandinavian music). Inspiration and poetic
feeling speak in every bar, and we discover a firmly
grounded and extensive technique which, however,
does not dominate the poetic expression. This repre-

470

SCANDINAVIAN COMPOSERS: SIBELIUS

sents the best of the recent Scandinavian musical prod-
uct hitherto. The unfortunate thing is that there are
not more works like it.

We have been speaking in the above paragraph of
Denmark, Sweden and Norway, omitting the semi-
Scandinavian country of Finland. But it is here, of
course, that the greatest of Scandinavian music is being
written. Such men as Jarnefelt, Melartin, and others,
have written small works of the utmost distinction and
beauty (e. g., Jarnefelt*s simple and charming Prselu-
dium). But the supreme master of modern Finnish
music is of course Jean Sibelius, whose fame has al-
ready penetrated throughout the civilized world. In
his works we hear a new north, the north which is in
daily contact with the rigors of nature, gaining from
the stem cliffs and waves a grandeur of the soul rather
than a beauty of the senses. In the domain of the sym-
phony Sibelius has rivalled the greatest of the works of
Russia and Germany. And in the symphonic poem he
stands beside Strauss alone.

There is little of the sin of youth that we need apolo-
gize for in the first three symphonies. Here is the gran-
deur of nature fully and grandly expressed, with great
brush sweeps which outline the gigantic subject for the
first glance, but with no carelessness in the details of
delineation which so richly repay the attention of tJie
student. National expression is here highly devel-
oped; the folk-music of Finland is felt vibrating in
each of the four movements. In the second sym-
phony, for instance, we have this theme, long
and sinuous, suggesting the runes of the Kalevala:

In this work Sibelius has developed eloquently his pe-
culiar instrumentation which makes his ideas shimmer
in the tints of ice and snow.

471

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

But even beyond these three great symphonies it is
the symphonic poems which have brought Sibelius his
almost unrivalled position in modern music. The
Tetralogy founded upon the Kalevala legends is a
sort of national epic in music, like Smetana's great
work, *My Country.' Of these, the third, 'The Swan
of Tuonela,' has gained the greatest popularity —
was, in fact, the work which first carried Sibelius's
name throughout Europe. This is a slow move-
ment of the utmost smoothness and placid beauty,
founded upon the following remarkable theme:

Andante molto sostenuto

English Horn

The clear in-

strumentation of this work set a new standard of ro-
mantic orchestral color. But more remarkable from
the technical standpoint is another symphonic poem, *A
Saga.' This work, though it seems to tell a specific story
of heroic actions, has no program. It is built up with
a slow and a fast movement, having respectively the

two following themes : A

This work is especially remarkable for its division
of the strings into many parts, a device which was
first developed by Liszt, but which Sibelius, with
the instinct of genius, has carried much further.
Finally we should mention the symphonic poem. Fin-
landia, which is a celebration of Finland's sorrows and
national greatness. It seems to be Sibelius's direct
patriotic appeal to his countrymen, and that the Rus-
sian government so regarded it seems to be proved
by the fact that the work has been suppressed in
Finland. Its opening section is a rapid movement
of military character, which seems to indicate the
struggle of the people for their freedom. But af-

472

SCANDINAVIAN COMPOSERS: SIBELIUS

ter the noise of battle we hear the following
theme, a magnificent hymn of religious faith, expres-
sive of the unity of the people in their holy cause:

The chorale is repeated toward the end of the work,
with full paraphernalia of inspiriting accompaniment,
and the poem closes with a brief return of the military
music. In performance this work is one of the most
inspiring in the whole concert repertory.

Sibelius's fourth symphony shows the composer
plunged into the maelstrom of radical harmonic inno-
vation. A technical analysis of the work would occupy
many pages, for it follows only to a slight extent the
familiar symphonic model. The adagio of the first

movement SSe

IS an

impressive and mysterious andante which seems to
tell of heroic deeds in a far-off northern land. The
slow movement proper is a thing of mysterious and
majestic beauty, and the final allegro, with this theme,

•*• is a dizzy piece

of instrumental virtuosity. In this work Sibelius has
placed himself in a category with Ravel and Stravinsky;
he has met the challenge of modem music, and has
added his quota to the music of the future, without for
a moment losing the individuality that marks *A Saga*
from beginning to end. A Fifth Symphony is being
completed by the composer as this volume goes to press.

473

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

In modem England, too, we have a rebirth of sym-
phonic music filled with national characteristics and
the evidence of genius. With the approach of the
twentieth century English composers escaped definitely
from the Mendelssohnian tradition which had bound all
English instrumental music since Sterndale-Bennett
returned from Leipzig to raise the musical taste of his
countrymen. The work of this whole school, including,
in addition to Sterndale-Bennett, Charles Villiers Stan-
ford, and Alexander Mackenzie, is impeccable and un-
distinguished. Exception should be made, however,
for the work of C. Villiers Stanford in the Irish folk-
idiom, which entered the symphonic domain in his
*Irish Symphony.' Here the form and method is Men-
delssohnian as ever, but the content has the fresh note
that is sure to come when a composer of taste relies
upon the national expression of the people for his ma-
terial.

More recent years have produced symphonic com-
posers of highest talent, even genius, in Edward Elgar,
Frederick Delius, Granville Bantock and others. The
high position which Elgar gained for himself with his
oratorio, 'The Dream of Gerontius,' he made still more
secure with his two symphonies. Here we see English
music, technically respectable as ever, achieving a high
degree of individual expression. Elgar has in several
places caught the epic note as his countrymen for
two centuries had been unable to do. The first sym-
phony is in cyclic form with the following theme

Andante

as the basis. The whole trend of the first movement is
classic and exalted. The same feeling is in the slow
movement, which, however, is somewhat lacking in

474

**«•

l-;inii.iis ConliMnporary Cuiuluitors:

I,,. ■...■'I \i,,,.i

music filled v

ihc evidence of genius.

,.. . ■-.♦;,. M. ....r>t...^T P,^,<i;vi

I iDstru

COl.

in addition to

for'' — ' '''

dis

for tiie work «

del :\ as ever, 1

up
teriaL

Dl;

:^-

.'ijOVCA I,. ilW-ViiL. ^JiidiJAM

ELGAR, BANTOCK, DELIUS

the sensuous beauty for which its composer evidently
strove. The last movement, vi'ith its return of the cyclic
theme in grandiose form, is a notable example of full
and free emotional expression in pure symphonic
music. Here is the main theme of the first movement.

and here the three sections of the subsidiary theme;

p dole*

In the adagio we have this long drawn melody,

j£^ a n JJll-TJ/ -t' ** ■* ^^1 J ■* '" and in the final

W enrtlniilm

movement, this interesting but complex material:

rT'r ''U I' Li '-^ii ''I L^'^r

The second symphony, dedicated to (the late) King
Edward VII, is less successful than the first. In its
continual striving for nobility of expression it be-
comes a trifle stodgy. But the final movement,
built up entirely upon a single theme in 3/4 time.

and moving steadily forward like a hymn, is one of the
notable achievements in modem English music. In
these symphonies we note a device which Elgar has
carried further than any other modem composer —
namely, the constructing of themes in distinct sections,

475

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

which are used freely in the later development. This
device has the effect of tripling the number of themes
in a single movement (since the sections are usually
by no means similar), and might tempt a less able com-
poser to extremely loose structure. But Elgar's sense
of form is as acute as his feeling for the psychology
of his audience, and we cannot feel that in the sym-
phonies he has abused his license. In addition to the
symphonies we should mention the smaller works for
orchestra, particularly the inimitable overture, 'Co-
caigne,' sub-titled 'In London Town,' a picture of the
ever-shifting life of the streets in the world's great-
est city. It has the following principal theme:

(^(1 J^ ['^ ■' I {j] J_J nJ j-j I ; The work is masterful in its

humor and lightness, as well as in the contrapuntal and
instrumental skill displayed. We should also mention
the popular military march, 'Pomp and Circumstance.'
Granville Bantock has kept more closely to choral
and vocal work than Elgar, but in his work for orches-
tra has shown a distinguished technique and a very
personal feeling for the orchestra. His charming over-
ture, 'Pierrot of the Minute,' may serve as an example
of his style. Frederick Delius is no less an advocate of
the new in harmonic and orchestral idiom, and has pro-
duced works of great distinction and beauty. One of
his most successful works is the set of variations on a
slave tune, named 'Appalachia' (which was the Indian
name for America). The slow, stately introduction

has this material :

and the theme

was evidently picked up during Delius's sojourn in
Florida. In the dozen or more variations we see ex-

476

FREDERICK DELIUS

hibited much harmonic and instrumental resource, and
a striking contrast of mood. The work closes with a
negro tune, Tm Coin' Down de Ribber,* sung by mixed
chorus. In his treatment of these themes Delius does
not hesitate to use the most elaborate chromatic har-
mony, and to decorate his material with all the or-
9 chestral color at his command.

477

LITERATURE FOR VOLUME EIGHT

In English

Joseph Bennet: A Story of Ten Hundred Concerts (London,
1887).

Hector Berlioz: Beethoven's Nine Symphonies (Transl. from
the French, New York, 1913).

Hector Berlioz: Memoirs, transl. by K. Boult (London, 1903).

Charles Burney: The Present State of Music in France and
Italy (London, 1771).

Charles Burney: The Present State of Music in Germany,
the Netherlands and the United Provinces, 2 vols.
(1773).

Charles Burney: A General History of Music, 4 vols. (Lon-
don, 1776-89).

Henry Fothergill Chorley: Music and Manners in France
and North Germany, 3 vols. (London, 1843).

Louis A. Coerne: The Evolution of Modern Orchestration
(New York, 1908).

Frederick Corder: The Orchestra and How to Write for It
(London, 1896).

Henry Davey: History of English Music (London, 1895).

Arthur Elson: Orchestral Instruments and Their Use (Bos-
ton, 1903).

F. J. F6tis : How to Play from Score (Transl. from the French,
London, 1891).

Cecil Forsyth: Orchestration (London, 1914).

Lawrence Gilman : Stories of Symphonic Music (New York,
1907).

Philip H. Goepp: Symphonies and Their Meaning, 3 vols.
(Phila., 1898-1913).

Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 4 vols. (London,
1879-89); new ed. by J. A. Fuller-Maitland, 5 vols.
(1904-10).

Sir George Grove: Beethoven and His Nine Symphonies (Lon-
don, 1896).

William Henry Hadow : A Croatian Composer [Haydn] (Lon-
don. 1897).

479

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

William Henry Hadow: Studies in Modern Music, 2nd ed.
(London, 1895).

Otto Jahn: Life of Mozart (TransL from the German by
Lady Wallace), 2 vols. (London, 1877).

Salomon Jadassohn: Instruction in Instrumentation (TransL
from the German, Leipzig, 1899).

W. J. Henderson: The Orchestra and Orchestral Music (New
York, 1899).

Daniel Gregory Mason: Orchestral Instruments and What
They Do (New York, 1914).

Rosa Newmarch: Tschaikowsky (London, 1900, 1908).

Oxford History of Music (6 vols., Oxford, 1901, 1905, 1902,
1902, 1904, 1905).

Erenezer Prout: The Orchestra, 2 vols. (London, 1899).

Karl Schroeder: Handbook of Conducting (TransL from the
German, London, 1889).

MoDESTE Tschaikowsky:' The Life of Peter Ilyitch Tschai-
kowsky (Transl. from the Russian by Rosa Newmarch,
London, 1905).

George P. Upton: The Standard Symphonies (Chicago, 1891).

George P. Upton : The Standard Concert Repertory (Chicago,
1908).

Charles-Marie Widor: The Technique of the Modern Orches-
tra (Engl, transl., London, 1889).

Richard Wagner: On Conducting (In the Collected Works,
Engl, transl. by Ashton Ellis, 1895).

Felix von Weingartner: The Symphony Writers Since Beet-
hoven (Transl. from the German, London, 1906).

In German

A. W. Amrros: Geschichte der Musik, 4 vols., new ed. by H.

Leichtentritt (Leipzig, 1909).
Paul Bekker: Beethoven (Berlin, 1912).
Emil Bohn: Hundert historische Konzerte in Breslau (1905).
Hugo Botstiher: Geschichte der Ouvertiire (Leipzig, 1913).
Johannes Brahms: Briefwechsel, pub. by the Brahmsgesell-

schaft (vol. 1-7, 1907-1910).
Gerhard von Breuning: Aus dem Schwarzspanierhause

(1874, new ed. by Kalischer, 1907).
Franz Brunner: Anton Bruckner (1895).
Hermann Deiters: Johannes Brahms (Leipzig, 1880, Part

480

LITERATURE FOR VOLUME EIGHT

II, 1898, in Waldersees Sammlung musikalischer Vor-

trage).
Hermann Eichborn: Die Trompete alter und neuer Zeit.

(1881).

(1885).
Hermann Eichborn : Cber das Oktavierungsprinzip bei Blech-

instnimenten (1889).
Hermann Eichborn: Das Klarinblasen auf der Trompete

(1895).
Hermann Eichborn: Die Dampfung beira Horn (1897).
Robert Eitneh: Quellenlexikon (10 vols., Leipzig, 1899-1904).
M. Flueler: Die norddeutsche Sinfonie zur Zeit Friederichs

des Grossen und besonders die Werke Ph. E. Bachs

(Berlin, 1910).
Daomar Gade: Niels W. Gade. Aufzeichnungen und Briefe

(Basel, 1894).
Hugo Goldschmidt: Zur Geschichte der Arien- und Sym-

phonie-Form (Monatshefte fiir Musikgeschichte, 1901,

no. 4-5).
August Gollerich: Franz Liszt (1908).
Franz Graflinger: Anton Bruckner, Bausteine zu seiner

Lebensgeschichte (1911).
Otto Jahn: W. A. Mozart, 4 vols. (1856-1859; 4th ed. by H.

Deiters, 2 vols., 1905-1907).
Max Kalbeck: Johannes Brahms (1904-1911).
IwAN Knorr: Tschaikowsky (1900).
L. von Kochel: Die kaiserliche Hofmusikkapelle zu Wien

1543-1867 (1869).
L. von Kochel: Chronologisch-thematisches Verzeichnis der

Tonwerke W. A. Mozarts (1862; 2nd ed. by P. Graf

Waldersee, 1905).
L. VON Kochel: Johann Joseph Fux (1872).
Hermann Kretzschmar: Fiihrer durch den Konzertsaal (vol.

I, Leipzig, new ed., 1913).
Karl Nef: Zur Geschichte der deutschen Instrumentalmusik

in der zweiten Halfte des 17. Jahrhunderts {Beiheft of

the L M.-G., 1-5, 1902).
Walter Niemann: Die Musik Scandinavians (1906).
Walter Niemann (with Schjelderup) : Grieg (1908).
LuDwiG Nohl: Beethoven, 3 vols. (1864-1877).
Tobias Norlind: Zur Geschichte der Suite (Sammelbdnde of

the I. M.-G., VIL 2, 1906).
K. Ferd. Pohl: Joseph Haydn, 2 vols. (1875-1882, unfinished).

481

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Heinrich Reimann: Robert Schumann (1887).

Heinrich Reimann: Johannes Brahms (1897, 4th ed., 1911,

by Schrader) .
Hugo Riemann: Geschichte der Musik seit Beethoven (1901).
Hugo Riemann: Zur Geschichte der deutschen Suite (Sam-

melbande of the I. M.-G., IV. 4, 1905).
Arnold Schering: Geschichte des Instrumentalkonzerts

(Leipzig, 1903, enlarged, 1905).
Anton Schindler: Biographic Ludwig van Beethovens (1840-

43, new ed. by A. Kalischer, 1909),
Arthur Seidl (with W. Klatte) : Richard Strauss, eine Charak-

terstudie (1895).
Philipp Spitta: Johann Sebastian Bach, 2 vols. (1873-1880).
Max Steinitzer: Richard Strauss (1911).
Richard Strauss: Instrumentationslehre von Hector Berlioz

(revised edition with additions covering modern devel-
opments, Leipzig, 1905).
Alexander Wheelock Thayer: Ludwig van Beethovens

Leben (5 vols. 1866 [1901], 1872 [1910], 1897 [1911],

1907, 1908, completed and revised by H. Deiters and H.

Riemann).
Fritz Volhach : Das moderne Orchester in seiner Entwicklung

(Leipzig, 1910).
Emil Vogel: Claudio Monteverdi (Vierteljahrsschrift fur

Musikwissenschaft, III, Leipzig, 1887).
Richard Wagner: Cher das Dirigieren (in Samtliche Schrif-

ten, 5th ed. 12 vols. Leipzig, 1911).
Joseph von Wasielewski : Die Violine im 17. Jahrhundert

und die Anfange der Instrumentalkomposition (1874,

with musical supplements).
Joseph von Wasielewski: Das Violoncell und seine Ge-
schichte (Leipzig, 1889).
Felix von Weingartner: Die Symphonic nach Beethoven

(1897 [1901]).
R. DE Wyzewa and G. de Saint-Foix: W. A. Mozart, 2 vols.

(1912).
Kabl Friedrich Zelter: Karl Friedrich Christian Fasch

(1801).

In French

Hector Berlioz: Traite d'instrumentation (1839).
Hector Berlioz: A travers chants (1863).

482

LITERATURE FOR VOLUME EIGHT

Hector Berlioz: Le chef d'orchestre (Berlin, 1864, German

and French text).
Hector Berlioz: Memoirs, 2 vols. (1870, 2nd ed. 1876).
Hector Berlioz: Soirees d'orchestre (1853).
Hector Berlioz: Voyage musical en Allemagne et en Italic

(2 vols., Paris, 1844).
Michel Brenet: Grdtry, sa vie et ses oeuvres (Paris, 1884).
Michel Brenet: Les concerts en France sous I'ancien regime

(Paris, 1900).
Michel Brenet: Haydn (1910).

Alfred Bruneau: La musique fran^aise (Paris, 1901).
Arthur Comettant: Adolphe Sax (Paris, 1862).
Arthur Coquard: C6sar Franck (Paris, 1891).
Georges Cucuel: £tudes sur un orchestre an VIII™« si^cle

(Paris, 1913).
Edouard M. E. Deloevez: L'Art du chef d'orchestre (Paris,

1878).
Francois Joseph F^tis : Biographic universelle des musiciens,

8 vols. (1837-1844, 2nd ed. 1860-1865); Suppl. by A.

Pougin, 2 vyls. (1878-1880).
F. A. Gevaert: Cours m^thodique d'orchestration (Paris,

1890).
Melchior Grimm (Baron) : Le petit proph^te de Boehmisch-

Broda (1753).
Pierre Hedouin: Gossec, sa vie et ses oeuvres (1852).
Vincent d'Indy: Cesar Franck (1906).
Vincent d'Indy: Beethoven (1911).
Adolphe Jullien: Hector Berlioz, la vie et le combat, les

ceuvres (1888).
IiONEL DE Laurencie (with G. de Saint-Foix) : Contribution

k rhistoire de la symphonic vers 1750 (in L'annie musi-

cale, 1911).
Henri Lavoix: Histoire de I'instrumentation depuis le sei-

zi^me si^cle jusqu'^ nos jours (Paris, 1878).
RoMAiN Holland: Beethoven (Paris, 1907).
RoMAiN Holland: Musiciens d'autrefois (Paris, 1908).
RoMAiN Holland: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908).
Albert Schweitzer: J. S. Bach, le musicien po^te (Paris,

1905).
Louis Anton Vidal: Les Instruments k archet, 3 vols. (1876-

1878).

483

INDEX FOR VOLUME EIGHT

Figures tn italics Indicate major references.

Abendmusik. 125.

Accompaniment, 64.

Acoustic laws (applied to instru-
ments), 6f. 25fr.

Additional accompaniments, 91
(footnote).

Afranio, 77.

Agricola. Martin. 67, 76.

Alfano, 446, 448.

Alfv*n, 470.

Allegretto (substituted for scherzo
In symphony), 259.

Alto clarinet, 49.

Amati, Andrea, 73.

Amati, Antonio, 73.

Amati, Girolamo, 73.

Amati, Nicola. 73.

America (local color), 378, 380, 475.

An'balunda negroes, 55.

id*] Annunzlo, 449.
irab instrument, 60.
Arab themes, used in sjrmphonic

music, 458.
Arch-lute, 68.

Asia. See Oriental civilization.
Atmospheric school. See Modern

French school.
Atmospheric treatment, ix, 439.
Auber (influence on Wagner), 109.
Aulos, 56, 63.

Bach. Carl Philipp Emanuel, 140;

(Influence) 148.
Bach. J. S., viii, X, 85f, 121, 127,
128/7; (Influence) 242; (realism)
285; (modern influence) 335.

Brandenburg concertos, 129fr.

Orchestral suites, 133fr.
Bach and Handel, age of, 127ff.
Bag-pipes. 63; (imitation of) 294.
BalaklrefT, 370, 430r, 452.

•Thamar,' 450f.
Ballet, 443.
Bandora, 69.
Band. See Town bands.
Bantock, Granville, 474, 478.
Bargiel, Woldemar, 249.
Baritone oboe, 49.
Barytone. See Viola da gamba.
Bass clarinet, 31 (footnote): 37f,

103, 105; lllus., 37.
Bass drum, 48.
Bass flute, 49.
Bass-horn, 51.

485

Bass trumpet, 110.
Bass tuba. See Tuba.
Basset-horn, 97.

Basso continuo, 82; (in form of ob-
bligato bass part) 143; (aboli-
tion of) 147.
Bassoon, 32ir, 84, 99, 104; (medl-

SBval) 78; lllus., 33.
Bassoon, Russian, 51, 107.
Battements, 69.
Beck, Franz, 145.
Becker, 125.

Bell (widening of tube of wind in-
struments), 28.
Benda, Franz, 140.
Bennett, W. Stemdale, 233, 474.
Bernoulli, 25.

Beethoven, x, xi, 91, 92, 106, nOff.
275; (citation of works) 12.
14, 23, 29, 33, 47; (orches-
tra of) 98 ff; (overture) 127,
226; (influence) 211, 212f, 220.
235, 251, 293, 386. 411; (influ-
ence on Wagner) 109; (cited on
Schubert) 218; (realism) 285;
(influence on Berlioz) 295;
(modem influence) 335; (quo-
tation of musical phrases) 416.
First symphony. 173, 174IT.
Second symphony, 173, 177fr.
Third symphony, 173, 179£r.
Fourth symphony, 173, 184tr.
Fifth symphony, 173f, 186ff.
Sixth symphony, 174, 191ff.
Seventh symphony, 194ff.
Eighth symphony, 197fr.
Ninth symphony, 174, 198fr.
Overture, Die Geschdpfe de$

Prometheus, 204f.
'Coriolanus' overture, 205.
'Leonore* overtures, 205f.
Berlin, Philharmonic concerts, 482.
Berlioz, 103, 105, 286 ff, 324, 326;
(influence on orchestration)
Ix-ff. xi; (cited on flute) 27;
(cited on FreischOtz) 36; (cita-
tion of works) 46; (cited on
orchestration) 103; (orchestra
of) 106f; (writings of) 107; (in-
fluence on Wagner) 109; (in-
fluence on Strauss) 113; (quoted
on Beethoven's symphonies)
173f; (on Eroica) 180; (on
Beethoven's harmonic innova-
tion) 182; (overture) 287.
298f; (dramatic symphony)
287fr; (influence) 316f.
'Fantastic Symphony.' 287ir.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

'Harold to Italy • 291ff,

'Romeo and Juliet' symphony,

294ff.
Carnaval Romain overture, 298ff.
. Biography, musical, 424f,
Bizet 342ff; (citation of works to
illus. instrumental effects) 28.
L'Arlisienne suite No. 1, 342f.
L'Arlisienne suite No. 2, 343f.
BjSrnson, 350.
Blasende Musik, 125.
Boccherinl, Luigi, 167, 169.
Bdcklin, 420, 421f, 464.
Bohemia, 374ff.
Bohm, Theobald, 29, 35, 104.
Bombardon, 46. See also Tuba;

Contrabass tuba.
Bombards. See Pommers.
Borodine, Alexander, 454f.
First symphony, 454f.
Second symphony, 455.
Bourdons, 61, 69.
Bow (violin), 74.
Bowed string Instruments, 55, 59, 60,

70. See String instruments.
Bowing, 13f.

Boys' choir, employment of, in sym-
phonic music, 407.
Brahms, 253, 25ifr; (citation of
works) 41; (influence) 251,
419; (instrumentation) 254;
(influence on Scandinavian
schools) 351, 470; (in rel. to
Dvof6k) 378; (influence in Rus-
sia) 467.
Serenades for orchestra (D major,

A major) 255.
Variations on a Theme by Haydn,

255f.
First symphony, 256fir.
Second symphony, 261ff.
Third symphony (F major) 264ff.
Fourth symphony (E minor) 267flf.
Overtures, 270.
Brandenburg, Margrave of, 129.
Brass Instruments (in modem or-
chestra) 5, 38ff'; (rarely used)
50; (ancient) 57; (Meyerbeer)
103; (perfection of) 105; (Wag-
ner's use of) 109f.
Breath pressure, (influence on
pitch) 25; (in playing brass in-
struments) 38.
Brenet, Michel, 285.
Bruce, Robert, 56.
Bruch, Max. 252.

Bruckner, Anton, 270ff; (influence)
404, 411 ; (influence in Russia)
465.
Third symphony (D minor), 273ff.
Fourth symphony (E-flat, 'Ro-
mantic') 275ff.
Fifth symphony (Church sym-
phony) 277ff.
Seventh symphony (E major)

279flr.
Eighth symphony (C minor) 281f.
Ninth symphony (B minor) 282f.
Buccina, 57.
Bugle, 39.
Bull, John, 125.
Bull, Ole, 73.
BOlow, Hans von, 256.

486

BQrger, 339.

Busoni, Ferruccio, 419.

Buxtehude, 284.

Byrd, 124,

Byron, 292, 312, 369.

Cacophony, 114.

Calamus (Roman). See Pipe.

Caldara, Antonio, 139.

Cambert, 84.

Campra, Andr^, 84.

Cannabich, Carl, 93.

Cannabich, Christian, 146, 147, 158.

Cantabile, orchestral, 160.

Canzone, 119.

Canzone da sonar, 123.

Capriccio, orchestral, 459.

Caricature, musical, 406, 407.

Cassation, 139.

Castanets, 6, 48.

Castrucci, Pietro, 87.

Cavalieri (influence on instrumen-
tation), 82.

Celesta, 6, 48; (Strauss) 114.

Cello. See Violoncello.

Celtic influence, (Beethoven) 196;
(Mendelssohn) 221.

Cervantes. 400.

Chabrier, Emmanuel, 427ff.

Chaconne (as symphonic move-
ment) 269.

Chalumeau, 91. See also Schalmey.

Chalumeau register (of clarinet), 36.

Chanterelle, 68.

Charpentier, Gustave, 429f.
'Impressions of Italy,' 429.

Chausson, Ernest, 430f.
Symphony in B-flat, 430f.

Cherubini, 101.

Chitarrone, 68.

Chopin, 467.

Chorus,' employment of in sjrm-
phonic compositions, 199, 294,
407, 410. 415, 417; in symphonic
suite, 446.

Chromaticism (Mannheim school)
146; (Debussy) 439; (Scria-
bine) 469.

Church, instrumental music in, 66.

Cerone, Domenico Pietro (cited on
harp), 69f.

Clarinet, 31 (footnote), 348-, 77, 90,
91, 92, 96, 99, 104; illus., 36;
(alto) 48; (Rameau) 85: (Web-
er) 102; (first use of, in sym-
phonic music) 144. See also
Bass clarinet; Double-bass clari-
net.

Clarini, 79, 88.

Classical period, early, (orchestra
of) 85fr; (composers) 127fl'; be-
fore Beethoven (orchestra) 9 Iff;
(composers) 142ff; Beethoven
(orchestra) 98ff; (works) 170ir.

Classicism, 98; spirit of, merged
with romantic, 253.

Clavichord, 75.

Clavier. See Harpsichord.

Clavier k lumiire. See Light Key-
board.

INDEX

•Color' effects, orchestral, Ix, 11, 143,
210.

Color-machlnr, 468f.

Combarieu, 57.

Compass pxtrnsion principles, 104.

Con sordino [sordini], 14, 101. See
also Muting.

Concert overture, 226. See also
Overture.

Concertante, 87.

Concerted music, 125. See also In-
strumental music.

Concerto, 129.

Contra. See also Double.

Contrabass tuba, 46.

Contra-fagott. See Double bassoon.

Contrast (principle of) 145; (be-
tween themotlc groups) 272.

Cor anglais. See English horn.

Cor de chasse, 39.

Corelli, 85.

Comet (Zink) 78r, 89; illus., 79.

Comet k pistons, 44, 103; illus., 44.

Comu, 57.

Cosmopolitan school (modem Rus-
sian). See Moscow school.

Cross flute. See Flute.

Couperin, 285.

Cremona school, 73.

Croatian folk-song, 148.

Crooks, 43; (nn horn) 98.

Cross rhythms. See Rhythm (con-
flict of).

Crwth, Welsh. 60.

Cui, C*sar, 461; (quoted on Rubin-
stein) 251; (on Rimsky-Korsa-
koff) 457r.

Cyclic forms, 125, 1,19.

Cyclic use of motives and themes,
336, 337, 339, 359, 431.

Cylindrical pipes, 25.

Cymbals, 6, 48.

Cymbalum, 63.

Czemy, 208.

Da capo (omitted In first-movement
form) 243.

Damaras, 55.

Dance rhythms, 125.

Dance tunes, use of, In symphonic
music, 428.

Danish tunes, fantasy on, 419.

Dante, 304, 371, 372.

Debussy, Claude, 112^ 336; (or-
chestration) 114ff; (works)
iS6ff.
La Mer, 436ff.

L'Apr^s-midt d'un faune, 439.
Rondes de Printempa, 439f.

Delius, Frederick. 474, 476.
'Appalachia,' 476f.

Denkmdler dcr Tonkunst in Bayem,
143 (footnote).

Denmark, 351, 471.

Denner, Johann Christoph, 85.

Descriptfve music (Charpentier)
429; (Debussy) 4360". See also
Pictorial music; Program music.

Descriptive symphony, 150, 286. See
also Program music.

Detached bowing, 13.

487

Development See Thematic derel-
opment.

Dies tree, 291.

Dietrich, Albert, 251.

Dittersdorf, Carl Ditters von, 167ff.

Divertimento, 139.

Dohn&nyi, Ernst von, 419.

Double-bass, 22f, 99; (muted) 444;
Illus., 22.

Double-bass clarinet, 49.

Double-bass tuba. See Contrabass
tuba.

Double bassoon, 31 (footnote;, 34f;
illus., 34.

Double stops, 17.

Draeseke. Felix, 251.

Drama, influence of, on instrumen-
tal development, 119; on or-
chestration, 82.

•Dramatic' development of orches-
tration, viil, ix-fT.

Dramatic expression (in orchestra)
98.

Dramatic symphony (Berlioz) 286;
(Liszt) 300f: (trilogy, d'Indy)
432ff.

Dresden Amen, 224.

Dmm (ketUe) 47; (bass) 6, 47;
(snare) 6. 47; (In Middle Ages)
63; illus., 46.

Dubois, Theodore, 335.

Duiflfoprugcar, Gaspard, 72.

Dukas. Paul, 440fr; (citations of
works to illustrate instrumental
effects) 34.
L'Apprenti Sorcier, 440ff.

Dulcimer, 59.

DvoMk, 378ff; (citation of works
to illustrate instrumental ef-
fects) 31.
First symphony, 379f.
Fifth symphony ('New World'),
380ff.

Dynamic nuances, 145; (Bach) 133;
(use of vernacular in marking)
243; (provision for automatic.
In score) 426.

Early classics (Bach and Handel),
127ff.

Eberl, Anton, 208.

Eclecticism, (French) 324, 325;
(German) 318; Russian, see
Moscow school.

Egypt, 56.

Eichner. Ernst, 145.

Elgar, Edward, 474.
First symphony, 474f.
Second symphony, 475f.
•Cocaigne,' 476.

Embouchure, 38, 78.

En bourdon, 69

England, (suite) 125; (modem sym-
phonic music) 474.

English hom, 28, 30ff, 103; Ulns..
31.

Esterhazy, Prince, 95.

Esterhazy orchestra, 149.

Expression marks. See Dynamic
expression.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Fagott (mediaeval), 78. See Bas-
soon.

Fagott in E-flat. See Oboe da cac-
cia.

Fagottino. See Oboe da caccia.

Fandango, 460.

Fantasia, symphonic, 245, 464.

Fantasie, 123.

Fasch, Friedrich. 138.

'Fauve' scliool, 467.

F^tis (cited on bass-hom), 51.

Fibich, Zdenko, 382.

Fiddle. See Gigue.

Fife, use of, by Handel, 86.

Figured bass. See Basso continuo.

Filigree work (orchestral s^Ie)
160.

Filtz, Anton, 93, 145.

Finland, 471.

Fitzwilliam, 284.

Five-four movement, 367.

Flageolet. See Flute-&-bec.

Flageolet tones. See Harmonics.

Flemish influence, 325.

Flute, 26fr, 63, 76, 84, 86, 89, 90, 97,
99, 104; illus., 26; (Egyptian)
56. See also Bass flute.

Flute-i-bec. 76, 86, 91; (use of, by
Bach) 89; illus., 75.

Folk-music, (Haydn's use of) 148,
156; (use of, by Beethoven)
196; (as thematic material)
293; (influence of) 325; (use
of, in symphonic music) 358,
361, 379, 388, 405, 428, 454, 463,
474.

Forsyth, Cecil, (cited on acoustics)
9f; (on 'Tristan and Isolde')
21; (on bassoon) 33; (on clari-
net) 36; (on glockenspiel) 48;
(on fagott) 78, footnote; (on
horn) 98.

France (eclipse of symphonic mu-
sic) 233; (symphonic music of)
324; (modem orchestral music)
427ff.

Franchetti, 446.

Franck, (i^sar, 324, SSiff; (influ-
ence) 430, 445.
Symphony in B minor, 336£F.
Le Chasseur maudit, 339f.
Les tolides, 340f.
Les Djinns, 341.

Franck, Melchior, 125.

Frankfort Orchestra, 107.

Franz, 90.

Frederick the Great, 140.

Free fantasia. See Thematic de-
velopment.

French horn. See Horn.

French music. See France.

French overture. See Overture.

Frescobaldi, 284.

Frestelle, 63.

Frlchot, 51.

Friedrich Barbarossa, 414.

Froberger, 284f.

Full score. See Score.

Funeral march (as symphonic
movement) 180.

Fux, Joseph. 138.

488

Gabrieli, Andrea, 123f.

Gabrieli. Giovanni, 81, 123, 124.

Gade, Niels W., 233f.
First symphony (C minor) 233.
Fourth symphony (B-flat) 234.

Gasparo da Salo, 72, 73.

Geige. See Gigue.

Germ motive, 187, 262.

German influence, 323f, 325; (in
France) 432; (in Scandinavia)
470.

Germany, (beginnings of instru-
mental music) 120ff; (suite)
125; (symphonic supremacy,
17th-18th cent.) 323; (modem
orchestral music) 383ff.

Gemsheim, Friedrich, 251.

Gevaert, 89, (footnote) ; (cited) 91.

Gigue, 60f, 61.

Glazounoir, Alexander, 451ff.
Fourth symphony, 452f.
Fifth symphony, 453f.

Glifere, Reinhold, 463.

Glinka, 234f.

Glissando (harp) 24, 115, 439, 443;
(harmonics) 444.

Glockenspiel, 6, 48.

Gluck, ix, 16, 91, 126; (influence on
Wagner) 110.

Godard, 345, 346.

Goethe, 226, 301, 317. 410, 415, 440.

Goetz, Hermann, 251r.

Goldmark, Carl, 320f.
'Rustic Wedding' symphony, 320f.
Overtures, 321.

Gong. See Tam-tam.

Gordon flute, 104.

Gossec, 92, 147, 169, 324.

Graf, Max, (cited on Bruckner), 271.

Graun, Heinrich, 140.

Great-horn, 63.

Greeks, 56.

Grieg, Edvard, 346ff, 470; (influence
in Italy) 467.
'Peer Gynt' suite. No. 1, 346fr.
'Peer Gynf suite. No. 2, 348flr.
'Sigurd Jorsalfar' suite, 350.

Grillet, Laurent (cited) 60, 61.

Group development, instrumental,
ix.

Grove, Sir George, (on Beethoven's
Seventh symphony) 196.

Guenarius, Andrea, 73.

Guenarlus, Giuseppe Antonio, 74.

Guilds. See Pipers' guilds.

Guillaume of Auxerre, 79.

Guiraud, 345, 346.

Guitar, 49, 69.

Guivier, Prospero, 50.

Hamerlk, Asgar, 470.
Handel, ix, 85, 127, ISSff.
•Water Music,' 136.
'Fire-works Music,' 136f.
Hand notes, 98.
Harmonic innovations, 175, 181, 182,

203, 469.
Harmonics, 7, 17, 115; (glissando)
444.

INDEX

Harmony, 59; (Troubadours, etc.)

«4.
Harp. 6. 23f, 56, 59. 69f, 116: (Wag-
ner) ll6: (glissando) 439. 445;
(illus.) 23: Medlseval. 59;
(lllus.) 58; Irish, 70.
Harpsichord. 59. 75, 83. 90, 91; (in

the orchestra) 144.
Hausegger, Sicgmund von, 414ff.
'Barbarossa.' 414f.
•Nature' symphony, 415f.
Haydn, viii, ix. 91, 92, 94ff, 142.
147fr. 170; (influence on Mo-
zart) 162; (influence) 211;
(realism) 285.
'Farewell' symphony, 150.
Salomon symphonies, first set,

153f.
Salomon symphonies, second set,

154f.
Symphony in G minor (La

Poule), 151, 152.
Symphony in C major (L'Ours),

151.
Symphony in B-flat (La Retne),

152.
Symphony in D major (La

Chasse), 152.
Symphony in G major ('Oxford'),

152, 153.
Symphony in G major ('Sur-
prise'), 154, 156.
Haydn, Michael, 169.
Hebenstreit, Pantaleon, 138.
Hebrews, 477.
Heckelphone, 49, 114.
Heine (on Berlioz), 287.
Heller. 275.
Hempel. 98.
Harold, 101. 109.

Herzogcnberg, Heinrich von, 419.
Hiller. Ferdinand. 249.
Hindoo instrument, 60.
Hofmann. Heinrich, 321f.

FrithJof, 321 f.
Homophonic style, ix.
Horn, 31 (footnote). 39, 39ff, 84, 88,
98, 104f, 116; ('stopped' notes)
41; (Weber) 102; (Meyerbeer)
103; (Wagner) 110.
Horn (Inventor of basset-bom), 97.
Hottentots, 55.
Hubrr, Hans, 420.
Humperdincli, 275.
Hurdy-gurdy (mediaeval), 62.
Hymn, niedlipval Latin (words of.
used In modem symphony), 410.

Ibsen, 347.

Id^e fixe. 237, 258, 279.

Imitation of composers' styles, 231,
386.

Imitation of nature. 285. 415. See
also Pastoral effects; also De-
scriptive music; Landscape
painting, musical.

Impressionism, 112, 114fr, 325. 431,
438. 439. 445. See also Descrip-
tive music.

Impressionistic school. See Mod-
em French school.

489

Improvisational style, (Liszt) 302;
( Saint- Sai>ns) 326; (Rimsky-
KorsakofT) 460.

Incidental music. 445. See also
Mendelssohn; Schillings, 412f.

Individualization of instruments, ix.
See also Instrumental effects.

[d'JIndy. Vincent, 431 ff; (on C^sar
Franck) 335; (influence) 442.
Wallenstein Trilogy, 432fr.
'Istar' variations, 434f.
Symphony in B-flat, 435f.

Instrumental effects. special,
(Strauss) 114; (Debussy) 439;
(Ravel) 444. See also Glissan-
do; Harmonics; Muting; Trem-
olo, etc.

Instrumental music, as entertain-
ment at public festivals, etc., in
16th cent., 80.

Instrumental forms of 16th-17th
cent, (as precursors of sym-
phony). 118fr.

Instrumentation, (Gluck) 91 ;

(Strauss) 113, 383; (inapt, in
early classic period) 128; (C.
P. E. Bach) 140; (Stamitz) 144;
(Beethoven) 174; (Brahms) 254;
(Bruckner) 272; (Rimsky-Kor-
sakoff) 459; (Sibelius) 471, 472.
See also Orchestration.

Instruments, arrangement of in
modem orchestra. 2ff; (acous-
tic laws applied to) Off; (con-
stituents of modern orchestra)
8ff; (transposing) 39; (rarely
used) 48f; (used in combina-
tion) 50; (of ancient times)
52ff; (of Middle Ages) 57ff; (of
16th-17th cent.) 67ff; (of early
classic period) 85ff; (of classic
period) 94ff; (improvements in
mechanism) 98; (perfection of
modem) 103ff. See also Or-
chestra ; String instruments ;
Wind instruments, etc.

Interpretation (automatic, without
aid of conductor) 426.

Intonation, false (intentional) 408.

Introduction (slow, in first move-
ment of symphony) 177, 155,
326.

Irish folk-idiom. 474.

Isaak, Heinrich, 122r.

Italian atmosphere. (Mendelssohn)
223; (Strauss) 386ff; (Charpen-
tler) 429.

Italian overture. See Overture.

Italy (beginnings of instrumental
music), 119ff; (modem renais-
sance of symphonic music)
445ff.

Jahn. Otto (quoted on Mozart), 157.
Jannequin. 284.
Jftmefeit, 471.
Jongleur. 65.
Juon, Paul, 419.

Kalinnikoff, Vassily. 466.
Kailiwoda, Wenzeslaus, 232.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Kaulbach, 314.

Kettledrums. See TuTnpani.

Keyboard, 75.

Keys, (of wind instruments) 26,
ring (on flute) 104. See also
Valves.

Kithara, 56, 59.

Kittl, Johann Friedrich, 374.

Knaben Wunderhorn, Des, 406, 407,
408.

Koslick, 89.

Komgold, Erich, 420.

Kretzschmar, 138; (cited) 66; (cited
on pipers' and trumpeters'
guilds) 120; (quoted on Ga-
brieli) 123; (cited on Ditters-
dorf) 168; (on Schumann) 242;
(on Draescke) 251.

Krummhorns, 76.

Kuhnau, 285.

Lachner, Franz, 249f, 341.

Lalo, Mouard, 334f.

La Pouplinlfere. 169.

Landscape painting, musical, 354,

386f.
Lavignac (cited on timbre) 7; (on

instrumental color effects) 11;

(on tablature) 68; (on viol tun-
ing) 71; (on trombones) 79;

(on harpsichord) 83; (on oboe)

87; (on viola pomposa) 88; (on

Weber) 102.
Leader. See Conductor.
Legato bowing, 13.
Lenau, 391.
Lermontoff, 451, 464.
Lesueur, 101.
Liadoff, Anatol, 463.
'Baba Yaga,' 463.
Light-keyboard, 468f.
Lips, function of, in playing brass

Instruments, 38.
Liszt. X, 286, 300ff, 383, 384, 472; .„^..„., ^„^....^, .„.

(orchestration) viii, 107f; (in- Melnarski, E., 466.

fluence) 112, 316f; (dramatic Melartin, 471

symphony) 301 ; (symphonic

poem) 306ff; (influence in

France) 325, 326; (influence in

Italy) 446, 447.
'Faust' symphony, 301ff.
•Dante' symphony, 304ff.

London (musical representation of

city life), 476.
Lotl, 105.
Lotz, 97.
Lowen, 125.

Lower strings (bourdons), 61.
Lully, 30, 133, 324.
Lute, 59, 67/7, 84, 87.
Lyre, 56, 59.
Lyric element, in orchestratioh,

viii-f.
Lyricism In symphonic music, 211;

(Strauss) 383, 384.

Mackenzie, Alexander, 474.
Maggini, John Paul, 73.
Mahillon, 7, 89, footnote.
Mahler, Gustav, 403ff; (influence)
465.

First symphony, 404ff'.

Second symphony, 405f.

Third symphony, 406f.

Fourth symphony, 407f.

Fifth symphony, 408f.

Sixth symphony, 409.

Seventh symphony, 409f.

Eighth symphony, 41 Of.
Maitland. J. A. Fuller, (cited) 8»f.
Mallarm6, 439.
Malzel, 204.
Mandolin, 49, 69.
Mannheim orchestra, 91 tt, 158.
Mannheim reform, 168.
Mannheim school, 139, 140, 143f.
March (as third movement of sym-
phony), 290.
Martellement, 69.
Maschera, Florentio, 123.
Maseck, 200.

Mason, Daniel Gregory, quoted (on
Haydn) 148; (Haydn and Mo-
zart) 156f; (on Schubert) 213.
Mastersingers, 58.
M^hul, mienne, 101, 169.

*Tasso, Lament and Triumph,'
307ff.

Les Priludes, 309f.

Ce qu'on entend sur la montagne,
306f.

•Orpheus,' 310f.

•Prometheus,' 311f.

•Mazeppa,' 312f.

•Heroide funibre,' 313.

•Hungaria,' 313f.

•Hamlet,' 314.

•Battle of the Huns,' 314f.

Die Ideale, 315f.
Lituus, 57.

Local color, 341; (Mendelssohn)
220f, 223; (American) 379, 381,
476; (Italian) 388f. 429; (Span-
ish) 428; (Oriental) 458.

490

Mendelssohn, 90, lOlf, 219ff; (cited
on valve-horn) 104; (Influ-
ence) 233; (Influence in Eng-
land) 474.
Scotch symphony, 220ff.
Italian symphony, 223f.
Reformation symphony, 224ff.
•Fingal's Cave' overture, 227.
'Melusine' overture, 227.
•Ruy Bias' overture, 227f.
•Calm Sea and Prosperous Voy-
age' overture, 227.
•Trumpet* overture, 228.
Mersenne, Marin, 67.
Meyerbeer, 102, 103f, 105; (infl. on

Wagner) 109.
Miniature suite. See Suite.
Minnesinger, 58.
Minstrelsy, 58, 64, 66.
Minuet (introduced in the cyclic
forms) 139; (in the symphony)
151 ; (evolution of scherzo
from) 176; (in modem sym-
phony) 406.

INDEX

Modem FVench school, 427ff.
Mollenhauer, 10 1.
Monn, (ieorg, 139,
Monochord, 59, footnote, 75.
Monochordal stringed Instrument,

61.
Monodic style, 121.
Monteverdi, 82, 83, 120, 124.
Morley, John, 122. 125.
Moscow School, 463, 464.
Moszkowslii, Maurice, 451.
Motive, cyclic. See Cyclic use of

motives ; Id^e flxe.
Motto theme, 167, 260. 261f. 264f.
Moussorgsky. Modest. 461 f.

'The Night on the Bald Mountain,'
461.
Mouthpiece (on brass instruments),

39. See also Embouchure.
Mozart, viii, 90. 91, 95, 96ff, i51ff,
483; (citation of works to illus-
trate instrumental effects) 16;
(cited on Mannheim orchestra)
93; (on flute) 104; (influence
on Wagner) 109; (influence on
Haydn) 156f; (influence) 211;
(realism) 285; (imitation of
style of) 386.
Early symphonies, 159.
Paris symphony. 160f.
Symphony in B-flat, 161.
Symphony in E-flat ('Swan

Song'). 163f.
Symphony In G minor. 164ff.
Symphony in C major ('Jupiter'),

166f.
Symphony in C major. 161.
Symphony in D major (Haffner

Serenade), 162.
Symphony in C major (Linz). 162.
Symphony in D major (Vienna,
1786). 162f.
Muffat. 133.
Musette, 78.
Music drama In symphonic form,

199.
Mute, 14.

Mute. See Sordino.
Muting, 14; (of horn, stopped
notes) 41; (trumpet) 43: (tuba)
401; (double bass) 444.

Nabelli, 50.

Nachtigal, Othmar. 67.

Napoleon, 179.

Nationalism, 323ir; (Scandinavian)
346, 351; (Russian) 357f, see
also Neo-Russian school; (Bo-
hemian) 374; (Finnish) 471f.
See also Folk-song; also Local
color.

Natural horn. 105. See also Horn.

Nature, imitation of, 285, 415; see
also Pastoral effects; (musical
picturing of), see also Land-
scape painting, musical.

Nedbal. O.. 382.

Negro folk-song, 379; (use of tunes
in symphonic music) 477.

Negroes, An'balunda, 55.

Neo-Russian school, 370, 450.

491

Neruda. Georg. 140.

Nctherland schools (conducting),
480.

Newman, Ernest. 284.

Nlcod^, Jean Louis, 416ff.
005 Meer, 416ff.

Nielsen. Carl. 351, 470.

Nielsen. Ludolf. 470.

Niemann, Walter (cited on Bruck-
ner), 275. 277.

Nietzsche. 396. 399f, 407.

Noren. Gottlieb. 420.

North German school, 139f.

Norway, 471. See also Grieg;
Svendsen ; Olsen ; Sinding.

Notation, 52, 57. See also Score.

Novdk, VitSslav, 382.

Nun's fiddle. See Trumpet-marine.

Obbligato bass part, Intro, in Instr.
music, 143.

Oboe, 28ff, 84, 87, 90, 99; illus., 28;
(soprano, baritone) 48.

Oboe da caccia, 88, 89.

Oboe d'amore, 88f, 89 (footnote)
113.

Olsen, Ole, 35.3f.

Onslow, Georges, 233.

Open pipes, 24.

Open strings, 69. See also Stopping
principle.

Opera, (influence on instrumental
development) 119; Italian (in-
fluence on orchestra) 83; (in-
fluence on instrumental music)
121.

Operatic prelude. See Overture.

Ophicleide, 50; illus.. 50, 103, 107;
(superseded by bass tuba) 105.

Orchestra, modern, Iff; (seating ar-
rangement) 2(T; (constituent in-
struments) 8ff; (varying sizes
of) 3; history of, 52ff; Egyp-
tian, 55; earliest modem, 67;
of Bach and Handel. 85ff, 128;
of classic period, 94ff; of Ber-
lioz, 106; of Liszt, 108; of
Wagner. 109f; post- Wagnerian,
111; of Strauss, 114; modem
French, 115. See also Frank-
fort orchestra; Mannheim or-
chestra.

Orchestral color. See 'Color* effects,
orchestral.

Orchestral music (incipient, in Mid-
dle Ages). 65. See also Instru-
mental forms; Concerto; Over-
ture; Symphony; Symphonic
poem, etc.

Orchestral prelude, 439. See also
Overture.

Orchestral suite (early German),
125. See also Suite.

Orchestration. (Richard Strauss on)
vii-ff; (of Strauss) 113f: (Glin-
ka) 2.35; (Schumann) 2:<6f, 2.38;
(Brahms) 254; (Bruckner) 272;
(Berlioz) 287f; (Chabrlcr) 429;
(Debussy) 4.38; (Zandonai) 449.
See also Instrumentation.

Organ, 58, 88, 90; (in early Instni-

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

mental music) 121, 122; (in
sympliony) 327.

Organistrum, 62.

Orient, Influence of, on mediaeval
music, 58.

Oriental civilization, instrumental
history of, 55f ; (instruments in-
tro. in Rome) 57.

Overblowing, 25, 29.

Overtones, 26.

Overture, early forms of, 120;
French, Italian and classical,
126; use of French and Italian
forms by early symphonists,
139; (Bach) 133; (Beethoven)
204ff; concert (Mendelssohn)
226f; (Schumann) 247f; (Ber-
lioz) 287, 298f; (Brahms) 270;
(Goldmark) 321; (Reznlczek)
423; (modem English compos-
ers) 476.

Overture-fantasy, 370.

Paganini, 291.

Panharmonlum, 204.

Pantaleon. See Hebenstreit.

Parabolic head joint (on flute), 104.

Paris (influence of Mannheim
school in), 169.

Parry, C. Hubert H., cited, 116, 128;
(on orchestration) 100.

Partita, 133.

Pastoral effects, (oboe) 30; (Eng-
lish horn) 31f; (Beethoven)
191fr; (Berlioz) 290. See also
Nature, imitation of.

Patriotism, 374. See also National-
ism.

Pavane (modem use of), 443.

Payne, E. J. (cited on viol tuning),
71.

Pedals (on harp), 23.

Percussion instruments, 5f, 53, 46ff.

Peri, Jacopo, 82, 120.

Petrie, Flinders, 56.

Petzold, Johann, 125.

Pfeiflfer, Johann, 138.

Philosophy, musical expression of,
390f. See also Weltanschauung.

Pianoforte style, influence of, on
orchestral music, viii; (Beet-
hoven) 100; (reaction against,
Berlioz) 106; (Liszt) 107f, 300;
(Schumann) 237; emancipation
of orchestral idiom from, 384.

Piccolo, 28; (use of, by Handel)
86.

Pictorial music, 341. See also De-
scriptive music ; Landscape
painting, musical.

Pictorial symphony, 251. See also
Descriptive symphony; Dramat-
ic symphony; Program music.

Pipe, mediaeval, 62.

Pipers' guilds, 120.

Pipes. See vibrations of air in
pipes.

Pizzicato, 16, 115; (on 'cello) 21.

Plectrum instruments, 59, 69. See
also Plucked string instruments.

Plucked string. See Pizzicato.

492

Plucked string instruments, 55;
(Middle Ages), 67.

Pochette, 72.

Poetry, as source of musical In-
spiration (Beethoven), 174. See
also Byron; Goethe; Pushkin;
Schiller; Shakespeare, etc.

Polyphonic period, conducting In.
479.

Polyphonic style (Wagner), 108.

Polyphony, orchestral, vil, 51:
(Strauss) 112, 384; Bach, 130;
revival of polyphonic ideal,
253; in modern Italian music,
446. See also Vocal polyphony.

Pommers, 77.

Positions (on violin), 10.

Post-impressionism, 467, 468.

Praetorius, Michael, 67; (cited on
harp) 70; (on viol) 71.

Prelude, orchestral (Debussy), 439.
See also Overture.

Premier coup d'archet, 160.

Primitive peoples. See Aborigines.

Principal [priucipale] trumpet, 79,
88

Prix de Rome, 291.

Program music, 28iff; (Beethoven)
174, 191; (Mendelssohn) 224;
(Schumann) 247; (Saint-Saens)
326; (Sinding) 355; (Tschai--
kowsky) 368ff; (with sup-
pressed program) 400; (Dukas)
440; (Balakireff) 450, 452;
(Rimsky-Korsakoflf) 457f, 460;
(Moussorgsky) 462. See also
Descriptive music; Dramatic
symphony ; Symphonic poem ;
Tone-poem.

Program symphony, 355, 369. See
also Dramatic symphony.

Psaltery, 59; illus., 58.

Pythagoras, 59 (footnote).

Quantz (cited on Handel's orches-
tra), 87.
8ulnt fagott. See Oboe da caccia.
notations, musical, 320, 416.

Rachmaninoff, Serge, 463, 464f.

Second symphony. E minor, 465f.
Raff, Joachim, 318ff.

Third symphony (Im Walde). 319.

Fifth symphony (Leonore), 319f.
Rameau, 84f, 285, 324.
Raupach, 230.
Ravana Strom, 60.
Ravel, Maurice, 116, 336, 443f.

'Mother Goose') suite, 443f.
Realism, 285; (Strauss) 114; (Beet-
hoven) 179. See also Descrip-
tive music; Program music.
Rebab, 60.
Rebec, 60, 61.
Recitative, 82.
Recofder. See Flute-ii-bec.
Reed, single, 77.
Reed instruments, 28ff.
Reformation, 224.

INDEX

Refer. Max. 404, 421ff.
Serenade (op. 06). 421.
Bdcklin tone-poems, 421ff.

ReRibo. 51.

Reineckc, Carl. 249.

Reinken. Jan, 125.

Reissiger. Karl Gottlieb, 249.

Religion (influence on early instru-
mental music), 121; (devotional
feeling) 244.

Repeat (omitted in first-movement
form). 243.

Reutter, Georg, 139.

Reznicck. E. N. von. 423f.
Lustspiel Ouvertare, 423f.
Symphonic suite in E minor, 424.

Rheinberger. Josef. 252.

Rhythm (in classical music), 118;
(indication of), see Beat.

Ricercar, 123.

Richter, Franz Xaver, 92, 145f.

Ricbter, Jean Paul ('Jean Paul').
246.

Riemann. Hugo (cited). 124.

Ries. Ferdinand. 182, 208.

Rietz, Julius, 249.

Rlmsky- Korsakoff, 455, 456ff, 460.
Antar. 457fr.
Capriccio espaqnol, 459.
Scheherazade. 460.

Ripieno. 87.

Rockstro, W. S. (on Liszt's 'Ma-
zeppa'). 312.

RoIIand. Romain (on Berlioz), 286,
294.

Roman era, 56f.

Romantic movement, 209.

Romantic school, ix, 207; (the
'classic' romanticists) 209ff;
(the pure romanticists) 236ff;
(modem period) 25,1ff.

Romanticism, 98. 209, 210. 237. 351,
464; (of the forest) 275; (ten-
dency to program music) 285.

Romanza (as symphonic movement),
246.

Romberg, Andreas, 232.

Romberg, Bernhard, 232.

Rondo (as symphonic movement),
155.

Ropartz' J. Guy, 442f.

Symphony in E major, 442f.

Rosenmiiller, Johann, 125.

Rossini, (citation of works to illus.
instrumental effects) 32; (oTer>
ture) 127.

Rote, 59, 60, 61.

Rousseau, cited on conducting, 481.

Roussel, Albert, 415f.
'Invocntlons,' 445f.

Rowbotlinm (cited), 63.

Rubinstein, Anton, 250f.

Russia, (beginnings of orchestral
music) 234f; (modem compos-
ers) 'I50fr. See also Rubinstein;
Tschaikowsky.

Russian bassoon, 51, 107.

Russian national anthem, 373.

Sachs, Kurt (cited on Schalmeys
and Ponuners), 77.

493

Sackhut, 79.

Saint-Sa«ns, CamiUe, 325ff ; (cited on
Berlioz) 107.
Second symphony (A minor),

326f.
Third symphony (C minor). 3271f.
Le Rouet a'Omphale. 329f.
Phaeton. 330f.
Danse Macabre, 331ff.
La Jeunesae d'Uercule, 333f.
Salomon, 93.

Salo, Gasparo da. See Gasparo.
Salomon, Johann Peter, 153.
Saltarello, 223, 224.
Sarrusophone, 50, 115.
Satire, 405, 406.

Sax, Adolphe (Antoine), 7. 105.
Sax, Charles Joseph, 105.
Sax-horns, 50.
Saxophone, 50, 105, 114, 115; illus.,

«.
Scandinavian schools, 325, 346ff;

(modern) 469.
Scarlatti, 84, 85.
Schalmey, 77.
Schawm. See Schalmey.
Schein, Johann, 125.
Scheltzer. Sigismund, 78.
Scherzo (evolved from minuet), 176;
(introduced in symphony) 178;
(as independent symphoniv
piece) 440, 463.
Schiller, 174, 199, 252, 315, 432.
Schillings, Max, 413f.

Prelude to Sophocles' (Edipus
Rex, 413f.
Schloger, Matteo, 1.39.
Schneider, Fricdrich, 232.
Schobert, Johann, 167.
Schonberg, Arnold, 435f.
Kammersymphonie, 425.
Five Orchestral Pieces, 426.
Schubert, 101, 208, 211(1; (citation
of works to illustrate instru-
mental effects) 21; (Bruckner
compared to) 271; (influence in
Norway) 351.
Early symphonies, 211f.
Fourth symphony ('Tragic'), 212f.
Fifth symphony (B-flat), 213.
Seventh symphony (C major),

213fT.
Unflnished symphony (B minor),
217fT.
Schumann, Georg, 419.
Schumann, Robert, lOlf, 236ff, 259,
284; (on Beethoven's Fourth
symphony) 173; (quoted on
Spohr's Historical symphony)
231; (disciples of) 249; (influ-
ence in Norway) 351; (infl. in
Russia) 467.
First symphony ('Spring'), 237ff.
Second symphony (C major),

241 ff.
Third symphony ('Rhenish,' E-

flat), 24.3ff.
Fourth symphony (D minor),

245ff.
Overture, scherzo and finale (op.

52), 246f.
•Manfred' overture, 247f.
Faust' overture, 248.

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Schweitzer (cited on Bach), 133.
Schweizerfldte, 76.
Score, orchestral, .52; (earliest) 81.
Scoring. See Instrumentation; Or-
chestration.
Scotch 'color,' 220f, 227.
Scott. 287.
Scriabine, Alexander, 467fr.

Second symphony (C major),

467f.
Third smyphony ('The Divine

Poem'), 468.
Poem of Ecstasy, 468.
•Prometheus,' 468f.
Seating arrangement of modem or-
chestra, 2f.
S6r6, Octave, (cited on Saint-Saens)

326; (on Lalo) 334.
Serenade, 139.
Serpent, 51; (use of, in Gregorian

service) 79.
Sgambati, Giovanni, 446.

Symphony in B, 447.
Shading of tonal effects. See Dy-
namic nuances.
Shakespeare, 226, 294, 370, 373,

380.
•Shalem,' 63.
Shepherd's pipe, 30.
Sibelius, Jean, 471ff.

•The Swan of Tuonela,' 472.
•A Saga,' 472.
'Finlandia,' 472f.
Fourth symphony, 473.
Sinding, Christian, 346, 354f.

First symphony (D minor), 355f.
Second symphony (D major), 357.
Episodes Chevaleresques, 357.
Sinfonia, 120. See also Overture;

Symphony.
Sinfonietta, 420, 421, 459.
Single reed, 77.
Single reed instruments, 34.
Sinigaglia, 447.

Slavic influence on German music,
191. See also Croatian folk-
song.
Slavic schools, 325. See also Bo-
hemia; Russia.
Slide mechanism, 39.
Smetana, Friedrich, 374ff.

Ma Vlasi ('My Country'), 374ff.
Vysehrad, 375.

Vltava ('The Moldau'), 375f.
Sarka, 376f.
Aus Bohmens Hain und Flur,

377.
Tabor, 377.
Blanick, 377t.
Snare drum, 48.
Solo voice. See Voice.
Sonata, 148.
Sonata da camera, 119.
Sonata da chiesa, 119, 123.
Sonata form, 145; (in symphony)
156; (employment of, in mod-
em symphonic suite) 424.
Sordino, 14, 101. See also Muting.
Spanish 'color,' 428, 459f.
Spinet, 59, 75.
Spohr, Ludwig, 228ff.

Fourth symphony ('Consecration
of Sound'), 229f.

494

Sixth symphony (Historical),
231 f.

Stamitz, Johann, 92, 126. 140, liSf.
169.

Stanford [Sir] Charles Villiers,
474; (on Celtic influence in
Beethoven) 196.

Stassoff, 452.

Steiner, Jacob, 73.

Stopped pipes, 24.

Stenhammar, Wilhelm, 470.

Stopped notes (on horn), 42. See
also Muting.

Stopping principle, 59.

Stojowski, Sigismund, 466.

Stolzl, Heinrich, 104.

Stone, William H., quoted, 24.

Stradivarius, Antonio, 72, 74.

Stradler brothers, 99.

Strauss, Richard, 48, 50, 108, 201,
404; on orchestration, vii-ff;
cited on range of violin) 11;
(on viola) 19; (citation of
works of, to illustrate instru-
mental effects) 21, 30, 32, 34, 35,
37, 41; (cited on clarinet) ^6;
(on bass clarinet) 38; (on
horn) 41 (footnote) ; (on Beet-
hoven's orchestra) 100; (on Ber-
lioz) 106; (on Wagner's or-
chestration) 111; (orchestra-
tion) 112ff; (works) 383 ff; (in-
fluence) 411; (infl. in Russia)
465.
Symphony in F minor, 384ff.
Aus Italian, 386ff.
'Macbeth,' 389ff.
Don Juan, 391ff.
Tod und Verkldrung, 394ff.
Also sprach Zarathustra, 396ff.
Don Quixote, 400ff.
Till Eulenspiegel, 402.
Heldenleben, 402f.
Symphonia Domestica, 403.

Stravinsky, Igor, 467.

String instruments in modem or-
chestra, 3, 8ff; (stopping prin-
ciple) 10; (bowing) 12; (trem-
olo) 15, 83, 110, 114; (muted)
14, 115; (pizzicato harmonics)
16f; (double stops) 17; (Wag-
ner's treatment of) 110 (di-
vided) 113, 472; (special 'ef-
fects') 115; (glissando harmon-
ics) 444; ancient, 56; mediaeval,
59fl'; precursors of modem,
66ff; ascendancy of, in early
instrumental music, 121. See
also Harp, Plectrum instru-
ments; Plucked string instru-
ments, etc.

String quartet, as germ of sym-
phonic orchestra, viii.

Subject. See Theme.

Suite, 125; (Bach) 133; (revival of,
by Lachner) 250; modem or-
chestral, 321f; orchestral and
choral, 445; (miniature or-
chestral) 443, 462. See also
Symphonic suite.

Suk, Joseph, 382.

Svendsen, J. S., .3517.
Norwegian rhapsodies, 352f.

INDEX

Sweden, 471.

Symphonic development of orches-
tration, viii.

Symplioiiic fantasia, 245. 385.

Symphonic form (modem evolution
of) 253. 435; (adapted to sym-
phonic poem) 391.

Symphonic Genesis, llSff.

Symphonic orchestra, origin of,
viii. See Orchestra.

Symphonic poem, 281, 286; (Liszt)
SoOff; (Saint-Sai'ns) 325f;

(C^sar Franck) 339ff; (Strauss)
389ff; (evolution of form) 391,
393; (Weingartner) 412;

(Hausegger) 414; (d'Indy) 435;
(Alfano) 448, 449; (Rlmsky-
Korsnkoff) 457f; (Gll^re) 464.

Symphonic sketches (Debussy), 436;
((ilazounoff) 452.

Symphonic suite, (Bizet) 341ff;
(Saint-Sa^ns) 344r; (Massenet,
etc.) 345f; (Grieg) 346ff;
(Strauss) 386; (Reznicek) 424;
(Charpentier) 429; (Glazounoff)
451; (Rimsky-KorsakofT) 457,
458, 460: (Hamerik) 470. See
also Suite, miniature orches-
tral.

Symphonic tableau, 452.

Symphonic variations. 434. See
also Theme (variation of).

Symphony, (classic) 83, 91; (ante-
cedents of) 118ff; early use of
term, 119f; (incipient) 126;
(early period of) 139; (early
classical period) 142fr; (Haydn)
149fr; (classical form of, fixed)
151; (Haydn's form) 155;
(Beethoven) 1721T; (romantic
composers) 211fr; (Schumann)
237fl'; (use of fantasia form)
245; (pictorial) 251; (Brahms)
254fr; (Bruckner) 270fr; (Salnt-
Saens) 326ff; (C^sar Franck)
336fr; (first Norwegian) 351;

Sschaikowsky) 358ff; (Strauss)
4ff; (free fusion of move-
ments) 394; (Mahler) 403ff:
(Weingartner) 411f: (Chausson)
430; (d'Indy) 435f; (Hopartz)
442; (modern Italian compos-
ers) 447ff; (Glazounoff) 452;
(Borodine) 454; (first Russian)
457; (Gllire) 464; Rachmanin-
off) 465; (contemporary Rus-
sian eclectics) 466; (Scriabine)
467f; (modem English com-
posers) 474f; (dramatic), see
Dramatic symphony.
Syrinx, 56, 63.

Tablature, 68f.
Tabor, 63.
Tam-tam, 6.
Tanibourino, 6, 48, 63.
Taubcrt. Wilhelm, 249.
Telemann, 1.38.
Telemann Musikverein, 134.
Tempo marks (use of vernacular),
243.

495

Tenor tuba, SO.

Theme (germ motive), 187, 2162;
(reminiscent use of, in subse-
quent movements) 191, 202, 386;
(as unifying factor of sym-
phonic movements) 237, 245,
256, 458, 461; (contrasted the-
matic groups) 272; variation of
(in symphonic poem), 308, 393,
441. See also Cyclic use or
motives; also Id^e fixe; also
Motto theme.

Thematic development, (Berlioz)
293; (Liszt) 302f; 'working-
out' in symphonic poem, 391f;
omission of working-out in first
movement of symphony, 452.

Theorbo, 68, 69.

TielTenbrticker, 72.

Timbre, 7.

Time-signature, 69.

Tintinnabulum, 63.

Toccata, 119, 120.

Toeschi, Joseph, 145.

Tomaschek, W. J., 374.

Tonal effects, specialization of, 121.
See also Instrumental effects.

Tonality, indeterminate, 467.

Tone, production of. See Acoustic
laws.

Tone-poem, 286, 301, 393. See also
Symphonic poem.

Tourte, 74.

Town bands. 66.

Transposing instruments, 30.

Tremblement, 69.

Tremolo, 16, 83, 114, 115.

Triangle, 6, 48.

Trio-sonata, 143.

Trombone, 39, 44, 79, 80, 88, 89,
101, 104, 107. 116; (Wagner)
110; (absence of, in modern
symphony) 267; illus., 46.

Troubadour, 58.

Troublitz, 99.

Trouv^re, 58.

Trumpet, 31 (footnote), 39, 42f, 56,
79, 84, 87f, 89, 90, 92; (muted)
42; (Wagner) 110; illus., 43.

Trumpet-marine, 61f.

Trumpet suites, 134.

Trumpeters' guilds, 120f.

Trumscheit. See Trumpet-marine.

Tschaikowsky, 357ff, 463; (citation
of works to illustrate instru-
mental effects) 17, 21, 29, 33,
37, 45; (cited on Rimsky-Korsa-
koff) 459.
First and Second symphonies,

358f.
Third symphony (in D), 359.
Fourth symphony, 359ff.
Fifth symphony, 361 ff.
Sixth symphony (Pathitique),

365ff.
•Manfred' symphony. 369ff.
•Romeo and Juliet' (overture-fan-
tasy), 370.
Francesco da Rimini (fantasy

after Dante), 371ff.
Miscellaneous works. 373.

Tuba, 39, 45f, 57, 105, 107, 116;
(Wagner) 110; tenor (used by

THE ORCHESTRA AND ORCHESTRAL MUSIC

Wagner) 48; muted (first use

of) 401; lllus.. 46.
Tube (cylindrical) 76; conical, 77.
TympanI, 47.

Unity of symphonic movements.

See Theme (as unifying factor

of symphonic movements) ;

Cyclic use of motives and

themes.
Upper partials, 25, 38. See also

Harmonics ; Overtones.

Valve horn, 104f. See also Horn.

Valve trombone, 39.

Valve trumpet. See Trumpet.

Valves, 38; (invented) 104. See also
Ventlls.

Variations (in symphonic poem),
308 ; symphonic, 434. See Theme
(variation of).

Veni, Creator, Spiritus, 410.

Ventils of wind instruments, 26. See
also Valves.

Verdi. 448.

Verre cassis, 69.

Vertical pipes, 25.

Vibration, 7.

Vibrations of air in pipes, 25.

Vidal (cited on crwth), 60.

Vlelle (viel, viele). See Viol.

Vienna school of symphonists, 139.

Viennese classics, 147flf; (after Beet-
hoven) 207f.

Viol, 60, 61, 70ff.

Viol, pocket. See Pochette.

Viola, 18f, 90, 99; (solo part for,
in symphony) 292.

Viola da braccio, 71.

Viola d'amore, 49, 71.

Viola da gamba, 71, 86; (used by
Haydn) 94.

Viola di lira, 71.

Viola pomposa, 88.

Violette (viola), 87.

Violetta marina, 87.

Violin, 8fT, 72ff, 74, 84, 99, 115;
(positions on) 10; (dramatic
effects) 13; (range of) 83;
(tremolo) 114; lllus., 8.

Violoncello, 19fr, 86, 99; illus., 20.

Violoncello piccolo. See Viola pom-
posa.

Virdung, Sebastian, 66.

Virginal, 75.

Vocal element, employment of. In
symphonic works. See Voice.

Vocal music (influence on instru-
mental style) 64; (ascendancy
of, over instrumental, 17th
cent.), 83.

Vocal polyphony, effect of on early
Instrumental music, 123.

Voice, employment of, in symphonic
music, 199, 294, 404. 406. 416.
407. 410, 446. 449.

496

Volkmann, Frledrich Robert, 248t
251.

Wagenseil, Christoph, 139.

Wagner, ix, x, xl-fl^ 12, 14, 103, 172,
224f, 253, 275, 286, 487, 489;
(citation of works to Illustrate
instrumental effects), 12, 14,
16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 27, 30, 32, 34,
36, 37. 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50;
(cited on orchestration) vll;
(orchestral polyphony) vlii;
(cited on oboe) 29; (orchestra-
tion) lOSff; (influence on mod-
em orchestra) 111; (influence
on Strauss) 112, 113; (overture)
127; (on Beethoven's Eroica)
180; (quoted concerning use of
the voice in Ninth symphony)
199; (symphonic works) 232,
317/ (influence) 252, 404, 411,
414; (influence on Bruckner)
271f, 274, 279, 280, 281; (in rel.
to Bruckner) 273; (influence on
Liszt) 300; (quotation of musi-
cal phrase by Raff) 320; (in-
fluence in Norway) 354; (quo-
tation of musical phrases) 416.
Symphony in C, 232.
'Faust Overture,' 317f.

Wagner's tenor tuba, 50.

Wait, 62.

Wallaschek (cited), 55.

Walther, Johann, 122.

Waltz (as symphonic movement),
363; (in symphonic music) 428.

Weber, ix^ x, 12, 102f, 105, 231, 275;
(citation of works to illustrate
instrumental effects) 15, 36.
41; (influence on Wagner) 109;
(influence) 287.

Weingartner, Felix von, 411 ; (cited
on classic period) 170; (on Beet-
hoven's Eroica) 180; (on Schu-
mann) 242; (on Berlioz) 286;
(on Liszt's 'Orpheus') 310f.
Second symphony, 411f.
Third symphony. 412.
•The Fields of the Blessed,' 412f.

Weltanschauung, attempt at musical
expression of, 411.

Whole-tone scale, 439, 442.

Widor, Charles-Marie, 335.

Wieprecht, 105.

Wllhelmj, 135.

Wilms, J. W., 208.

Wind-instruments, vlii; (in modem
orchestra) 4f, 2iff; (ancient)
54ff; (mediaeval) 62f; (18th
cent.) 75f; (modem improve-
ments) 105.

Wind machine, 114.

Winter, Peter von, 200.

Woermann, Karl, 417.

Wood-wind instruments (In modem
orchestra), 4f; (Beethoven's use
of) 99; (Weber) 104; (perfec-
tion of) 104; (Wagner's use
of) 109f; (Strauss) 114;
(modem French school) 115.

INDEX

Working-out. See Thematic devel- I

opment.

X Zandonai, 446, 447. 448.

^ Ziiik, 78, 91; (used by Mozart). 95.

Xylophone (used for realistic effect), Zittem, 59.

333. Zolotareff, B.. 466.

497

ML
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v.B

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Mason, Daniel ^e^ory (ed.)
The art of music'
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